CONTENTS.

LEADING ARTICLES.

On Heredity and eee. C. S. Minor I,

Lost Characteristics. A.

Variation After Birth. oa

A Comparative Study of the ae of Acute Vision in the Vertebrata

(Illustrated). J. R. SLONAKER

The Formulation of the Natural Sciences. E. D. C

Some Localities for Laramie Mammals and Horned 1 panies (I1lus-

trated). J. B. HATCHER

The se igi and Principles of Geology, and Its Aim. J. C. HaRTZELL,

abusion aaa i77 377,

The Constancy of Bacterial Species in Normal Fore Milk. H. L. Bor-

Life ekak Fomils. CHARLES MORR 8,

Birds of Hew Guinea (Continued Pom p. 1065, Vol. XXIX). G.S.

MEA

EEE S IOS

EA ay

The Paren of the Origin and Differentiation of the Sex Cells in

Cymatogaster on the Idea of the Continuity of the Germ Plasm.

H. EIGENMANN .....-

The Probable Influence of Disturbed Nutrition on the Sng of

the Vegetative Phase of the Sporophyte. G. F. ATKINSON ......

Progress in American Ornithology, 1886-1895. R.W. SHUFELDT

The Path of the Water Current in Cucumber Plants. E. = spis

On the NESNA Valley Unionidæ Found in the St. Piosik a

Atlantic Drainage Areas. C. T. SIMPSON

A New Factor in Evolution. J. MARK BALDWIN

Extensive Migration of Birds as a Check Upon the Production rj Gaa-

graphical Varieties. T. H. MONTGOMERY. secie osiin

The Oldest Civilized Man (Illustrated). E. D.C

The — on” ae in the Digestion of Certain Ghiiinsis J. C. HEM-

The PiE Diseases of Plants : A Critical Review of the Present

State of Our Knowledge. E. F. SMITH.............0. 626, 716, 796,

[ushroom Bodies” of

the Hexapod

Prof. Baldwin’s ‘‘ New Pactarin Evolution.” HERBERT NICHOIS.....

Fresh Relics of Glacial san Se at the Buffalo Meeting of the

AS- G F

Relative Efficiency of Gime as Machines. M. M

Piney pon (D. C.) Quarry ee and its Implement en

rated). WILSO

The Ceogaical Sreerag of Batrachia and Reptilia in North

COPE

Fossils and Fossilization. L. P. GRATACAP

The Biologic Origin of Mental Variety, or How We Came to Have

Minds. HERBERT NICHOLS

EDITOR’S FREGE —The SREE Again, 32; Vivisection of

Idiots, 33 ; The Am n Association at San Francisco, 34;

Maia Calves. > 200 ; The X Rays ‘carvings 201 ; Graft-

ing Snakes, 201 ; The Déstraction of Mosquitos, Aati tic

Perieration. D: ; The Huxley Memorial, 202; The Destitietie

of the Seal Herd, 385 ; Credit for Work, 385 ; The Field Museum,

385; The Filson Club, 386; The New Commissioner of Fisher.

ies, 386; The Bestiarians Before Congress, 468 ; The Spoliation

of Nature, 563; The American Association at Buffalo, 564;

Priority of Publication, T ; Presidents of the American Asso-

ciation, 652; The Decimal Catalogue System, 652; The Ameri-

can Association, 805; The Field Museum, 806; Notice to Our

Contributors, 806; Personal Names in Homicide: 925;

Dedocibing. 926; Nansen and ep Sea, 927; Survi-

Wachsmuth and prii iog; ; Dotes of Publication of the

Numbers of the AMERICAN N

RECENT LITERATURE.—Petrology for Students, 35 ; Crystallography,

A Treatise on the Morphology of Crystals, 35; Ele

Pika Geography, 37; Synoptical Flora of North America,

38 ; Natural History of Plants, 39 ; Recent Books on Vegetable

Pathology, 120; The Iowa Grka Bahama Expedition, 122;

The Shrews of North America, 122; Iowa Geological Survey,

Vol. III, 123 ; Duration of Niagara Falls, and History of the

Great Lakes, 124; Korean Games, 124; Williams’ Manual of

Lithology, 2 203; The Corunduni Deposits of Georgia, a ee

oo. ao ; Murray’s Introduction to the Study of Sea-

WwW ; Taxonomy of the Crinoids, 292; Geological Do

of New Tees. 387 ; Annual Report, Vol. VI, Geological Su urvey

of Canada, 387 ; Elementary Physical Geography, 388; Guide

Zoologique, 388 ; Practical Zoology, 389; Elementary Lessons

in Zoology, 389; Chats about British Birds, 389; Check List of

North American Birds, 390 ; The Cambridge Natural History,

469; Geological Biology, 471 ; Surface Colors, 564 ; The Whence

riage, 569 ; The Structure of Solpugids, 653 ; The Bears of North

iv The American Naturalist. [Vol. XXX,

781

784

976

1028

1896.]

Contents.

Am , 656; Journey Through Mongolia and Thibet, 731 ;

Pubtiontiois at the United States Geological Survey for 1893-4.

Fourteenth Annual Report, 732; An Introduction to the Study

of Zoology, 733 ; The Cranial Nerves in Batrachia, 733 ; Structure

and Life of Birds, 734; The Earth and Its Story, 927; A Hand-

book of Rocks, for Use Without the Microscope, 728 ; Gregory’s

Plant Anatomy, 1028; Boulenger’s Catalogue of Snakes in

British Museum, 1029 ; Nuttall’s Handbook of Birds, 1031 ; Edu-

cation of the Central Nervous T 1032; Lydekker on the

IENEN History of Mammal

RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS —41, 125, 205, 295, 390, 473, 570, 657,

734, 807, salah -

GENERAL oien raia —The Origin of Adinoles, 43;

from the Adirondacks, 43 ; An Augengneiss from the Lil et

45; Petrographical Notes, 45, 130, 210, 300, 395, 477, 579, 663,

Neck B salts in the Lausite, 129; The Rruptives of Missouri

Gneisses of Essex Co., N. Y., 393; Volcanic Rocks in Maine

394; Spotted Quartzites, S. Dak ota, 394; The Gneisses and

Leopard Rock of Ontario, 395; Malignite, A New Family of

Rocks, pai Foliated Gabbros from the Alps, 476; The Rocks of

— Bay, Alaska, 477 ; Volcanic Rocks and Tufts in Prussia,

576; Igneous Rocks of British Columbia, 577 ; Chalcedony Con-

cretions in Obsidians from Colorado, 578; Basic Dykes near

Lake Memphremagog, 578; The Origin of the Maryland Gran-

ites, 578; The Eruptives and Tufts of Tetscheu, 660; A Nephe-

line-Syenite Boulder from Ohio, 662 ; Crystalline Rocks of New

Jersey, 662 ; Simple Crystalline Rocks from India and Australia,

662 ; The Weathering of Diabase, 663 ; Petrography of the Bear-

w Mountains, Montana, 74 ; Two French Rocks, 741; The

AEAN nde Mica-Syenite at Rothschonberg, 817; The Sioux

e of Iowa, 1038; The Peridotites of North Carolina,

aioe and Slates from Wales......-..-...--

eerste tet Goniometer with two Graduated Circles, 5735

rysta hi

Opti

araba 573; Native Sulphur in Michigan, 574; Leadhillite

Pseudomorphs at Granby, Mo., 574; Celestite from Giershagen,

1033

1035

vi The American Naturalist. [Vol. XXX,

574; Minerals from the Galena Limestone, 575; Miscellaneous

Notes, 575, 739, 813, 934; The Chemical Composition of Tur-

quoises, 737; Alstonite and Barytocalcite, 737; Rutile, Cassi-

terite and Lircon, 738 ; Development of Faces on Crystals, 809 ;

Albite from Lakous, Island of Crete, 810 ; Fosterite from Monte

mma, 810; Fayalite and the Chrysolite-Fayalite Group, 811 ;

Rhodophosphite, 812 ; Etched Figures on Some Minerals, 932 ;

Pollucite, Mangano-columbite and Microlite from Rumford,

Maine, 933 ; Epidote and its Optical PROPCTRIOR o. eea avis asiten 933

Geology and Paleontology. —On the Species of Hoplophoneus [Illustra-

ted), 46; The Gold-bearing Quartz of California, 52; Precam-

rated), 301; The Puget Group, 304; The

ogical Structure of Florida, 305; The Glaciers of Green-

land, 311; Geology of the French Congo, 396; The Antartic

Continent, 397 ; Two Epochs in Vegetable Paleontology. 397 ;

e Appalachian Folds, 398; The Ancestry of the Testudinata

398 ; The Extent of the Triassic Ocean, 400 ; Phylogeny of the `

Dipnoi, 479; Fauna of the Knoxville Beds, 479; Reclamation

of Deserts, 485; Canadian Paleontology, 579; Jackson on the

7: 5 J i 8 4?

crinus, 819; Permian Land Vertebrata with Carapaces (Illustra-

ted), 936 ; Hozoon canadense, 941; Thickness of the Coal Meas-

ures

941

Botany.—The Vienna Propositions, 55; The Flora of Ohio, 58; The

Flora of the Sand Hills of Nebraska, 59; Recent Botanical

yi Helvellaceæ, 222; The Smut of Indian-Corn,

223; Antidromy and Crossfertilization, 223; New Species of

Fungi, 313; Alaskan Botany, 314; Aquatic Plants of Iowa, 315;

1896.] Contents. vii

oa Natioual ego Association, 486; Coulter’s Revision of

eN. A

ca gæ, 58

Botany in Buffalo, 586; Blanks for Plant Analysis, 586; De

Toni’s le Algarum, 668 ; The Flora of the Black Hills of

South Dakota, 669; Trelease’ s Hickories and Walnuts of the

United me 670 ; Diseases of Citrous Fruits, 671; Mulford’s

near Colorado Springs, 750; Botany at Buffalo, 822; A New

Manual of Systematic Botany, 826; Evolution of a Botanical

Journal, 1041; The North American Species of Physalis and

Related apr 1043 ; The Nomenclature of Mycetozoa, 1044;

nee Flora of Wyoming, 1044; The Lichens of Chicago, 1045;

wae Plants of Southeastern Utah 1045

Veale "ate. —Changes due to an Al pine Climate, 61; Spore :

Be: 65 ; Nitrifying Organisms, 65; Relation of Sugars to the

Growth of Bacteria, 66; Algal Parasite on Coffee, 67; Smut

è š

i e Ants as Cultivators of Fungi, 319; Desert Vegetation,

; A Second Rafinesque, 321 ; Change in Structure of Plan

is to Feeble Light, 405; A Graft Hybrid, 408; Ustilaginoidea,

408; A New Classification of Bacteria, 490; Ambrosia Once

T E E E a esscige . isks aosedlscc ss 493

Zoology.—On Bodo urinarius, 67 ; Influence of the Winter 1894-95 upon

the Marine Fauna of the Coast of France, 69 ; Preliminary Out-

line of a New Classification of the Family Muricidz, 69; Her-

petology of room 71 ; Zoological News, 71, 332, 412, 590, 758,

1052; The Paroccipital of the Squamata and the Affinities of the

Modia i once more; A Rejoinder to Prof. C on Dr.

Baur’s Rejoinder on the Homologies of the Paroccipital iaz,

etc. (Illustrated ), 143 ; Boulenger on the Difference betwee:

America, With iptions of New Forms, 234; The Cruise of

the Princess sees 323 ; Australian Spi 324 ; Autodax iec-

anus, 325; iles and Batrachians of Mesilla alley, New

Mexico, pee On Prof. Cope’s Criticism of Baur’s Drawings of

e osal Region of Conolophus subcristatus Gray, etc. 327;

The Food of some Colorado Birds, 329 ; The Manx Cat, 330;

A Case of Renal Abnormality in the Cat, 331 ; Respiration of

viii

The American Naturalist. [Vol. XXX,

the complete cutting away of the occipital lobes, 502 ; Japanese

Leeches, 590; The Origin of Tail-forms, 588 ; The Spermathec.

in some American Newts and Salamanders, 589; Sense of Sight

infSpiders, 672; Classification and Geographical Distribution of

677; Lygosoma (Liolepisma) in New Jersey, 752; On a-New

Glauconia from New Mexico, 753; On the Habits of Keen’s

Mouse Deer, Peromyscus keenii Rhoads, 753; The Inheritance of

an Acquired Character, 755; The Hartebeest, 755; The Heart

of the Brain during Growth, 836; The Lion of India, 837; Inher-

itance of Artificial Mutilations, 837; Fishes in Isolated Pools

943 ; On the Mud Minnow as an Air Breather, 844; The Perito-

neal Epithelium in Amphibia, 944; The Penial Structure of the

Sauria, 945 ; Food Habits of Woodpeckers, 946 ; The Ectal Rela-

O d

1049 ; The Food of Birds, 1050; Preliminary Description of a

New Vole from Labrador

srosooso

Horse, 153; Fossil Butterflies, 1 54; Origin of European Butter-

flies, 154; North American Aphelinie, 155 ; Entomological

News, 155, 506, 596, 1058; On Certain G ilidæ

inert, 2£9 ; Life-History of Scale Insects, 242; The Segmen-

tal Sclerites of Spirobolus, 333 ; Secretion of Potassium Hydrox-

upe

ide, 335; Lake S Coleoptera, 335; A New Diplopod

Fauna in Liberia, 413; Domestic Economy of Wasps, 50 ; Cir-

culars on Injurious I 505; Gypsy Moth Extermination,

mus, 593; North American Crambidze, 595 ; New Mallophaga,

596; Professor Forbes’ Eighth Report 677; Flies Riding on

Beetle’s Back, 678: Proteid Digesting Saliva in Insect Larve,

IO5I

1896.] Contents.

678 ; Weissmann on Dimorphism in Butterflies, 679; Notes on

the Classification of Diplopoda, 681 ; Fossil Cockroaches, 758 ;

Dr. Packard’s Monograph of Rombycine Moths, 758; Grape In-

sects, 759; Flower-Haunting Diptera, 760; Larval Habits in

anorpa, 760; A N peiors in the Colobognatha, with

Drawings of Siphonotus, 839 ; w Era in the Study of Dip-

tera, 1053; Color Variations in a sah aig 1055 ; American Nem-

atine,

Embryology.—Experimental Embryology, 76; The Development of Iso-

pods, 243; The Effect of Lithiumchloride upon the Develop-

ment of the Frog and Toad, 336 ; The Sense Plates, the Germ

of the tee and the Shell or Mantel Region in the Stylommat-

phora, 420; Morphology of the Tardigrades, 507 ; An Abnormal

Chick EAREN 509; Protoplasmic Continuity, 597; Cell

Studies of Annelid Eggs, 597; The Tentacular Apparatus of

Amphiuma [Illustrated], 684; The Wrinkling of Frog’s Eggs

: gme sages 761; Movements of Blastomeres, 1059 ;

Pigment in Eggs, 1060 ; Fertilization,........+.0.csssseos coscesse baceve

Psychology. Bhan fy SAEN Association, 156; The Cat’s Fun-

eral, 161; Conscionsness and Evolution, 249; Professor Bald-

win on Perfo reese and Epigenesis, ie ; Psychological Data

re 345 ; Physical and Social Heredity, 422 ; Observations

rofessor Baldwin’s Reply, 428 ; A Study i in Morbid Psychol-

ogy, 510, 599; A Match-Striking Bluejay, 518 ; Synzesthesia “a

Synopsia, 689; Fear Among Children, 774; Congress of P.

chologists, 844 ; Mental Action during Sleep, 849 ; The Minette

Origin and ea es acc of ‘‘ Bird-language,”’ gee the “ Evolu-

ird

tion of B Song,” 854; A Note on Dr. Nichols’ Paper

[Amer. Nat., Sept., ae real The <a of Feeling, 848 ;

Further Comments on Pr win’s “ New Factor in Evolu-

tion,” 951 ilti of Loss ar Sleep.

Anthropology —Discoveries at Caddington, England, by Mr. W. G.

lithic Man, 606 ; Cave Exploration by the University of Penn-

T [Illustrated], 608 ; Exploration by the University of

Pennsylvania in West Flo: däi. 691 ; Pictured Caves in Australia,

954; kas and the Fossil Horse in Central France, 955 ; Chipped

Flint Blades from Somali Land, 956; Cave Hunting in Scotland,

Microscopy.—Methylen Blue,

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES, 162, 258, 346, 434, 524, 776,

859, 958.

SCIENTIFIC NEWS, 87, 172, 261, 438, 526, 611, 693, 866, 960,.......-000+00

1056

1896.]

ABNORMALITY (Renal) ina

Abnormal Sacrum in a Alliga-

Academy of St. Louis, 258, 347,

525, 959

Adana, G. I. On the Species

Hoplophoneus..............

Aisle, origin of

Adirondacks, = of ..

A cidium à

DARAN uk Oe DREES E

Æpyornis FE 2 DEN satus

Agar ni jJ.G

Agass:

Agathaumas sylve.

Agaves of the United States.....

seen eee tees eeee

Casiesss

the Study of Diptera.........

Figo ee

from Saga

‘ie

Amblystoma pele ae

Ambrosia, E. F. S

otes on. H. G. Hubbard

— = = Evolution of

Manual n Teeth. E. D.

rican Academy of Arts and

FOR Peete Crete e eee eee ee mee

wee eee neneee

hological Society......

Aaa Society, 163,

347, 434, 525, I

te css eo Society...

Psychological Association, n,

156, 169

Society of of a:

the

Weer ps.

Qə

ETTEEETTET

sesers

talis

Index. xi

INDEX.

Ammodesmus granum 414

331 Amorpha sus 60

Apan so Tentacular Appar-

23 atus 684

Analcite 813

1065 Anchilophos desmarestii 484

1040 | Ancient Beaches of Erie and

Ontario 400

4b 7 Ameles Intertacial ..........:....... 740

43 eer = netom, Synopsis of.. 612

43 | Animal MNES ORA T anes 84

65 Aneta hic ‘Cell Ses in.. 597

593 aches ea COMMUNE «onis na iene 667

745 | dalt pes cic cde souerre epee eee i 7

176 | Anota calidiar um Cope, PAR

263 | tio 33

13, | Antarctic Exploration SETE ae

671 | 226

10 Anthropology i ei 255, 338, 430,

SI a 9 54

1053 | Antidro: 223

175 and I 2a G. Maclos-

587 488

67 antivi Pori ionis 32

1005 eus “3 Cultivators of "Fungi... 319

233 137

233 Ao, North American... 155

137 iculture 07

4 le Folds B >S Ly

at man, A Abstract o 398

493 | Apoda. 149

Aptornis defossor. 746

Apyonops anomalus 1052

937 | Archeological “Discoveries at

‘ Coddington, England. H.

2 Mercer 8

Architeuthi is, New Species Ol. oe

960 iG chnecthra iliolo phu. 713

612 eek day ee ee 713

163 poltoptera 713

Ararat, Mt. Pa. Glaciation of 402

1065 | Arctogean realm..............- , 890

166 | ASCOT OR ceir nisneneesscvceses 18

O e eee rss 613

960 Aspidiotus perniciosus. Sonais adesknens, | XOG

164 a a DE EEA niebeckis snes 751

944 751

944 Association "of gj PEE Anato-

943 165

ear siei

OERTTTTTTITETTTTT

xii

Asterias glacialis... NEPER a E E

“The Probable

on the

Sporøphytě nn a

Auge a fems the Zillerthal

Australia

Anstroceeia T District..

bregion

.IO2I,

Avena wortoniana

Aves

ABINGTON, Taip os eae ast 88

Bacillariace, 520

coccoch Aromat CBrvvesseny sneren 533

tacochr 533

pened subtilis 724

Bacte 66

Bacterial Diseases in Plants. E,

peas 716

Bacterial Disease ers Sugar

Dierks ie Fodder Beets... 716

Bacter me Aya 9I

Bahama Ext 22

poems rie H. Veian after

Sens rine 69

Baldwin Congress of Psy-

pclae fo ts 8 44

Consciousness and Evolu-

kee ea

AI New Factor in Evolution,

E E E E 536

Note on Nichols’ Criticism

of ** A New Factor in Evolu-

ion’ 856

Physical and Social Hered-

422

New Pactor in Evolution.

H: NEH 00000 0.. a 697

Ba O. Preli |

scription of a New Vole

from OP cos E IO5I

Barfurth, Prof. D 613

Börytocalcite nri Goce wwe TEY

Basalts in the Lausite.............. 129

e tri — Lake Mem-

phrem 578-

Rock derived from Granite. 209

Basidiomycetes...... ....0:0- isene: 218

oe IoI5

N. A Match-strik-

Potea 18

A List of, Sewe Ear eama

C. S. Brimley ess oo

The American Naturalist.

[Vol. XXX,

Batrachia and Reptilia... ....... 886

ots Reptilia of Madagas-

SME 675

ad papules from Mexico,

List of 1052

jt i i Dr. © Betas neice 527

OE oy sc en ie es 39

Concerning: Prof. Cope

criticism of Boa! drawings h

the squamosal region of

REA PERE DAEA ray ;

and remarksabout his draw-

ingsof the ‘eae object from

Steindachner.................... 27

Paroceipital of the Squam-

and the Affinities of ns

Mosasauridæ. A ly

rit pe 143

| Bayley, W ate of Har.

is eiis pa Stud-

Renee of Story-Maskely-

= s ai aphy......... 36

of Tarr’s Element-

pte Physical Geography... 397

Bearp Mt. Montana, Pétro-

graphy of -74I

Bear River Formation, Dr. C.

White, Abstract sift

Bearing of the Origin and Dif-

ation of E Sex

Cells in Cymatogaster on

the Idea of the Continuity

— Plas C H

Figenmant siaina 265

Beets, Bacterial Serio o ee 16

Beketow, A. N. ......... -439, 528

Beil: B a E E E Oe

Beroë ovata 78

y, C.E Abstract of Keller-

man’s Flora of Ohio.......... 58

Abstract of Mulford’s

= ves ofthe United States. 671

ct of Rydberg’s Flora

a the Black Hills of South

Dak: 669

Abstract of Rydberg’s Flora

of the Sand Hills of Neba-

ee Cen Fee ac 5

Abstract of oe s Hick- :

ories and Walnuts of the

United Sta a 6o

Botany in Buffalo... ous 600

Botany in the National Ed-

ucation Association. .......... 486

Botany in the U. S. -

ment of Agriculture. ....... 316

Conifers of Pike’s Peak

Region sesira eii 748

1896.]

babbialeh of a Botanical

Index.

Journal ssinosseiecnncrawmseestene 1041

The F Flora of yomu sepya 1044

The North American spe-

one of Physalis, and Re-

Genera i043

Nomenclature of Mycet-

1044

Notes on Renent Botanical

Publica 317

Notice psa abino s Col-

me 5 ag of North America. 585

tice of Sets of North

American Plants, collected

by Curtiss and by Nash..... 585

Notice of Tilden’s Amer-

lcan AIG. vcs ve vena vinitszsenveses 584

Notice of W. W. ins’

Lichens of Ch 1CAQO ..+-000.. «= 1045

Obituary Notice of Pro-

fe essor o 1043

Popular o4

z ‘Blanks? ay E t Plant Anal-

586

Reiew of Bergen’s Botany. 403

Review of Coville’s Alask-

an Botany 314

Review of í eat Revision

of N. A. 86

Review ae Cratty s Aquatic

Plants of Iowa cai sn 315

kodes of Gray ’s New Man-

Of Botany sonrie 826

Review of Gray’ s Synopti-

cal Floraof North America. 38

Review of Lemmon’s Coni-

fers of the Pacific Slope..... 402

Review of tee s Ele-

tary Botany .............0 315

Review of the: tural His-

tory of Plants by Von Mari-

re capers by F. W.

Oliv k

Re al “of F W “Oliver's s

Transactions of Von Mari-

DoR Natural History of

Pl 39

Zaai oF “Elementary

Bo 747

Bestiarians before Cong ess...... 468

Betula oc 670

Biological Club, University of

aboratory of the Brooklyn

Institut PS E EEE so 26

Origin nad Mental Variety,

or or How We Came to Have

Minds. H.N. Nichols...... 963

Station at Biscayne Bay..... 438

e Bay

Society of Washington 172,

| Blind Batrachia

the

*ssoos osses fees eesene

New Meri 1COssiali

959, 1064..

Station in

Station, Univ. of Illinois...

Bipalium t paea in the United

ERTEETETTITT]

a Collection, Abbott’s

Birds, M - ing o

of N

rote enna

Fee odes Hee eeenee

n; F. F

Blastomeres, Mo pie seer be Warns

Crustacea

frorn e Subterranean \ Wa-

BOE ii Match, pent TY sseeseeeees

Bodington, A. A sonst dl in Mor-

bid Psychology........... 510

Mental ‘Action During Sleep

pty wary cusertessivasesnvevenl

Bolley, H. he Constancy

of Bacterial Species In Nor-

Bombycine Moths ..........0...c00.

Bonnet,

Boston Society Natural id

162, 259, bet 434, 5

Botanical News........... 6, 38),

pers, Soe, a enero re

s Recen

Society of America............

Botany, 55, 218, 313, 402, 486,

554, 668, 747,

at Bu

at the ish FPR FEC

in the National Educational

Associ

on ee

Teachi ing b Ae E. Bessey...

Bot Flies of the Horse

Bot, otrychium matricarieolium. way

virgini

Eia

FORO eee ee sseoooees

Peeters eeeee

Bourn

Brain Cells of the Monkey,

ewal of After the Completa

utting Away of the Occi-

pital Lobes

Hexa

Modi feation of During

Growt

Weig: or Hunanas is-

Brimley, C. S. List of Batra-

chia Raleigh, N. C....

On Mud Minnow as an

Air- roher ERE

Briquet, Dr.

Brooksella aah

598

849

The American Naturalist.

[Vol. XXX,

confusa 744 Chrysophanus j phleas 679

Buscalone, Dr. 5 Rr ot aeeereessee 440 ewes is aspa. sie 712

posas riceps 712

Butler, A. A. Ferns Near Col- an 712

net Springs 750 | proserpin 712

Pentel. Ne bie. adele paises 528 | Circular Poliriza 741

Butterflies, Dimorphism in.. 679 | Cisalle oe District 1005

154 | Cisticola extlis EE

Origin of 154 | Citrous Fru its, Diseases of....... 671

Cladocylus stweetii. 00s cecccsseceesee: 137

(CADURCOTHERIUM Cove 665 | Classification of Diatoms. C. J.

lisa ; Ope... 1049 | ore.. 20

dracontoides gabbii Cope...... 1049 | of Pr ecambrian Rocks 42.2. 136

IS a AIS is wails 049 | Claviger testace 496

crinitus 1049 | iag in Stegocephalia veres 332

rhodostictus. 1049 | Clem PoR of

saa Rocks of Pennsylva- Gregory s Plant Asiko 1028

817 | Clim 710

Caiana. T OF EENE 694 Coal Measures of Kansasiin 217

Campephag EDS R AEROS 199 | Thickness of 941

montana .. > 199 | Coast Range Mts, Eleva-

me E EE T E 199 tion o 218

199 | Cockerell, T. D. ood o

ee Exploration of Cana- Some Colorado Birds ........ 330

dian 527, 1005 List of Reptiles a Batra-

Cancrinite-Syentie -from Fin- mig eae — . Valley,

E a es de 209 25

e > 961 | laastes "Fossil American, :

Case, E. C. Abnormal | S EE E R a 758

in an Alligator ................. 232 | Ccelentera 1052

Cassia chamecri pee 22 | a Parasite on 67

Cassiterite 738, 740 | 176

Castorinæ, American...... ....... 942 | Colron ape Lake Superior. 335

Cat’s asobi 1 161 | ghee tha, A New Character

Cave gp geo mae in scare | E Sadri BID.

608 | Colon: of Birds, Change a ERE 591

line aa roa S A 60 ariation in a Aae te litrda 1055

ao =. 307 Commissioner of Fisheries....... 386

een *-» 574 | Comparative Study of ‘the 1 Point

Cell Studies i in ee an ane: 597 of A ision in the Ver-

Centropercis nu ae 413 tebrates Tees td) J

Ceratops en seirer pa 116, 117, 120 Bis Boe 24

montanus .. 113 Connodectes favos Co ope... aeia 309

Ceriomyces .......... Seales 219 | Congress of Psychologists........ 844

Be ONIN BJ cinneann 264 | Conifers of on Pacific csc 402

plain S TERREA ie Mien 137 s Peak Region.

Change in Structure in Plants C E Bessey. 8

Due to Feeble Light B, Congo, Geol of the French. 3,6

F. Smit 405 | Conolophus suberisiatus Gray, 144,

-Changes Due s an Alpine Cli- 146, 149, 327 :

e. F. Smith. .......... 61 | Consciousness and nepa

Chatin, Prof. ` E gi J- Mark Baldwin......... 249

Cheilanthes tomentosa.. osoa, 750 Constaney of Bact foie Species

Chick, Abnormal.............. sa BOO in Normal Fore Milk. H.

ihuahuan District............... IOI3 É. Bel lley 84

i. Bag.. 506, 507, 596 | Cook, O. F. ` Description of Si-

Chlamydosaurus kingii, Habi Phonotus AfTicANUs ..coeevereeeere

ssscecnoterersesens sesssesersasses SOL a Ne w Character i in the Co-

itoic Seuss: 300 tha Drawings

Choridesmus lts riiseni 418 of Siphonotus 839

ew African Diplopod

Index.

Related to Polyxenus ....... 593

AN r- aip opod Fauna in

Libe 13

Nate i ae the Classification

of Diplopoda........... -asss 5

On Certain Seopa iit De-

scribed by Mei 239

The Segmental ape of

Spirobolus 332

Cope, E. D... 176, 612

Ameghino i on the Evolution

of Mammalian Teeth......... 37

Ancestry of the Testudinata 398

Baur Drawings of

the Skul of Conolophus sub-

eris GY eriu ees 4II

Boulengeron

Betwe a Vaceriitia 4 aaa

Ophidia; « aaa on the A 149

Criticism of Dr. Baur’s Re- |

joinder on the Homologies ee

of the AOE Bone, |

CLG, E E A 47

Description of Glauconia

o from New Mexico. 753

escription of New Lizards |

from Southern as Say)

Fishes in Isolated Pools...... 943

ape. Formulation of th Na- |

sein IOI

The Se pas TR Distri- T

bution of Batrachia and |

Reptilia in North e x 886 |

Observations on Baldwin’s |

Physical and Social Hered- |

pog E E E a 428 |

The Oldest Civilized Man

epe tedja, nec 616 |

n the Genus Callisa -- 1049 |

Pa ae Oda |

Cotylosanria 5.0 cavetvednesssveee 301 |

ae Penial SPREA of the |

E E AT R tenons 5

Permian Lami Vertebrata

Carapa 936

Rents to Ma A Baldwin on

Zeetormation and Epigene-

Ri eview of Boulenger’s

Catalogue of Snaker] in the

British Museum .............++ 1029

REVIEW. of irite s aie

ie a History of M

1033 |

ka w of Mercer’s Cave |

E A ti in Yucatan... 255 |

me” of Vols. I, I, ILL...

eontologica Argen ma. 5 |

Corth ylus Aaroa ds = 28 |

Corsa, A

Cotvylosauri

Coxal Glands of 7) helyphonus cau-

datus

Cracticus crassicus

ente alis

Credi

A a Rocks of New Jersey

it for Work

rom

India and Aus-

ee ei

hic Oe isha o

the Sulphonic am Deri

tives of Cam

ampho:

ae a of North, ‘American

eozoica

Puin ICAN eA ALIST..

wath

soit aser egatu s Senesseecene

ystomonas ure

Cyst pini bulbi ade

ragil 7s

...ses

| Czapek, Dr: -Pos

Ste Peete eres est eseeee

CTYLO/DITES asteroides.

Dates of Publication of the

| Dae Dr.

vawson, A..

Prof...

-Seyler, Dr. Felix

> aes de

| Dannenburg, D A E ES

Dan.

Davison, A.. The ewe

Apparaius of Amphium

Deaths

Adye, J. M

Arcas, P eaae a

abin Fy TE

arnes, Lieut H. E,..........

Bergenstaum, Count J. Von

Bogdan i oh E is ious

Predan Dr Doed

Carter, Henry. JOH s sissress

EDY, PONER o cee

Dod fein, B

Drummond-Hay, H. M......

] me. Pe Eugenio..........

Duvi sot enn

Gersticker, Dr. Adolph esser

GC. Brown. =e..

fellriegel, Pro a

e PORTO O eee ee esenen

La STR DE | dee Ue

eee e eee ee hs eeeeseeee

y, f

Macgillivray, oy Pi Bia

Mie ge

Miiller

Miller, De piapa RTA EE EN

OERLETTETTETTI

Pere eee eer rere

Nordenskioi Dr. Gustav

seesessee

ever t er teeeneane

arton, H. T..

Whit: ney, Toda Dwight, oe

besa mim, es Mori

Wilson, J. B

Decimal Catalogue System......

iri of E

= n. Prof. Catte

erimenta-

Dendrozalum lacteum.

sesssesessosor

ppb ar elegans

Deser S clama

tion of...

Desert Vegetation ..............0++.

Desmognathus auriculatus.. sssr...

Jus ca

Development of Bird Language

n Cryst stals

settee err ew ren

sssssssos

Diclonius. TE E A E EAEE AES

Dreranura vinula. ici: lasers heesive:

Dictionary of of Philosophy and

eign dd

eee sestre

Di ~

Diemyctylus viridescens... vse 830,

, Abstract

esteeees

The American Naturalist.

— eee ewes eeeee

[Vol. XXX,

Digestion of Rhizopods.......... A 619

Din ichthyid S 942

Dimorphism i in Butterflies, ...... 679.

Di nocyon 5 5

Diplopod, 593

in Libet. OOR

bon A L T EE EE 13

ea. Note on Sap goa

fication of. O. F. Coo 681

Diplograptus, 1 Embryology ‘of 54

pris. st 54

prist 55

Dipnoi, Phyloge NY Ola ieee 479

ER wines Hunting......... 60

rie: the Study of.

7 1053

Dipterol ogy. 596

Dift ETUS alen cienne 872 479

Diseas 716

isorhophas a porter Cope 936

Districts

Alleghenian OET EEE EETA 1005

Anstrócentrál ioiii I02I

Aasttoeciaental ivaaveeebewbhaden 1023,

Austroriental...220523) 0.06. 1023

sin 1015

Canadian 1005

tral 1015

“hihuahuan 1013

gp maa enestis side 1005

1018

Taai dnin i a 1006

Lower Californian Jeucdzisn 1012

u gian 1008

Pacific 1018

TOROS airn N 1007

Transalieghenian neeensgacernes 1005

iel, A. 264

Dolomites, Origin sided veces 401

S MING. T E Go

Dru e E 440

Drymen ——- 289

Ducleaux 88

Bids Lar Method of

678

pa RTE N 747

Paat C. Notes on the

ossil preg of Eu-

rope E 1, 306, 480, 665

Eastern Subregion 1003

Eastwood’ s Plantsof Southeast-

Utah 1045

rai 175

Echinodermata, Paleozoic. ...... 822

SARRE microtuberculatus, per trac = So

Ectal Relations oi the Right and

Left Parietal and Paroccipi-

947

440

EST a ew eae at aes OL eee

Pa Ei Mi ell

1896.]

Editor’s Table, 32, 200, 385; 468,

3, 651, 80 PB A E

ea lenutrostris

Edwards, A. M. On the Occur-

art of Neocene Marine

Diatomacee near New

York

Eigenmann, C. H. The Bearing

of the Origin and Differen-

tiation of the — Cells =

Cymatogaster on the I

of on Son ntinuity of the

la sm

Germ

Pieotric.: Earr of Min-

Elliott, D

Slate = Í ia e Classification

See e eerste rseeee

Entomological Notes, $26, "596,

er erg 72, 152; s 333,

413, 504, 591, 67T, 158, 839..

ogy of Illin

Eozoon canadense

pencte and Its Optical Proper-

canaden.

Fi poc res

Epochs in esar Paleontol-

Eruptives o of N Missouri

poes

Brka, pse on Some Min-

erals.

Ethiopian r

iopi ealm

Eumeces quinguclineatus, ses...

Eupetes ajax

incertus

leucostictus

MULVICYISSUS

29,

pulcher

Euprotogonia....

Evolution..

of Bird-so song...

of a Botanical Journal, CE

isebe iSi,

eset eee eee

serere wee resent eere

of Mammalian Teeth

A New Factor in, 536, 697,

a of the Knoxville ioe

Fear Among Children...

mlpag Pencen of Sea An-

sesssseso

Pena: Near SET Springs,

A. Ay

OTE vente

Field Museum 385,

Filson

Index.

1027

200

1056

1058

1053

058

Io4I

Qə

77 |

941 |

xvii

Fisheries, New Commissioner

Fishes, Arkan 675

in Isolated Fok, E. D. Cope 243

Fleishmann, a

Flies oe ona esate s Foge 678

Flint N es, Creta 218

Flora oft the Black Hillso of South

Dak ota

etd of Yellowstone Park 822

| ot tie Sand Hills of Ne-

| a

| Florida, Arae Explor-

ation

Geologica cal oe Of <6

Floridan saree egio

Flower,

Food of B

eet teeseeee

of Sone ye ane as Birds.....

For sores of the Natural

ciences, E. D. Cope ......

Fossils ee | Fossilization, ~~ P.

Gratacap....sesssesenseoeen 993

180, 665

| Fosterite from Monte T aina 810

| French Assoc. Adv. Sci.........0 : 439

Aos of Anthocya Bice sans

| F p r aera by White Ants on

313

ae, oe aan,

ee ssseeseos 613

ABBROS, Foliated, from the

Bra uring

Gales irsini ts 05

Ga are Racin estone, Minerals

ee ee weee

“u

i w >

On ° Q

Garni CR The Asymmetry

of te — ee of Thy-

sano

Cross fertilization and Sex-

ual Rights and Sees: sies

net in Gneisses

Cabo ilus egui s

hæemorrhoidalis.

pecorum

i ee

Tener e seeeeeee

ee eee

. nasalis i 153

Gaævialis gangeticus........00.00

rte ee 4

sins

Descent 3 "Distribution of

Batrachia and Reptilia in

| _North America, E. D. Cope 886

xviii

The American Naturalist.

[Vol. XXX,

i 612

Geological { poanian Cape of ee eer ee Party... g

Geological Map of Europe, No- | Gruner, Dr.....sss seessssrssereeseeee: 614

logic Map oe 172 Srey Moti. Extermination of, 506

TOE P scines <entenoneinrioy>

ger Sw ti ee E oa ABRODESMUS laetis...+00+: 418

Sel ne oe, 26

me 136, 217, ri erg oar = Ty ey i ae Dr, V ea

ee aes 402, “ie 942 Hemadipsa japonica a ERA TIENER sit

Geological Society of America vo it graphitiferus. sse... 3

H aa Hanitsch, R =

EE of t oe is Congo.. ae Hanns, H.. oe : ia

oia rnis. onus -setencdease, APE

and alounaings 46, 13 as ah. : ions

sas gor, 396, 479, 579, ba, one É ye ra s

alicus Hart H, C The His story and

Gupte egi fe on | : Fici of Geology, and

georgian 3 ICP r a

toons ron ection st et! hovi i 673

Germination of Refractory ý | Haia aramiie Mamma Loca uinen

Ge: Boeh Se orned Dino iat rie

Er un less Sala-

a eae ba era sca 98 age iss ns. 829

RC. tae ; | i š 81

Gill, Ae: —— of Walter’s ji | Hemmeter, a Te yi ah Bre 3

Gate af El las Tei by the ae Acid in the iigension 4 of

Taree ot x 78 D ce AE, | went Rhizopods. 19

A. Li 4

Glo J. pte Flore; in Argentina 135 | cen ea of =e Si Louis Bo- os

ora Changes, Succession of, ae N te Pras seul

Glace of Greenland, Prof. Heredity a Paaa & ú

Chamberlin, Abstract ofp Ji ee Pi

Glaucenia dissecta 753 eri

: i ) * 232 | Herpetology of Angora............ 71

Ci, oh n ey Baoan of the Lesser An-

neisses, Bohemia 3 pi 5

of Essex Co., N. Y.... 393 i cpd ster ae

of O 17 So E = 394 e ) rain

Gonioctena variabilis.. sen 1055 ] omer ay econ of the a

Goniometer I4 | n ates

on two aga Arai 573 | TE N- re Pan Character =

. G. Bro ituary | an is

Crabier. P , 961 | nos indicu mae

Graftin age sakes SIERO BE ta re | laticeps we

Granite o; e Himalayas........ 4 : : j

Limestones of Orange | Hindshave Natural History Ex ae

Co. 44 ___sépeditic |

s icans. 714

Granites, Maryland, Origin of, 578 | alton do nigr araeir of Geol

r of Carrock Fell, is | OBy, Its Ai “am pa

Grape Insects. 759 | Hochstetter, Dr. F sersser sseessosere aga

Gta T a | ds Region. eeii BDI

er isis. x sau oor 993 | Hopkins, G. 5. The Heart of

Green, I. M. The P eritoneal | Fons ngless Salaman- A

Epithelium in p iaria 944 |

1896.]

pee pouent, Species of, G. I.

cerebralis Cope 5 ees E TTE

insolens sp, n

co L eidy

oreodon Cope

primes Leidy and Owen..

robustus

Horse, Fossili in Gal France.

Horsley, V.

Horvath, Dr. ya

Hubbard, H. G. On Ambrosia.

Huefner, K. G

Hum mphrey, J: E

Peewee wee eee eas

See ee ween ee ee eeeeene

Hurst, Dr

Huxley Memorial.............. 2

Hyacinthus 07 tentalis....s.000- 797,

Hydrosaurus brevi ue

Hyenarctus arctoide

Hyatt, A. Lost Characteristics.

Hybrid, A Graft rm F. Smith.

LTyracother ium, isses

angu stidens

leporinum 135, 732

VULPICEPS s.. soeese NZI

TDEATIO

1 Cat Rocks in British

Co —

of St. John, N. B...

pii paia y of Taliana

pr Habitation in raii

ted States. H. C. M

95 upon the Marine Fauna

of the coast of France .....

Inheritance or an Acquire d

Characte

Insect Sight

Insects, Injurious...........--- 505,

in the rpa Museum.. a

........

gre

Iowa Geological Survey Vol.

III

Isopods, Development of........-

JADEITE

J jelly Fishes, Fossil ...........

riage — Mountains, Lime-

olen bebe steshenee: seevseeerseaes

Judith River Beds 115,

Ju ie sits of Eastern

Index.

ALLIES, Dr

46 Karstes, Dr Gisntiessivevees

50 | ee Lied ao a

48 | Katzer.

746 Keane. on n Paleolithic Man, Cri-

50 ticism as J. D. McGuire

49 | Kersting, Dri sécss ses. cecssotvesinenss

49 | Keyes, Ç. R. Structure of Uin-

95 5 | a ilies us

962 Kenyon, F

o | FG foa of Schmidt’s

493 The Sense Plates, the Ge

439 of the Foot, and the Shell

176 or Ma Regio the

613 Stylo tophora ssis issssss

261 Criticism i Mr. Cook’s

912 eo e Sclerites of

116 aes a a ba pad TE EAE S

56 Effect of Lithiumchloride

9 upon the Development of

408 the Frog and Toad Egg.....

131 The Relation y

134 si Lepismids to the Ants.

133 he Meaning and Structure

132 << the So-called ‘‘ Mush-

Oe of the Hex-

57 | Kienite-Gerloft

| Knower, H. Poe ‘of McMur-

ur | rich’s Development of Iso-

fed | Knogville Beds

| Peds Fanm owes fess en og soon

Knuth, Dr.

430 Ko hl, F

-e Ean GAMES svp Gace ate owen iss

Kowalevsky, D ASC E E

Kra

69 Pea E REENE paves

755 Kuznetzow, A.

8 spe sie’

37 mbert, F. D. “Abstract

ae A Erlanger’ s Morphology

a of the Tardigrades........:.:.

Lankester, E. R

Laotira cambria

693 Lasius umbrats

123 Laurentian, Divisibility oC.

7 Lauterback, Dr...........0005serese.

43 | Lawsonite

Leadhillite Pseud Pieces

104I | Lectures, Field Columbian Mu-

744 seum

hes, Ja: urine hoe

Lefts among Vertebra a ae

91 | Lem rd gs, Merriam’s Revision

117 OF iris kee E arity eens

Lenk Hoe E S :

136 E one:

Xx The American Naturalist. [Vol. XXX,

eopard Rock of Ontario......... 3 mephitica elongata 72

Lepidoteuthts grimaldii ..rcoveesssees 323 | Mercer, H. C. Archeological

Lepismina polypod 497 Discoveries at Coddington

Lepomis 2 = ng. by Mr. Fi = 83

Lepus articus 234 Ai peg Ba the

articus bangsit . + -236 University of na. in

2 nland 237 ee..

timidu. 235 Chipped Flint Blades from

ieaie Ramicites of Vulcanello. 815 Som 56

Backart, Prof ceciren 527 Exploration i by the Univer-

Lichens of Io 587 nsylvania in

Life copa Posila, C. Morris Wat M 691

betes oe 279 Indian Habitation in the

Life-History of Scale Insects ... 242 Eastern United States. ...... 30

Li itr the Jenny Jump Pictured Caves in Australia. 954

664 sb of Culin’s Korea

Lintner, TA A. “On the Girdling MERINO cate E so 338

of Elm Twigs by the Larvze | Re of Holmes Studie

of Org eo alima and | of Aoa a

its results 74 Yucatan 519

Lion of India 837 | Macloskie, G. Suggestions

Liophrysa was a for Pholis. 498 About Antidromy and D

Dopler, Sets 69. dromy 88

Lister, J 612 | Macrobiotus macronyx N: 507

Lithiophilite. Optical Properties Maiden, 60

AS E ETE O A ea 573 | Maler, Th. Recent Explora-

una Effect o tions in Yucata 87

the Development of the ae 475

Frog an ERE cii 336 | Mallophaga, New. ........2....0..0. 596

Liversedge, A 262 fetes albisc sabes AE 198

Taye. A E. An Abnormal | aumai, Fossil 306

UA 509 | Ma 1052

Localities Data Laramie Mam. | PRY gene of Glacial 781

Horned Dino- | Civilized 616

pean J. B. Hatcher... I12 | E a : _— Horse in Cen-

Locy, W. 439 | 955

Ñ oesener, Th 961r | Mane ie jus 499

Loos, ; $ o | Manis tricuspis 1034

Lost Characteristics. A Hyatt. 9 | Manx Cat, Progeny e sreceuenns 330

Louisianian Distric I | Marey, 612

Lower Californian District ro12 | Marine Fatina = the eases of

Lungless Salamanders............. 499 Fra E OD

Lyceena pseudargiolus...... .ccccerece 680 | McClure, C E. W 88

L ker’s Geographical Dis- M ire, J. D. Mr. Ea on

tribution oi alia...... 1033, Paleolithic M 606

= Sor laterale ee wich oa S E 752 | Mead, A. D. D 176

irds of Ne come ear Dairi E anan i 857

e TE 195, 285, 710 2

me breviceps rria SAE Mis scien at Wotkschonberg 817

E S E O 241 icrosc :

Medicolumbian Region. veiene sor, Doa | DUECV OTIS CIA NE conso? rrenossrideo er

Medium, Neutral towards Sul- iers, H. A 439

phides 1040 | Migration in Birds as a ‘soon

Megalurus MaQcrurus ..cccceccreve mere FEY | Pits the Production of

Melanocharis niera.. 716 | pees Varieties. T. i

Mental — during Sleep.. A | Montgomery, Jr.. 458

E E 49 | Migula’s New Classification of

Mephitis a americana var. hudson- | Bacteria. E. F. Smith...... 9I

72 a Miles, M. Relative Eieiency

iion. niente e T2 of Animals as Machines..... 874

1896.] Index.

Mimicry .... ... 596 | ae Sets of North American

Mimus perenge ki 1050 | lants

Minerological N 813 | National Acolamy. of Sciences..

Minot ae Se =. On Heredity and Mano nal University

Rejuvenation,: eea I, 89: | x compressicauda,

Mineralogical Notes, 575, 739, Sarre of Feeling. H. C War-

Mineralogy and Crystallogra- Nebraska pras po of Science

phy +575, 737, 809, 932 A iisi ———

Mississippi Valley Unionidæ | Nematinæ, American..............

in ae K PAIDOS | Nelson s s Fora oY raae ba ive

A flan tic fees Areas... 379 $. Be

poner re o, Validity of....... 308 Nese al R Im

oshi, 264 | Nephi ila ER

Modiñcation of Drain During ! iee erii

Pen BF GAEE. i.i ce r aa a T E E EN

Möller, Aires sesevsrcostnen:. reran 961 | Nepheline - - Syenite Bowlder

POR F mulleriana P 197 a

Monar pe JE 198

melt as 97 | New 3 York jat ne of Sciences,

Moncchronaitd Light from Sun- | 162, 259, 346, 435 958.e.......

light 739 | New Factor in Evolution. M.

Monoclonius recurvicornts,. soccer iig DID EE EE E 441,

page ogre A J. H. Jr. Heme | Niagara Falls, Duration of.......

gration in Birds | Nichols, H. N. Biological O

á Dan Upon the Prai | gin of Mental Variety........

aon of Geographical Varie- | Further Comments on Prof.

8 | amas s ‘Ne ew Factor in

Moore, j È ee niston laterale | Evoluti

753 Prof. Baldwin s “New Fac-

Mormoda i ignea 224 m BVOM es

oths Ken tucky 155 Nic ke erson

Moulting of Birds 76 | Nile Valley, Geciogs a EES

Morris, C. Life Before Fossils, Nitrifying Organisms..............

188 279 |. Nomenclature . 2. svcxvockcseecccdecc

Mud aoe = Air-breather... 9% of dad ist isa C. E. Bessey

Müller W. I

Murex umbri rifer T N otes vd pa a Fossil Mammalia

Muricide, New Classification of 69 rOpe...... E 31, A 480,

Bam o Arts and Sciences, Maiki fendlerii

Brooklyn 870 | asa bas o Contributors besidi

e ago eae act a the | Norm oo

xapod Bra epee | North M aia saie as

a Meaning of. E.G | Nova Scotia AEE, Science

yon 643 9 346, 434

Musqu itoes, Destruction of...... 201 |

Mycetozoa 1044 CCIPITAL Lobes, Result of

Mylitia australis. 216. 221 Extirpation of, ina Monkey

ed ee ys Lepismids, Re- nce eocene Marine

tation to the Ants. F.C. 6 Diatomacez near York.

Ke 490. A. M. Edwards................2.

Ayrmeionia Tumesta erersssn miser: 496 Ocinebra nuttalli

osporidia........... 327, 229 District ‘i

y> Memoir Me M. P. Thelo- Odonata of Ohio ............. deiss

han, Abstrait of s-s-sr.:-j ežomonas piei E Gigi ck van

ik ce ae So GE Ce IE

E Siea Classification and I “Civilized Mon. E D.

Geographical Distribution

AS 674 res ee a gl hin

: Nansen and the e Deep Seaver. 927 | Oudermann, G- A. J. A..........

Naples Zoological Station......... 527

586

1064

200

697

pith depres

rang- = tang, Craniai Capac-

rues arfaki

Orthon poveguinee

Orycteropus FONAN (So iii aone cn os

tocoel id qae

tt ne aie Cees

testudineus Cope..

Oxydesmus grayii

liber

ee ee

ACH YCARE flavogrisea......+.

Pachycephala albispecularis.....

schlegelii

soror.

Pachycephalopsis poliosoma..........

Pachynolosphus cessarasicus......++.

uva ji

apar Eliit esti 133,

District

Panorga rufescens, Larval Habits

Palatine Process of the Mamma-

lian Prem soye ry:

eon eseee

Paleolithic M:

Pulsaminiogcs. ear na, Vols.

I, O, HI. E. D- Cope...

Palæospondy lus a Marsipo-

5 S seage AERA ARA PINA E

Paleontology, Canadian

goers Rocks of the M

Pa alapin init Bimar ia

: enara e Gan ndry

See ee te rton

Tee ee eee eeerer

PSE

Paragorgia pacifiet. iiien nai

Pariotichus ti Cope.

Pa iasaurus bainti

ipapa a ital- of the Squamata _

a the Affinities Bor =

Mosasauridze

The American Naturalist.

[Vol, XXX,

149 | Path of jar Water cars + in

570 ree mber Plan KoT

te seseeees an 451, 554

x32 Peps inini POE E E SET 95

715 ial Structure of the Sauria.

7 Cope 945

588 Peridotites of North Carolina... 1038

135 | Shales and Slates from Wales... Nee

135 | Peritoneal ae ue = Am

217 phibia. I. M. Green......... 944

418 | Permian Land Vertebrata with

2 apaces. E. D ie T 943

942 Peromyseus i rpe sarerene 753

399 | Petrochiledon nigricans 714

937 | Petr rographical News, 45, 130,

937 ©; 300, 3955 477, 579, 663,

416 1040

416 Petrography, A3 127, 207: 207,

416 393, 475, 576, 660, 741, 814, 1038

130 | Phegopteris Ary 0pteris..iicccecuceceee 751

eke agers Natural

87 1c Sy Sent » 347, 434, 525

286 p arre califor itis. sees 156

287 eters! of ‘Anoplotherium.

286 Or Ate hes tiscali 665

2 of the Dipn 479

286 | Physical and Mental Tests ..... 157

286 Bi siclosy and Psychology. G

285 . S on, Abatia of 156

286 Vegetable, 61, 137,

286 es 490

285 | Pica ca 052

133 Pictured ¢ Caves in Australia. H.

13 C. Mere 954

134 Pietra fearon 219

1018 Pigmen in Egg 1060

Pilsbry. . Criticism of

er’ s New Classification

: of the Muricidze

Piney Branch (D. C. ). Quarry

Worksh wy 3 and an Imple-

Wilso -873

Bra 873,

Pinnecte Hilis, A Kame ee

Pin a A SCOPULOFUM onono vo

Pitto:

Praia WEBER ised ar ira

Pia onas urina rat

Plant Geography in in Germany.

oscce Por

Plants, Diseases oi E E

Platydactylus yuttatā, vocccccscecevses

ween eee

hoon ei teeeeees

Pl Col

Sar a ei

S sressso seoccceess

Ponika Knob, Glaciation ap

pee

1896.] Index.

Pacilodryas PAPUANA .rssccscesoreeseee 196 į Pterodesmidii s.s. sisses asi isis

acu 197 | Pterodesmus brownelli

hypoleuc 19 thytis Conrad

brachyura 197 | Puget Atg A Smet ye Of ied

ciner sec eeccer es coocosoosoososssos I 97 roup, F Peewee seccocoser

tere weeeeee

mage oor deere wan Porphyritic

Structu 12

mipien australis. Raik 13

lar 234

Polyclo ayo 744

Po ides rst Lucas....... 416

Polyporu. 21

ae ai, 231; 222

berast I

Pomatorhinus isidori

Potassium a araoa Secre-

TE OB E E 335 |

Potato Insect 506

p om aero? -Geography of |

E TER O A 465

The \ Vie na eo mma 55

Pr eformation and Epigen 342

Preliminary Demrigtion = of a

aw ole f Labrador.

ut Ban ...... FOST

rema zillary, Mammalian. Liveties 50

Prentiss. At N Nelsomi anih 1043

noa rese 1052

Pri in nook s era wehbe E 487

rity of Publication........ ... 651

Priora ie DOF MOTE ois oaks 71

Prizes awarded by the London

graphical Society........ 69.

neers Influence of Disturbed

Nutrition on the Evolution

of the Vegetative Phase of

ye Sporophyte. G. F. At-

kinson wae 349

Proceedings Scientific Socie-

pei 162, 258, 434, 524, 776,

eet CoA 958

a fluviatilis Leidy.......... 1048

in American Ornithol-

ogy 1886-1 ; -

feldt 357

Propalzeotherium ...............000. 134

Protection of Game in U. S...... 869

Proteid supecting Saliva in In-

sect I 7

Protoplasmic “Continuity... 597

Prunus besseyi

Sg io of the Upper

of France

Psychology, 156, 249, 342, 422,

510, 599, 689, 774, 844..-...-.

