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l VUS THE

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NATURALIST

A MONTHLY JOURNAL

DEVOTED TO THE NATURAL SCIENCES

IN THEIR WIDEST SENSE,

MANAGING

Profs. E. D. COPE, Philadelphia, AND J. S

gapi ED

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a iiaa Tufts College, College Hill, Mass.

ITORS:

“M

Dr. C. O. WHITMAN, Chicago, Dr. C, E. BESSEY, Lincoln, Neb. rO rhe ERCER, Rhames Ba

Pror. C. M. WEED, HEET, N.H., PROF. W S. BAYLEY, W tek ies Maine, Pror. E. A. ANDREWS, Halting /

PROF, A. C. GILL, Ithaca. PROF. H. C: aei Princeton. ;

Vol. XXX. JULY, 1896. No. 355 —

CONTENTS

Clarence J. Elmore. 520

(Continued.)

Mark Baldwin:

CEE).

THE CLASSIFICATION OF, DIATOMS (BACILLARI-

A New FACTOR IN EVOLUTION.

A 536

THE PATH OF THE WATER CURRENT IN CucuM-

BER PLANTS. (Continued.) Ær win F. Smith.

‘Eprror’s TABLE.—The Spoliatio

The American Association at Bu

554

n of seve

z

falo. iea pi

RECENT LITERAT — Surface Colors — The

Whence and Whither of Pine Opi on

? ic Evolut (Ilus-

t

trated. )— The

aoe EM RE on nee casei of ge

| _ Mar

~ RECENT Boos | AND PAMPHLETS. 2 ES - 570

_ GENERAL NOT

Wins EPA ntact Goniometer with tw

aduated Circles.—Crystallographic Proper-

Sulphonic Acid Derivatives of Cam-

e;

Ha

or

=J

Or

' Galena Limestone—Miscellane

Petrog iy A a e Rocks Tuffs ix

PAGE

lee te Gta: Dykes near Lake Memphrem-

—The Origin of the bashes Granites—

Potebariutien 1 Notes:

Geology and Pak saat load dian Palei

: opo-

ogy—Jackson on the Hevelopeeate ligo

rus—American Fossil Cockroaches he =

manche Cr she ihre its laian Take

- 579

ays Argentir

Tilden’ Ampak Aii saie

tam bines of North America—Sets of No es

Am n Plants—Botany in a

for a Plant Analysis” —Botanical New i

Zoology —J apanese VENET Orient of g

Tail- orms The Spermatheca

can Newts and Salamar ndere- 7

E hesola Tae Asy

to Pelyxenus—

North American Sey w—New MODUN

—Entomological N

Em iey ~ Protoplasmie Continnity-—C ell

Studies in elid Eg

Psych ae oars Study in Morbid Peschology sy

with some reflections. (Continued). —

Aare gy—Mr. Kean on Paleolithic’ ie

—Cave Cave Kepti by ee RA a

Peauaybean iain Tennessee. be ustrated..

i nd

’ Prussia—Igneous Rocks of British Columbia—

k Ciaseions “Ganeretione in Obsidians from

SCIENTIFIC te Ms ie ue

PHILADELPHIA, U. S.A

THE EDWARDS & DOCKER oa

518 ano 520 MINOR STREET.

7”

THE

AMERICAN NATURALIST

ee

? DES:

Vor XIX, July, 1896. 355

THE CLASSIFICATION OF DIATOMS (BACIL-

LARIACE).

By CLARENCE J. ELMORE.

There have been many systems of classification employed

for the Bacillariacex, but very few of these have any valid

claim, to be regarded as natural systems. They may be divided

into three classes; (1) those based on the structure of the valves,

of which Kuetzing’s, Prof. H. L. Smith’s, and that employed |

by Kirchner are examples; (2) those based on the form of the

frond, the connecting membrane, and the gelatinous envelope,

represented by Rey. Wm. Smith’s; and (8) those based on the |

_ structure of the endochrome and the manner of forming auxo-

~ spores, represented by that of Paul Petit. The following i is me

brief outline of the systems mentioned.

‘Kirchner divided the Bacillariacex into two groups’ those os

' Read before the Botanical Seminar of the University of Kapukai d March 21. -

crypt ora von Eichleaien ; TES m eee 1878.

ey iat Leipsic, Pu

a whose markings are bilateral, that is, arranged on two sides of _

a longitudinal line or raphe, and? those with radial markings. oe

530 The American Naturalist. [July,

Those with bilateral markings he divided into two subdivisions

the first comprising those with a central nodule, and the second

those with none.

Kuetzing divided the Bacillariacex into three tribes ; I, Stri-

atx, that is those with transverse striations; II, Vittatz, that is

those with longitudinal stripes ; and III, Areolatæ, that is those

whose surfaces are divided into angular areole. The first-

two tribes, Striate and Vittate he divided into two orders

each, viz.; I, Astomatice and II, Stomatice. The Astomatice

included those with no central nodule, or as he understood it,

with no central opening, while the Stomatice included those

with a central nodule. If the central nodule were really a

stoma or aperture as Kuetzing considered it, this grouping

might have been a natural one; for this difference in structure

might have connoted important physiological differences, but

it is generally conceded that the nodules are merely markings

on the valves, and it is likely that they indicate nothing as to

the physiology of the plant. Sono higher groups than genera,

or possibly species, can be based on this character. His third

tribe, Areolatx, he also divided into two orders; I, Disciformex

that is, those of a circular or angular form, and, II, Appendi-

culate, or forms with appendages, as Biddulphia.

The classification of Prof. H. L. Smith‘ is one that has had

considerable following. Bessey’s Botany® was the first American

textbook to adopt and give an outline of the system. It was

adopted by Van Heurck®, Wolle and De Toni®. To say the

least, it is a good practical system of classification, and prob-

ably this is the most that can be said for it, though in some

points it seems to approach a natural system. Smith divides

the Diatoms into three tribes, the Raphidex, Pseudoraphidee,

and Cryptoraphidex. The Raphidex are all supposed to possess

a raphe. The Pseudoraphidex are usually elongated, have no

raphe, but in its place there is a blank space resembling a

t Conspectus of the Families and Genera of the Diatomacee in The Lens, I: 1

1872 and II: 65, 1873.

5 Botany for High Schools and Colleges, pi Holt and Co., New York, 1880,

ê Synopsis des Diatomées de Belgique, 188

1 Diatomaceæ of North America, 1890.

8 Sylloge Algarum, 1891.

1896.] The Classification of Diatoms. 531

raphe. The Cryptoraphidee are usually circular or angular and

have nothing resembling a raphe. Upon the supposition that

the raphe is an essential organ, and that it is present in one

tribe, replaced by another structure in the second, and “ hid-.

den” in the third, this might be a natural classification. But

if the raphe is known to exist only in the first tribe and its

existence in the others is wholly theoretical, it will hardly serve

as a character on which to base a classification. It is true that

the genera brought together by this system appear to bear

more or less relation to each other, but if we knew as little

about Phanerogams as we do about Diatoms, we should think

that a division of them into Arboræ, Frutices, and Herbx placed

related genera together, for it would be easy to see that Salix

and Populus are related, and also that Solanum and Physalis

are more or less closely allied. I venture to regard the Raph-

idex, Pseudoraphidex, and Cryptoraphidex as having no greater

naturalness than the divisions Arborx, Frutices, and Herbz ;

and it is to be hoped that they will soon be consigned to the

same botanical limbo in which the latter have long since found

obscurity.

It is true, however, that in the Raphidex, there seems to be a

trace of naturalness in the system. The author begins with

the bilaterally symmetrical forms, that is those in which the

raphe is a median line, as for example, Navicula. Those with

the raphe at one side of the center, as in Cymbella, he considers

a modification of the first type by a curving of the frustule and

thus bringing the raphe nearer the concave side. And in the

third division the raphe has approached so near to the concave

margin that it fuses with it, asin Amphora. If this is to be

considered simply as a modification of a typical form, it means

little. But if this modification shows the course of develop-

ment from the Navicula form to the Amphora form, it means a

great deal. In Navicula and Cymbella two auxospores are

formed from two mother cells without conjugation, and in Am-

phora two auxospores are formed from two mother cells by

conjugation. It is probable that the method of reproduction

found in the derived form is a development from that found in

the primitive form. If then the Amphora form has developed

from the Navicula form, there is reason to believe that the for-

532 The American Naturalist. [July,

mation of auxospores without conjugation is the primitive

method, although Murray’ holds that the formation of auxo-

spores by conjugation is probably the original method, and

that their formation without conjugation is the derived method.

Wm. Smith” divided the Diatoms into two tribes in the first

of which the frustules are free, and in the second imbedded in

a gelatinousenvelope. Under the first tribe he makes five sub-

tribes, depending upon the form of the connecting membrane

and the relation of the frustules to each other. The second

tribe he divided into four subtribes based on the form of the

fronds. This arrangement seems not only extremely artificial

but also very impractical. Nothing about Diatoms is more

variable than the form of the fronds; and where it is at all con-

stant, such a system places closely related genera far apart; for

example, Cymbella and Encyonema, Nitzschia and Homæocladia

are placed in separate tribes, while in structure they are very

similar, the main difference being that in Encyonema and

Homeocladia the frustules are arranged in rows, while in Cym-

bella they are free or stipitate and in Nitzschia they are free.

This method of classifying Diatoms may be likened to a separa-

tion of Grasses into those forming a dense sod and those not

forming a sod; or of Dicotyledons into those exuding a

resinous fluid and those that do not. Wm. Smith places

Gomphonema in his first tribe, that is, the one having no gela-

tinous envelope; but some species of Gomphonema are-stipitate

while others are enclosed in an amorphous mass of jelly. The

latter species would have to be placed in his second tribe, thus

dividing the genus. It would lead to even greater difficulty

than this, for the same species is sometimes stipitate and some-

times imbedded in a gelatinous envelope.

Of all existing systems that of Paul Petit seems to approach

° An Introduction to the Study of Seaweeds, p. 195, 1895.

1 For a synopsis of Smith’s classification see Pritchard’s History of the Infus-

oria, 191, fourth edition, 1861.

^ Liste des Diatomées et des Desmidées observées dans les Environs de Paris

precedée d’un essai de classification des Diatomées. Bull. Soc. Bot. France, tom.

XXIII-XXIV, Paris, 1877.

An Essay on the Classification of the Diatomacee translated by F. Kitton,

Monthly Microscopical Journal and Transactions of the Royal Microscopical

Society, XVIII, 1877, pp. 10, 65.

ceen, in Schenk’s Handbuch der Botanik, Breslau, 1882.

1896.] The Classification of Diatoms. 533

most nearly to a natural one because it is based on characters

having physiological significance. It is based primarily on

the structure of the endochrome, and secondarily on the method

of forming auxospores and the general shape of the frustules.

Van Heurck does not employ this system in his Synopsis

because of the large number of fossil specimens and those from

deep-sea soundings to which it could not be applied. But this

is not a valid objection, for all the genera are represented by

modern species, and these are sufficient for a basis of classifica-

tions, and since the specific characters are based mainly on the

structure of the valves, there will be no trouble with the fossil

forms. The following synopsis of Petit’s system includes the

higher divisions only.

I. Bacillariaceæ coccochromatice.

With numerous endochrome granules.

A. Frustules concentrically constructed. One mother

cell forming asexually a single auxospore. Melosi-

res, etc.

B. Frustules bilateral, one or two mother cells forming

two auxospores, as far as known asexually. Fra-

gilariex, etc.

II. Bacillariacee placochromatice.

With one or two large endochrome plates.

A. One endochrome plate lying against the convex

valve; one mother cell forming one auxospore

asexually. Cocconeidex.

B. A single endochrome plate extending diagonally

across the cell cavity, or lying next the girdle. Two

auxospores formed from two mother cells, with or

without conjugation. Nitzschiex. Amphorex, Cym-

belles, ete.

C. Two endochrome plates lying next the two valves.

Two mother cells forming two auxospores by con-

jugation. Eunotiex, Synedricx, Surirayex.

D. Two endochrome plates lying next the two girdle

bands; two mother cells forming two auxospores

without conjugation. Amphiplewree, Naviculex, etc.

534 The American Naturalist. [July,

Although Petit’s system is by no means perfect, it is at least

a step in the right direction. He bases it upon characters that

have some physiological significance, while the other systems

are wholly or in greater part based on merely accidental char-

acters. A clue to the genetic relationships of Diatoms, as of

other plants, will be most certainly found in their method of

reproduction. The shape of the frustules, or their markings,

will serve for specific, or in some cases for generic characters,

but they have no significance that will warrant their use in the

erection of higher groups. Absolute shape and size will not

serve as definite characters, for a single species between one

auxospore stage and the next varies greatly in both these

respects. Owing to the peculiar mode of cell division in which

each new valve is formed inside the old one, each new frustule

is smaller than the parent, hence the size gradually decreases

until an auxospore is formed. Schumann”, out of 470 species

found ten in which the length of the largest was five times

that of the smallest; twenty-nine in which the largest were

from three to four times as long as the smallest, and the rest

showing less variation. The variation in form is even as great

as the variation in size. This is probably due to the difference

in the thickness of the girdle, 7. e. the part of the valves that

overlaps, in different parts of the frustule. Navicula iridis Ehr.

is a good example of a variable species. Its different forms

have been described as species by most writers. In the typical

form the valves are elliptical with gracefully curved margins.

The first variation from this type has apices cuneate, and a still

further deviation shows them acuminate-cuneate ; and from this

it varies to rostrate or capitate ; and a diminution in size goes

step by step with this change in form. These forms are repre-

sented by Navicula iridis Ehr., N. amphigomphus Ehr., N. affinis

Ehr., N. amphirhynchus Ehr., and N. producta W. Sm. If the

overlapping portions of the valves are slightly thicker near the

ends than elsewhere, this variation would be the necessary

result, for each new valve formed inside an old one would be

slightly constricted opposite this thickened place, at first chang-

ing the rounded ends to cuneate, and as the narrowing pro-

12 Pfitzer, l. c., p. 441.

1896.] The Classification of Diatoms. 535

ceeded still further, the cuneate form would become rostrate

and a still further narrowing would give a capitate form. So

form and size, although they have a certain significance, are

not to be considered infallible characters.

The geological records throw no light upon the relationship

of the Bacillariacex, for when this family first appeared, we find

the same genera, and largely the same species as in our modern

ones. This is probably due to the fact that their ancestors

lacked the siliceous covering, and hence were not preserved.

Diatoms evolved the same as all other plants until they devel-

oped their shells, but these put a stop to their further evolu-

tion, at least they show no trace of evolution since their first

appearance. So the question arises whether the Diatoms repre-

sent the ends of several closely related genetic lines the further

development of which was stopped by their siliceous shells, or

whether we may trace the development of one form from an-

other. The former supposition is the more probable, for the

form of the earliest fossil specimens is identical with that of

modern specimens of the same species; and the same genera

are found among fossil as among modern Diatoms. If one

genus of Diatoms developed from another, we ought to find the

more primitive forms in the earlier strata, for there is little

chance that their remains would not be preserved had they

existed. But instead of this, Diatoms of all forms appear

almost simultaneously. We may conclude then that the

Bacillariacex represent the silicified ends of several closely allied

genetic lines and that they have not changed in form since

they acquired their siliceous covering. The structure of the

valves it follows will tell us practically nothing of their rela-

tionship.

There are five methods by which auxospores are formed”.

In the first the protoplasm of one frustule simply escapes from

the valves, grows to a certain size, and then invests itself with

new valves. In the second, two auxospores, instead of one,

are formed in the same way by the dividing of the protoplasm

of a single plant. In the third, the protoplasm of two Diatoms

unites to form an auxospore. In the fourth, the protoplasm of

18 Murray, 1. c.

536 The American Naturalist. [July,

two Diatoms emerges from the valves, and placed by side, but

without conjugation, forms each an auxospore. In the fifth,

two Diatoms divide transversely and the two halves of each

conjugate, each half with the corresponding half of the other

and thus form two auxospores. Before any truly natural

classification can be made the significance of these various

modes of producing auxospores must be understood. Whether

the sexual or the asexual] method is the primitive one must be

known, or whether the different methods are so many expedi- >

ents to overcome the difficulties imposed upon these plants by

their siliceous shells. At present our knowledge of the struct-

ure and physiology of Diatoms is not sufficient to enable us to

construct a perfectly natural system of classifieation, and until

something better is proposed, Petit’s may well be adopted, for

although it is not wholly natural, it is more so than any which

has preceded it.

A NEW FACTOR IN EVOLUTION.

By J. Mark BALDWIN.

(Continued from page 451).

ITI.

Social Heredity.—There follows also another resource in the

matter of development. In all the higher reaches of develop-

ment we find certain co-operative or “social” processes which

directly supplement or add to the individual’s private adapta-

tions. In the lower forms it is called gregariousnes, in man

sociality, and in the lowest creatures (except plants) there are

suggestions of a sort of imitative and responsive action be-

tween creatures of the same species and in the same habitat.

In all these cases it is evident that other living creatures con-

stitute part of the environment of each, and many neuro-gen-

etic and psycho-genetic accommodations have reference to or

involve these other creatures. It is here that the principle of

imitation gets tremendous oo intelligence and vol-

1896.] A New Factor in Evolution. 537

ition, also, later on; and in human affairs it becomes social

co-operation. Now it is evident that when young creatures

have these imitative, intelligent, or quasi-social tendencies to

any extent, they are able to pick up for themselves, by imitation,

instruction, experience generally, the functions which their

parents and other creatures perform in their presence. This

then is a form of ontogenetic adaptation ; it keeps these crea-

tures alive, and so produces determinate variations in the way

explained above. It is, therefore, a special, and from its wide

range, an extremely important instance of the general principle

of Organic Selection. ;

But it has a farther value. Jt keeps alive a series of functions

which either are not yet, or never do become, congenital at all. It

is a means of extra-organic transmission from generation to

generation. It is really a form of heredity because (1) it isa

handing down of physical functions ; while it is not physical her-

edity. It is entitled to be called heredity for the further rea-

son (2) that it directly influences physical heredity in the way men-

tioned, i. e., it keeps alive variations, thus sets the direction of

ontogenetic adaptation, thereby influences the direction of the

available congenital variations of the next generation, and so

determines phylogenetic development. I have accordingly

called it “ Social Heredity ” (ref. 2, chap. xii; ref. 3).

In “Social Heredity,” therefore, we have a more or less con-

servative, progressive, ontogenic atmosphere of which we may *

make certain remarks as follows :—

1) It secures adaptations of individuals all through the anina

world. “Instead of limiting this influence to human life,

we have to extend it to all the gregarious animals, to all

the creatures that have any ability to imitate, and finally to

all animals who have consciousness sufficient to enable them

to make adaptations of their own ; for such creatures will have

children that can do the same, and it is unnecessary to say that

the children must inherit what their fathers did by intelli-

gence, when they can do the same things by intelligence ”

(ref. 6).

(2) It tends to set the direction of phylogenetic progress by

Organic Selection, Sexual Selection, etc., i. e., it tends not only

538 The American Naturalist. [July,

to give the young the adaptations which the adults already

have, but also to produce adaptations which depend upon social

coöperation ; thus variations in the direction of sociality are selected

and made determinate. “When we remember that the per-

manence of a habit learned by one individual is largely con-

ditioned by the learning of the same habits by others

(notably of the opposite sex) in the same environment, we

see that an enormous premium must have been put on varia-

tions of a social kind—those which brought different indi-

viduals into some kind of joint action or coöperation. Wher-

ever this appeared, not only would habits be maintained,

but new variations, having all the force of double hereditary

tendency, might also be expected” (ref. 3). Why is it, for

example, that a race of Mulattoes does not arise faster, and

possess our Southern States? Isit not just the social repug-

nance to black-white marriages? Remove or reverse this in-

fluence of education, imitation, etc., and the result on phylogeny

would show in our faces, and even appear in our fossils when

they are dug up long hence by the paleontologist of the

succeeding aeons !

(3) In man it becomes the law of social evolution. “ Weis-

mann and others have shown that the influence of animal

intercourse, seen in maternal instruction, imitation, gregarious

coöperation, etc., is very important. Wallace dwells upon the

* actual facts which illustrate the ‘imitative factor, as we may

call it, in the personal development of young animals. I have

recently argued that Spencer and others are in error in hold-

ing that social progress demands use-inheritance; since the

socially-acquired actions of a species, notably man, are socially

handed down, giving a sort of ‘social heredity ’ which supple-

ments natural heredity ” (ref. 4). The social “sport,” the

genius, is very often the controlling factor in social evolution.

He not only sets the direction of future progress, but he may

actually lift society at a bound up to a new standard of attain-

ment (ref. 6). “So strong does the case seem for the Social

Heredity view in this matter of intellectual and moral progress

that I may suggest an hypothesis which may not stand in

court, but which I find interesting. May not the rise of social

1896.] A New Factor in Evolution. 539

life be justified from the point of view of a second utility in

addition to that of its utility in the struggle for existence as

ordinarily understood, the second utility, ʻi. e., of giving to each

generation the attainments of the past which natural inherit-

ance is inadequate to transmit. When social life begins, we

find the beginning of the artificial selection of the unfit;

and this negative principle begins to work directly in the

teeth of progress, as many writers on social themes have re-

cently made clear. This being the case, some other resource

is necessary besides natural inheritance. On my hypothesis it

is found in the common or social standards of attainment

which the individual is fitted to grow up to and to which he

is compelled to submit. This secures progress in two ways:

First, by making the individual learn what the race has

learned, thus preventing social retrogression, in any case; and

second, by putting a direct premium on variations which are

socially available ” (ref. 3).

4. The two ways of securing development in determinate di-

rections—the purely extra-organic way of Social Heredity, and

the way by which Organic Selection in general (both by social

and by other ontogenetic adaptations) secures the fixing of

phylogenetic variations, as described above—seem to run

parallel. Their conjoint influence is seen most interestingly

ingly in the complex instincts (ref. 4,5). We find in some in-

stincts completely reflex or congenital functions which are

accounted for by Organic Selection. In other instincts we find

only partial coédrdinations ready given by heredity, and the

creature actually depending upon some conscious resource

(imitation, instruction, ete.) to bring the instinct into actual

operation. But as we come up in the line of phylogenetic

development, both processes may be present for the same func-

tion ; the intelligence of the creature may lead him to do con-

sciously what he also does instinctively. In these cases the

additional utility gained by the double performance accounts

for the duplication. It has arisen either (1) by the accumula-

tion of congenital variations in creatures which already per-

formed the action (by ontogenetic adaptation and handed it

down socially), or (2) the reverse. In the animals, the social

540 The American Naturalist. [July,

transmission seems to be mainly useful as enabling a species

to get instincts slowly in determinate directions, by keeping

off the operation of natural selection. Social Heredity is then

the lesser factor ; it serves Biological Heredity. Butin man, the

reverse. Social transmission is the important factor, and the

congenital equipment of instincts is actually broken up in

order to allow the plasticity which the human being’s social

learning requires him to have. So in all cases both factors are

present, but in a sort of inverse ratio to each other. In the

words of Preyer, “ the more kinds of co-ordinated movement an

animal brings into the world, the fewer is he able to learn

afterwards.” The child is the animal which inherits the

smallest number of congenital co-ordinations, but he is the one

that learns the greatest number (ref. 2, p. 297).

“It is very probable, as far as the early life of the child may

be taken as indicating the factors of evolution, that the main

function of consciousness is to enable him to learn things which

natural heredity fails to transmit; and with the child the fact

that consciousness is the essential means of all his learning is

correlated with the other fact that the child is the very crea-

ture for which natural heredity gives few independent func-

tions. It is in this field only that I venture to speak with

assurance; but the same point of view has been reached by

Weismann and others on the purely biological side. The in-

stinctive equipment of the lower animals is replaced by the

plasticity for learning by consciousness. So it seems to me

that the evidence points to some inverse ratio between the im-

portance of consciousness as factor in development and the

need of inheritance of acquired characters as factor in develop-

ment ” (ref. 7).

“ Under this general conception we may bring the biological

phenomena of infancy, with all their evolutionary significance :

the great plasticity of the mammal infant as opposed to the

highly developed instinctive equipment of other young; the

maternal care, instruction and example during the period of

dependence, and the very gradual attainment of the activities

of self-maintenance in conditions in which social activities are

absolutely essential. All this stock of the development theory

is available to confirm this view ” (Ref. 3).

1896.] A New Factor in Evolution. 541

But these two influences furnish a double resort against Neo-

Lamarkism. And I do not see anything in the way of con-

sidering the fact of Organic Selection, from which both these

resources spring, as being a sufficient supplement to the prin-

ciple of natural selection. The relation which it bears to

natural selection, however, is a matter of further remark be-

low (V).

“ We may say, therefore, that there are two great kinds of

influence, each in a sense hereditary; there is natural heredity

by which variations are congenitally transmitted with original

endowment, and there is ‘social heredity’ by which functions

socially acquired (i. e., imitatively, covering all the conscious

acquisitions made through intercourse with other animals) are

also socially transmitted. The one is phylogenetic ; the other

ontogenetic. But these two lines of hereditary influence are

not separate nor uninfluential on each other. Congenital varia-

tions, on the one hand, are kept alive and made effective by

their conscious use for intelligent and imitative adaptations in

the life of the individual; and, on the other hand, intelligent

and imitative adaptations become congenital by further prog-

ress and refinement of variation in the same lines of function

as those which their acquisition by the individual called into

play. But there is no need in either case to assume the

Lamarkian factor ” (ref. 4).

“The only hindrance that I see to the child’s learning every-

thing that his life in society requires would be just the thing

that the advocates of Lamarkism argue for—the inheritance of

acquired characters. For such inheritance would tend so to

bind up the child’s nervous substance in fixed forms that he

would have less or possibly no unstable substance left to learn

anything with. So, in fact, it is with the animals in which

instinct is largely developed; they have no power to learn

anything new, just because their nervous systems are not in

the mobile condition represented by high consciousness. They

have instinct and little else ” (ref. 3).

IV.

The Process of Organic Selection—So far we have been dealing

exclusively with facts. By recognizing certain facts we have

542 The American Naturalist. [July,

reached a view which considers ontogenetic selection an im-

portant factor in development. Without prejudicing the state-

ment of fact at all we may enquire into the actual working of

the organism is making its organic selections or adaptations.

The question is simply this: how does the organism secure,

from the multitude of possible ontogenetic changes which it

might and does undergo, those which are adaptive? As a

matter of fact, all personal growth, all motor acquisitions made

by the individual, show that it succeeds in doing this; the

further question is, how? Before taking this up, I must repeat

with emphasis that the position taken in the foregoing pages,

which simply makes the fact of ontogenetic adaptation a factor

in development, is not involved in the solution of the further

question as to how the adaptations are secured. But from the

answer to this latter question we may get further light of the

interpretation of the facts themselves. So we come to ask how

Organic Selection actually operates in the case of a particular

adaptation of a particular creature (ref. 1; ref. 2, chap. vii,

xili; ref. 6, and 7).

I hold that the organism has a way of doing this which is

- peculiarly its own. The point is elaborated at such great

length in the book referred to (ref. 2) that I need not repeat

details here. The summary in this journal (ref. 6) may have

been seen by its readers. There is a fact of physiology which,

taken together with the facts of psychology, serves to indicate

the method of the adaptations or accommodations of the in-

dividual organism. The general fact is that the organism

concentrates it energies upon the locality stimulated, for the

continuation of the conditions, movements, stimulations which

are vitally beneficial, and for the cessation of the conditions,

movements, stimulations, which are vitally depressing and

harmful. In the case of beneficial conditions we find a general

increase of movement, an excess discharge of the energies of move-

ment in the channels already open and habitual; and with this,

on the psychological side, pleasurable consciousness and attention.

Attention to a member is accompanied by increased vaso-

motor activity, with higher muscular power, and a general

dynamogenic heightening in that member. “The thought of a

1896.] A New Factor in Evolution. 543

movement tends to discharge motor energy into the chan-

nels as near as may be to those necessary for that move-

ment” (ref. 3). By this organic concentration and excess of

movement many combinations and variations are rendered

possible, from which the advantageous and adaptive move-

ments may be selected for their utility. These then give

renewed pleasure, excite pleasurable associations, and again

stimulate the attention, and by these influences the adaptive move-

ments thus struck are selected and held as permanent acquisitions.

This form of concentration of energy upon stimulated locali-

ties, with the resulting renewal by movements of conditions

that are pleasure-giving and beneficial, and the subsequent

repetitions of the movements, is called the “ circular reaction.”*

(ref. 1, 2). Itis the selective property which Romanes pointed

out as characterizing and differentiating life. It characterizes

the responses of the organism, however low in the scale, to all

stimulations—even those of a mechanical and chemical (phy-

sico-genic) nature. Pfeffer has shown such a determination of

energy toward the parts stimulated even in plants. And in

the higher animals it finds itself exactly reproduced in the

nervous reaction seen in imitation and—through processes of

association, substitution, ete.—in all the higher mental acts of

intelligence and volition. These are developed phylogeneti-

cally as variations whose direction is constantly determined, by

this form of adaptation.in ontogenesis. If this be true—and the

biological facts seem fully to confirm it—this is the adaptive

process in all life, and this process is that with which the devel-

opment of mental life has been associated.

It follows, accordingly, that the three forms of ontogenetic

adaptation distinguished above—physico-genetic, neuro-gene-

tic, psycho-genetic—all involve the sort of response on the part

of the organism seen in this circular reaction with excess dis-

charge; and we reach one general law of ontogenetic adap-

tation and of Organic Selection. “The accommodation of

an organism to a new stimulation is secured—not by the selec-

tion of this stimulation beforehand (nor of the necessary move-

* With the opposite (withdrawing, depressive affects) in injurious and painful

conditions.

544 The American Naturalist. [July,

ments)—but by the reinstatement of it by a discharge of the

energies of the organism, concentrated as far as may be for

the excessive stimulation of the organs (muscles, etc.) most

nearly fitted by former habit to get this stimulation again (in

which the “ stimulation ” stands for the condition favorable to

adaptation). After several trials the child (for example) gets

the adaptation aimed at more and more perfectly, and the

accompanying excessive and useless movements fall away.

This is the kind of selection that intelligence does in its

acquisition of new movements” (ref. 2, p. 179; ref. 6).

Accordingly, all ontogenetic adaptations are neurogenetic* The

general law of “ motor excess” is one of overproduction ; from

movements thus overproduced, adaptations survive; these

adaptations set the determinate direction of ontogenesis; and

by their survival the same determination of direction is set in

phylogenesis also.

The following quotation from an earlier paper (ref. 7) will

show some of the bearings of this position:

“That there is some general principle running through

all the adaptations of movement which the individual crea-

ture makes is indicated by the very unity of the organism

itself. The principle of Habit must be recognized in some

general way which will allow the organism to do new things

without utterly undoing what it has already acquired. This

means that old habits must be substantially preserved in the

new functions ; that all new. functions must be reached by

gradual modifications. And we will all go further and say, I

think, that the only way that these modifications can be got at

all is through some sort of interaction of the organism with its

environment. Now, as soon as we ask how the stimulations of

the environment can produce new adaptive movements, we

have the answer of Spencer and Bain—an answer directly con-

firmed, I think, without question, by the study both of the

child and of the adult—i. e., by the selection of fit movements

from excessively produced movements, that is, from movement

variations. So granting this, we now have the further question :

5 Barring, of course, those violent compelling physical influences under the

action of which the oe is quite helpless.

1896.] A New Factor in Evolution. 545

How do these movement variations come to be produced when

and where they are needed?® And with it, the question: How

does the organism keep those movements going which are thus

selected, and suppress those which are not selected ?

“ Now these two questions are the ones which the biologists

fail to answer. But the force of the facts leads to the hypoth-

eses of “conscious force,” “self-development” of Henslow

and “ directive tendency ” of the American school—all aspects

of the new Vitalism which just these questions and the

facts which they rest upon are now forcing to the front. Have —

we anything definite, drawn from the study of the individual

on the psychological side, to substitute for these confessedly

vague biological phrases? Spencer gave an answer in a

general way long ago to the second of these questions, by say-

ing that in consciousness the function of pleasure and pain is

just to keep some actions or movements going and to suppress

others.

“ But as soon as we enquire more closely into the actual

working of pleasure and pain reactions, we find an answer

suggested to the first question also, i: e., the question as to how |

the organism comes to make the kind and sort of movements

which the environment calls for—the movement variations when

and where they are required. The pleasure or pain produced by

a stimulus—and by a movement also, for the utility of move-

ment is always that it secures stimulation of this sort or that

—does not lead to diffused, neutral, and characterless move-

ments, as Spencer and Bain suppose; this is disputed no less

by the infant’s movements than by the actions of unicellular

creatures. There are characteristic differences in vital move-

6 This is just the question that Weismann seeks to answer (in respect to the sup-

ly of variations in forms which the paleontologists require), with his doctrine

of ‘Germinal Selection ’ ( Monist, Jan., 1896). Why are not such applications of

the principle of natural selection to variations in the parts and functions of the

single organism just as reasonable and legitimate as it is to variations in separate

organisms ? As against fs germin inal polartion,' hoeners, I may say, that in the

rvival of ph logenetic

Suraos a held in this paper) the hypothesis of germinal selection is in so far

unnecessary. This view finds the operation of selection on functions in ontogeny

the means of securing “ variations when and where they are wanted ;” while Weis-

mann supposes competing germinal units.

38

546 The American Naturalist. [July,

ments wherever we find them. Even if Mr. Spencer’s un-

differentiated protoplasmic movements had existed, natural

selection would very soon have put an end to it. There

is a characteristic antithesis in vital movements always.

Healthy, overflowing, outreaching, expansive, vital effects are

associated with pleasure; and the contrary, the withdrawing,

depressive, contractive, decreasing, vital effects are associated

with pain. This is exactly the state of things which the

theory of selection of movements from overproduced move-

ments requires, i. e., that increased vitality, represented by

pleasure, should give the excess movements, from which new

adaptations are selected; and that decreased vitality repre-

sented by pain should do the reverse, i. e., draw off energy and

suppress movement.’

“Tf, therefore, we say that here is a type of reaction which

all vitality shows, we may give it a general descriptive name,

i. e., the “ Circular Reaction,” in that its significance for evolu-

tion is that it is not a random response in movement to all.

stimulations alike, but that it distinguishes in its very form

and amount between stimulations which are vitally good and

those which are vitally bad, tending to retain the good stim-

ulations and to draw away from and so suppress the bad. The

term ‘circular’ is used to emphasize the way such a reaction

tends to keep itself going, over and over, by reproducing the

conditions of its own stimulation. It represents habit, since

T It is probable that the origin of this antithesis is to be found in the waxing

and waning of the nutritive processes. ‘‘ We find that if by an organism we

mean a thing merely of contractility or irritability, whose round of movements

is kept up by some kind of nutritive process supplied by the environment—

absorption, chemical action of atmospheric oxygen, etc.—and whose existence is

threatened by dangers of contact and what not, the first thing to do is to

a regular supply to the nutritive processes, and to avoid these contacts. But the

organism can do nothing but move, as a whole or in some of its parts. So then

if one of such creatures is to be fitter than another to survive, it must be the

creature which by its movements secures more nutritive processes and avoids

more dangerous contacts. But movements toward the source of stimulation keep

hold on the stimulation, and movements away from contacts break the contacts,

that is all. Nature selects these organisms ; fread — she do otherwise?..- -

We only have to suppose, then, that the by natural

selection drained off in organic expansions, to get the division in movements

which represents this earliest bifurcate adaptation.” (Ref. z p-

1896.] A New Factor in Evolution. 547

it tends to keep up old movements; but it secures new adapta-

tions, since it provides for the overproduction of movement

variations for the operation of selection. This kind of selec-

tion, since it requires the direct codperation of the organism

itself, I have called ‘ Organic Selection.’ ”

The advantages of this view seem to be somewhat as fol-

lows:

1. It gives a method of the individual’s adaptations of func-

tion which is one in principle with the law of overproduction and

survival now so well established in the case of competing organisms.

2. It reduces nervous and mental evolution to strictly paral-

lel terms. The intelligent use of phylogenetic variations for

functional purposes in the way indicated, puts a premium on

variations which can be so used, and thus sets phylogenetic

progress in directions of constantly improved mental endowment.

The circular reaction which is the method of intelligent adapta-

tions is liable to variation in a series of complex ways which

represent phylogenetically the development of the mental func-

tions known as memory, imagination, conception, thought, ete.

We thus reach a phylogeny of mind which proceeds in the

direction set by the ontogeny of mind,* just as on the organic

side the phylogeny of the organism gets its determinate direc-

tion from the organism’s ontogenetic adaptations. And since

it is the one principle of Organic Selection working by the

same functions to set the. direction of both phylogenies, the

physical and the mental, the two developments are not two,

but one. Evolution is, therefore, not more biological than

psychological (ref. 2, chap. x, xi, and especially pp. 383-388).

3. It secures the relation of structure to function required by

the principle of “use and disuse” in ontogeny.

4, The only alternative theory of the adaptations of the in-

dividual are those of “ pure chance,” on the one hand, and a

“creative act” of consciousness, or the other hand. Pure

chance is refuted by all the facts which show that the organ-

ism does not wait for chance, but goes right out and effects new

adaptations to its environment. Furthermore, ontogenetic

8 Prof, C. S. Minot suggests to ne that the terms “ontopsychic” and “ phylo-

psychic” might be convenient to mark this distinction.

548 The American Naturalist. [July,

adaptations are determinate; they proceed in definite progres-

sive lines. A short study of the child will disabuse any man,

I think, of the “pure chance” theory. But the other theory

which holds that consciousness makes adaptations and changes

structures directly by its fiat, is contradicted by the psychology

of voluntary movement (ref. 4, 6, 7). Consciousness can bring

about no movement without having first an adequate experi-

ence of that movement to serve on occasion as a stimulus to

the innervation of the appropriate motor centers. “This point

is no longer subject to dispute; for pathological cases show

that unless some adequate idea of a former movement made

by the same muscles, or by association some other idea which

stands for it, can be brought up in mind the intelligence is

helpless. Not only can it not make new movements; it can

not even repeat old habitual movements. So we may say that

intelligent adaptation does not create codrdinations; it only

makes functional use of coérdinations which were alternatively

present already in the creature’s equipment. Interpreting this

in terms of congenital variations, we may say that the varia-

tions which the intelligence uses are alternative possibilities of

muscular movement” (ref. 4). So the only possible way that

a really new movement can be made is by making the move-

ments already possible so excessively and with so many varieties of

combination, ete., that new adaptations may occur.

5. The problem seems to me to duplicate the conditions —

which led Darwin to the principle of natural selection. The

alternatives before Darwin were “pure chance” or “special

creation.” The law of “ overproduction with survival of the

fittest ” came as the solution. So in this case. Letus take an

example. Every child has to learn how to write. If he de-

pended upon chance movements of his hands he would never

learn how to write. But on the other hand, he can not write

simply by willing to do so; he might will forever without

effecting a “special creation” of muscular movement. What

he actually does is to use his hand in a great many possible ways as

near as he can to the way required ; and from these excessively pro-

duced movements, and after excessively varied and numerous

trials, he gradually selects and fixes the slight successes made

s

1896:] A New Factor in Evolution. 549

in the direction of correct writing. It is a long and most

laborious accumulation of slight Organic Selections from over-

produced movements (ref. for handwriting in detail, 2, chap.

v; also 2, pp. 373, ff.).

6. The only resort left to the theory that consciousness is some

sort of an actus purus is to hold that it directs brain energies or

selects between possible alternatives of movement; but besides

the objection that it is as hard to direct movement as it is to

make it (for nothing short of a force could release or direct

brain energies), we find nothing of the kind necessary. The

attention is what determines the particular movement in

developed organisms, and the attention is no longer con-

sidered an actus purus with no brain process accompanying it.

The attention is a function of memories, movements, organic

experiences. We do not attend to a thing because we have

already selected it, or because the attention selects it; but we

select it because we—consciousness and organism—are attending to

it. “It is clear that this doctrine of selection as applied to

muscular movement does away with all necessity for holding

that consciousness even directs brain energy. The need of

such direction seems to me to be as artificial as Darwin showed

the need of special creation to be for the teleological adapta-

tions of the different species. This need done away, in this

case of supposed directive agency as in that, the question of

the relation of consciousness to the brain becomes a meta-

physical one, just as that of teleology in nature became a meta-

physical one; and it is not to much profit that science meddles

withit. And biological as well as psychological science should

be glad that it is so, should it not?” (ref. 6; and on the meta-

physical question, ref. 7).

y.

A word on the relation of this principle of Organic Selection

to Natural Selection. Natural Selection is too often treated as

a positive agency. It is not a positive agency; it is entirely

negative. It is simply a statement of what occurs when an

organism does not have the qualifications necessary to enable

it to survive in given conditions of life ; it does not in any way

550 The American Naturalist. [July,

define positively the qualifications which do enable other or-

ganisms to survive. Assuming the principle of Natural Selec-

tion in any case, and saying that, according to it, ifan organism

do not have the necessary qualifications it will be killed off,

it still remains in that instance to find what the qualifications

are which this organism is to have if it is to be kept alive. So

we may say that the means of survival is always an additional

question to the negative statement of the operation of natural

selection.

This latter question, of course, the theory of variations aims

to answer. The positive qualifications which the organism

has arise as congenital variations of a kind which enable the

organism to cope with the conditions of life. This is the posi-

tive side of Darwinism, as the principle of Natural Selection is

the negative side.

Now it is in relation to the theory of variations, and not in

relation to that of natural selection, that Organic Selection has

its main force. Organic Selection presents a new qualification

of a positive kind which enables the organism to meet its -

environment and cope with it, while natural selection remains

exactly what it was, the negative law that if the organism does

not succeed in living, then it dies, and as such a qualification

on the part of the organism, Organic Selection presents several

interesting features.

1. If we hold, as has been argued above, that the method of

Organic Selection is always the same (that is, that it has a

natural method), being always accomplished by a certain

typical sort of nervous process (i. e., being always neuro-genetic),

then we may ask whether that form of nervous process—and

the consciousness which goes with it—may not be a variation

appearing early in the phylogenetic series. I have argued

elsewhere (ref. 2, pp. 200 ff. and 208 ff.) that this is the most

probable view. Organisms that did not have some form of

selective response to what was beneficial, as opposed to what

was damaging in the environment, could not have developed

very far; and as soon as such a variation did appear it would

have immediate preéminence. So we have to say either that

selective nervous property, with consciousness, is a variation,

1896.] A New Factor in Evolution. 551

or that it is a fundamental endowment of life and part of its

final mystery. “ The intelligence holds a remarkable place.

It is itself, as we have seen, a congenital variation; but it 1s

also the great agent of the individual’s personal adaptation

both to the physical and to the social environment ” (ref. 4).

“ The former (instinct) represents a tendency to brain varia-

tion in the direction of fixed connections between certain sense-

centers and certain groups of codrdinated muscles. This

tendency is embodied in the white matter and the lower brain

centers. The other (intelligence) represents a tendency to varia-

tion in the direction of alternative possibilities of connection

of the brain centers with the same or similar codrdinated

muscular groups. This tendency is embodied in the cortex of

the hemispheres ” (ref. 4).

2. But however that may be, whether ontogenetic adaptation

by selective reaction and consciousness be considered a varia-

tion or a final aspect of life, it is a life-qualification of a very

extraordinary kind. It opens anew sphere for the application of

the negative principle of natural selection upon organisms, i. e.,

with reference to what they can do, rather than to what they

are; to the new use they make of their congenital functions,

rather than to the mere possession of the functions (ref. 2, pp.

202 f.). A premium is set on congenital plasticity and adapta-

bility of function rather than on congenital fixity of function;

and this adaptability reaches its highest in the intelligence.

