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Send for free book of 88 pages giving articles by the following contributors: _

DR. E. R. SQUIBB, of Brooklyn; N: Y DR. ROBT. T. MORRIS, of N. Y., |

‘DR. EGBERT H. GRANDIN, or N.Y, DR. JOHN AULDE, of Phila, Pa, DR,

W.F. WAUGH, of Phila., Pa., DR, GEO. B. HOPE, of N. Y., DR. E. CHAREST,

of St, Cloud, Minn, DR. G. F. ADAMS, of Pulaski, N. Y, DR. H. F. WIGGIN, y

Lm of N, X DR J. A. LARRABEE, of Louisville, Ky., DR. R. M. CHASE, of Bethel, Vt.,

DR. ROBT. T. WILSON, of Baltimore, Md., DR. J. H. SHERMAN, of Boston, Mass.,

DR. C. M. WOODWARD, of Tecumseh, Mich, DR, GEO. H. PIERCE, of Brooklyn,

fal article botted-undt,

i to use as a medicine,

Hydrogen is sold o only in 4-oz.,

bearing a b mus AL MEO. er vk. Se EHI

Rete eee bulk.

THE

AMERICAN NATURALIST

Vot. XXVII. ` July, 1893. 319

SOME CORRELATIONS OF ONTOGENY AND PHYLO-

GENY IN THE BRACHIOPODA.

By C. E. BEECHER.

The parallelism between the ontogeny and phylogeny in the

Brachiopoda has been worked out in numerous instances.

To illustrate these, some more or less familiar genera may be

taken as characteristic examples.

ingula has been shown by Hall and Clarke (Pal. N. Y.,

Vol. VIII, 1892) to have had its inception in the Ordovician.

In the ontogeny of both recent and fossil forms, the first shelled

stage has a straight hinge line, nearly equal in length to the

width of the shell This stage may be correlated with the

more ancient genus Paterina, from the lowest Cambrian. Sub-

sequent growth produces a form resembling Obolella, a Cam-

brian and Lower Silurian genus. Then the linguloid type of

|. $irueture appears at an adolescent period, and is completed at

1C. E. Beecher. Development of the Brachiopoda. Part I, Introduction. Am,

Jour. Sci., Vol. XLI, April, 1891.

Development of the Brachiopoda. Part II, Classification of the Stages of Growth

and Decline. Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XLIV, August, 1

Development of Bilobites. Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. l XLI, July, 1891.

Revision of the Families of Loup-bésring. Brachiopoda. Trans. Conn. Acad. Sci.,

Vol. IX, May, 1893.

Deslongchamps e. Etudes critiques sur des Brachiopodes Nouveau ou peu connus,

1884.

Fischer and CEblert. Brachiopodes: Mission Scientifique du Cap Horn, 1882-

1888. comm Hut Np qM, VE V. TE

Mo. Bot. Garden,

600 The American Naturalist. [July,

maturity. Thus, Lingula has

to (1) Paterina, (2) Obolella, and v. nin of which the first

two oecur as adult forms in geological formations older than

any known Lingula.

Paterina represents the prototype of the Brachiopods. It

shows no separate stages of growth in the shell, is found in the

oldest fossiliferous rocks, and corresponds to the embryonic

shelled condition (protegulum) of the class.

The genus Orbiculoidea of the Discinidæ first appears in the

Ordovician and continues through the Mesozoic. The early

stages in the ontogeny of an individual are, as in Lingula, first

a Paterina stage, followed by an Obolella stage. Then, from the

mechanical conditions of growth, a Schizocrania-like stage fol-

lows, and complete growth results in Orbiculoidea.

The elongate form of the shell in Lingula as well as in many

other genera is determined by the length of the pediele and

freedom of motion. "The discinoid, or discoid, form of Orbicu-

loidea and Discinisca among the Brachiopods, and Anomia

among Pelecypods, is determined by the horizontal position of

the valves, which are attached to an object of support by a

more or less flexible, very short organ, a pedicle or byssus,

without calcareous cementation. This mode of growth is char-

acteristic of all the discinoid genera, but as already shown, the

early stages of Paleozoic Orbiculoidea have straight hinge lines

and marginal beaks, and in the adult stages of the shell the

beaks are usually subcentral and the growth holoperipheral.

This adult discinoid form, which originated and was acquired

through the conditions of fixation of the animals, has been

accelerated in the recent Discinisca, so that it appears in a free

swimming larval stage. Thus,a character acquired in adoles-

cent and adult stages of Paleozoic species through the mechani-

cal conditions of growth, appears by acceleration in larval

stages of later forms before the assumption of the condition of

fixation which first produced this character.

The two chief subfamilies of the Terebratellide undergo

ice pd series of metamorphoses i in their brachial struc-

ture. Generic ch ily are generally based upon

1893.] Ontogeny and Phylogeny in the Brachiopoda. 601

the form and disposition of the brachia and their supports.

The highest genera in one subfamily, which is austral in dis-

tribution, pass through stages correlated with the adult

structure in the genera Gwynia, Cistella, Bouchardia, Megerlina,

Magas, Magasella, and Terebratella, and reach their final develop-

ment in Magellania and Neothyris. The higher genera in

another subfamily, boreal in distribution, pass through meta-

morphoses correlated with the adult structures of Ghwynia,

Cistella, Platidia, Ismenia, Mühlfeldtia, Terebratalia, and -Dallina.

'The first two stages in both subfamilies are related in the

same manner to Gwynia and Cistella. The subsequent stages

are different except the last two, so that the Magellania

structure is similar in all respects to the Dallina structure,

and Terebratella is like Terebratalia. Therefore, Magellania and

Terebratella are respectively the exact morphological equiv-

alents to, or are in exact parallelism with Dallina and

Terebratalia.

The stages of growth of the genera belonging to the two sub-

families Dallininæ and Magellaniine are further correlated in

the accompanying tables.

The simplest genus, Gwynia, as far as known, passes through

no brachial metamorphoses, and has the same structure

throughout the adolescent period, up to and including the

mature condition. In the ontogeny of Cistella, the gwyniform

stage, through acceleration, has become a larval condition.

In Platidia, the cistelliform structure is accelerated to the imma-

ture period, and in Ismenia (representing an ismeniform type of

structure in the higher genera), the gwyniform and cistelliform

stages are larval, and the platidiform represents an adolescent

condition. Similar comparisons may be made in the other

genera. Progressively through each series, the adult structure

of any genus forms the last immature stage of the next higher,

until the highest member in its ontogeny represents serially,

in its stages of growth, all the adult structures, with the larval

and immature stages of the simpler genera. It is evident that

in the identification of species belonging to the Terebratel-

lide, whether recent or fossil the strict specific characters

` Morphogeny from Gwynia to Dallina.

Periods,

Stages. Stages. Stages. Stages. Stages. Stages. Stages.

‘Larval yniform ? w niform wyniform niform gwyniform

FS e "t E ostelliform cistelliform cistelliform cistelliform

Adolescent gwyniform cistelliform cistelliform platidiform platidiform esie ados platidiform

ismeniform ismeniform

dhfeldtiform mühlfeldtiform

terebrataliform

Mature Gwynia Cistella Platidia Ismenta Miuhlfeldtia Terebratalia Dallina

Morphogeny from Gwynia to Magellania.

Periods, Stages. Stages. Stages. Stages. Stages. Stages, Stages. Stages.

Larval gwyniform? | gwyniform | gwyniform | gwyniform yniform gwyniform

cistelliform cistelliform cistelliform cistelliform cistelliform

megerliniform | megerliniform em megerliniform

magadiform maga m i

Siate TER magaselliform

; terebratelliform

Mature Gwynia Cistella . Bouchardia | Megerlina Magas Magasella Terebratella Magellania

"ipanjoNT UDNALIUF Su 609

*£m f]

1893.] Ontogeny and Phylogeny in the Brachiopoda. 603

must be given first consideration. Species, therefore, must be

based upon surface ornaments, form and color, within certain

limits, and genera only upon structural features developed

through a definite series of changes, the results of which are

permanent in individuals evidently fully adult.

In each line of progression in the Terebratellide, the accel-

eration of the period of reproduction, by the influence of

environment, threw off genera which did not go through the

complete series of metamorphoses, but are otherwise fully

adult, and even may show reversional tendencies due to old

age; so that nearly every stage passed through by the higher

genera has a fixed representative in a lowergenus. Moreover,

the lower genera are not merely equivalent to, or in exact

parallelism with, the early stages of the higher, but they

express a permanent type of structure, as far as these genera

are concerned, and after reaching maturity do not show a

tendency to attain higher phases of development, but thicken

the shell and cardinal process, absorb the deltidial plates, and

exhibit all the evidences of senility.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE.

Morphogeny of Magellaniinz.

The figures in the left hand column, A-H, represent the

stages in the ontogeny of the brachial supports in Magellania,

one of the highest genera of the family Terebratellide. In the

right hand column are shown the adult, permanent, generic

structures, corresponding to the stages of Magellania

Terebratella passes through all the stages from A to G, Maga-

sella from A to F, and so on, as far as known for each lower

genus. ;

All figures are drawn of approximately the same length, to

facilitate comparison, in consequence the younger stages are

much enlarged.

Fig. A. —Early larval brachiopod, without calcified brachial

supports, but with circlet of tentacles on lophophore.

The gwyniform stage.

Fig. Al.—Gwynia capsula Jeffreys, a morphic equivalent of

larval stage, figure A.

604

Fig.

The American Naturalist. [July,

B.—Later stage of A, showing growth of septum and

consequent introversion of edge of lophophore. Cis-

telliform stage.

. B1.— Cistella neapolitana Scacchi, showing calcification of

loop attached to septum, and other adult features.

Morphic equivalent of stage B of Magellania.

. C.—Third stage of Magellania, with small ring on sep-

tum. Bouchardiform stage.

. Ca.—8Side view of same.

. C1.— Bouchardia rosea Mawe, adult, showing ring on sep-

tum as in C.

D. — Megerliniform stage of Magellania.

. Da.—Side view, showing growth of descending branches

as prongs on side of septum.

. D1.—AMegerlina lamarckiana Davidson, adult form of

brachial supports.

. E.—Magadiform stage of Magellania, showing completion

of descending branches.

. El.—Magas pumilus Sowerby, the Cretaceous prototype of

this structure.

. F. —Magaselliform stage, showing union of descending

and ascending branches.

. F1.— Magasella cumingii Davidson.

. G. — Terabratelliform stage, representing the finished type

of structure in Terebratella dorsata.

. G1.— Terebratella rubicunda. Morphically equivalent to

G, but showing more mature features.

. H.—Final stage of Magellania venosa, produced by resorp-

tion of the septum and connecting bands of the tere-

bratelliform stage.

Fig. Hi .— Magellania flavescens Lamarck.

PLATE XV.

Nasen

ESTERS

| |

waohunpsoy wa

ATEA AA GESAT washyy aso wash oos W wadhrunssoa yi Wag M Uh Qu wa QNO o

vase

Parallelism in Brachiopoda, (Magellania series.)

1893.] Shell Heaps of Florida. 605

CERTAIN SHELL HEAPS OF THE ST. JOHN’S RIVER,

' FLORIDA, HITHERTO UNEXPLORED.

By CLARENCE BLOOMFIELD MOORE.

(Continued from February Number, 1893.)

(Third Paper.)

TICK ISLAND (VOLUSIA COUNTY).

Tick Island can be reached by entering Lake Dexter at its

union with the St. John’s (see map with the first paper of this

series), and continuing across it and along Spring Garden Creek,

a distance of about four miles in all, until a landing is reached

on the southern side of the creek. The island was entirely

unknown in connection with scientific research until visited

by the writer in February, March and April, 1891. Other

visits were made in January, 1892, January and March, 1893;

in all twenty-two days have been devoted to the shell heaps

and burial mound on Tick Island, with a large party of assis-

tants; but so interesting is the place, and so extended the

remains left by a race now passed from sight that much still

awaits a thorough investigation.

In connection with many acres of shell deposit is an inter-

esting burial mound of sand, described by the writer in the

AMERICAN NATURALIST, issues of February and July, 1892.

Thirty feet south of the great burial mound is a small mound,

six feet in height and 180 feet in circumference, composed of

fragments of shell mingled with sand, so closely packed

that a pick is necessary for the work of excavation. The

mound is covered with palmettoes whose roots, closely inter-

twined, lend an additional difficulty to the work of the

explorer. As to the nature of this mound the writer is unde-

cided.

Somewhat over 100 yards distant from the great burial

mound in a northeasterly direction is a crescentie, or rather a

606 The American Naturalist. [July,

bean-shaped, shell heap 573 feet in length, with a maximum

breadth of base of 233 feet. The height is somewhat irregu-

lar, averaging about eight feet from the surrounding level,

though the shell deposit is found sunk deep into the marshy

soil. Excavations at various points yielded nothing of inter-

est.

SHELL RIDGES, TICK ISLAND.

About a quarter of a mile south of the bean-shaped shell

heap lie acres of shell ridges inadequately investigated by the

writer. Upon one of these ridges are the remnants of a live

oak, now destroyed by fire, but growing at the time of the

writer’s first visit and then measured by him. Taken at a

point five feet from the base the circumference was sixteen feet

or twenty-three feet, three feet from the base over projecting

knots. At a distance of twelve feet from the trunk of this

tree an excavation, 7 ft. by 4 ft., converging to a depth of 9 ft.,

was made. After 1 ft. 6 in. of humus, shell was reached.

From the start fragments of pottery were found in great abun-

dance, the ornamented outnumbering the plain. It was rude

and thick in character, made from clay through which vege-

table fibre, destroyed in the process of baking, had left minute

canals. To overcome a too porous character, it had been, pre-

vious to baking, thinly coated with clay on the outside. The

clay contained no admixture of pounded shell or of gravel,

which is rarely if ever met with in the shell heaps of the St.

John’s. The manner of ornamentation mainly consisted of

straight lines in various combinations asshown. Many pieces

in addition had indentations in connection with lines, as fig-

ured by Wyman; while the marking of others consisted of

series of concentric circles of increasing size.

At a depth of 7 ft. 6 in—a depth sufficient to clearly prove

its contemporary origin with the shell heap—was found a

fragment of ornamented pottery, with a turned lip; the only

JBy “lip” the writer means a turning out at one point of the upper margin through

which fluid may pass, and not a turned rim encircling the pot. Such turned rims are

by no means uncommon. It is taken for granted that Professor Wyman meant to

express the same idea in the use of the word * lip.”

1893.] Shell Heaps of Florida. 607

specimen of the sort ever met with by the writer in à shell

heap of theSt. John's (Fig. 1). Professor Wyman says (“Fresh

Water Shell Mounds of the St. John's River, Florida," page,

i 53): “the mouth of the vase

is generally flaring, is seldom

contracted; we have seen no

instance in which there were

\) signs of a neck, and only one

v in which there was anything

' like a turned lip.. This was

from Bartram's Mound, and

was found on the surface

where it had been thrown out

Fig. 1. in digging up an orange tree.

Lipped pottery, Tick Island. (Actual size.) The depth of the hole from

which it eame was such that it must have been superficial, and

may have been brought there by the more recent inhabitants.

This view is confirmed by the fact that the stamped ornaments

were of a different pattern from anything found elsewhere in

the mounds, consisting of a series of short parallel ridges

instead of squares." Bartram's Mound, or Little Orange Mound,

ison the west side of theSt. John's, oppositethe entrance of Lake

Dexter, and is not over five miles distant from Tick Island.

A number of other excavations, some of larger size, yielded

All

[Nw

SSS

EVITE mm

oaks

eee

fer a

43127 Z / ;

e 9

alu

Sherd, Tiek Island. (Actual size.)

abundant sherds of like quality and pattern. Tick Island

and Orange Mound, to which reference will be made later, are

608 The American Naturalist. [July,

richer by far in number of sherds and in variety of pattern

than any other shell heaps of the St. John's explored by the

A * Vi,

Sherd, Tick Island. (% size.)

writer who, it may be said, has not confined himself to locali-

ties hitherto unexplored, but has carefully gone over those

previously described by Professor Wyman, and has (January,

- SSS

Sherd, Tick Island. (Actual size.)

February, March, April, 1893) extensively explored others

previously unreported not included in the list given with the

first paper of this series.

SHELL HEAP NEAR ECONLOCKHATCHEE CREEK (ORANGE COUNTY).

In the prairie about two miles south of Lake Harney, and

nearly a mile distant from the west bank of the St. John’s, is

1893.] Shell Heaps of Florida. 609

a large shell heap covered with palmetto, oak, mulberry and

other trees, from many of which hang trailing vines. It

Sherd, Tick Island. (Actual size.)

looms like:an island in the prairie which in wet weather

becomes a marsh. By ascending the winding Econlock-

610 The American Naturalist. [July,

hatchee, it is possible to tie up within three hundred yards of

theshell heap. Its maximum height is about six feet near

Sherd, Tick Island. (Actual size.)

——— Ó— ER

Sherd, Tick Island. (14 size.)

the center, from which point it slopes in every direction toward

the surrounding prairie.

Excavation I.

At the apex of the mound a hole, slightly converging, 6

ft. by 4 ft. by 7 ft. deep, was dug. Beginning ata level one foot

1893.] Shell Heaps of Florida. 611

from the surface and continuing through a layer two feet in

thickness, were numerous human bones. These bones were

broken into fragments and lay at random throughout the

entire stratum. Some were found immediately upon a fire-

place, and at least one of these human bones showed marks of

fire. They were treated in respect to breakage as were the

bones of lower animals found with them, and the areas

of fracture were of the same dark brown color as the

rest of the bone. The bones were so scattered that any esti-

mate as to the number of bodies represented would be impos-

sible, but fragments of at least four crania were met with.

Few fragments of bone were in condition for measurement.

The average lateral diameter of three portions of tibie was

59.9% of the average antero-posterior diameter. As stated in

previous papers, these measurements were taken just where

the nutrient artery enters the bone. Of three humeri one was

perforated.

Composition of the Mound at Point of Excavation.

(a) 1 ft.—Sand and powdered shell, containing pottery, plain

and ornamented, with fragments of bones of edible animals.

(b) 2 ft.—Sand, powdered shell and a slight admixture of

shells. Numerous fragments of human bones were found

throughout this layer, in association with fragments of animal

bones, among which was half the lower jaw of a dog and fae-

ces of animals. At the bottom of this layer, though not cov-

ering the entire area, was a fire-place. Absolutely no pottery

in this stratum.

slight admixture of sand. No pottery and no bones of ani-

als

mals.

(d) 2 ft. 6 in.—Mixture of sand and shell No remains of

any sort.

In the upper layer were found a small piece of chipped

chert, a fragment of a rude implement of bone and a rude

disc of shell, rough at the margin and perforated in the cen-

' ter, having a diameter of 1} inches and a thickness of 1 inch.

In the Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1880-1881,

612 The American Naturalist. [July,

Plate XXVII, fig. 2, an almost exact counterpart of this shell

disc is given, with the exception that the perforation is larger

and irregular. It is described as one of the stages in the manu-

facture of shell fish-hooks by the Indians of California; but

as fish-hooks of any material are not found in the mounds of

the St. John’s this dise may be considered a discoidal bead.

A second excavation on the east side of the mound showed,

as before, pottery in the upper layer and none in those below.

Six fragments of bone were met with, of which two were

human.

In this shell heap the hypothesis of burials, even of discon-

nected bones, would seem untenable, as absolutely nothing

found in association with them pointed to interments. A por-

tion of the remains of this probably cannibalistic feast can be

seen at the Wagner Free Institute, Philadelphia.

The finding of a bone belonging to the dog is entirely novel

in the shell heaps of the St. John’s. Professor Wyman’s

searches yielded no canine remains’ nor has the writer hitherto

upon any other occasion found, to the best of his knowledge,

any portion of the skeleton of the dog in the river mounds.

Wyman was aware of no evidence to show the presence of

domestic dogs on the river in early times? and cites Le

Moyne's list of animals supposed to have been seen by the

French* (1565), from which the dog is omitted. On the other

hand, Cabega de Vaca, Treasurer of the expedition of Pam-

philo de Narvaez (1527), found dogs’ among the natives dur-

ing his wanderings along the coast of northwestern Florida,

and in other portions of his journey. He makes no comment

as to their origin, as he doubtless would have done had they

been pointed out as curiosities, and it is hardly reasonable to

suppose that, at so early a period, their derivation can have

been from a European source. The bones of dogs are

reported from a shell heap at Tampa. The writer learns how-

: * Fresh Water Shell Mounds of the St. John's River, Florida," page 80.

ıse The Nasrative of Alvar Nunez Cabeca de Vaca,” translated by Buckingham

Smith, Washington, 1851, page 41, et al.

êc Tampa Sunland and Tribune, » Nov. 18, 1876.

à um "Sem

PEE NUS

1893.] Shell Heaps of Florida. 613

ever that this discovery was superficial. De Soto, who landed

at Tampa, had numerous fierce dogs, and found great quanti-

ties of dogs among the Indians of Georgia. Bones supposed

to be of the dog are in the stone graves of Tennessee.’

Lower jaw of dog from Florida Shell Heap, 3.

Dr. Dall regards it as presumable that the coyote has been

domesticated along our southern border from time immemor-

* Dr. Joseph Jones, ** Antiquities of Tennessee,” page 9.

614 The American Naturalist. [July,

ial, though perhaps as an occasional curiosity in many tribes,

rather than a usual companion. During nine years explora-

tion he found one dog’s skull in an Aleutian shell heap, a pre-

historic deposit, and only one.*

The dog has never yet been found fossil in Florida, though

the fossil fauna of the state would suggest its presence.’

In view of the fact that but a single fragment of a canine

skeleton has been found on the river, and that specimen at no

great distance from the surface, it may be well, before arriving

at any definite conclusion, to await a farther investigation.

Professor Cope has prepared the following note.

“The lower jaw of the dog found by Mr. Moore presents a

number of peculiarities. In the first place, its proportions are

not those of either the wolf or coyote. In the next place, the

fourth premolar is absent and the short diastema which occu-

pies its place is so much shorter than that which would result

were the tooth lost from the jaw of most species and varieties

of Canis, that it looks as if the absence were normal to the

animal, as in the genus Tomarctus. This tooth is sometimes

wanting in some domesticated dogs, but the deficiency occurs

in dogs with convex foreheads, which are the product of much

civilization. In the third place, the metaconid is larger than

in the wolf or coyote, and the domestieated dogs generally.

Finally the heel of the sectorial is peculiar. The entoconid is

more conic than usual, and such crest as it develops does not

form the outer wall of the heel, but is directed more inwardly

than usual.

These peculiarities are remarkable, and render it desirable

that more specimens should be obtained. The jaw is not ref-

erable to any domesticated species or race with which I have

compared it. I, however, have not seen the skull and denti-

tion of the Spanish terrier, which, from its appearance, I

should suppose to have originated from an African jackal

allied to Canis mesomelas, and to have been probably intro-

duced into Spain by the Moors. Some of these dogs may

have been introduced into Florida by the Spainards.—E. D.

Corr."

*Dr. W. H. Dall, private letter.

'? Cope. |

it É

2 SR

PLATE XVL

Cache, Long Bluff.

1893.] Shell Heaps of Florida. 615

ORANGE MOUND (ORANGE COUNTY).

This interesting mound is reached by turning to the west

from the river into a lagoon, and continuing about 500 yards

after leaving the channel. In a straight line it is ten miles

south of Lake Harney, but so devious is the river that three

times that number probably would not be an overestimate of

the distance by boat, by which means alone can access to the

mound be had. Le Baron (Smithsonian Report, 1882, page

102) refers to Orange Mound. He made no investigations and

puts the height at forty feet; probably a misprint for fourteen,

its maximum altitude. His other dimensions are likewise

faulty.

The mound, crescentie in shape, lies north and south. Its

length, following the ridge of the crescent, is 560 feet ; its maxi-

mum width 260 feet. It slopes on every side toward the water

and offers usually a secure retreat for numerous large hard-

shell turtles which visit it to deposit their eggs. By cutting

off their escape to the water, the crew of the writer’s boat in

one morning secured five, and doubtless the aborigines in the

same manner obtained this staple article of diet.

The mound has been under cultivation for the growth of

cane, and a tumble-down shed, where once an old caldron

stood, is very picturesque, shadowed by towering palmettoes

and flanked by a tropical growth of bananas.

Surface pottery is abundant, both plain and stamped in

squares. It is of fairly good quality and probably has no

connection with the builders of the shell heap. Orange

Mound was visited by the writer a number of times during

the winter of 1891 and photographs secured; but February 7;

8, 9, 1892 and two days of the winter of 1893 were devoted to

Serious excavations. * ;

Excavation I.

About the center of the mound at its highest point, 123 ft.

` by 8 ft. by 15 ft. deep, converging. The first foot was through

-a layer of loam filled with pottery of the variety seen on the

Surface. At a depth of one foot was found a shell chisel,

616 The American Naturalist. [July,

small and perfect. The next three feet consisted of ampul-

larie loosely thrown together, with a slight admixture of

sand, Many of these shells were of extraordinary size, among

Sherd, Orange Mound. (Actual size.)

them being found specimens far surpassing all previous

records known to science. At a depth of 1} ft. were clearly

defined traces of a fire-place. Through the layer of ampul-

E lariæ and in the succeeding stratum, con-

sisting of one foot of brown sand,

N 7) mingled with ampullariæ, unionidæ and

~ paludinæ, pottery was abundant, thick

and coarse in character, with a certain

# percentage decorated with lines.

©% In its method of manufacture, namely,

' the admixture with the clay of vegetable

fibre, which subsequent heat had des-

troyed, leaving the material porous in

character, it resembled the pottery of the

3B shell ridges at Tick Island and of some

P other deposits of the river, some sherds

7? being so much as .7 inch in thickness.

The patterns varied considerably as to

the arrangement of lines, and in certain

margin of the rim (Fig. 2).

Fig.

Orange Mound. (4 size) Some fragments with inverted rim were

ones decorations appeared on the upper >

1893.] Shell Heaps of. Florida. 617

thickest at the top, the general thickness being .6 inch, thick-

ness of rim 1.2 inches.

At a depth greater than five feet not a fragment of pottery

was encountered. Fire-places were found at varying depths,

while throughout the entire excavation bones of the turtle,

"Sherd, Orange Mound. (Actual size.)

deer, alligator and other edible animals were met with. Ata

depth of 41 feet, in a layer of brown sand, with a percentage

of shell intermingled, strongly reminding the writer of the

brown sand layer in the Tick Island burial mound,” a num-

? AMERICAN NATURALIST, February and July, 1892.

618 The American Naturalist. [July,

ber of human bones were encountered. They were somewhat

disturbed by the digging but were neither crushed nor broken

as are the bones of the shell heaps, and it was evident that

interments had taken place. Below the bones was a layer of

pure white sand, so common in the burial mounds. This

stratum seemed to a great extent to be local, being 1} feet

through at the thickest part, namely, the northwest part of the

excavation, diminishing on the east and west and being

entirely lost on the south. Further investigations showed

the white sand layer to decrease in thickness to the north,

being but four inches thick at a distance of three feet beyond

the excavation.

| se TE:

Sherd, Orange Mound. (% size.)

By digging with trowels into the south side of the excava-

tion, in a layer of almost pure brown sand was found the

skeleton of a woman, buried at length in a horizontal position

in perfect anatomical order. The skeleton as it lay measured

5 feet, 14 inches in length. The position of the skull was 10°

south of west, the feet pointing 10° north of east. The fore-

arm lay across the pelvis. The body had been buried upon

its left side and the left leg and arm were missing. It is

almost certain, in view of the presence of every other bone of

the skeleton, that these members, extending somewhat from

the body, unlike the right arm and leg, were thrown out by

the spades prior to troweling into the side of the excavation.

The skull was somewhat crushed. The femur was 14} inches

in length (tape); the humerus was not perforated. The tibia

in lateral diameter was 58.2% of the fore and aft diameter,

showing decided platycnemism.

1893.] Shell Heaps of Florida. 619

About one foot south of this burial on a line with the ribs

was found what was probably a burial of the kind so well

known in some of the sand mounds of the river and of

the coast, where the body, previously exposed to the ele-

Sherd, Orange Mound. (74 size.)

4. ee

Sherd, Orange Mound. (% size.)

ments, is denuded of flesh before burial. As a rule, the

larger bones are placed in a bundle horizontally and are

surmounted by the skull. In this case the cranium lay below

the bones. Above it in immediate association were the larger

bones of the body. The lower jaw lay about six inches from

| the upper jaw to one side with the teeth turned away. A few

vertebre were beneath the head, while two heel bones were

with the bundle. Upright by the skull was a femur belong-

ing to another body. All these bones were badly decayed

620 The American Naturalist. [July,

being in a far worse condition than those of the skeleton at

length.

To return to the main excavation. Below the layer of

white sand were two feet of brown sand and shell intermingled,

and beneath this was a stratum 2 feet 9 inches in depth com-

posed of crushed shells with a very slight admixture of sand.

At a depth of 8 feet were more human bones disarranged by

the digging. Ata depth of 81 feet a cranium was found, with

bones of the face missing, except a half of the lower jaw. In

SAQA

Sherd, Orange Mound. (Actual size.)

association were bones of the lower animals. At the same

level as the skull, and where they might be looked for, in ana-

tomical order were pelvis, femur, tibia, fibula and foot bones

complete. A femur lay somewhat apart. It is possible that

this femur, not in association with the pelvis or with the tibia

which was found lying across the first tibia in anatomical

| order, may have been separated from the skeleton by the

‘shifting of sand caused by trampling in earlier stages of the

1893.] Shell Heaps of Florida. 621

mound." Between the skull and pelvis lay decaying frag-

ments of ribs. It is probable that the missing arm bones

extending upward were those inadvertently disarranged by

digging half a foot above.

At a depth of 84 feet immediately below the bones was a

layer two feet, nine inches in thickness, consisting of the

ordinary crushed shell of the shell heaps, with fire-places,

bones of the lower animals, etc., as ordinarily found. Nothing

of further interest was met with.

Diagram of the northern side of this excavation is

appended.

A number of other excavations were made in various por-

tions of the mound. No pottery was met with below 53 feet

anywhere near the center of the mound, though near the mar-

gin—probably a later deposit—pieces were found at a depth

of seven feet. Eighty-eight feet from the first excavation on

the northern slope of the mound seven feet below the surface

was found a portion of a rude spear head of red chalcedony,

14 inches in length. In this excavation the glandina trun-

cata was comparatively numerous, some thirty or fourty speci-

mens being present. This land shell is of infrequent occur-

rence in the mounds.

Of the four humeri found during the first excavation not

one was perforated. The three tibie exhumed in a condition

for measurement had an average of 58.0 per cent lateral

diameter as compared to the antero-posterior diameter. No

crania were saved.

To those interested in the archeology of Florida, the result

of the investigation conducted at Orange Mound must be

regarded as of considerable importance. It will be remem-

bered that to the present time no conclusive evidence has

been secured, assigning to any sand mounds of the river an

origin contemporary with the shell-heaps. That burials took

place at Orange Mound in a regular stratified mound of sand

is beyond the shadow of a doubt, and that the burial mound

was not made upon an abandoned shell-heap, perhaps long

This shifting of bones is not uncommon according to Topinard, Revue d'Anthro-

pologie, 1886, page 742.

fection Mot ae of Excavation.

-—

Seale- fe

il. 2 uoi eee ue c t

2 Loam. i

E ^

| |

Ir i

* Shell |

| ' FK nost entirely lAUmpullarcae.

z ENR

S Brown Sand and Shell

l Lon fullariae, lncones rPaludinae- ^ |

i | Humanfones.

Ei p/7 MN» Ja nd.

TUUM queue

NT $ '

ES Drown dnd ard shel? |

| | lin pullarcae, dn cones + Parle dinae. :

= uman Hones.

;

Ai Lvushod hell |

S } Orn prc Ao «e, Uniones -Z du dc nae.

| )

F3 i

> Dirty pend and xis i?

= : "

| Paludinae, lyr ones ? Un pullariae

ee iE MM A LN

I DT urer Shell- TAA. clinae ¥Lncones.

J Mell and Loam - Phdu inae.

a : !

> Sand. |

EE : on

; Wa tor. |

„Oran nge Mound, Fh d

1893.] Shell Heaps of Florida. 623

after the eaters of shell-fish had passed away, is irrefutably

shown by the three feet of ampullarie piled above. It must

therefore be admitted that the aborigines of the shell heaps,

in one instance at least, interred their dead in a sand mound

in every respect similar to many burial mounds of the St.

John's, and the writer considers it so unlikely that the strati-

fied burial mound met with in the center of the great shell-

heap at Orange Mound is an isolated case in respect to the

method of sepulture of the eaters of shell-fish that at least the

erection of some of the sand mounds of the river by the men

who piled up the shell-heaps would seem to be strongly indi-

cated.

LONG BLUFF (ORANGE COUNTY).

This bluff on the west bank of the St. John's lies directly

on the water's edge. It is separated from a large shell-ham-

mock by a quarter of a mile of marsh. This southerly por-

tion probably is considered a part of the Bluff, or at all events

has no distinctive name. Long Bluff, unlike most of the

shell-deposits south of Lake Harney, is not composed entirely

of shell and does not appear to owe its origin solely to the

debris of the meals of the aborigines, but consists of sand

through which is a sprinkling of shells. It is perfectly level

and if cleared of the dense mass of palmettoes which shade

it, would be termed a shell-field.

A Cache.

About midway in the northern portion of the Bluff an

excavation, the point for which was selected at random, was

made, 13 feet through the sandy loam, with here and there an

occasional shell. Beneath was a hard conglomerate of sand

and shell, mostly uniones, about four inches in thickness, —

necessitating the use of the pick. Underneath the shell layer

was a pure white sand, continuing to water level. Ata depth

of eight inches in this sand, or 21 feet beneath the surface, by

good fortune, was found what was probably a cache of one of

the earlier Indians. In a space no larger than a man’s hat,

624 The American Naturalist. [July,

in actual contact, lay six chisels or scrapers of shell, each of

a different size, 8 inches, 41 inches, 3 inches, 2} inches, 2

inches, 13 inches, in length, respectively; one shell gouge;

one spiral instrument for cutting or polishing, 63 inches in

length, made from the columella of the fasciolaria; four bone

awls; one curved awl of bone, 4 inches in length; one sand-

stone hone or whetstone; a large number of the smaller bones

of edible animals. (See Plate XVI.)

In order to ascertain whether these relics marked the site of

a burial, the excavation was continued until a trench, 15 ft.

by 4 ft., 3 in. by 3 ft. to 4 ft. deep, was dug. Atadepth of 8

inches from the surface an arrow head was found, and during

the course of the digging another hone, an oyster shell and

several pieces of lined pottery were met with. There were,

however, absolutely no indications of a burial. The chisels

were perfect, with one exception, the hone showed no marks

of use, and the points of the awls were intact. These relics

therefore, are not the debris of the shell heaps, and their num-

ber precludes the possibility of an unintentional deposit.

With no human bones in association, a cache would seem to

be indicated, although the presence of unworked animal

bones—unless to serve as material for implements—is difficult

to explain.

In the southern portion of the Bluff a number of small

excavations were made. Fragments of human bone, with

broken bones of edible lower animals were met with.

1893.] - Notes on Marine Laboratories of Europe. 625

NOTES ON MARINE LABORATORIES OF EUROPE.

BY BASHFORD DEAN.

- In every country the Marine Laboratory has become a need

of the student of biology. During his winter studies in the

university it serves to provide him with well-preserved mater-

ial, often with living forms which he may himself prepare

according to his wants; in summer it gives him opportunity

to see and collect his study types and utilize with profit and

without physical discomfort abundant material relating to his

studies. To the investigator, the Marine Laboratory has

become, in the broadest sense, a university. He may there

meet the representative students of far and wide, fellow work-

ers, perhaps, in the very line of his own research, and must

himself, unknowingly, teach and learn. He finds out gradu-

ally of recent work, of technical methods which often happen

most pertinent to his present needs. He may carry on his

work quietly and thoroughly ; his works of reference are at

hand; he has the most necessary comfort in working—the

feeling of physical rest, untroubled by the rigid hours of

demonstrations and lectures.

The importance of the work of the Marine Laboratory has

. been keenly appreciated in foreign countries, and it is note-

worthy how large a number of the original researches is at

present conducted at, or upon material from these distributing

centers of biology. At the present day the entire coast line of

Europe has become dotted with zoological stations great and

small, grown out of the resources granted by societies, private

individuals or governments—perhaps by the combined efforts

of all. It was a matter of great interest to the present writer

during recent visits, to find how thoroughly the Marine Labo-

ratory system abroad had become a part of every grade of

biological work. The student in a small university in the

interior of France receives his first lessons from material sent

regularly from Roscoff or Banyuls—he examines living sponges,

hydroids, lucernarians, pennatulids, beroés, Loxosoma, Coma-

626 The American Naturalist. [July,

tula and Amphiorus. In Munich, hundreds of miles from the

sea, is another example. Professor Richard Hertwig, by the

aid of material from Naples, demonstrates the larval charac-

ters of ascidians, or the fertilization of the egg of the sea urchin.

Every group of European universities seems to have central-

ized its marine biological work in a convenient locality, and

this branch of their needs is supported, and is well-supported,

even in countries whose financial resources are most limited.

The importance of this work is felt to such a degree that it is

not from reasons unselfish that universities have united in

their support of a station like thatof Naples. This has become

literally an emporium, cosmopolitan, bringing together side

by side, perhaps not unnaturally, the best workers of many

universities whose observations upon the best material,

sharpened by discussion and criticism, are certainly tending

to become the most accurate and the most fruitful in their

direction and results.

It is most singular that foreign countries are unquestion- —

ingly liberal in the support of pure biology, and in the work of

marine stations the tendency is becoming less and less on the

part of money-givers to ask how many fish will be hatched to

become food material. Public interest has been gradually

coming to be directed to the general laws and the prob-

lems of life and heredity. This has well been a hopeful sign,

and the European biologists are not backward in emphasizing

the importance of their studies. Professor de Lacaze-Duthiers

does not hesitate even to propitiate the practical Cerberus,

reminding him how often ‘ facts have been found at every step

of science which were valueless at their discovery, but which,

little by little, fell into line and led to applications of the

highest importance—how the observation of the tarnishing of

silver or the twitching leg of the frog was the origin of photo-

graphy and telegraphy—how the purely abstract problem of

Spontaneous generation gave rise to the antiseptics of surgery.’

. . In the present paper it may prove of interest to examine

briefly the condition of a few of the biological stations of

urope. :

1893.] Notes on Marine Laboratories of Europe. 627

I.—FRANCE.

The extended sea-coast has ever been of the greatest aid to

the French student—along the entire northern coast the chan-

nel is not unlike our Bay of Fundy in the way it sweeps the

waters out at the lunar tides. The rocks on the coast of Brit-

tany, massive bowlders, swept and rounded by the rushing

waters, will at these times become exposed to a depth as great

as 40 feet. This is the harvest-time of the collector; he is

enabled to secure the animals of the deep with his own hand,

to take them carefully from the rocky crevices where they

would ever have avoided the collecting dredge. From earliest

times this region has been the field of the naturalist. It was

here that Cuvier, during the Reign of Terror, made his studies

on marine invertebrates which were to precede his Règne

Animal. The extreme westernmost promontories of Brittany

have, for the last half century, been the summer homes of de

Quatrefages, Coste, Audouin, Milne-Edwards and de Lacaze-

Duthiers. Coste created a laboratory at Concarneau, but this

has come to be devoted to practical fish culture, and is, at the

present day, of little scientific interest. It is owing to the

exertions of Professor de Lacaze-Duthiers of the Sorbonne,

that the two governmental stations of biology have since

been founded. The first was established at Roscoff, in one of

the most attractive and favorable collecting regions in

Brittany, and has continued to grow in importance for the last

twenty years. As this station, however, could be serviceable

during summer only, it gave rise to a smaller dependency of

the Sorbonne in the southernmost part of France, on the

Mediterranean, at Banyuls, which had the additional advan-

tage of a Mediterranean fauna.

To these French stations should be added that of Professor

Giard, at Wimereaux near Boulogne, in the rich collecting fun-

nel of the Straits of Dover; that of Professor Sabatier at Cette,

not far from Banyuls, a dependency of the University of

Montpelier; that of Marseilles and the Russian station at

Ville-Franche, near the Italian frontier. An interesting sta-

tion in addition, is that at Arcachon near Bordeaux, founded

628 The American Naturalist. [July,

by a local scientific society, and having at its command the

collecting resources of a small inland sea, famous for its oyster

culture. Smaller stations are not wanting, as at the Sables

d'Olonne. —

At Roscoff the laboratory building looks directly out upon

the channel. In its main room on the ground floor, work

places are partitioned off for a dozen investigators; this on the

one hand leads to a large glass-walled aquarium room, seen in

FRENCH MARINE STATION AT ROSCOFF, BRITTANY.

(From photograph by author, July, 1891.)

the accompanying figure, while on the other opens directly to

adjoining buildings which include lodging quarters, a well-

furnished library and a laboratory for elementary students.

Surrounding the building is an attractive garden which gives

one anything but a just idea of the barrenness of the soil of

Brittany. From the sea wall of the laboratory one looks out

1893.] Yotes on Marine Laboratories of Europe. 629

over the rocks that are becoming exposed by the receding tide.

A strong enclosure of masonry serves as a vivier to be used for

experiments as well as to retain water for supplying the labo-

ratory. The students are, in the main, those of the Sorbonne,

and are under the direction of Dr. Prouho, their maitre de con-

férences. They are given every opportunity to take part in the

collecting excursions, frequently made in the laboratory’s

ROSCOFF.. INTERIOR OF AQUARIUM ROOM.

(July, 1891.)

small sailing vessels, among the rocky islands of the neighbor-

ing coast. Strangers, too, are not infrequent and are generously

granted every privilege of the French student. Liberality is

one of the characteristic features of Roscoff. The stranger who

writes to Professor de Lacaze-Duthiers is accorded a work

place which entitles him gratuitously to every privilege of the

laboratory—his microscope, his reagents, even his lodging-

630 The American Naturalist. [July,

room should a place be vacant. It seems, in fact, to be a point

of pride with Professor Lacaze that the stranger shall be wel-

comed to Roscoff, and upon entering the laboratory for the

first time, feel as much at home asif he had been there a week.

He finds his table in order, his microscope awaiting him, and

the material for which he had written displayed in stately

array in the glass jars and dishes of his work place. So, too,

e may have been assigned one of the large aquaria in the

glass aquarium room—massive stone-base stands, aérated by a

constant jet of sea water.

He finds a surprising wealth of material at Roscoff, and his

wants are plentifully and promptly supplied.

FRENCH MARINE STATION AT BANYULS-SUR-MER.

(Oct., 1891.)

At Banyuls, the second station of the Sorbonne, the build-

Ings are less imposing than those of Roscoff. It is a plain, three

TOU TOM FA NEE EAE CUT es E re A, Loe te LM SW SE dr Se RAE QN T BAe RS De eA ON EE VEN WIE LENT VU SE OS ey T RIS Ee, E eke ge T RES Cae akg ae ee ee TER QE REN

PEPE De e tui (r^ aera os

1893.] Notes on Marine Laboratories of Europe. 631

story building facing the north, at the edge of the promontory

which shelters the harbor of Banyuls. The vivier is in front

of the station, behind is a reservoir cut in the solid rock—

receiving the water of the Mediterranean and distributing it

throughout the building. On the first floor is a large aquar-

ium room lighted by electricity, well-supplied with tanks and

decorated not a little with statuary donated by the Adminis-

tration of the Beaux-Arts. The bust of Arago occupies an

BANYULS-SUR-MER. INTERIOR OF AQUARIUM ROOM.

(Oct., 1891.)

important place, as the laboratory has been named in his

onor. The suit of a diver, as may be seen in the adjoining

figure, indicates at a glance the different tactics in collecting

required by the slightly falling tides of the Mediterranean.

The wealth of living forms in the aquaria shows at once by

variety of bright colors the richness of southern fauna. Sea

632 The American Naturalist. [July,

lillies are in profusion, and are gathered at the very steps of

the laboratory. The work-rooms of the students are on the

second floor, equipped in a manner similar to those of Roscoff.

The director of this station is Dr. Frédéric Guitel. It is usual

during the holidays at fall or winter, for the entire classes of

the Sorbonne to spend several days in collecting trips in the

neighborhood. The region, with its little port, is famous for its

fisheries, and one in especial is that of the Angler, Lophius, a

fish that would not be regarded as especially dainty on our.

side of the Atlantic. :

The station on the Straits of Dover, at Wimereaux, has

earned a European reputation in the work of Professor Giard.

It is but a small frame building, scarcely large enough to

include the advanced students selected from the Sorbonne.

The laboratory is, in a way, a rival of Roscoff, and it is note-

worthy that its workers seem to make a point of studying the

laboratory methods of the German universities.

The marine laboratory of Arcachon, one of the oldest of

France, was built in 1867 by the local scientific society, and

was carried on independently until the time of the losses of the

Franco-Prussian War. Its management was then fused with

that of the faculty of medicine of Bordeaux, with whose assist-

ance, aided by that of a small subsidy from the government,

the work of the institution is carried on. Arcachon, in itself,

is a most interesting locality near Bordeaux. It has becomea

summering place, noted for its pine lands and the broad, sandy

plage, picturesque in summer with swarms of quaintly dressed

children, the local head-dress of the peasant mingling with the

latest toilets from Paris. Here and there is to be seen that

accompaniment of every French watering place, the goat boy

in smock and berret, fluting to his dozen charges who walk in

a stately way before him. The Bay of Arcachon is a

small, tranquil, inland sea, long known for its rich fauna. In

large part it is laid out in oyster parks which constitute to no

small degree the source of wealth of the entire region. Shal-

low and warm waters seem to give the marine life the best

~ conditions for growth and development. The laboratory is

_ placed just at the margin of the water. It includes a dozen or

" ‘a à RORIS |

M m cda Fate M qo iE c ii iM E I DE lE ud Mm iE iac ee ee m i s

1893.] Notes on Marine Laboratories of Europe. 633

more work places for investigators, well supplied with aquaria,

a library on the second floor, a small museum containing col-

lections of local fauna, including numerous relics of Cetaceans

that have found their way into this inland sea. A small

aquarium room, opened to the publie, is well provided with

local forms of fishes, and like that of Naples, is eagerly visited.

Those who are entitled freely to the use of the work places are

instructors in French colleges, members of the Society, and all

the advanced students from the colleges of the State. For

other students, work place is given upon the payment of a fee

whose amount is regulated each year by the trustees. As at

Roscoff, material is plentifully supplied.

The Zoological Station at Cette is a direct annex of the Uni-

versity of Montpelier, and it has been gladly learned that the

present temporary building is to be replaced by one of stone,

which will enable Professor Sabatier to add in no little way to

the working facilities of his students. The region,in every

essential regard, is similar to that of Banyuls.

The station at Marseilles is devoted in great part to ques-

tions relating to the Mediterranean fisheries, and owes, in a

measure, its financial support to this practical work.

The station at Ville Franche is essentially Russian. An

account of this with figures has recently been published

(Russian text) in Cracow. The station itself is well known

through the work of Dr. Bolles Lee, and it is here that Profes-

sor Carl Vogt has been a constant visitor.

IL—ENGLAND.

The laboratory at Plymouth is quite a recent one, first

opened in 1888 with a building which is, in many regards,

hardly second to Naples. This locality was found well suited

for the needs of an extensive marine station. Opposite Brit-

tany it takes advantage of the same extremes of tide, and the

rocky Devonshire coast affords one of the richest collecting

grounds. The situation of the building is a remarkable one ;

it stands at one end of the famous Hoe of Plymouth—a broad,

level park whose high situation looks far off over the channel.

At the rear of the building are the old fortifications of the

634 The American Naturalist. [July,

town. Asshown in the adjoining figure, the building is, at

the ends, three storied. On the ground floor is the general

aquarium room, well-supplied with local marine fauna, and

open to the public. The laboratory proper is upon the

second floor, divided into eleven compartments, the work

places of the students. A series of small tanks passes down

the middle of the room. In the western end are the library,

. Ale Be TB: Bie

BRITISH MARINE LABORATORY, PLYMOUTH.

(August, 1892.)

the museum, the chemical, photographic and physiological

rooms. In the eastern are the living quarters of the director.

The water supply of the laboratory is contained in two small

reservoirs directly between the building and the fortifications.

Each reservoir contains 50,000 gallons, and the water supply

is carried throughout the building by gas engines. Tidal

aquaria are in constant use for developmental studies of marine

=A a don Th ee Kid ii. oan |

1893.] Notes on Marine Laboratories of Europe. 635

fishes. The collecting for the laboratory is aided by a 38-foot

steam launch.

The present support of the station is not, unfortunately, as

generous a one as might be desired. The station is obliged to

consider in the work of its director matters relating to public

fisheries and is only enabled by this means to secure govern-

mental assistance. The building itself was constructed by the

efforts of the Marine Biological Association of the United

Kingdom, under whose auspices the present work is being

carried on. The efficiency of the laboratory is in no little way

hampered in its purely scientifie work. The investigators’

tables are occupied by any founder of the Association, or his

representative, by the naturalist or institutions who have

rented them. The subscription price per year of an investi-

gator's place is 40 pounds, but tables may be leased for as short

a time as a month. The laboratory provides material for

investigation and the ordinary apparatus of the marine labo-

ratory, excluding microscopes and accessories. The use of the

larger tanks of the main aquarium is also permitted to the

working student. The work of the laboratory includes investi-

gation of fishery matters, the preservation of animals to supply

the classes of zoology in the universities and the formation of

type collections of the British marine fauna. The naturalist

of this station has been, for a number of years, Mr. J. T. Cun-

ningham, whose experiments upon the hatching of the Sole

have here been carried on.

Other British marine stations are those of Liverpool and St.

Andrews, north-east of Edinburgh. . The work of these stations

is only in part purely biological; the practical matters of fish-

eries must be considered to insure financial support. In addi-

tion to these there are several stations, notably one south-east

of Edinburgh, and another, recently equipped, on the Isle of

Man.

At St. Andrews, Professor MacIntosh has studied the ques-

tions relating to the hatching and development of the North

Sea fishes. Its situation upon the promontory leading into

the Firth of Forth seems to have been especially favorable for

the study of the North Sea fauna—the locality, moreover, is

636 The American Naturalist. [July,

far enough northward to include a number of boreal forms.

The importance of St. Andrews is at length better recognized,

and a substantial grant from the government will enable a

large and permanent marine station to be here constructed.

The facilities for work have, up to the present time, been

DUTCH ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT THE HELDER.

(Fig. from Tijdsehr. d. Ned. Dierk. Vereen, 5 Juli, 1890.)

somewhat primitive—a simple wooden building single storied, -

has been partitioned off into small rooms, a general labora-

tory, with work places for half a dozen investigators, a direc-

tor’s room, aquarium and a small out-lying engine house

with storage tanks. The laboratory owns a small sail-boat to

assist in the work of collecting.

HOLLAND.

Holland, in the summer of 1890, opened its zoological sta-

tion in the Helder, a locality which, for this purpose, had long

"Tk ete Da ees ee ee n Ra

1893.] Notes on Marine Laboratories of Europe. 637

been looked upon with the greatest favor. There is here an

old town at the mouth of Zuyder Zee, the naval stronghold of

Holland, a station favorable for biological work on account of

the rapid running current which renews the waters of the

Zee. The station was founded by the support of the Zoological

Society of the Netherlands, whose valuable work by the con-

tributions of Hubrecht, Hoek and Horst, has long been known

in connection with the development of the oyster industry of

Holland. The work of the Society had formerly been carried

on by means of a portable zoological station which the investi-

gators caused to be transplanted to different points along the

East Schelde, favorable on account of their nearness to the

supplies of spawning oysters. The present station at the

Helder is situated directly adjoining the great Dyke, a small

stone building illustrated in the adjacent figure, two stories,

surrounded by a small park. In itself the laboratory is a

model one—the rooms are carefully finished and every arrange-

ment has been made to secure working conveniences. A large

vestibule leads directly into two laboratory rooms, and by a

hallway communicates with the large, well-lighted library,

and the rooms of the director. The aquarium room has, for

convenience, been placed in a small adjacent building. The

director of this station is Professor Hoek, and the President of

the Society is Professor Hubrecht. Among others present at

the opening of the building may be mentioned, van Bem-

melen, Weber, Vosmaer, van Rees, Heinsius, Oudemans and

Horst.

638 The American Naturalist. [July,

EVOLUTION AND DICHROMATISM IN THE GENUS

MEGASCOPS.

By E. M. HASBROUCK.

(Continued. from page 533, Vol. XXVII.)

The accompanying tables show the colors of the young pro-

duced by parents of known character as to plumage.' It will

be readily seen that red birds breed either all red, all gray, or

both; that reds and grays breed either all red, all gray, or

both ; while gray birds, as previously stated, invariably breed

irue^ Now to one at all familiar with the theory of reversion

to ancestral characters, the perfect harmony between the two

theories is selfevident. Take now, the pigeons, which are

descended from a parent of bluish color, with certain bars and

other markings, and when any breed assumes by simple vari-

ation a bluish tint, these bars and other marks invariably

reappear; call thetwo color phases of the common screech-owl

species; call the various breeds of pigeons, some of which have

bred true for centuries, species; compare these and how

exactly parallel are the two cases.

Lastly: the widely accepted theory of the transmission of

acquired characters comes to my assistance. Take, for exam-

ple, the great similarity at certain periods between the plum-

ages of the various ducks, which would indicate that the com-

mon ancestor of the duck family was of a dusky color, or,

better still, an example of to-day. The young of the genus

Merula has the breast spotted as in the genus Turdus, while

that of the adult is plain. Now, one of the grounds upon

which this genus is based is, that were the adults spotted,

instead of belonging to the genus Merula, they would belong -

! The question mark in the third column signifies that the number of young were

not given.

. # Considerable uncertainty was manifested by some contributors as to what consti-

tuted a young, gray bird, they giving the gray down as such, and, while great care has

been taken to avoid all such data, it may be well to call attention to possible error.

Table Showing Color of Young Produced by Gray Parents.

oar c9 b2 re

NUMBER

LOCALITY. COLOR. AUTHORITY,

YOUNG.

Owego, N. Y. ? All gray. J. Alden Loring.

Hamilton, Ohio. ? All gray. Geo. Harbron,

Salineville, Ohio. 4 All gray. Wim. A. Savage.

Sioux City, Ia. ? All gray. Dr. Guy C. Rich.

Providence, R. I. 5 All gray. Chas, E. Doe.

Racine, Wis. 3 All gray. Dr. P. R. Hoy.

'edoosobapg snuayy ay} ur uoungoarr

['£681

689

Table Showing Color of Young Produced by Red Parents.

| NUMBER

NO. LOCALITY. OF COLOR. AUTHORITY,

YOUNG.

1 | Portland, Conn. 5 Red, 3; Gray, 2. Jno. H. Sage.

2 | Lockport, N. Y 1 All red. J. L. Davidson.

3 | Oakdale, N. C ? All red. Robt. J. Thompson.

4 | Odin, Ill. ? All red. C. B. Vandycook.

5 | Rockford, Ill. 6 Red, 4; Gray, 2. J. E. Dickenson.

6 | Hamilton, O. ? All red. Geo, Harbron.

7 | Grinnell, Iowa. ? All gray. Lynds Jones.

8 | Grinnell, Iowa. ? All gray. Lynds Jones.

9- | Argentine, Kansas. 3 Red, 2; Gray,1. Geo. E. Stilwell.

| 10 | Bell, Ky 6 “ Part red, Part gray." Carrington C. Bacon.

11 | Providence, R. I. 2 Red, 1; Gray, 1.

12 | Beaufort, S. C. ? Gray, 2; Rest red. Walter Hoxie.

13 | Beaufort, S. C. ? Red, 1; Rest gray. Walter Hoxie.

14 | Washington, D. C. 3 All red. C. W. Richmond.

15 | Cambridge, Mass. 3 All red. Wm. Brewster.

16 | Madison, Wis. 4 All red. Chas. F. Carr.

17 | Racine, Wis. 4 All red. Dr. P. R. Hoy.

18 | Jefferson, Wis. 5 Red, 3; Gray, 1 ; Intermediate, 1. | Ludwig Kumlien.

19 | Charlestown, W. Va. 5 Red, 4; Gray, 1. B. W. Mitchell.

rn DH CET, 09

*£qu f]

Table Showing Color of Young of Gray and Red Parents.

NUMBER

NO. LOCALITY, OF COLOR. AUTHORITY.

YOUNG.

1 | Astoria, L, I. 4 All red. | Franklin Bennet.

2 | Toronto, Canada. 5 Red, 2; Gray, 3. | James R. Thurston.

3 | Argentine, Kansas. 3 Red, 2; Gray, 1. | G. E. Stilwell.

4 | Argentine, Kansas. '2 | Both red | G. E. Stilwell.

5 | Manhattan, Kansas. 3 All red | D. E. Lantz.

6 | Versailles, Ky. ? All gray L. O. Pindar.

7 | Attleborough, Mass. 4 All gray H. A. Cash.

8 | Cambridge, Mass. 4 All red. Wm. Brewster.

9 | Giddings, Texas. ? All gray (meeallii ?). J. A. Singley.

10 | Strafford, Vt. ? d, 2; Remainder gray. Chas. P. Collins.

11 | Fayette, Mo. 4 Gray, 2 (2 died). | J. W. Kilpatrick.

12 | Jefferson, Mo. 4 Red, 2 ; Gray, 2. | Ludwig Kumlein.

‘sdoosphayy snua ay} ur Uuoynjoay

['ee8t

T¥9

642 The American Naturalist. [July,

to Turdus; it being claimed that Merula has been evolved from

and is one plain above Turdus, and that the spotted breast of the

young robin is a transitory inheritance of the acquired mark-

ings of the rest of the thrush family. If this be so, then, as all

screech-owls are gray in the down, from which those destined

to be red, afterwards acquire their plumage at the first moult;

does it not follow that the aboriginal bird was gray, whose

prominent and characteristic markings are reproduced in

every brood of young? While on the other hand, if the down

of young birds were red, from which the gray birds appeared

after the moult, the whole theory would be overturned, but it

is hardly necessary to state that this is not the case; and the

fact that gray birds are extremely rare in some regions, and

wholly wanting in others, seems conclusive proof that the

gray form is gradually becoming extinct over certain areas.

He who believes that each variety of pigeon known to

fanciers has been independently created, and that the various

color phases exhibited by individuals of the same species are

without meaning and without purpose, will probably assert

that each species has been created with a tendency to vary

both under nature and under domestication, each in its own

particular manner, so as often to become marked like other

species of the same genus, and that a species has been created

with a strong tendency to produce young not the color of their

parents, but other forms closely connected. To admit this view

seems, as Darwin aptly says, “To reject a real for an

unreal, or at least for an unknown cause. It makes the works

of God a mere mockery and deception," and *I would almost

as soon believe with the old and ignorant cosmogonists that

fossil shells had never lived, but had been created in stone so

as to mock the shells living on the seashore.” While, on the

the other hand, both geology and paleontology plainly pro-

claim that old forms have been supplanted by new and

improved forms of life, the product of “variation” and the

survival of the fittest.

1893.] Evolution in the Genus Megascops. 643

Part II.

CAUSES AND INFLUENCES.

The close relationship existing between various branches of

science, is, perhaps, nowhere more clearly shown than in the

present field of research. Four distinct causes have been

found appearing to influence the condition of the screech owls,

each of which has an evident bearing upon the other, and the

whole forms such a chain of evidence that its truth can hardly

fail to be apparent.

These causes or influences are—

1. Humidity.

2. Temperature.

9. Acquired characters.

4. Forest areas.

These will be treated separately under their respective head-

ings and in the order given, while a careful examination of

the maps will show their bearing upon the distribution of the

color phases of the screech-owl.

A.—INFLUENCE or HUMIDITY.

It has been conclusively shown by Allen? that humidity is

one of the main influences governing the local variations of

color in individuals of the same species, and that the distribu-

tion of the light colored races is strictly coincident with the

regions of mean minimum rainfall, while the dark forms are

confined mainly to regions of mean maximum rainfall.

Naturally enough, its effect is greatest during the breeding

season, and with the present species the months of March,

April, May and June may be considered as the period during

which the young would be most under its influence; accord-

ingly, map 3 has been constructed upon the mean of the data

for these four months.

The shaded area designates that region where the mean

humidity is 70 and over, while localities having less are

unshaded. Now it will be seen that to a very great extent the

grays are confined to those areas where the humidity is the

3 Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. II, 1871, 240-241.

644 The American Naturalist. [July,

greatest, while on the other hand the reds are distributed over

the less favored parts of the country. Along the Atlantic and

Gulf coasts, this humid belt corresponds very closely with the

pine belt on map No. 5 (although narrower on the Atlantic

slope) Here the distribution of the color phases fails to cor-

respond with either the pine or the humid belt, although it

does so perfectly with the temperature zones (see map No. 4),

while in the northern part of the United States and in Canada

the similarity is very great. Unfortunately, no data exist for

the little strip extending down the Alleghanies, but as moun-

tanious regions are, as a rule, exceedingly humid, particularly

when heavily wooded, there is little doubt but that when data

is collected for this region, it will show a narrow strip reaching :

from New York State to the neighborhood of eastern Ken-

tucky, when the similarity between color distribution, humid-

ity, temperature and forest areas will be nearly complete.

The whole subject of dichromatism as regards Megascops,

may be considered a special case of the general subject of

darker colored species inhabiting humid areas. The red form

can be assumed to be a more highly colored form of the gray,

and the same is true of Megascops as & whole in which

the various subspecies — floridanus, ‘mccallii, kennicottii,

bendirei, mazwelliz and trichopsis—are representative of the

dark and light forms respectively of the humid and arid

regions, and in Megascops asio proper, the gray may be taken as

the form inhabiting humid areas, while the red phase repre-

sents the lighter colored forms of the drier region.

B.—INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE.

According to Verrill and Allen,‘ the most potent of all influ-

ences 1n the distribution of color is temperature, which, in the

case of birds, is greatest during the breeding season, and as in

the case of humidity, map No. 4 is based upon the data for the

months previously mentioned. Now, by reference to map No. 4,

-it will be seen that there are three belts or zones of temperature

corresponding to the distribution of the red and gray phases of _

the screech-owl—the one reaching from Charleston, S. C., to

*N. A. Fauna, No. 3, p. 26. |

1893.] Evolution in the Genus Megascops. 645

central Texas having a mean temperature of 65? Fahrenheit

and upward for the months mentioned; another on the north,

extending from New Brunswick to Central Dakota, 45? Fahren-

heit and less, marking the distribution of the gray form, while

the intermediate territory lying between the isotherms of 45°

and 65? covers nearly the entire area inhabited by the reds.

Just how this influence is exerted it is, of course, impossible to

say, but that there is an apparent relation is evident from a

comparison of maps 2 and 4, while maps 2, 3, 4 and 5 show

that on the northern and southern borders all influences com-

bine to produce the existing conditions.

In comparing the northern belt, where a minimum degree

of temperature exists coincident with the gray phase with the

southern, where a mazimum degree is found also coincident

with the same phase, the question arises—Why, in one portion

of the country, is a low temperature and in another a higher

temperature conducive to a given phase? and the problem is

a knotty one. Future investigations may show that some

cause or causes, still unknown, exist along the Atlantic coast,

but the probabilities are that humidity is the dominant factor

in the subject under discussion.

e C—INFLUENCE OF ACQUIRED CHARACTERS.

In attempting to ascertain the causes influencing the condi-

tion of Megascops, one of the foremost things to be considered

is the peculiar distribution of sex as regards color. Leaving

the intermediates out of the discussion, as being an evident

attempt on the part of nature to fashion a form midway

between the two color phases, it will be best to consider only

the gray and red. .

Out of the total of 3600 birds which furnished data for this

paper, 646, scattered over the entire territory, show the follow-

ing relation of color to sex. It will be seen that the number of

gray males far outnumber the red males, while the number of

red females outnumber the gray females four to one. This is

scarcely a fair average for the whole, as it must be borne in

mind that the numbers cover all of the territory inhabited by

the three forms—asio, floridanus and mecallii—and conse-

646 The American Naturalist. [July,

Table Showing Relation of Color to Sez.

(Based on 646 birds scattered over entire area.)

GRAY. RED.

ditiis |, Tuni Male. | fd:

183 | 18 93 | 297

quently include the figures from those localities where the red

and gray respectively are the only forms known. Now it will

be seen that the red birds are much more numerous than the

grays—the total number being 390 as against 256 of the gray, -

and if the influence of the exclusive red and gray regions on

this average be considered, the proportion for the mixed areas

will be somewhat increased. As a consequence, in that region

shown on map 2, where red and gray birds are intermingled,

with red in the majority, the reason is at once apparent why

red and gray birds, or two red birds, are so often found mated,

and so seldom a pair of grays.

Granting now that the red birds are most numerous, does it

not follow that the fewer the grays in any given region, and

therefore the farther removed each generation of red birds

from the parent stock, in just such ratio will the tendency to revert

to ancestral characters decrease? It has been shown by Darwin?

that in the struggle for existence, only those forms survive

that are best fitted for the existing conditions of life to which

they may be exposed, and, as a result, forms unfitted leave few

progeny, and eventually become extinct. It will be shown

farther on why the gray form is not fitted for those regions in

which the red is now so greatly in the majority; accordingly,

. it becomes evident that where the red males and females

. already so greatly outnumber the gray, it requires but an

indefinite lapse of time for the existence of the latter form to

be forever terminated in certain sections.

.. 5Origin of Species, 69.

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1893.] Evolution in the Genus Megascops. 647

D.—INFLUENCE or Forest AREAS.

In speaking of the two color phases, the terms “reds” and

“grays” have been used, and when applied in their broadest

sense, refer to the predominating colors, and consequently to

those areas in which either color is in the majority. On ma

No. 2, the light and dark areas represent respectively the

territory in which the red and gray phases predominate. Map

No. 5 shows the predominating distribution of the two great

divisions of our forest trees—deciduous and coniferous—the

lighter shade indicating the region where the conifers are in the

majority, and the darker the deciduous. Now, by a comparison

of the two, it will be seen that the distribution of the color phases

of the screech-owl coincides, to a large extent, with the distribu-

tion of the coniferous and deciduous forests. This similarity

of distributions between fauna and flora was so striking, that

to ascertain whether or not there was any real connection

between the two, a similar state of affairs was looked for, and

found in the case of the tawny owl (Striz aluco) of Europe.

This bird furnishes a somewhat parallel case to that of Megas-

cops, as in England, where it is stated that the forests are

largely deciduous—Yarrell writes’ that red is the predominat-

ing color, while in Scotland, coniferous as a whole, Mr. John

A. Harvie-Brown informs me that the reverse is the case.’

Coniferous forests in the eastern part of the United States have

a grayish cast,and the point to be brought forward is that

where the general aspect of the forest growth is gray, gray

birds are found. As an instance, in the South where the for-

ests are largely bald cypress (Taxodium distichum), and covered

with a profusion of Spanish moss, the whole country is decid-

edly gray, and here the gray birds are almost the exclusive

form known.

€ History of British Birds, 4th Ed., I, 153.

7 On the Continent, in Europe, it appears to be a pretty-well established fact that the

red birds are females, and the grays males, which is a remarkable state of affairs when

compared with existing conditions on the British Isles:

ith the screech-owl, of 55 pairs known to have been actually mated, 39 males

and 28 females were red, while 27 males and 24 females were gray, showing that

Megascops is in no way approaching the condition of Strix.

648 The American Naturalist. [July,

There are at least three places on the map where this simi-

larity of distribution 1s wanting, as, for example, the decidu-

ous region extending from central New York southwestward

through Ohio and northern Indiana, where gray birds pre-

dominate, also the territory along the Atlantic coast most decid-

edly coniferous where red birds are found, and the western

boundary of the species from north to south, where little or no

timber occurs, and when found is mostly deciduous, and where

gray is the predominating color. With these exceptions the

similarity is remarkable, whilethe discrepancies are in a meas-

ure compensated for by the hygrometric conditions existing in

the localities mentioned.

CONCLUSIONS.

From the foregoing it is evident that the red phase is con-

fined mainly to Megascops asio (I am speaking of it as a whole),

which, on its northern border, merges into the gray phase;

that the southern gray belt incompasses floridanus, while in

eastern Texas the few red specimens of mecallii that are known

have been taken from the extreme north-eastern portion of its

range, which is influenced both by humidity and temperature

(see maps). Again this distribution of color corresponds very

closely to the life areas—the gray phase of the Florida form in

the South occupying a major portion of the Austroriparian ;

the red phase of asio proper conforming very closely to even

the outlines of the Carolinian, while the gray phase is equally

identical with the Alleghanian.

It is worthy of note that the gray phase of Megascops asio is

boreal in its affinities, and that where a gray phase of asio is

found that is not boreal, it is recognized as a subspecies.

Now if floridanus (gray) is separable from asio just north of

it (red), it seems highly probable that asio (red) will some day

be separated from the gray phase on the north. It has been

shown that as regards the two phases of asio, certain areas are

inhabited exclusively by reds, certain ones exclusively by

grays, while still others are inhabited by a mixture of the two,

-and that three forms (floridanus and two color phases of asio

proper) inhabit, as a whole, entirely distinct areas. No one : |

1893.] Evolution in the Genus Megascops. 649

will deny that all of the forms of Megascops are descended from

a common ancestor, and if through climatic or environmental :

conditions they have become subspecifically differentiated in

various localities, I see no reason to doubt that in like manner

under the influence of humidity, temperature, acquired char-

acter and forest area, which will be felt for countless genera-

tions to come, that the species now known as Megascops asio

will one day be separated into species and subspecies—the

former represented by the original gray, and the latter by the

more modern red.

650 . The American Naturalist. [July,

RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS.

AMEGHINO, F.—Repliques aux fg eh du Dr. Burmeister sur Quelques Generes

de Mammiferes Fossiles. Extr. Boll. Nac. de Ciencias de Cordoba. T. XII, 1892

From the author

Annual Ripa of the Postmaster- General of the United States for the Fiscal Year

ZADI, D. T. DE.—Fauna Americana. Madrid, 1892. From the author

Baur, G.—Professor Alexander Agassiz on the Origin of the Fauna and Flora of

the Guha Islands. Extr. Science, March, 1892. From the author.

BECKER, G. F.—Finite Homogeneous ipn Flow and Rupture of Hicks. Extr.

Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. IV, 1893. From ociety.

BouLE, M.—Description de P Hyaena AE du Pliocene de Sainzelles. Extr.

ge - des Sci. Nat. Zool., t. XV, uda From the author.

E, T. W. AND A. mon.—Contribations | to the Anatomy of Fishes.

2. e Kio fidis and S did Ossicles in the Siluroid Fishes. Extr. Proceeds.

Roy. Soc., Vol. LII, 1892. From th

Bulletin No. 91, New Jersey Agri. ‘Coll. Exp. Station,

Bulletin No. 87, North Carolina Agri. Exp. Station, Nov., 1892.

Bulletin of the Psychological Section of the Medico-Legal meii Jan., 1893.

Carus, P.—Truth in Fiction. Twelve Tales with a Moral. Chicago, 1893. From

the cmd

oss, W.—The Post-Laramie a of Middle Park, Colo. Extr. Piai Col-

dui Scientific Soc., 1892. From the author

DEAN, B.—Report on the cae Methods of Oyster Culture in France.——The

Pint and Biological Characteristics of the Natural Oyster Grounds of South Car-

olina. Extrs. Bull. U. S. Fish Commission, 1890. From the author.

Duces, D. A.—Um Nuevo Ixodídeo. Extr. La Naturaleza, DOR 2, Serie 2.

From the author.

DuMBLE, E. T.—Note on the Occurrence of Grahamite in Texas. Extr. Trans.

Am. Insti. Mining Engineers, 1892.—— Volcanic Dust in pra — —Source of the

"Texas pap payi Trans. Texas Acad. Sci., 1892. From the autho

FAB à cuni Felini del Pliocene Italiano. ite della R. Accad.

Lincei calls dal vie I, 1892. From the author.

FAIRCHILD, H. L.—Proceeds. of the Fourth voces eee of the Am. Geol,

Soc. Extr. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. IV, 1892. From the Society.

.. FELIX, J. AnD Hans LENK.—Ueber die EESIN mei der Republik

Mexico. Abdruck a. d. Zeitschr. d. Deutsch. geolog. Gesellschaft, Jahrg., 1892.

From the authors.

FOSTER, L. S.—The Published Writings of George Newbold Lawrence, Bulletin

of the U. S. Natl. Mus., No. 40. From the Smithsonian Institution.

cis, D. R.— Biennial Message to the Thirty-seventh General Assembly of the

State of redu From the author.

Furrscu, ANT.—Fauna der Gaskohle und der Kalksteine der Permformation

Band III, Heft 2. Selachii (Traguairia, Protacanthodes, Acanthodes es).

1893.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. 651

rr ti (Megali m RO Se Veroffentlicht mit subvention der

der Wissenscha n Wien. Prag,1 or.

Gia i S.— ECL poo Extr. Am. Antiq., Jan., 1893. The Fish

in "pun Guna: Extr. Am. Anthrop. 1892. From the author.

GILBERT, G. K.—Continental Problems. Extr. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. IV,

1893. From the Society.

ATCHER, J. B.—The —_ Beds of Converse Co., Wyoming. Extr. Am,

eee bee 1893. From the au

s, L. E.—Some buds. of Land Sculpture. Extr. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am.,

$a m, 1893. From the Society

Hos H.—Phases in the Nu ed of the Schists of Southern Berkshire.

Extr. Ball ce) Soc. Am., Vol. IV, 1893. From the Society.

Keyes, C. R.—A Remarkable Fauna at the Base of the Burlington Limestone in

Northeastern Missouri. Extr. Am. Journ. Sci., Vol. XLIV, 1892. From the author.

MACFARLANE, J. M.—4A Comparison of the Minute Structure of Plant Hybrids with

that of their Parents, and its Bearing on Biological Problems. Extr. Trans, Roy.

Soc. Edinburgh, Vol. XXXVII, 1892. From the author

MoRGAN, T. H.—Spiral Modification of Misi. Reprint from the Journ.

E Vol. VII, 1892. From the author.

RN, H. F. AND J. L. Wor pu mer —Artionyx, a New Genus of ( haero

Extr. pa Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., . V, 1893. From the authors.

OsBoRN, H. F.—The Anc hands Chalicotherium and Artionyx. Extr. Am. Nat.

Feb., 1858 From the author,

KER, H. W.—The Principles of Rank "ers Animals. A — read before

the Victoria Inst., Dec. 5, 1892. From the autho

_ Proceedings Congrés International d’ Ai edipi: Prehistorique et d’ Anthropolo-

e, II éme Session á Moscow, T. I, 1892.

Pro ceedings Congrés petis de Zoologie, Deuxiéme Session á Moscow. Pre-

miére Partie, 1892.

PROSSER, " S.— Thickness of the Devonian and Silurian Rocks of Central New

York. Extr. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. IV, 1893. From the Socie ety.

RHOADS, S. N. wide sog Exemplified i in the Genus Colaptes. Extr. Science,

pee 1892. From the au

Y, C. V.—Directions n Collecting and Pivi Insects. Pt. F. Bull. U.

S. kar rom No. 89. From the Smithsonian Institution,

RoMANES, G. J.—Darwin and After Darwin. Chicago, 1892. From the Open

Court Pub. Co.

ScLATER, W. L.—List of the sn in the Indian Museum. London, 1892.

From the Trustees of the Indian Muse

ScupDER, S. H.—The Tropical Fannal Element of our Southern Nymphalinz

systematically treated. Extr. Proceeds. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci., 1892. From the

or.

usa H.—Ovipositing in the genus Argynius. Extr. Canadian Entomologist,

date not given.

TETTENHAMER, DR. MED. E.—Ueber das Vorkommen offener Schlundspalten bei

einem vvesé elite hed Embryo. Extr. Münchner medicinische Abhandlungen, 28

Heft., VII Reihe, 1892. From the author.

652 The American Naturalist. [July,

TOWNSEND, C. H. T.—A Sarcophagial Parasite of Cimbex americana. Extr. Can

Entom., date not given. An Ajoria bred from Limacodes Sp. Extr. Psyche.

June, 1892.

—The North American Genera of Calyptrate Muscidae. Extr. Trans. Am. Ent.

Soc., Vol. XIX, 1892.

UTSCHNEIDER, DR. MED A.—Die Lendenerven der Aífen und der Menschen.

Extr. Münchener Medicinische Abhandlungen, 26 Heft, VII Reihe. 1 Heft, 1892.

From the author

VAN DER VEER, A.—The Management of Cancer of the Uterus, complicated by

Pregnancy, with ls ofa Case, Extr. New York Journ. Gynaecology and Obstet-

rics, July, 1892. ——So xr gue caes in Reference to Uterine Hemorrhage,

Puerperal and Non- Pandi Extr. Am. Gyn. Journ., Oct., 1892. From the

author.

WARD, H. B.—On MNectonema agile Verrill. Extr. Bull. Harvard Mus. Comp.

Zool., ie XXIII, 1892. From the author.

ITE, D.—A New Taeniopteroid Fern inii its Allies. Extr. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am.,

Vol. TV. 1893. From the Socie

WHITTLE, C. L.—Som e themes and Metasomatic Phenomena in the Metamor-

phic Conglomerate in s the Green Mountains. Extr. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. IV,

WRIGHT, G. F-Reply to Professor RK Criticism on Extra-Morainic

Drift in the Susquehanna, Lehigh and Delaware V

Wright, H.—Report on Native Birds of Hauturn Island, New Zealand.

1893.] Recent Literature. 653

RECENT LITERATURE.

A Popular Botany.'—This pretty book professes to enable one

who has never studied botany to have a “ bowing acquaintance” with

the common wild flowers, certainly a most laudable undertaking. The

author appears to have fallen largely under the baleful influence of

the old-fashioned teachers of botany, characterized not inaptly by the

line she quotes from Emerson—

“And all their botany is Latin names”

which may account for the impression she has that a scientific arrange-

ment or even a “key ” must be repellant to the amateur, or “ bristling

with technical terms and outlandish titles.’ This book is an honest

effort to bring some knowledge of plants nearer to the non-botanical

man and woman who may have a natural love of the flowers of the

wayside and fields.

At the opening of the book are a few pages devoted to the explana-

tion of terms, in which we find what is so common in popular works—

that many of the definitions do not define. There is a woful mixing

up of physiological with structural definitions, which must prove as

troublesome to the amateur who has a horror of technical terms which

“ bristle,” or of titles which are “outlandish.” How much help will

the reader get from this definition ?—" The Stamens are the fertilizing

organs of the flower.” Some of the definitions are good enough, and

will, perhaps, serve their purpose. :

The “Flower Descriptions” are grouped under six heads, viz.:

White, Yellow, Pink, Red, Blue and Purple, Miscellaneous. This part

is pretty well done, and includes descriptions and many good illustra-

tions of the more striking common flowers of the region within one or

two hundred miles of New York City. The provincialism of the book

is shown in its title, where the-flowers of this limited region are called

“our common wild flowers,” and again on page X, where we find the

expression, “ this side of Chicago,” which makes one ask where is “ this

side?” The title should be changed so as to restrict the book to the

New England and Middle States, in which region it will be a useful

book for amateurs. The author should remember .that there are

“ common wild flowers” and multitudes of people who admire them in

the South, upon the prairies and plains, in the Rocky Mountains, and

in the States of the Pacific Coast. “Our common wild flowers” is an

1 « How to Know the Wild Flowers." A guide to the names, haunts, and habits

of our common wild flowers, by Mrs. William Starr Dana; illustrated by Marion

Satterlee ; small, 8vo, 298 pp. New York : Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1893.

654 The American Naturalist. [July,

expression with a very different meaning in different parts of the

country.—CHARLES E. Brssry.

Two Text-Books of Physiology.’—The State of Indiana has

gone into the business of loaning its name as endorsing certain text-

books, which are published as the * Indiana State Series." "These two

books, by Professor Jenkins, now of the Leland Stanford University,

belong to the series. Of the advantages and disadvantages of such a

course, much might be said; but for this we have no room aside from

the remark that in our opinion the disadvantages far outweigh the

greatest advantages gained—the publication of the books at reasonable

rates, the prices of the two volumes being fixed by law at thirty and

sixty cents respectively.

r. Jenkins has done his work well in both volumes, the *Advanced"

work being the better of the two—the “ Primary " being too old in its

style for the students for which it is intended. In each work there is

a freshness of style and a logical arrangement which please us, and the

greatest fault we can find with the work is the insertion of * review

questions" which were doubtless demanded by the publishers (we

might say parenthetically that Professor Martin’s otherwise excellent

“Human Body, Briefer Course,” is damaged by the same operation.)

Especially admirable is the treatment of the use of alcoholic stimulants,

narcotics, and the like. There is no lurid description of the drunkard’s

stomach, no intemperate use of adjectives, but rather a plain, common-

sense view of the matter which will be as effective as the more extrava-

gant statements so common in the suppression of intemperance. In short,

we regard these books as among tbe very best for schools of the gram- j

mar and high school grades, and ean but wish that they might sup-

plant, in other States than Indiana, the trashy works so commonly in

use.

Calderwood on Mental Evolution.’—This octavo of 350 pages

is written with the object of harmonizing the modern doctrine of evo-

lution or physical continuity, with the doctrine of non-continuity of

mental evolution, so far as regards man. The author endeavors to

show that while the physical structure of man may have been the

result of an evolutionary process, his mind presents too great a differ-

we P. Jenkins. Primary lessons in human physiology. Indianapolis, 1891, pp. 211.

O. P. Jenkins. Advanced lessons in human physiology. Indianapolis, 1891, pP.

18.

., * Evolution and Man's Place in Nature, by Henry Calderwood, LL. D., Prefessor

of Moral Philosophy in the University of Edinburgh. Macmillan & Co., 1893.

1893.] Recent Literature. 655

ence from that of any of the lower animals to permit us to believe in

its origin by a similar process. He regards mind properly so-called,

as restricted to man, asserting that animals possess ** sensible discrimi-

nation " only, while man possesses “ rational discrimination.” He thus

defines the latter power: “ Negatively, intelligence is non-sensible

discrimination, a distinguishing of difference to which sensibility is

unequal. Positively, intelligence is discrimination of the meaning of

sensible impressions.” This kind of intelligence Dr. Calderwood

. denies to the animals below man. Few or no naturalists familiar with

animals will concur in restricting Dr. Calderwood’s intelligence as

here defined, to man. It is certain that a great many, if not the

majority, of animal species “discriminate” to varying degrees, “the

meaning of sensible impressions. Had the author desired a more cer-

tain criterion of difference between the animal and the human mind, it

seems to us that he would have found it more surely in the capacity

of the production of the concept, though it does not seem certain that

this grade of mental action is entirely restricted to man.

The grade of mental activity displayed by animals can not, however,

be excluded from the realm of mind. Indeed, when reduced to its

lowest terms, mind appears as sense impressions, and it ceases only

with the disappearance of consciousness. Such at least is the compre-

hensive definition which may be set off in contrast with no mind, or

the realm of pure physical energy. Of course such a definition is not

acceptable to the advocates of the non-continuity of mental evolution.

n accordance with the latter view, Dr. Calderwood does not admit

that intelligence is related to physical structure (p. 178), although

many convincing proofs to the contrary can be found in the annals of

brain pathology. He regards passion and not intelligence as the

active guide in animal evolution. He regards instinct (pp. 179-187)

as not intelligence in any form. He closes with an eloquent defense of

Christianity, as though the doctrine of the continuous evolution of intel-

ligence conflicted with it.

It seems to us that in making comparisons between the minds of men

and animals, we learn most by using the lowest types of man. Com-

parisons between the latter and the highest types of men are also very

instructive. If the continuity of mental evolution has been interrupted,

some interruptions during human evolution might be found as well as

prior to it.

Dr. Calderwood’s book is interesting as showing what can be said on

the non-evolutionary side of psychology. There is much of interest in

it, but we do not find his reasoning conclusive.—C.

*P. 151.

656 The American Naturalist. [July,

General Notes.

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.

The Norian Rocks of Canada.—Professor F. D. Adams of

McGill College, Canada has published a memoir on the Norian or

Upper Laurentian rocks of Canada! This memoir is the result of five

seasons’ field-work conducted for the Geological Survey of Canada,

supplemented by a laboratory investigation of the rocks constituting

‘the Norian series. According to Professur Lawson, two important

results of Mr. Adams’ work are first, the clear recognition, as plutonic

eruptive formations, of rock masses, which, being petrographically and

geolographically units, have each an enormous extent. These are the

Norian mass, which occupies nearly 1000 square miles; and the

Saguenay mass, which is about six times that area. These masses,

which may be termed batholites, are characterized by a distinct type of

rock known as anorthorite.

The second important result is the immense simplification effected in

Archaean geology in the Canadian territory. (Science, May, 1893.)

The Caudal Fin of Ichthyosaurian Reptiles.—In discussing

the recent advances in knowledge of the Ichthyosaurian reptiles, Mr.

R. Lydekker refers as follows to an important paleontological dis-

covery which confirms Sir Richard Owen's conclusions that the

Ichthyosauri possessed a caudal fin.

“ From the circumstance that nearly all their skeletons found in the

English Lias have a dislocation in the vertebre of the tail, Sir Richard

Owen was led many years ago to the conclusion that the Ichthysaurs

were furnished with an expanded fin at the end of the tail, and that

the weight of this fin caused the fracture in question. In the present

year, there has been discovered in the Lias one of these reptiles, in

which the outline of the fleshy parts is completely preserved, and which

proves the existence of a caudal fin of still larger dimensions than Owen

supposed to be the case. This interesting specimen is described by Dr.

Fraas (Neue Jahrbuch f. Mineralogie, 1892, pp. 87-90). Wealready

knew that in the paddles the fleshy part was extended much behind

the bony skeleton ; but the new specimen shows us that, in addition to

the tail-fin, the Ichthyosaurs had a triangular fin on the middle of the

back, behind which was a crest of horny excrescence compared to those

of the crested newt. The tail fin is vertical and nearly symmetrical

1 Ueber das Norian oder Ober-Laurentian von Canada. Stuttgart, 1893.

1893.] Geology and Paleontology. 657

externally, although the backbone runs downward to terminate in its

lower lobe. In this respect the fin has the same general aspect as in

the Sharks, except that in the latter the backbone runs into the upper

lobe. It shows, indeed, as Dr. Fraas remarks, how closely analagous is

the form of Ichthyosaurs to fishes.” (Natural Science Vol. I, 1892.)

New Fossil Fishes from the Upper Lias.—Continuing his

studies of the fossil fish from the Upper Lias of Cement of Vassy of the

Youne, M. Sauvage describes and figures three new species; Leptolepis

afinis Sauvage, L. antissiodorensis Sauvage, and Pholidophorus

gaudryi Sauvage. The first resembles L. constrictus Egerton, but

differs from that species by having the preopercular strongly striated, a

longer body, more numerous vertebre, and the ventral fins further

back. Polidophorus gaudryi is very close to P. bechei Ag. and P. ony-

chius Àg., it has, however, a longer head, and the scales not so elevated :

and less numerous than either of these species. It may be identical

with P. dorsalis Ag., but the description of that species is too meager to

allow full comparison. (Bull. de la Soc. d'Hist. Nat. d'Autun, 1892.)

Affinities of Ichthyornis.—Dr. R. W. Shufeldt has published a

tabular comparison of the anatomical points of Ichthyornis dispar,

Rhynchops nigra and Sterna macrura to show that while in some minor

characters Ichthyornis seems to come nearer the Gulls than it does the

Terns, on the whole it possesses more in common with our now existing

Rhyncopide than with the Sternine. This is most apparent in the

cranium ; in the large skull compared with the rest of the skeleton;

and in certain characters in the vertebral chain and pelvis. (Journ.

Anat. and Physiol. Vol. XXVII.)

Cretaceous Formations of Mexico.—Mr. R. T. Hill has

recently shown that the Mountain Limestone so widely distributed

throughout Mexico is the southern continuation of the Comanche Series

of Texas, and is therefore of Lower Cretaceous age instead of Upper

Cretaceous and Paleozoic, as has been asserted. The author has

recognized the three prominent stratigraphic divisions of the Comanche

Series in Mexico as in Texas, and is confident that when the whole

region is studied more detailed resemblances of horizons will be

observed.

The true Upper Cretaceous is characterized by shallow deposits of

ferruginous limestones, clays, sand and lignite. The beds occur in the

northeastern border States of Chihuahua, Coahuila and Tamaulipas, and

658 The American Naturalist. [July,

are at least 5000 feet thick. The subdivisions of this series are not dis-

tinctly differentiated. The Dakota horizon has no true representative,

but the Benton shales and clays with the typical Inoceramus problem-

aticus and Scaphites occur near Juarez and in El Paso, Texas. The

chalky beds of the Niobrara sub-epoch are missing, and the whole of

the Niobrara. Pierre is apparently represented by thinner ferruginous

clays and impure limestones marked by a commingling of the char-

acteristic fauna and the Exogyra ponderosa of the Southern States. The

Eagle Pass beds, correlated by White with the Fox Hill stage grade

into the Laramie, and the latter into the Eo-Lignitic beds of the South-

ern States, the whole having a unity of littoral lithological features

indicating that the Upper Cretaceous and basal Eocene from the

Dakota to the Claiborne inclusive was a continuous epoch of sedimenta-

tion, without any serious interruption of continuity until toward its

close, and deposited at a marine base level now occupied by the eastern

masses of the Rocky Mountains and eastern Sierra Madre. (Am.

Journ. Sci., Vol. XLV, 1893.)

On a new Musteline from the John Day Miocene.—In strik-

ing contrast to the Tertiary formations of Europe, those of North

America have yielded but very few mustelines. From the White River

beds only the problematical genus, Buncelunus Cope, the systematic

position of which is quite uncertain, has so far been obtained, and the

John Day beds have hitherto yielded no members of the family. For

this reason, even scanty fragments are of importance. Among the

collections of the Princeton expedition of 1889 is a mandibular ramus

containing only p2 and p3, but displaying the alveoli of the other teeth,

which was found in the John Day beds at Silver Wells, Oregon. It is

obvious at the first glance that this jaw cannot be referred to any genus

of carnivores hitherto known from the John Day, and though the

absence of the characteristic teeth renders the framing of a generic

definition very difficult, yet it is possible to so define it as to make

identifieation of other specimens easy. T,

Parietis gen. nov., Dental formula Cr Pz Mz- p2 and 3 small very low,

but relatively thick, massive, obtusely pointed and with a cingulum

around the entire crown ; enamel coarsely wrinkled. Molar alveoli

decreasing in size from 1st to 3rd; m3 implanted by a single fang.

P. princeous sp. nov. Mandible short but thick and; ,heavy, with a larger

mental foramen beneath p2 and a smaller one beneath p3, P1 very small

and inserted by one root. Size small. Length of molar-premolar series :

M.:032. Lengthofpz,:005: Width of p2 003. Length of alveolus of

1893.] Geology and Paleontology. 659

ml ‘007: of m2:005. Depth of jaw beneath p3 010. The character of

the premolars suggest those of Inercytherium, but Parietis was no

creodont, the molar alveoli clearly showing the presence of one sectorial

and two tubercular molars, and the whole appearance of the specimen

is musteline. Of the European genera Stephanodon von Meyer, appears

to be most like Parietis but differs in many particulars, e. g. in having

but two lower molars.—W. B. Scorr, Geological Museum, Princeton,

N. J., May 24, 1893.

The Mammals of the Deep River Beds.—The Tertiary beds

of the Deep River, Montana, were discovered by Grinnell and Dana in

1875. These observers recognized two distinct horizons-in the forma-

tion, which they called respectively “ Miocene” and “ Pliocene,” with-

out attempting a more exact correlation. In 1878, Cope referred the

formation to the base of the Loup Fork, but afterward regarded it as

a distinet epoch (Ticholeptus beds), intermediate between that forma-

tion and the John Day.

The Princeton expedition of 1891 made extensive collections in the

Deep River Valley, and the examination of these has brought to light

some interesting new forms, upon which the following preliminary

notes are founded. A full description, with figures, is in preparation.

The beds contain, as Grinnell and Dana pointed out, two very dis-

tinct faunas, the older one of which is equivalent to the John Day, and

the newer to the “ Ticholeptus beds” of Cope. The lower strata, from

a few very small exposures, yielded numerous specimens of the follow-

ing forms: Cynodesmus thooides gen. et. sp. nov.; Steneofiber montanus

sp. nov.; Canopus sp.; Miohippus annectens? Marsh; M. anceps?

Marsh ; Mesoreodon chelonyz gen. et. sp. nov. ; M. intermedius sp. nov. ;

Poébrotherium sp. ; Hypertragulus calcaratus Cope.

The upper beds, from which alone Professor Cope's collections appear

to have been obtained, contain a very different fauna. The following

list is made from a comparison of Professor Cope’s material with that

gathered by the Princeton party: ? Canis anceps sp. nov.; Chalico-

therium sp.; Aphelops fossiger Cope; Miohippus sp.; Anchitherium

equinum sp. nov.; Desmatippus crenidens gen. et sp. nov.; Protohip-

pus sejunctus Cope; P. (Merychippus) insignis Leidy ; Merychyus zygo-

maticus Cope; M. pariogonus Cope; Merycocherus montanus Cope;

Cyelopidius simus Cope; C. emydinus Cope; C. incisivus sp. nov.;

Pithecistes brevifacies Cope; P. decedens Cope; P. heterodon Cope;

Protolabis sp. ; Procamelus sp.; Blastomeryx borealis Cope; B. anti-

lopinus sp. nov.; Mastodon proavus

660 The American Naturalist. [July,

Cynodesmus gen. nov.—Dentition like the microdont forms of Canis,

but with the skull structure of the more ancient genera. Cerebral

hemispheres small, not overlapping the olfactory lobes or cerebellum,

with fewer and simpler convolutions than any of the recent Canide.

Post-glenoid foramen concealed or absent.

C. thooides sp. nov.—Dentition microdont; deuterocone of ?* rela-

tively large ; face short and cranium long; small frontal sinuses pres-

ent; mandible non-lobate ; size medium.

This genus represents the direct canine ancestor which the John

Day beds have hitherto failed to yield. Found by | O. C. "Ru in

the lower strata.

? Canis anceps sp. nov.—A fragment of mandible containing pı, mi

m2 agrees well with C. brachypus Cope, except for its smaller size id

moreslender jaw. The lower sectorial is nearly as long as in that spe-

cies (as 17 : 19), but the depth of the mandible is much less (as 21 : 30.)

The primitive character of the sectorial renders the generie reference

uncertain. Upper beds.

Steneofiber montanus sp. nov.—This species is most like the S. ( Castor)

peninsulatus Cope from the John Day of Oregon, but the upper molars

(except ™) have but two fossettes, both of which are anterior to the

enamel inflection. In the lower molars the antero-posterior diameter

of the crown exceeds the transverse. Found by C. C. Jefferson in the

lower beds.

The name Anchitherium has been much too extensively applied to

American equines. The following table will show the generic distinc-

tions in the Miocene forms of this group which appear to be justified

by present knowledge.

I. Teeth brachyodont.

A. Conules of upper cheek teeth well-marked; posterior transverse

crest not reaching the outer wall; external cusps moderately con-

cave or flattened; anterior pillar of lower teeth distinctly marked.

1. No cement present.

a. Incisors without enamel pits Mesohippus Marsh.

b. Upper incisors with enamel pits. Miohippus Marsh.

2. Cement on cheek teeth.

Posterior transverse crests of upper teeth confluent with the external

wall. Desmatippus gen. nov.

1893.] Geology and Paleontology. . 661

B. Conules of upper cheek teeth much reduced, and external cusps

deeply concave; posterior transverse crest confluent with outer

wall; anterior pillar of lower teeth reduced and on one or more

teeth absent. No cement; incisors with pits. Anchitherium.

II. Teeth hypsodont.

1. Antero-internal cusp of upper teeth confluent with transverse

crest Protohippus Leidy.

2. Jdféso-Interan] cusp separate from transverse crest.

Hipparion de Christol.

Desmatippus gen. nov.—Molars and premolars short crowned, the

valleys more or less filled with a thin deposit of cement. In the upper

series the posterior transverse crest is connected with the outer walls

and sends forward a process which extends nearly to the anterior

conule. Inner cusps of lower teeth expanded so as to narrow entrances

to the valleys. Median inner cusps (a, a’ of Riitimeyer) much more dis-

tinctly separated than in the older genera.

D. erenidens sp. nov.—Posterior transverse crests of upper cheek

teeth sinuous; limbs elongate and slender ; size moderate.

This interesting new equine very satisfactorily fills the gap between

Miohippus and Protohippus. The type specimen was found by I.

Benet in the upper strata of the Deep River. :

Anchitherium equinum sp. nov.—Size equal to that of A. aurelianense,

but with teeth relatively larger; lower incisors without enamel n

humerus with bicipital tubercle and double bicipital groove.

This is the first American species of Anchitherium in the Sedi

sense in which that name is here employed. It was found by Mr.

Benet in the upper beds.

Mesoreodon gen. nov.—Skull and zem very much as in the John

Day genus Eporeodon but with * adaptive” names, the 3d metacarpal

articulating with the trapezoid and dei the 2d from the magnum.

M. chelonyx sp. nov.—Metapodials rather short and stout, ungual

phalanges trowel-shaped and pointed.

This is the most abundant animal of the lower beds, and nearly all

parts of the skeleton are known. Two very curious features are the

presence of a rudimentary clavicle and of an ossified thyroid cartilage

-of the larynx." The type was found by O. C. Mortson.

M. intermedius.—Metapodials slender and elongate, and ungual

phalanges like those of Merychyus. Lower beds.

Cyclopidius incisivus sp. nov.—Like C. simus, but having two small

incisors in each premaxillary; the latter bones also of a different

662 The American Naturalist. [July,

shape from those of the former species. Found by R. A. Stevenson

in the upper beds.

Blastomeryx antilopinus sp. nov.—8Size decidedly smaller than that of

B. borealis Cope, and ribs of external crescents on upper molars less

prominent. Found by O. C. Mortson in the upper beds.

Besides the new forms here enumerated excellent materials were

found of species already named, including some nearly complete skele-

tons, which will be fully described in the memoir now in preparation.

. Scorr

Geological Museum, Princeton, N. J., June 9,1893.

Conditions of Erosion beneath Deep Glaciers.—Mr. N. S.

Shaler has published a paper on the conditions of Erosion beneath deep

glaciers, based upon a study of the Boulder Train from Iron Hill,

Cumberland, R. I. The author advances an hypothesis of pressure

melting to account for unexplained peculiarities of glacial movement,

such as sudden variations of a temporary nature in the position of the

ice, and the movement of the ice in the direction of the glacial flow over

surfaces of slight inclination. It also accounts for the small amount of

erosion often traceable in the central parts of a glaciated district, and

explains the phenomena exhibited by drumlins or lenticular hills.

(Bull. Harv. Mus. Comp. Zool., Vol. XVI, 1893.)

Paleozoic.—Mr. Whiteaves has published a list of 16 gasteropods

found in the Trenton limestone of Manitoba, of which, one Loxonema

winnipegense, is new. The new species is of interest on account of its

close similarity to some of the most typical Jurassic species of Pseudo-

melania. (Can. Rec. Sci. April, 1893)—A new fungus, Jncolaria

securiformis, is reported by Mr. H. Herzer. It was found under the

bark of a Sigillaria imbedded in the Zoar limestone of Tuscarawas Co.,

Ohio and represents a new genus: (Am. Geol. June, 1893). A new

fern from the Coal Measures of Henry Co., Missouri, is described and

figured by Mr. David White in the Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., 1893 under

then name —M irina; According to the author the new

of tæniopteroid and alethopteroid

eharkoters.

Mesozoic.—Mr. N. H. Darton has defined a thin series of arenace-

deposits lying t between the Potomae and Severn formations, to which .

i y formation. Its stratigraphic position places

poe Cretaceous. (Ann. Journ. Sci. 1893). Mr..P. B. Brodie

1893.] Geology and Paleontology. 663

reports the discovery of fossil fish and labyrinthodonts in the Green

Gritty Marls, immediately overlying the Red Marls of the Upper

Keuper in Warwickshire. The fish are represented by scales, numerous

large and small spines of cestracionts, and the palatal teeth of Acrodus

keuperinus ; the labyrinthodonts, by fragments of bonesonly. (Quart.

Journ. Geol. Soc., May, 1893.)

Cenozoic.—Mr. Lydekker has described and figured three new

Cetaceans:—Zeuglodon caucasicus characterized by its small size;

? Platanistide, represented by an associated series of four cervical, and

the first dorsal, a lumbar, and a caudal vertebra; Iniopsis caucasica,

which has maxillary fossz of the Inia type. The fossils in question

were found in Eocene strata of the Caucasus Mountains. (Proceeds.

London, Zool. Soc., Nov., 1892).—Mr. J. S. Diller has published evi-

dence to show that the Shasta-Chico series in California and Oregon is

the result of continuous sedimentation, and that there is a faunal break

in Oregon between the Chico and the Tejon. (Bull. Geol. Soc. Am.,

Vol., 4, 1893.)

Mr. E. T. Dumble reports a bed of Volcanic Dust in Texas. Its

stratigraphic position is in the brown-coal series of the Fayette beds,

and, if the correlation of these beds be correct, of Miocene age. (Trans.

Texas Acad. Sci, 1892.) _

664 The American Naturalist. [July,

BOTANY.