Peychoiogy ag heey - 510, 598, iste

ycho-Nearal: Da

eee eee eenee

See eee teen ee ee ee sewers

Posty

gr tty 2 Spotted in South

ANKIN, W.B

Rauvpenlime

Raymond, R. DeB

Razania anes

Realm

Eeto PE E it 889,

er mar

Ethiopi

Neot tropic

Recent Books and Pamphlets,

I, 125, 205, 295, 390, 473,

65 ’ 734, ’ nae EON

oe hg 35, I2

tee e ere ee wee eee

...Į..

Bacteria.......2..5

Relics OFC Glacial Ma i Reported

at the Buffalo Meeting......

Reg filia ETE

Reptiles and Batrachians of

m esilla Valley, New Mex-

Re tzin, G 262,

Reviews :

Annual Report for 1894

cal Survey of New

Annual Report, Vol. VI,

Geolo ogical Survey of

Canada

Geologi

ersey

age. List of North

American B

Bailey’s Piaf Breeding. ©

E. F-

Bergen’s High ‘Sch ool

xxiv

sessete

Saeed s pree syai of

a in the British Mu-

ope Spnsecseres

Cambridge Natural His-

tory,

Catkins’ Lichens te Chic-

ago. C.E. B

Chamberlain’ à “Chi ld a

os in Folk-Thought.

Chats About ae snare

s of Organ

Cata C. E. Bess ssey. ARA

Coville's S Alaskan Botany.

Cratty’s s Aquatic T egra of

Iowa. C. E. Bessey ........

S seers

Forbes’ Report 1893-4 .. -4--

mag s New Manual of Bot-

BO Cie a a AE osc seas

Guide rote

Halleck’s Ei Seaton of ‘the

Central Nervous Syste ;

Hallier’s Prestkrankheiten,

te OMh paR:

Headley. = SERRAS and

Life of B

Heilprin’ s mr a Pat

ind i =e ory.

ley... Oeil

Holmes’ Arch elogica 1

- Studies among the Ancient

Cities exico E

Mercer

: eyes Geographical Survey,

sere ewns

Kemp's Handbook of

tora for Use without the

Toacope- W. S. rT

King's CE s Cormag um Deposits

mmon’ s oa of the

c slope

seen

The American Naturalist.

seat ee eee eee

[Vol. XXX,

tical Zoology 389

Meee s Bears of North

E vivsb S EEE TE 56

Merriam s Shrews of North

PREA E A E 12

yates s Introduction to :

we study of Sea-Weeds.

Alton Saunde “6 290

vane ithe s Eleme entary

Lessons in Zoology........-.. 89

Nuttall’s Handbook of

Birds. 1031

Packard's "Monograph “of

Bombycine M 59

Publications oF xin

Geological Survey for 1895

4. Fourteenth Annual

port 32

Recent Boone on Vegetable

a A ` Mimetic Origin

joa Develo omento a Bird-

language. C. A tchell. 854

Robinson’s ‘Golumbines of

Nor n 585

Rockhill’s winery through

Mongolia and ae 2 ae 731

Spencer’s “Dae n of Ni-

agara Sieg ow ya History of

the Gre 24

aca s gar of Mar-

Tiape psia kede a AO

Strong’s Cranial Nerves of

Amphibia ei i canes 733

Tarr’s Kiementary Physical

Geo raph Yeesseesesesrose steceee 388

Tilden’ s American Alge, C.

E. Bessey sesoto 584

psa Whence and Whith-

of Man 565

Wachsmnth and Springer

Taxono ue the ide,

RERE 92

Wasmuth a Springer’s

Crinoidea. essiri = 27

Walcott s Cambrian Rocks

of Pennsylvania, Abstract

of, 817

Walter’s Surface Colors, A.

Re NEED eriste eurre och dndeea: SME

Williams’ Geological Biol-

e iat: dislae nddiniemed to 471

Williams’ Manual of Lithol-

ogy, W. yley PIERE 203

Rhamph acherix: CY ASSITOSEV IS oosters 716

rere au GENA laris. 195

ar 196

Rhi S, Dig OE cides: 619

Rnizopods, N. On the Habits of

1896.] .

The Sear orcas of Eastern

Index.

Nort rica, with de-

araire of ‘Ne orm 234

Rhodophosphite. 812

Rock Differentiation, Examples

, 297

Rocks of California 742

from Eastern Pa AEEA o8

of Glacier Alaska...... 477

from Molnccas-....5.... eais O41

from the Sweet Grass Hills,

Montana 210

Rock Powder, result of melting, 1040

Rohon, Dr. 6

Role of anai m pen estion of

Certai ioe F G

emmeter. 619

Root-Burn of Beets. iesiri 730

Rörig, Dr. G é 613

pe ay oo Beets 72

176

Rutile 738

ABATIER, A 175

Saccardo, D E: 440

Saitis pule. 673

Salamanders, Heart of, POTRES 829

Sandstone Inclusion 395

San J 506

Sansoni y 175

SEFOXCRUS CONARI o ne E A 5

Saunders, De Alto on, Review of

Toni’s Sylloge Algarum 668

Peria VUTOSE: ccasecttecieseeernecavs go

SAXifT aga SATMENTOSA. .csese.eveeerses 223

Scab of Beets 729

Sceloporus RSEN E Cope,

Description of gi iii vsieis ae 834

afer, 263

Schauinsland, H 439

Schiffner, V 961

Schinz, H 176

Schist, Cato 131

Schists Lustre sat Mont Jovet..... 401

Scho 176

Seme Fs... 175

Sci ise. News ate: es 261, site

= =. 611, 693, 866, .,-<.:- 960

Sclate 613,

Scleri baa aera serra erie 409

E n GT ETA EE E Sia E 241

ongicornis 24I

par viceps. 240

robustus. Woese i 240)

ten p re aes bispi 418

Scyto: 332

sranulains. 415

Sea Tea ones, Feeding Phe-

ena of, 495

Seal "Herd, } Destruction Ofu reja 385

Segmentation of Frog’s Eggs..

oe Scle = ma of Spirobo-

ytd,

Seidentopi; Tae

Selenka

a, E

= rn sii a oy faktana

Se sche LW

oe Rights and Lefi

view oe Recent

pri a on presi Relation be-

tween the Ascomyctes an

Basidiomycetes I RS

sseestss ot

Shi

Baso rol Ne rth Americ

e aia IR W. aaa in Am-

can Ornithology, Se

Sight, gone of, in Spiders......

Sillimanite

Simocyon eae

n, € n the Missis-

sippi Va alley Unionidæ

found in the St. Lawrence

and Atlantic Drainage

Areas

x Quartzite 6 of lowa orsa

sri s africanus COOK. s.s.s...

Sittella papuen $73

eep, Loss of,

a of Loss of, H. C.

arre

Slonaker, LE Comparative

Study of the sym of Acute

ttebrates

BEBE RD eee ey Reeth tees

Smith, E. E Abstract of Bach-

Spore Formation

controlled by external con-

iti

5 A of Kny’ s Function

hocya n

Abstract of Nestler’s Water

eat OO e Bere ewe esere seoste

pami of Th. Smith’s Ue-

Sacteriit 1 Diseases i in Plants

626.

Climate

Change

Stru

lants due m s Feeble ae

Note o ee

Note pw se s Desert

a eee eee eee eee

“hanges due to an aes

XXvVi

The American Naturalist.

[Vol. XXX,

Vegetation, ciaiss ira 321 440

The pact of the Water Cur- ae ng oh oe nya 332

rent " Cucumber Plants a App = Am

372, 451 554 hiuma. A. Davison....... 684

Review of Brefeld’s Smut Testudinata, piae ie ee E.

Fun 137; 224 400

Berea Books on Vegetable T 'etragophosphite... aang Ba

ec Notice of,........ 20 | Texan District 1007

Review of Die Peatheanks Thamnidium elegans 63

owns 21 Thelyphonus caudatus 231

Review of Migula’ : = Thilenius, Dr 613

Classification of Bact 90 | Th 813

White Ants as Culiya Thymoquinone o-se 813,

F GIO fo F AV SAMOPLCTE sh riie cee e dienes 591

t Fun 137, 224 | Tietia. oryze 225

psd pee AEAEE ee es 223 d, J. E. Antidromy and

Sonoran subregion... IOI2 Crossfertilization. peer 223

pecies, Describing,....-.......-... 926 | Todopsis cja 198

aerar in some American a subregion 1020

ne Salamanders... $89 | Topsent, Dr. E -nooti ien 440

Sple: on I< PSC poi Vebes E E T A 490 Sisto sessilis 55

Sphrerc fam ber scecie SEPAR PIN 80 | Treub, M. 612

Spiders, ralian, 324 | Trichomonas vaginalis 68

Sense of Sight in, GERI tionis Respiration Weini 409

Spirobolus marginatus R i E EE E T E A

Sponges, Pre-Cambrian 53 Fe riphi ite, Optical Properties of. 573

Spore Formati 63, 64 | Triton pica ESE E 82

Ser . DI.....-0000 eosenees 962 | Troglodytes « 1050

Stead, F. B. 88 | Tripidesmus jugo 414

Sternberg, CH 870 AS sagas KA ETE ag Serine Lit 413

Stilbit 13 88

Suackhams Ethics of Marriage. 569 Tuber melanosporu iia alley OTN 220

S rH 264 | Tuditanus N 303

` Strasburger, E 612 | Tu etsche 60

Strass O Tent 528 | Turbellaria, Notes on.............. 046

Strong, W. S 8 Turquoises, Chemical Composi-

Stylodesmus horridus $19 5 — SRO a es ea ey 37

at str apna septs SP Eee Typhiomolge thbunii. . 498

Subconse ous is Reasoning, E T 849

Sakean P UU isoina 419

astern ...... 1003 Uin nus, Structure of.

Austroriparian ER 1003 pE yes 19

Floridan IOIO ra pygme

SOMO e r RA e Sicedicce. 112 Unione a “the Mississippi

tern 1017 Valley found in the St.

Toltecan ise TOFO Lawrence and At lantic

Suger Loaf Mt., Pa., Glaciation Drainage Areas...... s.--eeee 379

402 | Unios from the Trias 665

Sulphur, — o E 813 Dany Extension............05 262

in Mic. ----- 574 | Upper Miocene > oc Soden = 54

Sy eng emer and Synopsia. E Urocharis longicauda 715

C. W 689 ee 57.

Synaptomys, ‘Revision Oe 1053 58

Syn 689 | U. S National Academy of

aonana, Dr. 614 437

Ust stilaginoides BOG Sie SE 408

T Tapis, Fotil Origin of....... 588 | Ustilago zeæmairis 223

Tapits, Fossil... ei ina. 746

Tapirulus, Affinities of............ 306 | y“ NESSA prorsalevana. sss... 680

Tardigrades, Morphology of..... 507 | aranna ReraldicUs. rossis sa: 945

1896.]

Variation after Birth. L. H.

Railev

y 17

Variations in the Patellar Re-

flex as an Aid in Mental

Analysis. Prof. Witmer,

Abstract Ofsi canina I

Varieties, ee eee esseveesss ABS

Verrillia 1052

Vic ©- Presidents of the Amer-

ssociat ion 52

vieuiia Propositions, R.Pound. 55

Vipera beru 413

Vivipara, Se PTEE E

vinet of Idiots 33

Voglino, D 528

ogt, C sence’ 262

voa RAY in New Bruns-

401

Voleanies in Maine 94

i Michigan 393

ee om Rocks and ape in

Vole (New). from Labrador... | 1051

n Güm 262

n Kupfer ; 'K 96I

Von Lenbossék, Macus 528

Von Norbeck: FI. PH oaos 613

Von Sandberger, F 43

Von Wagner, Fo. occa 528

Von Zittel, Ko Asse nnan 262

Vuillemin, Dr. P cc ssc. ys 528

ADE, Inheritance of

Astifical Mutilations..... 837

Wagner, Dr. R 612

Walcott, ok D 439

Ward, H 43

idee a n e Effects of Loss

of S I06I

“site shoe Children....... 774

The Nature oi Feeding Silas 948

ony of Halleck’s Se

n of te: an tral N

a. Syst Bieta 1032

munthiesia and Synopsia..

Wash Wings napr 689

Renal A a in a

Water

Weiss, ope nowe Roe

eismann on Dimorphism in

Butterfli 679

"eda 813

Weste: 7

<< IOI

Whitney, J pRa Dwight, Obit-

Willey, F :

Wilson, Pee B. Wrinkling ‘of

Frog’s Eggs durin

mentation a tie

TPP R RO Renews eeeee tases

761

Index.

331

Wasps, he pi eres Oe of. 504

224

y Aryl Branch (D. C.)

Quarry Workshop and its

PieEmentS..ssessecsissosesise 73»

Winslow, C. M. Abstract of

Heymons Segmentation of

weet eee tee

ird-lan-

the Evolution

Woodpeckers, Sg of.

Food Habits of

Woodsia alpina

mexicana

obtusa

071.

Wright, G. F. Fresh Relics of

Glacial Man Re eport rted at

the Buffalo Meeting A. A.

Wrinkling of Frog’s Eggs yi

g Em entation. C.

Ton UM canadense

Xerophila LORE OPS iis acest.

X-rays. (illustrated ) -essei is..

A FHOGPUS TISDOF oideas airosa N

pu ESCERS

AG yodesmus PLOMUS creien R

Lc Explorations in

TA IRACHIS opica alts... ee

Zeugites oA webieieeus st

— EET 440,

Zirco

Zoological News, 590, 758, 1 =

Zooology, 67, 143, 229, 323, 40

495, e ce. 752, 529, 943,

ge ns

ollusca ....

Pisces SEa 332, 412, 590,

Petia. al ae

OSes vous, 71, 591,

Mammialia............. 72,

Zuber, R

XXVili

1046

$4.00 per Year. $4.60 per Year (Foreign). 35 cts. per Copy.

THE

AMERICAN

= NATURALIST

A MONTHLY JOURNAL

DEVOTED TO THE NATURAL SCIENCES

IN THEIR WIDEST SENSE.

MANAGING EDITORS

Prors. E. D. COPE, Philadelphia, anp J. S. KINGSLEY, Tufts College, College Hill, Mass.

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puar C.. M. WEED, Durham, N. ProF, W: S. BAYLE A e ei., Maine, Pror, EA. ANDREWS, Baltimore,

imeen IW H. Ao. “Madison: Wis . WM. ROMAINE NEWBOLD, Philadelphia.

ERWIN F. SMITH, Wine Do:

Vol. XXX. ©& JANUARY, 1896. No. 349

CONTENTS.

3 PAGE

d “On HEREDITY AND REJUVENATION —Embryology of pr Perens e Upper

‘ Charles Sedewick Minot, 1 par: of Montredon:. 6

; a LosT CHARACTERISTICS. ... , Alpheus Hyatt. 9 — The Vienna TRA perigee 9

T VARIATION AFTER BIRTH. ... L. x Bail a 17 Fiora ol ‘Onin The Flora of the Sand Hills of

a A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE POINT oF ACU Nebraska—Recent Botanica

é VISION IN THE VERTEBRATES. strated.) Vegetable Physiology- Chang s due to an Al-

R, Slonaker. 24 | pin mate—Spore tea bes opp by

Epiror’s TABLE.—The a ptivisiauedioniels again Ratornal: Condit Bana A erhi ion of Re-

—Vivisection. of Idiots— ican fractory ee y at the ritish A aa

Association at San F . , 2 | ciation—Nitrifying Organisms—

SN bbc of Sugars to the Gro wth of Bacteria Algal i

pos “i Be inie TERRE = Bi cesta = says te on Coffee 61

ntroduction to the Study of under —On Bodo“ urinarius—

: ari Taita of

i ne Praga oP se f slograph, a Treatise the Weker 1894-1895 upon the Marine Fauna

3 ‘Physical G E iale Tec rysta Synoptical FI red of the Coast of France—Preliminary Outline

E of Nort oth America The Nat i al Histo are “of of a New Classification of the Family “ehh et

ts e Natura 35 oley of- An napi oslo New

3 i 5 | Bi i.

RECENT Books AND Parasia: ee Sa hiss ae SSRI ee in the National esas

_ GENERAL NOTES. —On the Girdling of Elm Twigs by Bars Tar-

a P a iphy—The Origin of Adinoles—Notes væ of Orgyia leu ucostigm a, and its R :

: aor ies ota pate a “oe oe Gran n ` Embryology—Experimental PERE RA

A eiss from pi shi Ki Anthropology—Discoveries at. Codtingion, =

fous ee Zitlerthal chats p53 gland, by Mr. Worthington G. Smith—Rece

Geology an ontology.— 2 tha ‘te Üp of ‘Explorations of of corals bani te —

‘Hoplophonens. (i ‘(iustrat ed.)—The Goldbear-

ing Quartz o. California—Precambri an Sponges. | Scientiric News. <e 2°... . : j a

-Entered at the Philadelphia Past Ofice as second-class matter.

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THE

AMERICAN NATURALIST

Vor: XXX. January, 1896. 349

ON HEREDITY AND REJUVENATION:

By CHARLES SEDGWICK Minot?

The subject of this article is presented under the following

sections :

I. The Formative Force of Organisms.

II. The Conception of Death.

III. A Comparison of Larva and Embryo,

IV. Concluding Remarks.

The first section is not new, but a reproduction without

change, of an article published in Science, July 3d, 1885. As

this article has not become generally known, and yet is an es-

sential link in the chain of reasoning, I venture to repeat it-

Though written in 1885, I consider that to-day it is still suffi-

cient to disprove Weismann’s theory of germ plasm. Weis-

mann has not considered this article, otherwise, from my

point of view, he could not have maintained his theory.

' This article is translated from one which appeared in the Biologisches Cen-

tralblatt, Vol. XV, Page 571, August Ist, 1895. A few trifling changes have

been made in the text. An abstract of > article was read before ‘the Amer-

ican Association for the Advancement of Science, at g

2, Professor in the Harvard Medical School.

2 The American Naturalist. [January,

The views which I then defended have been recently

brought forward in almost parallel form, and without essen-

tial additions, by O. Hertwig (Zeit-wnd Streitfragen der Biologie,

I, Heft, D. 32-53) as arguments against the views of Weis-

mann.

The second section is also directed against Weismann, for

it attempts to replace his conception of death by one more

exact. aa

The third section is intended to make the significance of re-

juvenation clear, and at the same time, by a comparison of

larvee and embryos, to demonstrate a law of heredity which

has not been hitherto recognized.

THE FORMATIVE Force OF ORGANISMS.

The assertion is safe, that the majority of biologists incline

at present to explain the forming of an organism out of its

germ upon mechanical principles. The prevalent conception

is that the forces of the ovum are so disposed that the evolu-

tion of the adult organism is the mechanical result of the pre-

determined interplay of those forces. The object of the pres-

ent article is to point out that this conception is inadequate,

and must be at least supplemented, if not replaced, by another

view, namely, that the formative force isa generally diffused

tendency, so that all parts inherently tend to complete by

their own growth and modification the whole organism—a

fact which finds a legitimate hypothetical expression in Dar-

win’s Doctrine of pangenesis. The nature of the view here

advanced will become clearer upon consideration of the evi-

dence upon which it is based, and which is adduced below.

The evidence that the formative force is diffused through all

parts falls under three heads: 1. The process of regeneration

in unicellular and multicellular bionts ; 2. The phenomena of

of the duplication of parts; 3. All forms of organic reproduc-

tion. Let us briefly consider these categories.

= 1. Regeneration—All living organisms have, to a greater or

less degree, the ability to repair injuries; indeed, we must re-

gard the power of regeneration as coextensive with life, but

ee ee

Fo ER E TO EE N PENER i hl

1896.] On Heredity and Rejuvenation. 3

the capacity varies enormously in the different species. In

-man the power is very small, though more extensive than is

generally realized. Among Annelids are species, the individ-

uals of which may be divided in two, and each piece can re-

generate all that is needed to render ita complete worm. We

sometimes see a small fragment of a plant, a single switch of

a willow, for instance, regenerate an entire tree, roots, trunk,

branches, leaves, flowers, andall. In the last instance a few

cells possess a latent formative force, which we recognize by

its effects, but cannot explain. We perceive, therefore, that

each individual has, as it were, a scheme or plan of its organ-

ization to which it strives to conform. As long as it actually

does so, the cells perform their routine functions; but when

an injury destroys or removes some portion, then the remain-

‘ing cells strive to conform again to the complete scheme, and

to add the missing fragment. The act of regeneration of lost

parts strikes the imagination almost as an intelligent pursuit

by the tissues of an ideal purpose.

Our knowledge of the regeneration power has recently re-

ceived important extensions through the noteworthy experi-

ments of Nussbaum’ and Gruber,‘ who have demonstrated, in-

dependently, the possibility of dividing unicellular animals

so that each piece will regenerate the missing parts. In this

manner the number of individuals can be artifically multi-

plied. For example: Nussbaum divided a well-isolated Oxy-

tricha into two equal parts, either transversely or longitudi-

nally, and found that the edges of the cut became soon sur-

rounded with new cilia. Although some of the substance of

the body, or even a nucleus, was lost through the operation yet,

by the following day, the two parts converted themselves into

complete animals with four nuclei and nucleoli (Nebenkerne)

and the characteristic ciliary apparatus. “The head piece has

formed a new hind end; the right half, a new left half.” The

3M. Nussbaum, Ueber spontane und kunstliche Zeliteilung, Sitzungsb. d. nei-

- derrh. Ges. f. Nat. u. Heilkunde, Bonn, 15, Dez., 1884.

t A. Gruber, Ueber kunstliche Teilung bei Infusorien, Biol. Centralblatt, Bd. IV,

- No. 23, 717-722.

4 The American Naturalist. [January,

newformed duplicate Infusoria multiplied subsequently by

spontaneous division. From one Oxytrachia cut in two, Nuss-

baum succeeded in raising ten normal animalcules, which

subsequently all encysted. After an unequal division, the

parts are both still capable of regeneration, but parts without

a nucleus did not survive, which suggests that the formative

energy is in some way bound up with the nucleus. But nu-

cleate pieces may break down. Thus, all attempts at artifi-

cial multiplication of the multinucleate Opalina failed, al-

though the division of Actinosphzrium had been successfully

made by Eichhorn as long ago as in the last century. Pelo-

myxa palustris has been successfully divided by Greef, and

Myastrum radians by Haeckel.

Gruber (J. c., p. 718) describes his experiments with Stentor :

“Tf one divides a Stentor transversely through the middle,

and isolates the two parts, one finds on the cut surface of the

hind part, after about twelve hours, a complete peristomial field

with the large cilia and buccal spiral newly formed. On the

other hand, the piece on which the old mouth is situated has

elongated itself backwards, and attached itself in the manner

peculiar to these Infusoria. If one has made a longitudinal

section, so that the peristom is cut in two, then the peristoms

both complete themselves and the lateral wounds heal over.

_IT have repeatedly separated, by transection, pieces consider-

ably less than half of the original Stentor, and these have also

regenerated themselves to complete animals.” Gruber, too,

observed that artificially divided Infusoria were capable of

subsequent spontaneous multiplication. If the section is not

very deep, there may arise double monsters; but here, just as

in spontaneous divisions, as long as there remains an organic

connecting band, the two parts act as one individual, showing

thatthe nervous actions are not restricted to determined

paths. Gruber also adds that two divided pieces may be re-

united if brought together quickly enough. The observation

thus briefly announced is of such extreme interest and impor-

tance that the publication of the full details of the experiment

will be eagerly awaited. Gruber adds that at present we can-

1896.] On Heredity and Rejuvenation. 5

not go much beyond the proof of existence, to a high degree,

of the regenerative capacity in unicellular organisms, He also

makes the significant observation that in the Protozoa, we

have to do foremost with changes of function ; in the Metazoa,

with growth also.

2. Duplication of parts—In these anomalies we find an or-

gan which, although an extra member, yet still conforms to

the type of the species. For example: a frog is found with

three posterior limbs; dissection proves the third leg to agree

anatomically with the typical organization of the frog’s hind

leg. In determining the importance to be attributed to this

evidence, it should be remembered, on the one hand, that

these instances are by no means unusual; on the other, that

the agreement with the normal structure is not uniform.

3. Asexual reproduction—When a species multiplies by fis-

sion of any kind, we must assume that each part, after divis-

ion, possesses the formative tendency, since we see it build up:

what is necessary so complete the typical organization of the

individual. Again: a bud of a nydroid or polyzoon, although

comprising only a small part of the body, is equally endowed

with this uncomprehended faculty. In pseudova we reach the

extreme limit; in aphis, for example, the parent gives off a

single cell, the capacity of which, to produce a perfect and

complicated individual, fully equals the like capacity of a hy-

droid bud or of half a worm.

The evidence forces us to the conclusion that the formative

force or cause is not merely the original disposition of the

forces and substances of the ovum, but that to each portion of

the organism is given: 1. The pattern of the whole organism; 2.

The partial or complete power to reproduce the patlern. The itali-

cized formula is, of course, a very crude scientific statement, but

it is the best which has occurred to me. The formative force,

then, is a diffused tendency. The very vagueness of the ex-

pression serves to emphasize our ignorance concerning the

real nature of the force. In this connection, I venture to in-

sist upon the fact that we know little or nothing concerning

any of the fundamental properties of life, because I think the

6 The American Naturalist. [January,

lesson of our ignorance has not been learned by biologists.

We encounter, not infrequently, the assertion that life is

nothing but a series of physical phenomena ; or, on the other

hand, what is less fashionable science just now, that life is

due to a special vital force. Such assertions are thoroughly

unscientific ; most of them are entirely, the remainder nearly

worthless. Of what seems to me the prerequisites to be fulfilled

before a general theory of life is advanced, I have written

elsewhere.’

IJ. Conception or DEATH.

My thesis reads: There are two forms of death. These are

first, the death of the single cells; second, the death of multi-

cellular organisms. Death in the one case is not homologous

with death in the other.

Weismann assumed the complete homology of the two

forms of death. Without this assumption, his hypothesis of

the immortality of unicellular organisms falls to the ground

and with it falls the entire superstructure of his speculations

upon germ plasm. Oscar Hertwig (Zeit und Streitfragen, Heft

1) has already expounded, very clearly, the dependence of the

theory of germ plasm upon the hypothesis of unicellular im-

mortality ; it would, therefore, be superfluous to discuss it

The conception of the biological problem of death, to which

I still hold, was formed several years before Weismann’s first

publication, which appeared in 1882, with the title, “ Ueber die

Dauer des Lebens.” He has further defended his view in his

article, “Ueber Leben und Tod” (1884), and has steadfastly ad-

hered to it since. In the years 1877-1879 I published my

theoretical interpretation of the problem.’ This interpretation

became the starting point of elaborate special investigations,

“by which I endeavored to advance the solution of the problem

and, in fach, observation and experiment have confirmed the

°C. S. Minot, On the conditions to be filled by a theory of life, Proc. Amer.

Assoc. Ady. k XXVIII, 411.

* Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., XIX, 167; XX, 190.

1896.] On Heredity and Rejuvenation. 7

original thesis.” Moreover, in an especial short article I have

directed attention to the fact that Weismann has not consid-

ered the essential issue of the problem. The difficulties

pointed out still remain, and, according to my conviction, can-

not be removed. Weismann passes these difficulties by and

carries out his speculations without first securing a basis for

them. His method is illustrated by the following quotation :

“ I have, perhaps, not to regret that I cannot here discuss the

article referred to (Minot’s Article in Science, Vol. IV, p. 398) ;

nevertheless, almost all objections which are there made to

my views are answered in the present paper.” (Weismann,

Zur Frage nach der Unsterblichkeit der Einzelligen, Biol.

Centralbl., IV, 690, Nachschrift). I have studied the paper

with conscientious care and cannot admit that the objections

have been answered. On the contrary, I maintain now, as

formerly, the judgment: “He misses the real problem.”

For this reason I hold it to be unnecessary to discuss the de-

tails of Weisman’s exposition, becaunse—if I am right—he has

not considered the actual problem of death at all. “He

misses the real problem.” The following reasoning leads to

this decision: Protozoa and Metazoa consist of successive gen-

erations of cells; in the former the cells separate; in the lat-

ter they remain united; the death of a Protozoa is the anni-

hilation of a cell, but the death of a Metazoon is the dissolu-

tion of the union of cells. Such a dissolution is the result of

time, that is to say, of the period necessary to the natural

duration of life, and we call it, therefore, “natural death.”

Moreover, we know that natural death is brought about by

gradual changes in the cells until, at last, certain cells, which

are essential to the preservation of the whole, cease their func-

tions. Death, therefore, is a consequence of changes which

progress slowly through successive generations of cells. These

changes cause senescence, the end of which is given by death.

If we wish to know whether death, in the sense of natural death,

properly so called, occurs in Protozoa or not, we must first pos-

1 Journal of Physiology, XII, and Proc. A. A. A. S., XX XIX, (1890).

8 The American Naturalist. (January,

sess some mark or sign, by which we can determine the occur-

rence or absence of senescence in unicellular organisms.

Around this point the whole discussion revolves. Certainly

a simpler and more certain conclusion could hardly be drawn

than that the death of a Metazoon is not identical, 7. e., homol-

ogous with the death of a single cell. Weismann tacitly as-

sumed precisely this homology, and bases his whole argument

onit. In all his writings upon this subject, he regards the

death of a Protozoon as immediately comparable with the

death of a Metazoon. If we seek from Weismann for the

foundation of this view we shall have only our labor for our

pains. Starting from this view Weismann comes to the

strictly logical conclusion that the Protozoa are immortal.

This is a paradox! In fact, if one compares death in the two

eases, from Weismann’s standpoint, then we must assume

a difference in the causes of death, and conclude that the

cause in the case of the Protozoa is external only, while in

the Metazoa it is internal only, for, of course, we may leave

out of account the accidental deaths of Metazoa. If we ap-

proach the problem from this side, we encounter the following

principal question: Does death from inner causes occur in

Protozoa? Weismann gives a negative answer to this ques-

tion, with his assertion that unicellular organisms are immor-

The assertion remains, but the proof of the assertion is

lacking. In order to justify the assertion, it must be demon-

strated that there does not occur in Protozoa a true senescence,

showing itself gradually through successive generations of

cells. Has Weismann furnished this demonstration ?® Cer-

tainly not. He has, strictly speaking, not discussed the sub-

ject. It is clear that we must first determine whether natural

death from senesence occurs in Protozoa or not, before we can

pass to a scientific discussion of the asserted immortality of

unicellular beings. The problem cannot be otherwise appre-

hended. Weismann has not thus conceived it, therefore the

judgment stands against him: he misses the real problem.

Senesence has been hitherto little investigated ; for many

years I have been studying it experimentally and have tried

1896.] Lost Characteristics, 9

to determine its exact course. My paper, “Senesence and Re-

juvenation,” affords evidence of new facts proven by these ex-

periments. I believe I have thus won the right to oppose my

view to the pure speculations of Weismann.

. (To be continued.)

LOST CHARACTERISTICS.

By ALPHEUS HYATT.

Dr. Minot having noticed, in the translation of his article

“On Heredity and Rejuvenation,” an accidental omission of

quotation of work done by paleontologists on the loss of char-

acteristics in the development of animals, has most courteously

asked me to follow his essay by an article dealing with this

question. I gladly avail myself of this opportunity on account

of the advantages offered where similar subjects can be con-

secutively treated from different points of view, and because

Dr. Minot’s article, on account of his great and deserved repu-

tation in embryology, will reach the students of existing bio-

logical phenomena, and perhaps induce some of them to read

a connected publication.

The loss of characteristics is not so readily observed by a

student of the biology of existing animals or neobiologist, as

by the paleobiologist or student of fossils, because the latter

necessarily deals with series of forms often persisting through

long periods of time, and is led, especially if he follow more

recent methods of research, to study these in great detail. The

observer of these remains is not, as is falsely imagined, limited

to fragments, but can and does work out of the hard matrix

the external skeletons or shells even of embryos, and can, in

the corals, brachiopoda, mollusca, echinodermata and even in

protozoa, follow the entire life history of these parts in the in-

dividual. He has also the further advantage of availing him-

self of the knowledge amassed by the neobiologist and necem-

bryologist, the works of Cope, Beecher, Schuchert, Gurley,

10 The American Naturalist. [January,

Jackson and others, written in the last thirty years in this

country and in Europe. The new school of Paleobiology also

insists upon the close study of series of forms and rejects the

methods usually: pursued by the neoembryologist, who, as a

rule, selects his objects of study and pursues his comparisons

upon the old basis of comparative anatomy and with but little

regard to the serial conneetions of forms. The importance of

studying the seriality in structure of the members of the same

group, those gradations, which lead from one variety to

another, one species to another, one genus to another, until

they may end in highly differentiated and often degraded off-

shoots, with as strange and unique developments as they have

adult characters, seems not, as yet, to have attracted the atten-

tion of the students of development among recent animals as

it has that of paleobiologists. The prevalent modes of study

‘of living types has consequently led to noticing the phenomena

of omission of hereditary characters only in an isolated way, and

from the time of Balfour’s “ Comparative Embryology ” these

omissions occurring in the embryo have been named abbrevia-

tions, shortenings and omissions of development, and various

attempts have been made to explain them upon more or less

general grounds of inference. Prof. Cope and the writer and

some other authors have been for a number of years publishing

observations upon this class of phenomena under the title of

the law of acceleration, asserting that in following out the his-

tory of series in time, or of existing series in structure, there

was observable a constant tendency in the successive members

(species, genera, etc.) of the same natural group to inherit the

characters of their ancestors at earlier stages than those in

which they appeared in these ancestors. That as a corollary

of this tendency, the terminal forms eventually skipped or

omitted certain ancestral characteristics, which were present in

the young of the preceding or normal forms of the same series,

and also in the adult stages of development of more remote

ancestors of the same genetic stock or series, This law has

since been independently rediscovered by several other nat-

uralists, notably Wiirtemburger in Germany, and Buckman in

England. The writer has lately christened this as the law of

1896.] É Lost Characteristics. 11

Tachygenesis' in allusion to the general character of the phe-

nomena.

In a late paper,’ the writer reviewed Prof. Cope’s and Haeck-

el’s views of this law, and contrasted them with his own, and it

seems advisable to give these remarks again in this connection.

Professor Cope has given the fullest explanation of this law,

but has joined it with retardation. Thus, from his point of

view, if I rightly understand him, inexact parallelism in de-

velopment or failure to reproduce any hereditary characteristics

is due to a tendency which appears in organisms and works in

parallel lines with acceleration, the law being in his concep-

tion of a double nature. Thus he says, on page 142 of his

“Origin of the Fittest,” “The acceleration in the assumption

of a character progressing more rapidly than the same in

another character, must soon produce, in a type whose stages

were once the exact parallel of a permanent lower form, the

condition of inexact parallelism. As all the more comprehen-

sive groups present this relation to each other, we are com-

pelled to believe that acceleration has been the principle of

their successive evolution during the long ages of geologic

time. Each type has, however, its day of supremacy and per-

fection of organism, and a retrogression in these respects has

succeeded. This has, no doubt, followed a law the reverse of

acceleration, which has been called retardation. By the in-

creasing slowness of the growth of the individuals of a genus,

and later and later assumption of the characters of the latter,

they would be successively lost. To what power shall we

ascribe this acceleration by which the first beginnings of

structure have accumulated to themselves through the long

geologic ages, complication and power, till from the germ that

was scarcely born into a sand lance, a human being climbed the

complete scale, and stood easily the chief of the whole.” And

again, on page 182 of the same work : “Acceleration signifies

addition to the number of those repetitions during the period

1“ Phylogeny of an Acquired Characteristic.” Proc. Am. Phil. Soc. Philadel-

phia, XXXII, No. 143. © 5

2“ Bioplastology and the Related Branches of Biologic Research.” Proc. Bost.

Soc. Nat. Hist., XX VI, p. 77-81.

12 The American Naturalist. [January,

preceding maturity, as compared with the preceding genera-

tion, and retardation signifies a reduction of the numbers of

such repetitions during the same time.” Thus, from Cope’s

point of view, tachygenesis is the law of progression, and re-

tardation is the law of retrogression, and they are both essen-

tial parts of his law of acceleration and retardation.

Haeckel alludes in general terms to the law of abbreviated

development in his “ Morphologie der organismen,” and in his

“Anthropogenie,” published in 1874, substantially agrees with

Cope in his view of the law and uses the term “ palingenesis ”

for the exact repetition of characteristics which occurs in the ear-

lier and simpler forms of a phylum and “ coenogenesis” for the

abbreviated or highly accelerated cases of inexact parellism of

the young of more complex forms with their ancestors. There

is, however, an objection to this mode of using the last term

which I mentioned also in writing the paper quoted?

° During the writing of this paper I took from Cope the statement made above,

although unable to find any verification of it in Haeckel’s Anthropogenie (1st and

2d editions both dated 1874), but, since the above was in press, I obtained a copy

of the 4th edition (1891) and the reading of this has caused me to entirely alter

my opinion with regard to Haeckel’s opinions. He certainly had at that time,

1891, what seems to me erroneous and inadequate view of the nature and action

of the laws of tachygenesis and gave it too limited application. He also used the

terms, palingenesis and cenogenesis differently from the way in which Cope and

others have used them in this country.

Haeckel states (Anthropogenie, 4th edition, Leipzig, p- 9, 1891) that “ Palin-

genetische Processe oder keimesgeschichtliche Wiederholungen nennen wir alle

jene Erscheinungen in der individuellen Entwickelungsgeschichte, welche durch

die conservative Vererbung getreu von Generation zu Generation übertragen

worden sind und welche demnach einen unmittelbared Riickschluss auf entsprec-

hende Vorgiinge in der stammesgeschichte der entwickelten Vorfahren gestatten.

Cenogenetische Processe hingegen oder kei hichtllche Storungen nen

wickelung hinzugekomen sind. Diese ontogenetischen Erscheinungen sind

fremde zuthaten welche durchaus keinen unmittelbaren Schluss anf entsprechende

Vorg in der stam hte der Ahnenreihe erlauben, vielmehr die Er-

kenntniss der letzteren geradezu fälschen und verdecken.”

` So far as one can get at Haeckels opinions from snch expressions as the above

it is obvious that he views shortened or abbreviated development in a very dis-

tinct light from that to which I am accustomed. He speaks of it as due to the

introduction of “ fremde zuthaten” as “ C

cd oo

a EE Ae Ns ee eee Gare

1896.] Lost Characteristics. 13

and further to make his meaning clearer, on page 11 he divides cenogenetic phe-

nomena into “ Ortsverschiebungen oder Heterotopien,” and, on page 12, “ Zeit-

verschiebungen oder Heterochronien.”” Organs or parts may be densloned hete-

rotopically, that is, out of place or in a different part of the body from that in

which they originated in the ancestors; or heterochronically, that is earlier in

time during the life of the individual than that in which they originated, and he

also speaks of the latter as “ ontogenetische Acceleration,” using exactly the ad-

jective applied in this country many years beforehand, but that fact does not

seem to have been considered worthy of his attention. Haeckel then proceeds to

add: ‘‘ Das umgekehrte gilt von der verspiiteten Ausbildung des Darmcanals, der

Leibeshéhle, der Geschlechtsorgane. Hier liegt offenbar eine Verzögerung oder

Verspätung, eine ontogenetische Retardation.” This is probably what Cope al-

ludes to in his quotation of Haeckel, and certainly this is a restatement of Cope’s

law of retardation with, however, the ommission of any reference to the original

discoverer. It will be gathered from the text above that I view acceleration

rstly, as a normal mode of action or tendency of heredity acting upon all

characters that are genetic, or, in other words, derived from ancestral sources ;

secondly, that a ctetic, or, in other words, a newly acquired character must be-

come genetic before it becomes subject to the law of tachygenesis. Haeckel has

evidently confused ctetic characters like those of the so called ovum of Taenia,

the Pluteus of Echinoderms and the grub, maggot, caterpillars of insects, which

have caused the young to deviate more or less from the normal line of develop-

ment, as determined by the more genéralized development of allied types of the

same divisions of the animal kingdom, with the normal characters that are in-

herited at an early stage in the ontogeny and considers them all as heterochronic.

It is very obvious that they are quite distinct and that, while the ctetic characters

may have been larval or even possibly embryonic in origin, and may not have

affected perceptibly the adult stage at any time in the phylogeny of the group,

they are, nevertheless, subject to the law of acceleration and do affect the earliest

stages as has been shown in Hyatt’s and Arm’s book on Insecta. Such character-

istics do, of course, contradict the record, if we consider that the record ought

have been made by nature according to anthropomorphic standards, and in such

misleading phraseology they are falsifications of the ontogenetic recapitulation of

; prs phylogeny. Ina proper nomenclature, framed with due regard to natural

ndards, such expressions are inadmissable. There is absolutely no evidence

ha characteristics repeated in the younger stages of successive species and types

owe their likeness to ancestral characters to other causes than heredity. This

likeness may be interfered with or temporarily destroyed by ex nary

changes of habit, as among the larvae of some insecta and the forms alluded to

above, or among parmaites ted dieras degrees, but tie obvious SEERA f straet-

uresin many of tł

in this way. There are comparatively very few forms having doubtful affinities

even among the parasites. It is also evident that the novel larval characters

originating in the young in their turn speedily become hereditary and are incor-

porated in the phylogeny and recapitulated in the ont

It may be seen from this that in dividing tachygenesis into palingenesis and

cenogenesis the writer has followed Cope rather than Haeckel, and there is a seri-

14 The American Naturalist. [January,

Either through want of acquaintance with good examples of

retardation or because of a different point of view, I have not

been able to see any duplex action in the law of acceleration.

To me it is the same law of quicker inheritance which is act-

ing all the time in the phylum at the beginning, middle, and

end of its history, as will be seen by the explanation given

above. In Insecta‘ I have tried to apply it to the explanation

of the peculiar larval forms of those animals which often pre-

sent retrogression through suppression of ancestral characters

in the young, although their adults are perfectly normal and

perhaps progressive. Consequently, palingenesis and coengen-

esis are, from my point of view, simply different forms of

tachygenesis, and there is no boundary or distinction between

them. In other words, retardation or retrogression occurs be-

cause of the direct action of tachygenesis upon more suitable

and more recently acquired characteristics which are driven

back upon and may directly replace certain of the ancestral

characters causing them to disappear from ontogenetic devel-

opment. —

ous objection to the use of cenogenesis at all, since it is from Kevdég meaning

strange, and was first applied by Haeckel in such a way that both by his state- _

tachygenesis occur in a marked way m

t Guides for Science Teaching, Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., No. 8.

5 Specialization by reduction of parts is evidently included under the head of

retardation by Cope; thus in Origin of the Fittest, p. 353, he says that “change

_ of structure during growth is accomplished either by addition or parts (accélera-

tion) or by subtraction of parts (retardation).” So far as my experience goes in

the major number of cases, the parts of characters that are undergoing reduction

their development. There is, however, another way of formulating the expres-

sion for this. Instead of regarding this disappearance by retrogressive gradations

as due to a tendency opposed to acceleration, is it not a tendency of the same

1896.] Lost Characteristics. 15

The law of tachygenesis as defined by the writer acts upon

all characteristics and tendencies alike, and is manifested in

genetically connected phyla by an increasing tendency to con-

_concentrate the characteristics of lower, simpler, or earlier oc-

curring, genetically connected forms in the younger stages of

_ the higher, more complicated or more specialized, or more de-

graded, or later occurring forms of every grade, whether the

characteristics arise in adults or in the younger stages of growth.

_Since my first publication in 1866, the law has become clearer

to me, but I have made no fundamental change in the con-

ception. The application of the law to degenerative character-

istics appears to me to explain why there are degenerative forms

in the phylum which are indicated by the senile stages of the

individual.

The degenerative changes of the senile period may, and

practically in all cases do, tend to the loss of characteristics of

the adult period and consequently in extreme cases bring

about not only the loss of a large proportion of progressive

characteristics, but loss in actual bulk of the body as compared

with adults, as has been stated above. This is usually re-

- garded as due to the failure of the digestive organs or defective

nutrition, and this may be true in many examples; but, on

the other hand, it often begins in individuals long before there

is any perceptible diminution in size, and may occur in dwarfs

and in some degenerate species in the early stages, and finally

in series of species according to the law of tachygenesis, so that

kind? That is to say, do not the parts and characters show a tendency to disap-

pear earlier and earlier, and are they not, in most cases, at the time of disappear-

ance, present also in earlier stages of growth than that in which they originated

in ancestral forms ?

Is not the case of the wisdom teeth exceptional? The frequently sior

late external appearance of these is not accompanied by a later origin of

rudiments in the jaw. Although they may not appear in many cases above ihe

gum until a person is past fifty, is not this retardation in becoming externally

visible due primarily to ae fact that they are deficient in growth power (tend-

ing to disappear from disuse, etc.), and secondarily to their internal position.

When they cease to be able to break through the gum, will they not still continue

to develop at the same stage as the other teeth, and will not their rudiments be

likely tobe present at this early stage long after they have ceased developing into

perfect teeth ?

16 The American Naturalist. [January,

one is led to believe that the tendency to the earlier inherit-

ence of degenerative modifications producing retrogression is

inheritable like the tendency to the earlier inheritance of ad-

ditional or novel characteristics prod ucing progression. Thus,

this law applied to progressive or retrogressive groups explains

the mode in which their progression or retrogression is accom-

plished so far as the action of the laws of genesiology (science

of heredity) are concerned.

In the same essay on Bioplastology, the writer reviewed Dr.

Minot’s law of growth, and in this and in his Phylogeny,

quoted above, used it to throw light upon one of the most

difficult problems of evolution.

It is a general law of unique importance, as readily observ-

able in the growth of skeletons and shells of all kinds, and

therefore as obvious in fossils as in the famous guinea pigs

studied by Dr. Minot. This law enabled the writer to get

what seemed to him a clearer view of the action of tachygenesis,

See Bioplastology (p. 76).

Minot’s researches enable one to see clearly that the reduc-

tion of parts or characteristics which takes place through the

. action of the law known as the law of acceleration in develop-

ment (often also descriptively mentioned as abbreviated or

concentrated development) cannot be considered as due to

growth. 3

“It seems probable from my own researches published in

various communications, but more especially in the ‘ Genesis

of the Arietidae,* that the action in this case is a mechanical

replacement of the earlier and less useful ancestral characteristics

and even parts by those that have arisen later in the history of the

group.’ We can fully understand the phenomena of accelera-

tion in development only when we begin by assuming that

the characteristics last introduced in the history of any type

were more suitable to the new conditions of life on the horizon

of occurrence of the species than those which characterized the

same stock when living on preceding horizons or in less special-

ized habitats. These new characters would necessarily, on

ê Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, v. 26, p. 40-48, 1889; also, Mus-

Comp. Zool., v. 16, 1889.

1896.] Variation after Birth. 17

account of their greater usefulness and superior adaptability,

ultimately interfere with the development of the less useful an-

cestral stages and thus tend to replace them. The necessary

corollary of this process would be tachygenesis or earlier appear-

rance of the ancestral stages in direct proportion to the number

of new characteristics successively introduced into the direct

line of modification during the evolution of a group.

If this be true, it can hardly be assumed that the loss of

characteristics and parts taking place in this way is directly

due to growth force. If growth has anything to do with these

phenomena, it must act indirectly, and, as in the repetition of

other similarities and parallelisms, under the controlling guid-

dance of heredity.

VARIATION AFTER BIRTH.

By L. H. Barrey.

At the present time, our attention is directed to differences

or variations which are born with the individual. We are

told that variation which is useful to the species is congenital,

-or born of the union—or the amalgamation in varying de-

grees—of parents which are unlike each other. From the

variations which thus arise, natural selection chooses those

which fit the conditions of life and destroys the remainder.

That is, individuals are born unlike and unequal, and adapta-

tion to environment is wholly the result of subsequent select-

ion.

These are some of the practical conclusions of the NeoDar-

winian philosophy. It seems to me that we are in danger of

letting our speculations run away with us. Our philosophy

should be tested now and then by direct observation and ex-

periment, and thus be kept within the limits of probability.

The writings of Darwin impress me in this quality more than

in any other,—in the persistency and single-mindedness with

which the author always goes to nature for his facts.

18 The American Naturalist. [January,

In this spirit, let us drop our speculations for a moment, and

look at some of the commonest phenomena of plant life as

‘they transpire allabout us. We shall find that, for all we can

see, most plants start equal, but eventually become unequal.

It is undoubtedly true that every plant has individuality from

the first, that is, that it differs in some minute degree from all

other plants, the same as all animals possess differences of per-

sonality ; but these inital individual differences are often en-

tirely inadequate to account for the wide divergence which

may occur between the members of any brood before they

reach their maturity.

The greater number of plants, as I have said, start practi-

cally equal, but they soon become widely unlike. Now, every-

one knows that these final unlikenesses are direct adaptations

to the circumstances in which the plant lives. It is the effort

to adapt itself to circumstances which gives rise to the varia-

tion. The whole structure of agriculture is built upon this

fact. All the value of tillage, fertilizing and pruning lies in

the modification which the plant is made to undergo. Ob-

serve, if you will, the wheat fields of any harvest time. Some

fields are “ uneven,” as the farmers say; and you observe that

this unevenness is plainly associated with the condition of the

land. On dry knolls, the straw is short and the plant early ;

on moister and looser lands, the plant is tall, later, with long, well-

filled heads ; on very rich spots, the plants have had too much

nitrogen and they grow too tall and “sappy,” and the wheat

“lodges” and does not fill. That is, the plants started equal,

but they ended unequal. Another field of wheat may be very

uniform throughout; it is said to be “a good stand,” which

only means, as you can observe for yourself, that the soil is

uniform in quality and was equally well prepared in all paris.

That is, the plants started equal, and they remained equal be-

cause the conditions were equal. Every crop that was ever

grown in the soil enforces the same lessons. We know that

variations in plants are very largely due to diverse conditions

which arise after birth.

All these variations in land and other physical conditions

are present in varying degrees in wild nature, and we know

1896.] Variation after Birth. 19

that the same kind of adaptations to conditions are proceeding

everywhere before our eyes. We cannot stroll afield without

seeing it. Dandelions in the hollows, on the hillocks, in the

roadside gravel, in the garden—they are all different dande-

lions, and we know that any one would have become the other

if ithad grown where the other does.

But aside from the differences arising directly from physical

conditions of soil and temperature and moisture, and the like,

there are differences in plants which are forced upon them by

the struggle for life. We are apt to think that, as plants grow

and crowd each other, the weaker ones die outright, because

they were endowed with—that is, born with—different capa-

bilities of withstanding the scuffle. Asa matter of fact, how-

ever, the number of individuals in any area may remain the

same or even increase, whilst, at the same time, every one of

them is growing bigger. Early last summer I staked off an

area of twenty inches square in a rich and weedy bit of land.

When the first observations were made on the the 10th of July,

the little plat had a population of 82 plants belonging to 10

‘species. Each plant was ambitious to fill the entire space, and

yet it must compete with 81 other equally ambitious individ-

uals, Yet, a month later, the number of plants had increased

to 86, and late in September, when some of the plants had

completed their growth and had died, there was still a popula-

tion of 66. The censuses at the three dates were as follows :

July 10. Aug. 13. Sept. 265.

Crab grass (Panicum sanguinale) 22 20 15

Black Medick en AEN ` 16 17 15

Purslane . : ; 14 : 15 12

White Clover . : : : : 12 13

Red Clover. ; 9 11

Red-root (Amarantus petsodexcei) 4 4

Ragweed (Ambrosia artemisvefolia) 2 rd 2

Pigeon-grass (Setaria glauca) . ; 1 S 3

Pigweed (Chenopodium on 1 1 0

Shepherd’s Purse. 1 1 1

& |

What a happy family this was! In all this jostle up to the

middle of August, during which every plant had increased its

20 The American Naturalist. [January,

bulk from two to twenty times, only the crab grass—apparently

the most tenacious of them all—had fallen off; and yet the

area seemed to be fullin the beginning! How then, if all

had grown bigger, could there have been an increase in nuni-

bers, or even a maintenance of the original population? In

two ways: first, the plants were of widely different species of

unlike habits, so that one plant could grow in a place where

its neighbor could not. Whilst the pigweed was growing tall,

the medick was creeping beneath it. This is the law of diver-

gence of character, so well formulated by Darwin. It is a

principle of wide application in agriculture. The farmer

“seeds” his wheat-field to clover when it is so full of wheat

that no more wheat can grow there, he grows pumpkins in a

cornfield which is full of corn, and he grows docks and stick-

tights in the thickest orchards. Plants have no doubt adapted

themselves directly, in the battle of life, to each other’s com-

pany.

The second and chief reason for the maintenance of this

dense population, was the fact that each plant grew to a differ-

ent shape and stature, and each one acquired a different long-

evity ; that is, they had varied, because they had to vary in

order to live. So that, whilst all seemed to have an equal

chance early in July, there were in August two great branch-

ing red-roots, one lusty ragweed and $3 other plants of various

degrees of littleness. Thethird census, taken September 25th,

is very interesting, because it shows that some of the plants of |

each of the dominant species had died or matured, whilst

others were still growing. That is, the plants which were

iorced to remain small also matured early and thereby, by vir-

tue of their smallness, they had lessened, by several days, the

risk of living, and they had thus gained some advantage over

their larger and stronger companions, which were still in dan-

ger of being killed by frost or accident. When winter finally

set in, the little plat seemed to have been inhabited only by

three big red-roots and two small ones and by one ragweed.

The remains of these six plants stood stiff and assertive in the

winds; butif one looked closer he saw the remains of many

lesser plants, each “ yielding seed after his kind,” each one, no

1896.] Variation after Birth. 21

doubt, having impressed something of its stature and form

upon its seeds for resurrection of similar qualities in the follow-

ing year. All this variation must have been the result of strug-

gle for existence, for it is not conceivable that in less than two

square feet of soil there could have been other conditions suf-

ficiently diverse to have caused such ‘marked unlikenesses ;

and I shall allow the plat to remain without defilement that I

may observe the conflict in the years to come, and I shall also

sow seeds from some of the unlike plants. From all these

facts, I am bound to think that physical environment and

struggle for life are both powerful causes of variation in plants

which are born equal.

Still,the reader may say, like Weismann, that thesedifferences

were potentially present in the germ, that there was an inher-

ited tendency for the given red-root to grow three feet tall

when 85 other plants were grown alongside of it in twenty

inches square of soil. Then let us try plants which had no

germ plasm, that is, cuttings from maiden wood. A lot of cut-

tings were taken from one petunia plant, and these cuttings

were grown singly in pots in perfectly uniform prepared soil,

the pots being completely glazed with shellac and the bottoms

closed to prevent drainage. Then each pot was given a

weighed amount of different chemical fertilizer and supplied

with perfectly like weighed quantities of water. All weak or

unhealthy plants were thrown out, and a most painstaking

effort was made to select perfectly equal plants. But very

soon they were unequal. Those fed liberally on potash were

short, those given nitrogen were tall and lusty; and the vari-

ations in floriferousness and maturity were remarkable. The

data of maturity and productiveness were as follows:

Phosphate of Sulphate of Phosphate of Check Phosphate of

Potash. Potash. Soda. Ammonia.

68 days 99 days 65 days 67 days 104 days

23% blooms 18 blooms 273 blooms 263 blooms 33 blooms

Here then, is a variation of 39 days, or over a month in the

time of first bloom, and of an average of 15 flowers per plant

in asexual plants from the same stock, all of which started

equal and which were grown in perfectly uniform conditions,

` save the one element of food.

22 The American Naturalist. [January,

But these or similar variations in cuttings are the common-

est experiences of gardeners. Whilst some philosophers are

contending that all variation comes through sexual union, the

gardener has proof day by day that it is not so. In fact, he

does not stop to consider the difference between seedlings and

sexless plants in his efforts to improve a type, for he knows by

experience that he is able to modify his plants in an equal

degree, whatever the origin of the plants may have been.

Very many of our best domestic plants are selections from

plants which are always grown from cuttings or other asexual

parts. A fruitgrower asked me to inspect a new blackberry

which he had raised. “ What is its parentage?” I asked.

“Simply a selection from an extra good plant of Snyder” he

answered ; that is, selection by means of suckers, not by seed-

lings. The variety was clearly distinct from Snyder, where-

upon I named it for him. The Snyder plants were originally

all equal, all divisions in fact, of one plant, but because of

change of soil or some other condition, some of the plants

varied, and one of them, at least, is now the parent of a new

variety. :

But even Mr. Weismann would agree to all this, only he

would add that these variations are of no use to the next gen-

eration, because he assumes that they cannot be perpetuated.