3. It opens another field also for the operation of natural

selection—still viewed as a negative principle—through the

survival of particular overproduced and modified reactions of

the organism, by which the determination of the organism’s

own growth and life-history is secured. Ifthe young chick

imitated the old duck instead of the old hen, it would perish ;

it can only learn those new things which its present equip-

ment will permit—notswimming. So the chick’s own possible

actions and adaptations in ontogeny have to be selected. We

have seen how it may be done by a certain competition of

functions with survival of the fit. But this is an application

of natural selection. I do not see how Henslow, for example,

can get the so-called “self-adaptations”—apart from “ special

552 The American Naturalist. [July,

creation ”—which justify an attack on natural selection. Even

plants must grow in determinate or “select ” directions in order

to live.

4. So we may say, finally, that Organic Selection, while it-

self probably a congenital variation (or original endowment)

works to secure new qualifications for the creature’s survival ;

and its very working proceeds by securing a new application

of the principle of natural selection to the possible modifica-

tions which the organism is capable of undergoing. Romanes

says: “it is impossible that heredity can have provided in

advance for innovations upon or alterations in its own ma-

chinery during the lifetime of a particular individual.” To

this we are obliged to reply in summing up—as I have done

hefore (ref. 2, p. 220)—we reach “just the state of things which

Romanes declares impossible—heredity providing for the

modification of its own machinery. Heredity not only leaves

the future free for modifications, it also provides a method of

life in the operation of which modifications are bound to

come.”

VI.

The Matter of Terminology—I anticipate criticism from the

fact that several new terms have been used in this paper. In-

deed one or two of these terms have already been criticised. I

think, however, that novelty in terms is better than ambigu-

ity in meanings. And in each case the new term is intended

to mark off a real meaning which no current term seems to ex-

press. Taking these terms in turn and attempting to define

them, as I have used them, it will be seen whether in each case

the special term is saatited- if not, I shall be only two glad to

abandon it.

Organic Selection—The process of ontogenetic adaptation

considered as keeping single organisms alive and so securing

determinate lines of variation in subsequent generations.

Organic Selection is, therefore, a general principle of develop-

ment which is a direct substitute for the Lamarkian factor in

most, if not in all instances. If it is really a new factor, then

it deserves a new name, however contracted its sphere of ap-

peene may finally turn out to be. The use of the word

1896.] A New Factor in Evolution. 553

“ Organic” in the phrase was suggested from the fact that the

organism itself codperates in the formation of the adaptations

which are effected, and also from the fact that, in the results,

the organism is itself selected ; since those organisms which do

not secure the adaptations fall by the principle of natural selec-

tion. And the word “Selection” used in the phrase is appro-

priate for just the same two reasons.

Social Heredity —The acquisition of functions from the social

environment, also considered as a method of determining

phylogenetic variations. It is a form of Organic Selection but

it deserves a special name because of its special way of opera-

tion. It is really heredity, since it influences the direction

of phylogenetic variation by keeping socially adaptive creat-

ures alive while others which do not adapt themselves in this

way are cut off. It is also heredity since it is a continuous

influence from generation to generation. Animals may be

kept alive let us say in a given environment by social co-

operation only; these transmit this social type of variation to

posterity ; thus social adaptation sets the direction of physical

phylogeny and physical heredity is determined in part by this factor.

Furthermore the process is all the while, from generation to

generation, aided by the continuous chain of extra-organic or

purely social transmissions. Here are adequate reasons for

marking off this influence with a name.

The other terms I do not care so much about. “ Physico-

genetic,” “ neuro-genetic,” “ psycho-genetic,” and their correla-

tives in “ genic,” seem to me to be convenient terms to mark

distinctions which would involve long sentences without them,

besides being self-explanatory. The phrase “circular reaction ”

has now been welcomed as appropriate by psychologists.

“ Accommodation” is also current among psychologists as

meaning single functional adaptations, especially on the part

of consciousness ; the biological word “adaptation” refers more,

perhaps, to racial or general functions. As between them,

however, it does not much matter.

9I have already noted in print (ref. 4 and 6) that Prof. Lloyd Morgan

and Prof. H. F. Osborn have reached conclusions similar to my main one on

Organic Selection. I do not hice whether they approve of this name for the

“ factor ;” but as I suggested it in the first edition of my book (April, 1895) and

used it earlier, I venture to hope that it may be approved by the biologisst.

554 The American Naturalist. [July,

THE PATH OF THE WATER CURRENT IN CUCUM-

BER PLANTS.

By Erwin F. SMITH.

(Continued from page 457).

3. DOWNWARD MOVEMENT OF ONE PER Cent EosINE WATER

IN Cut Stems Not SEVERED From THEIR Roots.

(No. 17). This was a young vine, 120 centimeters long, full

of blossoms and young fruits and very thrifty; it bore about

24 leaves, the largest five averaging 20 cm. in breadth.

March 23, 3:20 P.M. The terminal 12 cm. of the stem was

cut away under water and the stump bent over and plunged

into 1 per cent eosine water. The sun shone hot and the air

of the house was rather dry. 4:20 p.m. No trace of stain in

the veins of any of the leaves. March 25, noon. It is now

over 44 hours since the cut stem was plunged into the eosine

water and judging from the quantity remaining in the bottle

no measurable volume has gone down the stem. The external

appearance, proceeding from above downwards, is as follows:

The first internode (the one in the eosine and just above it) is

badly shriveled and diffusely stained. The first leaf (9.5 em.

from the cut end) is not quite as turgid as the rest, and its veins

show a faint stain. The second internode (10 cm.) is pinkish

green and in the grooves of the stem pink, especially toward

the upper: end, seeming to indicate that most of the stain has

passed through the inner ring of bundles. The veins of the

second leaf are also distinctly but faintly pink. The petiole

of this leaf is 9 cm. long and its blade 12 cm. broad, and the

same pale stain is to be seen in all of the veins. Further down

there is no external evidence of stain. The downward move-

ment of the stain has, therefore, been very slight. 1:30 p. m.

A long tendril from the second node shows a faint internal

stain outward for a distance of 10 cm. On cutting, this is

seen to be due to stain lodged in the bundles, while at its base

there is also a little diffuse stain. The stain now shows

1896.] Water Current in Cucumber Plants. 555

through the interior of the third node which is 9 em. long.

1:35 p.m. The stem was now cut for examination. The sur-

face of the eosine water in the bottle has not lowered percep-

tibly. The diffuse stain in the first internode includes

everything; the tissues are shriveled and seem to be dead.

In the petiole of the first leaf there is a faint stain of the xylem

part of each bundle; no diffuse stain into the phloem or any

of the tissues outside of the bundle. At the base of the second

internode (9 cm farther from the cut stem) the entire xylem

of each bundle shows a pale red stain and this has diffused out

from three bundles into the surrounding tissues. The second

petiole, cut in the middle, shows a faint pink stain, best seen

under the lens. It is sharply restricted to the bundles, but

occurs in each one and includes the whole of the xylem. At

the base of the third internode (9 cm. farther away from the

fluid) the stain is fainter and is restricted to the xylem. It

is in all of the bundles and is sharper (?) in the spirals of some.

Apex of third petiole (down) shows faintest trace of color in 3

bundles, only to be seen under the lens. Color more distinct

in the middle part but very faint. Base of fourth internode

(9 cm. further from the eosine) there is a very faint stain

sharply restricted to the xylem of 6 bundles, all of which is

stained. Middle of next lower petiole shows barest trace of

stain in two bundles, not visible without a lens. Stain visible

‘in ten bundles of a small fruit from the same node. The base

of the next internede (10 cm. further down) shows not a trace

of stain. Five cm. farther up, no stain. Additional 3 cm.

up, i. e., close under the node, there is a faint stain in the

xylem of three bundles and this is not restricted to the spirals.

One-half centimeter closer to the node the color is faint and is

still restricted to the three bundles.

The stain seems to have travelled in all of the lignified walls,

and it appears clear that the spirals did not carry it more

than the other woody parts of the bundle. The movement of

the eosine water down these stems, contrary to the water cur-.

rent, was scarcely more abundant than the upward movement

past the gelatine plugs. Judging from this, the very slow

downward movement of the stain apparently follows another

556 The American Naturalist. (July,

law than that governing the rapid upward movement of the

transpiration water, i. e., that of surface tension or capillarity.

o. 19). This was a large old vine, nearly destitute of

leaves, the only large one being 8 centimeters below the cut

stem. March 23, 4:06 p. m. The tip of this stem was cut

under water and immediately transferred to 1 per cent eosine

water. 4:15 p.m. No stain in the veins of the first leaf, 8

em. from the cut. March. 25, 12:45 p. m. The leaf, 8 cm.

from the cut end, is flabby and its veins show a very decided

stain. Farther down there is no stain visible externally. The

stem was now removed from the fluid and cut open for exam-

ination. At5 cm. down there was a diffuse stain involving

the whole stem, but it was not dense and the bundles were not

deeper stained than farther down the stem. At10 cm. the

sieve tube tissue was stained as well as the xylem and there

was also a slight diffuse stain into the parenchyma, but the

general tone of the stem remained green. At 20 cm. from the

cut tip one of the 9 bundles (outer ring) showed nostain. No

stain outside of the bundles. At 40 cm. from the cut all of the

bundles showed the stain but in one (outer ring) it was much

fainter than in the rest. The color was a decided pale red,

including the whole of the xylem but not extending to any

other part of the stem. At 80cm. down, the stain was restricted

to 4 bundles (the whole of the xylem part) and was barely dis-

cernable. At 85 cm. there was still a trace in these bundles—

stain in the whole of the xylem and not brighter in the spirals.

At 90 centimeters, and farther down, the stain was wholly ab-

sent.

This also proved a very instructive stem. The fact that at

remote distances the stain was not restricted to the spiral ves-

sels of the stem but tinged the whole xylem equally (the lig-

nified walls) is very striking and decidedly different from the

results obtained by passing the stain up the stem, in which

case the spirals are stained ahead of the pitted vessels and are

clearly seen to be the carriers of the eosine. In this case that

portion of the stem in the fluid was not shriveled, probably

because it was old and mousy

1896.] Water Current in Cucumber Plants. 557°

4. MOVEMENT oF WATER THROUGH BoILED STEMS Nor

SEVERED FROM THE PLANT..

(No. 11). A fine thrifty vine, 180 centimeters long, bearing

18 large leaves and half as many more small ones. The larg-

est leaves have a spread of 17 to 19 centimeters. March 21,

4:00 p.m. About 35 cm. from. the earth, the bright green

stem was bent over and immersed for a distance of 20 cm. in

hot water. An attempt was made to boil this water but the

heat under the basin was not sufficient, although ample to

kill the stem. 4:30 p.m. The temperature of the water dur-

ing the last half hour has risen from 71° C. to 75° C. There

is no change in the color of the immersed part of the stem,

nor any change in the foliage above, but the effect of the hot

water is already noticeable in the very decided shrinkage of

the immersed stem. It has shrunk in diameter nearly one-

half. 4:50 p.m. During the last 20 minutes the temperature

of the water has risen only one degree. This was now poured

out and water at 89° C. substituted. In pouring, the temper-

ature fell to 85° C. In this hotter water the stem quickly be-

came paler green. 4:58 p.m. Temp. of water 80° C. The

- Immersed part of the stem has now shrunk to one-third of its

normal diameter, and this shrinkage has extended both up

and down, for a short distance out of the water (a few centi-

meters). 5:15 p.m. Temp. now down to 76° C. Stem taken

out. Except the apex of one leaf, 15 cm. up, the foliage did

not become flabby. Below the boiled part is a small branch

with half a dozen leaves, sufficient to carry the roots. March

22,11 a.m. The boiled part of the stem, which is now dry

and greenish-brown, was wrapped in many folds of rubber

cloth. The foliage of this vine shows no wilt, except parts of

5 small leaves, which were near the boiled part and may have

been injured by the heat of the lamp. It is windy and sunny

and the air of the house is rather dry so that transpiration

is active. Temperature in shade, 1 foot above the bench, 26°

C. Noon. A check vine (cut off at base, yesterday p. m.) has

wilted and shriveled. Temperature three feet above the bench,

among the leaves, 30° C. 1:20 p.m. No change. What is

"558 The American Naturalist. [Julys

especially surprising is that the tender terminal leaves show

no signs of wilt. 4:15 p.m. This vine has stood up remark-

ably to-day. The transpiration demands have been large and

there has been no wilt—not a trace—that mentioned as occur-

ring on a few of the small basal leaves being evidently due to

imperfect protection from the heat of the lamp when the stem

was boiled. March 23, 11a.m. Sunny and hot; some wind;

air of the house rather dry, and transpiration large. No wilt

of the foliage except the margins and tips of the blades of

three big leaves midway up the stem. These are slowly dry-

ing out. 12:30 p.m. The greater part of the foliage on this

vine is still turgid and normal in appearance. The tips and

margins of the three leaves above mentioned are crisp, but

this injury involves only a small part of each leaf. Transpira-

tion active. Temp. in sun 30° C. Dry bulb 26.5° C.; wet

bulb 22° C. 3:00 p.m. Slight, if any, change. Nearly all of

the leaves are turgid and entirely normal in appearance, in-

cluding all at the top of the vine. 4:20 p.m. No change

since the last record. The vine stands up well. Temp. now

24° ©. Active transpiration all day. March 25, 1:15 p. m.

The vine stands up well. Nearly all of it is perfectly healthy,

including the tender upper part, but portions of the lower

leaves already mentioned are slowly drying out and in a very

interesting manner, i.e., after the fashion of the California

vine disease, the larger veins and their branches and a little

of the adjacent parenchyma remaining green, even dark

green, while the parenchymatic areas between the veins, espe-

cially at the apex of the blades and on the margins, are be-

coming first yellow and then a dead brown. 5:30 p.m. Vine

stands up beautifully. It is four days since the stem was

killed by the hot water. March 26, 2:45 p. m. A great

change for the worse since yesterday. All of the foliage has

now wilted (as yet only the blades) and the large leaves mid-

way down as well as the smaller lower ones are rapidly drying

out. March 27, 1:20 p.m. All of the leaves are now crisp, ex-

cept a few very small flabby ones which are in the vicinity

of a half grown fruit from which they are drawing water. —

The stem is still turgid but some of the petioles begin to droop. —

1896.] Water Current in Cucumber Plants. 559

The leaves below the boiled part are still healthy. March 28,

1:30 p.m. The stem and the petioles are still green but the

latter are becoming more and more flabby, most of them at

the top of the vine having lost all of their turgor.

This vine was able to draw all the transpiration water nec-

essary to supply a large leaf surface (more than 3.000 sq. cm.)

through about 25 centimeters of dead stem for a period of four

days, during a part of which time the transpiration was very

active. All of this water must have passed up through the

bundles, since all the outer parts were dead and dry and

shriveled down onto the bundles, the vessels of which preserved

their shape unaltered as shown by subsequent examiuation.

(No. 13). This vine was 130 centimeters long. It bore six

small leaves and 12 large ones, the best averaging 17 em. in

breadth. March 22, 1:02 p.m. The stem was bent over near

the earth and inserted for a distance of 18 centimeters into

water at 90° C. In two minutes the temperature rose to 95°

C. 1:07 p.m. Water simmering; temp. 97° ©. Boiled part

not yet noticeably smaller. 1:10 p.m. Stem shows shrinkage

and change of color. 1:15 p.m. Slight loss of turgidity in

most of the leaves. 1:20p.m. A marked shrinkage of the

diameter of the stem is now first visible. The flabbiness of

the foliage is increasing rapidly, every leaf is affected. 1:27

p.m. Water has remained at 97° since last record. Stem

taken out because of the marked wilt of the foliage. This

wilt appears to be due to the transpiration of hot water. The

wilt is too sudden and decided to be due to anything else.

The stem has not only shriveled in the water but also for a dis-

tance of 10 cm. up and 5 em. below, making a total of 33 cm.

of dead stem. Sun hot; earth and air of house rather dry ;

transpiration active. Such an experiment were better tried

when the air is nearly saturated and transpiration slight.

1:45 p.m. Stem wrapped in many folds of rubber cloth.

Roughly estimated it has shrunk to about one-third its nor-

mal diameter. The leaves seem to be recovering their turgor.

2:00 p.m. The lowest leaves are still flaccid but the upper

ones have fully regained their turgor. 3:45 p.m. The lower

leaves have now also regained their turgor. Its loss was

560 The American Naturalist. [July,

clearly due to the transpiration of hot water. (Subsequent ex-

periments showed that it is very easy to push this wilting be-

yond the power of the plant to recover). 4:15 p. m. The

plant stands up well. There is no trace of wilt. March 23,

11 a.m. No sign of wilt. Noon. The lowest five leaves

show distinct signs of wilt at the tip of the blade. None of

the upper leaves show any trace of it. 12:25 p.m. The wilt-

ing is worse but is still confined to the lower leaves. It is

very decided on the lowest one which is exposed to the bright

sun. The tender apical leaves are turgid, as well as those in

the mid part of the stem. 1:20p.m. The leaf next to the

lowest one begins to crisp. 3:00 p.m. Blade of lowest leaf

but one is now crisp, and the blades of the other four are dry-

ing out at the apex and on the margins and between the

larger veins. 4:30 p*m. No change. The bulk of the foliage

stands up well, including all of the upper leaves March

25, 1:20 p.m. The lower leaves of this plant are dried out to

a greater extent than are those of No. 11, but the major part

of the foliage is normal and the tips of both vines are notice-

ably turgid. The drying out of the parenchyma between the

veins is also to be seen in the affected leaves of this vine, the

larger veins and a narrow border of theleaf parenchymaremain-

inga brightgreen. 5:40p.m. Thevinestandsup well. Itis

three days and four hours since the stem was boiled. March

26, 3:00 p.m. The vine begins to show symptoms of collaps-

ing. All of the petioles are turgid, but the blade of the low-

est leaf is nearly dry, that of the next up is wholly dry; those

of the next three above are crisp at the apex and on the mar

gins (one-fifth to one-third the surface); the three next up

show a trace of drying on their margins, and in all the rest

there is a faint suggestion of loss of turgor. March 27, 2:00 p.

m. All of the leaves on this vine are now crisp-dry except

three at the top which are flabby. The stem and the petioles

are still turgid. March 28, 1:30 p.m. The upper three leaves

are still flabby, and all of the petioles are still rigid except the

tips of some of the lower ones which begin to droop.

This vine gives results confirmatory of the preceding. For

more than three days the plant was able to draw all of the

1896.] Water Current in Cucumber Plants. 561

water necessary for its use through 33 cm. of dead stem.

Probably if air could be prevented from gradually passing

through the shriveled stem into these water carrying vessels

and interfering with the normal condition of things the plant

might continue to draw its water through a dead stem almost

indefinitely."

5. Tue RESULT oF PARASITIC PLUGGING OF THE VESSELS.

From these experiments and those upon the cucumber wilt,

which I have published elsewhere, it follows that the down-

ward path of Bacillus tracheiphilus from the inoculated leaf

blade into the stem of the cucumber (for an account of this

disease see Centr. f. Bakt. u. Par. Allg. I, No. 9-10, 1895) is ex-

actly that made use of by the ascending water current, just as

I stated it to be at the Brooklyn meeting” of the A. A. A.S.,

and the general wilt of the foliage may be explained, first, by

a functional disturbance, due to the more or less complete

clogging of the lumina of the spiral vessels with countless

millions of these bacteria which thrive in the alkaline fluid of

the vessels, and, second, by a structural disturbance, due to

the breaking down (dissolving) of the walls of these spirals

and the flooding out and subsequent growth of the bacteria in

the surrounding parenchyma and in the pitted vessels, accom-

panied, of course, by the more or less free entrance of air into

the spirals. It is probable, although not enough examinations

have yet been made to render this certain, that no leaf wilts

from secondary infection until the water carrying spirals in

its petiole have become clogged by the bacillus, i. e., that the

wilt of the leaf is not induced by the partial clogging of the

vessels farther down inthestem. This is the more likely, first,

from the fact that there is always a progressive wilt, leaf after

leaf, beginning with the ones nearest the point of infection

and moving both ways therefrom, and, second, from the fact

that very rarely are all of the pitted vessels filled, so that

water lifted up from the roots has always the opportunity to

1 Those who wish to follow these subjects may consult the above mentioned

work by Strasburger, pp. 510-936, where many interesting experiments are

detailed.

39

562 The American Naturalist. [July,

pass around the clog in the spirals by way of the unfilled pit-

ted vessels and to enter the spirals once more farther up.

Were this not so, i. e., were pitted vessels filled as readily, as

quickly, and as fully as the spirals, we should have not the

gradual wilt of leaf after leaf up and down the stem, but the

sudden collapse of all the leaves beyond the original point of

attack. This is exactly what does happen in watermelon

vines attacked by Fusarium niveum, (for a brief account of this

parasite see Proc. Am. Asso. Adv. Sci., Vol. 48, 1894, p. 289, and

Ibid, Vol. 44, 1895, p. —_-) where the pitted vessels appear to

fill with the fungus as soon, if not sooner, than the spirals.

These two diseases of cucurbits are very interesting from

a physiological standpoint, and both parasites lend themselves

readily to infection experiments, their slightly different be-

havior being, perhaps, accounted for by the fact that the fun-

gus is strictly ærobic, while the bacillus is facultative anærobic.

Whatever be thought of butter or gelatine, it certainly cannot

be maintained that the mere presence of these parasites in

the lumina of the vessels destroys the carrying capacity of the

uninjured walls, and yet they act quite as effectually as gela-

tine, paraffin, or cocoa butter plugs, causing, when they fill the

vessels only incompletely, a flabbiness of the foliage, which is

proportionate to the extent of the plugging and to the activity

of the transpiration, and which may give place to complete

turgor in periods when the transpiration is small (night, early

morning, or damp days), and producing, when they com-

pletely fill the lumina of the vessels, an entire collapse of the

foliage, from which there is no recovery. In case of the cu-

cumber this collapse takes place as soon as the spiral vessels

leading into any petiole are filled by the bacillus.

1896.] Editor’s Table. 563

EDITOR’S TABLE.

—PrRoressors in the scientific departments of our schools should

exercise their influence to prevent the spoliation of nature that is going

on at so rapid a rate in our country. We do not especially refer at

present to forest fires which involve so much financial loss that our

state and general governments are moving in the direction of their

prevention. In passing, however, we must refer to the railroad com-

panies as delinquents in this matter, and insist that heavy fines be im-

posed on them in all cases where fires can be shown to have originated

from locomotives. We counted from the car windows of a train not

long since, twelve distinct fires burning near the track in the space of a

few miles, in a forest covered region not far from Philadelphia, and no

one appeared to pay any attention to them.

We wish, however, to refer to the destruction wrought near our cities

by the uprooting of plants and the breaking off of branches for pur-

poses of decoration of public and private houses. Within reasonable

bounds the vegetable world furnishes material for such decoration, but

the practice is carried beyond the rich resources of nature to meet.

Our woods are being rapidly stripped of ornamental plants for miles

all round our large cities. In many regions the Epigea repens is com-

pletely destroyed, and the blooms of the dogwood and kalmia no longer

appear. Lycopodia are uprooted over large tracts, and must now be

brought from considerable distances. Some of the ruin is wrought for

church decoration, and the girl-graduate is responsible for more of it.

Teachers of the natural sciences can teach their hearers that this cannot

go on forever. Especially can they point out that botanical classes

should not gather arm-loads of orchids of fastidious habits if they do

not wish to see the localities destroyed or the species well nigh exter-

minated.

The authorities in charge of our public parks might, in some places,

profitably change their point of view. A park should not consist prin-

cipally of graded paths lined with stone curbs or walls, separated by

tracts of close shorn grass. Shrubberies of nature’s planting should

remain, and the vines with which nature festoons the forest should not

be cut down. No harm is done if there are places where rabbits may

hide, and wild birds may nest. Even an owl or two might be permit-

ted to keep down so far as he or she can, the English Sparrow nui-

sance. In fact, a park is not necessarily a place from which nature is

564 The American Naturalist. [July,

excluded. The perpetual clearing of undergrowth means also the ulti-

mate destruction of forest, as the natural succession is thus prevented.

As an offset to this public and private vandalism, we have near our

cities a goodly number of citizens who preserve more or less of nature

in their private parks. It will be to these to whom we must look to

replenish our stock of native shrubs and herbs, if the vandal continues

to have full swing elsewhere.

Tue forty-fifth meeting of the American Association for the Ad-

vancement of Science to commence at Buffalo, N. Y., on August 22d,

will be characterized by one feature which is deemed by the society

an improvement over previous meetings. No excursions will be made

during the working hours of the day during the session, only those

occupying evening hours being acceptable. At the close of the meet-

ing the field for such diversions will be clear. The geological excur-

sions have been so arranged as not to conflict with the meetings; and

the six scientific societies, which meet about the same time, it is hoped

will contribute to the importance of the general gathering. It is an-

ticipated that these arrangements will arrest the tendency to dissipation .

of energy which has been apparent during the last few years. If the

habit of many of the embryologists to absent themselves could be

overcome, the full force of the Association would be represented. It is

expected that a number of evening lectures will present to the public

the latest results of research in America.

RECENT LITERATURE.

Surface Colors :—The object of the little book on this subject! by

Dr. Walter, of Hamburg is apparently to furnish zoologists, mineralo-

gists, and chemists with an accurate explanation of certain color

phenomena which are not as yet universally understood, and which are

incompletely treated even in the best text-books on Physics. The key-

note of the whole book is given in a single sentence of the introductory

chapter. “The intensity of the light reflected from any body may be

calculated by Fresnel’s ordinary formule for ‘colorless substances, in

the case of those rays which are slightly or not at all absorbed by the

1 Die Oberfliichen-oder Schillerfarben, yon Dr. B. Walter, pp. VIII + 122,

Braunschweig, F. Vieweg und Sohn, 1895.

1896.] Recent Literature. 565

body in question; but for wave-lengths which are strongly absorbed by

the given substance, Cauchy’s formule for the intensity of metallic re-

flection should be used.” It appears from these formule that the

intensity of the reflected light depends on the index of refraction and

on the coëfticient of absorption of the substance presenting the reflect-

ing surface. Since both these factors are different for light of different

colors, it is shown that white light must be reflected with some of its

“ components ” relatively weaker than others, i. e., no longer in the

proper proportion to give the sensation of white light. The application

to the colors seen in the mineral kingdom is illustrated by the example

of magnesium cyanplatinite, Mg Pt (CN),, where,—as is true of most

crystals,—the index of refraction and the coéfficient of absorption vary

with the direction in which the light vibrates, as well as with the wave-

length of the light. The extent to which true surface color is observ-

able on minerals is not indicated, though the possibility of a very wide

application is clearly shown.

In the appendices, certain mathematical aspects of the subject are

treated in a manner suited to the requirements of physicists.—A. C. G.

The Whence and Whither of Man.’—This book comprises a

series of lectures dilivered at Union Theological Seminary, with some

additional matter. The author discusses the doctrine of Evolution

from the standpoint of a theologian. He endeavors to show that the

great law of animal and human development as revealed in the sequence

of physical and mental development is that those species survive which

are best conformed to their environment; that this law holds good in

the development of the rational, the dominant faculty in man; and

finally, to become higher man he must develop a moral-nature by

attaining a knowledge of himself as a moral agent, and while not dis-

regarding the body, he must subordinate its appetites to the higher

motives furnished by right and duty. It is in following this line of

thought that the author hopes for a definite answer as to the future

destiny of man. :

The closing chapter deals with the present aspects of the theory of

evolution, He here compares the various hypotheses of evolution and

considers their merits. He judiciously selects the good elements of all

of them, concluding that “ each theory contains important truth.” He

concludes that Nägeli’s view of “ initial tendencies ” is too often under-

valued. “My own conviction is steadily strengthening that without

*The Whence and Whither of Man. By John M. Tyler, New York, 1896,

Charles Scribner’s Sons, Publishers.

566 The American Naturalist. [July,

some such original tendency or aim, evolution would never have reached

it present culmination in man.” He quotes Boveri that “ there is too

much intelligence in nature for any purely mechanical theory to be

possible.” It is curious that these authors do not perceive that the

sensation of protoplasm, (consciousness), furnishes the basis for the

exhibition of the intelligence which they observe, and which has itself

undergone evolution coincidentally with the organism. Both orthodox

and heterodox evolutionists (theologically speaking) seem equally slow

to adopt this view.

Prof. Tyler’s book is eminently moderate and senscinable, and will

introduce evolution to a large class of readers in an agreeable form.

Mg

3

a

a

i

Cope on the Factors of Organic Evolution.’™—This book is :

divided into three parts: I, The nature of variation; II, The causes of ;

variation ; III, The inheritance of variation. In the first part it is

endeavored to show that variation is not promiscuous or multifarious,

but pursues direct courses towards definite ends. This is done by pre-

senting the variations of existing species as to color and structure, and

by an examination of the series presented by the forms of vertebrate

life in past geologic ages. The latter presentation is a general phy-

logeny of the vertebrata, with special sections on that of the horse and

that of man. The second part is divided into chapters which deal

with the physical energies as causes of variation, and the effects of

molar motion as seen in variation. These methods of evolution are

termed respectively physiogenesis and kinetogenesis. Especial atten-

tion is given to kinetogenesis in connection with the phylogeny of ver-

tebrates, since it is in these two fields that most of the original work of —

the author has been done. The author has demonstrated that the

. primary cause which has moulded the vertebrate skeleton is molar

motion. In the third part, the inheritance of the characters so ~

produced is shown to be the rule, thus demonstrating the inheritance

of acquired characters. Theories of inheritance are discussed, and that

one which asserts the transmission of energies to the germ plasma is _

defended. These energies are believed to be the results of a composi-

tion between inherited and acquired energies, the whole of them being

_ referred to a class distinct from the inorganic energies, which he has —

named Bathmic. The last chapter in this part is devoted to a considera-

tion of the relation of consciousness to movements, and hence as a cause

3 The Primary Factors of Organic Evolution, by E. D. Cope, Professor of Zo-

ology and Comparative e Anatomy in the eny nem of Pennsylvania. Chicago :

= Court Pub. Co., is 1896, ppa

ee) T eee TE

0 A.

PLAT

Feet of Proterotheriidae from Ameghino. A, fore foot of Proterotherium cavum A megh. B-C, Fore and hind feet of

Diadiaphorus majusculus Amegh. D-E, Fore and hind feet of Thoatherium crepidatum Amegh.

1896.] Recent Literature. 567

of progressive evolution. The author holds that sensation is a cause of

effects which would not appear in its absence, and that its presence

conditions progressive evolution. The author holds this to be proven

not only by the direct effect of consciousness as observed, but also on

the other ground that there is no sufficiency in the inorganic and un-

conscious organic energies to effect progressive evolution. This is be-

cause the well-known tendency of the latter is to the integration of

matter and the dissipation of energy, which leads always away from

vital phenomena. The author believes the entire vegetable kingdom

to be degenerate, its vitality being the expression of automatic energy

which derived its self-sustaining character from ancestors endowed with

sensation which oecupied a position between animals and plants. The

‘Mycetozoa he believes to be existing near relatives of these types.

The book is illustrated by 120 plates and cuts. One of these illus-

trative of homoplassy, we extract from the chapter on kinetogenesis,

with the following explanatory remarks :

“ Before reviewing the subject, I cite what is the most remarkable

example of homoplassy in the Mammalia which has yet come to the

knowledge of paleontologists. Ameghino has discovered in the cenozoic

formations of Argentina a group of Ungulata which he calls the Litop-

terna, and which I regard as a suborder of the Taxeopoda, allied to the

Condylarthra (p. 128). Ameghino placed the group under the Perisso-

dactyla, but the tarsus and carpus are of a totally different character,

and indicate an origin from the Condylarthra quite independent of

that division. The carpal and tarsal bones are in linear series, or if

they may overlap, it is in a direction the opposite of that which char-

acterizes the order Diplarthra (=Perissodactyla and Artiodactyla).

But the Litopterna present a most remarkable parallelism to the

Perissodactyla in the characters of both the feet and the dentition. No

genus is known as yet which possesses more than three toes before and

behind, and these are of equal length (Macrauchenia Owen). In this

genus the teeth are not primitive, but are much modified. The most

primitive dentition is seen in the genus Proterotherium (Ameghino)

where the superior molars are tritubercular, as in many Condylanthra.

In this genus (PI. X, fig. A) there are three toes, but the lateral ones

are reduced, about as in the equine genus Anchitherium (p. 148). In

the next genus, Diadiaphorus Amegh., the superior molars are quadri-

tubercular and crested, while the lateral toes are reduced still more,

being quite rudimental (figs. B C), as in the equine genera Hippo-

therium and Prothippus. The superior molars have not progressed

so far as in these genera, but are not very different from those of

568 The American Naturalist. [July,

Anchitherium. In the third and last type (Thoatherium Amegh.)

the lateral digits have disappeared from both fore and hind feet (figs.

C D), so that the condition is that of the genus Equus (fig. 81), but

the splints in the Thoatherium crepidatum Amegh. are even more

reduced in the known species of horse. The superior molars have not

assumed the pattern of the genus Equus, but resemble rather those of

Macrauchenia, and could have been easily derived from those of

Diadiaphorus.

Here we have a serial reduction of the lateral digits and their con-

nections with the leg, and increase in the proportions of the middle

digit and corresponding increases in the proximal connections, exactly

similar to that which took place in the horse line, in a different order

of Mammalia.”

The publishers have done their work well, and are especially to be

commended for having made the book of a convenient size to be car-

ried in the pocket or satchel.

The Child and Childhood in Folk-Thought.—(The Child in

Primitive Culture); by A. F. Chamberlain; New York, Macmillan &

Co., and London, 1896. Pp. x and 464; with bibliography and three

indexes; price $3.

Dr. Chamberlain’s work is not, as its chief title might lead one to

suppose, a mere collection of folk-lore about the child. It is rather an

attempt by this means to study the position of the child in primitive

society. The author has brought together a great mass of material

from every hand, and arranged it systematically under appropriate

headings ; as a result we find every phase and aspect of childhood re-

presented in his book.

The opening chapters, on the Lore of Motherhood and Fatherhood,

have in some places only a remote bearing upon the main topic, but

they may be regarded in the light of a general introduction. Follow-

ing these are a number of chapters which aim to show the attitude of

society toward the child; folk-lore on the soul of the child, legends

connecting children with animals or plants, stock answers of the adult

to the child’s questions, superstitions concerning children, ete., together

with stories of education and training among uncultured races. A

large part of the work deals with the influence of the child upon society

_—the effect of child-language in modifying adult language; the child’s

position in many tribes as oracle, judge, physician, or priest, etc. The

final chapters are a selection of popular proverbs and sayings bearing

upon childhood, from the literature of various races, cultured as well as

1896.] Recent Literature. 569

uncultured. The bibliography at the end is thorough, if not exhaus-

tive ; it consists of over 550 titles, covering the entire field.

The author claims no originality of investigation ; but he has culled

his material from a host of authorities, and his selections are well made.

He has no conclusions to draw; he simply presents the material as

data, with a view to a complete survey of the subject. The chief critic-

ism that can be made upon his method is that it frequently leads to a

curious intermingling of fables and traditions with actual race customs.

Thus in the chapter on the Children’s Food is described (p. 150) the

practice which holds among several tribes of placing food on the grave

of a dead child, to refresh its soul on the way to the spirit-land, and

almost immediately after follows the legend of how the infant Hercules

obtained immortality. The book is exceedingly interesting ; it treats

its subject as thoroughly as the breadth of the task together with the

limits of the volume permit ; and it is wonderfully conducive to further

reading. —H. ©. WARREN.

Stockham on the Ethics of Marriage.‘—This book is written

with the view of securing an excellent object, the increase of the

happiness of marriage. As the authoress is an M. D., and as she

treats the subject at the outset with a seeming respect for scientific

truth, we anticipated something valuable from her point of view. But

we are compelled to say that the grains of truth are overlaid with such

a quantity of error, rhapsody and sheer silliness, that we can only

recommend the book as a study in feminine psychology. That there

is one element of common sense running through it we are glad to

admit. The authoress sees nothing degrading or indecent in the sexual

relation. For this we must praise her ; but it was surely not necessary

for her to apologize for her good sense, by pages on pages of religious

rhapsody. The gist of her method of promoting marital happiness is

that sexual intimacy may take place without completing the act. This

proposition is as old as the rational faculty of man ; but, as rationality

is usually less directed to sexual subjects than to any other, it is quite

possible that her advice on this point may do some good. There

are some amusing passages. Fearing to appear to fall into the

Charybdis of “ hedonism ” she runs high and dry on Scylla, as follows :

“ Before and during the time some devotional exercises may be partici-

pated in, or there may be a formation of consecration of an uplifting

character in which both unite!”

t Karezza ; Ethics of Marriage, by Alice B. Stockham, M. D., Chicago. A. B.

Stockham & Co.

570 The American Naturalist. [July,

The authoress labors under several physiological errors, which should

be pointed out. She thinks in common with the ignorant classes gen-

erally, that the orgasm is concerned in impregnation, which is well

known not to be the case. She also asserts that the secretion of the

testis is produced at the time it is needed for use, an idea promulgated

several years ago in a silly book called Diana. This is also untrue;

its elaboration requires some days, and when the gland is full the secre-

tion makes its presence known and demands expulsion. The present

book should have stated also, that the practice she recommends, which

she calls “ Karezza,’ is a most potent stimulant of the secretion in

question, and does in some men produce enlargement of the prostate

gland and orchitis, so that every man must be in this matter his own

doctor. But one will not find logic in this book. In view of what

precedes one wonders where the authoress got her degree of M. D., and

who is responsible for her education. We must, however, once more

commend the spirit of the book, and hope that she will be instrumental

in teaching some men and women ordinary temperance. But it must

be borne in mind that medical writers chiefly deal with pathological

conditions, and that the persons she writes about are mostly abnormal

through excess or deficiency.

RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS. a

ANDREW, WM.—Gravitation and What itis. No Ice Age. Dodgeville, 1895-

From the author.

ANDREWS, C. W.—The Pectoral and Pelvic Girdles of a, ee plicatus.

Extr. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. S. 6, Vol. XVI, 1895. From the aut

ASHLEY, G. H.—The Neocene of the Santa Cruz Mountains. mit Leland

Stanford Jr, Univ. Pub. Geol. & Paleon., No. 1, 1895. From the Univ.

Baker, F. C.—A Naturalist in Mexico, being a visit to Cuba, Northern Yuca-

tan and Mexico. Chicago, 1895. From the Chicago Academy of Sciences i

Biological Lectures delivered at the Marine Biological pore at Wood's

Holl, 1893. Boston, 1894, Ginn & Co. From Prof. C. O. Whitm

BOULENGER, G. A.—Addition to the Fauna of India (Tarbophis rhinopoma a

Read before Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., Jan. 28, 1895.

—Rettili e Batraci. Esplorazione del Giuba e dei suoi Affluenti compiuta

del Cap. v. Bottego durante gli anni, 1892-98. . Por, Ann. Mus. Civ. Storia

Nat. di Genova. S. 2, Vol. XV, 1895. From the auth

Brinton, D. G.—Report upon the Collections a at the Columbian aE :

torical Exposition. Extr. Rept. Madrid Com., 1892. S 1895.

1896.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. 571

Aims of ee Proc, Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Vol. X LIV, 1895.

From the autho

Check-List of N orth American Birds prepared bya Committee of the American

Ornith. Union. 2d Ed , 1895

Cook, O. F.—Notes on Myriapoda from Lond, sg collected by Mr. Heli

Chatelaine, including a Description of a new Genus an ri e cies. Extr. Pro-

ceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVI, 1893. From ragi

Cook, O. F. AND A. C. CooK.—A Monograph of te Extr. Ann. N.

Yo pee Sci., VIII, 1895. From the authors.

Cox, PH.—History and Present State of the Ichthyology of New Brunswick,

with a Catalogue of its fresh water and Marine Fishes. St. John, N. B., 1895

From the author

CULIN, ree n-Games, with Notes on the arepe tine Games of China

and Japan. Philadelphia, 1895. From the aut

DAvenporT, C. B.—A Preliminary Catalogue at je Processes concerned in

Ontogeny. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard Coll., Vol. XXVII, 1895. From

the author.

Dawson, G. M.—Glacial Deposits of Southwestern Alberta in the Vicinity of

the Rocky Mts. Extr. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. 7, 1895. From the Soc

Deran, B.—Fishes, Living and Fossil. Now York and London, 1895. Mac-

millan and Co. From the author

DEwoLETZKY, R.—Neuere forschungen über das Gebiss der Saiiger. Aus Jahr-

esb. der k. k. Staats-Obergymnsiums in Czernowitz f. das Schuljahr, 1894-95.

From the author.

DumĮmBLE, E T.—The Soils of Texas. Extr. Trans. Texas Acad. Sci., 1895.

—— Notes on the Texas Tertiaries, l. c. From the autho

Eimer, G. H. T.—Eine Systematische Darstellung der hinds Abarten

und Arten der Schwalbenschwanz-iihnlischen Formen der Gattung Papilio. Die

Artbildung und Verwandtschaft bei den Schmetterlingen, If, Theil. Jena, 1895.

rom the author

Frores, E.—Sulle Ossa di Mammifera in essi Rinvenute. Estr. Bol. Soc.

Geol. Ital, Vol. XIV, Roma, 1895. From the author

FURBRINGER, M.—Ueber die mit dem Visceralskelet verbundenen spinalen

Muslseln bei Selachiern. Abdruck Jenaisch. Zeitsschr f. Naturw., Bd. XXX,

N. F., XXIII. From the author.

Gapow, H. anv E, C. Assotr,—On the Evolution of the Vertebral Column of

Fishes. Extr. Philos. Trans. Roy. Soc. London, 1895. From Prof. Gadow.

GUNTHER, A.—Report on a Collection of Reptiles and Batrachians sent by

Emin Pasha from Monbuttu, Upper Congo. _ Extr. Proceeds. Zool. Soc. Lon-

don, 1888.

——Report on a Collection of Reptiles and Batrachians transmitted by Mr. H.

H. ences C. B., from Nyassaland. Extr. Proceeds. Zool. Soc. London,

189

ee tes on pa and Frogs from Dominica, West Indies. Extr. .Ann.

Mag. Nat. Hist.,

— Notice of Benet and Batrachians ias in the eastern half of Tropi-

cal Africa. Extr. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist

.

572 The American Naturalist. [July,

Heap.ey, F. W.—The Structure and Life of Birds. London and New York,

1895, Macmillan and Co.

Howarp, L. O.—Revision of the Aphelininae of North America. Tech.

sg No. 1, U. S. Dept. Agric , Div. Entomol. Washington, 1895. From the

Dep

a TCHINSON, Wo. ee of Grasses. New York, 1895, Macmillan and

Co. From J olen Wanamaker

JOHNSTON-LaAvIs, H. J. "Notizie sui depositi delgi Antichi Laghi di Pianure

— e di Melfi (Basilicata). Estr. Bol. Soc. Geol. Ital., Vol. XIV, Roma,

1895. From the author.

Kurtz, F.—On the Existence of the Lower Gonawanas in Argentina. Trans.

by John Gillespie. Extr. Records Geol. Surv. India, Vol. XXVIII, 1895.

From the author.

Lanbots, H.—Die Riesenammoniten von Seppenrade. Anis, XXIII, Jahresb.

Westfälischen Prov. Vereins fiir Wissenschaft und Kunst Münster, 1895. From

the author

Leche, W.—Zur Entwickelungsgeschichte des Zahnsystems des Siugethiere,

Erster Theil. Ontogenie. Stuttgart, 1895. From the author

Leverett, F.—On the Correlation of New York Moraines with Raised Beaches

on Lake Erie. Extr. Amer. Journ. Sci., Vol. L, 1895.

——Soils of Illinois. Extr. Final Rept. Ill. Board World’s Fair Commission,

1895.

——Preglacial Valleys of the Mississippi and Tributaries. Extr. Journ. Geol.,

Vol. III, 1895. From the author

Lewis, W. D.—The Sacitle. of Society to its Environment. Pub. of the

Amer. Acad. Political and Social Science, No. 109. No date given. From the

author.

MatTHEw, W. D.—The Effusive and Dyke Rocks near St. John, N. B.