The Plants of the Bahamas, Jamaica, and Grand Cay-

man.—Professor A. S. Hitchcock’s paper on this subject, which

appeared in the Fourth Annual Report of the Missouri Botanical

Garden, is very interesting, inasmuch as it not only catalogues a large

number of species, but in addition discusses at some length some of the

problems connected with insular floras. The following are some of the

author's conclusions.

“ It would seem to the writer that the ordinary methods of dissem-

ination would account for the flora of the Bahama Islands without

calling in the aid of hypotheses founded on ancient land connection.

There are probably no more endemic species than would be found if

all the islands were at present connected. It seems hardly reasonable

to suppose that Watling’s, Crooked Island or Inagua have ever been

connected with Cuba or any of the other islands, yet the flora of these

have about the same relation to Cuba as do the islands of the Bahama

bank. From the table it will be seen that the flora comes from the

south, that it is essentially Cuban and that this flora has also estab-

lished itself in the extreme southern part of Florida, where it is found

only on the most recent formations. Climatic conditions undoubtedly

prevent any great extension to the north, but most of the plants would

probably extend further north than they do, were they not brought

into competition with an established flora. On the other hand very

few plants from the Southern States have found their way to the

Bahamas, and those that have are mostly such as are of wide dis-

tribution in the Tropics and hence just as probably came from the

south as from Florida.

* Again, the facilities for distribution, the ocean currents and the

prevailing winds, are from the south to the north. The Gulf Stream

not only tends to bring plants from the south but quite effectually pre-

vents any from drifting from Florida to the Bahamas. The current is so

strong that the occasional northers would be more than counteracted,

whilethe easterly winds are favored. What is true of the Gulf Stream

to the west of the Bahamas is also true of the Equatorial Current to

the east. Distribution by birds is apparently of little importance or

we should find more plants with pulpy fruits brought from Florida.

Maritime plants are easily distributed by currents as their seeds are

. mot injured by the salt water, and furthermore, as stated by Hemsley

1893. ; Botany. 665

and Wallace, when cast ashore they find a suitable place for germina-

tion, while many other seeds although transported fail to be placed in

a favorable situation. I collected several beans of Gigalobium scan-

dens on various beaches, but the plant had not gained a foot-hold as

its habitat is the dense woods of the larger islands. But the bulk of

the flora of the Bahamas is either maritime or such as would, under

favorable conditions, be likely to pass through the salt water ordeal

successfully. The islands are all low and probably most of the species

are found within the influence of the sea.”

The Saprolegniacez of the United States.—The monograph

of the Saprolegniacee of the United States, prepared by Dr. J. E.

Humphrey, and published by the American Philosophical Society, is a

notable contribution to the botany of the lower plants. It occupies

eighty-six quarto pages of text, and is illustrated by seven large plates.

The author first discusses the group in general, giving much attention

to the non-sexual and sexual reproduction, and bringing out many

interesting facts. He confirms the statement of DeBary and others

that the so-called sexual reproductive organs are Mord sex-

ual, though not physiologically so im all cases.

The second part of the paper is occupied with descriptions of the

genera and species. Seven genera are known to occur within our limits,

viz: Saprolegnia, with seven species; Pythiopsis, with one species;

Achlya, with eight species; Aphanomyces, with two species; Dictyu-

chus, with onespecies; Leptomitus, with one species; Apodachlya, with

one species. A number of other species are described, of which as yet

no specimens have been found in the United States. A bibliography

of 110 titles is given, of which but five areby American authors. The

plates add much to the usefulness of the paper, and should make the

study of these much less difficult than heretofore.

Dr. Humphrey recommends the following method .of cultivating

these plants. “The most prolific source of supply is water containing

green algs, and the best subsistance is afforded by insects, such as

' common house-flies or meal-worms. For material, a handful of algæ

may be taken from the stream, pond or pool in which they are growing

and placed ina collecting bottle or other vessel, which will protect

them from drying. In the laboratory, these are placed in a vessel of

water from the public or private water supply, and the culture insects

are thrown upon its surface. This collection of a mass of alge with-

out water, except that retained by the mass, reduces the bulk of speci-

mens, which is of importance when they are taken at a distance from

666 The American Naturalist. [July,

the laboratory, and largely excludes aquatic organisms which might

make trouble in the cultures; while experience shows that the zoó-

spores and oóspores of the Saprolegniacec are carried with the algz to

a large extent. * * * The insects used may be freshly killed, and

their chitonous covering should be broken as little as possible; but I

have found that for winter cultures, when fresh insects are not readily

available, an excellent substitute may be found in dead house-flies,

collected in the fall and kept dry and exposed to the air, but protected

from dust. Since the dry surfaces of insects are not readily wetted by

water, it has proved useful to moisten them, whether fresh or dried,

with aleohol, and then soak them in water for a few minutes to

remove the alcohol. They will then, when thrown into the culture

vessel, sink until their bodies are mostly below the surface, and so pre-

sent a much larger area to the swimming zodspores of Saprolegniacee

than if dry and floating largely above the surface."

The publication of this paper will certainly stimulate the more gen-

eral study of these interesting aquatic fungi.

CHARLES E. BESSEY.

1893.] Zoology. 667

ZOOLOGY.

A Deformity Inherited.—An account is given in a medical

journal by Dr. M. L. Holbrook of a case of deformity transmitted

through three generations to both sexes. It appeared first in a

person named M. B. Wadsworth, born in Connecticut about the

year 1800. It consisted in the absence of the three middle meta-

carpal bones and phalanges of each hand, and also the absence of the

three middle corresponding bones, the metatarsal and phalanges of each

foot, together, of course, with the absence of the toes and fingers and

that part of the foot and hand belonging to these bones. The remain-

ing parts lay nearly side by side like fingers, and the movement was

partly from side-to side like claws, rather than a grasping movement,

like that of a perfect hand. This man was very able bodied, and

worked at farming and laying stone wall, and lived to be about sixty

years of age. He married, moved to Ohio and being a neighbor of my

parents, I knew him well. He had !two children, S. and W. with

whom I was intimate, and both inherited the deformity. In the oldest

one, however, there seemed to be an attempt on the part of nature to

restore the missing parts by producing one double finger on each hand,

and a foot partly restored, but the restoration was so imperfect as to

really make the deformity worse. This son died in early manhood

and left no family. The second son, W., was nearly like the father in

both handsand feet. He is still living, married, and has had four child-

ren. The first is a man, grown and is not deformed. The second, a

girl, now about eighteen years old, is as bad as the father. The

third, a son, not deformed. The fourth, a daughter, now dead, was

like her father. :

As to tbe cause ofthis strange deformity we have no absolute knowl-

edge. One story current in the family is that the mother of the

original ease was frightened at a lobster before the child was born.

There is another family belief concerning the cause that is worth relat-

ing. It is that the mother received a severe nervous shock from a

vicious horse, whieh had chased her with open mouth and tried to get

hold of her with his teeth after she had taken refuge under a wagon.

'The mental shock may have produced an arrest of development in the

unborn child. (Herald of Health, Oct., 1892).

668 The American Naturalist. [July,

Preliminary Note on the Relationship of the Species

Usually United under the Generic Name Sebastodes.—-On the

Pacific coast of temperate North America, a large number of species

of viviparous Scorpaenidae are found. They range all the way from

tide water to a depth of 1600 feet, from Cerros Island to Alaska.

They are most abundant on the coast of California, about 30 species

being known from San Diego and a like number from Monterey. In

size, they vary from 1 lb. to 30 lbs.

The species have been variously grouped as forming one genus by

Jordan & Gilbert, as forming two by Jordan, and as forming four

by Gill. Jordan & Gilbert, in their Synopsis, arranged the species

known to them according to the greater or less prominence of the

spiniferous ridges of the skull. In examining theskulls ofa number of

them, one of us several years ago, noticed that in a number of species,

the parietals meet over the supra-occipitals, while in others they are

separated, and the supra-occipital is exposed above for its whole

length.

A more recent examination of a larger series of skulls, tended to

show that, if we admit the relationships pointed out by Jordan & Gil-

bert, this greater or less development of the parietals is of no signifi-

cance. A more thorough study has, however, convinced us that the

ies with united parietals are related and that the relationships

pointed out by Jordan & Gilbert are at fault.

The value placed on such acranial character as the union or non-

union of the parietals need not be defended here. It may only be

mentioned that in mystinus which for other reasons we considered the

hub to which the other groups proposed here are related as spokes, the

parietals are united in 8 out of 10 specimens. The variation of this

character in mystinus but confirmed our view that it is the radiating

point.

Leaving the parietals, the next prominent characters are the devel-

opment or non-development of certain cranial spines and ridges.

‘These spines are found in all stages from minute points to compara-

tively huge spines. The variation in size for this reason, if there were

‘no other objections, cannot be utilized for determining generic relation-

ship. The spines are very regularly arranged and in any given spe-

cies certain ones are always present. (Individual variations should of

course be expected in this character as in every other if a sufficient

‘number of specimens are examined). The constancy of the presence

of certain spines in a given species warrants the use of the presence or

absence of these spines in the different species in determining their

1893.] Zoology. 669

true-relationship. This relationship is usually borne out by a number

of subsidiary characters. Considering the constancy of the spines,

reinforced by subsidiary characters, we have divided the species

usually united under the generic name Sebastodes as follows :—

a. Parietals meeting above the supra-occipital.

b. Jawsequal; head narrow above ; high and prominent cranial

ridges ending in spines ; preocular, supraocular, tympanic and

parietals present. Scales usually very strongly ctenoid ; access-

ory scales numerous ; suborbital stay directed obliquely down-

ward and backward; second anal spine much heavier than,

and atleast as long as the third; body short and deep, back

arched ; mouth very large; head heavy. All known species

with cross bands.

SEBAsTICHTHYS Gill,

nigrocinctus, serriceps, rubrivinctus, diploproa.*

bb. Lower jaw much projecting; head broad, the skull usually

convex ; cranial ridges when present low; gill-rakers very

long and slender; scales usually smooth, few if any accessory

scales. Suborbital stay little if at all oblique.

c. Parietal ridges ending in spines; preocular, supraocular and

tympanic spines well developed. Peritoneum black.

d. Postocular spine present. Second anal spine usually stronger

and longer than third. Symphyseal knob strong, projecting

forward. Dorsal low. (Peritoneum black, mandibles and

maxillary scaled.)

. Acutomentum' E & B.

YType 4. ovalis (Ayres).

melanostomus, ovalis, rufus, Falutus, Fiordi n. sp. nov.—

S. proriger E. & G. not of J. & G.

dd. Postocular spine not developed.

We have not been able to examine the two species (entomelas

and atrovirens) and cannot vouch for their position.

cc. Parietal ridges not ending in spines.

e. Preocular spines well developed. Supraocular and tympanic

inter-opercle frequently ending in spines. PRIMosPINA' E.

B. f nl

2Type P. mystinus (J. & G).

The only species (mystinus) is the most variable species of

the group.

670 The American Naturalist. [July,

ee. Preocular without spine, skull smooth, without spines.

Peritoneum usually white

SrEBAsTOsOMUS Gill.

flavidus, serranoides, melanops, *ciliatus.

aa. Parietals separated by the supra-occipital.

f. Cranium with parietal ridges only. Lower jaw much project-

ing, entering the profile; a prominent symphyseal knob

directed forward. Head broad, convex. Interobital con-

vex, nearly smooth.

SEBASTODES Gill.

paucispinis, goodei.

* Species marked with an asterisk have not been examined in refer-

ence to the characters utilized.

ff. Cranium with many ridges, all ending in spines.

g. Postocular and tympanic spines both present. Interopercle

and subopercle without spines. Lower pectoral rays nor-

mal.

h. Coronal spines; nuchal vm a spine below, another in

front of eye. matzubarae with this species we

are not acquainted.

hh. No coronal spines SEBAsTOMUS Gill.

miniatus, pinniger, levis, aereus*, constellatus, umbrosus*, rosaceus,

rhodochloris*, gilli*, rupestris*, eos, chlorostietus*, ruber* ru

gg. Postocular spine wanting.

i. Coronal spines none.

Preropopus E. & B.

Species with normal pectoral rays, (living off the bottom)

saxicola*, proriger[*, brevispinis*, elongatus, sinensis.

Species with lower pectoral rays thick (living on the bottom)

zacentrus*, maliger, caurinus, vexillaris, rastrelliger, nebulo-

sus, carnatus, chrysomelas.

ii. Coronal spines present.

AvcTOsPINA E. & B.?

aurora*, auriculatus.

+ The specimen described by E. & E., Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci. (2) III,

15, 1890, is a species distinct from proriger.

The inter-relationship of these genera is complex. It may be repre-

sented by the following diagram where the genera with the united

parietals are followed by an asterisk.

YType P. maliger (J. & G).

2Type 4. auriculatus (Girard).

1893.] Zoology. 671

Auctospina

Sebastichthys* Pteropodus Sebastomus

"d N

Sebastodes

Acutomentum* Sebastosomus*

Primospina* —

A revision of the Pacific Scorpaenide will be included in my

“Viviparous fishes of the Pacific Coast. "—C. H. EIGENMANN and C.

H. BEESON.

Batrachians of British India.—The total number of Batrachians

known at the present time from British India, including the Malay

peninsula, comprises 147 species; of these, the Indian Museum pos-

sesses specimens of 103 distributed as follows; Ecaudata 99, Caudata

1, Apoda 3. (Sclater's List of Batrachians of the Indian Museum,

1892).

Washington and British Columbian Orinthology.—A

resumé of the birds observed in British Columbia and Washington

during the spring and summer 1892, is given by Mr.S. N. Rhoads in

the Proceeds. Phila. Acad., 1893. "To the combined lists of Mr. Chap-

man and Mr. Fannin, the author adds 21 species that came under his

own observation, making the list of species now known from that

region number 326. Descriptions of 11 new species observed appear

in the Auk for January, 1893. Four specimens of a new variety

of Parus hudsonicus were obtained in British Columbia, near Field.

The new form, P. hudsonicus columbianus, is larger and darker than

hudsonicus, with a much larger bill, and with the throat patch jet

black instead of brownish-black.

Zoological News. Hemichorda.—Prof W. E. Ritter pre-

sents in Zoe’ a. popular study of Balanoglossus in which few new facts.

concerning the larvz are brought out. Professor Ritter puts in a

request for evidence ofthe existence of Balanoglossus on the Pacific

coast.

3Zoe iii, 187, 1892.

672 The American Naturalist. [July,

Fishes.—Evermann has revised* the North American Suckers of

the genus Pantosteus and recognizes the species plebeius, virescens,

generosus, discobolus and a new species jordani from the upper

Missouri Basin.

Reptiles and Batrachia.— Cope catalogues? eight species of Batra-

chia, 5 of turtles, 8 of lizards and 13 of snakes collected in northwest-

ern Texas. The region appearsto beinteresting as the meeting ground

for several geographical districts. The absence of Sceleporus from the

collections is due to the absence of timber.

Davenport records the persistence? of the right root of the subverte-

bral artery in an alligator 28 cm. long, and figures two cases of the

persistence of the ductus botalli in the same animal.

Mammalia.—At a meeting of the London Zoological Society, M.

Tegetmeier exhibited the feet of some Australian rabbits to show an

adaptation which is gradually being brought about to a new mode of

locomotion. The rabbits are becoming climbers, and often ascend

trees in their search for food; their feet are growing slighter and the

. claws longer and sharper. (Revue Scientifique, Mar. 1893.)—Mr. G.

S. Miller reports that Zapus insignis, hitherto known only from New

Brunswick and Nova Scotia, is locally common in the eastern United

States. As the original description was based on three specimens faded

by grease and age, he redescribes the species in the Proceeds. Biol.

Soc. Washington, April, 1893.

Notes on the Classification of the Cryptodira.—In the June

number of the AMERICAN NATURALIST, 1890, I have given a classifi-

cation of the Testudinata, distinguishing four sub-orders— A mphichely-

dia, Pleurodira, Cryptodira, Trionychia.

To-day I shall give a more detailed classification of the living forms

of the Testudinata belonging to the Cry ptodira.

CRYPTODIRA.

No free nasals, a parieto-squamosal arch present or absent; descend-

ing processes of prefrontals connected with vomer; stapes in an open

groove, of the quadrate or covered by the quadrate behind ; pterygoids

narrow in the middle, without wing-like lateral expansions, separating

*Bull. U. S. Fish Comm. 1892, p. 51, 1893.

5Proc. Phila. Acad. 1892, p. 331.

Bull. Mus. Comp. Zoology xxiv, no. 2, 1893.

1893.] Zoology. 673

quadrate and basisphenoid; epipterygoid free or not free; dentary

bones united. Cervical vertebra with rudimentary transverse processes

in front of vertebra ; the posterior cervicals with double articular faces ;

sacral ribs well-developed and connected with centrum and neuroids.

Pelvis free from plastron and carapace. Epiplastra in contact with

hyoplastra ; entoplastron oval, rhomboidal or T-shaped, a more or less

complete series of peripheralia more or less connected with the ribs.

I.—CHELONIOIDEA.

A parieto-squamosal arch; no foramen palatinum between palate

and maxillary ; articular faces between the sixth and seventh cervical

plane ;-nuchal with a distinct process on the lower side for the articu-

lation with the neuroid of the eighth cervical; no lateral processes of

nuchal. One biconvex cervical vertebra.

1. Cheloniide.

Skull with. descending processes of parietals; limbs paddle-shaped ;

claws one or two. Chelonia, Thalassochelys, Caretta, Lepidochelys.

2. Dermochelyide.

Skull without descending processes of parietals; limbs paddle-

shaped; no claws. Bony carapace dissolved into numerous mosaic-like

pieces. Dermochelys.

II. —CHELYDROIDEA.

No parieto-squamosal arch; a foramen palatinum between palate

and maxillary ; articular faces between the sixth and seventh cervicals

not plane; nuchal without lower process, but with more or less strong

lateral process underlying the peripherals; one biconvex cervical; a

. complete series of inframarginals.’

1. Dermatemydide.

Frontals not excluded from orbit; maxillary without connection

with quadratojugal; squamosal without connection with postfronto-

orbital ; mesogastroid well-developed, separating completely entopubes

and entoischia; number of peripherals 11; an entoplastron. Number

of neuralia incomplete; the posterior pleurals not meeting in median

line. Dermatemys. — - ;

2. Chelydride.

Frontals exeluded from orbit; maxillary without connection with

quadratojugal ; squamosal in connection with postfronto-orbital; meso-

1 Some species of Kinosternon excepted.

674 The American Naturalist. [July,

gastroid well-developed, separating completely entopubes and entois-

chia; number of peripherals 11; an entoplastron. Number of neuralia

complete; posterior pleurals meeting in median line. Chelydra,

Macrochelys.

3. Staurotypidæ.

Frontals excluded from orbit; maxillary in connection with quad-

ratojugal; squamosal without connection with postfronto-orbital ;

mesogastroid well-developed; separating completely entopubes and

entoischia; number of peripherals 10; an entoplastron ; number of

neuralia incomplete; | potete pleurals meeting on median line.

Staurotypus, Claudi ;

4. Kinosternide.

Frontals excluded from orbit; maxillary in connection with quad-

ratojugal ; squamosal without connection with postfronto-orbital ; meso-

gastroid reduced ; number of peripherals 10; no entoplastron; num-

ber of neuralia incomplete; posterior pleurals meeting on median

line. Kinosternon, Aromochelys, Goniochelys.

III.—PLATYSTERNOIDEA.

No parieto-squamosal arch; a foramen palatinum between palate

and maxillary; articular faces between sixth and seventh cervical not

plane; nuchal without lower and without a lateral pr

biconvex cervicals; a complete series of inframarginals, Skull of

the type of the Chelydroideae.

Platysternide.

Frontals excluded from orbit; maxillary in connection with quad-

ratojugal ; jugal excluded from orbit; squamosal connected with post-

fronto-orbital ; mesogastroid well-developed, separating completely ento-

pubes and entoischia; number of peripherals 11; an entoplastron ;

number of neuralia complete. Platysternum.

1 In Claudius the puro one aids is exceedingly slender; the parietal sends down

a process behind the p ital to join the jugal. The zygomatic arch is also

very slender, but three times asbroad as the postorbital; the interorbital arch is one

and a half times the diameter of the orbit. The lower jaw is strongly hooked, with

the symphysis larger than the diameter of orbit. Upper jaw with a small but distinct

hook, each maxillary with a very sharp lateral hook. Lower side of skull as in

Kinosternon ; palate not forming a part of the alveolar surface, the posterior nares not

bridged over by palate and vomer as in Staurotypus. Pterygoids without any eéto-

pterygoid process.

1893.] Zoology. 675

IV.—TESTUDINOIDEA,

No parietosquamosal arch; a foramen palatinum between palate

and maxillary ; articular faces between sixth and seventh cervical not

plane; nuchal without lower process; two biconvex cervicals; an

incomplete series of inframarginals; squamosal not connected with

postfronto-orbital.

Emydide.

Quadrate open behind; number of phalanges of second and third

toe of hind foot more than two; peripherals of bridge without median

processes interlocking with rib-ends; rib-ends in a groove of the peri-

pherals.

Testudinide.

Quadrate closed behind ; number of phalanges of second and third

toe of hind foot never more than two; peripherals of bridge with med-

ian processes interlocking with rib-ends.

—G. Baur, University of Chicago.

Two New Species of North American Testudinata.—

The following species of Graptemys have been described :

1. Graptemys geographica, Les. 1817.

2. Graptemys pseudogeographica (Les. MSS.), Holbrook, 1842.

3. Graptemys oculifera, Baur, 1890. Science, No. 405, pp. 262-263.

4. Graptemys kohnii, Baur, 1890. 1. c.

GRAPTEMYS PULCHRA Spec. nov.

For some years I have been acquainted with two specimens of a

Graptemys preserved at the Smithsonian Institution. Both specimens

were collected by Dr. T. H. Bean in Montgomery, Ala., and bear the

number 8808. One of these is mentioned in Yarrow's Catalogue

(Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus., No. 24, 1883), as “Malacoclemmys geograp hicus."

In 1891 I received a skull and a very large living specimen from Mr.

G. Kohn, of New Orleans, La., of the same species.

The coloration of the skull and neck distinguishes this species at

once from all the others. The whole space between and behind the

orbits is characterized by a continuous yellow figure, which sends

backward on each side behind each orbit a strong process of the same

color.

The head resembles that of Graptemys kohnii, but is more slender.

The symphysis of the lower jaw is longer and the nose projecting. In

all the skulls examined the jugal is excluded from the orbit, a charac-

676 The American Naturalist. [July,

ter not seen in the other species of Graptemys or Malaelentmys. The

form of the carapace is very close to Graptemys kohnii; the dermal

shields are very thin. It is the largest form of Graptemys, the shell

reaching a length of over 170 mm. in straight line. The color of the

shell is light olive with yellow marks on the marginals, the plastron is

yellow, with some darker marks. Types: No. 8808. Smithsonian

Institution, Washington, D. C. Two not full-grown specimens, col-

lected by Dr. T. H. Bean at Montgomery, Ala.

The genus Malaclemys, with the single species M. centrata (Bosc.

MSS.) Latreille, 1801, is distinguished from Graptemys by the lower

jaw, which is pointed and not rounded in front, and also by the condi-

tion of the quadratojugal and maxillary. In Ma/aelemys the quadra-

tojugal is extensively united with the maxillary; in Graptemys these

elements are separated by the quadratojugal. The peculiar character of

the jugal in Graptemys pulehra may perhaps justify the creation of a

new genus for this species. I have given to the common “ Diamond-

back” the name Malaclemmys centrata (Bosc. MSS.) Latreille, 1801.

"The name M. terrapin Schoepff, 1793, cannot be used. The same

name (Testudo terrapen) was given by Bonnaterre in 1789 to the

Trachemys rugosa Shaw, 1802, of Jamaica. Already in the year 1788,

however, Gmelin introduced the name Testudo palustris for the Jamaica

tortoise; I therefore use the name Trachemys palustris Gmelin for the

Jamaica tortoise, and that of Malacienmys centrata (Bose. MSS.)

‘Latreille for the “ Diamond-back.”

KINOSTERNON LOUISIANZ spec. nov.

Shell much like K. pensilvanicum, but more elongated. Skull differ-

ent; the lateral hook in the middle of the maxillary very much

- developed and very sharp; median hook on symphysis not so strong;

postorbital arch stronger than in K. pensilvanicum. Lower jaw very

strong, ending in a sharp point; symphysis of lower jaw larger than

vertical diameter of orbit. A yellow-orange stripe from snout over

"upper part of orbit along neck, one from the angle of the mouth.

Four barbels, two just behind the symphysis near together and two

farther behind more separated. Limbs and neck olive gray; a few

yellow spots on top ofthe posterior part of head ; webs more developed

than in K. pensilvanicum. Lower jaw with greyish-yellow dots and.

lines. The whole coloration is very much like that in Aromochelys

tristyeha Ag., which is found together with K. louisiana. seen from

. Above these two animals resemble each other very much. They belong

to different genera, but have about the same specific characters.

1893.] : Zoology. 671

I have received many specimens of this species through the kindness

of Mr. Gustave Kohn, of New Orleans, La. This species is the repre-

sentative of K. pensilvanicum in Louisiana. I have never received a

specimen of K. pensilvanicum from this locality, and. believe that all

the specimens which have been described as K. pensilvanicum from

this State belong to K. louisiane. Type specimen, No. 15527, Smith-

sonian Institution, from New Orleans, La.

—G. Baur, University of Chicago.

Further Notes on American Box-Tortoises.—In Science, of

April 3, 1891 (Vol. XVII, No. 426), I have given the osteological

characters of three of the American Box-Tortoises: Terrapene major

Ag., T. carolina L., and T. ornata Ag.

Through the kindness of Mr. Gustave Kohn, of New Orleans, La.,

I have received lately three living specimens of T. triunguis Ag. ( C.

€inosternoides Gray; Boul.) Besides I have received a specimen of T.

mexicana Gray, for which I have to thank Dr. A. L. Herrera, Director

of the National Museum, Mexico. Both these forms proved to be very

interesting. I give now osteological phatautets of all the forms of

Terrapene.

TERRAPENE MAJOR AG., 1857.

Quadratojugal well-developed, forming a complete zygomatic arch ;

cervicals long; upper branch of scapula considerably longer than

inner branch (endo-scapula); digits with well-developed webs.

Number of phalanges in fore-foot, 2 3 3 3 2; in hind foot, 2 3 3 3 2.

Southern States. Locality of type, Mobile, Ala.

TERRAPENE CAROLINA L., 1766.

Quadratojugal rudimentary, only connected with quadrate ; cervicals

shorter than in T. major Ag.; upper branch of scapula somewhat

longer than inner branch (endo-scapula), put not so long as in T.

major ; digits slightly webbed.

Number of phalanges in fore-foot, 2 3 3 3 2 or 2 3 3 2 2; in hind

foot 2 3 3 3 2.

Eastern States to Indiana.

TERRAPENE MEXICANA GRAY, 1849 ( Onychotria).

Quadratojugal rudimentary, only connected with quadrate ; cervi-

cals probably as in T. major; upper branch of scapula as in T. major.

No web between the digits and only three claws in the hind foot.

Number of phalanges in fore-foot, 2 3 3 2 2; in hind foot, 2 33 3 1.

Mexico. :

678 The American Naturalist, [July,

This species is readily distinct from T. triunguis by its oval tectiform

carapace. The additional vertebral shield between the fourth and fifth,

seen in both the British Museum specimens, is present also in the specimen

received from Dr. Herrera. ,

TERRAPENE TRIUNGUIS AG., 1857.

Syn. Emys kinosternoides Gray.

Quadratojugal rudimentary, only connected with quadrate; cervi-

cals somewhat shorter than in T. major ; scapula asin T. major ; no web

- between the digits, and only three claws in the hind foot. Shell as in

T. carolina L.

Number of phalanges in fore-foot, 23 3 220r 23 32 1 ; in hind

foot, 2 3 3 2 1.

Louisiana, Arkansas, Indian Territory, Mississippi, Georgia.

TERRAPENE ORNATA AG., 1857.

` Quadratojugal absent; cervicals very short; upper branch of

scapula of the same length as inner branch (endo-scapula); digits

without distinct web.

Number of phalanges of fore-limb, 2 2 2 2 2; of hind limb, 23331,

Central States. Type from Upper Missouri, Iowa.

—G. Baur, University of Chicago.

1893.] Entomology. 679

ENTOMOLOGY.

Spiders collected in New Mexico and Arizona.—Among

some spiders sent to Professor G. W. Peckham, of Milwaukee, a year

or two ago, the following species of Attidæ was found.

. Habrocestum hirsutum Peckham. This species was originally

described from Oregon. The specimens sent were collected at Las

Cruces, New Mexico.

Professor Peckham wrote that there were several other species of

Attidæ in the sending, but that they were immature and could not be

determined.

Some spiders sent to Dr. Geo. Marx, about the same time, were

identified by him as follows. They were all collected at Las Cruces.

Pholcus n. sp. A very interesting one.

Lathrodectus n. sp.

Filistata capitata Hentz.

Ocyale n. sp.

Misumena rosea Keys.

Scytodes thoracica Latr.

Hamataliva grisea Keys.

Loxosceles unicolor Keys.

Dictyna sedentaria Keys.

Dr. Marx wrote that the last five species were of much interest, and

mostly very rare.

Recently a lot of spiders was sent to Mr. Nathan Banks, including

all that had been collected since the above sendings, both in New Mex-

ico and Arizona. He has reported on them as follows.

The following are from north-eastern Arizona: `

Tetragnatha laboriosa Hentz. ¢ and

Steatoda corollata Linn.

Misumena vatia Clerck. 9 and young.

Olios giganteus Keys. ung.

Pardosa n.sp. 9.

Phidippus sp.? Young 9. Mr. Banks writes that “this is probably

arizonensis Peck., but the 9 has not been described."

Dendryphantes retarius Hentz. 9.

Dendryphantes octavus Hentz. ¢ and 9.

1 Edited by Dr. C. M. Weed, New Hampskire College, Hanover, N, H.

680 The American Naturalist. [July,

Dendryphantes sp. prob. new. 9. Mr. Banks writes that “this is

near octavus Hentz, and may be only a variety, but cannot decide with-

out the 4."

Eris barbipes Peck. Mr. Banks writes that this species “has not

been recorded from the United States. It was described from Mexico."

The following are from southern New Mexico, mostly near Las

Cruces :

Thanatus coloradensis Keys. 4 and 9.

Lathrodectus mactans Koch. Young.

Steatoda corollata Linn. 4 and Young.

Pholeusn.sp. ¢ and young.

Filistata capitata Hentz. ¢.

Epeira trivittata Keys. 4 and 9.

Trochosa sp.? Young.

Marptusa californica Peck. Tu

Astia sp.? Young.

Eurypelma steindachneri Auss. ĉ.

Ariope riparia Hentz. 9.

Lycosa n. sp. 4. This specimen was collected in the Organ

Mountains. It is in all probability the same as the common form here,

which is called the “ tarantula.”

A solpugid, found in southern New Mexico, was also included in the

sending to Mr. Banks, and was determined by him as Datames

pallipes Say. |

'. Mr. Banks, in conclusion, writes as follows concerning this fauna:

* Your fauna seems to have a Colorado tinge, with forms from Cali-

fornia and the Gulf States. A number of the species run across from

"Texas to southern California."

The above list makes a showing of twenty-five species of Araneina

from the south-western region, which, though small, is a material con-

tribution to the knowledge of this fauna.—C. H. TYLER TOWNSEND.

Lepidopterous gall on Bigelovia.—On June 21, 1892, elongate

flower-bud like galls were found on Bigelovia graveolens, near Galls

Spring, New Mexico. Several which were opened on that date showed

within what appear to be lepidopterouslarvs. The latter were reddish

in color, somewhat the color of codling moth lary. More galls were

found, June 22, west of Apache Spring, New Mexico. One of these

which was opened showed two very small larve within. _

Gall. Length 19 mm.; greatest width, 5 mm. Resembling an

elongate flower-bud in:shape and appearance, elongate pyriform with a

1893.] Entomology. 681

stem-like portion about as long as the body of the gall, the whole

appearing to be formed of a widened leaf or large stipule of the plant

-with the edges meeting and grown together, forming an elongate cavity

inside, the basal stem portion narrow and more or less cylindrical, gradu-

.ally thickening at body which is swollen. Stem clothed with fine w hite

wooly fibers on the outside, the body light greenish and not so thickly

wooly. Several narrowed and elongate leaves of the plant are grown

to the outside of the body, springing from the stem and running longitu-

dinally to tip of gall. These apparently reveal the mode of formation

of the gall, which is, if I am not mistaken, formed of a number of the

elongate leaves of the plant grown together, the edge of one to the edge

of the next. The stem portion is not hollow but solid. The larvæ live

in the hollow body of the gall.

Described from one specimen. The larva which was found within

this gall shows no traces of thoracic or other legs, but possesses a large

and distinct head with strong jaws. I infer that it is lepidopterous.—

C. H. TYLER TOWNSEND.

North American Locusts.—Mr. Lawrence Bruner publishes?

a valuable paper on “ The More Destructive Locusts of America North

of Mexico.” A considerable number of species are treated of, full

“descriptions being given together with notes on preventive measures.

Many new illustrations appear, four of which are reproduced on the

accompanying plate, where a represents Acridium frontalis from

Kansas; b. Dendrottettix longipennis, the “ Post-oak Locust” of Texas

c. Melanoplus robustus also of Texas; and d, the large green Bush-

locust (Acridium shoshone) which occurs in many of the Southwestern

States.

Entomological Notes.—The sixteenth of the admirable series of

Reports of Observations of Injurious Insects by Miss Eleanor A.

Ormerod of England has recently appeared. Its most distinctive

feature in the way of illustrations consists of a number of plates, from

photographs, of injuries to turnips and cabbages caused by eel-worms

and slime fungi.

Mr. H. F. Wickham is spending the summer collecting insects and

other specimens in the region of the West Indies. He is with a party

from the Iowa State Universi

Dr. A. S. Packard has recently published: two important papers on

Heterocera. One deals with “ The life-histories of certain moths of the

2 U. S. Dept. Ag., Div. Ent. Bull., No. 28.

682 The American Naturalist. [July,

family Cochliopodide, with notes on their spines and tubercles"? and

the other records the author’s “ Studies on the transformations of Moths

of the family Saturniidze*”. In both papers the armature of the cater-

pillars is carefully described, and many figures are given.

Professor C. H. T. Townsend formerly of the New Mexico Agricult-

ural College announces that after June 1, 1893 his address will be:

C. H. Tyler Townsend, Curator of Museum, Institute of Jamaica,

Kingston, West Indies.

Mr. James Fletcher has favored us with a copy of his “ Evidence

before the standing Committee of the House of Commons on Agricult-

ure and Colonization” for the session of 1892. — It is a careful discus-

sion of the economic value of entomological study.

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

Boston Society of Natural History.—May 17.—The following

paper was read: Dr. Clarence J. Blake—Out of Darkness into Light ;

or The Education of a Blind Deaf-Mute.

—SAMUEL HENSHAW, Secretary.

The Biological Society of Washington.—May 20:—The fol-

lowing communications were read: Dr. V. A. Moore—The Distribu-

tion of Pathogenic Bacteria in the Upper Air Passages of Domestica-

ted Animals; Professor C. V. Riley—Some Further Notes on Yucca

Pollination ; Professor B. W. Evermann—The Ichthyologic Features

of the Black Hills; Dr. W. H. Dall—New Forms of Fossils from the

Old Miocene of the Gulf States; Dr. C. Hart Merriam—Biology in

our Colleges; Dr. C. Hart Merriam—Facts of General Biological

Interest Resulting from a Study of the Kangaroo Rats.

FREDERICK V. COVILLE, Secretary.

Anthropological Society of Washington.—May 9.—The fol-

lowing papers were read: Common Errors in Regard to Indian Lang-

uage, Mr. J. N. B. Hewitt; Primitive Belief in a Future State: a

Comparative Study, Mr. H. E. Warner; The Pivot Point in Modern

History: Andrew Palaeologus at Barcelona, Col. F. A. Seely ; Fourth

Centenary of the Discovery of America, at Madrid, 1892, Dr. Thomas

Wilson.— Weston Fix, Secretary.

3 Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc. v. XX XI, pp. 83-108.

*Proc. Am. Acad. Arts and Sciences, 1893, pp. 55-92.

1893.] Scientific News. 683

The Agassiz Scientific Society of Oregon met Wednesday,

May 10, at 8 P. m., in the Botanical Laboratory of the Agricultural

College. The principal paper of the evening was by Professor

Dumont Lotz on * Food Adulterants."—F. L. WASHBURN, Sec.

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

—Tue entire Leidy collection of Parasites, property of the Biologi-

eal Department, University of Pennsylvania, has been placed in the

hands of Dr. C. W. Stiles for revision. Dr. Stiles intends to publish a

descriptive catalogue of this collection, together with a descriptive cata-

logue of eight other collections now in his possession.

—TueE Smithsonian Institution has taken an American table at the

Naples Station for three years. Dr. Stiles will publish the correspond-

ence between Secretary Langley and himself relating to the table, in

the form of a report to the signers of the memorial presented to the

Institution, in a later number of the NATURALIST.

THE next meeting of the Australian Association for the Advance-

ment of Science will be held in Adelaide, South Australia, commencing

on September 25, 1893.

The Association has now been in existence since 1888. Four meet-

ings have been held, viz :—

In September, 1888, at Sydney—President, H. C. Russell, C. M. G.,

B. A., F. R. S., Government Astronomer, N.S.

In January, 1890, at Melbourne—President, Baie F. von Mueller,

K. C. M.G, Ph.D., F: B.S.

In January, 1891, at Christchurch—President, Sir James Hector,

E.C M. G, M.D, M. D, F. R. S.

In January, 1892, Hobart—President, His Excellency, Sir Robert

Hamilton, K. C. B.

The meeting in Adelaide will be presided over by Ralph Tate, F. L.

S., F. G. S., Professor of Natural Science at the University of Adelaide.

Since its commencement the Association has grown steadily, and

now numbers about 900 members. The work is divided into sections

as in the British Association, whose rules on most points have been

closely followed.

684 The American Naturalist. (July,

The meeting of next year will last about a week, during which time

the Sections will meet daily for the reading and discussion of papers.

During the week there will be various short excursions to places of

interest, and some evening entertainments. After the meeting one or

two longer excursions will be arranged. |

At the time fixed for the meeting, South Australia will be at its

best. There is no better time at which to visit Australia than when

spring is merging into summer. To naturalists, this time of year is

specially attractive, and these may be reminded that at the meeting of

the Association they will come into contact with men of like tastes

from all parts of Australia.

Should visitors wish to prolong their trip, they will do well to visit

during the months of October and November the principal'objects of

interest in the mainland, and in December, January and February to

pass on to New Zealand and Tasmania. :

Table of Contents of the North American Review for June,

1893.—THE Lesson or THE NavaL Review, by the Hon. Hilary A.

Herbert, Secretary of the Navy; Who are the Greatest Wealth-Pro-

ducers? W. H. Mallock; How to Check Testamentary Litigation,

Surrogate Ransom, of New York ; Disappearing Dickensland, Charles

Diekens; A Look Ahead, by Andrew Carnegie; Police Protection at

the World's Fair: I. By the General Superintendent of the Chicago

Police—II. By the Chief of the Secret Service, World's Columbian

Exposition; Thirty Knots an Hour to Europe, Professor J. H. Biles,

Designer of the * Paris" and the * New York:" Reform of the Drink

Traffic, the Rev. W. S. Rainsford, D. D.; The Financial Outlook, by

the Hon. W. Bourke Cockran. Notes and Commenis.—Christ as an

Orator, T. Alexander Hyde. A Farmer's View of Free Coinage, New-

ton F. Bunnell; The Art of Living Two Hundred Years, William

Kinnear ; Inebriety from a Medical Standpoint, Dr. E. F. Arnold.

“A check- it tthe Plants of Grey's TU

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AUGUST, 1893.

CONTENTS.

PAGE.

THE SPoRE-FORMING SPECIES OF THE GENUS SAC-

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THE

AMERICAN NATURALIST

Vor. XXVII. August, 1893. 320

THE SPORE-FORMING SPECIES OF THE GENUS

SACCHAROMYCES.

J. CHRISTIAN Bay.

In his monograph on the Sacchai [Saccardo: Sylloge

Fungorum omnium hucusque cognitorum, Vol. VIII, page 916—

22.] J. B. de Toni enumerated 31 species of the genus Saccharo-

myces Meyen upon which the family is based by Reess in the year

1870, when it was separated from the Ascomycetes. Since DeToni's

monograph was published, our knowledge of this important

family, among which very important culture plants are found,

has been widely broadened, mainly by the investigations of

Emil Chr. Hansen, so that Pet species may be added to those

already known. But further De Toni, in his monograph, has

given no notice to the species described and figured by Hansen,

nor to the extensive literature based upon these. We find in

the “ Sylloge ” species as S ideus Reess, S. con-

glomeratus Reess, S. Pasteurianus Reess, and the description of

the species is based solely upon the morphology of the cells.

In fact, for the description not only reliable morphological but

purely physiological characters of these fungi have been used

and must to a certain extent be used. Reess and other mycolo-

gists before Hansen and his school have taken in consideration

for the description almost solely the morphological characters

686 The American Naturalist. [August,

of the cells; but we may easily observe that the form and

size, etc., of the cells have very little to do with the species

question. The latter depends much more upon the number of

spores found in the cells, the conditions for the spore-formation,

and the effect upon the various kinds of sugar. As therefore

De Toni's monograph can not pretend to give a correct aecount

of the species known up to date, I have tried to bring together

the forms in which a formation of spores has been found, with

description of the various stages in their development. A later

number of this series, materials for a monograph on the alco-

holic fermentation, will contain the literature in full.

Pungaceae. Linné, Gen. 1737, page 327.

SACCHAROMYCETACEAE. Reess.

M. Reess: Botanische Untersuchungen ueber die Alkohol-

gaehrungspilze, 1870. Winter: Die Pilze (in Rabenhorst's

Kryptogamenflora)I, 1, page 68. Blastomycetes Frank: Leu-

nis Synopsis, Botanik, III, page 595.

Genus: Saccharomyces. Meyen.

Meyen: Wiegmann’s Archiy. Vol. IV. 2, page 100, 1838.

Reess, l. c. Winter, l.c., page 69. Joergensen, Die Mikroor-

ganismen der Gaehrungsindustrie, 1890, page 123. Saccardo,

Sylloge, VIII, page 916 [De Toni]. Ludwig: Lehrbuch der

niederen Kryptogamen, 1892, page 210.

All species unicellular, often adhering together, forming a

false mycelium. Hyphae or regular mycelia never occur. Cells

circular, oval, or ellipsoid, often rectangular. Habitat: Caus-

ing the conversion of glycose into alcohol and carbonic acid,

and a few other products, most of the species are always found

in fermenting fluids. Some species are found in other places,

most of these, however, have not been observed forming spores.

Further investigation must determine the true nature of the

latter; probably some of them belong to the Torula-forms in

the sense of Pasteur. Owing to the general feeling that the

Saccharomyces are characterized mainly by their faculty of

spore-formation, I took up only these forms in the present

synopsis.

1893.] Contributions from Missouri Botanical Garden. 687

Propagation by buds. This is the general way of propagation.

Where a vigorous conversion of sugar is caused by .the Sac-

charomyces, an equal rapidity of the budding is always

observed.

Propagation by spores. In all of the species mentioned here a

spore-formation has been traced and investigated, and many

species are based upon the conditions for this formation, which

Hansen has found constant in all the forms described and

studied by him.—Form of spores round or oval, in one species,

* hat-formed ;” their number 1-10 or more. Appearance var-

ious in the various species, also transparency. Spores invaria-

ably endogenous.

Appearance of the colonies. When cultivated in a 10 per cent.

beer-wort-gelatine the colonies appear as round or oval, white

macroscopic spots, the outline of which is even in some, uneven

in other species.—Cultivation for spore-formation, see Hansen :

Meddelelser fra Carlsberg-Laboratoriet. Vol. II, page 152;

Holm and Poulsen, ibidem page 218. (Compte Rendus, etc.,

Carlsberg. II, page 97; Holm and Poulsen, ibid, page 141.)

1886-88.—For the formation of a M ape see each single

species.

1. Saccharomyces cerevisiae I. Hansen.

Hansen, 1. c. II, page 67; Plate I, fig. 1; PL III, fig. 1-3. -

Sacch. cerevisiae Meyen ( ex parte) Wiegm. Arch. IV, page

109; Reess Unters. page 81; Pl.1, fig. 1-17; Pl. II, fig. 1-6.

Winter: Pilze. I, 2, page 69, and fig. Joergensen Mikroorg.

1890, page 124. Ludwig, l. c. page 215.

Torula cerevisiae Turpin: Mém. de l'Académie XVII, 1840,

page 93; Plate I- , Comptes Rendus de l'Acad. Vol. VII,

1838, page 369 (without plates.) Liebigs Annalen XXIX, page

93. Kuetzing: Journal fuer prakt. Chemie Vol. XI, page 387,

1837, and plate.—Cryptococcus cerevisiae Kuetz.: Phycol. gener.

page 148, 1843; Cryptococcus cerevisiae Kuetz, Species Alga-

rum, page 146, 1849.—Hormiscium cerevisiae Bail in Flora

1857, page 417. Pasteur: Ann. d. Phys. et de Chim. LXII,

page 332-426. id. Etudes sur la biére, page 185-192, 1876.

Garnier: Ferments et Fermentations Paris, 1888, page 75.

688 The American Naturalist. [August,

This form and many varieties of it is common in breweries.

The specific form gives a top-fermentation. Cells 2, 5 »-6y;

the young culture gives mainly round and slightly oval, or

ellipsoid cells. Spore-formation found: Maximum: 36°-37°

C., minimum 11°-12°C. The first trace of spores at 25° C.

found in 23 hours, at 15° C. in 72 hours. Number of spores

generally 1—4, of round shape and of strong reflecting power.

In giving a key to the determination of the species, it seems

best to select the occurrence of spore-formation by 25° and 15°,

not only because this is most instructive but also because these

temperatures are used for examination of the yeast in the

breweries, the physiological yeast-analysis; another reason is

that it enables the investigator to keep two thermostates at

the points 25° and 15° as long as the investigation lasts.

The very best apparatus for these investigations is, of course,

the Panum thermostate, described by Pedersen in Meddelelser

fra Carlsberg-Laboratoriet, Vol. I, page 48-52, 1878, or by

Panum in Nordisk medie. Arkiv. Vol. X, No. 4.

This species and its varieties, which are cultivated for con-

stant use in brewing establishments are known as “ culti-

vated yeasts,” the other forms, which cause “sickness” in the

product, being commonly called “ wild yeasts.” In these culti-

vated forms, the spores are very refractive, compared with the

other forms, and their spore-forming cells often display a singu-

lar formation of a thick wall which divides the cell into various

parts, each of these containing a spore. This “ wall" is very

refractive and consists of the protoplasm of the cell, pressed

in between the walls of the spores. But the same formation

may also appear as a result of the spores being pressed against

each other. Occasionally there is a real formation of a wall,

when the spores cannot be separated, and then the cell turns

out to be a kind of a sporangium.

A superficial layer of cells which we will call top-vegetation

occurs at 3°-5° C. fever after 7-10 days at 20-22? C. This

kind of vegetation generally gives cells of a singular shape.

Among the many varieties found in breweries all over the

world all cannot be sure to give the same results; but the

question of variation has still to be debated.

ak eee er

Tne Peer SPER ESTATE TS Saleen ee ee

1893.] Contributions from Missouri Botanical Garden. 689

2. Saccharomyces Pastorianus I. Hansen.

Hansen, l. c. II, page 68; Plate I, fig. 2; Pl. V, fig. 1-3.—S.

Pastorianus Reess, l. c. page 83; Pl. II, fig: 11-13 (ex parte.).

Winter, L c. page 70. Baccardu, l. e. page 917. Pasteur:

Etudes sur la biére, 1876, page 150, fig. 128, Pl. X-XI, page

171-75, fig. 33-37, Pl. XII (ex parte). Garnier,l. c. page 78.

Joergensen, l. c. page 127. Ludwig, l. c. page 215.

Often found in the cellars where the fermentation of the beer

takes place; it gives a bottom- fermentation. A young culture

in beer-wort gives round and oval, sausage-formed cells; the

spores are formed at 27°, 5 in 24 hours, at 15° in 50 hours,

maximum being at 29°, 5-30°, 5, minimum at 3?-4?. Number

of spores 1-5, commonly 5-10 are also found, their diameter

being 1.5-5z.

Top- vegetation does not occur at 34°, but in 8-15 days at

209-22? ; it gives cells of irregular shape, long, sausage-formed,

as well as small, round and oval cells. Gives the beer a very

bitter taste.

3. Saccharomyces Pastorianus II. Hansen.

Hansen, l. c. page 69; Pl. I, fig. 3; Pl V, fig. 1-3. Other

references under the preceding species (ex parte.) J spon tence

l. c. page 129. Ludwig, l. c. page 215.

Common in the air in the brewery, consequently often found

in the fermenting beer. Cells round or long oval Spore-for-

mation: 25? in 25 h., 15? in 48 h. Maximum 27°-28°, mini-

mum 39-49. Spores like those of the preceding, wall-forma-

tion sometimes found.

Gives a weak top-fermentation. Pep yerstalion gives, when

` the culture is young, a large number of small, round or oval

cells, when old, we find long, irregular shaped forms; not

found at 34°, at 20°-22° in 8-15 days—Gelatine- cultures give

round, even-edged colonies.

4. Saccharomyces Pastorianus III. Hansen.

Hansen 1. c. II, page 70, Pl. II, fig. 1; Pl. VI, fig. 1-3. See

preceding. Joergeusen,l c. page 130. Ludwig, l. c. page 216.

690 The American Naturalist. [August,

Found causing a peculiar disease in the yeast. Gives a well

marked bottom-fermentation. Cells long, oval and ellipsoid.

Spore-formation: 25° in 28 h., 15° in 35 h. Max. 27°-28° ; Min.

4?, Top-vegetation never found at 34°, occurs in 9-12 days

at 20°-22°, the culture giving, when old, very irregular, almost

thread-shape cells.—Gelatine-culture has round colonies with

fringed edges.

` 5. Saccharomyces ellipsoideus I. Hansen.

Hansen, l. c. II, page 71; Pl. III, fig. 2; Pl. VII, fig. 1-3.

S. ellipsoideus Reess, l. c. page 82; Pl. III, fig 1-7. Pasteur,

l. c. page 242, fig. 58. Joergensen, l. c. page 132. Ludwig, 1l. c.

page 216. [“ Wine-yeast."]

Found on the surface of grapes. Cells round, oval, ellipsoid ;

gives bottom-fermentation. Spore formation: 25° in 21 hours.

15° in 45 h.; maxim. 30°, 5-31°,5; minim. 7?,5. Top-vege-

tation gives always round and neal, arcel lüg and irregular

cells, does not occur at 38°, but at 20°-22° in 10-17 days.

5. Saccharomyces ellipsoideus II. Hansen.

Hansen, l. e. II, page 71; PL II, fig. 3; Plate VIII, fig. 1-3.

Reess, Pasteur loci cit. Joergensen, l. c. page 135. Ludwig,l.

c. page 216.

Found together with S. Pastorianus III in diseased yeast.

Gives sometimes top-, sometimes bottom-fermentation.

Cells similar to those of S. ellipsoideus I. Spore-formation:

25° in 27 h., 15° in 70 h. Max. 33°-34°; min. 8?.—Young top

vegetation gives round and oval cells, occurs never at 40°, at

20*—22? in 4-6 days; the old vegetation has long cells, and a

mycelium-like appearance.

7. Saccharomyces Marzianus. Hansen.

. Hansen: Annales de Micrographie, 1888, Nr. 2-3, page 3, 1.

c. page 222, Joergensen, l. c. page 136. Ludwig, l. c. page 219.

Found on grapes. In beer-wort it gives a number of elliptic,

egg-formed cells, and later small colonies of mycelium-like

growth. Spores not easily formed, the latter being generally

1893.] Contributions from Missouri Botanical Garden. 691

round or slightly oval, but often kidney-shaped. Top-vegetation

scarce. On gelatine a “false” mycelium is often formed.

8. Saccharomyces exiguus. Hansen.

Hansen: Annal. d. Microgr. 1888, Nr. 2-3, page 5; 1. c. II,

page 225. [Reess, l. c. page 82; PI. II, fig. 7-8, and Hansen,

l. c. I, page 227. (ex parte)] Saccardo, Sylloge, VIII, page

917, 1889. Joergensen, l. c. page 136. ong t. c. page 220.

Winter, Pilze, I, page 70 (ex parte.).

Probably a distinct species. In beer-wort good development

and often formation of a * yeast-ring." Cells 2-5», round and

oval, scarcely long.—Found in press-yeast. Spores rare, top-

vegetation seldom occurs. No mycelial growth in fluids.

9. Saccharomyces membranaefaciens. Hansen.

Hansen: Ann. d. Mier., l. c. page 6; 1. c. II, page 225. Sac-

cardo, l. c. page 918. Joergensen, l. c. page 137. Ludwig, 1l.

c. page 220.

Found on decaying elm-roots. Gives in beer-wort abundant

top-vegetation of oval cells. Spores easily formed both in cul-

tures in fluid and in spore-cultures. Gelatine-cultures show

reddish colonies, the substratum being slowly liquefied.

10. Saccharomyces Ludwigii. Hansen.

Hansen, Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Paras. V, page 638, 1889;

Meddel. III, page 62, 1891. Joergensen, l. c. page 138. Lud-

wig, l. c. page 218.

Found in “Schleimfliisse” of oak-trees. Cells elliptical,

flask-formed, or long and irregular shaped. On gelatine a

mycelium is developed, with branches and septa. Cultures in

fluids give spores abundantly. Power of variation great,

some forms easily giving spores, while others do not. Germina-

tion of spores peculiar; see Hansen, Medd. III, page 62-70.

1891

11. Saccharomyces anomalus. Hansen.

Hansen, l. c. III, page 71. Ludwig, l. c. page 219.

In impure yeast from brewery and on grapes. Cells round

692 The American Naturalist. [August,

and oval, rarely long. Spores formed both in the bottom-yeast

and in the top-vegetation, they are “ hat-shaped," a form not

occurring in any other species.

12. Saccharomyces Hansenii. Zopf.

_ Zopf: Berichte der Deutschen bot. Gesellschaft, Vol. VI, page

94-97; 1889, with figures.

Found in cotton-dust. Spores 1-2 in each cell, ball-formed,

diam. 2-4».. This species does not give rise to alcoholic fer-

mentation, but it brings fermentation in a solution of saccha-

rose, dextrose, lactose, galactose, maltose, mannit, dulcit, and

glycerin, converting these sugars and the glycerin into oxalic

acid, the latter being found at the bottom of the solution as

calcium oxalate when the fermentation is at an end.

13. Saccharomyces Joergensenii. Lasché.

Lasché: Der Braumeister, Vol. V, page 242-245. Chicago,

1892; and Zeitschrift f. d. gesammte Baruwesen, Munich

1892. With figures.

Found in “temperance-beer.” Cells 2.5-5.5s. Spore-forma-

tion: 26? in 20 h., 25? in 17 h., 12? in 4 days Maxim. 28°-

30°, Min. 8°: “wall ”-fermation in the spore-forming cells

scarce. Causes no disease in the beer. Gelatine-cultures give

a “false mycelium.”

[14. Saccharomyces conglomeratus. Reess. `

Reess, l. c. page 82; PL II, fig. 14-16. Winter, l. c. page 70.

Saccardo, l. c. VIII, page 917. Joergensen, l. c. page 140.

Cells 5-6». Typical forms appear with more than one bud

on the propagating cell. It is hardly a distinct species, because

such forms often are found in old cultures by Hansen, Will,

and other investigators, mainly in top-vegetation. |

15. Saccharomyces albicans. Reess.

Reess; Sitzungsberichte d. phys. med. Gesellschaft —

1877. Winter, l. c. page 72.

! For example, see Will’s figures.

1893.] Contributions from Missouri Botanical Garden. 693

Oidium albicans Robin (Histoire naturelle d. vég. parasit.

page 488; pl. I, fig. 3-7.)

Cells round and oval, found in the mouth of small children.

Number of spores one. Has been considered the same as

. Sacch. mycoderma (Mycod. cerevisiae) which forms no spores

and therefore is probably no Saccharomyces.

16. Saccharomyces Reessi. David.

David: Annalen der Oenologie IV, page 223, 1878.

Found in wine-fermentation. ^ Cells form three spores.

Almost unknown.

17. Saccharomyces galacticola. Pirot. and Rib.

Pirotta and Riboni: Studii sul latte, page 14, pl. VI, fig. 6;

pl. XVII, fig. 1, 1879.

Occurs in “ fermenting” milk where it forms smaller rows,

sometimes a short mycelium, Cells with 2—4 spores.

18. Saccharomyces I of Will.

Will: Zeitschrift f. d. gesammte Brauwesen. No. 7-8. 1891.

In beer; the taste of the product becomes very much affec-

ted. Cells oval or of a pastorian form. The top-vegetation

has long cells and a “false mycelium,” when old. The old

bottom-yeast forms short rows, similar to those cultivated varie-

ties which give top-fermentation. Spore-formation: 25° in 14,

5 h.; 15? in 41 h. Max. 41°; min. 4?—5?. Top-vegetation: 41°

never; 22°-23° in 4-6 days. “ Conglomeratus "-forms (see No.

14) figured.

19. Saccharomyces II of Will.

Will l. c.

Habitat as the preceding form. Spores: 24°,5-25° in 31

h.; 15°-15° 5 in 74 h.; diam. 2-4», number: 1-4. Max. 32°;

min. 02, 5-19. Top-vegetation found, often developing into the

formation of a yeast-ring.

20. Saccharomyces minor. Engel.

Engel: Les ferments alcooliques, 1872. Arcangeli: Nuovo

giorn. bot. Ital, 1888, page 303. Joergensen, |. c. page 139.

694 The American Naturalist. [August,

Sphaerous cells, diam. 65. Short rows. Spore-forming cells

7-84; spores 2-4, diam. 3».

21. Saccharomyces Ilicis. Groenlund.

Groenlund: Zeitschr. f. d. gesammte Brauwesen, 1892, page

289, with fig., and Videnskabelige Meddelelser f. d. naturhist.

Foren. i Kjoebenhavn, Vol. LIV, page 5, 1893.

Found on fruits of Ilex aquifolium. Cells round, similar

to Sacch. cerev. I. Spore-formation: 25° in 22 h., 15°. 5in 3

days. Max. 36°-37°; min. 9°. 5.—Bottom-fermentation. Top-

vegetation found after 122 or 165 days in the temperature of

the room, in sunlight after 93 days. Gives the beer a disagree-

able, bitter taste.

22. Saccharomyces Aquifolii. Groenlund.

Groenlund, l. c., page 297; Vid. Medd., page 9.

On Ilex-fruits. Cells larger than those of the preceding.

Spores: 25°, 5-26°,5 in 29 h.; 16° in 31 days. Max. 27° 5-

28°,5; min. 10°-10°,5. Gives the beer a sweet-bitter taste.

Top-fermentation. .

CONCLUDING REMARKS.

If we were able to trace the Saccharomycetaceae back into their

history, we should be able to form an opinion with regard to

their origin. But, for the present time, there is no reason what-

ever for regarding these organisms as a form of some fungi of

higher organization which have been subject to a one-sided

evolution. We have never seen a Saccharomyces develop into

anything but a Saccharomyces.

e term “fermentation” is hardly to be used any more.

Originally, in the sense of Liebig, it meant the conversion of

carbo-hydrates into products of a lower combination, terminat-

ing in the formation of CO, and H,O, by means of the life-

activity of lower organisms (the theory of vitality). Now, how-

ever, it is also applied to the conversion of proteid substances by

means of a life-activity. Since the enzymes have been found

and studied, it would be more proper to speak of the

conversion of such and such matter into certain products

IL THE CONDITION OF THE SPORE-FORMATION AND OF TOF- ) ION

Tenip. S. cerevisiae I. S. Pastor I. S. Pastor 1I. S. Pastor III. S. ellips. I. S. ellip, II.

°C, Spore-f. Top-veg. Spore-f. Top-veg. Spore-f. Top-veg. Spore-f. Top-veg. Spore-f. Top-veg. Spore-f, Top-veg.

409 :

38. 0. *

97 0; 29h.

85 0.

34 —; max, 0. 0. 0. — —; 81 h.

n 0 Pas h

80 Opt. 20h . r 30 h. Ime i

29 —; 27 h, 0. 0. : Opt.; 22h.

2 ee = —; Mh. = —; 85h.

E :

25 | —; Wh. —; 24-26 h. Opt.: 25h. Opt. ; 28 h. —; Mh, i; MEA = i 1 os ee

20-22 7-10d —; 815d. —; 8-15 d. —; 9-124. —; 15-30 d. —: 8-10 d

13-15 d — ; 15-80 d. —; 10-25 d. —; 10-20 d.

" —; 10d. | —; 10d

9 0.

8 —;9d —;9d

T med

5 0. — — mans 0 —

- za. Tahir. 0 0 0

2 0 0. 0. 0

0.5. 0.

0 signifies no growth. h, hours.

— signifies that the process takes place. d. days.

[e681

gr Worf $uoinquiquor)

14n0881

"uap4nz) poovupjoqt

€69

696 - The American Naturalist. [August,

II. ACTION OF THE SPORE-FORMING SACCHAROMYCES ON DIF-

FERENT KINDS OF SUGAR

CH O

Invert sugar formed| Ç H

6 12 6 and the

[9]

12 22 n | Maltose. |Lactose.

nvertin fermente

erevisiae I.

S Pastorianus I-III. }

IL 0.

ae exi E: 0. Lorum db. 0. 0.

EX Joenna S. Ludwigii.|

0 signifies no fermentation; — signifies a fermentation.

III. SIZE AND NUMBER OF SPORES.

No. Spores. | | No. Spores.

used above. Diameter. Number. || used above. Diameter. Number.

1 2,5—6». 1- 5. [V ORE

2 1,5-5y. 1-10, 13 1-2,55. 2-4.

8 2-5p. 1l- 7. 14

4 2—4u. 1-10. 15 1

5 p. 1- 4. 16 3

6 2-5p. 1- 4. I 2-4.

7 2—4n. 18 1,5-5». 1-5.

8 .2-An. 2- 3. 19 "Er 1-4.

9 20 2-4.

10 1- 8. 21

11 2— 4. 22

through the life-activity of this or that organism, or enzyme,

and this mode of expression would also indicate more about

the process than the terms fermentation or putrefaction are

able to do.

The names yeast or yeast-fungi ought to be used exclusively

on the species of Saccharomycetes, not including the myco-

derma (cerevisiae and vini—Saccharomyces mycoderma), Tor-

ula, and those of the moulds which give either no fermenta-

tion or a fermentation (conversion of glucose) with a large per

cent. of alcohol. And, finally, the gen yees should

comprise only the spore-forming species.

Missourr Boranicat GARDENS, May, 1893.

1893.] Notes on Marine Laboratories of Europe. 697

NOTES ON THE MARINE BIOLOGICAL

LABORATORIES OF EUROPE.

By Basuronp DEAN,

COLUMBIA COLLEGE, NEW YORK.

PART II.

NAPLES.

The Stazione Zoologica at Naples during the past twenty

years has earned its reputation as the center of marine biolog-

ical work. Its success has been aided by the richness of the

fauna of the Gulf, but is due in no small degree to careful and

energetic administration. The director of the station, Prof.

Dohrn, deserves no little gratitude from every worker in science

for his untiring efforts in securing its foundation and

systematic management. Partly by his private generosity

and partly by the financial support he obtained, the original,

or eastern building was constructed. Its annual maintenance

was next assured by the aid he secured throughout (mainly)

Germany and Austria. By the leasing of work tables to be

used by representatives of the universities, a sufficient income

was maintained to carry on the work of the station most

efficiently. A gift by the German government of a small

steam launch added not a little to the collecting facilities.

Attractiveness is one of the striking features of the Naples

station. It has nothing of the dusty, uncomfortable, gloomy

air of the average university laboratory. Its situation is one

of the brightest; it has the gulf directly in front, about it the

city gardens, rich in palm trees and holm oaks. The building

itself rises out of beds of century plant and cactus, like a

white palace; the fashionable drive-way alone separates it from

the water’s edge. In full view is the Island of Capri, to the

eastward is Vesuvius,—a bright and restful picture to one who

leaves his work for a five minutes stroll on the long, covered

balcony which looks out over the sea.

698 The American Naturalist. [August,

The student, in fact, knows the Naples station before he

visits it, although he can hardly anticipate the busy and

profitable stay that there awaits him. He has received the

circular from the Secretary of the laboratory while perhaps in

Germany, when he secured the privilege of a table. He is

told of the best method of reaching Naples, the precautions

he must take to secure the safe arrival of his boxes and instru-

ments. Heis told to send directions as to the material he

desires for study ; he is notified of the supplies which will be

allowed him, and of the matters of hotels, lodging and bank-

Fic, 1.

Stazione Zoologica of Naples. From view taken by writer, Tune, 1891.

ing, necessary even to a biologist. At the first sight of the |

building he is impressed most favorably, and it is not long

before he comes to look upon his work-place as his particular

home, open to him day, night and holidays. He likes the gen-

eral air of quietness,—in no little way significant of system in

every branch of the station’s organization ; his neighbors are

1893.] Notes on Marine Laboratories of Europe. 699

friendly and he feels that even the attendants are willing,

often anxious to give him help.

At present the station at Naples consists of two buildings ;

the first shown in the foreground in the accompanying figure

(Fig. 1), is the older, the main building, behind it is the newly

built physiological laboratory. In the basement of the

main building is the aquarium, well managed, open to the

public, and eagerly visited. Passing into the aquarium

room from the main entrance, one descends into a long, dark,

concreted room, lighted only through wall-tanks brilliant on

every side with the varied forms of life. There are in all

about two dozen large aquaria embedded in the walls of the

sides and of the main partition of the room. The water is

clear and blue. The background in each aquaria, built of

rock work, catches the light from above and throws in clear

relief the living inmates. The first tank will perhaps be full

of star fish and sea urchins, bright in color, often clustered on

the glass each with a dim halo of pale, threadlike feet. In

the background may be a living clump of crinoids, flowering

out like a garden of bright colored lilies. Ina neighboring

tank, rich with dark colored seaweeds, will be a group of fly- -

ing gurnards, reddish and brilliantly spotted, feeling cautiously

along the bottom with the finger-like rays of their wing-

shaped fins. Here too may be squids, delicate and fish-like,

swimming timidly up and down; perhaps a series of huge

triton snails below amid clustered eggs of cuttle fish. In

another tank would be a bank of sea anemones with all the

large and brilliant forms common to southern waters. Here

may be corals in the background and a forest of sea fans in

orange, red and yellow, with a precious fringe of pink coral,

flowering out in yellow starlike polyps. There may again be

a host of ascidians, delicate, transparent, solitary forms, the

lanky Ciona, the brilliantly crimson Cynthia and huge

masses of varied, compound forms. Swimming in the water

may be chains of Salpa and occasionally a number of Amphi-

oxus, the latter, as they from time to time emerge from the

sandy bottom, flurry about as if with sudden fright, quickly to

disappear. Variety is one of the striking characters of

neighboring tanks. In one, brilliant forms will outvie the

700 The American Naturalist. [August,

colors of their neighbors, in another, the least obtrusive mim-

icry will be exemplified. The stranger has often to examine

carefully before, in the seemingly empty tank, he can deter-

mine on every side the living forms whose color characters

screen them effectively. Thus he will see sand-colored rays

and flounders, the upturned eyes of the curious star-gazer

almost buried in the sand, a series of mottled crustaceans

wedged in a rocky background, an occasional crab wandering

cautiously about, carrying a protective garden of seaweeds on

his broad back ; odd sea horses posing motionless, mimicing

the rough stems of the seaweeds. In the larger tank sea tur-

tles float sluggishly about; and coiled amid broken earthern

jars, are the sharp-jawed murrys, suggestive of Roman din-

ners and of the cultural experiments of Pollio. Aération in

the aquaria is secured effectively by streams of air which are

forced in at the water surface and subdivide into bright

clouds of minute silvery bubbles. The tanks are cared for

from the rear passage-ways; attendants are never seen by

visitors and constant attention has given the aquaria a well

earned reputation. Descriptive catalogues with figures

enable the stranger to better appreciate the aquarium.

To the remainder of the building strangers are not admit-

ted. A marble stairway leads from the door of the aquarium

to a loggia which opens into the territory of the students. A

long pathway of grating extends across the open center of

the building,—whose skylight top admits the light to the aqua-

rium below. On the one hand is the main laboratory room,

on the other the library and separate rooms intended for more

fortunate investigators. One enters the main laboratory,

passes a wall of student aquaria and sees a series of alcoves

formed by low partitions, each work place with its occupant, his

apparatus, his books, his jars,—altogether often a picture not

of the utmost tidiness. A small iron staircase leads to a gal-

lery which gives a second tier of work places and doubles the

working capacity of the room. Here, side by side, will be

representative workers from universities of every country of

Zurope.

The library room adds not a little to the attractiveness of

the Naples station. It is a long room, and, as shown in

1893.] Notes on Marine Laboratories of Europe. 701

(Fig. 2), is adorned with frescoes in a truly Italian style.

It looks out into a long loggia with view of the sea and

Capri, where the student is wont to promenade or retire

in after lucheon hour with easy chair and book. The work-

ing library is of the best and is sure to contain the results of

NW £

Fic. 2.

Naples. Corner of north end of Library : Photographed by writer, May, 1891.

the most recent researches. The desk shown in the figure is

one on'which each day is to be found the latest publications.

In the upper pigeon holes are the cards prepared for each

investigator on his advent to Naples; with these he replaces

the volumes which he has taken to his work place. Every

702 ~ The American Naturalist. [August,

division of the laboratory is carefully organized and is under

the charge of a special assistant. Prof. Hugo Eisig, the

assistant director, has taken the welfare of each student under

his personal charge, and it is not until the end of his stay that

the visitor recognizes how much has been done for him.

- There is no more interesting department of the station than

that of receiving and distributing the material Its

headquarters is in the basement of the physiological labora-

tory, and here Cav. Lo Bianco is to be found busy with his

aids and attendants amid a confusion of pans, dishes and

tables, encountering the Neapolitan fishermen who have

learned to bring all of their rarities to the station. The

specimens are quickly assorted by the attendants; such

as may not be needed for the immediate use of the investiga-

tors are retained and prepared for shipment to the universities

throughout Europe. The methods of killing and preserving

marine forms have been made a most careful study by Lo

Bianco and his preparations have gained him a world wide

reputation. “Delicate jelly fish are to be preserved distended,

and the frail forms of almost every group have been success-

fully fixed. The methods of the Naples station were kept

secret only until it was possible to verify and improve them

asit was not deemed desirable to have them given out in a

scattered way by a number of investigators.

Lo Bianco has made the best use of the rich material passing

daily through his department, and has been enabled to pre-

pare the most valuable records as to spawning seasons and as

to larval conditions. He knows the exact station of the rarest

species, and it seems to the stranger a difficult matter to ask

for a form which cannot be directly or indirectly procured. It

adds no little to the time saving of the student to find each

morning at his work place, the fresh material which he has

ordered the day before, and there is usually an embarrassment

rather than a dearth of riches.

. A collecting trip often occurs as a pleasant change from the

indoor work of the investigator. An excursion to Capri may

be planned ; the launch will be brought to the quay near the

station and the party will embark. The collecting tubs are

1893.] Notes on Marine Laboratories of Europe. ee A

soon scattered over the deck and filled with the dredge con-

tents. Some of the passengers are quickly at work sorting out

their material, this one seizing brachiopods, another compound

ascidians, another sponges. Others will wait until the surface

nets have been brought in and the contents turned into jars.

All will depend upon Lo Bianco as an appellate judge in

matters of identification.

Many Americans have availed themselves of the privileges

of Naples and the former lack of support of an American

table needs little comment. Of those who have hitherto

visited Naples not less than three-quarters have been indebted

to the courtesies of German universities. At present, of the

two American tables, one is supported by the Smithsonian

Institution, the other by gift of Mr. Agassiz.

The entire Italian coast is so rich in its fauna that it is due

perhaps, only to the greatness of Naples, that so few stations

have been founded. Messina has its interesting laboratory well

known in the work of its director, Prof. Kleinenberg. The

Adriatie, especially favorable for collecting, has at Istria a

small station on the Dalmatian coast, and at Trieste is the

Austrian station.

TRIESTE.

Trieste possesses one of the oldest and most honored of

Marine Observatories, although its station is but small in

comparison with that of Naples, Plymouth or Roscoff. Its

work has in no small way been limited by scanty income; it

has offered the investigator fewer advantages and has there-

fore become outrivalled. During a greater part of the year it

is but little more than the supply station of the University of

Vienna, providing fresh material for the students of Professor

Claus. Its percentage of foreign investigators appears small ;

its visitors are usually from Vienna and of its university.

Trieste is in itself a small but busy city, growing in active

commerce. Its quays are massive and bristle with odd shaped

shipping of the Eastern Mediterranean. Its deep and basin

like harbor affords a collecting ground as rich as the Gulf of

Naples.

704 i The American Naturalist. (August,

The station has been located at a quiet corner of the harbor,

just beyond the ledge of the lighthouse. Its building is some-

what chálet-like, situated on a small, well wooded knoll, as

seen in the adjacent figure (Fig. 3). About it are trellis covered

grounds enclosed by high walls, and separated from the har-

bor only by the main roadway of the quays. One enters the

laboratory garden through a large gateway and passes into a

Fig. 3.

Marine Station at Trieste. From photograph received recently from Dr. Graeffe.

court yard whose outhouses disclose the pails and nets of the

marine laboratory. Perhaps an attendant will here be sorting

out the captures which a bronze-legged fisherman has just

brought in.

A library and the rooms of the director, Dr. Graeffe, are

close by the entrance of the building. In the basement is the

aquarium room.—somewhat dark and cellar like; its tanks

1893.] Notes on Marine Laboratories of Europe. 705

small and shallow, their inmates representing especially stages

of Adriatic hydroids and anthozoans. On the second story

are the investigators’ rooms, large, well lighted, looking out

over garden and sea. Near by is a museum of local fauna,

rich in crustaceans and in the larval stages of Adriatic fishes.

GERMANY, Norway, RUSSIA.

The German universities have contributed to such a degree

to the building up of the station at Naples that they have

hitherto been little able to avail themselves of the more con-

venient but less favorable region of German coasts. The col-

lecting resources of the North Sea and of the Baltic have

perhaps been not sufficiently rich to warrant the establish-

ment of a central station. On the side of the Baltic, the

University of Kiel, directly on the coast, may itself be

regarded a marine station. At present the interest in found-

ing local marine laboratories has, however, become stronger.

At Plón, at a corner of the North Sea not far from Flensburg, is

established a small station under the directorship of Professor

Zacharias,—and the first number of its contributions has

recently been published. In addition the newly acquired

Heligoland has become the seat of a well equipped Govern-

mental station, under the directorship of Dr. R. Heincke.

The island has been long known as most favorable in collect-

ing regions, and its position in the midst of the North Sea

fisheries gives it especial importance.

Norway like Germany is strengthening its interest in local

marine laboratories. During the past year (1892) it has suc-

ceeded in establishing two permanent stations, one near Ber-

gen,—the other south of Bergen an outjutting point of the

North Sea almost westward of Christiana. The former is in-

terested especially in matters relating to the. North Sea fisher-

ies, and is supported partly by the contributions of a learned

society and partly by a subsidy from the government in view

of its relation to the practical fisheries. The second and smaller

station is devoted almost exclusively to research in morphology,

It is a dependency of the University of Christiana and is under

the directorship of one of its professors, Dr. Johan Hjört.

706 The American Naturalist. ' . [August,

With the richest collecting resources these new stations may

naturally be expected to yield most important results.

Russians have ever been most enthusiastic in marine

research, and their investigators are to be found in nearly

every marine station of Europe. , The French laboratory on

the Mediterranean at Ville Franche, as has previously been

noted, is supported essentially by Russians. At Naples

they are often next in numbers to the Germans and

Austrians. The learned societies of Moscow and St.

Petersburg have contributed in no little way to marine

research. The station at Sebastopol on the Black Sea,

has become permanent, possessing an assured income. That

near the Convent Solovetsky on the White Sea, though small, is

of marked importance. It is already in its thirteenth year.

Professor Wagner of St. Petersburg, has been its most earnest

promoter as well as constant visitor. He in fact caused the

Superior of the Convent to become interested in its work and

secured a permanent building by the Convent’s grant; he

was then enabled by an appropriation from government to

provide an equipment. Its annual maintenance is due to the

Society of Naturalists of St. Petersburg. The matter of the

appointment of a permanent director for the summer months

is now being agitated. The station Solovetskaia is said to

possess the richest collecting region of the Russian coasts.

It is certainly the only laboratory which has at its command

-a truly Arctic fauna.

The following list of papers relating to marine laboratories

was kindly sent the writer from Naples by Mr. H. B. Pol-

lard.

Arcachon (Bulletin of the Scientific Society.)

Berichte v. d. Ver der. biol. Stat. Sebastopol. Russian text.

Brunchorst, Die biol. Meerestat. 1st. Bergen. Plate and plans.

Buissent, Les Stations Zool. du Bords dela Mer. Rev. de

Ques. Scien. Brussels, 1889.

Dohrn, Aus Vergang. u. Gegenwart der Zool. Stat. in Neapel,

Deutsche Rundschau, XVIII, h. II, Pactel, Berlin, 1892.

- Fausseck, Station biologique * Solovetskaia." (1 892.)

Herdman, Annualreports of Liverpool M. B. Station on

1893.] Notes on Marine Laboratories of Europe. 707

Puffin Island. Dobb & Co., Liverpool, 1890-91.

Hoyle, Scot. M. Stat. and its work. J. of M. B. Ass. II.

Korotheba, (The laboratory at Ville Franche, Russian text.)

Cracow, 1892.

Lacaze Duthiers, Les Lab. maritimes de Roscoff et Banyuls

en 1891. Rev. Exp. de Biol. 1892.

Les Stations Zoologiques, L' Aquarium des Sables d' Olonne,

La Nature, 16 Année, 1 sem. 1891.

MeIntosh, St. Andrew’s Marine Laboratory. J. of M. B. Ass,

Mitsukeori, The Mar. Biol. Stat. of the Imp. Univ. at Misaki,

J. of Col. of Scien. of Japan. Tokio. V. I.

Nederlandische Dierkundige Vereein Zool. Stat.

Tijdschr. d. Ned. Dier. Ver., with figure, 1890.

Petersen, Danske Biol. Stat. Rep. Copenhagen Schule. 1892.

Pouchet, Rapport. sur la Laboratoire de Concarneau, 1886.

Prince, St. Andrew’s Mar. Lab. Eng. Ill. Mag. p. 70. 1889.

Vogt, Les Laboratoires de Zoologie maritimes, Rev. Scient.

Paris, 1876.

Vogt, Zool. Stat. Die Gegenwart. 26 Bd. 1884.

Von Lendenfeld, Die Zool. Stat. in Trieste.

Oes. Ung. Revue, 7 Bd. 1889.

Zacharias, Forschungsberichte aus der Biol. Stat. zu Plón,

Friedlander, Berlin, 1893.

Since the above was in print, Prof. Lónnberg has given the

writer many interesting details in regard to the Swedish

Zoological Station on the west coast near the city of. Gothen-

berg.

The Station has up to the present, under its founder and late

director, Prof. Loven, admitted no foreigners.

Its three original buildings, a laboratory and two dwelling

houses, were construeted about fifteen years ago by a gift of

Dr. Regnell of Stockholm. Itis at present maintained by a

small subsidy from the government. Dr. Hjalmar Theel, in

charge of the museum at Stockholm, has recently been

appointed its director. The laboratory is itself a wooden build-

ing, with aquaria rooms, and on the second story with the

separate work places of the investigators. The students are

mainly from the University of Upsala.

708 The American Naturalist. [August,

CERTAIN SHELL HEAPS OF THE ST. JOHN'S RIVER,

FLORIDA, HITHERTO UNEXPLORED.

By CLARENCE BLOOMFIELD Moore.

(Continued from July Number, 1893.)

(Fourth Paper.)

MULBERRY MOUND (ORANGE COUNTY).

By referring to the map accompanying the first article of

this series, the reader will see that Mulberry Mound lies on

the west bank of the St. John’s, just north of the river’s exit

from Lake Poinsett. Rising abruptly from the water’s edge

the mound offers the only solid footing for miles around, and

upon it the otter hunter on his way up and down the stream

finds a welcome refuge. This island mound has been under

cultivation in former years, but when visited (February, 1892,

and February, 1893) was covered densely with vines, shrub-

bery and sugar-cane. In all, eight days were spent in investi-

gation with a party of eight workers. The mound extends

from S.S. E. to N. N. W. The length of base is 285 feet;

its maximum breadth 120 feet; its maximum height from

water level at a low stage of the river is 15 feet, 6 inches.

, Shell continues to an undetermined depth. The mound is

unstratified, as a whole, and is composed mainly of uniones

with a large admixture of sandy loam, PE occasional

ampullarie and paludine.

At no part of the mound investigated by the writer was

there any evidence of the presence of loose masses of shell

comparatively unbroken. Abandoned fire places were found

at every depth. Upon the surface is a stratum of loam and

sand from 1} feet to 23 feet in thickness. This layer is prob-

. ably a formation subsequent to the abandonment of the

. mound by the eaters of shell-fish, and all articles found

1 American Naturatist, Nov., 1892.

1893:] Shell Heaps of Florida. 709

therein cannot with certainty be attributed to the period of

the formation of the shell heap.

To the north of the shell heap is a small burial mound

which, through its immediate association with the shell heap,

is of the greatest interest. To it a number of additional days

were devoted.

Of all the shell heaps of the St. John’s, Mulberry Mound

most richly rewards archeological research. So distant is the

nearest solid ground and so contracted were the quarters of

those who raised the shell heap that every article cast away or

lost during certainly a very long period is contained within an

area a mere fraction in comparison to that of many shell

heaps of the lower river.

On the summit of Mulberry Mound, not far separated, three

excavations were made: 103 x 7 x 12 feet deep; 12 x 74 x 10 feet

deep; 16 feet, 8 inches by 14 feet, 5 inches by 16 feet deep.

Allthese excavations were subsequently increased in size by

the use of the pick upon the sides.

Pottery.

While the sherds found throughout the excavations were of

good quality and ornamented fragments of pottery were found

even below water level, yet in numbers and in variety of

design they by no means compared with the fragments of

ruder material so plentifully met with in other shell heaps of

the river and notably at Tick Island and at Orange Mound.

No sherds were encountered of that coarse and porous mate-

rial showing original intermixture of vegetable fibre save two

or three specimens at- the very base of the mound. At a dis-

tance of 83 feet from the surface was a fragment of pottery,

colored a bright red, and three other sherds similarly decorated

were encountered in various stages of the excavations. While

pottery of this character is of frequent occurrence in the sand

mounds its discovery is not on record hitherto in the shell

heaps of the river. Pottery with stamped decoration, so com-

mon on the surface along the St. John's, was fairly abundant

in the upper portion of the mound, while specimens were met

with at unusual depths, one sherd thus decorated being found

710 The American Naturalist. [August,

at a distance of 10 feet from the surface. As a rule, the cera-

mic ornamentation consisted of incised lines, several of novel

pattern. One specimen showed interior decoration, the outer

surface being plain. Another had been scratched upon the

surface subsequent to the completion of the pottery (Fig. 1).

Wry

NSMSMM AS

Fig. 1. (Full size.)

Three feet from the surface, in excavation 3, a vessel was

uncovered, uninjured, with the exception of a small chipping

from a portion of therim. The material was of inferior qual-

ity. Its decoration varied, consisting of lines and dots in

. various combinations. The body of the bowl was plain. Its

diameter at the mouth which was irregular but nearly circu-

lar, was from 81 inches to 72 inches. Its height was 4 inches.

Its average thickness of material was .3 of an inch. In form

it resembled a bowl, a common shape in the sand mounds.

Various partially broken vessels were found unornamented

and presenting no peculiarity. One contained a mass of

unbaked clay.

Nine and a half feet from the surface was found what at

the time was considered a fragment of a large bead of pottery

(Fig. 2), and not until two similar and more complete objects

were met with in the adjoining burial mound (Figs. 3 and 4)

: was the conclusion arrived at that it was a portion of a

tobacco pipe.

1893.] Shell Heaps of Florida. 711

It will be remembered that the absence of pipes from the

shell heaps was emphasized by Professor Wyman, and the

writer, in upward of eighty shell heaps carefully explored,

has heretofore found nothing indicating the use of tobacco by

the eaters of shell fish, though pipes have been taken by him

Fig. 2. (Full size.)

Fig. 3. (Full size.) Fig. 4. (Full size.)

from the burial mounds.’ A careful comparison, however, of

the figures given herewith should convince the most skeptical

that all three are fragmentary parts of vessels used in the

smoking of tobacco, and such is the opinion of Professor

Haynes who has made a careful examination of the speci-

mens. i

During the excavation a mass of baked clay was found

bearing the imprint. of human fingers.

At a depth of 21 feet was found a mass of clay about six

inches in height, unbroken, resembling half the cast of a pot.

It is quite evident that whatever its use may have been, clay

could readily have been moulded around it when placed with

one of similar proportions.’

? It is possible that the masses of clay referred to by Squier and Davis

(Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley, page 149) were of similar

character.

712 The American Naturalist. [August,

An Attempt at Delineation.

At a depth of 10 feet from the surface two pieces of pottery

in immediate association were thrown out in the same shovel-

ful of debris. An investigation showed the fragments, which

were covered with the soot so frequently found upon the sherds

of the shell heaps, to belong to the same vessel, though the

fracture was contemporary with their abandonment in the

mound. Upon them was rudely cut a representation of the

human figure (Fig. 5).

Fig. 5. (Full size.)

The discovery of this attempt at delineation at so great a

depth in a shell heap of the river is of peculiar interest, being

entirely unique in the extended search of the writer and unre-

ported by others.’

Bone.

Upward of ninety implements of bone, many of which

were somewhat fragmentary, were met with in the three exca-

vations. As the depth of the excavations increased imple-

ments were found in an inverse ratio. Awls and piercing

* This aboriginal attempt at delineation may be seen at the Wagner Free

Institute, Philadelphia.

1893.] Shell Heaps of Florida. 719

implements were numerous. One foot and five feet from the sur-

face were two-pointed implements resembling daggers, respect-

ively 6} inches and 7} inches in length (Figs. 6 and 7).

Piercing implements of bone of this size are not mentioned

by Wyman, nor have they been met with by the writer in any

other shell heap of the St. John’s, though in the burial mound

at Tick Island was found a carefully fashioned pointed instru-

ment of human bone 9} inches in length, circled at the blunt

end by an incised line. On one side were three perforations

extending longitudinally below. These long stilletto-shaped

implements of bone'are not uncommon in other localities.

Professor Haynes is of the opinion that they were used in the

weaving of baskets.

At a depth of four feet was an implement, in shape resem-

bling a shuttle (Fig. 8), hitherto unreported in connection with

shell heaps in the river.

Two slender pins with lined, ornamentation around the

heads (Fig. 9), 7 inches and 8.2 inches in length, both discov-

ered at a depth of three feet from the surface, though in sep-

arate excavations, were found intact, while throughout were

numbers of small piercing implements two inches in length

and over fashioned from the long bones of small carnivores

with the articular portion remaining (Fig. 10). The core of a

stag horn was lined with eight parallel circles.

A curious implement, 2.3 inches in length, was exhumed,

made from a solid bone, unidentified, having a maximum

diameter of 1 inch, polished at the base and drilled to a depth

of .9 inch, the cavity diminishing slightly in size from the

margin of the orifice inward. The opposite end was beveled

on one-half to a central ridge, the other portion being cut

down as if to connect with the cavity below. Two longitudi-

nal parallel lines were on either side, while a longitudinal

ridge spread out at the upper portion, forming a triangle of

which the margin of the top formed the base. Unfortunately

a series of figures would be required to represent this curious

object. :

A portion of the head of a piercing implement, 1$ inches

in length was beautifully decorated with lines. Exposure to

The American Naturalist.

| ]

z 2

T J

Z |

Fig. 7. Fig. 9. Fig. 10.

i Implements of Bone. (All full size.)

[August,

1893] Shell Heaps of Florida. 715

fire had colored it black and given to the surface a brilliant

polish (Fig. 11).

Stone.

Just below the surface loam was a portion of a celt of slate,

23 inches in length, polished and with ground cutting edge.

Its depth does not identify it positively with the shell heap.

1} feet from the surface was found a “sinker,” or pendant

ornament, 23 inches in length, rimmed at either end for sus-

pension (Fig. 12). This interesting relie cannot positively be

attributed to the period of formation of the mound. It is

probable that later Indians cultivated the mound which, more-

over, within recent years has been ploughed to facilitate the

planting of sugar-cane.

Two feet from the surface a round sandstone hone was met

with.

At a depth of 43 feet was brought to light a celt of polished

shale of rude workmanship, with the portion farthest from

the cutting edge roughened, probably for insertion into a

socket (Fig. 13). This find is extremely interesting, being the

tfirs on record of an implement of polished stone found in a

shell heap of the St. John’s at a depth to justify the belief as

to an origin contemporary with the heap. Among other arti-

cles of. interest brought to light were a sandstone hone, grooved

through the sharpening of pointed implements, and a flat

piece of coquina.

At a depth of 14 feet, 8 inches from the surface was found

a lance head of fine chert, 3.6 inches in length, thin and of

graceful pattern, while 8 inches above were two lance heads

of chert, one of beautiful design, barbed and having the base

of the tang concave, fully as graceful in design and in finish

as any stone point met with on the surface. Its length was

3.8 inches.

Its companion was of coarse yellow chert, with a length of

4.14 inches, and had a natural defect through crystallization of

the material. It wasof ruder workmanship. The great rarity

of implements of stone in the shell heaps was commented

* Positive d as to material has been found impossible without

mutilation of specim

716 The American Naturalist. [August,

upon by Wyman, and the writer during his investigations has

had no grounds to differ'from Professor Wyman's opinion.

The discovery of lance points at such a depth and of such

graceful pattern is entirely without precedent. Specimens of

the rude and thick arrow points ordinarily found in the shell

heaps will be figured in a later paper.

ajo es

[

ur TS

? D»

ita

a Pat

Fig.13. (Full size.)

Throughout the excavations were found a number of pieces

of red hematite, the largest being 3} x 24 x 2 inches. This

mineral was largely used as coloring matter in several of the

burial mounds, notably at Mt. Royal where the whole upper

stratum is dyed with it.

Shell.

As in the case of implements of bone, so of shell it may be

said that Mulberry Mound among all the shell heaps of the

St. John's has furnished the richest results to the archeologist.

1893.] Shell Heaps of Florida. 717

At every depth were found gouges and scrapers of shell, many

unbroken, and columellz of fasciolaria, one 10} inches in

length. Two and a quarter feet and five feet below the sur-

face were found two drinking cups, formed from fulgur per-

versum, with portions of the side and the inner whorls

removed, a form common enough on the surface and in the

burial mounds, but very unusual at any depth in the shell

deposits. Curiously enough, similar drinking cups wrought

from the conch are in use to-day by the side of springs in

some of the sea-board southern states.

Piercing Implements of Bone.

Mulberry Mound (full size). " Fig. 14. 4 size.

Ten feet from the surface in perfect condition was a beauti-

ful chisel fashioned from the lip of strombus.

Five feet from the surface was found a cardium, unbroken,

718 The American Naturalist. [August,

but giving evidence of wear upon the edge, and having a por-

tion of the shell between the ridges removed. A pecten, with-

out wear or work upon the edges, is figured in the annual

report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1880-1881, Plate XXI,

Fig. 3. This particular shell is described as having served

among the Indians as a receptacle for paint, and as coming

from Santa Barbara, California. It is possible that the “ cockle

shell” from Mulberry Mound may have been used for the lin-

ing of pottery. At all events, the two central ridges could be

put to such a purpose.

At a depth of 13 feet, 8 inches was found a portion of a

gorget of shell, the part recovered being 6.04 inches in length,

2 inches in breadth, with an average thickness of .12 inch

(Fig. 14). It bore three perforations for suspension or for

attachment, and two smaller ones along the line of fracture,

evidently corresponding with similar ones on the missing por-

tion, arranged to allow of repair by binding, a method com-

mon at that period. The discovery of a gorget or any object

of personal ornamentation is so unusual in a shell heap of the

St. John's that particular stress deserves to be laid upon it.

In fact, with the exception of one longitudinally perforated

phalanx of a deer, from Salt Run (Marion Co.), no articles of

personal adornment have been found by the writer in any

shell heap of the St. John's beyond the limits of Mulberry

Mound.*

At various distances from surface, one even so deep as 11

feet, were found six fulgurs, five of the species carica and one

perversum. All were ground at the beak, and all with the

exception of one carica, were perforated. Three of the spe-

cies carica had single perforations below the angle and involv-

ing it, and one on the body whorl between the angle and the

suture within an inch of the aperture.

The fulgur perversum had a small round perforation above .

the angle and two, one 1 inch, the other i inch, below. These

perforations were considerably larger than the one above.

‘The finding of the perforated fulgurs at so great a depth in a

shell heap will, with other matters relating to these perforated -

shells, be referred to in Note A.

1893.] Shell Heaps of Florida. ro TN

Human Remains.

Eleven feet from the surface, in immediate association with

fragmentary bones of the lower animals, lay a portion of the

shaft of a human femur 3i inches in length, with old breaks

at either end; a portion of the shaft of a tibia, broken in

excavation; two right heel bones, somewhat crushed; two

bones of the toe; a fragment of a radius with old break, and

a portion of rib. Five feet east of these remains lay a frag-

mentary portion of human femur, showing no recent fracture,

while at the same level, but four feet distant, in the southeast

corner of excavation 3 lay a fragment of femur; an ulna in

two portions, old break; a small fragment of lower jaw and a

piece of femur with old longitudinal split. At about the same

level in the northwestern portion of the excavation, appar-

ently entirely isolated, was the upper half of a human ulna.

In view of the scattered and broken condition of these bones

and their association with the bones of animals used for food

together with the fact that an almost contiguous burial mound

offered a means of sepulture, it seems unlikely that these

human remains are other than refuse left over from a canni-

balistic repast. Never elsewhere on the St. John's has the

writer come upon human remains in this condition at a depth

from the surface greater than 3 feet, and in his introductory

paper, written previous to a second visit to Mulberry Mound,

he stated that in view of the numerous cases indicating can-

nibalism discovered by him along the greater portion of the

river where shell heaps exist, at no great depth from the sur-

face, he was inclined to the belief that the custom must have

come in at a somewhat late period of the formation of the

shell heaps. Subsequent research may prove this supposition

unfounded, but for reasons to be mentioned later the presence

of human remains in this condition in Mulberry Mound does

not modify his previously expressed opinion.

Remains of Lower Animals.

As is the ease in the majority of shell heaps, the deer and

turtle in Mulberry Mound were found, next to shell fish, to

720 The American Naturalist. [August,

have been the most staple articles of diet. In addition toa

number of small fragments unidentified, were found bones of

the alligator, of the raccoon, of the turtle, of the black bear,

of the red lynx (a jaw), of the catfish and of the gar. Also a

curious bone identified by Professor Cope as supporting the

dorsal fin in a member of the sheep’s head ifamily. "The jaw

of the red lynx, an animal hitherto unreported in the shell

heaps of the St. John's, was submitted to Professor Cope for

identification.

Note A.

Perforated Fulgurs.

The Prol sometimes termed the busycon, popularly known

as the conch, was a shell extensively in use among the abo-

rigines. If specimens of the two species of fulgur most com-

monly found on the St. John's River are held facing the inves-

tigator the shell having the aperture to his right is termed

carica, to his left, perversum. Fulgurs with artificially ground

beaks and with circular or oval perforations evenly made are

comparatively numerous upon the surface of the territory bor-

dering the St. John’s River. They are seldom at a greater

depth in the shell heaps than can be reached by the plow.

Their superficial position was noticed and commented upon

by Wyman (Fresh Water Shell Mounds of the St. John's

River, Florida, page 58 and Plate VIII, Fig. 2. They are,

however, occasionally found in the burial mounds of sand at

depths excluding the idea of an intrusive deposit With the

exception of Mulberry Mound, no shell heap in the writer’s

t Wyman figures two perforated objects from the shell heaps, and the

writer has a considerable number of the phalanges of the deer perforated

longitudinally, ploughed up and presented to him by Mr. Charles Dillard

of Volusia. He is also indebted to Mr. McAllister of Bluffton, Volusia Co.,

for the fossil tooth of a shark, perforated — found superficially in

the shell deposit at that place.

5 This is particularly true of the great mound at Mt. Royal, Putnam Co.,

. where in one trench among a number made, no less than 1307 fulgurs were

found by the writer. A very small percentage, however, were evenly per-

forated in the manner of the shells under discussion. The great majority

were of the species perversum. Some were unbroken, but the greater num-

ber were apparently intentionally mutilated in the manner of mortuary

pottery by having a piece roughly knocked out.

1893] | Shell Heaps of Florida. 721

investigations has yielded perforated conchs at a considerable

depth, and as the territory bordering the St. John’s has

been carefully searched by the writer, having in mind the

investigation of these perforated fulgurs, he is strongly

inclined to the belief that the employment of these imple-

ments eame in at a period subsequent to or approaching the

abandonment of the great majority of the shell heaps of the

river.

The use of these perforated fulgurs is not determined.

Wyman confessed himself in doubt. In “Art in Shell,”

Bureau of Ethnology, Annual Report, 1880-1881, Professor

Holmes figures a perforated fulgur (Plate XXVII) and cites

Rau, “Archeological Collection of the National Museum,”

page 67: “It further appears that the Florida Indians applied

shells of the busycon perversum as clubs or casse-tetes by adapt-

ing them to be used with a handle, which was made to pass

transversely through the shell. This was effected by a hole

pierced in the outer wall of the last whorl in such a manner

as to be somewhat to the left of the columella, while a notch

in the outer lip, corresponding to the hole, confined the han-

dle or stick between the outer edge of the lip and inner edge

of the columella. , , x , A hole was also made in the `

posterior surface of the spire behind the carina in the last

whorl, evidently for receiving a ligature by means of which

the shell was more firmly lashed to the handle."

. Of scores of perforated fulgurs from the river, examined by

the writer, he can recall but two wrought from the fulgur per-

versum. The fulgur carica is a more massive shell and better

fitted for the rough work than the more slender perversum

from which shell the drinking cups of the river shell heaps

and mounds are fashioned. It is true that a heavy variety of

perversum is met with on the coast, and that the fulgur carica

is rarely, if ever, found on the west coast or on the east coast

south of Jupiter inlet.

In the eoast shell heaps alone is the perforated fulgur per-

versum found to any extent, and this point should be remem-

*The Academy of Natural Sciences possesses no fulgurs of the species

carica from the west coast. The Smithsonian has one, stated to be from

Cedar Keys; its record is not well established.

722 The American Naturalist. [August,

bered when perforated fulgurs of Florida are under discus-

sion.

In the river shell heaps a very small percentage of perfora-

ted shells have a notch in the outer lip, while absolutely none.

has a perforation in the spire, if we consider the spire to be

that portion of the shell surrounding the apex, bounded by

the suture. Moreover, a considerable majority of the perfora-

ted shells have but one hole, that being in the body whorl

between the angle and the suture, from one to two inches

to the right of the aperture. A certain percentage of fulgurs

have the perforation below the shoulder, or angle, but fre-

quently in such a position that if hafted, the ground beak of

the shell would not be at right angles with the handle, and

occasionally the perforation is so placed that a handle enter-

ing the aperture could not reach it. In other cases, perfora-

tions are disproportionately small and oval in shape, unfitted

to receive a handle suitable for the rough usage of a war club.

In the writer’s collection are two good sized fulgurs with per-

forations .54 inch by .76 inch, and .86 inch by .56 inch.

Many perforated fulgurs with ground beaks are of a size to

set aside the hypothesis of their employment for any purpose

where weight is an important factor. Of these the writer has

one weighing but eight ounces, while another is but 2? inches

in length. Occasionally fulgurs are seen with perforations in

the body whorl above and below the shoulder, and it is prob-

able that these are the ones referred to by Rau with a misap-

prehension as to the location of the spire. Again, other ful-

gurs are found with a single perforation between the angle

and the suture, having two below the shoulder and equidis-

tant from it. A fulgur perversum of this character, was taken

by the writer from the historic mound at Mt. Royal, Putnam

ounty.

Some fulgurs with ground beaks are imperforate, while

others with perforations show grinding or wear where not

alone the beak is involved but a portion of the lip. Other

shells give evidence of considerable wear on the margin of the

perforation toward the upper and lower portion of the shell,

showing that the implement was not securely hafted and that

it was subjected to continuous use. Others are polished on

1893.] Shell Heaps of Florida, 723

the spire and body whorl above the periphery as though held

in the hand.

From all this it is evident that while certain perforated ful-

gurs may have served for war clubs the great majority did

not. Mr. Douglass, who is so familiar with the east coast of

Florida, believes some of them to have served as hoes, and in

this he is doubtless right. Probably, as is the case with most

aboriginal implements, their use was various.

Conclusions.