Now, there are several ways of looking at this Weismannian

philosophy. In the first place, so far as plants are concerned

in it, it is mere assumption, and, therefore, does not demand

refutation. In the second place, there is abundant asexual

variation in flowering plants, as we have seen; and. most

fungi, which have run into numberless forms, are sexless. In

the third place, since all agree that plants are intimately

adapted to the conditions in which they live, it is violence to

suppose that the very adaptations which are directly produced

by those conditions are without permanent effect. In the

fourth place, we know as a matter of common knowledge and

also of direct experiment, that acquired characters in plants

often are perpetuated. i

I cannot hope to prove to the Weismannians that acquired

characters may be hereditary, for their definition of an acquired

= is a as

R IEEE Pei seal ee

ii a alae ä

1896.] Variation after Birth. 23

character has a habit of retreating into the germ where neither

they nor anyone else can find it. But this proposition is easy

enough of proof, viz., plants which start to all appearances per-

fectly equal, may be greatly modified by the conditions in

which they grow; the seedlings of these plants may show

these new features in few or many generations. Most of the

new varieties of garden plants, of which about a thousand are

introduced in North America each year, come about in just

this way. A simple experiment made in our greenhouses also

shows the truth of my proposition. Peas were grown under

known conditions from seeds in the same manner as the petu-

nias were, which I have mentioned. The plants varied widely.

Seeds of these plants were saved and all sọwn in one soil, and

the characters, somewhat diminished, appeared in the off-

spring. Seeds were again taken, and in the third generation

the acquired characters were still discernible. The full details

of this and similar experiments are waiting for separate publi-

cation. The whole philosophy of “selecting the best” for

seed, by means of which all domestic plants have been so

greatly ameliorated, rests upon the hereditability of these

characters which arise after birth ; and if the gardener did not

possess this power of causing like plants to vary and then of

perpetuating more or less completely the characters which he

secures, he would at once quit the business because there

would no longer be any reward for his efforts. Of course, the

NeoDarwinians can say, upon the one hand, that all the vari-

ations which the gardener secures and keeps were potentially

present in the germ, but they cannot prove it, neither can they

make any gardener believe it; or, on the other hand, they can

say that the new characters have somehow impressed them-

selves upon the germ, a proposition to which the gardener will

not object because he does not care about the form of words so

long as he is not disputed in the facts. Weismann admits that

“ climatic and other external influences ” are capable of affect-

ing the germ, or of producing “permanent variations,” after

they have operated “uniformly for a long period,” or for more

than one generation. Every annual plant dies at the end of

the season, therefore whatever effect the environment may

24 The American Naturalist. (January,

have had upon it is lost, unless the effect is preserved in the

seed ; and it does not matter how many generations have lived

under the given uniform environment, for the plant starts all

over again, de novo, each year. Therefore, the environment

must affect the annual plant in some one generation or not at

all. It seems to me to be mere sophistry to say that in plants

which start anew from seeds each year, the effect of environ-

ment is not felt until after a lapse of several generations, for if

that were so the plant would simply take up life at the same

place every year. This philosophy is equivalent to saying

that characters which are acquired in any one generation are

not hereditary until they have been transmitted at least once!

My contention then, is this: plants may start equal, either

from seeds or asexual parts, but may end unequal ; these in-

equalities or unlikenesses are largely the direct result of the

conditions in which the plants grow; these unlikenesses may

be transmitted either by seeds or buds. Or, to take a shorter

phrase, congenital variations in plants may have received

their initial impulse either in the preceding generation or in

the sexual compact from which the plants sprung.

Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.

A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE POINT OF ACUTE

VISION IN THE VERTEBRATES!

By J. R. Stonaxer,

Fellow in Biology, Clark University.

In this preliminary sketch of a comparative study of the

eyes of vertebrates, with special reference to the fovea centralis

or point of acute vision, I shall first give the processes and

methods of preparation which I have used and results ob-

tained, and, second, the position of the area centralis as indi-

cated by the retinal arteries. The microscopic descriptions

and the relation of the position and shape of the eye and ar-

rangement of the retinal elements to the habits of the animal

will follow in a later paper.

‘I wish to thank Dr. C. F. Hodge for valuable assistance and for his method

of injecting the eye-ball, thus preserving it for complete sections. I amalso very

much indebted to Clark University for valuable aid and for apparatus and mate-

rials to further this study.

1896.] Acute Vision in the Vertebrates. 25

For microscopical purposes and best results it is necessary to

obtain the eye fresh, at least not later than an hour after death,

and subject it to the action of certain hardening liquids which

will permeate and preserve without causing the retina to swell

and become wrinkled. With some animals it is quite easy to

preserve the retina without its becoming wrinkled or floated

off (fishes, amphibians, reptiles, and some mammals), while

with others (most mammals and birds) itis a more difficult task.

In order to prevent this folding and floating off of the retina,

the eye is injected under pressure and immersed at the same

time in a bath of hardening fluid. It is carried thus on up

through the different percentages of aleohol and imbedded in

celloidin.

A more minute de-

scriptior. of the method

is as follows: Fig. 1

represents a rack with

movable shelves, on

which are placed bot-

tles A and A’, contain-

A ing the same fluid as

bottles B and B’, and

provided with siphons

to connect with glass

cannulas.

In order to insert the

cannula, a hole is care-

fully drilled about the

equator and on a merid-

ian perpendicular to the

plane in which it is de-

ne : sirable to obtain sec-

tions. The perforation

B B is stretched open, rather

than cut, so the sclero-

tic will clasp the neck

of the cannula tightly.

A convenient instru-

ment for this operation

Fie. 1. is a spear-pointed dis-

secting needle, and not

26 The American Naturalist. [January,

too sharp. At the same time reach forward witb the point of

the needle and pierce the suspensory ligament and iris in order

to open the aqueous chamber. In doing this, care is taken

not to injure structures in the plane of the desired sections. A

cannula of suitable size, being connected with a siphon from

A or A’, is filled with the liquid and inserted. The cannula

should have a fine smooth point. Great care is taken in in-

serting it so that the stream of fluid is not directed behind the

retina to float it off. A hole is now made in the opposite side

of the eye, the aqueous chamber again pierced and all aqueous

and vitreous humor allowed to run out. In some animals this

humor is very much more gel-

atinous than in others, and re-

quires much more pressure to

remove it. The hole below is

then stopped with a small glass

plug (Fig. 2, B), and the eye

immersed in hardening fluid

(Fig. 1, B). The bottles are now

covered as tightly as possible

with tinfoil to prevent evapora-

tion and entrance of dust parti-

cles. The cannula and stopper

should fit so tight that there is

no leak. In every case the ori-

entation of the eye is marked

before it is removed from the Fig. 2.

head. This is done by sewing a small tag to the outer layers

of the sclerotic (Fig. 2, C).

The pressure varies greatly with the kind of eye used. Those

with thin walls, or containing much cartilage, birds and am-

phibians, require little pressure, while mammals, in general,

can receive much higher. The pressures which I have found

to work best vary between 28 and 36 cm.

The hardening fluid used is Perenyi’s, in which the eye is

allowed to remain twenty-four hours, when it is changed to

70 per cent. alcohol.

In making changes of liquids, great care should be taken

that no air get into the eye, and that all the former liquid is

1896.] Acute Vision in the Vertebrates. 27

replaced with fresh by removing the stopper in the lower part

of the eye. After remaining twenty-four hours in each of the

following liquids: 80, 90,95 per cent., absolute alcohol and

absolute ether (1 part each), it is then changed to celloidin.

Best results are obtained when three grades of celloidin are

used—lIst, very dilute; 2d, less dilute; 3d, as thick as will run.

It is allowed to remain from four to six days in the first, six to

eight days in the second, and ten to fifteen daysin the third.

If the eye is kept well under pressure throughout this process,

the retina will be well preserved and lie smoothly against

the choroid.

I have tried other liquids for hardening the eye whole, but

with poor success. Have tried the method of Barrett and of

Cuccati, but, in each case, the retina was very much wrinkled

and folded, while the whole eye was much shrunken and out

of shape. In vapors of osmium, I have had fairly good results

with the retina, but the same trouble, due to the shrinking of the

whole eye, is present. Chievitz says that a fish’s eye may be

preserved whole, with retina lying nicely back, by simply im-

mersing it, or even the whole head, in 80 per cent. alcohol.

The hardening agent which he generally uses is 2.5 per cent.

nitric acid.

Another method which I have employed with small ani-

mals, especially birds, in order to demonstrate quickly the

presence or absence of a fovea, is to immerse the whole head

in Perenyi’s fluid for from three to five hours. This will

harden the eyes so that the cornea, lens and vitreous humor

may be removed, leaving the posterior half in situ. With

birds I have had good results, the retina lying back smoothly so

that the fovea and entrance of the nerve, marked by the pec-

ten, may be easily seen. Fig. 3 represents diagrammatically

the appearance of the retina after the front of the eye has been

removed.

In order to show the angles which the lines of vision make

with the median plane, sections were made through the whole

head of several animals (fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and

? J. H. Chievitz, Untersuchungen über die Area centralis retinae. Archiv fiir

‘Anatomie und Entwickelungsgeschichte, Sup., Band, 1889, p: 141-142.

28 The American Naturalist. [January,

small mammals), the plane of the section passing through

each fovea on the centre of the area centralis. Fig. 4 repre-

sents such a section through the foveæ a and b of a chickadee’s

head (Parus atricapillus), while the lines G H and GI show

Fig. 3. Fie. 4.

Snow-bird (Junco hyemalis) x 3. Chickadee (Parus atricapillus) x 3.

A, Fovea centralis, A and B. Foveæ.

B, Entrance of optic nerve. C, C, Entrance of optic nerves.

P, Pecten. G H and G I, Axes of vision.

the axis of vision. The dotted lines c mark the position of the

optic nerves which enter in a plane much lower down. In

order to harden the whole head, and, at the same time, decal-

cify the bone, it must remain longer in Perenyi’s fluid (about

thirty- six hours), and to preserve the cornea and lens in posi-

tion, a window is made in the top of the eye that the fluids

may enter.

Having had good success with simple immersion of the

head, this method was tried for hardening the small eyes, and

with good success. In fact, the retina proved in good condi-

tion, if not better, than when taken through by the injection

method. The eye-ball, however, usually caves in when placed

in 70 per cent. or 80 per cent. alcohol, but this may be pre-

vented by simply making a small slit through the sclerotic

1896.] Acute Vision in the Vertebrates. 29

into the vitreous chamber before immersing in 70 per cent.

alcohol to allow the liquids to pass in. Just before putting

into celloidin, a window is made parallel to the plane of de-

sired sections, and the hardened vitreous humor is easily re-

moved without injury to the retina or other structures. This

method is now used with small eyes instead of the injection, as

it is so much easier of manipulation.

In order to show the relation of the retinal arteries to the

area and fovea centralis, they were injected with the gelatine-

carmine mass of Ranvier. In small animals this injection was

made in the carotid arteries, while with large animals the eyes

were removed and the injection made into that branch of the

ophthalmic artery which supplies the retina. After injection,

the eyes were at once cooled and hardened in alcohol. When

hardened, the front half of the globe and the vitreous humor

were carefully removed, exposing to view the retina, arteries,

entrance of nerve, and area and fovea centralis, when present.

The fovea is at once seen if it be present, but the area is some-

times very difficult to discern, and, were it not for the blood-

vessels acting as land-marks, it might be overlooked altogether.

Drawings were made of this posterior half, great care being

taken to orient it, so that one would look into it along the axis

of vision.

The results of these injections only serve to substantiate

Miiller’s observation.’ He states that mammals are the only

class of vertebrates which possess, in the true sense, a retinal

circulation, while with many mammals only a meagre circu-

lation is present (horse and rabbit). Fish and amphibians

possess a good circulation in the hyaloid membrane, while

birds and many reptiles have the circulation of the pecten.

Huschke states that these vessels of the hyaloid membrane and

the pecten correspond to the retinal vessels in mammals. They

do not, however, penetrate the retina.

With animals which have neither retinal nor hyaloid ves-

sels, it would appear that the retina is nourished by the cho-

roidal vessels. In fact, in animals with good retinal circula-

tion, the capillaries do not penetrate deeper than the outer

* H. Müller, Anatomie und Physiologie des Auges, p. 117.

30 The American Naturalist. [January,

molecular layer, thus leaving the rod and cone, and outer

nuclear layers without blood-vessels.*

Investigations show that not all vertebrates possess foveæ,

but that each elass has a representative which does. When

there is no fovea, a well-defined area centralis is usually pres-

ent. However, in some vertebrates, even an area has not been

observed.

The following condensed tabulation will show the frequency

of the area and fovea centralis in the eyes which have been

examined.’

Es | Area found. Fovea.

F big

e sia | |

33 ae ar AS

e ee cs bee ei ee

es | o pe | ods = | = r=] | 5

= | E S | Z UE m œ [=]

z A Ss Esa | a. & A

= | | Š | Ss 5

A | | | Ba g

| sneer "i

28 Mammals | 13 9 | 6 2

80 Birds | 1 B | 3 8 | 23 | 7

9 | Reptiles a 0 r ea

12 Amphibians .3 A ee ae, 1 |

4 Fishes Seema i | 1 |

| |

From this tabulation it is readily seen, so far as experiments

have gone, that in mammals the presence of a fovea is the ex-

ception while an area is the rule. The primates are the only

mammals in which a fovea has been found. Most of the mam-

mals examined have a well-defined area which is easily seen,

but, in some, an area has not been demonstrated. The ar-

rangement of the retinal vessels, however, indicates the pres-

ence of an area which is free from blood-vessels, and may cor-

respond to the area centralis of other animals.

"+H. Müller, Anatomie und Physiologie des Auges, p. 103.

5 These results are partly obtained from the tabulation of J. H. Chievitz in his

article: Ueber das Vorkommen der Area centralis retinae in den vier höheren

Wirbelklassen. Archiv. f. Anat. u. Entwick., 1891, p. 321-325.

1896.] Acute Vision in the Vertebrates. 31

With birds, the presence of a foveaseems to be the rule. In

fact, the domestic chicken is thus far the only exception.

Many birds have a fovea and band-like area, while some have

two foveæ and a band-like area connecting them.

In reptiles, the number of species provided with fovea or

simple area are more nearly equal, while with amphibians

and fishes, the area has frequently not been seen, and the fovea

is only seldom observed.

The area centralis varies greatly in form and extent in dif-

ferent animals. It varies from the round form of small extent

found in the cat and the weasel to the band-like form found in

the horse, sheep, rabbit, frog, ete., which extends horizontally

across the retina.

In the case of the fovea we also find a variety of forms and

positions. In some animals it is situated on the nasal side of

the entrance of the optic nerve (fovea nasalis), while in others

it is on the temporal side (fovea temporalis). According to

Miller,’ in the former case we have monocular vision, while in

the latter we have binocular vision. In form it varies from a

mere dot-like impression, as in some lizards, to a well marked

funnel-like pit in most birds, especially crow, bluejay, robin,

etc., and to a trough-like depression in the crocodile which

extends horizontally across the retina. Two foveæ have been

found in some birds, as in swallows and terns, in which case

the fovea nasalis is very near the centre of the retina, and has

to do with single vision. It is also larger and deeper than the

fovea temporalis, which is situated near the ora serrata and

functions in double vision. According to Chievitz, the tern

has not only two fovæ, but a trough-like fovea connecting them,

and the goose, duck and gull have a round fovea and a band-

like area.

A great difference exists in the different vertebrates when

their ability for acuteness of sight isconsidered. It varies from

the most perfect sight found in man (and possibly in birds

€ H. Müller, Ueber das Vorhandsein zweier Fovea in der Netzhaut Vieler

Vogelaugen—Zehender, Klinische Monatsblitter, Sept., 1863, p. 438-440; or

Anatomie und Physiologie des Auges, p. 139, 142-143.

™ J. H. Chievitz, Ueber das Vorkommen der Area centralis retinae, Archiv. f.

Anat. u. Entwick., 1891, p. 324. .

32 The American Naturalist. [Jannary,

also) where exceedingly fine discriminations are possible, to

the limited visual power found in other animals, where only

an area centralis is present. Though acute vision and a fovea

have always been associated, still we cannot, at present, say

that the animals which do not possess a fovea are not able to

see acutely. In order to make clear the relation of sight to the

habits of the animal, a much more careful observation of its

visual habits, and the histological arrangement of the retinal

elements will be necessary.

EDITOR’S TABLE.

—Tue Antivivisectionists have been endeavoring to get a consensus

of opinion on the utility of vivisection, by circulating blanks for signa-

tures, which are attached to a few alternative opinions on the subject

in point. The alternatives, excepting those expressing an uncondi-

tional affirmative and negative, were not sufficiently precise or well

stated to satisfy persons of moderate views, so that it was necessary to

amend them more or less to express such opinions. In the summary

of the results thus obtained, the antivivisection managers omitted most

of these moderate views, and only gave to the public the two extremes.

The circulars were also very injudiciously distributed, as a majority

of them went to persons unfamiliar with the work of scientific research,

as clergymen, etc. The only persons who havea practical knowledge

of the subject are original investigators in the natural sciences, physi-

ologists and physicians. The opinions of other persons must be mostly

formed at second hand.

As a body of men, those above referred to are at least as humane as

any other class in the community. Their business is to relieve suffer-

ing, und they are not insensible to those of the loweranimals, Natural-

ists, as a body, are probably more humane in their feelings towards

animals than any other class in the community. Nearly all of these

meu are, however, well convinced not only of the propriety, but of the

necessity of vivisection. It is the only method of attacking many

difficult problems of physiology. It is the basis of our knowledge of

the functions of the human organism, which is itself the first essential

to the control of human disease and human suffering. The antivivi-

1896.] Editor’s Table. 33

sectionists are, unwittingly, doing what they can to sustain ignorance

and to prevent the relief of human suffering. They are sacrificing their

fellow beings, their relatives and their friends, in preference to a few

of the lower animgls. Men, women and children may suffer and die;

white rabbits, guinea-pigs and dogs may live. Such logic is like that

of the Spanish Inquisitors, who tortured human beings under the belief

that they served God and the cause of religion in so doing. There is,

however, less excuse for the antivivisectionists, since knowledge is more

widely distributed now than then, and the great utility of vivisection has

been demonstrated over and over again.

The six national scientific societies to meet during the holidays in

Philadelphia will probably express their views on this subject, and it

may be confidently expected that these will accord with those of science

the world over.

Intelligent people are best deceived by intelligent frauds. A fraud

in order to succeed in the United States must make pretensions to supe-

rior knowledge. The alleged or actual graduate of medicine who

desires to be a fraud has a pretty good field in this country; and his

successes are ever with us, in spite of the opposition of the many true men

of that profession. The scientific fraud has not yet developed very

largely, as there is no money to be made by pretense in this direc-

tion. In fact this species of the genus is not generally a person of evil

intentions, and errs chiefly through an active imagination, and perhaps

sometimes through a tendency to megalomania.

We are moved to these remarks by reading an article in the Dec-

ember number of a Chicago Journal called Self Culture. On p. 587

we read ; “ Examination of the brain of such an idiot before its education

has begun, shows but few brain cells, and a few nerve fibres connecting

them. And when a postmortem has been made upon the child that

was once an idiot but that has been lifted up by long years of patient

training to citizenship in the moral and rational sphere in which we live

and move, such a postmortem shows that an infinite number of brain-

cells have been created de novo; that fibers becoming necessary have

appeared, to connect such cells, centers of sensation and emotion and

thought.”

Now the author of this paragraph should refer us to the published

articles which describe the removal of the brains or parts of brains of

idiotic children for sectioning and microscopic investigation, and the

subsequent replacement of these organs or parts of them in the crania

of the children in order that they may undergo the “long years of

34 The American Naturalist. [January,

patient training” which follow. We would like to know the technique

of the operation, and the name of the operator and that of the institu-

tion where he operates. Some grown persons might desire to secure

his services, and almost everybody could point out some one else, to

whom they think such a course of treatment would be useful. Some

peculiar conditions might be found which it would be desirable to re-

move permanently, and so save the “labor of long years” etc.

The editor of the Journal on page 609 stimulates our curiosity further

by saying that “Professor Elmer Gates, a psychologist who has for

several years been making elaborate studies both in Washington and

Philadelphia, has added not a little to our knowledge of the develop-

ments of the brain and the relation of particular parts of the brain to

thought and emotion and the use of particular parts of the body.” The

view indeed is not new, but the confirmation given by Prof. Gates

researches is very interesting” He then quotes language from Dr.

Julius Althaus as to the supposed seat of mental activity in the brain,

which embodies a general statement of the little knowledge we have on

the subject. The question naturally arises as to the alleged researches

of Dr. Gates, and the extent to which they have confirmed our hypo-

theses on this subject, and if so, as to where they were published? The

editor does not tellus. This is a pity, for assertions without authority are

useless to science. Is there any connection between these researches

and the alleged vivisection of idiots recounted in the article we first

quoted? The name signed to the latter is not that of Dr. Gates, so we

are quite in the dark. A journal which publishes an article by Sir

Wm. Dawson, and writes up the Universities, ought to give us more

light no these wonderful researches.

—Ir is again proposed that the American Association for the Ad-

vancement of Science meet in San Francisco in the near future. The

Board of Supervisors of that city are said to have extended an invitation

to visit the city in 1897. The Association has had many such invitations,

and they would have been accepted had the railroad authorities been will-

ing to place their rates within reach of the members. The authorities

of San Francisco have, however, this time included in their invitation

the British and Australian Associations, and we are informed that the

British members will have free or nominal transportation via the

Canadian Pacific R. R. It is maa that the Dominion of Canada will

make an appropriation towards d their t tion expenses.

Perhaps our Congress would be willing í to make an appropriation for

securing the transportation of our own members. The amount will not

1896.] Recent Literature. 35

exceed the outlay on funeral solemnities annually expended by it.

Such meetings tend to bring about amicable relations among the living,

and to promote the interest in and distribution of knowledge. It

might be good politics if the Canadian Boundary and Venezuelan ques-

tions should be still on hand in 1897.

RECENT LITERATURE.

Petrology for Students: An Introduction to the Study of

Rocks under the Microscope, by Alfred Harker, University Press,

Cambridge. MacMillan & Co., New York, 1895. Pp. vi and 306;

figs. 75 ; price $2.00.

This volume of the Cambridge Natural Science Manuals will be

heartily welcomed by teachers and students of geology in all English-

speaking countries. It presupposes a knowledge of the microscopical

features of minerals, and consequently deals only with rocks. These

the author divides into Plutonic, Intrusive, Volcanic and Sedimentary

rocks. Under each head the general characteristics distinguishing

each of the several rock classes are briefly mentioned, and descriptions

of the different rock types embraced in each group are given. First

come descriptions of the constituents of each rock, then follows a state-

ment of its pecularities of structure. The principal varieties are next

mentioned, and abnormal, structural and chemical forms are briefly

described. The book concludes with chapters on thermal and dynamic

metamorphism and one on the crystalline schists.

Of course, the treatment of the different subjects discussed is neces-

sarily very brief, nevertheless it is full enough in most cases to give the

student beginning petrography a very good view of the field. A spe-

cially important feature of the work is the large list of references to

articles written in English. With this book at hand, students will no

longer be required to wait until they have mastered German before

beginning the study as heretofore been the case. While by no means

exhaustive, the present volume will serve as an excellent introduction

to the larger French and German treatises, and will, at the same time,

be a good reference book for geologists who do not desire to make a

specialty of microscopic lithology —W. S. B.

Crystallography, a Treatise on the Morphology of Crys-

tals, by N. Story-Maskelyne, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1895. New

36 The American Naturalist. [January,

York: MacMillan & Co. Pp. xii and 512; figs. 597, pl. viii; price,

$3.50.

This “Crystallography” is a real addition to the literature of the

subject that it treats. Its appearance reminds one strongly of Groth’s

“ Physiographische Krystallographie,” although the book is by no means

a reproduction of the German treatise. The latter discusses the sub-

ject from the side of solid symmetry, whereas the former deals with it

rather from the analytical point of view. The first 187 pages of the

volume treat of the general relations of crystal planes and of zones.

The next 200 pages take up the six crystal systems beginning with the

cubic, and discuss in order the holosymmetrical and the merosymme- |

trical forms, combination of forms and twinned forms. Chapter VIII,

embracing pages 388-463, is devoted to crystal measurements and cal-

culations, and the final chapter to the projection and drawing of crys-

tals. The plates show the projection of the poles of the most general

form and of its derived hemihedral and tetartohedral forms in each

system.

It is almost needless to state that the work of the author is based ex-

clusively on the system of indices, known generally as the Miller sys-

tem. Not only are the faces of crystal forms studied through the aid

of the spherical projection, but the individual planes are discussed

solely in terms of their normals. No reference is made to other sys-

tems of notation, nor to other methods of projection than those elabora-

ted. The book might have been of a little more practical value had

the author at least referred to other systems, but its unity might have

suffered. As it is, the volume is a very com plete exposition of crystallo-

graphy from the Miller standpoint, and it will, without doubt, prove

of inestimable value in popularizing this—the most beautiful method

of studying the subject. Of course, the treatment is purely mathemat-

ical, but the mathematics used are simple enough to be understood by

any one acquainted with the methods of spherical geometry. To the

student of minerals too much emphasis will seem to be placed on the

theoretical aspect of the development of crystal forms, but to the

specialist in crystallography, the emphasis will appear to be placed

just where it belongs—on the possibility of deriving all possible sym-

metrical polyhedrons from certain simple abstract notions concerning

pairs of planes, at the basis of which is the principle of the rationality

of the indices.

There is no doubt that the treatise before us will appeal less strongly

to the student of forms than it will to one of analytical proclivities.

Nevertheless it is needed even by the former, if, for no other reason,

1896.] Recent Literature. 37

because it will impress him more strongly than ever with the exactness

with which nature constructs her inorganic structures. With Dr.

Williams’ little book to develop the imagination of the beginner in

crystallography and to interest him in the science, and the present

volume to carry him on to a very thorough understanding of the re-

lationships of crystal forms, the English-reading student-world is as

well, if not as bountifully, supplied with text books on the subject as

are the students of any European country

The authors discussions are all logically developed, and all his state-

ments are clear and simple. The figures are well drawn and the sub-

jects they illustrate are well selected.—W. S. B.

Elementary Physical Geography, by Ralph S. Tarr. New

York: MacMillan & Co., 1895. Pp. xxxi and 488; figs. 267, plates

and maps 29; price $1.40.

The most striking features of Prof. Tarr’s book are the freshness and

wealth of its illustrations and the excellence of its typography. The

volume is just what its title indicates, except that perhaps the treat-

ment of its subject matter is a little more inclined toward the side of

physiography than toward physical geography. The book is indeed

elementary—more so than one would wish, sometimes; at other times

it is elementary in the statement of the facts described, while leaving

their causes unexplained, where a word or two might have avoided a

difficulty which the teacher will surely meet with in discussions with

his brightest scholars. In the arrangement of material, some fault can

easily be found, but, as the author himself declares, the treatment is,

“in many respects, experimental.” In spite of these criticisms, the

experiment is a success.

The volume is divided into three parts, with four appendices and a

very good index. The first part deals with the air. It includes chap-

ters on the earth as a planet, the atmosphere in general, distribution of

temperature in the atmosphere, its general circulation, storms, its

moisture, weather and climate, and the geographic distribution of

plants and animals. Why the first and last chapters included in this

part are discussed here is not quite plain. Part second deals with the

ocean. It embraces chapters on the ocean in general, waves and cur-

rents and tides. Part third treats of the land and its features. A

general description of the earth’s crust is discussed in the opening

chapters. Then follow chapters on denudation, the topographic fea-

tures of the surface, river valleys, deltas, waterfalls, lakes, etc., glaciers,

the coast line, plateaus and mountains, volcanoes, earthquakes, etc.,

38 The American Naturalist. [January,

man and nature and economic products. The appendices include one

on meteorological instruments, methods, ete., one on maps and one con-

taining suggestions to teachers. The last is a list of questions on the

text. At the end of each chapter is a list of reference books, with

their titles and prices. This is not of much value to the student, but

is convenient for the teacher. A list of articles to be found in Nature,

Science, the Popular Science Monthly, and similar periodicals might

have been of more value in an elementary treatise. However, the

plan of referring students to original articles on the subjects discussed

is commendable. We can not dismiss the book without another reference

to the many really excellent illustrations and charts it contains. The

former are, without exception, fresh and new, well chosen to illustrate

the author’s points and well executed from the bookmaker’s standpoint.

Many of the charts are original. The volume is, on the whole, the

most attractive that we have seen on the subject it treats, and its attract-

iveness is not at the expense of scientific accuracy. We can safely

predict a general adoption of the book as a text in many high schools

and academies, and we shall be mistaken if it is not used in some of

our colleges, where the instructor desires an aid in his work rather

than a substitute for work.—W. S. B.

Gray’s Synoptical Flora of North America.—In 1835 or

1836, Dr. John Torrey planned a Flora of North America, with which

Dr. Gray soon became identified, and, in July, 1838, the first part

(Ranunculacee to Caryophyllacee) was published; a little later

(October, of the same year), the second part appeared, and in June,

1840, the third and fourth parts were issued, completing Vol. I, the

Polypetale. As will be remembered, Volume II was not completed, a

portion appearing in 1841, and the work being suspended at the end of

the Composit in 1843 (February). Here the work stopped for many

years, and was resumed in 1878 by Dr. Gray (Dr. Torrey having died

five years earlier) under the slightly different title of A Synoptical

Flora of North America. In this volume the Gamopetalz were com-

pleted; in 1884, the Composite and preceding families, since whose

elaboration more than forty years had passed, were revived. Then

shortly afterwards, 1888, came the death of Dr. Gray, followed, in

1892, by the death of Dr. Watson, before the publication of other

parts,

In October, 1895, Dr. B. L. Robinson issued the first fascicle of the

revision{of Vol. I of the Flora, a little more than fifty-seven years since

the appearance of the corresponding fascicle. This includes the poly-

petalous_families—Ranunculacex to Frankeniacee. It includes much

1896.] Recent Literature. 39

of Dr. Gray’s work, to which is added something of Dr. Watson’s

work, to which we have now added the results of Dr. Robinson’s

studies.

With such a history, stretching back as it does through more than

half a century, it is not to be wondered at that the work is conservative

to a marked degree. The-sequence of families can differ little from

that adopted nearly sixty years ago, and in this fascicle the citation of

authorities, the matter of nomenclature, etc., have been made to con-

form as far as possible to the treatment accorded them seventeen years

ago. This extreme conservatism is to be regretted, since science is more

productive just as its followers are least tied by the traditions of the

past. Yet, with all its conservatism, the Synoptical Flora will be in-

valuable, and every systematic botanist will hope that health and

strength may not fail the present editor before his task is completed.

—Cuar es E. Bessey.

The Natural History of Plants.'—About seven years ago the

eminent professor of botany in the University of Vienna, gave to the

botanical world a book under the title Pflanzenleben, with which bot-

anists soon became familiar as a most useful work. Some time ago the

welcome announcement was made that the work was to be translated

and brought out simultaneously in England and America. This has

now been accomplished, and the result is before us in four good sized

volumes, each called a “ half-volume,” which are attractive externally

and internally. On comparing the translation, as brought out by

Messrs Holt & Co., with the original, it must be conceded that the

former is the by far better done, both in the clearness of text and the

perfection with which the printer has brought out the illustrations.

The colored plates are especially well done, being printed from the

originals by the Bibliographische Institut of Leipzig.

For those who have not seen the original, it may be well to say that it

presents in a readable manner (in a popular manner, we might say, if

the word had not been so dreadfully abused) the main facts as to the

structure, biology, and physiology of plants. It is not a text book for

daily conning by the student, but it is rather a most interesting work to

1 The Natural History of Plants, their forms, growth, reproduction and distri-

bution, from the German of Anton Kerner von Marilaun, Professor of Botany in

the University of Vienna, by F. W. Oliver, M. A., D. Sc. Quain Professor of Bot-

any in University College, London, with the assistance of Marian Busk, B. Sce.,

and Mary F. Ewart, B. Sc. With about 1000 original soars illustrations and

16 plates in colors. New York: Henry Holt & Company, 2 vols., large 8vo. pp.

777 and 983.

40 The American Naturalist. [January,

be read by not only the botanist, but by every intelligent man and

woman who would know something of the deeper problems with which

modern bctany concerns itself. The topics noted in the table of con-

tents will give some idea of the scope of the work as follows: The

study of plants in ancient and modern times; The living principle in

plants; Absorption of nutriment; Conduction of food; Formation of

organic matter from the absorbed inorganic food; Metabolism and

transport of materials; Growth and construction of plants; Plant

forms as completed structures; The genesis of plant offspring; The

history of species.

A single quotation taken from the opening chapter may serve to

show the delightful style in which the work is written: “Some years

ago, I rambled over the mountain district of north Italy in the lovely

month of May. In a small sequestered valley, the slopes of which

were densely clad with mighty oaks and tall shrubs, I found the flora

developed in all its beauty. There, in full bloom, was the laburnum

and manna-bush, besides broom and sweet-brier, and countless smaller

shrubs and grasses. From every bush came the song of the nightin-

gale, and the whole glorious perfection of a southern spring morning

filled me with delight. Speaking, as we rested, to my guide, an Italian

peasant, I expressed the pleasure I experienced in this wealth of labur-

num blossoms and chorus of nightingales. Imagine the rude shock to

my feelings on his replying briefly that the reason why the laburnum

was so luxuriant was that its foliage were poisonous, and goats did not

eat it; and that though no doubt there were plenty of nightingales,

there were scarcely any hares left. For him, and, I dare say, for

thousands of others, this valley clothed with flowers was nothing more

than a pasture ground, and nightingales were merely things to be shot.

“This little occurrence, however, seems to me characteristic of the

way in which the great majority of people look upon the world of

plants and animals. To their minds, animals are game, trees are

timber and firewood, herbs are vegetables (in the limited sense), or,

perhaps, medicine or provender for domestic animals, whilst flowers are

pretty for decoration. Turn in what direction I would, in every county

I travelled for botanical purposes, the questions asked by the inhabi-

tants were always the same. Everywhere I had to explain whether the

plants I sought and gathered were poisonous or not; whether they

were efficacious as a cure for this or that illness, and by what signs the

medicinal or otherwise useful plants were to be recognized and dis-

tinguished from the rest.” —Cuarues E. Bessey.

E AFE NEES PENU bea

1896.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. 41

RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS.

AMEGHINO, F.—Premiére Contribution à la Connaissance de la Faune Mam-

malogique des Conches à Pyrotherium. Extr. Bol. del Inst. Geog. Argentino

T. XV, 1895. From the author.

Anprews, C. W.—On the Development of the Shouldergirdle of a Plesisaur

(Cryptoclidus oxoniensis Phillips, sp.) from the Oxford Clay. Extr. Ann. Mag.

Nat. Hist. (6), XV, 1895. From the author

Annual Report for 1893, Iowa Geol. Baivey; Vol. III.

Biological Lectures delivered at the Marine Biological re ae | at Woods

Holl during the Summer Session of 1894. From C. O. Whit

Bronn, H. G.—Klassen und Ordnungen des Thierreichs eae Bd. Echi-

nodermen ; Fiinfter Bd. Gliederfiissler, Arthropoda. Leipzig, 1895.

Bulletin Vol. II, No. 1, 1894, College of Agric. Imperial University, a ag

Bulletin Nos. 30 and 31, 1895, Hatch Exper. coe Mass. College.

Bulletin No. 57, 1895, Mass. Agric. Exper. Sta

Bulletin No. 30, 1894, Rhode Island Agric. pean Station.

CHAMBERLIN, T. C.—Classification of American Glacial Deposits. Extr. Journ.

Geol., Vol. II, 1895

Recent Glacial Studies in Greenland. Extr. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., 1895.

From the writer.

CusHinc, H. P.—Faults of Chazy Township, Clinton Co., New York. Extr.

Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. 6, 1895. From the Society

Dana, E. 8.—Sketch of the Life of James Dwight Dana. Extr. Am. Journ.

Sci. (3) X LIX, 1895.

Dersy, O. A.—A Study in the Consanguinity of Rocks. Extr. Journ. Geol.

Vol. I, 1893. °

— On the Occurrence of Xenotine as an Accessory Element in Roc

PRIRA Ore Districts of Jacupiranga and Ipanema, Sao Paulo, Brazil. Extra

rn. Sci., Vol. XLI, 1891. From the author.

Eighth 4 Annual Report of the N. C. State Weather Service, ea 19, 1895.

Etsen, G.—On the Various Stages of Development of Spermatobium with

notes on Other Parasitic Sporozoa. Extr. Proceeds. Cal. Acad. Bei. (2) Vol. V;

1895. From the author

Facai, H. L. --Proseedion of the Seventh Annual Meeting of Am. Geol.

held at Baltimore Dec., 1894. Extr. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., 1895.

——Lake E Narie the probable successor of Lake Warr. Extr. Bull.

Geol. Soc. Am., 1894.

—— The Kamemoraine at Rochester, N. Y. Extr. Amer. Geol., Vol. XVI,

1895.

——Glacial Lakes of Western New York. Extr. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol.

6, 1895. From the Soe.

GEIkiz, J.—Classification of ee Glacial Deposits. Extr. Journ. Geol.,

Vol. ILI, 1895. From the write

Hawortn, E.—The epatiguigny of the Kansas Coal Measures Extr. Kan.

Univ. Quart., Vol. IIT, No. 4, 1895. ——Oil and Gas in Kansas. Extr. Proceeds.

Amer. Assoc. Ady. Sci., Vol. XLII, 1894. From the author.

42 The American Naturalist. [January,

Hayes, S.—The Shaw Mastodon. Extr. Journ. Cin. Nat. Hist. Soc., 1895.

From the author.

Stosson, E. E. AND L. C. Cotsurn.—The pips Power of Wyoming Coal

and Iron. Special Bull. Univ. Wyoming, Jan.,

HYATT, A:—Phylogeny of an Acquired oe ek Extr. Proceeds. Amer.

Philos. Soc., Vol. XXXII. From the author

Kine, F. P. —A Preliminary Report on ihe Corundum Deposits of Georgia.

Bull. Pe 2, 1894, Geol. Surv. Georgia.

Lioy, P.—Ditteri Italiani. Milano, 1895. From Ulrico Hoepli, Editore.

MERRILL, J. A.—Fossil Sponges of the Flint Nodules in the Lower Cretaceous

of Texas. Extr. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard College, Vol. XXVIII, 1895.

From Alexander Agassiz.

Minot, H. D.—The Land Birds and Game Birds of New England. Second

Edition, Edited by William Brewster. Boston, 1895. From the Pub., Hough-

ton, Mifflin an

Macai, Temes Protistologica. Milano, 1895. From Ulrico Hoepli,

Editore.

Moor, J. P.—The Anatomy of Bdellodrilus illuminatus, an American Disco-

drilid. Extr. Journ. Morph., Vol. X, 1895. From the author.

Nipuer, F. E.—On the Electrical Capacity of Bodies, and the Energy of an

Electrical Charge. Extr, Trans. Acad. Sci. St. Louis, Vol. VII, 1895. From

the author.

OSBORN, H. F.—The Hereditary Mechanism and the search for the Unknown

Factors of Evolution. Fifth Biological Lecture at ye Marine Biological Labor-

atory at Wood’s Holl, 1894. Boston, 1895. From the author,

Peracca, M. G.—Viaggio del Dott A. Borelli ei Republica a e

nel Paraquay. Rettili ed Anfibit—Nuova specie di Lepidosternum. Extr.

Boll. Mus. di Zool. ed Anat. Comp., Vol. X, 1895. From the author.

SHERWoop, W. L.—The Salamanders found in the Vicinity of New York City

with notes upon Extralimital or Allied Species. Extr. Proceeds. Linn. Soc.

New York, 1895. From the author.

Sixth Annual Report of the Missouri Botanical Gardens, 1895. From Wm.

release.

Smit, E. A.—Report upon the Coosa Coal Field. Bull. Geol. Surv. of Ala-

bama, 1895. From the author.

SMYTH, C. H. JR.—Crystalline Limestones and Associated Rocks of the North-

western Adirondack Region. Extr. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. 6, 1895. From

the Soci Society.

Stronc, O. S.—The Cranial Nerves of Amphibia. Extr. Journ. Morph.,

real 1895. From the author.

AM, W.—Discrimination of Glacial Accumulation and Invasion. Extr.

in He Soc. Am., Vol. 6, 1895.

Vines, S. H.—A Student’s Text Book of Botany. London, New York, 1895.

From Macmillan and Co., Pub.

WAITE, E. R. n sas on Dendrolagus bennettianus De Vis. Extr. Pro-

ceeds. Linn. Soc. N. S. W., Vol. IX, 1894. From the author.

WALCOTT, C. Di Address before the Geol. Soc. Am., 1894. From

the author.

1896.] Petrography. 43

Weep, C. M.—The Cultivation of Specimens for Biological Study. Concord,

1895. From the author

Wuirmay, C. O. aiia Theory of Evolution—A System of Negations;

Evolution and Epigenesis; The Palingenesia and the German Doctrine of Bon-

net. Lectures delivered at Wood’s Holl, 1894. From the author

Woop, H.—Has Mental Healing a Valid Scientific and Religious Basis? Bos-

ton, 1895. From the author.

General Notes.

PETROGRAPHY-.’

The Origin of Adinoles.—Hutchings’ has discovered a contact

rock at the Whin Sill, England, which, in the author’s opinion, repre-

sents an intermediate stage in the production of an adinole from a

fragmental rock. It contains corroded clastic grains of quartz and

feldspar in an isotropic base containing newly crystallized grains of

quartz and feldspar. The isotropic material is derived from the clas-

tic grains by the processes of contact metamorphism, whatever they

may be, as grains of quartz are often seen with portions of their masses

replaced by the substance. The rock has begun its recrystallization

from the isotropic material produced by solution or fusion of the ori-

ginal grains, but the process was arrested before the crystallization was

completed. The paper concludes with some general remarks on meta-

morphism. The author thinks that the statement that in granite con-

tacts no transfer of material takes place has not yet been proven true.

He also thinks that more care should be taken in ascribing to dynamic

metamorphism certain effects that may easily be due to the contact act-

ion of unexposed dioritic or granitic masses.

Notes from the Adirondacks.—The limestones, gneisses and

igneous instrusives of the Northwestern Adirondack region are well

described by Smyth.? The intrusions consist of granites, diorites, gab-

bros and diabases. The gabbro of Pitcairn varies widely in its struct-

ure and composition, from a coarse basic or a coarse, almost pure

feldspathic rock to a fine grained one with the typical gabbroitic habit.

1 Edited by Dr. W. S. Bayley, Colby University, Waterville, Me.

2 Geological Magazine, March and A gee 95,

3 Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. 6, p.

44 The American Naturalist. [January,

Compact hornblende is noted as an alteration product of its augite.

Where in contact with the limestones the gabbro has changed these

rocks into masses of green pyroxene, garnet, scapolite and sphene. A

second variety of the gabbro is hypersthenic. A third variety is char-

acterized by its large zonal feldspars composed of cores of plagioclase

surrounded by microperthite, although crystals of the latter substance

alone abound in some sections. The ferromagnesian components are

rare as compared with the feldspars. Nearly all specimens of these

rocks are schistose, and all of the schistose varieties exhibit the cata-

clastic structure in perfection. Analysis of the normal (T) and of the

microperthitic or acid (II) gabbros yielded :

SiO, AlO, FeO MgO CaO K,O Na,O H,O Total

I 57.00 16.01 10.30 1.62 6.20 353 435 .15—99.16

u 65.65 1684 401° 18 247 604 5627 30971

Near the contact with the limestone’the gabbro is finer grained than —

elsewhere. Pyroxene is in larger grains than in the normal rock, but

the feldspar is in smaller ones. The limestone loses its banding and is

bleached to a pure white color. Between the two rocks is a fibrous

zone of green pyroxene and wollastonite, together with small quantities of

sphene and garnet and sometimes scapolite and feldspar. The red

gneisses, common to that portion of the region studied which borders

on the gabbro, are thought by the author to be largely modified por-

tions of the intrusive rock.

The Eastern Adirondacks have been studied by Kemp.‘ The lime-

stones of Port Henry consist of pure calcite, scattered through which

are small scales of graphite, phlogopite and occasionally-quartz grains,

apatite and coccolite. This is cut by stringers of silicates that are

granitic aggregates of plagioclase, quartz, hornblende and a host of

other minerals. Ophicalcite masses are also disseminated through the

limestones, and these are also penetrated by the silicate stringers.

Merrill’ has shown that the serpentine of the ophicalcite is derived

from a colorless pyroxene. The schists associated with the limestones

are briefly characterized by the author. At Keene Center a granulite

was found on the contact of the ophicalcite with anorthosite.

Hornblende Granite and Limestones of Orange Co., N. Y.

—Portions of Mts. Adam and Eve at Warwick, Orange Co., N. Y., are

composed of basic hornblende granite that is in contact with the white

‘Ibid, p. 241. |

5 Cf. AMERICAN NATURALIST, 1895, p. 1005,

1896.] Petrography. 45

limestone whose relations to the blue limestone of the same region have

been so much discussed. The granite contains black hornblende, a

little biotite, and so much plagioclase that some phases of it might well

be called a quartzdiorite. Allanite and fluorite are also present in the

rock, the former often quite abundantly. As the granite approaches

the limestone it becomes more basic. Malacolite, seapelite and sphene

are developed in it in such quantity, that immediately upon the con-

tact the normal components of the granites are completely replaced.

On the limestone side of the contact the rock becomes charged with

silicates, the most abundant of which are hornblende, phlogopite, light

green pyroxenes, sphene, spinel, chondrodite, vesuvianite, etc. The

contact effects are similar in character to those between plutonic rocks

and limestones elsewhere. The blue and the white limestones are re-

garded as the same rock, the latter variety being the metamorphosed

phase.’

An Augengneiss from the Zillerthal.—The change of a gran-

ite porphyry into augengneiss is the subject of a recent article by

Fütterer” The rocks are from the Zillerthal in the Alps. The gneisses

are crushed and shattered by dynamic forces until most of the evidences

of their origin have disappeared. -The original phenocrysts have been

broken and have suffered frituration on their edges, while new feldspar,

quartz, malacolite and other minerals have been formed in abundance.

The groundmass of the gneiss is a mosaic whose structure is partially

clastic through the fracture of the original components and partially crys-

talline through the production of new substances. The author’s study

is critical, and, though he treats the described rocks from no new point

of view, he discusses them with great thoroughness, calling attention at

the same time to the important diagnostic features of dynamically met-

amorphosed rocks. |

Petrographical News.—Ransome’ has discovered a new mineral,

constituting an important component of a schist occurring in the

Tiburon Peninsula, Marin Co., Cal. The other components of the

schist are pale epidote, actinolite, glaucophane and red garnets: The

new mineral, lawsonite, ie orthorhombic with an axial ratio .6652:1:

.7385, a hardness of 8 and a density 3.084. The axial angle is 2V=

84° 6 for sodium light. Its symbol is H, Ca Al, Si,O,,.

‘J. F. Kemp and Arthur Hollick: N. Y. Acad. Sci., VII, p. 638.

?! Neues Jahrb. f. Min., etc., B.B. IX, p. 509.

è Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. 1, p. 301.

46 Phe American Naturalist. [January,

Fuess’ has perfected an attachment for the microscope which enables

an observer to enclose with a diamond scratch any given spot in a thin

section, so that it may be easily identified for further study.

Marsters” describes two camptonite dykes cutting white crystalline

limestones near Danbyborough, Vt. They differ from the typical

camptonite in being much more feldspathic than the latter rock. They

moreover, contain but one generation of hornblende, corresponding to

the second generation in the typical rock, and but few well developed

augite phenocrysts, although this mineral is found in two generations.

A portion of Mte. S. Angelo in Lipari consists of a porous yellowish

pyroxeneandesite containing grains and partially fused crystals of cor-

dierite, red garnets and dark green spinel.”

Cole” declares that the “ hullite” described by Hardman as an iso-

tropic mineral occurring in the glassy basalts of Co. Antrim, Ireland,

is in reality an altered portion of the rock’s groundmass, and is no defi-

nite mineral substance.

The same author” describes the old volcanoes of Tardree in Co. An-

trim as having produced rhyolitic lavas instead of trachytic ones as

has generally been stated.

` GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.

On the Species of Hoplophoneus.—Four species of Hoplopho-

neus have already been described ; H. cerebralis Cope, H. oreodontis

Cope, H. primaevus Leidy and Owe, H. occidentalis Leidy. Dinotomius

atrox will be shown to be a synonym of the latter species. To these

may be added H. robustus and H. insolens herein described. The

following key may be valuable in determining the species from a few

characters.

A. Skull small, occiput nearly vertical.

a. Superior sectorial with large anterior basal cusp

1. Pms. 2 B., i John Day.

b. Superior sectorial with incipient anterior basal cusp.

° Neues Jahrb. f. Min., etc., 1895, I, p. 280.

10 Amer. Geol., June, 1295, p. 368.

u Bergeat: Neues Jahrb. f. Min., etc., 1895, II, p. 148.

1? Belfast Nat. Field Club Proceedings 1 894-5.

18 Geol. Magazine, No. 373, p.

5 ENEA APA O AE IEE Aa E a a R a a a aly, Oe

mon a ae

iaa a EE

1896.] Geology and Paleontology. 47

2. Pms, ** pm. 2 reduced or absent H. oreodontis White River.

3. Pms. 3 H. primaevus White River.

B. Skull large, occiput overhanging.

Superior sectorial with incipient anterior basal cusp.

4. Pms. * pm. 2 reduced or absent H. robustus White River.

5. Pms. 3 g H. insolens White River.

6. Pms. 3 inferior sectorial with no posterointernal cusp, heel

reduced, H. occidentalis White River.

Hoplophoneus occidentalis Leidy.

In The Extinct Fauna of Dakota and Nebraska (1869) Leidy de-

scribed two fragments of a mandible which he thought indicated a

species larger than Hoplophoneus primaevus and to which he gave the

name H. occidentalis (Drepanodon occidentalis), figuring the specimen

in Plate V. No further material was referred to this specięs until

1894, when Osborn and Wortman in describing a collection of White

River fossils in the Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural His-

tory determined two specimens as H. occidentalis, giving measurements

of the more important bones of the skeleton in comparison with those

of H. primaevus. While pursuing my studies in the American Museum

through the kindness of these gentlemen, I found that a complete man-

dible of specimen No. 1407 from the Oreodon Beds agrees in every

particular with Leidy’s type, which I have had the privilege of exam-

ining in the Philadelphia Academy. A drawing of the mandible

accompanied by a faithful copy of Leidy’s figure is given in the accom-

panying plate. Associated with the mandible are several vertebrae

and portions of limb bones showing the skeleton to be much larger than

the specimen previously determined as H. occidentalis in the American

Museum Bulletin. They however, agree, as does also the mandible,

with Dinotomius atrox described by Dr. Williston in the Kansas Uni-

versity Quarterly, January, 1895, from a fine skull and nearly com-

plete skeleton. This specimen which I had the pleasure of seeing last

summer I now have no hesitation in referring to H. occidentalis. It

makes possible the determination of the skeletal characters and affini-

ties, and the restoration promised by Dr. Williston will complete our

knowledge of thisspecies. The following measurements are taken from

the Kansas University Quarterly.

Length from inion to premaxillary border . . 260 mm.

Widthofzygomata . .. . eor a åM

Length of mandibular ramus . - -o o B

48 The American Naturalist. [January, :

Length of hatierui : : i ; tee T

Width of distal end of hinaus 3 : : : re

Length of tibia . : i ; - : Li

Width of proximal end of ibis ‘ : : ; A E

Width of distal end of tibia = ws ` a”

The relation of H. occidentalis to Eusmilus dibaleni Sashes pub-

lished in the December Narura.ist, is at once apparent. By com-

parison with the excellent figure by Mr. Weber, republished by per-

mission in the accompanying plate, it will be seen that H. occidentalis

stands directly ancestral to Æ. dakotensis, the dentition agreeing very _

strikingly in the characters emphasized by Mr. Hatcher, but differing

in showing an additional incisor and premolar and the presence of a

heel on the sectorial. In Eusmilus bidentatus Filhol, the type of the

genus, the heel is present.

Hoplophoneus insolens sp. nov.

The determination of the characters of H. occidentalis makes it ob-

vious that the skeleton determined as such by Osborn and Wortman is

a new species. A complete skeleton (number 11,022) and a second

specimen with the most of the limb bones and a skull lacking the man-

dible (number 11,372), both in the Princeton Museum, enable me to

determine the skull of this species, a character which is lacking in the

American Museum specimen. The particularly close agreement in the

size of the skeletons makes either of them typical, consequently I give

the measurements already published in the American Museum Bulletin

along with measurements from the Princeton specimen as indicative of

the size of the species.

The skull of H. insolens is long and low, the postorbital constriction

very marked, sagittal crest slightly concave, the occiput overhanging

and concave from side to side, the posttympanic process is long and

massive approaching the postglenoid process and being produced as far

inferiorly. The limb bones have stout shafts and relatively small ex-

tremities.

Dentition: I s, C +, Pm 3, M ¢; the second upper es which

is variable in the genus usually being absent in this species

Length of skull, oe to Pe border - 190 mm.

Length of humerus . ne WU”

Length ofulna .. 3 j o : ia e

Length of radius eea a’ a’ o A

Length of femur. , oe o ee

Lægik of uba . Go 4 l n‘ a

Lagth f pla ee

PLATE I.

Adams on the Species of Hoplophoneua.

Adams on the Species of Hoplophoneus.

-> ee

1896.] Geology and Paleontology. 49

Hoplophoneus primaevus Leidy and Owen.

The original type of this species is figured in the The Ancient Fauna

of Nebraska (1853). Later Leidy figured two skulls in the Extinct

Fauna of Dakota and Nebraska, remarking that the larger one might

be the skull of an old male, and that the original _type was somewhat

intermediate in size. The determination of the variation due to sexual

characters seems impossible in the case of the extinct-cats. However,

the material which is available, shows that there are two types repre-

sented by these two skulls, the skeletons referable to the types differing

more markedly than the skulls. Inasmuch as Leidy’s original type

agrees more closely with the smaller one, the difference being about

such as is presented in any of the species of Machairodonts, it is taken

as representative of H. primaevus. In the Princeton collection there

is a fairly complete skull (number 11,013) and two nearly complete

skeletons (numbers 10,741 and 10,934), with the latter skeleton there

is also most of the skull. This makes it possible to correlate the skull

with the skeletons and give the measurements of the species. The

skull is short and high in the frontal region, the orbit horizontally

oval, the posttympanic process short, the glenoid drooping considerably

below it.

The skeleton is not rugose and the limb bones have slender shafts as

in Dinictis felina. The dental formula is I 3, C 3, Pm i, M j; the sec-

ond superior premolar probably being constantly present.

Length of skull, condyles to premaxillaries, Leidy’s type

bts odana etek

(approximately) . . 50 mm

Length of humerus . : : ‘ ; ‘ < o e

Length of ulna. . 42 Ge a oo doo

Length of radius . : RLS eee See BE °° ag

Length of femur. ? .- ; : ; : : Tog 3

Thar of tibia ee ee ee

Hoplophoneus robustus sp. nov.

_ This species is proposed as representative of Leidy’s second type or

H. primaevus. It has its most perfect type in the skeleton and skull

(No. 650) determined as H. primaevus by Osborn and Wortman, the

measurements of which were published in the American Museum Bul-

letin, Vol. VI, 1894, p. 228, along with those of H. insolens (H. occi-

dentalis) and which I give here, adding the measurement of the skull.

The species is represented in the Princeton collection ‘by specimen

Mo. Bot. Garden,

50 The American Naturalist. ` [January,

number 10,647, consisting of a fairly well preserved skull and mandi-

ble together with a humerus and portions of other limb bones. The

skull is relatively large compared with the skeleton. The limb bones

are rugose and have stout shafts, being very similar to those of Dinictis `

fortis,’ and are thus my different from those of H. primaevus. Denti-

tition : I 3, Ci, Pm ~ =, > M4 T-

Length of skull, ES to ERRAT border . 180 mm.

Length of humerus apige aI Sid

Length of ulna . í : : i ; : ao i0 Bien

Length of radius : i 5 : ` . pr) Sr Bian

Length of femur - ae . i : 2 i9"

Length of tibia . : i ; ; p `; OES Lo! Bes

Length of pelvis ; ; i ; ; ; oe

Hoplophoneus oreodontis Cope.