McGeer, W. G.—The Beginning of Agriculture. Extr. Amer. Anthropol.,

1895. From the author.

Meyrick, E.—A Handbook of British Lepidoptera. London and New York,

1895, Macmillan and Co. From the Publisher.

MoLLIER, Dr, S.—Das Cheiropterygium. Weisuaden, 1895. From the

author.

Pitspry, H. A.—Catalogue of the Marine Mollusks of Japan, with Descriptions

of New Species and Notes on Others collected by F. Stearns. Detroit, 1895.

From the author.

Report of the Biological Dept. of the New Jersey Agric. Coll. Exper. Station

for the year 1893.

Report of the Commission, U. 8. Commission Fish and Fisheries for the year

ending June 30, 1893. From the Dept

Smit, T.—Additional Javebtigations concerning ERSE Swine Diseases.

Bull. tei 6, 1894, U. S. Dept. Agric. From the

Densercu, J.—A Review of the eiD ob Limot Caliieets,-. 7%

IL Pistisdhikas. Extr. Proceeds. Cal. Acad. Sci. S. 5, Vol. V, 1895. From the

author.

WALcoTT, C. D.—Sixteenth Annual Report of the Director of the U. S. Geo-

logical Harvey for 1894--95. Extr. Sixteenth Ann. Rept. Surv. From the U.8.

Geol. Survey.

1896.] Mineralogy. 573

General Notes.

MINERALOGY.

Contact Goniometer with two Graduated Circles.—In pur-

suance of the idea already applied to the reflection goniometer (ref. in

this journal, 1895, p. 266) Goldschmidt? has designed a contact gonio-

meter with two graduated circles. The horizontal circle carries the

support for the crystal, which can thus be rotated about a vertical axis.

The vertical circle is a metallic band carrying a moyeable block.

Through the block asmall metal rod passes radially toward the center,

and on the inner end of the rod a small plate is fixed. By movement

of the crystal about its vertical axis and of the block on its arc, the

plate may be brought to parallelism with any face on the upper side of

the crystal, Actual contact of the plate with the crystal face is effected

by sliding the rod through its block. Readings on the two circles give

data for computing the position of a plane, exactly as in the case of the

reflection goniometer to which reference was above made.

Crystallographic Properties of the Sulphonic Acid Deri-

vatives of Camphor.—A bout 17 of these compounds are mentioned

by Kipping and Pope? with much detailed information concerning the

erystallograpy of several of them. As might be expected from the

fact that the solutions of many of these substances exhibit the phenom-

enon of circular polarization, the crystals furnish examples of a num-

ber of the Jess common low symmetry grades, Among these are hemi-

morphism in the monoclinic system (sphenoidal class of Groth), sphen-

oidal hemihedrism in the orthorhombic system (bisphenoidal class),

and probably hemihedrism in the triclinic system (pedial class). Such

crystallographic studies must be of great value to stereo-chemistry.

Optical Properties of Lithiophilite and Triphilite.—On

these two minerals Penfield and Pratt‘ have based an interesting in-

vestigation of the change of optical properties due to the mutual re-

placement of manganese and iron in isomorphous mixture. It is found

1 Edited by A. C. Gill, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.

* Zeitschr. f. Kryst., XXV, p. 321, 1

* Zeitschr. f. Kryst., XXV, pp. 225-256, 1895.

t Am, Jour. Sci., L, pp. 387-390, Nov., 1895.

574 The American Naturalist. [July,

that with increasing percentage of iron the index of refraction increases,

while the plane of the optical axes is changed from the base (001) to

the macropinacoid (100). A specimen containing 26.58% FeO shows

an optical angle of 21° 53’ in the basal plane for thallium light, is uni-

axial for sodium light, and has an angle of 15° 3’ in the macropinacoid

With 35.05% FeO the crystals are found to be negative, whereas those

with less iron are optically positive. It is suggested that in the pure

manganese molecule, the change may be.found so great that the brachy-

pinacoid is the plane of the optical axes.

Native Sulphur in Michigan.—Scherzer® reports an occurrence

of sulphur a mile west of Scofield, Monroe Co., Michigan. It is found

in a stratum of impure cavernous limestone about one to three feet in

thickness. The pockets, varying from a fraction of an inch up to three

feet in diameter, are often lined with calcite and celestite crystals with

bright lustrous masses of sulphur toward the center. The removal of

about an acre of this bed has yielded 100 barrels of pure sulphur. The

sulphur seems to have originated from hydrogen sulphide which is

abundant in the waters of the neighborhood. The hydrogen sulphide,

in turn, may be a product of decomposing organic matter.

Leadhillite Pseudomorphs at Granby, Mo.—The occurrence

of leadhillite at Granby in the form of pseudomorphs after calcite and

galena is made the subject of a note by Foote. Scalenohedrons in a

chert calamine rock are composed usually of pure cerussite; more.

rarely the substance is found to be leadhillite. Galena cubes replaced

by leadhillite were also observed. In these cases the secondary min-

eral is usually mixed with remnants of the original galena, producing

a “gray amorphous mass.” In a few specimens the leadhillite is

pure.

fora hs oi on

Celestite from Giershagen.—According to Arzruni and Thad-

déef* the axial ratio of “normal” celestite is a: b:¢e— .78093:1:

1.28324. The mineral from Giershagen, which appears to be chemically

pure Sr SO,, has the ratio a: b: c = .77962 : 1: 1.28533. The mean of

four determinations places the specific gravity at 3.9665. The optical

angle of “ normal ” celestite is given as 2 V,x,==50° 34’. This inves-

tigation adds another to the list of chemically pure compounds whose —

EA

D A a NN a EREN TEAN Sa SEUA aP EE e a EN A Saa T gr

5 Am. Jour. Sci., L, pp. 246-248, Sept., 1895.

€ Am. Jour. Sci., L, p. 99, August, 1895.

t Zeitschr. f. Krd. XXY, pp. ~a 1895.

1896.] Mineralogy. 575

molecular volume may be considered as accurately known, and allows

of comparison between the various physical constants of this and iso-

morphous substances.

Minerals from the Galena Limestone.—Hobbs*® gives a de-

tailed description, with many drawings, of the crystallized minerals

from the galena limestone of southern Wisconsin and northern Illinois.

The habitus of the various crystals is made prominent in the discus-

sion of them. New forms are reported on calcite (24.0.24.1), on cerus-

site (0.25.4), and on azurite (307), (203), (205) and (9.12.8).

Miscellaneous Notes.—Becke’ shows that the center of symmetry

may be used as a fundamental conception in developing the 32 classes

of crystal symmetry, notwithstanding the fact of its abandonment by

Groth and Fedorow.—Sylvite from Stassfurt, investigated by Schimpff”

with special reference to the impurities of the same, gave K Cl 99.239,

Na Cl .242, Mg Cl, .089, Ca SO, .073, H,S .0023, residue .108, loss on

melting .2847. The foreign substances seem to occur chiefly as inclu-

sions with the mother liquor. These figures doubtless give a very good

idea of the amount of impurity present, but the extreme right hand

digits must be looked upon as mathematics rather than chemistry-—

Igelstrém™ finds molybdenum, probably present as Mo,O,, in the hem-

atite from the “Sjégrube,” Gouv. Örebro, Sweden. One specimen of

the same material showed spectroscopically the presence of thallium.—

Niven” notes the discovery on New York Island of numerous interest-

ing specimens of the rare earth minerals xenotine and monazite. Tit-

anite, epidote, beryl and menaccanite are also mentioned.—The mineral

named schneebergite by Brezina” on the basis of an apparently faulty

qualitative investigation is shown by Eakle and Muthmann”™ to be in

reality a very pure lime-iron garnet, or topazolite, instead of a calcium

antimonite. The specific gravity is 3.838, and the chemical composi-

tion:

8 Zeitschr. f. Kryst., XXV, pp. 257-275, 1895.

9 Zeitschr. f. Kryst., XXV, pp. 73-78, 1895.

1 Zeitschr. f. Kryst., XXV, p. 92, 1895.

1 Zeitschr. f. Kryst., XXV, p. 94, 1895.

12 Am, Jour. Sci., L, p. 75, July, 1895.

18 Vehr. d. k. k. geol. Reichsanstalt, 1880, p. 313.

u Zeitschr. f. Kryst., XXV, pp. 244-246, 1895.

576 The American Naturalist. [July,

found calculated for

-m Ca, Fe, Si,O,,

SiO, 35.45 35.43

Fe,O, 32.33 32.11 31.50

CaO 32.58 33.07

— Foote” gives some details concerning a new mineral which he pro-

poses to name Northupite. It was found by Mr. Northup in the “ tail-

ings” from a boring made at Borax Lake, Cal. The crystals are reg-

ular octahedrons reaching rarely 1 cm. in diameter. The substance

seems to be a double chloride and carbonate of sodium and magnesium.

Cleavage imperfect, H = 3.5 to

PETROGRAPHY.’

Volcanic Rocks and Tuffs in Prussia.—In the hills east of

_Ebsdorf, near Marburg, Prussia, are large areas covered by basalt flows,

flows of dolerite, and others of rocks intermediate in character between —

these two, both of which are pre-Tertiary in age, or at any rate are

older than the Tertiary beds with which they are associated. The vol-

canic rocks are cut by dykes of very basic rock resembling limburgite.

The little hill west of Wittelsberg, near the northern edge of the basalt

area, and the flank of the hill near Kehrenberg, are composed largely

of basalt tuff.

The basalt consists of phenocrysts of augite and olivine in a dense

felt of augite microlites, biotite and magnetite, in the spaces between

which is a colorless glass containing xenomorphic feldspar, leucite and

nepheline. Inclusions in the basalt are very common. They comprise

besides fragments of Foreign rocky; concretions of olivine and of augite.

The olivine con more or less bronzite, and usually

they are surrounded by a violet-brown rim similar to the rims found

surrounding the augite phenocrysts in the basalt. Even those concre-

tions that are composed almost exclusively of bronzite are surrounded

by rims of this character. The principal component of this rim is a

monoclinic augite, so that it appears here that the bronzite, which must

have been one of the earliest separations from the magma, was, after

its crystallization, changed into augite. Other concretions show the

1 Am. Jour. Sci., L, pp. 480-488, Dec., 1895.

1 Edited by Dr. W. 8. Boi Colby Univesity, Waterville, Me.

1896.] Petrography. 577

alteration of the bronzite into olivine. -+ By complete fusion one concre-

tion, which is thought. by the author to have been a bronzite-augite

aggregate, has been changed to a mass of rounded augite and olivine

grains imbedded in a glass which locally is replaced by nepheline. The

alteration of the bronzite, as indicated by the study of a number of

sections, is into olivine, augite, magnetite and glass. Among the rare

constituents of the olivine concretions are chrome diopside and pico-

tite. The augite concretions or inclusions, consist almost exclusively

of a monoclinic augite with which is usually associated a little olivine.

In the interiors of the concretions the augite contains fluid enclosures,

but toward their peripheries the enclosures are all of glass. Often bé-

tween the augite grains are little nests of calcite. One of the inclusions

observed. by the author is abnormal in that it is composed of a small

nucleus of augite surrounded by a zone of brown biotite.

Of the foreign inclusions, the author describes two kinds—the calea-

reous and the granitic. The basalt in the neighborhood of limestone

inclusions loses its biotite and magnetite. Nearer the inclusions the

augite microlites become light colored and magnetite grains are again

developed. At the boundary of the limestone fragment is a rim of

large augites, whose ends are directed toward the center of the inclu-

sion. . This latter itself is composed of the remnants of calcite grains

imbedded in a brown glass, in which are also well formed crystals of a

scapolite. The sandstone inclusions have been changed to a mass of

quartz grains lying in a brown glass, the whole being surrounded by

the usual zone of augite microlites. The granite inclusions first lose

their mica. The old feldspar has given rise to newly developed feld-

spar.

The dolerite seem to occur as a number of small flows that have run

together. It presentsno special peculiarities.: The dyke basalt cutting

the tuffs and dolerites. sometimes contains well defined crystals of

olivine, which occasionally occur as interpenetration twins.

Igneous Rocks of British, Columbia.—The petrographiecal

characters of the principal rocks occurring within the area of the

Kamloops. Map-sheet of British Columbia are described by Ferrier,’

These rocks embrace feldspathic actinolite schists, diabase porphyrites,

harzburgite, amphibolites, diabase tuffs, cherts, gabbros, orthophyres,

augite-porphyrites, porphyrites, basalts, pecrite-porphyrites, andesites,

trachytes, dacites, diorites, granites, syenites, quartz-porphyries, alnoite

and a series of much altered rocks. The descriptions are all brief.

2 Annual Rep. Geol. Surv. of Canada, Vol. VU, Pt. B,, p 349,

40

-

578 The American Naturalist. [July,

Chalcedony Concretions in Obsidians from Colorado.—

Patton? describes the occurrence of large opal and chalcedony concre-

tions or geode-like bodies in beds of a decomposed obsidian on Ute

Creek in Hinsdale Co., Colorado. The concretions are most common

in the upper scoriaceous portions of the flows. Similar concretions

were also found in a rhyolite at Specimen Mountain. The concretions

are composed of radial fibres of chaleedony. The flowage lines that

are common to the rock pass uninterruptedly through them, and in

them are trichites exactly like those in the body of the rock. The con-

eretions are regarded as secondary in origin—and as due to the perco-

lation of silica-bearing waters through the rock. The same author

publishes some photographs of erosion forms produced by the weather-

ing of the volcanic conglomerates in the San Juan Mountains.

Basic Dykes near Lake Memphremagog.—<According to

Marsters‘ the Chazy limestones of Lake Memphremagog are cut by

granite, olivine, diabase and lamprophyre dykes. The latter comprise

dark rocks containing phenocrysts of augite, hornblende or olivine.

The olivine, when it occurs, is always situated in the central portions

of the dykes. Sometimes its crystals are one and half inches in diame-

ter. Petrographically these rocks are augite camptonites, fourchites

and monchiquites. The augite camptonite contains both augite and

hornblende in two generations and in varying quantities. Only two

fourchite dykes were observed. Their material presents no unusual

features. The paper is interesting as bringing to our knowledge

another area in which these peculiar and interesting dyke rocks occur.

The Origin of the Maryland Granites.—The last article writ-

ten by the late Dr. Williams’ is an introduction to Keyes article on

Maryland granites. In this paper the author explains the criteria by

which ancient plutonic rocks may be recognized in highly metamor-

phosed terranes, and applies the principles thus established to prove

the eruptive nature of many of the Maryland granites. The pegma-

tites of the Piedmont plateau were tested by the same criteria, with the

result that these too are pronounced to be eruptive. Many handsome

plates embellish this portion of the papet. In the main portion of the

article Keyes describes the petrographical features of the different types

of granite, giving special attention to the original allanite and epidote

found in them. There is little that is new in the paper, most of its

3 Proc. Colo. Scient. Soc , Nov. fl 1895.

t Amer. Geol., July, 1895, p.

515th Amn, Rep. U.S. G. S., D 653.

1896.] Geology and Paleontology. 579

essential points having already been discussed by Hobbs, Grimsley and

others.

Petrographical Notes.—The rocks of the Laurentian area to the

north and west of St. ies eromë, Quebec; are briefly referred to by Adams’

as gneisses, tl , limestones, quartzites, ete. Some

` of the gneisses are eruptive and others are probably sedimentary.

Miller and Brock’ have found in Frontenac, Leeds and Lanark

Counties, Ontario, granites, gabbros, scapolite and pyroxene rocks of

Laurentian age cut by dykes of quartz gabbro containing re

of pyroxene and plagioclase.

Keyes? declares that the granites and porphyries occuring in the

eastern portion of the Ozarks, in Missouri, “ are very closely related

genetically, and are to be regarded as facies of the same magma,” the

porphyry being the upper and surface facies of the granite.

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.

Canadian Paleontology.—In addition to the vertebrates (rep-

tilia and batrachia) and land snails discovered by Sir Wm. Dawson in

the interior of erect trees in the coal formations of Nova Scotia, and

described by him in various scientific publications, fragments of arthro-

pods have been found in the material collected. These were submitted

for examination to Mr. Samuel Scudder who published a preliminary

report in 1882, and now, after completing his study, gives these addi-

tional facts. A few species of Myriapods show traces of the bases of

spines; the ventral plates in Archiulus are very broad ; two new spe-

cies of this genus are recognized ; two species of Mazonia are indicated,

one of which (M. acadica) confirms the separation of this genus from

Eoscorpius ; a facetted eye taken from a reptilian coprolite shows the

presence of a true insect, probably a cockroach.

A report upon the Cenozoic Hemiptera of British Columbia, by the

same author, comprises descriptions of nineteen species. Mr. Scudder

calls attention to the great variety among these insects. Among the

Homoptera, every specimen must be referred to a distinct species, and

6 Ann. Rep. Geol. Surv. of Can., Vol. VII, J., p. 93.

7Can. Record of Science, Oct., 1895.

ê Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. 7, p. 363.

oa

580 The American Naturalist. [July,

in only one case can two species be referred to one genus, In the Ful-

goridae each of the three species belongs to a different subfamily.

Another striking feature of the fauna is the size of the individuals

which compose it. The majority of them represent the most bulky

species of their respective families. The average length of these

Cenozoic species of Fulgoridae and Cercopidae is not less than two

centimeters, and there are some that are double that length.

The author states that this insect fauna indicates that the deposits in

which they occur are at least as old as Oligocene, but no definite state-

ment as to the age of the beds can be made.

A third interesting paper in this series on Canadian fossil insects

sums up the present knowledge of the Coleopterous remains of Canada.

These have been found in seven distinct localities in that country, and

at three very different horizons. The greatest interest attaches to the

collection made at an interglacial locality near Scarboro’ Ont., which

yielded twenty-nine species, and is the largest assemblage of insects ever

found in such a deposit anywhere. Forty-five species from the various

localities are described by Mr. Seudder. They are referred to 27

genera, 2 of which are new. (Contrib. Canadian Paleontol., Vol. II,

Pt. I.)

Jackson on the Development of Oligoporus.—The fol-

lowing is an abstract of the results of the recent studies of the Palæoe-

chinoidea. In Oligoporus the interambulacra terminate ventrally in

two plates, which present on their oral faces a reéntrant angle for the

reception of a single initial plate of the area. Proceeding dorsally,

new plates and new columns of plates are added, accenting by their

appearance stages in growth, as he had previously shown in Melonites,

until the full compliment of the species is attained. The single initial

interambulacral plate of Oligoporus was compared with a similar plate

in Melonites, Lepidechinus, young modern Cidaris, etc. At the ventral

or younger portion of the corona of Oligoporus there are only two

columns of ambulacral plates. The four columns characteristic of the

adult are derived from these two by a drawing-out process. The four

columns of ambulacral plates of adult Oligoporus are the equivalent

of the two outer and two median columns of Melonites. These four

columns in both genera are the morphological equivalent of the two

columns seen in the ambulacra of Bothriocidaris, Cidaris, ete. a

Oligoporus, as shown by the development of both ambulacral alla

interambulacral areas, is a genus intermediate between Palsechinus

and Melonites. During the nother of a it. —

eae ee Oe

1896.] Geology and Paleontology. 581

through a Rhoéchinus stage, and later a Paleechinus stage. Melonites

in its development passes through an Oligoporus stage.

An early stage in developing Echinoderms was named the “ pro-

techinus” stage, At this stage are first acquired those features which

characterize the developing animal as a member of the Echinoidea.

The protechinus stage in Echinoderms is directly comparable to the

protoconch of Cephalous Mollusca, the protegulum of Brachiopods, the

protaspis of Trilobites, ete. The Echinoderm at this period in its

growth has a single interambulacral plate (representing a single column

of such plates), and two columns of ambulacral plates in each of the

five areas. This stage is seen in Oligoporus, Lepidechinus, Goniocidaris

and other genera ; it finds its representative in an adult ancestral form,

in the primitive, oldest known genus of the class Bothriocidar is of the

Lower Silurian, which has but one column of interambulacral and two

columns of ambulacral plates in each area.

Species of Oligoporus and Melonites with few interambulacral

columns are considered the more primitive types, as they are repre-

sented by stages in the development of those species which acquire a

higher number of columns in the adult.

The structure of the ventral border of the corona of Archzocidaris

was described. It presents a row of plates partially resorbed by the

encroachment of the peristome, as in modern Cidaris, ete. Ambulacral

and interambulacral plates on the peristome were described in Archzeo-

cidaris, also teeth and secondary spines on the interambulacral plates

of the corona.

This paper contains a classification of Palseozoic Echini based on the

structure and development of the ambulacral and interambulacral areas

and the peristome. It will be published in the Bulletin of the Geolog-

ical Society of America.—Science, Nov. 22, 1895.

American Fossil Cockroaches.'—This memoir, published as

Bulletin 124 of the U. S. Geological Survey, is a revision of the known

species of American fossil cockroaches to date. The descriptions of —

new forms are interpolated in a systematic list of all the species yet

recovered from the rocks, and such tables have been added as may en-

able the student to readily determine any new material. With the

publication of this essay all species hitherto described will have been

figured.

RP; Bulletin of the United States Geological Survey, No. 124. Revision of the

American Fossil Cockroaches, with Descriptions of New Forms, By Samuel H.

Scudder, Washingtou, 1895.

.

582 The American Naturalist. [July,

The new forms are Paleozoic, and are mostly from two new locali-

ties—Richmond, Ohio, and Cassville, West Virginia. There are, how-

ever, a number of new species from old horizons.

Tables of the geographical and also of the geological distribution of

both American and European genera are given in the introduction,

followed by a statement of the characteristics of the Mylacridae and a

discussion of some of the anatomical features of paleozoic cockroaches.

In this connection the author calls attention to possible mimicry

among these old forms of insect life, and figures side by side a cock-

roach wing and a fern frond found associated in the same beds, to show

how close is the resemblance between them in the general distribution

of nervures and in outline.

The illustrations comprise twelve page plates and three figures in the

text.

The Comanche Cretaceous.—Prof. R. T. Hill has found some

outlying areas of the Comanche series in Barber and Comanche Coun-

ties, Kansas, and in G County, Oklahoma, and in the Tucumcari re-

gion of New Mexico. These strata are identified from paleontological

evidence.

The importance of a correct determination of these beds is evident

from the following concluding remarks of the author.

“ The geology of the outlying areas of the Cretaceous preserved in the

scarps of the Plains adds greatly to our knowledge of the distribution,

variation, paleontology and history of the beds of the Comanche series,

and of the progressive oscillatory conquest of the Great Plains region

by the sea in Cretaceous time. The Belvidere (Kansas) beds have re-

vealed the following additions to our knowledge of Cretaceous paleon-

tology : First, a lower stratigraphic occurrence of the dicotyledonous

Dakota flora than known, whereby we may now say that dicotyledons

make their first appearance before the beginning of the Washita sub-

epoch, instead of in the Dakota as hitherto believed. Second, a simi-

lar downward range in the geologic scale of the ichthyic vertebrates

of hitherto supposed Upper Cretaceous range. Third, intermingling

of these plants and fishes with molluscan species and other vertebrates

of the Washita division such as has not hitherto been found in the

Comanche series.” (Amer. Journ. Sci., Lol. L, 1895).

Kolguev Island, which lies 130 miles southeast of Novaya Zemlya,

differs, according to Col. Feilden, in geological structure, both from

mountainous islands of its neighbor and from Russian Lapland. The |

entire elevated region of the island is composed of beds of sand contain-

1896.] Geology and Paleontology. 583

ing erratic boulders, to a depth of not less than 80 feet, and these sandy

beds rest on the Kolguev clays. These in turn are 50 miles long by

- 40 wide, with a thickness of not less than 250 feet, probably more.

This great mass is evidently a glacio-marine deposit. A few molluscan

remains were found in it, all well known boreal forms existing at the

present time, but no vertebrates nor drift-wood. A collection of

erratics made by the author are identified by Prof. Bonney as rocks of

Mesozoic age, either Jurassic or Wealden. (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,

1896.)

Palezontologia Argentina.—Vols. I (1891), II (1893), and III

(1894).—The Museo de la Plata of Argentina has progressed thus far

with the publication of monographs illustrative of its magnificent col-

lection of fossil vertebrata of that country. The style of the publica-

tion is worthy of the subject; the size selected being folio, and the

plates phototype reproductions of the originals, often of the natural

size. The whole is issued under the supervision of the director of the

Museum Dr. Francisco P. Moreno, who contributes some of the articles

in connection with M. Mercerat; while Dr. Lydekker, of London, fur-

nishes the greater number.

The first volume, on the extinct birds of Argentina, consists solely of

plates, with pages of names referring to the figures. These plates

depict objects of great interest, many of the bones belonging to the

extraordinary family of the Phororhacide of Ameghino, which seem

to be nearly allied to the existing Cariamide of South America. Most

of these birds are of gigantic size, and their powerful legs and hooked

beaks indicate that they were quite competent to maintain their place

in the fauna of which they form a part. We have waited for some

years before noticing this valuable publication, in hopes that the text

would appear. It seems, however, that there is no intention of pub-

lishing a descriptive part. Under the circumstances we must regret

that names were attached to the figures, for, although figures may give

currency to specific names, they cannot do so for names of any higher

grade, and a considerable amount of synonymy has been thus created.

Dr. Ameghino has also subsequently shown, that in this atlas a good

many duplicate names have been given to the same species.

In the second part are published three memoirs by Dr. Lydekker.

These include figures and deseriptions of Dinosauria and Cetacea from

Patagonia, and mammalia Ungulata from the same region. The mag-

nificent plates are accompanied by descriptions, and this volume is

therefore more valuable than its predecessor. Unfortunately the de-

584 The American Naturalist. fJuly,

scriptions are quite inadequate, and the specimens will have to be more

fully described before their characters can be sufficiently known.

The third volume is chiefly occupied with the Edentata, and this

memoir is admirably illustrated. The descriptions (by Dr. Lydekker)

are rather more full than those of Vol. II, but not full enough. They

are marred by frequent supercilious references to Dr. Florentino Ameg-

hino, who is the most competent paleontologist of the vertebrata in

South America, and whose descriptions compare very favorably with

those of other paleontologists in all respects. His figures are not so

good as those of the work now under review, for here we have a case

in which the most skilful hand has not had the financial advantages it

ought to have had. From our past experience we should say that when

Dr. Lydekker states that organic forms are distinct species he is apt

to be correct; but when he identifies forms alleged to be distinct,

further examination is in order.—C,

BOTANY?

Tilden’s American Algæ.—The first century of this distribu-

tion by Josephine Tilden, of Minneapolis, was sent out about a year

ago, but has not hitherto been noticed in these pages. The specimens

are very neatly prepared, and are attached to cards or mica slips. In

most cases they contain an abundance of material, but, in a few in-

stances, we might wish for more generous specimens. The species

represent the following genera:

`. Oedogonium (4), Sphaeroplea (1), Hormiscia (2), Chaetophora (4),

Drigtirndbilta (3), Stigeoclonium (6), Conferva (1), Microspora (1),

Urospora (1), Cladophora (15), Pithophora (1), Vaucheria (5), Botry-

dium (1), Hydrodictyon (1), Tetraspora (2), Palmella (1), Protococcus

(3), Euglena (1), Spirogyra (10), Cosmarium (1), Porphyrosiphon (1);

Symploea (2), Lyngbya (2), Phormidiwn (1), Oscillatoria (8), Spirulina

- (1), Gloeotrichia (2), Tolypothriz (1), Nostoc (8), Anabaena (2), Meris-

mopedia (1), Navicula (1), Pleurosigma (1), Gomphonema (2), Coc-

` coneis (1), Nitzschia (1), Odontidium (1), Synedra (2), Fragilaria (1),

‘Cystopleura’ (1), Lysigonium (1). `

The introduction of Euglena among plants is, in our opinion, a mis-

take, although one which will probably do ‘no harm, since it will be

difficult if not impossible to` recognize them from dried specimens. ove

i Edited by Prof. C. E. Bessey, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska.

1896.) Botany. 585

Century II is announced to appear soon. We bespeak for it a

liberal patronage——Cuarurs E! Bessey.

The Columbines of North America,—Thirteen species of

Aquilegia are described as occurring in North America in Robinson’s

edition of Gray’s Synoptical Flora (1895).

These fall into two types, as follows :

A. Old World type, with hooked or curved spurs

A. brevistyla, Rocky Mountains of British Ammeeiea, and the Black

Hills of South Dakota.

A. saximontana, Rocky Mountains of Colorado.

A. flavescens, Pembina and British Columbia to Oregon and Utah.

A. micrantha, southeast Utah.

` A. ecaleatata, southwest Colorado.

A. jonesii, northwest Wyoming and Montana.

B. American type, with straight spurs:

A. canadensis, common east of the Rocky Mountains.

A. formosa, Alaska to northern California, Idaho aia Utah.

A. truncata, California.

A. caerulea, Rocky Mountains from Montana tò New Mexico:

A. chrysantha, southern Colorado to New Mexico and Arizona.

A. pubescens, California.

Ai longissima southwest Texas.

It is interesting to note that in aT Orns ii and Guay s Flora of North

America (1840) here were but four species described, viz, : A. cana-

densis, A. formosa, A. caerulea and A. brevistyla. It is possible that

some of these species may be reduced to varieties upon a more critical

study of the genus, but even with the most rigid reduction we should

still be left with a large representation of these interesting plants.

Their curious beauty and comeliness, with their general distribution,

may well warrant the suggestion which has been made to make the

Columbine our national flower.—CHARLES E. Bessey,

Sets of North American Plants. — Two sets of ‘panty i in-

teresting North American fl flowering pl

rium curators at this time. They consist very largely of species from

Florida, that wonderfully rich semi-tropical region whose botanical

treasures we are just learning to appreciate. The first is a set of 400

specimens by the veteran collector A. H. Curtiss, of Jacksonville,

Florida. A personal examination of the specimens warrants the same

high commendation which all of m Curtiss’s work has hitherto 1 Te-

ceived.

586 The American Naturalist. [July,

The second set is published by G. V. Nash, of Washington, D. C.,

and includes the same number of specimens. A glance at the list

shows it to include many rare and a considerable number of new spe-

cies. Either set would be a valuable acquisition to any college herba-

rium.—CHARLES E. Bessey.

Botany in Buffalo.—The Secretary of the Section of Botany (G)

of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Professor

George F. Atkinson, of Ithaca, N. Y., is making an effort to provide a

good programme for the meeting in August (24 to 28). Titles and

abstracts of papers are to be sent to the Secretary not later than July

1, in order that they may be arranged and forwarded to the Permanent

Secretary of the Association for printing and distribution. It is the

purpose of the Association to issue such a list of Section programmes

not less than a month preceding the meeting. Let every botanist who

has something of importance send in his title and abstract on or before

the first day of July.

The second annual meeting of the Botanical Society of America

which will be held on August 21 and 22, in connection with the Asso-

ciation, should attract a good number of the more advanced men in

the science. Dr. Trelease, the retiring president, will deliver his ad-

dress on “ Botanical Opportunity ” at 8 P. M. of the 21st. On the 22d

there will be forenoon and afternoon sessions for the reading of papers

and discussions—Caar.es E. Bessey

Blanks for ‘‘ Plant Analysis.’’—For some time there has been

an encouraging decrease in the annual crop of blanks for “ plant analy-

sis,” and we hoped to be able soon to announce the complete extinction

of the species. It appears, however, that there are certain intellectual

soils in which they still thrive, in spite of the fact that, like the Rus-

sian Thistle, they are outlawed in most communities. We have before

us two which bear the date 1896, one from U. O. Cox, of Mankato,

Minnesota, and the other from H. J. Harnly, of McPherson, Kansas.

If one may distinguish between things which are necessarily bad, it

may be said that the first is the better of the two. Its fault (which is

fatal) is that it enables the pupil to “analyze” a plant with the least

possible thinking: he does not have to remember anything ; he merely

reads the question, looks at his plant, and makes his entry on the proper

line. The second blank (which is “copyrighted ”) adds to the fore-

going much which is confusing and scientifically vicious. Thus the

pupil finds the questions “ Flowers, Regular or Irregular? Why?”

which he is expected to answer in a line just two and a half inches long!

Dae cama eros the AW ua ie wat i oe ee ee te a ain at ne Me Sti. ay ORS TEES y le ENT

rs nal ake peep Teer

1896.] Zoology. 587

Again he is asked, “ Flowers, Complete or Incomplete? Why?” and

is allowed a line exactly two inches long in which to give an answer to

a question before which the wisest botanist may well quail. When will

teachers realize that botanists are not made by the use of such “ helps ”

any more than Latin scholars are made by the use of “ ponies”?

—CHARLEs E. Bessey.

Botanical News.—The Director of the Missouri Botanical Gar-

den at St. Louis calls attention in a printed circular to the advantages

for study afforded by this important institution. Its herbarium includes

nearly 250,000 specimens, and its library about 10,000 volumes and

11,000 pamphlets.

A. H. Curtiss, of Jacksonville, Florida, is distributing fine sets of the

Marine Algæ of Florida. Each set contains fifty species and is sold

for five dollars.

Professor Bruce Fink, of Fayette, Iowa, offers sets of Iowa Lichens,

ineluding about 200 species which he sells at the low price of six cents

eac

We are glad to see another number of Pittonia, the very useful

periodical which Professor E. L. Greene issues from time to time. The

new. part (13) contains papers on the Nomenclature of the Fuller’s

Teasel, a Proposed New Genus of Cruciferae; New or Noteworthy

Species ; New Genus of Polemonianae, and New Mexican Eupatori-

acee—CHARLES E. Brssry.

ZOOLOGY.

Japanese Leeches.—The discovery of three new land leeches in

Japan is of interest to geologists since but one species, Haemadipsa

japonica Whitman, is all that has been known to occur in that country.

The three new species are members of a genus separated from all the

genera of land leeches hitherto defined. An account of their external

characters and a general outline of their internal organization are pre-

sented by Dr. Asajiro Oka in a recent number of the journal published

by the Imperial University of Japan. For the new genus the author

proposes the name Orobdella. The species of this genus are found in

various mountainous parts of Japan, crawling under moss and fallen

leaves, or in moist earth, in the same manner as earthworms, which con-

588 The American Naturalist. [July,

stitute the chief source of their nourishment. Having no jaws, these

leeches can neither bite nor suck blood, but swallow the worms entire.

O. octonaria is one of the largest leeches known. The dimensions of

one specimen found by the author is given, length 270 mm., width 14

mm., depth 10 mm.

Dr. Oka adopts the classification of R. Blanchard (1894), and shows

the systematic position of Orobdella in the following synoptical table:

Ordo Hirudinea.

a. Subordo. Rhyncobdellae.

b. Subordo. Arhyncobdellae.

1. Fam. Gnathobdellidae.

Aquatic: gen. Hirudo, Haemopis, ete.

Terrestr. gen. Haemadipsa, Xerobdella, Mesobdella.

2. Fam. Herpobdellidae.

Aquatic: gen. Herpobdella, Dina, Trocheta.

Terrestr: gen. Cylicobdella, Lumbricobdella, Orobdella.

(Journ. Coll. Sci. Imp. Univ. Japan., Vol. VIII, Pt. 2, 1895.).

The Origin of Tail-forms.—The use and meaning of the asym-

metrical types of tail-fin which are so commonly met with among

fishes—e. g., the upturned tail of the shark and sturgeon, and the

downwardly extended fin of the flying-fish, are explained by Dr. F.

Ahlborn by comparisons founded on experience in rowing. Every

tyro knows the consequences which ensue if he holds his blade too

obliquely in the water. If the upper edge is inclined too much towards

the stern of the boat a brisk pull upon the handle results in the blade

jumping out of the water ; if, on the other hand, the blade is inclined

too much in the pen direction, it digs into the water and the oars-

man “catches a crab.” The relevance of these illustrations is found

in the fact that the skeletal support of the asymmetrical tails of fishes —

is generally such that either the upper or lower border of the fin is

more resistant to the pressure of the water than the opposite border, a

fact which causes the fin in action to assume an oblique instead of a

vertical position. The result of such a disposition is that in those cases

where the upper part of the tail is stiffer than the lower, the tail in

locomotion is driven upwards, as the oar is driven out of the water

(heterocereal tail of shark and sturgeon); while in cases where the

lower part of the tail is firmer than the upper, the tail tends, in action,

to assume a lower position than the rest of the body (flying- fish). The

body of the animal, in fact, is made to swing vertically about a hori-

‘zontal axis running through the center of gravity: in the first group

T3907] Zoology. 589

the tail becomes elevated aboye the head, in the second group the head

becomes raised above the tail. The utility of these types of organiza-

tion becomes obvious when the habits of the creatures which exhibit

them are considered. The first group consists of bottom-haunting fish,

which are thus enabled to give free play to their tails while scouring

the sea-bottom in search of food ; the second consists entirely of surface-

swimming forms which are enabled, by this beautiful adaptation of

structure, to swim swiftly beneath the surface of the water without the

risk of their tails emerging, and so cause inconvenience and waste of

force. The tails of many air breathing aquatic animals, such as the

sea-snake and the extinct Ichthyosaurus are constructed upon this

latter principle. (Nature, Feb., 1896.)

The Spermatheca in some American Newts and Salaman-

ders.—The term receptaculum seminis has been used to designate cer-

tain structures in the cloacal wall of the female Necturus maculatus,which

serve as reservoirs in which the zodsperms of the male are received.

In order to have a better understanding of the function of these struc-

tures, Dr. Kingsbury undertook a study of the cloaca in the female of

six species of Urodeles (American). The chosen species represent fiye

families, and two orders of Batrachia, and present a good series from a

purely aquatic to as purely a terrestrial existence. The general result

has been a recognition of these organs in one form or another in all

the species under observation, but there is no unity of structure, hence

the term receptalum seminis is not strictly applicable, and the mono-

nym spermatheca is proposed instead. In some forms many sperma-

thecas would be recognized. —

In Diemyctylus, Amblystoma and Necturus the spermathecas assume

the form of individual tubules. In Amblystoma the tubules are ar-

ranged around depressions. In Spelerpes, Plethodon and Desmogna-

thus consists of a tubular depression of the cloaca into the end of which

the clustered tubules open. |

' As to how the spermatozoa find their way into these resting places,

the author suggests that while the theory of Pfeffer of * positive chemo-

taxis” is highly probable, yet it is also possible that the entrance of

the zoisperms may be solely due to their own activity assisted by mus-

cular contractions of the cloaca and spermatheca.

The results of Dr. Kingsbury’s observations are thus nig eal

1. In the genera Necturus, Amblystoma, Diemyetylus, Plethodon

and Desmognathus, spermathecas are found in the dorsal wall of the

590 The American Naturalist. [July,

cloaca of the female, containing zodsperms. Internal fertilization is

therefore proven for these forms

A spermatheca occurs in Spelerpes; in the single specimen examined

(taken in the fall) no zodsperms were contained.

In Necturus, Diemyctylus and Amblystoma, there are several tubules

or spermathecas opening upon the cloacal epithelium, which serve as

reservoirs for the semen.

In Desmognathus, Plethodon and Spelerpes, there is a single mesal

spermatheca.

The condition in Spelerpes would seem to indicate that the organ in

these latter genera equals the group of tubules found in the first genera

plus and exaggerated and modified depression of the cloacal epithelium,

such as occurs in Amblystoma.

2. No gland-like structures in addition to the spermatheca occur in

the female of Plethodon and Desmognathus.

3. In all the remaining genera a ventral cloacal gland is present.

4. In Amblystoma, Spelerpes and Necturus, in addition to the sper-

matheca tubules, other tubules occur on the dorsal side of the cloaca.

5. The secretion of the cloacal glands is employed at the time of

ovulation.

6. The three glands of the male recognized in the Triton, the cloacal,

abdominal and pelvic, occur and are well developed in the five genera

examined. This suggests that by all of these spermatophores are de-

posited.

7. A résumé of the literature and foregoing facts points to a uniform

mode of mating and fertilization in all urodeles.

8. Dorsal and ventral ciliated tracts occur in the male of all the

genera examined. Cilia in the cloaca of the female were detected only

in Amblystoma and Plethodon glutinosus, where the tract was not as

extensive as in the male. (Proceeds. Amer. Microscop. Soc., Vol.

XVII, 1895.)

Zoological News.—A second species has been added to the genus

Opletharaaraie founded by Verrill to receive a West Indian species

named O. agassizi. The new acquisition was obtained by a Misaki

fisherman with a hook at a depth of about 25 fathoms in Iagami Bay,

Japan. It is described and figured by Dr. Ijima and S. Ikeda under

the name O. depressa. (Journ. Coll. Sci. Imp. Univ. of Japan, Vol.

VIII, Pt. 2, Tokyo, 1895.) This genus is characterized by the fact

that the alimentary canal passes directly through the body, instead of

iy oe

1896.] Entomology. 591

returning to issue near the mouth. Ferrill regards it as the most

primitive form of the Cephalopoda.

A new genus of Cottoid fishes from Puget Sound is described by Mr.

E. C. Starks. The type species, Jordania zonope is in the Museum of

the Leland Stanford, Jr., University. (Proceeds. Phila. Acad. Nat.

Sci. [1895] 1896).

Mr. J. A. Allen emphasizes the fact that the change of color in the

plumage of birds without moulting is due to the gradual wearing off of

the light colored edges of the feathers, combined with the more or less

blanching of the color of certain parts. Exposure to the elements and

friction also produce more or less marked changein color. The author

prefaces his remarks with a brief history of origin and persistence of

the theory unwarranted by the facts that the feathers of birds change

color with the season independent of the process of moulting. (Bull.

Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., Vol. VIII, 1896.)

ENTOMOLOGY:

The Asymmetry of the Mouth-parts of Thysanoptera.—In

the Bulletin of the Essex Institute, for 1890, Vol. X XII. the writer

published a brief account of some peculiarities he had observed in the

mouth-parts of members of this order of insects, and ventured in ex-

planation, the hypothesis that, in these insects the mandible of the

right side of the head is wanting, and that the parts commonly re-

garded as mandibles are lobes of the maxillæ. Subsequently the

writer called this anomalous condition of the mouth-parts to the atten-

tion of members of the Entomological Club of the American Associa-

tion for the Advancement of Science (Indianapolis meeting, August,

1890) and presented slides showing the peculiarities described. (See —

Canadian Entomologist, 1890, Vol. XXII, p. 215.)

Nothing, so far as I know, has appeared in American literature

since that time with reference to the matter, and the old view concern-

ing the structure of the mouth seems to be still current. In Prof.

J. H. Comstock’s excellent manual, recently issued (1895) the labrum

is represented as perfectly symmetrical, the parts considered by him to

be mandibles are incompletely represented, and no mention is made of

1 Edited by Clarence M. Weed, New Hampshire College, Durham, N. H.

592 The American Naturalist. [July,

any unusual feature of the mouth structure. In giving the characters

of the order, he says: “The mouth-parts are probably used chiefly for

sucking ; they are intermediate in form between those of the sucking

and those of the biting insects; the mandibles are bristle-like ; the

maxillæ are triangular, flat, and furnished with palpi; the labial palpi

are also present.”

I have just examined a copy of Jindrich Uzel’s “ Monographie radu

Thysanoptera,” 1895, perhaps the most extensive work yet published

on the Thysanoptera, in which the view of the mouth structure de-

scribed by me in the Bulletin of the Essex Institute and before the

Entomological Club is adopted, though Uzel is disposed to take a dif-

ferent view of the homology of the unpaired mouth-part. His words

are (Ibid, p, 25): “In der Höhlung des

Mundkegels bewegen sich die Mondibeln

in Form zweier Stechborsten und der

unpaare Mundstachel (wohl ein umge-

bildeter epipharynx) welcher linker-

seits liegt und den fiir die Thysanop-

teren characterischen Unsymmetrischen

Bau der Mundwerkzenge bedingt.” In

order to show more clearly what the un-

paired part is like, I have made a draw-

ing from his Figure, 161, Tab.: IX,

which is here reproduced.

Of the interpretation Uzel is disposed

to put upon the unpaired part, I have

only this to say: It is plainly closely

adapted to the left side of the head, and

the parts belonging to the region in

which it lies are closely adapted to it.