At no point in the excavations at Mulberry Mound were

whole shells found in any numbers, the heap having grown

apparently from the beginning by the slow accretion of refuse

from the meals of the few families living upon it and been

solidly packed beneath their feet. It is apparent that such

should be the case, since solid ground is too far distant to

admit of the hypothesis that the mound was made through

contributions of others not living upon its immediate surface.

That a considerable time was required to pile so great a mass

of shell to such a height through the agency of comparatively

few there can be no reason to doubt. And yet the writer is

convinced that of all the shell heaps investigated by him and

by Professor Wyman the shell heap at Mulberry Mound is the

most recent, and that it was still in process of formation when

many others were abandoned, at least for use as refuse heaps.

This belief is based upon the marvelous variety of the imple-

ments of bone, so infrequent in the other mounds, and patterns

heretofore unreported from other localities on the river. The

presence of delicately wrought lance heads near the base; of

colored and of stamped pottery at considerable depths; of ful-

gurs at a distance from the surface; of a carefully made gor-

get of shell; the discovery of an implement of polished stone, a

fact previously unheard of in the river shell heaps, and frag-

mentary human bones a number of feet from the surface,

found only superficially by the writer in numerous other shell

heaps, when taken together, argue for Mulberry Mound

an origin posterior to other shell heaps of the St. John’s hith-

.erto explored. It will be noted, however, that nothing found

in this shell heap indicated a knowledge of Europeans or in

any way pointed to its formation in post-Columbian times.

724 The American Naturalist. [August,

RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS.

AYERS, H.—The Macula neglecta again. Extr. Anat. Anzeig. VIII Jahr., 1893.

From the author

BOETTGER, Ó eraki der von Prof, C. Kellar anlässlich der Ruspoli'schen

Expedition nach den Somalilándern gesammelten Reptilien und Batrachier. Extr.

Zool. Anz., 1893. From the author

BRENDEL F.—Flora Peoriana. Peoria, 1887. From Frederick Boettger,

= J. V.—The Source of the Miscisiippi River [Official BST From the

semen S. S.—Some Laws of Heredity, and their application to Man. Extr.

Proceeds. Cotteswold Nat. Field Club. Vol. X, Pt. 8, 1891-92. From the author.

Catálogo de los Objectos Etnológicos y Argueológicos exhibidos for la Expedicion

Teminiai: Madrid, 1892.

CHAPMAN, H. C. —The Interpretation of Certain Verses of the First Voce of

Genesis in the Light of Paleontology. . Extr. Proceeds. Phila. Acad, Sci., Feb. 1893.

From the author.

Cross, W.—Notes on the Associated Igneous Rocks of the Hematite and Martite

Iron Ores in Mexico. Extr. Am. Journ. Sci., Vol. XLV, Feb. 1893. From R. T.

Hill.

DAVENPORT, C. B.—Note on the Carotids and the Ductus Botalli of the Alligator.

-——On Urnatella deron Extrs. Bull. Harvard Mus. Comp. Zool., Vol. XXIV,

1893. From the a

Dav, D. d on the Mineral Resources of the United States for 1891.

on rom ies U. S. Geol. Su

LER, J. S. eibi dud Early Tertiary of Northern California and Oregon.

Pi pw Geol. me Am., Vol. 4, 1893. From the Society.

DumMBLE, E. T.—V ohai Dust in Texas. Extr. Trans. Texas Acad. Sci., 1892.

From the ilbéc-

EIGENMANN, C. H.—The Percopsidae on the Pacific Coast. Extr. Science, Oct.

1892. From the author.

Fish Commissioners, A Correct List of. From the sch Field. No dat

Fourth Annual Report of the Missouri Botanical Gardens, 1893. From aw Té

Gace, S. H.—Notes on Fibrin Oxyhaemoglobin Crystals, and the Collodion

Method. Extr. Proceeds. Am. Soc. Micros., 1891. Methods of Decalcification in

which the Structural Elements are Preserved. An Aqueous Solution of Hematoxy-

Jin which does not readily deteriorate. Extr. Proceeds. Am. Micros. Soc., Vol.

XIV, 1892.

Address before the Section of gut ACA AS, Aug, 3892. Ext.

Ure ACA. A. S, IRDS.

HAGUE, A.—Geology of the Ureka Diada, Wee. Monographs of the U. S.

Geol. Bark; Vol. XX. From the U. S. Geol. Surv

HER , C. L.—Mammals of Minnesota. P: fie 7, Geol. and Nat. Hist.

Surv. Mas. 1892. From the author. 2

1893.] |». Recent Books and Pamphlets. 725

Hotmes, W. H.—Are there traces of Man in the Trenton Gravels. Extr. MN

Geol, Vol.I, No. 1, 1893. From the author.

HowoRTH, H. H. .—The Glacial Nightmare and the Flood. Vols. I um II. Lon-

don, 1893.

HiLL, R. T.—The Cretaceous Formations of Mexico and their Relations to North

American Geographic Development. Extr. Am. Journ. Sci., April, 1893.

——The Geologic Evolution of the Non- di sedsitedu: Topography of the Texas

Region. An Introduction to the Study of the Great Plains. Ex. Am. Geol. Vo

—— The Occurrence of Hematite and Martite Ores in Mexico. Extr. Am. Journ.

Sci, XLV, Feb., 1893. From the author

MELL, P. Hi— Report on the e of the .Cotton Plant. Bull. No. 8,

Weather Bureau. From the author

MILLER, G. S.—A Jumping Mouse (Zapus insignis Miller) New to.the United

States, Extr. Proceeds. Biol. Soc. Washing ton, Vol. VIII, 1893. From the author.

MITCHELL, S. Wrrz.—The Early History of Instrumental Precision in Medicine.

An address before the Second Congress of American Physicians and Surgeons, Sept.,

23,1891. From the author.

North Carolina - Exp. issues Bulletin Nos. 88, 89, 90, 1893.

Ossory, H. F. AND J. L. WoRTMAN.—Fossil Mammals of the Wahsatch and Wind

River Beds. Collection of inis Extr. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., Vol. IV, 1892.

PECKHAM, G. W. AND E. G.—Ant-Like Spiders of the Family Attidae. Extr. Papers

Nat. Hist. Soc. hee Vol. II, 1892.. From the Milwaukee Muse i

PEPPER, WM.—The Relation of Undergraduate to Post-Graduate Curri italik An

address read pui ni National Educational Association at Saratoga, July 12, 1892.

From the author.

PROSSER, C. S.—The Thickness of the Devonian and Silurian Rocks of Central

New York. Extr. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. IV, 1898, p. 91. From the author.

Report of the Commissioner for 1888. United States Commission of Fish and

Fisheries, Part XVI. Washington, 1892. From the U. S. Fish. Comm.

Ruoaps, S. N.—The Birds Observed in British Columbia and Washington During

Spring dod Summer, 1892. Extr. Proceeds. Phila. Acad. Sci., 1893. From the

author.

Resolutions of the Australian RIEP for the Advancement of Science Con-

cerning an International Committee on Biological Nomenclature. Extr. Proceeds.

LI, 1892

SAUVAGE, M. H. E.—Recherches sur les Poissons du Lias Supérieur de l' Yonne

Zone a Ciment de Vassy. Extr. Bull. Soc. d’Hist. Nat. Autun, 1892.—Note sur

quelques Poissons e Lias Supérieur de |’ Yonne.. Extr. Bull. Soc. Sci. de l’ Yonne,

rom the au

SCLATER, W. nie Bote Specimens of Frogs in the Indian Museum, Calcutta,

with Descriptions of Several New Species. Extr. Proceeds. London Zool. Soc., 1892.

e rom the author.

HALER, N. S.— The Conditions of Sicsion Beneath Deep Glaciers, Based Upo

a Sets of the Boulder Train from Iron Hill, Cumberland, R. I. Extr. Bull. Mus.

Comp. Zool. Harv. Coll., Vol. XVI, 1893. From Alexander Agassiz.

726 The American Naturalist. [August,

SHUFELDT, R. W.—Comparative TA eg on the AN Bird Ichthy-

ornis. Extr. Journ. Anat. and Physiol. Vol. XXV m thea

SLINGERLAND, M. V.—The ^p Psylla. art x 1892. ssi Univ. Agri.

Exp. Station. From the author.

STEVENSON, J. J.—Prof. I. C. White’ s ee of the eaga Coal Field

of Pennsylvania, Ohio and West Virgini Extr . Geol. Jun

me Notes on South-Eastern Alaska ct its in qaem Geog.

Mag., Feb., 1893. From the author

TOWNSEND, C. H. T.—On ig se Miner of Populus fremonti. Notes on Two

Mexican Species of decas with a Record of Parasites Reared from One. | Extr.

Zoe, Oct., 1892. ew Jamaica Tachinidae.—New North American Tachinidae.

P uen Me 1892. From the author.

ELEASE, WM.—Further Studies of Yuccas and their Pollination. Extr. Fourth

ue gin y^ Hints Botanical Gardens, 1898. From the author.

UPHAM, W.—Comparison of the Pleistocene and d eng Ice-Sheets, Extr. Bull.

Geol. Soc. Am. Vol. IV, 1893, p. 191. From the

WHITEAVES, J. F.—Contributions to Canadian in a Vol. i. Pt. IV, 6.

The Fossils of the Devas Rocks of the Islands, Shores or Immediate Vicinity of

es Manitoba and Winnipegosis. Ottawa, 1892.

-Notes on the Gasteropoda of the T enton Limestone of Manitoba, with a

description of one new species. Extr. Canadian Record Science, April, 1893. From

the author.

Wot r, J. E. AND R. S. TARR.—Acmite Trachyte from the Crazy Mountains,

Montana. Extr. Bull. Harv. Mus. Comp. Zool., Vol. XVI, 1893. From Alexander

Agassiz.

1893.] Recent Literature. 127

RECENT LITERATURE.

Hawks and Owls of the United States.'— This volume is a

report on the Hawks and Owls of the United States, by Mr. A. K.

. Fisher, with reference to the economie status of the various species.

Of it Mr. C. Hart Merriam makes the following statement in his letter

of transmissal to the Secretary of Agriculture.

“This work was written several years ago, but was withheld. from

publieation until provision could be made for suitable reproduction of

the colored illustrations, without which the bulletin would have been

of comparatively little value to the class of readers for whose benefit

it was specially prepared.

“The statements herein contained respecting the food of the various

hawks and owls are based on the critical examination, by scientific

experts, of the actual contents of about 2,700 stomachs of these birds,

and consequently may be fairly regarded as a truthful showing of the

normal food of each species. The result proves that a class of birds

commonly looked upon as enemies to the farmer, and indiscriminately

destroyed whenever occasion offers, really rank among his best friends,

and with few exceptions should be preserved, and encouraged to take

up their abode in the neighborhood of his home. Only six of the 73

species and subspecies of hawks and owls of the United States are

injurious. Of these, three are so extremely rare they need hardly be

considered, and another (the Fish Hawk) is only indirectly injurious,

leaving but two (the Sharp-shinned and Cooper's Hawks) that really

need be taken into account as enemies to agriculture. Omitting the

six species that feed largely on poultry and game 2,212 stomachs were

examined, of which 56 per cent contained mice and other small mam-

mals, 27 per cent insects, and only 33 per cent poultry or game birds.

In view of these facts the folly of offering bounties for the destruction

of hawks and owls, as has been done by several states, becomes appar-

ent, and the importance of an accurate knowledge of the economie

status of our common birds and mammals is overwhelmingly demon-

strated.’

Fresh Water Algze and the Desmidiez of the United

‘The Hawks and Owls of the United Stateg in vid Relation to pos

ture. By A. K. Fisher. "Bull. No. 3, Div. Ornith. & Mam., U. S. Dept

Agric., Washington, 1893.

728 The American Naturalist. [August,

States.*—This work of Mr. Stokes has been prepared with special

reference to the needs of beginners in the study of Algs and Desmids,

for whom the author believes analytical keys are absolutely essential.

Generally speaking an artificial one is more useful than a natural one

which involves more or less dissection, ruinous to the specimen, and a

knowledge of characters that a beginner does not possess.

The keys offered by Mr. Stokes are founded on the classification in .

Wolles Monographs on the fresh water Algs and Desmids of this

country, and references to these works are given for extended descrip-

tions of the species.

Directions for the collection, preservation and mounting of these

microscopic plants are given, with a list of the best preserving media

in the order of their excellence.

The plate illustrating the genera of Desmids is a valuable adjunct

to the work.

Gasteropoda and Cephalopoda of the New Jersey Creta-

ceous Marls.’—This volume, in reality a Monograph of the subject, has

been prepared by Professor Robert P. Whitfield for the Geological

Survey of New Jersey. It constitutes the second volume of a series

which is intended to include descriptions of all the fossil invertebrates

found in the New Jersey Cretaceous Marls. The following is a synop-

sis of the Classified List which accompanies the work :

INV OF THE NEW JERSEY CRETACEOUS MARLS.

Gasteropoda.

Genera Species

Subelass Prosobranchiata

Order Pectinibranchiata 54 119

Order Scutibranchiata 5 6

Subelass Opisthobranchiata :

Order Tectibranchiata 6 6

Scaphoda.

Family Dentalium 8 4

* Analytical Keys to the Genera and Species of the Fresh Water Algæ

and the Desmidiez of the United States. By Alfred Stokes. Portland,

Conn., 1893. "

* Gasteropoda and Cephalopoda of the Raritan Clays and Greensand

_ Maris of New Jersey. By Robert P. Whitfield. Trenton, 1892.

1893.] Recent Literature. 729

Cephalopoda.

Order Tetrabranchiata D 21

Order Dibranchiata 1 1

INVERTEBRATA OF THE NEW JERSEY EOCENE MARLS.

Gasteropoda.

Genera Species

Subelass Prosobranchiata

Order Pectinibranchiata 25 45

Order Scutibranchiata 2 4

Subclass Opisthobranchiata

Order Tectibranchiata 3 3

Cephalopoda.

Order Tetrabranchiata 2 2

130 The American Naturalist. [August,

General Notes.

GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVELS.

Europe.—NeEusIEDLER Lakr.—Neusiedler Lake has for some

time decreased in capacity, and it is now proposed to drain its remain-

ing waters into the Raab by means of a canal.

RECLAMATION OF THE ZUYDER ZEE.—The March issue of the Geo-

graphical Journal contains an account of the engineering works pro-

posed to be executed for the purpose of reclaiming the greater part of

the Zuyder Zee. The work is to be carried out in sections, the first of

which will fill in a bay north of the broad channel which will be left

leading to the city of Amsterdam; while the second will comprise an

extensive area south of that channel. 'The remaining sections will

diminish the water area to the eastward. As a dam will be built across

the Zee at its mouth the whole of the waters within will be fresh, and

will be named the Ysel Meer, from the river of that name. "The scheme

also provides for the enlargement on their land-fronts of the islands at

the mouth of the Zuyder Zee.

THE Pontine Marsnes.—Capt. von Doncet has brought forward a

scheme for reclaiming the Pontine Marshes, which are exceedingly fertile,

and capable of producing food for half a million of people. The area is six

square miles, but the exhalations from them render sixteen square miles

unhealthful, and the present population is only thirty. The projector

proposes to eut off by peripheral canals the streams which enter from

the surrounding higher ground, and to utilize the existing interior

canals, the work of Pius VI. The surface of these marshes is of old

soft elastic peat, ten feet thick at the Appian Way, over seventy feet

deep at the foot of the mountains; this peat apparently fills an ancient

sea area, as beneath it is a layer of clay with shells and sea-sand. Five

thousand acres are too low to permit the natural fall to be made avail-

able, and much of the area is, after the rains, covered with three feet of

water, besides which, springs at the foot of the hills yield one and a

half timesas much as might be expected to drain into the basin.

Africa.—Ascent OF THE JUB OR JuBA.—Capt. Dundas has

returned safely from what seems to have been a most perilous journey

1893.] Geography and Travel. i c FPE

of some 400 miles up the Juba, a river which parts the “ sphere of influ-

ence” of England in East Africa from that of Italy. The inhabitants

of both coasts of this river are the fanatical Mussulman, Somali or Swa-

hili, who resent the coming among them of any European, though some

of the coast Somalis seem to have become accustomed to their presence.

At the very entrance of the river the natives assembled in great

numbers, completely over-awed the crew of Zanzibaris, and gave Capt.

Dundas to understand that he could not proceed without leave. The

Captain was compelled to go to Mombasa, and enlist the aid of the res-

ident there by whose tact leave was obtained, the Somal chief appro-

priating a sword and an armchair as a present. At about a hundred

miles from the sea a second river channel, trending toward the ocean,

south of the mouth known as that of the J uba, enters the latter stream.

New troubles commenced when the territory of the chief of Berbera, —

within which the unfortunate expedition of Van der Decken came to an

end, was reached. Thousands of savages appeared on the banks, and

many sprang into the river to seize the little stern wheel steamer. The

discharge of a rocket cleared the river, but the danger remained.

Accompanied by his interpreter, Capt. Dundas went ashore, and, con-

stantly repeating “ Aman” (peace) made his way, spite of the contact

of cold spears, into the chief’s presence. “ We have done you no harm,

is it to be ‘aman’ or not,” was the substance of the Captain’s speech.

The astonished chief hesitated, asked for time to consider, and then sent

word that, though he objected to white men, he rather 'iked the captain.

Finally, with some natives on board, the Kenia was allowed to pro-

ceed, passing by the wreck of Van der Decken’s vessel, to some rapids ;

whence, as the Somals assured Capt. D that important falls existed

a few miles higher up, and as the water was shallow, the Kenia

commenced its return journey.

Capt. Dundas speaks with considerable admiration of the fighting

powers and physique of the Somalis, who are attired with a long spear

and a stabbing knife, and who guard their women rigidly. Many

lighter complexioned Galla, probably slaves, were observed among

them.

Danomey—The end of General Dodd’s victorious compaign in

Dahomey has been the declaration that all that country is now under

French protection, while the districts of Whydah, Godomy, Abomey—

Kalavi, with some others, are annexed to France.

Sources OF THE Nite—Dr. Bauman’s journeys in the district

between Lakes Tanganyika and Victoria Nyanza have thrown much

light on the ultimate sources of the Nile. Dr. Bauman considers the

702 The American Naturalist. [August,

Kagera, a small river emptying into the Nyanza, as thetrüe fount of the

Nile—its source is esteemed sacred by the Warundi, or natives of

Urundi, a thickly populated district lying around the head of Lake

Tanganyika.

DrarH or Msrpr—The March issue of the Geographical Journal

contains a résumé ofthe conduct and result of various exploring expedi-

tions which have penetrated into the district of Garenganze (Msidi’s

country) since it was visited by Arnot. The whole of this southeastern

part of the Congo State has been leased to the Katanza Company, and

no less than five expeditions have reached and explored the upper

courses of the Lualaba, Lomaine, and Sankaru, the upper part of which

last is called the Lubilash. Lieutenants Paul le Marinel, Deleommune

and Capt. W. G. Stairs were the respective commandants of three of

these. The most important political event has been the death of Msidi,

and the falling to pieces of hisephemeral empire. Having become old

and despotic, various chiefs rebelled, and the country became anarchic.

Msidi asked for aid from M. Delcommune, but that gentleman wisely

refused. During the stay of Capt. Stairs at the capital, Lieut. Bodson

was compelled to shoot at and kill Msidiin self-defence, but was at once

shot by a chief. Capt. Stairs immediately called the chiefs together,

and persuaded them to accept the flag of the Congo State. At this

juncture—Captain Dia and his party arrived, and Capt. Stairs, whose

health had long been failing, took the opportunity of departing for the

coast, but died at Chinde. The flow of water in the Lualaba is much

less that in the more eastern Lualaba. Msidi’s * empire " about which

so much has been written, has therefore endured less than a single

generation.

The River Baram and Mt. Dulit, Borneo.—In the Geograph-

ieal Journal for March, Mr. C. Hose gives an account of a trip up the

Baram River to Dulit (5100 feet) and the high lands of Borneo. A

map accompanies the account, and one eminence Kalalong is given at

7000 feet, while Mr. Hose states that the extinct summit visible must be

nearly 10,000 feet. An amusing incident was the encounter with a

musician who was entertaining an assembly by performing upon a flute,

selingut, with his nose, and eliciting notes clearer than those obtaining

from the ordinary native flute, ensuling, played with the mouth. The

musician asserted that when at best, he could draw tears from his

audience. The lower part of the Baram, which at its embouchure is

three quarters of a mile wide, and which rolls forth a current sufficiently

strong to render the sea-water fresh two miles from shore, is flat, with

Tittle to note save fine palm-trees. The first real high ground begins

1893.] Geography and Travels. 733

60 miles from the mouth, at Claudetown, the seat of government and

centre of trade. Most of the traffic seems to be in the hands of Chinese

merchants. At the entrance of the Akar the land is very fertile, and

the mountain scenery fine; while at the mouth of the Libbun the

scenery on one side consists of lofty table topped elevations of from

5,000 to 8,000 feet, on the other of grassy plains. The object of Mr.

Hose’s trip was not exploration only, but natural history, and from

various points of the flat topped Mt. Dulit he collected many birds and

mammals, some of the former new to science. Several tribes ; Kayans,

Punans, etc., are mentioned, all diftering from the Dyaks. The Punans

build no houses, but live in the jungle like wild beasts, and are expert

with the blow pipe. The Kayans have singular burial customs, and are

spiritualists, believing that messages can pass between the dead and

the living. When a death occurs in a family, the body is placed in a

coffin of soft wood, painted in various hues, and with a lid fastened

down with dammar resin, and is kept in the house three months. To

avoid too great a nuisance, a long drain of bamboo is thrust deep into

the soil, with the upper end in the coffin. After three months a tomb

of hard wood, twelve feet from the ground, adorned with figures of men

and women, is made, and the corpse is borne to it with much ceremony.

The weapons, tools, and cook-pot of a man are buried with him, while

with a woman are laid her sun-hat, hoe, and personal adornments, par-

ticularly her ear-rings. Cigarettes, to be given to friends in the land of

the dead, are always placed with the corpse. The Kayans believe that

the dead have different places of abode, according to the manner of

their death. Those who die of sickness or old age have a lot in Apo

Leggàn, much like that on the earth ; those who die by accident or in

battle have a better lot in Long Jalan; still born children, who have

never known pain, are very brave; suicides are miserable in Jan Jok-

kan, while to those who die by water fall stores of riches in their post-

humous residence Ling Yang. It may be remembered by some that

recently Mr. Whitehead added greatly to our zoological knowledge of —

Borneo by his ascent of Kina Balu, from which mountain he brought

back a collection that demonstrated the existence of a Himalayan

fauna. Mr. Hose has added to these proofs. The district of the Baram

River has been detached from N. Borneo, and annexed to Sarawak, now

governed by the son of the famous Rajah Brooke.

Mr. H. R. Mill, in an article in the March Geographical Journal

seeks to reconcile conflicting ideas respecting the permanence of oceanic

and continental areas, by showing that the 1700 fathom line divides the

world into two nearly equal areas, the one abyssal, the ates I

nen

34 The American Naturalist. [August,

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.

The Moon’s Face.—Mr. Gilbert’s address as retiring president

of the Washington Philosophical Society is an ingenious array of

arguments in favor of the impact theory to account for the origin of

the features of the moon’s face. His hypothesis is, that material

constituting the moon once surrounded the earth in the form of a

aturnian ring; that the small bodies of this ring coalesced, first

gathering around a large number of nuclei, and finally all uniting in a

single sphere, the moon; that the lunar craters are the scars resulting

from the collision of the moonlets.

This hypothesis reconciles the impact theory with the circular out-

line of the lunar craters, and explains the abundance of colliding

bodies of large magnitude. The author discusses the probabilities of

the formation, according to his theory, of lunar wreaths, central hills,

arched inner plains, level inner plains,and the association of inner

plains with central hills. He finds his theory adequate to explain all

these phenomena, as well as the peculiarities known as furrows, sculp-

ture, rills and rill pits. In regard to the “ white streaks” Mr. Gilbert

quotes, as in accordance with his own idea, an unpublished suggestion

made by Mr. William Wiirdeman, “ that a meteorite (moonlet) strik-

ing the moon with great force spattered whitish matter in various

directions. ”

aaa the guis n: the mowi eap d ofthe moonlets must have colli-

which have been obliterated

Pe erosion and sedimentation. ` ET is possible the writer suggests, that

these collisions imitated not only the differentiation of continental and

oceanic plateaus, but the series of geographic transformations of which

geologic structure is the record. (Phil. Soc. Washington, Bull. Vol.

XII, 1893).

North America during Cambrian Time.—Mr. Charles Wal-

cott’s extensive knowledge of the Cambrian system of North America,

‘has made it possible for him to reconstruct the form of the continent

during that time. The land area is considered at the inception of

Cambrian time, and its history is traced in a broad manner to the

closing epoch of the period.

By a form of deductive reasoning from the mode of sedimentation

‘the author first determines an approximate shore line of the ancient

1393. Geology and Paleontology. 735

pre-Cambrian continent. The geographic distribution of pre-Cam-

brian land is based upon the evidence afforded by the absence of

Cambrian deposits upon known pre-Cambrian rocks; the existence of

shore lines during earlier Cambrian time; and the presence of deep-

water deposits. "The features of the surface of the pre-Cambrian land

are indieated by the relation of the known Cambrian and post-Cam-

brian formations where it is exposed.

Mr. Walcott considers the prevailing view of the geographic distri-

bution and extent of continental area at the beginning of Paleozoic

time too restricted. The present Appalachian system was outlined by

a broad, high range that extended from the present site of Alabama to

Canada, with subparallel ranges to theeastand northeast. The paleo-

Adirondacks joined the main portion of the continent, and the strait

between them and the paleo-Green Mountains opened north into the

paleo-St. Lawrence Gulf, and to the south extended far along the

western side of the mountains and the eastern margin of the continental

mass to the sea that carried the fauna of the Olenellus epoch around

to the paleo-Rocky Mountain trough.

It is highly probable that ridges of the Algonkian Continent rose

above the sea to the east of the present continent. On the east and

west of the continental area the pre-Cambrian land formed a mountain

region, and over the interior a plateau existed much as it does to-day.

In late Middle Cambrian time, the Cambrian Sea began to invade

the great Interior Continental area and extended far to the north

toward the close of the period.

At the close of the Cambrian time the Cambrian Sea had extended

over the broad interior continent and had submerged the low ground

along the line of the barrier ridges and some portions of the northern

nucleal V of the Archean Continent.

Two hypothetical maps based upon columnar sections, and the pres-

ent knowledge of the distribution of the sediments, represent the con-

tinent at the beginning of Lower Cambrian and of Ordovician time.

These maps in connection with one showing the relative amount of

sedimentation within the typical provinces of North America during

Cambrian time, and the theoretic sections across the continent, are

valuable adjuncts tothe text. (Extr. Twelfth Ann. Rept. Director

U.S. Geol. Survey, 1890-91).

Lower Silurian Brachiopoda of Minnesota.—The report of

Mr. N. H. Winchell and Mr. Charles Schubert on the Brachiopoda

found in the Lower Silurian deposits of Minnesota comprises descrip-

736 The American Naturalist. [August,

tions of 31 genera and subgenera, to which are referred 94 species and

varieties. These latter include 15 that are new toscience. Two new

families are necessitated by the authors’ scheme of classification.

Clitambonitide to contain Protorthis, Clitambonites, Hemipronites,

and Scenidium ; and Lingulasmatide to contain Lingulaps and Lin-

gulasma.

In a short introduction the authors state that near the top of the

Trenton shales new forms are introduced. Near the middle of the

Galena the brachiopod horizon is quite distinct from any below it.

The fauna of the Hudson River deposits agrees with that of the Cin-

cinnati group of the Ohio Valley. Below the Trenton limestone, but

one brachiopod (Lingula moesit) is known in the St. Peter sandstone ;

none in the Shakopee formation, but several in the Lower Magnesian.

In the St. Croix formation brachiopods are abundant but mainly of

inarticulate species. (Extr. Vol. III. Rept. Minn. Geol. Surv. 1893)

Geological News. General.—Mr. C. S. Du Riche Preller gives

as a result of a lengthy investigation of the Tuscan Archipelago that

(1) these islands are, geologically and petrographically, closely

connected, not only with each other, but with the Maremina Hills on

the one liand, and with Corsica and Sardinia, as well as with the Lig-

urian Alps on the other; (2) that they probably constitute part of a

former Tyrrhenian continent; and (3) with few exceptions they are

representative of every geological formation from pre-Silurian down-

ward and also include an interesting eruptive series. (Geol. Mag.,

June, 1893).

Paleozoic.—Mr. N. H. Winchell and C. Schubert have published

in quarto form, with profuse illustration, the Sponges, Graptolites and

Corals from the Lower Silurian of Minnesota. 9 sponges are listed ; 4

Hydrozoa including the doubtful one, Solenopora compacta Billings ;

and 10 Actinozoa, of which 5 are new species. , The paper includes a

discussion of the systematic position of “ Anomaloides” by Mr. E. O.

Ulrich, with a proposal to change the name to Anomalospongia.

(Vol. III. Final Rept. Minn. Geol. Surv. 1893).

A new species of Discites (Discites hibernicus) is described and

figured by Messrs A. H. Foord and G. C. Cricks in the Geol. Mag.,

June, 1893. The shell has not been distorted during fossilization, so

that the characters of the fossil can be accurately determined. The

specimen was found in the carboniferous limestone near Dublin.

1893.] Geology and Paleontology. 737

According to Mr. Arthur Hollick the isolated and limited exposures

of cretaceous strata on Staten Island indicate a large and continuous

bed of similar material throughout the entire area. Mr. White’s

division of the New Jersey cretaceous strata into marine and non-

marine, with the Staten Island Clays referred to the latter division,

the author considers no longer tenable. (Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci.

Vol. XI, 1892).

Mesozoic.—The validity of the Wallala beds as a division of the

California cretaceous is questioned by Mr. H. W. Fairbanks. This

division was made by Drs. White and Becker and comprises a series

of shales, sandstones and conglomerates found in Mendocino Co.,

Cal. and Todos Santos Bay, Lower Cal. The Coraliochama, which

ite considers the ch teristic fossil of the Wallala beds, is abundant

in the Chico. Recent fossil finds show also that the fauna of Todos

Santos Bay closely resembles the Chico. The general character of

to the beds, together with resemblance of fauna, is sufficient evidence

Mr. Fairbanks that the Wallala beds and the Chico are synchronous.

(Am. Journ. of Sci., June, 1893.

Mr. T. W. Stanton's conclusions in regard to the California creta-

ceous are substantially the same as those of Mr. Diller. He finds no

faunal break in the series of strata that have been referred to the

Shasta and Chico formations. A comparison of the Shasta-Chico

fauna with that of the Blackdown beds of England, shows that of 46

species figured by Sowerby from those beds, 23 are represented in the

Shasta-Chico formations. The age of this fauna, therefore, is not more

recent than the Cenomanian. (Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. June, 1893).

Cenozoic.—In discussing the affinities of a fish from the “ terrain

Bruxellien " described by Dr. Winkler as Euchodus bleekeri, M. Ray-

mond Storms agrees with Mr. A. S. Woodward, that the fossil must be

referred to Cybium, a genus represented in modern waters by at least

a dozen species. (Bull. Soc. Belge de Geol. de Paleont. et d' Hydrol,

T. VI. 1892).—At the June meeting of the London Zoological Society

an account was given by Mr. Lydekker of a collection of bird bones

from the Neocene deposits of St. Alban in the Department of Isére,

France. The more perfect specimens were referred mostly to new

species; Strix sancti albani, Palaeortyz maxima, P. grivensis and Tota-

nus majori. Some of the specimens were indeterminable from their

fragmentary condition. (Nature, June 15, 1893.)

738 The American Naturalist. [August,

BOTANY.

The Coming Botanical Meetings at Madison.—In connec-

tion with the meeting of the American Association for the Advance-

ment of Science at Madison, Wisconsin, from August 17 to 23, inclu-

sive, there will be much of interest to American botanists. The Soci-

ety for the Promotion of Agricultural Science meets on the 15th and 16th.

Beginning on Friday, the 18th, the Botanical Club will hold daily

meetings. The new section of Botany (Section G) of the Association

promises to be of unusual interest, inasmuch as the committee on pro-

gramme has made a special effort to bring out some of the foremost

botanists of the country, many of whom have consented to prepare

papers. The announcement is made that there will be papers on

Morphology, Physiology, Pathology, Systematic and Economic Botany,

and special papers on “ The Present Status of Botanical Instruction

in the Colleges and Universities of this Country,” and “ The Present

Aspect of the Nomenclature Question.”

Following all these will come the International Botanical Congress,

of which mention was made in the NATURALIST some months ago.

The Committee having the matter in hand have issued a circular

announcing the congress, as follows :

* An International Botanical Congress will be held at Madison,

Wis., U. S. A., beginning August 23, 1893, and continuing three or

more days. All botanists are eligible to membership, and are

earnestly requested to attend the sessions, so far as possible. A mem-

bership fee of two dollars will be required.

* The purpose of the Congress is the presentation and discussion of

botanical questions of general interest relating to the advancement of

the science. It is expected that the International Standing Commit-

tee on Nomenclature, appointed last year at the Genoa Congress, will

present its first report at this time. Papers embodying research will

not be received, but such papers, whether by American or foreign bot-

anists, may be presented before the Botanical Section or the Botani-

cal Club of the American Association for the Advancement of Science,

which holds its annual meeting preceding that of the Congress (August

17 to 24).

* Reduced rates of travel by steamship or railway cannot be provided

by the Congress, but special rates can be obtained for the World’s

Columbian Exposition at Chicago. Madison is reached by several

lines of railway from Chicago, and is distant only about four hours.

1893.] Botany. i 199

* It is hoped that societies will'send delegates to the Congress. It is

requested that all persons intending to be present notify the chairman

of the committee of arrangements at as early a date as possible.”

The committee, consisting of Messrs Arthur, Bailey, Britton,

Campbell, Coulter, Coville, Galloway, MacMillan, Robinson and

Underwood promises to issue a programme of the sessions before the

meeting. Inthe meantime further information may be obtained of

the chairman, Dr. J.C. Arthur, Lafayette, Ind.—CHARLES E. Bessey.

Freshwater Algæ.—Dr. A. C. Stokes has rendered a good ser-

vice to beginners in the study of the fresh water alge by preparing

his little book “ Analytical Key to the Genera and Species of the

Fresh Water Algz and the Desmidiez of the United States.” It con-

tains 117 pages of matter, and a plate illustrating the genera. As

brought out by the publisher E. F. Bigelow of Portland, Conn., it is a

neatly printed, cloth-bound volume, which he sells for the moderate

price of $1.25. It merits an abundant sale. The following sugges-

tions taken from the introduction may be useful to beginners:

“ Algæ and Desmids are singly invisible to the naked eye. It is

only when they occur in large masses that the eye can take cognizance

of them. It rarely occurs, however, that the Desmids are so abun-

dantly congregated that they thus obtrude themselves on the observer.

When a large quantity has been collected and the vessel placed near

a window, they will collect in a green film at the surface of the water

on the lighted side, and there become visible in mass. In the ponds

and shallows such an occurrence is not common. At times they are

found so abundantly that by holding a glass vessel of the water up to

the light they may be seen floating about as minute green objects,

which the trained eye will recognize and the pocket lens make distinct.

But these varieties are among the largest of the forms; according to

my experience they are always exclusively confined to the Closteriums.

Other large forms, like Micrasterias, at least in the writer’s locality,

rarely occur in such profusion. To collect the Desmids, therefore, it

is necessary to collect by faith. The microscopist can know exactly

what he has only when he gets home and examines the water, drop by

drop, under the microsco n

“ With the Alge it is different. These are usually visible to the

naked eye, as they are almost invariably collected in large masses,

floating on the surface, submerged just beneath the surface, or attached

in waving tufts or fringes to sticks and stones and other plants in the

ponds. The eye of faith is not needed to recognize them. They

740 The American Naturalist. [August,

usually force themselves on the wandering attention of the observing

pedestrian in the wayside lanes, beside the ditches and slow brooks.

As soft emerald clouds, or graceful streamers floating in the sluggish

current, or resting like a green scum on the surface, they are readily

seen and easily gathered. No collecting tools are demanded for either

Alg: or Desmids, except a dipper of some kind, a common tin dipper

is as good as anything, and a few bottles or other vessels to carry the

treasures home, and to keep them concealed from inquisitive people;

the collecting naturalist must always be prepared for meeting with

such persons."

1893.] Zoology. 741

ZOOLOGY.

Zoology of the Lower Saskatchewan River.— Prof. C. C.

Nutting's report on Zoological Explorations on the Lower Saskatche-

wan River is condensed statement of a large amount of information.

The expedition was sent out by the Iowa State University, with the

primary object of getting a series of birds in summer plumage, and

also the downy young. Prof. Nutting, however, got all he could in all

directions. Much of the interest of the report lies in the descriptions

of the habits of the various animals, either as observed by the party

themselves, or told them by the hunters of that region.

In speaking of the geography of the country explored, Mr. Nutting

refers to the water system as comparable in extent to that of the Mis-

sissippi River. From the Saskatchewan River to the Polar Sea is one

inextricable maze of lakes, rivers and marshes, one of the greatest

palustral regions in the world, perhaps, and the breeding place of

most of our migratory birds.

The rezion is one of unusual zoological interest, being to a certain

extent characterized by an intermingling of eastern and western, arc-

tic and temperate fauns. The whole region is covered with dense

forests of conifers and poplar. The formation is Upper Silurian, and

the principal paleontological feature is Pentamerus decussatus of which

a fine series was secured.

The birds collected, numbering 104 species, were the summer resi-

dents of that region, of which 90 per cent are birds included in the

avifauna of Iowa.

In regard to the migration of birds, the view held by the writer is

that the impulse to migrate comes from without and the act is a con-

scious seeking for a more suitable clime, on the part of the adults at

least, the young simply following or imitating their elders. There is

much to indicate that this stimulus comes in the form of the wind.

Only a fragmentary list of the mammals is given. One snake was

found, also three frogs and five fishes ; but a large number of insects

and molluses were secured. (Bull. Lab. Nat. Hist. Iowa State Uni-

versity Vol. II, No. 3, 1893).

Zoological News. General.—A correspondent of The Nat-

uralist has communicated a curious fact to that Journal. Along the

estuary ofthe Humber Riveran excavation has been made in a quarry

742 ` The American Naturalist. [August,

into which the water of the estuary overflows but cannot return to the

river. This wateris brackish and contains a few sea fish, among

which are some whitebait and herring. These fish thrive and repro-

duce themselves, but are reduced in size and are gradually forming a

dwarfed species, especially the herring. These brackish water fish

could easily be utilized for pisciculture. Mr. Yarrel reports that the

whitebait adapts itself to fresh water where it grows and multiplies

almost as well as in the sea, furnishing a table fish which for size and

flavor is not surpassed by its salt water relatives. (Revue Scientifique

June, 1893).

Invertebrata.— Dr. J. G. de Man has recently published in quarto

form full descriptions of 129 species of Decapods found in the Indian

Archipelago. Amongthem the author notes 27 new species and 9 new

varieties. They are all classified under 50 genera. Fourteen plates,

and a table showing the geographical distribution of the fresh water

species accompany the paper. (Zool. Ergeb. einer Reise in Neiderl.

Ost. Indien, Zweiter Bd., Leiden, 1892).

According to Dr. M. Weber 112 species of fresh-water crustaceans

have been found in the Indian Archipelago, of which 88 are Decapoda,

10 Isopoda, 6 Ostracoda, 5 Cladocera, 4 Amphipoda, 2 Copepoda, 1

Branchiura and 1 Branchiopoda. (Zool. Ergeb. einer Reise in Niederl.

Ost. Indien, Zweiter Bd. Leiden, 1892).

Vertebrata.—Mr. J. A. Allen reports 17 mammals and 162 birds

collected in northeastern Sonora and northwestern Chihuahua, Mexico,

on the Lumholtz Archeological Expedition 1890-92. Of the

birds 12 species occur as resident birds within 150 miles of the south-

ern border of the United States. (Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., March, 1893).

A summary of the species of Reptiles and Batrachians of Wisconsin

published by Prof. W. K. Higley gives Lacertilia 4, Ophidia 22,

Testudinata 13, Anura 8, and Urodela 12. Among the turtles is

mentioned Macrochelys lacertina, the Loggerhead Snapper which the

author says is occasionally found in the Mississippi River as far north

as the mouth of the Wisconsin. (Wis. Acad. Sci. and Arts, Vol.

VID).

1893.] Embryology. —— 743

EMBRYOLOGY.’

The Sea-urchin egg.—Hans Driesch’ has recently made an

interesting addition to his previous work upon the eggs of Echinus

mricrotuberculatus and Spherechinus granularis by the aid of an

improvement in his methods. ;

He reaches the conclusion that by operative interference cells of the

cleaving egg are made to form entodermal structures though they

would normally have formed ectodermal structures.

In his larger paper? the author described the peculiar results obtained

when eggs are subjected to pressure under a cover glass.

In such eggs the elastic membrane must be ruptured by pressure in

order that it may not tend to restore the original spherical shape when

the pressure is removed, but when the eggs are compressed sufficiently

to break the membrane many of them are irreparably injured. Sub-

sequently he found that if the eggs are shaken for 4 or 5 seconds in a

glass the membrane may be removed from all of them without any

injury to the eggs. This, however, must be done at the right time,

about three minutes after the sperm has been added to the eggs and the

membrane is just plainly separating itself from the egg.

These membraneless eggs are subjected to the pressure of the cover

glass when they have divided into 4 cells. Under such circumstances

they form a disk of 8 cells, since the cleavage spindles now lie horizon-

tally or at right angles to their normal position.

When the pressure is removed the 8 cells divide at right angles to

the plate, forming 16 cells in two layers of 8 each; however there are

rarely 4 but usually only 2 micromeres formed and these 2 frequently

lie out at one side of the double plate, not beneath the cells that formed

tbem. From this double plate of 16 cells there is next formed a

double plate of 32 cells. The important point here is that, as the author

maintains, no rearrangement of cells takes place but merely a horizon-

tal division of each of the 16 to increase the whole to a double plate of

32, 16 in each layer; yet the cells that gave off the peripherally placed

micromeres do divide vertically and thus fill the gap in the lower plate,

which would otherwise remain with only 12 cells. These 12 with, the

2 vertically formed ] the 2 products of the 2 mi | up

the 16 of the lower plate.

1 Edited by Dr. E. A. Andrews, Baltimore, Md.

2 Anatom. Anz., April 8th, 1893.

3 See THE AMERICAN NATURALIST for February, 1893.

744 The American Naturalist. [August,

This double plate of 16 cells is the blastula stage, the author affirms,

and becomes a complete larva without rearrangement of cells, It fol-

lows then that the normal animal pole of the egg is now found asa

circular zone of cells about the equatorial periphery of the embryo while

the vegetative pole of the normal egg is now represented by two

isolated cells, one at each polar region of the entire mass; this is a

disk that is becoming spheroidal by the conversion of the central parts

which we have called its upper and lower surfaces into the peripheral

zone or equator of the sphere.

If the eggs are kept under pressure till 16 cells are formed these are

found to be in a single layer. When now this plate of 16 cells is set

free and a second division in accomplished there results a double plate

of 32 cells having 16 in each layer. This seems almost identical with

the above deseribed 32 cell stage and like it may form a complete

normal pleuteus larva. As a matter of fact the two 32 cell embryos

differ in the important item that cells having homologous positions in

the two may have different relationships to the cells near them. Thus

in the latter case cells at the periphery overlying one another, one in

each layer, are brothers while like-placed cells in the former embryo

are cousins. Another difference is that the 2 micromeres of the latter

embryo do not divide into 4 equal cells but into 2 larger 2 smaller, as

is the case in the normal embryo.

From the above facts, which are illustrated by camera drawings, the

author concludes that so fundamental a displacement of cells has been

brought about that, first, some ectoderm arises from what would have

been entoderm and second, that entoderm arises from what would have

been ectoderm. The first conclusion is evident from Selenka’s observa-

tion that the entodermal invagination is normally opposite the animal

pule, or region of micromeres. For if these experiments are credited,

the vegetative part of the egg is displaced into two separate sets

of cells; later but one digestive tract arises, hence some of these two

sets of vegetative cells must have taken part in the formation of

ectodermal structures. :

If we may assume that the micromeres are a determining influence,

or that the entoderm must arise opposite them, even in these abnormal

specimens, then the entoderm will be formed from a part of the

abnormal egg that is purely of the animal pole or normally to form but

oderm.

Unfortunately the autbor has no observations upon these interesting

stages of the abnormal larvze and we have no real knowledge of what

. cells actually form the entoderm.

195 Embryology. 745

A Contribution to Insect Embryology.'—Under this title Mr.

W. M. Wheeler presented to the Faculty of Clark University a

dissertation that demonstrates the high ideals attained in Biological

work at that institution.

It is sufficient indication of the character of the work to say that it

is worthy of the elegant illustration it has found in the Journal of

Morphology.

It is chiefly a study of gastrulation, formation of embryonie mem-

branes, nervous system and reproductive organs in the locust, Xiphi-

dium ensiferum Scud., though a much broader view is given by illus-

trations drawn from the author’s work upon numerous other insects,

notably the Orthoptera.

The eggs of this insect are laid in the willow galls produced by a

Cecidomyia. They were hardened in water heated to 80? C. and after-

wards kept in 70 per cent aleohol for weeks or months to allow the

yolk to shrink from the chorion. Surface views and sections were then

prepared by methods but little modified from those of Graber and of

Patten.

The blastopore extends nearly the whole length of the germ band

and is bifurcated posteriorly in a way strangely suggestive of the

"sickel" of the chick embryo. It closes from each end toward the

middle or future baso-abdominal region and by a process of “slurred”

invagination thus gives rise to the mesentoderm. .

In almost all other Orthoptera there is also, the author shows, an

invaginate gastrula.

Later a most remarkable migration of the embryo takes place and

complicates the difficult subject of the complex embryonic membranes.

Lying first upon the ventral surface of the egg, with its head

toward the anterior and sharper end of the egg, the embryo actually

sinks down into the yolk and by bending comes to lie upon the dorsal

side with its ends reversed, its head toward the posterior or larger end

of the egg. The appendages having meanwhile become so well devel-

oped that the leaping legs are distinguishable from the others, the

embryo moves back into its original position upon the ventral side of

the yolk, bending back so that it lies as at first. This second migra-

tion, however, is not through the yolk but upon its surface, over the

osterior end of the egg.

: hese peculiar Pisa of the embryo, which the author would

embrace under the term “ blasto-kinesis," may, he thinks, be explained

as of physiological use. He first shows that the primitive winged

* Journal of Morphology, Vol. VIII, No. 1, 1893.

746 The American Naturalist. [August,

insects probably had eggs with considerable yolk and dense envelopes

of chitin. The rapidly growing embryo, feeding upon the yolk must

give off waste products that might accumulate in the adjacent yolk.

Hence, it would be of advantage if the embryo could move away to

yolk not contaminated.

From a comparative view of similar movements in Orthoptera the

author infers that the more complete migration movements are primi-

tive and that the more restricted movements have been more recently

assumed; while in other groups various stages of disappearance of

these blasto-kinetic phenomena have been described.

A classification of the insects based upon these movements and the

character of the embryonic membranes would not, the author is con-

vinced, conflict with that of Brauer, though the embryological evi-

dence would tend to subdivide the Orthoptera or raise the value of the

families of this group.

These embryonic membranes in Xiphidium are very numerous and

complicate the above movements of the embryo, are, perhaps,

the cause of the return movement. The serosa covering the entire

yolk becomes cut off from the folds, amnion, covering the ventral face

of the embryo so that the embryo first sinks into the yolk free from the

serosa, which surrounds everything, but carrying with it the amnion.

When the return trip begins, however, the amnion is again grown fast

to a super-jacent membrane, the indusium, and is ruptured before the

embryo can advance. This it does by becoming evaginated from the

pouch of the amnion, out of which, also, an amniotic liquid escapes.

The reflexed membranes do not form the dorsal surface of the future

insect but are thrown off; in fact this is the case, the author thinks, in

all insects: the envelopes may be variously absorbed or cast off in dif-

ferent cases, but in all they are to be regarded as specialized organs

that have performed their part and are not used again in the forma-

tion of the body wall of the insect.

The indusium to which the amnion adheres is a most remarkable

organ that first appears as a faint disk of cells anterior to the embryo

when the blastopore is open.

Later this plate of cells is for awhile connected with the head lobes

of the embryo, which then assumes a clover leaf outline, disappearing

when the plate becomes again free.

This plate of cells is grown over by the serosa so that an amnion is

Fiii over it just as over the embryo, the edges of the plate rising

up to meet as a thin amnion beneath the serosa. This amnion is cut

off from the serosa; it may be called the outer indusium to distinguish

1893.] Embryology. 747

it from the thicker disk of cells, the inner or true indusium, lying upon

the yolk. The indusium is then a double body lying anterior to the

embryo and free. So it is not carried away when the embryo sinks

into the yolk but remains and grows in all directions as a double layer

between the serosa and the yolk. This double sac externally meets

itself on the dorsal mid line of the egg and fuses with itself, inner

indusium with inner, outer with outer. Thus the embryo becomes cov-

ered in by four cellular membranes; of these the inner indusium also

secretes a granular substance and a cuticle.

As to the origin of these structures the author inclines to the

mechanical conception regarding the amnion, since the insect may be

regarded as sinking down from the surface in its formation much as in

the case of some “invaginal disks,” heads of cysticercus, the nemertean

in the pilidium, etc. The indusium is, however, astructure found only

in the Locustide, but may be homologized with a solid mass of cells,

the so-called micropyle of certain Poduride. This micropyle in turn

is comparable to the “dorsal organ” of crustaceans which possibly

goes back to some sucking disk of some remote annelid-like ancestor.

The author’s discoveries regarding the formation of the nervous sys-

tem form one of the most interesting chapters of the present contribu-

tion and add to the evidence for the derivation of insects from annelid

ancestors. The first recognized start of the nervous system is when the

blastopore is still open and many large clear ectoderm cells are distin-

guishable in groups amongst the superficial common ectodermal cells.

These large nerve-formative cells soon sink beneath the surface and

are arranged in four long rows on each side of the blastopore. When that

closes a median row is formed between the above four right, and four

left rows. From these lateral and median rows of large cells the whole

central nervous system is formed, at least all its true nervous sub-

stance. These cell rows do not, however, become directly converted

into ganglion cells, but disappear, it is thought, after having budded

off a mass of daughter cells. Each cell in one of the rows buds off

successive cells that form vertical strings of cells; these strings form

the thickness of the nerve cord and become the ganglion cells with

their nerve processes. The continuous ganglionic mass so formed

becomes divided into sixteen successive ganglia which are reduced by

fusion to ten.

The brain is directly continuous with the ventral cord and, at least

in the middle and posterior of the three regions into which it may be -

divided, differs from the ventral ganglia chiefly in the lack of the mid-

dle row of cells.

748 The American Naturalist. [August,

Contrary to what would be expected the optic nerve fibres seem to

grow out from the brain toward the ommatidia of the eye

While the author supports the view that the rows of nerve-cord

forming cells in insects are homologous with the neural cell-rows of

annelids (especially since they are most clearly shown in the oldest

winged insects, the Orthoptera) he recognizes the possibility of this

being merely a case of precocious segregation

Another interesting part of the paper denis with the formation of

the gonads and the'sexual ducts.

The mesoderm is early split up into eighteen pairs of blocks, which

become hollow and extend from the region of the definitive mouth to

that of the definitive anus, the length of the blastopore. Two pairs

correspond to the second and the third division of the brain, the others

are in the thorax and abdomen. The first pair send out hollow diverti-

cula into the antenne; those back of the head send diverticula into

the limbs.

In the walls of these hollow mesodermal sacs on the side next the

median plane and the yolk, certain large cells become recognizable as

the germ cells. These cells are formed, however, in the abdomen in

the first to the sixth segments. They are of mesodermal origin, appar-

ently, and first recognized when thus distributed in segmentally

arranged clusters in the walls of the mesodermal sacs. In one abnor-

mal case such germ cells occurred also in the tenth abdominal segment.

These germ cells fall into the cavities of the mesodermal sacs and

multiply by caryokinetic division, The six successive masses of germ

cells become connected into one ovary or one testis by the outgrowths

of solid diverticula from each sac to the one anterior to it and subse-

quent fusion.

The sexual ducts arise also from these mesodermal sacs. Thus,

while in the head and thorax the diverticula that go to the limbs are

converted into their muscles, the diverticula in the abdomen either dis-

appear along with the transitory appendages or else remain as parts

of the sexual ducts. In the male the mesodermal diverticula of the

the terminal part of the sperm duct.

The rest of the duct is formed from a solid ridge on the inner wall of

the mesodermal sacs between the tenth segment and the anterior six

forming the testis. The ducts then may he TO as hollow out-

growths of the ceelomic sacs, I are in the

seventh segment, but at the same time there is a pair in the tenth.

While the former become the oviducts, the latter, representing the ter-

minal — of the sperm ducts, ultimately disappear. With the

1893.] Embryology. 149.

disappearance of most of the abdominal appendages there is still a

retention of the posterior ones to form the ovipositor. The author

makes out a clear case for the belief that this structure is formed from

two or three pairs of real limbs.

The reproductive organs thus show resemblances to those of anne-

lids, not only in the marked metameric character of the gonads, or

clusters of cells on the ccelomic walls, but also in the fact that the ducts

arise as coelomic diverticula, since these diverticula may be homolo-

gized with nephridia by the aid of the condition of things probably

existing in Peripatus.

750- The American Naturalist. [August,

ENTOMOLOGY.

The Work of the Gypsy Moth Commission.'—For the last

three years an experiment of great entomological interest has been in

progress in the vicinity of Boston. About twenty-five years ago there

lived in Medford, Mass., a man who experimented with silk worms of

various kinds. Among other species which he had imported from

Europe was that known asthe Gypsy Moth—an insect that in Germany

is very destructive to a great variety of trees and other plants. Some

of these insects escaped and began developing in the neighborhood.

They continued to multiply for many years until they became a plague

to the community. The entomologist of the State Agricultural Col-

lege was appealed to, and finally the Legislature appropriated $50,000

to be expended under the direction of a Commission appointed by the

Governor, “to prevent the spreading and secure the extermination of

the Ocneria dispar or Gypsy Moth in this Commonwealth.” The Com-

missioners thus appointed remained in office about one year, when the

work was turned over to a Committee of the State Board of Agricul-

ture, consisting of Professor N. S. Shaler, Francis H. Appleton and

Secretary Wm. R. Sessions. This committee soon called into consulta-

tion a number of prominent entomologists, and later appointed Pro-

fessor C. H. Fernald entomological adviser. Mr. E. H. Forbush was

elected director of field work.

Since the time of these appointments additional appropriations have

been made and the work of extermination has been vigorously prose-

cuted. A large force of men has been kept at work fighting the insect

in all its stages. The infested area has been accurately determined and

every precaution has been taken to prevent its further spread. The

- results already obtained are very remarkable: where three years ago

every green thing was alive with the worms, during a recent visit I had

difficulty i in finding any. The localities in which the insect is still

present in numbers are comparatively few and are receiving so much

attention from the director that a year hence they will be still fewer.

An idea of the general methods of work may be obtained from the

following extract from the Director’s first report: “ It was at once seen

that the work of crushing out the species would be an arduous task.

1 Edited by Dr. C. M. Weed, New Hampshire College, Durham, N. H.

*Reports of the Mass. Board of Agriculture on the Extermination of

Oeneria dispar, 1892 and 1893.

PLATE 17

Heliotype Printing Co. Boston

Drawn by Joseph Bridgham

GYPSY MOTH.

1893.] Entomology. 791

For an undertaking of this character and magnitude, men were needed

who by nature and training were fitted for the work. A perfect system.

was imperative. An intimate acquaintance with the country must be

acquired. An accurate knowledge of the liabits of the insects was a

necessity, and constant vigilance an indispensable requisite.

" When field operations were commenced, the eggs of the gypsy moth

were the only living form of the pest. The men were carefully trained

to recognize and destroy them, and to distinguish between their eggs

and those of our native moths. They were taught to observe all evi-

dences of the existence of the gypsy moth, and were requested to secure

all information possible in regard to its habits, Each inspector was

instructed to make out a daily written report of the work done by him-

self and his men, and to include in this report his observations on the

habits of the insect. Many valuable facts were thus recorded during

the season. As the force was organized, each inspector was given a

squad of men, and a section, indieated by a map, was allotted him,

with instructions to inspect it, and destroy the eggs therein. When

eggs were found upon a tree, the tree was marked with white paint and

the locality designated upon the map. Special implements for the

work were invented as necessity required, and a stock of equipments

and materials was gradually accumulated.

"At this time the gypsy moth was supposed to be confined to eight

or nine towns. Inspectors were sent out to determine how far it had

extended, and soon found small colonies in other towns. It was at once

evident that inspection must be continued until the limits of the infes-

ted district was determined. This method was followed until the new

leaves covering the trees rendered farther inspection impracticable.

The work was resumed when the cat had nearly reached matur-

ity, was continued after the leaves fell, and is still in progress.

“After the men had received the training and experience without

which their work would have been of little value, there remained but

six weeks in which to make a hasty inspection of the territory and

destroy the eggs. Although the work was thus necessarily hurried and

imperfect, yet, in consequence of it, the insects have not since appeared

in more than sixty localities where the eggs were found in the spring.

The infested towns farthest from the centre were first visited by the men

engaged in destroying eggs. The men worked from these towns toward

Malden and Medford. Before this work was completed the eggs began

to hatch. This rendered thorough work an impossibility. No attempt

was made, therefore, in the spring, to complete this work in Malden and

Medford, except upon trees on or near the highways.

752 The American Naturalist. - [August,

* Wherever worthless, hollow trees were found infested, they were

felled and burned. More than one hundred acres of brush and wood-

land have been burned over, and everything upon it destroyed. Stone

walls in which eggs were laid were thoroughly cleaned by fire. In this

way vast numbers of moths and their eggs were destroyed during the

season.

“As it was observed early in the campaign that the distribution of

the caterpillars was effected largely by their falling from the trees upon

teams, an effort was made to destroy all eggs upon trees on or near

the highways. Before the hatching of the eggs, many of the large

street trees in Malden, most of those in Medford and some in Somer-

ville, were banded with strips of tarred paper. This work was first

undertaken in Medford. It was proposed by the selectmen of that

town as a means of protecting the street trees from the gypsy moth and

the canker worm. It proved a very effective means of preventing the

depredations of each of these species. The town furnished the labor

and paper for banding the trees in Medford. These strips were kept

moist by a regular application of a mixture that the caterpillars could

not cross. Great numbers of eggs had been deposited on buildings, fences

and other objects near the trees. As soon as the young caterpillars

left the eggs, instinct led them to the trees, and, as they crawled upward

to find food, many were entangled in the cotton waste under the tarred

paper and perished. Many more succeeded in getting upon the paper,

and, in cases where they were very numerous, would undoubtedly have

bridged the mixture upon the paper with their bodies, until some had

passed over. The men employed in applying the mixture from day to

day prevented this by killing them with their brushes. Some eggs in

the trees which had been missed in the spring doubtless hatched, but

most of the caterpillars descended from the tree at one time or another,

and were unable to return. This greatly reduced the danger that had

seemed imminent in the spring,—that the caterpillars would be distri-

buted in large numbers.”

Various other methods of destruction are now being used, and valu-

able experiments with insecticides are being carried on, chiefly at

Amherst in the insectary of the Hatch Experiment Station under the

direction of Professor Fernald.

It seems to me after a careful inspection of the work in progress that

it is being well done, and that its continuation is a matter of national

importance. Should this insect become generally distributed it would

be liable to cause enormous losses, and even if European parasites were

introduced there would inevitably be fluctuations in numbers which

1893.] Entomology. 753

would involve periodical outbreaks. I believe with Professor Fernald

that the extermination of the pest is possible, “ provided the work be

continued for several years with mithat, appropriations to keep the

entire territory under careful supervision.

Through the kindness of the Committee the NATURALIST is able to

present the accompenying colored plate showing the various stages of

the Gypsy Moth. The adult females are represented at Figs. 1 and 2;

the adult males at 3 and 4; the pupa, (slightly magnified) at 5; the

caterpillars at 6 and 7; the egg cluster at 8, and eggs magnified at 9

and 10.

Mr. Forbush has summarized the habits of this caterpillar as follows ;

“The gypsy moth feeds only when in the larva or caterpillar state.

The length of larval life varies somewhat according to circumstances,

but probably averages ten weeks. When the caterpillars are first

hatched from the eggs they are light in color and covered with whitish

hairs. In afew hours they assume a dark hue. They usually remain

on or near the egg cluster until they change in color, and, should the

weather be cold, they sometimes remain for several days in a semi-torpid

condition upon the egg clusters. If the temperature is favorable they

will search for food before they are twenty-four hours old. If a

leaf be dropped upon a table on which some of the caterpillars have

been placed, they will all move towards it and climb upon it. During

the first few weeks of their existence they remain most of the time on

the leaves, feeding usually on the under side. Their feeding habits are

so uncertain that no rule can be given which will apply to all individ-

uals, but as a rule when about half grown they begin to manifest their

gregarious instincts. At that time and for the rest of their existence as

caterpillars they spend a large part of the day clustered in sheltered

situations, and feed principally at night, going up the trees and out on

the branches after dark, and returning before daybreak. Where they

are so abundant that the food supply is insufficient, they evince much

restlessness, and feed in numbers during all hours of the day and night-

They may be seen hastening to and fro, both up and down the trees.

Those which have fed sufficiently are at once replaced by hungry new-

comers, and the destruction of the foliage goes on incessantly.

“At such times the trunks and lower branches of the trees are covered

with a moving mass of caterpillars. Hurrying throngs are passing and

repassing, and nearly every leaf or denuded stem bears up one or more

of the feeding insects. The rustling caused by their movements and

the continual dropping of excrements is plainly audible. On tall trees

the larger caterpillars appear to crawl to the higher limbs, and they

754 The American Naturalist. [August,

seem to prefer to feed well out toward the end of the branches. They

do not feed gregariously except when in great numbers ; therefore they

seldom strip one branch, as do the larvæ of the Vanessa antiopa, but

scatter throughout the trees, eating a little from each leaf. Early in

the season, when they are small and few in number, their ravages are

scarcely noticed ; but as they grow larger and more numerous their

inroads on the tree decrease the foliage area night by night, until

suddenly the leaves appear to have been eaten in a single night, and

the tree is stripped."—CrARENCE M. WEED.

1893.] Archeology and Ethnology. 755

ARCHEOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY.

Eighth International Congress of Americanists, Paris,

1890.—M. De Quatrefages was President, and this was the last public

function at which he assisted.

Dr. Brinton was one of the Vice Presidents and presided at one of

the meetings. M. Desiré Pector, of Nicaragua, but resident at Paris,

was Secretary General. There were four or five hundred adherents,

about one-half of whom were in attendance.

The questions for discussion were prepared in advance by the com-

mittee and announced to the members by circular. One group was as

to the

HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY OF AMERICA.

The first question in that group was that presented in 1875 and dis-

cussed at nearly every Congress since; Whether the name “America,”

given to the Western Continent, was not taken from the chain

of mountains of a similar name which form cordilleras between Lake

Nicaragua and the Mosquito Coast, rather than from the discoverer,

Americus Vespuccius? The affirmative was maintained by Prof.

Jules Marcou and M. Lambert de St. Bris. The contrary opinion, to

wit :-that the name of America was given at San Die near Nancy, and

published by Waldseemüller under his Cosmographia Introductio was

maintained by MM. Jimenez de la Espada, Dr. Hamy, Desiré Pector,

Julio Caleano, and others. At the close of the discussion, the Presi-

dent remarked that after the conclusive communications which they

had made in favor of the transmission of the name from Americus

Vespucci, the question as to the derivation of the name was forever

decided and settled. “And,” said he, “I hope that it will never fig-

ure on the programme of our future Congresses.” The question as to

an earlier discovery of America was maintained by Mr. Lambert de

St. Bris, who attempted to prove that there had been a voyage of

Cubot earlier than that of Americus Vespuccius, and also the legend

of one still earlier by Cortereal; but none of these met any favor

from the Congress, and on the other hand, were en denounced

as traditions and unsupported by evidence.

Mrs. Shipley (née Brown) entered a paper on the * “ Missing Records

of Scandinavian Discovery,” declaring her belief in their existence -

and attributing their suppression to the authorities of the Roman

Catholic Church. .

756 The American Naturalist. [August,

The Scandinavian Discoveries of Greenland, was presented by M.

Valdemir Schmidt, while M. E. Beaubois argued in favor of the

migrations of the Gaul to America during the Middle Ages. MM.

Paul Gaffarel and Charles Cariod presented a history of the Discover-

ies of the Portuguese in America in the time of Christopher Columbus.

Dr. A. Ernst presented some observations upon the culture of the

Banana in America. J. Sylvario Jorrin questioned whether there was

an authentic portrait of Christopher Columbus, and Dr. Francisco

Henriquez y Carvajal argued that the remains or ashes of Christopher .

Columbus were not removed from San Domingo to Havana as was

intended and believed. In support of this, he presented the inscription

of one of the sarcophagi at San Domingo, indicating that it contained

the remains of Colymbus. This assertion gave rise to discussion in

which this inscription was denounced by dela Rada y Delgado as

false and bearing evidence of having been made in modern times. The

* Ancient Cartography of America" was presented by Mr. Shipley,

and M. Gabriel Marcel gave interesting account of the globes in the

Bibliotheque Nationale on which the Continents of America were

figured.

The next group of questions comprised

AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGY.

Dr. Ten Kate supported the thesis of Dr. Virchow at the Seventh

Congress, to wit:-that we must definitely renounce the theory of a

universal type among the American Aborigines. Dr. Ten Kate

declared in favor of a plurality of types in America. He found from

Cape San Lucas to the River Gila, a distance of 600 kilometres, the

extremes of cephalic forms, the indices varying from .6 to 10.0, although

he ‘gives no opinions as to which was the most ancient form. The

height, too, varies from one metre and 57 centimetres to one metre

and 87 centimetres. Taking-into consideration these and all other

dimensions, he thought he could distinguish more than one type which

may have been primitive. He dissents from the idea of the A merican

Indian being a red-skin, but says that his skin is brown or yellow, and

to be aecounted for by atmospheric and other influences. Dr. Ten

Kate declared his conclusions based upon his experience after having

made critical anthropological examinations of a large number of

Indians, both individual and in tribes. He is forced to the conclusion

that many of them possess distinctive mongolite type characters, yet,

while there are certain tribes in the northwest like the Tinneh, are |

1893.] Archeology and Ethnology. 757

undoubtedly of an Asiatic origin as demonstrated by other than

anthropological evidence. He does not at all pretend that this similar-

ity of character springs from Asiatic origin of the North American or

that he descends directly from the Mongol. The object is to show the

pe. of determining between hypothesis and fact.

r was presented from Mr. Thomas Wilson on the subject of

the Paleolithic Age in America. Mr. Wilson presented some of the

paleolithic implements found throughout the United States and com-

pared them with Chelléen implements and others of the paleolithic

period of Western Europe—called attention to the similarity between

the two, and explained at length the radical differences between these

and instruments belonging to the Neolithic Age, and announces his

conclusion that we may assume the existence of a Paleolithic Period in

the United States. He says in a note that, as a working hypothesis,

this conclusion is expressed under all reserve and subject to future

discoveries; that it is intended to stimulate investigators to seek in the

sands and gravels of the Quatenary geological Epoch for paleolithie

implements, and that despite their want of beauty, to gather and pre-

serve them for the sake of science. No argument is made as to

whether they come from glacial or preglacial regions, nor is any

attempt made from them to determine the civilization or culture of the

Paleolithie Period, nor to find the man who employed or made these

instruments.

The Marquis de Nadaillac presented and read an extended review

of the evidence on the subject of * The Earliest American." His

origin he confesses to be entirely unknown, but he is of the opinion

that he occupied the continent of America during the glacial if not

during the pre-glacial period, and that he passed through two periods

of cold. In saying this, however, he expressly disclaims any attempt

to establish a parallel of the glacial periods of America and Europe.

His paper was published at length in the Revue of Scientific Questions

of Brussels in July, 1891, and is not to be found in the report of this

Congress. M.l'Abbe La Petitot, in discussing the paper of the Mar-

quis, bore testimony to the quantity of remains of extinct fossil animals

belonging to the Glacial Period which were evidences of having been

used by the prehistoric man in the manufacture of his implements.

Dr. Fernand de Lisle presented an elaborate paper of 30 or 40 pages,

on the subject of the artificial deformation of the skull among Indian

tribes of the northwest of America. He took the position alleging it to

be borne out by anthropometry, and the experience obtained

thereby, that the cranial capacity of the flat-head Indian after having

x I

758 The American Naturalist. [August,

been subjected to this artificial deformation, was not reduced in vol-

ume ; that some of them were found to be of extreme capacity of 1625

centimetres, and that, consequently, there would be no reduction of

brain-power; also he said this deformation being artificial, was

individual and not transmitted by heredity.

Dr. Hamy gave a description of the Cliff Dwellers of the Sierra

Madre.

Dr. Leon and Mr. Pinart occupied the attention of the Congress

with descriptions of Dental Deformations among the Pre-Columbian

Tarasques and the Indians on the Isthmus of Panama. Dr. Leon

remarks that these Indians do not possess wisdom-teeth, and he

attempts to account for it by a supposed want of virility evidenced by

their being without hair on any part of their body, and their beard

rudimentary. He found that they also were without canine teeth—

being replaced by small molars. Their skulls were deformed artifi-

cially. He cited an ancient work The Relacion de Mechuacan which

stated that the Indians with the round head and of natural form, were

not considered brave in battle. M, Pinart remarked that among the

Indians of the Isthmus of Panama, the incisor teeth were filed to a

point, giving them a saw-tooth appearance. Among the females, on

their arrival at womanhood, the canine tooth on the upper left hand

. side was broken out as a sign that they were fit for marriage.

Dr. P. Ehrenreich described his various voyages among the Abori-

gines of Brazil in 1884—5 and 1887-9, and presented before the Con-

gress a collection of photographs he had taken.

Dr. J. Vilanova described a fossil man found by M. Carles in the

valley of the river de la Plata, associated with or near to a skeleton of

a Megatherium in the Pampean formation, which corresponds

in its characteristics with the European Lehm. Dr. Vilanova has

studied the question of fossil man in times of high antiquity, as proba-

bly no other Spaniard and but few others in all the world have ever

done.

Dr. J. Deniker, Librarian of Histoire Naturelle at Paris, was

charged by his Government with a scientific mission to Cape Horn,

which he visited in 1882-3. He gave to the Congress a resume of his

investigations under the title of Fuegien Anthropology. He first

mentions the difference in appearance between the inhabitants of

Tierra del Fuego and the Archipelago of Magellan. He describes the

type which is based upon his measurement of more than a hundred

living Fuegians. He remarks their striking analogy with the prehis-

torie skulls found by Lund at Lagoa Santa in Brazil, and by Roth at.

1893.] Archeology and Ethnology. 759

Pontimilo, Argentine Republic. His conclusions are :-first—the exist-

ence in South America of a race or a variety of the American Race, of

small height, meso- or dolichocephalic, nose concave—often retroussé in

the root—large below, with prominent eyebrows shaped like lozenges,

large mouth, ete. Second :— This race occupied in times of high anti-

quity a large part of South America, principally that south of the

Amazon. Third:—At the present time, this same race in a more or

less pure state reduced to a few tribes dispersed a long ways from each

other, meaning the Fuegians at the extreme south of the Continent

and the Botocudos much farther north on the headwaters of the

Amazon. Fourth:—They are found isolated in small tribes dis-

seminated throughout Brazil, Bolivia, Peru and Chili. Fifth :—That

this race presents a striking contrast to the Patagonian and with several

others of the ancient tribes. Sixth :—That it is probable that most of

the indigenous population of South America are the issues arising

from a mixture of the three races—the Fuegians and Botocudos,

who are short in height and with dolichocephalic index,—the

Patagonians who are tall and brachycephalic, and the Araucans

Carabs who are small and brachycephalie, and possibly others

unknown.

The group of questions under the head of Archeology was about

equally divided between the United States and Central America.

Mr. S. B. Evans investigated the claims made on behalf of the North

American Indian as builders of mounds and other works of antiquity

in the United States and Mexico. His conclusion was that the

Indians were not the builders of the mounds and earthworks. His

paper is an arraignment of the Bureau of Ethnology for having

announced this theory. The spirit of his paper may be gathered from

the following quotation :—

* The United States Bureau of Ethnology in its capacity as a Gov-

ernmental department has seen fit to lay the weight of its commanding

influence to a theory that all the works of antiquity in the United

States are to be referred to the Indians. * * * Everything con-

trary to the theory they maintain and foster, is characterized as

romantie and visionary in comparison with the opinion announced

with something like official authority, by the respectable gentlemen

who have ereated a school which might be designated as the Fenimore

Cooper School of American Archeology, for the reason that it claims

for the Indian more than he would claim for himself. Disciples of

this school have met with the experiences usual to those who attempt

to adjust facts to pet opinions,and a notable instance is reported in the

760 The American Naturalist. [August,

Fifth Annual Report of the Bureau, where a distinguished observer,

writing under the sanction of his chief, alludes to the manner of Black

Hawk's burial, and brings that forth as a proof that Indians built

mounds within the historic period.”

Prince Poutjatine presented an interesting paper accompanied i

specimen illustrations of imprints of textile fabries on Russian prehis-

torie pottery, and he brought for comparison, a collection of stamps

and imprints similar in decoration and manufacture on prehistoric

pottery of the United States of America prepared by Mr. Wilson of

Washington, from the United States National Museum. The speci-

men presented by Prince Poutjatine were the result of excavations

made by himself on his own property at Bolgoje, in the Province of

Novgorod, midway between Moscow and St. Petersburgh. The simi-

larity between these two sets of specimens from nearly opposite sides of

the globe was truly remarkable. Pottery with these imprints of tex-

tile fabrics have been found in other parts of Russia—the Provinces

of Wladimir and Laroslaw—as is noted in the work of the late Count

Ouvaraw in the “Age de pierre en Russia.” Prince Poutjatine

argued that these facts were evidences of communication between

Russia and Siberia with America across the Straits of Bering. To

this opinion, however, Mr. Wilson did not agree, because the pottery

of the United States thus decorated was not found in that part of the

United States approaching Bering Strait.

M. Marcel Daly read an Essay at the Chronologic Classification of

Monuments of Prehistoric America, but he presented it as nothing

more than a working hypothesis, recommended to investigators for the

determination of the truth.

Other papers upon American Archeology were those on Frescos on

the Ancient Palace of Mitla, by Dr. Ed. Seler ; Archeological Studies

in Salvador by Capt. Montessus de Ballore; and Petroglyphs on the

Isthmus of Panama and Central America and the Antilles by M. Pin-

He concludes that the art of making petroglyphs was most

art

highly developed in the Antilles especially in Porto Rico, but never-

theless in the Islands of Granada, Guadeloupe, St. Christopher and

St. John. He attributes this higher art to that race of prehistoric

people who preceded the conquering Caribs. In Cuba, the petrogly-

phs are rare, and they are not to be found in Jamaica. The ruins of.

'ialuanaco were explained by M. T. Ber, who presented a photograph

of these ruins, which he alleged to be the first ever taken. Interesting

among them were huge blocks of stone 20 and more feet long in pro-

eess of being sawed. The quarry whence they came was well known,

1893, ] Archeology and Ethnology. 761

and as it was on the borders of the island, the belief was that the

blocks were transported on the water by means of rafts.

ETHNOGRAPHY.

The only paper upon this subject relating to the North American

Indian, was that by Capt. John G. Bourke, 7th Cavalry, U. S. A.,

upon the Sacred Hunt of the North American Indian. The author

witnessed one while among the Zuñi Indians of New Mexico, which he

describes in detail. The “Hunt” was for the purpose of procuring

meat to feed the Sacred Eagles of which there were 13 specimens and

which furnished the plumage for the various dances and ceremonies.

His description included other tribes. He showed a boomerang used

by the Zuñi and Moquis. The blade was 20 inches long with a

handle 3 inches, the. blade was 23 inches wide, } inch thick, bent

edgeways 3 inches.

M. Desiré Charnay presented a memoir on the Analogies between

the North and Central American civilization and that of Asia. His

comparisons were based upon his own experiences in the former coun-

tries, compared with those of the latter as described by various

authors.

Dr. Seler, of Germany, described Uitzilopochtli the God of War.?

He also described some of the arts of the Ancient Mexicans, princi-

pally of working stone and making plume ornaments. This subject

was continued by a paper by Mrs. Z. Nuttal on Quetzal-apanecaioth

or the ancient plume head-dress of the Aztecs. She also presented a

feather hat, Mexican or Aztec, the making of which was one of the

specialties of the ancient Aztecs. It was seen by Mrs. Nuttal in the

Pitti Palace at Florence, and was recognized by her as either the work

of an Aztec workman or a reproduction thereof made by a Spanish

Artist.

Other papers within this group were Popular Melodies of the Gua-

temala Indians by M. Raymond Pilet; The Limit to Prehistoric

Civilization upon the Isthmus of Panama by M. Pinart; a description

of the Antiquities of the Island of Aruba by the same author. M. R.

de Semalla described the characteristics of the few remaining Caribs

on the Island of Guadeloupe; M. Marcel treated upon the Fuegians at

the end of the XVII century as they were reported in some of the

unpublished documents of the Bibliotheque Nationale.

762 The American Naturalist. [August,

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

The World’s Congress Auxiliary of the World’s Colum-

bian Exposition of 1893.—ProvisionaL PRocRAM.—A Congress

of Zoologists will be held, according to previous announcements of this

committee, under the auspices of the World’s Congress Auxiliary at

the Art Institute Building in Chicago, beginning August 28, and con-

tinuing until the program of addresses and papers accepted is ex-

hausted.

The present stage of preparation for the sessions of this Congress is

shown by the following provisional program, each person whose name *

is placed against a topic on this list having accepted an invitation to

prepare a principal address upon it.

“The History and Evolution of American Zoology and the Status

and Tendencies of Zoological Science in America.” Dr. G. Brown

Goode, Director U. S. National Museum, Washington, D. C.

* The Geographical Distribution of American Animals.” Mr. J. A.

Allen, Curator of Departments of Mammalogy and Ornithology,

American Museum of Natural History, New York.

“The Effect of Glaciation and of the Glacial Period on the Present

Fauna of America.” Mr. Samuel H. Scudder, Cambridge, Mass.

“ Preliminary Account of the Formicide of the North American

Fauna.” Professor C. Emery, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy.

* Lacustrine Zoology : Methods and General Results of Its Investi-

gation.” Professor Dr. F. A. Forel, à la Faculté des Sciences de

l'Université de Lausanne, Morges, Switzerland.

“The Plankton of the Muskoko Lakes, Ontario.” Professor R.

Ramsay Wright, Professor of Biology, University of Toronto, Canada.

“ The Origin of the Subterranean Animals of America." Professor

A. S. Packard, Professor of Zoology and Geology, Brown University,

Providence, R. I.

* The History and Special Features of the Economic Entomology of

the United States.” Professor J. H. Comstock, Professor of Entomol-

ogy and General Invertebrate Zoology, Cornell University, Ithaca,

“The Special Problems of American Economic Entomology.” Dr.

C. V. Riley, Chief of the Division of Entomology, U. S. Department

of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

1893.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 763

“Undergraduate Courses and Post-graduate Methods in Zoology,”

Professor E. L. Mark, Hersey. Professor of Anatomy, Harvard Univer-

sity, Cambridge, Mass.

“The Zoological Museum.” Mr. F. W. True, Curator of Mammals,

U. S. National Museum, Washington, D. C.

* Kinetogenesis, or the Relation of Motion to Organie Evolution."

Professor E. D. Cope, Professor of Mineralogy and Geology, Univer-

sity of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, and Editor of the AMERICAN

NATURALIST.

* Energy in Relation to Organie Evolution." Professor J. A. Ryder,

Professor of Comparative Embryology, University of Pennsylvania,

Philadelphia.

* Principles of Bioplastology." Professor Alpheus Hyatt, Curator

of the Boston Society of Natural History, Boston, Mass.

“ The Cellular Basis of Heredity.” Professor E. B. Wilson, Depart-

ment of Biology, Columbia University, New York City.

“ Continuity of Organization the Basis of Heredity, or the Organism

and the Cell.” Professor C. O. Whitman, Head Professor of Biology,

University of Chicago, and Editor of the Department of Microscopy

in the AMERICAN NATURALIST.

* Zoological Psychology and the Development of Mind." Professor

€. Lloyd Morgan, Professor of Animal Biology in University College,

Bristol, England.

“On Zoological Nomenclature.” . . . Dr. Charles Girard, Paris,

France.

“Zoological Nomenclature as a Means to an End.” Dr. Elliott

Coues, Washington, D.

The committee will be pleased to receive additional titles for this

program from members of the Advisory Council of the Congress, or on

their recommendation.

Suitable opportunity will be given after the reading of each address

for its formal discussion. The committee have respectfully to request

that all who intend to take part in the discussion of one or more of the

above topics will indicate this fact in advance, at as early a day as

may be practicable, to the chairman of this committee.

We have also to request that advance notice of an intention to attend

the sessions of the Congress may be given so far as practicable.

S. A. FORBES,

Chairman Committee of Arrangements.

University of Illinois,

Champaign, July 20, 1893.

764 The American Naturalist. [August,

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

The large scientific library of the late Prof. J. S. Newberry has been

offered as a gift to Columbia College, New York. The collection will

be known as the Newberry Library of Geology, being a memorial to

Professor Newberry.

A Chair of Geography has been established at the German

University of Tiibingen. Geography is now taught at nineteen of the

twenty-one German Universities, Rostock and Heidelberg being the

exceptions.

Mr. R. Bowdler Sharpe is about to publish a Monograph of the Birds

of Paradise and the Bower-Birds. This Monograph will be published

in six parts, forming one volume imperial folio, uniform with Mr.

Gould’s Works, price three guineas each part, to subscribers only. On

the conclusion of the work, should any copies remain unsubscribed for,

the price will be raised to twenty guineas.

International Congress of Zoology.—The permanent Commit-

tee which has just been appointed for the International Congress of

Zoology is as follows :—

President, M. Milne Edwards (Paris).

( M. Jentink (Leiden),

: : | Count Kapinst (Moscow),

Vice-Presidents, 4 Mf W. Studer (Berne),

M. L. Vaillant (Paris).

General Secretary, M. R. Blanchard (Paris).

Secretary, Baron J. de Guerne (Paris).

The permanent Committee propose the following question for the

prize of S. A. I. le Tsarévitch, which will be awarded in 1895, at the

Congress of Leiden.

A Study of the fauna of one of the coin regions of the globe, and the

relations of that fauna to the neighboring ones.

The judges will accept works bearing upon either a branch or a class

of the Animal Kingdom.

The papers, manuscript or printed since the last Congress, must be

written in French and sent before May 1st, 1895, to M. le President du

Comité Société Zoologique de France, rue des Grands-Augustins, 7,

Paris.

1893.] Scientific News. 165

The papers presented will be examined by the following Committee:

M. Milne-Ed wards (Paris), President, R. Blanchard (Paris), General

Secretary, A. Bogdanow (Moscow), Jentink (Leiden), R. B. Sbarpe

(London), W. Studer (Berne), and V. Zograf (Moscow).

We will publish later an official text of rules in regard to the prizes

distributed by the International Congress of Zoology.

The prize given by the Imperial Society of the friends of the Natural

ences of Moscow, in memory of the International Congress of

1892, and in honor of Emperor Alexander LIT.

RULEs.

Article 1.—The Committee on Organization of the International

Congress of Anthropology and prehistoric Anthropology, and of

Zoology, in session in Moscow in 1892, place at the disposal of the

Imperial Society of the friends of Natural Science the sum of 3,500 gold

roubles to constitute a perpetual capital in memory of the two Inter-

national Congresses and of the august kindness which has been accorded

them by the Emperor Alexander III.

Article 2.—The interest of this capital shall be used as a prize in

honor of his majesty, Emperor Alexander III. This prize shall belong

alternately to the Congress of Anthropology and prehistoric Archeo-

logy and to the Congress of Zoology.

Article 3.—The value of the prize shall be equal to the interest on

the capital for two years. In case there should elapse more than two

years between two consecutive Congresses, the interest for the extra

years shall be at the disposal of the Society of the friends of Natural

Science of Moscow, which will devote it to the prizes distributed at the

annual meeting of October 15.

Article 4—If one of the two Congresses should cease to exist, the

portion belonging to it in accordance with the above articles shall

revert to the Imperial Society of the friends of Natural Sciences to be

distributed by it equally among the prizes given at its annual meeting.

Article 5.—The prize given by the Congress of Anthropology and

prehistoric Archeology is awarded by a special Commission nominated

for that purpose by the permanent Council of that Congress. The prize

given by the Congress of Zoology is awarded in the same way by a

special Commission nominated for that purpose by the permanent Coun-

cil of that C |

Article 6.—The prizes may consist of medals or of sums of money.

Article 7.—They shall be distributed at a special meeting while Con-

gress is in session.

766 The American Naturalist. [August,

Article 8.—The program of the prizes shall be arranged by the per-

manent Council of each of the two Congresses.

Article 9.—It shall also be the duty of this permanent Council to the

the papers presented, to appoint the Professors or the examining Com-

mittee to whom the papers will be submitted, and who must return a

written report.

Article 10.—Any scientist may compete for the prize, on the condi-

tion that he does not belong to the country in which the next session of

the Congress takes place.

Article 11.— The President of the Congress must notify the President

of the Imperial Society of the friends of Natural Science of the name

of the person to whom the prize has been awarded.

Prizes given by the Imperial Society of the friends of Natural Science

of Moscow, in memory of the International Congress of 1892, and

in honor of S. A. I. the Grand-Duc Nicholas Alexandrovitch.

` Article 1—The Committee on Organization of the International

Congress of Anthropology and prehistoric Archeology, and of Zoology,

in session at Moscow in 1892, place at the disposal of the Imperial

Society of the friends of Natural Science the sum of 2,000 gold roubles

to constitute a perpetual capital in memory of the Congress of Zoology,

and of the august kindness which has been accorded to them by the

Grand-Duc Nicholas Alexandrovitch.

Article 2.—The interest on this capital shall be used for a prize in

honor of the Grand-Duc Nicholas Alexandrovitch. This prize shall

belong to the Congress of Zoology.

Article 3.—The value of the prize shall be equal to the interest on

the capital for two years. In case there should elapse more than two

years between two consecutive Congresses, the interest for the extra

years shall be at the disposal of the Society of the friends of Natural

Science, which will devote it to the prizes distributed- by them during

the annual meeting on October 15.

Article 4.—If the Congress should cease to exist, the portion belong-

ing to it in accordance with the above articles shall revert to the Imper-

rial Society of the friends of Natural Science, to be distributed by it

equally among the prizes given at its annual meeting.

Article 5.—The prize given by the Congress of Zoology is awarded

by a special Committee nominated for that purpose by the permanent

Council of that Congress.

Artiele 6.—The prize may consist of medals or of sums of money.

Article 7.—They shall be distributed at a special meeting while Con-

Eress is in session.

1893.] Scientific News. 767

Article 8.—The program of the prizes shall be arranged by the per-

manent Council of the Congress.

Article 9.—It shall also be the duty of this permanent Council to

the papers presented, to appoint the Professors or the

examining Committee to whom the papers will be submitted, and who

must return a written report.

Article 10.—Any scientist may compete for the prize, on the condi-

tion that he does not belong to the country in which the next session of

Congress takes place.’

Article 11.—The President of the Congress must at once notify the

President of the Imperial Society of the friends of Natural Science of

the name of the person to whom the prize has been awarded.

Errata.—In Prof. Scott’s paper on, A New Musteline from the

John Day River, make the following corrections: Page 658, 1. 21, read

Bunelurus for * Buncelunus;” 1. 33 and p. 659, ll. 4 and 6 Parictis

for “ Parietis;" p. 658, l. 37, P. primevus for “ P princeous ; " p. 659,

l. 2, Quercytherium for “ Inereytherium."

! The next Congress will be held in Leiden, August, 1895; the scientists

of Holland are therefore excluded from the next competition.

768 The American Naturalist. [August,

Special Notice from the Publishers.—Owing to the absence

of the Editor the publication of this issue was delayed. We shall

always aim to get out each issue promptly on the first of each month,

but our editors and authors being so wide-spread we are often delayed

a few days in the return of the proofs of articles sent them]for revision.

With this explanation

we are, truly yours,

BINDER & KELLY.

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The following are a portion of the Contents = January, 1893.

Polarised Light, and its Application to the Mic a = (Illustrated.) G. H. Bryan, M. A.

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SEPTEMBER, 1893. No.321 .

CONTENTS.

PAGE.

PHILOSOPHY OF FLOWER SEASONS.

enry L. Clarke, 769

(fllustrated.) :

John M. Clarke. ed

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THE

AMERICAN NATURALIST

Vor. XXVII. September, 1895. - ., 321

: — ———— e EORPA AET ——— — —————

-———

THE PHILOSOPHY OF FLOWER SEASONS:

By HENRY L. CLARKE

The researches of recent botany have more than once sug-

gested the vague outlines of a truth that, though manifestly

requiring investigation, has as yet received but little definite

expression. It is:—the philosophy that underlies the associa-

tion of certain groups and types of flowering plants with

certain definite seasons of the year; the principles that will

show how this association accords with the “eternal fitness of

things.”

The subject is of broadly interesting scope, but its treatment

requires caution because of the variety of somewhat conflicting

considerations involved. Obviously the aim cannot be to find

any single absolute principle that will cover all cases, but

rather to make some broad general observations that shall

embrace all the diverse circumstances and at the same time

express each with greatest definiteness. The field for investi-

gation must be clearly presented and have its data determin-

able with certainty and completeness, and such can be found

in the flora of the northern U. S., eastward from the Rockies.

This has been more thoroughly studied than any other so

large section of American flora, and is familiar to a large pro-

portion of students.

* Condensed for THE AMERICAN NATURALIST from a more extended thesis on the

subject.

* University of Chicago.

770 The American Naturalist. [September,

Taking this, then, as the field, here is the problem present-

ing itself :—From March to November each month brings a new

prospect in field and forest, an edition of flower-life distinct-

ively its own; and each edition seems thoroughly to harmo-

nize with its own peculiar season. Each offers characteristic

features, and every careful observer can feel in this succession

of differing forms a harmony into which any decided change

would break discordantly. To bring this more forcibly to the

mind, conceive for a moment the existing series somewhat

transposed: imagine the prairies brilliant with Solidago and

dotted with the purple Aster in early May ; Trillium adorning

the woodlands in September; the vivid Lilium superbum and

the flaming Asclepias tuberosa in the April meadows; Hepa-

tica and Sanguinaria in mid-July ; and Epigsea in late autumn.

Entirely aside from the element of novelty, such a picture

would be bewilderingly inharmonious, and its features out of

tune with their position by virtue simply of their character,—

in this there would be an appreciable and evident lack of fit-

ness. To say that the fall flowers are not the spring flowers, or

those of summer are neither, merely because they have chosen

at random this season or that is neither science nor common

sense. The truth is forced upon us that the various groups of

flowering plants are not scattered indiscriminately from one

end of the seasons to the other, but are regulated by definite

systematic principles; and that just as relations can be traced

between physical geography and geographical distribution, or

between plant-history and geological periods, so is there a

connection between the relations of season to season and the

relations of their respective floras.

In this inquiry we see constantly the impossibility of draw-

ing sharp lines of demarkation between successive groups of

conditions; and, as in classification systems, so in serially

arranging successive floras, it is impossible to follow a linear

order. Also, exceptional instances are many, and hence, to

reach conclusions that are broadly true, predominant types

must be considered, though the unusual cases may be in them-

selves manifestly significant. Only a broad sweep of data can

bring out a general connection between the multiplicity of con-

1893.] The. Philosophy of Flower Seasons. 771

siderations. To this end it will be reasonable to consider the

groups of flowering plants in the most strictly natural order of

their evolutionary relationships, from the lowest up. That

this evolutionary system is largely based on floral structure is

suggestively apropos of our theme, but how far the intimacy of

the connection may extend the further development of the

discussion will reveal.

Passing to the outline of recorded observation we may dis-

cuss each condition of the problem as it arises.. The three

seasons considered have these limits:—spring; late March,

April, May: summer; June, July, August: autumn; Sept-

ember and October. AU statements refer only to the area about

covered by Gray’s Revised Manual: the U.S. north of Tennes-

-see and eastward from west Kansas.

Of the two series of flowering plants, the Gymnosperme and

Angiosperme modern botany concedes that the former, from

their near approach to the higher Pteridopyta, represent the

lower character of development, though the highly specialized

Coniferz may rise to a position nearly parallel to the highest

Angiosperme. The Conifere comprise all our indigenous

Gymnosperme ;—and all flower in the spring from late March

to earliest May, none in summer or autumn.

In the Angiosperm:e, the Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons

are two nearly parallel classes, the Monocotyls, though not

transitional, representing, as a class, a lower character of devel-

opment than the Dicotyls. Compare first the two classes in a

general manner: The indigenous Dicotyls number much

over twice the indigenous Monocotyls, and of the latter over

half are in the great orders Cyperaceze and Graminacew. And

these orders demand special attention, for they together repre-

sent one of the most remarkable instances of high specializa-

tion in the whole census of plant-life. Apropos of this let us

call to mind for further use the five characters of organic

development which certain carefully systematic evolutiontsts ! !

have recognized :—typical forms, which present all the main

characters of their group with fullest intensity ; generalized-

normal which have the normal characters somewhat poorly

developed and defined; specialized-normal, which retain the

772 The American Naturalist. [September,

normal structure but with evident one-sided development of it ;

generalized-aberrant, which depart from the normal but drift

toward several or many outside relationships; and specialized-

aberrant, which go off on a distinct individual line of their

own. The Cyperae:z and Graminacee are specialized-aberrant

Monocotyls; and as they depart from the rest of the Monoco-

tyls in structure, so, in the main, does their blooming season

stand apart. Though extending from May, it culminates,

particularly with the Graminacez, in the late summer and

early fall, and stretches on into October. With reference to

all other Monocotyls, note that by far the majority,—ty pical,

normal, and generalized-aberrant,—confine their blooming

season to spring, or early summer, or mid-summer, though

fewer in the last. But in late summer and autumn occur

only a few isolated cases. Indeed, even in the Glumacee

excepted in the last statements, the great prédominant

genus of Cyperacee, the genus Carex, including much over

half the order, belongs strietly to May. On the other hand,

the Dicotyls, the higher Angiosperme, are spread straight

through the seasons, from March to November, represented

by forms of all characters, —typical, normal, and aberrant.

Thus, excluding Graminacee and several genera of Cyperace:e,

the Dicotyls may be said to constitute almost the entire flora

of late summer and of autumn.

The Spadiciflorz and Liliiflore form two fairly distinct sub-

classes of Monocotyls, closely parallel and somewhat inter-

related. Though a debatable question, the imperfect and

reduced flowers so general in the Spadiciflore rather justify

the conclusion that these are of the lower order of development.

Moreover, throughout this subclass diclinism predominates,

while the Liliiflore are generally both hermaphrodite and

complete and with well-developed perianth.

Normal and typical Spadiciflore are the Aracew. All these

flower in May or June, except Symplocarpus. ‘That its odor-

ous scapes push out of the swamp mud in April is presumably

a provision to insure cross-fertilization of the inconspicuous,

though strong-scented, spadices before they are hidden by the

subsequent growth of the huge rank foliage. . Later, through

1893.] The Philosophy of Flower Seasons. 773

the summer, flower the Typhaces, which, as generalized-aber-

rant Spadiciflorz, represent a rather more advanced degree of

specialization than most Araces. Also in mid-summer come

the remarkable little Lemnacew, usually considered a highly

specialized-aberrant offshoot from Aracez, though the connection

is doubtful.

Among Liliiflore the three apocarpal orders, Alismacez,

Juncaginacec, and Naiadaces, form a remarkably aberrant

group, of few species, but wide-spread, particularly Sagittaria

and Alisma. All come in late summer, and some among the

exceptional non-glumaceous Monocotyls of autumn. Potamo-

geton, in Naiadaces, numbers a good many species, and comes

late; but note that the genus is one of the most peculiarly

specialized.

All the Spadiciflorse and Apocarpal Liliiflore are scarce a

tenth of the remaining Monocotyls, the Synearpal Liliiflore.

This division naturally subdivides into the Hypogynæ and

Epigynæ, somewhat parallel and closely inter-related. In the

light of our present knowledge of the morphology of the

hypogynous and epigynous flower there can be no doubt that

the Epigynæ here represent the higher order of development,

although many Hypogynæ may rise to a more than equivalent

degree of specialization, —precisely as the genus Felis is con-

sidered to represent a lower order of development but a higher

degree of specialization than the anthropoid apes.

In the non-glumaceous Hypogynæ most prominent is the

order — P in which are, pre-eminently, typical and normal

| Among the normal, particularly the more generalized,

the fi first bloom in late April,—notably, for instance, Erythro-

nium, about the earliest of Monocotyls. Scarcely later come

Trillium, Uvularia, Smilacina, Polygonatum, Maianthemum,

and others. Other genera extend through May and early

June, and a few, finally, belong to mid-summer. Certain of

these last, as Allium and Smilax, are, though normal,

markedly more specialized than the principal spring-flowering

genera. But the mid-summer genus Lilium claims peculiar

prominence as an ideally “typical” genus in all the term

implies. Lilium philadelphicum, L. catesbei, L. canadense,

774 The American Naturalist. [September,

and L. superbum stand together in the July meadows as the

type of their order and of the Hypogyne. Their high order

of development and their blooming season has a significant

bearing on our problem. The aquatic Pontederiaces and the

ephemeral Commelinacee, both few in species, and the odd

genera Aletris and Xyris, are of mid-summer. With Smilax

comes the nearly-related Dioscorea. Markedly conspicuous

' mid-summer Hypogyne, rather intermediate between Liliaceæ

. and Cyperacez, are the widespread and aberrant, glumaceous

types, Juncaces. But even these are less highly specialized

than the two great orders Cyperacee and Graminace:e, com-

prising over half of all our Monocotyls. The Graminacee are

unquestionably the more highly specialized, and as distinctly

aberrant, among Liliiflore, as are the Lilia typical. Their

period of greatest predominance extends from mid-July well

into October. In Cyperaces it is curious that over half the

order, the great genus Carex, attains full perfection in May;

while the type-genus Cyperus belongs to August and Sept-

ember, most other genera to mid-summer, and a few to June.

But mark especially: all the summer and fall Cyperacez,

save a very few, are hermaphrodite, while Carex is entirely

unisexual. The significance of this will come up later.

The review of Monocotyls closes with the Epigynous Lilii-

flore, a small group compared with the Hypogyne, but

peculiarly interesting. Of the generalized-normal order Amaryl-

lidaceee we have only one wide-spread species, the little

Hypoxis, of early summer. Iris comes in the spring and

Sisyrinchium a little later, both rather specialized genera.

Finally, the crowning glory of its class is the highly specialized

order Orchidaceæ. Late in May come the earliest forms,—

Orchis, , Arethusa, and Corallorhiza. In early June :—Pogonia,

Liparis, Calopogon, Listera, several green Habenarias, and the

splendid genus Cypripedium. The succession of species in this

genus is instructive :—Earliest, in late May, comes the little

white C. candidum ; a little later the low stemless type with

its large complicated flower, C. acaule; still later the small-

flowered but tall-growing C. parviflorum; later yet, the large

cousin of the last, C. pubescens; and latest, late in June, most

1893.] The Philosophy of Flower Seasons. 775

robust, vigorous, and conspicuous, the splendid C. spectabile.

In late June and through July come other Pogonias and

Corallorhizas; Microstylis, Goodyera, and one or two Spiran-

thes, and all the most beautifal Habenarias. Last, in Septem-

ber and October, singularly isolated from nearly all their kins-

man, are several of the little Spiranthes,—why they come thus

is a baffling question. Retrospectively we remark that of non-

glumaceous Liliiflorz the two predominant orders are Liliacese

and Orchidacee; that the first are largely normal and

generalized, the second aberrant and specialized ; and that the

first predominate in the spring, the second in summer.

In the Dicotyls two quite distinct subclasses may be recog-

nized : the one, the Dicline, is a very natural group, small but

of great importance, embracing the closely related orders of

trees and shrubs, Platanacesw, Juglandacee, Cupulifere, and

Salicaces; the other, vastly the larger, exhibits a broad,

rather indefinite range of characters, and may be termed, in

contra-distinction, the * Hermaphroditz,” because hermaphro-

ditism, though by no means universal, predominates in it.

The Dicline obviously approach the Conifer, among Gymno-

sperm, in wood-structure and manner of growth, and in

amentaceous diclinous inflorescence. Whence there is just

reason to consider them, though wonderfully specialized, of a

lower character of development than the Hermaphrodite.