This species is Cope’s type of the genus. I introduce it here for the

purpose of mentioning a complete skull in the Princeton Museum

(number 10,515) which supplements the original type and is, therefore,

used here for comparison. The approximate lengths of the femur and

tibia are based upon the lengths of these bones associated ge the et a

skull, the epiphyses being lost. Dentition: I $, © } Pm *, M }

Length of skull, Tgp to serosa, bar ap-

proximately : 135 mm.

Approximate length of P ; ee Anaka

Approximate length of tibia 2 i : eect irvR) ©

Hoplophoneus cerebralis Cope.

This species from the John Day is the smallest of the genus and at

the sametime the most peculiar. Cope has pointed out its specific

characters as follows: Space for the temporal muscle relatively short ;

brain capacity large; profile of the face very convex; sagittal crest

horizontal; occiput vertical ; no paroccipital processes ; orbit vertically

‘In my description of D. fortis, American Naturalist, June, 1895, I compared

the skeleton with that of H. occidentalis, following the description of that species

skeletal characters shows to be incorrect. D. bombifrons!which I described at that

time I now find to be a synonym of D. fortis; the skull described being cor-

related with the skeleton and portion of a skull of D. fortis by means of specimen

number 1400 of the American Museum.

OPCS sable ANSE oe) Fe ak Sl Sa OE Salem | 7S

= ree See Pa epee ae zi spt 3 ee eee s

Se eee E ay E as EBE SE VA E E L EN er ee EE E es T EE EFT ge r E =a

ee a ne i iadi

1896.] Geology and Paleontology. 51

oval. Dentition: I 3/,C y, Pm %’,M Y, the third premolar being

much reduced.

Length of skull, pe to PT border (ap-

proximately) . . 120 mm.

There are thus six species of oe aan ERT H. strigi-

dens Cope, which being based upon a fragment of a canine exhibiting

a peculiar form, is not characterized by any features which refer it to

Hoplophoneus rather'than any other genus. With the exception of H,

cerebralis they are all from the White River. They present an inter-

esting series both in the size of the skulls and skelétons. The accom-

panying series of femora give an idea of the relative characters of the

skeletons of the larger members of the genus as regards size and

strength. Unfortunately nothing is known of the skeleton of H. cere-

bralis, but judging from the size of the skull it would be the smallest of

the series, although probably not much smaller than that of H. oreodon-

tis. In restoring the femur of H. occidentalis I am indebted to Dr.

Williston for inf tion as to its length.

The series of skulls figured in outline when taken in connection with

the series of femora give an idea of the relative size of the species. The

gradation in size is for the most part comparable with the gradation in

size of the skeletons. Each species has shown, from careful comparisons

and measurements of all the available material, a limited amount of

variation, but in no case losing its identity when both the skull and

skeleton are taken into consideration—Geo. I. Apams, Fellow of

Princeton College.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Plate I.

Fig. 1 -= Hoplóphonena onrehralis (after Cope).

Fig. 2. tis (number 10,515 Princeton Museum).

Fig. 3. —Hoplophoneus primaevus ‘(after Leidy).

Fig. 4—Hoplophoneus robustus (number 650 American Museum).

Fig. 5.—Hoplophoneus insolens (number 11,022 Princeton Museum).

Fig. 6.—Hoplophoneus occidentalis (after Williston).

All Xë

Plate IT.

Fig. 1—Hoplophoneus occidentalis (Leidy’s type).

Fig. 2—Hoplophoneus occidentalis (number 1,047 American Museum).

Fig. 3.—Eusmilus dakotensis (after Hatcher).

52 The American Naturalist. [January,

Fig. 4.—Hoplophoneus primaevus.

Fig. 5.—Hoplophoneus robustus.

Fig. 6.—Hoplophoneus insolens.

Fig. 7—Hoplophoneus occidentalis.

All XI

The Goldbearing Quartz of California.—The salient charac-

teristics of the gold quartz veins of California are briefly given by Mr.

Waldemar Lindgren in a paper recently published, and the results of

his observations are thus summarized :

“The auriferous deposits extend through the state of California

from north to south, in an irregular and unbroken line.

“The gold quartz veins occur predominantly in the metamorphic

series, while the large granitic areas are nearly barren. The contact

of the two formations is not distinguished by rich or frequent deposits.”

“The gold quartz veins are fissure veins, largely filled by silica

along open spaces, and may dip or strike in any direction,

“ The gangue is quartz, with a smaller amount of calcite; the ores

are native gold and small amounts of metallic sulphides. Adjoining

the veins, the wallrock is usually altered to carbonates and potassium

micas by metasomatic processes.

“The veins are independent of the character of [the country rock,

and have been filled by ascending thermal waters charged with silica,

carbonates and carbon dioxide.

“ Most of the veins have been formed subsequent to the granitic in-

trusions which closed the Mesozoic igneous activity in the Sierra Ne-

vada.”

Regarding the origin of the gold, the author speaks with reserve.

` He points out the possibility of its derivation from the surrounding

rocks, which theory, however, is not altogether satisfactory. He then

states the following facts and the conclusion based upon them:

“ First, the gold quartz veins throughout the state of California are

closely connected in extent with the above described metamorphic

series and that the large granite areas are almost wholly void of veins,

though fissures and fractures are not absent from them.

“Second, that in the metamorphic series the gold quartz veins occur

in almost any kind of rock, and that if the country rock exerts an in-

fluence on the contents of the veins, it is, at best, very slight.

“Third, that the principal contact of the metamorphic series and the

ea rocks is in no particular way distinguished by rich or frequent

its.

i iii

SE nae it SEN oe aa | e E E A A EA OOS a ee T TA

1896.] Geology and Paleontology. 53

“It is further apparent that gold deposits have been formed at dif-

ferent periods, though, by far, most abundantly in later Mesozoic times.

Some of these later veins may have been locally enriched by passing

through earlier impregnations in schist or old concentrations in the

sandstones and conglomerates of the metamorphic series, the gold con-

tents of which have, however, only been proved in isolated cases.

“ These considerations strengthen the belief that the origin of the

gold must be sought below the rocks which now make up the surface

of the Sierra Nevada, possibly in granitic masses underlying the meta-

morphic series.” (Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. 6, 1895.)

Precambrian Sponges.—M. L. Cayeux has published a prelimi-

nary note on the spicules of sponges found in the Precambrian beds of

Bretagne. The author describes the different forms of the spicules,

gives their dimensions, the mode of fossilization, and the probable

causes for their fragmentary condition. The principal conclusions de-

rived by M. Cayeux from his researches are (1) numerous spicules of

sponges of various species are found in the Precambrian phtanite for-

mations of Bretagne, and (2) that all the orders of sponges with sili-

cious skeletons are represented in these formations.

A resume of the facts ascertained concerning this interesting fauna

is given by the author as follows:

“ It is impossible not to be struck by the ensemble of the sponges of

the phtanites of Lamballe. Even excluding all the spicules which,

although they certainly are sponges, yet are too fragmentary for exact

identification, there remains an assemblage of forms which points to a

very complex fauna.

“In the light of our present knowledge this fauna appears to be

composed of Monactinellide, probably abundant, Tetractinellide, rel-

atively rare, numerous Lithistide, and a few Hexactinellide. All the

orders of Silicea are represented. The branching off of the sponges

is then plainly as early as the base of the Precambrian of Bretagne.

“The oldest beds in which any remains have been found belongs

to the Archean of Canada. M.G. F. Matthew has described Oyatho-

spongia? eozoica from the Lower Laurentian of St. John (New Bruns-

wick) and Halichondrites grapino from the Upper Laurentian of

the same region.

“ Cyathospongia? eozoica may be a species of Hexactinellidæ, and

Halichondrites graphitiferus must be referred either to Monactinellidæ

or to Hexactinellidæ. The authenticity of these fossil sponges has

been put beyond a doubt by M. Hermann Rauf.

54 The Ameriean Naturalist. (January,

“ All the great groups of silicious sponges do not figure in this as-

semblage, but the fauna presents this character worthy of note, that

the Lithistide and the Hexactinellidz, that is to say, the sponges which -

have the most complex skeleton occupy a prominent place.

“I have called attention to these Cambrian sponges to show that

- there is no fundamental difference between the Precambrian and the

Cambrian sponge fauna. — In the one as in the other, we find already

traced, the lines along which the future silicious sponges are devel-

oped.” (Annales Soc. Geol. du Nord T., XXIII, 1895.)

Embryology of Diplograptus.—A large collection of specimens

of Graptolites found near Dolgeville, N. Y., furnishes Mr. R. Ruede-

man the data for a paper on the mode of growth and development of

the genus Diplograptus. The species, D. pristis Hall, and D. pristini-

formis Hall, appear as compound colonial stocks instead of single

stipes, as hitherto known. From his observations the writer infers

that the colonial stock was carried by a large air bladder, to the

underside of which was attached the funicle. The latter was enclosed

in the central disc, and this was surrounded by a verticil of vesicles,

the gonangia, which produced the siculæ. Below the verticil of gon-

angia and suspended from the funicle was the tuft of stipes.

It is evident from the structure of these graptolites that the genus

Diplograptus has the combined properties of different groups, and

gives valuable hints in regard to their common ancestry. The inves-

_ tigation of Mr. Ruedeman is one of the most important recent acquisi-

tions of paleontologic embryology. (Am. Journ. Sci., 1895, p. 453.)

The Upper Miocene of Montredon.—M. Ch. Deperet has just

published the results obtained through the excavations he has been

making in the hill of Montredon near Bize (Aude), The fossils which

he has collected are found also in the peat beds where they are much

broken and slightly worn, and in the white marls where he has found

more complete specimens, such as skulls and parts of limbs with the

bones in proper relation.

Notwithstanding an abundance of fossils, the fauna of Montredon,

until now, was characterized by a poat of species, comprising only

, Hipparion, a Rh d an undetermined Ruminant.

The discoveries of M. , Deperet have increased the known vertebrates to

twelve. There are, in addition to the animals just mentioned, a wild

boar, agreeing with Sus mujor of Leberon ; three ruminants, Tragocerus

amaltheus, Gazella deperdita, and Micromeryx ; three carnivores, Si-

ee ee

NR E EAI TE Saas Ce pe NY ee ee Pe

LER NEN ee eg ee oe

Lan eR ah TT ee

os ee ee ee

1896,] Botany. 55

‘mocyon diaphorus, Dinocyon, Hyenarctus arctoides. This last constitutes,

says the author, a true intermediate type between Hyznarctus of the

Miocene and the bears of the Pliocene, as Ursus arvernensis and

Ursus etruscus. M. Deperet adds that the discovery of this animal

‘fills a gap by revealing in a precise manner the ancestral relation of

the bear type. (Revue Scientif., 1895, p. 375.)

BOTANY:

The ViennaPropositions.—(Continued from page 1100, Vol.

XXTX.)—In a succeeding number of the same journal, Dr. Kuntze.

replies to the foregong article at some length. A considerable portion

of the reply is taken up with personalities. This is not without provoca-

tion, for Ascherson and Engler have grievously misrepresented him

in more than one place in the foregoing article, e. g., in the matter of

his proposed 100-year limitation, and his comparison of the changes

required by 1737 and 1753—as one can readily see by glancing at

Revisio Generum 3'. Indeed, they substantially concede the injustice

of their accusation as to Knntze’s statement with reference to the

‘changes required by 1753, a few paragraphs beyond, when they discuss

their proposed limitation of fifty years. The anonymous correspon-

dent of the Journal of Botany who was so pained at the supposed bit-

terness prevailing in America, is respectfully referred to the pages of

the Oesterreiche Botanische Zeitschrift for an example of the state of

feeling in other lands.

The following extracts will give an idea of Dr. Kuntze’s reply.

Of the six propositions of Ascherson and Engler he says: “ Num-

bers 1—4 are not new; No. 5 is a principium inhonestans, and No. 6 a

supplement to No. 5. The new principle is a year limitation proposal

with retroactive force. I had previously proposed a limitation of 100

years only for names sought to be revived in the future, which would

only affect old names which are mostly doubtful and undetermined, so

that by my proposed limitation, the doubtful cases would be disposed

of and greater stability of nomenclature brought about. By the prop-

osition of Messrs. Ascherson and Engler on the other hand, acquired

rights would be violated. The gentlemen, indeed, in their last

account no longer recognize this right, even as little as the right o

-political legitimism. These gentlemen now reject also the law o

1 Edited by Prof. C. E. Bessey, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska.

56 The American Naturalist. (January,

priority, and their proposals have never conformed to the Paris code.

One must ask involuntarily what laws Messrs. Ascherson and Engler

do recognize in nomenclature at all. With the best intentions, I can-

not perceive any trace of a ‘ Rechtshoden.’”

“The Paris code” he continues, “is in my opinion better than the

proposals and deviating principles which Engler, Ascherson and Pfit-

zer suggest and which they themselves follow only in part. Supposing

one followed out the deviating principles honestly and consistently,

many more name alterations and complications would result than

through following the Paris code.”

Since Ascherson and Engler have been at some pains to expose what

they deem fundamental errors, one may well suggest a fundamental

error upon which they proceed. Their whole argument is based upon

the notion that there is a current nomenclature. It is this very notion,

indeed, which creates a large part of the opposition to all systematic

attempts to bring order into nomenclature. When a systematist goes

goes about the work of adjusting the nomenclature of his particular

group, current nomenclature does not trouble him at all. There he

sets about him with vigor, and even, perhaps, in accordance with rule and

principle. But as he looks about him beyond the range of his own

group, he feels that it would be very convenient if names could stand

as they are in the nearest book at hand, and he becomes conscious of

something which he calls current nomenclature. It may be safely

affirmed that if Dr. Kuntze had taken up a small group and worked

out its nomenclature with the care and thoroughness he bestowed upon

all the Phanerogams, no one would have made more than a passing

objection, and before long his names would have found themselves cur-

rent. Who ever said anything about the radical changes made in the

nomenclature of the Uredinee when Winter and afterwards Schroeter

replaced name after name by the old specific names of Acidium and

Uredo forms? Very little that Dr. Kuntze has done is more radical

than that—and their changes are as current as anything can be said to

-be at the present day. Before we set about preserving a current

nomenclature, we must produce one, and that can only be done by ad-

hering consistently to rules.

As to the propositions made by Escherson and Engler, not much

need be said. The 5th and 6th are avowedly only another form of the

discredited 4th Berlin thesis. The whole object of the authors seems to

be to save their list of eighty-one names—if not by one means then by

another. They are as radical as the best of us as far as specific nomen-

clature is concerned, and one might well suggest that their attitude

SS ee oe ae ee

alee

1896.] . Botany. 57

towards the eighty-one names they are bent on saving at all hazards,

savors quite as much of “ legitimism” as anything in the nomenclature

controversy. Moreover the propositions are by no means as easy of

application as they might appear. The work of restoring prior names

has been going on pretty steadily for many years. Since 1891 it has

gone on quite rapidly. Are the names restored since the reform move-

ment began to stand, or are we to add a7th proposition, something like

this: “ No name recognized since 1891 is to be deemed withdrawn from

the operation of the 5th rule?” Then again it must be decided what

shall be considered “use” of a name. Ifa name appears in a work of

wide circulation there is a presumption that it has been used more or less.

How many other works must cite it to give it validity? And must

they cite it with approval, or will citation as a synonym or without

comment suffice? What sort of works shall be referred to to ascertain

whether a name has been used? Are names used in catalogues and

printed lists used? If a writer publish two books, say five years apart,

and cite his own names, if one of the books comes within the limit, have

the names he quoted from himself been used? Or must some other author

use them? The room for individual eccentricity in the application of

such a rule is too great to make the rule practicable.

Besides what need is there of pretending to begin the nomenclature

of genera with 1753, when in fact it is begun with 1845? As Ascher-

son and Engler point out, their limitation substantially makes it im-

material whether the nominal starting point is 1753 or 1690. The

labored distinction between generic and specific nomenclature amounts

to very little. It is only partially true that the alteration of a generic

name entails the alteration of the name of every species in that genus.

Under the Kew Rule it might, perhaps, but otherwise it can scarcely

be said that a change of a generic name burdens the memory any more

than the change of a specific name. So long as the distinguishing por-

tion of the binominal remains unchanged, each new ae does not

have to be learned over. ‘

In conclusion, without going into the merits of the controversy be-

tween Kuntze and Ascherson and Engler, I may say that Dr. Kuntze

never hides behind vague general statements, but supports his asser-

tions by citations and actual instances, so that they may be verified

Whether one accedes to Kuntze’s conclusions or not, he may always

know upon what they are based. It would be much easier to determine

the value of the assertions made by his opponents if they were in the

habit of doing the same. It is easy to declaim against “disagreeable

alterations” and to make insinuations as to the motives of the reform-

58 The American Naturalist. [January,

ers. But the fact remains that Dr. Kuntze has only attempted to do,

a little radically perhaps, for all the flowering plants at one stroke,

what monographers had been doing piecemeal in every group of the

vegetable kingdom. No one objected to their motives, and few to their

alterations. Their alterations became a part of “current nomencla-

ture.” Had the reform been conducted haphazard and piecemeal, it

would have seemed quite proper to many who now vigorously denounce

it—Roscor Pounp.

The Flora of Ohio.—In the “ Catalogue of Ohio Plants” in Vol.

VII of the Geology of Ohio, Professor W. A. Kellerman and W. C.

Werner make an admirable contribution to our knowledge of the

plants of one of the older regions west of the Allegheny Mountains.

The catalogue is prefaced by twenty pages or so of historical matter in

which we learn that the earliest catalogue of Ohio plants (Miami

County) was prepared in 1815 by Dr. Daniel Drake; this was followed

in 1818 by a paper on the Scenery, Geology, Mineralogy, Botany, ete.,

of Belmont County, Ohio, by Caleb Atwater in the American Journal

of Science (Vol. I), and later, 1831, by Short and Eaton’s paper

(Southern Ohio) and two by Riddell,—Franklin County, in 1834, and

the Flora of the Western States, in 1835, to which a supplement was

added in 1836. Then follow lists by Sullivant (1840), Bigelow (1841),

-Lea (1849), Clark (1852 and 1865), Lapham (1854), Klippart (1858

and 1860), Newberry (1859), Hussey (1872), Beardslee (1874), Wright

(1889), besides many short papers in periodicals.

Following the introductory pages one comes at once to the enumer-

ation of plants, in which the arrangement of the families is that of

Engler and Prantl, but oddly enough—in reversed order. ~ Why the

authors gave themselves the trouble to invert the natural sequence is

not stated. It is awkward, to say the least. We notice with pleasure

that the revised nomenclature has been used, and that all specific names

have been decapitalized. Double citations of authorities are given

‘when necessary, and varieties are given as trinomials.. Altogether the

catalogue is a modern one in plan and execution.

_ After the Angiosperms, there follow the Gymnosperms, Vascular

Cryptogams, Bryophyta, Hepaticæ, Lichenes, Fungi, Algæ and Myxo-

mycetes. Of the last six groups the authors state that the list “ must

be considered very fragmentary and a mere beginning,” yet this is an

excellent beginuing, of which the State of Ohio needs by no means to

be ashamed.—Cuartes E. Brssry.

1896.] Botany. 59

The Flora of the Sand Hills of Nebraska,—Mr. P. A. Ryd-

berg has recently published in the Contributions from the U. S.

National Herbarium (Vol. III, No. 3) the results of his careful explor-

ation of the Sand Hills of Central Nebraska in the year 1893. Two

or three counties in about the center of the sand hill region were

selected as the ground to be thoroughly studied, and three months were

given to this limited area. Two streams transverse this area, the Mid-

dle Loup River and the Dismal River. The former is a rapid stream

running down a slope of 84 to 13 feet to the mile, with hills from 200

to 300 feet high on each side of the rather wide valley (4 to 14 miles).

In its narrower portions the valley is filled with lagoons and swamps,

the remains of old river beds. The Dismal River runs through a nar-

rower valley, and the bluffs are higher, ranging from 300 to 600 feet.

Away from the rivers Mr. Rydberg found three kinds of sand hills,

the first of these are called by him the “barren sand hills,” not be-

cause they are without vegetation, for they are not, but because they

„are at present of very little use to man. Here- one finds the true Sand

Hill vegetation, and when seen from the higher points “ the hills ap-

_pear likes the billows of the ocean.”

The Dry Valley Sand Hills constitute the second kind. The hills

_are long ridges running mostly east and west with long valleys be-

tween. The underground drainage is so perfect that little or no water

gathers in the valleys, but their rich soil readily yields good crops, or

excellent pasturage.

The Wet Valley Sand Hills differ from the last in the greater abrupt-

ness of the ridges, which are, in fact, sometimes impassable, and in the

less perfect drainage, ponds of water generally occurring at the easterly

end of the valleys. In no case is there “ surface drainage,” every pond

being destitute of an outlet. About these ponds grasses grow luxu-

_riantly.

It is evident that the Sand Hill flora is nota homogeneous one. The

plants growing along the rivers and about the ponds are very different

‘in character from those which occur on the wooded summits of the

“barren sand hills,” or the steep slopes of the hills which border the

dry and wet valleys. In summing up a discussion of the matter, Mr.

Rydberg says: “ The most characteristic plants of the sand hills are

the four blowout grasses, Calamovilfa longifolia, Eragrostis tenuis, Red-

fieldia flexuosa, Muhlenbergia pungens, of which the first two are found

‘on nearly every sand hill. Next to these the ae are the most

ommon or characteristic herbaceous plants: .

Andropogon scoparius

Psoralea lanceolata

Psoralea digitata

Carduus plattensis

Opuntia rafinesquii

The American Naturalist.

Acerates viridiflora

Acerates angustifolia

Acerates lanuginosa

Commelina virginica

Tradescantia virginica

Yucca glauca

Amaranthus torreyi

Euphorbia petaloidia Frelichia floridana

Euphorbia geyeri Cyperus schweinitzii

Chrysopsis villosa Laciniaria squamosa

Cristatella jamesii Cycloloma atriplicifolia

Corispermum hyssopifolium

Croton texens

Argemone albiflora

[January,

Astragalus ceramicus longifolius

EPEAN SE

“The most abundant woody plant is Amorpha canescens, which is

common all over the sand hills. Next comes the Western Sand Cherry

(Prunus besseyi). On the sand hills around Thedford the third in

order is Ceanothus ovatus. Kuhniastera villosa, which should, perhaps,

be classed among the undershrubs, is as common as any of the class.

All these belong to the true sand hill flora. Nearly all the other

woody plants are confined to the Middle Loup and Dismal River Val-

leys. A few, as for instance, Salix fluvialilis, Symphoricarpus occidenta-

lis, Prunus americana, Amorpha fruticosa are also found in some of the

wet valleys.”

The other woody plants along the streams are Cornus stolonifera,

Ribes floridum, Rhus radicans, Rosa fendleri, Rosa arkansana, Ribes

aureum, Rhus trilobata, Acer negundo, Fraxinus pennsylvanica, F.

pennsylvanica lanceolata, Populus deltoides, Celtis occidentalis, Juni-

perus virginiana, Parthenocissus quinquefolia, Vitis vulpina, Celastrus

scandens, Rubus occidentalis, Ribes gracile, Crataegus coccinea, Ulmus

americana and Rhus glabra.—Cuarues E. Bessey.

Recent Botanical Papers.—Dairy Bacteriology by Professor H.

W. Conn comes to us from the U. S. Department of Agriculture, giv-

ing the results of the author’s work the past three years.—From the

same source we have papers on Grass Gardens and Alfalfa, by Jared

G. Smith ; Fertilization of the Soil as affecting the Orange in Health

Disease, by H. J. Webber; The Grain Smuts, their Cause and Pre-

vention, by Walter T. Swingle; Water asa Factor in the Growth of

Plants, by B. T. Galloway and A. F. Woods; Forestry for Farmers,

by B. E. Fernow.—From the Proceedings of the Iowa Academy of

1896,] Vegetable Physiology. 61

Sciences we have Pollination of Cucurbits, Diseases of Plants at Ames

in 1894, and Distribution of Some Weeds in the United States, by

Professor L, H. Pammel.—Dissemination of Plants chiefly by their

Seeds, is the title of a pamphlet of fifteen pages based upon the speci-

mens collected by the lamented young botanist Miss Mary E. Gilbreth,

and after her death presented to Radcliffe College. It will prove to be

very suggestive to those who wish to prepare similar collections.—‘“ A

Guide to find thenames of all wild-growing Trees andShrubsof New Eng-

land by their Leaves,” and “ Ferns and Evergreens of New England,”

are two pamphlets by Edward Knobel, which deserve to be widely used

in the public schools. They consist of good figures of the leaves, which

should make it possible for even the non-botanical teacher to direct the

attention of children to the trees-and ferns. They are sold by Bradlee

Whidden of Boston for fifty cents each—-We may notice here the

beautiful photogravures of fungi issued by C. G. Lloyd, of Cincinnati,

Ohio; the last numbers are Coprinus comatus, Crucibulum vulgare,

Lycoperdon separans and Urnula eratertum.—Professor T. A. Williams

has published (Bulletin 43, Agricultural Experiment Station) a paper

upon the Native Trees and Shrubs of South Dakota, in which he lists

37 trees and 80 shrubs. Of these, twelve trees and thirteen shrubs are

found in all regions of the State. In the Black Hills, a small region

including not more than one-eighth of the whole area of the State, no

less than eighty-two of the one hundred and seventeen trees and shrubs

are found.—Professor MacDougal writes on Botanic Gardens in the

October Minnesota Magazine. A half tone illustration of the Botanic

Institute at Leipzig, and another of the Botanic Garden at Buitenzorg,

Java, accompany the paper.

CS Seer

VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.

Changes Due to an Alpine Climate.—For ten years M. Gas-

ton Bonnier, of Paris, has carried on experiments in various parts of

France to determine just what changes occur in plants when they are

transported from the lowlands to high elevations, These are de-

scribed in a bulky paper in Annales des Sciences Naturelles: Botanique,

Sé. VII, T. 20, Nos. 4, 5, 6, entitled Recherches expérimentales sur

Vadaptation des plantes au climat alpin. Plants of many genera were

removed from the plains, the roots or root-stocks divided into equal

parts, and these parts set in similar soil and situations at various ele-

vations, up to several thousand metres, in the Alps and the Pyrenees,

62 The American Naturalist. [January,

and examined from time to time for anatomical and physiological

changes. These soon made their appearance and were as follows, the

changes in the plants exposed to the alpine conditions being attributed

principally to (1) More intense light; (2) Drier air; (3) A lower

temperature. Change of form and structure: (1) The subterranean

parts as a whole are relatively better developed than’ the parts above

ground. (2) The rhizomes and the roots show little modification, ex-

cept that the calibre of the vessels is generally smaller and the bark

more precocious; (3) The erial stems are shorter, more hairy, more

spread out, closer to the soil and with shorter and less numerous inter-

nodes; (4) In general the stems have a cortical tissue that is less thick

in proportion to the diameter of the central cylinder; the epidermal

cells have thicker walls and the cuticle is more pronounced ; often the

epidermis is reinforced by a certain number of sub-epidermal layers ;

the different tissues of the central cylinder are ordinarily less differen-

tiated; when bark exists, it appears earlier and is relatively thicker

on branches of the same age; when there are secretory canals, they

are relatively, or even absolutely, larger; finally, the stomata are

more numerous; (5) Usually the leaves are smaller, except sometimes

in sub-alpine regions, more hairy, thicker in proportion to their sur-

face and often absolutely thicker, and deeper green by reflected or

transmitted light; (6) The blade of the leaf acquires tissues better

suited for assimilation ; the palisade tissue is more strongly developed,

either by a narrowing and elongation of its cells or by a considerable

increase in the number of rows, the cells also contain a greater number

of chlorophyll bodies and often each grain of chlorophyll has a greener

tint. when there are secretory canals the diameter is relatively or ab-

solutely greater; the epidermis of the leaf shows less differences than

that of the stem, nevertheless, in general it is better developed, especi-

ally on persistent leaves, which have besides better developed protec-

tive sub-epidermal cells; the cells of the epidermis are ordinarily

smaller and often the number of stomata per unit of surface is greater,

especially on the upper face as M. Wagner was the first to show ; (7) The

petiole shows modifications generally analogous to those of the stems

but much less pronounced; (8) The flowers are relatively much larger

and sometimes even absolutely larger ; they are more brightly colored

and when the color is due to chromoleucites it is the same as in case of

the chlorophyll grains, the number in a cell is greater, and often each

chromoleucite is of a deeper color; the heightened color occurs also

when it is due to substances dissolved in the cell sap. Experiments

during eight years with Teucrium also show that modifications acquired

1896.) Vegetable Physiology. 63

by the plant when it is taken from the plain to the mountain, or vice

versa, disappear at the end of the same time when the plant is put

back into its own climate. Modification of functions: (1) If a plant

grown on the mountains is transported immediately to the level of one

grown on the plains (both originally from the same root) we find for

the same surface and under the same conditions, the chlorophyllian

assimilation and the chlorovaporisation are more intense in the leaves

brought from the alpine region ; (2) Ifthe respiration and the transpira-

tion in the dark are compared in the same way, we find that for equal

weights these functions have about the same intensity, or are less in

the alpine specimens. The paper contains numerous wood cuts show-

ing anatomical details and eleven lithographic plates comparing alpine

and lowland individuals of the same species. The last is a double

plate in color, illustrating the brighter hues of the mountain flowers.

Foot notes refer to the principal literature—Erwin F. SMITE.

Spore Formation Controlled by External Conditions.—

Einfluss der ausseren Bedingungen auf die Sporenbildung von Tham-

nidium elegans Link, by Johann Bachmann, is the title of the leading

paper in Botanische Zeitung for July 16,1895. Thamnidium elegans

is a graceful little mould bearing two sorts of sporangia. The sporo-

phore consists of a slender upright stalk, 2-4 cm. high and usually ter-

minated by a single large sporangium, having a columella and bearing

many spores. Midway down the sporophore there are usually one to

ten or more whorls of branches which ramify dichotomously, often

as many as ten times, the terminal divisions bearing singly on their

ends small sporangia (sporangiola) generally only 6-8 » in diameter

and containing only a very few spores, usually 1-4. Sometimes only

the end sporangium develops and sometimes only the dichotomous

sporangioliferous branches ; but the cause of this variation which is un-

doubtedly what led De Bary into the error of supposing Thamnidium a

stage in the development of Mucor, has remained unknown. By vary-

ing his culture media Bachmann has discovered that he can at will

produce sporophores with or without end sporangia and with or with-

out sporongiola; in the same way he has been able to change the

tiny sporangiola, which frequently bear only a single spore, into big

sporangia provided with a columella and bearing many spores. As

the result of his experiments he divides the fungus into six types as

follows: (1) End sporangium present; sporangiola appearing very

early on finely dichotomous branches which may reach the tenth sub-

division, spores few. This form occured on more than a dozen differ-

64 The American Naturalist. [January,

ent media, the best results being obtained from the following: fresh,

damp horse dung; dung decoction; agar-agar with 23 per cent pep-

tone ; agar-agar with 4 per cent peptone and 0.5 per cent nitrate of pot-

ash. (2) End sporangia present; sporangiola 16-60 » in diameter,

with numerous spores and frequently with a columella and partial

swelling up of the membrane. This type was obtained in nine differ-

ent media, including the following: thoroughly cooked plums; damp

bread ; eggs; oranges; malt. (3) Only the end sporangium present.

Obtained on slightly cooked plums and on 1 volume of malt extract

in 2 vol. water. (4) Only the sporangiola present. Obtained in vari-

ous culture media by raising the temperature to 27-30° C. (5) a.

Mycelium with thick ends and gemmz. This form was obtained in

the following media: plum decoction with peptone ; 1 vol. grape must

in 4 vol. water with peptone; 1 vol. malt extract in $ vol. water. b.

Mycelium with fine ends and without gemmæ. Obtained in the fol-

lowing fluids: 1 per cent nitrate of potash with 1 per cent Nahrlés.

ung; almond oil with Nahrlésung ; oleic acid with Nahrlésung; cane

sugar in various percents. (6) Formation of zygospores. Not ob-

served. According to the author, Th. elegans is the only fungus

known which can be induced to form this or that sporangium, or none

at all, by means of purely external, known conditions. He believes

the production of thé first type is due to substrata in which nitrogen-

ous substances preponderate and fats and carbohydrates are present

in only small qnantities, and that the second type is due to the reverse

of these conditions. The paper contains 24 pages and is illustrated by

a double plate——Erwty F. SMITH.

Germination of Refractory Spores.—In spite of every effort, it

occasionally happens that the spores of a fungus refuse to germinate

either in water or artificial media. This is true of various oospores,

teleutospores and ascospores, and particularly and notably of the basi-

diospores of the whole group of the Gastromycetes, scarcely anything

being known of the early stages of species of this group, owing to this

fact. Recently, Dr. Jacob Eriksson, of Stockholm, has tried cold on a

number of uredospores and xcidiospores with partial success. His

method consists in placing the spores for several hours on blocks of ice

or in a refrigerator at temperatures ranging down to minus 10° ©. In

a number of instances spores which refused to germinate in water at

room temperatures, either wholly or in great part, did so freely and

speedily after being on ice or in a refrigerator. In other cases the

cold appeared harmful or without sensible influence, even on the same

species. T opinion has been current for a long time that sudden great

eR eR a

1896.] Vegetable Physiology. 65

changes in temperature favor the development of rust in cereals but

usually this has been attributed to the indirect influence of cold in

causing a deposit of dew in which the spores could germinate. In the

light of these experiments this explanation can hardly be the true one.

Spores which refused to germinate after lying in water several days

germinated readily after exposure to cold. It would seem as if the

cold were capable of stimulating the spores to germinate only when the

latter have been rendered receptive by exposure to rainy weather, but

further experiments and observations are necessary. It is at least cer-

tain that the spores of Æcidium berberidis, which germinated badly

after cooling, were gathered in dry weather, while those which germi-

nated abnndantly after cooling were gathered (on three different occa-

sions) after several rainy days. The fungi tried by Dr. Eriksson were

Aecidium berberidis, Ae. rhamni, Ae. magelhenicum, Peridermium

strobi, Uredo glumarum, U. alchemille, U. graminis and U. coronata.

The original paper, entitled Ueber die Förderung der Pilzsporenkei-

mung durch Kälte, may be consulted in Centralblatt fur Bakteriologie

und Parasitenkunde, Allg., Bd. I, p. 557.—ErRw1N F. SMITE.

Botany at the British Association.—The presidential address

of W. T. Thistleton Dyer before the new Section K (Botany) of the

British Association at the Ipswich meeting (Nature, Sept. 26, 1895) is

an exceedingly well written and interesting paper and one likely to

obtain a wide reading. It deals with such topics as the following:

Retrospect, Henslow, botanical teaching, museum arrangement, old

school of natural history, modern school, nomenclature, publications,

paleobotany, vegetable physiology, assimilation, and protoplasmic chem-

istry. The two and a half columns of sensible remarks on botanical

nomenclature are specially commendable to American readers, as also

what is said on teaching and in the last three topics af the address. It

is certainly a surprise to learn that cramming for examinations from

printed texts should be so largely taking the place of the careful study

of plant phenomena in many English schools, the tendency in this

country of recent years being happily in the other direction —Erw1n

F. SMITH.

Nitrifying Organisms.—Messrs. Burri and Stutzer, of the agri-

cultural experimental station in Bonn, have discovered a bacillus (See

Centrb. f. Bak. u. Par. Allg., Bd. I, No. 20-21, 1895) capable of chang-

ing nitrites into ‘nitrates and in many respects resembling Winograd-

sky’s organism, but which grows readily in bouillon and on gelatine.

This bacillus is much larger than the measurements given by Wino-

66 The American Naturalist. (January,

gradsky ; like his it is incapable of converting salts of ammonia into

nitrate, but unlike his is motile (when taken from colonies on gelatine

or silicates), stains readily, causes slow liquefaction of gelatine, and is

not yellowish but varies from colorless to bluish when grown on silli-

cates. The chemical activity is almost exactly the same as that of

Winogradsky’s bacillus and these authors, who have been studying the

subject for two years, seem to think that it may after all turn out to be

the same organism, the differences being less important than would

seem at first sight, and resting perhaps on incomplete observations.

The most important distinction appears to be the ability of this organ-

ism to grow on organic substances, but it does not appear from Wino-

gradsky’s publications whether he tried to transfer his organism from

sillicate-plate cultures to bouillon, or gelatine, and failed.—Erwin F.

SMITH. |

Relation of Sugars to the Growth of Bacteria.—Unques-

tionably the most discriminating and important paper that has yet ap-

peared on this subject is a recent one, Ueber die Bedeutung des Zuck-

ers in Kulturmedien fiir Bakterien (Centrb. f. Bak. u. Par., Med., Bd.

XVIII, No. 1), by Dr. Theobald Smith, now of Harvard. Reference

is made to the literature of the subject but this is contradictory and

many of Dr. Smith’s interesting conclusions are largely or wholly the

result of his own laborious and brilliant researches. The propositions

are stated clearly and it is safe to say that hereafter no one will un-

dertake the study of bacterial fermentation and gas production without

first consulting this paper. The author’s summary is as follows, but

many things are not mentioned in this and the whole paper will repay

the careful perusal of all who have groped about in this field of bac-

teriology: (1) In ordinary meat bouillon, souring and gas formation

are only observed when sugar is present. Dextrose is the su gar most

commonly attacked and muscle sugar is probably identical with it. _ (2)

The formation of acid results from the breaking up of the sugar; the

formation of alkali in the presence of oxygen results, on the contrary,

from the multiplication of the bacteria themselves. So far as tested,

the production of acid is common to all anærobic bacteria (facultative

or obligate). (3) Facultative anzrobiosis is made possible by the pres-

ence of sugar. (4) Rauschbrand and tetanus bacilli grew in fermenta-

tion tubes only when sugar was present. In test tubes containing the

same sugar bouillon multiplication was never seen. (5) As far as

tested, all gas-forming species produce along with CO, an explosive gas.

(6) Souring as well as the production of gas are valuable diagnostic

1896.] Zoology. 67

characters, when at least three sorts of sugar are tested (with exclusion

of muscle sugar). (7) Not only must the formation of gas be deter-

mined but also the progress of the same, the total quantity, and the

quantity of CO,. (8) For the differentiation of species and varieties

it is of value to determine by titration the total amount of acid in 1 per

cent sugar bouillon, as well as the germicidal power of such cultures on

the bacteria themselves. (9) The division of bacteria into acid and

alkali producers must be given up and the conditions govering the pro-

duction of acid investigated more critically for each species. (10) The

existence of fermentable carbohydrates in the digestive tract and in the

fluids of the body is probably very favorable to the establishment and

multiplication of pathogenic bacteria (both facultative anerobic and

obligate, especially the latter)—Erwin F. SMITH.

Algal Parasite on Coffee.—Under the title Cephaleurus coffee,

eine neue parasitische Chroolepidee, Dr. F. A. F. C. Went describes in

Centrb. f. Bak. u. Par., Allg., Bd. I, No. 18-19, 1895, p. 681, an alga

which he has found attacking the Liberian coffee at Kagok-Tegal in

Java. This parasite appears on the leaves and berries in the form of

round orange-brown spots which look bristly to the naked eye. The

alga not only forms a thallus on the surface but sends its threads deep

into the intercellular spaces of the host. The presence of the parasite

in and on the leaf causes an interesting, protective hypertrophy of the

surrounding tissue, the further progress of the alga being soon limited

by a dense encircling mass of thick-walled, non-lacunose tissue, devel-

oped out of the palisade cells and spongy parenchyma of the leaf. No

algal threads were found in this tissue. The berry not being able to

defend itself in this way suffers most, becoming gradually brown and

finally black and wrinkling and drying prematurely, so that the seed

does not ripen. All parts of the alga are subject to the attacks of a

fungus, which also appears to be capable of growing in the berries apart

from the threads of the alga, but the relation of which to the latter and

to the causation of the disease is left by the author in a rather unsatis-

factory state. The paper is accompanied by a lithographic plate show-

ing details of the alga and sections of the normal and hypertrophied

tissue—Erwin F. SMITE.

ZOOLOGY. |

On Bodo urinarius.—Although the discovery of certain peculiar

infusoria in human urine dates so far back as 1859, but little is known

of these animalculz. M. Barrois has been investigating the subject

68 The American Naturalist. [January,

and has recently published his conclusions. According to his account

Hassall was the first to detect this microscopic creature in its chosen habi-

tat. He described it under the name of Bodo urinarius, as an animalcula

1800 inch long and zoss inch wide, of rapid motion, generally round or

oval, presenting a granular appearance, sometimes they are broader at

oneend. The long lashes, by means of which they move, are variable

in number and proceed when there are two or three to each animalcule

from opposite extremities; reproduction by longitudinal fission. In

1885 Kunstler found “small monads . . . . flagellate, transparent and

very active ... . probably Bodo urinarius.”

In reviewing the subject, M. Barrois gives detailed accounts of these

discoveries, and of the condition of the urine in which they appear. He

then describes his own methods of investigation, and compares the

drawings of specimens, after Hasslar and Kuntsler, with the infusoria

he himself had found existing under similar conditions as those de-

scribed by the authors mentioned. M. Barrois Jays particular stress

upon the fact that the infusoria found by him, only appeared in urine

plainly alkaline, which contained animal matter (broken down epithelial

cells, pus, albumen), and which had been exposed sometime to the air.

In no case did he find them in fresh urine. Hassall’s notes show a similar

set of conditions in his case. Kunstler, however, claims to have found

the infusoria in fresh urine in company with several species of bacteria.

M. Barrois is of the opinion that Kunstler;was deceived as to the age

of the urine given him for examination, since in all other respects the

conditions (as to animal matter, etc.) agree with those of Hassler and

the author. In view of these conditions M. Barrois does not agree with

the statement made that Bodo urinarius is a parasite. He is rather of

the opinion that it exists in the air in a spore-like form ready to devel-

op whenever it is brought in contact with a suitable nidus. This it

finds in urine conditioned as above described.

_ Inthe course of his discussion, M. Barrois refers to Trichomonas

vaginalis Douné, found by Salisbury in the urine, and vaginal mucous

of a young girl aged sixteen, supposed to be parasitic, and to certain

‘Trichomonads found by Marchand and also by Miura; in all probability

T. vaginalis. In the two latter cases, the infusoria was found living in

freshly voided urine, so it would appear to bea true parasite. In both

cases the urine was loaded with decomposing matter.

By an ingenious experiment, Miura demonstrated that the Trichom-

onads lived in the urethra only, and was not found in the bladder.

As to the classification of the Monads, M. Barrois considers it ex-

tremely unsatisfactory, since it is based on the number and disposition of

eae ee pai EAEE AIN $ Se :

A AETA as AAE S oe ee aR ee eI EEE L ECE oe hed) A FE DAE PNA E

1896.] Zoology. 69

the flagella. In fact, Bodo urinarius, by reason of its polymorphism,

can have no placein such a scheme of classification.

In conclusion, the author compares Bodo urinarius with Oekomonas

mutabilis Saville-Kent, which propagates both from spores and by fission

in infusions of vegetable matter, and also with O. rostratum Sav.-Kent,

found in both fresh and salt water containing vegetable debris. He

finds the three species so similar in appearance, that one might infer that

their only difference is in their habitat.

M. Barrois repeats, as a final statement, that Bodo urinarius Kunst-

ler (= Cystomonas urinaria R. Bl.=Plagiomonas urinaria M. Braun)

can hardly be given a place among the parasites of man. (Revue

Biol., Feb., 1895.)

Influence of the Winter 1894-1895 upon the Marine Fauna

ofthe Coast of France.—M. Pierre Fauvel calls attention to the

considerable influence which the exceptional lowering of temperature,

and long duration of cold, during the last winter, exercised upon the

marine fauna of the coasts of France.

Sharp frosts, at the time of high tide, would destroy innumerable

quantities of animals that the ebb tide would leave exposed. Annelids,

Actinans and Fish were found dead or unconscious, paralyzed by the

cold. This mortality, strange to say, extended to depths which the

change of temperature could not have affected directly.

Another effect of the cold has been to bring in shore animals ordina- “

rily seen in deeper water, and also certain species very rare or entirely

unknown in our fauna. The Spring was marked by an extraordinary

abundance of Balanus porcatus, which covered with a continuous bed

the surface of the boulders and rocks, and by the return of the Mussels-

which had nearly disappeared. During some weeks Mytilus edulis

took possession of all the rocks exposed to the southwest wind and

formed veritable “ moulières” at Dent, Pointe de Réville and at

Draguet. Parallel changes are noticed in the annelid fauna. Thus

certain species which were common last year have either become rare,

or totally extinct, while new species are continually taking their places.

(Revue Scientif., 1895, p. 374.)

Preliminary Outline of a New Classification of the Family

Muricide. By F. C. Baker (Bull. Chicago Acad. Sciences, 1895).

On reading this paper we regret to find that Mr. Baker has been put-

ting his new wine into old bottles. In other words, he has borrowed

largely from the phraseology of a conchological paper published in

1892, as the following parallel passages show

70 The American Naturalist. [January,

Piissry, 1892. Baker, 1895.

“ For several years the writer “For several years the writer

has been accumulating data bear- has been accumulating data bear-

ing upon the natural classifica- ing upon the natural classifica-

tion of the Helicoid land snails. tion of the Gastropod family

It has been thought desirable to Muricide. It has been thought

desirable to place before students

group some of the géneral results | some of the results elucidated,

attained, and to invite their and to invite their friendly critic-

* the author’s aim “ The author’s aim in the pres-

being simply to place before mal-

acologists the outlines of a classi-

fication essentially modern and

essentially original.”

friendly criticism. ism.

ent paper has been simply to place

before malacologists the outline

| ofa classification essentially mod-

| ern and essentially original.”

! The above quotation is from Pilsbry’s Preliminary Outline of a New Classifica-

tion of the Helices, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila., 1892, p. 387. Good taste should

have forbidden the reproduction by Mr. B. of the second paragraph here quoted,

the egotism of which is excusable only in view of its undeniable truth in relation

to the 1892 publication. . This excuse seems to be lacking in the case of Mr-

Baker’s paper.

More to the same effect might be quoted, but the above is sufficient

on this score.

We do not wish to imply that there is any great harm in using bor-

rowed phrases; they are not copyrighted, and their original author

probably does not expect to make use of the same sentences again ; but,

still, if anybody has ideas worth expression, they surely ought to be

worthy of fresh verbiage.

In regard to Baker’s subfamilies, we do not see that they differ from

those of Tryon and Fischer, except that Baker includes Coralliophila

and its allies as a third subfamily. As this group lacks teeth, it seems

much better to treat it as a family. In this connection it may be well

to state that Lafiaxis mawe is not a monstrosity as Baker’s foot-note

(p. 188) would seem to imply.

The diagnoses of subfamilies given are rather absurd in view of their

contents, which contradict every word of the descriptions. Not all the

genera placed in “ Muricine” have spinous or foliated varices, not all

have the nucleus of operculum apical, and not all have few cusps on

the rhachidian teeth. What is the use, then, of such a “subfamily?”

Among the genera we notice, on a cursory inspection, that Murex

tenuispina LAMARCK is quoted as type of Murex Linné. How can

1896.] Zoology. 71

Lamarck’s species, published a half century later than Linneus’ genus,

be the type of that genus? The type of Pterorhytis Conrad (“ Ptero-

hytis” Baker) is not Ocinebra nuttalli Conr. but Murex umbrifer.

Other mistakes of this nature occur, but we have not space to notice

more. |

The citation of the pre-Linnzan “ genera” of Klein is contrary to all

codes of nomenclature recognized by modern zoologists, and the con-

tinuation of such anomalies is to be deprecated. In retaining Tribulus,

Pentadactylus, ete., as of Klein, Mr. Baker is clearly in error.

Most, if not all of the innovations in nomenclature proposed in this

paper, are borrowed from Fischer and Dall. We find no new facts in

regard to either soft anatomy or shell structure in the entire article, so

that Mr. Baker’s claims for originalty and modernness do not seem suf-

ficiently apparent to call for special remark.—H. A. PILSBRY.

Herpetology of Angola.—The Herpetology of the Portugese pos-

session in Western Africa, just published by Barboza du Bocage at Lis-

bon comprises descriptions of 185 species, distributed as follows; Chel-

onia 10, Loricata 3, Sauria 57, Ophidia 74, Batrachia 41. Of the spec-

imens described, 62 species and varieties belong exclusively to the fauna

of Angola and Congo. In order to better appreciate the relation which

the herpetological fauna of these two areas bears to that of the rest of

Africa, a table of the geographical distribution of the species described

is given and forms an important adjunct to the paper. A number of

new species are described, and synonymy is corrected. The paper is

handsomely illustrated, and forms an important contribution to the

knowledge of the subject.

Among the points of interest embraced in the paper are the discovery

of the new species: Naja anchiete, Dendraspis neglectus, Vipera herald-

ica and Python anehiete ; the southern range of the West African

Osteolemus tetraspes, Feylinia currorti, Atheri squamigera, and

Hylambates aubryi ; the northern range of the South African Mancus

macrolepis, Zonurus cordylus, ete. and westward range of the central

African Causus resimus.

Zoological News. ;Brrps.—In regard to the question of the value

of the forms of the tongues of birds for classification, Mr. F. A. Lucas

concludes that in the Woodpeckers the evidence favors the view that

the modifications of the tongue are directly related to the character of

the food, and are not of value for classification. (Bull. No.7. Div.

Ornith. and Mam. U. S. Dept. Agric., 1895.)

72 The American Naturalist. [January,

In the study of the hyoid bone of certain parrots, Mr. Mivart finds

that the whole order of Psittaci is distinguished from every other order

of birds by the shape of its hyoid. The distinctive characters are (1)

Basihyal much broadened posteriorly. (2) Basihyal developing on

either side a forwardly and upwardly directed process. (3) An os ento-

giossum in the form of a single broad bone with a considerable central

foramen, or, in the form of two lateral parts, entoglossals, medianly

united in front by cartilage and leaving a vacant space between this and

their attachment behind to the basihyal. (Proceeds. Zool. Soc. London,

1895, p. 162.)

Mammats.—Mr. Outram Bangs distinguishes the Skunks of east-

ern North America as follows:

Mephitis mephitiea (Shaw), ranging through the Hudsonian and

Canadian zones of the east, south to about Massachusetts.

Mephitis mephitica elongata (Bangs), found in Florida and the south-

ern Atlantic states and ranges north to about Connecticut.

Both of these species differ from the western skunks, which form a

separate group.

Among the latter the author recognizes Richardson’s Mephitis amer-

icana var. hudsonica as a good species which must therefore bear the

name M. hudsonica (Richardson). It is the largest of all the skunks,

and has an extensive range in the northern prairies, extending east as

far as Minnesota. (Proceeds. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. XX VL.)

ENTOMOLOGY:

Insects in the National Museum.—tThe staff of the Depart-

ment of Insects of the U.S. National Museum has been reorganized, as

a result of the sad death of the former Honorary Curator, Professor C.

V. Riley.

The reorganization has been effected by the appointment of Mr. L.

O. Howard, Entomologist of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, to

the position of Honorary Curator to the Department of Insects; of

Mr. Wm. H. Ashmead to the position of Custodian of Hymenoptera,

and Mr. D. W. Coquillett to the position of Custodian of Diptera. All

museum custodians are honorary officers. Mr. M. L. Linell will re-

main as general assistant to the Honorary Curator.

The Department is, at present, in excellent working condition. It

contains a very great amount of material in all orders, and, in many

1 Edited by Clarence M. Weed, New Hampshire College, Durham, N. H.

1896.] Entomology. 73

unusual directions, surpasses any collection in the country. Among

others, the following are of especial interest :

(1) The large collection, in all orders, of the late Dr. C. V. Riley.

(2) All of the material gathered during the past 18 years by corre-

spondents, field agents, and the office staff of the Division of Ento-

mology, U. S. Department of Agriculture.

(3) The greater part of the collection of the late Asa Fitch.

(4) The large collection, in all orders, of the late G. W. Belfrage.

(5) The collections in Lepidoptera and Coleoptera made by Dr.

John B. Smith down to 1889, together with the types of the Noctuidae.

since described by Dr. Smith.

(6) The collection of the Lepidoptera of the late O. Neske.

(7) The collection of Lepidoptera of G. Beyer.

(8) The collection of Coleoptera of M. L. Linell.

(9) The bulk of the collection, in all orders, of the late H. K. Mor-

rison.

(10) The collection of Diptera of the late Bdward Bu

(11) The type collection of Syrphide made by Dr. S. W. Williston.

(12) The collection of Ixodidz of the late Dr. George Marx.

(13) The collection of Myriopoda of the late C. H. Bollman.

(14) Sets of the neo-tropical collections of Herbert Smith.

(15) The collection of Hymenoptera of Wm. J. Fox.

(16) The collection of Tineina of Wm. Beutenmuller,

(17) The large Japanese collection, in all orders, of Dr. K. Mitsu-

kuri.

(18) The African collections, in all orders, of Dr. W. S. Abbott,

Wm. Astor Chanler, J. F. Brady, the last “Eclipse” expedition to

West Africa, and of several missionaries.

(19) The large collection from South California of D. W. Coquillett,

in Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera and Orthoptera.

(20) The Townend Glover manuscripts and plates.

In addition to this material, there are minor collections which have

been the result of the work of government expeditions, or are gifts

from United States Consuls and many private individuals.

This enormous mass of material is being cared for by the active and

honorary forces of the Department, and the perpetuity of the collection

is assured. The National Museum building is fireproof, and this,

together with the fact that it is a national institution, renders the De-

partment of Insects perhaps the best place in this country for the per-

manent deposits of types by working specialists in entomology, and for

the ultimate resting-place of large collections made by individuals.

74 The American Naturalist. [January,

The policy of the Museum at large, with regard to the use of its col-

lections by students, is a broad and liberal one. Students are welcome

in all departments, and every facility is given to systematists of recog-

nized standing.

On the Girdling of Elm Twigs by the Larve of Orgyia

leucostigma, and its Results.’ —The white-marked tussock-moth

Orgyia leucostigma, has, for a long term of years, been exceedingly de-

structive to the foliage of the elms, horse-chestnut and fruit trees in

any. Fruit trees of considerable size have been killed by their

defoliation within a few days, toward the maturity of the caterpillar.

Large elms and horse-chestnuts have had the foliage entirely consumed,

only the ribs and principal veins remaining.

In the summer of 1883, a new form of attack by this insect was ob-

served by me in Albany. About the middle of June of that year, the

sidewalks, streets and public parks where the white elm, Ulmus ameri-

cana was growing, were seen to be thickly strewn with the tips of elms

two to three inches in length, bearing from four to ten fresh leaves, and

comprising nearly all of the new growth of the season. On examina-

tion, it was found that above the point where the tips had been broken

off, the bark had been removed for an extent averaging about yy of an

inch, apparently by an insect.

s the Orgyia larve were then occurring in abundance on the trees,

they were suspected as being the authors of this injury, and the suspi-

cion was verified by ascending to a house-top, where the roof was

found to be heaped in the corners with the severed tips, and the cater-

pillars engaged upon the branches in the girdling. The explanation

of the breaking-off was simple. With the removal of the bark, the

decorticated portion—not exceeding, in many instances, in thickness

the diameter of a large pin—dried, and becoming brittle, was readily

broken by a moderate swaying of the wind. 7

The girdling of the twigs in this manner could serve the Orgyia no

such purpose as attends the girdling of several other insects, as the

Elaphidion pruners of oaks and maples, where it enables the insect to

attain greater security for its transformations through this method of

reaching the ground, or the Oncideres twig-girdler, where the dead

wood affords suitable food for the larva. Probably the conditions of

growth during the spring of this year were such as to render the young

bark at the point attacked particularly attractive to the larve; but

why, after feeding upon it to so limited an extent, it should cease and

resume its feeding on the leaves, can not be explained. In a few in-

* Read before the American Association for the Advancement of Science, at its

Springfield meeting, Sept. 3, 1895.

RIS DP one ee eee Te PS T se O SEEEN

er ae REN a

ae aes Sy en ae ee

1896.] Entomology. 75

stances where the twigs had become detached quite near the node

marking the commencement of the year’s growth, the bark had been

irregularly eaten for an inch or more in extent.

While the Orgyia is a serious pest in Albany, it has its years of re-

markable abundance and of comparative scarcity. Girdled tips, as

above described, have been seen each year since 1883, but by no means

corresponding in number to the degree of abundance of the caterpillar.