It is very evident that it was made. to

fit in the angle formed by the hard parts

: bali ' of the head on the left side; the labrum

is, on this side, shortened and: otherwise suited to accommodate it... A

reéxamination of my slides shows the adjustment more complete even

than represented in Uzel’s figure. Coupled with this is a manifest. de-

ficiency in the head on the right side at the place where.a correspond:

ing structure should be. ; It is evident that something is lacking on the

right side. Ifthe unpaired organ is an epipharynx that has been diss

placed, why should the cranial structure of the right side be altered?

Pe peoa

1896.] Entomology. 593

The further question arises, why should an epipharynx be pushed to

one side and completely shaped to the structures there ?

I have suggested that the pair of slender parts, called by Uzel and

others mandibles, may be lobes of the maxille, and urged in explana-

tion that they are attached to parts regarded by everybody as maxillz,

and besides that they are composed of two divisions (Professor Com-

stock does not represent the basal piece at all and hence the slender

distal part appears in his figures as if free from the maxilla). Uzel

figures this pair of mouth organs, as I have done, attached to the

bases of the palpus-bearing parts, and as composed of a short basal

piece and a long slender distal one. He says nothing of their jointed

character but represents an articulation in the right one of his figure

161. They appear to me to be two-jointed and with this true, to con-

sider them mandibles is to assume a departure from the one-jointed

condition of the mandible prevailing in Hexapoda.

_ In the proceedings of the Entomological Club of the American As-

sociation (Can. Ent., Vol. XXII, p. 216), I am reported as stating that

two unmistakable teria claws are present in Pleothrips and that the

vesicle is probably a modified pulvillus. Prof. Comstock says: “ The

tarsi are two-jointed, bladder-like at the tip, and without claws.”

Uzel, on the contrary, states that claws are more or less developed in

all Thysanoptera. “ Beine Kurz; der eine-bis zweigliedrige Tarsus

am Ende mit zwei mehr oder wenlger deutlichen Klanen, welche an

Blase anwachsen.”

Prof. Comstock’s work has been quoted simply because it represents

the established American view of the structure of Thysanoptera, a

view which must certainly be changed in some particulars. To what

extent the asymmetry referred to has been studied by foreign ento-

mologists I am unable to say, since I have not been so situated as to

be able to keep close track of the foreign literature. Thus far I have

seen no reference to it except that in Uzel’s work.

EXPLANATION OF THF FIGURE.

Front view of head of Aeolothrips fasciata. A, the unsymmetrical

labrum; B, the unpaired mouth-part (mandible, according to my in-

terpretion, epipharynx according to Uzel) ; C, lobe of maxilla (man-

dible of Uzel and other authors); D, the maxilla; E, the maxillary

palpus ; F, the labial palpus—H. GARMAN.

-A New African Diplopod Related to Polyxenus.—While

collecting insects in the darker parts of the Liberian forests, I have on

41

594 The American Naturalist. [July,

a few occasions noticed what appeared to be large individuals of Poly-

xenus of a dark brownish color, running about on the smooth leaves of

the shrubby undergrowth, several feet from the ground. To preserve

and carry to America specimens in satisfactory condition is not easy,

and hence the present purpose of describing the external features of

one found yesterday and having nearly all the bristles still in place.

SAROXENUS g. n.

Body minute, tapering caudad.

Head rounded, not as broad as the first segment ; between the eyes

with an anterior crescentic tiara of long upright serrate bristles: on

each side between and above the eyes a short curved line of similar

hairs elsewhere the head is smooth.

Eyes of a few (six ?) small ocelli clustered on lateral prominences of

the head.

Antenne long and slender, distinctly clavate; sixth joint longest

and much the thickest ; seventh slightly longer than any of the proxi-

mal ; eighth joint distinct, minute, several times smaller than the sev-

enth.

First segment with six tufts of bristles, two in front, two behind and

one on each side ; the dorsal tufts are broader transversely ; the lateral

are raised on large projections, as in Polyxenus, and include more nu-

merous and longer bristles.

The following six segments have each four tufts of similar bristles,

two lateral and two posterior, the latter broad, as on the first segment ;

the bristles are longer and the tufts larger on posterior segments. .

Last segment with a nearly complete transverse row of divergent

bristles just in front of the dense brush of much finer, closely com-

pacted bristles which compose the terminal fascicle.

Saroxenus scandens sp. n.

General color dark grayish brown, the terminal fascicle nearly

white; in alcohol and under the microscope, the bristles of the head

and segments are seen to be dark brown; the distal joints of the an-

tennz and legs are pinkish brown, and the exposed portions of the in-

tegument have a tinge of the same color; integument generally waxy

or dirty white, and transparent so that the contents of the alimentary

canal are visible as a dark line ; eye spots dark brown.

Segments 8, though the specimen may not be mature; ten pairs of |

]

Length 3.5 mm., or with the terminal fascicle 4 mm.; width 1.2 |

mm., including the bristles. 4

1896.] Entomology. 595

Locality, Running about on the leaves of undergrowth, in the forest

on Cape Mesurado, Liberia.

Under sufficient magnification the bristles of the head and segments

appear as round hollow structures with about four longitudinal rows of

very fine appressed teeth directed distad. The bristles of the terminal

fascicle are more slender and have for a part of their length large ap-

pressed spines in opposite pairs something as shown by Latzel for Poly-

xenus lagurus. Nothing was seen similar to the apices of the hairs as

figured by the same author.

This new genus is to be distinguished from Polyxenus and Lopho-

proctus’ by the form of the antennæ and the distribution of the dorsal

sete. In Polyxenus the antennz are short ; in Lophoproctus they are

long, but the apical joint is subequal to the penultimate.

Polyxenus has two transverse dorsal rows of rather remote short

clavate and strongly serrate setæ, while Lophoproctus has a single row.

The type of the latter genus is eyeless, although Mr. Pocock proposes

to iuclnde a species with eyes, Polyxenus lucidus Chalande.

From the West Indes Mr. Pocock has described another Polyxenus’

which, to judge from the drawing, has four tufts of sete on each seg-

ment, and also a scattering row along the posterior margin. The an-

tenn are said to be very long, but appear not to be clavate, and the

relative proportions of the joints are not stated. It is probably the

type of a new genus having affinities with the African rather than

with the Europear forms.

By the discovery of Saroxenus the distribution of the Pselaphog-

natha is considerably extended. Should members of the group be

found in other tropical regions there will be added assurance of the

antiquity of the subclass, and of the probability ~ relationship with

such fossils as Paleoocampa.—O. F. Coox.

Monrovia, 1 Feb., 1896.

North American Crambidz.—Dr. C. H. Fernald publishes as

a bulletin from the Massachusetts Agricultural College an important

Monograph of the Crambidæ of North America. The author has long

been recognized as tne leading authority on the micro-lepidoptera.

The new genera Eugrotea and Pseudoschcenobius are characterized as

well as several new species. The bulletin is admirably illustrated by

three plates in black and white and six plates in colors, beautifully

printed. This will certainly prove one of the most satisfactory ento-

mological publications ever issued from the Agricultural Colleges.

-Poe®ck, Ann. Mus. Civ. Genova, XXXIV, 506

at V'yxenus longisetis, Journ. Linn. Soc., XXIV, 474,

596 The American Naturalist. [July,

New Mallophaga.—Much the most important paper as yet pub-

lished in America concerning the Mallophaga is the recent contribu-

tion from the Hopkins Seaside Laboratory, in which Prof. V. L.

Kellogg treats of New Mallophaga, with special reference to a collec-

tion made from Maritime birds of the Bay of Monterey, California.

In the 140 pages of print the author presents descriptions and figures

of one new genus and thirty-eight new species of Mallophaga, together

with twenty-two species previously described by European authors, but

now, with few exceptions, first determined as parasites of American

birds. In addition, the paper contains an excellent general account

of the Mallophaga and fourteen admirable plates. It can be obtained

for 50 cents by addressing The Registrar, Stanford University, Cali-

fornia.

Entomological Notes.—Professor D. S. Kellicott publishes* the

second part of his excellent Catalogue of the Odonata of Ohio. It

deals especially with the species of the southern part of the State.

In Bulletin 32 of the Iowa Experiment Station, Messers. Osborn and

Mally treat of the chinch bug, four-spotted pea-weevil, the imbricated

snout-beetle and other injurious species.

Bulletin 62 of the Vege Station contains a discussion of the San

Jose Scale, by Wm. B. Alwood

In Bulletin No. 2 of the Technical Series from ie U. S. Division of

Entomology, Mr. L. O. Howard publishes a careful account of The |

Grass and Grain Joint-worm Flies and their Allies, being a considera-

tion of some North American Phytophagic Eurytyminæ.

In the issue of the Entomologist’s Record for May 1st Mr. J. W. —

Tutt begins an interesting series of articles upon Mimicry.

In Bulletin 69 of the Ohio Station, the Chinch Bug is discussed at

length F. M. Webster.

Prof. 8. W. Williston publishes a useful Bibliography of North —

American Dipterology, 1878-1895, in the January Kansas University —

Quarterly. In the same issue W. G. Snow gives a List of Asilidæ —

supplementary to Osten Sackens Catalogue of North American Dip-

tera, 1878-1895.

t Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., XVIII, 105-114.

1896.] Embryology. 597

EMBRYOLOGY.

Protoplasmic Continuity.—Prof. Hammar, of Upsala,’ empha-

sizes by figures and description the connection of the cells of the egg of

a cleaving sea urchin known to Selenka and others, but hitherto re-

garded as of no importance. He finds a thin outer layer on the cells

of the early and later cleavage cells and even on the cells of the blas-

tula. This layer is seen both in living and in preserved and sectioned

material. Its appearance is not that of a membrane but, the author

thinks, rather that of an “ ectoplasmic” outer part of the protoplasm

of the cell. This outer layer is very thin and might be easily over-

looked.

It extends continuously over the entire egg and as it seems to be a

part of each cell, all the cells are thus held together by a continuous

outer pellicle that the author thinks is a protoplasmic layer.

This actual connection of the cells at their outer surfaces, if really a

protoplasmic connection, should, as the author insists, be of great im-

portance in the interpretation of the results of experimentation upon

echinoderm eggs. He suggests that it offers a suggestion towards the

explanation of the interaction believed to exist between the cells of a

cleaving egg. Moreover such a connection would make clear why very

different results have been obtained after shaking eggs and separating

the cells more or less.

Cell Studies in Annelid Eggs.—Prof. E. Korschelt, of Mar-

burg,’ has made a most detailed and thorough study of the maturation

and fertilization of the eggs of the small polychxtous annelid, Ophryo-

trocha puerilis with special reference to the number of chromosomes

concerned in cell divisions at different phases of the life history.

Many of the interesting facts described cannot be here referred to,

but only some of those that bear upon the question of the value of

chromosomes as permanent individuals.

The number of chromosomes found in dividing cells in the adult is

four, in certain ectodermal, entodermal and mesodermal structures.

This same number is found in the cells of the ovary and of the testis,

the ancestors of the eggs and sperms. The same number is found in

‘Edited by E. A. Andrews, Baltimore, Md., to "n abstracts reviews and

preliminary notes may be sent.

? Archiv f. mik. Anat., Marz 2, 1896.

* Zeit. f. wiss. Zool. 60, Dec. 31, 1895, pps. 543--680, pls. 28--34.

598 The American Naturalist. [July,

the early stages of cleavage and, asa rule, in the later stages and in

the blastula, but in the later stages of cleavage and in the blastula

there are often cells that contain eight. |

In the maturation of the egg four chromosomes come out of the net

work of the resting nucleus and eventually four go into the first polar

body and two into the second. This is brought about as follows: The :

four very long chromosome loops shorten and divide lengthwise into 3

four cleft rods. When these come to the equatorial region of the first

maturation spindle they have again closed together so as to form four :

simple rods. These separate in pairs and move towards the poles of

the spindle without presenting any true mitotic division. The first

maturation division is, therefore, a reducing division. Yet the first

polar body receives four chromosomes, since the pair that approaches

that pole divides, as if opening out where previously split, and thus

four rods are formed. The same takes place atthe inner pole and four

are left for the second maturation spindle. In the second polar body

two chromosomes enter by moving away from the other two left in the

egg. Asit cannot be determined whether the pair entering the second

polar body are two halves of one of original ones or halves of two

original ones it is not certain whether the second maturation division

is a reducing or an equating division,

Though the chromosomes are usually short rods or elongated gran-

ules during the maturation division, there are many eggs in which —

they appear as long, bent or horse-shoe shaped rods.

Some exceptions to the above account must be emphasized as show-

ing the inconstancy of number of chromosomes resulting from lack of ©

synchrony between chromosomal divisions and other phenomena of the

cell.

Thus in some cases the first polar body has but two chromosomes, —

since the preceding division of chromosomes is left out. In others —

eight chromosomes are found at the equator of the first polar spindle, ©

formed by a precocious division of the four chromosomes ! 3

Fertilization takes place normally just after the eggs are laid and

the sperm enters, while the first maturation spindle is still patent. In _

abnormal cases fertilization may take place inside the parent which is —

hermaphrodite and may ripen sperms and eggs simultaneously. Such

cases, however, lead to abnormal cleavages and even to fusion of sepa- _

rate eggs, and seem due to some pathological state of the egg. =

When the sperm enters the egg radiations are formed behind it, and

later in front of it, so that the middle piece of the sperm may be re-

PP a tee

1896.] Psychology. 599

garded as introducing the centrosome or the archoplasm, and it is

probable that the sperm revolves through 180°

The male and the female pronuclei both move toward the centre of

the egg and combine, but not till they have both gone through com-

plex and similar changes, including the appearance and dissolution of

an enormous nucleolus. The two nuclei finally fuse when each con-

tains two long, thread-like chromosomes.

The centrosome or archoplasm of the maturation spindle disappears

and that of the sperm divides and furnishes the first cleavage spindle.

At the equator of this spindle are found the four chromosomes, two

of male and two of female origin. Each splits lengthwise and the eight

separate, so that each daughter nucleus obtains two chromosomes of

male and two of female origin.

For many important facts not mentioned here the reader is referred

to the two hundred remarkably clear figures and the judicial state-

ments found in the original.

PSYCHOLOGY.

A Study in Morbid Psychology, with some reflections.—

(Continued from page 518). With regard to the religious (?) ex-

periences of Ansel Bourne, I am not so shallow as to think we can

determine in the case of hallucinatory voices whether or no the

phenomena are entirely subjective. An attitude of what the late

G. J. Romanes has called “ pure agnosticism ” seems the only philosoph-

ical one in these difficult cases." There has arisen a dogmatism in

science as narrow and as mischievous as that of the straitest sect

amongst theologians.

1“No one is entitled to deny the possibility of what may be termed an organ of

‘Spiritual discernment. In fact to do so would be to vacate the position of pure

agnositicism in toto, and this even if there were no objective or strictly scientific

evidence in favour of such an organ, such as we have in the lives of the saints,

and in a lower degree, in the universality of the Jie sentiment.” A Candi

Examination of Religion, p. 149, G. J. Romin

asac class,

They professed to be agnosti ies, at the very time he were aa evi

that philosophy by their conduct.” Ibid., pp. 107-9.

+1 Jaat ai: + ms

690 The American Naturalist. [July,

But we can, I think, establish it as a law that “supernatural revela-

tions” invariably take their colour from the preconceived ideas of the

recipients. Probably, upon any hypothesis, they could do no other-

wise.

One antecedent factor, in sudden conversions from the worldly to

the religious life is often found in the physical effect of a severe illness ;

also those who have been rich in spiritual (?) experiences have often

had indifferent health from childhood, with a liability to neurotic

attacks. Butthere are too many exceptions to spiritual (?) experiences

being the result of either temporary or permanent ill health, to enable

us to say that such experiences are simply the result of disordered

health, though they may be coincident with it.

I suppose that Socrates would universally be accepted as a type of

moral and physical healthiness. Yet throughout his life he was sub-

ject to the promptings of what he himself calls an “ inner, divine voice,”

which warned him if any evil were likely to befall him. In his sub-

lime address to the judges who had just condemned him to die Socrates

said that his “inner divine voice” had given him no warning of evil

when he had left his house that day on which he was condemned to

death, yet as it had always hitherto warned him of danger even on the

most trifling occasions, he took its silence to mean that death was a good

and not an evil. For even if death be a dreamless sleep, is it not a real

and precious boon; and if it be as some say (and as Socrates himself

hoped) only a passage from one state of being to another, to a place

where all who have left this life are assembled, what greater good could

man desire? To attain such happiness, Socrates would himself die

many times.? Only in his own mind could the great philosopher seek

for evidence of the one Supreme Being; for he could not believe in the

popular theology which accepted gods who had committed acts which

would have been disgraceful in the vilest of men. Therefore, it is not

surprising that his “inner divine voice ” did not profess to come from

any supernatural power, but simply warned him of evil.

In the case of Mahomet we have a man of great strength of constitu-

tion, but one who was subject to strange attack, whether of epilepsy,

catalepsy or hysteria is still a subject of doubt. What is certain is that

he had a tendency to see visions, and suffered from fits which threw

him at times into a swoon without loss of inner consciousness.

Through his intercourse with certain holy ascetics of the desert

known as Hanifs, Mahomet became possessed with a profound sense of

dependence on the omnipresent and omnipotent God. He withdrew to

2 Apologia, XXXI, XXXII.

ay BO oes ei

Bi ae Aa N ga a E

1896.] Psychology. 601

the solitudes of the bare and desolate Mount Hira, and meditated there

with prayers and ascetic exercises. This state of things continued for

many years, when in the month of Ramadan [which it will be remem-

bered entails the severest form of fasting] the final revelation came

which converted an illiterate Cameldriver® into one of the great

religious teachers of the world. As he was repeating his pious exer-

cises and meditations on Mount Hira the “divine voice” came to him.

The angel Gabriel held a silken scroll before him, and bade him, though

he could not read, recite what stood written init. The words with

which Gabriel had summoned him remained graven on his heart, and

are found—as Mahomet at least imagined he heard them—in the 96th

Sura of the Koran.

Mahomet returned to his wife Khadijah in great distress imagining

he was possessed. But she comforted him and impressed upon him

the belief that he had received a message from God.

Yet his doubts returned again and again, and reached a distressing

height so that he was tempted to cast himself down from Mount Hira

and this conflict lasted for two or three years.

Then one day he came to Khadijah in a state of great excitement

exclaiming “ Wrap me up, wrap me up!” (which was done when he

fell into a fit, or swoon) and then the angel Gabriel appeared a second

time, and revealed to him the Sura beginning “ O thou enwrapped one!”

* Henceforth there was no interruption and no doubt, the revelations

followed without a break, and the Prophet was assured of his vocation.

The revolt of the idolatrous arabs against a creed of pure monotheism

caused Mahomet at one time to yield to the temptation to humour

them, and this temptation took the form of voice from the evil one,

causing him to say in the pulpit that two of the heathen goddesses were

sublime beings whose “ intercession might be hoped for.” His auditors

were surprised and delighted, but the prophet went home disquieted. In

the evening Gabriel came to him and Mahomet repeated the new Sura,

whereupon the angel said “ What hast thou done? Thou hast spoken

in the ears of the people words I never gave thee.” Mahomet now fell

into deep distress fearing to be cast out from the Lord. - But the Lord

took him back to his grace and raised him up; the Sura of diabolical

suggestion was erased, and the fury of the idolatrous party broke out

with fresh violence. Mahomet was long and salutarily humbled by the

remembrance of his temptation and fall, but he never abandoned faith

3 It is still a subject of dispute amongst Moslems whether Mahomet couid read

it seems, however, more probable that he could not.

*Sura, 75 of the Koran.

602 The American Naturalist. [July,

in his vocation, and through evil report and good report believed that

he had a Divine message to deliver.

The earliest and simplest accounts of the life of Buddha [Siddhartha

Gautama] all agree in describing the four visions which led to the

renunication, by that religious teacher, of all the greatest goods the

heart of man could desire. Some accounts make all four visions

appear on the same day, others on different days, but all agree is making

the four visions phantoms which were visible only to Buddha and his

charioteer Channa. As Buddha was driving in his pleasure grounds

he was struck by the sight of a man utterly broken down with age;

on another occasion by the sight of a man suffering from a loathsome

disease, and some time afterwards by the horrible sight of a decompos-

ing corpse. Then an ascetic appeared walking in a calm and dignified

manner, and the charioteer explained to the young prince the character

and aims of the ascetics.

5s Subjectively though not objectively,” says Mr. Rhys Davids, “ these

visions may be supposed to have appeared to Gautama,” and undoubt-

edly at this time the mind of the young Rajput had become deeply

stirred. The birth of his son did not deter Gautama from his resolu-

tion to lead an ascetic life, so that he might some days return to his

loved ones not only as husband and father but as teacher and saviour;

and on the night of the full moon in the month of July the young chief

left his father’s home, his wealth and power, his wife and child behind

him, and with Channa as his sole companion, went out into the wilder-

ness to become a penniless and despised student and a homeless wan-

derer. It would take too long here to attempt to explain the reasons

which made the visions of Buddha naturally relate to the sorrows and

emptiness of life, and not to the joys and promises of a future state.

The great object to be attained was to put an end for ever to the cycle

of births and deaths to which all human beings were considered subject,

and to pass this life in such a manner that complete absorption into

the World-Soul (Nirvana) should follow death.’ The aim was not that

conscious personal immortality, or that rejoicing in the love of a God

who loves his creatures, which is the strong desire of the heart of West-

ern peoples,

But in order to teach (what to him seemed) the way of salvation to

his fellow creatures, Gautama made the greatest and most complete — :

self sacrifice ever recorded of any human being; and for this great

renunciation his memory cannot be too highly honored.

5T. W. Rhys Davids, Buddhism. Ene. Bri., Vol. IV.

ê The Nirvana of Buddhism is simply extinction, op. cit., p. 434, and note 1.

4 Peay

i $ é

ae LY ns pea Os eigen cE CER RA,

1896,] Psychology. 603

Augustine, the great stay ad of Hippo may be taken asa type of the

‘mens sana in corpore sano.’ He was a man who drank deeply of all

joys, both of the body and the mind, which the cup of life could offer.

Yet his great powers and commanding intellect did not prevent his

hearing a “ divine voice ” which then and there influenced him to take

up the religious life. It is true that the mind of Augustine had been

deeply exercised by the search for truth, which ever seemed to elude

his grasp. Plato and St. Paul opened the way for higher thoughts, and

words of the latter were driven home with irresistible force to his con-

science, as with his friend Alypias he was studying the Pauline epistles.

The thought of divine purity fought in his heart, with the love of the

world and of the flesh which were sore temptations to a man so admir-

ably fitted to enjoy both. He burst into a flood of tears, and going out

into the garden flung himself under a fig tree that he might give his

tears full vent, and pour out his heart to God. Suddenly he heard a

voice calling him to consult the scriptures. * Take up and read, take

up and read.” He left off weeping, rose up and returning to his house

took up the volume from Alypius, and read in silence the words to be

found in Romans XIII, 13th and 14th verses. Augustine adds “I had

neither desire nor need to read further. As I finished the sentence the

light of peace had poured into my heart and all the shadows of doubt

dispersed. Thus hast Thou converted me to Thee . . . standing

fast in that rule of faith which Thou so many years before had revealed

to my mother.” (Confessions, VIII, 30). This appears to have been

the only occasion when a hallucinatory (?) voice was heard by Augus-

tine, but its influence lasted for his whole life.

For that experience which points to the state commonly known as

ecstacy, I shall take the experience, not of a saint, nor of a prophet,

but of a plain American citizen of our own day, a locomotive engineer

who worked chiefly in Ohio and Indiana.

| eoplatonism was a philosophical religion, in no way founded on any revela-

tion real or imagined. Its great expounder Plotinus says simply of his own ex-

perience of “ecstacy ” [that is of the sense of absorption into the Divine Beings] _

“ I myself have experienced it but three times.” But his pupil and disciple Por-

hyry says that on four occasions eaen six years of their intercourse Plotinus

attained to the ecstatic union with God

It is surely contrary to the t tific spirit to i this strong, overmaster-

ing instinct of the human mind towards union with some “Power, brh itself,

which makes for righteousness,” and which appears in equal strength in the

Hindoo, the Mahometan, the mediæval saints, the taion mystics; and in the

Neoplatonists—who had no “religious superstition” to influence them, and no

hell to terrify them, but who were possessed only with the sense of an overwhelm-

ing need for union with the Divine.

604 The American Naturalist. [July,

This engineer, whose name was Skilton, was engaged with two other

men in unloading a freight car. Just as he had lifted a barrel out to

the platform he saw a “ person standing” “on his right hand clothed

in white” “and with a bright countenance”; and “ putting his hand on

my shoulder.” ‘He said ‘Follow me’.” A long description ensues

of the happy and beautiful place to which this personage led him; a

place where the inhabitants did not converse by sound but knew each

other’s thoughts on the instant, and where he saw his mother, his sisters

and his child. In fact the heaven it was natural for the percipient to

to imagine, though—be it remarked not the heaven of harps and white

nightgowns of popular theology—but such a heaven as the seer might

naturally desire. Mr. Skilton describes the earth on his return as ap-

pearing to be seen from a great height, trees buildings, etc., gradually

came into sight, and finally he reached the car which he had begun to

unload, and then the guide vanished. “I spoke then” he says (just as

I opened my watch and found it had been just twenty-six minutes that

I had been engaged with that mysterious one) and said I thought I

had left this world for good. One of the men said: “ There is something

the matter with you ever since you opened the car door; we havn't

been able to get a word out of you” and that I had done all the work

of taking out everything, and putting it back into the car. I told them

where I had been and what I had seen, but they had seen noone. He

adds: “This I count the brightest day of my life, and what I saw is

worth a life time of hardship and toil. Being in good health, and busy

about my work and my mind not more than ordinarily engaged on the

great subject of eternal life, I consider this a most extraordinary

incident.” ê

If it be said there is no corroboration of Mr. Skilton’s statements

neither is there any corroboration of any other similar statement; and

if I have chosen his experience from among many others, it is simply

to show that whatever religions (?) experiences occurred to persons in

past times, occur in precisely the same way now.

As an exemplification of the law that all spiritual (?) experiences are

coloured by the prepossessions of the percipients, I may take the

numerous cases of the alleged appearances of the Virgin Mary. The

apparition to Bernadette Soubirons is only one amongst many, and in

this case as in most others expectant attention is not a factor. The

Virgin appeared to Bernadette when she was certainly not expecting to

8 Communicated to Professor James of Harvard by Mr. Skilto

*The exaggerations found in legendary times constitute a totally different

branch of T

1896.] Psychotogy. 605

see anything; and the crowds of pilgrims who have gone to Lourdes in

a state of vivid expectant attention haveseen nothing.

I have no space to describe the many instances I have met with of

recent appearance of the Virgin Mary, under circumstances where

there can be no reasonable doubt of the good faith of the pereipients,

nor do I recall any circumstances of religions exaltation accompanying

these visions. Where pious Catholics see the Virgin Mary or the

saints, equally devout Protestants see Christ or an angel, and both see

spirits which they believe to be those of the blessed dead.

My own mind in regard to the question of religions experiences is in

the state of suspense of judgment,—the state of “pure aguosticism ”

advocated by G. J. Romanes. [I need hardly say that this is not the

agnosticism of scientific orthodoxy].

If in the present stage of our study of these phenomena we leave the

stage of pure agnosticism, one of two hypotheses must, it seems to me,

be accepted. Either such experiences are due (in persons otherwise

rational and capable of carrying out the business of life) to some “ organ

of spiritual experience,” or they are allin the domain of morbid psycho.

logy. The evidence is of a similar nature in all these cases, whether of

Paul, or Mahomet, or Ansel Bourne, or Bunyan or Socrates or Mr.

Skilton; the hallucination (?) visual or auditory or both is only mani-

fest to the percipient, and to him appears objective. In the case of

what are called “ collective hallucinations ”—which are not uncommon,

we have also only the evidence of the percipients, who see what others

do not see. The great difficulty in accepting the hypothesis that there

is some real communication possible from “a Power not ourselves

which makes for righteousness,” is the frequent association of religions

‘hallucinations with insanity. But if there be an “ organ of spiritual

insight ” it can act only subject to the general functions of the organ-

ism, and must be liable to partake of its disorders; it can only be the

frail machinery through which an Unknown Energy is acting.

So I leave the question, the most important, it seems to me, with

which Science can deal. The history of Ansel Bourne is extracted

from the Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research.

ALICE BODINGTON.

606 The American Naturalist. [July,

ANTHROPOLOGY.

Mr. Keane on Paleolithic Man.—Mr. A. H. Keane in his re-

cent publication “ Ethnology ” takes serious exception to my denial of

there having been a paleolithic period, and says“ Paleolithic necessarily

antedates Neolithic Culture.” In what does this necessity consist? Why

should Paleolithic precede Neolithic Culture? The names it is true

signify old and new, but are at best arbitrary, being a suggestion of

Sir John Lubbock to distinguish a supposed “chipped” from a

“polished” stone period. Mr. Keane says “ where there is a time

sequence, the chipped stones being of ruder and simpler formation, nat-

urally precede the more perfected polished objects.” The proof of a

“time sequence ” is by no means a settled question, this assertion being

negatived in one way or another by every writer on Archeology. The i

chipped stones are not “ruder” than. polished stones, nor are they :

_*“simpler ” in shape, material or facility with which the shape may be

given. I have only attempted to discuss the subject from a technical

standpoint and from the writings on the subject generally, from either

of these points, however, or from both together I contend my position .

is sustained. Chipping stone is a more difficult mechanical process than

grinding and pecking stone, it is more complicated in its minutis, in-

volving, it is true, blows with a hammer, the difference being that the

chipper’s blow is of necessity more deliberate, slower and of necessity |

more accurate than the blow given in pecking. A doubt of the ;

accuracy of this proposition may be solved by taking a flint anda

diorite and attempting with any hammer to shape them. If ordinarily

careful the diorite will be worn into shape, while on the other hand

the chances are many to one that the flint is destroyed before comple-

tion.

Mr. Keane objects that “European archeologists are asked to re-

consider their own conclusions.” Undue weight being shown to — :

have been given certain evidence, European archeologists owe it to

themselves to reconsider their conclusions. Up to a recent period it |

was believed generally that to shape a Neolith or ground implement :

was more difficult than it was to shape a Paleolith or chipped imple- |

ment, and such difficulty was used as the main evidence upon which to :

support the theory of a chipped preceding a polished stone age. Hav- |

ing been shown that the contrary was the case, one would presume

! This department is edited by H. C, Mercer, University of Pennsylvania.

1896.] Anthropology. 607

European archeologists would seek to examine their error without be-

ing forced to do so. Mr. Keane says “ There is necessarily a time

sequence wherever the two cultures have been developed.” The mis-

take the author falls into is in declaring that to chip a stone or to

grind and peck a stone constitute two cultures, for experiment proves

the contrary ; try to chip a diorite and you only shape it by powdering

the surface, for it does not chip, try to batter a flint and it breaks

through the ordinary lines of cleavage and is destroyed, for it does not

peck.

Again the author of Ethnology says “that until it is shown that fire

arms are as old as paleoliths, no European archeologist will ever believe

that polished implements are as old as the chipped stones.” Though

this will hardly pass as scientific argument we would say, here again

Mr. Keane is in error, for instances of chipped and polished stones

being found in the same layer with fossil bones has been recorded

on too many occasions to leave room for doubt to one who would

decide on written authority alone. Up to this time Mr. Keane has

argued in favor of the simpler process preceding the complex, but here

he says “it is a fallacy to suppose that the easier process comes first,”

and instances “transport by wheeled vehicles or by steam as immeas-

urably easier than pack animals.” If we are to construe the word

“ easier ” as being synonomous with “simpler” it opens a new field of

argument to assert that the complex precedes the simple in machinery,

or that the machine of many parts is the ancestor of the machine of few

parts, this proposition will not meet with many supporters.

My views concerning the mechanical status of primitive peoples has

been formed solely from experiment with primitive tools and reading

the literature of archeology. The technology of archeology appears to

be little understood in Europe, its importance being almost ignored, as

is evidenced by the apparent inability to grasp the plainest mechanical

propositions. The results of my experiments are sustained by my field

discoveries as they are by research in the library, and considered from

any of these positions the fact that an identical mechanical culture

produced, chipped or polished stone appears to be indisputable. The

earliest cave remains show man to have made the best use of material

at his command. Where he had flint he chipped it ; if on the contrary

he lived in a region of metomorphic stone he would of necessity

hammer it into shape; if horn and ivory were plentiful he would saw

and grind it. If one will make experiments with primitive imple-

ments in reproducing primitive work they will not fail to appreciate

the correctness of the views here expressed. As illustration take

608 The American Naturalist. [May,

material from Magdalen Cave, from Les Eyzies, from St. Acheul,

from Moustier, from Chelles, even from Cissbury or from where one

will, and try to make from it arrow heads of a different type from

that usually found in the locality from which the material is brought

and examine the result. One finds that flint chips within certain lim-

its, for it depends even more on the material than on the workman as

to the shapes the nodules work into. The difference in the tool with

which the stone is worked is secondary to the texture of the stone.

One of the best illustrations of this is in the obsidian spear heads from

Easter Island. They are of a gritty texture, extremely rude, fully as

rude as the rudest paleolith, and are chipped almost entirely from one

side. Try to improve the shape of one of these implements and rude

as they are, failure is the inevitable result; try to chip it from the

wrong side and it breaks through and destroys the specimen, the best

and most expert workman cannot improve its shape. Take, however,

one of the obsidians from Mexico of even texture and to shape it in

most graceful form is most easy, but with such material it would be

almost impossible to imitate the rough arrow heads of Easter Island.

The same stone varies enormously in its fracture in different layers, yet

archeologists do not appear to have noticed the fact.

nly a few years since it was argued that paleolithic man was

primitive man, man low in the scale of human development, to-day

paleolithic man is apparently only primitive as a flint chipper, but an

artist as a bone or ivory worker; the fact that technically considered

the work necessary to shape a so-called “ Baton of Command,” itself

probably a chipping tool, was identical with the chief work on the

ELEA a | Me ie rene ah eon nents Lio ade ger nf Se EAR ee AR Sa tela >

ec eae et

by many it was admitted, yet even now many deny that pottery is as

ancient as many of the paleolithic cave strata,

J. D. McGuire. ©

Cave Exploration by the University of Pennsylvania

in Tennessee.—Preliminary Report——To learn that the remains

of Plistocene Man have been abundantly found in the caves

Europe ; that equally significant remains of later savage, barbarous

and civilized peoples have been similarly discovered in the caves

of Europe, Asia and Africa; and that the remains of the Indian

and the recent White Man have been found in caverns in No i

1896.] Anthropology. 609

_ America; warrants the supposition, that in the subterranean floor

deposits of the new world, the problematic existence of Plistocene

Man might be soonest and easiest demonstrated, while with hardly

less ground we may urge as valuable testimony in the American

region the absence of such remains in significant underground shelters.

Not unreasonably such absence, occurring invariably at these immem-

orial halting places of men and animals, might indicate that Plistocene

Man had never existed in the adjacent regions.

By this course of reasoning and investigation the University of Penn-

sylvania has sought to solve definitely the question first to.attract and

last to puzzle American students—How long has Man existed in the

New World? Striving to limit the speculations of archeologists, the

work has proceeded by degrees to reconcile with geology their study of

pre-Columbian peoples, which, fascinating as it is, has lacked thus far

subdivisions, landmarks and starting point, while an effort to eliminate,

through the investigation of significant caves, one region after another

from the field of search, has sought to narrow the area of possible

discovery from the point of view explained. Having shown on the

one hand that certain caverns like the fissure at Port Kennedy, (right

bank of Schuylkill River, 3 miles below mouth of Perkiomen Creek,

Montgomery County, Penna.,) containing in large quantity the remains

of Plistocene animals without relics of Man, are geologically ancient,

on the other hand, a fact of much significance has been demonstrated

for the first time, namely, that a considerable number of other caves

are modern, since their floors, well supplied with the refuse of Indians

and later White Men, below which remains of geologically older

peoples would not have been lacking in Europe, have failed to reveal

any relic of Plistocene Man.

In these several instances the geologically modern remains (human)

and the geologically ancient remains (animal) have lain apart in dis-

tinct caves, and hence less ayailably for comparative study, but the

recent expedition in Tennessee, resulting in the examination of three

caves in which the old and new deposits lay in juxtaposition, has

enabled us to push the question farthur by studying the relation between

the ancient and modern strata where, at their point of contact, it was

most significant.

More broken and scattered even than at the remarkable tomb of

extinct animals at Port Kennedy, were the remains of the Tapir, Pec-

cary, Bear and smaller Mammalia at Zirkel’s Cave, (left bank of

Dumpling Creek, about 5 miles above its mouth in French Broad

42

610 The American Naturalist. [July,

River, Jefferson County, Tennessee,) visited by Professor Cope in 1869.

Dislocated as before after the flesh had rotted, the bones were crushed

= by a force which had split them into fragments, and were deposited

with a mass of clay mixed with lime, which filled the descending cave.

Hardened finally into breccia not easily broken with the pickaxe,

this bone bearing earth had disappeared at many points to make

room for a deposit of cave earth containing the remains of the Rattle-

snake, Woodchuck, Opossum, Rabbit and Cave Rat. It is the

important relation of this latter modern earth, with its bits of mica

and Indian pottery, to the older breccia that will constitute the

material for a final report.

Previous examination, in 1893, at the Lookout Cave, (left bank of

the Tennessee River, one-quarter of a mile below Chattanooga Creek,

Hamilton County, Tennessee,) had revealed the bones of the Tapir

and Mylodon in the lowermost zone of a floor deposit of Indian refuse,

and upon the recent expedition the cave earth with its“ culture layer”

was entirely removed for 58 feet inward from the entrance to settle

beyond doubt the relation of these fossils to the Indian remains resting

upon them. At this significant spot, where again the Plistocene and

recent deposits lay in contact, and where the specimens found were

labeled according to their position, whether from the black (modern)

earth above or the yellow (ancient) earth below, a completed examina-

tion should decide whether Man had or had not encountered the Tapir

and Mylodon in the Valley of the Tennessee.

After a visit to “ Indian Cave” on the Holston River, Carrol’s Cave,

and the Copperas and Bone Caves, near Tullahoma and Manchester,

Tennessee, a new set of conditions was presented at Big Bone Cave

(1 mile from the left bank of Caney Fork and about 2 miles above its — :

-mouth in Rocky River, Van Buren County, Tennessee.) There the

bones of the Gigantic Fossil Sloth (Megalonyz,) still retaining their —

cartilages, were exhumed from a dry deposit of the refuse of Porcu- `

pines and Cave Rats, mingled with fragments of reeds used as torches

by Indians in a gallery 900 feet from the entrance, thus presenting us

< in the final summing up of this strange evidence a new notion of the

relation of the modern Indian to this extinct animal, whose remains @

outnumber all its fossil contemporaries at Port Kecsedy.

Thanks are due to Dr. William Pepper, to the Board of Managers

and to Professor E. D. Cope for their kind co-operation in the expedi-

tion thus finished, which, at a cost of $300, has presented the Museum

with the specimens now under examination. These, if not attractive,

Seales a ai ge Rs ate

aS ecu aaa Aa oa 8 Sede Bes ih doen Agta RNG Ah ch ae eg a ke

ste Tah a dae

ada S

4896]. Scientific News. 611

are important. For Paleontology they mark in the bone breccia of

Zirkel’s Cave, a distinct stage in the Plistocene series, while for Anthro-

pology they represent data which account for the presence of Man

together with the bones of the extinct Megalonyx. They explain the

relics of savages and the remains of Plistocene mammals at two caves

situated in the Eastern Valley of Tennessee at a height of about 600

to 700 feet above the sea and within earlier reach of an overwhelming

-ocean in Champlain time, and again at a third cave, which, 300 feet

higher on the continental floor and looking westward from the slopes

of the Cumberland table-land, stands for that part of the Appalachian

region whither animals and Man (if he existed) might have found con-

venient refuge when lower areas sunk, as is alleged, beneath the level

-f the invading waters.—HENRY C. MERCER.

Aldie, June 4, 1896.

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

The proposed general synopsis of the Animal Kingdom (Das Thier-

reich) to be issued by the German Zoological Society, is one of the

greatest undertakings ever planned in the line of bookmaking. It is

proposed to give a short general account of each group, and following

this is a synopsis of all existing forms, including those which have re-

cently become extinct. The general editor of the whole series is Prof.

Franz Eilhard Schulze of the University of Berlin, and he is assisted

by the following department editors: Prof. O. Biitschli, Protozoa;

Prof. C. Chun, Coelenterata; Prof. M. Braun, Plathelminthes ; Prof.

J. W. Spengel, Vermes; Dr. W. Kobelt, Mollusca; Dr. W. Giesbrecht,

Crustacea; Prof. R. Latzel, Myriapoda; Prof. F. Dahl, Arachnida ;

Dr. H. oa Orthoptera ; Mr. A. Handlirsch, Neuroptera, Hemip-

tera; Dr. H. J. Kolbe, Coleoptera ; Prof. C. W. Della Torre, Hymen-

optera; Dr, A. Seitz, Lepidoptera; Prof. J. Mik, Diptera; Prof. F.

Blochmann, Brachiopoda ; Prof. E. Ehlers, Polyzoa; Prof. J. W. Spen-

gel, Tunicata; Dr. G. Pfeffer, Fishes; Dr. O. Boettger, Batrachia and

Reptila; Prof. A. Reichenow, Birds, and Prof. L. Döderlein, Mam-

mals. These will be assisted by a host of collaborators for special

groups, and the names of these, as far as announced, assures us of the

~

: 612 The American Naturalist. (July,

- nell, under the direction of R. S. Tarr, will accompany Lieut. Peary on —

18-20th next, is to be held in the Caruegie Library Building, Pitts —

: ments will be mailed to all members.

_dinary Professor of Zoology in the University of Erlangen.

most authoritative treatment. The whole work will be of enormous

extent, and it is estimated that it will take twenty-five years for its

completion. It will be issued in parts of an average size of 48 pages, —

and the price charged to subscribers for the whole series will be 70 pf. —

(174 cents) for each “signature” of 16 pages; single subjects will be —

sold at an advance of 4 above this price. It is estimated thatthe

Flatworms will occupy 4 parts; the Crustacea 11,the Hymenoptera

13; the Mollusca 15, the Reptiles 3, and the Birds 16. The total will —

be over 120,000 pages, and the series, when complete, in large octavos,

will occupy not far from 30 feet of shelf room. The publishers of the —

series are the well-known R. Friedländer & Sohn, of Berlin, and they —

have already issued a sample number, embracing the group of Helio- —

zoa, treated by Dr. F. Schaudim, of Berlin... This occupies 24 pages. —

It is expected to begin regular publication with the year 1897, and the ,

parts will be issued as fast as possible, without regard to their sequence

in the whole work.

PEE I AEO

It will probably be interesting to know that a party of five from Cor- a

the trip to Greenland this summer. The party will be so constituted

that the results will cover the several fields of natural history, although —

the main object will be the study of geology, and especially glaciation. —

The next meeting of the American Microscopical Society, August :

burg. The local Committee on Arrangements is organized: C. ©. i

Mellor, Chairman; Mayness Pflaum, Secretary and Treasurer, and C.

G. Neilnor, Chairman Finance Committee, either of whom will be glad

to give members and others desiring to attend all necessary informa-

tion. As soon as sufficient arrangements are made, special announce

Dr. R. Wagner, of Strassburg, has been appointed assistant in Vege-

table Physiology in the University of Munich, and Dr. A. Y. Grevi

lius, of Upsala, assistant in Botany at Minster.

The Royal Belgian Academy of Sciences has recently elected Pro-

fessors E. Strasburger, E. D: Copė, E. J. Marey and Sir A. eat

honorary membership.

Prof. M. Treub, Director of the Botanical Gardens, at Buitens

who has been spending some time in Europe, has returned to Java.