Unisexual flowers, or the analogues of unisexual flowers, are

the rule in Gymnosperm: and the higher Pteridophyta, and

hence it reasonably follows that diclinous Angiosperm:e are

lower than hermaphrodite; and, further, diclinism in all

Angiosperme is either a perpetuation of the ancestral type or

a reversion to it. In Diclinz and in the Spadicifloral Mono-

cotyls it is probably a perpetuation ; in Carex, many Gramin-

ace, and elsewhere among Angiosperme, more likely rever-

sion, retrogressive “evolution. Note here the peculiar fact that

in spring, from early March to June, blossom these diclinous

groups :—all Coniferz, the Aracez, the great genus Carex, the

Dicline, the Lauraceze, several diclinous Ranunculacee, Urti-

caceæ, and many others; while in summer and fall come

only :—a few Alismacee and Typhacee, many Graminacee,

(A1 E The American Naturalist. [September,

the Euphorbiaceze, some Urticaces, and a few other isolated

cases, but altogether a comparatively small number,—espe-

cially so because the Graminacee mentioned rarely have

‘spikes entirely of unisexual flowers and hence do not strictly

fit the case. The diclinism occurring in many Composite is

not referred to, because it is not analogous to diclinism in other

plants, and the Composite are relegated to a category of their

own by their highly specialized inflorescence ;—their diclinous

“capitum ” is functionally equivalent to a single perfect flower

in other Angiosperms. The blossoming of so many trees,

especially the Diclinz, in earliest spring, before leaf-budding,

must evidently have at least partial connection with anemo-

philous cross-fertilization.

The Hermaphroditz (this term only signifying a predomin-

ant character) parts naturally into the Choripetale and Sympe-

tale, nearly parallel and somewhat inter-related. The first

includes the Incomplete (so-called Apetalæ), which cannot be

naturally made a separate division. It is conceded now that

the Sympetale are higher than the Choripetali, though the

divisions are not successive, save in that the first probably rose

from some aberrant form of the second. "There are three clear

sub-divisions of the Choripetale, partly serial and partly

parallel, —H ypogyn:e (including so-called Disciflorz), Perigy-

næ, and Epigynæ. The Epigyn:e are past question the highest,

and the Perigyne rather intermediate.

Earliest of the Hypogyne are the Ranunculacez, peculiarly

normal and typical and distinctively spring-flowering, extend-

ing from mid-April to early June. Hepatica, Anemonella,

Caltha, Ranunculus, Aquilegia, —all synonymous with spring.

Note that the more specialized forms, such as Aquilegia, Del-

phinium, Aconitum, etc., are the later, and some Clematis

belongs to summer. With this early order come also our

Magnoliacex and Berberidacew; late in May the Dicentra and

Corydalis ; through May and June the particularly natural

and normal order Crucifere, more specialized, however, than

Ranunculacee. In April comes that wonderfully symmetrical

and typical form of the Papaveracee, the Sanguinaria.

Remarkably aberrant in habit, but rather generalized in floral

18923. The Philosophy of Flower Seasons. 777

structure is the Sarracenia. It blossoms in latest May and

early June. Among the earliest blossoms is the so abundant

little normal type, Claytonia.: ' Viola is a large, distinctive, and

cosmopolitan genus, rather specialized-normal in character.

Oddly enough it has species in bloom from April to October,

some blossoming both spring and fall, besides producing

cleistogamous flowers all summer. Yet even in so constantly

present blossoms we easily recognize a period during which

they reach by far their greatest abundance and perfection, viz. :

May and June. Two unique orders belong to summer,

Cistaceze and Hypericaces, the second the later and remark-

able particularly for its polyadelphous stamens. The incom-

plete flowered Urticacee belong mainly to summer, all save

the group of spring-flowering shrubs and trees, Morus, Celtis,

Planera, and Ulmus. All these are diclinous or polygamous,

and Ulmus seems to possibly and probably connect its order

with the Diclinz,—like these it flowers in March and early

April. Turning back to the near relatives of the Ranun-

culacese we find in mid-summer the aquatic genera Cabomba,

Brasenia, Nympheea, Nuphar, and Nelumbo, all specialized-

normal, practicularly Nelumbo, the “latest to flower. The

so-called .Discifloral Hypogyns rank somewhat above such

typical forms as the Ranunculacee and Cruciferz, and among

them stand several important summer orders :—Caryophyl-

lace: ; Malvaceg ; the strange Euphorbiaceæ of July, August,

and Saptember; and the Geraniaces, of which the aberrant

Impatiens is latest. Anacardiacee belong to June. But the

two tree-families, Tiliacee and Sapindace come in spring and

early June.

In the Perigynz the preéminently normal and typical order

is Rosacem, standing here as the Ranunculacee among

Hypogyne. Somewhat later than the latter order in starting

the Rosace: reach perfection in late May and through June.

At much the same time, but scattered along later into the

summer, comes the less normal order Saxifragaces, of which

the aberrant genus Parnassia, an odd little type, holds an iso-

lated place in the late autumn flora. The distinctive order

Leguminose, by far the most numerous of our Choripetale,

778 The American Naturalist. [September,

flourishes throughout the summer and wellintoautumn. The

aberrant Drosera is summer-flowering. Rhamnaces, and,

particularly, the diclinous Lauracez, and the Hamamelidacee,

belong to spring,—though Hamamelis, oddly enough, blooms

in October.

As the typical Hypogyne are characteristic of spring, so the

several more important orders of Epigyne belong peculiarly

to summer and early fall:—the great order Onagraces, and

the Lythracez ; in late summer the strangely organized Passi-

flora; in hottest July our Cactaceæ, pushed up from the south-

west; and in fullest sovereignty in July and August, though

stretching from May to October, the widespread Umbelliferze ;

the peculiar tropical Cueurbitacez from J uly to October; the

more generalized Araliaceæ mainly in spring; and the shrabe

and trees of the Cornacez also early. The anomalous Asarum

and Aristolochia are scattered from May to July.

The | Sympetale part naturally into the Hypogyne, isocarpal

and anisocarpal; and the Epigyne. In Hypogyne typical

Isocarpe, the more generalized group, are Ericaces, coming

from earliest spring late into May and early June, and, at the

same time, the Diapensiaceze and Primulacew, the last rather

later. Pyrolez, in which there is a reversion to charipetalism,

extend into July. Polemoniacez, somewhat transitional to the

Anisocarps, bloom through May, June and J uly. In Aniso- |

carpe note :—the tree-order Oleacez, early flowering; the par-

asitic Orobanchaceze, scattered from April to October; Catalpa `

and Bignonia in spring, and the brilliant Tecoma radicans in

July; the Borraginaces, few in spring, reach perfection in

summer; Convolvulacese and the unique Solanaceæ, from

mid-summer into autumn ; the aquatic Utriculariacee, entirely

in summer; the great specialized orders Scrophulariaces and

Labiate, throughout the seasons but in greatest predominance

from mid-summer late into autumn ; also then the Verbenaces.

Apocynacee and the highly specialized-aberrant Asclepiadacese

come in mid-summer. Characteristic of autumn are the

Gentianace:, whose relation to the two last named orders gives

them a high rank. A few species occur much earlier than the

| typical genus Gentiana.

1893.] The Philosophy of Flower Seasons. 119

Turn tothe Epigynz :—Caprifoliacee and Rubiacee, though

scattered, predominate in summer; Campanulacez, partic-

ularly in late summer and in autumn —ihe finest type C.

americana, coming in September. Late in summer and in

September, the Lobeliacee are in fullest perfection,—the

splendid Lobelia cardinalis and L. syphilitica being late. And

lastly, we meet the vast order Composite, undoubtedly nearly

the highest of flowering plants. So numerous a group would

naturally spread throughout the seasons, but mark :—it comes

in all its glory late in August and straightway through the

autumn, when we have, among many, those gorgeous genera,

Solidago and Aster. Here the fact confronts us, that in the

autumn the higher Sympetale hold sweeping predominance

over the higher Choripetale.

Few data of any consequence have been omitted from this

review, and the evolutionary system followed has been defined

step by step because upon it the fabric of the argument mainly

depends. The deductions are these :—From early spring to late

autumn there is a progression in the general character of the flower-

groups, from the lower to the higher,—successive groups succeeding

each other in time, parallel groups coming synchronously. And

the later in order may be types of a higher character of devel-

opment, or they may be specializations of a group whose normal

forms belonged to an earlier season. In their blooming season,

n more perfect succeed the more simple ; the aberrant, the normal ;

he specialized, the generalized. But with the general observation

arise certain modifying conditions. The blooming period may

. sometimes vary from the general rule to better bring the flowers

. among the most favorable conditions for cross-fertilization,—

in the case of anemophilous pollination before referred to; or,

even more obviously, in the case of entomophilous pollination,

though here it is often doubtful whether the flower adapts

itself to the insect’s season or vice versa. Again, plants that-

are frontiersmen from the characteristic vegetation of a hotter

clime may be expected in the hottest of the seasons,—e. g.: the

Cactaces. There is an evident limitation of the flowering of

our trees and shrubs to spring and earliestsummer. This may

. largely be due to the excess of vital energy held stored up in

780 The American Naturalist. [September,

woody trunks and branches,—and in Conifer in the evergreen

foliage,—ready to burst forth with the first coming of warmth.

Diclinism is most frequent in the spring months,—where this

occurs in the lower groups of plants the case is covered by the

general principle; but when diclinism obtains in highly

specialized forms, as a result of retrogressive evolution, the

problem becomes difficult,—the interesting question suggests

itself: Does reversion in structure here revert the flowering

period to an earlier season? As a case in point, recall the

genus Carex. Again, there is a determining function in the

character of the flower's habitat :—The spring flowers seek

largely the protection of the woodlands; marsh-plants reach

perfection mainly in latest spring and shrough the summer,

though some, like Caltha, are early; the aquatics of ponds and

river glory in the summer sun; and the flowers of meadow

and prairie and thicket-margin luxuriate from mid-summer to

the end of autumn. This last recalls the recent observations

of Conway McMillan on “ tension-line flora," and we note with

interest that the highly organized tension-line flora gives us

our later blossoms to a large extent. Further, every practical

botanist knows that the herbaceous flora of summer, as a whole,

shows a great advance in vegetative luxuriance over the corre-

sponding flora of spring. But it does not follow that that of

fall in turn advances, for vegetative luxuriance means

primarily—heat. Yet the truth remains that this is not the

fundamental criterion of plant aristocracy,—in the giant cal-

amite of geologic ages flowed humbler blood than flows to-day

in the dandelion of our backyard grass-plots. So each new

factor that arises, far from weakening, but adds significance to

the fundamental principle.

Here the question rises: Why should there be a correspond-

ence between the course of the flower seasons and the system

of floral evolution? Solve this, and the “ philosophy of flower

seasons" is an open riddle. But for the present it is only

possible to indicate the direction in which the answer prob-

ably lies: The most simple and generalized forms, coming

first in the course of floral evolution, have had the longest time

in which to adapt themselves to existent climatie conditions;

1893.] The Philosophy of Flower Seasons. 781

and, reciprocally, climatic conditions have become more and

more favorable to the rapid development of the said forms.

So a floral type that ages ago would have reached its perfection

only after a long continuance of favoring season, now may,

burst into the fulness of its maturity with the first warmth of

spring. But as change succeeded change in the course of time,

a maximum point would be reached, from which the condi-

tions would become less and less favorable to the rapid devel-

opment of types surviving from an earlier age. Then these

would dwindle from the earth,—replaced, driven out, by those

that had come into existence in a later age. Thus, in the ages

to come, the early flowers of to-day will disappear; to be

replaced by what are now our later flowers; whose place, in

turn, will be filled by forms that are yet to be. All this is but

a bare suggestion, yet in it may be, perchance, the spark of

truth that will guide further observation to a more definite

decision.

This very relation between flowers and seasons that the

evolutionary floral system brings to light, may, in turn,

modify somewhat that system, and so eradicate many seeming

anomalies. And thus the added law may be better established

by the perfecting of the fundamental one,—and vice versa.

This consideration cannot be ignored.

In the light of all these facts and their regulating principles

we can feel with fullest power that harmony of relations in

the flora of each succeeding month,—a harmony to which

even the casual observer cannot be insensible. The quarter of

our country we have scanned is a wide sweep—coast-plain,

hill-regions, mountains, and prairie ; and if it offers so signifi-

cant suggestions we can justly say, inducti ely, that there must

be much here that is of far wider application. At least, there

is full cause to believe that more extended research in this

little-tested field of flower philosophy will be well repaid ; and

it may, further, open up an analogous field, yet unthought-of,

in the realms of lower, flowerless, plant-life. The story told,

we realize that its plot is simply another instance of the

expression of universal law in that which rather seems a law

unto itself.

782 The American Naturalist. [September,

THE MORPHOLOGY OF ROOT TUBERCLES OF

LEGUMINOS 2.

ALBERT SCHNEIDER, M. D.

The object of this research was to give a more detailed

account of the anatomical structure of root tubercles, thus

adding perhaps somewhat toward clearing up some of the

difficulties in the comparatively little known field of teratology.

It is true much labor has been expended in the endeavor to

get a correct understanding of “symbiosis” and the relation

of Rhizobia to certain plants. The life history and morphol-

ogy of the root bacteria have received most of the attention

while the tubercles themselves have been almost entirely for-

gotten. Frank, who has done much in this line of research

offers but little concerning tubercle morphology. Nearly all

of his attention is directed toward the “Bakteroiden.” The

same is true of Beyerinck, Brunchorst, Waronin and the others.

Some of the pupils of Frank have also made noteworthy

researches concerning Rhizobia. Recently Frank and Moeller’

have engaged in a controversy with regard to the “Dimorphis-

mus der Wurzelknóllchen der Erbse.” Frank has also described

the lenticular structure of root tubercles. Beyond this, little of

importance seems to have been done with root tubercle mor-

phology.

In my own jac mature tubercles were taken from

various Leguminose toward the close of the vegetative period,

since at that time tissues have acquired their most marked

morphological characteristics. The earlier stages of develop-

ment were studied at various periods of the season. The final

summing up was not completed until late in the year. (Dec.,

1892.)

The tubercles are in themselves abnormal growths produced

by the local irritation of certain organisms, the Rhizobia; and

1 The investigations described in this paper were carried on in the laboratories of

botany, of the University of Minnesota.

* Berichte der deutsch. bot. Ges., Hefte 3 und 5, 1892.

1893.] Root Tubercles of Leguminose. 783

etiologically resemble those growths produced by certain

animals as for example the Heterodora or Anguillula cysts found

on some roots. Morphologically, however, they are clearly

distinct.

In some cases these tubercles make their appearance shortly

after germination. In others not until plants have reached

the flowering stage or even later. In some cases they do not

appear at all, that depending upon the nature of soil in which

the plants grow as explained by Frank? and others. The

macroscopic appearances of some tubercles have been more or

less perfectly described in a previous article! The form is

quite constant in a given species of plant. In Phaseolus

vulgaris and Amphicarpaea comosa, for instance, they are spheri-

cal In Melilotus alba, Pisum sativum, Trifolium pratense and

Trifolium repens they are oblong, narrow at point of attachment,

often slightly forked, cordate or pear shaped. Usually they

occur singly, less often, as for example in Melilotus alba they

grow into large grape-like bunches. Like root branches they

usually develop acropetally though there are numerous excep-

tions. They are most common on roots near the surface of the

soil ; sometimes they are found at a considerable depth. They

are never found in close proximity to growing roottips. They

occur either on the main root or its branches.

Tubercles seem always to develop exogenously. The direct

causes of their development are the Rhizobia, of which there

are at least several species? Predisposing causes are, nature of

soil and condition of atmosphere as to temperature and mois-

ture, etc. The various kinds of Rhizobia appear to be more

or less abundant in all normal soil. Whenever a given species

finds a suitable lodging place on the root-surface it multiplies

and by some means gains access to one or more of the surface

cells and infection is completed. Just how infection takes

place is not definitely known. It is thought that the Rhizobia

have the power to dissolve the cell membrane of the host;

just how is not stated. Frank, Moeller’ and others maintain

3 Pilz symbiosa der Leguminosen, 1890.

* Bulletin Torrey Bot. Club, July, 1892.

5 Bulletin Torrey Bot. Club, July, 1892.

ê Ber. der deutsch. bot. Ges., Heft 5, 1892.

| 784 The American Naturalist. [September,

that infection takes place by means of the “Infektionsfaden.”

This seems improbable since the “Infektionsfiiden” are not

always present. I could find no trace of them in Phaseolus

vulgaris. They are sometimes present in Trifolium pratense. I

have been unable to find them in Robinia pseudacacia, although

Moeller states that they are present. In all those cases in

which I found them I could detect no connection between them

and the Rhizobia. They are sometimes found in tissues out-

side of the tubercle having no apparent connection with it.

In chemical behavior and microscopical appearance the

“Infektionsfiiden” differ considerably from the Rhizobia. The

“Infektionsfiden” consist of a more highly refractive albumin-

oid substance and stain less readily than the Rhizobia. Ihave

often found them in old tubercles of Trifolium pratense in

whieh the Rhizobia and cell protoplasm had been almost

wholly removed showing thatthey have a greater vitality than

either the plant cell or the Rhizobia. Heretofore no one has

been able to detect a membrane on the *Infektionsfüden."

Recently Moeller’ has announced the discovery of a cellulose

membrane surrounding the “Bacteria zoogles"—" Infektions-

fáden." This membrane, he asserts, is secreted by the cell pro-

toplasm as a protection against the intruding bacteria (Rhizo-

bia). In the same article Moeller notes that the bacteria

(Rhizobia) have the power to dissolve cellulose. These state- .

ments are certainly a little difficult to understand. It would

seem improbable that the bacteria (Rhizobia) should at one

and the same time dissolve cellulose and also have a coating

of it deposited on them as a protection against their intrusion.

It is known that eggs of parasites, larvæ in the resting stage,

calcium oxalate crystals, etc., when found in plant tissues have

had secreted around them a coating of cellulose. In such

cases, however, the foreign substance does not at the same time

have the power of dissolving cellulose.

Without going into further discussion, it is known that the

Rhizobia gain access to the interior of the surface root-cells

where they multiply rapidly. By their irritating presence,

inereased protoplasmic action takes place. Not only do the

t Bex. der deutscb. bot. Ges., Heft 5, 1892.

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1893.] Root Tubercles of Leguminose. 785

infected cells grow and multiply much more rapidly but the

adjoining cells likewise take on increased activity. On micro-

scopic examination there will be noted a slight protuberance,

swelling outward but still covered by the root epidermal layer.

This incipient tumor consists of two kinds of meristematic

tissue, the centrally located portion of infected cells and the

adjoining outer portion of noninfected cells. This meristem

tissue is engaged in active cell division. The original infected

cells divide and produce auto-infected daughter cells. Out-

wardly a corky tissue is developed from a distinct phellogen

layer, usually one or two cells in thickness. These phellogen

cells divide tangentially and often contain starch and calcium

oxalate crystals. I have found a cork layer on all tubercles

examined thus far. Centrally cell division goes on less rapidly

until the pericambium of the root is reached which is also

involved in the change. A vascular bundle starts from the

root-vascular system and extends peripherally toward the

infected area until quite near it where it divides into from four

to seven branches which continue centrifugally (in reference

to root) through the outer part of the tubercle meristen to near

its apex. These vascular bundles consists of conducting

vessels, like those of the root, surrounded by bast cells: the

whole is encircled by a sheath of cells whose outer walls are

considerably thickened.

In spherical tubercles the cambium is of equal thickness in

all parts. In elongated and irregular forms the meristematic

tissue is more abundant in the extended points, that is, there

may be one or more apical areas in the same tubercle. The

cambium cells are of the ordinary small, angular, closely uni-

ted, rather thin walled variety. The cells may divide in any

plane. The cork layer usually consists of thin walled rect-

angular cells, often with intercellular air passages. In Phaseolus

vulgaris the cork cells are considerably rounded, in Robinia

they are rather irregular. The entire cork layer is continuous

with the unchanged endodermal layer of the root. The entire

tubercle is covered over by an epidermal layer of cells contig-

uous with that of the root. No root-hairs are present. Early

in the development of the tubercle the root-hairs become

786 The American Naturalist. [September,

dwarfed and soon disappear. The plant can no longer use

them as organs of absorption on account of the impervious

layer of cork. The tubercle receives its nourishment by means

of the vascular bundle system and the parenchymatous con-

ducting tissue of the root which is continuous with that of the

tubercle. The outline of the infected area is wavy, there being

a depression before each vascular bundle as seen in a cross

section. Single, or groups of noninfected cells are generally

distributed through the infected area. In the centre may be

found a noninfected area of considerable size, as in Robinia

pseudacacia. The infected cells resemble those of the nonin-

fected cambium in that they are angular and closely united,

there being no intercellular spaces. They differ in that they

are much larger and in that they have undergone peculiar

protoplasmic and nuclear changes. ‘The cells are entirely

filled with Rhizobia and protoplasm. The Rhizobia feed upon

the cell protoplasm and in turn appropriate for the use of the

plant the free nitrogen of the air. In the case of Rhizobium

mutabile the abundant food supply causes it to become much

enlarged and to assume various forms during the season, hence

the name. No other species seem to undergo such extensive

changes. As to the position the Rhizobia take in the cell, I

have noticed some peculiarities. In colonies of Rhizobium

mutabile in Melilotus alba the long axes are all directed toward

the nucleus. Trifolium which contains the same species of

Rhizobium does not show the same arrangement. Here they

are placed in all concievable positions. Why they should take

this position in Melilotus alba I am unable to state. In

Phaseolus vulgaris and Piswm sativum they are often collected

into Zoogloeae as is clearly shown in thin sections.

In Amphicarpaea comosa and Phaseolus vulgaris I have always

found well developed lenticels on the tubercles. They are

developed from a clearly marked lenticular phellogen, show-

ing tangential cell division. The phellogen of the lenticels as

well as that of the cork layer is developed from a large celled

parenchymatous tissue lying above the cambium layer. The

lenticular phellogen is not depressed into the underlying tissue,

as is usually the case, but somewhat elevated above it. ‘he

1893.] Root Tubercles of Leguminose. 787

lenticels consist of the usual loosely connected, rounded cork

cells and are always located above the vascular bundles. They

no doubt serve as a means for the interchanging of gases

between the exterior and interior by way of the vascular

bundles. Frank maintains that the cork layer as well as the

infected area have intercellular air spaces for the interchange

of gases. As already mentioned the infected area consists of

closely united firm walled cells, such as are usually found in

meristematic tissues. Furthermore the infected area is entirely

cut off from the cork layer by means of the cambium which

certainly has no intercellular passages. Hence it would be

rather difficult to see what function intercellular spaces would

play in the infected area. Tubercles possessing lenticels no

doubt give off considerable gas. I have noticed that the

tubercles of a growing bean plant when placed in water would

have a glistening appearance due to a thin layer of air or some

gas separating them from the water. After a time very minute

gas bubbles would form on the surface of the tubercle. As to

the source and nature of this gas I am unable to give any

satisfactory explanation. It is very likely dependent upon the

largely increased metabolic processes going on in the tubercle,

-Frank has made some experiments on the subject without

however, coming to any definite conclusions.

Starch is usually present to some extent in tubercles, especially

in those infected by Rhizobium mutabile. There is some in

~ tubercles of Amphicarpaea comosa, little or none in tubercles

of Phaseolus vulgaris and Robinia pseudacacia. The starch is

always found in the noninfected meristem tissue especially the

cork phellogen and next to the infected area. This is simply

stored starch like that found in other parts of the root.

Frank maintains that there are two varieties of Rhizobia

always to be found in two different kinds of tubercles of Pisum

sativum. One variety is said to have the power of producing

within itself highly refractive amyloid bodies closely related

to amylo-dextrin found in some of the Florideae. Moeller

agrees with Frank in regard to the presence in some Rhizobia

of the highly refractive bodies but maintains that they consist

of some fatty derivative, as cholesterin. Both agree that these

188 The American Naturalist. [September,

bodies are readily stained with iodine solution, but while Frank

notes a reddish brown stain Moeller affirms the color to be

dark brown. I have noted similar highly refractive bodies in

Ehizobium mutabile of Melilotus alba, Trifolium pratense, Trifol-

ium repens, and Lathyrus odoratus but not in Phaseolus vulgaris,

or Pisum sativum. These two last named plants are infected

by Rhizobium Frankii var. major and minor respectively. So

far I have only found these bodies in Rhizobium mutabile.

These bodies are, as before stated, highly refractive; generally

rounded, and may be located in the centre or toward the peri-

phery of the usually more or less modified Rhizobium. I have

been unable to stain them with tincture of iodine. Fuschin

stains them with difficulty. The various aniline dyes have

practically no effect upon them. As to their chemical nature

I am not prepared to express a definite opinion. Iam of the

opinion that they are not starch. I am more inclined to

Moeller's view that they are due to a fatty degeneration of

protoplasm in improperly nourished Rhizobia. This. would

especially be expected in mature degenerating tubercles, which

are the only ones that contain the Rhizobia with refractive

bodies. Fatty degeneration is quite common in animal proto-

plasm. It sometimes happens that a starch granule is deposi-

ted inside of the partially or wholly empty case of a Rhizo-

bium. This however is purely accidental and does not occur

often. Of course such Rhizobia will contain highly refractive

bodies that stain readily with iodine.

The greatest changes take place in the infected area of the

tubercle. Here everything points to increased protoplasmic

activity. The cells grow and multiply rapidly, they are

entirely filled with a mixture of Rhizobia and protoplasm and

in some cases the “ Infektionsfdiden.” The nuclei are abnor-

mally large, the nucleoli become more distinct. All the

different cell elements stain much more heavily than those of

the normal cell. In Phaseolus vulgaris the nuclei becomes very

much modified, they increase in size, the nuclear wall thick-

ens, sooner or later the weaker spots of the wall give way and

allow the nucleoplasm to protrude giving the whole an amoeba

like appearance. Finally the nuclear wall ruptures on one side

1893.] Root Tubereles of Leguminose. 789

and allows the nucleoplasm to escape and mix more or less

with the cell protoplasm (cytoplasm). The nucleoli retain

their normal size and form; some of them retain a position

next to the nuclear wall, others escape into the “ mycoplasm ”

of Frank. I have not noticed such extensive nuclear changes

in any tubercles except those of Phaseolus vulgaris.

The question as to what becomes of the contents of the infec-

ted cells might be briefly considered. Formerly I expressed it

as an opinion that the plant at the close of the vegetative

period and also at other suitable times absorbed the protoplas-

mic contents of the Rhizobia. I do not now think that that is

the rule if it occurs at all. I believe that normally the tuber-

cles are destroyed by the ordinary process of decay and the

Rhizobia thus liberated. I have found the usual number of

tubercles on Trifolium pratense and Melilotus alba as late as

December 10th when I was compelled to chop them out of the

frozen ground. The tubercles were filled with Rhizobium muta-

bile, apparently in normal condition. I have found well filled

tubercles on dead, matured plants of Phaseolus vulgaris. The

Rhizobia were apparently in a resting stage, waiting to be lib-

erated. It is true in some cases the tubercles were emptied

during or before the close of the vegetative period. Even in

such cases I do not believe that the contents were taken up by

the host but rather that the tubercles died and decayed because

it did not receive enough nourishment from the plant and soil.

The question as to what position the tubercles hold, morpho-

logically considered, is of some interest. The absence of a root-

cap, of root-hairs and the fact that it develops exogenously

would show that it does not resemble a root-branch. In posi-

tion it shows neither positive nor negative geotropism though

it occurs most frequently on roots near the surface. That may

be, as Frank maintains, because the tubercles require a coat-

ing of air to keep them from direct contact with moisture. But

since the tubercle is nourished by the plant and the coating of

air escapes from the tubercle itself it is difficult to see why

they should not develop in deep soil as well. It may be that

there is a tendency toward negative geotropism. I have never

been able to find tubercles on any other part of the plant than

790 The American Naturalist. [September,

the root or its branches. Frank has found Rhizobia in stem,

leaves and even the embryo. I have searched for them repeat-

edly in tissues outside of the root but have not found any.

Tubercles resemble growing tissues in the abundance of

Albuminoid compounds. Calcium oxalate crystals are common

in the noninfected cambium especially the cork phellogan.

Some of the crystals have a coating of cellulose secreted around

them by the cell protoplasm. Any abnormal growth resem-

bles histologically the tissue upon which it develops; hence

one would expect the tubercles to resemble anatomically the

roots upon which they grow. Yet it seems that the tubercles

have more anatomical characters belonging to a stem than to

a root, as already indicated.

RESUME.

1. Root tubercles develop exogenously.

2. Tubercles grow from a meristematic area surrounding the

infected region and separating it from the external cork layer.

3. Cork as well as e cue develop from a well marked

phellogen.

4. Tubercles have a well developed vascular system differ-

ing from that of the root.

5. Phaseolus vulgaris and Amphicarpaea comosa have tuber-

cles with well developed lenticels, differing somewhat from

those on the stem. .

6. There is more or less starch in tubercles produced by

Rhizobium mutabile.

7. Sometimes Rhizobium mutabile contains highly refractive

bodies whose nature is not definitely known.

8. Anatomically a tubercle resembles a stem more closely

than a root.

9. Generally tubercles are not found empty at the close of

vegetative period.

10. Probably the plant does not reabsorb the protoplasmic

contents of the Rhizobia at any time.

‘11. Nuclei in tubercles of Phaseolus vulgaris undergo great

changes.

1893.]

Root Tubercles of Leguminose. 791

EXPLANATION OF PLATES..

A. Longitudinal section of a mature tubercle of Melilotus alba.

a. Cork layer.

b. Phellogen.

c. Vascular bundle in longitudinal section.

d. Infected area showing the Rhizobia radiating from the

nucleus as a centre.

e. Vascular bundle, cross section.

f. Apex of cambium layer.

h. Starch layer next to infected area.

i. Rhizobium mutabile of Melilotus alba as seen in the early

part of November.

j. Calcium oxalate crystals.

k. Parenchymatous tissue continuous with that of the

root.

r. Noninfected cells in the infected area bearing starch.

B. Cross section of a tubercle of Phaseolus vulgaris.

a. Cork layer consisting of rounded cells.

b. Phellogen.

c. Lenticels.

d. Infected area, Rhizobia are arranged in zoogloeae.

e. Vascular bundles, all in cross section.

g. Calcium oxalate crystals.

i. Rhizobium frankii var. majus from bean tubercle.

j Normal nucleoli. 1. Nuclear wall. 3. Nucleoli 4.

Nucleoplasm.

k. Much modified nuclei form infected area. 1. Nuclear

membrane. 2. Processes of the nucleoplasm. 3.

Nueleoli. 4. Nucleoplasm.

C. Details.

Small portion of tubercle of Trifolium pratense invaded

by the “Infektions fäden” (Schinzia leguminosorum). a.

Hyphe of the fungus. b. Enlargements next to cell wall. c.

* Haustoria."

792 The American Naturalist. [September,

2. Diagrammatic longitudinal section of Robinia pseudacacia.

a. Cork layer. The cells are more irregular than those of the

root. c. Vascular system. d. Infected area. e. noninfected

areas.

3. Same as 1, but without the “ Infektions füden " and show-

ing the cell entirely filled with the much modified Rhizobium

mutabile. Nuclei are much enlarged and nucleoli show dis-

tinetly.

4. b. Much modified Rhizobia mutabilia with highly refractive

bodies c. a. Starch granule which is capped by the empty

case of a Rhizobium, b. 4. A starch granule just forming

inside of a partially empty Rhizobium case. a. Some free

starch granules.

5. Cross section of a vascular bendi. a. Sheath. b. Phloem.

c. Vessels.

1893.] Structure of Carapace in Rhinocaris. 793

ON THE STRUCTURE OF THE CARAPACE IN THE

DEVONIAN CRUSTACEAN RHINOCARIS; AND

THE RELATION OF THE GENUS TO

MESOTHYRA AND THE

PHYLLOCARIDA.

By Joun M. CLARKE.

In the original account of the peculiar fossil Rhinocaris; the

carapace was described, from the best evidence then obtainable,

as univalvular, with a rostrum projecting conspicuously and

consolidated with the valve. The type of structure appeared

to be a remarkable departure from that exemplified in the pre-

vailing phyllocarid crustacea of the Devonian (Echinocaris,

Llymocaris, Tropidocaris), and seemed to evince in the very

structure mentioned, strong affinities with the Decapods.

The diagnosis of the genus was virtually based upon a

single specimen in which the carapace had been laterally com-

pressed in such a manner as to demonstrate the non-existence

of a median suture or hinge, and to conceal any evidence of

other longitudinal sutures; and in which, also, the rostrum

was laterally flattened and apparently continuous with the

carapace.

For several years I have been carefully searching for addi-

tional information concerning this peculiar crustacean. A

considerable number of specimens from the shales of the

Hamilton group of Ontario County, New York, have come into

my hands, but the test of the animal is so very tenuous that

it seems well nigh impossible to secure examples which have

not been subjected to some distortion, and that is usually the

greatest at structural points of critical importance. Several

excellent specimens, however, have been obtained, some of

them kindly furnished by Mr. F. B. Loomis, of Spencerport,

EY.

The carapace of Rhinocaris columbina Clarke, (the typical

1 Paleontology of New York, vol. vii, pp. lviii, 195, pl. xxxi, figs. 16-21, 1888.

794 The American Naturalist. [September,

species) consists of four distinct and separate parts; two broad

lateral plates or valves, a narrow median or axial plate, and

an anterior median plate or rostrum.

The valves have an elongate, somewhatsemi-oval marginal out-

line, narrower posteriorly than anteriorly, with a truncate or

concave posterior extremity. They come into contact at only a

single point, and that is in the axial line at about one-fourth

of the median length from the anterior margin. At this point

a projecting angle is formed on each by the attenuation and

termination of the rostrum and median plate, and the project-

ing points appear to come into simple apposition, though it is

possible that they slightly overlap; there is, however, no satis-

factory evidence of the clasping of the valves at this point,

such as that occurring in the great species Mesothyra Oceani2

Fic, 1. Diagrz ic fi howing the carapace structure in Rhinocaris.

Opposite this point of contact and considerably within the

median line of each valve, is a visual node having the form

* Op. cit. pl. xxxii, fig. 6; pl. xxxiii, figs. 4, 5.

1893.] Structure of Carapace in Rhinocaris. 795

of a low pustule with a single central depression or pit. From

the base of this node radiates a series of linear, sparsely

branching sinuses which extend laterally and posteriorly

toward the marginal regions, the longest traversing nearly

one-third the length of the valves. There isa very faint ridge

or carina which lies just outside the middle of each valve and

extends subparallel to the outer margin, for nearly the length

of the valve, though reaching neither its anterior nor posterior

margin.

In addition to these characters, the valves, over the margi-

nal regions, bear the fine anastomosing elevated lines which

characterize all the phyllocarid crustacea.

The rostrum is an elongate plate having, when flattened hori-

zontally, somewhat the form of a willow leaf. Its broader end

is inserted into the anterior gap between the valves and its pos-

terior extremity is acute. As the plate begins to project beyond

the anterior edge of the valves of the carapace, it narrows, its

lateral expansions become deflected, the median portion taper-

ing rapidly and becoming slightly incurved toward the tip.

The plane of the anterior half of the plate stands at

nearly right angles to that of the posterior half, as shown in the

accompanying figures. That this organ is in symphysis with

Fic. 2. Dorsal view and outline profile of the rostrum of Khinocaris columbina,

the valves is evident from the fact that it is rarely found in its

normal position. The surface is peculiarly ornamented by a

series of elevated lines forming a sort of midrib ; over the lat-

eral posterior expansions the lines become much finer, diverge _

796 The American Naturalist. [September,

radially from the center after the manner of leaf veins, anas-

iomosing to some degree, frequently terminating in oblique

puncte, and in parts where the lines disappear the punctæ

remain.

The median plate. This is a very narrow body, its width

exceeding at no point the greatest diameter of the rostrum. It

begins at the union of the valves, in an acute angle, but its

lateral margins soon become subparallel or convex outwardly.

In relative proportions its length is about eight times its width.

Along the median axis it bears an elevated ridge-like line,

from which there is a gentle slope on each side, and it was

essentially from this evidence of continuity of the test on the

axialline and from the concealment of the sutures between

this plate and the valves, that the carapace was originally

described as univalvular. The fine incised lines of the surface

diverge anteriorly from this ridge.

In discussing, in Volume VII of the Paleontology of New

York; the structure of the great carapaces from the lower

Fic. 8. Mesothyra oceani.

Chemung beds at Ithaca, N. Y., which had theretofore beer:

known as Dithyrocaris neptuni, it was shown that these cara-

paces (now termed Mesothyra oceani) must have had a compo-

sition similar to that we now find to have actually existed in

3 Op. cit. p. 184, pl. xxxi, figs. 8-10.

1893.] Structure of Carapace in Rhinocaris. 797

Rhinocaris, This presumptive structure was exhibited in a

diagrammatic figure upon Plate xxxii, of which a reduced

copy is here given. Though neither the rostrum nor the

median plate in Mesothyra has yet been seen, all

doubt of their existence is removed, and it affords

a personal gratification to find this reconstruction

of Mesothyra so fully substantiated by our present

knowledge of the carapace in Rhinocaris.

The structure of the visual organ affords a

further correspondence in the two genera, and

one of some morphological significance.

In regard to the number of abdominal segments,

present evidence indicates a difference in the two,

Rhinocaris columbina having at least three, and

Mesothyra having shown but two.

In the genus Tropidocaris Beecher, it has been

shown that the type species, T. bicarinata, possesses

a rostrum, and its anterior extension is not unlike

that of Rhinocaris, but there is now no satisfactory

evidence of a free median plate in any of these

Fic. 4. The Species. Unfortunately the accessible specimens

median plate of Of the species are not very satisfactorily pre-

Rhinocaris col- served, and the originals described by Mr.

anise Beecher in Report PP of the Second Geological

Survey of Pennsylvania, are understood to be beyond the reach

of further investigation for the present. In plaster casts of the

originals, the median suture on the hinge appears to be invaria-

bly in the longitudinal axis of the test. The original specimens

of Rhinocaris scaphoptera and Tropidocaris hamiltoniæ, which

were collected by me in the Hamilton shales of Ontario County,

N. Y., both show some evidence of a quite narrow median plate,

and the former possesses a stout rostrum,* while in the Meso-

thyra (Dithyrocaris ?) veneris, from the Marcellus shales, both

median plate and rostrum are distinctly seen.°

It may be questioned if the multicarinate carapaces com-

posing the genus TJropidocaris should be placed in close asso-

1.05. cit. pl. xxxi, fig. 22, 29.

5 Of. cit. pl. xxxiii, fig. 3.

798 The American Naturalist. [September,

ciation with the unicarinate carapaces such as are possessed by

Rhinocaris columbina, R. scaphoptera, Mesothyra oceani, M.

(Dithyrocaris?) veneris, Tropidocaris hamiltonim, etc. All

ihe latter appear to have possessed the carapace structure

of Rhinocaris columbina, and if they are to be considered

as representing different modifications of this type, suffi-

cient to entitle them to distinct generic appellations, the

following division of them may be preferable to that now

standing: under Zhinocaris; R. columbina, Mesothyra veneris ;

under Mesothyra; M. oceani, Tropidocaris hamiltoniæ, Rhino-

caris scaphoptera.

In regard to the unicarinate genus Argas, or Dithyrocaris, it

may be stated that as described and illustrated by European

writers, it has not been shown to existin the paleozoic faunas

of North America. When the structure of the carapace in the

type species shall become more precisely known, we shall have

a better basis for the comparison of these fossils with those

under consideration, but at present we are not justified in

assuming that they possessed the same structure as the unicari-

nate Rhinocarids.

Leaving these points of systematics, we find in Rhinocaris

and its allies a remarkable carapace structure, an explanation

of which it is difficult to find among fossil or recent crusta-

eeans. We may conceive the double suture to have been a

temporary modification of the Ceratiocarid type, induced by a

necessity for movement of the lateral parts of the carapace

after anchylosis has become established along the original

median hinge. The evidence favors the belief that the valves

: were capable of motion along the double hinge, and nearly

. every specimen demonstrates the fact that the parts were sepa-

rable along these lines after but slight maceration of the tissues.

No satisfactory elucidation of the origin and morphological.

‘significance of this structure appears from a study of the

embryological phases of Nebalia as given by Metschnikoff,

- Claus and Packard, nor in the development of the Decapods

- as shown by Sars, S. I. Smith, Brooks, Bumpus and others. It

is, nevertheless, in the development history of Nebalia and the

1893.] Structure of Carapace in Rhinocaris. 799

Decapods that the key to the taxonomic value of these features

must be sought.

The existence of such a structure among the fossils usually

classed as Phyllocarida, suggests a question as to the latitude

of this ordinal term, proposed by Packard in 1879, for the liv-

ing Nebalia and its fossil allies. The hinging, or median divis-

ion by suture, of the carapace in many of these creatures, has

been regarded here as among the Phyllopods, as of minor

importance by most authors who have agreed to associate with

Nebalia such fossil forms as Ceratiocaris, Echinocaris, etc. Claus

used the term Leptostraca (also founded upon the structure of

Nebalia) with a somewhat more restricted aide:

meaning. In a recent work on the Cera- 4 ——

tiocaride of Great Britain, the authors, Pro-

fessor T. Rupert Jones and Dr. Henry F's. 5.

Woodward, have divided the Phyllocarida Cn

into two groups (1) those with univalved, and (2) those with

bivalved carapaces. The greater number of the genera

, included in the first of these divisions are

) imperfectly known and quite obscure in their

structural relations. Such are Discinocaris,

Spathiocaris, Aptychopsis, Ellipsocaris, Diptero-

caris, etc., etc. As the living Nebalia is unival-

Fic. 6. The fat- ved and without hinge, it is in this division

ce of that one would expect to find the closest

Nebalia bipes. (Af approach to its structure, and it is, in fact, the

€— case that none of the so-called Phyllocarida

approaches Nebalia so closely in the structure of the test as the

early paleozoic (Cambrian) genus Hymenocaris. In both, the

telson is represented by a modification of three pairs of caudal

spines or setze, and both have about the same degree of abdomi-

nal segmentation, though Nebalia possess a rostrum, while

Hymenocaris, as far as we now know, is devoid of one.

Another very early univalved species, not unlike Nebalia, but

wonderfully similar to the living Phyllopod Apus, is the Pro-

tocaris marshii Walcott, from the Olenellus-zone of the Cam-

brian. The figures here introduced, taken from the works of

"Waleott and Packard, will serve to show this similarity. The

Hymenocaris

800 The American Naturalist. [September,

Fic. 7. Young of Mebalia geoffroyi. (After Metschnikoff.)

single example of Protocaris known, has probably been sub-

jected to some horizontal distortion in the shale, giving the

carapace a disproportionate size with reference to Apus, possi-

bly also serving to obliterate any external evidence of ocular

nodes which may have existed, but the remarkable closeness

in the form of the abdominal segments, the degree of segmen-

tation and the single strong pair of caudal processes, renders

it highly probable that in Protocaris, we have to do with an

apudiform phyllopod rather than with a nebalioid phyllocarid.

G. 8. Protocaris marshii. Fic. 9. Apus equalis. (After

"eid Walcott.) ` Packard.)

. Among the bivalved genera, not including Estheria and

Leaia which Messrs, Jones and Woodward have placed with

the Phyllocarids, there is throughout a general resemblance to

1893.] Structure of Carapace in Rhinocaris. 801

Nebalia except in this division of the carapace; a rostrum was

present in most, though in some, as Echinocaris, a large amount

of material has as yet failed to establish its existence. Nebalia

possesses stalked compound eyes, which make no node or other

configuration upon the exterior of the carapace. In Echino-

caris, one of the numerous nodes in the cephalic region is

undoubtedly ocular, and sometimes shows a slight depression

at its summit; the other nodes are probably of muscular origin.

In Ceratiocaris there is no external evidence of eyes, while

Emmelezoe, Tropidocaris and Elymocaris all possess nodes

which may be definitely referred to the ocular organ.

Figures of Emmelezoe given by Jones and Woodward indicate

that its structure is similiar to that of Rhinocaris, and it is evi-

dent that differences of structure in this respect between all of

these genera and Mesothyra as represented in the accompanying

figures, is simply one of degree. It is, therefore, a pertinent

query whether such a fixed external ocular body as this, with

a single central depression, is in any way indicative of stalked

compound eye. . We are strongly of the opinion that it is not,

but, rather, indicates that these ancient representatives of

nebaliad structures were sessile eyed.

Among the crustaceans we have been considering there

appear to be at least four types of test-structure which are

well distinguished.

1. That of Apus (Protocaris; a synthetic type, not necessa-

rily a Phyllopod because Apus is one.

2. That of Nebalia, in a restricted sense (Hymenocaris).

3. That of Ceratiocaris (Echinocaris, Elymocaris, etc.).

4. That of Rhinocaris (Mesothyra, Dithyrocaris ? ?).

It was proposed, when Rhinocaris was believed to represent

a univalved, rostrate carapace, to distinguish it not only as a

genus, but as a separate family, RAinocaridz, from other Phyl-

locarids; and it was at the same time proposed to place Meso-

thyra, with a supposed structure which we have now shown to

exist in Rhinocaris, in a distinct family, the Pinnicaridx. It is

now evident that the two fossils are very closely related and it

will not do to separate them by more than a generic difference;

we may therefore retain the family term Rhinocaridx and dis-

card the other. 51

802 The American Naturalist. [September,

GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY AND ITS RELATION TO

MORPHOLOGY.’

By C. O. WHITMAN.

It is only as a zoologist that I venture to discuss this subject ;

and only in this capacity that I undertake to defend the prop-

osition, that general zoological physiology is the promising field

in which morphology and physiology may work most profita-

bly together.

Morphology and physiology are two quite distinct sides ‘of

biology, each with definite and constant peculiarities of

method and aim; but these two sides are only the statical

and the dynamical aspect of one and the same thing; one

presents the feature, the other the expression. It is only as a

matter of convenience that these two aspects are dealt with

separately ; they are complemental, and have their full mean-

ing only when united. The same function may appear in

different forms, but a knowledge of the forms is nevertheless

indispensable to an understanding of the function, and, con-

versely, the function must be known before we can arrive at a

complete interpretation of the form. The best interests of

biology demand that morphology and physiology should be

kept in working contact. That is the lesson of the hour,

which thoughtful investigators on both sides are coming more

and more to realize. ‘The separation of these two great

branches of biology has been carried to an extreme that

impedes the progress of both—an extreme that is unnatural

and that has resulted from keeping physiology too exclusively

in the service of medicine.

- Physiology has come to mean, in practice at least, little

more than the science which treats of the functions of fully

developed organs. That this is an important side of physiol-

ogy goes without saying, but there is another side no less

important, which has been hitherto left almost wholly to mor-

1From the Fifth Annual Report on the Marine Biological Laboratory of Wood’s

. Holl, 1892.

1893.] Physiology and Morphology. 803

phologists. ‘That we have to deal with functions of organisms

as wellas with functions of organs, is a truth that could not

escape the student of Darwin’s or Wallace’s works. Still we

have just begun to heed the fact that the broader physiology

of the future must include the biological economy of organ-

isms as well as the functional economy of organs. I repeat

the biological economy of organisms must become an integral

part of physiology, not only in theory, but in practice as

well.

The activities and inter-relations of organisms bear the same

relation to their morphology, as do the functions and correla-

tions of organs to their anatomy. ^ The former activities differ

from the latteronly in degree, just as an organism differs from

an organ only asa composite differs from a simple. As the

morphology of organisms includes organology, so the physiol-

ogy of organisms embraces the functions of organs. Asthe

one covers all organic forms from the most minute and simple

to the most highly differentiated and complex, so the

other covers all vital phenomena, whether manifested in the

smallest particle of living protoplasm, in a cell, a special tissue,

an organ, an organism, a species, or any group of organisms.

Form and function are always the two aspects, inseparably

linked together throughout the entire organic world.

The work of the physiologist runs perfectly parallel with

that of the morphologist, and wherever the one divides there

the other divides, and for precisely similar reasons. We have

the morphology of adult individuals, likewise the physiology ;

we have the morphology of the developing individual (onto-

geny), likewise embryological physiology (“ physiontogeny ”) ;

then we have the morphology of the species (phylogeny), and

along side the physiology, or the phylogeny of functions

(* physiophyly, ” Haeckel).

Metaphysiosi$ is as old and as universal as metamorphosis,

and to attempt to explain functions as we find them to-day

without considering their historical development, is in many

cases at least, as idle as trying to account for the specified forms

word suggests itself so readily, that it will hardly be reco gnized as novel ; it is

at least self-defining.

804 The American Naturalist. [September,

of existing organisms without the aid of their genealogy.

Monumental failures of this kind might be cited on both

sides; but it may be said that morphologists have almost

universally abandoned this standpoint, while physiologists

have quite generally adhered to it. It is the one-sided anthro-

pocentric development of physiology that has retarded its

progress, and that still waits to be corrected. Presumptuous

as such statements may appear, coming from a morphologist,

they are nevertheless true and must be declared so long as

the malady of one of the twin branches of biology remains

as the affliction of the other. Solong as such fundamental func-

tions of organisms as heredity, variation, adaptation, are neglec-

ted by physiologists, so long will physiology have to bear the

reproach of having some of its more inviting fields pre-occu-

pied and developed by morphologists.

What processes of life are more universal or more funda-

mental than those exhibited in and about the dividing

nucleus? What function of living protoplasm has more to

tell us about how the organism comes into existence and how

the foundation is laid for the development of all the higher

functions, than that of cleavage? What phenomenon of life

stands more in need of a physiological explanation than that

of sex differentiation? What question has a more direct prac-

tical bearing on the education and development of the human

race than that of the transmission of aequired characters ?

What functions of more transcendent interest than those of

the various sense organs? Where could a more beautiful

example of the evolution of function be found than is fur-

nished in our special senses? How intensely interesting the

subject of the derivation of such functions! Will the physiol-

ogist, or his protégé the psychologist, give a share of attention

to these important matters, or must the morphologist not

only find the problem but work it out whenever it falls within

the range of evolution? That would mean working under

all the disadvantages attending the separation of two co-ordi-

nate branches which are complemental one to the other.

Morphology would lose its natural helpmate, and physiology

would forsake its best guide. Morphology analyses the

1893.] Physiology and Morphology. 805

organic machine and thus lays the foundation for understand-

ing its physiological use; physiology puts the suggestions of

morphology to the test of experiment, and elucidates the

dynamical side of the machine. ^ What the machine consists

of and what it ean do, go together to make up a full concept

of its structure and its functions. But the concurrence of the

two sciences does not stop here. Morphology raises the ques-

tion, how came the organic mechanism into existence? Has

it had a history, reaching its present state of perfection

through a long series of gradations, the first term of which

was a relatively simple stage? The embryological history is

traced out and the paleontological records are searched until

the evidence from both sources establishes the fact, that the

organ or organism under study is but the summation of modi-

fications and elaborations of a relatively simple primordial.

This point settled, physiology is called upon to complete the

story. Have the functions remained the same throughout the

series, or have they undergone a series of modifications, differ-

entiations, and improvements more or less parallel with the

morphological series? To answer this question, physiology

has to appeal to the same sources of evidence as does morphol-

ogy, namely, paleontology and embryology.

The paleontolgical series of forms cannot of course be exper-

imented with; but form and function are so correlated that

the latter may often be inferred from the former, and vice versa.

The embryological series, often including free larval stages,

furnishes one of the grandest fields for experimental study.

Here the physiologist has an opportunity not only to study by

experiment but also by direct observation and inference, and

thus to join hands with the morphologist both in methods and

results.

We are boaii 4 to recognize different orders of individu-

alities,—as the cell, the tissue, the organ, the organism, the

corm—and of course every order must have its physiology as

well as its morphology. Morphology and physiology are

co-extensive, each claiming the whole organic world—as it

was, asit is and as it becomes. So long as we contradistin-

guish form and function, we must abide by the logic of defini-

806 The American Naturalist. [September,

tion. We cannot reduce the circumference of the animate

world, however many radii and concentric circles we draw

around our specialties. We may limit the province but not

the realm. If we limit our study to man, we do not annihil-

ate his relations to the rest of the animate world. Human

physiology and human morphology represent only the latest

terms of series stretching back to remote initial terms. The

complexities of structure and function of the later terms we

can never hope to understand until, through the study of a

sufficient number of mean terms, we are able to determine

the initial ones.

Three general series, each more or less incomplete, are acces-

sible to study: (1) The systematic series, consisting of adult

organisms, (2) the paleontological series, and (3) the develop-

mental series. Morphology approaches these series by com-

parative study, and seeks to make each contribute as complete

a story as possible. The same sources and the same method

are open to physiology. The importance of the comparative

method in physiology and the intimate co-relationship of

physiology with morphology are well exemplified in a charm-

ing little treatise by Metschnikoff on “ La Pathologie Comparée

de l Inflammation ”—a work that must be reckoned as one of

the fairest gems that adorn the annals of the Pasteur Institute.

This monumental work shows how medicine itself must take

its lessons from comparative biology, and approach its work

from the standpoint of evolution.

The history of morphology and physiology is one continu-

ous illustration of their inter-dependence. When the famous

Harvey was asked what led him to think of the circulation of

the blood he at once referred the original suggestion to one of

the morphological features of the vaseular apparatus—the

valves and their arrangement. The hint furnished by struct-

ure was then followed up and tested by experiment, and the

result was a discovery that brought the position of valves, pul-

sation of the heart, effects of ligatures, and other facts into

rational relation to one another.

The history of theories of generation furnishes a capital

example of how physiological speculation has been guided,

checked, and corrected by morphological discovery. The old

1893.] Physiology and Morphology. 807

doctrine of preformation, or pre-existence of organisms in the

germ, and the notion of the inclusion of one germ preforma-

tion within another, was certainly strongly suggested by the

unfolding of plant buds and by the metamorphoses of insects ;

but as soon as it became possible to examine more minutely

the phases of development, it was found that the fine-spun

theories of Bonnet and Haller were refuted by morphological

facts, and the doctrine of epigenesis, defended by Aristotle and

Harvey, was led to triumph through the observations of Cas-

par Friedrich Wolff.

- Our special senses have afforded one of the most fertile

fields for speculative physiology. It is needless to dwell on

antiquated hypotheses of * vital spirits " residing in the nerves,

of a subtle nervous humor, or *imponderable fluid " drawn

from the blood and secreted by medullary matter (Cuvier).

The history of the hypotheses of life, sensation and volition

are largely, as Whewell has well remarked, “ the story of the

failures of physiological speculation.” It is to the cultivation

of the morphological sciences that physiology owes in a very

large measure, its deliverance from the temptation to stray

into the region of metaphysics.

As morphology furnishes the ground structure on which

physiology operates, it naturally takes the place of pioneer

and guide; but if permitted to wander too far in advance, it

soon finds itself entangled with physiological problems with

which it is not prepared to cope, and its efforts to release itself

often end in sterile speculation. The workers on both sides

should therefore advance abreast, in hand to hand contact.

It is only in such reciprocally helpful relations that specialists

can attain the highest possible individual development, and

it is only when morphological and physiological experience

and knowledge combine, that biology can accomplish such

brilliant feats as that of Cuvier in reconstructing an extinct

organism from its fragmentary remains.

The association of morphological and physiological research

enlarges the field of vision on both sides, reduces the chances

of useless labor, corrects false notions, stimulates inquiry, con-

verts half views into whole views, and withal secures mutual

respect.

808 The American Naturalist. [Septon

RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS.

AGASSIZ, A.—Studies from the Marine Zool. Laboratory XXIX. Vesp

Note on some Modifications of the wu ero ihe of Fishes and Crustac

Extr. Bull. Harv. Mus, Comp. Zool. Vol. XXIII, 1892.

ALBERT, S. A. ER PRINCE DE MoNACO.— Projet d’ Observatoires she asia

Extr. Coals rendus Acad. des Sciences t. CXV, 1892.

ALLEN, J. A VUE M of Four New Species of Thomomys, sod Medis on

other Species of the G st of Mammals Coll. by Mr. C. P. Rowley in the

San Juan Region of Colorado, New Mexico and Utah, with Decripios of New

Species. Extr. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. Vol. V, 1893. From the author

BALDWIN, C. C.—Review ERI of ** Man and the Glacial Period i t a

member of U. S. Geol, Surv., with Annotations and Remarks thereon. No date

iven.

Becker, G. F.— Finite Homogeneous Strain, Flow and Rupture of Rocks. Extr,

Bull. ee Soc. Am, Vol. 4, 1893. From the author.

-—Address upon the Condition of Articulation Teaching in American

Sioi for the Deaf. Delivered at the Second Summer Meeting ofthe Am. Ass. to

promote the gre " speech to the deaf, 1892. Boston, 1893. From the author.

BRAUN, M.—Bronn’s Klassen und Ordnungen des Thierreichs. Vierter Band,

Würmer. Sechster leid. IV Abth. Vögel. Leipzig, 1893.

BROADHEAD, G. C.—The Correct Succession of the Ozark Series. Extr. Am.

Geol., 1893. From the author.

lieu: T. L.—The More Destructive Locusts of America north of Mexico. Bull.

38, U. S. Dep't. Agri. Div. Ent. Washington, 1

CARY, A.—A Study in Foot Structure. fe Jer. Morph. Vol. VII, 1892.

From the weg

CHAPMAN, H. C.— Notes on EN liberiensts (Morton). Extr. Proceeds.

Phila. Audi , 1898. From the A

CLAYPOLE, E. W.—Prof. G. F. ree and his Critics. Extr- Pop. Sci. Monthly,

1893. From the author.

O. F. AND G. N. CorrLiNs.— The Myriapoda Collected by the United States

Eclipse LR dn to West Africa, = and 1890. Extr. Ann. New York Acad.

Sci. Vol. VIII, 1893. From the au

Darton, N. H.—The Magothy ian of Northeastern Maryland. Extr. Am.

Journ. Sci. Vol. XLV, 1893. From the author

Dixon, S. G.—Involution Form of the Tubercle Bacillus and the effects of sub-

cutaneous Injections of Organic Substances on Inflammations. Extr. Poceeds. Phila.

Acad., 1893. gun the author.

Duptey, T. H.—Three Critical Periods in our Diplomatic Relations with wes

during the late war. vh Penn. Mag. Hist. and Biog., 1893. m

GiLBERT, G. K,—The Moon's Face. A Study of the Origin of its Features. oe

oe Soc. Washington, Bull. Vol. XII, 1893. From the author.

—. Goes, A.—On a Peculiar type of Arenaceous Foraminifer from the American Tro op-

ical Pacific, Neusina agassizi, Extr. Bull. Harv. Mus. Comp. Zool. Vol. XXIII,

1892. From Alexander er Agassiz.

1893.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. 809

Hii, R. T.—Clay Materials of the United States. Aut Min. Res, U..S,, Cal.

ender Year 1891-Div. ee Stat. and Tec J. S. Geol. Sur

HOLBROOK, M. L.—The Structure of the Red Blood Cerpuscles of Ma Extr-

aime Am. Soc. ST 1892. From the author.

ESTONE, W. H.—Address delivered at the Anniversary Meeting of the paf

or Siu of London, Feb. 17, 1893. Prefaced by the Announcement of t

Award of the Wollaston Medal, the Proceeds of the Donation Fund, the Lyell edi

and — Fund, and the Bigsby Medal for the same year. London, 1893.

From the author

Idaho ae Agricultural Experiment Station. Bulletins No. 1 and No, 2,

Dec., 2.

obs td HL. es of the Phanerogams and Ferns of Licking.

LYDE R.—On inosaurian Vertebra from the Wealden of Hastings.

Extr. oa fourm: Geol. Soc. Vol. XLIX, 1893.——Remarks on some recently

described Extinct Birds of Queensland. Extr. The Iris, 1892. n the Extinct

Giant Birds of Argentina. Extr. The Iris, ER the Qm and other

as r. Proceeds. Zool. So

on, Recent Advances in Phi " the Se ait Reptiles.

Extr. tips Science Vol.I, 1892. From the a

MALLY, F. W.—Report on the ie Worm of e (Heliothis armiger Hübner).

Bull. s is U. S. Dept. Agri. Div. Ent. Washington, 189

MARTIN, J. B. (Mrs.)—Brief ge of the Life of Victo Woodhull. From

the author.

NurTING, C. C.—Plan of Proposed Scientific Explorations under the auspices of

the : dign of Iowa. From the author

I, G.—Achille de Zeno. Cenni Biografici estratii dal Discorso d’ Apertura

Pis Riunione della Società Geologica Italiana in Vicenza nel Settembre, 1893.

From the a

ea Rosin: Experiment Station. Bulletin No. 25, April, 1893.

OsBo . F.—Aceratherium tridactylum from the Lower Miocene of Dakota.

adios xd. Extr. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. Vol. V, 1898. What is Lophiodon ?

—lIs Meniscotherium a member of the Chalicotheriodea? Extr. Am. Nat. 1892.

From the author

PACKARD, A. s. —The Life History of Certain d of the Family Sate aeaa

dae, with Nai on their Spines and Tubercles. Proceeds. Amer. Philos. Soc.,

1898.—-—Studies on the Transformations of Moths t the Family Saiid

Extr. Proceeds, Amer. Acad. Arts and sciences, no date given. From the author.

Pitssry, H. A.—Preliminary Outline of a New Classification of the Helices.

or.

Poutton, E. B.—Further experiments upon the color relation between certain

Pe ah pct larvze, pupze, cocoons, and imagines and their surroundings. Extr.

. Ent. Soc., London Pt. IV, 1892. or.

ponen of the American Society of Naturalists, Vol. I, 1893. From the Society.

Report of the Ci U. S. Commission of F nes and Fisheries for 1889,

1891. From the Dept. I

Report of the National went of Sciences ee the year 1892.

810 The American Naturalist. [September,

Rhode Island ims of A usps and Mechanic Arts. Experiment Station.

Bulletins No. 21 and No. 22, 893.

Rose, C.— Beiträge zur vigne der Edentaten. Extr. Anat. Anz. 1892.

From the author

coer ee UND F.—Uber ~ Conan der Caeciliiden. | Abdruck aus Anat.

nz. o. 25 and he authors

SCHLOSSER Py —Ube r dio reuse Seer at der Why on Plesiadapis, Pro-

toadapis, Pleurospidotheri ium und Orthaspidotheri Sep: Abdruck aus dem

Neuen Jahrbuch für Mineralogie, Geologie und pE a 1892. From the

author.

SHUFELDT, R. W.—The Chionididae. A Review of the Opinions on the Syste-

matic Position of the Family. Extr. The Auk, Vol. X, 1893. From the author,

' SıBLEY, H. L.—The Grounds of Divorce. Extr. April Methodist Review, no

year given. From the author

STEJNEGE a Veélleitniy Description of a New Genus and Mie of Blind

Cave Sal from North America. Extr. Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus. Vol. XV.

. From the Smithsonian Museum.

ToPINARD, P.—De !’ Evolution des molaires et prémolaires chez les Primates et

en particulier chez l homme, Extr. de L?’ Authropologie, 1892. rom the author,

WARD, — Preliminary Communication on the Host of Mectonema agile Verr.

Extr. Proceeds. pu Acad., 1892. From E. L.

WHITE, D.—A New BEFRA Fern and its is Állies Extr. Bull. Geol. Soc.

Am. Vol. e 1893. From the au

WIN sortie and Natural Sissi ae of Minnesota.

Tenth Ana Report, for the year 1891. From the au

Woo L.—Fresh Water Diatomaceous Deposit e odi Plains. Extr.

Am. s puta From the author

1893.] Recent Literature. 811

RECENT LITERATURE.

Conquest of the Vegetable World.— This volume forms one

or the series Etudes d' Histoire Générale. The author, M. Louis Bour-

deau, treats the subject under twelve different heads, classifying plants

according to the use made of them by man. The introduction gives a

general theory of the increase of plants, both naturally and by cultiva-

tion. Following this are successive chapters on plants used directly as

food and those from which food is manufactured in the form of liquors,

oils and sugars ; the fodder plants and those from which extracts are

made, to be used medicinally, or as perfumery; plants useful for the

arts and industries, and those which subserve merely ornamental pur-

ses. The work concludes with a chapter on the creation and pres-

ervation of artificial varieties of some types of plants.

Report of the Minnesota Geological and Natural History

Survey for the Year 1891.'—This quarto publication of 344 pages

comprises reports on the crystalline rocks and the oxide of manganese,

by Mr. N. H. Wilson ; the Mesabi iron range, by H. V. Winchell ; a

record of field observations in four granite areas, with a catalogue of

rock specimens, by Mr. U. S. Grant ; a sketch of the costal topography

of the north side of Lake Superior, with special reference to the

abandoned strands of Lake Warren, by Mr. A. C. Lawson; a com-

posite paper on the Diatomaceae of Minnesota Inter-glacial peat ; and

the usual lists of additions to the Museum and library.

The iron-ore interests have developed so rapidly that the Survey has

found it incumbent to pay close attention to the geographic distribu-

tion of the rocks carrying this ore, and to the questions relating to

their geology. Hence the more important papers in this report are the

ones bearing upon those subjects.

The Vertebrate Paleontology of the Llano Estacado.’—

This report embraces the determination of the species, from the most

available parts of the skeleton, of the vertebrata found by the party

1 Conquête du Monde Vegetal. Par Louis Bourdeau, Paris, 1893. M. Felix

Alcan, Editeur.

?'The Geological and Natural History Survey of Minnesota. The Twentieth

Annual Report, for the year 1891, Minneapolis, 1893. :

3 A Preliminary Report, by E. D. Cope. From the fourth Annual Report of the

Geological Survey of Texas (1892); published July Ist, 1893.

812 The American Naturalist. [September,

of the Geological Survey of Texas of 1892, which explored the eastern

border of the Staked Plain from the Texas Pacific R. R. on the south

to the Denver and Fort Worth road on the north. The party was

under the direction of Mr. Wm. F. Cummins, who was accompanied

by Professor Cope. They examined exposures of the beds of the Trias,

and of Cenozoic beds of the terranes Loup Fork, Blanco and Equus,

together with a bed between the Loup Fork and Blanco. The number

of species obtained from each of these horizons is as follows: Trias, 7

Loup Fork, 17; Blanco, 16; Equus, 10; bed between Loup Fork and

Blanco, 8; total, 58. Of these, eleven were not regarded as determin-

able. Of the forty-seven species determined, the following were first

discovered by the explorations of the geological survey ; Trias, 4; Loup

Fork, 3; intercalated bed, 3 ; Blanco, 14; Equus, 5: total, 29. Among

the results we find the following. The establishment of a peculiar

species of Episcoposaurus from the Trias. The discovery of a Tetra-

belodon, not previously known to be of Loup Fork age, allied to the

T. serridens. The determination of the range of variation of the den-

tition of the Protohippus placidus, and the determination of the tem-

porary dentition of Protohippus and Hippotherium. The more impor-

tant results obtained from the bed intercalated above the Loup Fork

is the finding of a new species of Protohippus, Hippidium, and Equus,

each; the last named allied to the E. minutus; the discovery of new

genera of Mustelidae and Hyaenidae from the Blanco bed; the

rehabilitation of the Tetrabelodon shepardii Leidy hitherto known from

a single molar tooth; the species being found to resemble in some

respects the genus Dinotherium. Also the determination of three other

mastodons from the Blanco bed, and of a large new species of camel

of the genus Pliauchenia; the discovery of a true horse (Equus

minutus Cope) not larger than a sheep. The Equus bed yielded a huge

Mylodon, represented by fragments only, four species of horses, and

three of camels of the genus Holomeniscus, two of the last named

being new to science

Twenty-three plates illustrate the report, which add much to its value,

although little can be said in favor of their artistic merits, as they are

printed on ordinary paper.

1893. ] Geology and Paleontology. 813

General Notes,

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.

Recent Volcanic Eruptions in California.—In a paper pub-

lished in he Independent, Professor G. Frederick Wright makes the

following remarks concerning recent voleanie eruptions in California :

“ The absence in America of volcanic phenomena east of the Rocky

Mountains is amply compensated for by their abundance west of them.

Probably the largest lava fields in the world are situated in Idaho,

Washington, Oregon, California and Nevada. In age these belong to

the latest of the geological periods, being for the most part tertiary.

For many reasons there is much interest in determining how near

down to the present time these volcanic eruptions have continued.

* The traveler over the lava beds of the Pacific slope cannot fail to

be impressed by the fresh appearance of the basalt which covers so

large a part of the surface. Considerable areas can readily be found

whose surface looks as fresh as that of the slag from the furnace of

yesterday. Many reports have been set in circulation by travelers

that some of the volcanic cones have been witnessed by them in active

eruption. Thus the members of Astor's party who, in 1811, crossed

the Teton Mountains just south of the Yellowstone Park, averred that

they saw peaks to the north of them sending forth voleanie smoke and

vapor. Asthey were men of large experience, some men of science

have been inclined to give credence to their opinion, and are con-

firmed in this view by the fresh appearance of some of the craters in

the vicinity of Mount Jefferson, on the shores of Henry's Lake; while

the activity of the geysers in the Yellowstone Park is perhaps indica-

tive of the continued activity of vol f throughout that general

region.

* But there are so many phenomena that may be mistaken for vol-

eanie smoke and vapor when seen from a distance that it is safer not

to eredit such general statements. Clouds and drifting snow might

easily deceive a distant observer. It is probably thus that the

reports originated concerning the volcanic activity of Mount Hood

during the middle of this century. Mount Hood is indeed a volcanic

crater ; but so far from being active it is now filled with snow. Mount

Rainier, or Tacoma, presents, however, the double phenomena of blow-

ing hot and cold at thesame time. The upper 5,000 feet of its surface

is almost a continuous sheet of ice, but through a small orifice in a

portion of the crater which crowns the summit, volcanic steam contin-

814 The American Naturalist. [September,

ues to find vent, and furnishes heat for the unlucky explorer who is

compelled to spend a night at that lofty elevation.

“The most definite account of what may be called an historically

recent volcanic eruption of any considerable extent in the region

referred to at the outset has just been published in a Bulletin of the

United States Geological Survey, by Mr. J. S. Diller. The area

described is in northern California, in the vicinity of Lassen Peak,

about one hundred miles southeast of Mount Shasta. Lassen Peak is

itself a vast volcanic cone, and the center of numerous others smaller

in size and later in origin, but all of recent geological age. The Cin-

der Cone, which was the special subject of Mr. Diller’s researches, is

ten miles northeast of Lassen Peak, in the vicinity of Snag Lake.

The general elevation is here a little over 6,000 feet above the sea, and

his cone rises 640 feet above the lowest point of its base, having a

diameter of 2,000 feet at the bottom, and 750 feet at the top, and is

composed of cinders which readily yield and slide down under one’s

weight as he walks over them.

“This Cinder Cone belongs to the earliest part of the eruption, and,

in Mr. Diller’s opinion, cannot be much more than two hundred years

old. At the same time with the explosive eruption that produced the

Cinder Cone, an immense amount of volcanic sand was ejected and

scattered about the base for a distance of eight miles in every direc-

tion. Near the base this is between six and seven feet in depth, and

thins out gradually toward the margin. Some time subsequent to this

explosive outburst there took place a quiet flow of basalt, which

poured from the southeast side of the cone, and spread itself over the

sand, covering an area about three miles long by a little over a mile

in width. The edge of this flow everywhere presents a precipitous

front about one hundred feet in height, and Snag Lake is formed by

the dam which this basalt stream has extended across the valley into

which it flowed.

“The data for determining the age of this eruption seem to be as

conclusive as could be desired. Dead pine trees, with their roots in

the original soil, can still be seen projecting above the volcanic sand of

the first eruption, and in some instances they have been partially over-

whelmed by the later eruption of basalt, and their decaying tops pro-

ject from under it. But the living trees all grow upon the surface of

voleanic sand, and near the base of the cone their roots are not long

enough to reach the original soil. The age of the oldest of the trees

found living does not exceed two hundred years, and that, doubtless, as

Mr. Diller supposes, very closely marks the date of the earlier erup-

1893.] Geology and Paleontology. 815

tion. Ordinarily, also, pine trees, overwhelmed as this original forest

was, would not survive more than thirty years. In the conditions of

this dry climate two hundred years is a long time for them to remain

exposed to the air without complete decay.

“ The demonstration of so much volcanic activity at so recent a date

in California renders it altogether likely that other eruptions will occur

in that region in process of time, and that others have occurred at no

great distance in the past. Previous to the eruption of the year 79,

there was no historic record that Vesuvius had been an active volcano,

and at a later period—between the fourteenth and seventeenth cen-

turies—more than three hundred years elapsed without any serious

eruption. It will be a matter of surprise if the volcanic forces west of

the Rocky Mountains do not yet assert themselves with greater or less

vigor. These investigations of Mr. Diller, therefore, show the possi-

bility of bringing down to a reasonably modern period the date of the

remains of man which have been found under the lava in various

places on the Pacific Coast. ;

“ Even Table Mountain in California might seem to yield a modern

chronology in view of one fact brought out by Mr. Diller. It has

been supposed that all of the erosion of the deeper valleys about Table

Mountain- has been subsequent to the time when this lava stream

filled up the old channel of the Stanislaus River. In the light of Mr.

Diller’s observations, however, it would seem possible to suppose that

the Table Mountain lava flow did not always follow the lowest channels

open to it, but that it may have built up for itself obstructions in

front of which it might turn aside to occupy abandoned channels of

the old river at a higher level. This, at any rate, was a theory which

suggested itself to me a year ayo, as I examined the country about ten

miles above Sonora, where the Table Mountain stream of lava crosses

to the left side of the present Stanislaus. That the theory suggested to

my mind in reference to the Table Mountain flow might have been a

fact would seem no more strange than the actual course of some of the

streams of lava which Mr. Diller has traced from the Cinder Cone so

carefully studied by him. He says: ‘At first the main stream flowed

to the southeast, but gradually turned around to the left, until its

direction was slightly west of north, where, though having flowed a

total distance of three miles, the cessation of its flow was not more than

a mile and a half from the vent. This course was not determined by

the original configuration of the land, but by the obstructions to the

later streams furnished by the cooling of earlier streams.’

816 The American Naturalist. [September,

* In view of present activity in the discussions of the antiquity of

man, I can but regard. this publication of Mr. Diller as of the very

highest importance as calculated to allay the fears of a certain portion

of the Christian public, and to check the hasty inferences that some are

likely to draw from the recent facts which have been so freely pub-

lished concerning the relation of man to the lava beds of the Pacific

Coast. The time has not yet come to give the full chronological sig-

nificance to those facts.”

J Continental Problems.—The annual address of Mr. G. K. Gil-

bert, President of the Geological Society of America, consisted of a

statement of six unsolved continental problems, with a discussion of

each question in turn. (1) “ How are Continents supported?” intro-

duced the doctrine of Rigidity versus Isostasy, with the weight of

evidence in favor of the latter doctrine. (2) “ Does heat or composi-

tion determine the difference in density of the material of the earth’s

crust?” was discussed in connection with (3) * What caused the

Continental Plateau?” in which the author spoke at length of the

only hypothesis yet advanced, that of Mr. Dana, which deserves

to be more fully compared with the body of modern data. (4) * Why

do Continental Areas rise and fall?" is a problem for which no solu-

tion has been suggested. (5) "Are Continents Permanent?" may

probably be answered in the affirmative, but the fact is not yet fully

established. (6) .* Do Continents Grow?” is still open to discussion,

although the doctrine has been generally accepted. In the author's

opinion, the greater part of the data from which continental growth

has been inferred may be fictitious and up (Bull. Geol. Soc.

Am., Vol. IV, 1893.)

Mineral Resources of the United States for 1891.'— This vol-

ume is the eighth of a series begun in 1882. It deals with the mineral

progress of the year 1891, and contains a complete statement of the

mineral products of that year. The opening chapter is a summary of

the quantity and value of the metallic and non-metallic products for

1891, and also contains tabular statements of the outputs from 1880 to

1891. Under the head of Iron Ores, a résumé of the progress in the

manufacture of iron and steel in the United States for the past twenty

years is given.

The names of the contributors of the various sections appear in con-

nection with the subjects treated.

1 Mineral Resources of the United States for the Calendar Year 1891. David S.

Day, Chief of Division of Mining Statistics and Technology. Washington, 1893.

1893.] Geology and Paleontology. 817

Note on an Upper Devonian Fish from Canada.—A collec-

tion of fishes made by Mr. Jex at Campbelltown and Scaumenae Bay,

Canada, has been recently examined by Dr. R. H. Traquair. Among

them is a fine series of Phaneropleuron curtum Whiteaves, which

shows clearly that the short break in the dorsal fin, which Whiteaves

figured, but thought might be an accidental or abnormal character, is

a natural division, and that the dorsal fin is in two distinct portions.

Dr. Traquair feels justified in erecting the Whiteaves species into a

new genus characterized by its double dorsal fin, and proposes for it

the name Scaumenacia curta. (Geol. Mag., June, 1893.)

The Diatomacea of the Triassic (?) sandstone of New

Jersey.—W hen I first settled in Newark, New Jersey, twenty years

ago, I went about looking at the red sandstone for Diatomacez in it;

but did not find them. I found pieces of trunks of wood. I found

carbonate, silicate and sulphide of copper and carbonate of lime and

mica, and worm burrows and ripple marks but nothing else. No

minute fossils like Diatomacez. I looked at the sandstone every now and

then, reasoning that it was a fresh water sediment, most likely laid down

in very shallow water, and must contain the remains of Diatomacese, if

they existed then. I examined the sandstone at Glen Ridge, about

two miles from the station at Bloomfield on the Montclair and Bloom-

field branch railroad where the Glen Ridge quarry and mining com-

pany have a quarry and are mining for copper. I examined the white

sandstone at Forest Hill on the Greenwood Lake railroad and the old

Schuyler copper mines at Belleville. I visited the red sandstone in

the cutting where the Greenwood Lake railroad came through at

Arlington just above Newark on the Passaic river. The cut is deep

and it shows the sandstone dipping to the northwest and also a fissure

which parted the rock in a nearly north and south direction or

parallel to their strike. It is about five feet wide and shows rounded

pieces of trap. This strongly indicates that the trap is not far below

and that heat partially metamorphosed the rocks. This is one of the few

fissures in the Triassic. The shale shows worm burrows and ripple

marks, This would seem to point to a later instrusion than the

Triassic of the trap. I examined the shale with acids for Diatomaceze

but without success. At last in June of this year, 1893, I found a

spot immediately on the Passaic river just south of the city of Passaic

where L. H. Arden has a brick yard in operation. I found he mined

the clay from which the brick was made close by, and I visited the clay

pit and saw the clay in finely stratified layers about as thin as paper

818 The American Naturalist. [September,

and extending to about twelve feet upward from the rain water which

had accumulated here, on the day I sawit. The clay was red or brown

and rather poor and the layers looking like a heap of reddish paper

with darker papers introduced every now and then. On the top of

this was about two feet of red glacial gravel in the form of till and

between the gravel and the clay was a pocket of yellow clay which evi-

dently belonged to the glacial deposit which I have examined all over

northern New Jersey and which forms the so-called Lacustrine, Sed-

imentary or Sub Peat deposits of Diatomaces which occur from Nova

Scotia to Pennsylvania on the Atlantic coast of the United States. This

stratified clay is Triassic and I examined it with considerable interest

for it was formed in shallow fresh water, and contained Diatomace:e,

scarce it is true, but the first Diatomace geologically speaking that

have been found anywhere on the globe if we except the Diatomacese

of the Carboniferous Coal found by Count Castracane some years ago.

But the coal in which he discovered Diatomacez is doubtfully carboni-

ferous. Perhaps it may be Tertiary. The Diatomacex I found in the

Triassic clay were Gomphonema acuminatum and Brebissonia lanceolata

along with straight sponge spicules, The clay was Triassic beyond a doubt

for it was under the glacial clay and glacial till. What it rested upon

is doubtful, Triassic sandstone most likely, for Triassic sandstone

covers this part of New Jersey and no other rock is seen. It is impor-

tant to note the finding of Triassic Diatomaces at this time and per-

haps they will be seen in quantity further on. The color of the

Triassic sandstone due to red iron oxide is remarkable and deserves

investigation. The same color is present in the Catskill sandstone and

at first they could be classed as one, but of course the fossils are differ-

ent, and are very scarce in the Triassic, and rather plenty in the Catskill.

It can hardly come from the magnetite on the border of the sandstone, as

I. C. Russell suggests, for that, although present in New Jersey, is not

always present and cannot be the cause of the red color of the Catskill

sandstone. Perhaps it is present as an iron silicate, for it is more

difficult to dissolve by boiling in acids than simple iron oxide.

RTHUR M. Epwarps, M. D.

Do Glaciers Excavate ?—The recent critical examination of

Alpine and other mountain valleys by Professor T. G. Bonney, con-

firms the conclusion he reached in 1874, that these valleys appear to

be much older than the ice age, and to have been but little modified

_ during the period or maximum extension of the glaciers, Mr. Bonney

asserts that the erosive power of glaciers is small—quite unequal to the

1893.] Geology and Paleontology. 819

work which has been ascribed to it. In this connection the author con-

siders the difficulties presented by certain Alpine lakes in attributing

them to the erosive action of glaciers. The position of such lakes as

Constance, Geneva, Como, etc., and the subaqueous contours of Como

and Geneva militate against the glacial erosion theory. The hypoth-

esis offered by Mr. Bonney as an explanation of these lake basins is

that originally they were eroded by ordinary agencies, and that their

beds have been subsequently affected by differential movements. He

instances as an example bearing out his theory the Great Lakes of

North America whose origin has been so ably demonstrated by Dr.

J. W. Spencer. (Geog. Journ., June, 1893.)

Plistocene Deposits of Russia.—Mr.S. Nikitin has given a brief

account of the Quaternary deposits of Russia in a pamphlet of thirty-

four large octavo pages. It is, however, merely a summary of a more

detailed report which he is soon to publish. The paper closes with the

following statement of the principal theses :

1. “The sub-division of the stone age into paleolithie and neolithic

epochs should be preserved for European Russia, because it here coin-

cides with the geological divisions into Pleistocene and modern, which

are, in their turn, based upon paleontological data.

2. “ The study of the glacial deposits of Finland and of the western

region furnishes no proof of the existence of two distinct glacial epochs

and an inter-glacial epoch. All the facts can be explained by the phe-

nomena of the oscillation of the glacier at the time of its gradual, but

irregular, retreat.

3. * If, however, one accepts the Swedish and Prussian theory of the

sub-division of the glacial period into two epochs and an interglacial

epoch, the second glaciation cannot have extended beyond the western

region, in a certain part (comparatively restricted) of the Baltie-

region of Finland and of the government of Olonetz.

4. “The other portion of Russia subjected to glaciation, has only

one morainie stage, corresponding to the deposits of the first glacial

epoch of the Swedes.

5. “At the epoch of the more extended glaciation, the major part of

Russia presented the aspect of a desert of ice, similar to that of Green-

land, carrying no moraine upon its surface, and presenting no eleva-

tion free from ice, where forest vegetation could be preserved.

6. “ The time corresponding to the interglacial epoch and the second

glaciation of the Swedes, was probably, for the greater part of Russia,

the epoch of the formation of the ancient lake deposits, the loess, and

820 The American Naturalist. [September,

the upper terraces of the rivers, which constitute the principal reposi-

tory for the bones of the mammoth and other extinct mammals, which

abounded here while Scandinavia and Finland were still covered by

the glacier.

7. “In accordance with the composition and genesis of her Quater-

nary deposits, European Russia may be divided into a series of typical

regions which are very characteristic, although resting upon differences

which are scarcely recognizable, but which illustrate none the less the

life of the immense Russian plain during the Quaternary period, and

the formation of her superficial deposits.

. “In the second portion of the glacial epoch, or of the pleistocene,

the mammoth and other large mammals inhabited southern and east-

ern Russia in great numbers. As the glacier retreated, these animals

advanced toward the north and northwest; toward the close of the

pleistocene they reached Finland fora short time, and then disappeared

entirely throughout the whole extent of European Russia, but prob-

ably later in the northeastern part and in Siberia.

9. “Man lived contemporaneously with the mammoth during the

second part of the glacial epoch along the limits of glaciation, pos-

sessing an industry well-advanced, making use of fire among other

things, but producing implements solely of naked flint. As the glacier

retired, man advanced toward the north and northwest; he arrived

in Finland and the Baltic region after the close of glaciation and after

the disappearance ofthe mammoth ; but man himself possessed already

the more advanced culture of the neolithic age, and besides implements

of trimmed flint, he knew how to make implements in polished stone,

pottery, etc.

10. * European Russia shows no traces of man in the first part of

the Pleistocene, or of any more ancient man." (Am. Journ. Sci., June,

1893.)

1893.] Botany. . 821

BOTANY.

Check-List of New North American Plants. The botanical

publications of the Department of Agriculture at Washington are

becoming year by year of more scientific value, and at the same time

more useful. Botanists have come to look upon the * Contributions

from the U. S. National Herbarium " as real contributions which they

are glad to receive, and in which they may feel a just pride. The last

number (No.7) consists of a “Systematic and Alphabetic Index to New

Species of North American Phanerogams and Pteridophytes, published

in 1892,” prepared by Miss Josephine A. Clark. Appearing the mid-

dle of July, it is refreshingly recent, and makes us hope that under the

energetic management of Chief Coville this will be the rule with pub-

lications from his division.

The list is much like the one published last year (Sept. 20, 1892),

and as then described, it is based upon the card index of new species

and new combinations, made primarily for the use of the Botanical

Division. Its usefulness there, suggested to Dr. Vasey its publication

for the benefit of botanists throughout the country.

A marked improvement which we notice with great pleasure is the

uniform decapitalization of all specific names, and the omission of the

‘comma before the name of the author. We trust that this will here-

after be the rule in the National Herbarium.

CHARLES E. Bessey.

Shall we Decapitalize Specific Names ?— By the time that

this is in print, the Botanical Club of the A. A. A.S. will have dis-

cussed and perhaps decided this question; but we wish here to record

before this anticipated action, our conviction that it is but a question

of time when decapitalization will be the rule. It is to be hoped that

the Club will decide in favor of it now, but if it does not, it will but

defer the matter a few years. The revulsion against the over-capitali-

zation of DeCandolle, Gray and Watson may not now be strong enough

to demand absolute decapitalization ; it may be satisfied with retaining

the capital initial for genitives of personal names, and possibly for old

substantives. This would be a great improvement, inasmuch as it

would require the decapitalization of nearly one-half of the names now

capitalized in the new edition of Gray's Manual.

822 i The American Naturalist. [September,

Of course, every one knows that grammatically the argument is a

pretty strong one in favor of a partial capitalization, but something

may be said on the other side, even on this ground. Primarily the

specific name is a limiting or qualifying term, that is, it has an adjecti-

val function, and as such it is properly written with the small initial

letter. There should be no question as to such cases as virginiana,

eoroliniana, pennsylvanica, ete. Linne himself wrote them with the

small initial letter, as also Willdenow and Sprengel. Why then should

there be any hesitancy in writing oakesiana, purshiana, kalmianum,

etc.? Even in Gray's Manual we have sambucifolia, alnifolia, hyssopi-

folius, nepeteefolia, ws most astonishing of all, fossombronioides. Wh

the Italian F i should be decapitalized here, it will puzzle any

advocate of capitalization to explain.

Nothing is gained by capitalizing, and it requires some extra effort

to remember whether to use the capital or not, while by decapitalizing

we gain much in appearance of the printed page, and save appreciably

in time and the effort to remember a complicated rule.

CHARLES E. Bessey.

The Use of Personal Names in Designating Species.'—

The first sentence of the thirty-second article of the Paris Code is as

follows: “The specific name ought, in general, to indicate something

of the appearance, the characters, the origin, the history or the proper-

ties of the species." The twenty-seventh section of the rules of nomen-

clature adopted in 1877 by the zoologists of the American Association

for the Advancement of Science (with the advice of Dr. Gray, and

other botanists) is almost identical with the foregoing: “ The specific

name should, in general, indicate some feature of the appearance, char-

acters, origin, history or properties of the species.” The purpose of

the rule cited is, without question, to favor the adoption of names

which have some real significance, and when we look over the work of

the great masters in descriptive botany we see how fully they followed

its spirit. In the first and third editions of Linne’s “Species Planta-

rum” nearly all the specific names are in some degree, descriptive.

One finds names as follows (pp. 118-119) suecica, canadensis, tomentosa,

trifoliata, viscosa, alternifolia, perennis, uniflora, biflora, umbellata, corym

bosa, latifolia, ete. If we compare Linne’s practice with that of recent

descriptive botanists we find a great change in the frequency with

which personal names are used. In the first two hundred pages of

Vol. I, of the first edition of the “ Species Plantarum, ” including about

1 Read before the Botanical Club of the A. A. A. S., August 21, 1893.

1893.] Botany. 823

one thousand species, there are not to exceed seven such names, viz:

michelianus, leflingiana, halleri, matthioli, Gmeleni, monelli, and

sbeckii, (notice in passing, the capitalization, which is still maintained

in the third edition). Here we have less than one per cent of names

derived from personal names, which is in striking contrast with what

we find in recent lists.

In the list of New Species of North American Phanerogams and

Pteridophytes, published in 1891, issued by the U. 8. National Herba-

rium, twenty-three per cent of the specific names are derived from per-

sonal names. In the similar list for 1892 we find a little more than 18

per cent. of such names. Taking the two years together, the personal

names are exactly twenty-one per cent. of the whole. Has not this

thrusting forward of personal names gone entirely too far? It cer-

tainly violates every principle of good taste. Botanists may soon be

properly charged by other scientific men with showing an over-eager-

ness to gain the petty notoriety which attaches to having one’s name

borne by some plant. There should be a speedy reform in this prac-

tice. 3

It is a proper thing to construct a euphonious name from the name

of an eminent botanist, and apply it to a new genus. There is some

dignity in such a procedure; but there is a great deal of difference

between the dedication of a genus to a great man, and the other prac-

tice of assigning new species to every collector, — because the collectors

like it !

CHARLES E. Bessey.

Botany at the Madison Meetings.—The most notable gather-

ing of American botanists in recent times took place in August of

the present year in connection with the forty-second meeting of the

Ameriean Association for the Advancement of Science, and the

several affiliated societies. Especial efforts had been made to secure

a large attendance, which was successful beyond the most sanguine

expectations. But few of the more active of our botanists were

absent, and these were unavoidably detained.

This being the first year of the existence of a separate section (G)

of botany, all members of the Association watched the experiment

with much interest. But when the permanent secretary announced in

the closing general session that the new section had received one-fifth

of all the papers presented to the Association, all doubts as to the

ability of the botanists to maintain a separate section disappeared.

824 The American Naturalist. [September,

The session opened on Thursday, August 17, with the address of the

Vice-President on “Evolution and Classification,” the burden of

which was that in the present classification, of the higher plants espe-

cially, the facts of evolution are practically ignored.

On Friday papers as follows were read :

G. F. Arxrnson, Photography as a means for recording the macro-

scopic characters of micro-organisms in artificial cultures. The author

detailed his method of securing good photographs by means of oblique

light in connection with a black card interposed between the object

and the source of light.

G. F. ArkiNsoN, Symbiosis in the roots of Ophioglosses. A fun-

gus appears to be present in the cortical tissues of the roots of all the

species examined.

B. T. GALLoway, Observations on a rust affecting the leaves of the

Jersey or Scrub Pine. This was a discussion of the structure of the

normal and diseased leaves, and an account of the mode of infection

by the parasite, Coleosporium pini.

W. J. Beat, Prophylla of Graminex. Illustrated by drawings and

sketches. %

CnanLrs R. Barnes, On the food of green plants. This was one

of the most carefully written papers presented during the meetings.

The author proposed a sharper separation of the operations concerned

in the nutrition of plants, as follows: (1) Photosyntaz, for the fixa-

tion of carbon by chlororphyll; (2) Digestion and (3) Assimilation.

The publication of this paper will be looked for with interest.

J. CHRISTIAN Bay, A new infection needle for the study of lower

plants. Illustrated by sketches and examples.

G. F. Arkryson, Comparative study of the structure and function

of the sporangia of ferns in the dispersion of spores. Illustrated by

a number of large drawings.

Byron D. HarsrEDp, The Solandi printing applied to botanical

work. By the use of sensitive photographer's paper the author is able

to obtain fine negatives directly from leaves, and from these he prints

very useful photographs. Many specimens of this process were shown.

N. L. BnrrTON, Present aspects of the nomenclature question.

Analyzing the subject asit presents itself to-day. There are (1) the

pre-Linnzans, who would go back in nomenclature to authors earlier

than Linné; (2) those who would begin with the Systema Nature of

Linné, 1735; (3) those who would begin with Linné's Genera Planta-

rum, 1737; and (4) those who with most botanists would begin with

Linné’s Species Plantarum, 1753. To these may be added (5) a few

who would select a date still more recent.

1893.] Botany. 825

T. A. WirrrAMws, Lichens of the Black Hills. Eighty-three species

and varieties are known, many of which are northern and western.

J. Couristan Bay, The bibliography of American botanical litera-

ture. The author made a plea for the beginning of such work.

Doucras H. CAMPBELL, Notes on the development of Marattia

douglasti. Describing the prothallia, and suggesting a relationship

with certain Hepaticz.

On Monday papers were read as follows:

THEOBALD Smiru, Further observations on the fermentation-tube,

with special reference to ansrobiosis, reduction, and gas production.

Illustrated by the apparatus used by the author.

Joun G. Jack, The fructification of Juniperus. The author finds

that the fruits of J. virginiana ripen the first season, while in J. sabina

var. procumbens it requires two seasons, and in J. communis, three sea-

sons.

S. G. Wnianr, The minute structure and development of the motile

organ in the leaf of the Red-bud. "This was an anatomical and physi-

ological paper.

Erwin F. Surry, Two new and distinctive diseases of Cucurbits.

Describing an Alternaria on melons, and another on cucumbers and

cantaloupes due to bacteria.

Conway McMILuAn, Preliminary statement concerning botanical

laboratories and instruction in American universities and colleges.

This paper was considered so important that the Association requested

the Commissioner of Education at Washington to print it as one of the

educational bulletins. Incidentally, it appears that many colleges

are still giving as college work, short spring term courses in Gray’s

* Lessons! !’ T

The reading of this paper resulted in the appointment of a commit-

tee consisting of Drs. Coulter, Campbell and Britton, to inquire into the

teaching of botany in the secondary schools of the United States.

Byron D. HarsrEp, The shrinkage of leaves in drying. By means

of photographs by the “Solandi” process, it was shown that the

shrinkage is often considerable.

M. B. Tuomas, The roots of orchids.

L. H. PAMMEL, Preliminary notes on some chromogenie bacteria of

the Ames flora.

B. T. Garrowav, Results of some recent work on rust of wheat.

. J. H. PILLSBURY, On the quantitive analysis of the colors of flowers

and foliage.

For want of time the four last named were read by title.

On Tuesday the following papers were read.

826 The American Naturalist. [September,

S. M. Tracy, Distribution of the Gramines in the United States.

Illustrated by many maps.

. L. BRITTON, A consideration of species based upon the theory of

evolution. An attempt to formulate our present ideas of species.

ErmansETH G. Brirron, A revision of the genus Physcomitrium.

Showing that while we supposed that we had half a dozen species, it

appears that we have nearly or quite double that number.

W. T. SWINGLE, On Cephaluros mycoidea and Phyllosiphon sp., two

parasitic algæ new to North America. These curious plants, the first

of which lives upon Magnolia leaves and the latter upon the leaves of

Arisema, appear to be truly parasitic.

FREDERICK V. CoviLLE, An analysis of the conditions affecting the

distribution of plants. These were given as temperature, light, food,

water and mechanique.

J.C. ARTHUR, Deviation in development due to the use of unripe

seeds. As this paper will be published in full in the NATURALIST, no

summary will now be attempted.

W. T. SwisGLE, The principal diseases of citrous fruits now being

studied at Eustis, Fla. Illustrated by specimens of fresh material.

P. H. Rorrs, A sclerotium disease of plants. Giving details of the

Structure.

ELIZABETH G. Brirron, Ulota americana Mitten and Orthotrichum

americanum Beauv. The author discussed fully the question of their

identity, which appears to be established.

The following were read by title for want of time:

L. H. PawMEL, Notes on Restelia pyrata, Crossing of Cucurbits

and A case of poisoning by the wild parsnip, Cicuta maculata, (three

papers).

The Botanical Club held sessions on Friday, Monday and Tuesday.

It received the report of the committee appointed last year to prepare

a check list of North American phanerogams, and after much dicus-

sion, provision was made for printing it. In this connection, Rule III

of the “ Rochester Code," was modified so as to allow the use of a

specific name identical with the generic. The rule now reads as fol-

lows:

“In the transfer of a species to a genus other than the one under

which it was first published the original specific name is to be

retained."

Another important action of the club was that relating to the pro-

American botanical society. A committee of ten was elected

and empowered to increase its number to twenty-five, to organize such

a society. The following is the committee: J. C. Arthur, G. F.

1893.] Botany. 827

Atkinson, C. R. Barnes, C. E. Bessey, L. H. Bailey, N. L. Britton,

Mrs. E. G. Britton, J. M. Coulter, F. V. Coville, D. H. Campbell, D.

C. Eaton, W. G. Farlow, E. L. Greene, B. D. Halsted, Arthur

Hollick, C. MacMillan, B. L. Robinson, F. L. Scribner, C. L. Sargent,

J. D. Smith, Wm. Trelease, R. Thaxter, L. M. Underwood, L. F.

Ward, W. P. Wilson.

Papers were read in the club, many of them of much importance.

On Saturday the Club aecompanied the Association to the Dells of

the Wisconsin River, and spent a day in collecting and in the enjoy-

ment of the beautiful scenery, with much of social pleasure.

An American botanical society is now assured. The committee to

effect an organization met promptly and made preliminary arrange-

ments for a meeting next year in connection with the Association. A

sub-committee consisting of Messrs Trelease, Coulter, Bailey, Mac-

Millan and Sargent, was appointed to attend to the details of perman-

ent organization.

The Botanical Congress which had been called by the committee

appointed for the purpose, convened at 10 o’clock, A. M., August

23, with 37 members. Since, for various reasons, but few foreign bot-

anists were able to attend, the name adopted was the * Madison Botan-

ical Congress" Dr. E. L- Greene of California was elected President

and Henri de Vilmorin of France, and L. M. Underwood of Indiana,

Vice-Presidents. J.C. Arthur of Indiana, B. L. Robinson of Massa-

chusetts, and F. V. Coville of the District of Columbia, Secretaries.

C. R. Barnes of Wisconsin was elected Treasurer.

Committee reports were received, as follows:

On the Nomenclature of Plant Diseases. After discussion this was

referred to an enlarged committee, of which Dr. B. D. Halsted of

New Jersey is chairman, with instructions to report in 1894 to Section

G of the American Association for the Advancement of Science.

On the terminology of Vegetable Physiology ; ; suggesting greater pre-

cision in the use of terms. This was likewise referred to a committee,

with Dr. J. C. Arthur of Indiana as chairman, to report to Section G

in 1894.

On the vc TÉ of Anatomy and Morphology. After discussion

a committee of five, with Dr. D. H. Campbell of California as chair-

man, was appointed to report in 1894 to Section G.

On the Nomenclature of Horticultural forms ; recommending for the

present the use of Nicholson’s “ Dictionary of Gardening,” supple-

mented by the “ Index Kewensis,” for scientific names. This report

was adopted

On the Bibliography of North American Botany; urging the neces-

828 The American Naturalist. [September,

sity of the early inauguration of bibliographic work, and suggesting

rules for uniform methods of citation. The congress voted affirma-

tively upon the first proposition, and then referred it to a committee

with Dr. C. R. Barnes of Wisconsin as chairman. The rules as to

methods of citation were agreed to, and will be printed in the pro-

ceedings of the congress.

On the terminology of Geographical Botany. After short discussion

this was referred to a committee with F. V. Coville of the District of

Columbia as chairman.

Appropriate resolutions were presented and adopted regarding the

death of Alphonse de Candolle, and George Vasey.

Resolutions were adopted respecting the condition of the United

States National Herbarium, at present deposited in a building in

Washington which from its construction and use is liable to destruc-

tion by fire, and the United States Congress was memorialized to make

early provision for a fire-proof building for the preservation of this

scientific treasure. The Secretary of Agriculture was respectfully

requested to urge prompt action in this matter.

The thanks of the Congress were extended to Dr. Otto Kuntze for

valuable printed papers presented by him for the use of the members.

On Wednesnay afternoon open invitation of the local committee

of arrangements the members of the Congress took part in a botanical

excursion to Lake Wingra, and after adjournment (Thursday, 5 P.

M.), all enjoyed a two hours’ moonlight ride upon Lake Mendota.

There is no space in this account for a full notice of the botanical

papers read in the Society for the Promotion of Agricultural Science.

The Secretary, Dr. Frear, communicates the following titles:

W. J. Beat. Methods of killing Couch- or Quack-Grass.

W.J. Bear. Some Grass Mixtures for lawns.

W. R. Lazensy. Sub-irrigation for Green-house and Garden.

C. E. Bessey. The Weeds of Nebraska.

B. D. HarsrED. Potatoes by the direct method.

G. F. ATKINSON. A new fungus disease of the Apple.

B. T. Gattoway. The Macrosporium disease of potatoes.

J.C. ARTHUR. A new factor in improving farm crops.

These will be published in the proceedings of the Society.

The attendance of working botanists was unusually large at all the

meetings in Madison. Many men whose faces are rarely seen were

present, some for the first time in their lives. A few of the active

botanists of the country who have usually taken part in such meet-

ngs were missed, while on the other hand, the older members were

made aware of the fact that there is a rapidly growing group of

younger men who are Passim their way to the not by their good

work.—Caar.es E. B

1893.] Zoology. 829

ZOOLOGY.