My attention had not been drawn to them the present year, until much

later than the usual time—toward the end of August. At this time

(21st of August), many tips of unusual length and with perfectly fresh

leaves were collected from beneath a large American elm. Each one

had broken at the base of the girdling, which had probably been quite

near the node of the year’s growth. They were of special interest from

their great length, varying from 10 to 18 inches. From the growth

they had attained, it was evident that the girdling had not been done

in the spring or early summer, but in the late summer after the usual

brood had completed its transformations. It was clearly the work of a

second brood of the insect, and this was confirmed by my having seen,

a few days previously from a house-top, while making observations on

the elm-leaf beetle, the Orgyia larva about one-half grown.

A distinct second brood of the Orgyia has not been recorded in

Albany, although it is known to be double-brooded in Washington and

Philadelphia, and probably in Brooklyn, and has also been observed

in Boston. The present year, however, has been an exceptional one in

the remarkable abundance, the rapid development, and the injurious-

ness of several of our more common insect pests

Another interesting feature connected with these tips was the illus-

tration they gave of the manner in which woody structure is built up

—the sap ascending through the sap-wood, and, after its assimilation in

the leaves, returning through the inner bark and depositing its organ-

ized material. The bark above the girdling, in healing in a rough and

irregular manner, had swollen out at this point in a bulbous-like en-

largement, showing very clearly the arrest and deposit of the returning

sap consequent on the absence of its natural channels, and the drying

and the death of the decorticated wood below it. In a specimen

gathered in which the node of the preceeding year remained attached

to the fallen twig, the diameter of the new growth above the bulb was

at least twice that of the starved node below.

This peculiar form of Orgyia attack has not been seen upon the

horse-chestnut, maple, apple or plum, or any of its other food-plants.

J. A. LINTNER.

Albany, N. Y.

76 The American Naturalist. [January,

EMBRYOLOGY.

Experimental Embryology.— Recent numbers of Roux’s

Archiv fiir Entwickelungsmechanik contain numerous additions to our

knowledge of the possibilities resident in the early stages of the devel-

opment of animals, possibilities unsuspected till direct experimental

interference made them evident.

- H. Morean of Bryn Maur presents evidence? to show that two

blastulze of the sea urchin, Spherechinus, may fuse together and form

one embryo. W.hen eggs are shaken just after fertilization they may

loose their membranes and afterwards some of the resulting blastuls

are found to have twice the normal size though otherwise like the usual

blastulæ in appearance. Such large blastule are stated to arise from

the fusion of two common blastule.

Notwithstanding this complete fusion the future development of such

enlarged blastulz gives evidence of their dual origin, At the gastrula

stage two invaginations are formed. ;

One may be much the greater and the two may not appear at the

sametime. The two invaginations stand in no fixed relation to one

another and may appear in all parts of the compounded blastula.

Later the larva that develops from two fused blastuls tends to

develop two sets of arms and two systems of skeletal rods, but those

accompanying the lesser invagination are much reduced in size and

less perfect than the rods associated with the main invagination.

A second paper’ by the same worker records a variation in the’

cleavage of the above sea urchin when some of the eggs were shaken.

While most of the eggs divide into 2, 4, 8 and 16 cells some were

found to divide at once into three. These 3 cells are elongated parallel

to the planes that produced them. When they next divide they all do

so lengthwise, in flat contradiction to “ Hertwig’s law.” These six

equal cells lie in a plane at right angles to the two cleavage planes

that have produced them.

Such eggs may develop into gastrule. They form six small cells or

micromeres at one pole of the mass in place of the normal four. The

author thinks “a micromere field must have been present in the egg

prior to division.”

‘Edited by E. A. Andrews, Baltimore, Md., to whom abstracts, reviews and

preliminary notes may be sent.

1896.] Embryology. 77

Eggs that have not been shaken sometimes divide at once into four

cells.

In both these unusual forms of cleavage the author finds that the

three or the four archoplasmic centres present in the egg take unequal

numbers of chromosomes. Thus in one case one centre was accom-

panied by 17, another by 14, another by 83 and the fourth by 0

chromosomes.

That this inequality is greater in the four-fold than in the three-fold

division explains, the author suggests, the fact that fewer eggs develop

from the four-fold than from the three-fold cleavage.

A third paper‘ gives a detailed account of the partial larve obtained

when the eggs of Spherechinus are shaken into fragments. Very min-

ute gastrulz only şr part of the volume of a normal gastrula are thought

to come from isolated pieces with +y to y the volume of the whole

It is found that the number of cells in such small blastulæ is less

than the normal number and roughly proportional to the size of the

blastula. i

The size of the nuclei, and probably of the cells also, is less in the

small blastulæ than in the normal ones.

If one of first two cells of a cleaving egg be isolated it may form a

blastula with 4 the normal number of cells. One of the first four cells

gives a blastula with + the normal number, or with a little more than

+; while one of the first eight cells when isolated produces a blastula

with more than ¢ the normal number.

Such blastulz will develop into gastrulz.

A piece of the wall of a blastula when broken off by shaking may

develop into a gastrula.

The little blastulæ formed from fragments of eggs tend to invaginate

as many cells as possible up to the normal number for a normal

gastrula.

These remarkable numerical relations lead the author to suppose that

the reason why isolated cells of later stages in cleavage are not able to

develop by themselves lies not in any differentiation of nuclear sub-

stance but in the fact that such cells being themselves the results of a

series of cleavages cannot produce cells enough for the next stages of

development.

Morean and Drresca publish conjointly® their reinvestigation

of the remarkable halflarve obtained by Chun.

*Idem, pps. 81-124.

5 Idem, pps. 203-226.

78 The American Naturalist. (January,

Chun’s work was done 18 years ago and was, as stated in a letter to

Roux ;* as follows.

When the first two cells of the eggs of the lobate Ctenophore, Bolina

hydatina were separated by shaking each developed as a halflarva with

four ribs or bands of locomoter appendages instead of the normal eight,

two entodermal sacs in place of four and only one tentacle in place of

two.

The first cleavage plane coincides with the sagittal plane of the adult

and the second with the transverse.

Half-larvee with 4 ribs, 4 meridional vessels one tentacle and an

oblique stomach may become sexually mature, developing eggs and sperm

under the two subventral meridional vessels

The missing half is regenerated during the postembryonic metamor-

phosis.

Driesch and Morgan worked on another Ctenophore, a nontentacul-

ated form, Beroé ovata and finding it impossible to employ the shaking

method cut the eggs with special scissors.

Isolated cells.of the two cell stage develop into blastule, gastrule

and finally into larve that are most remarkable in being neither com-

plete nor halflarvze but larvee deficient in certain organs.

The cleavage of such an isolated cell is much as it would be if still

associated with the other cell in a normal egg: it is a half cleavage as

compared with a normal egg. This, however, is not true of the cells

that form the ectoderm but only of the peculiar group of cells forming

the entoderm. The former cells grow over the half-group of entoderm

cells and form a larva that. is complete on the surface.

The final larva is abnormal in usually having only 4 ribs instead of

8 and 3 pouches instead of 4

A second series of experiments seems to throw much light upon the

influence of protoplasm versus nucleus in the causation of such imper-

fect development.

When a piece of the protoplasm of an entire egg is cut off the egg,

deprived of some protoplasm but with it nucleus intact, as far as known,

develops into a larva that may be deficient in just the same way as is a

larva reared from one of the isolated cells.

In another paper’ Morean finds the shaking method will not succeed

with the blastule of Spherechinus as they die when shaken. In —

Echinus, however, both blastule and gastrule may be shaken into

pieces that will live. -

ê Idem, Oct. 25.95, pps. 444-447.

1 Idem, pps. 257-266.

1896.] Embryology. 79

When pieces of the wall of the Echinus blastula are broken off they

may form little blastula again and these may gastrulate, When these

little blastule invaginate they tend to form more entoderm cells, in pro-

portion to the entire number, than is the case in the normal blastula.

In Spherechinus the normal blastula has about 500 cells and tends

to invaginate about 50 ; in Echinus about the same fraction of the whole

is invaginated, for of about 1000 cells about 100 go in to form the

entoderm.

When young gastrule are shaken they may form abnormal larve

owing, apparently, to changes in the mesoderm inducing abnormal

skeletal growths and corresponding abnormal arms.

Pieces shaken out of the wall of a gastrula will not form into a blas-

tula nor into a gastrula.

Likewise the entoderm when shaken out does not develop. Yet a

gastrula that has had its entoderm removed by shaking will continue

to grow and form a normal skeleton and arms.

` A paper? on cross fertilization and the fertilization of non-nucleated

pieces of eggs also by Morea goes over part of the ground of Boveri's

remarkable work.

It is shown that small pieces of eggs of Echinus miliaris may be fer-

tilized and develop as far as to the 16 cell stage. As the number of

chromosomes in such cleaving masses is, in each nucleus, half the nor-

mal number it is inferred that such cleaving masses are the results of

the entrance of one spermatozoa into a non-nucleated piece of an egg.

In attempting to cross fertilize pieces of eggs of Sphærechinus with

sperm of Echinus it was found that the sperm entered the pieces only

in few cases ; there is the same difficulty in crossing pieces of eggs as

in crossing the whole egg with foreign sperm. The reverse is also the

case; sperm of Sphærechinus will not readily enter pieces of eggs of

Echinus.

It is, therefore not surprising that no larvæ were found that could be

traced to non-nucleated pieces of eggs fertilized by a sperm of another

species, which is the great desideratum in attempting to repeat Boveri’s

work. j

When the whole eggs of Sphærechinus are fertilized by sperm of

Echinus bastards result that are very variable and not all exact middle

states between the larvæ of these two species. When the converse cross

is attempted the larvæ are “ for the most part very abnormal in appear-

aie the eggs of Sphzerechinus are crossed with the sperm of Stron-

gylocentratus the larva is very variable and not an intermediate form.

8 Idem, pps. 268-280.

80 The American Naturalist. [January,

The converse bastards also show great variation in the skeleton.

Boveri’ republishes, is an amplified form with many new illustrations,

his remarkable work on the cross-fertilization of enucleated fragments

of sea urchin eggs, translated in the AMERICAN NatuRA.ist March 1,

1893. After considering the opposing results obtained by Morgan and

by Seeliger the author still maintains that he has shown that a larva

may be obtained from a piece of an egg without any nucleus and sperm

of another species and that such a larva has none of the maternal char-

acters but only those of the male parent, thus showing that the nucleus

may transmit characters but that egg cytoplasm alone cannot do sv.

The evidence for his conclusions is, however, of an inferential

nature and a cautious jury may well hesitate before convicting Boveri

of having deprived the cytoplasm of its share in the affairs of heredity.

The evidence as he now presents it seems to be about as follows.

1. When at Naples in 1889 he shook a lot of sea urchin eggs, Echinus

microtuberculatus in a testtube many were broken into pieces of various

sizes, with or without nuclei; when this collection was treated with

sperm of the same species larvæ of all sizes down to zy of the normal

were found.

2. When pieces that contain no nucleus, as far as could be seen

under the microscope, were isolated and fertilized with sperm of the same

species they developed into dwarf larvæ.

3. When the normal eggs of Sphrerchinus granularis are treated

with the sperm of Echinus microtuberculatus some few bastards result.

In Boveri's original experiment al] these bastards were half way between

the larvæ of the parent species, both in external form and in the skele-

ton, which were very different in each pure larve form.

4, When the eggs of E. microtuberculatus are shaken and treated

with sperm of the same species the larve present many abnormalities

and some may have characters resembling those of another species.

5. When shaken eggs of S. granilaris are treated with sperm of E.

microtuberculatus large and small larve are formed ; some few of the

small ones, only a very few, 10 or 12 in all, were entirely of the

Echinus or father type.

was observed that the nuclei in any given area of a larva

formed from a nonnucleated piece of Echinus egg and the sperm of the

same species were, on the average, smaller than the nuclei in the corre-

_ sponding area of a smaller larva formed from a nucleated piece.

7. The above few bastard larve of pure Echinus type had, on the

average, smaller nuclei than similar larve of type intermediate ee

the twe crossed parent.

° Idem, Oct. 22, 1895, pps. 394--441.

;

1896.] Embryology. 81

The author maintains that the few dwarf bastards that were like the

male parent came from nonnucleated pieces of Sphærechinus penetrated

by a sperm of Echinus. This, however, is an indirect result of all the

above facts, It should also be borne in mind that Morgan, as cited

above, was not successful in obtaining a cross fertilization of enucleated

fragments and that both Morgan and . Seeliger” find the bastards

between Sphærechinus and Echinus so variable that Boveri’s experi-

ment in which they appeared as exact intermediate forms seem an

exception and hence may be withdrawn from the evidence.

Hans Driescu starting from the standpoint that it has been proved

that isolated cleavage cells may produce an entire organism seeks to

find where the limits of this power appear in the subsequent stages of

development.

He cut blastule of Sphxrechinus into pieces, chopping at random

with scissors in a dish full of gastrule. When isolated the larger pieces

formed gastrulz or later larvæ, in most cases.

When the gastrule of the starfish, Asterias glacialis were cut in the

same way some lost the inner end of the gastric invagination together

with much ectoderm. After healing over the wound the new end of

the gastric invagination enlarged and sprouted out the two coelomic

pouches that would have, normally, been formed from the part that was

cut away: the power to form cœlemic pouches was thus vicariously

assumed by a part that would normally have produced part of the

definitive digestive tract. Such larvæ go on to form a normally three

chambered digestive tract from what would, normally, have formed but

part of the whole.

The author concludes that the powers of the ectoderm or of the ento.

derm cells are as yet not restricted as to what organs or parts they may

form in their proper germ layer.

When larve with the mesenchyme were cut and a piece with only

ectodermal cells was isolated in 53 cut of 99 cases no gastrulation took

place but only a healing of the wound though life and activity might

last for a week.

In a few cases when the digestive tube was removed from such larvæ

it did not grow but died after a few days. In 19 cases where the end

of the gastric invagination was removed after it had enlarged and

sprouted out the ccelemic pouches 17 did not form new ecelemic pouches.

In like manner when a cut happened to remove the skeleton of one side

it was not formed again.

We thus soon come to a state in which the primitive tendency of

cells to replace others in organ formation seems lost

10 See AMERICAN NATURALIST, March, 1895. i 6

82 The American Naturalist. [January,

In all these cases the author will not grant that any true regeneration

of lost parts takes place.

In the course of his discussion of the influence of yolk upon gastrula-

tion PAUL Samassa”™ states that he has performed the following ex-

periments upon frogs’ eggs.

The eggs were injured, without breaking the egg membrane, by an

induction shock applied from needle points to certain cells or groups of

cells in the eight-cell stage of cleavage.

When the four vegetative cells are injured there may result a ot

mass lying in two layers upon a mass of yolk and evidently represent-

ing, as seen in actions, a normal gastrula minus parts of its ectodermal

structures. On the other hand injury to the animal cells results in a

mass of cells lying near an inert mass of matter and possibly repre-

senting only entodermal cells.

These facts are interpreted as meaning that the animal or the vegeta-

tive cells may continue their development for some time independently

of life, or at least of the perfect state, of the other cells,

These eggs die without reforming the injured parts by post-

generation.

In an extensive theoretical part of the paper the author places him-

self in the main, on the side of Hertwig as believing in epigenesis rather

than in any form of preformation.

The last paper that we can notice here is that of AMEDEO HERL-

IZKA” who succeeded in tying a thread about the eggs of Triton erista-

tus in such a way as to completely separate the first two cleavage cells.

Hertwig compressed eggs by this method so that they formed hour-

glass shaped masses a single embryo finally resulted.

But in these experiments where the egg is separated into two distinct

halves each develops by itself. From one half of the egg there results

an embryo that may live to have a medullary tube and a notochord.

This embryo was formed by a process of cleavage like that of an entire

egg and not like the cleavage of half an egg.

The author holds that neither Weismann’s nor any other ideas of pre-

formation will suffice to explain such phenomena, but that we must

accept some form of epigenesis.

He thinks that each of the first two cells is totipotent and normally -

makes half of the embryo when in the normal union with its fellow be-

cause of some inhibition of its power to produce the whole. In a case

of postgeneration we might suppose that this inhibition was removed.

for a while and then resumed.

1 Idem, Oct. 22, 1895.

Idem, pps. 352-366.

Feces

1896.] Anthropology. 83

ANTHROPOLOGY.’

Pi at Caddington, England, by Mr. Worthing-

ton G. Smith.—M. Renach informed the writer at the St. Germain

Museum, in oe that a hermit was needed in France to live in the

Drift Gravel Quarries and pounce upon chipped blades as they were

brought to light in the excavations. This was to illustrate the fact

that about four-fifths of the alleged paleolithic implements on exhi-

bition in France were either found on the surface and not in place in

the gravels, or bought by collectors, professors of geology and curators

of museums, as I bought mine from workmen at the gravel pits.

Nevertheless, there is sufficient evidence of a Plistocene blade

chipper in western Europe to satisfy the American critic who will take

nothing on faith, and the best of this in recent years is embodied in the

work of Mr. F. G. Spurrell, who found a stone blade workshop of

Plistocene age under drift gravel at Crayford, England, and in the

indefatigable explorations of Mr. W. G. Smith at North London (Stoke

Newington) and at Caddington, Bedfordshire.

“Man, the Primeval Savage,” by Worthington G. Smith, London

(Edward Stanford, 27 Cockspur St., Charing Cross, 1894), tells of the

striking discoveries made by the latter in some brick-kiln pits on a hill

top near Caddington. These cuttings through the drift, discovered by

tracing up relic bearing road ballast to its source, and watched for six

years, during which time they were often filled with water or aban-

doned by workmen at critical moments, revealed what Mr. Smith calls

a Paleolithic floor or older surface on which rested a stone blade work-

shop of Plistocene Age. This was covered by a mantle five to ten feet

thick, of contorted drift, unfortunately containing no animal remains,

that here overspreads the hill, and developed upon examination the

following interesting and novel facts -

1. The blade factory was undisturbed, thus presenting an association

of artifical objects full of significance and duplicating the results of Mr.

Spurrell at Crayford. _ Other discoverers had found scattered and

isolated specimens in the gravel, here the raw material, the blades more

or less finished, the chips and the tools lay just as the Post-Glacial

workmen had left them.

2. To the envy of the ordinary searcher for isolated objects in the

drift, this range of specimens from one place included scrapers worked

1 The department is edited by Henry C. Mercer, University of Penna , Phila.

84 The American Naturalist. [January,

on one side, well specialized leaf-shaped blades, either worked all round

or sharpened to points, “ punches,” knife-shaped blades, hammer stones,

“anvils,” flaked cores and nodules worked in an exceptional way. :

3. Discovered blocks of raw material, flint nodules with chalk still .

adhering to them, showing that the workmen had pulled them out of

neighboring flint bearing chalk beds, lay in piles at the site.

4. Several large nodules had been sharpened at one end, leaving the

rest of the nodular surface untouched.

5. The hammer stones found were not the numerous oval flint peb-

bles lying about the site and showing no signs of pounding (though

they had been brought to the spot by workmen), but less regular frag-

ments of flint, sometimes knocked into shape and scored with the

marks of battering. Sometimes they weighed from five to six pounds.

6. Large flint masses, called by Mr. Smith “anvil stones,” were

found, showing slight traces of bruising, whien, owing to slight doubts

of the explorer, were not preserved.

7. The punches discovered were thin, stalactite-shaped nodules,

bruised at both ends, weighing sometimes a pound or more, which with

“ fabricators,” pieces of nicked flint used for flaking, in the explorer’s

opinion, were found mixed with the blade refuse. As opposed to Mr.

Smith’s view of flaking by means of stone punches and “ fabricators,”

we know that the North American Indians, when working under simi-

lar circumstances, used bone, though a relic forger showed the explorer

how the Caddington specimens could be accurately reproduced with an

iron hammer and a broken gimlet or awl used as a punch,

8. Cores were discovered from which flakes had been worked (a) by

careful blows, (b) by smashing with heavy blocks.

9. A beautifully veined pebble, found at the spot, had been brought |

there as an object of value by the ancient blade workers,

10. Several piles of apparently selected flakes were discovered.

11. A twin flake, held together by a fine, unsplit section, ready to

break at a slight jar, was found with the refuse, showing that the work-

shop site, an area probably covering nearly an acre, bad been very

gently overspread with the now overlying drift-material, a deposition

which had failed to seriously disturb the situation. Mr. Smith, who

was present at the brick-pits, at short intervals, for nearly six years, in

gathering this remarkable evidence, repeated observations previously

made by him at Stoke Newington, Common, London, where, besides

duplicates of many of the specimens referred to above, he found two

artifically pointed stakes, a scratched log and a chipped blade resting —

on the scapula of a Mammoth (now on exhibition at the British Mu- _

1896.] Anthropology. 85

seum). At another place near Caddington, he had found associated

with drift blades and in place a horde of two hundred of the bead-like

fossils (Coeinopora globularis), with holes artificially enlarged, though

at none of the sites were drawings on bone, bone needles or lance

heads discovered. One of the most interesting features of the work at

Caddington consists in what Mr. Smith calls “ replacement,” a process

previously invented by Mr. F. G. Spurrell, and never before, to my

knowledge, applied to drift specimens found in situ.

The two thousand two hundred and fifty-nine flakes unearthed at

Caddington were grouped according to color on small trays easily

shifted from table to table, and a laborious experimental study of them,

lasting for three years, demonstrated the interesting fact that many

sets of them fitted together, sometimes reconstructing the original

nodule on which the blade maker had worked, sometimes hedging

about hollows which, on pouring in plaster of Paris, reproduced the

form of the resultant and missing blade.

“ I examined and re-examined the stones,” says Mr. Smith, “ almost

daily. I looked at them as a relief from other work and at times when

I was tired.

“ Not only did I keep my selected stones on the tables for this length

of time, but I kept a vast number of blocks, rude pieces and flakes, on

certain undisturbed grassy places in the brick-fields for the same three

years. Whilst working upon my tables, I sometimes suddenly re-

membered one or more like examples on the grass, and at an early

opportunity, fetched them from Caddington. In making up some of

the blocks of conjoined flakes, it often happened that one or more

interior pieces would be missing. In some cases, these missing pieces

were never found, but in other instances, after the lapse of months, or

even more than a year, a missing piece would come to light on the

paleolithic floor. It is certain that I have not replaced all the flakes

in my collection that are capable of replacement—one reason for this

is that many flakes are very different in color and markings on one

side from what they are on the other, and it is difficult to remember

‘the markings on both sides. Another reason is that the time at my

disposal has not been unlimited.”

All this demonstrates in a manner, as conclusive as it is novel, that

the Caddington site is an undisturbed workshop, while the analyses of

Mr. Smith and the facts described in his work—Man, the Primeval

Savage—take precedence over all recent evidence upon the subject,

and throw a new light upon the more ancient subdivision of the Stone

Age in Europe.

86 The American Naturalist. [January,

He who has spent earnest hours upon the problems of Plistocene

humanity would gladly have seen a department of a museum specially

devoted to these unique discoveries and demonstrations, but in a visit

to Caddington in 1894, I learned with regret that the series, highly

important from its entirety, and not jealously guarded as a whole, had

been dissipated for the sake of collectors who wished to illustrate cer-

tain phases of Paleolithic blade manufacture with “ fine specimens.”

Theory, and with it the desire to propound formule for the blade-

making process in general, yield respectfully to these. toilsome investi-

gations and to the persistent ransacking of quarries by a faithful ob-

server whose work alone answers many of the doubts of the American

student, and counteracts the questionable impression left upon the

mind of the visitors to European museums by rows of typical speci-

mens bought from workmen or gathered upon the surface.

H. C. Mercer.

Recent Explorations of Captain Theobert Maler in Yuca-

tan.—[ Extract from a letter received by the editor, December 9th,

1895].—After your departure from Yucatan, I undertook an expedi-

tion to the Peten’ Itza region (Guatemala), crossing the entire pensinula,

whose interior or southern part is nearly unknown.

After examining the country around the great Laguna of Peten’ Itza,

I embarked on a small canoe on the Rio Dela Pasión (“ which, farther

‘down, is named Usumutsintla [Land of Apes, Usumatli -= with rever-

ence, Usumatsin = Ape; tla = there is, there are, place of D- Arriv-

ing, finally, after many difficulties at Tenosique (State of Tabasco),

from whence the traveler finds at his disposition small steamers plying

to Laguna del Carmen, and thence by sea to Progresso. On this jour-

ney I had the luck to discover and photograph several highly interest-

ing and unknown cities, with remarkable monuments and splendid

‘sculptures, some in the neighborhood of Laguna del Peten, others on

the right and left shores of the Rio Pasién ( Usumatsintla).

On my return to Ticul, I found your letters and also one from Mr.

Ashmead, which latter I answered, referring him on the subject of

aboriginal Syphilis and Lupus to some passages in the ancient Spanish

authors, |

_. As to pottery-making, I have observed that it is the work of women

solely. who exercise the art, in my opinion, in the ancient man-

ner serving themselves nearly exclusively with the hands and feet and

-without special instruments. Here at Ticul, it is easy to see them at

work, as the industry is a common one in the suburbs.

My collection of ancient earthen vessels is quite interesting, but as

you left Ticul in such a hurry I could not show them to you. Several

1896.] Anthropology. 87

of my vases have quadrangular inscriptions, of which I have not yet

had time to make photographs. Lately the Globus published ac-

counts of several of my smaller expeditions, accompanied by some

twenty photographical illustrations which you may perhaps see in the

Globus, Nos. 16 and 18, for 1895.

Some days ago, an earthen vessel, full of little implements of worked

stone, was found at a hacienda near Ticul. I have been promised the

specimens, and will communicate with you in case they turn out to be

of interest. From the cave of Loltun, I have several very good photo-

graphs Lol = Bejuco, the Haytian name for hanging plants (the

name Vana is not used in Mexico); tun = stone; Loltun = stalactites

= hanging stones or stones like hanging plants.

I shall be glad to publish, from time to time, in American scientific

or popular journals, small articles describing my Yucateckan discover-

ies, and when my present work of enlarging photographic negatives is

finished, shall be ready to prepare for you a series of accounts of my

work, accompanied by the necessary celluloid positives from which it

is easy to make reversed negatives for the photolithographic process.

Next year I shall return to the States of Tabasco and Chiapas,

where I have still to explore several entirely unknown ruins hidden in

the wilderness occupied by the Lacandones Indians.

—THEOBERT MALER.

Ticul, November 20, 1895.

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

The Biological Station of the University of Illinois is first to issue

its circular for the summer of 1896. The station staff is composed of

Professor S. A. Forbes, Director; Dr. ©. A. Kofoid, Superintendent ;

Frank Smith and Adolph Hempell, Zoological Assistants; Dr. A. W.

Palmer and C. V. Millar, Chemists; C. A. Hart, Entomologist and B.

M. Duggar, Botanist. The station is situated upon the Illinois River

near Havana, Ill., and is equipped with every facility for collection

and study. There is a floating laboratory sixty feet long and twenty

wide, asteam launch, licensed to carry 17 pons BAA y aurea

supplies of tgbles, microscopes, aquaria, nets, chemicals, etc., as well as

pA ane lerr AES are accommodations for only 16

in addition to the station staff, applications for the coming summer will

be received only from those who have had sufficient experience to place

them beyond the need of continuous supervision in their investigations,

and, other things being equal, instructors ın biology in colleges and

high schools will receive the preference. The station will be open

88 The American Naturalist. [January,

during June, July and August. An incidental fee of $5.00 a month

will be charged, and no application for tables should be made for less

than two weeks. Board and rooms can be had in Havana at from

$4.00 to $5.00 a week. All applications should be addressed to the

Director, Professor S. A. Forbes, Urbana, Ill.

The announcement is made that Professor Marshall Ward has been

elected to the Chair of Botany in the University of Cambridge, Eng-

land, to fill the vacancy occasioned by the death (July 22, 1895) of the

venerable Professor C. C, Babington.

The University of Cambridge receives the botanical collection of the

late Professor Babington.

Mr. F. B. Stead, of Cambridge, England, has been appointed to carry

on the investigations of the fisheries at the Plymouth Laboratory, and

Mr. T. V. Hodgson as Director’s Assistant in the same institution.

After an interregnum of several years, Washburn University,

Topeka, Kan., has appointed Dr. G. P. Grimsby, of Columbus, Ohio,

to the Chair of Geology and Natural History.

Drs. Walter B. Rankin and C. F. W. McClure, of Princeton, have

been advanced to Professorships in Biology in the College of New

Jersey.

The Government of the Cape of Good Hope has recently established

a geological commission to carry on a survey of that region.

Dr. R. H. True has been appointed Instructor in Pharmacognostical

Botany in the University of Wisconsin.

Dr. W. S. Strong, of Colorado, is called to the Chair of Geology in

Bates College, Lewiston, Maine.

Bernard H. Woodward has been appointed Curator of the Museum

at Perth, W. Australia.

Dr. R. Metzner has been elected Professor of Physiology in the Uni-

versity of Barcelona.

Dr. Dalle-Torre is now Assistant Professor of Zoology in the Uni-

versity of Innsbruck.

Dr. Hans Lenk has been appointed Professor of Geology in Er-

langen.

< Dr. Ducleaux has been elected President of the Pasteur Institute.

DOS E AOE RA E PEN EEE e E ET

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PEETS PERERA TORIC AMERICA.

The editor of the Am N ANTIQUARIAN is is publishing a series of works

on Prehistoric America maar the following titles

No. I. Tar Mounp BUILDERS AND Terern gone

No. II. oo EFFIGIES AND EMBLEMATIC Moun

No. IIIf. Myrus AND SYMBOLS, eg ABORIGINAL eiea aA

No. IV. AR Rom.nOLOGICAL RELICS, oR ART IN 7 STONE AGE.

No. V.. CLIFF DWELLINGS AND Weekab Citi

T rst he of these books are now ready ssp n be R OT by the.

author. The last two are in preparation. Babecintisak: for the whole set are

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Ado AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN Office, Chicago, TIl., or

Rev. S. D. Peet, Ph. D., Good Hope, Ul. wee

THE SANITARIAN, A Monthly Magazine.

1873. TWENTY-FOURTH YEAR. 1896.

A. N. BELL, A. M.. M.D., Editor. 7, COPBALLY. - Wi 9») Associate Editors.

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Vol. XXX. EF FEBRUARY, 1896. No. 350

CONTIN SES.

PAGE

On HEREDITY AND REJUVENATION, (Continued) i eee of Europe—The eee Flora

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VoL. XXX. February, 1896. 350

ON HEREDITY AND REJUVENATION.

By CHARLEs SEDGWICK MINOT.

(Continued from page 9.)

III. A Comparison OF LARVA AND EMBRYO

It has long been known that animals develop according to

two types, appearing in their younger stages, either as larvæ

or as embryos. The larve lead a free life and must obtain their

own food. Embryos, on the contrary, do not lead a free life

and are nourished by the yolk accumulated in the parent

ovum. There is, of course, no absolute demarcation between

the two classes; nevertheless, a general comparison between

them establishes several conclusions which throw valuable

light upon some recent biological hypothesis.

First of all, it must be remarked that the larval develop-

ment is primitive, and that the embryonic development has

been evolved later. Geologists are able to present two princi-

pal supports for this assertion: 1. In the lower animals we

encounter only larve, never embryos; sponges, colenterates,

echinoderms and worms, all pass through the early stages of

8 Read before the Amer. Soc. of Morphologists, December, 1893.

90 The American Naturalist. [February,

their ontogeny as larve. It would, therefore, be superfluous

to linger for the defense of a view which is already accepted

by all biologists. 2. The embryonic development depends on

the presence of yolk. Now we have learned that the yolk has

developed very gradually and in all the lower animals appears

only in small quantities. It was not until the increase of

yolk material had become enormous, as, for example, in the ©

meroblastic vertebrates, that we find the development com-

pletely embryonic in type. With the increase of the yolk

comes the gradual transition from larval to embryonic devel-

opment. Since the embryo is dependent on the yolk, and

since the yolk exists only in the higher forms in sufficient

quantity, it follows that fully typical embryos can occur ex-

clusively in the higher (later developed) animal types.

The fact that larve represent the primitive forms of de-

velopment, obliges us to conclude that the correctnesss of

Weismann’s theory of the continuity of germ plasm can be tested

better in larve than in embryos, since in embryos the rela-

tions have undergone profound modifications by secondary

changes, which in this connection might easily deceive us.

I do not venture to assert that I know what the present

form of Weismann’s continuity theory may be; I hold, how-

ever, the exact form of this much discussed theory to be non-

essential, because, according to my conviction, the theory can

in no form be brought into agreement with our present knowl-

edge. Nussbaum founded the theory, and opened the way

along which we certainly hope to make great advance. Let

me acknowledge the great value and the strictly scientific

character of Nussbaum’s work ; doing this not merely because

I esteem it, but also because the unjust attempt has been made

to diminish his claim. Nussbaum? thought that the germ

cells are direct decendents of the fertilized ovum, keeping the

germinating power. while the rest of the cells developed from

the egg are transformed into the tissue of the body. He

brought forward several facts which could be interpreted in

favor of his theory. By this theory the whole problem of her-

°M. Nussbaum, Zur Differenzierung des Geschlechts im Tirreich, Arch. f.

Mikrosk. Anatomie, XVIII, 1-121, (1880).

1896.] On Heredity and Rejuvenation. 91

edity and development was stated in an entirely new form.

Since this publication of Nussbaum’s we are seeking for the

explanation of the germinating power, and the propagation of

this power; formerly we sought for the causes of the inheri-

tance of parental parts. The difference may be illustrated by

the following example. Before Nussbaum we were ruled by

Darwin’s conception of Pangenesis, and we investigated ac-

cordingly for the agency by which the eye of the father re-

produced itself in the child. Since Nussbaum we leave Pan-

genesis behind—it belongs henceforth to the past—and try to

determine how the germinal substance behaves, and especially

in what way it is perpetuated from the ovum through the fol-

lowing developmental stages, so that it is finally still present

for the creation of the next generation. It is the conception

of the continuity of the germinal substance which we prize so

highly, and owe to Nussbaum.

Larve teach us that it cannot be special cells which affect

this continuity. In fact, we find the organs of larval life fully

differentiated before any sexual organs are recognizable, and

indeed, in the majority of known larvee we cannot recognize

even the rudiments of the sexual glands. On the contrary,

we find in larve unmistakably differentiated locomotive appa-

ratus, such as cilia and often muscle fibres, a digestive canal,

sensory organs, and, in many cases, also special excretory or-

gans, and yet, only in a very few and exceptional cases can

we distinguish the cells which belong to the future sexual

glands. Thus, in regard to the primitive or larval type of de-

velopment, we cannot say that the germ cells are constantly

separated from the somatic cells during the segmentation of

‘the ovum, but must rather draw precisely the opposite conclu-

sion, namely, that the germ cells belong to the tissues which

arise latest. We often meet many tissues in larve at a time

when there is still no indication of germ cells. We find the

same relations in embryos also, since in them the principal

tissues become recognizable before germ cells are present.

‘This fact was well established for vertebrates many years ago.

It is characteristic of Weismann that he long defended the

continuity of germ cells, in defiance of the facts. He has since

92 The American Naturalist. [February,

given up this wrong view and put in its place his hypothesis

of the continuity of germ plasm. Of Nussbaum’s conceptions,

Weismann has left out the fruitful part, and has sown broad-

cast those ideas which were incapable of fruitful development.

He has attempted to defend his notion of the difference be-

tween the elements of the embryo destined for the construction

of the body, on the one hand, and those elements destined for

sexual propagation on the other. Now, since the sexual cells

usually develop from somatic cells, he was forced to assume

that there is a mysterious substance which he names “ Keim-

plasma.” This substance is supposed to store itself in the

body by some secret way, to separate itself at command from

the histogenic plasm, to appear unchanged and ready to be

the exclusive agent of hereditary transmission.

Nussbaum furnished the conception of the continuity of

germinal substance, which appears to be of immeasurable im-

portance for the scientific investigation of the phenomena of

heredity. But this continuity holds for all cells which arise

from the fertilized ovum, as explained in the first section of

this article. We must, therefore, seek for the causes of the

differentiation of cells, that is to say, for the causes of the pro-

duction of nerve cells, muscle cells, gland cells, ete, and of the

production of germ cells.

I will now try to make clear the significance of the com par-

ison between larve and embryos for the interpretation of germ

cells. This calls for a short digression.

In the course of my investigations on “Senescence and Re-

juvenation,” of which only the first part has been published

(Journal of Physiology, xii, 97), I learned that as cells become

older there occurs an increase of the protoplasm in proportion

to the nucleus, and I further succeeded in proving, as an es-

sential process in reproduction, the formation of cells with

comparatively little protoplasm. Further, it was found prob-

able that a rapid multiplication of cells is only then possible

when the cells have small protoplasmatic bodies (Proc. A. A.

A. S., XX XIX (1890). We, therefore, have learned that the

power of development depends on a special condition of the

cell. By these facts I have been led directly to the following

hypothesis : `

E e eee Ta Be

sn.) a ae

ante Sp apie

ee rae fh WEES ss BS Reale ae Pe Mm SI Le ool

1896.] On Heredity and Rejuvenation. 93

The development of an organism does not depend on a substance

stored in special cells, but on a special condition (stage) of organi-

zation. As a corollary of this hypothesis may be given this

conclusion: Germ plasm, in Weismann’s sense, does not exist.

According to my view, every part inherits from the germ,

and every part of the animal body, as well as its germ cells,

possesses the multiplying morphogenetic force, the action of

which, however, is inhibited to the condition of the parts

themselves. What this condition may be is not yet exactly

known, but this much we do know, that the morphogenetic force

is found in full activity in cells with little protoplasm. Itis in-

deed highly probable that the slight development of proto-

plasm in proportion to the nucleus is an unavoidable condi-

tion of morphogenesis, or in other words, of the action of her-

edity. In fact we see that the first processes of development

—as I have elsewhere explained (Proc. A. A. A. S., XIX

show in the most varied cases a remarkable uniformity, for

they always accomplish the production of cells with little pro-

toplasm. Compare, in this respect, the vegetation points of

plants, the root buds of slips, the budding zones of Annelids,

the germinal layers of vertebrates, etc. The condition which

allows the morphogenetic or hereditary force to act, arises

under differing conditions, of which the fertilization of the

ovum is one only.

Weismann tries to make comprehensible to us this one case,

that of the fertilized ovum, by a special explanation which is

available for no other case. Oscar Hertwig has recently (Zeit

und Streitfragen, Heft I) clearly shown that Weismann’s ex-

planation is a speculative assumption, which can only, be

saved from rejection by numerous and often selfcontradictory

_ additional assumptions. As I fully agree with Hertwig’s crit-

icism, I need only refer to his essay.

We will return to our proper theme. The next point is to

determine whether there is a difference in the condition of

the cells, as, regards their capacity for development, between

larvee, on the one hand, and embryos on the other. It can be

proved that this is the case, by the following considerations.

So far as we yet know, it is chiefly two factors which inhibit .

94 The American Naturalist. [February,

development: first, the increase of protoplasm ; second, the

progress of organization, i. e., of differentiation.

As I was about to close this article, I received through the

kindness of the author, Nussbaum’s address on differation, in

which he has defended essentially the same views as those

which I hold. Such an agreement is of great value to me.

Now we know that larvæ are animal forms which have to

obtain their own food and to protect themselves against ene-

mies, and therefore are provided with differentiated tissues.

Embryos, on the contrary, take their nutriment simply from

the ovum, and the cells continue for a long time, developing

and multiplying, while the protoplasm of the single cells in-

creases very slightly, and the beginning of the differentiation

proper is correspondingly postponed. I believe that we here

have to deal with causal relations. From the actual relations

Just described, I conclude that the most essential difference

hitherto known between larvæ and embryos, is to be found in

the differing lengths of the period of multiplication of undif-

ferentiated cells. In consequence of the shorter duration of `

the period in larve they have a much smaller total num-

ber of undifferentiated cells than embryos, or reversely ex-

pressed, embryos are much better equipped with material for

the construction of the adult body, than are larve. Asal-

ready stated, embryos are produced by the higher animals.

This fact finds its explanation in the relations just described,

because the increased number of undifferentiated, or so called

embryonic cells, is precisely the necessary preliminary condi-

tion of the greater complexity of the differentiation by which

the animal becomes more highly organized.

For the sake of clearness I have put aside all complications

which might come in to play. It goes without saying, that

the relations, in many respects, are by no means simple, nev-

ertheless, the main conclusion above given seems a secure

ain.

I therefore interpret the embryo as a device to render possi-

ble the increase of undifferentiated cells, and consequently a

higher ultimate organization. The origin of this device is

conditioned by a supply of food independent of the embryo.

1896.] On Heredity and Rejuvenation. ` 95

From our present standpoint it is a matter of indifference

whether the independent food supply comes from the yolk or

from the uterus, however important the difference may be

from other points of view.

It is to be further noted that our interpretation of the sig-

nificance of the embryo is also opposed to Weismann’s theory

of germ plasm, because it emphasizes the importance of the

condition as opposed to the assumption of a germinal substance

or plasm. This road also leads to the conclusion reached

above by other ways, the conclusion, namely: Reproduction

involves rejuvenation, and rejuvenation is characterized by

the production of cells with little, and that little not differen-

tiated, protoplasm. Since rejuvenated cells arise by asexual

as well as by sexual reproduction, since they appear in much

greater numbers in embryos than in larve, and since they

may be interpolated, as in the pupe of butterflies, in the

midst of the development of an individual, we must admit

that the hereditary impulse (vererbende Kraft) is distributed in

very different cells and is probably distributed equally through

all cells. Hertwig has reached the same conclusion, with

which Weismann’s theory of germ plasm cannot be made to

agree.

As Weismann has neglected the problem of rejuvenation,

he has necessarily often gone astray in his discussion of phe-

nomena in which rejuvenation plays the principal role. One

is astonished at the slight attention bestowed on rejuvenation,

when one recalls that it is the central problem of all questions

of heredity treated by him.

Rejuvenation is one of the principal phenomena of life, and

the rejuvenated condition of the cell is probably an unavoida-

ble preliminary of heredity. We know that at least one ana-

tomical sign of the rejuvenated condition is to be found in the

preponderance of the nucleus in proportion to the protoplasm :

, a second anatomical sign is found in the structure of the pro-

toplasm, which, in young cells always remains without differ-

erentiation. The chief physiological sign of rejuvenation in

cells which we as yet know is the power of rapid multiplica-

tion. Thus, we see, in case of sexual rejuvenation, that the

96 The American Naturalist. [February,

development of the fertilized, ovum begins with an excessive

proliferation of the nuclei, by which numerous cells are cre-

ated, each with little protoplasm. Histogenetic differentiation

begins later. The asexual rejuvenation has a similar course,

but needs more thorough investigation.

Now differentiation is the sign of inheritance, and this mor-

phological inheritance cannot develop itself fully until the

senescence of the cells becomes recognizable by the growth of

their protoplasm. On the other hand, we see complete inher-

itance develop itself, after preceeding rejuvenation. Accord-

ingly we gain two conceptions: first, the hereditary impulse

belongs to the inherent and constant properties of cells in gen-

eral ; second, the activity of their impulse may be inhibited by

the condition of the cells. My view may be expressed in the

following way: Somatic cells are simply cells in which the

activity of the hereditary impulse is inhibited in consequence

of their senescence, or, in other words, differentiation; but

under suitable conditions the somatic cells may pass over into

the rejuvenated stage, and thereupon develop the most com-

plete hereditary possibilities.

The importance of rejuvenation must also be recognized

when we consider the phylogenetic origin of single organs.

Let us take a simple example. We may safely assume that

the ancestors of mammals possessed a smooth skin, and that

the covering of hairs is a new acquisition. Each hair is the

product.of a local growth. If we investigate the germ of a

hair, we find that it consists of rejuvenated cells, that is to say,

of cells with little protoplasm, or, as we are accustomed to say,

of the embryonic type. Thus the formation of hairs depends

on numerous centers of rejuvenation. In the multiplication

of striped muscle fibres we find the agents to be the muscle

buds, which are small, protoplasmatic structures, with rela-

tively numerous nuclei. If we observe a developing gland,

let us say a pancreas or a sweat gland, we find the rudiment

to consist of rejuvenated cells; the cells multiply rapidly, and

after the organ has its essential form, the histogenetic differenti-

ation begins. It would be easy to multiply such examples a

thousandfold.

1896.] On Heredity and Rejuvenation. 97

The consideration of the role of rejuvenation in the origin

of organs leads us to the theory of Post-seLection (Nach-

auslese). The theory is by no means New, but I wish to em-

phasize its far reaching importance. The preceding discus-

sion teaches us to divide the origin of a new morphological

part into two stages. The first stage is the development of

the rudiment (anlage) by multiplication of the cells. The

second stage is characterized by the gradual differentiation of

the cells, by which they become capable of their ultimate

functions. Especially in embryos is the difference in time

very marked between the formation and the differentiation of

the “ Anlage.” Now it is evident that the undifferentiated

“ Anlage” is not useful, but becomes useful later. The forma-

tion and conservation of the “ Anlage,” therefore, are due to se-

lection, working, not directly upon the “ Anlage,” but indi-

rectly through preservation of the fully developed organ. The

conception advanced is very simple and appears to me a nec-

essary consequence of our knowledge. For the conception

itself there has been hitherto to no definite term, I propose,

therefore, to call it “ Post-selection” (in German, “ Nachaus-

lese). To avoid possible misunderstanding, I give another ex-

ample of post-selection. A parasitic wasp lays its egg ina

certain caterpillar; the mother wasp gains no advantage, nat-

ural selection does not touch her, but only her progeny, the

wasp larva. Nevertheless, the survival of the fittest rules.

In conclusion, I should like to direct the reader's attention

to a problem which, so far as I am acquainted with the litera-

. ture of biology, has been left almost uNconsidered. This pres-

ent translation enables me to insert a qualification of the pre-

ceding sentence, which ought to have been inserted in the

original article, namely, that the problem has been the sub-

ject of important discussions by Hyatt, Cope and a very few

others among paleontologists. Iam glad to be able to refer

to the article by Professor Hyatt, (see Jan. Naturalist) and pre-

sents the paleontological theory of the loss of ancestral charac-

teristics. The problem above referred to is the problem of lost

characteristics, which seems to me one of the fundamental

problems of the doctrine of evolution, because we Cannot un-

98 The American Naturalist. [February,

derstand the development of the higher organisms until this

problem is solved. Everybody is writing about the origin of

new organs, and we take lively pleasure in discussions about

acquired characteristics. But if we consider the circumstances

closely, we recognize that the loss of ancestral characteristics

almost equals in importance the acquisition of new character-

istics for the formation of new species. We assume that man

had fishlike ancestors, and we strengthen ourselves in this be-

lief by the comparison so often made between the human em-

bryo, on the one side, and the adult fish on the other. But if

the comparison be impartial we are forced to admit that

nearly everything which is most characteristic of the fish is

conspicuously lacking in the human embryo. Taking the

embryo at the stage when the gill clefts have their maximum

development, we find the following relations: the body is not

straight but coiled up, and this coiling up is indispensable, in

order to bring about the proper distribution of the human

nerves, blood vessels, and so forth; the gill clefts are closed ;

gills are wanting ; the digestive canal has no glands; the epi-

dermis has no scales; the chorda dorsalis does not form a

large axis of the body, but is a minute string of cells. In

short, the Biogenetisches Grundgesetz (Recapitulation theory or

von Baer’s law, according to Adam Sedgwick) is scarcely half

true. I have previously defended this conclusion at a meet-

ing of the American Society of Morphologists, in December,

1893, Subsequently, but independently, Adam Sedgwick has

reached a similar conclusion, see his paper “ On the Law of

Development, etc.” (Quart. Jour. Micros. Sci, XXXVI, 35).

Were it not, as above implied, that the departures from the

fish type are in great excess, there would be no embryo at all,

and consequently no man, for the adult form is a conse-

quence of the embryonic. The embryo is the mechanical

cause of the adult body. How has the disappearance of the

ancestral fish characteristics been effected? The question re-

mains unanswered. It will, perhaps, be replied “ through dis-

use” or “through panmixia.” But “disuse” is merely a

name, not an explanation of the phenomena. Panmixia is an

hypothesis erected on nothing. In fact, this hypothesis as-

1896.] On Heredity and Rejuvenation. 99

sumes that the majority of variations fall below the value

maintained by natural selection, and consequently that when

the influence of natural selection is eliminated (as in disuse),

the mere variation will bring the traits concerned to disap-

pearance. It marks Weismann’s style of thought to find that

he has entirely omitted to determine whether his assumption

was correct, and nevertheless in his book, “ The Germ Plasm,”

presents panmixia as an established law. As a matter of fact,

the statistics of variations which we already have, show that

_ his assumption is erroneous, and that it is equally probable

that mere variation will magnify a characteristic as it is that

it will diminish it.

Let us return to the embryo. The following hypothesis

may be advanced :

The loss of ancestral characteristics in the embryo is due to post-

selection, the cells being kept ina rejuvenated stage, in order that

they may afterwards accomplish new differentiations.

This conclusion follows directly from the preceding consid-

erations, and, therefore, needs no further defense.

IV. Conctupinc REMARKS.

The views presented in the preceeding sections are inti-

mately connected one with another and collectively determine

our conception of the process of heredity. The conception

concerns only the process and not the essential character or

cause of heredity. According to my view, heredity exists in

all cells, but its display is inhibited by organization of the liv-

ing substance, and can be complete only in embryonic cells ;

embryonic cells arise under very various conditions. That

which is novel in this theory is the significance attributed to

embryonic cells. Embryonic cells I prefer to designate as re-

juvenated cells.

The theory above presented is an unavoidable consequence

of the facts known, and stands in absolute contradiction with

Weismann’s theory of the germ plasm.

I have read with the greatest conscientiousness every article

hitherto published by Weismann, which deals with his theo-

ries of heredity. My final impression from this study is that

100 The American Naturalist. [February,

the “ Theory of Germ Plasm” corresponds to the personal in-

clinations of its author and is in no sense a logical deduction

won by the collation of facts. The assumption of a difference

between germ plasm and histogenic plasm explains nothing.

Even according to Weismann’s own exposition it explains

nothing; for the supposed phenomena which the assumption is

said to explain, according to Weismann, do not exist. Ac-

cording to him, the circumstances are the following: The phe-

nomena due to the germ plasm do not occur in somatic cells,

therefore they have a different plasm, namely, histogenic ;

further, these phenomena do occur in somatic cells, there-

fore, they have germ plasm. Attention must be directed

also, and explicitly, to the fact that Weismann offers no obser-

vations to support his fundamental assumption. His theory is

mystical to an extreme degree. In Weismann’s book, “ The

Germ plasm,” one finds one hypothesis after another in order

to support his tottering first hypothesis—germ plasm and his-

togenic plasm are special and separate substances. I demand

of Weismann that he lay aside all his hypotheses, and present to

us solely the facts, which support his theory of germ plasm.

Then he will learn, as other investigators have already

learned, that his hypothesis has been built up without suffi-

cient foundation.

Let an investigator enquire for a possibility of testing the

existence of the “Ids,” “ Biophors,” “ Determinants,” ete., as-

serted by Weismann, and he will discover that the whole

fabric is woven by speculative imagination. Confirmation of

his ideas has, strictly speaking, not been attempted by Weis-

mann. Indeed, confirmation is altogether impossible, for his

conceptions are far beyond the limits of present human means

of investigation.

It is time to finally discard a theory which leads astray and

which, although it arose without scientific justification, is

again and again pushed to the front by its promulgator. It

is a scientific duty to take an unhesitating stand against

Weismann’s theory, for only so can it become known that

those who have specially occupied themselves with the

problem of heredity reject Weismann’s theory of germ plasm

unconditionally.

1896.] The Formulation of the Natural Sciences. 101

APPENDIX.

Tue THEORY or PANpLAsM.

It appears desirable that the modern theory of heredity

should be designated by a brief and appropriate name, and

accordingly I propose the term “ Panplasm,” and that the the-

ory be called “ The Theory of Panplasm.” By panplasm will

be understood the physical basis of hereditary transmission,

which is supposed to be distributed through all cells, and

which accounts for the phenomena of sexual reproduction, re-

generation and asexual reproduction. Panplasm is not a col-

lection of gemmules or biophors. The term “ panplasm ” was

first used by me at a meeting of the Society of Arts, in Boston,

November 14, 1895.

On another occasion I hope to discuss the theories of pan-

genesis and panplasm in their historical aspects.

THE FORMULATION OF THE NATURAL SCIENCES!

By E. D. Cope.

Formulation is the method of presentation of the forms of

our thoughts. Our observations of the facts of material nature

are embodied in such classifications as we think best express

their relations, and by means of these classifications expressed

in language, we convey to others our conclusions in the pre-

mises. As the vehicle of presentation, formulation is one of

the aspects of language, which as the medium of communica-

tion between men, enables them to accumulate knowledge.

It is highly important then that the system of formulation

should be uniform, so as to convey definite meaning and pre-

serve the truth. The vast number of facts to be marshaled in

orderly array, which constitute the natural sciences, require a

1 Presidential address delivered before the American Society of Naturalists in

Philadelphia, Dec. 26th, 1895.

102 The American Naturalist. (February,

correspondingly complex and exact formulation. The advent

of the doctrine of evolution into the organic sciences involves

the necessity of making such readjustments of our method of

formulation as may be called for. It is with reference to this

condition and the present action of naturalists regarding it,

that I address you to-day. The subject may be considered

under the three heads of Taxonomy, Phylogeny, and Nomen-

clature.

I. Taxonomy.

Taxonomy or classification is an orderly record of the struc-

tural characters of organic beings. The order observed is an

order of values of these characters. Thus we have what we call

specific or species value, generic value, family value, and so on.

These values are not imaginary or artificial, as some would

have us believe, but they are found in nature. Their recogni-

tion by the naturalist is a matter of experience, and the ex-

pression of them is a question of tact. Their recognition rests

on a knowledge of morphology, or the knowledge of true iden-

tities and differences of the parts of which organic beings are

composed. The formulation of these values in classification

foreshadows the evolutionary explanation of their origin, and

is always the first step necessary to the discovery of a ee

geny.

Taxonomy, then, is, and always has been, an archhpibe of

organic beings in the order of their evolution. This accounts

for the independence of the values of taxonomic characters, of

any other test. Thus, no character can be alleged to be of

high value because it has a physiological value, or because it

has no physiological value. A physiological character may

or may not have a taxonomic value. The practiced taxo-

nomist finds a different test of values, which is this. He first

endeavors to discover the series of organic forms which he

studies. He learns the difference between its beginning and

its ending. His natural divisions are the steps or stages which

separate the one extremity from the other. The series may

be greater or they may be lesser, i. e., more or less comprehen-

sive, and it is to the series of different grades that we give the

different names of the genus, family, order, ete.

1896.] The Formulation of the Natural Sciences. 103

We know that the characters of specific value in given cases

are usually more numerous than those of higher groups. We

know that they are matters of proportions, dimensions, tex-

tures, patterns, colors, etc., which are many. The characters

of the higher groups, on the contrary, are. what we call struc-

tural, i. e., the presence, absence, separation or fusion of ele-

mental parts, as estimated by a common morphologic stand-

ard; and it is the business of the morphologist to determine

each case on this basis. - In these characters lies the key to the

larger evolution, that of the higher aggregations of living

things. On the contrary, the study of the origin of spe-

cies characters gives us the evolution of species within the

genus, but of nothing more, except by inference.

Classification, then, is a record of characters, arranged ac-

cording to their values. There still lingers, in some quarters,

a different opinion. This holds that there is such a thing as

a “natural system,” as contrasted with “an anatomical sys-

tem.” Examination shows that the supporters of this view

suppose that there is some bond of affinity between certain

living beings which is not expressed in anatomical characters.

A general resemblance apparent to the eye is valued by them

more highly than a structural character. If this “ general ap-

pearance” is analyzed, however, it is found to be simply an

aggregate of characters usually of the species type, which by

no means precludes the presence of anatomical differences.

And these anatomical differences may indicate little relation-

‘ship, in spite of the general resemblance of the species con-

cerned, or they may have only the smallest value attached

to such characters, i. e., the generic. It is with regard to the

generic characters that the chief difference of practice

exists. But it is clear that the record of this grade of

characters cannot be modified by questions of specific

characters. The two. questions are distinct. Both rep-

resent nature, and must be formulated. In fact, I have

long since pointed: out that the same species, so far as species

-characters go, may have different generic characters in differ-

ent regions. Also that allied species of different genera may

have more specific characters in common than remote species

-of the same genus.