Dr. A. Fleischmann has been advanced to the position of Extraor-

AL

PLATE

‘mnauBo[ey ‘q ‘snpesuysy ‘Q ‘sesXydida jeaqəaya y ‘J'Y “BIB soĝepuvo aBpnonaE qua uosa fol viuombapg

1896.] ~- Seientifie News. 613

The Royal Irish Academy recently elected Sir Joseph Lister, T. G.

Bonney and Sir W. H. Flower to honorary membership.

Dr. G. A. J. A. Ondermann, Professor of Botany in the University

of Amsterdam, has retired on account of his great age.

Mr. A. Lawson, botanist and director of the Cinchona plantations in

the Madras district, died at Madras, February 14th.

Prof. D. Barfurth, of Dorpat, goes to the University of Rostock as

Ordinary Professor of Comparative Anatomy.

Dr. H. Ph. Foullon von Norbeck has been appointed Chief Geolo-

gist to the Austrian Geological Survey.

Dr. G. Rörig, of Berlin, goes to the University of Königsberg as

Extraordinary Professor of Zoology.

Mr. H. M. Drummond-Hay, ornithologist and ichthyologist, died re-

cently at Perth, Scotland, aged 82.

Dr. J. Briquet, of Genoa, has been ai poibted Director of the Deles-

sert Herbarium in that city.

Mr. J. H. Ashworth succeeds Dr. Hurst as Lecturer on Zoology in

Owens College, Manchester.

Mr. A. S. Olliff, entomologist, died in Sydney, N. S. W., December

29, 1895, aged 30 years.

W. L. Sclater, of Eton College, goes to Cape Town as Curator of the

South African Museum.

Dr. Thilenius has been made privat docent in Anatomy in the Uni-

versity at Strassburg.

Dr. C. Herbert Hurst, of Manchester, goes to Dublin as assistant to

Prof. A. C. Haddon.

Dr. A. Smirnow, of Kazan, goes to the University of Tomsk as Pro-

fessor of Histology.

Col. Plunkett has been elected Director of the Science and Art Mu-

seum in Dublin.

Dr. A. Bogdanof, Profan of Zoology in the University of Moscow,

died in April.

Dr. G. Fatta has been appointed assistant in the Botanical Institute

at Palermo.

614 The American Naturalist. [July,.

Dr. R. Oestreich is now privat docent in Anatomy in the University

of Berlin.

Dr. Szymonowicz is privat docent in Histology in the University of

Cracow.

Dr. Gruner, of Jena, goes on an expedition to Togo, German West.

Africa.

Prof. Ph. C.Sappey, the well known anatomist, died in Paris, March.

13th.

A. Duvivier, student of Coleoptera, died in Brussels, Jan. 14, 1896.

F. Ludy, coleopterologist, died March 1st.

ADVERTISEMENTS. i

Dringende Bitte

Um das Erscheinen des

Botanischen ahresberichts

möglichst zu beschleunigen, wie eine Steigerung der Zuver-

lassigkeit in der Berichterstattung zu erlangen, richten wir

an die

Botaniker aller Lander

die dringende Bitte um gefiillige schleunige Zusendung ihrer

Arbeiten, namentlich auch der Sonderabdriicke aus Zeit-

schriften, etc.

Alle Sendungen sind zu richten an den Herausgeber.

Professor Dr. E. Koehne,

Friedenau-Berlin,

Kirchstrasse 5.

OF INTEREST TO ALL STUDENTS AND LOVERS OF NATURE.

THE OBSERVER

All Departments of Nature Studies.

OUR MOTTO:

“Keep Your Eyes Open”

(To observe the wonders and beauties of Nature.)

o Official Organ of the Agassiz Association.

Consists of Three Departments:

1. The Outdoor World. 2. Agassiz Association.

Practical Microscopy.

E. F. BIGELOW, Managing Editor and Publisher, Portland, Conn.

it ADVERTISEMENTS.

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OPINIONS OF EMINENT ares ES.

rofessor E. D, Cope, of the University of Pen ania, writes; “U

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Office of the American Naturalist, |

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ADVERTISEMENT». iii

r- .. BIOLOGICAL WORKS.

ON GERMINAL SELECTION. As a Source of Definitely Directed

‘ariation. By Prof August Weismann. With a Preface an Ap-

pendix, giving the history and present pap pr pinion regarding

natural selection. Paper, 70 pages; price,

THE PRIMARY FACTORS OF ORGANIC EV OTON, By E. D

Cope, Ph. D., Professor of Zoology and pai Anatomy in

the University of Pennsylvania. Pp. 550; cuts, 121; price, cloth,

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Vol. XXX. AUGUST, 1896. No. 356

CONTENTS.

PAGE

P

the Jenny Jump Mountains, New Jersey—Un-

ios from the Trias—The Cadurcotherium—

Notes on the Fossil Mammalia of Europe,

THe OLDEST CIVILIZED MEN. aoa

ope. 616

' ON THE Rote or ACID IN THE bean OF

CERTAIN RHIZOPODS,

i n C. Urs ah D, 619

` THE BACTERIAL PENA OF PLAN es RITICAL

REVIEW oF THE PRESENT As

KNOWLEDGE. Erwin F. ee ts 626 | ted States—Diseases of Citrous ae

THE MEANING AND RERA OF. THE So-CALL- ford’s Agaves of the United States. ... [

ED“ MUSHROOMS uae OF THE HEXA- | Zoolegy—Sense of Sight in Spiders Okamih

C. Kenyon, Ph, D. 643 | cation and Geographical Distribution of the

POD Bra AIN,

Evrror’s TABLE .—Priority 4 Publication ; Vice

residents of the American Association ;

. 651

pugids—The Bears of North America.

ts CENT Books AND PAMPHLETS. - . - 657

GENERAL NoTES

4 Ple Crystalline Rocks from India and Australia

ck frets Png of Diabase-—Petrographice!

: 66

Pai bsd Poleiro- Tbe Daaa of

The Phylogeny of Anoplotherium. .

Botany—De Toni’s Sylloge Aleari SO

Flora of the Black Hills of South

„Reptilia of yaa tae Moulting of ie :

The Florida Dee

. 67

pate iia ae Forbes’ Fighth kiha ;

Back—Proteid Di- —

gesting Saliva in Insect Larve—Weismann on ~

Dimorphism in Butterflies—Note on the Class- Be

077

—Flies Riding on Beetle’s

ification of Diplopoda

Embryology—The Tentacular Apparatus of

Amphiuma. (Illustrated). .

Psychology —Synethesia and Syn

Anthropology—E-xploration by a University.

of Pennsylvania in West Florida.

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AURAL SCIENCE for 1895 has published contributions from

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ATURAL SCIENCE for 1895 has published 63 specially contrib-

uted Articles in all branches of Zoology, Botany, and Geology,

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say Bates, as and Periodicals,

Js

i's

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TE

ad

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TSA

Promecvener poe

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Soop

#. alt em weedl

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Sumerian Tablets from Nippur. From Hilprecht.

Ai

THE

AMERICAN NATURALIST

Vör. KAN August, 1896. 356

THE OLDEST CIVILIZED MEN.

By E. D. CoPE.

Recent explorations in Babylonia have given us much in-

formation as to the characters and customs of the oldest civil-

ized people of whom we have any knowledge. The earlier ex-

plorations were conducted by M. de Sarzec, French consul at

Bagdad, and the report of his work was issued in a magnificent

folio in joint authorship with the distinguished anthropologist

of Paris, M. Leon Heuzey, beginning in 1889. A little later

the department of Archeology and Paleontology of the Uni-

versity of Pennsylvania sent out Messrs. J. P. Peters and J. H.

Haynes to make excava

plain. They selected Nippur or Nufar as the point of research,

and work has been continued there from 1888 to the present

year. The climate of this place is very trying, and the char-

acter of the people dangerous, but Mr. Haynes on whom much

of the actual labor fell, obtained an amount of material which

in quantity and quality equals that obtained by the museums

of London and Paris.

The Philadelphia m

Herman Hilprecht, Professor of À

Semitic Philology in the University

43

aterial has been investigated by Dr.

ssyrian and comparative

of Pennsylvania, and he

616 The American Naturalist. [August,

has published two memoirs of great interest in the transactions

of the American Philosophical Society, the second of which

was issued in the present year. From this memoir and the pre-

vious one of De Sarzec and Heuzey I compile a few facts regard-

ing the physical characters and habits of the earliest inhabit-

ants of Chaldea, the Sumerians or Accadians. The informa-

tion on these points is obtained largely from statues and picture-

carvings on tablets of a dark limestone, found by De Sarzec at

Tel-lo, and by Haynes at Nippur. The figures of animals of

known species are so characteristic as to prove that the artists

possessed a true eye for form. We may infer that their delin-

eations of man are equally accurate, and that the conspicuous

characters which they exhibit are trustworthy delineations.

The general resemblance between the features depicted show

that we have to do with an interesting and peculiar race.

In the numbers of the Naturatist for January and Febru-

ary, 1893, Mrs. A. Bodington gave our readers a sketch of the

Sumerian question. She followed the belief which had

gained currency at one time, that these people were of Mongo-

lian origin. Others have suggested that they were African.

The drawings and statues described by Heuzey and Hilprecht

show that these ideas were quite unfounded. I reproduce one

of the latter from Hilprecht (Plate XVI, 1. c.), which is known

as the stele of Ur-Inlil. Ur-Inlil was the high priest (or padesi)

of Nippur, and he is represented as making an offering to some

god on the upper half of the drawing. On the lower half a

goat and a sheep are followed by two men, one of whom carries

a vessel on his head, the other carries a stick (Plate XII). An-

other tablet from Nippur displays the same kind of men, and

they are also represented on eleven tablets figured by De Sar-

zec and Heuzey from Tel-lo.

That these represent a race advanced in civilization is clear.

They built temples and palaces on huge plateaus constructed

of brick. They carved statues and vessels and made pottery.

Especially they left records of their history on numerous cy-

linders and tablets of clay of which many have been preserved.

They formed organized armies armed with spears, bows, and

shields. What relation did these people bear to the people

1896.] The Oldest Civilized Men. 617

of Nineveh whose monuments were revealed to Europe by the

labors of Rawlinson, thirty-five years ago? Heuzey declares

them to have been older than the Assyrians, and this position

is proven by Hilprecht, who believes their earliest king whose

name is preserved in the records of Nippur, Enshagsagana, to

have lived 4500 B.C. Many kings intervened between him

and Sargon I with whom Assyrian history for a long time

commenced. These people were predecessors of the Assyrians of

Nineveh, and gave them their cuneiform characters, but they

differed from them in customs, and to some extent in language.

One marked difference of custom, was the fashion of shaving

the hair from all parts of the head excepting the eyebrows.

Everyone knows on the contrary that the Ninevites took great

pride in their hair, and that both on the calvarium and face it

was curled and arranged with great care. The figures also show

that the Sumerians did not practice circumcision as most

Semitic and some other races have done.

The shaving enables as to get a pretty good idea of the form

of the head and face. The skull is oval, rather long and flat,

and probably mesaticephalic. The jaws both upper and lower,

are remarkably small, giving an extreme orthognathic type

The nose is remarkably long, prominent and curved, with a

good bridge. The eyes are large, horizontal, and not bridled.

The cheek-bones are not large, and.in the supposed gods, where

the hair remains, and in a few other unshaved portraits, the

beard is abundant, and the ends of the hair of the calvarium

curled up. The figure of the body is robust, broad and rather

short. The extensor muscles, i. e. gluteus, quadriceps, and

gastrocnemius are well developed. i

From the above it is evident that no thought of Mongolian

(=turanian) or Ethiopian relationship can be admitted. After

a study of some of the least characteristic heads broken from

statues, M. Heuzey remarks, that “ the evidence is not sufficient

to demonstrate the existence of Turanians in Chaldea.” These

people are clearly of the great Indoeuropean subspecies of man

(Homo sapiens caucasicus), so that the question reduces itself to

one of the determination of their race position. Are they

_ Aryans, or Semitics? using these two terms as covering all the

forms of the greater subspecies to which they belong. In the

618 The American Naturalist. [August,

determination of these minor divisions of man,-physical char-

acters begin to fail us. We ean only say that if the term

Aryan is used for the western peoples generally, the Sumer-

ians differ from them in the direction of the Semitics by their

large oval eyes and hooked noses. On the other hand, the

small and delicate jaws are not features of Semitic peoples.

But the people of Persia or Iranians, hold very much this inter-

mediate position between the two peoples. We scarcely know

the shape of the jaws and chins of the Ninevites for they are

never shaved. So far as the visible features go they resemble

the Sumerians. It is on all grounds to be supposed that the

people of Nippur and Tel-lo are the primitive Aryans of the

Iranian or Persian race, and ancestors of the Ninevites.

In any case it is evident that we have in these most ancient

of civilized people, a type of man as high as any that has since

appeared from the point of view of physical evolution. The

extreme orthognathism; the prominence of the nose; the

reduction of the cheek bones, the full beard; and the well

developed extensor muscles of the leg, prove this. Homo

sapiens caucasicus had reached his full characters on the plains

of the Euphrates 6400 years ago.

The relation of time and race of the oldest civilizations to

the prehistoric peoples, is a problem which will doubtless be

solved in time. Did the Neolithic people exist in Europe con-

temporaneously with the Sumerians of Chaldea? The only

light that can be thrown on the question is as follows. The

Sumerians were not stone people, but bronze people. They

had no knowledge of iron. No search has been made for the

remains of animals which were their contemporaries, but

several species are clearly represented on their sculptures. The

most common are the lion and the ox (Bos taurus, not the

buffalo). There is a good drawing of a gazelle in the collec-

tion of the University of Pennsylvania. The goat and sheep

represented on the accompanying Plate XII, are species now

existing in Persia. The goat is near the Capra xgagrus of the

mountains of East Persia, the ancestor of the domestic goat ;

and the sheep is apparently the wild sheep of the same region

Ovis vignei. So from a paleontological point of view, the Sum-

erlans were quite modern.

1896.] Acid in the Digestion of Certain Rhizopods, 619

ON THE ROLE OF ACID IN THE DIGESTION OF

CERTAIN RHIZOPODS.

By Jonn C. Hemmeter, M. D.,

In the “ Annales de l’Institut Pasteur,” for 1890 and 1891,

there are two papers by M. Felix le Dantec on “ Researches on

the intracellular digestion among the Protozoa,” which are de-

tailed accounts of systematic experimentation concerning the

occurrence of acid in the digestive vacuoles of Protozoa.

In 1889, E. Metchnikoff published a discussion of the reac-

tion of plasmodia to ingested litmus, also in the “ Annales de

PInst. Pasteur.”

Miss M. Greenwood and E. R. Saunders, in the “ Journal of

Physiology,” Vol. XVI, 5 and 6, 1894, have published an ex-

haustive account of the function of acid in Protozoan digestion,

of which the following brief abstract is considered necessary

before proceeding to the original part of this report.

It was found that while these protozoa ingest solid matter

constantly and promiscuously, such matter has a determinate

fate. If it is innutritious it is ejected after lying in contact

with the animal’s substance for a length of time which varies

with many changing conditions. Nutritious matter, on the

other hand, during enclosure in food vacuoles undergoes pro-

found change, and this change is effected by something passed

out of the protoplasm into the vacuole, acting in a fluid me-

dium and by its presence making that medium deserving of

the name “secretion.” In Actinospaerium, also, and in Amoe-

ba proteus, digestion in like manner is effected, not by direct

contact with the acting protoplasm but by some constituent of ©

a fluid, the formation of which the presence of food alone is

potent to bring about. These protozoa depend upon the solu-

tion of proteid for nourishment. Starch undergoes no diges-

tive change, and the value of ingested fat globules i is doubtful.

The following is a report on the role of acid in these diges-

tive vacuoles. For method of observation, it may be briefly

1 Phil. D. Etc. Baltimore, Md.

620 The American Naturalist. — [August,

stated, that plasmodia and Vorticellidee were watched for peri-

ods which varied from one to fifteen days; large plasmodia

were isolated or preserved in concave slides. Even on plane

slides the pressure of the cover slip was slight enough to allow

of the emission of short pseudopodia in planes at right angles

to the plane of extension of the slide and the animals, by

means of pipettes, were transferred to fresh water daily.

In a synopsis of the work of Greenwood and Saunders, in a

previous report bearing on this matter, in the Journ. of

Physiol., the changes undergone by litmus, Congo red and

alizarin sulphate, and the solution of the globoids of aleurone

grains, which are composed of a delicate nitrogenous capsule

enclosing pure calcium and magnesium phosphate, were de-

scribed. It was emphasized that the outpouring of acid is un-

accompanied by any digestive change on nutritive matter ;

ingesta may indeed be stored for many hours in vacuoles be-

fore they are dissolved, or digestion may follow rapidly on in-

gestion. But the formation of the digestive vacuole, whether

immediate or delayed, is preceded by the development of acid

reaction and followed by its diminution. Bearing in mind

that litmus is changed from blue to red not only by free acid,

but also by unsaturated compounds of acid with the products

of digestion, i. e., acid salts. And that Congo red changes to

blue in presence of free acid only. Itis apparent that the dim-

inution of acid in a digestive vacuole is at first due to a com-

bination with the products of digestion, for at this stage any

litmus accompanying ingesta is still red, while Congo red has

reverted to that tint from blue. Here free acid is absent but

acid salts are present. But later on the vacuoles and ingesta,

reddened by litmus, become violet and blue so that finally

acid and acid combinations are alike absent. That the acid

is at one time free is indicated unmistakably by the striking

development of violet colors in solids stained with Congo red.

Now as the amount of acid present at any moment must be

very small, and this being so, that the change in Congo red |

should be speedy and striking suggests that it is an inorganic

acid but it is probable that to emphasize such an inference

would be hasty.

1896.] Acid in the Digestion of Certain Rhizopods. 621

In most of the existing records of Protozoan digestion there

are indications thatthe process shows irregularity in its outset

and progress. It is not easy to foretell the immediate fate of

ingested matter though of its ultimate fate there may be little

doubt. There may be marked inhibition of digestive activity

even after free ingestion. In plasmodia ingested nutrient

matter may be actually discharged after very imperfect diges-

tion. One of the most puzzling phenomena, however, that

has been described by all observers in this field, has been

termed by Greenwood and Saunders the stage of storage.

This process consists in the preservation of ingested food

masses, Which on first enclosure have been surrounded by

liquid within a vacuole, in a shrunken seemingly very acid

state. At times 100 non vacuolate, acid ingesta may lie within

the substance of a vorticella, whilst active digestive solution is

going on in other food vacuoles at same time.

The storage of nutritious ingesta for hours and days in a

condition in which acid indicators give evidence of an acid

condition, whilst the same kind of nutritious material will

undergo rapid digestive solution in an adjacent vacuole, nat-

urally excites one’s curiosity. For a long time I had been

looking in vain for some explanation of this phenomenon

when an accident gave opportunity of viewing it in a new

light.

The plasmodia of a large mycetozoon, most probably Lam-

proderma scintillans, had been under observation for about three

weeks. Some of these amoeboid organisms were so large as

to more than cover the field of vision when objective D and

apochromatic eye-piece, No. 4 of Zeiss were used. They

showed a habit of devouring everything in their vicinity in

the ditch water in which they were cultivated, as a result of

which they were at times so filled with debris that no accurate

observations were possible. It was planned to transfer them

gradually by pipettes into clearer and clearer water and by

starvation compel them to rid themselves of the dirt they

contained. This proved successful and after 8-18 days of

transferring the plasmodia were in practically clear water, free

from alge, infusorie, gregarines, bacteria, etc., and the usual

622 The American Naturalist. [August,

fauna and flora of ditch water. It was a surprise to find that

dried egg albumen stained or ingested with litmus and Congo

red, under these new conditions, was as a rule promptly dis-

solved in the vacuoles, taking from 5-24 hours for completion

of the digestive act. The same occurred with stained globoids

of aleurone grains of ricinus and with stained torule. These

experiments were repeated many times on many different

individuals, and though food ingesta were occasionally observed

in astage of storage, this was the great exception. .

The scarcity of storage vacuoles in such plasmodia that had

been kept in clear water for nearly a week and given oppor-

tunity to disgorge the debris with which they were loaded

was conjectured might be brought about by two factors :

(1) The first was that the process of clearing and transfer-

ring them to distilled water (in which they do not thrive as

well as in Pasteur’s fluid with } % Na cl) the organisms had

been starved and in a sense were too hungry to store food par-

ticles, but went to work at them immediately. There is no

method conceivable by which such a supposition could be put

to experimental test, for which reason it cannot be contradicted

or prov

` The second supposition was that (2) absence of storage vac-

uoles might be caused by absence of bacteria, for in their nor-

mal environment the Protozoa are generally in close company

with swarms of Bacieriwm termo, zooglea of micrococei and

manifold spirilli and other schizomycetes, and by cultivation

they had been brought into an almost aseptic, sterile environ-

ment.

The latter hypothesis is capable of experimental testing.

For if bacteria will produce the phenomenon of storage then

the supplying of septic food will be all that is requisite to add

to the sterile solution. Asa matter of fact it will be found

that this is exactly what will happen. In a plasmodium that

had shown 8 storage vacuoles in 24 hours of observation in

a solution of } % sodium chlorde (in distilled water) in which

it had been kept one week, 48 storage vacuoles were observed

in the next 10 hours on supplying dried albumen dust,

moistened with the zoogloea from a Hay infusion.

1896.] Acid in the Digestion of Certain Rhizopods. 623

Vorticellidee which take in food particles readily are remark-

ably free from bacteria in their food vacuoles. Amoeba and

plasmodia alike exercise to some extent a selective ingestion.

Greenwood and Saunders claim to have watched Amoeba pro-

teus for 14 days when surrounded with Bact. termo, vibrios and

micrococci and the absence of bacteria from the endosare was

remarkable. They are taken in, it would seem, as unavoid-

able accompaniments of surrounding food only. Bacteria are

not recorded to have been observed ingested by protozoa per

se.

Another evidence of selective ingestion has been mentioned

by Dantec, l. ¢., as distinguishing between inert and living

matter. Active monads or groups of spirilli are placed in

marked vacuoles of ingestion, containing much of the acid se-

cretion in comparison to inert matter which is usually invested

very closely. We therefore have some evidence for assuming

that plasmodia and Vorticellide distinguish between inert food

and bacteria.

(1) Bacteria are rarely ingested except as unavoidable ac-

companiment of food. (2) Inert food, free from bacteria, is

invested closely. Septic food within wide vacuoles. (3) In

sterile environment, food in the stage of storage is the excep-

tion; in environment of bacteria, storage in acid vacuoles is

frequent. I have brought these facts before you in this in-

complete form, because the results are fairly uniform, and with

the hope of stimulating further observation of the matter.

These studies require no apparatus outside of the microscope

and acid indicators. The general suggestion drawn from the

result has a wider bearing than one would at first sight as-

sume. For if further study will confirm that the ingestion of

bacteria constantly prolongs the stage of maximum acidity

from the usual time of 24 hours to several days in rhizopods.

The suggestion is that the purpose of the acid is one of (disin-

fection) killing off bacteria.

There is a general uniformity of opinion that the presence

of acid is unaccompanied by any digestive change on nutritive

matter, which may be stored for many hours before it is dis-

solved and Greenwood and Saunders intimate that the endo-

624 The American Naturalist. [August,

sare secretes some zymogen which perfects the digestive secre-

tion.

The object to which the acid would seemingly serve in these

organisms, which may be said to be on the very threshhold of

life is the same which Bunge ascribes to it in man. Bunge’s

view is that the HCl has no other purpose than the steriliza-

tion of food. “ Why should a chemical substance be placed in

the entrance to the digestive tract,” he asks, “in exactly the

strength necessary for the destruction of bacteria which is di-

rectly antagonistic to the chemical reaction in which the main

work of digestion must be carried on? The proteids are more

readily converted into a solution lower down in the intestine

and in an alkaline medium than by pepsin and acid. The

object of the acid is, according to him, then, one of steriliza-

tion. This view cannot be denied, at the same time it

must be admitted that HCl serves also a digestive purpose.

In the Rhizopods experimented upon, the observations of

Greenwood and Saunders could be confirmed concerning the

fact that while the acid is secreted in the food vacuoles under

the stimulus of all ingesta; the true digestive vacuole which

occurs only under the stimulus of nutritive matter apparently

` contains something besides an acid, perhaps an enzyme. The

change in the acid indicators is as regards time and intensity

of color transformation to all observation alike. There seems

to be the same amount of acid in a storage vacuole as in a

vacuole causing active solution of proteid matter, in close

proximity to it, hence the assumption of an additional zymo-

genic substance in the latter is justifiable. As the amount of

acid in one of these vacuoles is very small, and the change in

Congo red to blue is speedy and striking, lends belief to the

suggestion of Greenwood that the acid is an inorganic one.

Why the protoplasm around a storage vacuole will not secrete

zymogenie matter, though acid is clearly present in it, and at

the same time this enzyme must be accepted to be present in

a vacuole in which, close to the former, active digestion is

going on is a question difficult to approach. If it can be dem-

onstrated that all or most storage vacuoles contain some sub-

stance, living or inert, which is hostile to the economy of the

Rhizopod and against which it protects itself by intensely acid

1895.) Acid in the Digestion of Certain Rhizopods. 625

investment of the enemy for a prolonged period, a new and

interesting light will be thrown on this phenomenon.

In the “Centralblatt fiir Bacteriologie, Parasitenkunde u.

Infektions krankheiten, Vol. XIX, p. 785, Dr. C. Gorini de-

scribes a method for cultivating Amoeba zymophila on a solid

medium which in this case is the potato. It is certain that

Amoebae will grow on old and new potatoes with alkaliniza-

tion. This would offer an easy and convenient method of

cultivating them. It should be emphasized that it is almost

impossible to produce cultures of amoeba that are absolutely

free from bacteria. A. Celli in the Centralbl. f. Bacteriologie,

Bd. XIX, p. 587, describes a number of futile attempts to

obtain such cultures. For our purpose it is not essential that

the amoebic cultures should be absolutely free from bacteria,

a relative, approximate sterility is sufficient to demonstrate the

scarcity of storage vacuoles in the amoebae and plasmodia in

such environment. Celli’s favorite solid medium is a prepara-

tion made from Fucus Crispus with 5 per cent Sterilized Water,

with or without Bouillon, but always made alkaline. To 10 c.c.

culture medium, 1 c. c. of an 3 Solution of Potassium

hydroxide, or 4-5 c. c. of a saturated solution of Sodium

Bicarbonate. This culture medium of Fucus after it is made

in the manner that Agar is generally prepared solidifies readily..

In the same Journal, Centrbl. fiir Bacteriologie, Band XIX,

p. 258, Dr. M. W. Beyerinck describes a solid medium for

amoebic cultures made from solidified agar by diffusion of

the soluble organic substances in it into superimposed distilled

water, which process requires about two weeks and repeated

sterilization and subsequent addition of salts suitable to

formation of nitrites.

I have no experience with these methods and have always

found that for my purpose a solution of a little wheat bread

in distilled water kept in a small flat dish under a glass cover

was all that was required to have Amoeba and plasmodia of

mycetozoa constantly on hand. The dish must be kept on a

little earth and not in too bright a light and at a constant

temperature. This simple culture medium, which of course

is unsuitable for pure cultures was suggested by Prof. Reichert

of the University of Pennsylvania.

626 The American Naturalist. [ August,

THE BACTERIAL DISEASES OF PLANTS:

A CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE PRESENT STATE OF

OUR KNOWLEDGE.

By Erwin F. SMITH.

I.

It is scarcely fourteen years since Dr. Robert Hartig declared

that there were no diseases of plants due to bacteria.’ Two

years later Dr. Anton de Bary, unquestionably one of the most

learned and critical botanists the world has ever known and

the foremost student of cryptogamic plants, expressed the belief

that bacterial diseases of plants were of rare occurrence, and

suggested as a partial explanation the fact that the tissues of

plants generally have an acid reaction.” In his Vorlesungen

über Bacterien, published in 1885, he expresses much the same

opinion,’ and cites only four diseases, viz., Wakker’s hyacinth

disease, Burrill’s pear blight, Prillieux’s rose red disease of

wheat grains, and the wet rot of potatoes, described by Reinke

and Berthold. Concerning the first of these four diseases he

says: “Successful infection experiments and exact study of the

life history of the bacterium are still wanting.” Respecting

the second he contents himself with briefly summarizing the

statements made by Prof. Burrill. Of Prillieux’s micrococcus

he says: “Its importance as a cause of disease cannot be

determined with any certainty from the brief account. It

1 «*Fiir die Krankheitsprocesse der Pflanzen kommen sie durchaus nicht in

Frage, ete.” Hartig: (2) Lehrbuch der Baumkrankheiten, 1882, p. 27.

2“ Bacteria parasitic on plants have scarcely ever been observed, a fact to

which R. Hartig has already drawn attention. One reason for this may be that

the parts of plants have usually an acid reaction.” De Bary: (2) Vergleichende

Morphologie und Biologie der Pilze Mycetozen und Bacterien, 1884, p. 520

English ed., p. 481.

+“ According to the present state of our knowledge parasitic bacteria are of il

little importance as the contagia of plant diseases. Most of the contagia of th

numerous infectious diseases of plants belong to other animal and plant prepa:

principally, as already noted, to the true fungi.” De Bary: (3) Vorlesungen

ueber Bacterien, 1885, p. 136. i

1896.] The Bacterial Diseases of Plants. 627

may turn out to be only secondary, appearing as a saprophyte

in consequence of injuries previously received.” Concerning

the wet rot of potatoes he states that ordinarily it is a second-

ary phenomenon following the attacks of the parasitic fungus

Phytophthora infestans, but admits that exceptionally potato

tubers may become wet rotten without the presence of Phy-

tophthora, and that “the above named observers succeeded in

producing the appearance of wet rot in sound potato tubers by

inoculations with their bacteria; in agreement with which

stands a recent experiment of van Tieghem, who succeeded in

totally destroying living potato tubers by means of Bacillus

amylobacter when he introduced this into the interior of the

tuber and maintained the same at a high temperature (35°).”

In the second edition of his Lehrbuch, published in 1889, Dr.

Hartig modified his statements somewhat, expressing essential-

ly the same opinions as de Bary. The yellow rot of hyacin-

ths is recognized as a bacterial disease, although rather doubt-

fully in as much as it is said not to attack sound, well-ripened

bulbs, under normal conditions, but only when they have

received wounds or been attacked by fungi, especially by a

hyphomycete which is said to be an almost constant accom-

paniment of the rot. The wet rot of potato tubers is admitted

to the list, but with the statement that it is mostly a secondary

matter, following the rot of stem and cells due to Phytophthora

infestans. One other bacterial disease is mentioned, viz., pear

and apple blight, with the suggestion, however, that it may

have been erroneously attributed to bacteria, since the fungus

Nectria ditissima produces in the bark numerous little bacteria-

like gonidia.

Such was the general opinion on this subject down to within

less than a decade. Even to-day the majority of well educated

botanists would find nothing to contradict in the statement that

there are very few diseases of plants distinctly attributable

to bacteria. As a matter of fact, however, there are in all proba-

bility as many bacterial diseases of plants as of animals.

Various explanations have been advanced to account for this

freedom or supposed freedom of plants from bacterial parasit-

ism. As we have already seen, de Bary was inclined to ascribe

628 The American Naturalist. [August,

it in good part to the acid reaction of vegetable tissue. Dr.

Hartig’s view is best expressed in his own words:* “ Whereas

the processes of decay, and most of the infectious diseases of

man and animals, may be traced to bacteria, the plant organ-

ism is protected against them by the peculiarity of its structure,

and especially by the absence of circulatory channels for con-

ducting the nutrient fluids which could serve to distribute any

lowly organisms which might happen to be present in the food.

It is only by means of the vessels and intercellular spaces that

they can distribute themselves in any great numbers in the

body of the plant, for in other cases they have to pass through

the cellulose or woody cell walls, which offer great resistance

to their attack. In addition to this, the vegetable juices, most

of which show an acid reaction, are unfavorable to their growth.

As a matter of fact, bacteria have hitherto been found only in

the tissues of plants whose cells are parenchymatous in char-

acter and possessed of very delicate walls, as for instance, bulbs

and tubers.”

For several years Ph. van Tieghem experimented with one or

more, probably several, bacteria, called by him Bacillus Amylo-

bacter and believed to be the specific agent in the decomposi-

tion of cellulose. In 1879; he stated that all the cells of all

plants are equally dissolved by it in the meristematic stage

but that as soon as the tissues have become differentiated pro-

found differences are noticeable. The cellulose of many plants

is dissolved by it but that of mosses, sphagnums, hepaties, lyco-

pods, fern leaves, and stems and leaves of phanerogamous

aquatics proved resistant. This behaviour of water plants is

“une nécessité d’existence.” In 1884,° he made a number of

additional similar statements. The tubers of the potato, the

seeds of beans (first swelled in water and then inoculated

directly into the substance of the cotyledons), and the fruits of

cucumbers and melons rotted quickly when infected with this

organism. Inoculated leaves of Crassulaceze and stems of Cac-

t Hartig: Lehrbuch, 2nd. Edition. English translation, p. 37.

5 Van Tieghem: (#4) Sur la Fermentation de la Cellulose. - Bull. de la Soc.

Bot. de France, 1879, pp. 25 to 30.

ë Van Tieghem: (5) Développement de l’Amylobacter dans les plantes à létat

de vie normale. Tbid., 1884, pp. 283-287.

1896.] The Bacterial Diseases of Plants. 629

taceæ resisted until plunged under oil when they decayed

quickly. Aquatics resisted: “By means of a Pravaz syringe

I have injected a drop full of the spores of Amylobacter into

the lacunary system of several submerged aquatics (Vallisneria,

Helodea, Ceratophyllum) but always without result. The

plant remained healthy in all its parts.”

These papers of van Tieghem are often cited, but they have

little substantial value. Undoubtedly he believed that he was

experimenting with pure cultures, or, at least, that the results

obtained were due to Bacillus amylobacter, but such is, to say

the least, very improbable. B. amylobacter is now believed to

be strictly anaerobic, and incapable of any action on cellulose.”

More recently Julius Wiesner has divided all plants into two

classes, ombrophobic and ombrophylic plants, according as

they are or are not readily injured by prolonged rains or ex-

posure to stagnant fluids.» His experiments show that the

aerial parts of some plants rotted very quickly when exposed

to continuous artificial spray while similar parts of other plants

proved very resistant, remaining sound for weeks (62 days in

case of Tradescantia guianensis). The same contrast was ob-

served when leaves of the two sorts of plants were placed in

stagnant water, the former lost their turgor and rotted ina few

days, the latter proved much more resistant. Many land

plants have this power of resistance and all water plants, also

all underground parts, even the roots of plants having very

susceptible foliage: As additional confirmation Wiesner states

that when meat infusions are left to themselves they always

decay much sooner than when fragments of ombrophylic

plants are placed therein. _Ombrophobic plants in water or

meat infusion also decay less rapidly when mixed with frag-

ments of ombrophylic plants than when left to themselves.

This decay is more rapid in the dark than in light, especially

?Prazmowski: (6) Untersuchungen ueber die Entwickelungsgeschichte und

Fermentwirkung einiger Bacterien-Arten, Leipzig, 1880, pp. 23-37.

ê Wiesner: (7) Ueber ombrophile und ombrophobe Pflanzenorgane, Sitzungsh.

K. Ak. d. Wissenschaften, Math.—Naturw. Classe. Wien., 1893, Bd. 102. Abt. T,

pp. 21. See also Wiesner: (8) Pflanzenphysiologische Mittheilung aus

Buitenzorg (III). Ueber den vorherrschend ombrophilen charakter des Laubes

der Tropengewiichse. Jbid., 1894, Bd., 103, pp. 169-191.

630 The American Naturalist. [August;

bright light. The foliage of ombrophylic plants is easily

wetted; that of ombrophobic plants is as a rule not readily

wetted, being usually protected by bloom or some other device

for warding off water. When ombrophobic plants are not pro-

tected in some such manner, decay is remarkably rapid. In

general if the leaves of a plant are readily wetted, it may be

assumed that they are ombrophylic, but there are exceptions,

e. g. the potato and tomato. Roots of all plants are extraordi-

narily resistant. In most plants middle aged leaves are least

susceptible to decay but in the potato the youngest leaves

resist best. Old leaves lose this power of resistance. Some-

times this resisting power is variable in different individuals

of the same species, depending on the conditions under which

they have been grown. Curiously, all plants of shady, damp

places are ombrophobic, if they possess leaves which are not

readily wetted, e. g. Impatiens. The more the parts of a leaf

are divided the quicker the decay. The green parts of the fol-

lowing plants are mentioned as particularly susceptible to bac-

terial decay : Solanum tuberosum, Lycopersicum esculentum, Xer-

anthemum annuum, Impatiens nolitangere, Chenopodium album,

Veronica buxbaumii, Viola arvensis, and Taraxacum officinale

(from sunny, dryplaces) Mimosa pudica, Pisonia alba. The fol-

lowing plants were found to be very resistant: Ranunculus

aquatilis, Lemna minor, Lysimachia nummularia, Begonia mag-

nifica, Tradescantia zebrina, T. guianensis, Selaginella sp. (from

green house), and Scolopendrium officinarum. Among under-

ground organs the roots of the yellow beet proved most resist-

ant. The author’s general conclusion from these experiments

is best expressed in his own words: “It can now be'stated as

highly probable that the power of ombrophilous organs to

resist rain for months is referable chiefly to the fact that anti-

septic substances are produced in the tissues of the organs.”

These experiments are interesting but seem to have been per-

formed in a rather crude way. The relative rapidity of decay

was determined by appearance and the sense of smell and the

organisms inducing this decay were undetermined. These

experiments should be repeated and extended by Dr. Wiesner

1896.] + The Bacterial Diseases of Plants. 631

or by some bacteriologist, using pure cultures and plant

juices which have been sterilized by filtration.

Dr. Russell’s experiments’ were made a year earlier than

than those of Wiesner and have the merit of being properly

performed, i. e. with sterile juices and pure cultures so that

the conditions under which the experiments were made

can be reproduced by other investigators. They are, however,

too limited in number to afford any basis for a general conclu-

sion. He found that Canna juice, sterilized by filtration,

exerted no appreciable germicidal effect on any of the following

species: Kiel-water bacillus, B. lactis-ærogenes, B. coli-communis,

B. megaterium, B. prodigiosus. Experiments with B. megater-

ium, B. butyricus, B. coli-communis, B. pyocyaneus, and Strepto-

coccus pyogenes, using as a culture medium root-pressure juice

obtained under sterile conditions from the severed stem of lima

beans and Pelargoniums led to a similar conclusion and to the

enunciation of the following general statement: “vegetable

cell juices, aside from their acid reaction, are entirely power-

less against bacteria, and do not possess any germicidal pro-

perties like the blood serum of animals.”

- The old view that plants are not subject to the attacks of

bacteria simply because their tissues are acid was shaken by

the discovery that some bacteria grow very wellin acid media,

and was thoroughly upset by the discovery that the juices of

some parts of many plants are alkaline. In all probabil-

ity plants like animals require a delicate balance between

acid and alkaline and a continual change from one side to the

other for the carrying on of the life processes. Three things at

least are certain (1) It will not do to assume that all parts of a

plant are acid because some part of the parenchyma shows a

strongly acid reaction ; (2) It cannot be stated that any given

microorganism will thrive only in alkaline media until this

fact has been determined by direct experiment ; and (3) Many

bacteria, perhaps all, are alkali producers and capable, if they

can gain any foothold whatever, of slowly changing an un-

suitable acid medium into one more alkaline and better

adapted to their use.

’ Russell: (9) Bacteria in their Relation to Vegetable Tissue. Thesis. Johns Hop-

kins University. 1892, 8vo. p. 41. + -

632 The American Naturalist. [August,

Wiesner’s hypothesis is somewhat different. It has been

known for some time that various essential oils and other vege-

table products, e. g. thymol, salicylic acid, benzoic acid, tan-

nin, quinine, oil of cinnamon, oil of peppermint, ete., exert a

powerful restraining influence on the growth of many bacteria,

and it is not improbable that a great variety of bactericidal

and protective substances occur in plants. On the other hand

there may be and probably are bacterial parasites capable of

thriving in the very plants which Wiesner found most resist-

ent to continuous spray, to the saprophytic bacteria of stagnant

water, and to those of decaying meat infusions, the exact con-

ditions under which any given microorganism will thrive

being determinable only by experiment. It must also be re-

membered that the physiological requirements of bacteria often

become profoundly modified to suit changed environments, |

and that all parasites have undoubtedly descended from sapro-

phytic forms. Prof. Wiesner has, however, opened up a very

inviting field and its further investigation by some careful ex-

perimenter, trained in bacteriological methods, might lead to

very interesting discoveries.

Most of the recent books on vegetable pathology devote a

chapter to the bacterial diseases of plants, but these books have

not been written by bacteriologists and consequently the state-

ments given are usually very meager and unsatisfactory,

and forcibly illustrate the fact that no one can write acceptably

on a subject with which he is not familiar, not even if he pos-

sesses a logical mind and has read all the “authorities.”

Excepting Prof. W. Migula, who reviewed the subject briefly but

somewhat carefully in 1892," and Dr. H. L. Russell, who gavea

brief summary in tabular form the same year at the end of

his Thesis," no one seems to have gone over the field critically

since de Bary’s time, although there isnow a considerable body

of literature. It is proposed, therefore, in the following pages to

examine the literature of this subject from the standpoint of the

10 Migula: (10) Kritische Uebersicht derjenigen Planzenkrankheiten, welche ange-

blich durch Baktrien verursacht werden. Semarang. Midden-Java. 1892. Exp.

Sta.

u Russel: l. c., pp. 36-41.

1896.] The Bacterial Diseases of Plants. 633

modern baeteriologist, sifting as far as possible the wheat from

the chaff, and arranging all in an orderly way for convenient re-

ference. The utility of such a piece of work, if well done, can

scarcely be questioned, since it must set into sharp relief the

gaps in our knowledge and tend to stimulate further research.

The work of the early investigators already mentioned was

done before the perfection of modern methods of bacteriological

research, and in a time of general scepticism which some of us

well remember. It is therefore in no way discreditable that

many of their conclusions should be found untenable when

tested by the more rigid requirements of the science of to-day.

They worked under great difficulties and did as well as could

be expected even of men of genius, better, indeed, than many

of us would have done. Certainly, as pioneers in a difficult

field they deserve great credit.

As much cannot be said for some of the more recent workers

who with every opportunity in the way of literature, including

numerous manuals of bacteriology, and with laboratory facil-

ities for learning the fundamentals of bacteriological research

on every hand in every land, have been content to publish

second and third class -work, exactly like that preceeding the

discoveries of Pasteur and Koch and the development of

modern methods. One might suppose these people to have

been in a deep sleep for the last twenty years, they take so little

note of what has been going on. I shall have frequent occa-

sion to consider papers of this class in the course of these pages

and shall not fail to point out their worthlessness, to discour-

age imitators, if for no other reason. It goes without saying

that such publications do not advance science, nor in the end

in any way contribute to the reputation of the individual.

They are thoroughly discreditable, and in case new species are

erected, are little less than criminal, considering the present

overburdened and chaotic state of systematic bacteriology.

Thanks to the itch for species making, systematic mycology

is generally cited as the most desperately confused and per-

plexing branch of natural science, but mycology is a highway

turnpiked and provided with arc lights in comparison with the

wilderness of systematic bacteriology. Of the thousand or

634 The American Naturalist. [August,

more forms which have been studied and named, or design-

ated by letters or figures or vernacular names,” probably not

one-tenth can be identified with any certainty owing to the

meagerness of the descriptions. The older descriptions are

particularly bad, and the effort to decide what was meant by

these old names, for which somebody will by and by be stren-

uously claiming inalienable rights of priority, is usually time

thrown away. There is quite enough to do in bacteriology, as

every one knows who is dealing at first hand with its hard

problems, without wasting precious energy in striving to guess

what was meant by two and three line descriptions. All de-

scriptions which do not describe, and there are many such,

ought to be wholly ignored, and no species recognized as

worthy of a place in literature unless so characterized as to be

identifiable by others. A plea of this sort in the higher

branches of botany or zoology would be a subject for laughter.