Classification of the Actinize.—In his account! of the Actinise

of the “Albatross” collections of 1887—88, Professor J. P. McMurrich

gives first a historical résumé of the growth of our knowledge of the

Actinians and then presents his own ideas of the limits and arrange-

ment of the families, follewed by a description of the forms collected

by the *Albatross" In the historical part we notice that the separa-

tion of the Bryozoa (better Polyzoa) from the Ccelenterates is credited

to Milne Edwards. We had always understood that the discovery was

made by J. Vaughan Thompson in 1830.

Changing the typographical arrangement Professor MeMurrich gives

the following classification of the Hexactinians.

A. Tentacles arranged in cycles ACTINLE.

a. Column simple

1. Tentacles cylindrical, smooth.

* Sphincter absent or weak, entodermal.

+ Mesenteries not numerous. Halcampide,

+ Mesenteries numerous, Antheide.

* * Sphincter entodermal, tentacles deciduous.

Boloceride.

xk Sphincter mesogleeal.

No acontia. Paractide.

- + T Acontia. Sagartide.

* kkk Sphincter entodermal, circumscribed.

+ Acrorhagi wart-like. Bunodide.

+ + Acrorhagi foliate. Phyllactide.

2. Tentacles warty or branched.

entacles simple. Heteractide.

* * Tentacles compound. Thalassianthide.

3. Tentacles reduced to stomidia. | Bigger ^ a :

b. Column provided in its upper part with branched or globular

rocesses, Dendromelide.

e. Free swimming forms. ` Minyidz.

B. Tentacles arranged radially STICHODACLYHIN

a. Tentacles all of one form.

1. Tentacles few, capitate Corallimorphide.

2. Tentacles numerous, cylindrical. Discosomide.

1 Proc, Nat. Mus., XV., p. 119, 1893.

830 The American Naturalist. [September,

3. Tentacles nodulated. Aurelianide.

b. Tentacles of two forms.

1. Marginal tentacles cylindrical; dise tentacles wart-like,

branched or foliate. Rhododactide.

2. Marginal tentacles pinnate; dise tentacles wart-like.

ymanthide.

c. Tentacles of various forms, not eylindrical. Cryptopdendride.

- It is a pity that the Government cannot provide good illustrations

for papers like this, but like all the publications of the Fish Commission

it has put up with unsatisfactory photo-cuts.

Maioid Crabs in the National Museum .—Miss Mary J. Rath-

bun continues’ her studies of the Maioid Crabs by an account of the

species of the family Maiid: in the National Museum. She enumera-

tes 39 species as occurring in the collection and gives a list of desiderata

which includes 100 species. The new forms described are Chionecetes

tannerti, Celocerus grandis, Lepteces (n. g.) ornatus and Hyastenus car-

ibbeus. The paper concludes with an extract from the as yet unpub-

lished MSS. of the late Dr. Stimpson, a part of his final report upon

the Crustacea of the Ringold and Rodgers Expedition to the North

Pacific. The value of this last would have been increased by including

references to the preliminary report on the same expedition published

in the Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadel-

phia for 1857.

A New Lancelet.’—Dr. E. A. Andrews regard the small lancelet

which was found by the Johns Hopkins Marine Station in the Baha-

mas as the type of a distinct genus of Acraniata to which he has given

the name Asymmetron lueayanum. The chief anatomical peculiarities

of the form are found in the asymmetrical character of the reproduc-

tive organs, which occur on the right side of the body alone, in the

absence of fin-rays from the ventral fin and in the presence of a long

caudal process extending posterior to the last myotome. Dr. Andrews

has also collected the literature of the various species of Amphioxus

from which we learn that the following species have been described

from the world.

. Branchiostoma lanceolatum: Scandinavia, England, Mediterranean,

Chesapeake Bay? Fiji Island?

B. caribeum: Mouth of La Plata, Brazil, St. Thomas, Jamaica,

? Proc. Nat. Mus., XVI, p. 63, 1893.

.* Studies from Biol. Laby., Johns Hopkins, V, 1893.

1893.] Zoology. 831

Tampa Bay, Gulf of Mexico, Beufort, N. C.

B. cultellum: Australia.

B. bassanum: Australia.

B. beleheri: Australia.

B. elongatum: Peru.

B. californiense : California.

Asymmetron lucayanum : Bahamas.

Besides these, specimens have been reported from Japan, Ceylon, and

the Bermudas. It is possible that the B. cultellum of the above list

may prove to be a species of Asymmetron. Peters genus Epigonich-

thys is apparently regarded as synonymous with Branchiostoma.

Descriptions of Four New Rodents from California.—Dur-

ing the past year I have received among other mammals a considerable

series of Californian rodents of the genera Sitomys, Reithrodontomys

and Onychomys. In the identification of these it was found necessary

to determine, if possibile, the status of certain Californian forms de-

scribed by Professor Baird in 1857, more especially of his Hesperomys

eremicus, H. boylii, H. gambelii and H. austerus. The results of this

study were necessarily incomplete, and, though far from satisfactory,

some points of importance seemed sufficiently proven to warrant publi-

cation, and a paper was in preparation and nearly ready for the printer

when Dr. J. A. Allen's Article on a collection of mammals from the San

Pedro Martir region of Lower California came out in the Bulletin of

the American Museum of Natural History.

This covered so exactly much of the same ground gone over by my

own investigations in so much more exhaustive a manner and with

such similar results, the original scope of this paper has been materi-

ally changed.

Among the series lately received by me from collectors in southern

California there are four forms apparently undescribed. In determin-

ing the status of these I am greatly indebted to Dr. J. A. Allen for the

loan of specimens from the New York Museum of Natural History,

and for the critical examination of some of my own, forming the basis

of this paper.

For the loan of the type specimen of Onychomys torridus and a

large series of rodents from southern California, thanks are due to Mr.

F. W. True of the National Museum, and Mr. Gerrit S. Miller, Jr., of

Peterboro, New York.

1. Sitomys major Sp. nov. (Type No. 1202, 3; Col. of S. N. Rhoads,

Squirrel Inn, San Bernardino Co., July 1, 1893; col. by R. B. Her-

ron).

832 The American Naturalist. [September,

Description.—Size large, somewhat less than largest S. californicus.

Tail about length of head and body, stout, and scantily covered with

coarse hairs; terminal pencil inappreciable. Hind feet smaller than

in californicus. Ears large, more rounded and thinly-haired than in cali-

fornicus. Color pale, grayish buff on upper parts, becoming brownish

on rump and lacking any darker dorsalstripe. Sides, from eyes to root

of tail, more buffy than upper parts, but no definite lateral stripe..

Lower parts uniform grayish white, lacking buffy or plumbeoustints on

throat and ventral region wins present in californicus. A narrow,

black, ring encircles each e

Measurements.'— Total Mod: 193.5; tail, 98.5; hind foot, 22.5.

Skull—total length, 28.5; basilar length, 20.5; zvgomatie breadth,

13.8; length of nasals, 10.5; interorbital constriction, 4.3.

Another specimen, a female, taken at the same date and place, has

lost half the tail during life. In no other respect does she differ from

the type, the length of the head and body and of the feet being the

same in both.

In size, form, dentition and relative measurements the skull of major

differs inappreciably from its near ally, californicus. The resem-

blance of major to Baird’s description of * Hesperomys boylii” and its

apparent affinities with californicus inclined me to the belief that it

was his “ Long-tailed Mouse,” and that it should be classed a sub-spe-

cies of californicus as S. californicus boylii. Dr. Allen, who has ex-

amined the type of boylii, and to whom I submitted the two specimens

of major for an opinion on this question, thinks their identity very

doubtful, though admitting their apparent resemblance in size and col- .

oration ; neither does he consider the relationship of major to californi-

eus at all close. Independently of this verdict I should have hesitated

to give major full specific rank.

I am informed that Dr. Merriam has secured a series of Sitomys

from the type locality of boylii in Eldorado Co., which will enable him

shortly to re-describe that species and settle a much involved question

in the synonomy of this very puzzling genus.

2. Sitomys herroni?? Sp. nov. (Type No. 815, 9 , Col. of S. N. Rhoads,

San Bernardino Valley, Cal., March 3, 1893, col. by R. B. Herron.)

Description.— Body short and stout ; ears large, very thinly and min-

utely haired. Tail very long and slender (one-third longer than head

! All measurements given in this paper are in millimeters, and were made by collec-

tor before skinning.

2 For Mr. R. B. Herron, whose abilities as

more than deserves public recognition.

3 È Le 28.1.4

= Ly >

collector

1893.] Zoology. 833

and body), clothed with minute, whitish hairs, slightly darker along

ridge, the annuli not concealed thereby. There is no dark ring around

eyes. Upper parts uniformly buffy gray, lacking any tendency to a

darker median area, the lower sides and cheeks becoming purer och-

raceous buff, the root of the tail being encircled by same color. The

face is grayer than rest of upper parts. Pelage very soft, long and

full. Feet white, small and slender, upper half of thighs and fore-legs,

buff Lower parts soiled gray washed with buff, whitest on chin, dark-

est on breast and belly.

Measurements.— Total length, 200 ; tail, 115 ; hind foot, 21. Skull

—total length, 24.5 ; basilar length, 18.5; zygomatic breadth, 12.3 ;

length of nasals, 9.2 ; interorbital construction, 3.5

This species is represented by four specimens, all taken in March,

April, and June, on the ranch of the gentleman whose name they bear.

They belong to the long-and-naked-tailed, large-eared group of

Sitomys typified by eremicus. In colors and general proportions the

nearest ally of herronii is probably the S. rowley? of Dr. Allen, from

Utah. It differs therefrom according to Dr. Allen, “ in slenderer feet,

buffy white instead of pure white underparts, rather grayer head and

naked, instead of hairy, tail." Herronii also differs markedly from row-

leyi in its skull measurements when compared with those given for the

latter species by Dr. Allen. The length of nasals, given as “5.5” for

rowleyi,is probably a typographical error. I have seen no skull of

Sitomys in which the nasals measure less than seven millimeters, and,

to judge by its other dimensions, rowleyi must be a large species. In

its average characters herronii comes most closely to Sitomys eremieus

and its sub-species fraterculus from both of which it may readily be

distinguished by its buffy tints and larger size. Cranially, it has a

broader and flatter rostrum, less recurved upper incisors and relatively

much longer and wider incisive foramina than eremicus. There is no

decided variation in size and color among the Aerronii series in my

possession, the type being a fair average of the lot.

9. Onychomys ramona? Sp. nov. (Type No. 823, 9 , Col. S. N. Rhoads,

San Bernardino Valley, Cal, April 11, 1893, col. by R. B. Herron).

Description.—Size somewhat larger than O. torridus, with larger

ears. Colors similar to O. longicauda, but with an appreciable dorsal

stripe and shorter, stout tail. Skull averaging larger or as large as O.

3 Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., V, 76.

t Mr. Miller, who describes fratercu/us as a full species, now considers it a “ dark

coast form of eremicus.”

5 For ** Ramona,” ** H. H." Jackson's heroine of the San Bernardino Valley.

834 The American Naturalist. [September,

torridus and of the same proportions, but with a relatively longer man-

dible and higher coronoid process

Measurements.—Total length, 147; tail, 48; hind foot,18; ear,

from crown, 12.

I have examined the type of torridus, with which ramona shows

closer affinities than with any other member of the genus. Making

allowance for the facts the type was “ skinned out of alcohol,” and the

skull is missing, it is easy to see that torridusis externally a very differ-

ent looking mouse from ramona, being lighter and more unicolor above

and lacking the bright vinaceous wash on the sides.

Adopting the cranial and superficial characters given for torridus by

Dr. Merriam in North American Fauna, No. 2, the two are best dis-

tinguished as follows:

Onychomys torridus. Onychomys ramona.

1. Above, uniform dull, tawny 1. Above, grayish vinaceous buff.

cinnamon.

2. No darker dorsal stripe. 2. Darker grayish dorsally.

3. No black ring around eye. 3. Narrow, black ring round eye.

4. Tail with dark dorsal stripe 4. Tail with dark dorsal stripe,

reaching three-fourths its seven-eighths to nine-tenths its

length. length.

5. Average measurements :— 5. Average measurements (five

length, 135; tail, 45; hind- adults) :— length, 139; tail,

foot, 20 ; ear, from crown, 10. 48; hind-foot, 19; ear, from

crown, 13.

CRANIAL MEASUREMENTS.

torridus | ramona

Basilar length (of Hensel) 18.5 19.

= zygomatic breadth 12.5 12.6

arietal 11.4 11.5

eal constriction 4.2 5.

Length of nasals 9.6 10.

Foramen-magnum to incisive NANI, -anara 125 19.4

Alveolar length of upper molar series 3.5 3.8

Length of mandible. 13.2 15.

Height of coronoid process from angle 5.8 6.8

1893.] Zoology. 855

Up to the present time no Onychomys has been recorded from Cali.

fornia that I am aware of. Dr. Merriam informs me a large series was

taken there by the Death Valley Expedition, but owing to the delay in

the publication of the second part of the report on the expedition this

material was, of course, unavailable in the present connection.

The American Museum of Natural History has no specimens of Ony-

chomys from California. Two winter specimens from Dulzura, San

Diego Co., Cal., were loaned by Mr. Miller. They are unaccompanied

by other data, or measurements, or skulls, and so were not included in

the above diagnosis. They differ from the type of ramona in appar-

ently smaller size and darker dorsal shade, in which respects they more

closely resemble two October specimens of ramona. It may be re-

marked that this peculiar dorsal shading is also characteristic of the

majority of Dulzura Sitomys and Reithrodontomys I have examined,

as compared with the same species from San Bernardino Valley, but it

is not sufficient to warrant special recognition in any case.

One half-grown and one young—adult specimen of ramona entirely

lack the characteristic colors of upper parts in fully adult specimens,

being of a uniform pale steel-gray above. The same striking differ-

ence, due to age, is very noticeable in a series of Sitomys and Perog-

nathus taken in the same region.

4. Reithrodontomys pallidus Sp. nov. (Type No.3232, 9, Col. Amer.

Mus. Nat. History, Santa Ysabel, Cal., March, 12, 1890, col. by F.

Stephens). ;

Description—Smaller and lighter colored than R. longicaudus.

Colors of upper parts tawny or buffy gray, much lighter than that of

Mus musculus. Median dorsal area darker than sides and face, the

latter being washed with ochraceous, that color becoming purer on

cheeks and lateral lines of belly. Belly white, with light plumbeous

cast from exposed bases of hairs. Small ventral spot and space between

fore-legs, tinged with buff. Chin and throat white. Tail of same rel-

ative length as longicaudus, but much more finely haired and annulated,

and more slender and distinctly bicolor as in corresponding parts of

body. Ears relatively larger than in longicaudus, lighter colored and

with a fulvous spot at their anterior bases. Feet pure white.

. Measurements.— Total length, 137 ; tail, 73; hind foot, 16. Skull—

. total length, 19.2; basilar length, 14.6; zygomatic breadth, 10.2;

length of nasals, 7.1; interorbital constriction, 3.

Only one specimen of this mouse was secured at San Bernardino.

Mr. Herron reports them very rare while longicauda seems to be

abundant near its type locality about San Francisco.

836 The American Naturalist. [September,

Two specimens, kindly sent me by Dr. Allen, from Santa Ysabel,

are evidently the same species. They are more fully adult than the

San Bernardino specimen, and, like other San Diego County skins, are

blacker above. Their external and cranial characters confirm their

identity with mine as contrasted with longicaudus. Owing to the more

typical character of Dr. Allen’s specimens, I have chosen one of them

for the type in preference to my own. Duplicates of pallidus from the

San Bernardino Valley southward, will most probably confirm its good

specific characters. Its alliance to megalotis is certainly more remote

than with longicaudus. Its possible identity with montanus is very

doubtful on geographical grounds alone, the latter being probably, as

Dr. Allen indicates, an eastern Rocky Mountain form of humilis. Dr.

Allen's azteeus from New Mexico differs from it in larger size, rela-

tively much shorter tail, less buffy color, and in eranial proportions.

In external measurements pallidus is much shorter and smaller-

bodied than /ongieaudus and has smaller feet. In skull measurements

it shows the same diminution in length with greater relative zygomatic

breadth and a blunter, less attenuated rostrum. The relative length

of mandible to height of coronoid process above angle in pallidus is in

the same direction. The coronoid process in pallidus is sharply

hooked, in /ongicaudus it is bluntly recurved.

These features are shown in the following table :

Bopy MEASUREMENTS.

longicaudus | pallidus

(4 adults) (3 adults)

Total length 153. 138.

Length of tail vertebree 80. T9.

oS hind fos 18. 16.

“ — * ear, from crown (from skin).......... 10.5 11.

SKULL MEASUREMENTS.

Basilar length (of Hensel) | 15.6 14.6

Greatest zygomatie breadth 9.8 10.2

Interorbital constricti 3. 3.

Length of nasals 7.8 7.1

Total length of skull 20.5 19.2

Length of mandible 12. A.

. Height of coronoid process from angle. . 61 5.

—SAMUEL N. Ruoaps.

1893.] Zoology. 837

Zoological News. Reptilia.—Dr. Stejneger describes as new

Aantusia henshawi from San Diego Co., California. It may be dis-

tinguished from the other members of the genus by the possession of

two interfrontonasals; one row of superciliaries; frontoparietals in

contact; an TRESEN and a vertical pupil.

Birds.—Robert Ridgway describes’ Odontophorus consobrinus from

Southern Mexico. Itis much like O. guttatus, but is often darker and

lacks any buff or tawny color in the crest.

Mammals.—J. A. Allen enumerates? fourteen species of Thom-

omys including four ( Th. monticolus, aureus, fossor, and toltecus which

are new.)

t Proc. Nat. Mus., XVI, p. 467, 1893.

5 Proc. Nat. Mus., XVI, p. 469, 1893.

ê Bull. Am, Mus. Nat. His., V, p. 47, 1893.

838 The American Naturalist. [September,

ARCHEOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY:

Ninth International Congress of Americanists.—Huelva,

Spain, Oct. 7-11, 1892.—The Congress was held in the Cloisters of

the Convent of La Rabida at Palos. These had been restored in the

style as when Columbus resided there during the preparation for his

first voyage to America.

It was opened by an address of Senor Canovas del Castillo, the

Premier of Spain. He sketched the history of America, showing the

Monks of Rabida and the inhabitants of Palos were strong supporters

of Columbus in the organization of his expedition.

The Bishop of Badajos made a speech referring to the fraternity

existing between Spain and America. This was enthusiastically

responded to by Senor Palma of Peru. .

A grand ball was given at night to the members of the Congress by

the Municipality of Huelva.

In the evening the U.S. Warship Bennington arrived at the Port

of Huelva, having in tow the two Spanish Caravels Nina and Pinta.

which had been built at Barcelona under the supervision of Lieut,

Wm. McC. Little, acting for Mr. Wm. S. Curtis, Chief of the Bureau

of American Republies, and intended to traverse the Ocean and Great

Lakes and be exhibited at Chicago in 1893.

. At the session of the 8th, the representative of British Guiana asked

, of the Spanish Government permission to search the archives of

Seville for ancient documents concerning the Discovery of America.

Senor Canovas del Castillo responded heartily in the affirmative.

M. Lucien Adam of France and Senor Fabic of Spain, the President

of the Congress, spoke as to the best methods of Studying the A merican

question.

Dr. Benk, a delegate from Austria, proposed the publication of a

general map of America ; indeed his proposition was but a part of the

general one for a map of the entire world. Dr. Benk explained his

proposition, which was that this map should be upon the universal

scale of 1 to 1 million, or about 16 statute miles to the inch. This

would require he said, about 936 sheets, of which the land might be

shown on 769 sheets. Each sheet of the map up to 60° North Latitude

would embrace 5° in each direction. The more northern sheets would

1 This department is edited by Thomas Wilson, Smithsonian Institution, Washing-

ton, D. C.

1893.] Archeology and Ethnology. 839

embrace 10° of Longitude. It was proposed to give great attention to

the physical and political characteristics and that the sea should be

represented as well as the land. The rivers were to be in blue and the

hills in brown. Contours to be drawn at elevations of 100, 300, 500 and

1200, and the areas enclosed therein to be tinted. The Meredian of

Greenwich to be accepted for the entire map. All places in countries

using the Latin alphabet to be preserved as officially spelled. Other

alphabets and unwritten languages to be spelled phonetically or accord-

ing to some system yet to be agreed upon. Professor Benk estimated

the cost of an edition of a thousand copies which show only the land

surface to bein round numbers, 1 million of dollars, and the 769 sheets,

if sold at 3 dollar per sheet would produce less than 400,000 dollars,

leaving the sum of 600,000 to be divided among the respective countries.

The consensus of opinion was that this would be great desideratum ;

whether it could be accomplished or not, was in greater doubt. But Dr.

Benk argued that it would be a long stride toward successful accom-

plishment if an international agreement could be made, by which a

uniform scale could be adopted for the making of such a map. This

international agreement, he says, could be agitated only before such

Congresses, allowing the delegates upon their return to their respective

countries to agitate the subject, and prepare either the Government or

publie opinion for a successful result.

There was further discussion and other papers read, some of which

had no very close relations to America and very small right to appear

before the Congress of Americanists.

The rest of the day was taken up by the banquet and preparation

for the fetes. ;

The King and Queen Regent arrived on the 10th, and during that

and next day the city of Huelva and the town of Palos and the Con-

vent of La Rabida were given over to the fetes.

At the Paris Congress, objection was made to going to Huelva by

Dr. Brinton, and the outcome verified the wisdom of the objection.

It was a magnificent Naval Review—40 warships of various Nations

—display of bunting—firing of guns—shouting, cheering, banqueting,

and fetes in grand style; but as a scientific or historie Congress, it made

but slight progress.

The Queen gave a reception at the Hotel Colon at which about

1,000 guests attended. The Column erected at La Rabida by the

Government, at an expense of about 450,000 pesatas (franes) in com-

memoration of Columbus was inaugurated. These were attended by

everybody. The locality was, of course, in gala dress. Guns, flags,

840 The American Naturalist. [September,

music, with the bright dresses of the women and clergy, the gay uni-

forms of the Civil, Military and Naval Authorities and Officers, with

the decorations of the pavilion and throne-room in crimson velvet and

magnificent tapestries, of which the Spanish government possesses so

many specimens, conspired to make a brilliant and imposing scene.

The Secretary, Senor Juan Zaragossa, was most effective in sécuring

subscribers to the Congress of whom he had over 2,000, though only

about 200 were in attendance, and but few of these were constant at the

meetings or gave attention to its business. As a fete, it was a grand

success ; as a congress, its benefits were few.

The Exposicion Historico-Americano.—Madrid, Spain, 1892.

—The Exposition was held in a permanent building, one which was

new—just completed, and is intended as the home of the National

Library, the Archeological Museum, and the Galleries of Sculpture

and Modern Painting. It occupies the entire square between the Paseo

de Recoletos and the Calle de Serrano for two opposite sides, and upon

the other, the Calles Villa Neuva and Jorge Juan. The cornerstone

of this building was laid in 1866, under the reign of Isabella II, and

the building was intended for the Department of the Interior. Work

progressed upon it until the foundations were laid and brought

to the level of the ground, when the Revolution by which Queen Isa-

bella was dethroned, brought it to a standstill. It thus remained until

1884, when the project was again brought forward and the celebrated

architect, Antonio Ruiz del Salces, presented new plans for the build-

ing as a Library and Museum.

On the 19th of January, 1887, the contract for the completion of the

building was entered into with Don Juan ones bs de gue of

10,000,000 pesatas. (A pesata i S u

French or 20 cents American money. ) Two architects were ch osen,the one

to represent the government, the other to represent the contractor, and

they were made, jointly, superintendents of the building. Under their

joint direction, the contractor performed his work. The sequel proves

the wisdom of this arrangement, for the building is erected in a satis-

factory manner and apparently without dispute or disagreement. It is

the custom among the English and American visitors in Spain to point,

with a certain degree of reproach, to the Spanish character as carrying

its love of ease and good nature to such an extent as to sap their energy ;

and to call them in derision, the “ Mañana people," because it is suid

they propose never to do to-day what they can put off till to-morrow.

But the erection of this palace, running over a period of time since

1893.] Archeology and Ethnology. 841

1866, costing two million dollars, has been completed so that

the contractor was able to deliver it over, a finished building, and move

out of it with all his forces within less than two months from the date

originally fixed by the contract. The building is in the form of a rect-

angle. On the longest sides, that is facing east and- west (the Paseo de

Recoletos and the Calle de Serrano), the building is 446 feet long. On

the other sides it is 410 feet long. The principal facade and entrance

is on the Paseo de Recoletos, the secondary one on the Calle de Serrano.

The building is three stories—a basement and a first and second story.

The basement is built of granite, the first and second stories of marble

and brick. The projections in the centre and at the corners are made to

break the sameness of the long stretch of smooth wall—these projec-

tions are of Spanish marble, not clear white, but grey, streaked with

yellow, and slightly ornamented with engaged columns or buttresses.

The style of the building is of Greek architecture, though of no defi-

nite or particular style. The windows are square without caps or other

ornamentation and without stile or mullion. They are about 25 feet

high and 7 feet ‘vide, and are filled with clear plate glass allowing the

utmost amount of light to pass through. The cornice is of the Greek

style; the moulding is quite heavy, though in good proportion, and

projects above the flat roof which it hides entirely. The building

covers a superfice of 16,850 meters. There is slight decoration upon

the outside of the building except at the two entrances mentioned.

Owing to the lay of the land, the entrance to the principal story is

much higher on the Paseo de Recoletos than upon the Calle de Serrano.

This fact has been used to advantage in making the former the princi-

pal entrance with higher and broader steps, more doors and entrances,

greater amount of ornament and decoration, and altogether more

imposing in appearance. The approach is by three flights of steps

extending the whole width of the facade, with a broad terrace between

each one which is utilized by placing :pedestals and statuary

opposite the pillars or columns between the doors of entrance. Some

of these statues are seated and some are standing. Those seated are

San Isadore and Alfonso the Wise ; thosestanding are Luis Vives, Lopez

de Vega, Nobrija and Cervantes. In various places on the facades and

vestibules, are placed medallions representing many of the great men

of Spain. On the facade of the Calle de Serrano, the pedestal upon

each side of the entering stairway is occupied by immense griffins

20 feet long and 10 feet high, with human heads and breasts,

and lion and eagle claws. Outside of these on the pedestals

against engaged columns, are respectively the statues of Berre-

842 The American Naturalist. [September,

guette and Velasquez. The palace is a magnificent building, plain,

simple, in good style and good taste, solid, impressive, not over-decora-

ted, and excellently arranged for its purpose. There are at present,

housed and under its roof, three Expositions, one in each story, distinct

from each other, and organized by different authorities. That in the

basement is entirely Spanish, belongs to the War and Navy Depart-

ment, and consists of objects furnished by these two departments. On

the first or principal story, is the International Exposition Historico-

Americano, in which all objects are supposed to have relations to

America and belonging to a period prior to 1700. Senor Navarro-

Reverter is Delegate-General. The second story contains the Exposi-

tion Historico-European. Its objects relate entirely to Europe, but

principally to Spain, and have a greater or less antiquity. Padre Fita

is Delegate-General. He is a Jesuit Father, a very learned man, an

ardent and wise Archeologist, and of unblemished character. His

good qualities were such as that when his appeal was made to the

church authorities throughout Spain for the loan of their treasures,

assuring them of their safety and return, he received such offers of

valuable objects as to enable him to fill his entire space with the richest

and most interesting.

Let us enter this building. The basement is 20 feet to the ceiling

and it has 22 rooms. The first story is 27 feet to the ceiling and has

46 rooms. The second story is 30 feet to the ceiling and has 49 rooms.

The principal display rooms or halls form the outside of the rectangle.

On the side toward the Calle de Serrano, these halls are 45 feet wide.

On the other sides of the rectangle they are but 35 feet wide. The

centre of the rectangle is devoted principally to the Library. The

Reading Room is in the center, is a most excellent arrangement, and

is magnificently decorated. The Standards and Coats of Arms of

Spain, of all the Provinces aud the principal Cities are here displayed

by frescoes upon the walls. Medallions of great scientists, historians,

literati, form a part of the decoration. It is 95 feet square, without

obstruction to the roof, from which it is lighted by sky-light. The

books are to be arranged in stacks running out from this central room

like the spokes of a wheel. As we enter the building from the Calle

de Serrano, to visit the Exposition Americano in the principal story, a

turn to the left takes us into the section occupied by the’United States,

6 rooms in all. We can pass from one hall to the other half round the

rectangle, and out upon the opposite side, or continue clear around to

the place of entrance. The halls containing the displays of the various

countries follow in this order :—Nicaragua, Guatemala and: Dominican

1893.] Archeology and Ethnology. 843

Republic, Equador, Uruguay, Peru, Argentine Republic, the Museums

of Madrid, Costa Rica, Denmark, and the Antilles, which takes us to

the opposite entrance, crossing which, we begin again—Portugal, Spain,

Germany, Sweden and Norway, U. S. of Colombia, Mexico—the latter

occupying the same relative position upon the opposite side of the

entrance from Calle de Serrano as does the United States, and occupies

about the same space. The Archeological Museum of Madrid occu-

pies interior rooms. The arrangements for light in all these rooms is

admirable. There are many windows, they are on both sides of the

halls, the inner ones opening upon the interior courts. These courts

are without galleries or ceilings, are open to the sky and covered with

glass at the same height as the roof, thus affording nearly the same

opportunity for light as is given from the outside.

The total number of objects comprising the display of the United

States, was as follows :—

Department of Prehistoric Anthropology 5,000

Department of Ethnology 2,200

Philadelphia Exhibit, and Coins, Medals and Money from

Bureau of Engraving and Printing, Mint, and U.S. Nat-

ional Museum........ 4,000

Hemenway Expedition 3,500

Iconographia Columbina. i 310

15,310

Not Catalogued—estimated—

Books 1,000

Photograph : 1,500

Tathooranhs 500

Wing Frames. 600

Maps, Pictures...... 300

Agricultural Dep t 100

Indian Schools............. 300

Animals...... 50 4,350

Total objects, 19,660

Considered as 20,000 objects. |

(To be continued.)

844 The American Naturalist. [September,

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

Contrary to the experience of most summer laboratories this season,

the Marine Biological Laboratory at Woods Holl is filled to overflow-

ing. Over 100 students are in attendance, this number being the

greatest in the history of the institution. Those in charge report a

very gratifying improvement in the ability of those attending.

Dr. H. Kelly Corning, formerly at Prag, is now to be addressed at

the Anatomischer Anstalt in Basel.

Friedrich Ziegler, Freiburgi. B., has just published a new catalogue

of his wax models illustrating embryological subjects. These models

are real works of art, and are most valuable aids in instruction. More

or less complete exhibits of them may be seen in Harvard, Johns Hop-

kins, Bryn Mawr, Michigan University, Chicago University, Clarke

University, Cornell, Wisconsin University, Oberlin, Wellesley, Minne-

sota University, Boston Society of Natural History, Columbia College,

Rochester University, University of Illinois, and Northwestern Uni-

versity. The whole collection, as far as ready for the market, aera:

279 models, which are furnished for $602.84.

Dr. H. B. Ward, formerly instructor in Zoology in Michigan Uni-

versity, has been appointed Associate Professor of Zoology in the Uni-

versity of Nebraska. After Sept. 15, his address is Lincoln, Nebr.

With his appointment Professor E. A. Barbour is relieved of the

instruction in Zoology, and will have only that in Geology.

Dr. Zander has been appointed extraordinary professor of Anatomy

in the University of Königsberg.

Mr. Edward J. Bles, formerly Fellow at Owens College, Manchester,

is now Director of the Biological Station, at Plymouth, England.

Dr. Hermann von Ihering is now the Director of the Zoological

Division of the Museum at Sao Paulo, Brazil.

Dr. Adelbert Seitz has been appointed Director of the Zoological

Garden at Frankfurt a. M.

Henry Viallanes, Director of the Zoological Station at Arcachon,

France, died the last of May, 1893, aged 36 years. He was one of the

1893.] Scientific News. 845

most promising of the younger French zoologists, and had made the

structure of the Arthropod nervous system a subject peculiarly his

own,

J. F. M. Bigot, possibly the best known student of the Diptera, died

in Paris, April 14, 1893, in his 75th year.

The death of Professor Carl Semper, on May 29, was not unexpected.

For some time he had been suffering in health, and lately had done no

teaching in the University of Würzburg. He is best known for his

prolonged researches in the Philippine Islands, the scientific results of

which have formed a splendid monument to his name. He visited the

United States in 1876, and gave a course of lectures before the Lowell

Institute in Boston, which later were issued in that most suggestive

volume, *Animal Life as Effected by External Conditions."

Dr. Eugen Korschelt, formerly of Berlin, has been appointed Pro-

fessor of Zoology in the University of Marburg.

The attempt to reduce the rate of postage upon natural history speci-

mens sent through the mails of the postal union has failed. Such

specimens can only be sent at regular letter rates (5 cents for each

half ounce) except to Canada and Mexico, where the rate for such

specimens is a cent an ounce. Dried animals, including insects, are

excluded entirely from the mails.

. Mr. James Wood-Mason died at sea on the voyage from Calcutta to

London, May 6, 1893. He was born in Gloucestershire in 1846 ; was

later connected with the Indian Museum, and at the time of his death

was Professor of Comparative Anatomy in the Medical College of Ben-

gal Hewasbest known for his work upon the Morphology of Arthro-

pods, his systematic work on the Crustacea of India and his explora-

tions of the deep waters of the Gulf of Bengal with the dredge.

846

The American Naturalist. [September,

The Chicago Exposition is furnishing the best opportunity for stn

ing the external characteristics of human races that has ever been

presented to Americans. There are colonies of Dahomeyans,

Samoans, Egyptians, Javanese, Japanese, Esquimaux, North American

Indians, Hindoos, Turks, ete. Every person interested in Ethnology

should visit the Exposition. © ;

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The Popular Science News, as its name igbesi is a popular record of pro-

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Price, $1.00 per Year.

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THE COLUMBIAN ANNIVERSARY IN AMERICA.

e editor of the American Antiquarian is ai & pps shing a series of books on PRE-

COLUMBIAN TIMES, and now offers the following to the public

I. The Mound-Builders—their Works = —

Il. Animal Effigies and Emblematic Mound

ill. Native Moths and SpueM--Unfiutehed. -

IV. Cliff Dwellers and Pyramid Builders.

aia AMERICAN TE FOR 1893.

The year 1893 will t for Ameri n Archeology gy. iis BAIN ANTIQUARIAN, ui the

first J ? 2 4 h bj n Ee LE 3 * pecially in resting

i ble fe f thi (hie Fifteenth Validate: will wd a series of Eaa

and rtant volume. A gth

of prominent American Archzologists; their portraits will 5 used as frontispieces. There will be a

iety of articles on American Antiquities by gentlemen located in different parts of the Continent, din

i T. H. Lewis, of Min

tgom of Utah, James

An. xvn of articles, etc. , describing auis pud. in the een an Vieni by competent paai

eminent zeologists, such as Mr. W. H. Holmes

and Mr. Henry W. Hayn A series of Notes and pec on M ok Language, by Mr. Albert S. Gatschett

and Mr. ges Ree The Volume will also contain Notes on Egyptology, by Rev. W. C. Winslow, D. D.

LL D., i

* A ed

articies on eum bent of Egypt, order and the Holy Land, as compared | = Ames rican Relics, and will con-

nue his chapters o on p Ame erica Corses orrespondence ane Book Revi be valuab The pub-

Price per Vol. $4.00 or wdi American Naturalist 86. 00.

Address the Publisher at Office of

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ADVERTISEMENTS. iti

AMERICAN MONTHLY

MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL

14TH YEAR, 1893. PRICE INCREASED TO $2.00.

Beautifully Illustrated.

ORIGINAL ARTICLES by the best writers. Descriptions of Microscopical

Methods, pictures of new apparatus, a department of Medical Microscopy |

revealing what the instrument is doing to combat disease, Bacteriology or

the study of Bacilli, Diatoms or Nature’s Jewels, Biological Notes upon the

| progress in botany, entomology, agriculture and the study of all life by the

aid of the grandest of instruments, Recreative Microscopy or the entertain-

ment of people who exclaim “Oh! My!” when they look through the

golden tube, Microscopical News, the Detection of Crime, Societies and their

proceedings, Notices of Books, the Exchange and sale of Slides, ete.

THE MICROSCOPE

A Dollar Magazine Devoted Strictly to Elementary Microscopy.

Price $1.00.

This periodical, now in its 14th year, recently edited by Dr. A. C. Stokes, of

Trenton, has been made a magazine for beginners and amateurs and will

seek to supply every need of those entering upon this fascinating study.

Its Query DEPARTMENT alone, conducted by Dr. S. G. Shanks, of Albany,

N. Y., will be found worth the price.

IFSAMPLEH COPY FRE

B&y- Price for the two, constituting the only microscopical periodicals in A mer-

ica, $2.50 per annum. À treatise on elementary microscopy supplied free

to every new subscriber.

CARPENTER ON THE MICROSCOPE.—Latest and finest edition $5.00.

CONSTANTLY ON HAND.

Beautiful objects mounted in ingenious covers by an English Chemist, and all

ready for use. Would cost 50 cents each if made in America. Catalogue

of 170 White’s objects, mostly botanical, and a samplefor 10 cents; 20 for

$1.00. Dr. Stokes says: “They deserve to be boomed.” Address,

CHAS. W. SMILEY,

Wasuineton, D. C.

ADVERTISEMENTS.

T he Ives Strata ° Altitude Maps

Ur THE UNITED STATES AND PART OF CANADA.

By James T. B. Ives, F.

S., Member of the American Institute of Mining Engineers, the American

Association de the Advancement of Science, and the Canadian Institute.

THE STRATA MAP

consists of a serie

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It fusum exhibits superposition, denud-

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The two Mui are contained in a neat utram case, gilt lettered.

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vi ADVERTISEMENTS.

The International Journal of

Microscopy and Natural Science.

EDITOR:

ALFRED ALLEN, Bath, England.

Faai de ^ac ubi

AM, O >o F. R M: S; Chicago University, U. S.

FRE FDERICK GAERTNER. A. M., M. kj ee = Biusburgh, Pa. Unb. A.

J. STEVENSON BROWN, President, Noni Micro » Montreal, Canada.

FILANDRO VICENTINI, M. , Chie

The following are a portion of the Contents for January, 1893.

Polarised Den iri its Appleton y the P (Illustrated.) G. H. Bryan, M. A.

Reichert’s Hæ eter. A uses ed.) F. Gaertner, M. D.

The M Er doa Mid Its Accessories. (Illustrated. y The Edi

‘A Device to take the place of the Camera Lucida in MANY. duck soe ri

H. G. Piffard, M. D.

A ws are Month by the oe = ern MIA

Soaking Tissues and Sections of Tissu JW . Pla xton, M. D., m

punk Sections E Teeth for T pss ee tA ete, Prof, V. A. Latham

The Bot

Housse Techn nique

Half an hour at the Microscope with the late Tuffen West, F. R. M. S, F. L. S.,

(Illustrated 4 Litho. lesa

— har ger the Postal Micro. Soc. siad A. (Illustrated. )

Que Correspondence. Reviews, etc.

REIR United States and Canada, $2.75 the year, post free.

Agent: M. A. BOOTH, F. R. M. S,

LONGMEADOW, MASS. 1298

PLASTER CASTS OF THE FOLLOWING MAMMALIA

with dentition in good preservation, made under direction of

Professor E. D. Cope may be had by application to Jacob

Geisman, 2102 Pine St., Philadelphia.

Phenacodus primaevus Cope, (Wyoming) $100.00. Æy-

racotherium venticolum Cope, (Wyoming) $50.00. Protohippus

micabilis Leidy, skull $7.00. Protohippus pachyops Cope, skulls

of adult and young, and P. fossulatus Cope, skull, $5.00 each.

_ Letrabelodon shepardii Leidy, mandibular ramus and symphysis

with two molars, $20.00. Dzbelodon tropicus Cope, do., $15.00;

Mastodon precursor Cope, last molar $5.00. The horses and

‘mastodons from the Cenozoic beds of Texas, are uncolored.

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THE ENTOMOLOGIST'S RECORD

AND JOURNAL OF VARIATION.

(MONTHLY.)

Edited by J. W. TUTT, F. E. S., London, England,

Send for list.

Indispensable to all who are interested in Entomology as a Science.

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lars (post free). Vols. I, IT, III (containing Dr. Chapman’s exhaustive papers

upon “The Genus Acromycta and its Allies," and illustrated with 10 plates),

may still be obtained, unbound, for 2 dollars each, in ad vance.

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Large lots have ari received from Sweden, France, Utah and other localities but the most

remarkable are a series of Swedish, Norwegian and Finland pedi obtained in exchange

from Baron A. E. ades skiold.

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Well crystalized Col iumbils, 75c. to $5.00. Hedenbergite, fine groups of crystals, la .50 to

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THE

AMERICAN NATURALIST

VoL. XXVIL Gace 1893. 322

BACTERIOLOGY IN ITS GENERAL RELATIONS:

By H. L. Russert.

Bacteriology, although the youngest member of the biologi-

cal sisterhood, has developed so rapidly within the past two

decades, that to-day it may fairly claim for itself an indepen-

dent Casia. Independent, however, not in sense of isolation

from other branches of scientifie thought, but as occupying a

field that is more or less distinct in itself. The scope of this

subject has already widened to such an extent, and the litera-

ture grown to be so voluminous, that it is fairly entitled to be

ranked as a separate branch of biology. This necessity is

also emphasized by the difference in technique, that separates

it more or less distinctly from other departments of research.

It was not until the middle of the present century that the

affinities of the bacteria were even approximately determined.

Zoologists first claimed this class of organisms as belonging to

the animal kingdom, but gradually, as bacterial forms became

better known, and more fully studied, their plant-like similar-

ities were detemined. Botanists, for many years contributed

but little toward a more perfect knowledge of this class, and it

is the science of medicine that bacteriology must ever regard

as its foster parent. The establishment of the causal relation

between these minute forms of organic life and disease, at once

invested them with increased importance and made them sub-

1Delivered before the Biological Club of the University of Chicago, Feb’y, 1893.

848 The American Naturalist. [October,

jects of paramount interest to the student of medicine.

Although the main interest that bacteriology calls forth is

still in its relation to medicine, broadly considered, it has

proved itself so valuable an adjunct in widely different fields,

that as a science, it can no longer be subordinated to any par-

ticular subject. To-day, it may fairly be said to exert a pow-

erful influence on a number of widely separated departments

of a scientific as well as of applied nature and investigations

from a bacteriologieal standpoint have thrown much light

upon many obscure problems in these different branches.

The purpose of this paper is to indicate in a general way

the extent of the influence that this science is exerting on

other lines of work as measured by some of the results that

have been recently obtained. This can be done only in barest

outline, if we would compass the entire range of its activities

withinthe limits pf a single paper. A rapid review, will how-

ever, give us a fuller comprehension of the relation that the

subject asa whole bears to other departments of thought. The

influence of scientific study is of a reciprocal nature, and the.

impetus that one branch receives from the discovery of a gen-

eral principle, manifests itself to a greater or lesser degree in

all related lines of study. The relation which exists between

this subject in general, and medicine and hygiene must

always be most intimate, for it is along these lines that the

greatest advance in bacteriology has been made. It is there-

fore meet that in the consideration of this subject, we should

first emphasize the effect that it has produced in the field of

medicine, but as this is the phase that is usually presented,

allusion to it here will be made only in very general terms.

Perhaps it is not too much to say, that no theory in pathol-

ogy has been more fruitful of practical results than the germ

theory of disease. Not only has it established the etiology of

contagious maladies upon a rational and scientific basis, but it

has formulated well defined principles of treatment that are

now successfully employed, particularly in the departments of

surgery and hygiene. What was once blindly accepted as a

“visitation of Providence,” from which there was no escape,

is now known to be due to the action of these minute forms of

1893.] Bacteriology in its General Relations. 849

organic life. To-day we consider them in the light of science

rather than the gloom of superstition, and the terror of devast-

ating pestilence is largely diminished when its cause is

unmasked.

Perhaps on the whole the greatest benefit that bacteriology

has conferred upon the “healing art " lies in the fulfilment of

the old adage “that an ounce of prevention is worth a pound

of cure.” It has shown its value mainly in preventing rather

than in curing disease, so that prophylaxis has gained far

more than therapeutics. A more intimate knowledge of the

conditions aiding or retarding the development of bacteria has

resulted in improved methods of sanitation, by which the phy-

sician is able to circumscribe and control an outbreak of con-

tagious disease.

Our knowledge of all the conditions of bacterial development

is as yet comparatively limited, but the application of the prin-

. ciples that have already been established, has aided materially

in checking the progress of these types of disease. Among

these, the cholera epidemic of last year is a notable example.

Starting from its native home on the Ganges, where it is ende-

mic, it travelled step by step, following the lines of commerce.

Entering Europe by way of Russia, where amid its squalid

and famished millions, existed the most favorable conditions

for its propagation, it was further spread by exiled Jews, who

. carried the contagion to many of the commercial marts of

western Europe. The history of past epidemics demonstrates

that its march westward has been almost always unobstructed,

and had we been living in the light of two decades ago, it

would probably have ravaged the denser portions of the west,

asit has done in the past, and as it does in the east to-day.

We may not be able to stamp out the scourge at once, but it

cannot be denied that the restrictive methods of the German

Government last season, checked the spread of the epidemic

in that country, and our efficient quarantine regulations pre-

. vented its gaining a foothold in our metropolis. We may not

know all there is to be known concerning the character of the

contagion, but what we have already learned, points to a more

850 The American Naturalist. [October,

successful method of action in repressing it than any we have

heretofore possessed.

Prophylaxis, or preventive treatment, may be carried on in

two ways. We may prevent disease, either by destroying the

cause of the infection, or by rendering our bodies refractory to

the attack of the disease germ. The first is accomplished

by disinfection, the latter by preventive inoculation. What

Jenner did with small-pox is an entirely empirical man-

ner, modern bacteriology has effected in the light of estab-

lished principle. The brilliant researches of Pasteur and his

pupils along these lines, not only in the case of human infec-

tion as in hydrophobia, the mortality of which at the Pasteur

Institute at Paris has now fallen to less than one-half of one

per cent., but also certain animal diseases like splenic fever in

sheep and cattle, erysipelas in swine and cholera in fowls, are

practical testimonials of the advance that modern bacteriology

has to offer in the direction of prophylactic treatment. The

Berlin school, while it has not as yet succeeded in applying

its methods in so widespread and practical a way, has placed

the question of acquired immunity upon a firmer scientific

basis. The discoveries of Friinkel, Brieger, Kitasato, Behring,

and Ehrlich are all of supreme importance from an experi-

mental standpoint. These observers have been able to

immunize various animals by artificial means against such

diseases as tetanus, diphtheria, pneumonia and erysipelas of

swine. Not only have they endowed the animal body with

such properties that it can successfully antagonize either the

germ or its toxic product, but in some cases, have actually

restored the animal to its normal healthy condition after the

disease had been established.’

How far these results can be utilized in combating disease

in the human system is not yet definitely known. In the con-

sideration of the probable value of these results to therapeutics,

we need to be conservative in our conclusions, for the condi-

tions are widely different between an experimental disease in

animals and its natural course in man. From the present

outlook, it seems that any permanent advance along this line

will be based upon successful efforts in securing artificial

1893.] Bacteriology in its General Relations. 851

immunity. The conditions must first be worked out experi-

mentally upon the lower animals, and it will require patient

and extended research before they can be applied to human

ills. The most pronounced results so far in this connection,

are accomplished by the blood serum therapeutic methods, as

demonstrated by Behring and Emmerich. This theory rests

upon the conception that in an animal artificially immuned,

a certain change has taken place in the blood serum by which

it has become endowed with antibacterial, as well as with anti-

toxie properties; also that the serum of an animal thus pro-

tected possesses in itself a positive therapeutic value. Kitasato,

two years ago, succeeded in rendering mice so refractory tow-

ard the poison of the tetanus bacillus, that they were able to

withstand an injection of three hundred times the ordinary fatal

dose. Theserum of theseimmuned animals when injected into

susceptible controls, that had been infected with virulent tetanus

eultures was able to arrest the progress of the disease even

after the characteristic symptoms of tetanus had been mani-

fested throughout the body. Not only has this course been

applied to experimental tetanus in mice, but rabbits, dogs,

horses and sheep, all of which are susceptible to the disease,

have been rendered refractory by these artifical methods.

This plan of treatment has recently been used in tetanus in

man. The curative substance was secured from the serum of

artificially immuned rabbits and dogs, and there are already on

record over a dozen cases of human tetanus that have been suc-

cessfully treated by this method of inoculation. Some of the cases

were so far advanced that paralysis had already set in, yet the

injected material was able to neutralize the toxicity of the poi-

son, and inhibit its further production. The application of

this method to other diseases analogous in character promises

favorable results, and the problem to-day in this connection,

lies not so much in further proof of the theory, as it does in

the ability to artificially immunize animals of adequate size to

procure the serum in sufficient quantities to be utilized in

actual practice. Behring has succeeded with diphtheria in

conferring immunity upon rabbits and guinea pigs and has

found that their serum is likewise able to check the experi-

852 The American Naturalist. [Ostaber,

mental disease in infected controls. Subsequently he accom-

plished the same result in animals of the size of sheep, render-

ing them resistent to the infection, so that the serum in ade-

quate quantities can be secured for use in the treatment of the

human disease. |

Medical science awaits with intense interest the next step,

and it is possible that in the near future *the red demon of

the nursery " will be brought under control.

Turning from the beneficent results which have been

secured to medicine, to other lines of activity, the results of

bacteriological research are equally efficient. Chief among

these are some results obtained in reference to agriculture. In

its relation to medicine, bacteriology deals mainly with those

forms that have adapted themselves to a wholly, or semi-para-

sitie mode of existence. These however represent but a

minor fraction of the whole number of species that have been

isolated. In agriculture, saprophytic, as well as parasitic spe-

cies enter into consideration, and here parasitism is not con-

fined to the animal body as a host, but is to be observed in

plant tissue as well. To the agriculturist then, bacteria come

in a dual guise. They are both a friend and a foe. Some

species are to him a direct benefactor, some render him aid in

a more indirect manner, while others are a positive detriment

to the success of his calling. How to increase the activity of

the friendly forms, and diminish the ravages of the noxious

ones, is the constant study of the agricultural bacteriologist.

The field, which for convenience we here classify as agricul-

tural bacteriology, is made up of so many widely separated `

subjects, that the detailed methods in one class, cannot be

successfully utilized in the examination of another. For

example, the attempt to isolate the organism of nitrification

which baffled investigators for so long a time, was fruitless

mainly because they relied almost entirely upon the gelatine

method of Koch. Each special subject must be studied by

itself and the technique developed for the method of work in

establishing the etiology of a bacterial plant, disease differs

widely from that which must be used in studying the processes

of nitrification or the fixation of the free nitrogen of the

1893.] Bacteriology in its General Relations. 853

atmosphere. In reviewing the progress of agricultural bacteri-

ology, we can only allude to the lines of work which have been

opened up in this fertile field of research. It may be confi-

dently asserted that as yet, we stand on the threshold of dis-

covery in this department, and the work can scarcely be said

to be more than inaugurated. What the possibilities of the

future are, no man can safely predict.

Study in veterinary pathology has gone hand in hand with

that of human disease, and the etiology of numerous con-

tagious diseases in domestic animals have been thoroughly

investigated. Actinomycosis in cattle, glanders in horses,

and splenic fever in sheep besides numerous other septicemic

diseases, like hog-cholera, swine plague, chicken cholera,

rouget or swine erysipelas are classic examples in our text-

books. A fuller knowledge of the history and etiology of

this class of diseases, has not only better enabled the farmer

to check their spread, both by remedial and prophylactic

treatment, but it has awakened an economic interest that is

steadily progressing along practical lines.

Besides these parasites, confined to animal organisms, the

husbandman has to contend with a series of forms, which

only find their normal hosts in vegetable tissue. The farmer

and horticulturist need to be always on the alert to protect

their harvests from the ravages of these enemies. Insects and

fungiare an ever present menace to success, but not a small

number of plant maladies are to be traced directly to a

bacterial source. Such destructive diseases as the apple and

pear blight, the tuberculosis of the olive, the “ yellows " of the

hyacinth, as well the blight of oats, sorghum, Indian corn,

and other cereals are often due to an invasion of germs of a

bacterial nature. The conditions by which these diseases are

propagated and spread are such, that some of them can be

eradicated, now that we know how the infection is transmitted.

To illustrate, the pear or fire blight, which has been observed

in this country for a hundred years, and which in some sec-

‘tions has become so destructive as to practically ruin the

industry, can now be managed with comparative ease.

Through the researches of Waite, it has been ascertained that

854 The American Naturulist. [October,

the infection is transmitted by insects in their visits to the

flower for nectar. The germs thus carried from an infected to

a healthy tree are deposited on the nectary as the insect gar-

ners the honeyed store. A lodgment effected, the germ finds

a rich nutrient medium and it multiplies profusely, penetrat-

ing finally the exposed cells of the nectary, which are desti-

tute of a cuticle. With an entrance once established, the

contagion spreads from blossom to twig, from twig to branch,

until at last the whole tree structure becomes involved, and

falls a prey to the disease. Since we have learned that the

blackened leaves and branches contain the virus, it becomes

only a matter of watchfulness and care on the part of the

husbandman to check and ultimately stamp out the malady

by the excision and burning of the diseased tissue.

Another problem of vast importance not only to agricultur-

ists, but to sanitarians, is the subject of nitrification, or the

conversion of nitrogen bearing substances into nitrates and

nitrites. It has been an established fact, known for years,

that under certain conditions, there was an increase in the

nitrous and nitric salts in the soil, but just how this was

brought about, was for a long time an unsolved problem.

Chemists had explained the phenomenon on a purely chemi-

cal basis, and it was believed that the nitrogen of the air was

oxidized, either by the action of ozone or oxygen. Pasteur

as a result of his studies on fermentation was the first to sug-

gest that the production of nitric acid in the soil might be due

to organized ferments. This idea was taken up by Schloesing

and Miintz fifteen years ago, and the working out of the pres-

ent accepted biological theory of nitrification is largely due to

the untiring labors of these eminent French investigators, as

they laid the basis for the more brilliant and successful results

of Winogradsky and Warington.

Interesting as is the story, time will not permit entering

upon the detailed steps by which the germ theory was finally

proven. Fora number of years after it had been shown that

organized ferments played the chief róle, no advance was

made in the isolation of the organism as the different investi-

gators failed to produce any nitrification with the germs they

1893.] Bacteriology in its General Relations. 855

had separated from the soil. Warington states, that over a

hundred different species of bacteria had each been carefully

tested as to their ability to nitrify ammoniacal solutions and

that with every one a negative result was reached. It is less

than three years ago that the efforts of bacteriologists to

obtain the specific cause of the process were crowned with

success. Frankland isolated the germ by dilution, and at the

same time Winogradsky succeeded in separating it by another

process. The unique feature of this germ was that they could

not make it grow upon gelatine. This peculiar individuality

explained the failure of previous investigators who had con-

fined their methods to gelatine media. Experiments demon-

strated that this germ was only able to oxidize ammonia into

nitrous acid: Important as was this discovery, it was only

one step in the process. The conversion of nitrous acid and

its salts into the more stable nitrates, eluded their best efforts.

Winogradsky at last succeeded in isolating the organism

from mixed cultures by the use of gelatinous silica mixed

with inorganic salts.

In this way the various steps of the process were clearly

demonstrated and the biological theory of nitrification was

established upon a firm and scientific basis. This theory

claims that the nitrification of ammonia in the soil takes

place in two. successive stages, the change in each case being

produced by distinct and separate organisms. In the first

stage ammonia is oxidized into nitrous acid and then this is

acted upon by another (a second) organism and is converted

into a nitrate. Ordinarily, as observed in nature, the two pro-

cesses occur simultaneously so that the ammonia passes in

continueus combination from its simpler form into its ultimate

stage as nitric acid, or some of its salts. The economic value

of this discovery cannot be estimated. It is not only a com-

plete and satisfactory scientific solution of a complex process,

but is of invaluable aid to the agriculturist in demonstrating

to him the source of the most essential element in soil restora-

tion and in teaching him how he can best conserve and

utilize this expensive product.

It has also an important bearing upon certain phases of

856 The American Naturalist. [October,

hygiene for the success of the intermittent filtration of water

through the soil seems to be based upon the nitrifying action

which takes place within the filter. Filtration has been in

use a long time as a means of water purification and the theory

that bases its efficiency in the mechanical or chemical separa-

tion from its impurities has long been the accepted one.

Many of the observed facts did not seem however to accord

with this explanation, and when it was found that certain

protoplasmic poisons like chloroform injuriously affected the

efficiency of filters, the relation between it and living organ-

isms wassuspected. This led to a careful study of the question

from a bacteriological standpoint, and the discovery was soon

made that there was a direct relation between the process of

nitrification as it went on in the filter and its effectual opera-

tion.

The solution of another interesting subject, that of the fixa-

tion of the free nitrogen of the air by certain plants, also bids

fair to be solved by bacteriological methods. Agriculturists

long ago recognized the fact that certain species of plants be-

longing to Leguminose, such as clover, alfalfa, etc., possessed

special properties in enriching the soil; that not only could

these crops dispense with the application of fertilizers, but that

they possessed the elements by which impoverished soils might

be restored to their original fertility quicker and cheaper than

by any other method. This knowledge, the fruitage of obser-

vation and experience awakened an interest in the causal re-

lations between the one and the other, productive of many in-

teresting and ingenious hypotheses. Liebig concluded that as

clover could be grown upon the same ground for years with-

out the addition of fertilizers, that it must absorb nitrogen

direct from the air through its aerial organs, and then transfer

this store to the roots, and so enrich the soil. Carefully con-

ducted experiments have failed however to reveal any direct

absorption by the leaves and stems of plants. This peculiar

property, limited so far as we at present know, to the Legumin-

ose was finally correlated with the presence of small excres-

cenees or tuberculous swellings on the roots of these plants.

These are found in great profusion on the young rootlets of

1893.] Bacteriology in its General Relations. 857

this class of plants, and seem to be universally absent in all

other genera.”

For a long time they were regarded as pathological struc-

tures, and it was only when it was found that legumes grown

in sterilized soil were poorly nourished and entirely devoid of

tubercles, that the causal relation of these structures with the

peculiar property of the plant was recognized. These observa-

tions were followed by more systematic experiments by Hell-

riegel and Wilfarth, who discovered that the production of the

tubercle depended upon the germ contents of the soil. Beyer-

inck, Prasmowski and others succeeded in isolating the germ

which possessed the ability to penetrate the young root hairs

and the cortical parenchyma of succulent roots. These bacteria

set up an irritation in the plant tissue that causes the forma-

tion of a meristem, and thus the tubercles are produced as

lateral outgrowths from the root.

The tubercle is filled with peculiar shaped bacteria, which

possess the ability in some way not yet perfectly understood, of

fixing the nitrogen of the air in such a condition that it can

be utilized by the plant. Our knowledge concerning the

details of the process is far from complete, but this rational

explanation of the phenomena has opened the way for further

research. The problem that at present awaits solution is to

find whether there is any difference between the organisms

infecting one variety and those that are symbiotic in another.

The artificial selection and cultivation of these forms that

have the greatest ability as “ nitrogen collectors” is a question

of prime importance. Like that of nitrification it involves

great economic interests, inasmuch as it is the key to the solu-

tion of the important question of the restoration of impov-

erished soils.

It would be treating our subject in a very imperfect manner

were we to close our résumé of the influence that bacteriology

? Recent experiments (Landw. Vers. Stat. XLI,138) seem to indicate that the tub-

ercles on the roots of Z/eagnus angustifolia, a member of the Eleagnacez, a close

relative to the Leguminosz are developed by bacteria. Infection by means of

soil washings of sterilized soil planted with these seedlings gave more luxuriant growth

than controls in sterilized soil. The organism has been isolated in pure culture and is

found to differ from Bacillus radicicola, the form so common in the legumes.

858 The American Naturalist. [October,

has exerted upon argricultural pursuits without stating the

position of it with reference to dairying. ;

Milk, like every other organic substance, is subject to certain

changes, and these conditions are now known to be directly

traceable to the influence of micro-organisms. These so-called

“ diseases" of milk are mainly fermentative in their character

and modern bacteriology has shown the dairyman that they

can be entirely prevented if he handles his product in a

rational way. Milk, as it comes from the cow, is entirely

devoid of germ life, but its high degree of temperature when

freshly drawn and the exceedingly nutritious food medium

that is offered, afford the optimum of conditions for the devel-

opment of any bacteria that find their way into the fluid. The

ubiquity of distribution of fermentative organisms render it

impossible to entirely avoid their action, but the losses of the

milk-dealer can be greatly diminished if cleanliness is scrupu-

lously observed.

While the milkman wishes to avoid bacteria as far as possi-

ble, the buttermaker should welcome them as his friend.

Many forms are, of course, undesirable, but from the recent

investigations in this field there is no question but that the

bacterial content of butter largely influences its keeping qual-

ities as well as the peculiar flavor for which such fancy prices

are paid. The process of “ ripening” or “ souring " cream that

is practiced by every butter maker is a natural bacterial fer-

mentation. Better and more butter is obtained from ripened

than from “sweet” cream. If this is so, the question naturally

arises, Why can we not isolate the forms that are capable of pro-

rucing these changes and add them directly to the cream rather

than to trust to their sponta development? The researches

of Hansen in the realm of pure yeast ferments have revolution-

ized the brewing industry within the last five years, and the

introduction of pure cultures of yeast for fermentative purposes

has made a better, and what is still more important, a [more

uniform product. Now the same field seems to be opening in

the process of butter-making. Danish and German creameries

are now being supplied with pure bacterial cultures that are

1893.] Bacteriology in its General Relations. 859

early added to the cream in order to produce as a result of the

fermentative changes the desired flavor.

In this way uniformity of product is assured, and as many

undesirable forms are choked out by the introduction and con-

trol of pure cultures, the keeping qualities of the butter are

much improved.

The utility of bacteria in connection with milk and its pro-

ducts may still be further extended, for the necessity of their

presence in cheese making is even more imperative than in

butter making. Here they are an indispensable requisite to

the production of a palatable product. New cheese is flat and

insipid, and it requires a certain period of time in which it

undergoes a change that is called the ripening or maturing

stage before it is fit for use. Duclaux and others have shown

that the production of the delicate flavors are due to the trans-

formation of the casein into soluble albuminoids by means of

the ferments that are produced as a result of bacterial growth.

This ripening process is then due to the action of specific

germs. The various kinds of cheeses that possess such a vari-

ety of flavors are, no doubt, due to the aetion of different forms

of bacteria, but the threshold of this work is scarcely more than

crossed, and, as one of the leading experts in this country has

said, further advancein perfecting the processes of cheese man-

ufacture is impossible, unless they include the aid of bacteri-

ology.

(1o be continued.)

860 The American Naturalist. [October,

A CASE OF LATEROVERSION OF THE OPHIDIAN

HEART

By PIERRE A. FrisH.

The specimen had already been partially dissected by one

of the laboratory students in the Anatomical Department

(Cornell) before attention was called to the peculiar cardiac

arrangement.

The body had been divested of its in until within six

centimeters of the vent and seven centimeters of the tip of

the mandible; the cranium had been removed, leaving the

mandible still attached to the body; the heart had been

exposed and the ventral portion of the pericardial sac, if any

had existed, was gone. A normal specimen was put into the

hands of the student for further dissection and the anomalous

one has awaited careful examination since 1891.

Enough characters remained to enable one to identify it

with a reasonable amount of certainty as Ophibolus doliatus

var. triangulus or as commonly known, the spotted adder or

milk snake.

Its total length was 85 centimeters (2 feet 10 inches); from

the tip of the mandible to the apex of the heart the distance was

11 centimeters, the heart itself from the apex of the ventricle

to the base of the right auricle being 1:8 centimeters.

The interior of the pericardium (already exposed) presented

a somewhat cone-shaped cavity through the length of which,

and a little to the right of the mid-line, the pulmonary and

post caval veins passed. These did not lie freely in the sac

but were held in place by a narrow, but distinct fold project-

ing from the dorsal wall of the pericardium.

A considerable depression for the reception of the ventricle

was formed just cephalad of the auricles by a sinistral deflection

of the trachea and cesophagus; the trachea also showed signs

of compression on the side adjacent to the heart. No trace of

a true pericardium was apparent here, but there seemed to be

a somewhat excessive development of connective tissue.

1893. Lateroversion of the Ophidian Heart. 861

Aside from the very peculiar position of the ventricle, one of

the most striking features was the unusual engorgement of the

vessels of the left side with blood, in the immediate proximity

of the heart. The left auricle also presented this feature while

the right was comparatively empty.

A superficial examination of the conditions seemed to show

that there had been a complete ante-version of the whole

heart, the ventral surface becoming dorsal and the dorsal ven-

tral. On carefully removing the dense connective tissue

covering the surface of the ventricle, this conclusion was

shown to be erroneous from the fact that the aortic arches

were found to arise from this apparent, and at the same time

real ventral aspect. Thisas well as some theoretical reasons

would demonstrate quite effectively that true ante-version

could not have occurred.

What appears to be the most logical inference, and dissection

seems to confirm it, is that rotation 1nust have taken place, the

fixed point being at about the place of divergence of the two

aortic arches; and since the apex of the ventricle points in a

diametrically opposite direction to that found in the normal

condition, it must therefore have passed from right to left and

through an arc of 180°—provided the heart was ever normal.

The apparent left side of the ventricle would then be the true

morphological right side and vice versa.

The auricles would naturally tend to follow the ventricle in

this rotation, but there is no very marked displacement of

their relations to each other. This does not hold true with

regard to the ventricle in its new location, for the apparent

right, but really the morphologically left side is in a line with

the right auricle and the morphological right side is in a line

with the left auricle.

An effectual restraint would be offered against this migra-

tory tendency of the auricles, in the case of the right auricle

by the pulmonary vein which would prevent its passing the

mid-line. And similarly for the left auricle by the left aortic

arch, which would prevent any movement of the auricle in a

cephalic direction. The usual disproportion of size between the

two auricles is not evident, though this may be accounted for by

862 The American Naturalist. [October,

the collapsed condition of the right as compared with the left

side. The ventricle if it has rotated must have passed along

the ventral aspect of the left auricle. .

After a careful and completer dissection of the heart and the

vessels adjacent to it so that the parts could be more easily

manipulated, it was found that the ventricle could be returned

to an approximately normal position which assisted quite

materially in elucidating the relationship of the vessels to the

heart and to each other.

The two aortas at their diverging point are twisted half

around each other, the right in this case being smaller than

the left and sending off only one branch—the cervical artery ;

the right aorta then passes dorsad of the trachea and cesopha-

gus in an oblique caudal direction until it meets the left to

form the common aorta.

The left aorta presents a peculiar enlargement shortly after

emerging from its “ twist, " due perhaps to over-distention with

coagulated blood, and at the point of the greatest convexity of

its eurve 1t sends off the carotid artery and gradually diminishes

in calibre until it meets its fellow. It would appear from this

that the left aorta, instead of being a mere connecting branch

as is usually the case, has assumed the chief function of the

right, supplying the head with blood through the carotid.

The two aortas retain their crossed origins at the ventricle as

in normal specimens. It is not improbable that the right

aorta suffers more by the twisting than does the left, causing a

greater retardation of the flow of blood and thus offering a

possible explanation for its diminished size and partial loss of

function.

The right jugular vein was A enlarged near the

heart but empty and was partially compressed by the ventri-

cle. At about the level of the auriculo-ventricular furrow it

receives the (pre?) azygous vein and the common venous

trunk, which is of smaller calibre than the jugular, then fol-

lows the dorsal contour of the right auricle, arching over to

enter the sinus venosus at about the point of entrance of the

postcava.

The position of the sinus which normally is perhaps more

PLATE XVIII.

Hyatt on Cephalopoda.

1893.] - Lateroversion of the Ophidian Heart. 863

dorsal than lateral has, on account of the rotation, assumed a

more nearly mesial and ventral location, thus bringing the

posteava in line with the pulmonary vein to which it seemed

tobe quite closely adherent. 'The left jugular vein likewise

presents a central enlargement and forms a sling-like support

for the arch of the left aorta.

TER

In the intricate and unusual arrangement of the parts here,

the vein was inadvertently cut so that its course to the right

auricle could not be satisfactorily determined.

The pulmonary vein passes from the lung through the

pericardial cavity accompanied by the post-cava and passes

between the two auricles more ventral than dorsal and enters

the left auricle. :

The significance of the central enlargements of the left

aorta and the carotid artery and of the left and right jugular

864 The American Naturalist. [October,

veins is not apparent, unless they may in some way be correl-

ated with the anomalous position of the cardiac parts. These

vessels nearer the heart are of smaller calibre, and on account

of their twisted condition must retard the flow of blood consid-

erably, the enlargements, then, may function as reservoirs for

a reserve blood supply.

Such factors as gravity, pressure, mode and direction of

progression would militate against the view of a post-natal

development of this anomaly and would render more plausi-

ble the idea that it was due to some congenital or fortuitous

embryonic condition.

The accompanying figure was traced from a photograph

enlarged three diameters, the veins are shaded; the dotted

lines indicate vessels that were too deep or insufficiently dis-

sected to show at the time of photographing, and have been

filled in freehand.

Specimens of Eutænia sirtalis, Tropidonotus sipedon, Crotalus

horridus, and Python molurus were used for controls. Among

them some interesting facts were observed which may serve as

a basis for a future paper.

Reference letters. a, common aorta; av, azygus vein; ca,

carotid artery; cva, cervical artery; l, lung; la, left auricle;

lao, left aorta; Jj, left jugular; cw, esophagus; p, postcava; pa,

pulmonary netery - pe, pericardium; ra, right auricle; rao,

right aorta; tr, trachea; v, ventricle. Magnified 2 diameters.

1893.] Phylogeny of an Acquired Characteristic. 865

PHYLOGENY OF AN ACQUIRED CHARACTERISTIC.

By ALPHEUS HYATT.

An acquired character is a modification which makes its

appearance in the adult or later stages of development and is

obviously dependent for its origin upon other than hereditary

causes. I have elsewhere defined that branch of science which

deals with such problems as Ctetology:and such characters as

ctetic or acquired. The characteristic dealt with in the paper of

which this is an abstract, is of essential importance among

Nautiloids and Ammonoids or all of the Cephalopoda having

chambered shells and living within their shells. It consists

mainly of an impression made on the inner side or dorsum of

each outer whorl during the coiling up, as the whorl grows

and is moulded over the venter or outer side of the next inner

horl.

This matter will be better understood, if a short description

is given of the following figures. Figs. 1-2 show an almost

866 The American Naturalist. [October,

complete fossil cast of a full grown Metatoceras cavatiformis

Hyatt, and some of the lines or sutures made in the external

surface of the cast by the intersections of the partitions or

septa that cut up the coiled tube of the living shell into air

chambers. Figs. 3-4 show a broken specimen of the same

Fic. 3. Fic. 4,

species, but with the outer and older whorls in large part

removed. The innermost septum near the center of the coil

was built across the interior after the animal had constructed

the hollow apex or point. It then moved along adding to the

external wall of the tube, which has been destroyed and

removed from this cast, and built the second septum, and so

on until it reached the tenth septum. By some freak of fossil-

ization a number of the septa beyond this have been

destroyed, so that if we were to remove the fragment of the

external whorl and take out the center which has just been

described, this would have the exact aspect of a cast of a

young shell with ten air chambers.’ The eleventh air space or

chamber being open and without divisions would then appear

to be the living chamber which the animal occupied when it

built the tenth septum. Normally the shell really continued

to progress from the tenth septum by additions to the outer

* The shaded area in the center, shaped like a large inverted comma, was an

me iei x Hw living me eS is pns desint pie icd z% ent matrix in

as in ee als so

figs. 4, 5, 6, on PI. XVIII, which show the comma Rein umbilical ceste or

openings left at the center through the crytoceran form of the young.

1893.] Phylogeny of an Acquired Characteristic. 867

wall and put in new septa behind it, together with the con-

necting tube until it reached s’, and finally the last septum, 1.

s. This one, l. s., was really the last one built and it formed

the floor of a true living chamber, 1. c., formerly occupied by

the animal at the time of its death and burial in the sediment

of the Carboniferous period. Figs 1-2 show a similar fossil

but with a longer, although still incomplete living chamber.

If the external wall of shell had been preserved none of these

structures could be seen. Figs. 5-7 show a fossil Temnochilus

crassus, a shell of the same family with this external wall pre-

served and all these internal structures covered up. The

impressed zone is the re-entrant curve shown in all these fig-

ures and especially marked in the lower outline of an outer

whorl of another Carboniferous species, Metacoceras dubium

Hyatt, fig. 8, im. z. ;

Fic. 8.

868 The American Naturalist. [October,

It is not necessary to go into a discussion of the details of

internal structures and their relations to the impressed zone

in this abstract, but it is essential to give a general -e

of the morphogeny of the order of Nautiloids.

This group of chambered cephalopods contains ihe. follow-

ing classes of forms: first, straight, conical shells, type Ortho-

ceras, pl. XVIII, fig. 1; second, curved cones, Cyrtoceras, pl.

XVIII, fig. 2; third, loosely coiled, open whorled cones, Do.,

fig. 3; fourth, coiled cones with the whorls more or less envelop-

ing, Do., fig. 5. The fourth and fifth forms are usually

included in the old genus, Nautilus. Practically, it is better

to designate the first class as orthoceran, the second as cyrto-

ceran, the third as gyroceran, and the fourth and fifth as nau-

tilian. In tracing genetic series through time they are found

to diverge in their evolution, starting with the orthoceran and

passing through parallel lines of forms, many of the genetic

series having in succession cyrtoceran, gyroceran and even nau-

tilian forms of the fourth and fifth classes. Others are not so

perfectly parallel, stopping short with the cyrtoceran class of

forms or the gyroceran. Many also begin with cyrtoceran

shells, while others diverge from the gyroceran, and still other

series have only nautilian shells of different grades of close

coiling and involution.

The applieation of the law of repetition in heredity to the

chambered shell-covered Cephalopods, shows that the straight

orthoceran shells, pl. XVIII, fig. 1, were repeated in the young

of the curved cyrtoceran forms, pl. XVIII, fig. 2, and these forms

in their turn in the young of the gyroceran forms, pl. Do., fig. 3 ;

and this may be seen by comparing the young or apical part

of eaeh shell represented in outline with the full grown shells

of the preceding figures. The apex of fig. 2, with the whole

of fig. 1; the apex of fig. 3, with the whole of fig. 2. It will

be understood, of course, that the figures in outline represent

full grown shells, except when otherwise explained and that

they were built like the shells of figs. 1-2, by an animal liv-

ing in their interiors and adding band after band of shelly

matter to the exterior, but in these outlines the shell is sup-

1893.] Phylogeny of an Acquired Characteristic. 869

posed to be perfect and the internal structures concealed.* The

young of pl. XVHI, fig.4, which represents the fourth class of

forms repeats the cyrtoceran form, then curves more closely and

just before it comes in contact there is a short time when it over-

laps the apex without touching it. At this time it is plainly gyro-

ceran like the whole of fig. 3. After it touches the first whorl just

beyond the apex it remains in contact and the inner side or

dorsum of the second or overlapping whorl begins to show a

flattening as a result of this collision of the whorls. The sec-

tions of the orthoceran, cyrtoceran and gyroceran whorls

show no such flattening in any of the specimens examined,

although hundreds of different kinds have been studied. The

sections are designated on the plate by the same letters as the

supposed lines of the sections made through the tube, and

although diagrammatic figures, they give a sufficiently clear

general explanation of the facts observed. More specific fig-

ures could have been given in abundance and will be given

in the paper now in course of preparation.

Pl. XVIIL, fig. 5, shows the same phenomenaas figure 4. The

young is at first cyrtoceran like the adult whorl of figure 2,

and open, then becomes gyroceran in curvature and finally

overlaps the apex when it has arrived at the end of the first

volution, but does not at first touch it. Then coming into

contact it acquires a flattened area or faint impressed zone on

the dorsum or inner side of the second volution as is shown in

the section fig. 5c. This is similar to the section of figure 4

shown in fig. 4c’, which represents a cut through an adult

whorl of the fourth class of forms. It differs only in being

smaller on account of the younger stage of growth at which

it occurs.

The entire series of forms from orthoceran to nautilian is

more or less represented, even in the earliest period at which

the Nautiloids appear, namely, in the rocks of the Quebec

Group. There is, however, this qualification: the fifth class

of forms, or the involute nautilian, are comparatively rare

and become more abundant in successive periods. The young

2 Except in fig. 9 in which a portion of the shell is broken away showing the

cast of the interior andthe sutures.

870 : The American Naturalist. [October,

of Nautilian shells of the earlier periods are also not so closely

coiled, or, in other words, remain open and similar to cyrto-

ceras for a longer time during their growth. This is shown

by the large size of the central hole, or umbilical perforation,

left in the center of full grown shells. This perforation is

much larger, as a rule, in Paleozoic than in the Mesozoic

forms.

In each period the genetic series or groups of nautilian

forms have peculiarities of structure in the sutures, ornaments

apertures, etc., by which they can be separated from each

other and these peculiarities are the same as those possessed

by gyroceran, cyrtoceran and often orthoceran shells which

occurred often earlier in time so that one can trace each group

of nautilian shells back to its ancestors through the parallel

stages of evolution above described. The groups, in other

words, are parallel in their morphogenesis, like two indi-

viduals of the same parents in their development from youth

to old age.

In all of these cases the impressed zone originates as

described above after the whorls come in contact, never before

this time in the growth of any individuals. Barrandioceras

is one of the most involute shells known in the Silurian, and

pl. XVIII, fig. 6, gives a true sketch of this species; fig. 7, Shows

a section of a full grown shell with a decided impressed zone;

and fig. 8, is the young. This last is a purely cyrtoceran form

with a compressed elliptical section like that of fig. 7, but no

impressed zone, the inner side being rounded like the diagram

of Cyrtoceras, fig. 2. The impressed zone is not present in

the young of Ophidioceras, the closest coiled of all these forms,

nor in the young of any species of the Silurian before the whorls

touch, so far as known, and all of the species likely to present

this peculiarity have been investigated.

The impressed zone is also invariably lost in the oldest

stage of the whorl of every individual when the whorls cease

to continue to grow in contact. This condition is represented

in the last part of the outermost whorl of figs. 4 and 5 in sec-

tions, figs. 4e, 5e, and in the outlines of their apertures which

are elliptical. The sections represent cuts through the whorls

1893.] Phylogeny of an Acquired Characteristic. 871

when, as is the case in extreme age, these cease to increase in

size. Assoon as this senile contraction begins to occur the

sides shrink, becoming narrower, the amount of involution

becomes less, and the impressed zone, shrinks in breadth as

shown in the sections. When the whorl finally parts com-

pany in consequence of continued contraction the already

shrunken impressed zone, figs. 4d, 5d, rapidly disappears and

the apertures of such shells are frequently as round and free

from indentations on the inner as on the outer side, as is shown

at the free end of the figures 4 and 5.

In normally uncoiled forms, usually named Lituites, when

the adult or young is coiled, and the succeeding stages,

whether representing adults or old shells, are uncoiled, the

phenomena are similar. The impressed zone is lost after the

growth ceases to bring the whorls of the shell into contact.

The young and the adults of many of these forms have now

been observed in the earliest periods and it is, therefore, obvi-

ous that during these early times the impressed zone must have

been a modification of the whorl which took place in conse-

quence of the mechanical effects produced by close coiling.

This characteristic is slight when the coiling is slight and is

developed in precise proportion to the increase of coiling or

involution of the whorls and, on the other hand, when through

degeneration due to age, or to other causes, the whorls cease

growing in contact, the impressed zone gradually disappears.

Thus it always appears preceded and accompanied by an

observable tendency in the mode of growth toward closer coil-

ing and that this tendency is quite capable of producing the

impressed zone can hardly be denied with any show of reason,

since the charateristic disappears in proportion as the pressure

is relieved through the degeneration of the powers of growth

force to continue the normal rate of progressive increase of

bulk in old or young or prematurely degenerate shells and in

-uncoiled whorls of all kinds and all ages.

The shells of Devonian series of Nautiloids have also been

extensively examined, especially in the more involute nautil-

ian forms of the genus Nephriticeras, and so far not one has

been found with the slightest indication of the presence of an

872 The American Naturalist. [October,

impressed zone in the eyrtoceran or gyroceran stages of devel-

opment. In several examples also, the disappearance of this

characteristic has been observed in the last stages of old

whorls. There is, therefore, every reason for regarding the

impressed zone as a ctetic characteristic acquired in the later

stages of growth and not hereditary so far as is known in any

shells of the earlier paleozoic periods.

The same statement may also be made with regard to

the majority of Carboniferous shells. There is, however, a

notable exception in Coloceras globatum (sp. De Kon.) Hyatt,

and very likely some other species of closely coiled nautilian

shells. In C globatum of Visé, Belgium, I found in seven

specimens that the impressed zone appeared while the whorl

was still in the cyrtoceran stage. Pl. XVIII, figs. 9-10, give out-

lines of the adult of this species, and figs. 11-12, of the young

and the zone, showing that the impression appeared long before

the whorls touched each other and began to assume nautilian

characters. Section, fig. 13b, shows the impressed zone occurr-

ing in the cyrtoceran stage while the venter or outer side of

the whorl was rounded. Such facts admit of but one explana-

tion, namely, that in this species the impressed zone had

become hereditary and was in consequence repeated at an

early age, previous to the occurrence of close coiling which

produced it in the ancestral forms of the same group.

There are certain correlative characters which lead me to

think that this is only a partial statement and perhaps a more

complete and better one would be as follows: that the

impressed zone, together with a peculiar broadening out of

the dorsum and helmet-shaped section of the whorl, and per-

haps also certain forms of sutures occurred in the early stages

of some Carboniferous species before the nautilian stage, and

consequently they must have been introduced by heredity into

the development of this species before the tendency to close

coiling had completed the first whorl. Thus these characters,

although purely ctetic in origin, were repeated before the

usual conditions recurred in the ontogeny of this species

which had obviously and repeatedly produced them in the

nautilian forms of the earlier paleozoie and the more general-

1893.] Phylogeny of an Acquired Characteristic. 873

ized genetic series of the Carboniferous. That this species, Col.

globatum, is a highly specialized species is shown by other

characteristics, especially the early inheritance of a furrowed

abdomen, shown at v in Pl. XVIII, fig. 11, and a peculiar

aperture.

The Triassic period is unimportant in this connection since

it has but few nautilian species that are deeply involute and

also sufficiently well known to throw any light upon this prob-

lem. All of the true orthoceran, cyrtoceran and gyroceran

forms diminish in the Carbóniferous and disappear with the

Trias.

The Jura contains a considerable number of nautilian shells

of different genera of which the cyrtoceran stages are suffici-

ently well known. Cenoceros aratum, of which several speci-

mens have been studied, shows the impressed zone and corre-

lative characters in this stage; C. lineatum is the same; C.

clausum, same; C. intermedium, same. PI. XVIII, fig. 14, shows

the cyrtoceran stage in ashell of C. , with a well devel-

oped impressed zone, i. z. Endolobus is a characteristic

paleozoic type and there is a single survivor of this

series in the Jura, End. (Naut.) excavatum sp. D’Orb. It is,

therefore, very interesting and instructive to note that this

species has the impressed zone, according to D’Orbigny’s fig-

ure, during the cyrtoceran stage. This species has a large

umbilical perforation and is slower in coiling up than other

Jurassic species. The evidence that the impressed zone and

its correlative characteristics are inherited in most species of

the Jura before the habit of close coiling could have acted

upon the whorls so as to produce this modification is, therefore

very general and convincing.

The leading characteristic of parallelism in all genetic

series of Nautiloids is, as may be inferred from the facts cited.

a tendency toward closer coiling and greater involution in the

more specialized forms of each separate series and a correla-

tive increase in the profundity of the impressed zone. When

the impressed zone becomes inheritable in some closely coiled

and involute specialized shells of the Carboniferous and in

similar shells in about all of the genetic series of the Jura

874 The American Naturalist. [October,

this result is also directly connected with the observed fact of

the quicker development of the coiling up tendency in the

young of these Jurassic shells. This is shown by the small

diameter of the umbilical perforation in the centers of the

shells of the Carboniferous. It is also connected with the fact

that the primitive uncoiled forms, orthoceran, cyrtoceran and

gyroceran shells begin to die out in the Carboniferous and

cease with the Trias as mentioned above.

This demonstration of the characters that accompany pro-

gress in close coiling, enables me to fill a gap which occurs in the

evidence during the Cretaceous. In this period the existence

of the impressed zone during the cyrtoceran stage of individ-

uals has not been clearly established by observation except in

two species, a form allied to Cymatoceras pseudoelegans

D'Orbigny, from Faxoe, and Cymatoceras elegans from Rouen.

In other shells, although a considerable number have been

broken down, the state of preservation has been invariably

imperfect. The coiling, however, in the young of all the

shells examined is notably more accelerated than in the simi-

lar shells of the Jura, and the whorls broader and having

more specialized characteristics correlative with closer coiling

and the early existence of an impressed zone. It is, therefore,

-fair to infer that the evidence when accessible will confirm the

facts observed in previous periods.

The same arguments apply also to the Cenozoies, except

that in this period there is as yet no evidence of the early

inheritance of the impressed zone. I have not yet succeeded

with the Aturia, which is the only genus represented by favor-

ably preserved specimens within my reach, in exposing the

apex of tke whorl. The shells of this period, so far as I know

them, are, however, excessively involute and have exceedingly

.small umbilical perforations with very deep impressed zones

after the whorls touch. The umbilical perforation in Aturia

is in fact smaller than in any nautiloid known to me.

The imperfect evidence so far gathered in the Cretaceous,

and the absence of positive evidence in the Cenozoics, does

not, therefore, seriously affect conclusions reached in this

paper, since these are merely gaps in the history of the evolu-

1893.] Phylogeny of an Acquired Characteristic. 875

tion or phylogeny of the impressed zone; and all the correlative

characteristics which accompany the inheritance of the im-

pressed zone in the cyrtoceran stages of species which have

this peculiarity have been observed to be present.

The terminal members of the Nautiloids are, of course, the

existing species. Nautilus pompilius has been examined in a

considerable number of specimens and in all of these the

‘impressed zone and correlative helmet-shaped whorl and

broad flattened dorsal side appears during the cyrtoceran

stage. Pl. XVIII, figs. 15-16 are outlines of the shell of this

species during the cyrtoceran stage exhibiting the helmet

shaped whorl, broad dorsum, or inner side, and its impressed

zone, iz. Thus, when the whorls touch, as in all the nautilian

shells of the Carboniferous, Jura and Cretaceous in which the

same acceleration of development also occurs, the whorl is

already prepared to become involute and to mould itself more

readily and rapidly over the surfaces of the apex and the side

of the succeeding whorls. In other words, heredity has begun

the work before the whorls touch, and before the deepening

and enlargment of the impressed zone through the pressure

of close coiling is begun. There are quite a number of char-

acteristics in the species of existing Nautili which lead to the

inference that they are survivors of Jurassic and generalized

Cretaceous and Cenozoic forms; the size of the umbilical

perforations, the smoothness of the shells, the simplicity of the

sutures, and soon. These facts are of importance only in

so far as they show that the existing Nautilus does not repre-

sent the acme of progress of its order but is a descendant of

shells with less complicated structures than many of the genera

of the Carboniferous, Jura, and Cretaceous.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XVIII.

LETTERING.

a. Apex of shell. This usually bears a scar on the point,

as shown in figs. 14 and 15, but this has no bearing on the

question discussed, and has not been described. This also

represents the youngest or cyrtoceran stage in the growth of

the shell, fig. 8 being a young shell with complete living

876 The American Naturalist. [October,

chamber. This letter also indicates the location of the sec-

tions correspondingly lettered in the figures.

b is used to indicate the section of the cyrtoceran stage in

figs. 11-13.

b’ is used to indicate the place of the sections, figs. 4—5b’,

upon the whorls of figs. 4-5. They were taken through the

whorl in the gyroceran stage.

c is used for the adolescent stage of growth in the whorl

and the corresponding sections.

ce’ is used for the full grown stage in the growth of the

whorl and the corrésponding sections :

d for the first part of the senile stage:

efor the final and most degenerative part of the. senile

stage:

i. z. for the impressed zone.

v venter or outer side of the shell, the dorsum being the

inner side of the whorl.

w for the whorls, thus 1 w in figs. 3 and 4 means the end of

the first whorl, 2 w the beginning of the second whorl, 3 w

that of the third whorl. These letters serve to show the

progressive increase in numbers of the whorls in the different

classes of forms.

FIGURES.

Fig. 1. Outline of an orthoceran shell.

Fig. 2. Outline of cyrtoceran shell.

Fig. 3. Outline of gyroceran shell.

Fig. 3. Outline of nautilian shell, having a larger umbilical

perforation at (a) and fewer whorls at the same age, than in

fig. 5, in other words it is less tightly and completely coiled

up than the class of shells represented by that figure.

Fig. 5. A nautilian shell with tighter coils than in fig. 4 and

the whorls coming in contact and the impressed zone begin-

ing at an earlier stage.

Fig. 6. Barrandioceras———(sp. Barrande) Hyatt, showing

the most involute of the Silurian shells so far as known ; fig. 6

is reduced in size but the section fig. 7 is natural size.

1893.] Phylogeny of an Acquired Characteristic. 877

Fig. 8. A young shell of the same, natural size, with com-

plete living chamber.

Fig. 9-10. Coloceras globatum (sp. De Koninck) Hyatt,

adult. Fig. 9 has a part of the outer shell broken off showing

the edges of the septal partitions (sutures) as lines on the

strong cast of the interior.

Figs. 11-13. Same to show the cyrtoceran stage and section,

with its impressed zone.

Fig. 14.

Figs. 15-16. Nautilus pompilius to show the cyrtoceran

stage with its impressed zone.

878 The American Naturalist. [October,

THE EGGS OF PITYOPHIS MELANOLEUCUS.

By J. Percy Moore. |

In the absence of any complete published account of the

breeding habits of the pine snake, the following notes may

interest some of the readers of the NATURALIST. The mater-

ial which furnished the data for this account was collected on

Aug. 3, 1892, at Formosa Bog, Cape May Co., N. J., by a party

of students from the Sea Isle City Marine Laboratory, who,

under the guidance of Dr. J. M. Macfarlane, were engaged in

botanical investigation of the region. The nest was brought

to their attention through the courtesy of Mr. Peter Hoff, one

of those rare genuises of the woods whom it is the pleasure and

profit of the naturalist to meet with now and then in his wan-

derings, and to whom our exploring parties were indebted for

many kindnesses.

The snake which mothered the brood was a fine specimen of

its kind, nearly six feet in length, and one of Mr. Hoff’s most

valued companions, for it was well-known to him as a regular

habitué of his fields and barrens. At the time of oviposition,

which occurred in the middle of May, Mr. Hoff saw the snake

traverse the entire length (about 100 yards) of a field planted

with squash and cucumber vines, pausing frequently to test

the quality of the soil, which was of a loose sandy nature, with

its snout. A spot was finally selected by the side of a row of

plants, where the more tenacious character of the soil favored

the construction of a nest. Excavation was begun by loosen-

ing the soil with the head, which was worked under the sur-

face; and the loose earth thrown out. By alternately breaking

the ground with the head, and brushing away the loosened

soil with the tail, as Mr. Hoff stated, a tunnel was finally con-

structed of sufficient length to entirely conceal the snake.

Within this tunnel it remained entirely hidden from view

until oviposition was accomplished, when the entrance was

closed and the locality deserted.

PLATE XIX.

Pityophis melanoleucus.

1893.] Eggs of Pityophis Melanoleucus. 879

Mr. Philip P. Calvert, who was present at the excavation of

the eggs, furnished me with facts relating to their position and

surroundings. They occupied an enlargement of the tunnel

6-8 inches below the surface, where they were massed together

in a single coherent eluster—the shells being very firmly

cemented together wherever they came in contact. Ten eggs

in all were found, three of which were detached from the mass

in removal; the remaining seven are shown in Fig. 1 (from a

sketch by Mr. v. Iterson, the laboratory artist) which I am

able to reproduce here through the kindness of Dr. Ryder.

The eggs are of irregular ellipsoidal shapes, varying much in

size and proportions, and exhibiting, as a result of the various

pressures to which they have been subjected, irregular depres-

sions and protuberances. In size they range from 50x37 mm. to

64x 45 mm., a long narrow egg measuring 61x35 mm., and a

short broad one 60x44 mm. The average measurement of the

seven is 59x41 mm., exhibiting a mean variation in length of

4 mm., and in breadth of 38 mm. The variation in size is due

chiefly, if not solely, to the variable amount of yolk present.

In the hope of raising some of the young, several of the eggs

were placed in a box of dampened sand and stood in a sunny

spot: but on being opened after three weeks the embryos were

dead, and development interrupted at the point that had been

reached on Aug. 4, when I received the eggs.

When fresh, the egg-shell was flexible and elastic, and of a

very tough parchment-like character; and was very tensely

and firmly stretched over its contents; but after a few days'

exposure to evaporation, it became somewhat loose and

wrinkled.

Its structure is interesting. Externally there is a thin in-

crustation of calcareous matter, which impregnates only the

outer layers of the matted fibres of which the shell is mainly

composed, and which appears to be present chiefly in the form

of minute crystals and hexagonal plates. Over the greater

part of the surface the calcareous crust is minutely cracked

into elongated polygonal and irregularly lozenge-shaped areas,

resembling the modern “crackle-ware” or the surface of old

porcelain (Fig. 2). This appearance is particularly noticeable

880 The American Naturalist. [October,

about the equator of the egg, where the long diameters of the

areas are parallel to the long diameter of the egg, an arrange-

ment due in part to a conformation of the areas to the curva-

tures of the surface, and in part to the structure of the fibrous

shell. Calcareous deposit is most abundant at the poles of the

eggs, and wherever two shells come in contact, they are firmly

cemented together by the same material, all of which usually

adheres as an elliptical area to one of the shells, when two

thus joined are forcibly pulled apart (Fig. 1, a).

The shell is wonderfully tough for its thickness, which is

only from 5 — mm., made up, except for the superficial de-

posit of mineral matter, entirely of highly elastic fibres resem-

bling in their disposition to curl when broken, and their neu-

tral reaction to acetic acid, the yellow elastic connective

tissue fibers. These vary somewhat in thickness, the largest

having a diameter of zi; mm., the smallest of sis mm.,

and the bulk of 51; mm. They are extremely long, and I

rarely found an end not artificially made. Naturally, they

seem frequently to terminate in ovoidal or cylindrical swell-

ings which are often sharply twisted, bent or folded. Unlike

those which form the shell of bird's eggs, these fibres branched

but very rarely, although short filamentous processes were not

infrequently seen attached along their sides. Several fibres

were traced under the microscope for an inch of their lengths

without a single branching being detected. Two or more fibres

frequently run side by side for long distances, and separating,

give rise to a deceptive appearance of branching.

The most interesting fact to be noted with regard to the

structure of the fibres is that they are tubular. Most, if not

all of them, possess a distinct and continuous lumen, having

a diameter of from 3 to 1 that of the entire fibre. This struc-

ture is well-shown in cross section (Fig. 3), and perhaps even

more strikingly in specimens which, after having been allowed

to dry, are mounted in glycerine, when the lumen becomes

very conspicuous from the chain of minute air-bubbles which

fill it and mark its course as a dark beaded line (Fig. 4).

The mannerin which the egg-shell is built up out of these

fibres is strikingly different from what obtains in the mem-

PEE PEE e WARD a NETS EA DR

1893.] Eggs of Pityophis Melanoleucus. 881

brana putaminis of a bird’s egg. Here the shell is built up of

a number of distinct laminz, in each of which the great bulk

of the fibres have a generally straight and parallel direction

obliquely around the egg, though their course is a regularly

wavy one. They do not intricately cross and recross in every

direction as in the chick’s egg, but the fibres are generally

disposed at angles of about 45° to the principal axis of the

egg, the direction of the obliq-

uity alternating in successive

layers from one side to the

other of this axis, so that fibres

of successive lamin are dis-

posed at right angles to one

another; those of alternate

layers are parallel. The num-

ber of laminze appears to be a

matterof some constancy. Speci-

mens from various parts of

shells of three eggs were regu-

larly separable into 9 or 10 dis-

tinct lamine, which could be

stripped off from the entire ex-

? à tent of pieces an inch square

Head of Foetal Pityophis. without exhibiting any signs of

: thinning out. I regard them,

therefore, as being continuous over the entire shell. These

layers are separable from one another with great ease, but it is

noticeable in stripping them apart that a few fibres from one

layer are always adherent to the adjacent layers, although there

appears to be no extensive invasion of one layer by the fibres

of another, except among the external ones. In any one

lamina the sinuous course of the fibres causes a firm felting

and interlocking among them (Figs. 5 and 6). The alterna-

tion of the direction of the fibres is shown in vertical section,

but not very elearly, owing to the wavy courses which they

take (Fig. 3).

The optical effects resulting from this structure are striking

and peculiar when the entire series of separated layers are

S Ay

882 The American Naturalist. [October,

placed side by side in corresponding positions on a moistened

slide. Those pieces in which the fibres are disposed at right

angles to the rays of light coming in from a window appear,

to an eye placed at the proper angle to catch the reflected

light, of a beautiful, glistening, satiny white; while those the

fibres of which lie parallel to the same rays, and present no

reflecting surfaces, appear dull and lustreless. These appear-

anees can be instantly changed from one set to another on

revolving the slide over an angular distance of 90.°

A place of natural division, where separation is more readily

effected than elsewhere occurs between the 3d and 4th inner

layers. The three innermost ones then appear to constitute

together the membrana putaminis. There is apparently

no disposition toward the formation of a lenticular air-space ;

this being prevented by the high elasticity of the membranous

shell, which causes it to continually contract over the con-

tents as they shrink through evaporation. This contractility

appears, however, to be limited, as noted above. Perhaps it

is an adaptation to the varying conditions of moisture and

drought to which these eggs, and others of their kind, are sub-

jected.

The external six or seven layers are more closely bound

together, and constitute the shell proper. The depressions in

the surface of one layer resulting from the wavy course of the

fibres, accommodate elevations on the surface of adjacent ones,

thus greatly increasing the strength of the shell and making

possible that partial invasion of one layer by the fibres of

adjacent ones which is mentioned above, and which becomes

more marked externally. These binding fibres may be seen

to stretch and break as two layers are torn asunder.

The wavy structure also produces on the surface beneath

the calcareous crust, and especially where two shells have been

united, a peculiar pebbled appearance, like the pebbled bind-

ing of books. The outer layers in which the calcareous matter

is deposited, have a less regular structure—the fibres being

more irregularly interwoven; but when the mineral matter is

removed with acid, the fibres readily disentangle and separate,

being bound by no other cementing substance. Cement sub-

1893.] Eggs of Pityophis Melanoleucus. 883

stance appears to be absent also from the other layers; which

may be easily teased up, when the fibres float off freely in the

mounting medium.

A rough analysis of the shell gives the following results.

Water 29:5 per cent.

Soluble mineral matter (almost

entirely calcium carbonate) ^ 16:6 per cent.

Organic matter 53°7 per cent.

99°8

Well advanced embryos were found within the eggs. These

must have been at least 10 or 11 weeks old. Those examined

numbered equally males and females. They have an average

length of 6? inches, the tail being 1?» inches in a male and

slightly less in a female specimen.

The embryos lie deeply embedded on one side of the abun-

dant yolk, which envelops, and almost completely surrounds

them, being packed thoroughly in among the folds; and in

aleoholie specimens, requiring to be largely cut away to

expose the full length of the embryo. The young snakes are

arranged in somewhat irregular spiral coils, the larger folds of

which are directed in the long diameter of the egg. There

is no regularity in the arrangement of the folds; the spiral

being sometimes wound in a left-handed, sometimes in a right-

handed direction, figs. 7 and 8. Large clear albuminous

masses are frequently embedded in the yolk.

The umbilical cord is short, measuring about $ inch in

length and ++ inch in diameter. It leaves the body anywhere

between ài and 1inch in front of the vent, between which

points the somatie folds are entirely free from one another,

while for a distance of an inch to an inch and one-half ante-

rior to the umbilical cord they are only very feebly united.

Beyond this point the gastrosteges are complete. These num-

ber in all 216 in one 9 specimen examined—a number

slightly less than the adult possesses. The anal plate is single,

and the number of scales in a vertical row normal.

On the head the absence of certain plates present in the

adultis noticeable. The seutes have not yet developed over

884 The American Naturalist. [October,

the roof of the prominent brain case, nor in the post-ocular

region. The frontal and parietal plates are not indicated at

all, and the developed plates show some curious differences

from the adult condition. The supraocular is clearly divided

by two. transverse grooves into three scutes, of which the

anterior is largest. I suspect that the others may be really

post-oculars which are here displaced by the prominent eyes.

A small scute which may unite with the loreal underlies the

preocular. Four postfrontals are present, the external pair

beiny much the larger ; but the single pair of prefrontals shows

no indication of a division. The superior labials number 9,

one more than in a specimen of the adult which I have com-

pared. The inferior labials, except the first, are not developed,

but the mental is well marked. The description of the head

scutes is made from a single specimen, the only one which was

well enough preserved to show them satisfactorily; figs. 9

and 10.