104 The American Naturalist, [February,

The anticipation naturally intrudes itself that the charac-

ters which distinguish the steps in a single evolutionary or

genealogical line must disappear with discovery, and new ones

appear, and that they must be all variable at certain geological

periods, and hence must become valueless as taxonomic criteria.

And it is therefore concluded that our systematic edifice must

lose precision and becomes a shadow rather than a reality. I

think that as a matter of fact this will not be the result, and for

the following reasons. In the first place, when, say all the gen-

eric forms of a genealogical line, shall have been discovered,

we will find that each one of them will differ from its neigh-

bor in one character only. This naturally follows from the

fact that two characters rarely, if ever, appear and disappear

contemporaneously. Hence, generic characters will not be

drawn up so as to include several points. For a while, there

will be found to be combinations of two or three characters

which will serve as definitions, but discovery will relegate

them to a genus each. Each of these characters will be found

to have what I have called the “expression point,” or the

moment of completeness, before which it cannot be said to ex-

ist. In illustration I cite the case of the eruption of a tooth.

Before it passes the line of the alveolus it is not in use; it is

not in place as an adult organism. When it passes that line

it has become mature, has reached its expression point, comes

into functional use, and may be counted as acharacter. Such

will be found to be the case with all separate parts; there al-

ways will be a time when they are not completed, and then

there will be a time when they are. These lines, then, will

always remain as our boundaries, as they are now, for all nat-

ural divisions from the generic upwards. This condition can-

not exist in characters of proportionate dimensions, which

which will necessarily exhibit complete transitions in evolu-

tion. Hence, proportions alone can only be used ultimately

as specific characters.

Some systematists desire to regard phyletic series as the only

natural divisions. This may be the ultimate outcome of pale-

ontologic discovery, but at present such a practice seems to me

to be premature. In the first place, as all natural divisions

1896.] The Formulation of the Natural Sciences. 105

rest on characters, we must continue to depend on their indi-

cations, no matter whether the result gives us phyletic series

or not. Inthe next place, we must remember that we have in

every country interruptions in the sequence of the geological

formations, which will give us structural breaks until they are

filled. There are also periods when organic remains were not

preserved ; these also will give us interruptions in our series.

So we shall have to adhere to our customary method without

regard to theory, and if the phyletic idea is correct, as I believe

it to be, it will appear in the final result, and at some future

time.

Authors are frequently careless in their definitions. Very

often they include, in the definition of the order, characters

which belong in that of the family, and in that of the family

those that belong in the genus. Characters of different values

are thus mixed. The tendency, especially with naturalists

who have only studied limited groups, is to overestimate the

importance of characters. Thus the tendency is to propose`

too many genera and other divisions of the higher grades. In

some groups structure has been lost sight of altogether, and

color patterns, dimensions, and even geographical range,

treated as characters of genera. As the mass of knowledge in-

creases, however, the necessity for precision will become so

pressing that this kind of formulation will be discarded, and

definitions which mean something will be employed. Search

will be made especially for that one character which the nature

of the series renders it probable will survive, as discoveries of in-

termediate forms are successively made, and here the tact and

precision of the taxonomist has the opportunity for exercise.

In the selection of these characters, one problem will occasion-

ally present itself. The sexes of the same species sometimes

display great disparity of developmental status, sometimes the

male, but more frequently the female, remaining in a rela-

tively immature stage, or in others presenting an extraordi-

nary degeneracy. In these cases the sex that displays what

one might call the genius, or in other words, the tendency,

of the entire group, will furnish the definitions. This will

generally be that one which displays the most numerous char-

106 The American Naturalist. [February,

acters. In both the cases mentioned the male will furnish

these rather than the female; but in a few cases the female

furnishes them. The fact that both sexes do not present them

does not invalidate them, any more than the possession of dis-

tinct reproductive systems would refer the sexes to different

natural divisions.

I have seen characters objected to as of little value because

they were absent or inconstant in the young. I only mention

the objection to show how superficially the subject of taxo-

nomy may be treated. So that a character is constant in the

adult, the time of its appearance in development is immaterial

in a taxonomic sense, though it may have important phylo-

genetic significance.

II. PHYLOGENY.

The formulation of a phylogeny or genealogy involves, as a

preliminary, a clear taxonomy. I refer to hypothetical phylo-

genies, such as those which we can at present construct are in

large part. A perfect phylogeny would be a clear tax-

onomy in itself, so far as it should go, did we possess one;

and such we may hope to have ere long, asa result of paleonto-

logical research. But so long as we can only supply parts of our

_ phyletic trees from actual knowledge, we must depend on a

clear analysis of structure as set forth in a satisfactory taxo-

nomy, such as I have defined above. ‘

Confusion in taxonomy necessarily introduces confusion

into phylogeny. Confusion of ideas is even more apparent

in the work of phylogenists than in that of the taxonomists,

because a new but allied element enters into the formulation.

It is in the highest degree important for the phylogenist,

whether he be constructing a genealogic tree himself or en-

deavoring to read that constructed by some one else, to be

clear as to just what it is of which he is tracing the descent.

Is he tracing the descent of species from each other, or of gen-

era from each other, or of orders from each other, or what?

When I trace the phylogeny of the horse, unless I specify, it

cannot be known whether I am tracing that of the species

Equus caballus, or that of the genus Equus, or that of

1896.] The Formulation of the Natural Sciences. 107

the family Equide. When one is tracing the phylogeny

of species, he is tracing the descent of the numerous char-

acters which define a speties. This is a complex prob-

lem, and but little progress has been made in it from the

paleontologic point of view. Something has been done with

regard to the descent of some living species from each other.

But when we are considering the descent of a genus, we re-

strict ourselves to a much more simple problem, i. e., the de-

scent of the few simple characters that distinguish the genus

from other genera. Hence, we have made much more pro-

gress in this kind of phylogeny than with that of species, espe-

cially from the paleontologic point of view. The problem is

simplified as we rise to still higher divisions, i. e., to the in-

vestigation of the origin of the characters which define them.

We can positively affirm many things now as to the origin of

particular families and orders, especially among the Mam-

malia, where the field has been better explored than else-

where.

It is in this field that the unaccustomed hand is often seen.

Supposing some phyletic tree alleges that such and such has

been the line of descent of such and such orders or families, as

the case may be; soon a critic appears who says that this or

that point is clearly incorrect, and gives his reasons. These

~ reasons are that there is some want of correspondence of gen-

eric characters between the genera of the say two families al-

leged to be phyletically related. And this want of corre-

spondence is supposed to invalidate the allegation of phyletic

relation between the families. But here is a case of irrele-

vancy ; a generic character cannot be introduced in a compar-

ison of family characters. In the case selected, the condition

is to be explained by the fact that although the families are

phyletically related, one or both of the two juxtaposed genera

through which the transition was accomplished has or have

not been: discovered. The same objection may be made

against an allegation of descent of some genus from another,

because the phyletic relation between the known species of the

two genera cannot be demonstrated. I cite as an example the

two genera, Hippotherium and Equus, of which the latter has

108 The American Naturalist. [February,

been asserted with good reason to have descended from the

former. It has been shown, however, that the Equus caballus

could not have descended from ‘the European Hippotherium

mediterraneum, and hence some writers have jumped to the

conclusion that the alleged phyletic relation of the two genera

does not exist. The reasons for denying this descent are,

however, presented by specific characters only, and the generic

characters are in no way affected. Further, we know several

species of Hippotherium which could have given origin to the

Equus caballus probably through intermediate species of

Equus.

Some naturalists are very uncritical in criticising phylo-

genies in the manner I have just described. They often ne-

glect to ascertain the definitions given by an author to a

group alleged by him to be ancestral; but fitting to it some

definition of their own, proceed to state that the ancestral posi-

tion assigned to it cannot be correct, and to propose some new

division to take its place. It is necessary to examine, in such

cases, whether the new group so proposed is not really in-

cluded in the definition of the old one which is discarded.

The fact that existing genera, families, etc., are contem-

porary need not invalidate their phyletic relation. Group

No. 1 must have been contemporary with group No. 2, at the

time that it gave origin to the latter, and frequently, though `

always, a certain number of representatives of group No. 1

have not changed, but have persisted to later periods. Some

genera, as, e. g., Crocodilus, have given origin to other genera

(i. e., Diplocynodon) and have outlasted it, for the latter genus

is now extinct. The lung fishes, Ceratodus, are probably an-

cestral to the Lepidosirens, but both exist to-day. Series of

genera, clearly phyletic, of Batrachia Salientia, are contem-

poraries. Of course we expect that the paleontologic record

_ will show that their appearance in time has been successive.

` But many ancestors are living at the same modern period as

their descendents, though not always in the same geographic

region. ;

1896.] The Formulation of the Natural Sciences. 109

IIJ. NOMENCLATURE.

Nomenclature is like pens, ink and paper; it is not science,

but it is essential to the pursuit of science. It is, of course, for

convenience that we use it but it does not follow from that

that every kind of use of it is convenient. It is a rather com-

mon form of apology for misuse of it to state that as it is a

matter of convenience, it makes no difference how many or

how few names we recognize or use. An illustration of this

bad method is the practice of subdividing a genus of -many

species into many genera, simply because it has many species.

The author who does this ignores the fact that a genus has a

definite value, no matter whether it has one or five hundred

species. I do not mean to maintain that the genus or any

other value has an absolute fixity in all cases. They un-

doubtedly grade into each other at particular places in the

system, but these cases must be judged on their own merits.

In general there is no such gradation.

Nomenclature is then orderly because the things named

have definite relations which it is the business of taxonomy,

and nomenclature its spokesman, to state. Here we havea

fixed basis of procedure. In order to reach entire fixity, a rule

which decides between rival names for the same thing is in

force. This is the natural and rational law of priority. With the

exception of some conservative botanists, all naturalists are, so

for as I am aware, in the habit of observing this rule. The

result of a failure to do so is self evident. There is, however,

some difference of opinion as to what constitutes priority.

Some of the aspects of the problem are simple, others more

difficult. Thus there is little or no difference of opinion as to

the rule that the name of a species is the first binomial which

it received. This is not a single date for all species, since

some early authors who used trinomials and polynomials

occasionally used binomials. A second rule which is found

in all the codes, is that a name in order to be a candidate for

adoption, must be accompanied by a descriptive diagnosis or

a plate. As divisions above species cannot be defined by a

plate, a description is essential in every such case.

110 The American Naturalist. [February,

It is on the question of description that a certain amount of

difference of opinion exists. From the codes of the Associa-

tions for the Advancement of Science, and .of the Zoological

Congresses, no difference of opinion can be inferred, but the

practice of a number of naturalists both zoologists and paleon-

tologists in America, and paleontologists in Europe, is not in

accord with the rule requiring definition of all groups above

species. It has always appeared to me remarkable that a rule

of such self evident necessity should not meet with universal

adoption. However, the objections to it, such as they are, I

will briefly consider. It is alleged that the definitions when first

given are more or less imperfect, and have to be subsequently

amended, hence it is argued they have no authority. How-

ever, the first definitions, if drawn up with reference to the

principles enumerated in the first part of this address, need

not be imperfect. Also an old time diagnosis of a division

which we have subsequently found it necessary to divide, is

not imperfect on that account alone, but it may be and often

is, the definition of a higher group. But you are familiar

with all this class of objections, and the answers to them, so I

will refer only to the positive reasons which have induced the

majority of naturalists to adhere to the rule.

It is self evident that so soon as we abandon definitions for

words, we have left science and have gone into a kind of liter-

ature. In pursuing such a course we load ourselves with rub-

bish, and plaee ourselves in a position to have more of it

placed upon us. The load of necessary names is quite suffi-

cient, and we must have a reason for every one of them, in

order to feel that it is necessary to carry it. Next, it is essen-

tial that every line of scientific writing should be intelligible.

A man should be required to give a sufficient reason for every-

thing that he does in science. Thus much on behalf of clear-

ness and precision. There is another aspect of the case which

is ethical. Iam aware that some students do not think that

ethical considerations should enter into scientific work. To

this I answer that I do not know of any field of human labor

into which ethical considerations do not necessarily enter.

The reasons for sustaining the law of priority are partly

1896.] The Formulation of the Natural Sciences. 111

ethical, for we instinctively wish to see every man credited

with his own work, and not some other man. The law of prior-

ity in nomenclature goes no further in this direction than the

nature of each case requires. Nomenclature may be an index of

much meritorious work, or it may represent comparatively lit-

tle work; but it is to the interest of all of us that it be not

used to sustain a false pretence of work that has not been done

at all. By insisting on this essential test of honest intentions

we retain the taxonomic and phylogenetic work within the

- circle of a class of men who are competent to it, and cease

to hold out rewards to picture makers and cataloguers.

Another contention of some of the nomenclators who use

systematic names proposed without description, is, that the

spelling in which they were first printed must not be cor-

rected if they contain orthographical and typographical er-

rors. That this view should be sustained by men who have

not had the advantage of a classical education, might not be

surprising, although one would think they would prefer to

avoid publicly displaying the fact, and would be willing to

travel some distance in order to find some person who could

help them in the matter of spelling. But when well educated

men support such a doctrine, one feels that they have created out

of the law of priority a fetish which they worship with a devotion

quite too narrow. The form of our nomenclature being Latin,

the rules of Latin orthography and grammar are as incumbent

on us to observe, as are the corresponding rules of English

grammar in our ordinary speech. This cult so far as I know,

exists only in the United States and among certain members

of the American Ornithologists Union. The preservation of

names which their authors never defined; of names which

their proposers misspelled ; of names from the Greek in Greek

instead of Latin form; of English hyphens in Latin com-

position; and of hybrid combinations of Greek and Latin,

are objects hardly worth contending for. Some few authors

are quite independent of rules in the use of gender termina-

tions, but I notice the A. O. U. requires these to be printed

correctly. Apart from this I notice in the second edition of

their check list of North American Birds just issued, only

112 The American Naturalist. riley

eighteen misspellings out of a total number of 768 specific

and subspecific names, and the generic and other names

accompanying. These are of course not due to ignorance on

the part of the members of this body, some of whom are

distinguished for scholarship, but because of an extreme view

of the law of priority.

In closing I wish to utter a plea for euphony and brevity in

the construction of names. In some quarters the making of

such names is an unknown art. The simple and appropriate

names of Linneus and Cuvier can be still duplicated if stu- -

dents would look into the matter. A great number of such

names can be devised by the use of significant Greek prefixes

attached to substantiatives which may or may not have been

often used. Personal names in Greek have much significance,

and they are generally short and euphonious. The unap-

propriated wealth in this direction is so great that there is

really no necessity for poverty in this direction. It should be

rarely necessary, for instance, to construct generic names by

adding prefixes and suffixes of no meaning to a standard gen-

eric name‘already in use.

SOME LOCALITIES FOR LARAMIE MAMMALS AND

HORNED DINOSAURS.

By J. B. HATCHER.

It is the purpose of this paper to give brief but accurate de-

scriptions of the localities for the most important and best

preserved specimens of Laramie mammals and horned and.

other dinosaurs collected by the writer for the U. S. Geological

Survey, and now carefully stored in the Yale Museum at New

Haven; with a map of the most important locality at present

known and suggestions to collectors visiting this, or other local-

ities as to the most promising places and best methods to be

employed in order to attain the greatest degree of success.

1896.] Laramie Mammals and Horned Dinosaurs. 113

History of the Discovery of Laramie Horned Dinosaurs.

As early as 1872, Professor Cope’ described under the name

of Agathaumas sylvestre a portion of the skeleton of a horned

dinosaur from Laramie beds near Black Butte in southwestern

Wyoming. In various publications from 1874-1877 which

appeared in THe AMERICAN Narura.ist, Proceedings Phila-

delphia Academy Sciences and Bulletins of the U. S. Geologi-

cal Survey, Cope has added much to our knowledge of these

strange forms, chiefly from material collected by himself and

Mr. Charles H. Sternberg from the vicinity of Cow Island on

the upper Missouri River in Montana.

In 1887 a new locality for horned dinosaurs was found near

Denver, Colorado, by Mr. George L. Cannon. The most im-

portant specimen, consisting of a pair of horn cores, was sent

to Professor Marsh for identification and description. They

were not characteristic, and owing to their striking resem-

blance to the horns of certain fossil Bisons, they were referred

by Marsh to that genus and described under the name of Bison

alticornis ; the beds in which they were found being referred

to late Pliocene and denominated the Bison beds.’

In 1888 the writer secured in the same locality in which

Cope had operated in 1875 and 1876 on the upper Missouri,

parts of several skulls of a horned dinosaur, some of which

Marsh has described, creating for them a new genus Ceratops,

and several new species. A comparison of the types of Cope’s -

Monoclonius recurvicornis and Marsh’s Ceratops montanus, both

from the same locality in Montana, would doubtless establish

the generic identity of the two.

Not until 1889 was a locality found where remains of these

animals were sufficiently abundant and well preserved to afford

material which would give us an adequate idea of their struct-

ure and habits. In the fall of 1888 the writer’s attention was

ealled to a pair of horncores belonging to Mr. C. A. Guernsey,

of Douglas, Wyoming. Upon inquiry it was learned that they

had been taken from a huge skull found by Mr. E. B. Wilson

1 Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., 1872, p. 482.

2 See notice of new Fossil Mammals, Am. Jour. Sci., Oct., 1887.

114 The American Naturalist. [February,

on Buck Creek, some of 35 miles north of Lusk, Wyoming.

Early in the spring of 1889 the writer proceeded to Lusk, near

which place Mr. Wilson still lived, and easily succeeded in

getting that most accomodating gentleman to show him the

skull from which he had taken the horns. This has proved a

most important locality, and material obtained from it has in-

creased many fold our knowledge of the Laramie reptilian and

mammalian faunas. In the nearly four years spent by the

writer in working these beds, 31 skulls and several fairly com-

plete skeletons of horned dinosaurs were secured, besides two

quite complete skeletons of Diclonius (Claosaurus), about 5000

isolated jaws and teeth of Laramie mammals and numerous

remains of other dinosaurs, turtles, lizards, birds and fishes,

as well as extensive collections of freshwater invertel

the same beds. In all over 300 large boxes of fossils were

collected for the U. S. Geological Survey, and are now carefully

stored in the Yale Museum, many of them as yet unopened.

At present remains of horned dinosaurs are known from only

four widely separated localities; one of these, that of Black Butte,

Wyoming, is west of the main range of the Rocky Mountains, ©

and the other three including the Denver locality in Colorado.

the Converse Co. locality in the extreme eastern portion of

central Wyoming, and the Judith River or Cow Island locality

in northern Montana, lie east of the main range. There are

other localities known to the writer, but they are as yet of

-= minor importance, since little collecting has been done in them

and no material has been described from them. They will be

referred to later.

from

The Ceratops Beds.

In the American Journal of Science for December, 1889,

Professor Marsh applied the name Ceratops beds to certain strata

in the west from which horned dinosaurs had been secured.

He did not then, nor has he at any time since, designated just

what he considered the geographical distribution of these beds

nor their upper and lower delimitations in the geological scale.

In order that the reader may not be misled in regard to Pro-

fessor Marsh’s position on this question I will quote him some- .

1896.] Laramie Mammals and Horned Dinosaurs. 115

what fully. In speaking of the horned dinosaurs in the pub-

lication just cited he says: “ The geological deposits, also, in

which their remains are found have been carefully explored

during the past season, and the known localities of importance

examined by the writer, to ascertain what other fossils occur

in them, and what were the special conditions which preserved

so many relics of this unique fauna,

“The geological horizon of these strange reptiles is a distinct

one in the upper Cretaceous, and has now been traced nearly

eight hundred miles along the eastern flank of the Rocky Mount-

ains. It is marked almost everywhere by remains of these

reptiles, and hence the strata containing them may be called

the Ceratops beds. They are freshwater or brackish deposits,

which form a part of the so-called Laramie, but are below the

uppermost beds referred to that group. In some places, at least,

they rest upon marine beds which contain invertebrate fossils

characteristic of the Fox Hills deposits.” Italics mine.

If we accept literally Marsh’s statement that the Ceratops

beds have been traced for eight hundred miles along the east-

ern flank of the Rocky Mountains, it will be necessary to sup-

pose that he includes in the Ceratops beds not only the beds in

Converse Co., Wyoming, but also the Bison beds (Denver beds of

Cross) at Denver, and the Judith River beds on the upper Mis-

souri. These are very widely separated localities, and no

attempt has ever been made to trace the continuity of the

strata from the one to the other, nor is it at all probable that

such an attempt would meet with success. Professor Marsh

did in the autumn of 1889 spend nearly two days in the Con-

verse Co. locality, and again in 1891 he spent one full day in

the same locality ; but his time was ocvupied in visiting a few

of the localities in which dinosaur skulls and skeletons and

Laramie mammals had been found. No time was taken to

determine the upper and lower limits of the beds or to trace

the outcrops of the strata. After his visit in 1889 when he

spent nearly two days with our party in the Converse Co.

locality, he took the train for Denver, and in the company of Mr.

George L. Cannon of that city, he spent one-half day examin-

ing the Bison beds (Denver beds). This constitutes Professor

116 The American Naturalist. [February,

Marsh’s field work in the Ceratops beds. In a total of three and

one-half days field work he seems to have found sufficient time

to “carefully explore” the geological deposits of the Ceratops

beds and to trace them for “eight hundred miles along the

eastern flank of the Rocky Mountains,” besides making num-

erous other observations of scientific interest.

Of the many interesting vertebrate fossils described by Pro-

fessor Marsh from the Ceratops beds, those from the Denver

locality: were secured by Messrs. Cross, Eldridge and Cannon,

and those from Wyoming and Montana by the writer or men

in his party, with one exception only, namely, the type of

Hadrosaurus breviceps, which was received at New Haven many

years ago, the locality on the label accompanying it being

given as Bear Paw Mountains, Montana, which is of course in-

correct, it doubtless is from the vicinity of Cow Island. With

this one single exception I can confidently state that all the

material described by Professor Marsh as from the Laramie or

Ceratops beds of Wyoming is, without exception, from Con-

verse Co., and was found within an area not exceeding fifteen

miles in width from east to west by thirty miles in length

from north to south; and all the material described by him as

from Montana, with the one exception mentioned, was found

on the Missouri River between the mouth of Arrow Creek, just

above Judith River, and the mouth of Cow Creek, some forty-

five miles below, and never back farther than ten miles from

the Missouri. It will thus be seen that the actually known

area of the Ceratops beds is indeed very limited, and from these

areas we should exclude certainly, the Judith River or upper

Missouri and very likely the Black Butte locality in southwest-

ern Wyoming. The beds of the former certainly and those of

the latter almost certainly, belong to an older horizon than

those of the Denver or Converse Co. localities; the latter

may be considered as the typical locality for the Ceratops beds.

All of the dinosaurs from the Judith River country are smaller,

less specialized forms than those from the Converse Co. and

Denver localities, as has already been observed by Marsh.

Marsh’s statements that the Ceratops beds are below the up-

permost beds referred to the Laramie and that. they rest upon

1896.) Laramie Mammals and Horned Dinosaurs. 117

marine beds which contain invertebrate fossils characteristic

of the Fox Hills deposits, may well be questioned, especially if

we exclude from the Ceratops beds the Judith River beds and

refer them to a lower horizon, retaining for them the name

Judith River beds. At no place in the Converse Co. region do

the true Ceratops beds, with remains of horned dinosaurs, rest

upon true marine Fox Hills sediments; nor are the Ceratops

beds in this region overlaid by strata which could be referred

without doubt to the Laramie. The writer has, in a paper

published in the American Journal of Science of February, 1893,

stated that the Ceratops beds rest directly upon the Fox Hills

series, and has provisionally referred the very similar series

of sandstones and shales conformably overlying the Ceratops

beds to the upper Laramie ; but it would doubtless be better to

restrict the limits of the Ceratops beds to those strata in which

horned dinosaurs occur, and to consider the underlying 400

feet of barren sandstones as the equivalent of the Judith River

beds. Future investigations wil! doubtless show that the sand-

stones, shales and lignites overlying the typical Ceratops beds

in Converse Co. should be referred to the Fort Union beds and

not to the Laramie, as, according to Knowlton, the limited flora

sent him now indicates.

The terms Fox Hills and Laramie as now used cannot be

taken to represent distinet and different periods of time. for as

has been shown by G. M. Dawson, Selwyn and McConnell in

the Belly River region in Canada, and frequently observed by

the writer on the upper Missouri in Montana, marine beds

with typical Fox Hills fossils have been found interstratified

with fresh and brackish water beds containing characteristic

Laramie fossils, showing conclusively that the two periods were

in part at least contemporaneous; the one representing the

marine and the other fresh or brackish water forms existing at

the same time and in not widely separated regions, these alter-

nations in the nature of the fauna in the same locality having

been brought about by successive encroachments and reces-

sions of the sea. It is not at all impossible that in the region

of Converse Co., Wyoming, marine conditions prevailed con-

tinuously until late in Laramie times, and that during the

118 The American Naturalist. [February,

time of the deposition of the Laramie beds of the Judith River

and Black Butte localities, marine beds with Fox Hills types

of fossils were being deposited over the region of what is now

eastern and central Wyoming. This would account for the

absence in this region, of the lower Laramie, with the smaller

and less specialized horned, and other dinosaurs, characteristic

of it.

Other Localities for Horned Dinosaurs.

In addition to the localities already mentioned, the writer

has seen remains of horned dinosaurs and Hadrosauride on

the North Platte River opposite the mouth of the Medicine Bow,

about 35 miles below Fort Steele, Wyoming; along the eastern

flank of the Big Horn Mountains about 40 miles south of Buf-

falo, Wyoming ; on the west side of the Big Horn River between

Fort Custer and Custer Station, Montana; and on Willow Creek

13 miles north of Musselshell postoffice in Montana. Another

region not examined, but which looked very promising, is

near the town of Havre on the Great Northern Railroad just —

north of the Bear Paw Mountains in northern Montana.

Suggestions to Collectors.

Of all the localities for Laramie dinosaurs and mammals

known to the writer, that of Converse Co., Wyoming, is by far

the most promising, and the earnest and intelligent collector

will there meet with a fair amount of success for many years

to come. As will be seen, by reference to the map accompany-

ing this paper, this region is easy of access from the town of

Lusk on the F. E. and M. V. R. R. At this station all neces-

sary camp supplies can be obtained. The fossil beds are easily

worked, the country being quite open and its surface not dis-

figured by deep and impassable cañons. There is abundant

grass for horses, wood for fuel, and frequent small springs of

fairly good water.

Vertebrate fossils are never abundant in the Laramie, but

every exposure in this region should be carefully searched and

especially the large sandstone concretions which contain many

1896.] Laramie Mammals and Horned Dinosaurs. 119

of the best skulls and skeletons found in these beds. Fossils

_ are found in both the shales and sandstones, but are best pre-

served in the latter. Thesmall mammalsare pretty generally

distributed but are never abundant, and on account of their

small size are seen with difficulty. They will be most fre-

quently found in what are locally known as “ blow outs” and

are almost always associated with garpike scales and teeth,

and teeth and bones of other fish, crocodiles, lizards and small

dinosaurs. These remains are frequently so abundant in

“blow outs” as to easily attract attention, and when such a

place is found careful search will almost always be rewarded

by the discovery of a few jaws and teeth of mammals. In

such places the ant hills, which in this region are quite num-

erous, should be carefully inspected as they will almost always

yield a goodly number of mammal teeth. It is well to be pro-

vided with a small flour sifter with which to sift the sand con-

tained in these ant hills, thus freeing it of the finer materials

and subjeeting the coarser material remaining in the sieve to

a thorough inspection for mammals. By this method the

writer has frequently secured from 200 to 300 teeth and jaws

from one ant hill. In localities where these ants have not yet

established themselves, but where mammals are found to be

fairly abundant it is well to bring a few shovels full of sand

with ants from other ant hills which are sure to be found in

the vicinity, and plant them on the mammal locality. They

will at once establish new colonies and, if visited in succeeding

years, will be found to have done efficient service in collecting

mammal teeth and other small fossils, together with small

gravels, all used in the construction of their future homes. As

an instance of this, I will mention that when spending two

days in this region in 1893, I introduced a colony of ants in a

mammal locality, and on revisiting the same place last season

I secured in a short time from the exterior of this one hill 33

mammal teeth.

Another way to secure these small teeth is to transport the

material to a small stream and there wash it in a large sieve

in the water, the finer material being washed away, but this

treatment is too harsh to give the best results, what few jaws

there are always being broken to bits.

120 The American Naturalist. [February,

- In the map accompanying this paper the dotted line marked

Cer. border, indicates approximately the boundaries of the

Ceratops beds in Converse Co. The line to the south and east

indicating the outcrop of the beds, that to the west the point

where they pass under the overlying beds. They extend on

uninterruptedly into Weston Co., but have not been worked

farther north than Schneider Creek. A working party en-

camped at the mouth of Schneider Creek on the Cheyenne

River, would doubtless meet with much success. . The map

explains itself; it was drawn by the writer to accompany his

paper on the Ceratops beds above referred to, but was not then

published. A copy of it was given by him to Professor Marsh

and a portion of it redrawn, will appear in the 16th Annual

Report of the U.S. Geological Survey accompanying a memoir

by Professor Marsh.

Princeton, N. J., Jan. 6, 1896.

RECENT LITERATURE.

Recent Books on Vegetable Pathology.—(1) Kirchner, Dr.

Oskar: Die Krankheiten und Beschidigungen unserer landwirtschaft-

lichen Kulturpflanzen. Stuttgart, 1890, pp. VI, 637 ; (2) Comes, Dr.

.: Crittogamia Agraria. Naples, 1891, pp. 600; (3) Ward, Dr. H.

Marshall: Diseases of Plants. London, (no date), pp. 196; (4) Lud-

wig, Dr. Friedrich: Lehrbuch der niederen Kryptogamen. Stuttgart,

1892, pp. XV, 672; (5) Tubeuf, Dr. Karl Freiherr von: Pflanzen-

krankheiten dureh Kryptogame Parasiten verursacht. Berlin, 1895, pp.

XII, 599; (6) Frank, Dr. A. B.: Die Krankheiten der Pflanzen.

Breslau, 1895-1896, Vol. 1, pp. XII, 344; Vol. II, pp. XI, 574; (7)

Prillieux, Ed.: Maladies des Plantes agricoles et des arbres fruitiers et

forestiers causé par des parasites végétaux. Paris, 1895, Vol. I, pp. XVI,

421.

It is desired only to call attention to these books at this time by

means of the briefest mention. Some have been published long enough

to enable one to speak freely of their merits and demerits ; others are

very recent additions to the literature of vegetable pathology and use

has not yet demonstrated strong or weak points.

PLATE III.

1 r

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a oy A I

= “UA Creek 42 ae es i w,

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F er B Aer Si R

a v °

ess > Box Creek ee CT Bae Ld Se

AS e fe xe 17] e Bette X N-

Sa Ges CONVERSE C y v je ER E e

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+ st : i 5

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me E

ev <

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+ > pr 9

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5 Bed Tick Cr. =

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ar Platte River

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A |

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“>

4 LARAMIE Co.

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+ indicats localities whin Tniceratohs za

have teen found

o — local tus oh. eoar a

PIS a L MAP OF CONVERSE COUNTY, WYOMING.

bare bua: torent SCALE ABOUT l6 MILES TO THE INCH.

. pm am ewe ewe ee wee m e m

1896.] Recent Literature. : 121

Dr. Kirehner’s book deals with diseases due both to animal and veg-

etable parasites. Its statements are reasonably accurate and it is so

arranged as to greatly facilitate identification of diseases. No illus-

trations.

Dr. Comes’ book contains quite a full account of some parasitic dis-

eases and brief mention of many others. It was the first book of its

kind to pay much attention to bacterial diseases of plants. Its state-

ments are frequently inaccurate and the 17 plates illustrating fungi

and fungous diseases are poorly executed and add nothing to the value

of the book.

Prof. Ward’s little book is by far the best thing in English. It dis-

cusses only a few diseases and all of these in a very elementary, popu-

lar way, but there are many interesting suggestions, and the facts which

are given are usually stated accurately. There are 53 text figures and

a brief index. A book of about the same size and style by the same

author, on Timber and Some of its Diseases, (1889) makes a good com-

panion volume.

Dr. Ludwig’s book is uneven in its make up, some parts being quite

free from erroneous statements and others, those dealing presumably

with the subjects least familiar to the author, needing careful revision.

The book certainly deserves a second edition. From the pains taken

to say something about everything, it is perhaps more generally useful

than any of the preceding or than the following work.

Dr. Tubeuf’s book is very attractive. The type is large and clear,

and the unhackneyed character of the illustrations, many of which

were prepared expressly for this work, is especially commendable.

The treatment of certain subjects indicates that the author depended

upon imperfect reviews rather than on the original papers, e. g., Wak-

ker’s bacterial disease of hyacinths, and Mayer’s mosaic disease of

tobacco; but the book as a whole has not been read carefully enough

to warrant any extended criticism.

Dr. Frank’s book is the second revised edition of his well known

handbook, Die Krankheiten der Pflanzen, published in 1880, and now

sadly out of date. Much new matter has been added and an earnest

effort made to bring the subject up to date. This has succeeded as

well, perhaps, as the rapidly growing state of the science’ will admit.

The first volume deals with non-parasitic diseases ; the second with fun-

gous parasites. Most of the figures appear to be old, and the letter

press is indifferent. .

Dr. Prillieux’s book is attractive in appearance, but some of it is

sketchy and rather unsatisfactory, and due credit is not always giyen.

122 The American Naturalist. [February

Quite often the reader finds himself wishing the author had stated some

matter exactly rather than vaguely, e. g., germination of the oospores

of Plasmopara viticola. Prillieux is probably right in maintaining

that Viala has not satisfactorily determined the aetiology of Brunni-

sure and the California vine disease, the microscopic appearances

ascribed to a Plasmodiophora being quite as likely due to the effect of

strong reagents on the protoplasm of the cell. Some of the figures in

this book are excellent, others are very poor. There is no index.

It is to be hoped that Dr. Sorauer will now bring out another edi-

tion of his Handbuch der Pflanzenkrankheiten, or at least of the 2nd

volume on parasitic plants which was issued in 1886 and needs revis-

ion badly. All of these books are useful to American students, and

should certainly find place on the book shelves of every vegetable pathol-

ogist. It would seem that the time is not ripe for the appearance of

standard American works on this subject. There is, however, great

activity in the study of plant diseases in this country, and we may look

for a crop of them within the next decade—Erwin F. SMITH.

The Iowa University Bahama Expedition.'—The history of

an educational and scientific experiment is given Mr. C. C. Nutting in

this octavo volume of 251 pages. It is published as Bulletins Nos. 1

and 2, Vol. III, of the laboratories of Natural History of the Iowa

State University. The zoology of the region visited is treated of in a

general way with a view to giving an idea of the facies of the collec-

tions from the several localities. The marine and land invertebrata

are treated of quite fully, but none of the vertebrates receive much

attention excepting the birds. The beauties of marine life are graphi-

cally described, and a considerable number of illustrations add to the

general excellence of the get up of the book. An appendix gives a list

of commissary stores actually used during the expedition.

Mr. Nutting, in summing up the results of the expedition, draws at-

tention to the fact that this enterprise demonstrates the practicability

of accomplishing such results at a cost which is merely nominal.

The Shrews of North America.’—The tenth number in the

North American Fauna series published by the U.S. Department of

Agriculture, contains three papers on the Shrews: A revision of the

genera Blarina and Notiosorex by Dr. C. H. Merriam, a synopsis of the

1 The Bahama Expedition. Bulls. -a 1 and 2, Vol. ILI, Laboratories Nat.

Hist. Iowa State Univ. Iowa City 18

? North American Fauna No. 10, oh aR 1895. Comprising papers W C,

Harf Merriam and G. S. Miller, Jr.

1896.] Recent Literature. 123

genus Sorex by the same author, and a discussion of the hg tailed

Shrews of eastern United States by G. S. Miller, Jr.

In regard to the short tailed Shrews of the genus Blarina, Dr. Mer-

riam states that up to the present time 8 valid species have been de-

scribed from the United States, 2 from Mexico, 1 from Guatemala and

2 from Costa Rica. Twelve new forms are here added, 3 from the

eastern United States and 9 from Mexico, making 20 members of the

genus now known. The type localities are given and the geographical

distribution. A complete synonomy accompanies each description.

Dr. Merriam’s second paper is a synopsis of the species of Sorex, and

is based on an examination of 1200 specimens. In this material were

found 20 new forms which are here described. In this paper, asin the

first, careful attention has been given to the synonomy.

The only genera of Soricidae included in this monograph by Dr.

Merriam are Blarina Gray, Notiosorex Baird and Sorex Linn.

Mr. Miller’s contribution is a study of the long tailed Shrews of the

eastern United States. The author gives in detail the history of each

species. The descriptions include the type locality, geographic distri-

bution, and detailed information under the head of general remarks.

Figures of all the species described are given on 12 page plates, and

they are of excellent quality. The monographs are the most import-

ant contributions to the subject that have been made, and are indispen-

sable to the student of N. American mammalia.

Iowa Geological Survey, Vol. III.’—A quarto volume con-

taining the several reports of the geological corps, with accompanying

papers of the geology of special formations and areas. The work in the

southwest half of the State was done under the immediate supervision

of Dr. Keyes who contributes three papers on the geology of that sec-

tion, and also one on the glacial scorings in Iowa. Mr. Calvin dis-

cusses the composition and origin of the Iowa Chalk. The Paleozoic

strata in the northeastern part of the State, and certain Carboniferous

and Devonian outliers in the eastern region are reported upon by Mr.

Norton. The Cretaceous deposits of the Sioux Valley by Mr. Bain

and certain buried River Channels by Mr. Gordon. The illustrations

include 37 plates, a number of maps, and 34 figures in the text. We

are glad to learn that the survey is in a prosperous condition, and hope

that its work will be appreciated at its true worth by the State authori-

ties.

3 Iowa Geological Survey, Vol. III. Second Annual Report, 1895, with ac-

companying papers. Des Moines, 1895.

124 The American Naturalist. [February,

Duration of Niagara Falls and History of the Great

Lakes.‘—This work contains the researches of the author which have

been published in America and Europe, on the Origin of the Great

Lake Basins; Changes of Continental Altitudes; Deformation of

Beaches; Glacial Dams; Births of Lakes Ontarid, Erie, Huron, ete. ;

Changes of River Courses; and the History and Duration of Niagara

Falls. It is one of the most important works on geological science that

has been produced in this or any other country as an original research.

It furnishes a standard of estimation of postglacial history for this con-

tinent, which must always be referred to in all questions relating to the

antiquity of man, as well as those ipiating to the present distribution

of. land and water.

The text is fully illustrated with maps, section drawings, ete. One

of the fine page plates which accompany the work is a reproduction

from a camera obscura drawing made by Henry Ransford in 1832, the

oldest accurate picture of the Falls known to the author:

The author estimates that the period which has elapsed since the

falls were at Lake Ontario amounts to 32000 years.

Korean Games.*—In pursuance of a theory that games must be

regarded as survivals from primitive conditions, under which they

originated in magical rites and chiefly asa means of divination, Mr.

Stewart Culin has made an extensive study of the games of Korea.

He finds that there were two principal systems of divination in Eastern

Asia from which games arose, in both of which the arrow or its substi-

tute was employed as the implement of magic. Of the 97 games de-

scribed in his book, 23 are directly connected with some such use of the

arrow. -A large number of the other games described consist of ath-

letic sports ceremonially practiced in the sacred pavilions of Korea, and

like the divatory tugofwar, still retain traces of their primeval divina-

tory character.

The illustrations are almost entirely by native artists, and they

give the book a value altogether unique. They comprise 22 col-

ored plates and 135 figures in the text. The subject is a very curious

one, and as treated by Mr. Culin, it becomes an important guide to the

history of human migrations and human thought. .

oo Duration of Niagara Falls and the History of the Great Lakes. By J-

W. Spencer. New York, Humboldt Publishing Co.

5 Korean Games. With Notes on the Corresponding Games of China and

Japan. By Stewart Culin. Philadelphia, 1895.

1896, Recent Books and Pamphlets. 125

RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS.

Administrative Reports of the Iowa Geol. Survey, Vol. IV, 1894. From the

Survey.

ALLEN, J. A.—On a Collection of Mammals from Arizona and Mexico made by

. W. W. Price, with Field Notes by the Collector. Extr. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat.

Hist., Vol. VII, 1895. From the author

Announcement of the Completion of Funk and Wagnall’s Standard Dictionary

of the English Language. From the

Beecuer, C. E.—Structure and Apganinash of Trinucleus. Extr. Am. Journ.

Sci., Vol. XLIX, 1895. From the author.

Boaz, F.—Chinook Texts. Pub. by the Bureau of Ethnology. Washington,

1894. From the Smithsonian Institution.

Bo M.—Sur des Débris d’ Arthropleura. Extr. Industrie Minérale (3)

VII, 1893. From the author

Brooks, W. K.—In Inherent Error in the views of Galton and Weismann on

Variation. Extr. Science, 1895. From the author

Broom, R.—On the Significance of the Proliferated Epithelium in the Foetal

Mammalian Jaw. Extr. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (6) XV, 1895. From the

author.

Bryson, J.—The Ups and Downs of Long Island. Extr. Am. Geol., 1895.

Bulletin No. 31, 1895, Agric. Exper. Station Rhode Island College Agric. and

Mechanic Arts

Bulletin of the U. S. Fish Commission Vol. XIII, for 1893. Washington, 1894.

From the Fish Commission.

Bulletin No. 27, 1895, Iowa Agric. College “sige Station.

Bulletin No. 110, 1894, North Car. — Exper. Sta’

CovILLE, F, V. tions for collecting Specimens may Iifoemátioh illustrat-

ing the Aboriginal uses of Plants. fant J of Bull. U. S. Natl. Mus., No. 39.

Washington, 1895. From the Smithsonian MOANN

Cox, E. S.—The Albion Phosphate Distri

is pephoaiogl Sketches of Florida. unl Trans. Min. Engineers, 1895.

From > author.

N, C. R.—Beitriige zur Kenntuis der — Oxyrhina mit besenderer

Dr aA die von Oxyrhina mantelli Agassiz, us Palaeontographica, XLI

ttgart, 1894. From the author.

Eisin, G.—Memoirs of the California Acad. Sci., Vol. II, No. 4, 1895. Pacific

Coast Oligochaeta. From the author.

Final Report of the Geology of Minnesota, Vol. III, Pt. I, Paleontology. From

N. H: Winchell, State Geo

gone G.—Archaeological Tuvestigntions i in the James and Potomac Valleys.

Pub. by the Bureau of Ethnology. Washington, 1894. From the Smithsonian

Institution.

GILBER

LBERT, G. K.—Notes on the Gravity Determinations reported by Mr. G. R.

Putnam. Extr. Philos. Soe., Washington Bull., Vol. XIII, 1895. From the

author

126 The American Naturalist. [February,

GILBERT, C. K. AND F. P. GULLIVER.—Tepee Buttes. Extr. Bull. Geol. Soc.

Amer., Vol. 6, 1895. From the Soc

HAEcKEL, E.—Confessions of Faith of a Man of Science. Translated by Mr. J.

Gilchrist. pies 1894. From the author.

Har, C. W. anp F. W. SarpEeson.—The Magnesian Series of the Northwest-

ern States. Be Bull. Geol. Soc 1895. From the Soc

Krincspsury, B. F.—The Hintolcsical nce tie pe the Enteron of Necturus mac-

ulatus. Extr. Proceeds. Amer. Microscop. Soc., 1894. From the author.

Laboratory Studies of the Oregon State Sein College, Vol. I, No, 1.. From

F. L. Washburn.

Mason, O. T.—Migration and Food Quest. A Study in the Peopling of Amer-

ca.

MERRILL, G. P.—Directions for collecting Rocks and for the Preparation of

Thin Sections. Extr. Bull. U. S. Natl. Mus., No. 39. Washington, 1895. From

the Smithsonian Institution. ,

—Stones for Building and Decoration. New York, 1891.

Monaco, A. pE.—Sur les premières campagnes scientifiques de la “ Princess

Alice.” Extr. Comptes rendus des séances de I’ Acad. Sci. t. CXX, 1895. From

the author.

Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences for

the 43d Meeting, 1894.

Report of the American Humane Association on Vivisection and Dissection in

Schools. Chicago, 1895. From the Assoc

Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1891-92, Vols 1 and 2.

Ries, H.—On a Granite Diorite from Harrison, Westchester Co., New York.

Extr. -> N. Y. Acad. Sci., Vol. XIV, 1895. From the author.

SaLomon, W. taeake und paleontologische Studien über die Marmolata

(mit kanki der paete Paleontographica, Zweiundvierstiger Bd

ype 8 wang Lief. sara

T, C.—Directions for mien and Preparing Fossils. Pt. K. Bull.

U.S. Mea an. No. ‘20. Washington, 1895. From the Smithsonian Institu-

tion

Scuwatt, I. J.—A Geometrical Treatment of Curves which are Isogonal con-

jugate to a straight line with respect to a triangle, Pt. I. Boston, New York and

Chicago, 1895. From the au

SEELEY, H. G.—Note on the Skeleton of Pariasaurus bainii. a Geol.

Limb bones of M. (?) brownii. Extrs. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (6) XV, 1895.——

On Hortalotarsus skirtopodus, a new Saurischian Fossil from Barkly East, Cape

Colon

‘diac, H.—Ueber allgemeine Probleme der Mechanik des Himmels. Rede

gehalten in der ofnilichon Sitzung der k. b. Akad. der Wiss. zu München, Mär

31, 1892. From the author.

- SHUFELDT, R. W.—Lectures on Biology delivered before the Roman Catholic

University of America, 1892. From the author.

Sreranescu, G.—L’Age du Conglomerate de Sacel, Jud. Gorjiu. Extr. Bull.

Soc. Geol. de France (3), t. XXII, 1894. From the author.

1896.] Petrography. ° 127

Tassix, W.—Directions for Collecting Minerals. Pt. II. Bull. U.S. Natl..

Mus., No. 39. Washington, 1895. From the Smithsonian Institution.

VETH, P. J.—Overgedrut dit den Feestbundel van Taal-, Letter-, Gescheid-, en

Aardrjkskundige Bijdragen ter gelegenheid van zijn Tachtigsten Geboortedag-

WEIDMAN, S.—On the Quartz Keratophyre and Associated Rocks of the North

Range of the Baraboo Bluffs. Extr. Bull. Univ. Wisc., Science Series, Vol. I,

No. 2, 1895. From the Editors of the Bulletin.

Wuirte, D.—The Pottsville Series along New River, West Virginia. Extr.

Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. 6, 1895. From the author.

Wituiams, T. Phe Church’s Duty in the Matter of oe eg ins Ad-

dress delivered berfore the Church Congress, Boston, Mass. o date given.

From the author.

Pereti S. W.—Semi-Arid Kansas. Extr. Kansas Univ. Quart., April,

. From the author.

eoe A. S.—Note on a Tooth of Oxyrhina from the Red Crag of Suf-

folk. ms Geol. Mag., Dec., IV, Vol. I, 1894. From the author.

OOLMA

Extr. aa Rept New Jersey State Geologist for 1893. Trenton, 1894. From

the au

Generat Notes.

PETROGRA PHY:

Igneous Rocks of St. John, N. B.—W. N. Mathew has con-

tinued his work on the igneous rocks of St. John, N. B., contributing

in a recent article an account of the effusive and dyke rocks of the

region. All the rocks described are believed to be pre-Cambrian in

age. They embrace quartz-porphyries, felsites, porphyries, diabases

and feldspar-porphyrites among the effusive rocks, and diorite-porphy-

rites, diabases and augite-porphyrites among the dyke forms. In some

of the quartz-porphyries perlitic cracks may still be recognized, and in

the felsite porphyries some spherulites. Tuffs of all the effusives are

abundant. A soda granite with augite and green hornblende and

probably a little glaucophane was also met with. It is intrusive, and

has a composition represented by the figures:

SiO, TiO, Al,O, Fe,0, FeO MnO CaO MgO Na,O K,O CO, Loss

64.86 .70 15.02 5.58 1.01 .18 2.61 142 392 237 55 1.73

1 Edited by Dr. W. S. Bayley, Colby University, Waterville, Me.

3 Trans. N. Y. Acad. Science, XIV, p. 187.

128 The American Naturalist. [February,

The diorite-porphyrite has a groundmass of idiomorphic hornblende,

lathshaped feldspars and some interstitial quartz, with phenocrysts. of

the same minerals, but principally of feldspar. Among the diabases is

a quartzose variety.

Eruptive Rocks from Montana.—Among some specimens of

eruptive rocks obtained from Gallatin, Jefferson and Madison Coun-

- ties, Montana, Merrill’ finds basalts, andesites, lamprophyres, syenites,

porphyrites, wehrlites, harzburgites and websterites, some of which pos-

sess peculiar characteristics. A hornblende andesite, for instance, con-

tains large corroded brickred pleochroic apatite crystals, whose color is

due to innumerable inclusions scattered through them. The ground-

mass of some of the basalts has a spherulitic strueture. The wehrlite

is a holocrystalline aggregate of pale green diallage, reddish brown

biotite, colorless olivine and a few patches of plagioclase. Its structure

is cataclastic or granulitic, the larger crystals being surrounded by an

aggregate of smaller ones. The websterite consists of green diallage

and colorless enstatite with included foliae of mica and occasional inter-

stitial areas of feldspar, and is thus related to gabbro. Some of the

lamprophyres are composed of groups of polysomatic olivines or of oli-

vine and augite in a scaly granular groundmass of lighter colored min-

erals, through which are scattered small flakes of brown biotite and

tiny augite microlites. This structure is accounted for on the su pposi-

tion that the granular groups of olivine and of olivine and augite belong

to an older series of crystalline products than those of the ground-

mass.

Porphyrites and the Porphyritic Structure.—In a general

account of the laccolitie mountains of Colorado, Utah and Arizona,

Cross‘ gives a brief synopsis of the characteristics of the rocks that con-

stitute their cores. These rocks comprise augite, hornblende and horn-

blende mica-porphyrites, diorites and quartz-porphyrites, All contain

phenocrysts of plagioclase and of the iron bearing silicates, with the

feldspars largely predominating. These upon separating left for consol-

idation into the groundmass a magma which upon crystallization

yielded a granular aggregate consisting largely of quartz and ortho-

clase. No pressure effects were seen in any of the sections studied. All

are porphyritic with a granular g hich differs in the different

rocks, principally in the proportion of its constituents. The porphy-

ritic structure as defined by the author is not the result of the recur-

3 Proc. U. S. Nat. Museum, giant 637.

‘14th Ann. Rep. U. S. Geol. Surv

1896.] Petrography. 129

rence of crystallization, producing several generations of crystals, but

it is a structure exhibiting contrasts in the size and form of the com-

ponent crystals of a rock, resulting from the differences in conditions

under which the different minerals crystallized.

Granophyre of Carrock Fell, England.—In the Carrock Fell

district is a red granophyre closely associated with the gabbros. This

rock has recently been studied by Harker,’ who had previously inves-

tigated the gabbros. The normal type of the granophyre is an augitic

variety in which the augite occurs as a deep green species which is idio-

morphic toward the feldspars. Oligoclase is also present as idiomorphic

erystals in a reddish quartz-feldspar groundmass with the typical gran-

ophyric structure. The composition of the rocks is represented as fol-

lows :

SiO, ALO FAOU, Mg CaO NaO K,O Loss Total

71.60 13.60 2.40 21 200. Oe ae 53 70 = 99.89

As the rock approaches the gabbro it becomes less acid and the pro-

portion of augite in it increases. This is the lower portion of the mass

as it was originally intruded. Its more basic nature as compared with

the rest of the rock is explained as due to the absorption of parts of the

gabbro with which the granophyre is in contact.

The same author’ also records the existence of a greisen, which is a

phase of the well known Skiddau granite. The greisen consists essen-

tially of quartz and muscovite, but remnants of orthoclose are still to

be detected in it. The mica is regarded as having been derived largely

from the feldspar.

Sheet and Neck Basalts in the Lausitz.—The basalts of the

neighborhood of Seifeirnersdorf and Warnsdorf in the Lausitz, Saxony,

occurs in sheets according to Hazard,’ and in volcanic rocks. The

sheet rocks are nepheline basalts, nepheline basanites and feldspathic

glass basalts. The neck forms are hornblende basalts, sometimes with

and sometimes without nepheline. The constituents of all are magne-

tite, apatite, augite, biotite, nepheline and glass in varying quantities,

with feldspar, olivine and hornblende in different phases. Sometimes

the mineral nepheline is absent, but this happens mainly in the glassy

varieties, where its components are to be found in the glassy base.

There are intermediate varieties between the hornblende and the oli-

š Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., 1895, p- 125.

Ibid, p. 139.

? Min. u. Petrog. Mitth., XIV, p. 297.

130 The American Naturalist. [February,

vine basalts corresponding to geological masses intermediate in charac-

teristics between volcanic sheets and necks. In many of the neck

rocks the hornblende is seen to have been partially resorbed and

changed to augite. The continuation of the resorbtive process until

every trace of the hornblende was dissolved, may account for the ab-

sence of the mineral in the sheet rocks.

Petrographical Notes.—In an article whose aim is to call forth

more accurate determinations of the feldspars in volcanic rocks, and

one which gives a practical method for making this determination,

Fouqué® has described briefly the volcanic rocks of the Upper Auver-

gne, the acid volcanics of the Isle of Milo and the most important rocks

in the Peleponeses and in Santorin. Among the varieties described

are doleritic basalts, andesitic basalts, labradorites, andesites, obsidians,

trachyte andesites, phonolites, andesitic diabases, rhyolites, dacites and

normal basalts. The labradorites are composed largely of microlites

of labradorite with a few augites and tiny crystals of olivine in an al-

tered glassy base. In all these cases the author has shown that the

rocks contain several different feldspars at the same time, and in each

case he has determined their nature. The method made use of in the

determination is based on the observation of extinction angles in plates

cut perpendicular to the bisectrices.

In a well written article on complementary rocks and radial dykes

Pirsson’ suggests the name of oxyphyre for the acid complementary

rock, corresponding to the term lamprophyre for the basic forms. He

also calls attention to the fact that the dykes radiating from eruptive

centers are usually filled with younger material than that which com-

poses the core at the center. The dykes cutting the central mass will

generally be oxyphyres and the more distant ones lamprophyres.

Cordierite gneisses are reported by Katzer" from Deutshbrod and

Humpolitz in Bohemia, where they are intruded by granite veins, and

where masses of them are occasionally completely surrounded by gran-

itic material.

In the examination of a large series of granites and gneisses from the

borders of the White Sea, Federow" discovered that garnet is present

in large quantities when plagioclase is absent and vice versa.

In a general article on the Catoctin belt in Maryland and Virginia,

ê Bull. Soc. Franc. d. Min., XVII, p. 429.

* Amer. Journ. Sci., 1895, p. 116.

10 Min. u. Petrog. Mitth., XIV, p. 483.

n Ibid, p 550.

1896.] Geology and Paleontology. — el

Keith” gives very brief descriptions of the granites, quartz porphyries,

andesites and the Catoctin schist of the regign. The last named rock

is apparently a sheared basic volcanic.. All the rocks present evidence

of having suffered pressure metamorphism.

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.

Notes on the Fossil Mammalia of Europe.—I, Comparison

OF THE AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN FORMS OF HYRACOTHERIUM.=

Historically speaking Hyracotherium is one of the oldest of known

fossil Perissodactyla, and it is of importance phylogenetically to com-

pare the representatives of this genus in Europe with those of America,

in order to acquire an exact knowledge as to the evolution ofthe molar

cusps of the New and Old World species. My attention was called to

this subject on account of having studied Euprotogonia of the Puerco,

a genus which as well known, is considered to have one of the most

primitive types of Ungulate molars.

The importance of having accurate drawings of the teeth of fossil

mammals is nowhere better illustrated than in Hyracotherium. In the

case of the enlarged drawing of the teeth’ of H. (=Pliolophus) vulpi-

ceps which has been copied extensively in works on vertebrate palzonto-

logy, we obtain quite an erroneous idea of the exact form of the

molar cusps. f

Kowalevsky’ in his great work on “ Anthracotherium” figures some

of the molars of the type of Hyracotherium namely : H. leporinum, and

I should judge from his description that he had studied Owen’s type in

London. However, his criticism of Owen’s drawing of the type of

Hyracotherium is very accurate, and as Kowalevsky remarks, Owen’s

figures gives one the idea that the teeth of the type are strictly buno-

dont, whereas they are really transitional in structure between a real

bunodont type, such as Euprotogonia and a truly lophodont form like

Systemodon.