Bad descriptions are however, so much the rule in bacteri-

ology that it is no laughing matter but rather a great evil ur-

gently demanding reform. It isa state of affairs which has come

about naturally enough considering the way in which bacteri-

ology has developed” but which would not now be tolerated for

a momentin phanerogamic botany or in most branches of zool-

ogy and the continuance of which in bacteriology it is incum-

bent on every honest worker to limit and discourage in all pos-

sible ways. The best way in science, always, is to speak out

plainly, and to join hands for the advancement of a good cause.

Bad work should be ignored and “ new species” relegated to

limbo unless the descriptions conform to the requirements of

modern bacteriological science, meaning by this expression the

consensus of opinion among experienced and careful investi-

gators everywhere. If there were some such agreement among

the better class of workers, the improvement in systematic

bacteriology would become very marked. The volume of pub-

lication would, indeed, decrease noticeably but this of itself

12? About 650 species are mentioned in (22) Schizomycetacer, by de Toni

and Trevisan in Saccardo’s, Sy/oge Fungorum, VIII, published in 1889, but this

is not complete.

18 All the early systematists built upon a foundation of sand, i. e. upon pure

morphol

1896.] The Bacterial Diseases of Plants. 635

would be a great advantage, and the quality of the work would

more than correspondingly improve. Only in some such way

can the strong tendency toward trashy publication be elimi-

nated and light and order evolved from the present chaos.

With few exceptions, vegetable pathology seems to have been

specially unfortunate in the class of persons who have devoted

themselves to the study of bacterial diseases. While the

bacterial side of animal pathology has had its Pasteur and

Koch, its Esmarch, Hueppe, Fliigge, Gaftky, Frænkel, Pfeiffer,

Leffler, Duclaux, Metchnikoff, Chamberland, Roux, Welch,

Sternberg, Smith, Prudden, and a host of other skilled exper-

imenters, scarcely less eminent, and has made correspondingly

great progress, the study of the bacterial diseases of plants has

been principally in the hands of botanists without special

laboratory training in bacteriology and even destitute in some

cases of an elementary knowledge of right methods of work.

The great development of modern bacteriology is attributable

largely to the discovery that human diseases are due to these

organisms, and to its consequent alliance with medicine, but

there is no reason why the same rigid scrutiny of methods and

sharp calling in question of statements which have led tosuch

brilliant results in animal pathology in recent years should

not be applied in the same way to vegetable pathology. Accur-

ate experimentation and trustworthy results are from a purely

scientific standpoint quite as desirable in one field as in the

other.

_ Two things are especially to be kept in mind in describing

any bacterial disease of plants: (1) The pathogenesis must be

worked out conclusively; (2) If the organism is named, it must

be so described that it can be identified by any competent bac-

teriologist no matter where it is found.

The four requirements under the first head, i. e. strates dang ic

are now generally recognized to be as follows:

_ A. Constant association of the germ with the disease.

B. Isolation of the germ from the diseased tissues and study

of the same in pure cultures on various media.

_ C. Production of the characteristic symptoms of tbe disease

by inoculations from pure cultures.

636 The American Naturalist. [August,

D. Discovery of germs in the inoculated, diseased tissues, re-

isolation of the same, and growth on various media until it is

determined beyond doubt that they are identical with the

organism which was inoculated."

Not one of these steps can be omitted. Possible sources of

error beset the investigator at every step, and anything short

of a rigid demonstration cannot be accepted as proof. A. is

usually quite easy, involving only the careful microscopic ex-

amination of abundant material, stained and unstained. B.

was made possible by the improvement of methods, i. e. by

the use of solid media, and especially by the discovery of the

method of isolation by means of plate cultures. C. is quite

easy, provided the right organism has been obtained and

this be inserted into the proper tissues under the right con-

ditions to insure growth. The fulfillment, however, of these

conditions often involves long and vexatious delays, and taxes

the acumen of the investigator to the utmost. D. serves as a

check on all the preceding work, showing that there has been

no unintentional mixing of organisms, and that the results

obtained were actually due to the supposed cause. For the sake

of brevity these four rules of practice will be referred to in the

following pages simply as A. B.C. and D. What weight shall

be given any specific statement depends of course on the reputa-

tion of the individual. Some men are so careful of their

reputation and so little given to making unwarranted state-

ments that their simple word goes a long way even when the

statements themselves seem improbable, whereas the elaborate

explanations of other men, if the asserted facts are at all out

of the ordinary, have to be taken with a grain of salt.

The requirements under the second head, i. e. Description of

the organism, are more numerous, and are embraced under two

general divisions of very unequal value, namely Morphology

and Biology. In the classification of the higher plants and

animals morphology has been accepted from time immemorial

14 A series of successful Armer is always very desirable and becomes in-

dispensable in case the infecti re obtained on plants grown in a locality where

the disease prevails sanai "Of course, numerous un-inoculated plants, known

as “checks ” or “ controls,” must always be reserved for comparison.

1896.] The Bacterial Diseases of Plants. 637

as answering all the requirements of systematists, but such is

far from being the case when it comes to the description of

bacteria. These minute organisms, which are among the low-

est and simplest forms of living things yet discovered by man,

are, within the commonly accepted generic limits, so morpho-

logically similar as very often to be indistinguishable with any

certainty even under the highest powers of the microscope.

As supplemental, therefore, to morphology, and even in many

cases as a complete substitute for it, we must have recourse to

Biology, viz. to the behaviour of the living organism under a

variety of known, artificially prepared conditions, such for ex-

ample as the peculiarity of its growth on various culture media,

its thermal death point, its ability to ferment various sugars,

the chemical products of its growth, its pathogenic power, ete.

Morphologically identical organisms often differ so widely and

constantly in their biological peculiarities that there can be no

question about their being distinct species, or as to the real

value of this means of classification. Probably it also has

value, hitherto overlooked, for the differentiation of higher

plants and animals, especially for determining the limits of

polymorphic or closely related species.

It is not my intention in this place to mention all the biolog-

ical tests which should be applied to any species for its proper

characterization. These are being added to constantly by an

army of trained workers in all parts of the world, and my own

views of what is at present necessary, or at least highly desir-

able, will be sufficiently evident in what is to follow. Very

likely, also, as knowledge increases, some of the tests which are

now generally held to be important will be shown to have little

specific worth.

This, however, appears to be a good place to insist on accur-

acy in all the details of bacteriological work, especially in the

preparation of culture media, and on explicitness of statement

so that other investigators may know just what was done and

how it was done, and thus be able to repeat the experiment.

_ When all details of work are suppressed the inference, naturally

enough, is that the writer was ignorant or else that he desired

to conceal something not specially to his credit, and which if

638 The American Naturalist. [August,

plainly expressed might millitate against the value of his work.

Either horn of the dilemma is equally bad. Some, however,

who are desirous of doing good work in this field, or at least

appear to be conscientious workers in other lines, do not seem to

be aware of the necessity for extreme care in the preparation of

culture media and the management of cultures. Asa matter of

fact, many bacteria are extremely sensitive to slight changes in

the composition of the media in which they are grown or to

other conditions within the control of the experimenter, and this

appears to be true especially of the pathogenic species. Hence

the many conflicting statements about the same organism. A

few examples will render my meaning plainer. The careless

exposure of cultures to bright sunshine may destroy the organ-

ism. An organism supposed to come from diseased tissues or

from a culture, and which is being examined in a cover glass

preparation, may have been derived actually from a conta-

minated staining fluid. The apparently simple matter of

slightly unclean test tubes or flasks may lead to error, e. g.

antiseptic influences may be at work, or preciptates may be

thrown down and subsequently mistaken for bacterial growth.

Some kinds of glass are unsuited to delicate bacteriological

work, the culture fluids being contaminated by substances dis-

solved out of the walls of the beakers, tubes, and flasks. Tyros,

of course, are liable to mistake almost anything for bacteria or

to find them anywhere (See a long paper by Bernheim on (12)

Die parasitiiren Bacterien der Cerealen, in Miinch. med. Wochen-

schrift, 1888, pp. 743-745 and 767-770, and comments on the

same by Buchner and Lehmann, Tbid., 1888, p. 906, and 1889,

p. 110). Boiling culture media, after it has been compounded,

in open beakers or in loosely plugged test tubes or flasks may

unwittingly lead to its concentration. The use at different

times of different peptones, or grades of gelatine, of unlike per

cents of gelatine or agar, of varying grades of acidity or alkal-

inity, of impure chemicals, of different concentrations of the

nutrient media, and of different methods in its preparation all

tend to render comparative studies impossible. A large source

of error in the differentiation of species by means of sugar fer-

mentation experiments has been the employment of bouillon

1896.) The Bacterial Diseases of Plants. 639

containing undetected muscle sugar. Even when preliminary

tests are made with some gas-producing bacillus there is still

an opportunity for error, provided the tests are carried on only

for a day or two. No bouillon should be judged free from

sugar and safe for use until in fermentation tubes it has been

subjected for at least a week to the influence of Bacillus cloace

or some other organism producing an abundance of gas from

grape sugar. If at the end of this period no gas has developed,

and the transfer of a loop of fluid from such a tube into an-

other fermentation tube containing a dextrose-bouillon sets up

` an evolution of gas, then the first bouillon may be used with

confidence. Again, if cane sugar is sterilized in an acid

bouillon at least a part of it is inverted, i. e. changed into dex-

trose and fructose, and fermentation results obtained therefrom

may be due to the presence of any one of three sugars. Bouil-

lon should always be made distinctly alkaline before cane

sugar isadded. Many of the older fermentation experiments

are worthless on account of neglect of such precautions, to say

nothing of some recent ones. Again Bacillus tracheiphilus grows

not at all or feebly on nutrient gelatine as ordinarily made, or in

media which is acid beyond a determinable slight degree, and

if only such media were used the erroneous conclusion might

be reached that it could not be grown outside of the host plant,

whereas it grows freely in artificial media, even on gelatine,

when the right conditions are established. Bacillus amylovorus

grows well in some gelatines and refuses to grow in others.

Even comparatively slight changes in the acidity or alkalinity

of the culture media often have a marked effect on the

growth of certain organisms, while others, e. g., Bacillus cloacae,

are able to grow in almost any medium. Many bacteria

prefer alkaline media, and some are very sensitive to the

presence of acids, while a variety of bacteria commonly met

with in water will not develop at all if the medium is rendered

strongly alkaline. Other organisms grow well in acid media.“

14° For a striking illustration of the effect on the growth of water bacteria of

comparatively slight charges in the reaction of gelatine, see a recent table by

George W. Fuller, in a paper entitled: (73) On the proper reaction of nutri-

ent media for bacterial cultivation.—/ournal of the American Public oe

Lene ams a ‘Concord, as H., Oct., 1895, p. 393.

640 The American Naturalist. [ August,

Even the slightly varying acidity of steamed slices from differ-

ent potato tubers may exert a marked effect on the growth of

certain sensitive organisms. On this account some bacterio-

logists have advised discarding the potato altogether. I have

myself found the potato a very useful substratum for the growth

of both fungi and bacteria. All comparative tests on potato

ought, however, to be made on cylinders or slices cut from the

same tuber, and in every case the reaction, acid, neutral, or

alkaline, should be carefully recorded. The behavior of the

organism on a variety of tubers should also be determined,

before deciding that it is something new. It has been thought:

by some that the best nutrient substance for a parasite must be,

unquestionably, the juices of the host plant but this does not

follow since there are all grades of parasitism, and even if it

did, there are several chances for error in its employment,

e. g. the nutrient juices are usually sterilized by steam heat

and this may cause a number of chemical changes resulting in

a compound very different from the living plant and entirely

unsatisfactory as a culture medium, as many have learned by

experience. Again, for some particular reason, even the juices

of the plant when sterilized at ordinary temperatures by filtra-

tion, may be less well adapted to the needs of the parasite than

well made beef bouillon or ordinary nutrientagar. In general,

the standard culture media of bacteriology should be tried first.

Some bacteria can be cultivated only on special media or at

special temperatures, or under unusual conditions. Bacillus

subtilis will only grow in the presence of free oxygen ; Bacillus

‘amylobacter, B. tetani, and B. carbonis will only grow in the

absence of oxygen. Winogradsky states that his nitrifying

organism obtained from European soils will not grow in the

ordinary culture media and thrives best in solutions of in-

organic substances, and on silicate jelly. Bacterium tuberculosis

can be cultivated only in bouillon and on blood serum and

‘nutrient glycerine agar, and at temperatures above 30°C. Bac-

terium influenze also flourishes at blood heat and can only be

grown, it is said, in the presence of red blood corpuscles or in

media containing yolk of eggs; other organisms have thus far

‘refused to be cultivated at any temperature or on any artificial

medium, e. g. Bacterium lepre and B. syphilitis. Some bacteria

1896.] The Bacterial Diseases of Plants. 641

are destroyed at temperatures at which careless workers fre-

quently pour their agar plates, while others refuse to grow at

ordinary temperatures or even at blood heat, grow best at 50°--

60°C., and are not killed until the temperature exceeds 70° or

even 75°C. Finally, a race of Bacterium anthracis incapable of

producing spores has been developed by growing the organism

in media containing phenol; another non-virulent race bear-

ing swollen, terminal spores, “drumsticks,” by growing the

organism in compressed air; and still another race destitute

of virulence by cultivating it at temperatures above 40°C.

These are not exceptional cases, similar care being necessary in

all directions if one would avoid erroneous conclusions.

Naturally, every successful experimenter will vary his culture

media in all sorts of ways in order to learn as much as possible

of the organism under consideration, but at the same time he

will determine its behaviour on the standard media, and will

keep a very careful record of all that he does. The bacterio-

logist should make it an invariable rule to repeat every experi-

ment two or three times, at the very least, and generally after

an interval of some months or years he should repeat all his

experiments. Even then he will fall into errors enough. He

certainly should proceed with as much care as the chemist,

and in many directions the work passes naturally over into

chemistry. If quantitative or volumetric analysis requires

all sorts of precautions and excess of care to avoid errors, no

less does this youngest of all the sciences.

A few words respecting the occurrence of bacteria in normal

plant tissues will be in place before concluding these general

remarks. It goes without saying that such minute and uni-

versally distributed bodies as bacteria are likely to be found at

times almost anywhere, even in plant tissues which seem to be

healthy, just as they may sometimes occur in the blood stream

of healthy animals, but they are not normally present in the

tissues of plants. All carefully conducted experiments have

led to this conclusion. The reader who wishes fuller informa-

tion may consult papers by Laurent, Buchner,” Lehmann,”

14b

A ka redne greno bacterienne de la diastase. Buč. de l'Acad.

15 (15) Notiz betreffend die Frage des Vorkommens von Bacterien in nor-

eer? anzengewebe. Muench med, Wochenschrift., 1888, pp. 906-907,

Erklarung in Betreff der Arbeit von Herrn Dr. Hugo Bernheim, ete.

id, is , P. 110.

642 The American Naturalist. [August,

Fernbach” Vestea, Kramer,” and Russell.” Even when

purposely introduced into living tissues they refuse to grow or

spread but little and finally die out,” unless they possess

specific pathogenic power in which case the result is quite

different.

The diseases which will be discussed in the following pages

may be divided into four classes:

(1). Diseases of clearly established bacterial origin.

(2). Diseases which appear to be constantly associated with

bacteria and which are probably due to some specific organism,

but full proof of which has not been furnished.

(3). Diseases said to be more or less closely associated with

the presence of bacteria and ascribed thereto, but in which

little or no proof has been brought forward to establish the

causal relation.

_ (A). Communicable diseases which have been ascribed to

bacteria but associated with which no organism has been found

and which are probably of non-bacterial nature.

On the whole it would perhaps be more logical to divide the

following pages into four chapters in the way I have specified,

but for practical reasons it has seemed better to discuss all of

the diseases of a given plant in one place. I have, therefore,

arranged the material by hosts, but will at the close try to

summarize the whole subject in the manner above indicated.

It will certainly be some time, probably many years, before

we have anything like a permanent scheme of classification for

the bacteria. Our knowledge is still too incomplete. Meanwhile,

we have to do the best we can with the present systems, all of

11(17) De Vabsence ere microbes dans les tissus vegetaux. Annales de l’ Inst.

Pasteur, 1888, pp. 567-5

" (18) De l'absence an microbes dans les tissus. /ééd., 1888, p. 670-671.

19 (19) Bakteriologische Untersuchungen ueber die Nassfäule der Kartoffel-

knollen. Osterreichisches landw. Centralb, I, Heft 1, 1891.

Plc

be Louies: (2@) On the parasitism when introduced into plants of some

disease-causing microbes (Russian). Wratch., 1890. No. 6, pp. 133-135.

Russell; l. c

Kornauth : (21) Ueber das Verhalten pathogener Bakterien in lebenden

eben. Centrb. f. Bakt., Parasiten-Kunde, u, dnfectionsk, I Abt., Bd.

— No, 21, 8 Juni, 1896, pp. 801-805,

1896.) ` “ Mushroom Bodies” of the Hexapod Brain. 643

which are more or less arbitrary and unsatisfactory, and all

of which are liable to be set aside at any time. I have heré

adopted Migula’s system” which seems to me very convenient,

and on the whole the most satisfactory of any that has yet

appeared.

Before proceeding to the body of this review it only remains

to say that every effort has been made to deal impartially with

the material in hand, and to present the essential ideas of the

writers as concisely and accurately as possible. To this end

the original papers have been consulted in every instance,

unless otherwise stated in the text. So much vexation over

wrong references has been experienced in time past by the

writer that he has himself been at special pains to give full and

accurate citations. It is to be hoped, therefore, that the read-

er will have no difficulty in finding the original papers. An

endeavor has also been made to bring the subject fully up to

date but it is quite likely that some worthy papers may have

been overlooked, owing to the many languages and the ever

increasing number of places of publication.

THE MEANING AND STRUCTURE OF THE

SO-CALLED “MUSHROOM BODIES” OF

THE HEXAPOD BRAIN.

By F. C. Kenyon, Pua. D.'

In looking at a series of sections of the brain of a hexapod,

especially of a hymenopteron, the most notable structures are

two pairs, one to each side, of large cup-shaped bodies of “ Punkt

substanz,” or, what in the light of our present knowledge of

nerve structure is better denominated fibrillar substance.

Each of these cups is filled to overflowing with cells having

large nuclei and very little cytoplasm. From the under surface

? Migula: Schizophyta : (22) Schizomycetes. Die Natuerlichen Pflanienfami-

lien (Engler u. Prantl). I Teil. 1 Abt. a, Lief. 129. 8vo. p. 44, Leipzig, 1896.

bc is the forerunner of a larger work soon to be published by Gustav Fischer,

l Tick University, Mass.

644 The American Naturalist. (August,

each of these cups or “ Becher” there descends into the gen-

eral fibrillar substance of the brain a column of fibrillar sub-

stance which unites with its fellow of the same side to send a

large branch obliquely downwards to the median line of the

brain and an equally large or larger branch straight forwards

to the anterior cerebellar surface. (Fig. B.)

Long before our present methods of sectioning and staining

had found general application in the study of animal structure,

or as early as 1850, the French naturalist, Dujardin, discovered

these bodies in transparent preparations in toto of the brains of

certain Hymenoptera and Orthoptera. From their somewhat

folded appearance he describes them as “ lobes à convolutiones,”

and compared them with the convolutions of the human brain,

and even thought them associated with hexapod intelligence.

Fourteen years later, Leydig, using the same methods confirmed

Dujardin’s discovery in working with the brains of the ant, bee,

and wasp, and described them as “gestielter Körper.” In 1875

Rabl-Riickhard identified the bodies in Gryllus italicus, Locusta

- viridissima, and Dycticus verrucornis, and correctly described

the form of the “ cup” under the term “ Rind Körper.” The

very next year (’76) Dietl’s application of the section method

to the subject confirmed and perfected previous descriptions,

and, struck with the resemblance to mushrooms, he adopted

the name of “ Pilzhutformiger Körper,” a conception later used

by Packard (mushroom bodies) and by Bellocici (’82) (corpo

fungiformo).

As to the intellectual function of the bodies, not all of the

early writers supported Dujardin’s inference. They were sup-

posed to be connected with sight; but Rabl-Riickhard showed

that they are fully developed in a blind African ant (Typhlo-

pone). Dietl was loth to acknowledge an intellectual function,

even though he found the organs more highly developed in

Hymenoptera than in Orthoptera. But Forel (’74) adhered to

Dujardin’s supposition, and showed that among Hymenoptera

even of the same species the bodies are most prominent where

one usually recognizes most intelligence, as in the worker bees

and ants, while they are small in the females and the males.

Brandt (’76) two years laterin a note on the brain of Hymen-

1898.] “ Mushroom Bodies” of the Hexapod Brain. 645

optera makes the same observations as to the differences in the

same species, while Berger (’78) considered the structures as

“ organs of projection of the first order.”

The supposition of Dujardin obtained its best support so

far as the older methods would avail in the comprehensive

work of Flégel (78) covering the whole group of hexapods:

Here, one may see at a glance that the development of the

structures largely coincides with the development of intelii-

gence, as shown by the following abridgement of his table:

A. The four cups completely developed.

1. Very highly developed, Vespa.

{ Apis, Formica Pompi-

\ lus, Ichnewmonide.

3. Without rim, Blatta.

4. Very small, Cossus, Sphinx, Vanessa.

B. Cups incomplete.

Walls and cells so reduce eT

as hardly to be recognized > Tenthredo, Cynips.

as cups,

Reduced to two small heaps, Many small butterflies.

. Wall a broad plate, Forficula, Acridium, ete.

Wall (fibrillar substance)

absent.

(a) Cells in 4 groups, Dycticus.

(b) Cells in 2 groups, dis-

tinguishable by com-

parison with neigh-

boring cells,

(ce) Not so distinguish- \ is

able, i

2. Large with rim,

on

O T O

Aeschna.

dimen

If such a superior neural function is indicated by the testi-

mony and work of the earlier writers, it may well be asked

whether recent neurological methods will bring out the struc-

ture of the hexapod brain as well as they have that of the other

invertebrates and that of the vertebrates, and whether they

will lend this view support. First, it may be noted that the

physiological experiments of Binet (’94), which are those of

C. Cups unrecognizable even as ru- ) Hanipiors.

646 The American Naturalist. [August,

Faivre very much bettered, demonstrate that a hexapod may

live for months without a brain, if the subeesophageal ganglion,

or better, ventro-cerebron, is left intact, just as a vertebrate

may live without its cerebrum. Faivre long ago showed that

this ventro-cerebron is the seat of the power of co-ordination of

the muscular movements of the body. Binet has shown that the

brain is the seat of the power directing these movements. A de-

brainedhexapod will eat when food is placed beneath its palpi,

but it cannot go to its food even though the latter be but a very

small space removed from its course or position. Whether the

insect would be able to do so if the mushroom bodies only

were destroyed, and the antennal lobes, optic lobes, and the rest

of the brain were left intact,is a question that yet remains to be

answered. In Binet’s experiments neither olfactory nor visual

stimuli can be transformed into motor impulses. Were it

possible for them to be so transformed, my studies to be noted

in a moment cause me to think that Binet’s results would be

very materially altered.

Now, as tomy studies. During the winter just past with no

little patience I endeavored to apply the bichromate of silver

method to a study of the brain aud general nervous system of

the common honey bee, the more detailed result of a portion

of which will be published a little later. The endeavor was

rewarded by a considerable degree of success, the main facts

being determined, though there are many details left for future

studies. Others have tried to employ the same general method,

but owing toa lack of proper store of patience or to their setting

about the task wrongly have failed. Among them must be

counted Binet (94), with whom, however, there seems to be a

defect in the conception of both the Golgi and the Erlich

methods. For he sets the former aside as inconstant, uses the

latter, without, however, apparently obtaining any very good

results. He complains that preparations by the Erlich method

(and the Golgi method might be included) leave out many

details, and never seems to think that a sufficient number of pre-

parations willsupply those details and thus allow the whole to

be determined. This is the more unfortunate, since his de-

pendence upon the old methods has led him to give detailed

1896.] “ Mushroom Bodies” of the Hexapod Brain. 647

importance to phenomena that are relatively unimportant, and

has resulted in a somewhat misty conception of the structure

of the hexapod ventral nervous system.

One of the very first things that an impregnation of bee

brains with bichromate of silver enabled me to make out was

the structure of the mushroom bodies with their cells. These

cells stand out in sharp contrast to all other nerve cells known,

though they recall to some extent the cells of Purkinje in the

higher mammals. Each of the cells contained within the

fibrillar cup seeds a nerve process into the later, where it

breaks up into a profusely arborescent system of brahchlets,

which often appear with fine, short, lateral processes, such as

are characteristic of the dendrites of some mammalian nerve

cells. Just before entering the fibrillar substance a fine branch

is given off that travels along the inner surface of the cup

along with others of the same nature, forming a small bundle

to the stalk of the mushroom body, down which it continues

until it reaches the origin of the anterior and the inner roots

mentioned at the beginning of the paper. Here it branches,

one branch continuing straight on to the end of the anterior

root, while the other passes to the end of the inner root.

Throughout its whole course the fiber and its two branches are

very fine. Nearly the whole stalk and nearly the whole of each

root is made up of these straight parallel fibers coming from the

cells within the cup of the mushroom bodies. What other fibers

there are enter these bodies from the side, and branch between

the straight fibers very much as the dendrites of the cells of

Purkinje branch among the parallel fine fibers from the cells

of the granular layer in the mammalian cerebellum. These

fibers are of the nature of association fibers. :

From the olfactory or antennal lobe, from the optic ganglia

there are tracts of fibers that finally enter the cups of the mush-

room bodies as shown by Viallanes and by my studies with the

Golgi method and also with a Formol-copper-hematoxylin

method of staining. Besides these tracts the Golgi method has

enabled me to make out another tract, unknown before, passing

down the hinder side of the brain from the cups to the region

above the cesophagus, where it bends forwards and comes in

45

648 The American Naturalist. [August,

contact with fibers from the ventral cord, which exists, although

Binet was unable to discover any “ growth of fibers connecting

the cord with the brain.”

The fibers entering the cups from the antennal lobe, the

optic ganglia, and the ventral region, spread out and branch

among the arborescent endings of the mushroom body cells.

Fig. .—A. An “intellective” cell from the mushroom body. n, neurite;

d. dendrite ; a.r., anterior branch of the neurite ; i.r., inner branch of the neurite.

B. Mushroom body of right side from above. The outer one, m.b , viewed in

section ; the inner one is cut off, leaving the stump of the stalk st. a.r., anterior

root; i.r., inner root; m.b., cup.

The fibers branching among the parallel fibers of the roots and

the stalk lead off to lower parts of the brain, connecting with

efferent or motor ‘fibers, or with secondary association fibers,

that in their turn make such connections. This portion of the

circuit has not been perfectly made out, though there seems to

be sufficient data to warrant the assumption just made.

Such fibers existing as described there is then a complete

circuit for sensory stimuli from the various parts of the body to

the cells of the mushroom bodies. The dendritic or arborescent -

branches of these cells take them up and pass them on out

along the parallel fibers or neurites in the roots of the mush-

room bodies as motor or other efferent impulses.

This, however, is not all. For there are numerous fibers ©

evident in my preparations, the full courses óf which I

have not been thus far able to determine, but which are so

1896.] “ Mushroom Bodies” of the Hexapod Brain. 649

situated as to warrant the inference that they may act as asso-

ciation fibers between the afferent fibers from the antenne,

optic ganglia, and ventral system and the afferent fibers. There

is then a possibility of a stimulus entering the brain and passing

out as a motor impulse without going into the circuit of the

fibers of the mushroom bodies, or, in other words, a possibility

of what may be compared to reflex action in higher animals.

It appears then that the supposition of Dujardin is well sup-

ported by the finer structure of the hexapod brain. , For it is

evident from the details known since the publication of Flogel’s

paper, that the cells composing the mushroom bodies have

been very highly differentiated in some of the hexapods, and

this in just those forms living the most complex lives. No

such bodies are to be found in the lower forms. I have never

seen them, nor any indication of them, in the Thysanura,

Chilopoda? Scolopendrella, the Pauropoda and other Myria-

poda, nor in any of the Crustacea that I have thus far exam-

ined. Without doubt an application of the Golgi or methylen

blue methods would reveal elements in some these forms that

might be compared with the cells of the mushroom bodies;

but they would probably be found not so completely different-

iated from other fibers as they are in the honey bee and other

Hymenoptera. It may be mentioned that one does not recog-

nize such cells in the cray-fish and the crab as figured by

Retzius and Bethe. And it scarcely need be said that no such

elements are shown in Retzius’ figure of the brain of Nereis.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Bellonci, ’82. Intorno alla struttura e alle connessioni dei

lobi olfattori negli artropodi superiori e nei vertebrati. Reale

Acead. d. Lincei. (From Cuccati.)

Berger, ’78. Untersuchungen über den Bau des Gehirns

und der Retina der Arthropoden. Arb. d. Zool. Inst. Wien u.

Triest., I, 173-220.

?St.-Remy (’90) describes mushroom bodies as occuring in Scutigera, which if

rdance wi

homologous with the mushroom bodies of Hexapoda, is in acco

Dujardin view

650 The American Naturalist. [August

Bethe, 95. Studien über das central nerven system von

Carcinus mænus nebst ein neues Verfahren der Methylen-

blaufixation. Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., XLIV, 579-622.

Binet, 94. Contribution à l’étude du system nerveux sous-

intestinal des insectes; Journ. Anat. et Physiol., XXX, 449-

580

Brandt, ’76. Anatomical and Morphological Researches on

the Nervous System of Hymenopterous Insects. Ann. Mag.

Nat. Hist., (4) XVIII, 504-6.

Cuccati, ’88. Uber die Organization de Gehirns der So-

momya crythrocephala. Zeit. f. wiss. Zool., XLVI, 240-69.

Diehl, ’°76. Die Organization des Arthropoden Gehirus.

Zeit. f. wiss. Zool., XXVII, 488-517.

Leydig, ’64. Voih pry des tierischen Körpers. (From

Viallanes.)

Flogel, ’78. Ueber den einheitlichen Bau des Gehirns in

den Verschiedenen Insekten Ordunung. Zeit. f. wiss. Zool.,

XXX, Supplement, 556-92.

Forel, ’74. Les Fourmies de la Suisse.

Rabl-Ruckhard, ’75. Studien über Insektengehirne: Reich-

ert und Du Bois Raymond’s Arch. f. Anat., 488-99.

- Packard, 80. The Brain of the Locust. Second Rept. U.

S. Ent. Com., pp. 223-242.

Retzins, 90. Zur Kenntnis des Nervensystems der Crusta-

ceen: Biol. Untersuch., N: F., I, No. 1

Retzius, 95. Zur Kenntnis des Gehirnganglion und des

sensiblen Nervensystems der Polychiten. Biol. Untersuch.,

N. F., VII, No. 2

Saint-Remy, 90. Contribution 4 ľ étude du cerveau. chez

les Arthropodes trachéites. Lacaze Duthiers’ Arch. d. Zool.

Exper. et gén. (2) V sup. 4th mém.

Dujardin, 50. Mémorie sur le système nerveux desin-

sectes. Ann. Sci. Nat., (8) XIV, 195-206.

Viallanes, ’87. Le cerveau de la Guépe. Ann. Soc. Nat., (7)

II, 5-100

Viallanes, 88. nigisadoae du criquet. Ann. Sci. Nat., (7)

IV.

1896.] Editor’: Table. 651

EDITOR’S TABLE,

The Zoological Section of the American Association for the Advance-

ment of Science at its meeting in Springfield, Mass. in August, 1895,

adopted a series of resolutions which are printed in the volume of the

Proceedings recently issued (p. 159) and which are here reproduced.

They were adopted with but one pertinent objection from a distin-

guished member of the section. This objection was that the method of

determining priority of publication recommended in the resolutions was

applicable to questions of nomenclature only, which was regarded as

an object of a value secondary to the determination of date of discovery

of matters of fact. While the fixing of date of the latter was admitted

to be of great importance, it was contended by the friends of the resolu-

tions, that the manner proposed by them was applicable to all possible

cases, and that in fact the resolutions prescribed the best method of

determination of priority. The mode proposed was stated to be in

accord with that customary among authors and publishers generally,

and that special groups of authors could not in practice sustain rules

different from them. The resolutions are as follows.

Whereas: The date of publication is a question of fact to be deter-

mined by examination, and not by an arbitrary ruling: and

Whereas: In the world at large the date of publication of books is

the date at which they are printed; and

Whereas : The adoption of any other date of publication would have

no practical effect for this reason, and for the following additional

reasons; viz.

First; the majority of publications are not distributed, but are sold ;

Second ; the distribution when it occurs may be rendered ineffective

by accidents such as loss of mails, fires, et

Third ; distribution by individuals m Ag delayed or prevented by

absence from home, sickness or dea

Fourth ; distribution governments of their publications is often

delayed for routine reason

Fifth ; the actual date of amilini will be often impossible to ascertain

with precision, owing to lack of record and irregularity in the. period

of transmission ; an

Whereas : The determination of the date of printing will generally

depend on the records of the printing office and the testimony of several

persons, while the time of mailing will be known generally to but one

person ;

652 The American Naturalist. [August,

Reso.tveD: First.—The section of Zoology of the American Associa-

tion for the Advancement of Science recommends that the date of the

completion of printing of a single issue be regarded as the date of pub-

lication ;

Second.—That the Section recommends that such date be printed on

the last signature of all publications, whether books periodicals or

“ separates.”

REsoLvED: (1) That the Section of Zoology of the A. A. As. S. is

impressed with the desirability of introducing the custom of placing all

publications on record at some central agency together with the date of

publication. (2) That a committee be appointed to obtain the approval

of these resolutions by publishing societies at home and abroad. (3)

That a copy of these resolutions be transmitted to the British Assoc.

Adv. Science ; the Zoélogical Society of London; Australasian Assoc.

Ady. Science; Association Francaise; Société Zoologique de France ;

Versamml. der Deutscher Naturforscher, n. Aertzte; Zoologisches Ges-

selschaft ; and the International Congress of Zoology held at Leyden.

To act as the committee above referred to, the President of the Sec-

tion appointed: S. A. Forbes, Champaign, Ill.; E. A. Birge, Madison,

Wis.; W. A. Lacy, Lake Forest, Ill.; George Dimmock, Canobie Lake,

N. H.

The above resolutions were adopted by very large majority vote. A

proposition to regard as the date of publication, the date of receipt at

the central agency of record was introduced. This was not approved,

as it was evident that no private arrangement made by naturalists could

supersede the customs long since current in the world of authorship.

The American Association for the Advancement of Science has a

peculiar custom which it seems to us might be improved. This is the

use of the term vice-president to designate the presidents or chairmen

of the respective sections. This expression gives use to confusion, as

these officers are not the vice-presidents of the sections, but the presid-

ents. If the expression vice-president of section so and so is used, a

president is supposed, who does not exist. To avoid conflict with the

title of the president of the Association, the term chairmen might per-

haps be used for the so-called vice-presidents, but actual presidents of

the sections.

The decimal system of record, called the Dewey system in library

catalogues, appears to the management of the Naturalist to be the best

method which has yet been devised. It, therefore, follows Natural

— and La Revue Scientifique in adopting it.

1896.] Recent Literature. 653

RECENT LITERATURE.

The Structure of Solpugids.—That indefatigable student of

the Arachnida Mr. Henry M. Bernard has presented us with a valu-

able account’ of the general structure of these little known forms. And

yet while we can praise the statement of facts, as a whole, we would

point out that the paper contains a number of theoretical points, which

have, in our estimation, no sufficient basis.

The Galeodidx, of which over 50 species have been described, are

confined to the warm portions of both hemispheres, and though abund-

ant in certain regions, they are comparatively rare in collections; poss

sibly from the fact that they are, by popular consent, accorded most

poisonous qualities. They, alone of all the Archnida, show a distinct

“head ” while they also have a “ thorax” divided into three segments,

and these points have led many authors to look upon them as forming

a transition between the .Archnida and the Hexapods. They also

possess stigmata in the thoracic region, a condition only paralleled in

the Arachnida in certain of the mites.

In his paper Bernard takes up first the external anatomy and the

interesting features here are: the interpretation of the cephalic lobes as

the lateral regions of the first segment which have been changed in

position with the transfer of the cheliceræ ; and he further tries to find

them in the cephalic lobes of embryos of other Arachnids, a view with

very little in morphology to supportit. The beak is interpreted as fused

labium labrum, neither of these, as the name of the first ; might b Ee

being appendicularin nature. The ocular tuk

remnant of the original dorsal surface of the head, the rest having been

displaced by the upward and backward movement of the cephalic lobes ;

and, from this, the median eyes are regarded as the more primitive, the

lateral as secondarily acquired. The descriptions of the limbs, as well

as of the apodematous skeleton affords little to abstract, except that the

author suggests that since specialized poison organs are absent the

poison may come from setal-pores on the chelicere ; and that, at any

rate, the idea of their poisonous nature should not be set aside without

further experiment. As little need be said of the account of the

hypodermis or of tne muscular systems.

The account ef the nervous system is disappointing. Although sec-

tions were cut (ef., p. 345) no use of them appears to have been made

1 Trans. Linn, Socy. London, Zool. Vol. vi, pt. 4, 1896,

654 The American Naturalist. [August,

in the study of the topography of the system and we are left absolutely

in the dark as to the presence of ganglia in front of those of the cheli-

cers; a point of no little importance. The eyes receive hardly more

satisfactory treatment, owing to the unsatisfactory condition of the spec-

imens. No vitreous body was found in the median eyes while the

retinal cells showed no rods, and no grouping of these into a rhabdem

was seen. The lateral eyes vary in size, shape, and arrangement and

are described in some cases as having fused on either side of the head,

although no evidence is presented of such fusion. The pedipalpal

organs, reversible sacs on the tips of these appendages are described in

detail and are clearly sensory as are the “ racquet organs” on the last

pair of thoracic appendages.

~~ The alimentary canal opens by the mouth at the end of the beak,

the opening being fringed with a strainer of bristles, while the cesopha-

gus, in front of the cesophageal collar, is modified into a “sucking

stomach.” The midgut is provided with gland, like diverticula and

although they are grouped into those of the cephalothorax and abdo-

men, all clearly belong to one series, but those of the abdomen are re-

markable not only from the number but from the fact that they empty

into a collecting duct on either side and these ducts, in turn, empty

into the intestines near the base of the abdomen. The Malpighian

tubules are well developed and are described as emptying into the mid-

gut, and Bernard accepts the views of Loman that these organs in the

Arachnids cannot be homologous with the similarly named structures

in the Hexapods. The heart has retained 8 pairs of ostia, while there

are indications of another segmental chamber in front. From in front

an aorta carries the blood forward and “ appears to discharge the blood

directly on to the central nervous system. There are no indications of

the circumneural vessels like those of the Scorpions and of which Mr,

Bernard holds, in some respects, peculiar views.

The respiratory system affords more thatis interesting. The observa-

tions of previous students that there are three pairs of stigmata (and

sometimes a fourth unpaired) is confirmed. Of these the first pair open

behind the coxæ of the second pair of legs while the others compare

with the anterior pulmonary openings of the Scorpions. Arguing

from the conditions of the blood-vessels (and more from his preconcep-

tions of the: phylogeny of the respiratory organs Bernard concludes

that there were originally two other tracheal openings in the thorax.

There then follow some interesting but inconclusive remarks upon the

-primary number of stigmata in different Arachnids. While dealing

with these respiratory structures the author deals with the question of

1896.] Recent Literature. 655

the origin of tracheæ from lung books (p. 375) and accepts the view

that the former were the more primitive, the latter secondary, and rein-

forces it with the remark that this view “arrived at by comparative

morphology, has recently been confirmed by embryology. | Janorowski

has discovered that the tracheal invaginations of Spiders first from

branched tracheal tubes and that the lung books are a secondary

specialization.” And this without the slightest reference to the results

of Simmons (since amply confirmed by Purcell and Brauer) which are

directly the reverse. It is to be said in passing that the thoracic

stigmata of the Solpugide, like those of the Acarina, are the greatest

difficulty presented to those who believe in the Limulus-Arachnid

theory, but the author dismisses the results of Wagner in this connec-

tion with the remark “that all conclusions based upon transitional

phenomena of single specialized types will have ultimately to be tested

by a profounder and more extended comparative study of existing

forms.”

The coxal glands, naturally have much attention. The external

opening occurs between legs 3 and 4, the duct is long and convoluted

while the gland itself is described as a great mass of tubules. These

organs he is still inclined to think the derivatives of setipareus sacs, a

view which “has hitherto met with no fayor.” Regarding the fact that

they may be ccelomic in character he merely refers to Lauries observa-

tions on the scorpion and says that until this be confirmed the bulk of

evidence seems to point to the coxal glands as a blind ending tube.

And again (p. 381). “I freely admit that these arguments would have

but little weight as against direct embryological evidence, if that evi-

dence were really satisfactory.” Certainly the results of Grobben,

Kishenonyi, Lebinsky, Kingsley and especially those of Brauer are

confirmative of those of Laurie, all showing the coxal glands are

derived from the coelomic wall and are the purest of mesoderm (if

there be such a layer) and that their external opening is a subsequent

formation. For the opposite view, held by Bernard, there seems not

the slightest evidence.

After a few remarks upon the genital organs the author presents an

attempt to elucidate the phylogeny of the Arachnida, and itis here that

we are most at variance with him. It is impossible to go into his argu-

ment in detail. It all rests upon the attempt to derive every existing

Arthropod structure from structures already present in the annelid

ancestor, setiparous sacs apparently | playing the ee be descr point.

These coxal glands, trachex,

cement glands, maxillary glands, salivary glands, etc., are all referred

656 : The American Naturalist. [August,

back to the setiparous gland of the annelid; yes further, the hairy bodies

of the Solpugids and Mygalide are direct inheritances from the annelid

set. Scorpio is not primitive but rather a specialized form. In some

of his statements of fact he also seems to be in error. Thus hesays (p.

398) “ What actual evidence we have as to the character of the abdom-

inal limbs [in the primitive Arachnid] shows that they were filamentous

jointed appendages like those on the cephalothorax.” On the contrary

in Scorpions (cf. Brauer, Patten) which, with all deference to Mr. Ber-

nard, we continue to regard the most primitive of existing Arachnids,

they appear in the embryo as flat lamellate limbs. Again (same page)

he says that the sensory plates on the pectines of the scorpion are on

the ventral and not on the posterior face of the limb. On the contrary

they are on the posterior side as the figures of both Patten and Brauer

show. But what we have most to criticise is the failure to refer to

opposing views or corrections of previous statements. Thus he refers

to “stigmatic scars” along the whole length of the abdomen of the

Pseudoscorpions, scars which bear another interpretation. He speaks

of the entostemite as ectodermal, without stating that a portion of it is

mesodermal (Schimkewitsch), while we have referred to other cases

above.—J. S. K.

The Bears of North America.’—A new classification of the

bears of North America is proposed by Dr. Merriam. This classifica-

tion is based on the study of more than 200 skulls, including about 35

skulls of the huge bears of the Alaska coast region. The number

of full species recognized by Dr. Merriam is ten : 4 of the Black Bear

group; 2 of the Grizzly group; 3 of the big brown bears of Alaska,

and the Polar bear. Four of these species are new; (1) the gigantic

fish-eating bear of Kadiak Island and the Alaskan Peninsula, Ursus

middendorfii Merr.; (2) the large brown bear of Yakutat Bay and the

coastal slope of the St. Elias Alps, Ursus dallit Merr. ; (3) the large

brown bear of Sitka and theneighboring islands, Ursus sitkensis Merr. ;

and (4) the Florida Black bear, Ursus floridanus Merr. The Sonoran

Grizzly and the Norton Sound Grizzly are considered as subspecies

only. The Alaskan bears fall into 2 distinct groups. (1) U. sitkensis

and U. dallii, which resemble the Grizzlies in the flatness of their

skulls, but are larger and differ from them in color and dentition ; and

(2) U. middendorffii which differs markedly from all other American

types, and closely resembles the Great Brown Bear of Kamschatka.