The egg tooth isindicated by a narrow fold which arises

just below the ventral margin of the rostral scute. Rows of

small papille on the jaws and palate represent the developing

teeth. Their number and position are as in the adult

In all male examples the paired penes were fully extruded

immediately behind the anal plate; rudimentary penes were

present in the females as a pair of low conical elevations in

corresponding positions, fig.12. In well preserved specimens

each hemipenis is a somewhat compressed organ attached by

a narrowed base. A constriction about the middle separates a

basal from a somewhat more swollen terminal portion, which

ends in a pair of rounded lobes, of which the dorsal is the

larger and arises from a thickened rim which is seen to

become continuous below with the more ventral lobe. On the

external side of each hemipenis is a rather prominent lateral

lobe.

Proximad to the median constriction the surface is dotted

with numerous fine pointed projections, while the distal por-

tion is covered by larger smoothly rounded papille. No

papille whatever are present on the dorsal terminal lobe,

which is quite smooth. Figs. 11-13.

1893.]

Fig.

Eggs of Pityophis Melanoleucus. 885

EXPLANATION OF Prates XIX, XX.

Pityophis melanoleucus.

ig. 1—Cluster of seven eggs represented as they naturally

cohere. a—point at which an eighth egg was at-

tached. Natural size.

. 2—Surface cracking of the calcareous crust—from an

equatorial region. x 10.

. 8— Vertical section of a small portion of the egg shell

showing a small part of five laminæ. x 800.

. 4—Several fibres of different sizes after being dried and

mounted in glycerin. The lumens are filled with

air. x 800.

. 5—Surface view of a small portion of a lamina x 170.

. 6—4 few isolated fibres x 500.

. 7-8—Two views of embryos in their natural positions

on the yolk. Natural size.

. 9—Left side of head of an embryo showing the scutes.

xX; p S81

. 10—Dorsal view of the same x 7; p. 881.

. 11—Anal plate and penes of a male x 8.

. 12—Same region of a female. a—rudimentary penes.

x 8.

13—Lateral (external) view of a hemipenis x 7.

886 The American Naturalist. [October,

EDITORIALS.

—PuBLi¢ spirited citizens of Chicago have formed a corporation for

the purpose of creating and sustaining a museum, which shall furnish

to the publie of the city an educational exhibition. It is an opportune

time for such a project, as there is much in the Columbian Exhibition

that can be obtained, which would serve as a nucleus round which a

great museum may be collected. It is proposed that the museum shall

be located near to Jackson Park and the University, and for the pres-

ent the California building, one of the largest of this class in the park,

is to be utilized for this purpose. The corporators have made an

excellent beginning in appointing Prof. F. W. Putnam the managing

director. Thus a scientific stamp is given to the enterprise at the out-

set, and its future value as an educational medium is secured. It is

expected that Professor Putnam will organize the museum into depart-

ments, and will place over each a competent head, who will make the

institution a medium of original research as well as of exhibition, as

is the case with all the great museums of the world. It will thus

become useful, not only to the general public, but to the University

and to the Academy of Sciences. The corps of scientific experts con-

nected with the museum and the University, would revive the Academy

of Sciences, which has been dormant of latter times. This would give

it a position in the country second to none west of the Allegheny

Mountains, instead of being, as in late years, less productive than the

societies of Cincinnati and St. Louis. If Chicago is the city she claims

to be, she will do this, and more. She will have an Academy of

Sciences which consists exclusively of scientific men. Only such a

membership can give an Academy its proper position in the world, and

prevent the organization from being a travesty of what it ought to be

and might be.

—TuHE Postmaster General of the last administration, Mr. Wana-

maker, proposed, it is said, to change the names of the post-offices

throughout the country which are duplicates of those previously given

to older offices. Perhaps Mr. Wanamaker found the task too onerous ;

at all events it has never been accomplished. It is hardly likely the

present administration will undertake it, as it would savor too much of

“ paternalism ” for democrats to tolerate, but as duplicate names have

become an annoying evil, a future administration may make the needed

1893.] Editorials. 887

reform. Nearly all the names of towns with which we are familiar in

American geography have now been duplicated, generally several

times. New cases appear in the papers continually. We recently

noticed a half dozen or more stations on a branch of the Santa Fe R,

R. system, whose names have been taken in toto from the time-table of

the Pennsylvania R. R., west of Philadelphia. Many or all of these

places are or will be post-offices, As the Santa Fe system is controlled

in Boston we wonder at this piece of plagiarism (!), for Boston has

never been noted for lack of originality. If this is possible from Bos-

ton, the stupidity of the rest of the country in the matter of names is

easily understood! Nevertheless, Philadelphians (ignoring Kensington

and Southwark), may protest in the names of Passyunk, Manayunk

and Moyamensing, against such incapacity. There can be only

one Chicago, one New York, one Philadelphia, ete., and those

communities that duplicate these names simply efface themselves, as

the French say. There is nothing easier than to find or invent new

names, hence it is incomprehensible why American people should

wish to call their homes Paris, Mexico or Berlin. In any case, if

geography is to be taught in our public schools, or letters reach

their destination, this maze of confusion must be corrected.

—TueE scheme of Mr. J. C. Bay to publish a yearly bibliography of

American botany deserves every encouragement. He proposes an

absolutely complete list of all papers upon American botany, accom-

panied by short abstracts of each, the whole to be published six

months after the close of the year. We understand that a publisher

has been found who is willing to undertake the publication, but the

prompt issue of the volumes will doubtless prove a matter of some dif-

ficulty. Thus, of Just’s Botanical * Jahresbericht," the volume for

1890 is completed in 1893, the same is true for the Zoological summary

of the * Archiv. für Naturgesechihte," while the delay in the appear-

ance of the English “ Zoological Record” and the Naples Jahresber-

icht, though not quite so bad, is very aggravating to those who desire

to keep fully abreast with the times.

—Tue question is often asked, Why do the American zoologists so

universally neglect the A merican Association for the Advancement of

Science? For many years scarcely an American publishing zoologist

has been present at the meeting while the few papers on zoological sub-

jects are in striking contrast to the interest shown in the sister science

of botany. The reasons for this state of affairs are not readily stated.

888 The American Naturalist. [October,

Possibly most potent of all is the feeling that the association is far

from being a representive of American science, and that it has degen-

erated into an annual junketing party. It is certain that the interests

of science have been often sacrificed to excursions which interrupt the

sessions, and which should be postponed to their close. Then, too, criti-

cisms are often heard that it is run asa close corporation, that nominat-

ing boards are packed in order that certain persons may be put in office

and that the expenses of the Association are far greater than they should

be for the results achieved. There is, too, an inside history which can

not be detailed which would explain a large portion of the indifference

displayed. Before the Association can regain its influence it must

undergo a complete transformation in its management and methods of

administration. It must also present features. which will attract the

better workers of the country.

1893.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. 889

RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS.

nnual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution for the year

prn June 30, 1890. Washington, 1891.

' Annual Report Canadian Geclogien Survey, 1888-89. Part D. Macken

Yukon Basins, Nine Sheets. Part N. Southern New Brunswick Superficial Geol.

ogy, Three Sheets. Ottawa, 1891. From the Surv

Annual Report of Curator of the Museum of Passed Zoology at Harvard Col-

"e for 1891-92. From Alexander Agass

Baur, G.—Bemerkungen über Viii feld Arten von Schildkróten. Separat-

Abdruck aus dern Zool. Ang., No.

-——The Galapagos Islands, Extr. Diodes ds. Am. Antiq. Soc., Oct., 1891.

——On the Morphology of the Skull in the Mosasauride. Extr. jon. Morph.,

Vol. s Se 1, 1892. From the author

BEECHER, C. E.—Revision of the fau Bearing Brachiopoda. The Development

of E rinik obsoleta. Extr. Trans. Conn. Acad., Vol. IX, 1893. From the

author.

. BOETTGER, O reno Ergebnisse der Reise Dr, Jean Valentine im

Sommer, 1890. I. Kriechtiere der Kaukasusländer, Sonderabdruck aus Bericht über

die Senckenbergische Naturf. esi Frankfort a. M., 1892. From the author,

BREHM, A. G.—Thierleben: Die Kriechtiere und Lurche. Neubearbitet von Dr.

O. Boettger und Dr. Pechuel-Loerche, Leipzig und Wien. 1892. From Dr. Boettger.

Brooks, W. K.—The Embryology and Masi of the Macroura. Fourth

Mem., Vol. V., Natl. Acad. Sci.

BRUMEL LHP . H.—On the Geology of Natural Gas and Petroleum in South-

western Ont o.— Notes on the Occurrence of Petroleum in Gaspé, Quebec. Extrs.

Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. IV, 1893. From the author.

wa No. 44, Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station, 1892.

Bulletin No. 30, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Division of Entomology. R

ports and poet apt age and Experiments in the Practical work ef the Division. From

the Dept.

Nag EN. a North Carolina, from records of 1820-1892. From N. C. Exp. Sta-

caps Internationaux d' Anthropologie et d' Archéologie préhistorique et de

Zoologie. Materiaux réunis P le ne d' ave des pes concernant les

expositions, les excursions qi

miére rai Moscow, 1893.

DALL, HR tet Mollusks of Florida. Extr. Trans, Wagn. Free Inst.

Science, Ya III, 1899. From the author.

Davis, J. W.—On the Fossil Fish- Remains of the Coal Measures of the British

Islands. PartI. Pleuracanthide. Extr. Sci. Trans. Roy. Dub. Soc., Vol. IV (Ser-

ies t 1892. From the author.

LE, E. T.—Brown Coal and Lignite of Texas. Issued by the Geol. Surv.

of dms gr From the author.

S90. The American Naturalist. [October,

DwicH ye CA A on the Psoas parvus and iowa A Study in

D dE Extr. Proceed il. Soc., 1893. From the a

EARLE, C.—On the S. Position of the Genus = ra Raid Extr Am.

Nat., 1893.

diio € Points on the Ee rede Osteology of the Tapir. Extr. Sci., Vol.

XXI, 1893. From the auth

Epson, C.—Hydrogen fiii in Contagious Diseases. Extr. the Doctor of

Hygiene, April, 1893.

Errs, R. W.—On the Geology of Part of the Province of Quebec, South of the

St. Lawrence. Extr. Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, Sect. IV, 1891. From the author.

EYERMAN, J.— Bibliography of North American Vertebrate Paleontology for the

year 1892.—— Bibliography of South rain Vertebrate Paleontology, 1891-92.

Extr. Am. Geol., June, 1898. From the auth

Foster, L. S.—The Published Writings id og Newbold Lawrence, 1844—

1891. Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 40. Washington, 1892. From the Smithsonian

GENTRY, T. G.—Family Names from the Irish, Anglo-Saxon, Anglo-Norman, and

Scotch, ae in Relation to their Etymology. Philadelphia, 1892. From the

au gn

AMB, D. S.—The Meckel Diverticulum. Extr. Am. Journ. Med. Sci., 1893.

Vd the author.

LEBOUCQ, H. —Les Muscles Adductor du Pouce et du gros Orteil. Extr. Bull.

Acad. Roy. Med., Belgique, 1893. From the author.

LEE, E. Cholera : Its Plevelitiód and Treatinent. Extr. Chicago Clinical Rev.,

893.

Lrg, T. G.— Biographical Notice of Joseph Ai Extr. Proceeds, Am, Acad.

Arts and Sciences, Vol. XXVII. From the auth

Loomis, E.— Contributions to Meteorology. sh Memoir, Vol. V, Natl. Acad.

Sci. From the Academy.

LYDEKKER, R.—Recent Advances in Knowledge of the Ichthyosaurian Reptiles.

Extr. Nat. Sci. Vol. 1, 1892 From the author.

MCLAUGHLIN, J. W.—Fermentation, Infection and Immunity. A new theory of

these processes. Austin, Texas, 1892. From the aut ithor

Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences, Vol. v. Washington, 1891.

PoH

aca inu Fio ici author.

Reports on the Death Valley Expedition. A Biological Survey of Parts of Cali-

fornia, Nevada, Arizona and Utah. de: rs , North American Fauna, nS. 7. Wash

‘ington, 1893. From the U. S. Dept. A

Report of the Trustees of the Anab pe for the year 1891.

Ricks, R.— Natural History ipee Lesson. A Manual for Teachers. Boston,

1891. From D. C. Heath & Co.,

Ritrer, W. E.—On the eyes, the int egumentary sense papillae, and the integument

of the San Diego Blind Fish (7jphlogobius cali iforniensis Steindachner). Extr. Bull.

Harv. Mus. Comparative Anat., Vol. XXIV ; 1873. From Alexander Agassiz.

1893.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. 891

ROSENBERG, E.—Der Carpus der Schildkróten. Sonder-Abdruck aus Anat. Anz.,

1392, Nr. 7 und 8. From the author

ScH M. —Literaturbericht fiir Zoologie in Beziehung zur Anthropologie mit

Einschloss pe lebenden und fossilen (os be für das Jahr, 1890. — Archiv fiir

pou ae Bd. XXI. From the

SEE . G.— Further LN: on Pariasaurus. Extr. Phil. Trans. Roy.

Soc. ridi Vol. CLXXXIII (1892), B. pp. 311-370. From le author

SHARP, B.— Catalogue of the Crustaceans in the Museum of the Philadelphia Acad-

emy if PPS Sciences. Extr. Proceeds. Phila. Acad. Sci., 1898. From the

author

STEFANESCU, G.—On the Existence of the ANE in Roumania. Extr. Bull.

Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. III, 1891. From the author.

TALBOT, E. S.—A Siudy of the fica of the Jaws of the Human Race.

Phila., 1892. From ^ authors.

WALCOTT, C. D.—The North American Continent during Cambrian Time. Extr.

Twelfth pated iin of the Director U. S. Geol. Surv. Washington, 1892. Fiom

the U. S. Geol. Surv.

WINCHELL, N. H. AND C. ScHUCHERT— The Lower Silurian Brachiopoda of Min-

nesota. Sponges, Graptolites and Corals from the Lower Silurian of Minnesota.

Extrs. Vol. Iii, Final Rept. Minnesota Geol. Surv. June6, 1893. From Mr. N. H,

nchell.

Wr RIGHT, G. F..—Evidences of Glacial Man in Ohio. Extr. Pop. Sci. Monthly,

May, peii Mr. Holmes' Criticism upon the Evidence of Glacial Man. Extr. Sci-

ence, n 1893. From the author.

WRIGHT, J. M.—Nature oe No. 4. Sea-side and Way-side. Boston, 1893.

Er ce Heath & Co.,

892 The American Naturalist. [October,

RECENT LITERATURE.

Wiedersheim’s Comparative Anatomy.'—Professor Robert

Wiedersheim has given us two distinct manuals of Comparative

natomy. One of these, the “Lehrbuch,” although it has passed

through three German editions, has not appeared in English, while the

the other, the * Grundriss" was Nen several years ago. This

latter, ita “ Little Wiedersheim,” has now appeared in a third edition,

and all its claims to being the “little ” sis have disappeared. It is,

in every respect, a new edition, as there is scarcely a page upon

which new additions have not been made, while whole sections have

been entirely rewritten. It now forms a mine of facts which no mor-

phologist can ignore. Everywhere it seems up to date, the results of

investigators in all parts of the world being incorporated into its pages.

A work like this cannot be summarized in a few lines, and all we can

do isto express our generally high appreciation of the work and to

notice a few novelties introduced into the new edition. First of these

is an explanation of the names of animals mentioned in the text with

a reference to their place in m system, a feature of great value to the

beginner. Thus we find “ Ceph mored id from the Devon-

ian and Upper Silurian formations (belongs with the oldest fishes).”

Another innovation in this edition is the collection of the literature (as

in the “ Lehrbuch ") in an appendix. In this latter part we could wish

that the ' running head” of the pages were sub-divided, so as to indicate

at a glance the subject below ; and, while making criticisms, we would say

that were the reference letters in the legends of the cuts arranged in

alphabetieal order, it would be a great convenience. We learn, inci-

dentally, that a new edition of the * Lehrbuch " is not soon to appear,

but the “grundriss” work will be the vade mecum of all students of

vertebrate morphology.

Mill’s Diatomacez.’—The scope of this work is best shown by a

statement of what it contains. The first chapter treats of what diatoms

are and where they occur; the second of their structure; the third of

their movements ; the fourth of their classification ; the fifth of reproduc-

tion ; the sixth and seventh of collecting and mounting ; the eighth of

ER Wiedersheim. vir rae der vergleichenden Anatomie der Wirbelthiere. III

pou am pem pp. xxx

ction to the ij of the Diatomacez, by Frederick Wm. Mills, with a

EES bx Julien Deby. 8 vo. pp. xix, 243, London, Iliffe & Son, Washington,

The Microscopical Co., 1893.

1893,] Recent Literature. 893

the study with the microscope; the ninth of microphotography, and the

tenth consists of a large bibliography of diatum literature. Of the gen-

eral treatment of the subject there is much to be desired. The chapter

on microphotography is clear, and will doubtless prove of value to

students, but the rest of the work is rather antiquated. Thus, the chap-

ter on the movement of diatoms is based upon an article dated 1866,

and is without a single reference to the later literature, the observations

of Pfitzer, Schilberszky, etc., being ignored. The bibliography appears

to be fairly complete, but the proof-reading of this portion is very bad.

The typographical appearance of the book is good, but the publishers

have committed the not unusual fault of putting it upon much too

heavy paper.

Kennel’s Zoology.'—In the past three or four years we have

noticed not a few German text-books covering a greater or smaller por-

tion of the field of zoology. This is the latest to appear on our table.

In most respeets it pleases us, in others it does not. Its author is at

once too radical and too conservative. Thus he has completely done

away with the old group of worms; he denies the validity of the group

of Arthropods, and has assigned Amphioxus to the group of Tunicates,

the latter group, in his linear arrangement, being sandwiched between

the Brachiopods and Molluscs. To descend to details: The work is

divided into two parts—general and special zoology. In the first we

have, at the beginning, a discourse on what is a species followed by a

brief account of evolution, and this in turn by the usual definitions of

organic and inorganic, animals and plants, individuals, ete. Then fol-

lows the cell, protozoa, tissues and organs. In the special part we find

the systematic zoology of the Metazoa Bs: meis: Sete As

already hinted, the old group of d the A rthro-

pods are given short shrift with a few words like the Biain: “The

Tracheata, which have previously been regarded as a sub-group of the

class of Arthropoda, equivalent to the Crustacea, have, as it appears,

aside from a series of external resemblances of form and extremities, no

nearer relationships to the crabs.” The failure to recognize the Chor-

dates as a valid division seems also a questionable procedure. The 310

figures which illustrate the work have been mostly drawn by the

author, either from nature or with the use of pre-existing figures, and

are largely reproduced by some of the mechanical processes. Many of

the ms are very instructive. Press-work and paper are good, as

we always find them in German text-books. .

5 Lehrbuch im emos von Dr. Julius Kennel. Stuttgart, Ferdinand Enke, 1893,

$8vo, pp. xvi x

894 The American Naturalist. [October,

General Notes.

GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVELS.

The State University of Iowa Biological Expedition to

the West Indies and Florida Keys.—A somewhat novel depart-

ure along educational lines was successfully carried out during the past

spring and summer under the auspices of the State University of Iowa.

A party consisting of three instructors and eighteen students char-

tered a 116-ton schooner and spent the months of May, June and July

in biological work in the vicinity of the Bahamas, Cuba and the Flor-

ida Keys. The university furnished a very satisfactory equipment for

a biological laboratory which was fitted up on board, a good working

library of marine zoology, and also an equipment for dredging down to

250 fathoms, and a collecting outfit for marine work. All other ex-

penses were met by the members of the party, the entire cost, including

transportation from Iowa City to Baltimore and return, and board for

the entire time, being only $200 for each person.

The first dredging was done on the Great Bahama Banks, where

many interesting things were found. Next the party proceeded to the

famous “Pentacrinus grounds” off Havana, where they succeeded in

securing a quantity of the much-prized Crinoids at depths varying from

150 to 250 fathoms.

When it is remembered that this was done with a sailing vessel and

without steam for hoisting, the members of the party will be pardoned

for feeling somewhat elated over their success.

This was the first occasion on which iron rope has been used for

dredging at such a depth with a sailing vessel. Many persons consid-

ered it impracticable, but Professor Alexander Agassiz thought it could

be done. We found that the rope worked admirably and not a single

fathom was lost during the three months of the cruise. Of course, no

little credit is due the students, who worked manfully at the cranks of

the hoisting machine day after day in the tropical heat.

The expedition was accorded many favors by the Cuban Govern-

ment, and enjoyed the time spent at Havana and Bahia Honda, a port

some forty miles to the westward. The local authorities at this latter

place, however, seemed to regard the party as a filibustering expedi-

tion, in spite of the ladies on board. The shoal water collecting was

1893.] Geography and Travels. 895

excellent in this region, and a quantity of material was secured,

although no one was allowed to go more than thirty yards inland from

the water's edge.

From Bahia Honda the Iowans went to Key West, where they were

not allowed to land on account of a yellow fever scare, but were or-

dered to quarantine at the Dry Tortugas, which was anything but a

hardship, for a better ground for marine biological work would be hard

to find. The quarantine officer, Dr. Robert Murry, was untiring in

his courtesies, letting the members of the expedition have the full run

of old Fort Jefferson, and, better yet, of the moat around it, which is,

in effect, a grand aquarium such as delights the zoological heart.

On two occasions the whole party had the rare privilege of studying

fully expanded Millipores, while living corals of many species were

always at hand.

Two weeks were spent in dredging on the famous “Pourtales Plateau,”

between Sand and Sombrero Keys, at depths varying from seventy-five

to two hundred and fifty fathoms. A great quantity of material was

thus secured, including some characteristic deep-sea forms, such as

Asthenosoma, calcareous sponges and old-fashioned corals.

. Returning again to the Bahamas, the littoral and terrestrial faunas

near Spanish Wells, Eleuthera, were very carefully explored, and a

rich harvest seeured. "The shoal conneeting Eleuthera with Little San

Salvador was dredged, the most notable results being some particularly

beautiful hydroids.

Thence a homeward passage of eight days concluded a cruise which

will be remembered with delight by every member of the party, and

which was as remarkable for the absence of any mishaps as for the

educational and scientific results which will certainly accrue.

In addition to the specimens secured and notes taken by the party,

a splendid series of photographs, taken principally by Instructor G. L.

Howser, constitute the best of records of the cruise.

. —C. C. Nurrine.

896 The American Naturalist. [October,

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.

A New Plistocene Sabre-Tooth.—During the past summer I

obtained for the museum of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Phil-

adelphia, some fossil remains of vertebrata from the western part of

Oklahoma. These consist chiefly of parts of a single skeleton with

teeth of Elephas primigenius columbii. Mixed with these were found

the bones of a sabre-tooth cat. A few of these only, together with

some teeth, were saved. These include parts of three metacarpals,

three phalanges of probably a single digit, and the head of the femur.

The teeth include five incisors, two superior canines, and two molars,

one of them the superior sectorial in perfect preservation. The animal

had attained full size, but the epiphysis of the head of the femur is not

coossified. The dimensions are equal to those of a lion, ( Uncia leo), of

the same age; and those of the superior sectorial are similar to those

of the Smilodon fatalis Leidy, and a little smaller than those of the

S. neogeus Lund, of South America.

Generic character. So far as preserved, the parts agree with those of

the genus Smilodon, with one exception. This is that the superior

sectorial tooth possesses no internal root, not even a rudiment. The

protocone is wanting in Smilodon, but its corresponding root is present,

but in this form the root also has disappeared, so that it may be

regarded as presenting the last stage of specialization in the cats, a cir-

cumstance which is appropriate to its late appearance intime. I there-

fore suppose the species to represent a genus, to which I give the name

of Dinobastis.

Specific characters. The canine teeth are large, with elongate com-

_ pressed crowns, a little more convex on the external than the internal

face. The cutting edges are finely serrate. The anterior edge differs

from that of the Smilodon neogeus in that it turns inward toward the

base of the crown, presenting inward. In the S. neogeus this edge is

not incurved. he superior sectorial has a large anterior basal lobe

and a rudiment of a second at its anterior base. It does not attain the

importance of a lobe, as it does in the S. fatalis. The part of the

crown anterior to the paracone forms about one-fourth of the longitudi-

nal extent of the crown; in the S. fatalis,is forms about one-third.

The paracone is prominent, and is strongly convex on the external

face. The metacone has a nearly straight edge, and its external face

displays a shallow vertical groove near the middle. "The long diameter

of its base is 1-5 as great as that of the paracone. The crowns of the

1893.] Geology and Paleontology. 897

external incisors are oblique, and slightly incurved ; they have robust

cutting edges, which are finely serrate, and no basal lobes. The incis-

ors 1 and 2 have small conic lobes at the base of the crown, which are

well separated from each other at their bases. Those of I. 1 are sub-

equal, while the external of I. 2 is smaller than the internal, and

nearer the base of the crown. The crowns proper of 1 and 2 are

acutely conie with semicircular section, the posterior face being flat.

The edges of I. 2 are feebly crenate; those of I. 1 are smooth.

The metacarpals represented are II, IV and V ; of these No. IV is

best preserved. — It differs from that of the lion in the smaller trans-

verse diameter of the head, and in the fact that the superior face of

the diaclast! is nearly continuous with the proximal or unciform

surface. The shaft is quite as robust as that of the lion. The shaft of

the fifth metacarpal is on the contrary moreslender. Its section is a

triangle with convex limbs, and the obtuse apex external. The pha-

langes have forms and proportions similar to those of the fifth digit

of the lion. The second phalange is a little shorter, and the

margins display but small traces of the bases of the sheath, which has

been broken off. Otherwise the ungual phalange resembles that of

the lion.

Measurements. mm.

Diameters crown I. 3 i nee HM

; ( longitudinal, 80

Diameters crown superior canine + anteroposterior, 28

transverse at base, 12

anteroposterior, me

; j cone,

Diameters superior carnassial es f PUN _ ds

Transverse diameter of head of femur, ; 40

Diameters head MC. IV, f Pu (restored), z:

Transverse diameter shaft MC. IV at middle, 16

Anteroposterior diameter shaft MC. IV at middle, 11

Length of phalange ? V 1, 38

wc Oe “ 1y ^ i 94

i£ ER sé ? Vv 8, 2

This species, which I propose to call Dinobastis serus, increases

the number of our Plistocene Felidx to four. The three other species

are Smilodon fatalis Leidy, S. gracilis Cope, and Felis atrox Leidy. — .

! For the explanation of this term see the Annual Report of the Geological

Survey of Texas, 1892, Report on Vertebrate Paleontology of the Llano Estacado,

p. 55.

898 The American Naturalist. (October,

MINERALOGY AND PETROGRAPHY:

Anorthosites and Diabases from the Minnesota Shore of

Lake Superior.—Along them iddle stretch of the Minnesota shore of

Lake Superior occur several exposures of a light-colored, coarse rock,

consisting essentially of a basie plagioclase feldspar which, according

to Lawson,’ is sometimes bytownite; but more frequently anorthite or

labradorite. This plagioclase is usually fresh and quite vitreous in

appearance. It contains, as inclusions, small bleb-like masses of

augite, plates and rods of the same mineral arranged parallel to the

clinopinacoid, liquid enclosures, dust particles and small grains of

hematite. In addition to the plagioclase there is also often present in

the rock a small number of triangular augite plates between the feld-

spars. This rock which the author calls an * anorthosite,” is found in

knobs and bosses, and as boulders in the overlying Keweenawan erup-

tives. The rock is evidently an eruptive which is much older than the

volcanic flows constituting a large proportion of the Keweenawan beds.

A second article by the same author? treats of the coarse diabase in

“gabbro” sheets interpolated between the sedimentary beds of the

Animikie. These are thought by the writer to be laccolitic in origin,

i. e., to have been intruded between the sedimentaries after these had

been solidified, and some of them even later than the time of deposition

of the younger Keweenawan series. This conclusion is reached after a

careful study of the contacts between the eruptives and the sedimen-

taries, which has brought to view the existence of contact phenomena

at both the upper and lower surfaces of the diabase. The sheets of

eruptives have been named the “ Logan sills” in honor of Sir Wm.

Logan, who was one of the pioneer geologists in the Lake Superior

region.

The Volcanic Rocks of the Andes.—In a review of Kiich’s

volcanic rocks of the Andes, Iddings? asserts that the chemical rela-

tions of the rocks studied indicate clearly that they all belong to the

! Edited by Dr. W. S. Bayley, Colby v AM Me.

en and Nat. Hist. Survey of Minn. Bull. N

* Reiss and Stubel: Reisen in Sud-Amerika. Geologische Studien in der

Republik y oer ci i. Pe (€ 1. Die Vulkanischen Gesteine bear-

beitet von Richard Kuch, — d 892.

P of Geology. Vol. 1, p. 164

1893.] : Mineralogy and Petrography. 899

same consanguinous group as do the Cordilleran rocks of Mexico and

the United States, and their nature indicates that the magma produc-

ing the Andes types has not yet become as highly differentiated as that

which yielded the corresponding volcanics in North America.

Basalts and Trachytes from Gough's Island.— Pirsson* has

examined some pebbles gathered from the beach of Gough’s Island in

the South Atlantic. He finds two of them consisting of basalt, and the

others of trachyte glass and tuff. The glass is a pitchy-black mass,

filled with small pores and marked here and there by a phenocryst of

plagioclase. In thin sections it appears as a brown unaltered isotropic

substance containing magnetite, apatite, olivine and saidine phenocysts

and mierolites of the last-named mineral. An analysis of the rock

gave:

SiO, TiO, Al,O, Fe,O, FeO MnO Mgo CaO Na,O K,O H,O Total

61.22 .42 18.01 1.32 4.51 tr. .44 1.88 6.49 5.93 .46—100.68

Density = 2.210. The rock is thus shown to be unquestionably a

trachyte in spite of the fact that it contains occasional olivines. The

mineral evidently crystallized in an early stage of the rock’s history, as

all its grains have been subjected to magmatic resorption.

The Origin of the Gneisses of Heidelberg.—In gneisses occur-

ring in the region northwest of Heidelberg, Osann' finds lenticular

masses of graphitic and apatite schists, and therefore concludes that

the gneisses are of sedimentary origin. The rocks do not possess the

true gneissic foliation, since their feldspar, quartz, etc., do not show a

sequence in origin, nor do their micas exhibit the pressure phenomena

usually observed in the micas of other gneisses. Their structure is

described as the “ hornfels structure " which is characteristic of contact

products. The graphitic schists consist principally of quartz, musco-

vite, graphite and flecks like the “ Knoten” of contact rocks, which

are formed by the aggregation of plates of a green micaceous substance.

The apatite schist is composed of 55% apatite, 43% quartz, and 2% of

graphite, tourmaline and rutile. An analysis gave: CaO = 30.22 ;

P, 0, = 22.86; F == 2.16; Insol. — 43.52.

Petrographical News.—Retgers* communicates in a few brief

notes the results of his examination of rocks collected in southern

* Amer. Jour. Sci., XLV, 1893,

p. 380.

7 Mitth. gross. Bad. geol. Landesanst. Bd II, p. 372.

* Neues Jahrb. f. Min., ete., 1893, I, p. 39.

900 The American Naturalist. [October,

Borneo. Actinolite, smaragdite, and glaucophane schists are the most

interesting foliated rocks studied. They contain, in addition to their

characteristic components: epidote, garnet and orthoclase, most of

which show the effects of torsion and pressure. A quartzite is remark-

able in that it contains andalusite, sillimanite, rutile, zircon and tour-

maline. The eruptives mentioned by the author as existing in this

portion of the island are porphyrites, diorite, gabbro, peridotite, ser-

pentine and a pyroxenite (augite-fels).

Analysis of cretaceous lithographic limestones from various locali-

ties in America and Germany give such discordant results that Vol-

ney’ thinks it impossible to judge from analyses alone as to the com-

mercial and technical value of such rocks. The organie matter in the

stones contains nitrogen and traces of iodine. It is believed to be the

residue of cretaceous fossils, and to be the cause of the peculiarly fine

precipitation of the calcareous substance of good stones.

The term *poikilite" has already been referred to in this note as

descriptive of a rock-structure produced by the inclusion of many

differently orientated particles of some mineral irregularly distributed

within large plates of another mineral. This structure has been

described by so many petrographers as occurring in so many different

rocks that Williams" suggests its general use and proposes “ micropoi-

celitie" as the term descriptive of the structure when observed micro-

scopically.

Some excellent examples of cone-in-cone structure in a concretion

from the coal measures of Wolverhampton, England, are noted by

Cole" as exhibiting clearly the crystalline structure of these bodies and

their identity in mode of origin with spherulitic growths.

e rocks occurring at Cingolina in the Euganean Hills, described

by Tchichatcheff” a few years ago, have been reinvestigated by Graeff

and Brauns,” who find augite-syenite and olivine-diabase cut by dykes

of hornblende and augite andesites. The plagioclase of the latter rock

includes a large mass of the rock’s groundmass which has crystallized

largely as plagioclase with the same orientation as a thin zone of the

same substance surrounding the corroded host.

New Minerals—Sundtite—In some specimens of a silver ore

from a mine at Oururo in Bolivia, Brégger finds masses and crystals

-*Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc.

? Jour. of Geol., Vol. 1, p. 17:

23.

^ Zeits. F. Kryst, XXI, p. 193.

1893.] Mineralogy and Petrography. 901

of a dark tetrahedrite-like mineral associated with stibnite and pyrite.

The dark mineral is steel-gray, with a black streak. Its hardness is 3

—4 and density 5.5. Measurements of the crystals, some of which are

1 em. long, indicated an orthorhombie symmetry. "Twenty-one forms

were observed, and from these the axial ratio a : b : e = .6771 : 1 : 4458

was determined. An analysis gave :

Cu Ag Fe Sb S Total

149 11.81. 658 45.03. 3589 = -100.50

which corresponds to the formula (Ag,. Cu,. Fe) (SbS,),, or a salt of

normal sulph-antimonic acid. Sundtite presents no analogies, either in

composition or in its crystallographic characteristics, with other sulph-

antimonates. Its ‘nearest crystallographic relative is deschynite

(RNb,O,). The new mineral is a commercially valuable ore of silver.

Melanostibian is another new mineral obtained by Igelström” from

the celebrated manganese mine, Sjógrufvan, Grythyttan, Orebro,

Sweden. It occurs as narrow veins in the dolomite, which is the

bearer of all the ores of the mine. The mineral is in raven black,

metallic-looking masses and tiny crystals, that are either tetragonal or

orthorhombic. The streak of the mineral is cherry red, and its hard-

ness 4. It is insoluble in dilute hydrochloric acid, but slowly dis-

solves in boiling acid. Its composition, corresponding to 6(Mn Fe)O

Sb,O,, was deduced from the following figures:

Sb,O, FeO MnO CaO MgO HO Total

37.50 27.80 2962 197 1.03 1.06 = 9848

Graphitite.—Upon treatment with nitric acid under certain condi-

tions, the graphite from Ceylon, Norway and Canada yields an oxida-

tion product that is different from the corresponding product obtained

from the graphite of Fichtelgebirge, Siberia and Greenland. The

materials of the two groups are therefore regarded by Luzi” as differ-

ent, and as worthy of distinctive names. The mineral from the last-

named localities is called graphitite.

American Minerals.—The cookeite of Paris and Hebron, Me.,

has been known for some time as a micaceous mineral closely related

to the chlorites. In habit its plates are hexagonal, and are nearly

always arranged in radial groups. These plates, according to Pen-

15 Tb. p. 246. ;

16 Ber. d. deutsch. chem. Ges., XXVI, p. 890.

902 The American Naturalist. [October,

field,” consist of an inner uniaxial hexagon surrounded by six segments

extinguishing parallel to their edges and showing a biaxial interfer-

ence figure. The mineral is monoclinic and is twinned like the clino-

chlor? from Texas, Pa. It is associated with quartz, lepidolite and

tourmaline, and has probably been derived from the latter by altera-

tion. An analysis of carefully selected material gave:

SiO, ALO, Fe,O, CaO K,O Na,O LiO H,O F Total O—F

34.00 45.06 45 04 14 .19 4.02 14.96 .46—99.32—.19—99.13

This corresponds to the formula Li [AI(OH),], (SiO,),. The density

of cookeite is 2.675.

The results of an examination of zunyite from the Charter Oak mine,

at Red Mountain, Orange Co., Colo., and of zenotime from Cheyenne

Mountain, El Paso Co., in the same State, have recently been commu-

nieated by Penfield.” The zunyite occurrence is five miles north of

the original occurrence of the mineral first described by Hillebrand.

The mineral is in little tetrabedrons scattered through an altered por-

phyrite. An analysis of these gave:

SiO, ALO, Fe,0,Cl F H,O P,O, CaO Na,O Total O—CI&F

24.1 157.20 .61 2.62 5.81 11.12.64 11 .48 —102.70—3.03—99.67

corresponding to [AI(CLF.OH),], Al, (SiO), Zunyite is found also

in the mine as a white pulverulent mass resembling kaolin, but which

consists of tiny octahedral crystals. The xenotime was from the

tysonite locality described by Hidden" in 1885. It was a single fresh

erystal of a brown color, implanted on a gangue of quartz and feldspar.

Its density was found to be 5.106, and its composition : P,O, — 32.11;

Xt Er*-07.10; lou. — 15.

In the crystalline dolomite of Canaan, Ct., Hobbs" has discovered

a rose-colored tale, that is noticeable for its large percentage of calcium

and aluminium. Its analysis yielded:

SiO, ALO, MgO CaO FeO MnO H,O ‘Total

61.48 3.04 22.4 419 JI tr 5.54 — 100.56

The density of the mineral is 2.86. It is optically negative, and its

axial angle 2 E is 15° 30’.

. In a recent Bulletin of the United States Geological Survey, Mel-

A r. Jour. Sci., XLV, 1893, p. 393.

un . 201.

"XLIV,

"Ib. XLV, 1898, p. 396.

» Ib. XXIX, p. 249.

1893.] Mineralogy and Petrography. 903

ville” has given the results of analysis of several American minerals as

follows: Natrolite (I) from Magnet Cave, Ark.; a light-colored tour-

maline (II) from Nevada Co., Cal.; spessartite (IIT) from Llano Co.,

Texas, and bismuthinite from Sinola, Mexico. Figures follow:

SiO, ALO, Fe,O, FeO MnO CaO MgO K,O Na,O H,O F B,O,

I 47.56 26.82 .20 13 .09 15.40 9.63

II 36.4033.64 3.13 151 10.01 .12 2.49 3.53.748.74

III 35.93 18.08 4.60 31.77 8.48 .69 n ui .36

The spessartite contains also traces of TiO, and BaO.

Mineralogical News.—W. Ramsay" has discovered zonal growths

of epidote substance in crystals of this mineral from the Sulzbachthal

in Salzburg, Zóptan in Moravia, Arendal in Norway, Haddam, Conn.,

and from Traversella, Brosso and Ala in Piedmont. The different

zones possess not only different colors, but they have also different

extinction planes and diffent refractive indices, as do also different por-

tions of the same zones.

Fragments and small crystals of carbon with all the physical prop-

erties of earbonado have been prepared by Moisson™ upon dissolving

carbon in iron and cooling the mass slowly under pressure.

Miscellaneous.—McMahon? has elaborated a systematic course

in micro-chemical analysis based on the production of the sulphates

and double sulphates of the elements. These salts are described as

they appear on the object glass under the microscope, their habits are

depicted and their constant peculiarities, if they possess any, are por-

trayed with some minuteness. The methods of analysis developed by

the author will prove of great convenience to petrographers if they are

found as practicable as they are declared to be.

The eighth volume of the mineral resources of the United States,

edited by Dr. D. T. Day,” contains statistical data for the calendar

year 1891. The total value of metallic products mined during this

period amounts to over $181,000,000, and that of the non-metallic

products over $241,000,000. The most notable article in the volume

is an historical description of the past * twenty years of progress in the

manufacture of iron and steel in the United States.”

21 Ib. XLV, 1893. p. 404

7: Bull. No. 90. U.S. Geol. Surv ey, p- s

? Neues. Taner b. f. Min., etc., 1893, I, p

** Comptes Rendus, Fe b.6. Ref. in eniro. Feb. 16, 1893, p. 57

d essa e somete X, p. 19.

urces of ‘the U. S. Calendar year, 1891. Washington.

Gon Pasing Office, 1893

904 The American Naturalist. [October,

ENTOMOLOGY.

Two Twig Galls on Populus Fremontei.—On the 25th of

April, 1892, two galls were found on growing twigs of Populus fremon-

tei in Las Cruces, New Mexico, and the following are descriptions of

them.

Warted Gall.—Length and breadth, 22 mm., thickness 13 mm.

Formed on side of twig, round, roughly and irregularly circular in

outline, rather flattened, excrescentic or finely warted on the whole

upper surface and edges or sides, involving about one-half of the body

of the twig, the under surface next the twig covered by the thin spread

bark expanded from the involved surface of the twig. Excrescentic

portion of gall overlapping the smoother inferior portion on edges,

brownish gray in color, the lower surface covered by the spread bark

being pale greenish gray like the bark of the twig. Gall woody

interiorly, the excrescentic portion filled with small cavities. On twig

5 to 6 mm. in diameter, but spread to 7 mm. at center of gall.

One specimen. Occupants unknown.

Tumor-like Gall.—Length, 12 mm.; width, about 53 mm. ; height

(from twig), about 4 mm. Elongate, in shape something like a min-

iature mud-wasp cell, growing lengthwise on twig like an elongate

tumor, one side broadly amalgamated with body of twig. Externally

rather smooth, being wholly covered by the distended bark of the

twig. Pale greenish gray in color, like the adjoining bark. Gall

maker emerges by a circular exit hole 1 mm. in diameter, situated at

the tip end of the gall, which is the more pointed end without reference

to its being distal or proximal on the twig.

Three galls approximated on same twig, two being grown into each

other side by side. A gall fly had escaped from each gall at some time

previous to April 3, 1893. Two of the galls showed the exit hole con-

spicuous and open, but the third appeared to be still tenanted. On

examination, however, it was found that the fly had escaped from this

one also, but the circular flap of bark, which either the larva cuts on

all sides but one before assuming the pupa state or else the adult cuts

before it can emerge from the pupal cell, leaving a hinge-like portion

intact, had sprung back in place perfectly closing and concealing the

place of exit. From the cast pupal skins which remained in the cells,

the occupant is apparently hymenopterous.

"Edited by Clarence M. Weed, New Hampshire College, Durham, N. H.

1893.] Entomology. 905

The larval gallery in one gall was 5 mm. long, by 1 mm. wide. In

the other two galls there was nothing but the short terminal cell in

which the pupa had lodged until it transformed, being just large

enough for its accommodation, the larval gallery having evidently

been lost and absorbed during the growth of the twig. In fact, the

pressure of the growth was so great that the impression of the pupa

was left in the walls of the cell.

—C. H. TYLER TOWNSEND.

A Woolly Leaf-gall on Oak near Grand Canon.—On the ap-

proach to the Grand Cañon, by the wagon road to Hance's, July 7, 1892,

numerous specimens of a woolly or fuzzy-looking leaf gall were found

on a low growth of a Quercus much resembling alba, at a point several

miles from the rim of the cafion. This oak has been identified by Mr.

F. V. Coville as Q. gambelii.

Gall.—Length, 5 to 9 mm.; greatest width, 3 to 5 mm.; height, 2

to3 mm. Formed on upper side of leaf, but also showing below,

irregularly oblong in outline, nearly always narrower at one end,

always on one side of the midrib, extending usually from midrib to

margin. Consisting simply of a portion of the leaf puckered up or

elevated. above the surrounding portion, both surfaces (upper and

under) being equally and thickly clothed with very fine woolly but

nearly straight hairs, standing straight out from the surface from

which they sprung. Pubescence whitish with a greenish, or witha

slightly yellowish tinge at least in dried specimens; apparently but an

increased abnormal development or hypertrophy and multiplication of

the naturally very short pubescence of the oak leaf, very thick and of

equal length on upper and lower sides. The pubescence is $ to $ mm,

long. The puckered portion of the leaf which is elevated and bears

this pubescence is not thickened, but of same thickness as rest of the

leaf, thus making the thickness of a vertical section of the gall about

1$ mm.

Described from 9 or 10 galls. There is no sign of the gall-maker,

and it is hard to see what the larve of the latter would feed on unless

they are microscopic. It seems certain, however, that this is a gall

formed by some insect. ;

—C. H. TYLER Townsenp.

A Hymenopterous Gall on the Creosote Bush.

spherical twig gall, much resembling in its formation the fruit of the

buttonwood or plane-tree, has been frequently found on the creosote

906 The American Naturalist. [October,

bushes (Larrea mexicana), on the mesa to the east of Las Cruces, New

Mexico. All the galls of this species that have been found, however,

have invariably been dried and dead ones. No green ones have been

met with. The following description is drawn from old galls.

Gall.—Diameter, 18 to 27 mm. Rounded, more or less spherical in

general shape, always formed around the twig which usually represents

the axis of the gall; consisting of a rather hard central portion formed

of resinous closely packed layers of very narrow leaflets radiating in

all directions from the central point outward. The larvee of the gall-

maker live and transform in rather closely approximated cells on all

sides, in this portion, with their ends all pointed to the center. Out-

side of this cell-containing portion, the very narrow leaflets, which

nearer the center are closely packed into a resinous and nearly solid

mass, are prolonged each one separately but more or less disposed in

whorls, thickly covering the whole outer surface of the gall. These

give the gall a coarsely fibrous appearance, as if it consisted of a knot-

ted bunch of coarse fibers with the ends all sticking outward on the

surface. The color of the dried galls is brown, varying from light to

dark ; that of the growing gall is doubtless green. The cells above

mentioned, in which the gall occupants live, are rather elongate,

pointed at the inner end, slightly flattened, about 14 mm. in greatest

width one way by 1} mm. the other, and about 4 mm. long.

Described from three galls collected May 15, 1891. They are with

hardly any doubt hymenopterous. Galls contain no remains of occu-

pants. In plan of structure this gall greatly resembles that formed by

a species of Andricus on leaves of scrub oak in the Organ Mountains.

(See Can. Ent., 1892, p. 200).

—C. H. TYLER TOWNSEND,

1893, ] Archeology and Ethnology. 907

ARCHEOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY.’

The Exposicion Historico Americano, Madrid, Spain,1892,

(Continued from p. 843).—I may be excused if I should give, in a

most general manner, some intimation of the displays made by other

countries of which we have no catalogue and no report. I should pre-

mise this by saying that this Exposition was the finest Pre-Historic or

Proto-Historie or Archs»ologie display of American objects probably

ever united under one roof. While we might be able to find more ex-

tensive displays from the United States than were here shown, and

they might find in Mexico more extensive displays of Mexican antiqui-

ties than were at Madrid, and so on with regard to every country of

America; but in this Exposition all these good things were brought

together, and one had the opportunity, by passing from one hall to

another to see the representatives of the good things of all countries.

This made it the best thing of its kind ever produced.

Nicaragua adjoins the United States of America. A large propor-

tion of its antiquities came from the Islands of Zapatera and Solen-

tiname, in Lake Nicaragua. A leading object was a sample idol of

stone from Zappatera similar to those in my department from the same

locality. There were many objects in gold, not the same as those from

Chiriqui or Antioquia, but bearing resemblance thereto. There

were arrow- and spear-points of obsidian, the polished stone hatchets

and similar objects showing them to belong to the Age of Pol-

ished Stone. They had quite a number of mealing stones—metates—

some with legs and animal feet and animal heads, and altogether curi-

ously-worked objects of art. They had a mass of pre-historic pottery,

the shoe-shaped urn, the yellow and red decorated pottery, tripod

bowls or dishes. Mr. Myorga, the head of the Commission, classed

these as Aztecs, or as having a relation to the Aztec civilization.

Guatemala had an extensive display of antiquities. Stone idols

mealing stones—metates—decorated with the heads of animals, stone

tables, pestles, hammers, cores, chips, flakes, and arrow-and spear-points

of obsidian. They had a fine display of pottery of all kinds and sorts,

plain and decorated, of various sizes, and making as complete a series

as possible. Their Spanish antiquities, or those brought to them or

left there by the Conquistadores, were of considerable number and of

1 This department is edited by Thomas Wilson, Smithsonian Institution, Washing-

ton, D. C.

908 The American Naturalist. [October,

great interest—swords, halberds, spikes, pieces of armor, clothing, etc.,

etc. They had not a few literary works of literary and'historic value,

ancient books in manuscript, olographs and autographs of their great

men.

. The History of the Province of San Vicente Ferrer, a work by the

Friar Francisco Ximenez, which, at whatever time it was commenced,

seems to have been finished before 1720 ; another, "Isagoge A pologetico,

General de las Indias." Photographie reproductions of the original

volume of the history, by Bernard Diaz.

The Dominican Republic.—Tbis little country was represented in

greater part by historie than by prehistorie objects. Its cargo was

composed principally of those objects which related to the Spanish

occupation. One of principal interest was the First Cross. It was

made of wood, erected in the first church that was established in the

western world. Some of the stones of that construction, the plate, and

similar objects, had greater value to the eyes of the Dominicans than

others of greater scientific value.

In the display of Peru, the Argentine Republie and Uraguay, they

exhibited more of the Inca civilization than of the Aztecs. The dis-

play was not formidable in numbers, nor were the objects of great size,

but there was enough to assign them to the same scale of civilization as

that which belonged to the Age of Polished Stone. There were objects

of copper and gold.

Ecuador had an abundant collection of pottery of different

forms, as of vases, dishes, platters, cups, figures of animals, and human

representation, etc., of the usual form—the antique stone-work of the

same deseription, polished stone hatchets, st tars, ling st

pestles, and copper implements, ete.

One of the peculiar objects presented in the Exposition at Madrid

(and there were only three of them in the entire Exposition) was a

Mummified human Head, the bones having all been removed, and it

being reduced in size to about that of one sixth, skin and features

all retained in proper proportion, the hair long and black, with a half-

dozen strands of cord drawn through the lips.

Costa Rica was represented by her Minister, Senor Peralta, by Mr.

Alfaro, Director of the National Museum at San J osé,and by Mr. Ferraz.

Costa Rica had two large rooms assigned to her, and though one of the

smallest countries, she filled and adorned with beauty and taste, the

large space assigned to her. She displayed a considerable number of

large stone objects, exceeding, in this regard, almost any other of her

sister countries—stone objects in human form, others in animal form `

D LÀ

1893.] Archeology and Ethnology. 909

and apparently of natural size. The display of pottery was large

and that shown was of a superior order. This collection was very ex-

tensive, and included every kind, both in shape and size, of pottery

which belonged to the country. But that which was particularly inter-

esting about Costa Rica was her unusually large display of gold objeets.

The greater part of these had never been shown in any public exhibi-

tion; they had been, for the most part, excavated and exhumed by Mr.

Alfarro himself, or through his immediate exertions. I had no oppor-

tunity to examine them save in a slight and cursory manner; it would

seem to be established that they were made, in addition to other sup-

posed methods, by melting and casting. I had the privilege of taking

some of them apart myself and choosing those pieces which had the

greatest appearance of solder. I found no trace thereof, but it ap-

peared impossible to have been done otherwise than by casting. I

would not be understood to intimate that all of them were made thus,

nor that none were made by soldering.

Sweden and Norway.—These two countries which oceupy so close a

relationship politically, were very properly installed together. Baron

Nordenskiold was the Chief Commissioner, with Professor Bovallius for

his aid. The center of the hall was occupied by a large glass case, the

dimensions of which were to be counted by yards. It contained a

model of the ship Vega, in which the Chief Commissioner made his cel-

ebrated discoveries and voyages in 1878-80. Arranged in the same

case and making part of the display, were the various implements, tools,

weapons, arms, domestic utensils, ornaments, dress, etc., of the people

visited during the voyage. Associated with them were the Kyaks of

Alaska, all the dress of the fishermen and hunters while on the water,

and their arms, instruments and weapons.

One of the most interesting displays of the entire Exhibition was

the ancient maps, the nucleus of which was the private collection of

Baron Nordenskiold, and which he had been forming during many

years past—atlases, maps, charts, globes, etc., were here without num-

ber—some of them the rarest and most valuable to be found. One

corner of the hall was devoted to the discoveries and investigations of

Mr. Gustavus Nordenskiold, the son of the Baron, among the Pueblos

and Cliff-dwellings of Arizona and the Cañons of the San Juan and its

tributaries. The volume containing a description of his discoveries,

with all the necessary illustrations, is now in course of publication in

Sweden, to be made in English as well as Swedish, and intended to be

a rich and valuable volume.

910 The American Naturalist. [October,

Collections of Archzologic specimens by Dr. Bovallius during his

visit of exploration in Nicaragua, were here displayed, as well as the

same in the Antilles by Dr. Hjalmarson. Norway presented but a

small display, the principal and most attractive item of which was a

model of the great Viking ship which had been excavated from the

tumulus of Godhav’n, now on display in the Archzologic Museum at

Christiania, a smaller model of which is in the National Museum.

Denmark had a modes? display, considering her Archzeologic riches,

but she was bound by the condition governing this, that, though but a

novel and interesting departure, her display was confined almost exclu-

sively to the discoveries made by the Danes through Iceland upon the

Atlantic Coast, and so here was to be found a good representation of

Greenland and Eskimo life from that country. Accompanying this

Greenland display, were maps, charts, publications of every sort relat-

ing to the early discovery of America by the Norsemen. The maps,

real or imaginary, of Massachusetts Bay and the coast of New Jersey,

with the supposed voyages of the discoverers of the X and XI Century,

at least in completeness. Whatever of relics that could be gathered

were here displayed, and, altogether, it was the most satisfactory

argument in favor of the discovery of America anterior to Columbus

that has ever been made.

Germany.—The German representative was Dr. Ed. Seler, and he

presented, in the hall allotted to him, the riches of the German Museum

as they have been gathered during the many enterprising voyages of

scientific investigation which his country has started throughout the

Western Continent. Dr. Seler’s investigations and discoveries in

Guatemala, Honduras and the Mosquito Coast were here exhibited

the form of a plaster or pulp reproduction of a score or more great

Aboriginal monuments of those countries, so strange and wonderful, so

little known. The investigations of Reiss and Stiibel in Peru and

representatives of the great collection made by them—first, of painted

and decorated pottery, and second, of the polochromatic textile fabrics,

was much to be admired.

United States of Colombia.—This country had but a small display.

It was visited by me two or three times, each time with increased inter-

est. Although I saw other objects during my first visit, my attention

was soon attracted to the display of gold objects which this country

possesses from the interior Province of Antioquia.

The National Museum possesses 20 or 30 of these gold ‘specimens of

this country, and feels that it already possesses a sufficient number and

must decline to increase that number by purchase. Imagine my sur-

1893.] Archeology and Ethnology. 911

prise to see in the display of this little country, sloping shelves, three

or four feet wide, covered with black velvet, running along an entire

side of the room, however, within glass cases which were abundantly

guarded, and dotted over this black velvet were gold objects to be

counted by the hundred—how many there were, I do not know. There

were parts of two collections, one of which cost in Colombia, $75,000,

and the other, that of Don Restrepo, who was present representing his

country at Madrid, which cost $30,000. I, as Curator of my Depart-

ment, had selected my little display of gold ornaments and taken them

to Madrid, intending them for exhibition, but when I saw this magni-

ficent and glittering display of prehistoric gold ornaments from this

little country, I decided I could never put mine on display, and, upon

preparing for my return, carefully packed them up and brought them

home with me, and they are now displayed in their usual place in my

department of the Museum.

exico.—She is our neighbor at home and she was our neighbor at

the Exposition. She occupied about the same number of rooms as we

did. While she had more objects, they were smaller and did not take

so much space. I give the nearest sketch of some of the objects pre-

sented by Mexico, principally from memory: Models and reproduc-

tions in plaster, paper or staff of several of the principal monu-

ments of their country. All that we have in our Museum of the

Abadiano and Lorillard Collections were thus represented, if I may

except the Calendar Stone, which unfortunately met with an accident

well provided against, but which wrought its destruction. The

monument was natural size, the same as we have in our museum,

and was made of paper pulp; to guarantee safe carriage it had been her-

metically sealed and soldered in a case of sheet lead, and this, with the

necessary protecting straw, etc., was, in its turn, placed in a wooden

box. It was brought by ship and landed at Santander. The attempt

to bring it down through Spain by car, proved it to be too large to pass

through tunnels and similar narrow places, and it therefore had to be

brought by wagon. Atsome part of the voyage it was necessary to move

or change the object, and for that purpose wooden strips had been

nailed along the sides of the case to be used as handles. When placed

on the wagon for transportation, these strips were pulled off and the

nails by which they had been fastened, pulled out, leaving nail-holes

upward and exposed to the weather. It rained upon the load nearly

every day of the transport across the mountains, and enough water

trickled through these nail-holes to dampen, then wet, and finally de-

stroy the paper pulp of which the model was made, and when it was

912 The American Naturalist. [October,

opened in the palace, it had been resolved into its original pulpy con-

dition. The Stone of Sacrifice, the God of Silence, Teoyoamiqui

and all the rest came through in safety. The Mexican section dis-

played models in wood, of several of their antique monuments, and

sometimes the country around them on a reduced scale. The Aztec

town of Zempoala, the Pyramid of Papaulta, and the Ruins of Xochi-

calco, were fine models. They occupied places in the center of each

room. There were the usual amount of antique armor, arms and

instruments, stones, ornamental utensils, and worked bone. There

were a hundred or more of the T-shaped copper implements, quantities

of pottery, etc. There was a fine series of plaster reproductions of the

ancient inhabitants, showing individuals of both sexes and all ages,

and attempting to reproduce the races or tribes from the different

provinces. This reconstruction extended to their clothing and equip-

ments, their arms, offensive and defensive, tombs, utensils, household

and ceremonial, and the original adornments of gold and other reproduc-

tions. There was a fine series of maps, charts, and the originals of

two Codicxes with paintings and sketches.

This display was intended at the time of its preparation in Mexico

to be transported to Chicago for the World’s Columbian Exposition,

but the postponement of closing time at Madrid, and the necessity for

its shipment via Havana prevented. ould this display have

reached Chicago, Mexico would have appeared to much better

advantage in this department.

1893.] Proceedings of Scientifie Societies. 913

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

Proceedings of the Botanical Club, of the Forty-second

Meeting of the A. A. A. S., Madison, Wisconsin, August

16-22, 1893.— (Condensed from the Secretary’s notes.) —F riday, Aug.

18.—The president and secretary being absent, the club was called to

order by the vice-president, Professor W. A. Kellerman, and on

motion W. T. Swingle was elected Secretary.

The committee on Nomenclature, continued from the last meeting,

made the following report:

“To the Botanical Club of the A. A. A. S.: Your committee

appointed at the Rochester meeting to prepare a check list of the

flowering and fern plants of northeastern North America on the rules

of nomenclature adopted by the club at that meeting would respec-

fully report :

“ That the task assigned the committee has been performed, and the

manuscript of the list is herewith presented, nearly complete for print-

‘The committee presents the following recommendations:

“1. The amendment of section III of the Rochester code of nomen-

clature by striking out all after the word ‘ retained.’

“ This recommendation is based on the mature judgment of the com-

mittee after watching for.a year the progress of the demand for a rule

which shall permit no. exception whatever, and effect the closest

approximation to the immutability of the specific name.

“2. The publication of the check list for the club by the committee

and the continuance of the committee for that purpose.

“3. That the form and the time of publication be referred to the

committee with power to act.

" 4. That the general sequence of the natural orders as taken up in

Engler and Prantl’s * Natürlichen Pflanzenfamilien " be adopted.

“5. That in determining the name of a genus or species to which

two or more names have been given by an author in the same volume

or on the same page of a volume, priority of place shall decide.

“6. That in the elevation of a plant originally described as a vari-

ety to a species, or the reduction of a described species to a variety,

the original name shall in all cases be retained."

On motion the recommendations were taken up in order for discus-

sion and action. The first recommendation was adopted after some

914 The American Naturalist. [October,

discussion. On motion the consideration of the second recommenda-

tion was postponed until after the others were disposed of.

On motion the third recommendation was also postponed

On motion the fourth recommendation was adopted unanimously.

On motion the fifth recommendation was amended to read * That in

determining the name of a genus or species to which two or more

names have been given by an author in the same volume or on the

same page of a volume, precedence shall decide. On motion it was

adopted as amended.

The sixth recommendation was discussed some time but was not

brought to a vote before the club adjourned until Monday.

Monday, Aug. 21.—On motion the chair was authorized to appoint

a committee of two to nominate officers for the next meeting. Prof.

A. S: Hitchcock and Dr. Erwin F. Smith were placed on this committee.

On motion the remaining portions of the report of the committee on

nomenclature were referred back to the committee with instructions to

report Tuesday morning.

The report of the treasurer was then read, showing a deficit of $6.16,

This deficit was liquidated by —' contributions.

The following papers were rea

Mrs. E. G. Britton, * The gonn Bruchia in North America, with

description of one new species.” Mrs. E. G. Britton, “The necessity

of seeing types.” Prof. A. S. Hitchcock, “ Ampelopsis quinquefolia

var. vitacea Knerr.” Dr. J. C. Arthur, * Exhibition of a centrifugal

i The instrument is a new one devised by the author, cost-

ing much less than those made in Germany. Mr. T. C. McDougal,

“ Intertwining of tendrils.” Mrs. E. G. Britton, **Jaeger's Adum-

bratio, and herbarium of mosses.” The whole moss herbarium of

Jaeger on which the Adumbratio was founded has come into the pos-

session of Columbia College. Dr. W. A. Kellerman, * Notes on the

exploration of the flora of Ohio.” Prof. A. S. Hitchcock, “ Pollina-

tion of GZnothera missuriensis and Pentstemon cobea.”

Dr. D. H. Campbell, “ Prothallial stage of Ophioglossacez.”

Records finding during the present year what are with little question

the prothallia of Botrychium. Dr. Erwin F. Smith, * The increasing

prevalence of a root disease of stone fruits.” Dr. C. E. Bessey, * The

use of personal names in designating species.” Objects to the abuse of

this practice by botanists.

Tuesday, Aug. 22.— The following were elected officers for the next

meeting :

1893.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 915

President, Dr. D. H. Campbell, Leland Stanford Jr. University,

Palo Alto, California; vice-president, Professor D. C. Eaton, Yale

College, New Haven, Conn.; secretary-treasurer, W. T. Swingle, U.

S. Sub-tropical Laboratory, Eustis, Florida.

The committee on nomenclature then reported that they had recon.

sidered all the remaining portions of the report which had been

referred back to them, and were unable to bring in any other recom-

mendations. On motion these remaining portions of the report were

referred to the committe with power to act, and the committee was con-

tinued

The committee appointed at the Rochester meeting to consider the

feasibility of establishing an American Botanical Society presented a

majority report adverse to forming such an organization at the present

time and place. Prof. C. R. Barnes then presented a minority report

favoring the project, and outlined a plan of organization, providing

for a committee of twenty-five to constitute the charter members.

On motion the minority report was adopted by a vote of 21 to 10.

The committee of twenty-five is as follows: J. C. Arthur, Lafayette.

Ind.; G. F. Atkinson, Ithaca, N. Y.; L. H. Bailey, Ithaca, N. Y.; C.

R. Barnes, Madison, Wis.; C. E. Bessey, Lincoln, Nebr.; Mrs. E. C.

Britton, New York, N. Y.; N. L. Britton, New York, N. Y.; D. H.

Campbell, Palo Alto, Cal.; J. M. Coulter, Lake Forest, Ill.; F. V.

Coville, Washington, D. C.; D. C. Eaton, New Haven, Conn. ; W. G.

Farlow, Cambridge, Mass.; E. L. Greene, Berkeley, Cal.; B. D. Hal-

sted, New Brunswick, N. J.: Arthur Hollick, New York, N. Y.; Con-

way Macmillan, Minneapolis, Minn.; B. L. Robinson, Cambridge,

Mass.; C. S. Sargent, Brookline, Mass.; F. L. Scribner, Knoxville,

Tenn.; J. D. Smith, New York, N. Y.; Roland Thaxter, Cambridge,

Mass.; Wm. Trelease, St. Louis, Mo.; L. M. Underwood, Greencastle,

Ind.; L. F. Ward, Washington, D. C.; W. P. Wilson, Philadelphia,

Pa. The reading of papers was then resumed as follows:

Dr. J. C. Arthur, * A self-rezistering auxanometer.” A relatively

inexpensive instrument devised by the author. Dr. B. D. Halsted,

“ A new Exobasidium on Andromeda.” Dr. B. D. Halsted, “ Phyllo-

sticta following insect work.” Dr. B. D. Halsted, “ A white-smut new

to America.” Dr. B. D. Halsted, “A water-loving Ascomycete.”

Mr. W. T. Swingle, “ A new palm from Florida.” Mr. W. T. Swingle,

“ The southernmost botanical laboratory in the United States.” Giv-

ing a short account of the Sub-tropical Laboratory of the Division of

Vegetable Pathology, lately established at Eustis, Florida, by the U.

S. Department of Agriculture. A. B. Seymour, “Synonymy of Valsa

916 The American Naturalist. [October,

stellulata and its allies.” A. B. Seymour, “ A key to species of Clado-

nia.” Mr. Seymour exhibited this key, the work of F. L. Sargent.

S. A. Beach, * Some observations on black-knot.”

For want of time the following papers were read by title: L. H.

Bailey, *Sand-Dune weeds.” W. W. Rowlee, “ The propagation of

Ranunculus delphinifolius by runners.” FE. J. Durand, “Some notes

on the germination of the spores of Enteridium rozeanum.” KV.

Riley, “ Herbarium entomology.” C. V. iley, * Yucea pollination."

B. T. Galloway, “Notes on * hexenbesen? of Rubus." B. T. Gallo-

way, “Some methods employed in the investigation of parasitic fungi

and other organisms,”

Upon motion two members were added to the committee on nomen-

clature. Dr. Wm. Trelease, and Dr. E. L. Greene were named.

The club then adjourned until the next meeting of the A. A. A. S.

—CnHARLES E. Bessey.

1893.] Scientific News. 917

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

Among the recent deaths we notice those of Leonard Blomefield, the

veteran naturalist of Bath, England; George William Shrubsole of

Chester, England, aged 66; Miss Anne Pratt, the author of ** Flower-

ing Plants and Ferns of Great Britain," aged 87; the geologists, D.

Homfray and George Robert Vine; and Franz Kiaer, the bryologist

of Christiania, Norway.

Many Americans will learn with regret of the recent death of Mr.

George Brook. He was born at Huddersfield, England, in 1857, was

trained in business in his father's cotton mills, but soon turned to

science. His early work was done in an admirably equipped private

laboratory at home where he maintained marine aquaria and studied

the embryology of the Teleosts. In 1884 he became connected with

the Scotch fishing board and in 1855 was appointed lecturer on embry-

ology to the University of Edinburgh. Among his more important

papers may be mentioned his “Challenger” memoir on the Antipatha-

ria and his catalogue of the Madreporarian corals of the British

Museum, one volume of which was issued just before his death, which

occurred August 12, as the result of sunstroke.

Mr. James William Davis of Halifax, England, died July 21, 1893,

at the age of 47. He is best known for his monographs on the fossil :

fishes, the results of studies carried on in moments snatched from the

large business enterprises carried on by himself and his brother.

D. T. Maedougal, formerly assistant in the biological laboratories

at Purdue University at Lafayette, Indiana, has been appointed

instructor in plant physiology in the University of Minnesota.

Dartmouth College is to be congratulated in its call of Dr. William

Patton to the newly established Chair of Biology.

Professor Dr. J. Sollas has been appointed petrologist to the geologi-

eal survey of Ireland.

Dr. A. Dendy, well known for hisresearches on sponges, has been

appointed Professor of Biology in Canterbury College, Christchurch,

N. Z., and will enter upon his duties there, February 1, 1894.

918 The American Naturalist. [October,

Mr. E. Uline has been appointed Curator of the Herbarium in Lake

Forest College, Lake Forest, Ill.

Maximilian von Hantken, the Hungarian geologist died last June.

He was professor of Palsontology in the University of Buda Pesth and

councilor of the Hungarian Ministry.

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FILANDRO VICENTINI, , Chieti,

The following are a portion of the Contents for January, 1893.

Polarised Light, and its nome to the cipi uu alate) G. H. Bryan, M. A.

Reichert's Hzemometer. P rens ustrated.) F. Gaertne

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No. 323

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CONTENTS.

THE GENERA OF THÉ DIPNOI DIPNEUMONES. of. the Clad Puce Sharks — Geological News.— | Be

foward Ayers 919 | Paleozoic—Mesozoic—Cenozoic. i

vir; Jr. 983 Mud. ies Pares feat

a Pru FROM ug rm ages pude ^ pis T

Sakon pra ce Louisiana, AND SON e tangy ipd DE

County, TEXAS. . 1, Wayland Vossius: 944 Onlin Conglomerate of Ver

ages Grayk SPECIMENS CoM- other us: Spheruli

‘QUARRY REFUSE IN News Danalie f from Redruth, Corm

e lite Changed to Thenardite— Mineralogical News ews—

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: Ex IH

exa vides nun

,—How Young Wiokeis atc Polk Fatti

‘Theory of Dental Evolution

on €

S AND P4 Tren;

TERA ATURE. — Iowa Ceplogical Survey

ion Papers The Newa rk. System —

Accli l

— The Androchonia

j am -Hehy Cecidemyia Ei miss

Geological Survey, 1889-90. P: | Atriple s—Trichodactylus

Report o ~~ Death een tspedhions es As ya nia

3 EX TR Arkeo? ea nie Tie Men

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Lb O!

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AMERICAN NATU RALISE

Vac*XEeU o 0- November, 1803. | =

ON THE GENERA OF THE DIPNOI DIPNEUMONES.

By Howarp Ayers.’

The Dipnoi are a group of piscine vertebrates, unusually in-

teresting, alike to the morphologist, the paleontologist and the

physiologist. Hitherto these animals have proved, in many

respects, unsatisfactory objects of study, since the existing

forms have been accessible to but few workers, and then only

as more or less poorly-preserved alcoholic specimens. Only

within the last few years has this condition of things changed

so that quite recently our knowledge of this group has been

enriched by many interesting and important additions to the

morphology, physiology and the general biology of two of the

members of the group representing the two commonly accepted

genera.

The papers containing the results of the researches upon the

living specimens of Lepidosiren annectens we owe to Professor J.

Waldschmidt, who has worked out the Dipnoan brain from the

comparative standpoint, and in histological detail, and to

Professor W. N. Parker, who has studied in more or less detail

almost all of the organs of the body except the skeletal and

nervous systems. His study was directed to the solution of

the numerous points left unsettled by previous workers who

were less favored in the quality of their material, and not toa

fundamental research into the nature and relationships of any

1 Director of the Lake Laboratory, Milwaukee, Wis.

920 The American Naturalist. _[November,

of the organs of the body. Professor Parker has gone over the

ground covered by my paper on the anatomy and physiology

of the Dipnoi, and has cleared up some of the things which I

was unable to carefully study, owing to the fact that the only

material accessible at that time consisted of store-bought alco-

holie specimens, intended, without doubt, for museum collec-

tions. Hence, it not unfrequently happened that questions de-

pending upon histological detail could not be satisfactorily or

finally solved. On the other hand, Parker has arrived at some

conclusions which I think are hardly justified in the present

state of our knowledge, and it is to these matters that we will

now confine our attention. In my Freiburg paper I suggested

that it was hardly permissible to maintain two distinct genera

of the Dipneumones, and I based my suggestion upon the lack

of adequate structural differences between the forms commonly

held to be generically distinct. I proposed on that account to

use the name Lepidosiren instead of the name Protopterus for

the African species, and I called attention tothe great scarcity `

of the individuals of Lepidosiren paradoxa in museum collec-

ons. .

My remarks, and more especially the adoption of the name

Lepidosiren as the sole genus of the Dipneumones had the effect

of calling out a reply from the late Professor Anton Schneider,

of Breslau,’ and also an article by Dr. George Baur, of Chicago

University.

Quite recently, Parker publishes his agreement with the

conclusions of Schneider and Baur as far as the generic dis-

tinctness of the African form is concerned. It may be of inter-

est to the uninitiated to know that none of the recent writers

have ever seen a fragment of a Lepidosiren paradozxa from South

America, and we all alike depend upon the published accounts

of this creature’s anatomy by Bischoff, Hyrtl, Klein, and a few

others, all of whose investigations were made on two or, at the

most, three animals, and some of the workers had at their dis-

posal for study only the material which had already been dis-

sected by their predecessors, e. g.,Hyrtl. Their papers were

. published some years ago (in the 40s or 50s), and leave much

1893.] On the Genera of the Dipnoi Dipneumones. 921

to be desired when examined for the solution of the problems

of to-day.

Schneider's paper was based upon original investigation of

a considerable number of African mud-fish from several

widely-separated localities, and his conclusions are that Protop-

terus is not only generically distinct from Lepidosiren, but that

there are also two well-defined species of the African form, to

be separated on account of the number of ribs, the presence or

absence of the cartilaginous fin-rays and some other characters

of no importance here. Baur’s paper is an historical resumé

of the main facts about Lepidosiren paradoxa. In general, how-

ever, the reasons which have been given for keeping Protop-

terus distinct from Lepidosiren may be concisely stated as fol-

lows:

1. The presence of 4 gill-holes in Lepidosiren and 5 in Pro-

topterus.

2. The presence of a larger number of ribs in Lepidosiren.

3. The absence of fin-rays in Lepidosiren and their presence

in Protopterus.

4. The absence of external gills in Lepidosiren and their

presence in Protopterus.

I shall now endeavor to show that the critics of my sugges-

tion of the generic identity of these two forms have failed to

bring any proof that it is not entirely reasonable and highly

probable, and by their own investigation have weakened their

case by discovering facts which go to prove the close relation-

ship of these animals.

THE GILLS.

All the writers on this subject have failed to see the import-

ant agreement between the gill structures of Lepidosiren and

Protopterus, and have been led off to base important conclu-

sions on a relatively unimportant point in their anatomy. The

statement which Schneider and Baur base so much upon, viz. :

that Protopterus has 5 gill-slits, while Lepidosiren has only 4,

certainly looks important enough to give the advocates of a

922 The American Naturalist. { November,

genus apiece for these creatures ample warrant for their con-

clusions; but when we examine the actual significance of this

difference in the number of holes in the side of the neck, most

if not all the value of this character is destroyed, for the num-

ber of functional gills is the same in both animals? The facts

are that both animals have 5 gill-bars, but only 23 gills; that

the first and second gill-clefts are in both forms devoid of a

respiratory membrane or structures, although their secondary

blood supply through the bronchial artery still persists. These

two pair of gills are completely atrophied in both creatures

physiologically since they no longer serve in respiration, and

the denuded slits are subject to that variation which is the fate

of all rudimentary organs. The first slit suffers most and is

greatly reduced. In the two (or three?) specimens of Lepido-

siren which have, up to date, been dissected, the edges of the

slit seem to have grown together, while in Protopterus, though

the slit is still open, itis very much reduced, being smaller than

any of the other gill slits. I venture to say that no very large

number of individuals of Protopterus have been examined with

special reference to this point. However that may be, the

coalescence of the walls of a degraded gill-slit is not a charac-

ter of sufficient morphological importance to found a genus

upon, except, perhaps, in the eyes of a confirmed genus builder.

In both forms neither the first nor second gill-bars bear any

gill membranes, but both possess an hyoidean demibranch

(opercular gill rudiment). This gill is composed of a single

row of gill leaflets as in Ceratodus. The third and fourth gill

bars are provided with a double row of gill leaflets, while on

the fifth arch is found only a single row of leaflets,a condition

not obtaining in any other Dipnoan or Ganoid.

When these animals were named, they were little known to

science. If they had to be named as new discoveries to-day,

and could both be studied together in so doing, most zoologists

would include both animals in one genus, even if they did not

group them as varieties of one species.

I wish to call the attention of those anatomists who would

insist upon keeping Lepidosiren and Protopterus distinct upon

1893.] On the Genera of the Dipnoi Dipneumones. 923

the basis of the number of gill clefts left open irrespective of

the fact that the number of functional gills is the same, to the

fact that there are other fish with a variable number of gills

which are considered by as good authority as Johannes Müller,

to the extent of his knowledge of the case, to be mere varieties

of one species. Müller found among the Bdellostomx from the

Cape of Good Hope, individuals with 6 pairs of gills, others

with an extra gill added to one side of the body, and still

others with 7 full pairs of gills.

I have ascertained that, taking all the Bdellostomids together,

' they form a series in which the gill variation runs between the

minimum of 6 pairs and the maximum of 14 pairs, or a DIFFER-

ENCE BETWEEN THE EXTREMES OF 8 PAIRS OF GILLS, AND YET ALL

THESE INDIVIDUALS NOT ONLY BELONG TO THE SAME GENUS—

THEY BELONG TO THE SAME SPECIES !

THE RIBS.

The number of ribs has been selected by Schneider as a

character of generic as well as specific value. The possession

of 56 ribs is held to be characteristic of Lepidosiren parodoza.

Considering the small number of individuals examined, this

cannot justly be said to be a settled fact. Schneider’s diagno-

sis of 30 ribs for Protopterus amphibius, and of 35 ribs for P.

annectens as a safe specific character, is, to say the least, ill-

chosen, for the reasons that the number of ribs varies in speci-

mens from the same locality, which have no other distinguish-

ing characters save another variable, viz.: the presence or ab-

sence of external gills, and for the further reason that some

authors (Owen, loc. cit. p. 47) have counted at least 37 ribs in

P. annectens. Schneider failed to define what structures he

would have counted as ribs; but I assume he would admit all

rib-like processes attached to the bare notochord between the

pectoral and pelvie girdles as entitled to be named ribs irre-

spective of questions of homology. THE NUMBER OF SUCH PRO-

CESSES IS INCONSTANT IN Protopterus, but the extremes of varia-

tion have not been definitely made out. The number prob-

ably varies with age, but this is not certain.

924 The American Naturalist. [November,

Parker? has shown that Schneider’s second species of Protop-

terus, P. amphibius is a mistake. Schneider gives the Gambia

as the habitat of this species. The distinctive characters separ-

ating this species from annectens are the presence of lateral car-

tilaginous rays in the fin membranes and only 30 ribs.

Schneider describes the fins of the Protopterus material which

Peters brought from Quellimane as long and pointed, but flat-

tened appendages. This was found to be true of the pectoral

fin, the pelvic fin being thickened at its base. The cartilagin-

ous axis of each fin bears on one side several cartilaginous rays

which support the membranous border of the fin. This border

is, in turn, stiffened by numerous horny filaments (horn-rays).

This membrane is found on the ventral edge of the pectoral

fin. Schneider found cartilaginous rays in P. amphibius only.

Parker states that his animals were from the Gambia, and

that the specimens which he “examined for the purpose possess

in the middle part of the fin, numerous cartilaginous parameres

on each segment in both fins,” which, according to Schneider,

is one sure sign of P. amphibius, but Parker’s animals also had

35 ribs, which is one of Schneider’s marks of P. annectens.

Parker concludes that there is possibly considerable variation

in both these structures within the species, and this agrees with

what Wiedersheim has previously found with respect to the

FIN MEMBRANES, irrespective of their supporting structures.

EXTERNAL GILLS.

Owen,’ McDonnell,’ Schneider? Wiedersheim," Peters and

Parker’ describe or mention the existence of external gills in

specimens of Protopterus from the different localities of Africa.

Owen’s observation has already been referred to. McDonnel

simply states that he found three processes, rudimentary ex-

ternal gills the longest of which measurd 4'",

Boas makes the following statements concerning the exter-

nal gills of the African mud fish. |

“Uber die sogenannten äusseren Kiemen von Protopterus

müssen wir ein Wort sprechen. Die betreffenden Gebilde

waren bei den zwei von mir untersuchten Protopteri sehr klein,

1893.] On the Genera of the Dipnoi Dipneumones. 925

offenbar ohne jegliche Funktion. NACH PETERS SIND SIE DA-

GEGEN BEI JUNGEN EXEMPLAREN STARKER ENTWICKELT. Ich

glaube dass man diese organe . . . . am richtigsten, oder

wahrscheinlichsten, in die Reihe der vielfachen accessorischen

Athmungsorgane, die wir bei Fischen finden, stellt. Ich

finde es ferner sehr zweifelhaft, ob sie etwas mit den üuseren

kiemen von Polypterus gemein haben die anderen Ursprungs,

anderen Baues ist und von anderun Blutgefüssen versorgt

wird."

The branchial blood-vessels, as described by Peters and

Owen (for Protopterus), are very different structures.

Parker found external gillsin all of the specimens examined

by him, but his largest were still comparatively small animals.

He quotes Peters as finding them on fish 2—3 feet long, and

that in young specimens they are thinner, while in old speci-

mens they are broader. Parker assertsthat my statement that

these gills are only present in young animals is certainly in-

correct. Boas quotes Peters as above, which is not in harmony

with Parker's use of Peters’ words. The majority of writers on

this point agree that they belong to small or young animals,

as is the case with the gills of Polypterus, and Parker's mater-

ial was not sufficient to add anything to the settlement of this

question.

With reference to the food habits of Lepidosiren annectens,

there is no longer any doubt as to its omnivorous tastes.

Professor Parker has shown that it may, at times, be canni-

balistie, but he errs in supposing that I maintained that it had

entirely changed its food habits. Starting from supposed car-

nivorous ancestors, I claimed that Ceratodus had become essen-

tially herbivorous in its habits, while Lepidosiren had only

partly modified its habits in this respect. On page 510 of my

Freiburg paper, Professor Parker might have read: *Der Darm

ist bei Ceratodus stärker verändert, als bei Lepidosiren, und

diese Verschiedenheit correspondirt mit der Grósse der verün-

derung, die Function erfahren hat,"and further, thatDas Futter

des Ceratodus besteht gegenwärtig aus verschiedenen, kleinen

Mollusken (reichliehe Schale von Gasteropoden und Lamelli-

branchiaten fanden sich im Darme), Gras, Riethgras und Zahl-

926 The American Naturalist. [November,

reichen anderen Pflanzen stiicken.” And I further ascertained

that while the plant remains were not masticated, the shells

had all been crushed to fragments. Now, if Ceratodus eats

animal food, and has been modified more than Lepidosiren

in the direction of herbivorous diet, it follows that Lepidosiren

is also partly carnivorous.

The quotation which Parker makes from my paper, referring

to the breeding habits of the Dipnoi, applies to Ceratodus only,

and not in any part to Lepidosiren, and the trouble arose in the

transposition by the printer, of the reference number which

occurs in my MS. after the word “ Beobachtung,” to the next

line of the printed text. The transposition escaped correction

in the proof. The authority for the statement is, to the best of

my recollection, The Zoologist, 3d Ser. Vol. VII, 1884 (?).

After a study of the pectoral fins, to which Professor Parker

devoted his special attention, he concluded that they do not

serve the function of feelers. This conclusion is not well-

grounded, for it rests upon the author’s failure to find tactile

SENSE ORGANS in the skin of the appendages. Our author re-

marks “that the nerve supply seems out of all proportion to

the rudimentary muscles, and this fact renders the absence of

sensory organs all the more surprising,” and, on p. 124, “So

far as I have been able to observe, all the sensory organs in

connection with the epidermis have the form of the ‘ lateral-

line organs’ described above, and in this point therefore, as

in many others, Protopterus resembles amphibians more than

fishes,” a conclusion which, will without doubt prove to be

too lightly drawn, for from the knowledge which we possess

of nerve endings in the skin of fishes, and the methods

of demonstrating them, it should not be a very difficult matter

to show that the large nerve supply is, in this instance, distrib-

uted to the epithelium of the pectoral appendages in its char-

acter of a sensory apparatus.

The nerve supply indicates that the brachial nerve must

contain many sensory fibers. It is composed of the first three

spinal nerves, the dorsal and ventral roots of the hypoglosal,

and a branch of the vagus. There is every evidence that the

appendage is a very sensitive tactile organ, and the nerve-end

1893.] On the Genera of the Dipnoi Dipneumones. 927

apparatus will be found by making a proper study of the skin.

Referring to the occurrence of taste-buds in the Lepidosiren

annectens, Parker states that I have described somewhat similar

organs on the palate of Ceratodus. As a matter of fact, the de-

scription I gave applied to both Ceratodus and Protopterus,

though I figured the organs from Ceratodus alone. I am

pleased to see that Parker is able to confirm my own observa-

tions in this respect.

Hyrtl states that the intestinal canal of Lepidosiren paradoxa

is slightly S-haped in the horizontal plane. r

In Ceratodus forsterii and Lepidosiren annectens I found there

was no indication of curvatures in the horizontal plane; but

Parker states that he finds the gut in L. annectens slightly

curved (S-shaped) in the vERTICAL plane, and hence that my

statement that the alımentary tract in the Dipnoi is strictly

parallel with the notochord is incorrect. :

Even Parker's observations show the correctness of my state-

ment, while he says, on page 215, * The alimentary canal ex-

tends almost in a straight line from the mouth to the vent,”

making no mention of curves.

The sensory papilla which I found projecting asa finger-

shaped process part way across the anterior narial opening in

L. annectens, Parker was unable to detect. No histological ex-

amination was made of this papilla, but I judged it to be tac-

tile in function and from its location to serve as a guard to the

entrance of the nasal chamber.

Our author does not produce any evidence for the support

of his change in the name of the URINARY BLADDER to that of

the CLOACAL CÆCUM, and he adds nothing to our knowledge

of either its structures or its functions, so that any comparison

of this organ with the rectal gland of Elasmobranchs is entirely

against the known morphological relations of the two organs.

The rectal gland of Elasmobranchs is a diverticulum of the

gut in close relation with the end of the spiral valve, while the

urinary bladder of the Dipnoi is a pocket of the cloaca entirely

foreign to the gut, since it lies outside of the rectal sphincter

and in close relation with the openings of the kidney ducts.

With regard to the LYMPHOID ORGAN of the mid-gut, which

928 The American Naturalist. [November,

was fully described in my paper, Parker thinks he has posi-

tive evidence that it is a spleen, and hence uses this designa-

tion throughout. The name was first applied to this structure

by Klein. The term spleen in anatomy is used to designate a

definite body of lymphoid tissue which is usually more or less

closely connected with some part of the mid-gut, though it

may lie in the mesentery far from the walls of the gut. The

name is strictly morphological in its}bearing, and does not

carry with it the idea of specific and localized functions. So

far as the mass forms a discrete body, the term spleen is appro-

priately applied to it, for it serves to definitely mark the mass,

but when the mass is absent, or, in other words, when the tis-

sue has other relations, e. g., as in the Dipnoi where it is in-

closed wiTHIN the wall of the gut, we not only do not gain in

the accuracy of designation, but we detract from the definite-

ness of the name as applied to other forms.

In structure, these tissues are not to be distinguished from

each other, and if the aggregation in theregion of the mid-gut

is to be called spleen, those in the hind-gut and fore-gut are

likewise spleens. We avoid difficulties of nomenclature if we

reserve the term spleen for a discrete mass of lymphoid tissue

which lies in the mesentery outside of the walls of the mid-

Professor Parker has done a great service in tracing out the

extent of the pancreas which, in the Dipnoi, lies entirely

within the walls of the gut between its two coats and which

he has described in histological detail for the first time; but

the discovery of the pancreas and its ducts was made by Mc-

Donnell in 1858. This investigator made observations on

living material which was afterward used for dissections, and

he clearly states that the pancreatic duets empty into the mid-

gut in company with the bile ducts. Melvilleadded a note to

McDonnell’s paper to the effect that both spleen and pancreas

were present in the organ which the latter called pancreas.

No one has yet pointed out the very great significance which

the condition ofthe pancreas in Lepidosiren has from a compara-

tive anatomical standpoint. It is by far the most primitive

condition of the organ known for the VERTEBRATA, since it

1893.] On the Genera of the Dipnoi Dipneumones. 929

remains entirely within the intestinal wall lying between the

mucous membrane, of which it is an outgrowth, and the mus-

cular coat of the gut and it thus represents a very early stage

in the ontogency of the organ as it is developed in other ani-

mals.

Professor Parker states that the spiral valve in Lepidosiren

annectens makes 6 or 7 turns. I found in all the specimens

studied, and the point was we examined, that the num-

ber was uniformly eight.

Our author attributes the statement to me that Lepidosiren

lacks a distinct muscular coat to its stomach, and that in the

intestine the musculature is only slightly developed.

On page 491 of my “ Beitrüge" I state: “Sowohl bei Cera-

todus als bei Lepidosiren sind die Wände des Vorderdarmes

auffallend dünn. Bei der maceration traten zwei deutliche

Lagen von Muskelzellen hervor. Sie reprüsentiren die Längs-

und die Ring muskulater der hóheren Wirbelthiere und sind

sehr ähnlich der Muskelelementen der Cyclostomen, etc."

The passage which Parker alighted upon to misconstrue by

taking it away from its context, reads as follows: * Bei Cera-

todus ist das Magenende veshültnissmüssig viel weiter als bei

Lepidosiren (italics inserted here). Eine deutliche Muskulatur

fehlt, doch sind zahlreiche spindelfórmige Muskelzellen durch

das ganze Bindegewebe der submucosa zerstreut.”

Parker states that he failed to find the lobulation of the kid-

neys in Protopterus as described by me for the older individuals.

My observations were made on a specimen 42 em. long. The

lobules were well-marked, but not so numerous or so sharply

defined as in Ceratodus. He concurs in my statement that the

so-called male organs of writers previous to 1884, were, in all

probability, only immature female organs. Parker describes -

the presence of two vibratile filaments in the spermatozoan of

Protopterus and considers this condition unique among verte-

brates. I have observed the same structure in ripe sperma-

tozoan of Rhinoptera bonasus. My observations were made on

July 13, 1889, at the Marine Biological Laboratory, and it was

found that the apparently single-headed, double-tailed sperm-

atozoan resolved itself into a simple, straight filament, possess-

930 The American Naturalist. [November,

ing a thickened body in the middle with a tapering filament

given off from either end of it. The only difference between

the two ends of the central body of the sperm-cell was the pres-

ence of the nucleus at one end from which the longer filament

was given off. During life, both of these filaments are spirally

but loosely coiled about one another, and during progressive

motion this arrangement gives rise to. the appearance of a vi-

bratile membrane spirally placed on the tail. On adding

Perenyi’s fluid to the sperm, the cells, one and all, flew out

straight and rigid, and the refractive body (nucleus ?) became

very distinct in each. I have observed this structure in other

fish spermatozoa, but never so distinctly marked as in the cow-

nosed skate. It is possible that the double tail of Protopterus

will be found to be constructed after this plan.

Owing to the very great scarcity of specimens of Lepidosiren

paradoxa, it may be of interest to many to have a list of the

known examples with their present resting places.

The following is a table of all the South American speci-

mens of Lepidosiren yet taken and recorded :

Specimen ae Locality. Size. Condition. Museum.

No. 1 Natterer | Borba on the R. Madeira, |

1836. 3ft.9 in. | Dissected |- Vienna

No. 2 Na terer Villa Nova onthe R. Ma-

E 1836. 1 ft. 10 in. Dissected | Vienna

No. 3 | Unknown j|Unknown, 1840. Paris

No. 4 Castelnau qune boa 1847. Dissected Paris

Dr J. Barbosa, | Igrapé de Aterro, (Ma- Florence,

No 51 Rodriguez | f náos), 1886. pa Sen, Go, fetale Wane | py

No. 6 Rodriguez |Autaz, Madeira River,'87| inem. 40 Whole | Florence,

Italy.

The fifth specimen was a female with well-developed eggs,

which was caught in August, 1886. It was 85 em. in length,

and 28 cm. in girth at thep ien appendages. she one is

distinctly cylindrical in shape, b nth

dominal surface where the scales are bigger, thicker and lighter

incolor. The tail is short and much compressed, and is provided

with an irregularly-rounded caudal fin, which is not continued

cephalad as a true median fin, but only as a slight keel to the

middle of the back. The fin rays of the caudal portion are

1893.] On the Genera of the Dipnoi Dipneumones. 931

cartilaginous. The pectorals and pelvic appendages lack a

membranous edging. The pectorals are slender and com-

pressed, while the pelvic appendages are stouter and conical

in shape.

The scales are disposed in longitudinal rows, 10 in each, and

are of a dark brownish purple color, with distinct blotches

except on the belly. The lateral line is double. The eyes are

small and lie beneath the skin. The branchial openings are

very narrow, and are protected by thick fleshy flaps. Exter-

nal gills are absent, and the internal gills cannot be seen

through the deep and narrow branchial slit. The mouth has

fleshy lips. The gill-clefts are four in number, tke fourth being

much reduced. The three free branchial arches are fringed

with conical papillae. The cloacal opening lies 10 mm. to the

left of the median ventral line.

The sixth specimen comes from the same hands, and is in

the Florence Natural History Museum.

It is much to be desired that these well-preserved specimens

may become the means of clearing up many points in our

account of the anatomy of the Dipneumonous Dipnoi.

? Jenaische Zeitschrift Bd. XI, 1885.

3 Schneider, A., Uber die Flosen der Dipnoi und die Systematik von Lepidesiven und

Protopterus, Pier Anzeiger, No. 231, 1886.

* Baur, G., Lepidosiren paradoxa. Zoologischer Jahrbücher, IT, 1887.

? The following notes on the statements given by different authors may be of interest

in this connection

Wiedersheim (Lehrbuch, p. 608) says Protopterus has 6 gill-bars and 5 gill-slits, with

ree and one-half gills

Owen (Comp. Anat.. p. 468-481, ’82, '85, '86) gives the same number of gill-bars,

but says that there are 2 biserial, and 1 uniserial gill, besides which there is the

opercular gill attached to the membrane supported by the hyoid. That ** three seem-

ingly analogous filaments (i. e., analogous to the embryonic external gills of Elasmo-

branchs) are retained on each si e lo a longer period in o Lra annectens, but

lose their vascular and T character before they are absorbed.”

Parker gives (Trans. Roy. Irish. Acad., V. 30, pt.3, p. 161) 5 gill-bars and 4 gill-

clefts, exclusive of the spiracle or hyobranchial.

There is a T of one "oe between Parker and all other observers. There

. isa further d cy among observers as to the number of gills.

ores paradoso, Bichon and Hyrtl disagree ; as to the number of T aehan,

sii: fas. h

but Hyrtl, who worked over th P i o that th P absent on

932 The American Naturalist.

[November,

the first and last arches, only a trace of them being observable on the fifth. Sin Hyrtl

studied the miterial after Bischoff had dissected it, it seems probable that these gill

filaments, being tender in nature, were broken away during the previous study, leav-

ing only the “ fadenfórmigen Zotchen" found by Hyrtl.

€ Parker, W. N., Anat., Physiol. of Protopterus, Trans. Irish Acad., 1892.

"Owen, R., Comp. Anat. Vertebrates and Description of Zegidosirem annectens

Trans. Linn. Soc., XVII.

* Giglioli, Lepidostren paradoxa, Nature, 1892.

? McDonnel, Anatomy and Physiology of Loidivisn en annectens, 1854.

1? Bischoff, Th. L., Lepidosiren paradoxa, Leipzig, 1840.

11 Hyrtl, J., Zepidosiren paradoxa,1845.

12 Klein, Beiträge zur Anatomie d. Lepidosiren annectens, Jahrb. d. ver. f. Naturk. in

Würt., 1894, XX.

13 Burckhardt, R., Das Nervensystem der Dipnoern (Protopterus annectens) 1892.

* Wiedersheim Grundriss der vergl. Anat. 2te ed. 1893

1893.] Animal Intelligence. | 933

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

By Jas. WErR, Jr., M. D.

“ Intelligence is a conservative principle, and will always

direct effort and use into lines which will be beneficial to its

possessor." This definition of intelligence is peculiarly appli-

cable to the lower animals, inasmuch as it does not convey

any idea of a purely intellectual operation of the mind. Every

instance of ratiocination in the lower animals, has its origin

in the fundamental principle of benefit to the animal evincing

this faculty of reason. The words, reason and intelligence, are,

in a measure, synonymous, for without intelligence, reason can

not exist and vice versa—without reason there can be no intel-

ligence. They are both psychic factors, dependent each upon

the other. The lower animals do not evince a high degree of

intelligence, yet high enough to lift the mental operation

above the automatic and spontaneous action generally called

—instinct. Instinct itself is,in a certain sense, a process of

intelligence, though its immediate operations may not be due

to reason. Instinct involves mental operations; if it did not

it would simply be reflex action. It is heredity under a special

name. The father transmits his mental peculiarities as well

as his corporeal individualites to his son. The experiences

of thousands of years leave their imprint on the succeeding.

generations until deductions and conclusions drawn from

these experiences become in man, that psychic essence called

mind. The lower animals pass through a like experience

and arrive, each in his own sphere and degree, at a kindred

mental destination.

Reflex action is simply muscular adaptation excited by

appropriate stimulation without mental cognizance. Instinct

has alwaysa mental element; and the lowest animal that

lives is no more governed by reflex action than is man him-

self. The action of a spider spinning her web, is just as vol-

!Cope: Origin of the Fittest, p. 40.

934 The American Naturalist. [November,

untary and is as much under mental direction and control, as

the action of a carpenter building a house. That the very

lowest forms of animal life give evidences of intelligence can

no longer be denied. A very common rotifer whose body is,

cup-shaped and whose tail is armed with forceps, has been

seen to seize a larger specimen with its forceps and thus

attach itself to its cup. The larger rotifer immediately swung

itself violently about until it met a piece of weed, this it seized

with its forceps and began “the most extraordinary move-

ments which were obviously directed toward ridding itself of

its encumbrance.” This it finally succeeded in doing, and

the entire scene was so like intelligent action that the observer

concludes “so that if we were to depend upon appearances

alone, this one observation would be sufficient to induce me to

attribute conscious determination to these microscopical organ-

isms.”” Conscious determination and ratiocination is found in

animals as low down in the scale of animal life as the Rhizo-

poda. Aethalia will confine themselves to the water in a

watch-glass in which they are placed, but when the glass is

placed on sawdust, they will leave the water and go to the

dust—their natural habitat? These rhizopoda are content to

remain in the water, as long as there is no sawdust.in their

vicinity, but as soon as they recognize the sawdust through the

glass, they erawl over the rim of the latter to get into a more

pleasing abode. This is a wonderful example of conscious

determination to be found in an organism so low in the scale

of life. Once, while examining some fungal cells, Carter saw

a still more wonderful instance of intelligence in a rhizopod.

He noticed that one of the spore cells had ruptured and that

grains of starch were escaping from the crevice. Suddenly an

actinophrys came into the field of vision and proceeding to the

ruptured cell seized a grain of starch and then retired to some

distance. Presently it returned to the same cell and extracted

another grain through the crevice. ^ All this was repeated

several times showing that the actinophrys knew that those

were nutritious grains, that they were contained in this cell,

?*Romanes: Animal Intelligence, p. 18.

3H. J. Carter: Annals of Natural History.

1893.] Animal Intelligence. 935

and that, although each time after incepting a grain it went

away to some distance, it knew how to find its way back to

the cell again which furnished this nutriment."* Oysters

taken from a bank never uncovered by the sea, open their

shells, lose the water within and soon die; but oysters kept in

a reservoir and occasionally left uncovered, learn to keep their

shells closed and live much longer when taken out of the

water? This is an act of intelligence due directly to experience

without even the factor of heredity. It is an instance of

almost immediate adaptation to surrounding circumstances

One would not expect to find examples of animal intelligence

in such a low order as the Helicidx, yet several instances can

be adduced where snails have not only shown ratiocination,

but have also evinced love and affection.

A gentleman fixed a land-snail, with the mouth of the shell

upward, in a chink of a rock. The animal protruded its foot

to the utmost extent and, attaching it above, tried to pull the

shell vertically in a straight line. Then it stretched its body

to the right side, pulled, and failed to move the shell. It then

stretched its foot to the left side, pulled with allits strength

and released the shell. There were intervals of rest between

these several attempts, during which, the snail remained

quiescent. Thus we see that it exerted force in three direc-

tions, never twice in the same direction, which fact proves

conscious determination and no slight degree of intelligence.

An observer, Mr. Lonsdale, placed two snailsin a small and

badly kept garden. One of them was weak and poorly nour-

ished, the other strong and well. The strong one disappeared

and was traced by its slimy track over a wall into a neighbor-

ing garden where tlfere was plenty of food. Mr. Lonsdale

thought that it had deserted its mate, but it subsequently

appeared and conducted its comrade over the wall into the

bountiful food supply ofthe neighboring garden. It seemed

to coax and assist its feeble companion when it lingered on

ihe way. Here we see not only an example of memory and

*Ibid.

*Dicquemase: Journal de Physique, Vol. XXVIII, p. 244.

*White: A Londoner's walk to Edinburgh, p. 155.

936 The American Naturalist. [November,

discrimination, but also of affection and solicitude. After the

snail had made its voyage of discovery, with rare unselfish-

ness and true affection, it remembered its sick mate and

returned for it.

Beneath the pavement in front of my door, a wasp (Vespa

nigra) has her nest. The entrance to this nest is at the bottom

of a sulcus formed by two parallel bricks. I rolled a piece of

paper into a compact wad and placed it between the bricks and

over the entrance during her absence. When she returned

she seized the paper with her jaws and forelegs and endeav-

ored to pull it away. This was prevented by the interposition

of the brick on which she stood. She then went to the other

side and tried again. Here she failed for the same reason.