13 14th Ann. Rep. U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 285.

1 Jour. of the Geog. Soc. of London, 1858, p. 54.

2 Monographie der Gattung Anthracotherium, p- 205.

132 The American Naturalist. [February,

On my recent visit to London? I took the opportunity to examine

both of the types of Hyr@totherium (H. leporinum and H. (= Pliolo-

phus) vulpiceps). In general the external cusps of the superior molars

in both forms is lenticular in section, being considerably drawn out

anteroposteriorly, and the intermediate tubercles are well extend

transversely. In the drawing of the type specimen of H (=P.) vulpi-

ceps the molars are represented as greatly enlarged, and their internal

portions shown as complete. In the original specimen the teeth are

damaged internally, and it is with some diffiulty that the form of the

cusps can be made out. However, I am satisfied that the internal cusps

are not really bunodont as shown in the plate; but like the American

forms of Hyracotherium these cusps are extended transversely and form

by wear slight ridges with the intermediate tubercles. In comparing

the upper molars of both types of Hyracotherium of England with those

of the Wasatch of America, I find them to be in exactly the same stage

of evolution as to the form of the cusps.

Lydekker* speaks of the posterior transverse crest of the upper molars

in the type of H. (= P.) vulpiceps as not being represented as sufficently

well developed in the plate, but this crest on the last molar is drawn

correctly, and on the other two molars it is as nearly as well developed.

A comparison of the upper molars in both types of Hyracotherium with

those of Euprotogonia, reveals the fact that the form of the cusps in the

former genus has undergone a progressive change; and this is seen

especially on the last upper molar which is quadritubercular with a

large development of the metaloph, whereas in Euprotogonia the last

upper molar is tritubercular. Again the third upper premolar in the

English-types of Hyracotherium is tritubercular whereas in Euproto-

gonia, this tooth has only one external cusp.

The species of H. (=Pliolophus) vulpiceps is of importance, as

in this specimen we have both upper and lower teeth belonging to the

same individual. I should like to particularly emphasize the point

that the last lower premolar in the type of Pliolophus is simpler in

structure than the first true molar, the posterointernal cusp being absent.

This character distinguishes this type from some forms of the American

Wasatch which have been referred to Pachynolophus.

ŽI wish to express here my thanks for the se I enjoyed in examining

specimens in the British Natural History Museum, and especially to thank Sir

W. H. Flower for his kindness. I am also indebted to him for having been able

to visit the Royal College of Surgeons. Mr. C. W. Andrews of the Geological

Department. I am also much indebted for his many courtesies.

“Catalogue of Fossil Mammals in British Museum. p. 11.

1896.] Geology and Paleontology. 133

The question now arises what is Pachynolophus, or in other words

what is the exact generic definition of this genus, and does it really

occur in the Wasatch of America. It is usually stated that Pachyno-

lophus is separated from Hyracotherium by the fact, that the last pre-

molar is molariform but as far as I have been able to investigate, this

definition will apply to only one European species, namely: Pachynolo-

phus (= Hyracotherium) siderolithicus, and even in this species the last

upper premolar exhibits a good deal of variation in its structure.

Riitimeyer? figures Pictet’s species, P. siderolithicus, which in this spec-

imen has the last upper premolar molariform, but in the same plate

(fig. 21) is given another last upper premolar, which Riitimeyer referred

to the same species. This tooth is tritubercular, or simpler in structure

than the true molars.

Among the specimens of Pachynolophus in the collection of the Jar-

din des Plantes, Paris, there is a series of loose teeth from the Siderolithic

du Mauremont, which are of considerable interest as they were studied

by Kowalevsky, and referred by him to P. siderolithicus. This series»

contains at least one last upper premolar, and it has exactly the same

character as that figured by Riitimeyer, in other words this is another

case in which this tooth in P. siderolithicus is simple in structure. In

Pachynolophus duvalii as figured by Riitimeyer, the last upper premolar

is trituberenlar, and this tooth has the same structure in P. desmarestii.

In Pach figured by Filhol® from the Middle Eocene

of Céssai, the last upper premolar has ‘only one internal cone and the

two transverse ridges diverging from it are well developed. The length

of the skull in this species is about one-third greater than that of Hyra-

cotherium venticolum of the Wasatch.

_ Numerous species of Pachynolophus occur in the different horizons of

the Eocene of France, but in nearly all cases, they are represented

either by upper or lower molars which were not found together. I

believe the English Hyracotherium leporinum is the only known form

in Europe in which both upper and lower molars were found associated,

and yi | belong to the same individual.

well known it is the last lower premolar which first becomes

a consequently if we find forms in which this tooth is simpler

in structure than the molars, we can safely conclude that none of the

superior premolars are molariform. In a jaw referred to Pachynolophus

in the collection of the Jardin des Plantes from Phosphorites, contain-

ing all the lower premolars, the last tooth of this series is not molari-

5 Eocäne Sangethiere Welt von Egerkingen, pl. III, figs. 18-21.

* Vertébres Fossiles d’ Issel Mém. Soe. Geog. de France, 1888, pl. XX, fig. 13.

134 The American Naturalist. [February,

form, As the Phosphorites are considered to represent the top of the

Eocene, we should certainly expect to find in any species of Pachynolo-

phus from this formation the last premolar as complex in structure as

the molars. In this jaw, however, the last premolar is not molariform

and the collection contains a crushed skull of the same species of

Pachynolophus in’ which all the superior premolars are simpler in

structure than the true molars.

I can find no good generic differences based on tooth structure sepa-

rating Propaleotherium from Pachynolophus, and shall consider the

former genus as a synonym of the latter in this paper. In Propaleo-

therium the species are much larger than in those of Pachynolophus,

but certainly size alone can not be considered as of value in generic

definitions. In all of the species included in Propaleotherium, the pre-

molars are simpler in structure than the true molars.

I believe, however, if we divide the various known species of the

Hyracotheriine into genera according to the complication of the pre-

fholars, that we shall be adopting an artificial character, and as shown

above. Ofall the known forms of Pachynolophus, P, siderolithicus is the

only one in which the last upper premolars is molariform and even this

species shows considerable variation in this respect. I conclude then

that the only natural classification of these forms is a careful analysis

of the form of the molar cusps, and to group the species into genera

accurding to the development of the same; I refer here especially to

the European forms of Hyracotherium and Pachynolophus.

Having thus attempted to show that in nearly all the European

species of Pachynolophus the last premolar is simpler in structure than

any of the true molars, I come to consider what are the generic differ-

ences separating Hyracotherium from Pachynolophus, Kowalevsky

studied Pachynolophus siderolithious, and if we compare the molars of

this species with those of Hyracotherium angustidens from the Wasatch

of America, we observe at once that the external cusp of the upper

molars in the latter species are nearly round in section, and they are

scarcely at all flattened. There is no mesostyle and the height of the

crown is very low or strongly brachydont. In P. siderolithicus the

ectoloph is considerably lengthened from above downwards, and the

external cusps are strongly flattened, with a prominent mesostyle. In

all the species of Pachynolophus which I have studied the molar crowns

are higher than those of Hyracotherium, and in all the mesostyle is

strongly developed. The latter characters demonstrate that the molars

of Pachynolophus have reached a higher stage of evolution than those of

Hyracotherium, and this transformation in the form of the molar cusps

1896] Geology and Paleontology. 135

points to a still higher differentiation so characteristic of the later

genera of the Equine series. The characters above enumerated as dis-

tinguishing the molars of Pachynolophus from those of Hyracotherium,

I think should be considered as generic. At least they are the only

valid ones which I can discover at present.

Species of Perissodactyle Ungulatus allied to Hyracotherium occur

in the Wasatch of America, which have been referred to Pachynolo-

phus. In these forms the last inferior premolar is truly molariform,

but the superior molars are of the primitive type namely; with low

crowns and nearly bunodont external cusps. As this a combination of

characters, which as far as known does not occur in the true Pachyno-

lophus of Europe, I think accordingly that these species should be

placed in a different genus from Pachynolophus. Prof. E. D. Cope has

shown that the generic name Orotherium Marsh, has been anticipated

by Orotherium Aymard, consequently I believe that the name Orohippus

should be reinstated, and applied to those species of Hyracotherium

which have the last lower premolar truly molariform in structure. I

have already stated that in the type specimen of Hyracotherium

(= Pliolophus) vulpiceps the last lower premolar is simpler in structure

than in any of the true molars. Accordingly those species with the

complex lower premolar represent a true generic stage, and as is already

shown they differ from the true Pachynolophus—CuarLrs EARLE,

Laboratoire de Paleontologie Jardin des Plantes, Paris, Dec. 20, 1895.

The Glossopteris Flora in Argentina.—A collection of fossil

plants from Bajo de Velis, a league from the entrance to the Cantana

valley in Argentina, has enabled Dr. F. Kurtz to establish the age of

the fossiliferous shales of that region. The author gives tabulated com-

parisons of the flora of the Bajo de Velis beds with similar floras found

at the Cape of Good Hope (Ekka-Kimberly beds), in peninsular India

(Kaharbari beds), in New South Wales (Newcastle beds) and in Tas-

mania (Mersey Coalfield). From these tables it is seen than the spec-

imens found at Bajo de Velis are most nearly related to those of the

lower Gondwanas of India. Dr. Kurtz accordingly corrrelates the

fossiliferous shales of Bajo de Velis with the lower Gondwanas of India,

and agrees with the paleophytologist, O. Feistmantel, in assigning these

beds to the Permian age.

Up to date but three rock formations in Argentina have yielded fossil

plants: Retamito in San Juan, which has been shown by Dr. Szajno-

cha to be Lower Carboniferous; Bajo de Velis which is Permian; and

136 The American Naturalist. [February,

a series of beds in Mendoza, San Juan and La Rioja determined by

Prof. Geinitz as Rheetic.

These data are commented on by the Director of the Geological Sur-

vey of India to the effect that one of the chief points of interest in con-

nection with the discovery of Gondwana plants in Argentina lies in the

fact that we have an unquestionable lower carboniferous series (Reta-

mito) in the neighborhood of which (and probably unconformably to

it) a series of beds is found, which contains well known Lower Gond-

wana species of plants, thereby limiting the geological range of the

lowest beds of it, at all events to upper Carboniferous at most, which is

a further confirmation of the views generally adopted by the Geological

Survey of India. The genus Glossopteris proper is wanting, but the

other genera characteristic of that flora are present. (Rec. Geol. Surv.

Ind., Vol. XX VIII, 1895.)

Geological News.—Patrozoic —From a petrographic study of

the igneous rocks near St. John, N. B., Mr. W. D. Matthew classifies

the Pre-Cambrian of that region as follows: A. Laurentian composed of

(1) Portland group and (2) Intrusive granite, B. Huronian composed

of (3) Coldbrook group, of volcanic rocks, (4) Coastal group, of volcanic -

and sedimentary rocks, (5) Etcheminian or Basal Series, of sedimentary

rocks, and (6) Kingston group, of metamorphosed volcanics. (New

York Acad. Sci. XIV, 1895.)

Mesozoic.—In studying the fossils obtained by M. Gautier from

Madagascar, M. Boule comes to the conclusion that the Jurassic deposits

of eastern Africa and those of the western slopes of Madagascar appear

to have been laid down in a great interior sea, an Ethiopian Mediter-

ranean, which was separated from the Pacific by an Indo-Madagascar

peninsula.

Furthermore, that during the Upper Cretaceous there was land com-

munication between the African continent, Madagascar and Hindus-

tan. (Bull. Mus, d’Hist. Nat. Paris, 1895.)

According to R. W. Ells, the whole range of North Mountain, which

cuts off the valleys of Cornwallis and Annapolis rivers from the Bay of

Fundy, is an overflow of igneus rock which has issued through a line

of fissure transversing the red Triassic beds, and is, therefore more re-

cent than the latter. At several places the trap is overlaid by newer

sedimentary beds of limestones and shales. No fossils have as yet been

found in these sedimentary strata. The author calls attention to their

importance and the desirability of a thorough exploration in order to

determine their age since they represent the highest group of stratified

sedimentary rocks in Eastern Canada. (Trans. Nova Scotian Inst.

Sci. Halifax, Vol. I, 1894, p. 416.)

1896.) Vegetable Physiology. 137

Two new species of Fishes from the Rolling Downs Formation

(Lower Cretaceous) of Queensland are described by A. S. Woodward.

They represent species of the genera Portheus and Cladocyclus, to

which he gives the names australis and sweetii respectively. This dis-

covery of these fossils is of considerable interest, since with the excep-

tion of a few Selachian teeth and vertebre, and a fine species of Belon-

ostomus, no cretaceous ichthyolites of importance have hitherto been

described from this colony. (Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (6) XIV, 1894, p.

444.)

Crnozorc.—Fossil Ants are reported from the Bembridge limestone

(Eocene) of the Isle of Wight. They are referred by P. B. Brodie to

the genera Formica, Myrmica and Camponotus, and some others not

yet described. The first two genera have also been found in the Baltic

Amber. (Nature, 1895, p. 570.)

The Champlain epoch is correlated ‘by Prof. Hitchcock with the

Mecklenburg stage of Geikie. Both have the characteristic marine

mollusca fauna, the Arctic flora ( Yoldia beds of the Baltic) and best

illustrate the isobases of De Geer. (Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. pe

1895.)

VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.

Smut Fungi by Oscar Brefeld.—At last we have in two big

quartos, with numerous plates, the long promised volumes on the smut

fungi. The work which is here completed was begun more than 12

years ago. ‘The earlier experiments were gathered together and pub-

lished in 1883 in a volume of 220 pages with numerous plates under

the title of Die Brandpilze I, forming Heft V of Dr. Brefeld’s Unter-

suchungen, the most important and revolutionary portion of this vol-

ume being the demonstration that the smut fungi, a goodly number at

least and presumably all of them, although previously supposed to be

strictly parasitic were capable of growing saprophytically and of multi-

plying indefinitely in dung in the form of sprout conidia, closely resem-

bling yeasts, if not identical with many forms previously referred to

this group. Some years later in an address before the agricultural club

of Berlin, Dr. Brefeld communicated the most important results of his

1 This department is edited by Erwin F. Smith, Department of Agriculture,

Washington, D. C.

138 The American Naturalist. [February,

magnificent infection experiments, but now for the first time we have

full details of all the laboratory and field investigations. In the limits

of this review it will be possible to notice only the first of these two

volumes. This forms Heft XI of the Untersuchungen and is entitled

Die Brandpilze II. It deals principally with infection experiments

and gives in full the results obtained with Ustilago Carbo on oats, U.

cruenta on sorghum, and U. maydison maize. These experiments were

carried on through a period of four years with striking results and in

case of corn, with most unexpected ones. Space forbids entering into

much detail. Those who wish for details will naturally consult the

volume itself. Suffice to say that the infective material consisted of

the yeast-like conidia propagated in nutrient solutions made from fresh

horse dung.

In case of oats the best results from direct infection were 17 to

20 per cent. of smutty plants, obtained by spraying during the

earliest stage of germination. Infections made when the embryo was

one cm. long gave only 7 to 10 per cent of smutty plants; when it was

2 em. long (500 plants), only 2 per cent became smutty. When the

plumule had pushed through the enfolding sheath scarcely any of the

plants could be infected, 200 seedlings in this stage yielding only 1 per

cent of smutty plants and 200 more remaining entirely free. The in-

fections took place through the young axis and also through the sheath-

ing leaf so that both Wolff and Kühn were right, but a majority of the

infections were through the young axis. In a second series of experi-

ments garden earth was sprayed with the smut conidia and two days

later oats were planted 1 cm. deep and subsequently transplanted to the

open field: 300 of these seedlings yielded 5 per cent of smutty plants,

and 300 more, 4 per cent., i. e. a much smaller per cent than was anti-

cipated. Ina third series fresh horse dung was mixed with garden

earth which was then abundantly impregnated with the smut conidia.

Three days later oats which had been soaked but were not yet germin-

ated were planted in this soil at a depth of scarcely 1 cm. These seed-

lings were divided into two lots, 300 were kept for a time in the labor-

atory at a temperature of over 15°C., and 300 were placed in the cellar

where the temperature did not exceed 7°C. Of the 300 kept in the

laboratory 27 to 30 per cent finally became smutty; of those kept in

the cellar, where germination proceeded more slowly, 40 to 46 per cent

became smutty. This shows clearly that fresh horse dung greatly

favors the development of smut and that weather which retards germi-

` nation is also favorable. In the fourth series of experiments the infec-

tious material was derived from conidia cultivated for a long time arti-

1896.} Vegetable Physiology. 139

ficially, a few of the spores being transferred to a fresh nutrient solu-

tion every four days. The first trial (500 seedlings) was with conidia

which had been cultivated in this manner for six months. These seed-

lings yielded from 7 to 10 per cent of smutty plants. The second trial

was with conidia which had been cultivated for a year. This experi-

ment was almost wholly negative, 300 of the seedlings yielded no

smutty plants and 200 more gave only 1 per cent. The explanation

was not far to seek since at the end of this period the conidia had

almost wholly lost the ability to send out germtubes and along with it

the power to infect the plants. Microscopic examination showed that

the germtubes can penetrate into any part ‘of the young seedling but

this dves not necessarily mean infection. The latter takes place only

when the smut hyphz are able to reach that part of the plant where the

smut heds form. In all of these experiments the smut germs penetrated

the young seedlings but the smut beds appeared only in the floral

organs, some months intervening between the entrance of the fungus

and the appearance of the smut in a totally different part of the plant.

Those germtubes which enter the plant and fail to reach the incipient

ovaries become enclosed in the mature tissues of the host plant and are

incapable of further growth and this frequently occurs even in young

seedlings.

The infections obtained with the big sorghum plant are even

more interesting. Nearly all of the first series of infections were

destroyed by a hail storm, but of the 32 plants which escaped 12 be-

came smutty. The seedlings of the second series were infected indoor

in March and set out the first of May. The plants grew luxuriantly

and by the middle of August had reached a height of 5 to 7 feet. The

first smutty panicle appeared August 16 and for some time thereafter

it appeared as if all of the plants would be smutty, the infected panicles

developing first. Finally sound ones began to appear. In the end

there were 158 smutty plants out of 274. A third series of experiments

was instituted to determine in what stage of germination the sorghum

plant is most susceptible: 252 seedlings sprayed in the earliest stage of

germination, gave 180 smutty plants. “ The development of the smut

in the earliest and strongest plants, which reached a height of 8 feet,

was striking. The big panicles were attacked in toto and projected out

of the luxuriant green foliage like black brooms.” There can be no

doubt that infection stimulates the growth of the plant. Older seed-

lings yielded less striking results: 150 which were infected when the

embryo was a ter long, gave only 24 smutty plants; 190 infected

when the embryo was 1} cm. long gave 12 smutty panicles; 221 infec-

140 The American Naturalist. [February,

ted when the plumule had begun to push through the sheath gave 5

smutty plants; finally, 150 infected when the plumule had pushed

through the sheath about 1 cm., remained entirely free from smut.

Microscopic examinations made a few days after the conidia were

sprayed on the seedlings showed that germtube penetrations were very

common in that experiment which yielded over 70 per cent of smutty

plants, infrequent in those which yielded only a small per cent of

smutty plants, and altogether absent in the plants which remained en-

tirely free from smut. As in oats, the smut was confined exclusively

to the panicle, and the bulk of the infections took place during the

earliest stage of germination, the tissues of the growing seedling very

soon becoming immune.

The results with maize were very surprising since they developed

three wholly unexpected facts, viz.: (1) The germtubes are capa-

ble of penetrating any young rapidly growing part of the plant.

(2) The growth of the fungous hypha which has gained entrance

into the plant is narrowly localized, the sporebeds developing in

situ; (3) There is no period of rest, the smut beds developing im-

mediately, i. e. within two or three weeks of the date of infection. Pre-

vious to these experiments it was supposed that corn smut entered the

plant when it was a seedling and followed the same law of development

as oat smut. In the first series of experiments, which proceeded upon

this supposition, the smut conidia were sprayed upon 200 seedlings in

the earliest stage of germination ; upon 100 which were a little older;

upon 100 still further advanced; and, finally, upon 100 when the

plumule was pushing through the sheath. This work was done in the

laboratory and after 14 days the plants were set out in the garden.

Contrary to all expectation, very few penetrations could be found even

by the most careful microscopic examinations, and these were confined

to the root node, none being found upon the sheath,—everywhere over

the surface crept the germtubes without being able to enter. These

plants were under daily observation and after 10 to 14 days a few

lagged behind the rest in growth, and on being pulled up smut pustules

were found on the axis a little above the root node. Of the whole 500

seedlings, only a few became smutty, viz., 4 per cent in the youngest

and l to 2 per cent in the older seedlings. In all of them the smut

pustules appeared on exactly the spot where the germtubes had entered

the plant and within three weeks of the date of infection. All the

other plants grew to maturity and remained free from smut. Similar

results were obtained from an experiment in which soaked, ungermin-

ated kernels of corn were planted in a dunged soil which had been

1396.] Vegetable Physiology 141

abundantly infected with smut conidia. Of the 50 plants thus treated

one died at the end of 4 weeks from a smut pustule on the axis, and

the rest developed without any appearance of smut. Another experi-

ment was undertaken with 150 seedlings still further advanced, the

conidia being sprayed upon`them, but this also gave negative results.

No germtube penetrations could be found and no smut appeared upon

any of the plants. These results led to a good deal of speculation and

finally to the following experiments: The first of these was with plants

a foot high, having a well developed cornucopia-like summit formed by

the closely wrapped bases of the large outer leaves. One hundred

plants were selected and into these cornucopias a nutrient solution con-

taining smut conidia was injected. They were covered with straw mat-

ting five days to keep off rain and then freely exposed. On the tenth

day, as growth continued and the infected parts were pushed up into

sight, there was a changed appearance. The parts of the leaves touched

by the infectious fluid were paler than the upper noninfected parts and

suggested chlorosis. This appearance was visible in different degrees

on all the infected plants? Already there were slight appearances of

pustules and within a day or two they became very distinct, finally

covering the whole infected surface with a smutty crust. Scarcely one

of the male inflorescences escaped and the axis between the leaves was

also smutty in so far as the infective material could reach it. Not one

of the hundred plants escaped infection, the youngest suffering most.

For the next experiment younger plants were selected, i. e. those about

six inches inches high. In many of these the cornucopia was not well

developed and allowed the infectious fluid to run out and waste and

the infection miscarried. All, however, that were large enough to re-

tain the conidia were killed outright by the development of smut pus-

tules, the plants twisting and curving in all sorts of shapes and fre-

quently wilting before the smut spores were mature. The third ex-

periment was with plants 14 feet high. Here the cornucopias were

wide open and took in large quantities of the infectious fluid, which

penetrated deep into the heart of the plant. After three weeks the

male inflorescences appeared, but in only six plants out of 50 could any

symptoms of smut be found and upon these the pustules were small and

scattering. On the leaves there were wrinkled, white spots which, how-

ever, did not develop into smut pustules but subsequently became green

and nearly normal in appearance. Scattered smut pustules were found

on the axis at the base of the internodes in 7 cases, and the effect of the

fungus was also visible on some of the upper blossoms which remained

white and dried up without developing. Aside from these scattering

142 The American Naturalist. [February,

symptoms all of the plants remained sound, ripening normal ears. The

fourth experiment, with still larger plants, gave wholly negative

results. The heart of the plant proved immune, and normal ears

developed. In another experiment female inflorescences were infected

as soon as there was any indication of a forming ear, the Nahrlésung

containing the conidia being injected into the narrow opening between

the ligule and the axis. Smut pustules appeared in great numbers

within 18 days but only on the parts which were actually reached by

the injected fluid. Another experiment was made when the ears were

in blossom. All the kernels became smutty and single ears reached

the size of a child’s head. In another experiment varying amounts of

the lower part of the ear were protected from the fungous spray by

wrapping them in blotting paper. In this case only the exposed ker-

nels became smutty, showing again conclusively that the infection is

purely local. The silk though much exposed to the conidial spray

showed not the least trace of injury, having passed out of the meristem-

atic stage. In still another experiment the kernels of the ear were

sprayed with the smut conidia when they were more than 4 grown.

The result was wholly negative; no smut appeared. Another experi-

ment showed that the adventive aerial roots can also be infected if

sprayed in an early stage of their growth. In short, any meristematic

part of the maize plant is liable to direct infection and this is made

easy by the fact, which is also Dr. Brefeld’s discovery, that the corn

smut fungus, unlike that of oats and sorghum, is richly provided with

aerial conidia, which are easily carried or blown from the soil to any

part of the plant. The consequent desirability of keeping the soil of

corn fields free from smut spores, by removing and burning all smut

pustules before they have ripened and shed, must be apparent to all.

The corn smut spores seldom germinate in water, as is well known, and

infection of the plant probably takes place only when the latter have an

opportunity to germinate in the soil and produce the aerial conidia, this

germination in the soil being greatly favored by the presence of dung.

The volume contains VI, 98 pages of text and 5 lithographic plates,

mostly colored.—Erwin F. Smita.

1896.] Zoology. 143

ZOOLOGY.

The Paroccipital of the Squamata and the Affinities of

the Mosasauridae once more. A rejoinder to Professor

E. D. Cope.—I. The paroccipital.—In 1870, Cope' designated the

occipital externe, Cuvier, paroccipital, Owen with Huxley’s name

opisthotic, and homologized it with the squamosal of the Lacertilia and

Ophidia. This opinion is held up in 1894 and in September, 1895,’

but for the name opisthotic the name paroccipital is then used. On

the other side, it is admitted by everybody else that the paroccipital,

Owen (opisthotic, Huxley), which is free in the Testudines, is united

with the exoccipital in the Lacertilia ; the posterior portion of this bone,

which is visible from behind, has been called the paroccipital process ;

in its anterior portion where it reaches the basioccipital it contains the

posterior semicircular canals. I have stated in my last note (Am.

Nar., Nov., 1895) that in young Sphenodons the paroccipital is free

from the exoccipital exactly as in the Testudines and that Siebenrock

has proved without question that the outer portion of the exoccipital

of the Lacertilia, which lodges anteriorly the posterior semicircular

canals, represents the same element. The paroccipital process of the

exoccipital in Sphenodon is, of course, identical with the paroccipital

process in the Lacertilia.

To this, Prof. Cope replies: “ Baur asserts that the socalled parotie

process [I said paroccipital process] of the exoccipital which supports

the quadrate in the Squamata is the same element as that termed opis-

thotic by Huxley. This I deny, and believe that in this it is Baur

and not myself who has fallen into error. Siebenrock, instead of assert-

ing this to be the case, denies it in the following language :+ ‘ It is not

the processus paroticus of the pleuroccipital (exoccipital). which is

homologous with the (paroccipital, Owen), opisthothic Huxley, but

the portion anterior to the foramen nervi hypoglossi superius which pro-

tects the organ of hearing.’ Siebenrock here uses the names of Owen

and Huxley as refering to the same element, but he makes the clear

soa E. D. On the Homologies of the Opisthotic sie Amer. Asso. Ady.

Se.,

ae E. D. On the Homologies of the posterior cranial arches in the Rep-

tilia, Trans. Am. Philos. Soc., Vol. XVII, Apr. 27, 1892; also Am. Nat., May,

1892. The Osteology of the Lacertilia, Proc. Am. Philos. Soc., Vol. XXX,

May 10, 1892, pp. 185-211. Amer. Nat., Sept. 1895, p. 855-856.

+ Italics are mine.

144 The American Naturalist. (February,

distinction which is the important point, between the parotie process of

the exoccipital and the element which contains the posterior semicircular

eanal.+ What then is the element which articulates with the quadrate

in the different orders of the Reptilia?”

The sentence quoted from Siebenrock is misleading. Siebenrock

does not distinguish between the parotic process of the exoccipital and the

element which contains the posterior semicircular canal. He says: not

only the parotie process but the whole portion anterior to the foramen is

homologous to the paroceipital. This whole portion, of course, contains

also the parotic process. The sentence of Siebenrock translated by

Cope is printed at the end of the paper in a résumé. A full account

of the conditions is given on p. 209. “Die bisherige Anschauung,

dass am Processus paroticus des Pleuroccipitale (exoccipitale) das

Opisthoticum zu finden sei, ist daher absolut unrichtig, sondern der

ganze vordere Theil des Plewroccipitale, welche die hintere Partie des

Gehares enthält, sammt dem Processus paroticus ist als das eigentliche

Paroccipitale aufzufassen.} Vergleicht man dasselbe mit dem bei den

hildkréten zeitlebens separirten Paroccipitale, so ergiebt sich schon

aus der Lage und Function die Homologie der beiden Knochen.”

And later: “ Die gleichen Verhältnisse bestehen bei Hatteria, nur

bleibt hei dersellben das Paroccipitale viel laenger vom Pleuroccipi-

tale (exoccipitale) getrennt, als bei Lacerta.

hat Prof.Cope has not studied Siebenrock’s paper is also evident from

the following sentence: “ In the Testudinata, and according to Baur, in

Sphenodon, the element which extends externally from the exoccipital

to the quadrate is continuous with the opisthotic, but the semicircular

canal is included in its proximal part only. Here the structure is en-

tirely different from that which characterizes the Squamata, where the

opisthotic does not extend distal of the canal and fuses early with the

exoccipital.” It is still more evident from the following words: “ In

the Squamata, where the opisthotic is restricted to the region of the

canal and does not reach the quadrate, this socalled paroccipital is dis-.

tinct.” Cope thinks the paroccipital + otie portion of the paroccipi-

tal or opisthotic in the Testudines is not homologue to the paroccipital

+ otic portion of the paroccipital or opisthotic of the Squamata, and

has the idea that this bone, paroccipital, Owen, opisthotic, Huxley. oc-

cipitale externe, Cuvier, consists of two elements, the outer one—the

ecipital—and_ the auditory portion, the opisthotic. He admits

that “ the direct evidence for such a primitive division of this element

(occipital externe, Cuvier; paroccipital, Owen ; TES Huxley)

f Italics are mine.

PLATE IV.

Fic. 1 Fra. 2.

Fie. 3. Fie. 4.

Conolophus subcristatus Gray. Quadrate and connections.

1896.] Zoology. 145

in the Testudinata has, however, yet to be produced, and I am entirely

willing to give up the view above defended, should it turn out on fur-

ther investigation to be untenable.”

- There is no further investigation necessary. The bone in question

is a single element, as is shown, not only by comparative anatomy, but

also by embryology. This element always is free in the Testudines ;

it is free in the young Sphenodon ; and it is united with the exoccipi-

tal in the Squamata. There is not the slightest difficulty in this ques-

tion.

One word about the squamosa]. The squamosal of the Lacertilia

and Ophidia is connected with the parietals and stands on the quad-

rate, outside of this element we have in the Lacertilia with well devel-

oped postorbital arch another element, which originally is united with `

the postorbital and is also connected with the squamosal and quadrate.

This bone is the prosguamosal.| In Sphenodon the squamosal and pro-

squamosal are united, but in the Jurassic Saphzosaurus (Sauranodon)

these two elements are free as in the Lacertilia. In the Testudines the

squamosal represents the squamosal of Sphenodon, i. e., the squamosal

+ prosquamosal of Saphzosaurus and the Lacertilia. Prof. Cope says:

“the squamosal of the Squamata is homologous to the paroccipital

(opisthotic, Huxley, occipital externe, Cuvier) of the Testudines.

This is impossible, since the paroccipital of the Testudines is the

homologue of the paroccipital process of the Lacertilia, which in front

contains, exactly as in the Testudines, the posterior semicircular. canals,

In the Mosasauride we have the same conditions as in the generalized

Lacertilia. The paroccipital and exoccipital are united; connected

with the quadrate we find two elements—the inner one connected by

its upper branch with the parietal process; the outer one with the

postorbital. These bones are, of course, homologous to the squamosal

and prosquamosal of the Lacertilia.

Il. The Affinities of the Mosasauride.—Cope maintains, contrary to

my statement, “that in all Lacertilia the exoccipital supports the

quadrate, and that in the Pythonomorpha and the Ophidia the exoc-

cipital does not support it or generally touch it.” He also maintains

“ that the paroccipital (squamosal, Baur) does support the quadrate in

the Ophidia, while it is only in contact with a very small part of it in

the Lacertilia.” I have denied in my last note that in all the Lacer-

tilia the exoccipital supports the quadrate, and I repeat it here.

I have before me disarticulated and complete skulls of Iguana,

Ctenosaura, Amblyrhynchus and Conolophus. In none of these I find

an articular facet on the paroccipital (exoceipital Cope), for the

146 The American Naturalist. [February,

quadrate. The paroccipital even does not touch the quadrate, but is

connected by the anterior and upper portion of its distal process with

the inner side of the squamosal ; the face of the distal end of the par-

occipital is entirely free from any connection and is always visible

from the outside. The paroccipital process is placed behind and also

above the upper face of the quadrate for these elements. In none of

the genera mentioned above I find a face on the paroccipital for the

quadrate, but a face for the squamosal. In the Mosasauridx I find

the same. The quadrate is supported by the squamosal and the squa-

mosal is connected by its inner process with the anterior face of the

distal end of the paroccipital ; the prosquamosal takes also part in the

support of the quadrate. We have, therefore, the same conditions as

jn the genera mentioned. The statement that the Mosasauride agree

with the Ophidia in the relations of the quadrate, is absolutely incor-

rect.—G. Baur, University of Chicago.

EXPLANATION OF FIGURES.

Fig. 1.—Conolophus subcristatus Gray. Left quadrate and its rela-

tions to the squamosal, prosquamosal and paroccipital, from

behind.

Fig. 2.—Conolophus subcristatus Gray. Left quadrate and its rela

tions to the squamosal, prosquamosal and paroccipital, from

outside and little behind.

Fig. 3.— Conolophus subcristatus Gray. Right quadrate and its rela

tions to the squamosal and prosquamosal, from behind and a

little inside.

Fig. 4.— Conolophus subcristatus Gray. Right quadrate and its rela-

tions to the squamosal and prosquamosal, from behind.

q= Quadrate.

ep=Epiphysis of quadrate.

—Squamosal (mastoidien, Cuvier ; opisthotic, Cope, 1870 ; paroc-

cipital, Cope, 1892-95).

=Prosquamosal (temporal, Cuvier; squamosal Cope, 1870 ;

supratemporal, Cope, 1892-95). (Baur, G. Anat. Anz. Bd., X, p.

327.)

=lateral process of parietals.

po=paroccipital (exoccipital, Cope).

dpo=distal end of paroccipital.

Appirion.—After the manuscript of this note had been sent to the

editor, I received the November number of the Annals and Magazine

1896.] Zoology. 147

of Natural History, containing a communication of Mr. G. A. Boulen-

ger; “ Remarks on the value of certain cranial characters employed by

Prof. Cope for distinguishing Lizards from Snakes.” Boulenger shows

also that Cope’s statement, in regard to the relations of the squamosum

to the quadrate of the Lacertilia, is quite incorrect.

Criticism of Dr. Baur’s rejoinder on the homologies of

the paroccipital bone, etc.—I. The Paroccipital Bone.—It seems

that I have not yet made clear to Dr. Baur my position as to this ele-

ment in the Reptilia. The ground for it is paleontological, and when

Dr. Baur considers the question from this standpoint, he will probably

find some of his very positive assumptions not proveable at present.

In the first place, we agree as to the identity in the Lacertilia, Py-

thonomorpha and Ophidia of the elemeut which he calls ¢quamosal,

and which I call paroccipital. Whatever be the place of this element

in the Mammalian skull, it has certainly not been proven to be the

squamosal, hence I object to the name which Dr. Baur uses for it, in

which position I agree with various authors. It remains to be seen

whether the term paroccipital, which I have hitherto used, be appro-

priate. I must here repeat that at no time since 1871 have I con-

founded it with the opisthotic of Huxley, not even in those cases (as Tes-

tudinata) where I have supposed the two elements to be fused together.

Now the characters of this paroccipital in the Pythonomorpha are

such as to suggest strongly that it represents the dismembered distal

part of the paroccipito-opisthotie of the Testudinata. ‘his character

I pointed out in 1870, and it deserves more attention than it has re-

ceived from Dr. Baur and other authors. It cannot be seen without

taking to pieces the region to which the quadrate is articulated.

When this is done it is found that the paroccipital enters as a cone

between the exoccipital and petrosal, and extends inwards in Mosa-

saurus nearly to the region of the semicircular canals. Nothing like

this is to be found in the Lacertilia. The question now arises, what is

the meaning of this structure? As the Pythonomorpha is a cretaceous

type, it is evident that it is a survival of some primitive condition, and

not a derivative of the condition found in the later order of Lacertilia;

where the paroccipital is entirely superficial in its connections. On

the contrary, the character of the Lacertilia has been more probably

derived from that of the Pythonomorpha by the loss of the proximal

part of the paroccipital.

In the Testudinata the paroccipito-opisthotic has not been observed,

according to Baur, to consist of two elements distinct at some stage of

148 The American Naturalist. [February,

embryonic life. This fact does not, however, preclude the pos-

sibility that such a division may not have existed among the

ancestors of the Testudinata. As this order is very old, these ancestors

can only be looked for in the Permian and Triassic periods. Charac-

ters which belong to early geologic time, are frequently dropped out of

the embryonic record. Now in the Permian Reptilia, some of which

are the ancestors of the Testudinata, the quadrate is a short element,

and is separated from the exoccipital and the opisthotic by a separate

bone which has been called mastoid and mastotympanic by Owen,’

and which I have considered as part of the “ Squamosal ” in the absence

of suture separating it from that element.‘ I think that such an ele-

ment exists in the Cotylosauria. The periotic bones in Empedias®

and Chilonyx are far removed from the elements which serve as sus-

pensors ofthe quadrate bone, and are distinct from them in Chilonyx

at least. Owen (l. c.) thinks that a paroccipital has been fused with

the exoccipitals in Ptychosiagon (l. c.), and ina position which shows

that it could not have been the opisthotic. The homologizing of one

or the other of these elements with the paroccipital of the Pythono-

morpha is too clearly among the possibilities to be negatived by any

evidence to the contrary yet brought forward by Dr. Baur. In fact

the origin of the opisthotic element as an ossification about the posterior

semicircular canal, renders it a priori probable that an osseous body at

a distance from that center, such as the distal part of the paroccipito-

opisthotic bones in the Testudinata, was originally distinct, and for

this element the name paroccipital is appropriate.

2. The Exoccipital and Quadrate-—Dr. Baur again denies that the

exoccipital articulates with the quadrate in certain genera of Iguanidse

and gives some figures of that region in the Conolophus suberistatus to

sustain his allegation. Unfortunately, though he seems to have taken

the elements apart, as I suggested that he do, he did not put them to-

gether in their original relation when he had them drawn. I now

give two drawings traced from the plate of the skull of the same spe-

cies given by Dr. Steindachner. As these plates represent exactly the

characters which I have observed and described in allied genera, I re-

gard them as correct. It will be observed that there is a considerable

contact between the exoccipital and the quadrate. There is also con-

* Proceeds. Geolog. Soc. London, 1859, p. 50.

* Proceeds. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1871, p. 207. A

* Proceeds. Amer. Philos. Soc., 1885, p. 236; 1895, pl. VIII, fig. 4, otic region

of Chilonyx. ;

* Die Schlangen u. Eidechsen der Galapagos Inseln, K. K. Zoolog. Botan.

Gess. Wien, 4to. 1876; pl. V.

1896.] Zoology. 149

tact with the supratemporal, and probably with the paroecipital. The

articulation of the quadrate with the exoccipital is universal in the Ig.

uanide. I will, however, here call Dr. Baur’s attention to the fact

that I nowhere stated that the quadrate of the Lacertilia does not

Conolophus subcristatus Gray. From Steindachner.

touch the supratemporal or the paroccipital. I have simply asserted

` that the quadrate in the Lacertilia articulates with the exoccipital, and

does not do so in the Ophidia. I will notice later some exceptions to

the rule, of which I have since obtained information. The articula-

tion with the supratemporal (prosquamosal, Baur) is naturally not to

be mentioned in a diagnosis of the order Lacertilia, as there are nu-

merous genera of that suborder in which that element is wanting.—E.

D. Corr.

Boulanger on the Difference between Lacertilia and

Ophidia; and on the Apoda.—In a recent note,’ Dr. Boulenger

criticizes my definitions of the above suborders and the Pythonomorpha

as published in a late number of this journal.” He objects to the

definition which I gave the Lacertilia, viz.: that the quadrate bone

articulates with the exoccipital ; and to that of the Ophidia, which as-

serts that this articulation does not take place. He suggests that i

must have examined very few types of Lacertilia or I would not have

made such a statement, and he mentions two or three other elements

with which the quadrate bone also articulates. Now I must call Dr.

Boulanger’s attention to the fact that I nowhere state that the quad-

rate does not touch the other elements he has referred to, but have, on

the contrary, stated that they do so touch. The doctor has apparently

not read my article carefully, or has injected into his reading some-

7 Annals and Magaz., Nat. History, XVI, 1895, p. 367.

ë AMERICAN NATURALIST, 1895, p. 859.

150 The American Naturalist. (February,

thing which is not there. What he states in his note that bears on my

definition is, that the quadrate in Chlamydosaurus does not articulate

with the exoccipital, and he gives a figure to substantiate his opinion.

I would have preferred to have seen a figure of this structure with the

quadrate in place, but I have been able to confirm the observation by

the examination of the skull of another Agamid, Phrynocephalus oli-

vierii. Here the quadrate articulates with the paroccipital (supra-

temporal., Boul., squamosal, Baur), and is in contact with the supra-

temporal (squamosal, Boul.), and little or not at all with the exoccipi-

tal. How far the family of the Agamide generally present this struc-

ture I am unable to say, as but few skeletons of this family are at my dis-

posal. As regards other families I have examined abundant material,

as stated in my last communication (l. c., Nov. p. 1004). In review I

may say that it is self evident that in general the distinction that I

have drawn betweeen Lacertilia and Ophidia in this respect is valid,

(ist) because the supratemporal is frequently absent, and therefore not

diagnostic ; (2d) because the extremity of the paroccipital is insignifi-

cant, and affords insufficient support; (3d) because the paroccipital `

process of the exoccipital is the only remaining element sufficient for

the purpose.

Dr. Boulenger next attacks my definition of the Ophidia, alleging

that the quadrate articulates with the petrosal (prodtic) or with that —

element and the exoccipital. Here again I am supposed to have stated

that the quadrate does not articulate with the (prodtic) petrosal, when

in fact, I did not mention that element. As to articulation with the ex-

occipital, I do not consider that this can be regarded as established until

the embryology and paleontology are looked into. Because an element

cannot be seen in an adult skull, it does not follow that it does not ex-

ist. The paroccipital is present in the Tortricidz, and it is, so far,

only an assumption to suppose that it is not represented in the allied

Uropeltide, and in the less allied Epanodonta and Catodonta.

The decurvature of the parietals and frontals to the basicranial axis

in snakes has been cited since Müller, by Huxley,’ as peculiar to that

order, and I know of no exceptions so far as regards the parietals.

The optic foramina in some snakes with large eyes are confluent, as I

have long been aware, and this foramen is at the expense of the infe-

rior part of the frontals. This, however, does not produce the charac-

ter of the Lacertilia, and the definition is not invalidated, as Dr. Bou-

lenger alleges; nor is it by the decurvature of this bone and the pari-

etal in the Amphisbenia, where they do not reach the sphenoid. I

* Anatomy of Vertebrated Animals, p. 203.

1896] Zoology. 151

did not “ admit,” as alleged by Boulenger that these Lacertilia “ agree

with the Ophidia,” as they do not. Dr. Boulenger asks “ what,” under

these circumstances, “ remains of Prof. Cope’s new definition of the

suborders of the Squamata?” From what has preceded it is evident,

first, that they are not “ new ” except as to the exoccipital ; and second,

that they remain intact, so far as any evidence to the contrary has

been produced by Dr. Boulenger, except as to the articulation of the

quadrate with the exoccipital in two genera of Agamidx. And it is

not necessary to observe that very few groups so closely allied as the

Lacertilia and Ophidia can be defined without exceptions.

If we now look at the definitions given by Dr. Boulenger in his vol-

umes of catalogues of lizards and of snakes in the British Museum, the

necessity of something better becomes at once apparent. The Lacer-

tilia are thus defined : “ Quadrate bone articulated to the skull; parts

of the ali- and orbitosphenoid regions fibrocartilaginous ; rami of the

mandible united by suture ; temporal region without or with only one

horizontal bar. Anal cleft transverse. Copulatory organs paired.

Gunther.”

The definition of the Ophidia (dated 1893) is as follows: “ Quadrate

bone articulated to the skull; brain capsule entirely osseous ; rami of

the mandible articulated by ligament. Anal cleft transverse. Copu-

latory organs present paired. Gunther.”

In these definitions the first and last two are identical in both. The

presence or absence of a horizontal bar is not definitive, and indeed no

reference to it is found in the definition of the Ophidia. The only

definitions left are those derived from the mode of union of the sym-

physis mandibuli, and the ossification of the brain case. The former of

these characters is not found in several families of Lacertilia, and the

latter is the one which Dr.Boulenger has repudiated in the note which

gave origin to this reply. I think my attempts at definition do, in

point of precision and application, compare very favorably with those

which seem to have satisfied Dr. Boulenger in the work cited. I

another publication he gives the characters usually employed, whic

are much better.

In a recent synopsis of the species of Ceciliide,” Dr. Boulenger

makes some observations on the relations of this family to the rest of

the Urodela. He remarks: “If the absence of the limbs and reduc-

tion of the tail were the only characteristic of the group, I should, of

course, not hesitate to unite the Cacilians with the Urodeles; but, to

say nothing of the scales, the Cecilian skull presents features which

are not shared by any of the tailed Batrachians, and the order can be

10 Proceeds. Zool. Soc., London, 1895, p. 402.

152 The American Naturalist. [February,

defined by the cranial characters alone. The resemblance of the lar-

val Ichthyophis to Amphiuma is after all superficial, and although, as

I believe, the Apoda and Caudata may have evolved from a common

stock, Amphiuma is certainly not the connecting form between the two

as Prof. Cope would have it, for we cannot well assume the scales, lost

in the Urodeles, to have reappeared in the Cecilians.”

The above discussion is interesting but troublesome, because it re-

quires a reply. In the first place, it ought not to be necessary to re-

mark that the presence or absence of scales in the Batrachia is not an

ordinal character. On the page following that from which the above

is quoted, Boulenger states that six of the sixteen genera of Apoda

(Cæciliidæ) have no scales. Further, among the extinct Stegocephalia

some genera have scales and some have none, so there is reason to sup-

pose that scales may be secondary as well as primary. Moreover, if a

a genus of salamanders should be discovered which possesses scales, no

one would think of removing it from the Urodela on that account.

There is no improbability in the supposition that such a genus may not

be found in some of the Mesozoic formations. Second, Prof. Cope has

never stated that the genus Amphiuma is the connecting form between

the Apoda and Caudata. He has said that the Amphiumoidea prob-

ably are, and possibly the Amphiumidx, but the genus Amphiuma

never.’ He has very rarely alleged that any genus is ancestral to

any other genus. There can be no one genus between these two

groups, for there is room for several genera. And one may agree with

Dr. Boulenger that the Apoda and Caudata have had a common an-

cestor, and not disagree with the position that the Apoda belong to the

Caudata, for there is no reason why that common ancestor may not

probably have been one of the Caudata, unless there is more difference

in the cranial characters of the two than has been yet pointed out.—E.

D. Corr

ENTOMOLOGY?’

Heterocera of the Lesser Antilles.—Reporting on a collection

of Geometrid and allied families from the islands of Grenada, St. Vin-

cent and the Grenadines, Mr. G. F. Hampson’ says. The Geometridze

} Batrachia of N. America, 1889, pp. 34-222.

? Edited by Clarence M. Weed, Durham, N. H.

2 Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., XVI, 329.

1896.] Entomology. 158

are represented by very few species in the Lesser Antilles compared

with the large number that exist in other parts of the Neotropical

Region both north and south of the isthmus; and almost all the species

are identical with those found on the mainland.

The Pyralide are represented by a much greater diversity of species ;

but these, as in other parts of the world, are very wide ranging, most of

the species being also found in Brazil and Venezuela, some being

identical with forms found in the United States, whilst others range

down to Chili; others again being spread throughout nearly the whole

tropical zone; whilst, even of the species described as new, several are

fepresented in the British Museum or other collections by specimens

from continental localities.

Bot Flies of the Horse.—Prof. H. Garman publishes’ an

interesting account of the habits of oviposition of Gastrophilus nasalis

and G. equi. He enumerates five species of bot flies attacking the horse

in America; the adults may be distinguished by the following key :

1 (6) Discoidal cell closed by a cross vein.

2 (3) Wings marked with brown . ; - ‘ . G. equi.

3 (2) Wings not marked with brown.

4 (5) Anterior basal cell nearly or quite equal to the discoidal cell

in length è ‘ : : $ : : . . G. nasalis.

5 (4) Anterior basal cell markedly shorter than the discoidal cell

[G. hemorrhoidalis.

6 (1) Discoidal cell not closed : i . pecorum.

Concerning the habits and life history of G. equi, the most abundant

species, Professor Garman writes:

This fly buzzes about horses during the hot summer days, occasion-

ally alighting on their bodies, and when an opportunity offers, placing

its eggs in the hairs on the inside of the knee, on the shoulders, and

sometimes even on the mane. Its mouth-parts are in a rudimentary

condition, and it can not, even if it were disposed to, do any injury to

orses.

It is probable that the grubs recently hatched from the eggs of this

fiv are taken into the mouths of horses on the lips or tongue. I am

told by a gentleman who has had much experience with horses that he

has on many occasions taken the eggs between the moistened palms of

his hands, and in a few moments felt the young grubs wriggling about.

It appears that moisture accelerates the hatching of the eggs, and it is

just possible that many eggs would never hatch at all if the eggshell

*7th Rept. Kentucky, Agr. Exp. Station.

154 The American Naturalist. [February

was not moistened in some way. Whether this must be from the

horse’s tongue or lips in all cases is a question which may be considered

not yet settled. Professor H. Osborn, of Iowa, is disposed to believe

that the young do not hatch unless moistened by the horse’s tongue ;

that the young grubs generally die in the eggs if left for 35 to 40 days;

and that they are not commonly ready to hatch until from 10 to 12

days after the eggs are laid.

Fossil Butterflies.—Fossil butterflies are the greatest of rarities.

They occur only in tertiary deposits, and out of the myriads of objects

that have been exhumed from these beds in Europe and America legs

than twenty specimens have been found. The great body of these de-

posits is of course of marine origin, but at least thirty thousand spec-

imens of insects have been recovered from those beds which are not

marine. Over fifty thousand insects from the one small ancient lake

of Florissant, high up in the Colorado Parks have passed through my

hands, yet I have seen from them but eight butterflies. Each of these

belongs to a genus distinct from the others, as is also the case with all

or all but one, of the butterflies found at Radoboj, at Aix, and at Rott

in the European tertiaries. With two (European) exceptions, each re-

presents an extinct genus, and these two exceptions, Eugonia and

Pontia, are genera found to-day both in eee and America. The

species, however, are all extinct.

One would hardly expect that creatures so delicate as butterflies

could be preserved in a recognizable state in deposits of hardened mud

and clay. Yet not only is this the case, but they are generally pre-

served in such fair condition that the course of the nervures and the

color patterns of the wings can be determined, and even, in one case,

the scales may be studied. As a rule they are so well preserved that

we may feel nearly as confident concerning their affinities with those

now living as if we had pinned specimens to examine; and generally

speaking the older they are the better they are preserved.—S. H. Seud-

der in Frail Children of the Air.

Origin of European Butterflies.—Mr. W. H. Bath in discus-

sing‘ the effects produced by the glacial period upon the distribution

and diversity of European butterflies says: As the result of his inves-

tigations Ernest Hoffmann asserts that of the 290 species of Rhopalo-

cera inhabiting our continent at the present time, no lessthan 173 were

originally derived from Siberia. If this was the case, and it seems very

t The Entomologist, XXVIII, 247.

1896.] Entomology. 155

likely to be correct, the majority of them probably immigrated west-

wards of the commencement of the pleistocene periods, for they must

be of great antiquity; moreover it is unreasonable to suppose that many

of the species could have existed also in the south of Europe, even at

the climax of the glacial period. According to the same authority only

8 species have been derived from Africa, and 39 from Asia south of

Siberia. These must have immigrated into the south European pro-

vince of the palearctic region after the termination of the glacial period

as they belong to genera and types of tropical distribution. At the pre-

sent day they occur in those countries bordering on the Mediterranean

ea.

The glacial species of butterflies—-that is the most ancient forms,

designated by Weismann “the original stirps ”—are in many cases

distinguished by their melanic and melanochroic tendencies. We thus

find the forms inhabiting the more northern localities and the higher

elevations on the mountains often of a darker hue, while their repre-

sentatives in more southern latitudes and less elevated altitudes ex-

hibit a brighter coloration.

North American Aphelininæ.—As the first of a technical series

of bulletins to be issued by the Division of Entomology of the U. S.

Department of Agriculture, Mr. L. O. Howard publishes a Revision of

the Aphelininæ of North America. Regarding the biology of the

group Mr. Howard writes: The insects of this subfamily are all, so

far as we know, parasitic either upon the Coccidæ, Aleyrodidæ, or

Aphididæ. They are evidently many brooded, and issue from -their

hosts indifferently throughout the warmer months of the year, and

through the winter on the insectary. With the Aleyrodidx, Aphididæ,

and the Diaspine among the Coccidx, but one specimen apparently

issues from a single host. Sufficient observations have not been made

upon the early stages of the Aphelininz. Their larvæ feed both upon

the body of the scale insect and upon theeggs. They attack both sexes

of the host, issuing when full-grown through circular holes, cut through

the body walls, and, in the case of the Diaspine through the scale.

With the scale insects of the genus Pulvinaria, the aphelinine larve

live within the body of the female and not in the waxy egg mass which

she secretes.

News.—A List of Night-flying Moths from Kentucky, is published

by Prof. H. Garman in the 7th Report of the Experiment Station of

that State.

156 The American Naturalist. [February,

An extended account of the life-history of Phryganidia californica

Packard is published by Messrs. V. L. Kellogg and T. J. Jack in the

Proceedings California Academy of Sciences (Ser. 2, V, 562-570.)

Prof. J. B. Smith issues as Bulletin 111 of the New Jersey Experi-

ment Station an account of experiments with “ Raupenlime” and

“ Dendrolene,” substances useful for applying to tree trunks to keep

out borers,

PSYCHOLOGY.

American Psychological Association.—The American Psy-

chological Association held its annual meeting this year at the Uni-

versity of Pennsylvania, in connection with the meetings of the scien-

tific societies affiliated with the American Society of Naturalists.

Hitherto the Psychological Association has met independently, but the

feeling has been growing that the close relation between the more re-

cent forms of psychology and the biological sciences made it eminently

Suitable and desirable that their representatives should be brought

together. The success which has attended this first step makes it prob-

able that the policy will be continued in future.

No official outline of the proceedings of the Psychological Associa-

ciation is at hand, and any account written from memory will be more

or less defective. Consequently the present writer must beg indulgence

from those whose words he endeavors to report if he has, in any ‘case,

misrepresented them. On the whole, however, he believes he is giving

a fair outline of the more important points.

At the first session, on Friday, Dec. 27th, the opening paper, on

_ “Physiology and Psychology,” was read by Prof. George S. Fullerton

of the University of Pennsylvania. Two years ago, at the New York

meeting of the Association, Prof. Fullerton outlined the relation in

which psychology as a natural science stands to metaphysic, and con-

‘cluded that psychology should adopt, as far as possible, the methods and

assumptions of the other natural sciences, and should relegate the task

of criticising those assumptions to a distiuct science—that of metaphy-

sic. The paper read this year was a continuation of the same general

line of thought in the investigation of the relations of psychology and

physiology. Taking Foster’s “ Physiology” as a standard, we find,

said Prof. Fullerton, that the author is absolutely unable to give any

1 This department is edited by Dr. Wm. Romaine N ewbold, University of Penn-

sylyania.