Merriam’s synopsis is illustrated by figures of the skulls of the different

species.

l (Proceeds, Biol, Soc., Washington, April, 1896.)

1896.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. 657

As an account of the North American bears this paper is far in

advance of anything hitherto published.

The difficulty of distinguishing several species of the typical Ursi in

North America has not been so much the absence of characters among

themselves, as the intermediate position of the old world Ursus arctus

with regard to them. Middendorff’s studies of this species convinced

him that it varied in size 33 per cent. of the largest dimensions, and in

other respects, but he could not refer the varieties to more than one spe-

cies. With these very elaborate studies as a basis, J. A. Allen and A. E,

Brown in subsequent years could only see in the North American

grizzly and black bears, geographical races. The fault then of Dr.

Merriam’s paper is, that he has not given any account of the relations

of our bears to the intermediate series of the Old World.

Dr. Merriam is a genus fancier, and he bids fair to adopt all of the

names of his illustrious predecessor Dr. J. E. Gray of the British

Museum. Thus he adopts Gray’s name, Thalarctos for the polar bear

on characters which do not exist. He dallies with Euarctos for our

black bear for equally poor reasons. We must admit, however, that

Dr. Merriam does for the first time give satisfactory characters with

which to distinguish this species from the Ursus arctus.

RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS.

ALLEN, J. A.—Descriptions of New American Mammals. Extr. Bull. Amer.

Mus ue Sages Vol. VII, 1895. From the author.

s, C. W.—Note on a specimen of Ceraterpetum galvanii Huxley, from

Biak Extr. Geol. Mag , Dec. iv, Vol. II, 1895. From the author.

Annual Report for oe Iowa Geological Survey Vol. III. Des Moines, 1895.

From the Survey.

Bancs, O.—Notes on North American Mammals. Extr. Proceeds. Boston

Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. XX VI, 1895. Fromthe author. :

Barret, J. O.—Forestry in our Schools. Minneapolis, 1895,

Beecuer, C. E.—The abe Stages of Trilobites. Extr. Amer, Geol., Vol.

XVI, 1895. From the au

Berc, C.—Enumeracion aussi y sinonunica de los Peces de las Costas

Argentina y Uruguaya. Buenos Aires, 1895.

—— Sobre Peces de agua dulce nuevos ó poco conocidos de la Republica Do-

tina. Extrs. Anal. Mus. Nac. Buenos Aires, T. IV, 1895. From the author.

BouULENGER, G. A.—Remarks on some Cranial Characters of the Salmonoids.

Extr. Poced Zool. Soc. London, 1895.

658 The American Naturalist. [August,

—aAn Account of the Reptiles and Batrachians collected by Dr. A. D. Smith

in Western Somali Land and the Galla Country. Extr. 1. c., 1895.

——On Fishes from Matto Grosso and Paraguay. Extr. l. c., 1895.

——On the Nursing Habits of Two South American Frogs. Extr. |. c., 1895.

——A Synopsis of the Genera and Species of Apodal Batrachians, with

Description ofa new Genus and species (Bdellophis vittatus). Extr. l. c., 1895.

emarks on the Value of certain Cranial Characters employed by Prof.

Cope for RES haa from Snakes. Extr. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. Lon-

don 8. 6, Vol. XVI,

—— Description es a new vA sails from Antigua, West Indles. Extr. l. c., Vol.

XIV, 1894.

Eiti of a new Anolis from Brazil. Extr. l. c., Vol. XV, 1895.

me new and little known Reptiles obtained by W. H. Crosse, Esq.,

on the Niger. Extr. I. ¢., Vol. X VI, 1895.

—— Descriptions of two new Shakes from Usambara, German East Africa,

Extr. 1. c., Vol. XVI, 1895.

riptions of four new Batrachians discovered by Mr. Charles Hose in

eni Extr. l. c., Vol. XVI, 1895.

—— Descriptions of two new keil obtained by Mr. A. S. eint in the Tro-

briand ese British New Guinea. Extr. l. c., Vol. XVI, 1

he Reptiles and hls obtained by Mr. $ Ded Phillips in

Seca Extr. l. c, Vol. XVI, 1895,

——On the Variations of the sae in Denmark. Extr. Zoologist, 1895.

——On a new Typhlops eter confounded with T. unguirostris Peters.

Extr. Proceeds. Linn. Soc. N. S. W. S. 2, Vol. IX, 1894. From the author

Bulletins No. 118, 119, 1895, North Carolina Agricultural secant Sta-

tion.

Bulletin of the U. S. Fish Commission, Vol. XIV, for 1894.

pias etins No. 24, 25, 1895, Wyoming Experiment Station, University of Wy-

Canta. W. 8.—Physiological Action of Kreatin in Porai and Tuberculous

Animals. Detroit, 1892. From the author.

CASTILLO, A, DEL Y J. G. AGUILERA, —Fauna Fossil de la Sierra Catorce San

Louis Potosi. Bol. de la Com. Geol. de Mexico Num. 1, Mexico, 1895. From

the Commission.

Cook, O. F. anD G. N. CoLLINs.—The Myriapoda collected by the United

States Eclipse Expedition to West Africa in 1889-1890. Extr. Ann. New York

Acad. Sci., Vol. VIII. From the author.

Cross, W.—Post-Laramie ear of Colorado Rew: Am. Journ Sci., Vol.

XLIV, 1892. From the au

€ R, A. A.—Crimson beni and Other Topics. Bull. 125, 1895, Michi-

gan State Ages. Exper. Station.

Dean, BasHForD.—The Marine Biological Laboratories of Europe. Biol.

Lect. No. ae delivered at Wood’s Holl in 1893.

— Recent Experiments in Sturgeon Hatching on the Delaware. Extr.

oe New York Acad. Sci., 1893.

Early Development of the Gar-Pike oy Sturgeon. Extr. Journ.

Masia, Vol. XI, No. 1, 1895, From the aw

1896.] Recent. Books and Pamphlets. 659

Druiescu, H. AND T. H. Morcan.—Zu. Analysis der Ersten; Entwickelungssta-

dien des Ctenophoreneies.. Aus Archiv fiir Entwickelungsmechanik des Organ-

ismen, IT Bd., 2 Heft. ee 18067

DURAND, J. P.—Question Zoologi Extr. Bull. Soc.

Anthropol., Paris, 1895. PESAR Naturelle des Formes Animales. Extr- Re-

vue Scientif., 1888. From the author.

Essarts, A.—Apercu historique sur la doctrine du Polozoism humain. Extr.

rn. des Inventeurs. Paris, 1895. From the author

Exhibit of the Smithsonian Institution at the Cotton States Exposition, Atlanta,

1895. ;

Fraser, A.—A Case of Porencephaly. Extr. Journ. Mental Sci., 1894.

——Morphological Papers. Extr. Trans. Roy. Acad. Med. in Ireland, Vol.

XII, 1895. From the author.

FRAZER, P.—In Memoriam, Edward Yorke Macauley, Rear Admiral U. S. N.

Extr. Proceeds. Amer,"Philos. Soc., Vol. XXXIV. From the author.

Goong, G. B.—An Account of the Smithsonian Institntion. Its Origin, His-

cate Objects and Achievements. Wash ington,

NET, C.—Sur foa media, V. silvestris et V. saxonica. Extr. Mém. Soc.

kad. ds l'Oise T. XVI, 1895.

Sur l’Organe de ag ck tibio-tarsien de Myrmica rubra L. race levino-

dis me Extr. Ann. Soc. Entomol. de France, Vol. LXIII, 1894.

r Vespa germanica et y. vulgaris. Limoges, 1895.

e les nids de la Vespa crabro. Extr. Comptes rendus, Paris, 1894.

— Sur la Vespa crabro. Conservation de la chaleur dans le nid, 1 c., 1895.

__Observations sur les Frelons. L. ¢., 1895. From the author

Kepzir, R. C.—Fertilizer Analyses. Bull. 126, Michigan State Agric. Coll.

Exper. Station.

Kemp, J. F.—Crystalline Limestones, Ophicalcites and associated Schists of

the Eastern Adirondacks. Contrib. Geol. Dept. Columbia Coll. No. XXVII,

1895. From the author.

LAHILLE, F. ~Conteibeickom al Estudio des las phe: Argentinus. Extr- Re~

vista Mus. de la Plata, T. VI, 1895. From the

Le. Conte, J.—Critical Periods. in the i sery the Earth. Extr. Bull.

Dept. Geol. Univ. California, Vol. I, 1895.

Levy, L. E.—The Russian-Jewish Refugees in America. Philadelphia, 1895.

From the author.

Mercer, H. C.—Re-exploration of nepe s Cave, near Stroudsburg, Penn~

FN 1893. Extr. Proceeds. Phila. Acad. Nat. Sci, 1894. From. the

‘Mee C; $.—Annual Address. Extr. Trans. Penna. Homeopath. Med.

Soc., 1895. From the author.

Mrs ukur!, K. AND S. IkepA.—Notes on a gigantic Cephalopod. Extr. Zool.

Mag., Vol. VII, 1895.

Morcan, T. H.—The Fertilization of non -nucleated Fragments of Echinoderm

Cina nero: Studies of the Blastula | und Gastrula Stages of Echinus.

Organismen, II. Bd. 2 Heft,

——Aus Archiv für En g

Leipzig, 1895. ron the author.

660 The American Naturalist. [August,

Outver, C. A.—A Short note upon so-called ‘‘Hereditary Optic Nerve Atrophy”

as’ a Contribution to the Question of Transmission of Structural Peculiarity.

Extr. Proceeds. Amer. Philos. Soc., Vol. XXXII.

Scott, W. B.—Protoptychus hatcherii, a new Rodent = = Uinta Eocene.

Extr. Dioki Phila. Acad. Nat. Sci., 1895. From the

SHIPLEY, S. R.—Gold, Silver and Monor. Extr. iier Tui 1895. From

the author.

Stiles, C. W.—Notes on Parasites 32, 33, 34, 38 and 39. Extr. Veterinary

Mag , 1895. — The Anatomy of the large American Fluke, Fasciola magna and

a comparison with other species of the genus Fasciola, S. St. with a list of the

chief Epizootics of Fascioliasis, and a Bibliography of Fasciola hepatica by Albert

Hassali. Extr. Journ. Comp. Med. & Veterinary Arch., 1894-1895. From the

author.

Waite, C. A.—The Bear River Fauna and its Characteristic Fauna. Bull.

U. S. Geol. Surv., No. 128. Washington, 1895. From the author.

Witson, E. B.—An Atlas of the Fertilization and Karyokinesis of the Ovum.

New York and London, 1895, Macmillan & Co. From the author

General Notes.

PETROGRA PHY.’ |

The Eruptives and Tuffs of Tetschen.—Two interesting arti-

cles on the area of crystalline rocks east of Tetschen on the Elbe, have

appeared simultaneously. The first, by Hibsch, is a description of

the Tetschen’ sheet of the map of the Bohemian Mittlegebirges, and the

second by Graber,’ is on the fragments and bombs occurring in the

tephrite tuffs of the region.

The voleanic rocks of the district are interbedded basalts, tuffites,

tuffs and tephrites, of which the fragmental rocks are in greatest abun-

dance. Augitites also occur as sheets, and camptonites as dykes in

upper Cretaceous marls. The older igneous rocks are granitites and

diabases that are associated with clay slates, probably of Cambrian age.

Analyses of each of these rocks are given but the rocks are not de-

scribed in detail. The greater portion of the author’s article deals

with the volcanic rocks. The tuffs are composed of basaltic and teph-

ritic fragments of the coarseness of sand in some cases, and in others of

1 Edited by Dr. W. S. Bayley, Colby University, Waterville, Me.

2 Min. u. Petrog. Mitth,, XV, 1895, p. 201.

*Ib., p. 291.

1896.] Petrography. 661

pieces several feet in diameter. These are cemented together by finer

portions of the same substances, among which have been deposited zeo-

lites, carbonates, opal and other secondary minerals. Some beds of

this tuff are so filled with large fragments of basalt, tephrite, ete., that

the rock composing it has been called the “ Brocken Tuff.” Itis to

the study of the fragments in this tuff that Graber’s paper is devoted.

The basalts and tephrites constitute sheets and lava streams that are

interstratified with the tuffs and sediments. Among the former rocks

are noticed feldspathic, leucitic and nephelinic varieties, besides in

several places magma-basalts. In addition to sheet basalts, dykes and

chimneys of this rock have also been observed.

The rocks in all their forms are normal in their development. The

author regards contact action around the chimneys as the safest crite-

rion by which to distinguish these forms from denuded sheets and

flows. The tephrites comprise hauyn-tephrites, in which hornblende

and aegerine are present, nepheline-tephrite, including trachytic and

andesitic varieties, and leucite-tephrite composed of phenocrysts of

augite, plagioclase and grains of magnetite in a groundmass of these

same components, and leucite, biotite and nepheline.

The augite consists of two generations of magnetite and augite in a

glassy base. Its analysis gave:

SiO, TiO, P,O, Al,O, Fe,O, FeO CaO MgO K,O Na,O H,O Moisture Total

43.35 1.48 1.54 11.46 11.98 2.26 7.76 11.69 .99 3.88 241 59 ==99.34

The feldspathic basalt and the andesitic tephrite are the only rocks

that seem to have affected the sediments with which they are in con-

tact. Quartzites are changed to aggregates of quartz grains in a glass

matrix, where the action is not extremely severe, and to an aggregate

of interlocking quartz grains where it has been intense. The article

closes with an account of the detailed results of analysis of ten speci-

mens of the voleanic rocks.

Graber’s article is devoted principally to a description of the frag-

ments found in the Brocken-tuff. These are all tephritic rocks, among

which andesitic, leucitic and phonolitic types are recognized. The

characteristics of the components of all these types are portrayed in

great detail, especial care being given to the descriptions of the augite

and the plagioclase. The phonolitic tephrite is characterized by the

presence of nosean, which is in irregular grains, In the andesitie teph-

rite, which is the most basic variety, the porphyritic augite has an ex-

tinction angle cA C of 58°-62°, in the leucitic type its extinction is

662 - The American Naturalist. [August,

52°-56° and in the phonolitic type, the most acid variety, it is 50°-

53°. In each of the types labradorite and sometimes oligoclase phen-

ocrysts are common, but the feldspar of the groundmass differs in

character in the different types. In the andesitic type it is oligoclase,

in the leucite variety andesine, and in the phonolitic type sanidine.

A Nepheline-Syenite Bowlder from Ohio.—Miss Bascom‘

has found in the drift near Columbus, Ohio, a bowlder which consists

of nepheline-syenite porphyry. The rock is composed of large pheno-

crysts of oligoclase and smaller ones of nepheline, augite, hornblende

and olivine in a groundmass composed of plagioclase and orthoclase

laths, hornblende, biotite, augite and magnetite in a feldspathic mat-

rix.

Crystalline Rocks of New Jersey.—In a report on the Arch-

ean Highlands of New Jersey, Westgate’ states that the northern half

of Jenny Jump Mt., Warren Co., consists mainly of gneisses with a

small area of crystalline limestone, diorites, gneisses, etc. The gneisses

are granitoid biotite-hornblende varieties, biotite-gneisses and horn-

blende-pyroxene gneisses. In the first named variety the prevailing

feldspars are microcline and microperthite, and in the pyroxene gneisses

plagioclase and orthoclase. The gneisses are cut by pegmatite dykes,

amphibolites and diabases.

Associated with the white crystalline limestones are fibrolite and bio-

tite gneisses, hornblendic gneiss, amphibolites, gabbros, norites and

diorites, most of the latter of which show evidence of an eruptive origin.

Another type of rock often found associated with the limestones is a

quartz-pyroxene aggregate, in which the pyroxene is a green or white

monoclinic augite. The limestone, the fibrolite and biotite gneisses and

the quartz-pyroxene rock are thought to be metamorphosed sediments.

Simple Crystalline Rocks from India and Australia.—Judd*

gives us an account of several simple crystalline rocks from India and

Australia. One is a corundum rock composed principally of corundum

grains with rutile, picotite, diaspore and fuchsite as accessory consti-

tuents. The corundum is in part pale colored and in part strongly

pleochroic. The grains of the latter extinguish together producing

with the former a micro-poicilitic structure. One of the specimens ex-

amined came from South Rewah and the other from the Mysore State.

* Journ. Geol., Vol. IV, p. 160.

5 Ann. Report State Geol, of New Jersey for 1895. Trenton, New Jersey,

1896, p. 21-61.

ê Mineralogical Magazine, Vol. XI, p. 56.

1896.] Petrograp hy. 663

Associated with the corundum in the Mysore State is a fibrolite rock.

A tourmaline rock from the Kolar gold field in the same State and

from North Arcot and Salem in Madras, consists of twisted and bent

tourmaline fibres in a matrix of smaller fibres of the same substance.

In the neighborhood of Bingera, New South Wales, two rocks are

found as dykes cutting serpentine. One consists almost exclusively of

green garnets and the other of picotite. The former contains also gold

and chrysocolla.

The Weathering of Diabase.—Mr. Merrill’ describes the changes

that have been effected in a granular diabase at Medford, Mass., during

its disintegration into soil. Bulk analysis of the fresh and the weath-

ered rock yielded the following results:

SiO, Al,O, Fe,0, FeO CaO MgO MnO K,O Na,O P,O, Ign Total

Fresh 47.28 20.22 3.66 8.89 7.09 3.17 .77 2.16 3.94 .68 2.73—100.59

Weathered 44.44 23.19 12.70 6.03 2.82 52 1.75 3.93 .70 3.73= 99.81

The disintegration of the rock is accompanied by a leaching out of its

most soluble constituents. Assuming that the alumnia has remained

unchanged in quantity in the course of the disintegration, the percent-

age of each constituent lost in this process is shown to be as follows:

SiO, Al,O, FeO, FeO CaO MgO MnO KO Nao P,O, Ign

18.03 .00 18.10 25.89 21.70 41.57 29.15 12.83 11.39 .00

The paper is full of valuable suggestions that cannot be even referred

to in these notes.

Petrographical Notes.—Transitions from massive anorthosites

into augen gneisses and into thinly foliated gneisses and transitions

from olivine gabbro into hornblende schists are briefly described by

Kemp* in a preliminary article on the dynamic metamorphism of

anorthosites and related rocks in the Adirondacks.

Pirsson® suggests the use of the word anhedron to express the mean-

ing usually expressed in the phrase ‘hypidiomorphic form.’ An anhe-

dron is a body with the physical constitution and properties of a crystal

but without the crystallographic form. The term may be conveniently

applied to the crystalline grains in rock masses. .

7 Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. 7, p. 349.

8 Bull. Geol. Soc, Amer., Vol. 7, p. 488.

9Ib., Vol. 7, p. 492.

46

664 The American Naturalist, [August,

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.

The Limestones of the Jenny Jump Mountains, New

Jersey.—Accompanying the report on the Archean Geology of New

Jersey, by Mr. J. E. Wolff is a paper by Mr. L. G. Westgate on the

Geology of Jenny Jump Mountain, chiefly interesting on account of

the conclusions reached by the author concerning the crystalline lime-

stones of that region.

The area under consideration embraces the northern half of Jenny

Jump mountain in Warren county, New Jersey. This mountains lies

along the northwestern border of the highland area, and is a sort of

outlier or peninsula reaching into the later Paleozoic rocks. The main

ridge of the mountain consists of gneisses; the limestone occurs at its

extreme northeastern end, with outcrops along the southeast border of

the mountain.

The author discusses in detail the position, lithology and relations to

the crystalline limestones in other parts of New Jersey, and reviews

the views of previous writers as to the age of the Sussex county lime-

stone, whizh has generally been considered the type and representative

of other localities. Mr. diab views are given in the following

summary

“The crystalline limestones of Warren county are believed to be dis-

tinct from and older than the blue magnesian limestone of Cambrian

age, which occurs along the northwestern side of the New Jersey High-

lands. They are believed to be distinct, for the following reasons.”

“1. They differ lithologically from the blue limestone in being

thoroughly crystalline, and in containing large amounts of accessory

metamorphic minerals.”

“2. They are intimately associated with and apparently interbedded

with the older gneisses; and gneisses occur also interbedded in the

limestone.”

“3. They show no intimate association in areal distribution with the

blue limestone, nor any tendency to grade into it.”

“4, The metamorphic changes to which the white limestones have

been subjected are general in their nature, and are not due to the action

of the eruptives by which they are cut; so that no sufficient agent is at

hand to account for the supposed change from blue into white lime-

stone.”

1896.] Geology and Paleontology. 665

“ The white limestones are believed to be older than the blue Cam-

brian limestone, because (1) they occur in intimate association with the

gneisses which are of admitted pre-Cambrian age, and because (2) they

have been subjected to general metamorphic forces resulting in great

changes, of which the neighboring blue limestone shows no traces.”

“ That the other crystalline limestones of New Jersey are of the same

age as those of Warren county, has not been proved. The theory has

generally been that they are. If they are, and if the position taken in

the present paper is valid, then the crystalline limestones of Sussex

county, and of other places in New Jersey, would also be, as they have

generally been supposed to be, of pre-Cambrian or Archean age.”

(Ann. Rept., New Jersey State Geologist for 1895. Trenton, 1896.)

Unios from the Trias.—Four new Triassic Unios are described

> by Mr. C. T. Simpson. The collection of which they form a part was

obtained from the Dockum beds, a formation underlying the Staked

Plains of Texas. Taken as a whole, these Unios closely resemble in

form, and are apparently nearly related to those of the Jurassic beds

of North America, while 3 of the species bring to mind most strongly

the species which now inhabit Europe and western Asia, and a small

group belonging to the Mississippi area. The variety of characters dis-

played by these Triassic Unios go to show that the genus must have

been well established at the time the Dockum beds were laid down,

thus tending to overthrow Neumayer’s theory that the Unionidx were

derived from the genus Trigonia, which probably does not date back

to a period earlier than that of the shells under consideration. (Pro-

ceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVIII, 1895.)

The Cadurcotherium.—M. Boule calls attention to the recent

discovery of the lower jaw of a Cadurcotherium (Gerv.) at Barliére

(Haut-Loire). The specimen denotes an animal of the size of a small

rhinoceros. It was found in oligocene arkoses associated with a fine

mandible of Elotherium magnum, and fragments of Aceratherium, and

the remains of turtles. Until now Cadurcotherium has been repre-

sented by isolated teeth and fragments of mandibles. The new find is

important, showing the animal to be unique among its contemporaries.

It presents certain resemblances to South American types—notic-

ably Astrapotherium of the Patagonian Eocene, but is, according to

Osborn really related to the rhinocerontic genus Metamynodon.

Notes on the Fossil Mammalia of Europe, V—The Phy-

logeny of Anoplotherium.—The early attempts at the construction

of a phylogeny of the even-toed ungulates, included the genus Anoplo-

666 The American Naturalist. [August,

therium, which was considered by Paleontologists of twenty-five years

ago, as a primitive form, especially in its foot structure, Anoplotherium

certainly possesses a number of primitive characters in its manus and

pes, such as the separation of the metatarsals, and the non-fusion of the

podial elements, but the inadaptive reduction of its digits, as pointed

out by Kowalevsky and the peculiar position of the pollux and hallux,

excludes the possibility of placing Anoplotherium in the direct line

leading to any of the living Artiodactyla.

I propose in this short paper to attempt to prove, that Anoplotherium

has been probably derived from Dacrytherium, a closely allied genus,

but whose foot structure is normal and which resembles that of many of

the early Eocene Artiodactyla such as Cainotherium. Prof Cope' sug-

gested that Cebochwrus may have been the ancestor of Anoplotherium,

but the structure of the skull in Cebocherus, is already quite modern-

ized, nearly as much so as in the true pigs, consequently I am inclined

to think that we shall have to look for some other form as ancestral to

Anoplotherium.

The general form of the skull in Daerytherium is like that of Anoplo-

therium, however, in Dacrytherium there is a strongly pronounced pre-

orbital fossa, which is absent in Anoplotherium. The crowns of the

upper teeth in Dacrytherium are low and primitive in structure. They

exhibit rounded external crescents, which are not at all angular. In

Anoplotherium, especially the large species, the crowns of the superior

true molars are more lengthened than in Dacrytherium and the external

crescents are angular and broad. We see this change in many mam-

malian phyla from extremely low crowned molars, to those which are

tending to the hypselodont condition. As regards the intermediate

stage, between Dacrytherium and Anoplotherium, as to the height of

the molars, this is found in the genus Diplobune.

The lower true molars of Daerytherium exhibit two internal cones,

which is the normal number in the Artiodactyla. It is interesting to

record, that I have noticed in a number of young jaws of Dacrytherium

in which the true molars were just coming through, that the antero-

internal cusp, which is single in the adult, shows a slight reduplication,

which is the normal condition in Diplobune. The division of the meta-

conid is carried still further in the largest species of Anoplotherium,

although I have examined many jaws from the Phosphorites of the

Anoplotherium, and I can confidently state, that all gradations exist

between the complete isolation of the two antero-internal cusps of the

typical forms of Anoplotherium, and the single condition of these cusps,

1 Artiodactyla, AMERICAN NATURALIST, Dec., 1888, p. 1083.

1896.] Geology and Paleontology. 667

+

which is found in the supposed ancestral genus, Daerytherium. Accord-

ingly I am not acquainted with any good generic character at present,

which will distinguish the so-called genus Diplobune from Anoplother-

ium, as in many cases in jaws from the Phosphorites, it is impossible to

say whether they belong to Anoplotherium or Diplobune. Dr. Henri

Filhol informed me that he was of the same opinion, in regard to the

validity of the genus Diplobune.

In Dacrytherium the hind foot has at least four well developed toes

and the internal digit is not placed at an angle with the others as in

Anoplotherium. This structure of the pes is just what one would

expect to find in a genus standing in ancestral relationship to the more

specialized members of the Anoplotheriide. Granting that Dacryther-

ium fulfills in most of its characters, what we require of a form, supposed

to be ancestral to Anoplotherium, there is still the presence in Daery-

therium of a preorbital fossa, which is absent in theskull of Anoplother-

ium, and also another objection, is, that Dacrytherium has claw-like un-

gual phalanges, much as in Agriocherus. I believe, however, the ex-

tremely compressed ungual phalanges of Dacrytherium is of little weight

against this genus being ancestral to Anoplotherium, for in the latter

these phalanges are rather compressed, more so than in the normal

Artiodactyles, and they could be easily derived from those of Daery-

therium. The structure of the skull is not known in all the species of

Anoplotherium, and one of them may have had a skull with a preorbital

fossa, which is so characteristic of Dacrytherium.

As is well known, the original specimens of the manus and pes of

Anoplotherium commune, which are in the Muséum d’ Histoire Natur-.

elle, Paris, show only two well developed digits as restored by Cuvier.

This restoration of the feet of Anoplotherium is shown by Schlosser and

Zittell to have been an error on the part of Cuvier, and I quite agree

with these authors on this point. Prof. Zittell in his “ Traité de Paleon-

tologie” in speaking of the structure of the feet in Anoplotherium re-

marks “La plupart des représentation de la patte d’ Anoplotherium

faites jusqus à present omettent par erreur à la patte antérieur |’ index

et le rudiment de pouce, à la patte postérieur le second doigt.” I have

examined a fine cast of the hind foot of Anoplotherium commune and I

find that the restoration of the internal portion as completed by Cuvier

is quite erroneous. The two small bones placed by him on the tibular

side of the pes do not at all fit the facets on which they are placed. The

broad and obliquely placed facet on Mt. 111 in A. commune is for the

large and wide spreading second digit, this same structure of the meta-

tarsal occurs in A. (Kurytherium) latipes of the upper Eocene of Dé-

bruge.

668 The American Naturalist. [August,

Summing up the principal changes which have occured in the evolu-

tion of Anoplotherium from Dacrytherium, I emphasize the following :

1. Increase in height of the crowns of the upper molars, and the redu-

plication of the metaconid of the lower molars, this division of the meta-

conid is found in an incipient condition in young jaws of Dacrytherium.

Complete separation of the metaconid into two distinct cusps only

occurs in some forms of Anoplotherium. 2. The hind foot of Daery-

therium is normal in structure, and has at least four toes, this is the

primitive type of pes, from which the specialized fost of Anoplotherium

has been derived.

Note.—In my “Notes on the Fossil Mammalia of Europe,” part

II, American NATURALIST, April, 1896, I find two mistakes, which

should be corrected. On page 309, third and fifth lines from top, read

Adriotherium, instead of Adiotherium as printed, and also page 310,

eighth line from the bottom, read Anoplotheriide, in place of Suillines.

— CHARLES EARLE..

BOTANY:.'

De Toni’s Sylloge Algarum.—Dr. De Toni’ has recently issued

the third volume of his Sylloge Algarum. It deals entirely with the

Brown Algæ or Phaeophycee—the FucotpE® as he calls them. A

thousand species are described under one hundred and eighty genera,

which are grouped into twenty-nine families. He divides the group into

three orders, Cyclosporine, (Fucacex) Tetrasporine (Dictyoter) Phæo-

zoosporine (Phsevzoosporez ).

Splanchnidium rugosum the interesting plant which after careful

study was placed by M. O. Mitchell and F. G. Whiting’ in the Phæo-

sporin, is retained in the Durvilleacee, the fruit being described as a

polysporous oogone. The general appearance of the plant and the

structure of the conceptacles suggest a close relationship with the

fucoids, but if the above investigations are to be accepted the plant

1 Edited by Prof. C. E. Bessey, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska.

2 Sylloge Algarum Omnium Hucusque cognitarum by J. Bapt. De Toni, Vol. III,

—.

hnidi im Grey. the type of a new order of Algæ, Phycolog-

ical Memoirs, BLE 1892,

1896.] Botany. 669

, bears zoospores in the conceptacles and not oogones, hence it must be

placed in the Zéosporine.

The treatment of the Zoosporinz is practically that of Kjellman in

Engler and Prantl’s, Pflanzenfamilien, except that the genera Litho-

derma and Arthrocladia are placed in families by themselves, instead

of in the Ralfsiacee and Desmarestiacee respectively, and that De Toni

has included five small, mostly, monogeneric families, the Phaothamni-

ace, Pheocapsacee, Hydruracee, Chromonodacee and Chromophyto-

nacee not mentioned by Kjellman. In All the Zoosporinz except the

above families the zoospores as far as known are laterally biciliated and

are borne in some form of zéosporangia. In these families there are

no zoosporangia and in at least a part of them the zoospores are not

laterally biciliated and in general their relationship seems to be with

the Chlorophycee. It seems more natural to place them, as Wille has

with some of them, in the Chlorophycee next to their closely related

genera.

The book is well arranged; priority in class, ordinal and family.

nomenclature is strictly observed. It will be indispensible to the spe-

cialist in this line and a great help to the general student.— Dr ALTON

SAUNDERS.

The Flora of the Black Hills of South Dakota.—In a recent

number of the Contributions from the U. 8. National Herbarium (Vol.

III, No. 8; issued June 13, 1896), P. A. Rydberg gives the results of

his explorations (in 1892) of the Black Hills of South Dakota. The

report, which includes about eighty pages, includes the following, viz. :

Itinerary, Geography, Geology, Altitudes, Precipitation and Tempera-

ture, Floral Districts, General Remarks, and the Catalogue of Species.

The plates are a Map of the Black Hills, Aquilegia brevistyla, Aqui-

legia saximontana and Poa peeudopratensis. The floral districts recog-

nized by the author are five, viz.: (1), the foothills and surrounding

plains, (2), the Minnekata Plains, (3), the Harney Mountain Range,

(4), the Limestone District, (5), the Northern Hills.

In summing up his discussion of the vegetation of these districts the

author says, “ From the foregoing can be seen what a varied flora the

Black Hills have. There are found plants from the East, from the

Saskatchewan region, from the prairies and table-lands west of the

Missouri River, from the Rocky Mountains, and even from the region

west thereof. In the foothills and the lower parts of the Hills proper

the flora is essentially the same as that of the surrounding plains, with

an addition of eastern plants that have ascended the streams. In the

higher parts the flora is more ofa Northern origin, Most of the plants

670 The American Naturalist. [August,

composing it are of a more or less transcontinental distribution, but

often characteristic of a higher latitude. Some can be said to belong

to the Rocky Mountain Region. The only trees of western origin are

Pinus ponderosa scopulorum, and Betula occidentalis; the others are

eastern, or transcontinental. The flora resembles, therefore, more that

of the region around the Great Lakes than that of the Rockies.”

It merely remains to say that the nomenclature and capitalization

(all specific names decapitalized) of this interesting and valuable re-

port are of the most advanced type—CHARLEs E. Brssry

Trelease’s Hickories and Walnuts ofthe United States.—

Dr. Trelease has rendered a good service to the botanists of the country

by publishing (in the Seventh Annual Report of the Missouri Botan-

ical Garden) the results of his studies of the Juglandacex of the United

States, especially with reference to their winter characters. The species

recognized are:

Hicoria pecan (Marshall) Britton—lIowa to Southern Indiana,

Kentucky, Louisiana and Texas, extending into Mexico.

H. myristiceformis (Michx. f.) Britton —Arkansas to Alabama, Texas

and Mexico, and in South Carolina.

H. aquatica (Michx. f.) Britton.— Virginia to Florida, around the

Gulf to Texas, thence north to Arkansas and southern Illinois.

H. minima (Marshall) Britton —Canada and Maine to Minnesota

and Nebraska, south to Texas and Florida.

H. glabra (Miller) Britton.—Atlantic region from Massachusetts

and Pennsylvania to Florida.—var. odorata (Marshall) Sargent.—

Mississippi valley eastward, and from Canada to the Gulf.—var. villosa

Sargent.—Missouri, on flinty hills—var. microcarpa (Nuttall) Sar-

gent.—Same range as var. odorata.

. H. alba (L.) Britton —Canada to the Great Lakes and Kansas,

south to Texas and Florida.

H. mexicana (Engelm.) Britton.—-Mexico, in mountains of Alvarez.

H. laciniosa (Michx.) Sargent—New York and Pennsylvania to

Iowa, Kansas and the Indian Territory.

H. ovata (Miller) Britton.—Canada to Minnesota, south to Florida,

Kansas and Texas

Juglans cinerea p ates Brunswick to Dakota, Kansas, and the

Mountains of Georgia and Alabama.

d. rupestris Engelmann.—Texas, New Mexico and Arizona, extend-

ing into Mexico.

J. californica Watson.—Coast range of southern California,

1896.] Botany. 671

J. nigra L.—Massachusetts to Ontario and Minnesota, south to the

Gulf.

The paper is accompanied by twenty five plates of trees, bark, buds,

leaves and fruits.—CHARLES E. BESSEY.

Diseases of Citrous Fruits.—This recently issued bulletin (8) of

the Division of Vegetable Pathology, of the U. S. Department of Agri-

culture, prepared by W. T. Swingle and H. J. Webber is a valuable

contribution to science as well as horticulture. The diseases discussed

are Blight, Die-back, Scab, Sooty-mold, Foot-rot, and Melanose. Eight

good plates (three colored) accompany the paper.

Mulford’s Agaves of the United States.—In the seventh vol-

ume of the annual report of the Missouri Botanical Garden, Miss A.

Isabel Mulford publishes a monograph of the genus Agave so far as the

species native to or growing spontaneously in the United States, are con-

cerned, Sixteen species and four varieties are recognized, distributed

as follows:

A, virginica L.—Maryland to Florida, Indiana, Missouri and Texas.

_ A. virginica var. tigrina Englem.—South Carolina.

A. variegata Jacobi.—Lower Rio Grande Valley, Texas.

A, maculata Regel.?—southern Texas.

A, schottii Engelm.—southern Arizona.

A, schottii var. serrulata n. var.—Rincon Mts., Arizona.

A, parviflora Torrey —Mts. of Arizona.

A. lechuguilla Torrey.—west Texas and east New Mexico.

A. utahensis Engelm.—Utah, northern Arizona, southern California

and Nevada.

A. deserti Engelm. —southern California.

A. applanata Lemaire.— as.

A. applanata var. parryi (Engelm.) —southern New Mexico to cen-

tral Arizona.

A. applanata var. huachucensis (Baker).—Huahuca Mts., Arizona.

A, shawii Engelm.—southwestern California.

A. palmeri Engelm.—southeastern Arizona and southwestern New

Mexico.

A, asperrima Jacobi.—Spontaneous near San Antonio, Texas. =

A. americana L.—Spontaneous in southern Texas.

A. rigida sisalana Engelm.—Naturalized in Florida.

A. decipiens Baker.—southeastern Florida.

A. sp.—Florida.

A. sp.—Texas.

672 The American Naturalist. [ August,

It is with great pleasure that we observe the great reluctance of

the author to establish new species; on the contrary she has refrained

from giving names where most monographers would certainly have

done so. Thus on page 96, after a description which might have been

considered adequate, (at least by those who are fond of seeing their

names cited in connection with specific names) the author says: “ To

avoid further confusion in nomenclature I refrain from giving a

name to this plant until it is possible to obtain further data.” We

would commend this sentence to the careful consideration of a certain

class of botanists who are apparently more anxious for their own

“ credit” than for the progress of the science.

Thirty eight plates, many of them half-tone reproductions of photog-

raphs, accompany this useful paper. If space permitted we should be

glad to quote from the author’s introductory discussion, which is full

of interesting facts and suggestions ; thus a case is cited in which the

flower-stalk grew for twenty days at the average rate of two and three-

fourths inches per day !—CHARLES E. Bessey.

i ZOOLOGY.

Sense of Sight in Spiders.—A detailed account of the experi-

ments conducted by G. W. and E. G. Peckham for testing (1) the

range of vision and (2) the color sense of spiders is published in a late

volume of the Trans. Wisconsin Academy. The evidence offered by

the authors is based upon a study of twenty species of Attide. This

study has extended over eight successive summers, during which notes

were made of many hundreds of observations. The movements and

attitudes of the spiders of the group chosen are wonderfully vivid and

expressive. The males, in the mating season, throw themselves into

one position when they catch sight of a female, and into quite another

at the appearance of another male. This power of expression through

different attitudes and movements is of great assistance in determining

not only its range of sight, but also its power of distinct vision.

The spiders were confined in boxes, the sides of which were marked

off into inches. The bottom was of cotton cloth, the top of glass. Notes

were taken of the distances at which prey was noticed, followed and

captured. During their mating season the evidence was conclusive that

these spiders not only see, but see clearly at considerable distance, The

1896.] Zoology. 673

following description of one of the many experiments described in the

article serves to show the method of investigation:

A male of Saitis pulex was put into a box containing a female of the

same species. “The female was standing perfectly motionless, twelve

inches away, and three aud a half inches higher than the male. He

perceived her at once, lifting his head with an elert and excited ex-

pression, and went bounding toward her. This he would not have

done if he had not recognized her as a spider of his own species.

When four and one-half inches from her he began the regular display

of this species, which consists of a pecular dance. This he would not

have done had he not recognized her sex.”

At another time a male of Hasarius hoyi was dropped into a box

with another male which was standing seven inches away. “He at

once threw up his first legs, this being a challenge to battle. The other

male responded by throwing up his first legs. The two advanced upon

each other slowly, and when only two inches apart began to circle

about each other, waving their legs. The same male when put into a

box with a female saw her as she stood quite eleven inches away, and

at once lifted his first legs, not straight up, as in the case with the

other male, but obliquely, and began to move with a gliding gait from

side to side, this being the characteristic display before the females in

this species.”

That the spiders recognize each other by sight and not by any other

sense is evidently shown by the fact that they remain unconscious of

each other’s presence when back to back, no matter how excitable they

are when they come within range of each other’s vision. As a further

evidence of recognition by sight a male of Dendryphantes elegans was

removed from the box in the midst of his courtship of a female, his

eyes gently blinded with paraffine, and then restored to the box. He

remained entirely indifferent to the presence of the charmer that had

so much excited him a few moments before.

To sum up the result of these experiments:

“The Attidæ see their prey (which consists of small insects) when

it is motionless, at the distance of five inches; they see insects in mo-

tion at much greater distances ; they see each other distinetly up to at

least twelve inches. The observations on blinded spiders, and the

numerous instances in which spiders were close together, and yet out

of sight of each other, showing that they were unconscious of each

other’s presence, render any other explanation of their action unsatis-

factory. Sight guides them, not smell.”

.

674 The American Naturalist. [August,

As to a color-sense in spiders, the authors are of the opinion that

their experiments, while not conclusive, yet all taken together, strongly

indicate that spiders have the power of distinguishing colors. (Trans.

Wisconsin Acad. Sciences, Vol. X, 1895.)

Classification and Geographical Distribution of the Nai-

ades.—In his study of the fresh water pearly muscles, Mr. Simpson

finds that the division of these mollusks into two families, Unionidæ

and Mutelidee, founded on the completeness or incompleteness of the de-

velopment of the siphons, cannot stand. He accordingly diagnoses the

two families on the basis of the shell characters, and finds that his dis-

tinctions fully agree with what is known of the facts of geographical

distribution of the paleontology of the Naiades, and the classification

of v. Ihering, based on the characters of the embryos. The Unionide,

as defined by the author, include the genera Unio Retzius, Anodonta

Lamark, Prisodon Schumacher, Tetraplodon Spix, Castalina v. Iher-

ing, Burtonia Bourguignat, Arconaia Conrad, Cristaria Schumacher,

Lepidodesma Simpson, Pseudodon Gould, Leguminaia Conrad and

Solenaia Conrad. In the Mutelide he places the following genera :—

Mutela Scopoli, Chelidonopsis Ansey, Spatha Lea, Pliodon Conrad,

Brazzea Bourguignat, Glabaris Gray, Iheringella Pilsbry, Monocon-

dyiæa d'Orbigny, Fossula Lea, Mycetopoda d’Orbigny.

The author considers the relationship between these two great groups

as not a very close one. The Unionide are characterized by schizodont

teeth and a glochidium embryo. The Mutelide have taxodont teeth,

and, so far as is known, the embryo is a lasidium.

Mr. Simpson finds that the Naiades are capable of being grouped into

assemblages of related forms which have a more or less immediate

common ancestry ; and on the basis of this grouping they are distri-

buted into eight provinces, as is shown in the following table: |

( Europe.

Northern and Western Asia.

North Pacific to the Desert.

Pacific drainage of North America.

Palearctic, .

Ethiopi i o -.. 5. Africa south of the Sahara,

ś Asia south of the Himala

Oriental, f East Indies to the seny Islands.

: Australia.

Australian, Tasmania.

New Zealand.

Neotropical, . . . . South America.

1896.) Zoology. 675

Central America

Central American, . none east of the Cordillera.

ge from West Florida to the Rio

Mississippian, .

. ppan, Mackenzie el system.

Pa Missisippi Valley and the Gulf

4

f the North

Great La

Lower es we rence and rivers of eastern

` Atlantic, anada.

l Atlantic drainage of the United States.

The Unios date back in America to the Trias, where they were first

discoved by Prof. E. D. Cope. The relations of the existing Naiad

fauna with the fossil forms is given by the author as follows:

“The post-Cretaceous Unios of the northwestern States is evidently

closely related to the fauna of the Mississippi Valley, and this seems to

be related to that of Tropical Africa, as well as to the tertiary forms

of eastern Europe and Siberia. The Unios of Australia and South

America are apparently closely related to those of the Australian

region. There seems to be, too, a general relationship between the

Mutelide of Africa and South America. These Mutelids and the

Unios which bear the embryos in the inner gills have perhaps formerly

occupied extensive areas in the northern hemisphere, and may have

been supplanted by more modern forms.” (Proceeds. U.S. Natl. Mus.,

Vol. XVIII, 1896.)