She then descended into the little gully between the bricks

and easily removed the wad. When she again left the nest, I

replaced the paper, and on her return she went through the

same performance as at first. Again I replaced it, but the

third time she went at once into the gully and removed the obstruc-

tion. This she did three times in succession. Comment is

hardly necessary. The evidences of memory and ratiocination

are too patent to be denied. Some members of another family,

distantly related to the Helicidx, the limpets, show evidences

of intelligence, inasmuch as they have a very accurate mem-

ory of direction. Limpets, when at rest, live at certain fixed

domicile When hungry, they leave these homes in search of

food, but invariably return to them as soon as they have satis-

fied their hunger. One very pointed instance of this homing

sense is given by Hawkshaw, a most careful and exact

observer. A limpet had madea clearing on a sea weed cov- |

ered block of chalk. In the center of this clearing was a

pedestal of flint which projected an inch or more. On the top

of this flint pedestal the limpet had taken up its abode. The

cleared space had several hollows where the animal could

have easily sheltered itself, but it preferred to return to its

exposed home after each of its excursions?

Not many years ago, a French exhibitor with a oe

company of fleas passed through the country. These insects

“Hawkshaw : Journal Linn. Soc., Vol. XIV, p. 406. '

Pg ea ak a a ee Ce OTe eee eee wn

1893.] Animal Intelligence. 937

had been taught to march and counter-march, to dance, to

feign death, to pull miniature coaches, etc’, etc. While this

does not’evince voluntary ratiocination, it shows that fleas

think and are capable of receiving instruction. “When we

consider the habits of ants, their social relations, their large

communities, and elaborate habitations, their roadways, their

possession of domestic animals, and even, in some cases, of

slaves, it must be admitted that they have a fair claim to rank

next to man in the scale of intelligence.”

When Lubbock says that the ant ranks next to man in the

scale of intelligence he does not err. The superior intelligence

of the ant has been recognized and commented on by man

since the very inception of history. The wisest man of his

day, King Solomon, uses the ant to point a moral. He con-

siders her intelligence and industry worthy of emulation, and

says to the sluggard: “Go to the ant, consider her ways and

be wise." This one factor, intelligence, and the faculty of

intercommunicating intelligently, makes a colony of ants a

perfect society. Their social relations make it a model repub-

lic. Ants are true socialists; communists of an ideal type.

Their’s is a patriotism sublimely grand in its total self abnega-

tion. The commonwealth is everything—individual weal is

not considered. Man is susceptible to individual attachments

which form the basis of his happiness. The affection of ants,

on the contrary, is a patriotism that is extended to the whole

community, “never distinguishing individuals, unless, as in

the instance of the communal mother, connected with the

furtherance of the common good.” Ants can undoubtedly

communicate. A short while ago I crushed a pismire in the

track usually taken by the members ofa colony inhabiting

the hollow of a beech tree standing in my yard. A soldier

ant came along presently and, smelling the blood of his mur-

dered companion, was seized with a panic terror,and rushed

away into the nest. He shortly returned with thirteen com-

panions and made a slow and careful reconnoissance of the

dead body and its surroundings. Then all of them examined

*Lubbock: Ants, Bees, and Wasps, p. 1.

PKirby and Spence: Entomology—* Perfect Society. ”

938 The American Naturalist. [November,

the corpse, and, having satisfied themselves that their sister

was dead, returned to the nest. In a few moments a large

worker-ant, accompanied by two soldier ants, came out and

proceeding to the body, picked it up and carried it down the

tree to the ground. "They then went beneath the grass and I

lost sight of them. "Their every action seemed to me to be

governed by an almost human intelligence. The discoverer

of the murder hurried into town, gave the alarm, and,

quickly gathering some of his companions, went out in

search of the murderer.. On discovering that their companion

was dead and her slayer absent, they came back to town and

sent out a burial party.

The ant is the only animal except man, which has slaves

and domestic animals. Their intelligence is so highly

developed that they make a perfect success in rearing their

cattle and in capturing their slaves. The cattle of the ants

are of the order Aphidide. The herdsmen of these aphidian

cattle can be seen patroling the shrubs on which the

aphides are grazing. On them devolves the care of the

herds. They bring them out in the. morning and carry them

back at night. They gather the eggs of the aphides,

carry them into a specially built nursery, attend them care-

fully until the young aphides are hatched out, and then carry

them to the shrubs most liked by them for food. Some -

strange sense enable them to recognize one another—an ant of

the same species, but coming from another nest, is immediately

recognized as a stranger and at once attacked. If the eggs of

one ant colony are hatched out in another of the same species,

the young ants are at once known to be strangers and intrud-

ers. This far transcends our intelligence. What mother

could recognize her infant if it were born in the dark and she

had never seen it? Again, if the larve of ants are removed,

hatched outside of the nest, and then returned, the ants at

once recognize them as kinsmen and receive them into the

nest" That ants and bees do communicate intelligently is no

longer denied. Their means of communication is not defi-

“Lubbock: Ants. Bees, and Wasps, p. 119, et. seq.

1893.] Animal Intelligence. 939

nitely known, but it is the opinion of most scientists that it is

through their antenne.

I once saw wonderful evidences of this power of intelligent

communication while watching a battle between Lasius niger

and Lasius flavus. The black ants were on a foray; the booty

in question being a large herd of aphides owned by the yellow

ants. The yellow ants had a commissariat department and

an ambulance corps. I frequently saw them drop to the

rear during the battle and partake of refreshments. Those

slightly wounded were also attended to by the ambulance

corps. The black ants were in light marching order, and had

neither of these conveniences and necessary adjuncts. These

ants seemed to be governed by a high order of intelligence in

this battle. The yellow ants repeatedly sent back to their

village for reinforcements and in this instance were victorious.

They were not so fortunate, however, in a second battle I wit-

nessed, a short time afterward. Their antagonists were of the

Same species as in the first battle, but from a different colony.

In this second battle the yellow ants were all slain, and their

herds of aphides carried off by their conquerors.

The bee ranks next to the ant in point of intelligence and I

have witnessed numerous instances of ratiocination in these

interesting little animals. My bee-house is built of brick,

without windowsand has only onesmall door. The hives are

-= made of glass and covered with thick curtains of muslin.

This renders observation very easy. On one occasion I

noticed that from some cause, a comb had become detached

and was in danger of falling to the floor. The bees had

noticed this before it had become apparent to me, and had

begun to provide against disaster. They rapidly built a

broad, thick support of wax between the endangered comb

and the one next to it, thus securing it firmly. They then

reattached the detached comb securely to the roof of the hive.

When this had been done, they took away the temporary

Support and used the wax elsewhere. When men see a wall

out of plumb and in danger of falling, they use like methods

to prevent disaster. De Fraviére says that bees have a num-

ber of tones which they emit from the stigmata of thorax and

940 The American Naturalist. [November,

abdomen and by which they communicate information.”

When a bee arrives with important news she emits several

shrill notes and taps a comrade with her antenne ; this com-

rade passes the news to another, this to another and so on

throughout the hive. If the news is pleasing all remains

orderly, but if the news presages danger, great excitement

arises. The news of danger is always carried first to the queen

as the most important person in the community.“ I have

heard these tones and believe with De Fraviére that bees com-

municate information in this way. The queen emits a tone

which is different from those of the workers. When the queen

makes a progress through the hive while laying eggs, she fre-

quently emits this cry. As soon as the workers hear it, they

bow their heads and remain quiescent for several seconds.

Both ants and bees show great affection for their young.

They feed and cleanse them and assist them in every way

possible. The young antis shown all of the devious path-

ways and corridors in the habitation by the older ants, and

her first visit into the world is made with several chaperones.

There is a spider peculiar to this locality (Daviess Co., Ky.)

which I have never seen elsewhere and which I have not seen

described. This spider spins two webs; one is a trap set for

the procurement of her food, the other is built for the gratifi-

cation of an esthetic feeling hardly to be expected in an ani-

mal so low in the scale of animal life. This latter web is

generally spun in the angle formed by two walls, and always

where the early morning sun can shine on it for several hours.

Through the center of the web, reaching from one extremity

of its long diameter to the other, the spider spins a ribbon of

silk aboutan inch broad. This ribbon is very beautiful. The

mesh is as closely woven as silk itself, and shines in the sun-

light like a band of silver. As soon as the sunlight falls upon

this web, the spider makes her appearance and walks slowly up

and down her glittering roadway. She is not at all timid and

I have watched her for hours at her strange performance.

She irresistibly reminded me of some well dressed woman who

a !Romanes : Animal Intelligence, p. 158.

?[bid.

1893.] Animal Intelligence. 941

was out fora morning walk. She never left this ribbon to

secure food, though I tempted her frequently with insects.

After an hour or two of promenading, she would leave this

web and go to her trap-web, which is generally situated near

her place of amusement. This she kept up day after day

until the duties of maternity called her elsewhere. I have

never seen the male. There is but one other instance in the

animal kingdom where an animal builds a special place of

amusement. That animal isthe bower bird, of which mention

will be made further on.

Curiosity is largely developed in birds. "The blue jay is the

most curious as well as the most voluble of all birds. I have

been able to differentiate twenty-three distinct utterances in

the language, if I may use the word, of the jay. On one occa-

sion, I left a glass jar containing three newts, on a large block

of sandstone in my front yard. It had not been there long

before a jay flew down to examine it. One of the newts made

a quick motion, and uttering a cry of surprise the jay flew to

a tree overhead. He remained quiet for an instant, as if in

profound thought. He then uttered his assembly call and

birds of all kinds came hurriedly flying up in answer to it.

In a few moments I noticed in the surroundings trees, jay-

birds, wood-peckers, sap-suckers, cat birds, song sparrows, ori-

oles, mocking-birds, blackbirds, pee-wees and flickers. They

made a terrible outcry, but suddenly became silent, when the

jay, which had called them together, flew down to the rock.

Several of his most courageous brethren immediately followed

him. He went up to the jar, and made a careful examination

of it and its contents, all the while uttering a low querulous

monologue. Suddenly he uttered three loud, peculiar cries

and flew away. The assembly then dispersed. On another

occasion I noticed a jay sitting silent and absorbed on the roof-

tree of a grape arbor. He appeared to be watching something

beneath him very intently. On focusing him in my glasses, I

discovered that he was in a state of great excitement and

trembling allover. I noticed the direction of his gaze and soon

saw the object of his regard. A large male cat was stalking

, a hare and was just crouching to make his spring. He sprang

942 The American Naturalist. [November,

at the hare, but hisjump fell short, and the hare bounded away

in safety. And then the jay-bird seemed to be fairly overcome

with delight. He trounced himself up and down, screaming

with sarcastic laughter. He seemed to be jeering and ridicul-

ing the cat to his fullest extent, and the cat seemed to under-

stand him. He dropped his tail and disappeared in the

bushes. The jay uttered one last note of derision and then

flew away.

I once saw a very young cockerel come up behind an elderly

hen and suddenly embrace her. When she discovered the

youth of her assailant, her surprise, indignation and wrath

was perfectly apparent and very laughable. Birds show a

distinct individuality in nest building. No two pair of birds,

even of the same species, build nests alike. To the casual

observer they appear alike, but to the careful and experienced

nest hunter, there is a marked originality in each nest. The

general forms are the same, but each pair of architects leave

the impress of individual genius on their particular nest.

Three pairs of cardinals have been nesting in my garden for

several years. If shown the nest, I can tell the pair of birds

which built it. Wallace gives an instance of original nest

building. Several pairs of bullfinches were taken to Australia

when quite young. When they came to build their nests,

they built them totally unlike those of the English bullfinch.

They were long and round, like those of the oriole, only the

entrance was at the bottom. Some birds have developed

eesthetic feeling and have a well marked love for the beautiful.

Certain humming birds decorate their nests with beautiful

pieces of lichen which they fasten on the outside. Feathers

and various colored mosses are used for the same purpose.”

Darwin asserts that the curious structures of the bower

birds are pleasure houses, built by the birds for their own

amusement and sports." These bowers are not nests and

are never continuously occupied by the birds. The nests are

built in the jungle some distance from the bowers. "The birds

HA. R. Wallace: Darwinism.

%Gould: Birds of Australia, Vol. I, p. 442.

Darwin: Descent of Man, pp. 92, 406.

1893.] Animal Inteiligence. 943

first build a platform of sticks and twigs, all of the knots and

short twigs being turned toward the ground, thus giving a

perfectly smooth floor. The bower, an oblong, oval structure,

open at both ends, is then erected on this platform. This is

also made of twigs, with all projections turned outward. The

entrance to this bower is decorated with feathers, bones,

shells, mosses and, in fact, any gaily colored article which the

bird can procure. Evidences of intelligence in the higher

orders of animals are so patent that even the most casual and

superficial observer can see them. The cat, the horse, and the

dog are nearer to man in his daily life than any other animal,

and instances of their intelligence are very numerous.

I present here a letter of Mr. J. Gibson Taylor, Owensboro,

Ky., in which he relates a remarkable instance of ratiocination

inadog. “The dog, a water spaniel, had gone after a stick

flung upon the ice of a pond about twenty feet distant from

shore. The water was about five feet deep. The ice gave

way. The dog went under the water several times in swim-

ming about the enlarged space made by attempting to regain

the surface of the ice, which gave way under his weight. He

became thoroughly chilled by much confused swimming

about in afcircle, seeking some point at which the ice would

bear his weight. I reached alimb to him and calling him by

name shortly got his attention. He placed his paws upon the

ice and seemed to listen intently as I extended the limb tow-

ard him, the ice, meanwhile, sinking under his weight as he

looked at me. He caught the limb between his teeth and I

assisted him by pulling him toward me upon the thicker ice

inshore. Finally the ice became strong enough, about 15

feet from shore to sustain his weight. So, still with his teeth

locked on the stick, I pulled him on the thicker ice and

across the surface to the shore.”

Here the dog, fully seeing his danger, and Su detotaidin:

the purport of the stick thrust out to him by his master,

grasped it with his teeth, and held on until he was dragged

into safety. Could man do more or reason better?

944 The American Naturalist. [November,

NOTES ON A COLLECTION OF MOLLUSKS FROM

NORTH WESTERN LOUISIANA, AND HAR-

RISON COUNTY, TEXAS.

By T. WAYLAND VAUGHAN.

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.

For several years, while resident in Louisiana, I busied my-

self in trying to bring together as good a local collection of the

mollusks of the region as possible. During the past summer,

while at work on the Lowisiana Geological Survey, I continued

my collecting, obtaining many specimens of land-shells, and a

few fresh-water shells. "Through the kindness of Mr. George

Williamson, of Grand Cone, La., of Mr. O. B. Lewis, of Burk

Place, and Messrs J. D. and J. E. Bailey, of Summerfield,

coupled with my own efforts, it is likely that I have obtained

more species from this section than anyone else. In view of

this it seems highly probable that a few notes on this collec-

tion would be of passing interest to conchologists.

The largest part of the section that these remarks apply to

is included between Ouachita River on the east, a line through

Alexandria on the south, and the Texas and Arkansas lines,

but I have transgressed these lines in speaking of a few speci-

mens collected to the south of it in St. Landry Parish, and

have included in the discussion, as the title denotes, Harrison

County, Texas. :

This list undoubtedly does not contain all of the species

found in this region, for a few species originally described

from this section have not been rediscovered. Undoubtedly,

many more species of Cyrenidx, Pupide, and other families

will be found later. It is worthy of notice that the collecting

of my friends and myself have brought to light no species of

that large family Pleuroceridz (Strepomatidz) that is found in

such large numbers in the southern States east of the Missis-

sippi River. Some species of this family have been noted from

. Louisiana. |

1893.] Mollusks of Louisiana. 945

In the identification of my species I have to acknowledge

gratefully the assistance of Messrs Wm. H. Dall, Chas. T.

Simpson, Wm. A. Marsh A. A. Hinckley, R. E. Call, and Dr.

V. Sterki. Either Mr. Simpson or Mr. Marsh, or both, have

examined specimens of most of my Unionidz, and Dr. V. Sterki

has examined nearly all of my Pupide. It has been my good

fortune to examine a good many of Lea's and Conrad's types

at the Smithsonian Institution and at Philadelphia Academy

.of Natural Sciences, and I have been able to use the works

found in the library of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at

Harvard University, so that I think most, if not all, of the

identifications are entirely trustworthy.

To my friends who have aided me in collecting, and to those

who have helped in the matter of identification, my sincere

thanks are extended. To Dr. Otto Lerch, Geologist of Louisi-

ana, my thanks are especially due for enabling me to do col-

lecting throughout the summer.

NOTES ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE OF NORTHWEST

LOUISIANA.

In order that the physical surroundings of the mollusks

herein noted may be better understood, it appears to be justifi-

able that a few notes on the topography and climate of the

section will be in place.

Probably there is no portion of the United States so misun-

derstood from a topographic standpoint as northwest Louisi-

ana. Mostof the people who visit the state goto New Orleans,

which stands from eleven to forty feet above the sea level, in

almost the flattest portion of the inhabitable part of the State,

and immediately jump to the conclusion that the whole State

a jungle of swamps and alligators. It is undeniable that a large

portion of the State stands very little above mean tide-water,

and that swamps and alligators do abound, but the northwest-

ern portion of Louisiana is moderately hilly. The mean level

of the country, from Shreveport to Monroe, is about 400 feet

above the sea level, the elevation reaching on the hills from

150 to 300 feet higher. If one starts at Shrevesport, which is

between 198 and 227 feet above the sea, and goes to Monroe,

946 The American Naturalist. [November,

he will, after passing out of flat river bottom, cross a strip of

level country about ten to fifteen miles wide, that forms a kind

of shelf alongside the river bottom. After this one goes into

the hills—topped with red-sandy clay, red-sandy or red-clay

soils. These hills are the products of erosion out of a past plain,

and Mr. L. C. Johnson compares them to the buttes of the

west. Some of them rise rather abruptly, others gently ; some

attaining a height of from 80 to 150 feet above the general

level of the hill lands. One hill called Leatherman’s Mount-

ain, is said by Mr. Johnson to reach an elevation of 700 feet, or

about three hundred feet above the general level. The vege-

tation of these hill lands is mostly oaks, where the soil is not

very sandy, but when much sand is present, the short-leaf

pine (Pinus mitis) abounds.

As one proceeds south from Arcadia, at something like thirty

miles distant from that place, the red sandy clays give place to

pure white sands, that bear luxuriant forests of the long leaf

pine (Pinus palustris), though as one nears Alexandria, which

is 85 miles further south than Arcadia, the sand is somewhat

redder, but still contains little or no clay. In the country whose

surface is made up of these deep white sands, the lands wash

badly, and hills rise very steeply to a height of 75 to 100 feet

above their bases. These sandy hills are all clothed with an

almost uninterrupted forest of that most majestic tree, the long

leaf pine. It is absent only in the small “hollows” between

| the hills, and in the calcareous prairie lands.

Seattered through the southern part of Bienville Parish,

through Winn, Grant, and Catahoula Parishes, are spots of

calcareous lands, that are usually prairies of several acres in

extent. These lands usually belong to the Jackson and Vicks-

burg horizons, though the spot of the lime-lands in northern

Nachitoches Parish belongs to the Claiborne, Ostrea sellaformis

being found there in great abundance. There is a hill of crystal-

line limestone near Winfield, La., that is Cretaceous. These lime-

lands seem to present especially good conditions for the de-

velopment of the land shells. By far the majority of the spe-

cies of the land shells collected were found associated at one

_ place or another with these calcareouslands. The need of lime

1893.] Mollusks of Louisiana. 947

for the growth of the shells easily accounts for this. Bulimulus

dealbatus and Helicina orbiculata were found in abundance only

on these soils.

All of the chief streams, large bayous, as well as rivers, flow

in a general southerly direction. The two main streams are

Red River and Ouachita River. “A dividing ridge, frequently

noticeable only on closest inspection, runs almost central be-

tween the rivers, dividing the Ouachita and Red River system

eastward and westward” (Lerch). Thus, certain of the bayous

flow into Ouachita River, such as Cypress and Corney, and

others flow into Red River, such as Dorcheat, Black Lake

Bayou, Bayou Bodeau, etc. Bayou Pierre is on the west side

of Red River.

One of the most noteworthy things about these streams is

that they are subject to great periodical overflows. "Thus, in

the summer of 1891, I remember rolling up my trousers to my

knees and wading across Bayou Dorcheat, but in the spring of

the following year, when Red River was so overflowed as to

wash away much of the railroad track, steamboats took passen-

gers down the Dorcheat and up Red River to Shreveport.

Another feature of Red River is the flat, basin-like reser-

voirs, called lakes, that are found on either side of it. In

many cases it is impossible to find any banks to these lakes, so

gradually does the land slope toward them. There isa stream

always flowing through the middle of them, and, in conse-

quence of an insufficient outlet, the water accumulates at the

lower portion of thestream. The high water in these lakes is

caused either by back-water from the river, or by a large

amount of water being brought by the stream that opens into

them.

The bottoms or beds of these lakes and bayous are usually

very soft, and collecting is thus rendered abominable, it often

being a continuous process of wallowing in the mud. Some-

times a firm foundation may be found to stand on, but it isthe

exception. In Red River one usually sinks waist-deep in the

soft mud. The bottom of the smaller creeks is usually some-

what firm. 'The small ereeks in the sandy hills of the long

leaf pine region have beautiful, firm, white sand bottoms, and

948 The American Naturalist. [November,

the water is so clear that the fishes can be seen darting hither

and thither, even when they are of considerable depth.

As to climate, the following data taken from Dr. Otto

Lerch’s “ Preliminary Report upon the Geology of the Hills of

Louisiana, etc." (1892), may be of interest.

Mean Temperature at Shreveport, La., for each Month the past

Twenty Years, from 1871 to 1890, inclusive.

E ERE

fe A UE ; Bo

Du a Ro du - t n 4 2 d

3 98 S Hog 5 $ b: 5B

See X o Ww n Y" o o 95 0

45.8 51.5 58.1 66.1 73.3 79.9 82.7 81.5 74.8 65.4 54.2 49.5 65.2

The latest frost in the spring ranges from Feb. 14 to April

9; it usually occurs the latter part of March or within the

first few days of April. The earliest frost ranges from October

7 to November 18—it usually comes toward the latter part of

October. The highest temperature in the summer ranges

from 91? F. to 107? F.; ordinarily it is between 98? F. and

104° F. In winter the temperature rarely falls below 12° F.

Total Precipitation at Shreveport, La. Average of each Month the

past Twenty Years, from 1871 to 1890, inclusive.

p * Lr

B a UM. E

s o8 5 B Ns mu» z E

$39 d (d 4 B d 5^ $2 9 D P aH

"IE. d GM wx ww o cx £O

4.93 4.62 4.74 5.55 4.47 3.69 3.74 2.05 4.30 3.52 4.88 4.81 4.30

As one goes south and nearer the seashore from Shreveport,

corresponding changes in the temperature, etc., take place.

LAND MOLLUSKS.

_ LIMACID E.

ZONITES.

Zonites (Hyalina) arboreus Say, extremely abundant, being

found under damp rubbish throughout the section.

1893.] Mollusks of Louisiana. 949

Zonites (Hyalina) indentatus Say, is not so abundant as the

preceding species, but is found almost everywhere the condi-

tions of snail life are satisfied.

Zonites (Hyalina) minisculus Binney, is found rather com-

monly throughout the section.

Zonites (Conulus) Sterkii Dall, was collected under damp

leaves near Mt. Lebanon.

Zonites (Conulus) fulvus Draparnaud, is found in many places,

but isnot very abundant.

Zonites (Mesomphix) lzvigatus Pfeiffer, is found in many

localities, and was collected in abundance in trash found near

branches and along the creek bottoms.

Zonites (Mesomphix) demissus Binn., was collected at several

places in Bienville Parish, at Grand Cane, and on the calcare-

ous prairies of Winn Parish. Not very abundant.

Zonites (Mesomphix) intertextus Binney, abundant under trash

along creek bottoms. The specimens are usually more de-

pressed than the figure in W. G. Binney's Bulletin 28 of the

U.S. Nat. Mus., but the specimens collected in Red River bot-

tom in Rapides Parish were quite as much elevated.

LIMAX.

Limaz, sp. A species of Limaz, that seems to be L. campestris

Binney, was collected in the early part of 1891 abundantly

around Mt. Lebanon after light showers. The extremely dry

summer of '91 seemed to have almost exterminated them, so

that after that spring I could not find any more specimens,

and did not determine the species certainly.

Limax flavus Linn. was collected under some logs near the

depot at Washington, St. Landry Parish.

PHILOMYCIDAE.

PHILOMYCUS.

Philomycus carolinensis Bose. Abundant in damp places.

HELICID.E.

PATULA. -

Patula alternata Say, abundant throughout the section.

950 The American Naturalist. [November,

Patula perspectiva Say, was collected at Columbia, near Rose-

field, in Catahoula Parish, and near Ville Platte, in St. Landry

Parish. Is not very abundant.

PUNCTUM.

Punctum pygmaum Draparnaud, near Mt. Lebanon. Rare.

Dr. Sterki considered a specimen that I sent him this species.

HELICODISCUS.

Helicodiscus lineatus Say, found in many localities. Not very

abundant.

POLYGYRA.

Polygyra leporina Gould, found in many localities in small

numbers.

Polygyra texasiana Moricand, found near Tullos, La., in cal-

careous prairie, and in the Red River drift at Shreveport and

Alexandria.

Polygyra dorfeuilliana Lea, abundant at Mt. Lebanon, and is

found in many other places.

Polygyra espiloca Rav. A single specimen was collected on

Catahoula Prairie, and some others were found near Ville

Platte.

STENOTREMA.

Stenotrema monodon Rackett, var. fraternum Say, found in

abundance throughout the section. The variation in size, and

degree of compression of the spine is great.

Stenotrema labrosum Bland, calcareous prairie at Tullos, and

in the Red River drift at Alexandria.

«X TRIODOPSIS.

Triodopsis inflecta Say, was collected in a good many places,

but is not very abundant.

Triodopsis obstricta Say. I have collected specimens in the

river drift at Alexandria and Shreveport. At Alexandria I

also found some live specimens. Mr. Geo. Williamson has

found the species rather abundant around Grand Cane.

1893.] Mollusks of Louisiana. 951

Triodopsis vultuosa Gould, found abundantly around Mt.

Lebanon, and in many other localities.

MESODON.

Mesodon thyroides Say. Both the more typical thyroides and

Gould’s variety bucculentus are abundant at many localities.

Mesodon albolabris Say. Some specimens, though somewhat

small, for thiş species seem best placed when referred to it.

Not abundant.

Mesodon divestus Gould. Grand Cane, La. These specimens

do not fit anything else, and Mr. Harper, of Cincinnati, has so

determined specimens sent him by Mr. Williamson. Since we

are agreed independeutly, I feel safe in the identification.

BULIMULUS.

Bulimulus dealbatus Say, found by the thousands on the cal-

careous prairies of Winn and Catahoula Parishes. Mr. Lewis

collected it around Burk Place, Bienville Parish.

PUPID.E.

STROBILA.

Strobila labyrinthica Say, abundant wherever there is damp

ash. —

PUPA.

Pupa curvidens Gould, Mt. Lebanon, La., and near Bienville,

also from river drift at Alexandria.

Pupa pentodon Say, river drift at Aleriadna

Pupa milium Gould, river drift at Alexandria.

Pupa sp. Calcareous prairie lands, Winn Parish, La.

Pupa fallax Say, found in nearly every portion of the sec-

tion. Often very abundant.

Pupa armifera Say, throughout the section, but not so abund-

ant as P. fallax.

Pupa contracta Say, throughout the section. Abundant.

Pupa procera Gould, rather abundant on the calcareous prai-

rie lands of Winn Parish, found also in the Red River drift at

Alexandria.

952 The American Naturalist. [November,

VERTIGO.

Vertigo ovata Say, river drift at Alexandria.

SUCCINEID.E

SUCCINEA.

Suceinea avara Say, Mt. Lebanon; ealeareous prairie lands

of Winn Parish. On these lime prairies dead specimens are

found several inches beneath the surface of the ground. I-

imagine that they crawl into cracks in the ground during the

dry summer months and are entombed.

Succinea grovesnorit Lea, Jonesville, Texas; Boyce, La., and

Bayou Pierre. These specimens are obtained in the damp rub-

bish immediately above the water’s edge. They seem almost

semi-aquatic.

HELICINIDA.

HELICINA.

Helicina orbiculata Say, found by the thousands on the cal-

careous prairies of Bienville, Winn and Catahoula Parishes,

and very abundantly in the river drift at Shreveport. This

species has a well-established reputation for its variability, and

in Louisiana its reputation is well-sustained.

FRESH-WATER SHELLS.

AURICULID&.

CARYCHIUM.

Carychium exiguum Say, found in the damp leaves on the

borders of many streams. This form could more appropriately

be considered a land shell.

LIMN.EID.E.

LIMN.EA.

Limnza columella Say, abundant in the ponds near Burk

Place, La. |

Limnza humilis Say, Bayou Pierre, and Boyce, La.

1893.] : Mollusks of Louisiana. 953

PLANORBIS.

Planorbis trivolvis Say, var. lentus Say, abundant throughout

the section.

Planorbis dilatatus Gould, found in nearly all of the smaller

streams.

Planorbis bicarinatus Say, in the ponds around Burk Place.

ANCYLUS.

Ancylus obscurus Haldeman, found in nearly all of the smaller

streams throughout the section.

PHYSID.E.

PHYSA.

Physa heterostropha Say, found in all of the streams and ponds

throughout the section.

PALUDINID®.

CAMPELOMA.

Campeloma decisa Say, is as general in occurrence as Physa

heterostropha. The form called C. coarctata by Anthony is

found abundantly in many localities. This species is ex-

- tremely variable, but the forms intergrade too well to separate

them into several species.

VIVIPARA.

Vivipara subpurpurea Say, found abundantly in nearly all of

the larger streams and lakes.. The specimens show great var-

iation, but are too well known to conchologists to need special

notice.

Vivipara intertexta Say, Flagon Bayou, Rapides Parish, Lake

Satt, pond near Jonesville, Texas. I have specimens from

three other localities in Louisiana, showing that the species is

widely distributed in the State, but I have never obtained it in

large numbers, so it would be considered scarce.

HYDROBIID.E.

AMNICOLA.

Amnicolo cincinnatiensis Anthony, Bayous in Claiborne Par-

ish, and Lake Bisteneau. It is extremely abundant in Lake

Bisteneau.

954 The American Naturalist. — [November,

Amnicola sayana Anthony, Cross Lake at Shreveport. Not

very abundant.

UNIONID X.

UNIO.

Unio anodontoides Lea, is extremely abundant in many of the

bayous and lakes. It was collected in Cross Lake, Caddo

Lake, Red River at Shreveport, Lake Bisteneau, Corney Bayou,

Bayou Pierre, etc. It was found most abundantly in Lake

Bisteneau, the species from Red River at Shreveport were the

most perfect. Although this species exhibits some variation in

size and relative thickness of the shell, the variation is rather

slight when compared to the great amount of some other

species.

Unio gracilis Barnes, is not very abundant. In Caddo Lake

a fine lot of young specimens were collected. It was also

found in Cross Lake, Red River (at Shreveport), Dorcheat

Bayou, Corney Bayou, Bayou Pierre, and Lake Bisteneau.

nio purpuratus Lam. This handsome Unio is rather abund-

ant. It was collected in Cypress Bayou (Texas), Caddo Lake,

Cross Lake, Corney Bayou, Dorcheat Bayou, Bayou Pierre and

Lake Bisteneau. The most perfect specimens were in Caddo

Lake; here a considerable number of perfect young were ob-

tained. The largest specimen wasa dead valve from Dorcheat

Bayou, it being about six inches in length. A large number

of specimens were collected from little pockets that had been

formed alongside Corney Bayou. The characters of this spe-

cies are very constant. DAT

Unio levissimus Lea, Caddo Lake, Red River at Shreveport.

Rather rare. Some beautiful young were obtained in Caddo

Lake. (ees

Unio migerrinus Lea. Localities: Corney Bayou, Cypress

Bayou, La., Dorcheat Bayou and creek near Rosefield. This

species is rather abundant. The largest specimens were ob-

tained from Dorcheat Bayou, where the shells, besides being

larger than those of the neighboring streams, have thick, some-

what massive, shells.

Unio haleianus Lea. A single specimen was collected by Mr.

O. B. Lewis, at Burk Place, in a small creek. I collected a

1893.] Mollusks of Louisiana. 955

specimen in Castor Bayou, Catahoula Parish, that I take to be

of the same species.

Unio mississippiensis Conrad, is abitdent! in the ponds and

creeks throughout the section. It was found in Dorcheat

Bayou and in Bayou Pierre, but is usually not abundant in

the larger streams. "The species does not present very much

variation.

Unio hydianus Lea, is found in all of the larger bayous in

which I collected—Dorcheat, Corney, eic. The specimens are

very numerous. The variation is great, from individuals that

are sub-compressed, to those that are very much inflated.

There is a marked tendency to become much inflated in old

age forms. ‘The number and size of the rays vary much, some

specimens have wide rays, others narrow rays, and still others

are scarcely rayed at all. This species, on account of its enor-

mous amount of variation, is one of our most attractive and

instructive forms.

Unio approximus Lea. A specimen of this species was found

in a small creek in Rapides Parish. We think that we are not

alone when we consider the difference between hydianus and

approximus almost nominal.

Unio obtusus Lea, was collected by Mr. O. B. Lewis in a

branch near Burk Place, in Bienville Parish. Mr. C. T. Simp-

son so determines a specimen that I sent him, and from Lea's

figures and descriptions I would so consider it.

Unio parvus Barnes, is found in a good many of the bayous.

It is almost impossible, if not entirely so, to separate this and

the three following species, but a good many of my specimens

seem undoubtedly parvus. |

Unio texasensis Lea, abundant everywhere that I collected

Unionide, except in Red River, Cross Lake, and a few very

small creeks. These specimens can be gathered by thousands.

The variation is enormous, from elongated to rather short;

from thin to rather thick shelled, etc.

Unio bairdianus Lea, is considered a synonym of the above.

It is abundant in the creeks of the section.

Unio bealei Lea, were collected in the creeks around Mt.

Lebanon. This form is extremely close to texasensis.

956 The American Naturalist. [November,

Unio camptodon Say, is found abundantly in the smaller

streams throughout northwestern Louisiana. It seems to

thrive best in small creeks and brooks that flow moderately

rapidly, and have sandy bottoms. This species is so very

abundant that, possibly excepting Unio texasensis, we are in-

clined to call it the most abundant species. Itsrange of varia-

tion is extremely great, and from the large suites that we ob-

tained of it and the three following species, it seemed to us

that we could trace their intergradation.

Unio declivis Say. Corney and Cypress Bayous in Claiborne

Parish, near Mt. Lebanon, and near Jonesville, Texas. Mr.

Williamson sent me a specimen with pink nacre.

Unio symmetricus Lea, in the creeks and bayous near Grand

Cane. I havea good many specimens through the courtesy

of Mr. Geo. Williamson, of Grand Cane. This species and

jamesianus are, without doubt, synonyms, though a typical

symmetricus can be distinguished from a typical jamesianus. I

have seen Lea's types at the U. S. National Museum, and be-

lieve these to be pretty typical.

Unio jamesianus Lea, is abundant in the brooks and small

creeks around Jonesville, and Port Caddoin Texas. Its habits

closely resemble those of camptodon, with which its seems to

connect by intermediate forms.

Unio lachrymosus Lea, is one of the most abundant of the

species found in thesection. Specimens were collected in Lake

Bisteneau, Caddo and Cross Lakes, and in Bayous Dorcheat

and Corney. The specimens are found in large numbers. The

amount of variation is considerable, some specimens having a

great number of pustules, while others have relatively few.

Some specimens are much more compressed than others. The i

largest and heaviest specimens were from Caddo Lake.

Unio asper Lea, Corney Bayou, is found in other localities

most likely ; shows some variation in the number of pustules.

Unio pustulosus Lea, is not very abundant. Is found in most

of the lakes and principal bayous. It is most abundant in

Dorcheat Bayou. The specimens from this place are some-

what more inflated than most of the specimens that I have

seen from the more northern States. Some of the variations

1892.] Mollusks of Louisiana. 957

of pustulosus approach very near to turgidus, and I am inclined

to the opinion that these two forms connect by intermediate

examples.

Unio schoolcraftii Lea. Corney Bayou. Not very abundant.

Unio nodiferus Conrad. Corney Bayou. Not very abundant.

These specimens seem almost fac-similes of those in the Phila-

delphia Academy of Natural Sciences collection from Neches

River, Texas.

Unio turgidus Lea. Dorcheat Bayou. Somewhat abundant

in this stream.

Unio pustulatus Lea. Caddo, and Cross Lakes, Lake Biste-

neau. It is abundant in the two first lakes.‘ It varies very

much in the amount of the development of the pustules.

Unio houstonensis Lea, is found in the three larger lakes and

Bayou Pierre.

Unio trigonus Lea. Cross Lake, Bayou Pierre and Dorcheat

Bayou. This species and the next two form a most interesting `

and a somewhat perplexing set of forms.

Unio cerinus Conrad, is found abundantly in nearly all of the

bayous and the larger creeks throughout northwestern Louisi-

ana. Many hundreds of specimens were obtained from Corney

Bayou. It varies enormously, and undoubtedly grades into

the next species.

Unio chunii Lea. Corney Bayou, Dorcheat Bayou, Cross

Lake. It is somewhat abundant in Corney Bayou. It

varies greatly, sometimes being arcuate on the base, almost

hooked as the posterior margin is approached. The sharp-

ness of the posterior ridge from the umbo varies much, as

does the amount of inflation of the valves, forming, it seems

to me, perfect gradations into cerinus.

Unio cuneus Conrad. Corney Bayou. Rar

Unio cornutus Barnes. Caddo Lake, ut Lake, Bayou

Pierre. Not very abundant, and very constant in its charac-

ters.

Unio castaneus Lea. Corney Bayou, Cypress Bayou, Dor-

cheat Bayou. It is very abundant in these streams. The

specimens from the two first are very small and somewhat com-

pressed ; those from Dorcheat are the largest that I have ever

958 The American Naturalist. [November,

seen. These latter specimens are much thickened anteriorly

are much inflated in that portion, but are compressed pos-

teriorly. The male individuals are rather pointed behind, and

the females are truncated.

Unio elegans Lea. Caddo Lake, Cross Lake, Corney Bayou,

and Bayou Pierre. Very scarce.

Unio donaciformis Lea, in the larger Lakes and Bayou

Pierre. Very scarce.

Unio plicatus Lea. , Bayou Pierre. Mr. Williamson sent me

the only specimens that seem to me undoubtedly this species.

Unio perplicatus Con. Ouachita River, Bayou Pierre.

Unio multiplicatus Lea. Caddo Lake, Cross Lake, Dorcheat

Bayou, Bayou Pierre. The finest specimens were from Cross

Lake, near Shreveport. These would rival some of the monsters

from Spoon River, Ill., and seem entitled to the name heros.

Unio undulatus Barnes, Bayou Pierre. Mr.Williamson has sent

me some specimens that seem best placed under this species,

though they could, without especial violence, be called multi-

plicatus.

Unio boykinianus ? Lea. Dorcheat Bayou. I collected one

specimen that has been so identified by Mr. A. A. Hinckley.

I have seen specimens of the species in the Philadelphia Acad-

emy, and have looked up Lea’s figure, and think that my

friend is about as nearly right as can be in some of these deli-

cate matters.

Unio trapezoides Lea, abundant in the larger lakes and bay-

ous. I have also received specimens from the Ouachita River

in Union Parish. In Caddo Lake this species is the most

abundant. I collected many hundreds there. Some of the

largest specimens, however, were from Cross Lake. This spe-

cies seems to like the larger bodies of water where it has a con-

siderable extent of rather level bottom of somewhat soft mud

to dwell in. . The characters of this species are, in the main,

rather constant. The amount of inflation varies a good deal,

as also does the postero-basal angle in sharpness; and the pos-

terior ridge from dorsal to basal margins varies in its acute-

ness. There is a considerable variation in the distinctness of

the folds, but the trapezoidal outline, the black epidermis, the

1893.] Mollusks of Louisiana. 959

purple nacre remain constant, the variations being of essen-

tially one type of structure.

nio tuberculatus Lea. Corney Bayou, Dorcheat Bayou,

Bayou Pierre, Cross Lake. It is rather abundant in the two

first localities. Some of the specimens from Corney Bayou

had the posterior portion very much elongated. Both the

purple-nacred and white-nacred varieties were found.

Unio gibbosus Barnes. Corney Bayou. A small, compressed

variety was found in great abundance in this stream.

Inio rotundatus Lamarck. Cross Lake, Bayou Pierre. This

species is rather rare in Cross Lake, but, judging from the

number sent me by Mr. Williamson from Bayou Pierre, it

must be very abundant there. It is found abundantly in

southern Louisiana. It appears that when northern Louisiana

is reached, the northern extension of the species is being ap-

proached. A specimen of this species was collected on the

border of Cross Lake, September 26, 1891, supposed to be dead.

It was laid upon my table to await a convenient opportunity

for washing and putting away. On November 18, I tried to

prize the valves open, but they would not yield. The animal

was cut out, and its heart was seen to be still beating. The

mussel had lived almost two months on my table, out of the

water.

MARGARITANA.

Margaritana confragosa Say. Caddo Lake, Lake Bisteneau,

Cross Lake, Corney Bayou, Bayou Pierre. The species is rare

everywhere, but is most abundant in Caddo Lake, where I col-

lected about one dozen specimens.

Margaritana complanata Barnes. Corney Bayou. Rare. Out

of a great many thousand specimens of Unionida from Corney,

I obtained only two of this species.

ANODONTA.

Anodonta, tetragona Lea. Dorcheat and Corney Bayous. Not

abundant. :

Anodonta stewartiana Lea. Lake Bisteneau and in a pond

near Jonesville, Texas. Rare.

960 The American Naturalist. [November,

Anodonta gigantia Lea. Pond near Shreveport, and in a

pond in Claiborne Parish. Near Shreveport, in a sequestered

pond, into whose surface the sunbeams filtered through the

willows, I made a rich “find ” of a bushel of these Anodontas.

They were the most beautiful specimens of the genus that I

have seen, many being a most beautiful but subdued green—

all as thin as egg-shells.

Anodonta corpulenta Cooper. Caddo Lake, pond near Shreve-

port, Bayou Pierre. Not abundant. This Anodonta, with the

two mentioned just above, have a wonderfully close resem-

blance, and I would not like to undertake to never get them

mixed up. I am inclined to believe that they are naturally

mixed up, and that it is artificial to try to draw sharp lines

between them.

Anodonta opaca Lea. Cypress Bayou, Black Lake Bayou,

Corney Bayou, ponds around Jonesville, Texas; around Grand

Cane; and I have received some good specimens from south-

ern Arkansas. The finest specimens were from Jonesville,

some. being about six inches long, and with an epidermis of a

beautiful polished mahogany color. This is by far the most

common of the Anodontas in the section. At one time I had

two hundred and fifty specimens from one bayou. The varia-

tion is enormous. The color is from mahogany to green, the

form may vary from an elongated oval to a short oval, or the

base may be arcuate, the size may vary in what appears to be

adult specimens from two to five inches. Yetin spite of all this

variation with a good suite of specimens, one readily sees that

it is all the same species, for every intermediate form exists.

Anodonta suborbiculata Say. Caddo Lake. Very rare. This

is such a handsome species that one wishes it could be found

wherever he collects, but he is disappointed in Louisiana. In

Caddo Lake a few small specimens are found.

CYRENIDA.

PISIDIUM.

Pisidium variable Prime, found in many of the small

branches. Near Port Caddo, Texas, not far from Cypress

Bayou, small peat mosses have formed between the bases of

1893,] Mollusks of Louisiana. 961

some of the hills. These mosses are fed by springs. In small

holes over this moss hundreds of this Pisidium can be collected

by pulling up the moss and other aquatic or semi-aquatic

plants and examining their roots.

SPHJERIUM.

Spherium contractum Prime, in the ponds and creeks around

Jonesville, Texas, and in Cross Lake, near Shreveport.

Spharium fabale Prime, in nearly all of the smaller streams of

northwest Louisiana, and is often found in the greatest abund-

ance. It is the most common species of the genus in the sec-

tion. :

Sphærium transversum Say. Dorcheat Bayou and Lake Bis-

teneau.

There are, undoubtedly, many other species of the Cyrenidæ

in the section. We have collected immature examples of other

species, but there is too much doubt attached to their identifi-

cation to justify entering them on this list.

Cambridge, Mass., July 16, 1893.

962 The American Naturalist. [November,

TRENTON AND SOMME GRAVEL SPECIMENS COM-

PARED WITH ANCIENT QUARRY REFUSE

IN AMERICA AND EUROPE.

Bx H. C. MERCER.

The recent Trenton gravel discussion impresses upon us, two

important points:

(a) The proved fact that in the fashioning of his larger stone

blades, the modern North American Indian continually scat-

tered his quarry sites, with forms like the Trenton forms.’

(b) The assertion that the Trenton specimens (see collection

at Peabody Museum, Cambridge, Mass., Figs. 4 and 5,) may not

have been found in place, but in talus, or where they had

* slipped down,” and that if in place, they did not prove a paleo-

lithic culture, since if, as is possible, they were “ rejects or

wasters ” dropped at quickly abandoned * workshops" on the

uninhabitable river shore, the camp-site of the man who made

them, with his “finished implements” and culture-telling

traces, would probably have existed elsewhere higher up the

ank.

In the demand for renewal of evidence which has grown

out of the argument, we not only ask whether the Trenton

objects are rently found in place, whether they are “ finished

implements,” and whether the old river shores are analogous

to modern quarries where the gravel man would leave no

more definite trace of himself than a * waster;” but, turning

to Europe, whence the discussion has drawn its first inspira-

tion, we wonder what effect the study of American Indian

l For a study of the “unfinished implements" made by modern Indians, at

Flint Ridge, Licking Co., Ohio, see a paper by Gerard Fowke in the Smithsonian

Report for 1884, and papers by W. H. Holmes upon the aboriginal quarries at Piney

Branch, D. C.; and in Garland County, Arkansas, in: American Anthropologist for

Jan. 1890 and Oct. 1891. The Unpublished Report for 1892 of the Department

of Archaeology of the University of Pennsylvania contains a discussion of similar

facts discovered in the summers of 1891 and 1892 at Durham, Saucon Creek, Vera

Cruz, and Macungie, in Eastern Pennsylvania.

1893, ] Quarry Refuse in America and Europe. 963

quarries is to have upon the question there. We inquire not

unnaturally—

Are the European objects really found in place?

FIG L

Chemin de Poste n Abbeville (upper and oldest opi showing the unstrati-

fied * Limon rouge” resting upon stratified layers. Workman holds “ axes” about

where he says he found pa in the * Limon rouge," Decer e 892.

Do the Trenton specimens really resemble them ?

Are the European specimens finished implements ?

964 The American Naturalist. [November,

Have European archeologists overlooked the fact that

there are later Stone Age quarries abroad, which, like the

American sites, tell the story of blocked out “ wasters” resem-

bling gravel forms?

Postponing a few words of suggestion as to the first three

questions, I venture here, on the strength of several recent

visits to the Somme Valley, to discuss the last four, and first

the question of

POSITION IN UNDISTURBED GRAVEL.

It is well-known that the Somme having cut its valley

through the secondary chalk of northern France, had, in

Quaternary times, washed up beds of gravel at bends, notably

at Abbeville and Longpré, and at St. Acheul and Montieres

(suburbs of Amiens) It was in these that Boucher de Perthes,

after a long battle, was allowed, in 1859, to have really found

his “ haches” or * coups de poing " in place.

Visiting Abbeville in November last, and securing the kind

assistance of M. G. d'Ault du Mesnil, a well-known geologist

and paleontologist and member of the Ecole d'Anthropolo-

gie, who, as an inhabitant of Abbeville, had devoted much

study to the gravels, I examined all the exposures near the

town, then those of St. Acheul and Montieres, and finally the -

cuts at Chelles where the Marne has done the same work.

The sand and gravel pits (see Fig. 2, infra) A, Leon; B,

Chemin de Poste; and on the open land, * Champ de Mars "

Menchcourt A Somme

Quarry

FIG 2

e dmn showing the niii relative position of the Quaternary gravels to the

iver Somme at Abbeville (Dept. Somme) vido and A the Leon, B the Chemin

de Poste, and C the Menchcourt sand and ballast quarries, from which chipped speci-

mens and fossil bones have been obtained.

1893.] Quarry Refuse in America and Europe. 965

behind the town, are about a mile from the tide-less fresh-

water Somme, and about 40 meters above it. They are holes

dug in gardens and grass fields, on an exceedingly gentle slope,

and their position avoids the difficulty of comparatively mod-

ern talus encountered at the celebrated Trenton bluff, just as a

well or cellar dug in the middle of the latter city would? Cis

the Menchecourt quarry near the river. A and B might stand

as well for the St. Acheul pits if Abbeville were Amiens,

when C would do for Montieres.

The gravel pits A and D, at Abbeville, will serve as types.

The cuts, now about 10 to 18 feet deep, were, at places, clean

and fresh, and showed veins of sand in white, yellow and red,

and layers of large flint nodules, round by nature and packed

in gravel, the whole overspread by the “Limon rouge," an

unstratified layer 3 to 6 feet thick, of sand, gravel and weather-

broken flint splinters.” Classed as the last phenomenon of qua-

ternary times, this “Limon rouge,” tinted brownish red by

atmospherie agencies, had, said geologists, rolled like a pud-

ding over all the gravel area, from the uppermost or oldest

terrace or bed, to the lowest or latest.

The difference between these exposures and those at Trenton

was striking. There, where all stones were water-worn peb-

bles, and but few constituted blade-material for primitive man

(argillite), here, scarcely any were water-worn, and nearly all

were blade material(flint) In Trenton there was no fossil-pre-

serving chalk; but here the presence and chemical effects of

chalk were everywhere apparent.

ere is a ** Puit at the Leon Quarry, where at hole formed by decomposition

in the underlying chalk, an area of about 75 feet square has settled down 4 or 5 feet.

‘The stratification of the sudken area is somewhat jarred, but its line of faulting clearly

marked against the clean cut layers to the right and left. The danger of replacement

those of changed water-courses anciently filled up, root holes, uprooted

trees, confront the student here as everywhere. Well might he use caution, even

were he in a hole 100 yards from the bluff’s edge at Piney Branch, at the bottom of

a trench 200 feet from the “ quartz workshop talus ” at Little Falls, or down in the

Trenton sewer.

*'This phenomenon of weather iiine can easily be seen still at

work. Many nodules yet unbroken, show on their surface discolored

sine k a good bov

966 The American Naturalist. [November,

My first object after observing my height above the river and

the colored lines of stratification, with their inference of a val-

ley-filling flood, was to note all evidence in proof of the quater-

nary age of the gravels, and of the occurrence in them of the

chipped specimens and fossil bones that had made the spot

famous. :

I carefully examined every cut at the Leon, Chemin de

Poste, and Menchecourt quarries, and afterward searched those

at St. Acheul and Chelles, and the Archeological Museum of

the University of Pennsylvania now contains three apparently

artificial chips, whieh I then found in place; (1) Museum

number 11456 with 3 facets on one side, showing the bulb of

percussion, and well worn or worked on the edges, found and

photographed in place 11 meters below the surface at the

Chemin de Poste quarry ; (2) Museum No. 11454 apparently

artificial with 6 facets on one side, in place 2} meters below

the surface at the Chemin de Poste quarry, and (3) Museum

No. 11456, a thin flake showing the bulb and concentric

circles of percussion, at the Leon quarry 2 meters below the

surface. But the flint nodules of Abbeville flake very easily

when struck against each other, and when we realize that the

gravel deposits have been “ ravined ” by streams in past time,

that eavities have been formed in the chalk, into which the

flints have fallen with more or less suddenness and force, and

that the original deposition of the strata must have been

accompanied with some jostling of nodules, we need not

attribute every flake showing the bulb of percussion, to the

hand of man. :

These specimens though far more artificial looking than

many that have been proved artificial by surrounding circum-

stances must therefore be classed as doubtful, and we will not

perplex ourselves with an analysis of their position in its

exact relation to unstratified Limon Rouge and the stratified

beds beneath.

Beyond these possible traces of human handiwork, I found

nowhere a fossil or “coup de poing " in place.

However, atthe Leon quarry, a workman showed M. du Mesnil

myself 3 typical leaf-shaped specimens, recent] y found, he said,

PLATE XXI.

Lewy rye

Ca PHA,

Fio. 6.

eries of specimens from the Neolithic quarry at Spiennes (near Mons, Belgium.)

A. Results. pie thin blades worked toward a point.

B. Results. Chipped Celts—Round oog edge peers

a. ; dies out forms M towar Blocked out forms tending toward class D.

j. Hammerstones an oate masses, ‘arent ladoteriaiuabiN often resembling the ruder forms from Abbeville,

American pe refuse, aod. Toníon specimens.

pe mri er e

1893.] Quarry Refuse in America and Europe. 967

by him, one of which was covered with white patina, and three

months later (on a second visit), sold me an elephant’s tooth

at the quarry (for 2 francs). Another laborer at the Chemin

de Poste quarry sold me (for 4 francs) four chipped specimens

(2 patinated), and again, three months later, 8 (for 5 francs)

found by him, he said, in the * Limon rouge " at the spots in-

dicated (see photograph, figure 1). At the Boulevard quarry

at St. Acheul, I bought of a third workman, at least a dozen

broken “axes” and chips, some of them well patinated,

together with the bones of a Bos primiginius (for 5 frances)! A

ourth quarryman, at Chelles, where two tables in the fore-

man’s shed were piled with “axes” and the teeth and bones

of the Rhinoceros tichorinus, Elephas primiginius, Equus

caballus and Reindeer recently found, it was said, and reserved

as the property of the company; sold me at his house a num-

‘ber of patinated chips and “coups de poing," together with

three teeth of the Equus caballus (for 5 francs).

Nothing so distinguishes the Delaware from the Somme

Valleys; nothing so eliminates, from the study of the latter,

the doubts as to readjustments and talus, the possibilities as to

river levels and distant glaciers, which perplex the American

| investigator, as the presence of these fossils, thus luckily pre-

served by the chalk, and in sufficient numbers, it seems, to

convince all men of science who have visited the spot. Though

I found none with my own hands, it would have been hard to

believe that those I saw at the quarries, in the Du Mesnil col-

lection, at St. Germain, and in the Boucher de Perthes Museum,

at Abbeville, had come from the surface or from anywhere

else than the gravels themselves.’

1 One of the flint ** axes” he laid aside, saying that it was an imitation.

ios or terraces—an ipe" the aiei. mat by the prevalence of the

merkii, the prevalence of the Rhin. tichorinus, and the arance and

great increase of the Mammoth; ev a lower, the tat Potep by

the extinction of the Mammoth and the prevalence of the Reindeer.

The Carriere de Leon, Port St. Gilles, and Chemin de Pos tè quarries

now represent the upper; the Balastiere du — de Fer the middle,

and t s aoan ppro s the lower terrace

968 The American Naturalist. [November,

As to the artificially chipped flints (see Fig. 3), twelve of

those obtained by me were patinated with the brown, yellow,

red and white patina that no art can adequately reproduce,

for the forged patina is a crust, the real a decomposition into

the stone. To prove that they, like the fossils, came from the

gravels, no evidence was wanting save that of a personal dis-

covery.

COMPARISON WITH TRENTON SPECIMENS.

Did the Trenton forms resemble these French objects?

was the next question. Figure 3 (omitting the so-called Mou-

sterian flakes specialized on one side, and the thin, knife-like

flakes and hammer stones from the upper beds) gives the three

FIG. i

Typical specimens of flint from the Somme gravels at Abbeville. D’Ault du Mesnil

collection. (Photographed by the kind permission of M. G. d’Ault du Mesnil.)

A. Specialized only at the point. Rude at the base.

B. Specialized all round. Leaf-sha

C. Unspecialized. Resembling usual Toenton forms.

* Some “ forging” of specimens has been carried on in the Somme Val-

ley, as the drawers full of imitations at St. Germain, and the specimens

shown me in the Du Mesnil collection prove. M. du Mesnil has even detec-

ted skillful attempts at imitation of white patina at Amiens. He informed

me that my unpatinated specimens were genuine. But they can be elimi-

nated from the evidence without depriving it of much force.

1893.] Quarry Refuse in America and Europe. 969

important shapes found in the Abbeville pits. Figs. 4 and 5

present fifteen representative specimens from Trenton, in the

Abbott collection at the Peabody Museum, Cambridge, Mass.

IG, 4. #

Trenton specimens of argillite from the Abbott collection, Peabody Museum,

Cambridge, Massachusetts (photographed by kind permission of Professor Putnam,

and Dr. C. C. Abbott, in September, 1893). Tickets show catalogued number of

specimens, date of discovery, site, depth in Trenton gravels, etc., as stated in the

Museum records,

so finely worked as B (the duplicate of our heavier cache spe-

maar, while A, the most striking of all the “ coups de poing,"

T As, for instance, the 8185 flint blades arranged in sets of about 15, in

mound 5 of the Hopewell group on the north Fork of Paint Creek, Ross

Co., Ohio, pcd ered in 1847 by Squier d Davis and fully cwm in

1891 by Mr. W. K. Mo odii hen (Primitive Man in Ohio, p. 189 the

6107 dead blades, similarly placed, found by Dr. J. F. Snyder in 1890; in

a mound on the right ( Illinois) river bank near peer n, Brown

County, Illinois. (See The Archeologist for Oct., 189

970 The American Naturalist. [November,

scarcely worked at the large end where the nodule surface

often remains, and finely specialized into a narrow point at the

other, is, with the exception of the three specimens in Fig. 5,

(the only ones of the kind from Trenton with a record as to

depth and position), unlike anything in the described Trenton

series, nor is it fairly duplicated by any of the American quarry

or workshop discoveries that I have seen.

In the Boucher de Perthes Museum there are (down stairs)

48 specimens of A, (Fig. 3) and 47 of D. Inthe British Museum,

192 British specimens of A (Fig. 3) and 30 of B. Of C there are

32 in the Boucher de Perthes, and 97 (from Britain) in the

British Museum, and the fact that these latter, savein material,

are exactly resembled by the Trenton forms and American

quarry specimens, brings us to the next question.

IMPLEMENTS FINISHED AND UNFINISHED.

Are the European specimens finished implements? In at-

tempting to answer which the following facts offer some sug-

gestion.

Of the 48 French (Boucher de Perthes, Abbeville) examples

of A (Fig. 3), all very rude and unworked at base, where 28

retain the pebble surface, 29 are quite unmistakably special-

ized at the point ; and of these 29, 10 look freshand unused, while

19 seem to show signs of use or water wear. Of the 152 Brit-

ish (Museum) A's, 96 are unmistakably specialized at the point,

while very rude, and generally showing nodule surface at the

base.

Eleven of the 47 French B's (well-specialized all around, 3

to 5 inches long), show signs of use or rolling.

Of the 32 French C's about 14 look rolled or used, and of the

97 British C's (of whieh W. G. Smith's unused-looking speci-

men resting on the elephant bone, in the “ Paleolithic floor"

case, is one), about 20 are made, not of flint, but of red

quartzite.

Water, rather than use, may have rolled and nicked the edges

of any of these flints (except, perhaps, W. G. Smith's) since they

were made, and if we must eliminate these battered cutting

edges (which I did not look for in the British cases) from the

1893. Quarry Refuse in America and Europe. 971

y fre p

pros and cons of a gravel specimen, whether in Europe or

America, nothing remains for the student but analogy with

stone implementa from other regions.

Judged by this, the 77 French and British B’s might have

to be left out, because they resembled American cache forms.

But the 19 French and the 152 British A’s, rude masses taper-

ing to fine points, could not, until some ground of doubt is

suggested, escape the category of finished implements.

o. 16161. No. 45913.

+ feet from surface, Gravel of Trenton R. R. cut, 7 feet.

R. R. cut, 1878. bluff, 7 feet. May, 1888.

FIG. 5. 4

Three Trenton specimens (Abbott collection, Peabody Museum, Cambridge, Mass. ), rude at base and

worked to points, penne. (though "eme: the specialization of E latter) the dem based pointed

forms from Europe (see Fic. 3, A). abels on the margin give the Museum record.

As to the eating of pues forms in the "nent SEN M.

du Mesnil makes a statement which, though contradicted by

8 Five of the 47 French are little ones, from 21 to 3 in. long, also well-

specialized. The 30 British specimens of B are much ruder than the

French. There are also 5 or 6 little French specimens, 2 to 23 in. long,

of the rude pattern C. Eighteen French or 56 British look like blocked

out or unfinished forms of A.

972 The American Naturalist. [November,

certain archeologists is of the greatest interest to the Ameri-

can student—that while A and C begin at the oldest layers

and continue through the newest, B only begins in the middle

stratum (with the Mammoth), to continue thenceforth with the

others to the top.’

Granted the correctness of this observation, the student of

American quarries would be tempted to call C, when lying as

it does in the later beds, at or near the more perfect forms, a

“ waster or reject,” a preliminary step in their manufacture.

When found alone, however, in lower strata of the same

gravel, he must fairly ask whether it does not represent an

earlier stage in the process of stone chipping, when the savage,

unskilled to proceed farther in the then experimental art,

would have halted and treated asa finished tool, the same

form which later, where finer work was understood and re-

quired, he would have cast aside as a “ reject.”

This brings us to the last question :

THE “ WASTER " OF THE EUROPEAN (“ NEOLITHIC”) QUARRY.

Are there late Stone Age quarries abroad, which, like the

American sites, tell a story of bocked out “ wasters " resem-

bling gravel forms ?

At Grimes Graves (near Brandon, Suffolk, England) Canon

Greenwell found, in 1880, surface conditions resembling those

at Macungie, Lehigh Co., Pennsylvania).'® After digging 40

feet down into an ancient pit, he discovered horizontal galleries,

and in them several chalk cups, a phallic figure cut in chalk,

and pick-axes made of stag antlers, on one of which was the

*'The opponents of this statement say that B has been found in the old-

est layer. Its advocates, that when such has seemed the case, the speci-

mens tumbled down through the ravining of streams. Unfortunately, it

appears that in the demonstration of these points, few exact records have

been kept of the stratigraphic position of specimens discovered. None,

as far as I could learn, had been photographed in place, and probably

not one in fifty was found by a scientific observer with his own hands. ‘‘We

need,” said M. Reinach, in the St. Germain Museum, ‘‘a kind of hermit

to live in the ibm and pounce upon specimens as workmen find

w See Notes un Derlon of Aboriginal Jasper quarries in the Lehigh

Hills in 1891-92 (Popular Science Monthly, September, He

1893.] Quarry Refuse in America and Europe. 973

muddy imprint of a human hand. Cissbury (near Worthing,

Sussex, England) explored by Col. A. Lane Fox, in 1867-75,

repeated in general these discoveries.

At Grand Pressigny (near Tours, France) the fields are

scattered with nuclei and thin flakes of flint worked from

neighboring rock in situ, and no dont there are hundreds of

other European quarries yet g the handi-

craft of runs living in times geologically more recent than

the drift.

But Spiennes (near Mons in Belgium) will suit our purpose.

Here M. M. Cornet and Briart saw, in 1868, a railway cut expose

pits and horizontal burrows as at Grimes Graves and Ciss-

bury, in one of which, at a depth of 8 or 10 feet, a fire-site and

potsherds were found. The surface and slope of the chalk hill

along the little valley of the Trouille, though talus hides the

pit profiles, and the surface depressions are level, is still littered

thick with refuse, which is, if we may believe European

archeology, the work of a man who could make pottery and

polish stone tools, and who, as compared with the Drift savage of

the Somme is, geologically speaking, a modern individual.

I visited Spiennes in March, 1893, and, after seeing a neigh-

boring collection, and carefully examining the refuse-covered

area and several piles of “ pierres taillés" in adjoining gardens,

gathered with my own hands and obtained from peasants on

- the spot, a fairly illustrative series of the chipped forms of the

quarry.

Figure 6,omitting nuclei and unworked chips, represents

the types of the collection (142 specimens in all, including 4

hammer-stones).

Again, as in the American quarries, the story of partly fin-

ished implements preceded by “ wasters " and inchoate forms,

"Le, according to the European classification, the men of (a) the

cave period, (b) the neolithie period, (c) the bronze period.

The paleolithic cave men, who, as we are told, never polished stone,

polished bone, and scratched outlines of animals on bone, superior in

realistie skill to anything done in the Bronze and Neolithic Ages. At

Solutre, they chipped long, thin blades, equal to fine Mexican and

Californian specimens, and at the quarries and workshops where these

were fashioned, the American student might expect to find a set of

** wasters " very familiar in appearance, yet. certainly ‘‘paleolithic.”

974 The American Naturalist. [November,

is plainly told. The considerably specialized results of the

stone chipper’s work at Spiennes, are shown in the two groups,

and B.

Of A—a long, narrow blade, worked to a point—I have 7

broken examples, and of B—the chipped celt—worked toa

round cutting edge, 8 specimens likewise broken. Both A and

B are plainly ushered in by a series of rude, less-specialized

shapes, group a (of which there are 36) tending toward A,

and group b (of which I have 35) tending toward B."

When we come to group C, representing a series of inchoate

masses, 19 in number, too little worked to be classified with

the rugged relatives of either A or B, we realize a self-evident

fact often before forced upon our attention. Having descended

too far in the scale of chipped forms, we have lost our bear-

ings. Judgment by type is at an end. Inference is danger-

ous. We have reached the point where the fortunately-dis-

covered hearth, the blackened potsherd, or half-eaten bone

must. help to tell the tale—the point where all stones flaked

. but of a few chips, like “all cats in the dark,” are alike.

And the fact that this group C, from Spiennes, certainly

runs into and resembles the rude drift forms from the Somme

(Fig. 3, C) the American quarry-refuse specimens above

. noted, and Trenton Specimens (Fig. 4) means but little, when

we observe, as we must, that the most specialized forms from

the Spiennes quarry (Fig. 6, A and B) and Drift (Fig. 3, A and

B) are quite unlike. Here we infer, if we may infer anything

from the shape of worked stones, that where the quarry man

was aiming at a thin, elongated blade, or a celt with round

cutting edge, the Drift Man was working out a broad, leaf-

shaped form, or the unique massive ended “coup de poing.”

12 Two broken, poltahed celts, (group B) were obtained by me from à

peasant at Nouvelles, 13 miles away. But a peasant at Spiennes spoke

of finding polished celis near the pits. So does Canon Greenwell, quoting

M. M. Cornet and Briart in Journal of London Ethnological Society, 1871,

p. 433.

* The above numbers are given as they, from my own observation, seem to

show roughly the Main oo among the refuse, between the more

finished and rude form

1893.] Quarry Refuse in America and Europe. 975

SUMMARY.

To sum up the above conclusions. A visitor, though refus-

ing to take anything on authority, could find no fair reason to

doubt that the French implements are found in place in the

Somme gravels associated with quaternary fossils, as asserted

by European writers. The whole question is simplified by the

frequency of bones.

The Trenton specimens, though resembling the ruder and

less specialized French types, never upirale the specialized

orms. The shape alone of the remarkable “coup de poing”

E 1G. 4.4%

Aniline stone flakes (unspecialized) set in gum handles and used as knives,

(Photographed by kind permission of Mr. C. H. Read, British Museum).

(Fig. 3, A) separates it from all Trenton specimens (except the

three in Fig. 5). But its best examples are well-specialized, as

is its more familiar leaf-shaped companion (Fig. 3, B), while

none of the Trenton specimens are so.

976 The American Naturalist. [November,

Judged by the American quarry standard, certain of the

above-mentioned ruder French forms (Fig. 3, might be

classed as “rejects” thrown aside by the Drift Man in the fash-

ioning of his finer blades (A and B).

The European neolithic quarry of Spiennes, like the Ameri-

can quarries, illustrates the production of “ wasters” in the

fashioning of large stone implements. But, in its more

specialized results, the chipped celt and the long, narrow blade,

FIG. 8. -$

Stone discs (resembling the * Teshoas" seen by Dr. Leidy in use among the Fort

Bridger Shoshones as hide scrapers, in 1870) and river pebbles from which similar

discs have been chipped. Found at Indian surface village sites in Delaware and Sus-

quehanna Valleys in 1892.

it offers no resemblance to the leaf-shaped “ hache ” (Fig. 3, B)

and the massive-ended * coup de poing" (Fig. 3, A) of the

Somme drift.

hile making these comparisons, we have realized that the

light thrown upon the subject by the study of American quar-

ries, important as it is, by no means settles the manner by

1893.] Quarry Refuse in America and Europe. 977

which all peoples in an age of stone made their blade-like im-

plements, or gives us a universal clue to a “finished imple-

ment " wherever found.

We must bear in mind (1) that the Easter Island hafted ob-

sidian splinters (Fig. 9) and the Australian unworked flakes

(Fig. 7) set in masses of * black boy " gum, for use as knives,

hammering tools or saws, prove that specialization is not

a universal test of a finished implement. Though as

“finished " as arrow-heads, who would call them so when the

mounts had rotted? And who could distinguish the white

flint flakes used recently by the Andamanese to shave their

heads," or the Admirality Island knife-chips of obsidian minus

the gum, from “quarry refuse.”

(2) That the “ Teshoas” used as scrapers by the Shoshones

(observed near Fort Bridger by Dr. Joseph Leidy in 1870)," of

which I have found duplicates in the Delaware and Susque-

hanna Valleys, together with the pebbles from which it appears

that they have been knocked (see Fig. 8)", are, though finished

implements, not specialized, and illustrate a phase of pebble

chipping not noted in the study of quarries.

(3) That the above-mentioned Easter Island hafted splinters,

(See Fig. 9) though again finished implements, could not have

been preceded by “turtlebacks” in their manufacture, and that

the Jasper flake exhibited in the National Museum (see Ray Col-

lection and Smithsonian Report, 1886, part 1, plate XX) as the

starting point for arrow-head making among the north-west

coast Indians, would probably not have looked like a “ turtle-

back " or * quarry reject " if cast aside after partial working.

I found several little “ turtlebacks " at the Jasper quarry at

Maeungie (about one inch in length), while the well-worked

end of a small blade protruding from a shapeless mass at the

Saucon Creek quarry, seemed to evidence a procedure not

13 See Observations by Col. A. Lane Fox, Journal of the Anthropologi-

cal Inst. of Great Britain, etc., May, 1878, p. 446.

14 See Hayden’s U. S. Geological Report for 1873.

13 See paper on ‘‘Pebbles Chipped by Modern Indians, as an Aid to the

Study of the Trenton Gravel Implements," Proc. Am. Ass. for Adv. of

Sci., Vol. XLI, 1892, p. 287.

978 The American Naturalist. [November,

involving the production of “quarry rejects” of leaf-shaped

form. And it seems hard to escape the conclusion that if

in some American cases the finished arrow-head or small

blade is the fit survivor of a family of leaf-shaped “ rejects;” in

others (as certainly in the Mexican flake arrow, worked only

on one side), it sprung from the nearest available chip, no

more resembling the ovate quarry forms and Trenton speci-

mens than would a bit of ill-worked bottle glass cast aside by

California Indians.

FIG. 9. 3

Rude hafted flakes of obsidian from Easter Isl

(Photographed by the kind permission of Mr. mme H. Read, British Museum).

1893.] Editorials. 979

EDITORIALS.

—Ir has always been recognized that scientific research is greatly

furthered by the exchange of the various objects with which that

research is concerned. For the transmission of objects of Natural His-

tory from one country to another, the mails have offered a cheap,

speedy and reliable means. Heretofore, through the laxity with which

the regulations on the subject have been enforced, it has been possible :

to enter such objects in the mails of the Universal Postal Union as

samples of merchandise and under the rates of postagetherefor. From

. official information lately received from the Post Office Department of

the United States it appears that such a rating is entirely unauthorized

by existing provisions, and that objects of Natural History may be

mailed to countries of the Union only at the rates required for letters.

The United States Post Office Department also states that it had

recently submitted a proposition to the countries composing the Postal

Union, to modify the regulations so that such specimens might be

received into the mails at the same rates as samples of merchandise;

but that a sufficient number of those countries had voted against the

proposition to defeatit. The countries which voted negatively are Aus-

tria, Bolivia, British India, Canada, Germany, Great Britain, Guate-

mala, Hungary, Japan, Norway, Portugal, Russia, Spain, Sweden,

Tunis, Uruguay, Venezuela.

he Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia has therefore

resolved to address the various scientific bodies,- with which it is in

communication, in those countries whose Governments have voted

against the proposition, and to request those scientific bodies to memo-

rialize their respective Governments in favor of thesame. The follow-

ing circular has been prepare

The Government of having voted in the negative, this

Academy respectfully requests the favorable consideration of this

question by your Society, and begs that it take such steps as it deems

advisible to inform the Postal authorities of of the mani-

fest advantages to scientific research which would result from the adop-

tion of the proposed modification, and to request those authorities to

take such steps as may result in the adoption of the same. The letter

rate for postage (Universal Postal Union) is ten times that required

for samples of merchandise; such a rate for specimens of Natural His-

tory is virtually prohibitive. This Academy would respectfully urge

upon your honorable Society prompt action on this matter if it meets

with that approval which we so strongly desire.

President, Recording Secretary.

980 The American Naturalist. [November,

As the above list of countries includes all the great powers of Europe

excepting France and Italy, the necessity for the proposed action is

evident.

_—We have received the first number of a new geological periodical,

“The Glaeialist Magazine," published in London. The editorial

corps includes the names of some well-known and able geologists, one

of whom is an American. That this journal will be well edited we

have no doubt, but we have some doubts of the propriety of adding

another to the list of geological magazines now in existence. These

number, in the United States alone, without counting more general

scientific periodicals, five, the new one being the sixth which asks

for a subscription. The probability obviously is, that unless they

can be circulated gratuitously, new journals must faii of sufficient

financial support. Such subscriptions as they receive are more or less

likely to be withdrawn from existing journals, so that these may

become impoverished. ^ Geologists should rather concentrate than

divide their publications.

— Tnt able geologist, Mr. W. T. McGee, has been appointed Direc-

tor of the Bureau of Ethnology at Washington. Mr. McGee’s im port-

ant contributions to Geology are well-known, and we therefore fail to

see the propriety of his transfer to another field where he has been

until recently unknown. We say until recently, for he has become

recently unfavorably known in Anthropology for an unparliamentary

review of Professor G. F. Wright's book. This appointment was, of

course, made by officials who were, we suppose, unacquainted with the

facts in the case. We can only say that appearances would have been

saved by a greater delay in the appointment; and anthropology would

have been benefited by a longer apprenticeship on the part of Mr.

MeGee. :

SoME TIME ago the Legislature of the State of Arkansas passed a res-

olution, which, declares that the pronunciation of the name of the state

is Arkansaw and not Arkansas. Persons who are in a position to

know, are aware that this resolution expresses the custom of the people

of the State, and ofthe countries immediately adjoining, while in the east

and elsewhere, the name is pronounced Arkansas, so as to agree with

the pronunciation of the names of the States of Texas and Kansas.

These customs have been fixed for a long time, for we find in Lewis

and Clark’s narration of their expedition, which was published in 1823,

1893.] Editorials. 981

the name spelled Arkansa. It is evident that this spelling according

to the French pronunciation expresses that which long custom has

made correct in English, and it therefore seems that it should be

adopted in geographies and on maps, so that the confusion resulting

from the pronunciation of the names Texas and Kansas may not be

perpetuated. The case is quite different with regard to the native

pronunciation of the name Missouri, which is Mizzoura. This is not

supported by any linguistic reason, and is provincialism which time

will probably abolish.

982 The American Naturalist. [November,

RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS.

ALLEN, H.—Introduction to a Monograph of the North American Bats. Notes

on the Gh of Vespertilionide. Extr. Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVI,

. BLATCHLEY, W. S.—On a Collection of Batrachians and Reptiles from Mount

Orizaba, Mexico, with Sis of two new Species. Extr. Proceeds. U. S. Natl.

Mus., Vol. XVI, 1898. From the Mus

BOURDEAU, L.—Conquéte due Monde "Vegetal. Paris, 1898. From M. Félix

UR, G.—Das Variiren der Eidechsen- -Gattung Tropidurus auf den Galapagos-

Inseln. Separat-Abdruck aus der Festschrift zum siebenzigsten Geburstage Rudolf

Leuckarts. onis g. 1892. From the author

Bronn, H. G.—Klaussen und Gineng des Their- Foih, Vierter Bd. Wür-

mer, 189

Bulletin No. 90 a, and 90 b, North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station, 1893.

Bulletin No. 30, Division of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agricul., 1893. From the

Dept. Agricul.

Bulletin No. 3, Idaho Agricultural Experiment Station, 1893.

Bulletin No. 9, New Mexico Coll. Agricultural Experiment Station, 1892.

Bulletin No. 26, Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, 1893.

Bulletin No. 20, Rhode Isiand College Agri. Experiment Station, 1892

EIGENMANN, C.—Catalogue of the Fresh-Water Fishes of Central America and

Southern Med. Extr. Proceeds. U. $. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVI, 1893. From the

jen:

FEWwKzs, J. W.—A Central American Ceremony which suggests the Snake Dance

of the Tess an Dre nie Extr. Am. Anthrop, 1893. From the author.

FISH

Pana i ui No. 3, Div. Ornith. and Mam., U. S. Dept. of Agric., Wash-

ington, e a € Dept. Agric

GAUDRY, A. aurus bur; soya ME Bull. Soc. d'Hist. Nat. d'Autun,

T, Ci Soda: (année, 18 T 899). rom m au

GILBERT, G. K.— Continental Per vti di Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. IV, 1893.

From the author

GoLDI, E. A.—Zur Orientierung in der Spinnenfauna Brasiliens. Senderabdruck

aus Mitteilungen aus dem nd rlande, Neue Folge, 5

HEDLEY, C., AND H. SUTER.— Reference List of the Led and Fresh-Water Mol-

lusca of New Zealand. Ext P TBRN Linn. Soc. New South Wales. Vol. VII

1892. From the author

HoLpeR, C. F. dut À gassiz; his Life and Work. New York and London,

ers. i

HoLLick, A.—The Paleontology of the Ci Formation on Staten Island.

Contributions from the Geol. Dept. Columbia Coll., No. II, Extr. Trans. New York

Acad. Sci. , Vol. XI, No, * 1892. From the author.

1893.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. 983

Homes, W. H AIN of Glacial Man in Ohio. Extr. Journ. -Geol., Vol. I,

1893. From the au

KLINCKOWSTROM, t PEPON tpi über den Scheitelfleck bei Embryonen

einiger Schwimmvógel. Abdruck Zool. Jahrb., Bd. 5 Abth. f. Morphol. From the

author.

LANKESTER, E. R. E : the Knowledge of Rhabdopleura and Amphi-

oxus. n ru From the

CCORMICK, clin i of the Fishes of Lorain Co., Ohio. Labor-

atory Bull, ee = eae Coll. . From the author.

MEEK, S. E.—Report upon the Fishes of Ohio, based upon observations and col-

lections made prm. ng 1890, and 1891. Extr. Bull. U. S. Fish Comm. for 1890.

From the author. :

MoNTANDON, A..L..—Notes on American Hemiptera heteroptera. . Extr. Proceeds.

U.S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVI, 1893. From the Museum.

Museum Hand-books of the Manchester Museum, Owen's College. .Catalogue of

the Type Fossils. Outline Classification of the Animal Kingdom; Outline Classifi-

cation of pe one — m. Manchester, 1893. From the Museum.

Nutt C. C.—Report on Zoological . Explorations on the Saskatchewan River.

Extr. Ay PERSE nd Nat. Hist., Iowa State University, Jan., 1893. From the

author.

OsBonN, H.—Report on Experiments and Studies in Entomology. Extr. Bull. No.

19, Iowa. Wives Station, 1892. From the author.

PACKARD, A. S.—Studies on the Life Hid of some Bodbydué Moths, with

Notes on the Sete and Spines of Certain Species. Extr. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., Vol.

VIII, 1893. From the author.

PETTEE, J. T.—A Review vi the de 1892. Annual Address before the Meriden

Scientific E From utho

PILLIN Mida he efi the Asper Languages. [ssued by the Bureau

of Biol. MUTIBEAGÀ Institution, 1892. From the Smithsonian Institution.

RICE, R. H.— Black Rot of the Grape. Extr. Bull. No. 23, Texas Agricul. Sta-

. Prospectus of a Monograph of the Birds of Paradise, and the Bower-Birds, by R.

— Sharp. London, 1892. From H. H. Sotheran & Co., Pub.

IES, H.— Notes on the Clays of New York State and their Economic Value.

es Sane New York Acad, Sci., Vol. XII, 1892. From the author.

RYDER, J. A.— The Principle of the Coli vili of Energy in Biological Evolu-

tion. A Reclamation and Critique. Extr. Proceeds. Phila. Acad. Sci., 1892. From

the author.

ScHMIDT, L.—Untersuchungen zur Kenntniss des Wirbelbaues von Amia calva.

Inaugural Dissertation der Math. und Naturw. Fakultät Kaiser-Wilhelms - Univer-

sitàt Disi d zur feriae: 2 der Dea g 1892. From the author.

JOTT, A Revision of the North American Creodonta, with notes on some

Genera 1 en been referred to that group. Extr. Phila. Acad., 1892. From

the author

984 The American Naturalist. [November,

SCUDDER, S. H.—Brief vm to the Common Butterflies of the Northern United

States and Canad New York, 1893. From Henry Holt & Co., Pub

Seven teenth cast Meee of the "ires and Mecbetiesl College of

olle

page R. W.—A Study of the Fossil. pcr of the Equus Beds of the Ore-

gon Desert. Extr. Journ. Phils. Acad., Vol. IX. From the author.

SMITH, J.*P.—Die Jurabildungen des Kahlberges bei Echte. Inaugural-Disserta-

tion zur Erlangung der philosophischen Doctorwürde an der George-Augusts-Univer-

sitat. Sonderabdruck aus dem Jahrbuch de. kónigl. Preuss. Sa aie Landes-

anstalt und Bergakademie zu Berlin für das Jahr 1891. From the author.

STANTON, T. W.—The Faunas T the Shasta and Chico Sl EY Extr. Bull.

Geol. Soc. An. Vol. IV, 1893. m the Society

STILES, C, W.—Notes on cag Extr. Journ. Comp. Med. and Veter. Arch.,

eni From the autho

STOKES, A. heated Keys to the Genera and Species of the Fresh-Water

Algae and the bodie: of the United States. Portland, Conn., 1893. From the

author.

UPHAM —Eskers near Me N. Y. Extr. Proceeds. Rocher Acad. Sci.,

Vol. H, sem From the au

WEBER, M.—Zoologische id einer Reise in Nederlándisch Ost-Indien.

reum na. Zweites Heft, DRAN 1892.

WICKERSHAM, J.— Is it ** Mt. Tacoma” or “ Rainier?” Extr. Proceeds. Tacoma

Acad. Sci., 1893. From the author.

1893.] Recent Literature. 985

RECENT LITERATURE.

Iowa Geological Survey.'— The first annual report of the Iowa

Geological Survey just issued is unusually attractive in appearance,

and presents an interesting array of papers. That by Professor Calvin

deals with some phases, of the, as yet, imperfectly known Cretaceous

deposits occurring in Woodbury and Plymouth counties, and contributes

important information concerning them. These deposits in the area

studied consist of soft sandstone interstratified with bands of ferruginous

nodules and variegated, often parti-colored, clays, overlaid by white, or

yellowish chalk, in part indurated into beds of soft fissile limestone.

White, in his report of 1870, termed this chalk the Inoceramus bed,

from the great numbers of Inoceramus problematicus found in it, while

the lower beds were called the Woodbury sandstone and shales. Pro-

fessor Calvin, mainly on paleontological evidence, separates the latter

into two divisions, the lower of which, chiefly sandstones containing

impressions of leaves belonging to species of plants resembling our

modern forest trees and with animal remains exceedingly scarce, he

correlates with the Dakota group of Meek and Hayden. The second

division, principally shales containing impressions of valves of marine

molluscs associated with the vertebrse of bony fishes and the skeletons

of marine saurians, is the Fort Benton group of the same authors,

while the chalk represents their Niobrara group. The few molluscan

remains found in the beds of the Dakota {group are related to brackish

water species and imply that the beds were laid down in an estuary, or

at least in a region where the sea was shallow and large volumes of

fresh water were poured into it.

The beds of the second division show a gradual duns in the con-

ditions of deposition owing to the deepening of the sea and the shift-

ing of shore line farther east. True marine molluscs, and fishes and

reptiles occupied the region, and left their skeletons to be buried in the

finer mud that characterized the deposits then slowly accumulating in

the open sea.

During the succeeding epoch where the chalk and shell-bearing lime-

stones were forming, the water, by subsidence of the ocean bed, had

become deeper, and the shore-line of the Cretaceous sea attained its

farthest extension eastward probably reaching as far as the Mississippi

! First Annual Report for 1892, with Accompanying Papers. 8vo. 472 pp. with

ten plates and twenty-six figures. Samuel Calvin, State Geologist, Des Moines, 1893.

986 The American Naturalist. [November,

in northwestern Iowa. Inoceramus multiplied over the sea bottom as

oysters, if undisturbed, would crowd a modern oyster bed. Sharks

disputed possession with the bony fishes and marine saurians. Every-

thing betokens a deep, clear, open sea that spread away from the shore

line in Iowa, over all the intervening plain, to the present site of the

Rocky Mountains. Recent excavations and cuttings have shed much

light on the Iowa Cretaceous and the present survey which will doubt-

less add much to our knowledge of this important group of. rocks,

There are two formations in Iowa, probably belonging to the Cretaceous,

whose exact stratigraphical relations are at present doubtful, viz.; the

Fort Dodge gypsum deposits and the Nishuabrtua sandstone.

The assistant state geologist, C. R. Keyes, contributes several papers

the most important of which is on the classification of the Iowa forma-

tions. While in large part merely a summary of the work done upon

these rocks in recent years by various workers, it also presents someimpor-

tant considerations derived from the author's personal investigations

In the revision of the classification, some needed changes in nomen-

clature appear, as St. Croix for Potsdam, Oneota for Lower Magnesian,

etc. The attempt to correlate the Iowa rocks with the New York sec-

tion is wisely abandoned. In the classification of the Lower Carbo-

niferous, the formations included between the Kinderhook below and

the St. Louis beds above are grouped together under the term Augusta.

These beds comprise what Williams’ called the Osage group, a name

here shown to be inapplieable.

It is in his discussion of the Coal Measures, however, that the author

departs most widely from the generally accepted views of Iowa geology.

After some general considerations of the Coal Measure deposits, he

calls attention to the two classes of sediments generally recognized, viz. ;

marginal or shore deposits, and those laid down in the open sea. In

the Coal measures, as elsewhere, the first of these is characterized by

rocks predominantly clay, shales and sandstones with practically no

limestones. The sandstones often form great lenticular masses, some-

times deeply channelled on the upper surface, the excavations being

filled with Coal Measure clays. These and many other phenomena

attest a constantly shifting shore line and the shallow waters. The

fossils are nearly all brackish water forms or shore species. On the

other hand, the second class of deposits above mentioned is made up

largely of calcareous shales with heavy beds of limestone. The for-

mer are chiefly composed of strictly open sea forms.

* H. S. Williams, Bul. U. S. Geol. Surv., No. 80, p. 109.

1893.] Recent Literature. 987

As the conditions of deposition were evidently those of a slowly

sinking sea shore, the marginal deposits or Lower Coal Measures prac-

tically underlie the open sea formations or the Upper Coal Measures.

Hence in the use of the terms Lower and Upper, though allowable in

a general way, it must be remembered that along any particular plane

the two series of deposits are contemporaneous and their separation

therefore would be represented by an oblique rather than a horizontal

plane. Under this view the author proposes to divide the Coal Measures

or Pennsylvanian series into (1) the Des Moines stage, representing the

marginal deposits, thus including all the coal, and (2) the Missouri stage

representing the marine deposits. These correspond essentially with

the Lower and Upper Coal Measures as ordinarily given. The coal

seams are shown to have but a limited extent generally, and to be

nearly worthless for correlation purposes. The seams vary from a few

inches to seven or eight, and even ten feet in thickness, the average of

the seams now worked being between four and five feet. They are not

disposed in continuous layers over the whole area as commonly sup-

posed, but in numerous lenticular masses from a few yards to several

miles in extent. Being confined to the marginal areas they are asso-

ciated principally with the sediments characterizing that class of depos-

its, and have a sligbt seaward slope. They were laid down over an

ancient eroded surface with hills and vales, ridges and gorges, and

overlap Lower Carboniferous, Devonian, and even Silurian rocks. The

paper is illustrated with numerous figures and diagrams showin

graphically the structure of the Iowa coal field, and the essential dif-

ferences between the views here advanced and those commonly held.

Other papers of value are presented by S. W. Beyer, H. F. Barie

and G. L. Houser. That of Mr. Beyer treats of an interesting discov-

ery of eruptive rock in a deep well at Hull, Iowa, at a depth of seven

hundred and fifty-five feet, interstratified with beds of sandstone con-

stituting what was considered to be Sioux Quartzite.

Additional facts bearing upon this occurrence of eruptive rocks in

Iowa will be looked for with interest.

As a whole the report shows marked wideness of taste and care in

its makeup, though the proof reader evidently mislaid his glasses at

certain points, or was it the typo who failed to note the corrections ?

C HG

Correlation Papers—The Newark System.'— This essay, pre-

pared by Mr. I. C. Russell as a bulletin, is the sixth of the series of

3 Bulletin of the United States Geological Survey, No. 85. Correlation Papers—

The Newark System. By I. C. Russell, Washington, 1892.

988 The American Naturalist. [November,

Correlation Papers issued by the U. S. Geological Survey. Originally

Mr. Russell intended to cover the entire Jura-Trias of North America,

but circumstances compelled him to restrict his attention to those of the

Atlantic border. This particular body of rocks the author calls the

Newark System, a name proposed by W. C. Redfield in 1856, giving

as a reason that it is the oldest specific title not implying opinion as to

geologic age. These rocks extend from North Carolina to New Bruns-

wick and Nova Scotia, but not to Prince Edward’s Island, as has been

asserted. They occur in narrow belts trending parallel to the appli-

cation folds, covering an area of 10,000 square miles. It is Mr. J.

Russell’s opinion that the evidence now at hand bears out the theory

that these detached areas are remnants of a once broad terrace which

has been broken by orographic movements and greatly eroded.

The sedimentary rocks of the Newark System, consisting chiefly of

sandstone and shale, were deposited in tide-swept estuaries, while the

carbonaceous shales and coal seams originated in basins more shut off

from the seas. The trap rocks are a part of the great system of dikes

and sheets which intersect the surrounding crystalline and paleozoic

rocks. The evidence of glacial action during the Newark period, Mr.

Russell thinks is weak.

In diseussing the relations of the Newark system to other terranes

the author refers to the difficulty of correlating the rocks of America

with those of other countries, and concludes that biological phenomena

as a means of correlating, can be safely used only after the relative

age of the strata has been determined from physical phenomena,

Paleontologists of the Vertebrata will not concur in this view, for the

vertebrate fossils indicate conclusively that the formation contains at

least the representation of the upper member of the Trias or the

Keuper. This was first definitely pointed out by E. D. Cope in 1866.

The volume is accompanied by a very full bibliography, and is illus-

trated by many handsomely executed colored and uncolored plates.

The colors of the geological maps are in general accordance with those

in use by geologists.

Spalding’s Guide to the Study of Common Plants. It isa

pleasant thing to take up a new book and find our expectations not dis-

* Proceedings of The Philadelphia Academy, pp. 249-50, 290. This reference is

omitted by Mr. Russell from his table of determinations on p. 17, but is included in’

the Bibliography on p. 170.

5 An introduction to Botany. By Volney M. Spalding, Professor of Botany in the

University of Michigan. Boston, U. S. A. D. C. Heath & Co., Publishers, 1893, pp.

XIII 246. ;

1893.] Recent Literature. 989

appointed. The author of the little work before us has for many years

been a successful teacher of Botany in one of our great State Univer-

sities, and has had not only the experience which his own teaching has

brought him, but he has seen much of the results of botanical teach-

ing in the high schools which annually send up their graduates to the

University. The book is intended for use in such preparatory schools

and was prepared in answer to frequent inquiries from high sobol

teachers.

The leading thought in the book may be gathered from the following

sentence in the chapter addressed to the teacher. “In order to use

these exercises successfully it will be necessary to adopt the laboratory

as distinguished from the text-book method of instruction.

Two short chapters are given to the discussion of the proper outfit

for a botanical laboratory for high schools.

One of these includes lists of works of reference hnde several heads :

“ Laboratory Manaels,” “ Structural and Physiological,” “ Morphologi-

cal and Systematic," “ Floras,” “Cryptogamic Botany,” “General,”

and “ Current Literature.” The lists are well made and the author

well says the books named “ought to have a place in any respectable

school library.”

The other chapter under this head gives good suggestions about the

laboratory itself, the tables, microscope (small “ Continental” stands

recommended), glassware, regents, etc.

Then follow laboratory studies of seeds, growth of plants from ‘the

seed, root, leaf, flower and fruits. These serve to train the pupil to

close observation. He then takes up the careful study of plants repre-

senting the natural groups of the vegetable kingdom. Thus the “ Sea-

weeds and their Allies” are represented by pond scum (Spirogyra) and

green felt ( Vaucheria) ; mosses and liverworts are taken next, followed

by ferns, horsetails, club-mosses, the pine family, the grass family, etc.,

though Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons, ending with the Composite.

The treatment reminds one of that in Arthur, Barnes and Coulter's

“Plant Dissection,” of course much simplified.

The author has adopted a modification of Eichler's sequence of the

families of the flowering plants. Very properly, too, he makes a dis-

tinction between “ families” and “ orders” (. 241).

The book will, if used by o high pese do maoh to mn the

Itvafbhot l stimu-

late s tome of our colleges also to better work than they have been doing.

CHARLES E. Bessey.

990 The American Naturalist. [November,

Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey,

1889-90. Part I.^—This quarto volume of 757 pages constitutes a

record of the geological work of the survey for the years 1889-90. It

comprises the report of the Director, giving a general account of the

progress of the work during those years, appended to which are the

administrative reports of the chiefs of branches and divisions, and two

scientific papers by members of the survey. Both of these papers, the

first by Mr. W. J. McGee on the Geology of Northeastern Iowa, and

the second by Mr. A. J. Phinney, on Natural Gas Districts in Indiana,

are the result of observations extending through a number of years.

The illustrations are numerous and excellent.

The Report of the Death Valley Expedition.’—This report

is No. 7, of the series “ North American Fauna” published by the U.

S. Agricultural Department. It embraces the following special

reports. Birds by Dr. A. K. Fisher; Reptiles and Batrachians by Dr.

Leonard Stejneger; Fishes by Dr. C. H. Gilbert: Insects by Dr. C.

V. Riley assisted by Drs. S. W. Williston, P. R. Uhler and Lawrence

Bruner; Molluses by Dr. R. E. C. Stearns; Desert Trees and Shrubs

by Dr. C. H. Merriam; Desert Cactuses and Yuccas by Dr. C. H.

Merriam ; and the Localities by T. S. Palmer.

The expedition was under the direction of Dr. C. H. Merriam,

Director of the Department of Animal Industry, who deserves much

credit for the inception and execution of the plan. Asa report of a

single exploration, it is second to none of those sent out at various

times by the Government, if thoroughness of work and importance of

results to geographic, climatic, and hypsometric distribution be consid-

ered. The report on Mammalia which is yet to be issued, will be by Dr.

Merriam, and we may anticipate that much of interest will be brought

to light by its author, who is here in his favorite field.

The geographie distribution of the numerous Species met with, is

stated in terms of the system already adopted by Dr. Merriam in his

report on the distribution of life in Arizona.

In this system Dr. Merriam? discards the usual divisions, which

ê Eleventh Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey to the Secretary

-of the Interior, 1889-90. By J. W. Powell, Director, Part I, Geology, Washing-

ton, 1891.

"The Death Valley Expedition: A Biological Survey of parts of California,

Nevada, Arizona and Utah. Part II, North American Fauna, No. 7. Washington,

1893.

*The Geographic Distribution of Life in North America with special Reference to

the Mammalia; Proc. Biol. Soc., Washington, VII, p. 11. April, 1892.

1893.] Recent Literature. 991

were first proposed by Baird, added to by Cope, and divided by Ver-

rill and Allen, which correspond in great measure with the geological

divisions of the continent, and which arein part divided by lines

approximately meridianal He regards the primary faunal divisions

as corresponding in great measure with parallels of latitude. Thus bis

Sonoran region includes the Sonoran and Austroriparian of Cope,

which thus extends from the Pacific to the Atlantic Ocean. But he

recognizes the two divisions as of distinct though subordinate value,

calling them respectively, the arid and humid districts. He does not

adopt the Pacific nor the central regions. Dr. Merriam admits that

his system does not express the relations of the aquatic vertebrates.

But a system which does not take these into account must be defective.

Moreover it is not difficult to show that the Batrachia and Reptilia as

well as the fishes sustain the system of Baird and Cope, and Dr. J. A.

Allen has shown in a review of Dr. Merriam's paper (published in the

Auk) that the birds do also. The geologic history of the continent has

had everything to do with the origin of this distribution of life, so that

the system which conforms to it is likely to be the correct one.

In regard to the birds observed during the Death Valley Expedition

of 1891, Mr. A. K. Fisher writes as follows :

* Baird's woodpecker ( Dryobates scalaris bairdii) was quite common

among the tree yuecas on the Mohave Desert at Hesperia, and its range

was extended northward to Vegas Valley, Nevada, and the valley of

the Santa Clara, in southwestern Utah, by Dr. Merriam. The vermil-

lion fly-catcher also was secured in the same valley, though previously

unknown north of Fort Mohave, Arizona. The Texas nighthawk

(Chordeiles texensis) was found to be a common summer resident in all

the valleys east of the Sierra Nevada from Owens Valley, California,

to St. George, Utah, where Dr. Merriam secured the eggs. It was

taken also in the San Joaquin Valley, California, near Bakersfield.

Scott’s oriole (Icterus parisorum) is another species whose range was

carried northward from a short distance above our southern border in

California to about latitude 38?, whereit was common in places among

the tree yuccas, and also on the slopes of some of the desert ranges as

high as the junipers and pifions. Costa’s humming-bird ( Claypte costo)

was very common whever water occurred throughout the desert region,

ranging northward nearly to latitude 38?, and eastward to the Beaver-

dam Mountains, Utah. Its nest was frequently found in the low

bushes and cactuses on the hill sides near springs and streams.

“The discovery that the gray-crowned finch (Leucosticte tephrocotis)

breeds in the southern Sierra and in the White Mountains is especially

992 The American Naturalist. [November,

interesting both because its breeding range was previously unknown,

and because no species of the genus had been recorded from the Sierra

Nevada south of about latitude 40°, while the present species was com-

mon nearly to the 36th parallel.

“ Most satisfactory results were accomplished in working out the

distribution of Thurber’s junco (Junco hyemalis thurberi) a recently

described race whose range was not definitely known. In the Sierra

Nevada it was common from the Yosemite Valley, the most northern

point visited by any member of the expedition, to the southern end of

the range, and in the desert ranges eastward to the Grapevine and

Charleston Mountains, where its place was occupied, in winter, at

least, by its more eastern representative, Shufeldt’s junco. The little

black-chinned sparrow (Spizella atrigularis) was found to be not an

uncommon summer resident on the slopes of several of the desert

ranges and also on the east slope of the Sierra Nevada as far north as

Independence Creek in Kearsarge Pass. This was a great surprise, as

heretofore the species has been recorded within our limits only along

the southern border, and its presence was not suspected, until a speci-

men was taken in the Panamint Mountains in April.

* Le Conte’s thrasher (Harporhynchus lecontei) contrary to our

expectations, was a common resident throughout the principal desert

valleys from Owens Valley at the east foot of the Sierra Nevada across

southern California and Nevada to southwestern Utah, where it was

found nearly to the summit of the Beaverdam Mountains." Its range

was found to correspond nearly with that of the curious bush Larrea

mexicana in our limits.

An interesting result is the discovery that the California condor

(Cathartes californianus) is not so rare nor so near to extinction as has

been supposed. A considerable number of individuals were seen b

members of the expedition, mostly on the eastern side of the southern

Sierra Nevada. Now that bisulphide of carbon is taking the place of

strychnia for the destruction of mammalian pests of agriculture, it is

to be hoped that the slaughter of this magnificent bird will be stopped,

and that it will continue to add dignity to the noble scenery in which

it dwells, as long as the country itself continues.

The determinations and descriptions of the Reptilia and Batrachia

of this report are the work of Dr. Stejneger of the U. S. National

Museum, and they are accompanied by field notes by Dr. C. H. Merriam.

In the work of Dr. Stejneger, we see the ornithologist in herpetology.

The critical quality of the work both as to the structural characters,

and the literature, is beyond all praise; but species splitting is carried

1893.] - Recent. Literature, 998

toa length hitherto unknown in the science, and the nomenclature is

reduced to a system which takes in all names, provided they got

printed, no matter how.

Theidentification of some of Baird and Girard's type specimens, and

hence species, is a service for which herpetologists will be grateful, and

Dr. Stejneger places in the hands of naturalists the means of deter-

mining their value. That they will often disagree with his conclusions

as to species, is to be expected. Thus by his own showing Sceloporus

magister is not a different species from S. clarkii, although he thinks it

is; nor Hypsiglena texana Stejneger sp. nov. from H. ochrorhynchus ;

nor Bufo halophilus from B. columbiensis. I have examined the series of

-Orotaphytes in the National Museum with the view of ascertaining the

standing of the recently described C. baileyi Stejn. and C. silus Stejn.,

and I cannot see in them more than poorly defined local races of the

C. collaris and C. wislizenii respectively. The same is true of Callisau-

rus ventralis Hallow., as compared with C. dracontoides. In nomen-

clature, we have all the nomina nuda of Fitzinger revived, and all

the unclassical spellings of original authors carefully preserved. Thus

we find Pituophis for Pityophis, Bascanion for Bascanium, and bi-seria-

tus for biseriatus. Such acumen directed to the proper spelling of

names would be a material gain to science in this country.

Forty-four species of Reptiles were procured by the expedition, and

twelve species of Batrachia. None of them are regarded as new’ to

science excepting a Rana, which is called Rana fischerii. This appears

to be very close to the R. onca, with which it should be further com-

pared. "The notes on the habits of the species by Dr. Merriam are very

interesting and add much to the value of the paper. Before passing

to the fishes, I pause to correct a misapprehension into which Dr. Stej-

neger has fallen, and which involves the veracity of the writer of this

review. In adopting the name pipiens for the Rana virescens, he

remarks that Garman has shown that the former is the correct name,

and that he is therefore not responsible “as one might be led to believe

from Cope's treatment of the matter,” for the use of the second name

(virescens). "The paragraphs in which the reasons for the employment

of the name virescens are set forth in my Batrachia of North America,

were copied directly from MS. furnished me by Mr. Garman. Mr.

Garman changed his mind after the publication of my book.

The region explored is not rich in fishes, but a good many specimens

and species were obtained. The most important result is the discovery

?The new species described in the report are from adjacent regions.

994 The American Naturalist. [November,

of a new species of Cyprinodontide which is nearly related to the

Oristias of the elevated Lake Titicaca of Peru, which is the type of a

new genus called by Professor Gilbert, Empetrichthys. As in the

Peruvian genus there are no ventral fins and no lateral line, and the

very large pharyngeal bones are fused below. This fish inhabits the

inhospitable waters of the Amargosa River, which, while not elevated

like the Peruvian lake, flows through a region of similar geologic

age. Another interesting discovery is that of the rare Lepidomeda

vittata in a stream on the western side of the Colorado drainage

in Nevada, far from the only locality previously known, which is

the Colorado Chiquito of Arizona on the eastern drainage.

In an introduction to the report on insects, Mr. Riley makes the fol-

lowing remarks:

“ Taking first the Coleoptera, which represent by far the larger part

of the collectings, they have for the most part been carefully compared

with the national collection, and I have had the assistance, in the veri-

fications, of Mr. M. S. Linell and Mr. E. A. Sehwartz, both well

acquainted with our North American Coleoptera. As the chief local-

ities from which the beetles were obtained do not exceed seven, the

list has been arranged in tabular series to prevent repetition of locali-

ties. This arrangement at once shows that the collection comprises

some 258 species, representing 170 genera in 39 families. Of the total

number of species arranged according to localities, twenty-eight (a)

are of general distribution in North America, i e, they cross the

-whole continent, and among them are six cosmopolitan species, while

only a single species Bradycellus cognatus found in the Argus Moun-

tains, belongs to the cireumpolar fauna. About fifty of the species

are widely distributed throughout the more arid regions of the west,

and about twenty species belong more properly to the fauna of mari-

time or upper California. The bulk of these species, as will be noted,

were collected in San Bernardino County. Deducting the three sets

of species and a few others, e. g., the genera Homalota, Scopzeus, Seym-

nus and Cryptophagus, of the distribution of which very little can be

definitely said, there remain about 140 species which are more or less

characteristic of the Sonoran fauna. Some nineteen species are

undoubtedly new. i;

" [In the Heteroptera the list represents merely the species that were

readily determinable, while the balance, including the more interesting

forms, have been referred to Mr. P. R. Uhler, of Baltimore, Maryland,

who has kindly reported on them, with definitions of the new genera

and species.

1893.] Recent Literature. 995

“In the Homoptera, as will be noticed, there are some interesting

new species, especially in the family Psyllide, but until they are care-

fully compared I do not feel justified in making any remarks upon

them, nor have I time just now to characterize the undetermined forms

which I prefer to do in connection with the very many new species in

the National Collection to which I have already given much study. ”

Mr. S. W. Williston prefaces a report on the Diptera as follows :

“That the larger part of the collection of Diptera from Death Valley

and the adjoining regions sent me for determination by Professor

Riley should be new to science is not strange, inasmuch as they are, for

the greater part, members of families which have been but little

studied in America. The collection is of considerable interest as add-

ing three European or African genera hitherto unrecorded from Amer-

ica, among which the wingless Apterinais the most remarkable. After

a careful search I have found it necessary to describe two new genera

—one among the Dexiidz, the other an Ephydrinid. "

The Land and Fresh Water Shells were examined and reported on

by Mr. Robert E. C. Stearns, who refers to the more important ones

in the following language.

“The more interesting forms obtained were the two species hereto-

fore referred to Tryonia, until recently regarded as obsolescent or

absolutely extinct, but which were found to be living, as elsewhere

remarked. Helix magdalenensis, another interesting species described

from examples collected in the Mexican State of Sonora in 1889-90 by

Mr. Bailey, of Dr. Merriam’s Division of Biological Exploration, was

detected by Fisher and Nelson several degrees of latitude farther to the

north than the habitat of Bailey’s original examples and at a very

much higher altitude. This latter, by its presence at this northerly

station, contributes to our previous knowledge and data bearing upon

the relations between the geographical distribution of species and

environmental conditions or influences; and two fresh water forms, not

before known, were added to the Molluscan fauna of the region tra-

versed by the expedition. ”

This report is one of the valuable results of the establishment of the

Division of Animal Industry of the Agricultural Department. We

hope that the recent reductions in the force of the Department by the

present Secretary has not affected the efficiency of the Division, as sci-

ence in general and Agriculture in some of its aspects, would materially

suffer.—E. D. Corr.

996 The American Naturalist. : [November,

General Notes.

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.

The Laurentian of the Ottawa District.—In a paper recently

published by Mr. R. W. Ells, the author shows that certain modifica-

tions of the arrangement of the Laurentian strata as laid down in the

geological map of Canada, 1866, must be made. While it is as yet

hardly possible to estimate correctly the thickness of the strata, there

is no doubt that it has been overstated. The Anorthosite masses north

of St. Jerome which had been placed in the upper Laurentian have

been shown by Dr. F. D. Adams to be of intrusive origin. The lime-

stones in both the Trembling Mountain section and the region between

the Anorthosite area and Gatineau River in nearly every case occupy

well defined synclinals.

The succession of strata in ascending order as revised by Mr. Ells is

as follows:

1. Reddish-gray gneiss without distinct signs of bedding.

2. Reddish orthoclase gneiss showing a well stratified arrangement

of beds.

3. Grayish and rusty gneiss passing into a regular crystalline line

stone.

4. A series of schistose oti _highly metamorphic, described in

earlier reports as the Hastings se

In conclusion the author calls get to the fact that under the

present arrangement of the Laurentian of Quebec the parallelism with

the rocks of the system as displayed in southern New Brunswick is very

close. (Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., 1893.)

Relations of the Laurentian and Huronian Rocks North

of Lake Huron.— This paper is an extension of one published by the

author, Mr. A. E. Barlow, in 1890, and contains some further observa-

tions on the nature of the contact between the Huronian rocks of Lake

Huron, described by Logan and Murray, and the Laurentian gneisses.

As a result of his investigations, Mr. Barlow is convinced of the irrup-

tive nature of this Laurentian gneiss and of its magmatic condition at

a time subsequent to the petrification of the Huronian sediments. The

following facts have led to this conclusion:— (1) The diverse strat

1893.] Geology and Paleontology. 997

igraphic relations of the two rocks along their line of junction. (2)

The alteration of the sedimentary rocks along the line of junction.

(3) The inclusion of angular fragments in the mass of the gneiss which

are clearly referable to the adjacent sedimentary strata. (4) The

occurrence of gneissic intrusions distinctly irruptive. (5) The absence

of limestones, slates or quartzites, or any species of rocks indicative of

ordinary sedimentation. (6) The general character of the rock itself.

(Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., 1893.)

The Carboniferous Glaciers of Central France.—In a note

on the geogeny and stratigraphy of the coal-measures of central

France, M. A. Julien discusses the various problems to whose solution

the key is given by the discovery of the glacial origin of the breccia

in the coal-measures: (1) the cause of the glaciers of the coal-meas-

ures; (2) their centers of dispersions; (3) the direction of the glaciers

for each basin; (4) the precise relative age of the breccia.

The cause of the glaciers is the elevation, at the beginning of the

Upper Carboniferous period, of Alpine masses forming part of that

chain which Mr. Marcel Bertrand designated, a few years since, the

Hercynian chain. The formation of this chain caused the elevation of

central and western Europe and displaced the carboniferous ocean as

the Alpine chain, at the close of the Miocene epoch, expelled the Hel-

vetian sea. In both cases these extensive orogenetic movements were

accompanied by an enormous development of the internal activity of

the globe resulting in the breaking out in Europe of that series of por-

phyritic voleanoes of the Permo-carboniferous epoch, and of trachytic

and basaltic eruptions toward the close of the Tertiary. It is not,

` then, at all strange to find traces of Permian and Carboniferous gla-

ciers since the conditions which produced the more recent glaciers were

present also during those earlier periods.

With the aid of a careful lithological inventory of each basin, one

can infer the height of the original mass, and the direction of the flow

of the glaciers. For instance, those entering the basin of St. Etienne

came from the north.

In regard to the relative age of the breccia, the author concludes

that the Coal-measures of the basins of Epinac, Blauzy, Brassac, Lang-

eac, Commentry, etc., are synchronous, that their formation has been

simultaneous, and that they differ from each other only in having their

upper beds more or less worn down by erosion.

M. Julien is thus led to synchronize, in spite of conflicting floral tes-

timony stated by M. Grand 'Eury, the beds of Rive-de Gier, Valfleury

and Fouillouse, those of Epinac, Colombier, and Marais, at Commen-

998 The American Naturalist. [November,

try, of Combelie and of Chaléde in the basins of Brassac and of

Langeac all of which were in existence before the glacial formation in

its maximum extension. For similar reasons, he synchronizes also the

upper beds in the great sterile plain, such as those of St. Etienne,

Grand-Moloy, and Sully, those of Blauzy, the upper bed of breccia of

the Carboniferous terrain of Meaulne, and the beds of Brassac and of

Marsange.

M. Julien also considers the extensive bed of Commentry parallel

with the three divisions of St. Etienne (Revue Scientifique, Sept.,

1893).

Quicksilver Ore Deposits.—An important paper by George F.

Becker, intended for the use of mining engineers. The first section

treats of data from observation, the second of theoretical inferences as

to the transportation and precipitation of the ore and of the form of

the deposits. In this connection the recent advances in the study of

osmosis is pointed out. In closing, the author gives a brief résumé of

recent developments in various parts of the world, in which he embod-

ies the results of the investigations of Professor A. Schrauf on Idria

and Mr. P. de Ferrari, on the mines of Monte Amiata.

Statistical tables accompany the paper compiled from Monograph

XIII of the U. S. Geological Survey. (Extract from Mineral Resour-

ces of the United States, Calendar Year, 1892.)

The Discovery of Miocene Amphisbznians.—No fossil

remains of Amphisbzenians so far have been made known. Mr. J. B.

Hatcher, so well known to paleontologists, had the good fortune this

summer to procure two small Lacertilian skulls, in the White River

Beds of South Dakota, which when shown to me, I at once recognized

as belonging to the Amphisbenians. Professor W. B. Scott of Prince-

ton College, for which Institution the collections were made by Mr.

Hatcher, had the great kindness to allow me the publication of this

very interesting find; and I give to-day a short description of the prin-

cipal characters of the skulls, which will be followed soon by a full

account with figures.

1. The larger skull, which measures 13 mm., from the middle portion

of the condyle to the anterior end of the premaxillary, and 53 mm. at

its transverse diameter between the posterior ends of the maxillaries is

so close to Rhineura Cope, from Florida, that I am not able to place

it with the present material in another genus.

The nostrils ate spree in position. The single premaxillary is

widely th tals by the large nasals, which are distinct,

and extend to the border of the ijare; overroofing the nostrils. The

1893. ] Geology and Paleontology. ; 999

prefrontal is large, placed between parietal, frontal, and maxillary,

forming the superior border of the orbit ; the jugal is exceedingly rudi-

mentary, only connected with the maxillary; there is in all living

Amphisbzenians no postorbital arch. The squamosal is not free. One

tooth on premaxillary, 6 pointed teeth on each maxillary. It is dis-

tinguished from the modern Rhineura floridana Baird, by the more

slender form of the skull, and may be called Rhineura hatcherii.

2. The smaller skull measures only 10 by 53 mm. Itis at once dis-

tinguished from all living Amphisbenians by the presence of a post-

orbital arch, and the very peculiar prefrontal.

The nostrils are inferior in position. The single premaxillary

nearly touches the paired frontals behind. Premaxillary, nasals, front-

als nearly meeting in one point. The nasals are distinct and extend to

the border of the muzzle, over-roofing the nostrils. Prefrontal very

small, placed between maxillary and frontal; separated from the orbit

by a descending process of the frontal, which forms the anterior border

of the orbit. Jugal complete forming a distinct postorbital bar; it is

in connetion with maxillary, frontal, and parietal. Squamosal well

developed and free. One small tooth on premaxillary and 4 on each

maxillary.

This form represents a new genus and a new family of the Amphis-

beenians, which may be called HYPORHINA and HYPORHINIDAE. The

species may be named Hyporhina antiqua—G. Baur.

Walker Museum, The University of Chicago.

On Symmorium, and the Position of the Cladodont

Sharks.—In a paper recently read before the Philadelphia Academy

I have described a shark from the Coal measures of Illinois under the

name of Symmorium reniforme. The genus Symmorium isa Clado-

dont which differs from Cladodus Agass. in having the axial elements

of the pectoral fin fused with each other and with the proximal basi-

lar elements, into a single piece.

The specimens on which this genus is founded throw much light on

the structure of the Cladodont pectoral fin, and through it, on the

question of the evolution of this organ among fishes. e asis

described is mostly well preserved, and clear as to details of structure.

It confirms the characters ascribed by Traquair to the pectoral fin of

a Cladodus from the Lower Carboniferous of Scotland, the only

important difference being that in the latter the metapterygium is dis-

!Geological Magazine, Feb. 1888, p. 82.

1000 The American Naturalist. [November,

tinctly segmented, while in the Symmorium this element forms a sin-

gle piece, except possibly at the extremity. According to Traquair

there is an “ oblong” proximal segment of the metapterygium “ whose

anterior portion seems to have absorbed the bases of one or two adja-

cent radials.” In Symmorium reniforme, all the basals (radials of

Traquair), are fused at their bases with the metapterygium. The

basals are also more numerous than in Dr. Traquair’s shark, for he

says “some small radials are seen attached to the preaxial side of the

first two segments—none on the others.” My specimen agrees with

Traquair’s in the absence of basals (radials) from the post-axial side of

the metapterygium, where indeed they are not to be looked for.

The structure of the paired fins here pointed out, sustains the views

already announced by Dr. Bashford Dean’ in a recent paper, and this

author is to be congratulated that the view which he has put forth, is

so fully sustained by the material in my possession. One hypothesis

which he holds requires further confirmation; viz, that the metaptery-

gium is formed by the fusion of the basal elements. The extensive

fusion seen in the later genus Symmorium as compared with the earlier

genus Cladodus, supports his position so far as it goes, but the origin of

the primitive metapterygium is not thus explained.

My observations on Symmorium, together with those of Traquair,

Jekel, and Dean, show that the median axis of the archipterygium is

not propterygial or mesapterygial, but is metapterygial. This greatly

simplifies the conception of the history of the Selachian fin, where the

metapterygium supports the greater number of the other segments.

It shows that the Ichthyotomi are not elements in the phylogeny of the

sharks,’ but form a side branch. It is further to be observed that the

essential distinction now discovered hetween the metapterygial and

other elements of the paired fins, must be maintained in our future

studies of them. A clear distinction between baseosts and axonosts in

the paired fins has been hitherto wanting. For the present it may be

convenient to regard the metapterygial elements as axonosts, and those

which have originally been branches of that axis, as baseosts. The

scapular base of the Selachian fin consists then of one axonost and two

baseosts. The typical Actinopterygian fin will have as its scapular

base, according to Gegenbaur’s homologies, baseosts only, the metap-

terygial (axonost) elements having entirely disappeared.

It results from the preceding observations that the Cladodontide

must be removed from the Ichthyotomi where Dr. Woodward placed

"Transac. N. York Academy of Sciences, 1893, April, p. 124.

*See Proceeds. Am. Philos. Soc., 1892, p. 280.

1893.] Geology and Paleontology. 1001

them, and be relegated to his order of Acanthodii. The definitions of

the three orders of Elasmobranchii derived from the fins, will then

be as follows ; those of the second and third being the same as given

by me in the NATURALIST for 1889, (October, p. 854).

Paired fins ptychopterygial, Acanthodii.

Paired fins archipterygial, Ichthyotomi.

Paired fins basilo-metapterygial, Selachii.

The term ptychopterygium is introduced to describe the paired fins

of the Acanthodii, in which the basilar or radial elements spring

directly from the body wall; the axial elements when present, being

within the body wall. This structure is primitive, and sustains the

view of Thacher, that the paired fins have originated from a lateral

fold.—E. D. Corr.

Geological News.—Paleozoic.—During a recent geological

exploration in the neighborhood of Mount Lambie in New South

Wales, Messrs E. F. Pittman and T. W. E. David found several speci-

mens of Lepidodendron australe in rocks of true Devonian age. This

is an interesting discovery since, although surmised, it is a fact which

has not hitherto been proved. (Proceeds. Linn. Soc., N. S. W., 1893.)

Among the important recent discoveries is that of fine larva]

trilobites in the Lower Helderberg formations south of Albany, New

ork. "These specimens are referred by C. E. Beecher to the genera

Acidaspis and Phaéthonides. They represent early stages of these

genera when the animals had no thoracic segments, and when the sepa-

ration between the cephalon and pygidium was not distinctly marked.

As a result of the study of these forms Mr. Beecher is confirmed in

the idea suggested by Woodward and Edwards that the Trilobita may

be considered as ancient or protoisopods. (Am. Journ. Sci, Aug,

1893.)

—— According to Mr. C. S. Prosser the fossiliferous zone underlying

the Oneonta sandstone in Chenango and Otsego Counties, New York, is

not the top of the Hamilton but belongs in the Portage stage. The

writer bases his opinion on faunal data. (Am. Journ. Sci., Sept., 1893.)

Mesozoic.—A femur found in 1838, at Slingaby, Yorkshire, has

| recently been identified by Dr. Seeley. He refers it to a small species

of Omosaurus with the specific name phillipsi. This is the third spe-

cies of this genus found in England. (Yorkshire Philosph. Soc. Report,

1892) Mr. R. T. Hill has published a list of the invertebrate fossils

collected or obtained by him from the beds of the Trinity Division in

Arkansas and Texas. Of the 34 Mollusca described, 12 represent new

species. The families of Foraminifera, Echinodermata, Vermes, Mol-

1002 The American Naturalist. [ November,

luscoidea and Arthropoda have one species referred to each, of which

the first only is known; the others are either indeterminate or new.

(Proceeds. Biol. Soc Wash., 1893.)

The jaw of a new carnivorous Dinosaur from the Oxford Clay of

Peterborough, Eng., is figured and described by Dr. Lydekker in the

Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., Aug., 1893. It is of large size and solid

structure, and appears to be nearly allied to the 'Thecodontosauridae.

It differs from the described genera of that family by the marked '

deflection of the mandibular symphysis. Dr. Lydekker accordingly

refers it to a new genus under the name Sarcolestes leedsii.

Professor T. R. Jones notes the discovery of 15 fossil Ostracoda,

13 of which are new, from the Upper Cretaceous series of Wyoming and

Utah. Nearly all represent either fresh water or estuarine forms.

Professor Jones has described and figured these interesting specimens

in the Geol. Mag., Sept., 1893. At a recent meeting of the London

Geol. Soc., Mr. E. A. Walford described some forms of Bryozoa from the

spinatus zone of the Middle Lias near Banbury, Eng. The new mate-

rial shows the opercular aperture, and the opercula in situ with append-

ages and supraoral ovicells characteristic of the Cheilosiomata. In

addition he found giant cells (cistern cells) of form quite dissimilar

from the ordinary zooecia and probably reproductive. The name

Cisternophora is suggested for the genus of which several forms were

described (Geol. Mag., Aug., 1893.)

Cenozoic.—Captain F. W. Hutton questions the propriety of the

name, Dinornis queenslandie, given by C. W. DeVis in 1884 to a

struthious femur found at King’s Creek, Darling Downs. Captain

Hutton is inclined to refer the fossil in question to the Casuariidz since

it possesses the posterior projection of the trochanterial surface, a char-

acter lacking in the Dinornithid:e and Apterygidse, but present in the

femora of both the Cassowary and the Emu. (Proceeds. Linn. Soc.,

N. S. W., 1893.)

The skull of a Lemuroid mammal found in the shell-marl in the south.

west coast of Madagascar has been determined by Dr. Forsyth Major

to be that of a gigantic Lemurid related to the extinct genus Adapis

as well as to the existing Lemurids. The brain-case is small, the thick-

ening of the bones of the skull is very remarkable. The tritubercular

molars and premolars approach closely some Malagasy Lemu-

rids. Dr. Major names this new form Megaladapis madagascariensis.

(Proc. Roy. Soc., 1893.)

1893.] Mineralogy and Petrography. 1003

MINERALOGY AND PETROGRAPHY:'

The Trachytes and Andesites of the Siebengebirge.—In

the course of a discussion on the geological relations of the trachyte

and andesite of the Siebengebirge, Grosser’? describes the various

occurrences of these rocks and gives an outline of their petrographical

characteristics. The trachytes he separates into typical, andesitic and

aegerine varieties, and the andesites into trachytic and basaltic kinds.

In the typical trachytes hornblende phenocrysts are frequent, but

crystals of this mineral in the groundmass are unknown. Among the

andesites the trachytic variety is noted for the absence of dark com-

ponents from the groundmass and their rarity among the rock’s pheno-

crysis. The basaltic andesite is rich in iron minerals, both as pheno-

crysts and as constituents of the groundmass. The order of eruption

was trachyte, andesite, basalt.

A Variolitic Dyke in Ireland.—A variolitie dyke from Anna-

long, County Down, Ireland, resembles in the hand-specimen the vario-

lites from Mt. Genévre. Cole’ mentions it as consisting of devitrified

glass, often containing skeleton crystals of magnetite, augite and plagio-

clase, and enclosing spherulites that are much larger toward the cen-

ter than at the edge of the dyke. Thin selvages, 1 cm. in thickness,

with very small spherulites scattered through them, exist on the sides

of the dyke. Beyond these there is an abrupt transition to material

containing the large spherulites. The selvages evidently cooled and

lined the walls of the crevice now occupied by the dyke, before the in-

terior filling consolidated ; for not only is the transition between the

substances of the two portions sharp, but the spherulites of the interior

mass have in some cases grown from the line separating the two por-

tions.

The Chemical Nature of Eruptive Rocks.—Lang‘ has

returned to his study? of the chemical nature of eruptives. After a criti-

cal examination of many fresh specimens, the author concludes that

the mineralogical nature of igneous rocks cannot be determined from

x oe ba Dr. W. S. Bayley, Colby University, Waterville, Me.

* Min. u. Petrog. Mitth., xiii, p.115.

* Cf. AMERICAN NATURALIST, 1892, p. 334.

1004 The American Naturalist. [November,

their chemical composition, but that types with the same general

chemical relationships possess the same general mineralogical charac-

ter. The author also gives his views on the relationships existing

between the various rock types, as based on their calcium and alkali

ratios, and, while not so stating it, he shows that the emanations from

an eruptive center are consanguinous.

Norites in the Eastern United States.—Along a shear zone in

the norite of Avalanch Lake in the Adirondacks, Kemp* finds what

he believes to be a schistose phase of the rock in which several new

minerals have been developed. The massive norite consists chiefly of

plagioclase, with a little hornblende, enstatite and magnetite. In the

schistose rock, which is much more basic than the norite, are broken

pieces of plagioclase, shreds of hypersthene, grains of green monoclinic

pyroxene, pink garnet, greenish-brown hornblende, biotite and magne-

tite, of which both the monoclinic pyroxene and the garnet are sup-

posed to have been produced from the hypersthene and the plagioclase

of the original norite. The schist resembles an eclogite. The same

writer’ records the discovery óf a new occurrence of norite or of E.

thene gabbro at Artsdalen's quarry in Bucks County, Pa. It is ass

ciated with a limestone which is the matrix of a large number of

metamorphic minerals. It is thought that this limestone may be a

block brought from below by the eruptive. The region surrounding

thé quarry is underlain by pre-Cambrian rocks, but it is almost with-

out exposures. The occurrence of norite here is interesting as afford-

ing a link connecting the otherwise separated Baltimore and Cortland

areas of basic eruptives.

The Ottrelite Conglomerate of Vermont.— Reference has

already been made in these notes to the discovery of an ottrelite con-

glomerate in the Green Mountains of Vermont. Whittle? has now

given us in more detail the description of its occurrence, and adds to

this many items of interest concerning the dynamic schists associated

with it. Among other things connected with the minerals of the con-

glomerate he mentions the secondary enlargement of clastic tourmaline

grains and describes the alteration of microcline pebbles into quartz,

sericite, biotite and albite. In one microcline there are many inclu-

sions of limonite and rhombs of siderite. As the sericite grows it clears

ê Amer. Journ. Sci., Aug., 1892, p. 109.

T Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci., xii, p. 71.

8 AMERICAN NATURALIST, April, 1893, p. 382.

? Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., iv, p. 147

1893.]* Mineralogy and Petrography. 1005

the microcline of these, so that around each grain of the mica is a zone of

pellucid feldspar, and on both sides of veins of the sericite are clear

borders of microcline entirely free from inclusions of any kind.

Chalcedony and other Silicious Spherulites.—A well-illus-

trated article by Levy and Meunier-Chalmas" treats of various forms

assumed by the molecule Si O, in the production of spherulites. Chal-

cedony has heretofore been regarded as a mixture of quartz and opal.

The present authors have had an opportunity to study some excellent

specimens of silica spherulites and concretions from the gypsum beds

in the Paris Basin. Chalcedony and two new forms of silica, called by

the authors quartzine and lutecite, are the components of these concre-

tions. All three of these substances are fibrous forms of the same min-

eral, which is positive and biaxial, with an optical angle varying

* between 20°-35°. Thus they are different from quartz. The distinc-

tions between the three varieties rest upon their habit. Chalcedony is

elongated parallel to the base of the crystals, and quartzine par-

allel to the plane of their optical axis, while the lutecite fibers

are elongated in a direction making an angle of 29? with the opti-

cal axial plane. The relation of the long axis of each variety to

the optical constants of the mineral is carefully worked out, and the

appearances of thin sections of their groupings are Hhotzsad by eight

beautifully executed photographs.

Petrographical News.—Andrea and Osann" ascribe the exist-

ence of a porphyry breccia at Dorsenheim near Heidelberg to the

erushing of porphyry by faulting and the cementing together of the

fragments thus made by siliceous material.

A series of high dipping crystalline schists near Salida, Col., is re-

garded by. Cross? as having originated by the alteration of great flows

of basic and acid lavas erupted in Algonkian time. Though the rocks

are now hornblende and micaceous schists, some of them still present a

few of the structural features of diabases and porphyries.

Danalite from Redruth, Coriwali .—Tetrahedra of danalite at

Redruth, Cornwall, are associated with quartz and arsenopyrite.

Miers" mentions them as projecting from a layer of massive danalite

with a thickness of from a quarter to half an inch. Some of the crys-

10 Bull. Soc. Franc d. Min., xv, p. 159.

11 Mitth. gross. Badisch. geol. Landesanst, ii, p. 365.

x Col. Sci. Soc. Jan. 2 2,1893

18 Miner. Magazine, x, p. 10.

1006 The American Naturalist. [November,

tals measure 30-50 mms. across. They are almandine-red in color,

are translucent, and have a light pink streak, a hardness of 5.5 and a

density of 3.350. An analysis gave :

SiO, FeQ MnO ZnO BeO CaO S Total

29.48 37.53 11.28 487 1417 tr 5.04=102.62

corresponding to R.S. 7RO. 38iO,.

Mirabilite Changed to Thenardite.—Two crystals of mirabil-

ite implanted on a mass of rock-salt from Aussee, Salzkammergut, that

has been in the possession of the University of Vienna six years, have, in

this time, so changed that they now consist simply of a thin shell com-

posed of a crystalline aggregate whose inner surface is completely

drusy. Within this crust there is usually a hollow, but occasionally a

part of the hollow may be filled by a group of crystals like those form-

ing the shell. These crystals are determined by Pelikan" to be then-

ardites of a short pyramidal habit, bounded by the planes P. 4P, Px,

3Px and oPx, with an axial ratio of a: b: c == .5970 : 1 : 1.2541. The

crystals had been kept during the six years in an air-tight enclosure at

a nearly uniform temperature, so that the change from their original

condition must have been due solely to the influence of the small

amount of moisture within the enclosure.

Mineralogical News.—Crystals of the rare uranatile from

Schneeberg, Saxony, and from the Joachimsthal, Bohemia, have been

measured by Pjatnitzky,” who concludes that they are triclinic and not

orthorhombic as Zepharovich supposed. Their axial ratio a: b : c=

-6257 :1:.5943. The mineral has a citron or sulphur-yellow color,

with very weak dichroism. Uranophane, according to the author,

should not yet be considered a species. Its chemical composition is

the same as that of uranatile, but its crystallization has not yet been

determined.

The rare plane 2020 has been detected by Pelikan" on salt crystals

from Stannia, Galicia. Upon examining sections of halite from this

locality, the author discovered in them many inclusions of petroleum

zonally arranged. The cavities in which the oil is contained are either

pear-shaped or are negative crystals, entirely or only partially filled

with the liquid, which must have been under greater pressure at the

14 Min. u. Petrog, Mitth., 1892, ied 476.

55 Zeits. f. Kryst., xxi, 1892, p. 74.

16 Min. u. Petrog Mitth., xii, p. wm

1893.] Mineralogy and Petrography. x 1007

time of its imprisonment. From the distribution of these inclusions the

author concludes that the crystals were first cubes, then tetrahexahedra

(20% ), and finally cubes, as at present.

Jannetaz" has made an analysis of the black garnet pyreneite, now

the subject of so much discussion" in Europe, and has found it to con-

sist of:

SiO, | ALO, FeO MgO CaO Total

544 — 100 . 185. X0 > Gpl 10091

It is thus neither melanite nor grossularite, but is intermediate in com-

position between the two. Its density is 3.7

Miers” has succeeded in obtaining some excellent though tiny crys-

tals of orpiment by dissolving in hydrochloric acid the marl in which

nodules of this substance are found at Tajowa, Hungary. Under the

microscope the little crystals appear with the orthorhombic symmetry.

oP is the plane of their optical axes. Their axial angle for sodium

light is 70° 24’ in air.

The same mineralogist" has repested Gmelius’ analysis of helvite

from Schwarzenberg, and has obtained this result:

BO Feo AMuO BO ALO, CoO ^8 Total

31.85 426 42.47 14.25 74 3.16 4.81— 101.54

Dumortierite is recorded by Gonnard" as occurring in the feldspar

of a granite vein cutting the gneiss in a quarry at Terniéres, Franche-

ville, Dept. of the Rhone, France.

he same writer” figures a few new types of natrolite crystals from

the Puy-de-Dóm, and describes” the occurrence of crystals of analeite

in the fissures of the porphyry at Agay, Canton Hyères, France.

Brazilite, analyzed by Blomstrand," has the following composition :

ZrO, SiO, ALO, FeO, CaO MgO .Alk Los Total

96.52 .70 .48 41 55 400 44 o 8o = 0.82

Experiments in Crystallization.—Hundt" has repeated Vogel-

NH Bull. d. 1. Soc. Franc: d, Min., xv, p. 127.

18 AMERICAN NATURALIST, Oct., 1892, p. 849. Ib., Apr., 1893, p. 385.

?? Miner. Magazine, x, p. 24

T" Ib, X, p. 10:

?! Bull. Soc. Franc. d. Min., xv, p. 230.

” D, b. 221.

2 Neues Jahrb. f. Min., etc., 1893, I, p. 89.

1008 i The American Naturalist. [November,

sang’s experimentson the crystallization of sulphur from its solution in

carbon bisulphide thickened with balsam, and has discovered thereby

some new facts regarding the phenomena connected with the formation

of crystals. He finds the globulites aggregating into liquid spherules

of sulphur that may remain liquid for several days. Grains of sulphur

that are melted on a glass plate may also remain in a liquid condition

for a long time—in some instances, three months—before they solidify.

Upon agitation with the point of a needle they immediately become

solid. The author declares that there is no tendency among the globu-

lites to arrange themselves into definite groups, as Vogelsang reported

to be the case. In the largest drops, however, they may take definite

positions, whereupon the entire drop may be made to crystallize by

shaking or agitating with a needle point. The formation of crystall-

ites is contemporaneous with that of the globulites, the latter giving

rise to the large drops, which, upon soldifying, become spherulites, and

the former growing into microlites by the accretion of invisible parti-

cles. The crystallites do not grow by the addition of globulites.

These bodies add themselves to the large drops, and never to the small,

solid embryo crystals.

Miscellaneous.—A couple of slags from the lead ovens of Raibl,

Austria, have been examined chemically by Heberdey.^ The compo-

sition of different ‘portions of the various specimens were carefully

worked out. In one specimen crystals of a lead-zine olivine were

found, the analysis of which yielded :

BL EPO. 200. MaO Fel GO Total

16.62 61.50 18.16 1.99 1.69 tr — 99.96

Their density is 5.214 and axial ratio a : b = .8592 : 1. In an appen-

dix to his main article the author gives the results of analyses of the

limestone in which the galena smelted in the furnace occurs. One of

these ais yielded: CaCO, = 53.50; MgCO, — 46.51; Fe, TI, Li

Sneaks and Whitlock” ltl Its of an analysis of

a black soil from a point in the qae of the Red River of the North,

about fifteen miles south of Winnipeg, Manitoba, and Corse and

Baskerville” the results of analyses of glauconite sand from near Han-

ion z miner. Inst. d. Univ. Kiel. B 1. H. 4., p. 310.

f. Kryst., xxi, 1892,

eee Chem. Journal, 14, 1892, p. 621.

= ib. o o

1893.] Mineralogy and Petrography. 1009

over Court House, Virginia. Analyses follow (I, black soil; II, glau-

conite) :

Sand SiO, TiO, ALO, FeO, CaO MgO SO, CO, P.O, KO Org. HO

1.59.82 545 64 7.14 400 61 A1 —98- AT 139 191 1249 686

Quartz SiO, AlO, FeO, FeO CaO M gO KO NaO HO Total

Il 2.76 47.45 7.33 12.3 943 57 .2.90..5.75 .:.42 9.85 — 98.49

8.22 43.34 6.62 15.16 8.33 .62 95 415 1.84 10.82 — 99.55

Schwartz has treated in a comprehensive essay” the history of the

observations on reciprocal changes produced in polymorphous bodies

under different conditions of temperature, and has, in addition, given

the results of some independent observations of his own. The substan-

ces that have been experimented upon are: Agl, KNO,, NH,, NO,,

AgNO, Rb (NO,), boracite, perchlorethane, tetrabrommethane, and

copper, nickel, zine and cobalt, sodium-urany] acetates.

Ch. Friedell? has examined carefully a specimen of the meteoric iron

from Cañon Diablo, Arizona, and, as a result of his study, has con-

cluded that: particles of black diamond (carbonado) are disseminated

through its mass. A combustion of the residue obtained upon treat-

ment of the iron by acids leaves no doubt but that the material con-

sists principally of carbon.

? Gekronte Preisschr. Univ. Goétinger, 1892.

% Bull. Soc. Franc. d. Min., XV, p. 258.

1010 The American Naturalist. [November,

BOTANY.

Kuntze’s Revisio Generum Plantarum, Etc. III.—Professor

MacMillan was perhaps right in saying that the present upheaval in

botanical nomenclature was signalized rather than caused by the

appearance of the first two parts of Dr. Kuntze’s work in 1891. That

is, it was the chaotic state of nomenclature which caused Dr. Kuntze

to write his book, not Dr. Kuntze nor his book which caused the chaotic

state of nomenclature. But while this is undoubtedly true, it cannot

be denied that Dr. Kuntze’s work has so thoroughly exposed the con-

dition of things and thereby caused such extraordinary activity in

nomenclature, that whatever good results from the present movement

must be attributed almost wholly to the influence of his work. For,

while the present upheaval, to use Professor MacMillan’s apt term,

was probably inevitable, and the state of nomenclature was such as to

make it only a matter of time, yet Dr. Kuntze and the years of

patient research culminating in his work must be recognized as the

immediate cause.

But Dr. Kuntze has not been content to rest here with the move-

ment fairly started. With admirable zeal he has followed up his first

advantage, and in the third part of his work—or rather the first division

of it—which appeared in August, he has shown that unlike most

reformers, he can not only start a revolution but can guide it as well.

In the Botanische Centralblatt for June, 1893, appeared a prelimin-

ary sketch of what is set out more fully in the first sections of the third

part of his work. He gave a list of all the reviews of the first two

parts, and all the works dealing with nomenclature, and all proposi-

tions for reform from the appearance of his work to May 1893,

together with brief criticisms of each. Now he brings together all

the eritiques of his book, quoting them in full, all the propositions for

reform, and the material parts of all articles, etc., dealing with nomen-

clature, and appends a critical commentary. The critiques number

about forty, and with the other articles, etc. commented upon make a

list of fifty seven. It may be doubted if such a symposium has before

been brought together on such a subject. Not only is it valuable of

itself, but it must convince the most skeptical of the extent and signifi-

cance of the movement Dr. Kuntze has set on foot.

In one respect Dr. Kuntze has a great advantage over his reviewers

He has devoted more time to the subject and knows more about it in

1893.] Botany. 1011

all its details than probably any man living. Consequently anyone

attempting to eriticize him does it at the peril of having a multitude

of facts cited to him of which he had been but dimly conscious or of

which he had never dreamed. Though one may not be able to agree

with Dr. Kuntze as to many points, he must admit that a perusal of

his commentary shows him fully able to cope with any of his adversa-

ries and that he rarely comes out * second best." It should be added

that this method of setting out the arguments of his opponents in full

is in happy contrast with the far too common practice of criticizing

single extraets without giving the context to show what they mean.

The Berlin propositions, particularly the notorious proposition 4,

are well criticized in three languages, so that no one can mistake Dr.

Kuntze's meaning. Dr. Kuntze in this and in the polyglot circulars

sent to the members of the Madison Congress has shown that he is in

earnest, and botanists owe him no little gratitude for the pains he is

taking to secure a right termination to the movement.

In this connection his remarks on the Genoa Congress are note-

worthy. He is perhaps a little too severe in his objections to the use

of the Italian language by the Congress. It may be that to ask botan-

ists to add Italian to the rather heavy list of languages they must know

istoo much. But the Italian botanists have certainly merited the

recognition, and law or no law, if they keep on at their present gait,

we shall be obliged to know someihing of their language. Besides we

do not all have to wield foreign languages with the ease with which

Dr. Kuntze handles them to be able to understand sufficiently the most

of what a botanist has to say. But Dr. Kuntze's criticism on the

international character of the Congress is well taken. It is folly for

any Congress which is not international in composition to attempt

international legislation. No laws will be observed till they are

enacted by an assembly whose jurisdiction is beyond question and

whose composition commands the respect of all countries.

The remaining sections discuss the orthographic license, supplemen-

tary resolutions to the Paris Code, “ 1753, die Nomenclatur der Unbe-

wussten,” and “1737, die Neue Compromiss in spe.” These last two

sections are devoted to the important question whether 1737 or

1753 shall be the starting point of nomenclature. 1735 which he first

proposed, and which has a certain logical foundation in its favor, he

now gives up for 1737 asa compromise. Thisis wise. The 1737

names where they differ from the names of 1735 are a great improve-

ment on them. He gives a list of the changes necessitated in the

names given in parts I and II by his new starting point. This list is a

1012 The American Naturalist. [November,

considerable one, and as the 1737 names brought in are quite often

those in common use lately, it gives new strength to. his position by

practically removing one of the commonest objections made to it. It

has been noted by several that the changes demanded by the 1735

starting point were not so frightfully numerous as they have been

represented. The changes in so-called current names (for in the last

ten years at least we have had no really stable current names) required

by the 1737 starting point are comparatively few, and in this his com-

promise has an advantage. American botanists have preferred 1753,

and that date has served as the basis for the nomenclature of several

American publications, and gained considerable foothold. I shall not

at this time discuss the relative advantages of the two dates, but shall

merely observe his arguments. To change from 1753 to 1737 would

require no very great number of alterations, and one may well be sat-

isfied with either date, provided absolute fixity is attained. Of the

points he makes against the 1753 starting point the strongest one is

this. He charges that in the Species Plantarum of 1753 there are a

number of genera vitiosa which represent an undetermined number of

modern genera, while the genera of 1737 to 1748 are mostly clear.

There are even, he says, monotypic genera in 1753 which under one

species comprehend several modern genera. This is a charge of con-

siderable weight and he cites several examples in support of it. The

other objection, that in starting with 1753 we become entangled in the

question of determination of Linnzan species, is also not without

weight. Our starting point ought to be free from any entanglements

which will allow botanists in time to come to overhaul accepted names

under the guise of enforcing the law and question their validity.

In ealling the nomenclature of 1753 the nomenclature of the ill-

informed, or as he translates it “badly instructed,” botanists, he is

perhaps right in the sense in which he means it. It was, he says, taken

up by persons who were not fully acquainted with the circumstances.

But few besides Dr. Kuntze were fully acquainted with the circumstan-

ces till the appearance of his book made it in some degree possible

without years of special study.

The succeeding section is a discussion of signs for growth, etc. with a

suggested international code. The most remarkable thing about this

code is its elaborateness. It provides signs for nearly every conceiva-

ble form of growth, and, if it gets into use, it will necessitate constant

reference to the key, as it would be no small task to memorize it.

While such signs are very convenient, it may be doubted whether

there is any advantage in so elaborate a system.

1893.] Botany. 1013

The remainder of the book is taken up with the “ Codex Nomencela-

ture Botanice Emendatus,” the Paris code amended and supplemented.

This is given in German, English, and French in parallel columns.

Most of Dr. Kuntze’s amendments are already well known from the

discussion in the introduction to parts I and II. This Codex Emenda-

tus, whether adopted in toto or not, must serve as the basis for any

future emendation of the Paris Code. The “leaks” have been

pointed out by Dr. Kuntze, and must be stopped—whether in his way

or in some other.

A few points in his discussion of orthography may be noticed. He

proposes to translate the Greek upsilon always by i instead of y except

in a few cases where u stands for it, as Cupressus. He also proposes to

eliminate the A in Greek words except in the combinations ch, ph, and

th. To these and a few other propositions of the sort, I think it may

fairly be said that they rest almost wholly on * Bequemlichkeitmotiven."

It will be hard for botanists with classical training to yield to them.

The tendency to revolt from such rules, if they can be adopted, will

always be strong. No rule founded on convenience or on anything

but right can be sure of enduring observance. Dr. Kuntze has taught

us this thoroughly already.

But aside from such details, Dr. Kuntze deserves only thanks for

what he has done. Botanical nomenclature bids fair to have in hima

second father.—RoscoE Pounp.

1014 The American Naturalist. [November,

ZOOLOGY.

How Young Flickers are Fed.—4An interesting account of a

brood of young flickersis given by Mr. William Brewster in The Auk,

July, 1893. During three days observation, Mr. Brewster saw only

the male parent, which, however, was very attentive to his charge.

Alighting on the trunk of the stump containing the nest, the flicker

would utter a peculiar call, a low anxious wot or wó-á, addressed,

apparently to the young, to which they would reply with a burst of

clamor, and almost immediately their wide opened mouths would

appear at the top of the burrow. Standing on the edge of the hole,

the parent selected one, and bending forward and down drove his bill

to its base into the gaping mouth which insantly closed tightly round

it, when the head and bill of the parent were worked up and down

with great rapidity for from one to one and a half seconds, the young

meanwhile never losing its grasp. These up and down motions were

rapid, regular, and not unlike those of a wood-pecker engaged in

drumming. ‘They also suggested the strokes of a piston. If interrup-

ted during the pumping process, the flicker would often feed the same

young twice or even thrice in succession, but this never happened

when the first period of contact was of normal length.

Four young were generally fed at each visit, with a brief interval of

rest between the operations. During this interval the parent would

open and shut his bill, run out his tongue, and work the upper portion

of his throat as if tasting and swallowing something. "The inference

was that this was for the purpose of regaining the particles of food

which had failed to lodge in the throat of the young.

The time spent at the nest rarely exceeded half a minute, while the

foraging expeditions occupied from twenty minutes to an hour. The

frequently did not see him until he appeared at the nest. His bill

was always closed up to the moment of contact and there was no evi-

dence that he carried food in his mouth. In fact, it was clear that he

swallowed all the food obtained and afterward supplied it to the young

by a process of regurgitation. Of what the food consisted, the writer

was unable to discover without killing one of the young, to which

mode of settling the point he was extremely averse.

Forsyth Major and Rose on the Theory of Dental Evo-

lution.—In the NATURALIsT for June, 1893, Professor H. F. Osborn

PLATE XXII.

Androchonia of Lepidoptera.

1893.] Zoology. 2 1015

has stated the manner in which Kükenthal and Róse defend the theory

that the complex dental crowns of the later Mammalia, are the result

of the fusion of a number of primitive, distinct, simple reptilian teeth.

Professor Osborn and myself have shown that the history of mammal

dentition indicates the opposite process to have taken place; viz, the

gradual accession of cusps to a simple primitive cusp, by a process of

complication. . The well known fact that the dental cusps hecome

more numerous and display greater modifications with the passage of

geological time, is opposed to the idea supported by the authors cited.

Dr. Röse has recently endeavored to explain’ the origin of the den-

tition of the elephant. As is well known, the transverse crests are

laminiform, and reach the number of twenty-three in the Elephas

indicus. It is also well known that as we pass backward in time we

find in the earliest known proboscidians, posterior molar teeth with

only four, and even two transverse crests. This fact is one of many

which distinctly negatives the fusion theory. Dr. Róse's explanation

istruly extraordinary. He declares the complexity of the molar of

Elephas to be due to a reversionary inheritance of a reptilian dentition,

and fusion ofthe dental elements of the same. Thus the farther removed

from the ancestral Reptilia we get, in time and in character, the stronger

becomes the hereditary tendency! This seems to be the reductio

ad absurdum of the theory.

Dr. Forsyth Major makes an interesting contribution to the subject.

in a paper in the Proceedings of the London Zoological Society,’ on

the dentition of the Sciuride. He announces his disbelief in the trit-

ubercular origin of the placental mammalian dentition, and supports

the view that all the forms, including the tritubercular, are the descen-

dents of a multitubercular type, as now found in the Multituberculata.

He believes that the superior molars of the squirrels support his con-

tention, as he thinks that he can trace them better from a multituber-

cular than from a tritubercular origin. .

I have stated as is my belief, as long ago as 1883, that the Glires

were descended from the Tillodonta, and no reason has since appeared

to invalidate this opinion. It was strikingly confirmed by the dis-

covery that there were no Glires in the Puerco fauna, while Tillodonta

are not rare. In the Tillodont dentition we have all the materials

necessary for the evolution of the glirine dentition along the usual

!Morphologischen Arbeiten von Schwalbe, Strassburg i. E., 1893, p. 173.

?Proceeds. Zoolog. Sci. London, 1893, p. 179.

*Extinct Rodentia of North America, Anitan NATURALIST, p. 380; Op. cit.

1885, p. 347 more definitely.

1016 The American Naturalist. [November,

lines. Dr. Forsyth Major appears to have overlooked this aspect of

the case, and it will be necessary to dispose of this theory before pro-

gress in any other direction can be made.—E. D. Cope.

Effects of Temperature on the Coloring of Lepidoptera.

—In Insect Life, Vol. III, p. 481, is given the following resumé of a

series of temperature experiments conducted by Mr. Merrifield in

pedigree moth-breeding, begun in previous years, on the pupa of

Selenia illustraria and Ennomos autumnaria,

By careful and long continued experiments Mr. Merrifield has

demonstrated the possibility of producing artificially from a single

brood of a moth, subject to seasonal dimorphism, four distinct “ tem-

perature” varieties, viz.: summer markings with summer coloring,

summer markings with an approach to spring coloring, spring mark-

ings with summer coloring, and spring markings with spring coloring.

The conclusions reached as a result of this series of experiments are

that the coloring and markings of the moth are affected by the tem-

perature to which the pupa is exposed, the marking being chiefly

produced by long continued exposure; that the coloring is affected

chiefly during the stage before the coloring of the perfect insect begins

to show; that a low temperature during this stage causes darkening,

a high temperature producing the opposite effect, a difference between

80? and 57? being sufficient to produce the extreme variation in dark-

ness caused by temperature; a further lowering of temperature having

no further effect ; that nearly the full effect in coloring may be pro-

duced by a range of temperature of from 76? or 80? to 65? in autum-

naria, and from 73? to 60° in illustraria ; that dryness or moisture

during the entire pupal period has no appreciable effect on the coloring

of the adult.

A general conclusion which the author ventures to suggest—pro-

vided we accept the theory of Professor Weismann, that existing forms

of North American and European Lepidoptera have come down from

a glacial period—is, that “icing” the pupa causes the insect to revert

to its earlier form, and that experiments of the nature here recorded

might be of material assistance in tracing the evolution of the mark-

ings on the wings of the most highly developed forms.

In a supplementary note Mr. Merrifield adds that it is possible to

cause either the summer or winter form to take on the coloring of the

other, and produce from moths from the summer pupa, specimens that.

resemble those from the winter pupa, but not vice versa.

The details of these experiments can be found in Part I, Trans. Ent.

Soc., London, 1891, pp. 155-167.

1893.] Zoology. 1017

Fish Acclimatization on the Pacific Coast.—The atten-

tion of fish culturists is called to the remarkable results of the experi-

mental introduction of food fishes to the west coast of the United

States. In 1871, the California Fish Commission deposited 12,000

young shad in the Sacramento River, and after that the United States

Fish Commission carried on the work until 1886, during which time

609,000 young shad were placed in the Sacramento River, 600,000 in

the Williamette, 300,000 in the Columbia, and 10,000 in the Snake

River. Two or three years later a few mature examples were obtained

in the Sacramento River, and, by degrees, marketable fish were

obtained along the entire coast of the United States north of Monterey

Bay. In 1887, they were abundant in some rivers, common in most of

them, and occasional ones were found everywhere along this long coast

line. In 1892, the catch was estimated at 660,000 pounds. A careful

estimate places the total value of the shad catch on the Pacific coast

to date at $145,000, representing over 3,000,000 pounds, while the

aggregate outlay for all purposes connected with the introduction of

the fry was less than $4,000.

The history of the striped bass, Roceus lineatus, is similar to that of

the shad. In 1879, about 150 fish a few inches long were deposited at

the mouth of the Sacramento River by an agent of the U. S. Fish

Commission coóperating with the California Commission. In 1882,

another plant of 300 fish was made in the same region. Asa result

of these two small plants, the species soon became distributed along the

entire coast of California. The rapid growth of individuals, and the

equally rapid distribution of the species indicate the special adaptabil-

ity of the waters of the region to this fish.

In commercial importance the striped bass ranks high. Large

quantities are taken for market in San Francisco Bay with seines and

gill nets. The average weight is eight to ten pounds, but fish weighing

forty pounds are not scarce. The aggregate yield to date is nearly

100,000 pounds with a value of $18,000. The cost of introduction

was not more than a few hundred dollars. In both of these cases cited

the investment of the people's money has proved most satisfactory.

(Science, Aug., 1893).

1018 The American Naturalist. [November,

ENTOMOLOGY?

The Androchonia of Lepidoptera.—In general all the scales

of Lepidoptera are modified hairs and originate as papille-like pro-

tuberances on the surface of the wing. In structure they are at first

double walled closed sacs, but soon flatten out and strie appear; in

greatest numbers on the outer surface. The arrangement on the wing

may be regular or irregular. The coloring is a matter of some inter-

est and may be due to the refraction of light on the finely ruled surface,

or a pigment located between the two walls of the sac and away from

direct contact with the air. But it is not the object of this paper to

discuss the ordinary scales of Lepidoptera.

More than 50 years ago Bernan Deschamps observed other scales on

the butterflies and from their shape called them plumules. The name

was not a good one however, and has since fallen into disuse. The name

androchonia was substituted and it is now the one by which the

so-called scent-scales or hairs of the male Lepidoptera are known.

The androchonia are found in the same way as the ordinary scales,

from papillz which rise on the surface of the wing. As regards their

occurrence they may be massed together in patches or scattered irregu-

larly over the surface. If in groups they are always concealed by the

large imbricated scales that seem to be congregated at that point to pro-

tect them. Often, however, they are protected by being located in a

pocket or fuld of some portion of the wing, as for example, in one tribe

the Hesperidi, they are located underneath the reflexed margin of the

fore-wings. This is their location in Eudamus tityrus where the mar-

ginal vein is folded back until it no longer forms the outermost edge of

the wing.

In the common milk-weed butterfly (Danais archippus) they are

located at the dark spot on the second pair of wings near the first ven-

ule of the median vein. In this case they are protected by a prolifera-

tion of the membrane of the wing which forms for them a pocket. On

the second pair of wings in Thecla calamus they are simply collected in

one region on the surface and protected by large scales which are very

prominent at that point. When scattered irregularly over the wing

they are always underneath the large scales and therefore well shielded.

androchonia are very much smaller than the ordinary scales

and can easily be identified. Some are black or brown but usually they

are devoid of color. The color given to the patches where they occur’

1 Edited by Clarence M. Weed, Durham, N. H. _

1893.] Entomology. 1019

is usually due to the coloring of the large scales that are for their pro-

tection. The androchonia vary much in form, many of them being

simply hair-like, others feather shaped or rod-like with a plumed tip.

In structure they are much softer than the ordinary scales and conse-

quently much more pliable, which later property serves a very efficient

purpose in their concealment. There is often a canal extending from

the base to the tip of the scale where it may find a direct outlet or dis-

appear in the spongy mass found at the end of a large variety of these

androchonia.

At the base of many are found the true ball and socket joints like

that in the ordinary scales.

It has been shown by Weisman that the wings of the Lepidoptera

do contain living tissue and this would allow the production of odors

through local scent glands. This arrangement has often been conjec-

tured but it seems that either no attempts have been made at a system-

atic study of the subject or the attempts have ended in failure. The

trouble was no doubt due to a lack of care in the preparation of the

material for study. It was found after repeated attempts that the best

results were obtained by hardening the freshly removed wing in alcohol,

infiltrating with collodion and preparing serial sections by the use of a

microtome.

The results of careful study and repeated observations on many series

of sections of various Lepidoptera has shown the androchonia to be the

outlet of certain glands located in the tissue of the wing beneath the

androchonia bearing surfaces. The glands in sections were very

prominent and no doubt of their genuineness could be entertained.

One especially prominent was found beneath the androchonia in the

wing of Danais archippus. The character of the surface of the wing

above the glands is often very interesting, it sometimes being covered

with a great number of papille from the end of which the scent scales

project ; or it may be like the ordinary surface of the wing. In the

former case the androchonia are quite small and but one to each papil-

la, at the base of which we find the gland. This gives the scent scale

the appearance of a small rod placed in a flask. In the tissue of the

wing we find numerous canals ramifying in various directions. The

material elaborated by the local glands and distributed upon the sur-

face of the wing by the androchonia is that which gives to many of the

Lepidoptera their characteristic odor.

Miiller has been able to recognize more than 30 distinct odors in

different patches of these scent scales. The use of the odor is no doubt

in many cases for protection, but it must also assist in sexual selection.

1020 The American Naturalist. [November,

This study was undertaken at the suggestion of Professor J. H.

Comstock, to whom I am indebted for the material examined.

M. B. Tuomas,

Wabash College.

Description of Plates.

Fig. 1.— Transection of wing of Danais grepu, Moving the loca-

tion and arrangement of the androchonia

“ la.—First venule of the median vein.

* 16.—Androchonia bearing surface.

“ 1e.—Glands below the surface and in the tissue of the wing.

* 1d.—The proliferation of the wing for protecting the surface.

Fig. 2.—Hind wing of male Danais archippus.

* 2a.—Location of androchonia (nat. size).

Fig. 3.—Transection through the marginal vein of the fore-wing of

Eudamus tityrus showing location of androchonia in the

pocket formed by folding over the marginal vein

* 3a.—Marginal vein.

“ 36 and c.—Other veins.

* 3d.—Location of androchonia.

" 3e.—Large scales on the wing that protect the androchonia.

" 8f.—Edge of the wing.

Fig. 4.— Transection of the hind wing of Thecla calamus at the place

where the androchonia are congregated.

Fig. 5.— View of surface of the wing of Thecla calamus giving the

arrangement and abundance of the scent scales as compared

with the ordinary one. (6) Androchonia.

* ba.—Ordinary scales.

Fig. 6.— Trans. of wing androchonia surface on the wing of Theela

calamus.

* 6a.—Androchonia.

* 66.—Glands at the base.

* 6e.— Ordinary scales.

* 6d.—Wing in section.

Fig. 7.—Trans. of wing of Thecla calamus, showing the androchonia

with large gland at base.

* Ta.—Androchonia.

* 76.—Surface of wing.

* Te.—Tissue of wing.

Fig. 8.—Gland. |

Fig. 9.—Androchonia.

Figs. 10 and 11.—Androchonia in trans-and longisection.

D ES MERE att

1893 ] Entomology. 1021

Figs. 12-21.— Various kinds of androchonia and scales, showing rela-

tive sizes.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Anthony, J. The Markings on the Battledore Scales of some of

the Lepidoptera. 80., London, 1872.

McIntire, S. J. Notes on the Minute Structure of the Scales of cer-

tain Insects. 8o0., London, 1871.

Miller, F. A prega costal das Hesperideas. 4o., Rio, 1878.

Scudder, H. S. Antigeny or sexual dimorphism in Butterflies. 80.,

Boston, 1877.

Butterflies of Eastern U. S. and Canada.

Waufor, T. W. On certain Butterfly scales characteristic of Sex.

0o., London, 1867, 1868.

Fleshy Cecidomyiid Twig Gall on Atriplex canescens.—

Numerous fleshy tumor-like twig gall, were found on Atriplex canescens,

May 13, 1892, on mesa back of college grounds, near Las Cruces, New

Mexico. One gall that was opened disclosed two cecidomyiid pupæ in

separate cells within. This gall, with its occupants, was placed in alco-

hol. Other galls were pinned and allowed to dry. The latter, on

being opened nearly a year later, disclosed a cecidomyiid larva, several

cast pupal skins, and in one cell a transformed hymenopterous parasite.

From the alcohol gall the following description is drawn.

Gall.—Length, 12 mm. ; width, 43 to 63 mm. Rather oblong, more

or less irregular in shape, fleshy when green, tumor-like, formed on one

side of twig, which is itself involved in the gall. Pale greenish in

color, sometimes more or less reddish as noticed in the dried galls.

Outer skin of gall smooth. Two cavities inside, each about 2 by 3 mm.

in diameter.

One specimen. This cecid may be called Cecidomyia atriplicis.

The dried galls show the twig plainly, not involved in the gall. They

are red to greenish in color, surface naturally wrinkled and somewhat

roughened, with sections of the thin bark of the twig showing upon

the surface, but I am inclined to consider them the same as the above.

This opinion is induced by the similar character of the occupants.

The cells also are similar in size and shape, several in each gall accord-

ing to size of latter. Some of the smaller dried galls are more rounded

in shape.—C. H. TYLER TOWNSEND.

Trichodactylus xylocopæ in California.—Some little time ago

I received from Mr. D. W. Coquillett, Los Angeles, California, an inter-

1022 The American Naturalist. [November,

esting parasite of Xylocopa, and which proved on examination to be

Trichodactylus xylocope.

As I know of no previous record of this Acarid, or any in this genus,

being recognized in America, it seems worth while to mention it in the

Naturalist. The specimens were taken from a Carpenter Bee and

mounted in balsam by Mr. B. W. Griffith. The bee Mr. Coquillett

says agrees with specimens named for him by Prof. Riley as Hylocopa

c€neipennis. ;

Doubtless this parasite could be found on Xylocopa in other localities

and related species on Osmia and other related bees.

HERBERT OSBORN.

1893.] Archeology and Ethnology. 1023

ARCHEOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY.

Explorations in the Delaware Valley.—Mr. H. C. Mercer has

made the following report to the department of Archeology and Pale-

ontology of the University of Pennsylvania, on the progress of field

work.

The study of the ancient argillite quarries at Gaddis Run, Bucks

County, Pa., discovered May 22, 1893, and bearing directly on the

problem of the antiquity of Man in Eastern North America, is of

great importance, because

(a) These quarries, unlike the jasper mines in the Delaware Valley,

recently proved to bethe work of modern Indians, are workings by

some ancient people in argillite (metamorphosed slate with conchoidal

fracture), the same stone with which numerous observers assert that

Man living on the lower Delaware, at the time of the melting of the

great glacier, made his rude implements; because

(b) Granting that glacial man, obtaining his material either at this

first outcrop of the rock on the right river bank above his habitat, or

from erratic ice-born masses in the river bed, chipped argillite imple-

ments at Trenton 7 to 10,000 years ago, we may here learn whether

the quarries were the work of the modern Indian, or of an older race

—of a stone chipper ignorant of stone polishing, (Paleolithic Man), or

of a stone chipper who could also polish stone, (Neolithic Man), and

because

to what extent the use of argillite was continued into recent times, and

whether, as at the jasper quarries of Durham, Vera Cruz, Macungie

and Saucon Creek, the chipped refuse is scattered with “ wasters” or

blocked out blades resembling in form the supposed more ancient spe-

cimens found in the glacial gravel at Trenton.

The sum of $19.25 of the $25 subscribed for exploration by the

Board since the last meeting of the American Committee, has thus far

resulted in the ascertaining by shafts of the extent of the quarried

area, the mapping of the 19 ancient pits and 12 workshops, the study

of the quality and fracture of the native stone, the cleaning out of one

of the pits and trenching of 2 refuse heaps by shaft A, 21 feet by 15

feet 7 inches by 7 feet deep, and shaft G, 28 feet by 7 feet 6 inches by

3 feet 9 inches deep, discovering 279 chipped leaf-shaped forms and

1024 The American Naturalist. [November,

145 hammer stones, 4 fire sites, and 6 large blocks pecked upon their

sides to split with the grain.

The method of quarrying, probably without digging implements,

and of fracturing the loose masses without fire, has been studied, while

many conditions bearing on the relation of the place to the neighbor-

ing river beaches, other possible quarries and the Indian village site at

Lower Black’s Eddy remain to be examined.

As yet no positive relic of the modern Indian (unless we except 3

hammer stones with pecked sides) has been found, though nothing

suggests the labor of a race more ancient, nor intimates that the chip-

ped forms, which have not yet been compared with the Trenton speci-

mens, were finished implements.

The International Congress of Pre-Historic Archeology

and Anthropology held its Eleventh session at Moscow Russia,

August, 22-30, 1892.

The papers read were as follows:

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY IN THEIR RELATION TO PRIMITIVE

Max.—On the composition of the quaternary deposits of Russia and

their relation to the works resulting from the activity of prehistoric

man, S. Nikitine.——A. review of the post tertiary deposits in connec-

tion with the finding of traces of prehistorie culture in the north and

east of European Russia, Th. T. schernyshev. Remarks on the cav-

erns of Oural, O. Clere. On the remains of a paleolithic epoch in

the neighborhood of Krasnoiarsk gouv. de Ienisséisk, Siberia. J.

Savenkov. The Russian steppes, ancient and modern, W. Dokont-

chaiev. On the remains of Ursus speleus and of a fossil Ovibos

found in Russia, D. Anoutchine.

PREHISTORIC ARCHEOLOGY (except Kourg d Goroditchtschés)

——A comparison of the primitive industries of France and Asia,

G. Chauvet.——The latest conclusions concerning prehistoric arche-

ology in Bohemia and its relations with eastern Europe, Lübor

Niederle——A study of the barbarian sculptures belonging to the

Visigoth epoch in middle France, C. Barriere—Flavy—¥ On nephrite,

Count Cassini.t—On the questionable objects of nephrite found in

the Oural O. Clerc. Marks of gnawings on paleolithic and

neolithic bones, Prince Poutjatine.—- The paleolithic epoch in the

neighborhood of Novgorod, B. Pèrèdolsky.

KOURGANES AND GOR G f bones in

northern Russia, A. Spitzine——Deposits of stone implements in the

district of Jarausk, gouv. de Viatka, P. Krotov.——The * Jalnik " of

did Lo 4 A d

1893.] Archeology and Ethnology. 1025

Iuriévo, in the district of Borowitchi, gouv. de Novgorod, B. P?r?dol-

sky On the shield cups of the ancient Scythians, N. Brandebourg.

ANTHROPOLOGY.—The question of race in Anthropology, M. Topin-

ard. Brain weights of individuals of various Causcasian tribes, N.

Guiltchenko. European races and the Aryan question, Kollman.

Notes on some skulls, artificially deformed, found in Russia, D.

Anoutchine.

PREHISTORIC ErHNOoGRAPHY.—Contributions to the prehistoric

ethnography of central and northeastern Russia, J. Smirnov. es-

tiges of Paganism in the region between the headwaters of the Oka and

the Don, N. Troitzky. Notes on the questions;—1. Of the

co-existing customs of sepulture and incineration. 2. Of certain

stone statues called * Kamennya baby, " A. Jvanovsky.——W hat is the

oldest race in Russia? A. Bogdanov.

1026 The American Naturalist. [November,

MICROSCOPY.

. Methods of Preparing Molluscan Ova.’—The results of my

work for the first three months wore. not promising. and it was not until I

had hit upon m reparıng surface views of the entire

ova that any detailed study of the cleavage could be made. Since I

owe most of my results to this method and since I am convinced that

it may be profitably employed in the preparation of the surface views

of many different objects I believe it merits a detailed description.

The ova were fixed in many different fluids—Kleinenberg’s Picro-

sulphuric, Picric acid in sea water, Merkel’s, Perenyi’s, Flemming,

stronger and weaker, Auerbach’s, Corrosive sublimate, Chromo-formic,

Chromo-acetic and absolute aleohol—but none of these methods for a

moment compare with the first named, i. e. Kleinenberg’s stronger

picro-sulphuric. Theova were left in this for a length of time vary-

ing from fifteen minutes to one hour and were then gradually trans-

ferred to 70% alcohol. They were left in this until all traces of picric

acid had been washed out and were finally preserved in 95% alcohol.

During the first year of the work many of the preparations were ruined

by becoming very dark, owing I think to the extraction of tannin from

the corks. This trouble was afterward avoided by using rubber corks,

or better still by coating ordinary corks with a thin layer of paraffin.

As a result of many experiments with almost every one of the com-

mon staining fluids, I found that the best method of preparing surface

views of the whole egg or embryo was the following:—(1) Transfer

the object gradually from alcohol to water. (2) Stain from five to ten

minutes in a solution of Delafield's (Grenacher’s) Hematoxylin diluted

about six times with distilled water and rendered slightly acid by a

trace of HCl. (3) Dehydrate and clear in oil of cedar or cloves.

(4) Mount in Balsam supporting the cover glass so as to prevent

crushing. By occasionally softening the balsam with a drop or two of

xylol and slightly moving the cover glass the objects can be rolled into

any position desired.

By this method wonderfully beautiful surface preparations were

obtained showing with remarkable clearness not only the nuclei and

cell boundaries but also the caryokinetic figures and in many cases the

archoplasmic spheres and centrosomes. One very considerable advan-

!Edited by C. O. Whitman, Chicago University.

(Extracted from a paper to be published later on the development.)

Supe EU A Ace ao begs REUS IN CL CIL Ur ee EA

1893.] Microscopy. 1027

tage of this method is that the preparations were permanent—in fact

they become better with age instead of degenerating. All the prepa-

rations from which the figures were drawn are still in existence and

can be consulted at any time.

I have employed this method with almost as good results in the

preparation of surface views of the embryo chick and English sparrow

and also; with considerable success on other molluscan eggs and

embryos as well as those of annelids and echinoderms.

—E. G. Conxuin, Delaware, Ohio.

1028 The American Naturalist. [November,

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

The Congress Auxiliary of the World’s Columbian Exposi-

tion of 1893. THE PHILOSOPHICAL Coneress.—August 21st.—R.

N. Foster, Chairman, Henry M. Lyman, Vice-Chairman, L. P. Mercer,

A. N. Waterman, Paul Carus, Louis J. Block, H. W. Thomas, Mel-

ville E. Stone, Committee on the World’s Congress Auxiliary on

Philosophy.

Addresses of welcome by the President of the World’s Congress

Auxiliary and others. Responses in behalf of different Congresses and

Countries. Upon the conclusion of these opening ceremonies the Con-

gresses of the several general divisions of the Department assembled in

the halls assigned to them and proceeded as designated in their respec-

tive programmes.

Address of welcome. Hon. Charles C. Bonney, President World's

Congresses. Address introducing philosophy to the audience. R. N.

Foster, Chairman of the Committee of Organization.

August 22nd, Kant’s Fallacy Respecting the Principle of Causation,

W. T. Harris, LL. D., United States Commissioner of Education,

Washington, D. C. Teleology in the Modern Philosophy of Nature,

Professor H. N. Gardner, Smith College, Northampton, Mass. Present

Prospects of Philosophy in Europe, Professor W. Luteslawski, Un-

iversity of Kazan, Oriental Russia. Faith as a Faculty of the Mind,

What it Reveals and What it Commands, Professor Thomas Davidson,

Keene, Essex County, N. Y. Inquiries into Relations between form of |

Hand and Character, Francis Galton, F. R. S. London, Eng-

land. Gioberti and the Synthetic Principle of Philosophy, Brother

Azarias de La Salle Institute, Brothers of the Christian Schools, New

York City. The Two-Fold Nature of Knowledge, Imitative and

Reflective, Professor Josiah Royce, Ph. D., Harvard University, Cam-

bridge, Mass. On the Reconciliation of Science and Philosophy, Pro-

fessor John Dewey, Michigan University. The Debt of the Moderns

to Plato, Thomas M. Johnson, A. M., Osceola, Mo. Ethics of Hegel,

Professor J. Macbride Sterrett, Columbian University, Washington, D.

C. The Æsthetic Consciousness, Professor J. Steinforth Kedney, M. A.,

Faribault, Minn. The Underlying Principles of Thomistic Philosophy,

Brother Chrysostom, Professor of Mental Philosophy in Manhattan

College, New York City. Philosophy and Industrial Life, Professor

J. Clark Murray, LL. D., McGill College, Montreal, Canada. A New

ku pe b EMEND oN SL, he et oa dr CARES AR eae Se ER M EAE eet ee Ce eee IN og hr eee Arne ee

1893.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 1029

Non-tentative and Economie Method of Solving Equations, President

J. W. Nicholson, A. M., Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge.

Significance of the Realistic Movement in Art and Literature, L. J.

Block, LL. D., Chicago. Ethical Aspects of Pessimism, Miss Louise

Hannum, Ph. D., Ithaca, N. Y. Insufficiency of the So-called Cosmic

Philosophy, Professor Geo. H. Howison, University of California,

Berkeley, Cal. Is there a Science of Psychology? Professor Paul

Shorey, Ph. D., Chicago University. The Illuminati, Mrs. Mary H.

Wilmarth, Chicago. Idea and Purpose of Plato’s Republic, Professor

H. K. Jones, Jacksonville, Ill. The Duty of Philosophy, Paul Carus,

Ph. D., Chicago. Common Sense, Science and Philosophy, Professor

B. C. Burt, M. A., Ann Arbor, Mich. The Notion of Duty in Modern

Ethics, President J. G. Schurman, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.

Philosophy of Education, Professor J. E. Bushnell, Kee Mar College,

Hagerstown, Md.

Tur Coneress ow Psycutcan Scrence.—August 2st.—Ellicott

Coues, M. D., Chairman. Richard Hodgson, LL. D., Vice-Chairman.

Ernest E. Crepin, Lyman J. Gage, D. Harry Hammer, D. H. Lamb-

erson, J. H. MeVicker, Hirman W. Thomas, D. D., B. F. Underwood,

General Committee on a Psychical Science Congress.

Addresses of welcome, by the President of the World’s Congress

Auxiliary and others. Responses in behalf of different Congresses and

countries. Opening Address by the Chairman, Professor Elliott Coues.

Human Testimony in Relation to Psychical Phenomena, Richard

Hodgson, LL. D. A Brief Critical History of the Spiritualistic Move-

ment in America since 1848, Giles B. Stebbins. Spiritualistic Inter-

pretation of Psychical Phenomena, Rev. Minot J. Savage. A Descrip-

tion of Psychical Phenomena in Brazil, Professor A. Alexander.

Elementary Hints on Experimental Hypnotism, Walter Leaf, Litt. D.

Contributions to the Bibliography of Periodical Literature Relating to

Psychical Science, Spiritualism, ete., Benj. B. Kingsbury. Personal

Investigations in Psychical Science, M. C. O’Byrne.

August 22d.—Outline of a Project for a General Union for Experi-

mentation in Psyehical Phenomena, Dr. Xavier Dariex. Exper-

imental Thought-Transference, Frank Podmore, M. A. The Question

of Phantasmal Apparitions, L. Deinhard. Programme for Exper-

imental Occultism, Baron Carl Du Prel. Psychism amongst the

Ancient Egyptians, Rev. W.C. Winslow. Psychic Facts and Theories

Underlying the Religions of Greece and Rome, Dr. Alexander Wilder.

Veridical Hallucinations as a Part of the Evidence for Telepathy, Pro-

1030 The American Naturalist. [November,

fessor and Mrs. Sigwick. Some Experiments in Thought-Transference

and Their Significance, Dr. A. S. Wiltse. Critical Historical Review

of the Theosophical Society, Wm. Emmette Coleman. Madame Blav-

atsky and M. Solovyoff, Walter Leaf, Litt. D. Certain Experiments

with the Sphygmograph, John E. Purdon, M. D. Scientific Evidence

of the Theory of Reincarnation, Capitano Ernesto Volpi.

August 23d.—The Relation of Consciousness to Its Physical Basis,

Professor E. D. Cope. The Subliminal Self, F. W. H. Myers, M. A.

Report on the Case of Miss Mollie Fancher, Judge A. H. Dailey.

Thought and Its Vibration, Mrs. Hester M. Poole. Experiments with

the so-called Divining Rod, Professor W. T. Barrett, F. R. S. E.

Dreams, Considered from the Standpoint of Psychical Science, Edmund

Montgomery, M. D. On Automatic Writing (so-called), Mrs. Sara A.

Underwood. Experimental Crystal Gazing, Mrs. Janet E. Runtz-Rees.

On the Alleged Movement of Objects without Mechanical Contact,

Professor and Mrs. Elliott Coues. The Religious Significance of

Psychical Revelations, Mrs. Elizabeth Lowe Watson.

August 24.— Theories Regarding Automatic Writing, B. F. Under-

wood. Memory in Relation to Psychical Experiences, Charles Whedon.

On the Difficulty of Making Crucial Experiments as to the Source of

the Extra of Unusual Intelligence Manifested in Trance-Speech,

Automatie Writing and other States of Apparent Mental Inactivity,

Professor Oliver J. Lodge, F. R.S. Hypnotic Suggestion, C. G. Davis,

M. D. Evidence Favoring the Theory of the Dual Nature of the

Human Mind, T. J. Hudson. The Etiological casei of Hetero-

geneous Personality, Dr. Smith Baker.

August 25th.—Official Report of the Milan Comwiitoè on Exper-

iments with Eusapia Paladino. Translated from the French, with M.

Aksakof’s Manuscript Additions and Corrections, Professor Elliott

Coues. Remarks on Professor Charles Richet’s * Notes on the Milan

Experiments,” Pofessor Elliot Coues. Further Remarks on the Milan

Experiments, Dr. George Finzi. Possibilities of a Future Life, Miss

Lilian Whiting. Short Account of Some of the Most Remarkable

-Psychical Phenomena I have Observed, Señor Alfonso Herrera. Notes

of Personal Experiences, Madame E. Van Calear. Exhibition of

“ Spirit-Photographs" Known to be Spurious, and of Others Which

have been Supposed to be Genuine, with Remarks, Professor Elliott

Coues. The Evidence for Man's Survival of Death, F. W. H. Myers,

M. A. Papers written by absent authors were read by proxy.

PLATE XXIII,

pate

era.

Androchonia of

1893.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 1031

CONGRESS on GEoLocy.—August 21-26.—General Committee of

the World’s Congress Auxiliary on a Geological Congress: Josua

Lindahl, Chairman; W. R. Head, E. Andrews, Victor C. Alderson,

Oliver Marey, T. C. Chamberlin, Chas. W. Rolfe, J. P. Iddings, R. D.

Salisbury. Committee of Geological Section of American Associa-

tion for the Advancement of Science: T. C. Chamberlin, Chairman,

H. S. Williams, G. K. Gilbert, R. D. Salisbury, J. C. Branner, J. F.

Whiteaves, C. D. Walcott, N. H. Winchell, E. A. Smith, W J

McGee, G. H. Williams.

Addresses of Welcome by the President of the World's Congress

Auxiliary and others. Responses in behalf of different Congresses and

countries, Methods of Teaching Geology, Miss Mary Holmes, Ph. D.,

Rockford, Ill. Physical Geology, Miss Mary K. Andrews, Belfast,

Ireland. Chemical Geology, Miss Louise Foster, Boston, Mass.

August 22.— Granites of Massachusetts and Their Origin, Mrs. Ella

F. Boyd, Hyde Park, Mass. Artistic Geology, Mrs. S. Maxon-Cobb,

Boulder, Colo.

August 23.— The Geology of Ogle County, Mrs. C. M. Winston,

Chicago. The Fossils of the Upper Silurian, Mrs. Ada D. Davidson,

Oberlin, Ohio.

August 24.—Crinoidea and Blastoidea of the Kinderhook Group as

Found in the Quarries near Marshalltown, Iowa, Jennie MeGowen, A.

M., M. D., Davenport, Iowa. The Evolution of the Brachiopoda,

Miss Agnes Crane, Brighton, England.

August 25.—The Mastodon in Northern Ohio; Post Glacial or Pre-

Glacial, Miss Ellen Smith, Painesville, Ohio. Paleontology, MissJane

Donald Carlisle, England.

August 26.—Glacial Markings, Miss Thomson, Neweastle England.

August 24.—Address of Welcome by the President of the Auxiliary,

Hon. Charles C. Bonney. The General Geology of Brazil, Dr. O. A.

Derby, Director of the Geological Survey of Sao Paulo. The General

Geology of Venezuela, Dr. Adolph Ernst, Special Delegate from Vene-

zuela to the Columbian Exposition. Pre-Cambrian Rocks of Wales,

Dr. Henry Hicks, London, England. The Classification of the Rock

Formations of Canada, with Special Reference to the Paleozoie Era,

Henry M. Ami, Geological Survey of Canada. The Cordilleran Meso-

zoie Revolution, Dr. A. C. Lawson, University of California. The Pre-

Paleozoie Floor in the Northwestern States, Professor C. W. Hall,

University of Minnesota. Distribution of Pre-Cambrian Volcanic

Rocks along the Eastern Border ofthe United States and Canada,

Professor George H. Williams, Johns Hopkins University.

1032 The American Naturalist. [November,

August 25.—Huronian versus Algonkian, Dr. A. R. C. Selwyn, Geo-

logical Survey of Canada. On the Migration of Material during the

Metamorphism of Rock Masses, Alfred Harker, St. John’s College,

Cambridge, England. Wave-like Progress of an Epeirogenic Uplift,

Warren Upham, Geological Survey of Minnesota. Eruptive Phenom-

ena of Brazil, Dr. O. A. Derby, Geological Survey of Sao Paulo.

Genetic Classification of Geology, W J McGee, Bureau of Ethnology.

Precious Stones and Their Geological Occurrence, Dr. George F. Kunz.

The Extent and Lapse of Time Represented by Unconformities, Pro-

fessor C. R. Van Hise, U.S. Geological Survey. The Phylogeny of

Plants, Professor Lester F. Ward, U. S. Geological Survey. The

Phylogeny of the Classes of Vertebrates, Dr. O. Jækel, Berlin, Germany.

Restoration of Clidastes (illustrated), Professor S. W. Williston,

University of Kansas.

August 26.—Glacial Succession in the British Isles and Northern

Europe, Dr. James Geikie, Geological Survey of Scotland. Glacial

ciim in Sweden, Hjalmar Lundbohm, Geological Survey of

Sweden. he Succession of the Glacial Deposits of Canada, Dr.

Robert s Canadian Geological Survey. Glacial Succession in the

United States, Dr. T. C. Chamberlin, University of Chicago. Pleisto-

cene Climatic Changes, Warren Upham, Geological Survey of Minne-

sota. Evidences of the Diversity of the Older Drift in Northwestern

Illinois, Frank Leverett, U. S. Geological Survey.

. THE Coneress on ZooLoav.—August 28.—Stephen A. Forbes,

Chairman, Oliver S. Westcott, Vice-Chairman, Edward A. Birge, Secre-

tary, George W. Peckham, William A. Locy, Edward G. Howe, B. F.

Quimby, Committee of the World's Congress Auxiliary on a Congress

on Zoology. The History and Evolution of American Zoology and the

Status and Tendencies of Zoological Science in America, Dr. G.

Brown Goode, Director U.S. National Museum, Washington, D. C.

The Geographical Distribution of American Animals, Mr. J. A.

Allen, Curator of Departments of Mammalogy and Ornithology,

American Museum of Natural History, New York. The Effect of

Glaciation and of the Glacial Period on the Present Fauna of America,

Mr. Samuel H. Seudder, Cambridge, Mass. Preliminary Account of

the Formicid: of the North American Fauna, Professor C. Emery,

University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy.

August 29.—Lacustrine Zoology: Methods and General Results of

Its Investigation, Professor Dr. F. A. Forel, University of Lausanne,

Morges, Switzerland. The Plankton of the Muskoka Lakes, Ontario,

1893.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 1033

Professor R. Ramsay Wright, Professor of Biology, University of Tor-

onto, Canada. The Origin of the Subterranean Animals of America,

Professor A. S. Packard, Professor of Zoólogy and Geology, Brown

University, Providence, R. I. The Ichthyology of the World's Col-

umbian Exposition, Dr. Tarleton H. Bean, U. S. Fish Commission,

Washington, D. C

August 30.— The Zoological Museum, Mr. F. W. True, Curator of

Mammals, U. S. National Museum, Washington, D. C. The History

and Special Features of the Economic Entomology of the United

States, Professor J. H. Comstock, Professor of Entomology and

General Invertebrate Zoology, Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y. The

Special Problems of American Economie Entomology, Dr. C. V.

Riley, Chief of the Division of Entomology, U. S. Department of

Agriculture, Washington, D. C. The Ornithology of the World's

Columbian Exposition, Dr. Frank N. Chapman, American Museum,

Central Park, New York City. The Entomology of the World's

Columbian Exposition, Professor H. E. Summers, University of

Illinois, Champaign, Ill.

August 31.—Undergraduate Courses and Post-graduate Methods in

Zoology, Professor E. L. Mark, Hersey Professor of Anatomy, Har-

vard University, Cambridge, Mass. Kinetogenesis, or the Relation of

Motion to Organie Evolution, Professor E. D. Cope, Professor of

Mineralogy and Geology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia,

Pa. Energy in Relation to Organie Evolution, Professor J. A.

Ryder, Professor of Comparative Embryology, University of Pennsyl-

vania, Philadelphia, Pa. Observations on the Loss of Weight in the

Tadpoles of Amphibia Anura during the Period of Metamorphosis,

Professor Lorenzo Camerano, R. Museo d' Anatomia Comparata, Turin,

Italy. Mammalology and Mammalian Taxidermy at the World's

Columbian Exposition, Professor L. L. Dyche, Professor of Compara-

tive Anatomy, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kas.

September 1.—The Cellular Basis of Heredity. Prolene E. B.

Wilson, Department of Biology, Columbia University, New York City.

Continuity of Organization the Basis of Heredity, or the Organism and

the Cell, Professor C. O. Whitman, Head Professor of Biology, Uni-

versity of Chicago. Zoological Psychology and the Development of

Mind, Professor C. Lloyd Morgan, Professor of Animal Biology in

University College, Bristol, England. Zoological Nomenclature as a

Means to a End, Dr. Elliott Coues, Washington, D. C. On Zoolog-

ical Nomenclature, Dr. Charles Girard, Paris, France.

1034 The American Naturalist. [November,

Tue INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY.—August 28-

September 2.—Local Committee of Organization—F. W. Putnam,

Chairman, C. Staniland Wake, Secretary, Edward E. Ayer, James W.

Ellsworth, H. W. Beckwith, Frederick Starr, Stephen D. Peet. Execu-

tive Committee.—Daniel G. Brinton, President, Franz Boas, Secretary,

W. H. Holmes, Representative of American Association Adv. Science,

W. W. Newell, Representative of American Folk-Lore Society, Otis

T. Mason, Representative of Anthropological Society of Washington,

Alice C. Fletcher, Representative of the Women’s Anthropological

Society, Louis A. Lagarde, Representative of United States Army

Medieal Museum, and the Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections

of the Congress.

August 28.— A ddresses of Welcome by the President of the World's

Congress Auxiliary and others. Reponses in behalf of different Con-

gresses and countries. Address by the President of the Congress, Dr.

Daniel G. Brinton. Subject: The Nation as an Element in Anthro-

pology. Physical Anthropology of North America, Franz Boas Anthro-

pometry of North American School Children, Gerald M. West. Crania

from Cuban Caves, Carlos de la Torre. Trepanning in Ancient Peru,

Manuel A. Muñiz. On the Anthropological Laboratories of the

Department of Ethnology at the epis s Columbian Exposition, Franz

Boas, H. H. Donaldson, Joseph Jastro

. August 29.— The Discovery ofan Artificially-Flaked Flint Specimen

in the Gravels of San Isidro, Spain, H. C. Mercer. The Aboriginal

American Mechanics, Otis T. Mason. A Résumé of Archsological

Investigations in the Champlain Valley, G. H. Perkins. Anthropo-

logical Work at the University of Michigan, Harlan I. Smith. The

Mexican Calendar System, Mrs. Zelia Nuttall. On the Antiquity of

the Civilization of Peru, Emilio Montes. Cave Dwellers of the Sierra

Madre, Carl Lumholtz. Orientation, A. L. Lewis. The Tumuli of

Hampshire as a Central Group of Mounds in South Britain, J. S.

Phené. The Collection of Games in the Anthropological building,

Stewart Culin, J. G. Bourke, Frank Cushin

August 30.— Alleged Evidences of Ancient heteel Between America

and Other Continents, Daniel G. Brinton. Bark Cloth: The Primi-

tive Textile, Walter Hough. Love Songs among the Omahas, Miss

Alice C. Fletcher. Primitive Seales and Rhythms, J. Comfort Fill-

more. A Peculiar Observance of the Quichua Indians of Peru, G. A.

. Dorsey. Customs among Natives of East Africa, Mrs. M. French

Sheldon. Secret Societies among the Wild Tribes, Stephen D. Peet.

e Antl g G t Building. A Crit-

Ur EA EFE TER T e "SOR a

1893.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 1035

ical Study of Flaked Stone Implements, W. H. Holmes. An Industrial

Exhibit based on Linguistic Stocks, Otis T. Mason. Museum Collec-

tions to Illustrate Religious History and Ceremonies, Cyrus Alder.

Illustrations of a Zuñi Dramatic Ceremonial, Frank Cushing.

August 51.—Ritual regarded as a Dramatization of Myth, W. W.

Newell The Ritual of the Kwakiutl Indians, Franz Boas and George

Hunt. The Walpi Flute Observance; a Study of Tusayan Cermonial

Dramatization, J. Walter Fewkes. On the Folk-Lore of Precious

Stones, G. F. Kunz. The Fall of Hochelaga; a Study in Folk-Lore,

Horatio Hale. The Coyote and the Owl; Tales of the Kootenay

Indians, A. F. Chamberlain. Legends of the Bella Coola Indians,

Fillip Jacobsen. The Villas of the South Slavs, Friedrich S. Krauss.

The Collections of American Archeology in the Anthropological

Building. North American Archeology, F. W. Putnam. The Cliff

. Dwellers, Frank Cushing. Mexican Archeology, Mrs. Zelia Nuttall.

Central American Archeology, Manuel M. de Peralta. South Amer-

ican Archeology, G. A. Dorsey. Cache Finds from Ancient Village

Sites in New Jersey, Ernest Volk.

September 1.—The Historical Study of Religions; Its Method and

Scope, M. Jastrow, Jr* An Ancient Egyptian Rite, Illustrating a

Phase of Primitive Thought, Mrs. Sarah Y. Stevenson. On the Sacer-

dotalism of the Veda, with a Special Reference to the Vedic Hymns,

M. Bloomfield. A Chapter in Zufii Mythology, Mrs. Matilda C. Steven-

son. The Religious Symbolism of Central America and its Wide Dis-

tribution, Francis Parry. Paper (subject not announced), Grant Bey.

Paper (subject not announced), Crawford H. Foy. North American

Ethnology, Otis T. Mason. Paraguay, Emil Hassler.

September 2.— The Present Status of Our Knowledge of American

Languages, Daniel G. Brinton. Classification of Languages of the

North Pacific Coast, Franz Boas. Notes on the Phonology of the

Kootenay Indian Language, A. F. Chamberlain. The Affinities of the

Egyptian and Indo-European Languages, Carl Abel Study of the

Papuina Language of Central America, Raoul de la Grasserie. The

Ethnological Collection in the German Village, Ulrich Jahn. The

'Pre-Malay Culture of the Malay Peninsula, ——— Wildman.

Tue ConGcress or EvoLurroNisTS.—September 27th 28th, and

29th.— Committee on Organization. Benjamin F. Underwood, Chair-

man, Lloyd G. Wheeler, Secretary, Professor E. S. Bastin, C. Staniland

Wake, J. R. Cummings, Professor E. R. Boyer, Rev. J. Vila Blake,

Professor E. G. Cooley, Franklin H. Head, Rev. Jenkin L. Jones, Dr.

1036 The American Naturalist. { November,

Bayard Holmes, Thomas Whitfield, Judge A.N. Waterman. Commit-

tee on Programme and Correspondence.—Dr. Lewis G. Janes, Chair-

man, James A. Skilton, General Secretary, Professor E. S. Bastin,

William Potts, J. W.'Alfred Cluett, Edward P. Powell, Dr. Robert G.

Eecles, Rev. Minot J. Savage, Professor John Fiske, Daniel Greenleaf

Thompson, Dr. Martin L. Holbrook, Benjamin F. Underwood, George

Iles, Duren, J. H. Ward, Ph. D., Rev. John C. Kimball, Lloyd G.

Wheeler.

September 27th.—Opening Address by the Chairman. The Progress

of Evolutionary Thought, Benjamin F. Underwood, Illinois. Social

Evolution and Social Duty, Herbert Spencer, England. Remarks, By

James A. Skilton, New York. Constructive Evolution, Edward P.

Powell, New York. Remarks, By Mrs. Celia P. Woolley, Illinois, and

Others.

September 27th.—Origin of Variations—Effects of Use and Disuse,

Professor Edward D. Cope, Ph. D., Pennsylvania. Evolution of Muscle

Fibre—A Microscopical Study, Martin L. Holbrook, M. D. New

York. Present Status of Biological Science, Professor Edward S.

Morse, Massachusetts. The Inheritance of Acquired Characters—A

Botanical Study, Professor E. S. Bastin, Illinois. Weissman’s Theory

Reviewed, Edmund Montgomery, M. D., Texas. The Marvel of

Heredity and its Meaning, Rev. John C. Kimball, Connecticut. Her-

bert Spencer's Contribution to the Theory of Evolution, Edwin Hay-

den, Michigan. Charles Darwin—the Man and his Work, Duren J.

H. Ward, Ph. D., Pennsylvania. The Poets of Evolution, Mrs. Sara

A. Underwood, Illinois. Asa Gray, and America’s Contribution to

Botanical Science, Professor T. J. Burrell, Illinois. Edward Livingston

Youmans, Instructor of the People, Hon. John A. Taylor. The Life-

Work of Richard A. Proctor, Miss Mary Proctor, Florida. Emerson,

the Prophet of Evolution, William J. Potter, Massachusetts.

September 28th.—The Relativity of Knowledge—Spencer’s Unknow-

able, Benjamin F. Underwood, Illinois. The Relations of Feelings,

Herman Gasser, M. D., New York. Evolutionary Psychology as

Related to Education, Professor Almon G. Merwin, Ph. D., New York.

Constructive Forms of Intuition, John E. Purdon, M. D., Dublin.

Psychology in its Relation to ZEsthetics, Harvey C. Alford, South

Dakota.

September 28th.—The Evolution of the Social Body, Rev. A. N.

Somers. Evolution as Applied to Disease in the Progress of Social

Development, Bayard Holmes, M. D., Illinois. The Evolution of the

Modern Family, Mrs. Florence Griswold Buckstaff, Wisconsin. The

MORI Prem È

i oh cor

1893.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 1037

Beastliness of Modern Civilization—Evolution the Only Remedy, Miss

Mary A. Dodge (“Gail Hamilton”), Maine. Evolution and the Fair,

John H. Copeland, Texas. The Evolutionary Basis of Social Econ-

omies, Professor George Gunton, New York. The Relation of Evolu-

tion to Political Economy, Charles S. Ashley, New York. Some

American Problems of Evolutionary Economics, James A. Skilton,

New York. Universal Economic Progress, as Related to Ethical

Economy, Alfred W. Smith.

A Symposium of Brief Papers on the following Questions: I. Does

the doctrine of evolution, in its sociological aspects, in your opinion,

offer wise suggestion for the solution of the grave social and economic

problems of our time. II. What, in your judgment, in accordance with

such suggestion, should be the next step taken, in our own country,

looking toward the solution of these problems? Professor John Fiske,

Massachusetts; Edmund Montgomery, M. D., Texas; R. W. Shufeldt,

Washington, D. C.; Rev. Myron.Adams, New York ; Star Hoyt Nich-

ols, New York ; F. M. Holland, Massachusetts; Benj. B. Kingsbury,

Ohio; T. B. Wakeman, New York; Robert Matthews, New York;

L. R. Klemm, Ph. D., Washington, D. C., Bayard Holmes, Illinois, and

Others.

September 29th.—Involution and Evolution, Professor Elliott Coues,

Washington, D. C. Abstract of Paper on Monism (translated), Pro-

fessor Ernst Haeckel, Jena, Germany. Evolution of Cosmic Matter,

R. G. Eccles, M. A., New York. The Law of Evolution in the

Spiritual Realm, Wm. Emmette Coleman, California. The Knowable

and the Unknowable, Sylvan Gray, New York. Philosophy and the

Aoctrine of Evolution, Raymond S. Perrin, New York. Evolution

Optimistic, W. Alfred Cluett, New York. Influence of the Doctrine

of Evolution on Ethical Sanctions, Rev. Minot J. Savage, Massachusetts.

Intellectual Relations of Morality, C. Staniland Wake, England. Her-

bert Spencer as a Teacher of Ethics, Rev. Jenkin Lloyd Jones, Illinois.

Professor Huxley’s Surrender, Dr. Lewis G. Janes, New York. The

Evolution of Morality, Rev. H. A. Simmons, Minnesota. The Morals

of Evolution, James T. Bixby, Ph. D., New York. The Relations of

Evolutionary Thought to the Belief in Immortality, Dr. Charles T.

Stockwell, Massachusetts. The Evolution of the Old Testament

Religion, Rabbi Emil G. Hirsch, Illinois. The Evolution of Apostolic

Christianity, Rev. Howard MacQueary, Michigan. Christianity, in the

Evolution of Religious Thought, Rev. Frank N. Riale, Ph. D., New

York. The Future of Religious Evolution, Edward P. Powell, New

York. The Higher Evolution, Celestia Root Lang, Ohio.

1038 The American Naturalist. [November,

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

The death is announced of Prof. Alexander Strauch, director of the

Zoological Museum of St. Petersburgh, and author of several works

on Zoology. _ Prof. Strauch was an authority on reptiles.

According ‘to the Revue Scientifique Dr. R. Lydekker started

early in August to La Plata, to visit the Natural History Museum

of that city. As they go by invitation from M. Moreno, the direcrto

of the museum, they will have an opportunity of studying the rich

paleontological collections from southern Patagonia which the institu-

tion has acquired during the last few years.

Mr. W. F. C. Gurley has been appointed director of the Geological

Survey of Illinois by Gov. Altgeld. Mr. Gurley is the author of sev-

eral papers on paleozoie paleontology, and has a very valuable collec-

tion of fossils.

Prof. E. D. Cope has been appointed Professor of Comparative

Anatomy and Zoology in the Biological School of the University of

Pennsylvania; and Prof. A. P. Brown Professor of Geology and

Mineralogy in the Auxiliary Medical Faculty of the same institution.

W J McGee has been appointed Director of the Bureau of Eth-

nology of the United States. é

The distinguished French physician, Charcot, is dead. He had an

immense practice in Paris and France, and he will be long known for

his researches in hypnotism.

In view of the recent meeting of the Pan-American Medical Con-

gress in Washington, D. C., and of the prospective meeting of the

Coggress of American Physicians and Surgeons in Washington, D. C.,

in May, 1894, the Executive Committee of the Association of Ameri-

can Anatomists think it advisable to postpone the next meeting of the

Anatomists from December, 1893, until May, when the Association

will meet as an integer of the Congress.

a a

1893.] Scientific News. 1059

A work in folio on the Forest Flora of New South Wales is in pre-

paration, and will soon be issued by the Forest Department of that

province. It will be published in quarterly parts, each containing

five plates, with their corresponding letter-press of descriptive matter.

The illustrations will be in color, and show natural sized flowering

branchlets of each species, together with their fruits, barks, ete.

Judging from the title page, the work will be an exceedingly beautiful

addition to a library.

A volume of scientific memoirs in honor of the late Sir William

Macleay has been published by the Linnean Society of New South

Wales, and by Dulau & Co. London. Itisa royal quarto of 290

pages, with a portrait and forty-two plates and comprises the follow-

ing papers: The Hon. Sir William Macleay, Kt., E. L. S., M. L. C.;

Contributions to our Knowledge of Ceratodus, Part I.—The Blood

Vesssels, Prof. W. Balwin Spencer, M. A. (Plates i-v); The Pliocene

Mollusca of New Zealand, Prof. F. W. Hutton, F. R. S. (Plates vi-

ix); A Monograph of the Temnocephalæ, Prof. W. A. Haswell, M.

A., D. Sc. (Plates x-xv); On an apparently New Type of the Platy-

helminthes (Trematoda ?), Prof. W. A. Haswell, M. A., D. Sc. (Plate

xvi); Observations on the Myology of Palinurus edwardsii Hutton,

Prof. T. Jeffery Parker, D. Se, F. R. S., and Josephine G. Rich

(Plates xvii-xx); Observations upon the Anatomy of the Muzzle of

the Ornithorhynchus, Prof. J. T. Wilson, M. B., Ch. M. and C. J.

Martin, M. B., B. Sc. (Plates xxii-xxiii); On the peculiar rod-like

Tactile Organs in the Integument and Mucous Membrane of the Muz-

zle of Ornithorhynchus, Prof. T. J. Wilson, M. B., Ch. M., and C. J.

Martin, M. B., B. Se. (Plates xxiv-xxvi) ; On Parinacochlea fischerii

Smith, C. Hedley, F. L. S. (Plate xxvii); On the Geographic Rela-

tions of the Floras of Norfolk and Lord Howe Islands, Prof. R. Tate,

F. L. S., F. G. S., ete.; Notes on an Undescribed Acacia from New

South Wales, Baron von Mueller, K. C. M. G., M. & Ph. D., LL. D.,

F. R. S. (Plate xxviii); Description of a New Hakea from Eastern

New South Wales, Baron von Mueller, K. C. M. G., M. and Ph. D.,

LL. D., F. R. S. and J. H. Maiden, F. L. S., F. C. S. (Plate xxix); A

Description of some of the Weapons and Implements of the Alligator

Tribe, Port Essington, North Australia, R. Etheridge, Jun. (Plates

xxx-xxxv); New Nematodes from Fiji and Australia, N. A. Cobb,

Ph. D. (Plates xxxvi-xlii).

1040 The American Naturalist. [November,

The annual Excursion of the Geological Society of France for 1893

covered the region at the Nothern base of the Eastern Pyrenees. The

region presents a great deal of interest to the Geologist and is remarka-

bly complex, embracing Archean, Mesozoic and Cenozoic beds of

several systems.

The Naturalist attached to the Antarctic Sealing and Whaling fleet

that recently sailed from Dundee, Scotland, have returned and sent in

their reports. They had few opportunies of landing on the supposed

Antarctic continent, but they obtained specimens of Eruptive and

Schistose rocks, and some fossils of Jurassic age.

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