Arkansas Fishes.—As the result of less than three weeks’ collect-

ing in western Arkansas, eastern Indian Territory and the St. Francis

River in northeastern Arkansas, Prof. Meek obtained 83 species of

fishes. A new Notropis was found in the Potean River, and a new

species of Fundulus is described from the St. Francis. Mollusks are

abundant in old river, the old channel of the St. Francis. Six species

of Unionide were found at a locality farther north than hitherto re-

ported. (Bull. U. S. Fish Commission for 1895, Wash., 1896.)

Batrachia and Reptilia ot Madagascar.—The two collections

of reptiles from Madagascar, now in the Natural History Museum of

Paris, have been examined by M. Mocquard, who reports upon them

as follows: The Grandidier collection comprises 68 species in all,

Ophidians 13, Bathrachians 20, of which 3 are new species belonging

to the genera Mantidactylus, Rhacophorus and Calophrynus. Lacer-

tilians 35, including 2 new species, referred to the genera Lygodactylus _

676 The American Naturalist. [August,

and Phyllodactylus. The Allnand and Belly collection comprise 33

Reptiles and 16 Batrachians. Among the latter are 2 new species of

Mantidactylus and 1 of Stumpffia. There are but 11 Sphidia, but

these include types of two new genera, Compsophis and Alluondina

and a new species of Pseudoxyrhopus. The Lacertilia, 22 in number,

yield 4 new species referred to the following genera: Chameleon,

Brookesia, Uroplates and Paracontias. The diagnosis of the new Rep-

tiles of this collection have been previously given in the Comptes rendus

de la Soc. Philom. for 1894.

A comparison of these two collections, with the forms described by

Prof. Boettger from Madagascar, shows that certain species considered

by him as peculiar to Nossi-Bé are found distributed all through the

northern part of the island. This is true not only of the Reptiles but

of the Batrachians also. (Bull. Soc. Philom., Paris, 1895.)

The Molting of Birds.—In a paper published recently in the

Proceeds. Phila. Acad., Mr. Witmer Stone gives a detailed account of

his observations on the molting of birds, with especial reference to the

- plumages of the smaller land birds of eastern North America. Atten-

tion is directed to the following points: order, number and times of

molt; change of color by abrasion; seasonal plumages ; direct change

of color in feathers. As a result of his studies Mr. Stone makes the

following generalizations :

T. The annual moult at the close of the breeding season is a physi-

ological necessity, and is common to all birds.

II. The spring molt and striking changes of plumage effected by

abrasion are not physiological necessities, and their extent is dependent

upon the height of development of coloration in the adult plumage,

and does not necessarily have any relation to the systematic relation-

ships of the species.

It naturally follows that closely related species may differ materially

in the number and extent of their molts, and that malesand females of

the same species differ greatly in this respect when the nuptual plu-

mage of the adult male is highly developed as compared with that of

the female or with its own winter plumage.

III. The amount of change effected in the plumage at any particular

molt varies considerably in different individuals of the same species

and sex.

IV. Some species which have a well marked spring molt in their

first and second years may discontinue it afterwards, when the adult

plumage has once been acquired. And, on the other hand, some indi-

1896.} . Entomology. 677

viduals may continue to molt in the spring, while others of the same

species cease to do so.

V. The remiges are molted less frequently than any other part of the

plumage. Asa rule, they are only renewed at the annual molt (ex-

ception Dolichonyx). :

VI. Variability in the order of molt in the remiges and presence or

absence of molt in the flight feathers at the end of the first summer are

generally family characters, i. e., Ceryie differs from any other species

treated of in this paper in the order of molt in the primaries. All

Picidæ and all Icteridæ, except Icterus (and Dolichonyx ?), molt the

flight feathers with the rest of the first plumage. None of the Oscines

except Icteride (as above), some (all?) Hirundinidx, Olocoris and

Cardinalis molt the flight feathers at this time.

Mr. Stone’s conclusions as to “ color-change without moulting ” are

the same as those reached by Chapman, in his article on “ The Changes

ot Plumage in the Dunlin and Sanderling,” namely : that color-change

without molt or abrasion is incapable of taking place from the very

nature of the structure of a feather, and that all the cases so reported

can be otherwise acconnted for. (Proceeds. Acad. Nat. Sciences,

Phila., 1896.)

The Florida Deer.—The fact that the Florida deer is but little

more than half the size of the deer of northeastern United States, to-

gether with certain cranial and dental peculiarities, is sufficient, accord-

ing to Mr. Outram Bangs, to give it full specific rank. He therefore

describes it under the name Cariacus osceola. The most striking differ-

ences between the Florida animal and its northern relatives are (1) the

shape and size of the nasal and maxillary bones, and (2) the very large

molar and premolar teeth. (Proceeds. Biol. Soc. a iaa Vol. X,

1896.)

ENTOMOLOGY."

Professor Forbes’ Eighth Report.—The nineteenth report

from the office of the State Entomologist of Illinois, covering the

years 1893-4, has recently been issued. It is the eight report of the

present incumbent, Professor S. A. Forbes, and adheres closely to the

lines of thorough and accurate record, which have made its seven pre-

decessors notable in the literature of economic entomology. The bulk

! Edited by Clarence M. Weed, New Hampshire College, Durham, N. H.

678 The American Naturalist. [Angust,

of the volume (189 pages) is devoted to the Chinch Bug—the arch-

enemy of Illinois agriculture, a voluminous record being made of the

experiments with contagious diseases carried on by the entomologist

and his assistants. There is also an article on the White Ant in Mli-

nois, and in an appendix of 65 pages Mr. W. G. Johnson, assistant

entomologist, gives an excellent discussion of the Mediterranean Flour

Moth.

Flies Riding on Beetle’s Back.—Rev. A. E. Eaton, the well-

known British entomologist, writing from Bône, Algeria, sends this

interesting note to the Entomologist’s Monthly Magazine: “Across the

mouth of the Seybouse, on sandy pasture land bordering the seashore,

big coprophagous beetles are common, sheltering in large holes in the

soil when at rest, and running about on business. A small species of

Borborine may often be seen riding on their backs, chiefly on the pro-

notum, and about the bases of the elytra—sometimes half a dozen

females on one beetle. The beetles occasionally throw themselves on

their backs to try and get rid of them by rolling; but the flies elude

all their efforts to dislodge them, dodging out of harm’s way into the

joinings of the thorax and out again, and darting from back to breast

and back again, in a way that drives the beetle nearly mad. In vain

she scrapes over them with her legs; in vain does she roll over or

delve down amongst the roots of the herbage; the flies are as active as

monkeys, and there is no shaking them off. It is difficult to get them

off into the killing bottle; nothing persuades them to fly; and they

would very much rather stick to the beetle than be driven off it down

into the tube.”

Proteid Digesting Saliva in Insect Larve.—Dr. Wilibald

Nagel describes? the method of feeding in larvæ of Dytiscus. In these

larvee the mouth is very much reduced in size, and the ingestion of food

is performed by means of suction through the much modified mandi-

bles, the process being facilitated by the powerful digestive action of

the saliva. Under natural conditions the larvæ eat only living animals,

but in captivity they will also take pieces of meat. The zaliva has a

marked poisonous action, killing other insects, and even tadpoles of

twice the size of attacking larve, very rapidly. The larvæ not only

suck the blood of their victims, but absorb the proteid substances.

Drops of salivary juice seem to paralize the victim and to ferment the

proteids. The secretion is neutral, the digestion tryptic. Similar

extra-oral digestion seems to occur in larvæ of ant-lions, etc., and

? Biol. Centralbl., XVI, 1896, 51-57, 103-112,

1896.] Entomology. 679

spiders, and according to Krause, in Cephalopods.—Journ. Royal

Micros. Society.

Weismann on Dimorphism in Butterflies.—For some time

The Entomologist has been publishing a series of interesting articles by

Dr. August Weismann on the Seasonal Dimorphism of Lepidoptera.

The June number contains a recapitulation from which we take this

extract: “Although I am far from considering the few experiments,

which I could here put forward, as sufficient for reaching a decisive

settlement of our opinions on seasonal dimorphism, yet I cannot forbear

arranging them, provisionally at least, in reference to our general con-

ceptions of the subject. When, in the year 1875, I first set about

investigating the ways of this striking and yet so long neglected phe-

nomenon, I assumed that it was to a certain extent obvious, that this

kind of dimorphism was everywhere a direct result of the various

direct influences of climate, principally of the temperature, as it effects

in regular alternation the spring and the summer brood of many-

brooded species. I had also well considered the other possibility, that

dimorphism connected with the time of the year might also depend

upon the indirect influence of the changing environment, i. e., that it

might depend upon the adaptation to the varying environment of the

butterfly according to the time of year.”

I then said : “ It is not inconceivable in itself, that phenomena occur

among the Lepidoptera analogous to the winter and summer clothing

of Alpine and Arctic mammalia and birds, only with the difference,

that the change in coloring does not arise in one and the same genera-

tion, but alternately in different ones.” But, at that time the fact that

the upper side of butterflies, which is usually not adaptive, can be very -

variable just in summer and spring, sometimes more so than the

adaptive under side, appeared to me to contradict this adaptation of

seasonal dimorphism. Yet, it was the fact, that the one or the other

seasonal form could be produced artificially by the operation of a higher

or lower temperature, i. e. the stamp of the winter form might be im-

pressed on the summer brood, and vice versa. I therefore concluded

that it was the measure of heat which was acting during the pupal

period which directly formed the species in one way or the other; and

I felt the more justified in so doing, as the climatic varieties form a

parallel to the seasonal forms, and as the former must, without doubt,

be referred to the direct influence of climate, especially of temperature.

Thus, for example, Chrysophanus phicas is seasonably dimorphic in

Sardinia and at Naples; the summer form, which develops during the

AT

680 The American Naturalist. [August,

summer heat, is very dark, almost black, but the spring form corre-

sponds with our German red-golden phlæas.

Although to-day I still look upon this view as correct, and a directly

altering effect of temperature as proved, yet I have gradually been

convinced, that this is not the sole origin of seasonally dimorphie varia-

bllity, but that there is also adaptive seasonal dimorphism. We must, I

believe, distinguish direct and adaptive seasonal dimorphism ; and, I see

in this distinction an important advance, which, before all, places us in

position to explain the results of the various experiments undertaken

by myself and others in a much more satisfactory manner.

I have already pronounced this view in a lecture delivered at Oxford

in the beginning of 1894, and I have sought to show that adaptive

seasonal dimorphism, which I had previously only put forward as possi-

ble, does actually occur. The example there given for perfect insects

was, indeed, only a hypothetical one, viz., the case of Vanessa prorsa-

levana; but for larvæ, at least, I can select an example from Edward’s

excellent work on the North American butterflies with tolerable cer-

tainty, viz., that of Lycæna pseudargiolus, which will be more accurately

iscussed later on. I did not then know what I learnt shortly after-

wards from an interesting little pamphlet of Dr. G. Brandes, that cases

of seasonal dimorphism had been known for a long time among tropical

butterflies, and that among these, at least, one of the seasonal forms

depend upon the assumption of a special protective coloring. Brandes,

maintains, with justice, that the view hitherto widely held among us is

erroneous, according to which seasonal dimorphism was not to be ex-

pected in trophical countries, since the alternation of seasons is absent

there. Periods of rain and drought, at least for many tropical coun-

tries, form such an alternation very sharply. At any rate, Doherty,

and, somewhat later, de Nicéville, have pointed out, for Indian butter-

flies, a series of seasonally dimorphic species, not merely by the observa-

tion of the alternation of the two forms in nature, but by rearing the

one form from the eggs of the other ; thus among Satyridæe of the genera

Yphthima, Mycalesis, and Melanitis, and for the species of Junonia, it

is accepted as proved; and in all these cases the difference between

the two forms principally consists in the fact that the one form seems

like a dry leaf on the under side, while the other possesses another

marking, and at the same time a number of ocelli.

Without engaging in the controversy as to the biological value of

these ocelli, I do not for a moment doubt but that the coloring with

ocelli is also an adaptive form, possibly protective or intimidating color-

ing. If one of the two forms had no biological significance, it could

1896.] . Entomology. 681

no longer exist; the single adaptive one would have replaced it. But

it is obvious that the appearance of complicated details of marking and

color, such as ocelli are, cannot be simply the direct effect of heat or

cold, drought or humidity. These influences are not the actual causes

of such formations, but only the stimulus, which sets their primary con-

stituents free, i. e., induces their development, as I tried to demonstrate

in the lecture above noted. As the sufficient cause of the sleep of the

marmots does not lie in the cold, but in the organization of the animal

which is adapted to the cold, and as the cold only brings the existing

predisposition to winter sleep into play, so among these butterflies with

adaptive seasonal dimorphism the display of the one or the other mark-

ing is apparently connected, partially, at least, with one of the above

named outward influences, although in reference to these trophical

butterflies we do not yet know to which of them.

We recognize temperature as the stimulus to development with the

cases of seasonal dimorphism of our indigenous butterflies, as in all

cases of seasonal dimorphism, which have hitherto proved experimen-

tally, it is always high and low temperature which gives the outward

impulse to the appearance of the one or the other form where this

impulse did not come exclusively from within.

There are, therefore, two different sources of the appearance of sea-

sonal dimorphism: on the one hand, the direct action of alternating

external influences, viz.: temperature, can bring about this change in

the outward appearance; and on the other hand, the processes of selec-.

tion. It is therefore necessary to consider these two kinds of seasonal

dimorphism separately. It will certainly not always be easy to decide

between them when a particular case has to be dealt with, as at present

it is not always possible to say whether a coloring or marking has a

definite biological value or not. Both causes also may co-operate in

in one species.

Note on the Classification of Diplopoda.—The admitted im-

possibility of formulating a generally satisfactory definition of the term

species exists partly because systematists have used it in the greatest

variety of applications, and partly because natural groups are so

diverse in structure and developmental history that a scheme calcu-

lated to elucidate one may increase confusion in another. It is hence

desirable in proposing or making use of a classification to recognize as

clearly as possible the conceptions under which the arrangement into

the various categories of natural groups has been made.

The structure and distribution of the Diplopoda make it advanta-

geous and usually easy to arrange them into species, which are groups

682 The American Naturalist. [August,

of very similar individuals not connected by intermediate individuals

with other groups different in details of structure, form or color. An

apparent and probably sufficient cause for this is the close similarity

of all Diplopoda in life-histories, habits and food. All are scavengers,

able to subsist upon a variety of decaying vegetable, or even animal

matter, and there has been scarcely any response to calls for special

adaptations to life as parasites, commensals, or under other changed

conditions. The species of Diplopoda are not only extremely local in

distribution, but are generally confined to almost identical habitats,

removed from which they do not long survive.

Supposing the Diplopoda to be a natural group descended from a

common ancestor, we are compelled to believe that such differences as

appear among them are the result of accumulated variation not greatly

influenced by external selective causes. Hence, existing differences

indicate in general much more remote developmental divergence than

in groups which have entered more thoroughly into the struggle

for existence by responding to the demands of varied conditions. In

this respect the Diplopoda offer a most striking contrast to the Hexa-

poda, and the results are in accordance; there are more millions of

species of Hexapoda than there are thousands of Diplopoda. __

Having accepted a criterion of species, the classification into higher

groups is perhaps largely a matter of convenience ; but convenience,

scientific accuracy, and the recognition of affinities, alike demand con-

stant attention to the fact, that the value of any character depends

primarily upon its constancy, not upon the apparent degree of diver-

gence, This is merely the reiteration of the chief axiom of systematic

science, but the abundance of systems which completely ignore this

fundamental idea are evidence that much reiteration is still desirable.

While in some natural groups it seems necessary to recognize sub-

divisions not definable by any constant character or complex of char-

acters in the Diplopoda, we may conveniently proceed upon somewhat

better ground, and require that the genera and larger divisions shall be

limited by definite structural characters.

A dichotomous classification is theoretically the only exact one, for

the reason that three or more natural groups could never be ex

to be separated by exactly equivalent structural differences. Practi-

cally, however, a dichotomous system is inconvenient by reason of

the great number of categories necessary in properly recognizing

affinities. Hence, it is not a valid objection to the usual or multi-

fid form of classification that the natural divisions arranged under

the same category are not of the same rank, that is, not remote from

1896.] Entomology. 683

each other by equal structural distances. All that can be reasonably

demanded of a classification is that its groups of all ranks shall be

natural ones, and that the higher the groups, the more constant, and

hence fundamental, shall be the characters by which they are separated.

Furthermore, it must never be supposed that the variability of a

character in one group need affect its importance if found to be con-

stant in another.

Asa general policy it is evidently desirable that scientific names of

all grades shall mean as much as possible. The objection to the recog-

nition of distinct and definable genera and higher groups on account

of the consequent multiplicity of names is usually to be taken as an

unscientific willingness to ignore structural differences and natural

affinities,,in the hope of escaping additional labor. In reality the diffi-

culty of defining groups containing unrelated members, and of becoming

acquainted with such through descriptions, much exceeds the temporary

inconvenience resulting from change of names.

In attempting to embody in the classification of the Diplopoda a

recognition of certain structural differences found to be invariable,

several natural and distinct groups of families have been recognized as

orders. It is here proposed to render this classification more definite

and consistent by the division of two of these orders, in the belief that

the resulting groups, in addition to numerous structural differences, have

long been divergent in developmental history. The orders thus to be

divided are the Diplocheta and the Merocheta. From the Diplocheta

it is proposed to separate the true Iulide and their allies, under the

name ZYGOCHETA, leaving under the Diplocheta Spirostreptoidea and

Cambaloidea. The Zygocheta are distinct in many characters of the

gnathochilarium, in the transformation of the first pair of legs of males

as clasping organs, the adnate external seminal ducts, the absence of

legs from the third segment, the presence of legs on the fourth segment,

and the structure of the copulatory organs of both sexes. The Diplo-

cheta have the first pair of legs nearly or quite unmodified, the external

ducts distinct, the third segment with a pair of legs, and the fourth seg-

ment footless. Notwithstanding these and other important and invaria-

ble differences, it remains probable that these two orders are more

related to each other than to any third group of Diplopoda.

The other case is similar ; the Merocheta will, in the restricted sense,

contain numerous families allied to the Polydesmide, with twenty closed

segmental rings; the new order CŒLOCHETA will accommodate the

684 The American Naturalist. [August,

Lysiopetaloidea and Craspedosmatoidea,’ and is characterized by the

greater number of segments, the free pedigerous lamin, the seven-

jointed legs, the distinct mentum, and the normal presence of eyes. In

the Merocheta the apertures of the external seminal ducts are small

openings in the chitinous wall of the coxæ of the second legs, connect-

ing with internal tube of nearly uniform diameter. In the Ccelocheta

the cox contain a large cavity, while the aperture is large, the margin

pilose and not chitinous.—O. F. Coox.

EMBRYOLOGY.

The Tentacular Apparatus of Amphiuma.—In the Journal

of Comparative Neurology, Vol. VI, March, 1896, Professor J. S.

Kingsley has written an article entitled “ On Three Points in the Nerv-

ous Anatomy of Amphibians” in which he has endeavored to show that

the tentacular apparatus of Amphiuma, briefly described by me (Jour-

nal of Morphology, Vol. XI, No. 2), has been mistaken for a nerve

and blood vessel. I consider the discovery of this degenerate organ of

too much phylogenetic importance to be consigned at once to oblivion,

and, therefore, offer in this article the results of a more careful study

of it.

Since histological detail is important in this investigation, I state

briefly the technique. The specimen, seventy-eight millimeters in

length and seven millimeters in body diameter, was hardened in Klein-

enberg’s picro-sulphuric and, passed through the alcohol series from

seventy to one hundred per cent and returned to seventy per cent, when

the head was severed and placed three days in borax-carmine, then in

acid alcohol twenty-four hours, after which it was imbedded in paraffine

by the usual method and cut into serial sections one twenty-fifth of a

millimeter in thickness.

Figure I is magnified twenty diameters. The outlines of all the feat-

ures were drawn with a Zeiss camera lucida, Every feature appears in

š From the true Craspedosomatide there may be distinguished the Trachy-

gonidz, Conotylide, and Cleidogonide, in addition to the Chordeumatide estab-

lished by C. L. Koch in 1847, The separation of other equivalent groups will

probably be necessary when a fuller knowledge of European and Asiatic forms is

ined.

' Edited by E. A. Andrews, Baltimore, Md., to whom abstracts reviews and

preliminary notes may be sent.

1896.] Embryology. 685

Figure I. Right-hand portion of section through head of Amphiuma 78 millim-

eters long, f, frontal; P, parietal; OSP, orbitosphenoid; E, eye; m, maxillary

bone; mx*, branches of maxillary nerve; Tt, tentacular OTA rt, retractor

bial mx, maxillary nerve.

the section just as distinctly as it is shown in the figure, b is the blood

vessel and the adjacent mx* the nerve which Kingsley thought I had

mistaken for the tentacular apparatus, Tt. Notice that three branches

of the ramus maxillaris course along the external sheath.

=

Figure II. Ce, canal for tentacle; rt, retractor muscle; ObD, orbital gland ;

ITts, inner sheath ; ATts, outer sheath,

686 The American Naturalist. [August,

The histological details of the apparatus Tt. are shown in figure II

as they appear viewed with a 72 inch oil immersion lens giving about

1000 diameters. While the columnar epithelial cells lining the tenta-

cular canal Ce are not so regular as one sees in a functional organ yet

they are so well defined, especially in the lower portion that the ob-

server cannot be misled as to their identity. The nucleus is visible in

about one half the cells and the nucleolus is apparent in many cases.

In the upper portion the cells have lost their nuclei and are in a degen-

erate condition. rt is a cross-section of a muscular element which I

believe is the atrophied remains of the muscular retractor of the

tentacle. In my preparation, only the bony and muscular tissues have

taken on the very light shade of red which characterizes rt. Since the

latter is certainly not a bone, I infer it must be a muscle, and if a muscle

what other function could it have had than to retract the tentacle.

This muscle is visible in ten consecutive sections while the canal Ce

appears in greater or less completeness in thirteen sections. The black

dots of various sizes seen irregularly distributed throughout the gland-

ular tissue ObD may possibly be nuclei as they are stained a deep red

or they may be scattered nerve fibres whose connection with the ramus

maxillaris on its branches I have not been able to demonstrate because

the degenerate glandular tissue was so loose as to be displaced in several

sections. The irregular wavy lines, I think represent cell boundaries.

These are visible with an enlargement of two hundred diameters in the

lower portion but can scarcely be seen with an oil immersion immedi-

ately beneath the canal. ITts is the inner tentacle sheath composed of

connective tissue fibres. It is clearly seen in eighteen consecutive sec-

tions. ATts represents the outer tentacle sheath which with a low

power can be seen in twenty-five consecutive sections. Thus it is ob-

served that this tentacular apparatus is about one millimeter long lying

below and external to the eye.

The tentacular canal is complete in only four sections. Figure IIT

represents the fourth section posterior to figure II. The columar epi-

thelium has disappeared on the dorsal side where the inner sheath enters

and on one side lies close to the wall, while on the other it mingles with

a loose tissue T which may be the remainsof a tentacle. This tentacle

is prominent in six sections, in three of which the canal is complete so

that the inner sheath does not enter it. The lumen of the canal varies

but slightly in size. The musculus retractor rt dwindles as we pass

anterior or posterior of the section shown in figure II. The glandular

tissue decreases both anterior and posterior to the median section. The

portion on the ventral side persists the longest, being present in thirteen `

1896.] Embryology. 687

sections. The outer tentacle sheath retains the same circumference in

about thirteen sections. As soon as the canal and glandular tissue

have disappeared the circumference of the outer sheath lessens in both

the six posterior sections and the six sections anterior to the thirteen

Ẹ Zoo My»

Figure III. T, tentacle; mx,* branch of ramus maxillarios; other letters same

as in figure IT.

median sections until it is only one fourth of the full size and the cells

of the sheath become scattered, thus finally filling up the central area

and creating a solid cord in the last two sections. It is worthy of

notice that this tentacular apparatus was observed on the right hand

side only in the specimen examined. In three other specimens of the

same hatching, though they were several millimeters longer, no trace of

the above described organ could be discerned. Kingsley has shown

that no such organ exists in his specimens which were from the same

lot as mine. An explanation of the occurrence of this organ in only

one specimen may be found in the fact that it is an exceedingly transi-

tory formation like the pronephros of the chick, which is present for

only one day. ;

The second objection Kingsley makes to my observations, is that all

the eye muscles are present in Amphiuma and the Sarasins say the re-

tractor muscle of the tentacle is probably developed from the retractor

bulbi. To this I answer that the Sarasins have not been able to demon-

strate positively that the retractor muscle is developed from the retrac-

tor bulbi, and if it were true that the retractor muscle is developed

from the retractor bulbi, I see no objection to the posterior part of the

688 The American Naturalist. [August,

retractor muscle functioning as a retractor bulbi — the anterior por-`

tion has undergone degeneration.

Kingsley further states that the described apparatus is not in the

proper location to be compared to the tentacular organ of the Gymno-

phiona. In elucidating this point it is of service to compare figure I

with figure IV taken from Die Anatomie der Gymnophionen von

Wiedersheim.

Figure IV. Cross section of Siphonops annulatus. NPr, naso premaxillary ;

Vo. vomer; M, maxillary ; Atts, outer tentacle sheath ; ITts, inner tentacle sheath

After Weidersheim.

It is seen that the columar-lined canal, inner tentacle sheath and

outer tentacle sheath in Siphonops, have the same relation as in Am-

phiuma. It is further seen that the inner sheath of Siphonops is in-

voluted ventrally to surround the tentacle while in Amphiuma a similar

involution is seen on the dorsal side in Fig. III. In both genera the

organ is covered merely. by the skin and its subjacent tissue. The

glandular tissue is not shown in Fig. IV as the section is anterior to the

orbital gland. It is true the maxillary bone overhangs the apparatus

in Sipbonops whereas such is not the case in Amphiuma. In beha

this contrast I quote from Cope (Bulletin of the United States National

Museum, No. 34, p. 214): “There is also a very large foramen or

canal passing through the o. maxillare from near its middle to the

orbit, foreshadowing the canalis tentaculiferus of the cecilia.” Fig. I.

is a section posterior to where the canal would enter the maxillary bone.

Among the Gymnophiona there is considerable variation as to the rela-

tion of the apparatus to the maxillary bone as the following from Wie-

dersheim, p. 47 shows: “Sprengt man nun zum Behuf klarerer Ein-

sicht die Deckknochen auf der betreffenden Schidelhafte volkommen

ab, so wird man ein weissliches, walzenformiges Organ gewahr, wel-

1896.] Psychology. 689

ches, wei bei Ceecilia, ganz vom Maxillarbein oder wei bei Epicrium

und Siphonops an seiner äusseren circumferenz nur von der äusseren

Haut bedeckt ist.” Thus it is seen that the location of the organ in

Amphiuma is very similar to its location in Gymnophiona.

A further corroboration of my views is noticed in the relation of the

branches of the ramus maxillaris to the external sheath of the tentacle.

According to Wiedersheim, in the Gymnophiona three branches of the

maxillary nerve attend the tentacular apparatus in its course in the

sub-orbital region. In Amphiuma I have found these three branches

occupying the same relative position as is indicated by mx* in Fig. I.

This striking similarity is seen at a glance by comparing fig. 54 in

Wiedersheim’s Anatomie der Gymnophionen with Fig. I. Before one

can be convinced that theso-called tentacular apparatus in Amphiuma

is really such I am aware my investigations must be verified by the dis-

covery of this atrophied organ in other specimens. The importance of

the discovery of such a feature is emphasized by Kingsley: “ Were it

true that Amphiuma possesses, either in the young or the adult, rudi-

ments of a tentacular apparatus, the fact would prove of great value to

those who would recognize in the Gymnophiona only degenerate Am-

phiume.” Cope and the Sarasins have deduced considerable evidence

favoring the close relationship of Amphiumide and Cæciliidæ, which

fact renders it the more credible that a rudimentary tentacular appar-

atus has really been found in Amphiuma.—Atvrin Davison, Pu. D.

PSYCHOLOGY.

Synesthesia and Synopsia.—Until quite recently synesthesia

was regarded by psychologists generally as a purely artificial and fanci-

ful association, or at best as a sign of degeneracy; it has lately received

considerable attention, however, and the weight of evidence goes to

show that it is both natural and normal—it may even be said, a phe-

nomenon of common occurrence.

In an exhaustive monograph on the subject, published in 1893,' Prof.

Flournoy of Geneva for the first time introduced a terminology which

aimed to distinguish scientifically between the different forms of synæs-

thesia. The most important phase is the association of visual images,

or synopsia. Attention was first called to this by Fechner, in 1876.

1 Les phénomènes de la synopsie (audition colorée); by Th, Flournoy; Paris,

1893; pp. 259,

690 The American Naturalist. [Augest,

Flournoy distinguishes here between photisms, diagrams and person-

ification. The first of these is the audition colorée of earlier writers;

it consists in the natural association of a color with each particular

sound, so that a spoken word appears to the hearer to be tinged with

one or more hues, corresponding to its constituent vowel sounds. <A

diagram is a visual scheme in which some natural series of ideas (such

as the months, days of the week, numbers, etc), is arranged. When a

member of the series is recalled, the appropriate part of the diagram is

visualized. Personification is simply the attributing of some personal

characteristic, such as sex, to a number, etec. ; or the association with

it of a feeling of like or dislike. Flournoy reportssome 350 persons as

possessing synopsia in one or other of its forms, out of 2600 to whom

questions were addressed, (13 per cent.) ; but as a large portion of his

question-sheets were never returned, the real percentage may be regarded

as somewhat greater.

In a recent paper,’ Miss Calkins gives the results of a personal can-

vass of Wellesley students in 1893 and 1894. For the former year the

affirmative answers numbered 33 per cent., for the latter 60 per cent.

It may be doubted whether all the latter are true cases of synopsia.

Yet when due allowance is made for possible temporary associations, it

must still be admitted that synopsia is by no means a rare phenomenon.

Richard Hennig’ gives an interesting study of the diagram-forms

occurring in himself and his immediate family. He is able in a num-

ber of cases to trace their origin to certain associations of early child-

hood, and favors the ‘ natural,’ or experiential view of the origin of all

such schemes. He strongly opposes the notion of inherited forms or

photisms: Only two pair in the list given by Galton, he thinks, show

any real resemblance, and these may well be accounted for by similarity

of early environment. “ Only the tendency to synopsia can be inherited ;

but here the influence of heredity is unmistakable and undoubted.”

The writer points out a similarity between the number-form of himself

and one brother brought up under the same surroundings, while in the

case of another brother, whose early life was spent in another environ-

ment, the diagram was radically different. Herr Hennig urges the

usefulness of the number-form as a mnemonic aid, and cites the case of

a friend, who easily memorized dates by association with the appropri-

ate places in his number-diagram.

J. Philippe has lately investigated the synopsia of blind persons, and

finds a remarkable number of cases among them, though none occurred

among those who were blind from birth.

2 Synæsthesia, by Mary W. Calkins; Amer. Journalof Psychology, VII, 90-107,

3 Ztschr. f, Psychol., X, 183-222,

1396.) Anthropology. 691

With the reduction of synesthesia to a scientific basis, which Flour-

noy has brought about, and the demonstration of its wide-spread occur-

rence, comes the demand for a more thorough examination of its bear-

ing upon other departments of psychology. The physiological inter-

pretation of synopsia is still unsettled, and is commended to physio-

logical adres as a fruitful theme for investigation.—H. C. -

WARR

ANTHROPOLOGY:

Exploration by the University of Pennsylvania in West

Florida.—Little more than a year ago my friend Lieutenant Colonel

©. D. Durnford formerly of the English Army, returning northward

from a journey in the West Indies and Florida brought with him the

specimens of aboriginal rope and netting found in a mud bed near

Marco, Florida described by him in the AMERICAN NATURALIST for

November, 1895.

That he realized the importance of the digging done in the mud in

April, 1895 by himself and Mr. Charles Wilkins of Rochester, New

York, was shown by the fact that on reaching Philadelphia he made

the effort at once to present the details of the discovery to archeologists.

As an original observer, a gatherer of inspiration from nature, com-

ing generously to present us with unprecedented specimens and archmo-

logical data of much value, discribing to myself and others the details of

the discovery and stating his belief that the lagoon fringing islands

near Marco were net-worked with artificial canals, and would disclose

other and similar relic preserving mud deposits, to him belongs the honor

of opening a new door for archzeology in the southeast.

The prompt recognition of the originality and value of this intel-

ligence by Dr. William Pepper and his energetic action in coopera-

tion with Mr. Stewart Culin, Director of the Department of Archxology

have resulted in the recent expedition of the University of Pennsylvania

sent by Dr. Pepper to Florida in the late months, under the direction

of Mr. Frank Hamilton Cushing, whose fortunate presence in Phila-

delphia at the time of Colonel Durnford’s visit ended in his employ-

ment by Dr. Pepper as Conductor of the Exploration. This led to

the association of the Bureau of Ethnology of Washington of which

1 This department is edited by H. C, Mercer, University of Pennsylvania.

692 The American Naturalist. (August,

Mr. Cushing is a member, with the work whose results have delighted

the friends of the University.

Summarized by Mr. Cushing in two newspapers (Philadelphia

Times and New York Journal Sunday, June 21st, 1896) these results

are represented by the array of specimens now in the Pepper Labora

tory at Philadelphia. They witness the good fortune of Dr. Pepper

and the University and the successful excavation of Mr. Cushing. The

muck-filled artificial shell basin at or near where Coloned Durnford

had worked, dammed, baled and cleaned out, and a large mound ex-

cavated 200 miles to the northward procured a superabundance of

beautiful and unique remains.

The work shows that a storehouse of aboriginal manufactures escap-

ing the notice of a good deal of reconnaissance, liad lain unobserved

within easy reach of scientific institutions in the east, testifying further

to the fact that mud or permanent damp has here done for the

Archeologist what permanent dryness has done at the Cliff Dwellings

of Arizonaand in Egypt. As at the Swiss Lake Dwellings here again,

a whole category of remains that have perished elsewhere in the eastern

United States have survived hermetically sealed in the ooze.

A few of the salient features of the collection concern :

(1) Facts relating to burial; crania from the mound and muck with

funeral paraphrenalia.

(2) The relation of pottery, found in great abundance, to burial,

and the allegoric and religious significance of fictile designs.

(3) The use of totemic ornaments, of masks representing the human

face in ceremonials, and the allegorical significance of carvings repre-

senting the heads of animals, and paintings on wood.

(4) The economic facts of daily life illustrated by means of well pre-

preserved utensils and vessels of wood and by the haftings of wood and

shell implements.

(6) Interesting data referring to the arrangement of canals, shell

walls, basins, the height of shell mounds and what appear to be vestiges

of pile-built houses sunken in mud and sufficiently indicated for study.

It will not be easy for the archzeologist suddenly confronted by this

display of aboriginal handiwork outshining the long toiled for gather-

ings of other searchers in the East, to hold fast to the caution that the

occasion demands, to realize how much and how littlesuch preservation

of perishable remains signifies in a given case, to remember in the infer-

red estimate of cultural status that multitudes of similar objects, betoken-

ing the life history of other tribes in the eastern United States have per-

ished, in short to weigh considerations that must temper the use of

1896]. Scientific News. 693

colored words signifying degree of ethnic importance, advanced methods

of construction, superiority in the arts, and kinship to other peoples.

Meanwhile the excavation and production of the strange carvings in

wood, the human masks, the unique paintings, the hafts of wood and

tools of shell, the relics of rope and fabric, remain in evidence to speak

in manifold praise of the enthusiastic searcher who while telling

his glowing story has shown that he has known where to dig and dug

with effect.

Symbols inscribed upon the drawings of birds, totemic buttons

arrangements for burial with reference to the “four quarters of the

world,” the paraphrenalia of priests buried together in the mud here

seek explanation at the hands of an interpreter, whose experience should

have qualified him for the task. Luckily the elucidation of the alle-

gorical meaning òf the serpent and the raccoon, the gopher and the bat,

the badger and the cormorant, tokens of gods of the dead and the liv-

ing of the morn and the dusk, has fallen to the lot of one whose knowl-

edge of the mystic inner life of the Indian, gathered upon a painful

path of Zuni initiation might best recognize in the manifold characters

of these remains a symbolism hidden to other eyes.—Henry C. MERCER.

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

The International Geological Congress will hold its seventh session,

in 1897, at St. Petersburg, Russia. The presidential chair on that

occasion will be occupied by M. A. Karpinsky. * A number of interest-

ing excursions have been planned to take place both before and after

the meeting. It is proposed to visit Finland and the Ural country, to

examine the basins of the Don, the Volga and the Dneiper. While the

grand tour at the close of the Session covers the ground from St. Peters-

burg to the Caucasus, giving opportunity for special examinatlon of

many interesting localities.

The circular of announcement gives the following information in the

closing paragraph.

“The Committee on Organization takes pleasure in making known

to you_that His Majesty the Emperor, upon the report of his Excel-

leney the Minister of Ways of Communication (Transportation) has

deigned to grant to all the geologists (who give notice in time of their

694 The American Naturalist. AGA,

intention to take part in the work of the Congress) tickets allowing

them free first class transportation on all Russian railways before and

after the Meeting of the Congress, including the excursions.”

Lord Lilford, the President of the British Ornithologists’ Union, died

June 17, 1896. At the time of his death he was engaged in a work on

the Birds of the British Islands which was nearly completed. He was

a contributor to Ibis, The Zoologist and the Proceedings of the London

Zoological Society. His interest in natural history led to his keeping

an extensive collection of living animals at his country seat in North-

hamptonshire.

Mr. T. D. A. Cockerell, Las Cruces, New Mexico, will be glad to

furnish information concerning the biological station he proposes to

establish in New Mexico. If a sufficient number of students are

enrolled, a beginning will be made this summer. For the study of

nsect life New Mexico presents an unusual combination of advantages.

The prizes awarded by the London Geological Society have been dis-

tributed as follows: The Wallaston Medal to Dr. Edward Suess, Ph.

D. Prof. of Geology in the University of Vienna; Wollaston Dona-

tion Fund to Alfred Harker, M. A. of the Geological Survey of Scot-

land ; The Murchison Medal to T. Mellard Reade, Esq.; Murchison

Geological Fund to Philip Lake, Esq.; The Lyell Medal to Arthur

Smith Woodward, Esq.; Lyell Geological Fund to Dr. Wm. Fraser

Hume, Demonstrator of Geology in the Royal College of Science and

Charles W. Andrews, Esq.; The Barlow-Jameson Fund to Joseph

Wright, Esq. and Mr. John Storrie of Cardiff. (Quart. Journ. Geol.

Soc. London, 1896. .

Messrs. Hatcher and Peterson have gone to Patagonia to collect

fossil vertebrata in the Cenozoic beds of Patagonia for Princeton Uni-

versity.

Macmillann & Co. have made arrangements for the issue in New

York and London of a “ Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology ”

under the editorial supervision of Professor Baldwin of Princeton Uni-

versity.

The following assignments of topics with the names of the authorities

who will contribute original matter may be already announced :

General Philosophy and Metaphysics ——Prof. Andrew Seth, Edin-

burgh University; Prof. John Dewey, Chicago University. History of

Philosophy —Prof. Josiah Royce, Harvard University. Logie.—Prof.

R. Adamson, Glasgow University. Ethies.—Prof. W. R. Sorley, Aber-

1896.] Scientific News. 695

deen University. Psychology.—Prof. J. Mck. Cattell, Columbia Uni-

versity ; G. F. Stout, W. E. Johnson, Cambridge University ; Prof. E.

B. Titchener, Cornell University ; The Editor, Princeton University

Mental Pathology and Anthropology.—Prof. Joseph Jastrow, Wisconsin

University. Biology.—Prof. Lloyd Morgan, University College, Bris-

tol. Bibliography.—Dr. Benjamin Rann, Harvard University.

With the publication of No. II, Vol. II, of its bulletins, the Chicago

Academy of Sciences enters upon a new era of activity. Its publica-

tions will be issued at regular intervals. ‘The Academy property is now

housed in a fire proof building of the best architectural construction,

and no further fears of fire are entertained.

Dr. Joseph F. James begs to inform his friends and correspondents

that he has removed from Washington, D. C., and that after May 10,

1896, his address will be Hingham, Mass.

I desire to secure good sets, cleaned or uncleaned, numbering fifteen

or more specimens each, of your local representatives of Campeloma

(Melantho of Authors), Lioplax aud Vivipara. Where extra large sets

can be sent they will be of especial value since the present object is

monographic. Exchanges are offered in southern Unionide and Stre-

pomatide. The rarer forms of the last named groups are also desired.

Cincinnati, Very respectfully

1815 Fairfax Ave. R. ELLSWORTH CALL,

48

ADVERTISEMENTS. ae,

-Dringende Bitte

Um das Erscheinen des

Botanischen Jahresberichts

möglichst zu beschleunigen, wie eine Steigerung der Zuver-

lässigkeit in der Berichterstattung zu erlangen, richten wir

an die

Botaniker aller Länder

die dringende Bitte um gefällige schleunige Zusendung ihrer

Arbeiten, namentlich auch der Sonderabdrücke aus Zeit-

schriften, etc. -

Alle Sendungen sind zu richten an den Herausgeber.

Professor Dr. E. Koehne,

Friedenau-Berlin,

Kirchstrasse 5.

OF INTEREST TO ALL STUDENTS AND LOVERS OF NATURE.

FHE OBSERVER

All Departments of Nature Studies.

OUR MOTTO:

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Practical Microscopy.

E. F. BIGELOW, Managing Editor and Publisher, Portland, Conn.

UW EOT AEE

Hills, Valleys and Plains of the ww. S.

THE IVES ALTITUDE MAP

is a novel device by the inventor of the “Strata Map” differing from any elevation map

previously Sablished, th the sur p rg carefully embossed to — the River Systems

and Mountain Prominences, whilst successive altitudes are emphasized by strongly con-

trasted colors. The Map is peutifully gotten up, framed in oak Sai varnished.

SIZE 33 X 23 INCHES. PRICE $9.50.

Aid in the Study of Geology.

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hically exhibits weren: ert ion, and outcrop of strata, with the phenomena

E d enn Big outliers dip, strike, Sor maT, etc., and the Cards may be bent

to show airy or anticlinal ‘tol lds.

Size, 30 x 24 inches. Price, $17.50.

JAMES I. B. IVES, F. G. S;

Is the Inventor of the Method of Construction and the Scientific Data have been derived

by him m Government Sources of sag “vbr ages Diploma and i org Awarded

each of these Maps at the World’s Columbian Expositio

OPINIONS OF EMINENT AUTHORITIES.

opr, of the University of Pen nsylvania, writes: “Useful to the student of

emp indicating elevations i in relief is an important p to the strati-

graphic map—both together elucidate eye of the student.”

President D. C, Gin > hid Sedes s Hopkins University, writes in reference to the Strata Map:

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JAMES T. B. IVES,

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he following may be ee as having contributed to the Volume se 94.

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paa = Haynes, re mie ye and Euro opean Archaeology.

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Jonn M. aipe E, M. A., Deut. Geol, Gessell., Soc. Imp. Min "ioe agi klp dee rises Albany, N.Y.

EDWARD ye Cnn POLE, B. A. D. Se. (Lo ndon), F.G. SS., and A., Buchtel College, Tis,

FRANCIS W. Craain, B. So., F. G. S. A., he i of Geology and Paleontology, Colorado College,

Colorado ‘Springs Csi. ‘Texas Geol Survey.

Joun Everman, Esq., F is Gm AF. i y S., M. I, M. E., ‘Oakhurst,’ Easto

PERSIFOR FRAZER, Doct. x ‘Bei. Nat., Officier de I’ Tistrution| “Pal ique (France), Correspondant

Reichsanstalt (Wien), F. G. S. k Prof. of Chem., Horticul. Soc., Ph TE elphia, Pa.

Epwarp O. ULRICH, M. A., F. G. 8, A., Palæontologist, Geol. urv. of Min : a; Saw wport, Ky.

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Subscription 7s. per volume (including a Special Index of every name used

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causes of their variation.

Monthly critiques of the articles in the leading German and American

entomological magazines. A monthly summary of the scientific progress made

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