1896.] Psychology. 157

- account of the functioning of the higher nervous centres without hav-

ing recourse to sensations, ideas, volitions—in a word, without entering

the field that properly belongs to psychology. While it may be not

only right, but also necessary, for the physiologist to do this, we must

not close our eyes to the fact that the mere fact of its necessity proves

the imperfect condition of physiology, and tends to obscure the line

dividing physiology from psychology. Prof. Fullerton claimed that

the methods employed by the two sciences are distinct, and that it is

important to the advancement of knowledge to recognize this distinc-

tion.

Dr. Livingston Farrand, of Columbia, submitted a scheme of physi-

cal and mental tests which will be used with the students of Columbia

to determine, as far as can be done by direct experiment, their capaci-

ties in both respects at various stages of their college life. After some

discussion, a motion was passed that the President be requested to

appoint a committee of five to report upon the advisability of the uni-

versities represented taking concerted action in the adoption of some

similar scheme.

Dr. Arthur MacDonald, of Washington, D. C., read a paper on

“Some Psycho-Neural Data.” He reported experiments somewhat

similar to those of Dr. Farrand, made upon certain groups in the com-

munity, and apparently showing that between definite classes definite

physical and mental differences are experimentally discoverable.

Prof. Lightner Witmer, of the University of Pennsylvania, intro-

duced one of his graduate students, Mr. Oliver Cornman, who reported

the results of “An Experimental . Investigations of the Processes of

Ideation.’ Mr. Cornman’s method was that of giving a large number

of individuals, usually children, a definite suggestion and requiring

them to write for a definite period of time—usually 15 minutes—all the

thoughts directly or indirectly suggested by it; he had found that in

most of his subjects tae idea trains were, for a short time, largely con-

trolled by the concomitant suggestions of the time and place, and con-

sequently the earlier terms of each series showed a marked similarity.

This soon disappeared, and the further development of the idea trains

seemed dependent upon the character and previous experience of the

individual. We have, therefore, in this, a convenient method of “ tap-

ping,” as it were, the ideational content of the individual. Mr. Corn-

man pointed out further, that, to get results at all comparable with one

another in the ease of different bodies of subjects, the original suggestions

must be given in identically the same words without explanations or

further suggestions on the part of the experimenter, and, to secure this

end, should always be written.

158 The American Naturalist. [February,

At the afternoon session on Friday, Prof. J. McK. Cattell, of Colum-

bia, read his President’s Address. It was, on the whole, a defense of

that experimental method of which he is the leading representative in

this country, and was, therefore, in a way, a reply to the rather un-

favorable estimate of the method and its results which had been ex-

pressed by Prof. James of Harvard in his President’s Address of the

preceding year. The burden of Prof. Cattell’s argument was found in

the statement, that every science is either genetic or quantitative in its

method ; that those sciences which have been predominently quantita-

tive will undoubtedly, in time, be formulated in genetic terms, that,

conversely, into the genetic sciences also, such as biology and psychol-

ogy, the quantitative method will ultimately be introduced. This is

the aim of experimental psychology in the narrower sense. While ex-

pressing the strongest conviction of the importance of this experimental

method to the science of psychology, Prof. Cattell displayed such mod-

eration in his estimate of the results thus far achieved by it, and such

sympathetic insight into the aims and relative values of other methods,

that his address was received with the warmest applause by all, and no

one could be found to pass a criticism upon it.

Prof. Chas. A. Strong, of the University of Chicago, read a paper on

“Consciousness and Time,” of which, on account of its exceedingly

abstract character, I could not venture to give an analysis from

memory.

The morning of Saturday, December 28th, was occupied by a dis-

cussion on “ Consciousness and Evolution.”

Prof. William James, of Harvard, opened the discussion by outlining

the general features of the problem at issue: First, whether conscious-

ness is coextensive with the universe or originated in time; second,

whether consciousness is an active force capable of controlling brain

movement, or whether it is a mere epiphenomenon, produced by the

brain but not capable of affecting the brain ; third, whether conscious-

ness has been a factor in the production of adaptation.

Prof. Cope, of the University of Pennsylvania, who had been es-

pecially requested to take the leading part in the discussion, attacked

the question from the point of view of the paleontologist. He held that

natural selection is not sufficient to account for adaptation, that the

adaptation of the individual organ is the result of use, and that the

effects of use can be inherited. In supporting this position he gave many

illustrations, based upon his personal observation. He held further

that organic evolution involved combinations and recombinations of

matter which not only never could have been produced by the opera-

1896.] Psychology. 159

tion of known physical and chemical forces, but were of a character

precisely the opposite of their known effects. To account for this, he

thought we must assume in organic matter the existence of an activity

distinct from all the other activities of nature. Progressive evolution is

the chief outcome of this activity, and therefore he had proposed to

term it an anagenetic, or upbuilding activity, as opposed to the kata-

genetic or destructive activities of physics and chemistry. This ana-

genetic activity Prof. Cope was inclined to believe due to the presence of

sensation, and therefore maintained that consciousness is an active

factor in the individual and in evolution.

Prof. Cope was followed by Prof. J. Mark Baldwin, of Princeton,

who commented upon several points of Prof. Cope’s argument, drawing

special attention to the fact that recent investigation into the effect on

young children of their surroundings makes it more easy to account

for adaptation without reference to inheritance of acquired aptitudes.

He also deplored the sharp antithesis between the doctrine of conscious-

ness as a cause and as a epiphenomenon, holding that both views found

their reconciliation in monism.

` Prof. C. Sedgwick Minot, of Harvard, attacked the neo-Lamarckian

doctrine from the neo-Darwinian point of view, supporting his position

by evidence drawn from his own work in embryology. He suggested,

as a speculation, that consciousness, although not itself a force, might

be conceived to possess the property of selecting out of the brain forces

that one which it is control conduct.

Prof. G. 5. Ladd, of Yale, welcomed Prof. Cope’s address as an im-

portant contribution from the purely scientific point of view to the

support of doctrines held by himself in common with many other meta-

physicians, and made a plea for the recognition of the metaphysician

on the part of scientists as a coworker in the field of knowledge.

Prof. Fullerton, of the University, called attention to our actual

ignorance on all these points, and expressed the opinion that funda-

mental differences exist which cannot be glossed over by such vague

doctrines as that of monism.

Other speakers were: Prof. J. H. Hyslop, of Columbia; Dr. D. S.

Miller, of Bryn Mawr, and Dr. Wesley Mills, of McGill University,

Montreal.

Prof. Cope then concluded the discussion by adducing a series of

arguments in favor of the inheritance of acquired attributes, any one of

which, he held, would be sufficient to set the matter at rest.

At the afternoon session, Prof. G.T. W. Patrick, of the University of

Towa, reported an experiment on the effects of luss of sleep. A patient

160 The American Naturalist. (February,

had been kept awake for 90 consecutive hours, during which time

careful experimental tests were made of his physical and mental con-

dition, and the results were reported in detail. Among the more in-

teresting of these results were, continuous increase in weight, relatively

slight loss of muscular strength, the production of visual hallucinations,

and the sudden disappearance of all symptoms after only 103 hours of

sleep—about 25 per cent. of that which had been lost.

Prof. Wesley Mills, of McGill University, Montreal, announced his

intention of contributing at the next meeting of the Association further

researches on the psychic development of young animals and its phy-

sical correlations.

Prof. Lightner Witmer, of the University of Pennsylvania, read a

paper on “ Variations in the Patellar Reflex as an Aid in Mental

Analysis. Dr. Witmer described the apparatus and the method used

to determine, 1st, The exterit of the normal jerk ; 2d, the increment

due to the synergic activity of the cortical processes concerned in sen-

sation, thoughts, etc. His results he regarded as tentative only; they

appeared, however, to show (1) that sensation or thought processes

which did not directly tend to produce movement had little effect upon

the knee jerk; (2) that all processes which tended to produce muscu-

lar contraction in any part of the body tended to increase the knee jerk ;

(3) that this increase was quite as marked in the case of the thought of

a movement as in that of the movement itself.

Prof. James H. Hyslop, of Columbia, reported a series of experi-

ments on hallucinations induced'by a crystal. He did not attempt to

give any explanation of the phenomena, but pointed out that in two

cases the phantasms possibly indicated some unknown method of ac-

quiring information.

Prof. W. R. Newbold narrated informally three cases vaguely de-

scribed as “ Dream Reasoning,” which had occurred in the experience

of two of his colleagues. Dr. W. A. Lamberton, Professor of Greek

in the University of Pennsylvania, when a young man, after giving up

as insoluble a problem in descriptive g try upon which he had been

working for weeks by the analytical method, awoke one morning

several days later to find an hallucinatory figure projected upon a

blackboard in his room with all the lines necessary to a geometrical

solution of the problem clearly drawn. He has never had any other

visual hallucination. Dr. H. V. Hilprecht, Professor of Assyriology

in the University of Pennsylvania, some years ago dreamed an inter-

pretation of the name Nebuchadnezzar which has since been univer-

sally adopted. Ata later period he dreamed that an Assyrian priest

1896.] i Psychology. 161

gave him information about some inscribed fragments that had puzzled

him which was afterwards confirmed in all points now capable of con-

firmation. Dr. Newbold offered a psychological explanatiou of these

curious cases.

Prof. G. 5. Fullerton, of the University of Pennsylvania, was elected

President, and Dr. Livingston Farrand, of Columbia, Secretary, for

the ensuing year.

Among the members present, besides those already mentioned, were

Mr. Henry Rutgers Marshall, of New York; Prof. N. S. Gardiner, of

Smith College; Dr. H. C. Warren, of Princeton; Prof. E. S. Sanford,

of Clarke University; Prof. E. H. Griffen, of Johns Hopkins; Prof.

J. C. Creighton, of Cornell; Prof. James Seth, of Brown, and Dr.

Warner Fite, of Williams’ College—W. R. N.

The Cat’s Funeral.—Every one has observed instances of affec-

tion between those proverbially hostile animals, the dog and the cat,

but a case cited by l’Eleveur merits especial attention. A dog and a

cat belonging to the same master were the best friends in the world,

and spent their time in frolicking together. One day, while playing as

usual, the cat died suddenly, falling at the dog’s feet. The latter, at

first, did not realize what had happened, but continued his play, pull-

ing, pushing and caressing his companion, but with evident astonish-

ment at her inertness. After some time he appeared to understand the

situation, and his grief found vent in prolonged howls. Presently he

was seized with the idea of burying the cat. He pulled her into the

garden, where he soon dug a hole with his paws, and put in it the body

of his former companion. He then refilled the hole with dirt, and,

stretching himself out on the grave, resumed his mournful howling.

The idea of burying the dead cat was extraordinary. Whence came

the thought? Could it be imitation, or, which is a better explanation,

did the dog have a vague idea of concealing the event which might

possibly be imputed to him. But then it would seem unreasonable for

him to call attention to the fact, by installing himself on the grave

and howling. However, even human criminals are sometimes equally

inconsistent. It is difficult to form an exact idea of what gave rise to

the dog’s conduct in this case. (Revue Scientific Juillet, 1895).—E.

D.C. | '

162 The American Naturalist. [February,

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

American Academy of Arts and Sciences.—The 11th of

December.—The following papers were read: On the temperature of

the crust of the earth at great depths. By Messrs. Alexander Agassiz

and P. C. F. West. Palestine in the fifteenth century B. C. according

to recent discoveries. By Professor Crawford H. Troy.

Boston Society of Natural History.—December 4th.—The

following paper was read: Mr. L. S. Griswold, “The San Francisco

Mountains and the Grand Canyon.’

December 18th.—The following paper was read. Prof. G. Frederick

Wright, “The present status of glacial man in America.” The subject.

of Professor Wright’s paper was discussed by Prof. F. W. Putman,

Prof. H. W. Haynes, and others.

January 1st, 1896.—The following papers were read: Mr. A. W.

Grabau, “ Lake Bouvé, a glacial lake in the Boston Basin ;” Prof. W.

O. Crosby, “ Glacial lakes in the valleys of the Neponset and Charles

Rivers; and the Post-tertiary history of the Nashua Valley —SamuEL

HeEnsaaw, Secretary.

January 15th—-The following paper was read: Mr. William

Brewster, Notes on the Natural History of Trinidad. Stereopticon

views were shown.—SaMvUEL HENSHAW, Secretary.

New York Academy of Sciences, Section of Biology.—Dec-

ember 9, 1895.—The following papers were presented: Prof. C. L.

Bristol, “ The Classification of Nephelis in the United States.” The

study of abundant material, collected from Maine to South Dakota,

has shown that the color characters cannot be depended upon for

specific determination. An examination of the metameral relations of

this leech indicate that not more than a single species occurs in this

country. Prof. F. H. Osborn, “ Titanotheres of the American Museum

of Natural History.” The complete skeleton of Titanotherium robus-

tum is remarkable in possessing but twenty dorso-lumbar vertebre, a

number identical with that typical of the Artiodactyla, but entirely

unique among Perissodactyla. It is now appears probable that the

development of horns in the Titanotheres became a purely sexual char-

acter, and that the genera Titanops, Marsh and Brontops, Marsh, are

founded respectively upon male and female individuals of Titanotherium

robustum. Dr. J. L. Wortman, “ The expedition of 1895 of the Amer-

1896. ] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 163

ican Museum of Natural History.” The Expedition passed into the

Uinta beds of N. E. Utah, then between the Eastern escarpment of the

Uinta range and the Green River into the Washakie Beds of S. W.

Wyoming, the most important result geologically being that the Brown

Park deposit is found to be of much later age then the Uinta—

BasHFORD Dean, Recording Secretary.

American Philosophical Society.—The following communica-

tions were read: “ The Use of Photography for the Detection of Differ-

ences in Chemical Composition, in Age, and in Fluidity of Inks,”

Prof. S. P. Sharples. ‘Some Observations on the Forgery of a Mark,”

and “ Detection of a Forgery in the Fraudulent Use of a Signature

Stamp,” Dr. Persifor Frazer.

Academy of Natural Sciences.—Philadelphia, December 31st.

—The following officers were elected: President, Samuel G. Dixon,

M. D.; Vice-Presidents, Thomas Meehan, Rev. Henry C. McCook, D.

D.; Recording Secretary, Edward J. Nolan, M. D.; Corresponding

Secretary, Benjamin Sharp, M. D.; Treasurer, George Vaux, Jr.;

Librarian, Edward J. Nolan, M. D.; Curators, Henry A. Pilsbry,

Henry C. Chapman, M. D., Arthur Erwin Brown, Samuel G. Dixon,

M. D.; Councillors to Serve Three Years, Uselma C. Smith, William

Sellers, Charles E. Smith, John Cadwalader; Finance Committee,

Charles Morris, Chas. E. Smith, Uselma C. Smith, William Sellers,

Charles P. Perot; Council, Isaac J. Wistar.

The American Morphological Society held its annual meeting

at the University of Pennsylvania, Dec. 26, 27, and 28, 1895. The

stated business of the first session was the Report of the Committee of

Affiliation with the American Society of Naturalists. After consider-

ing this report the Society voted against affiliation. The following

were elected to membership: C. J. Herrick, Denison University,

Granville, Ohio; E. G. Conklin, University of Pennsylvania, Phila-

delphia, Pa.; F. R. Lillie, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich, ;

F. C. Kenyon, Clark University, Worcester, Mass.; T. H. Mont-

gomery, Jr., West Chester, Penna.; J. L. Kellogg, Olivet College,

Olivet, Mich.; J. I. Peck, Williams College, Williamstown, Mass. ; and

A. D. Meade, Providence, R. I.

At the second session, December 27, the following papers were read

and discussed: “ Panplasm,” by Prof. C. S. Minot; “The History of

the Centrosome in Thalassema,” by Mr. B. B. Griffin; “ The Centro-

some in its Relation to Fixing and Staining Agents,” by Prof. E. B.

Wilson; The Production of Artificial Archoplasmic Centers,” by Prof.

164 The American Naturalist. ` [February,

T. H. Morgan; “Cell Size and Body Size,” by Prof. E. G. Conklin;

“ The Development of Isolated Bastomeres of the Egg of Amphioxus,”

by Prof. T. H. Morgan; and “On the Smallest Part of Stentor Cap-

able of Regeneration,” by F. R. Lillie (read by the Secretary). The

following officers were elected for the ensuing year: President, Prof E.

L. Mark, Harvard University ; Vice-President, Prof. H. F. Osborn,

Columbia College; Secretary and Treasurer, Dr. G. H. Parker, Har-

vard University. Members of the Executive Committee elected from

the Society at large, Prof. E. G. Conklin, University of Pennsylvania,

and Prof. W. Patten, Dartmouth College.

At the third session, December 28, the following papers were read

and discussed: “Gastrulation of Teleosts,” by Dr. Bashford Dean;

“ Pigment Changes in the Eye of Paleemonetes,” by Dr. G. H. Parker ”

“Reaction of Metridium to Food and other Substances,” by Dr. G. H.

Parker ; “Some Points in the Anatomy of Anoplocephaline Cestodes,”

by Dr. C. W. Stiles; and “ Development of Cassiopea from Buds,” by

Dr. R. P. Bigelow. After passing resolutions of thanks to the Uni-

versity of Pennsylvania, the American Philosophical, Society, and

the Philadelphia Local Committee, the Society adjourned sine die.

The American Society of Naturalists,—Met in the Hall of

Department of Arts and Sciences of the University of Pennsylvania, on

Thursday December 26th and Friday, December 27th, 1895. Thurs-

day, Dee. 26th, 2 P. M. I. Reports of Committees. II. Special Reports.

III. Recommendation of new members. IV. Address by the President,

E. D. Cope. * The Formulation of the Natural Sciences.” V. Special

Papers, Prof. B. Wilder on the teaching of Comparative Anatomy.

8 P. M. Illustrated Lecture at the Hall of the Academy of Natural

Sciences, by Professor W. B. Scott, of Princeton University, on “ The

American Tertiary Lakes and their Mammalian Faunas.” 9 P. M.

Reception to all the Societies given by Professor Horace Jayne, at his

house on the S. E. corner of 19th and Chestnut Streets. Friday, Dee-

ember 27th, 9 A. M. The following new members were elected: Profes-

sor C. L. Bristol, Dr. F. C. Kenyon, Dr. W. E. Rotzell, L.O. Howard,

Professor John Dewey, G. H. Girtz, Dr. A. D. Mead, Professor G. S.

Fullerton, Professor J. McK. Cattell, Professor G. T. Ladd, Reid

Hunt, Professor William James, Dr. F. Baker, Dr. G. E. Stone, Profes-

sor J. M. Baldwin, Dr. T. S. Palmer, George Lefever,

The following officers were elected for the ensuing year: President,

Prof. Wm. B. Scott, of Princeton College ; Vice-Presidents, Prof. Wm.

G. Farlow, of Harvard; Prof. C. O. Whitman, of Chicago University;

Dr. Theodore Gill, of the Smithsonian Institution ; Secretary, Dr. H.

1896.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 165

C. Bumpus, of Brown University ; Treasurer, Prof. John B. Smith, of

New Brunswick, N. J.; Executive Committee, Prof. Horace Jayne, of

Philadelphia, and Prof. Wm. F. Ganong, of Smith College, Mass.

The following committees were apppointed: On Vivisection ; Drs.

Patton, Sedgwick and Stiles. On the American table at the Naples

Zoological Station; Drs. Conn and Stiles. On Antarctic exploration ;

Professors Heilprin, Osborn and Goodale. The Society elected Prof.

E. D. Cope as its representative on the committee to consult with the

American member of the committee of the International Congress of

Zoologists on Nomenclature. 10 A. M. Discussion. Subject: The

Origin and Relations of the Floras and Faunas of the Antarctic and

Adjacent Regions. Geology. Prof. Angelo Heilprin, Philadelphia

Academy Natural Sciences. Paleontology. Prof. W. B. Scott, Prince-

ton University. 2 P. M. Continuation of the Discussion. Botany.

Prof. N. L. Britton, Columbia College. Zoology. Vertebrata, Dr.

Theo. Gill, Smithsonian Institution. 7.30 P. M. Annual Dinner of the

Affiliated Societies at the Lafayette Hotel, north-west corner of Broad

and Sansom streets.

Association of American Anatomists.—This body metin

Philadelphia, on Dec. 27th and 28th, at the University of Pennsylva-

nia.— Friday Morning, December 27th, 8.30 o’clock.—Meeting of

Executive Committee. 9.30 o’clock—Opening of the session by the

President. Report of Secretary and Treasurer. Report of Executive

Committee. Report of Delegate to Congress of American Physicians

and Surgeons. Report of Committee on Anatomical Nomenclature.

‘Report of Committee on Anatomical Material. Report of Committee

on Circular concerning Anatomical Peculiarities of the Negro. Report

of Dr. Allen, of the Smithsonian Committee on the Table at Naples.

Election of members. Other new business. Reading of Papers and

Discussions —1. “ Myology of the Extremities of Lemur bruneus”

illustrated by drawings and casts of muscles. Dr. George S. Hunting-

ton, N. Y. City; 2. “History of the Ciliary Muscle, ” Dr. Frank

Baker, Washington, D. C.; 3. “Absence of Fibrous Pericardium

of left side.” Illustrated by specimen, Dr. Addinell Hewson, Phila-

delphia, Pa. “The Descriptive Anatomy of the Human Heart,”

Dr. Wm. Keiller, Galveston, Texas. Friday Afternoon, 2.30 oclock.

—Miscellaneous business. Reading of Papers and Discussions.—5.

“Nomenclature of Nerve Cells,” Dr. Frank Baker, Washington, D.

C.; 6. “The Cerebral Fissures of two Philosophers.” Illustrated by

specimens and photographs, Dr. B. G. Wilder, Ithaca, N. Y.; 7.

“The Human Paroccipital Fissure. Should it be recognized aul

so Designated.” Ilustrated by specimens and photographs, Dr.

166 The American Naturalist. [February

Wilder; 8. “ Practical Histology for large classes” Dr. Chas. S.

Minot, Boston, Mass. In the evening a subscription dinner was

given by the members of the affiliated societies at the Hotel Lafayette.

Saturday Morning, December 28th.—Miscellaneous business of minor

importance was transacted and these officers elected: Dr. Frank Baker,

of Washington, D. C., President; Dr. B. G. Wilder, of Ithaca, N. Y.,

First Vice-President ; Dr. F. J. Shepherd, of Montreal, Canada, Second

Vice-President ; Dr. D. S. Lamb, of Washington, D. C., Secretary and

Treasurer; Delegate to Congress of American Physicians and Sur-

geons, Dr. Addinnell Hewson, Philadelphia; Alternate, Dr. D. K.

Shute, of Washington, D.C. Reading of Papers and Discussions.—

9. “ Some novel methods of description of the human skull” Dr. Har-

rison Allen, Philadelphia, Pa.; 10. “Type forms and nomenclature

of mammalian teeth.” Illustrated by models and diagrams, Prof.

Henry F. Osborn, New York City; 11. “The work of the German

Anatomical Society in Nomenclature,” Dr. Charles Heitmann, New

York City. Sunday Afternoon, 2.30 o’clock.—Miscellaneous business.

Reading of Papers and Discussions; 12. “ Fossa capitis femoris with

observations on the trochanteric fossa.” Illustrated by specimens, Dr.

F. J. Brockway, New York City; 13. “ Note on the appearance of a

unilateral tuberosity in place of the trochanteric fossa.” Illustrated

by specimen, Dr. D. S. Lamb, Washington, D. C.

The American Physiological Society.—The eighth Annual

Meeting of the American Physiological Society was held in Philadel-

phia on December 27th and 28th, 1895. The meeting was preceded

by the usual smoke talk upon the evening of December 26th. Three of

the four formal sessions of the Society were held at the University of

Pennsylvania, the fourth at the Jefferson Medical College, The fol-

lowing communications were presented and discussed :

R. H. Chittenden, The mucin of the white fibrous connective tissue ;

A. R. Cushny, The distribution of iron in the Invertebrates; J. J.

Abel, A preliminary account of the chemical properties of the pigment

of the negro’s skin (with W.S. Davis); T. B. Aldrich, On the Chemi-

cal and physiological properties of the fluid secreted by the anal glands

of Mephitis mephitica ; G. Lusk, Phloridzin diabetes and the maximum

of sugar from proteid; W. T. Porter, Further researches on the coron-

ary arteries; G. N. Stewart, Note on the quantity of blood in the lesser

circulation; C. F. Hodge, Histological characters of lymph as distin-

guished from protoplasm ; C. F. Hodge (for J. R. Slonaker), Demon-

stration of the comparative anatomy of the fovea centralis; G. C.

Huber, The ending of the chorda tympani in the sublingual and the

1396.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 167

submaxillary glands (with demonstrations); G. W. Fitz, A working

model of the eye; J. G. Curtis, A method of recording muscle curves;

G. N. Stewart, Demonstration: Measurement of the circulation time of

the retina; T. W. Mills, Cortical cerebral localization in certain ani-

mals; W. T. Porter, A new method for the study of the intracardiac

pressure curve; S. J. Meltzer, On the mode of absorption from the

peritoneal cavity in rabbits, (with I. Adler); S. J. Meltzer, On the in-

correctness of the often quoted experiments of Starling and Tubby with

reference to the mode of absorption from the peritoneal cavity in dogs;

F. S. Locke, Of the action of ether on contracture and of positive

kathodic polarisation of voluntary muscle; H. G. Beyer, On the in-

fluence of exercise on growth ; W. H. Howell (for Messrs. Conant and

Clark), The existence of a separate inhibitory and accelerator nerve to

the crab’s heart ; Fr. Pfatf, On Toxicodendral and on the socalled tox-

icodendric acid; H. C. Chapman, Methods of teaching physiology.

The following persons were elected to membership in the Society :

J. G. Adams, Professor of Pathology, McGill University ; T. B. Al-

drich, Instructor in Physiological Chemistry, Johns Hopkins Univer-

sity; J. M. K. Cattell, Professor of Experimental Psychology, Colum-

bia College; G. P. Clark, Professor of Physiology, Syracuse University ;

R. H. Cunningham, Assistant Demonstrator of Physiology, Columbia

College; G. W. Fitz, Assistant Professor of Physiology and Hygiene,

Harvard University; T. Hough, Assistant Professor of Physiology,

Massachusetts Institute of Technology; R. Hunt, Fellow in Physiology,

Johns Hopkins University ; F. S. Locke, Instructor in Physiology,

Harvard Medical School.

Professors C. S. Minot and C. F. Hodge were appointed to express

to Professor Langley the opinion of the Society that it is highly desir-

able that the table of the Smithsonian Institution at the zoological sta-

tion of Naples be continued. Mr. W. B. Saunders entertained the

members of the Society at luncheon at the Art Club. The courtesies

that were extended to the affiliated societies by the University of Penn- —

sylvania and the Philadelphia Local Committee were also enjoyed.

Officers for the year 1895-96 were elected as follows:

Members of the Council: H. P. Bowditch, R. H. Chittenden, W. H.

Howell, F. S. Lee, J. W. Warren ; President, R. H. Chittenden ; Sec-

retary and Treasurer, F. S. Lee.

The President and the Secretary were appointed respectively delegate

and alternate to the Congress of American Physicians and Surgeons of

-1897.—Freperic S. Ler, Secretary.

168 The American Naturalist. [February,

The Geological Society of America held its eighth Annual

Meeting, and the fifteenth meeting of the Society in the Geological

Museum of the University of Pennsylvania, December 26th to 28th.

The number of Fellows in attendance was sixty. The first.session was

convened at 2 o’clock on Thursday afternoon with President N. S.

Shaler in the chair. The report of the Council, consisting of the de-

tailed reports of the officers for the year 1895, was submitted in print.

This report showed a properous condition of the Society ; following are

some of the items: membership 226, libraries subscribing for the bul-

letin 59, receipts during the year from the sale of the bulletin $461.50,

number of exchanges 85. The library is deposited with the Case

Library at Cleveland. Besides printing six volumes of the bulletin,

$3000 has been invested as a publication fund.

Announcement was made of the election by transmitted ballots of

officers for 1896 as follows :

President, Joseph LeConte; First Vice-President, C. H. Hitchcock ;

Second Vice-President, Edward Orton ; Secretary H. L. Fairchild ;

Treasurer, I, C. White ; Editor, J. Stanley Brown ; Councillors, B. K.

Emerson, J. M. Safford.

The following Fellows were declared elected : Harry F. Bain, Des

Moines, Iowa; William K. Brooks, Baltimore, Md. ; Charles R. East-

man, Cambridge, Mass. ; Henry B. Kummel, Trenton, N. J.; William

H. Norton, Mt. Vernon, Iowa; Frank B. Taylor, Fort Wayne, Ind. ;

Jay B. Woodworth, Cambridge, Mass.

A memorial of James D. Dana, written by Joseph LeConte, was

read by H. S. Williams. This was not only an appreciative sketch of

Dana’s life, but an admirable discussion of the true character of geology

as a science, and of the great influence of Dana in giving geology a

commanding position.

Other short memorials of Henry B. Nason, Albert E. Foote and

Antonio del Castillo were read.

A message of regard was voted to J. P. Lesley, who was unable to

attend the meeting on account of illness. `

The Society held a morning and an afternoon session on Friday and

a morning session on Saturday. It was announced that the next sum-

mer meeting, to be held in August in connection with the American

Association for the Advancement of Science, would be devoted chiefly

to excursions,

The list of papers read was not as long as at the Baltimore meeting,

but the program was of excellent quality. Following are the titles of

the papers presented :

1896.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 169

George P. Merrill, Disintegration and decomposition of diabase at

Medford, Mass. ; Charles R. Keyes, The geographic relations of the

granites and porphyries in the eastern part of the Ozarks; J. F., Kemp,

Illustrations of the dynamic metamorphism of anorthosites and related

rocks in the Adirondacks; N. S. Shaler, The importance of volcanic

dust and pumice in marine deposits; L. V. Pirsson, A needed term in

petrography ; John J. Stevenson, The Cerrillos coal field of New Mex-

ico; N. S. Shaler, The relations of geologic science to education. (Pres-

idential address), ; W. M. Davis, Note on the outline of Cape

Cod; W. M. Davis, Plains of Marine and subaérial denudation ;

F. P. Gulliver, Cuspate forelands; M. R. Campbell, Drainage mod-

ifications and their interpretation; N. H. Darton, Some fine ex-

amples of stream robbing in the Catskill Mountains; Robert Bell,

Proofs of the rising of the land around Hudson Bay ; C. R. Van Hise,

Movements of rocks under deformation; Alfred C. Lane, Possible

depth of mining and boring ; Harry Fielding Reid, Notes on glaciers ;

Frank Leverett, The relation between ice lobes, south from the Wis-

consin driftless area; Frank Leverett, The loess of western Illinois and

southeastern Iowa; G. Frederick Wright, High level terraces of the

middle Ohio and its tributaries; H. L. Fairchild, Four great kame

areas of western New York; Warren Upham, Preglacial and post-

glacial channels of the Cuyahoga and Rocky Rivers; C. H. Hitchcock,

Paleozoic terranes in the Connecticut Valley; C. Willard Hayes, The

Devonian formations of the southern Appalachians; N. H. Darton,

Notes on relations of lower members of costal plain series in South

Carolina; N. H. Darton, Resumé of general stratigraphic relations in

the Atlantic costal plain from New Jersey to South Carolina; T. C.

Chamberlin, The Natchez formations; Arthur Keith, Some stages of

Appalachian erosion.

The American Psychological Association met at the Univer-

sity of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Friday and Saturday December 27

and 28, 1895.

Friday, December 27,10 A. M.—Psychology and Physiology, Pro-

fessor George S. Fullerton; Description of a Series of Physical and

Mental Tests on the Students of Columbia College, Dr. Livington Far-

rand ; Some Psycho-Neural Data, Dr. Arthur MacDonald; An Ex-

perimental Investigation of the Processes of Ideation, Mr. Oliver Corn-

man. (Introduced by Professor Lightner Witmer).

2.30 P. M.— Address of the President, Professor J. McKeen Cattell ;

Consciousness and Time, Professor Charles A. Strong ; Some Conditions

of Will Development, Brother Chrysostom; A Psychological Interpre-

12 y

170 The American Nuturalist. [February,

tation of the Rules of Definition in Logic, Professor Alfred H. Lloyd.

Saturday, December 28, 10 A. M—Discussion on Consciousness and

Evolution, Professors William James, E. D. Cope, J. Mark Baldwin

and G. S. Ladd.

2.30 P. M.—An Experiment on the Effects of Loss of Sleep, Profes-

sor G. T. W. Patrick; Further Researches on the Psychic Develop-

ment of Young Animals, and its Physical Correlation, Professor Wesley

Mills; Variations in the Patellar Reflex as an Aid in Mental Analy-

sis, Professor Lightner Witmer ; Experiments on Induced Hallucina-

tions, Professor James H. Hyslop; A Case of Dream Reasoning, Pro-

fessor W. Romaine Newbold.

Informal communications were made at various times during the

sessions.

A fuller account of the papers and discussions will be found in our

department of Psychology ; q. v.

Indiana Academy of Science.—The eleventh Annual Meeting

of the Indiana Academy of Science was held at Indianapolis, Decem-

ber 27th and 28th.

The session was of unusual interest and the Autiniddines good. Forty

two new members were elected. This indicates the interest that is

being aroused in the State in scientific lines.

The address of the retiring President, A. W. Butler, of Brookville,

on “Indiana: A Century of Changes in the Aspects of Nature,” met with

enthusiastic applause.

A poem on the “ Naturalist” recited by W. W. Pfrimmer was a

novel, yet enjoyable feature.

The report of the biological Survey of Turkey Lake was another new

feature of the meeting, and attracted much favorable attention.

The following papers were presented :

Unconscious Mental Cerebration, C. E. Newlin; Human Physiology

in its Relation to Biology, Guido Bell; A means of preventing Hog

Cholera, D. W. Dennis; The Hopkins. Seaside Laboratory at Pacific

Grove, Cal., B. M. Davis; Glacial and Eolian Sands of the Iroquois

and Tippecanoe River Valleys, A. H. Purdue; The recent earthquakes

east of the Rocky Mountains, A. H. Purdue; Some minor processes of

Erosion, J. T. Scoville; Kettle Holes at Maxinkuckee, J.T. Scoville;

Fossils from sewer trenches in the Glacial Drift, Wm. M. Whitten ;

Relief map of Arkansas, John F. Newsom; Notes on the Fauna of the

black shales of Bartholomew and Jackson Counties, V. F. Marsters ;

Botanical Literature of the State Library, John S. Wright ; Micro-

scope slides of vegetable material for use in Determinative work, John

1896.] Proceedings of Scientifie Societies. 171

S. Wright; Embryology of Hydrastis canadensis, Geo. W. Martin;

Some determinative factors underlying Plant Variation, Geo. W. Mar-

tin; Variationsin the cleavage of the Fundulus Egg, Geo. W. Martin ;

Hemoglobin and its Derivatives, A. J. Bigney; Effects of heat upon

the Irritability of Muscle, A. J. Bigney ; The evolution of sex in Cy-

matogaster, C. H. Eigenmann; The circulation of protoplasm in the

manubrium of Chara fragilis, D. W. Dennis; A new Subterranean

Crustacean from Indiana, W. P. Hay ; A peculiar crawfish from south-

ern Indiana, W. P. Hay; A note on the breeding habits of the cave

salamander, Speterpes maculicaudus, W..P. Hay; Notes on a collection

of fishes from Dubois County, Indiana, W. J. Moenkhaus ; The geo-

graphical variation of Etheostoma nigrum and E. olmstedi, W. J.

Moenkhaus; A revision and synonomy of the Parrus group of Union-

ide, with 6 plates, R. Ellsworth Call ; The fishes of the Missouri River

Basin, B. W. Evermann and J.T. Scoville; Recent investigations con-

cerning the Redfish (Oncorhynchus nerka) at its spawning grounds in

Idaho, B. W. Evermann and J. T. Scoville; Additional notes on

Indiana birds, A. W. Butler ; A mammal new to Indiana, A. W. Butler ;

Some beneficial results from the use of Fungicides as a preventive of

Corn Smut, Wm. Stuart; Ratio of alcohol to yeast in Fermentation,

Katherine E. Golden; Distribution of Orchidacee in Indiana, Alida

M. Cunnigham; A new station for Pleodorina, Severance Burrage ;

Additional notes on Animal Parasites collected in the State, A. W.

Bitting ; Report upon certain collections presented to State Biological

Survey, Stanley Coulter; Infection by Bread, Katherine E. Golden ;

Certain plants as an index of Soil Character, Stanley Coulter ; Forms

of Xanthium canadense and X. strumarium, J. C. Arthur; A new hab-

itat for Gastrophilus, A. W. Bitting; Noteworthy Indiana Phanero-

gams, Stanley Coulter.

The following reports relating to the State Biological Survey were

made:

Second contribution to the knowledge of Indiana Mollusca, R. Ells-

worth Call; Contributions to the Biological Survey of Wabash County,

Albert B. Ulrey; Report of the Biological Survey, Zodlogy, C. H.

Eigenmann.

Turkey Lake has been taken as a station for exhaustive study of a

limit of environment and the variation of its inhabitants, and the fol-

lowing reports represent the first seasons work :

First Report of the Biological Station, C. H. Eigenmann ; Some of

the physical features of Turkey Lake, D. C. Ridgley ; Hydrographic

map of Turkey Lake, J. Juday ; Temperatures of Turkey Lake, J. P.

172 The American Naturadist. [February,

Dolan; Inhabitants ot Turkey Lake in general, C. H. Eigenmann ;

Hirudinea of Turkey Lake, Bessie C. Ridgley ; Rotifera of Turkey

Lake, D. C. Kellicott ; Clodocera of Turkey Lake, E. S. Birge; Mol-

lusea of Turkey Lake, R. Ellsworth Call; Odonata of Turkey Lake,

D. C. Kellicott ; Fishes and tailed batrachians of Turkey Lake, C. H.

Eigenmann ; Tailless batrachians of Turkey Lake, C. Atkinson ; Snakes

of Turkey Lake, H. G. Reddick; Turtles of Turkey Lake, C. H.

Eigenmann; Water birds of Turkey Lake, N. M. Chamberlain; Flora

of Turkey Lake, O. H. Meincke; Methods of determining Variations,

C. H. Eigenmann ; Variation of Etheostoma of Turkey and Tippecanoe

Lakes, W. J. Moenkhaus.

The officers for the next year are as follows:

President, Stanley Coulter of Purdue University ; Vice-President,

Thos. C. Gray of Rose Polytechnic; Secretary, John S. Wright of

Indianapolis ; Assistant Secretary, A. J. Bigney of Moores Hill Col-.

lege ; Treasurer, W. P. Shannon of Greensburg.

A. J. Bianry, Assistant Secretary.

The Biological Society of Washington.— November 30th, the

following communications were read: Edw. L. Greene, Some Funda-

mentals of Nomenclature; Theo. Holm, Contributions to the flora of

the District of Columbia ; David White, The Mode of Development of

Exogenous Structure in Paleozoic Lycopods, a review of Williamson

and Renault.

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

Notice Concerning the Geological Map of Europe, Pub-

lished Under the Auspices of the International Congress

of Geologists.—At the Third Session of the International Congress

of Geologists, held in Berlin in 1885, the committee on a geological

map of Europe made a report, in which the following conditions of

publication were announced (Berlin Volume, page LXII): “The

house of Reimer & Co., undertakes the publication at its own expense

on the sole condition that the international committee guarantee the

sale of 900 copies at 100 frances per copy, and furnishes the sum in

advance. _

The subscription price of 100 francs will be augmented to 125 francs

in the regular book trade.

1396.] Scientific News. 173

The committee has divided this guarantee subscription as follows:

Each one of the large countries of Europe (to wit: Great Britain,

France, Spain, Italy, Austro-Hungary, Germany, Scandinavia and

Russia) agrees to take 100 copies. The six small countries (i. e., Bel-

gium, Holland, Denmark, Switzerland, Portugal, Roumania) will di-

vide among them the remaining 100 copies, etc.”

In the Fourth Session of the Congress held in London in 1888, the

following note occurs in the report of the proceedings of the committee

on the geological map of Europe (London Volume, p. 59).

“The American committee requested of the Directory to be admitted

as a subscriber to the map of Europe on the same terms as the great

countries of Europe (‘sic’) i. e.. for at least one hundred copies and at

the same price.”

Dr. Frazer, the Secretary of the American Committee, obtained the

names of American subscribers to the “ one hundred copies at the same

price” (100 francs), within a short time of the granting of this request,

and promptly notified the publication committee in Berlin, Messrs.

Beyrich and Hauchecorne, of the fact.

It appears, however, the map is being offered for sale in the German

catalogues at the price mentioned in the Berlin resolution as that ac-

corded to original subscribers.

On this account the undersigned advises the survivors of those who

so patriotically came forward in 1888 to enable the geologists of the

United States to enjoy same privileges as those of the great countries

of Europe, to send through their own agents for the geological map of

Europe, since there would no longer be any advantage in obtaining

them through a single channel.

List of subscribers to the geological map of Europe in the order of

` their subscriptions, with number of copies:

Williams College, 1; Ohio State Univ., Columbus, 1; Rensselaer

Polytechnic Institute, 1; University of Virginia, 1; Am. Inst. of

Mining Engineers, 1; Amherst College, 1 ; Cornell University Library,

1; Provincial Museum, Halifax, 1 ; Wesleyan University, Middletown,

Conn., 1; Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pa.,1; Academy of Natural

Sciences, Philadelphia, 1 ; Univ. of California, Berkely, Cal., 1; Prof.

€. H. Hitchcock, for Dartmouth College, 1; Prof. J. S. Newberry

(dead), 1; Indiana University, 1 ; Smith College, Northampton, Mass.,

1; U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C., 3; Rutgers College,

New Brunswick, N. J., 1; Yale University Library, 1; American

Geographical Society, 1; Peter Redpath Museum, McGill College,

Montreal, 1; U.S. Military Academy, West Point, N-Y., 1; Prof: G

174 The American Naturalist. [February,

A. Konig, 1; N. Y. State Library, Capitol, Albany,2; Eckley B.

Coxe, Drifton, Pa. (dead), 2; University of Nebraska, 1; Kansas State

Library, 1; B. S. Lyman, 1; Johns Hopkins University,1; F. W.

Matthieson, La Salle, Ill., 1; Lehigh Valley R. R. Co., Philadelphia,

1; E. V. d’Invilliers, Philadelphia, 1; University of Wisconsin, Mad-

ison, Wis.,1; Second Geological Survey of Pennsylvania, 2; State

Mining Bureau of California, 1 ; Washington University, 1; Dr. R. W.

Raymond, 1; Franklin Institute, Phila., 1 ; Harvard College Library,

1 ; University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, 1 ; University of the City

of New York, 1; Massachusetts Agric. College, Amherst, 1; W. S.

Keyes, San Francisco, Cal., 1; R. D. Baker, Philadelphia, 2; S. F.

Emmons, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D.C.,1; H. M. Sims,

Shenandoah, Page Co., Va.,1; American Museum of Natural History,

N. Y., I; Prof. Alexander Winchell, Univ. of Mich., Ann Arbor

(dead), 1; H. Huber, Argentine, Kansas, 1; Jas. E. Mills, E. Quincy,

Cal., 1; Cooper Union, N. Y.,1; Collegiate and Polytechnic Institute,

Brooklyn, 1 ; Cornell University, N. Y., 1; Joseph D. Potts, Phila-

delphia (dead), 1; Prof. J. C. Fales, Danville, Ky., Centre College, 1 ;

T. H. Aldrich, Blocton, Ala.,1; Chas. Paine, Pittsburg, 1; Colorado

School of Mines, Golden, Col.,1; Western Reserve Univ. (d. E. W.

Morley), Cleveland, Ohio, 1; F. Klepotoko, Houghton, Michigan, 1 ;

` Thos. Macfarlane, Ottawa, Canada, 1; Arkansas Geological Survey,

Little Rock, 1; Buchtel College, Akron, Ohio, 1 ; Mercantile Library,

Philadelphia, 1; University of Michigan, Ann Arbor,1; Alabama

Geological Survey, University of Alabama,1; E. S. Whelen, Phila-

delphia (dead), 1; Worcester Polytechnic Institute, 1; Julius Bien,

N. Y.,1; W. A. Ingham,1; Dr. Jas. P. Kimball, 109 East 15th St.,

N. 3. City, 1; Dr, J. 8. Newberry, N. Y., Dec. 29, ’87, 1; New

Harmony Institution, Ind.,1; R. Ellsworth Call, Des Moines, Iowa, 1 ;

Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., 1; Hastings, Jno. B., Ketchum, Alturas Co.,

Idaho, 1 ; Geol. Surv. of Minn., Minneapolis, Minn., 1 ; Lacoe, R. D.,

Pittston, Luzerne Co., Penna., 1; Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, N.

Y.,1; Mt. Holyoke Seminary, South Hadley, Mass., 1 ; Colby Uni-

versity, Waterville, Me., 1 ; Cincinnati Soc. of Nat. History, 1 ; Packer

Collegiate Institution, Brooklyn, N. Y.,1; Emmens, Stephen H., Har-

rison, N, Y.,1; School of Mines, Rapid City, Dakota Territory, 1;

Ohio University, Athens, O., Prof. A. D. Morrill, 1 ; Proctor, John R.,

Franklin, Ky., Aug. 19,’88,1; Rose Polytechnic School, Terre Haute,

Ind., Aug. 19, 88,1; Read, Jas. P.. Calico, San Bernard Co., Aug. 31,

"88, 1; Oberlin College, Ohio, Aug. 23,’88,1; Frazer, Persifor, Phila-

delphia, 1 ; Streator Township High School, La Salle Co., Ill., R. Wil-

1896]. Scientific News. 175

liam‘ Brice, Sept. 21, ’88,1; State Univ., Athens, Ga., Prof. J. W.

Spencer, Nov. 12, 1888, 1; Lowry, Thos., Minneapolis, Minn., Nov. 13,

1888 (N. H. Winchell), Nov. 13, 1.—Total, 100.

Dr. Eugenio Dugés died in Morelia, Mex., Jany. 13th. 1895. He

was born in Montpellier, France, but had resided in Mexico since

1865. He was a special student of Coleoptera, and had furnished

students in the United States with many specimens.

Dr. Adolf Gerstiicker, Professor of Zoology in the University of

Griefswald, died June 20th, 1895. He was born Aug. 30th, 1828, and

is widest known from his share in the Zoologie of Carus and Gersticker

and his contributions to Bronns’ Thierleben.

Dr. Th. Ebert has been called as Professor of Paleontology to the

Prussian Geological Institute, and Dr. Miiller as Professor of Regional

Geology in the same institute.

Henry John Carter, well known for his researches on Protozoa,

Sponges, etc., died at Rudleigh Salterton, England, May 4th, 1895.

Dr. Wm. H. Flower, of the British Museum, has been elected cor-

responding-‘member for anatomy of the Paris Academy of Sciences.

Dr. W. I. Nickerson, of the University of Colorado, has been ap-

pointed Instructor in Biology in the University of Evanston, Ill.

Prof. A. Sabatier, of Montpellier, has been elected corresponding

member for Zoology of the Paris Academy of Sciences.

Dr. F. Schütt, of Kiel, has been appointed Professor of Botany and

Director of the Botanical Gardens at Griefswald.

Dr. Joseph G. Norwood, the well-known geologist and paleontolo-

gist, died at Columbia, Mo., May 6th, 1895.

Dr. E. Hering, of Prague, becomes Professor of Physiology at Leip-

zig, as successor to the late Prof. Ludwig.

Dr. René duBois Raymond is assistant in the experimental division

of the Physiological Institute in Berlin.

Dr. W. A. Setchell, of Yale College, has been appointed Professor of

Botany in the University of California.

Dr. F. Sansoni, Professor of Mineralogy in Pavia, and editor of the

Italian Journal of Mineralogy, is dead.

Mr. Charles D. Aldright has been appointed Instructor in Biology

at the University of Cincinnati.

C. C. Babington, Professor of Botany in the University of Cam-

bridge, died July 22d, aged 86

176 The American Naturalist. [February,

James Mortimer Adye, an entomologist, died at Bournemouth, Eng-

land, May 30th, 1895, aged 34.

Dr. Jas. E. Humphrey has been appointed Lecturer in Botany in

Johns Hopkins University.

Dr. A. Kowalevsky has been elected a foreign associate of the Acad-

emy of Sciences of Paris,

Prof. J. G. Agardh has given his magnificent collection of Algz to

the University of Lund.

Pietro Doderlein, Professor of Zoology and Geology in Palermo,

died March 28, aged 84.

Dr. Pellegrino Strobel, geologist and Conchologist, died at Parmas

Italy, June 9th, 1895.

Dr. R. Hanitsch has gone as Director to the Raffles Museum and

Library at Singapore.

The Linnean Society of London has awarded a gold medal to Prof.

F. Cohn, of Breslau.

Dr. Gustav von Nordenskiold, ethnographer and erystallographer, of

Stockholm, is dead.

Dr. A. D. Mead has been appointed Instructor in Neurology in

Brown University.

Dr. Reinitzer, of Prag, has been called as Extraordinarius Professor

of Botany to Graz.

Dr. E. Schöbl succeeded Dr. Schiemenz as Librarian of the Naples

Zoological Station. ‘

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ogy.

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Vol. XXX. * MARCH, 1896. 5 No. 351

CONTENTS.

PAGE PAGE

THE History AND PRINCIPLES OF GEOLOGY, AND Diatomaceze in New York.—The aies sea

IIs Alm =C Hasen fr. s . 177 | of Glacial Cha atone gh New . 211

THE CONSTANCY OF De bits BPRS IN peta Bot no —A recent paper on the relatio on nee

Fore Mik. 77, 2. . 184 | tween the As ae ei RFE Basidiomycetes

LIFE BEFORE FOSSILS. aoe Dori ey eo TeS (Iilusteated.)~ Polyporaceie, Hydnaces, Helvel-

acee.—The Smut of Indian-Corn. ‘= An

Birps oF New Guinea (FLY CATCHERS AND

(

OTHERS.) (Con oe seas y 1065, Vol.

XXIX.) GOS. Mead, : 195

Smut ungi.— canietion: of Anthoe ocyan

__Eprror’s TABLE.—A Nat cam Uire, The Zoology.—The Myxosporidia.—The Segmen-

X rays (Iifustrated Sue ing Snakes.— tation of the Hex ody.—The Coxal

The pa at of oN sai yaaa Glands of Thelyphonus caudatus. — (€

Exploration.—The Huxley Memorial... 200 a and se ae gee and Lefts

Recent Lir Sy f Among Fishes.— Abnormal Sacrum im an

Litho vary a ths tee geet epost os | Alligator.—The Polar Hares of Eastern North

orgia—Bailey’s Plant Breedi 993 | America, with Descriptions of New Forms. . 229

P FSO. eao Entomology. —On Certain Geophilidæ De-

a a Le. ae ee y Meinert. — Life-hist sary of Seale

Petrography —The Papes of Missouri— Etre The EOT of Topot. .- 243

as se casted cee: i Tepe skeet oe: ogy.—Consciousness and Evolution. . 249

Finland.—Rocks from the Swee Ë Grits Hills, pee aus Pag ie Cave i area

.-:. , 207 | in Yucatan. (Iustrated.) o o

Montana.—Petrographical New 7 ;

Geology ana Paleontology. — Bear ere Forma- PROCEEDINGS OF Soe ENERG T e Dee

Hem hi the Oecurrence of Neocenè Marine SCIENTIFIC NEWS. . i 8 SS ae

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AMERICAN NATURALIST

VoL. XXX. March, 1896. 351

THE HISTORY AND PRINCIPLES OF GEOLOGY, AND

ITS AIM.

By J. C. Hartzett, JR., M. 8.

From the earliest times the structure of the earth has been

an object of interest to man, not merely on account of the use-

ful materials he obtained from its rocky formation, but also

for the curiosity awakened by strange objects it presented to

his notice. The south and west of Asia, and much of the

country bordering the Mediterranean, were particularly favor-

able for directing attention to geological phenomena. Earth-

quakes were of frequent occurrence, changing the relative

positions of sea and land. Volcanoes were seen in eruption,

adding layers of molten rock to those of sand and mud filled

with the shells of the ocean. The strata in the hills abounded

in evidences of similar collections of vegetable and marine life

far removed from access of the sea.

The structure of the earth, however, received but little at-

tention previous to the 7th century, B.C. The extent of the

surface known was limited, and the changes upon it were not

so rapid as to excite special attention. The ancient Hebrews,

in the time of Solomon (1015 B. C.), prosecuted their voyages

178 The American Naturalist. [March,

through the Straits of Babelmandeb into the Indian Ocean,

bringing home the produce of the tropical regions; while the

ships sent westward to the Atlantic returned with tin, silver,

lead and other metalic products of Spain and Great Britian.

The earliest idea formed of the earth seems to have been

that it was a flat circular disk, surrounded on all sides by

water, and covered with the heavens as with a canopy, even

philosophers looked upon the earth as a disk swimming upon

the water. Homer (800 B. C.) regarded the earth as a flat cir-

cle surrounded by mysterious waters. The nations that were

upon its border were called Cimmerians, and were supposed to

live in perpetual darkness,

As the ancients slowly gained a knowledge of the country

surrounding their provinces through commercial intercourse,

wars, and the search for knowledge, they were undoubtedly

struck with the differences of the topography and formations.

Thus geology is undoubtedly, the outgrowth of geographical

knowledge.

The 7th and 6th centuries B. C. were remarkable for great

advance in the knowledge of the form and extent of the earth.

Their first discoveries were probably made by the Pheni-

cians. Their investigations were along the shores of the Med-

iterranean, and passing through the Straits of Gibraltar, they

extended their researches into Spain and Africa and the Can-

aries.

Pythagoras (583 B. C.) observed the phenomena that were

then attending the surface of the earth, and proposed theories

for explaining the changes that had taken place in geological

time. He held that in addition to volcanic action, the changes

in the level of the sea and land were due to the retiring of the

sea.

Aristotle (384 B. C.) recognized the interchange constantly

taking place between land and sea by the action of running

water and of earthquakes, and remarked “ how little man can

perceive in the short space of his life of operations extending

through eternity of time.”

- Geographical knowledge was greatly advanced by the con-

quest of Alexander the Great (356 B. C.), in making known

1896.) Principles of Geology and ‘its Aim. 179

Persia, and science was advanced by sending out expeditions

to explore and survey the various provinces he had conquered.

The Greeks he sent out, and also those who accompanied him,

were critical observers and carefully described the products

and aspects of the country, and made collections of all that

was interesting in regard to the organic and inorganic pro-

ducts.

Ptolemy (323 B. C.) discovered Abyssinia and navigated the

Arabian Sea, and Silineus (306 B. C.) ascended the Ganges to

Batna and extended his expedition to the Indus.

It was the military genius of the Romans which led to the

survey of nearly all Europe, and large tracts of Asia and

Africa. In the height of their power they had surveyed and

explored all the coast of the Mediterranean, Italy, the Balkan

peninsula, Spain, Gaul, West Germany and Britain, and their

practical genius led them to the study of the natural resources

of every province and state brought under their sway.

Eratosthenes (276 B. C.) considered the world to be a sphere

revolving with its surrounding atmosphere on one and

the same axis and having one center. His theories were per-

fected by Hipparchas (160 B. C.). He attempted to catalogue

the stars and to fix their relative position, and he applied to

the determining of every point on the surface the same rule he

introduced in the arrangement of the constellation.

Strabo (60 B. C.) noticed the rise and fall of the tide, and

maintained that the land changed its level and not the sea, and

that such changes happened more easily to the land beneath

the sea on account of its humidity.

Ptolemy (150 A. D.) was the first scientific geographer. He

followed the principles of Hipparchas, which had been ne-

glected during the two centuries and a half since his time,

even by Strabo and Pliny. In Ptolemy’s work is found for

the first time the mathematical principle of the construction

of maps, as well as several projections of the earth’s surface.

After the great achievements of Ptolemy to the 13th cen-

tury, the cultivation of the physical sciences was neglected.

: In the 10th century Avicenna, Almar, and other Arabian

writers commented on the works of the Romans, but added

little of their own.

180 The American Naturalist. [March,

From the 13th to the 16th century, astronomy, travels, and

commercial interests occupied the attention of the different

nations, but geology did not appear as a separate science until

in Italy in the 16th century. It began by being a record of

observed facts. This was not enough, however, for it did not

satisfy the demand as to how the phenomena were produced.

High above sea level, and far inland, imbedded in solid rock,

were found fossils. At the outset it was unfortunately linked

to the belief that they were relics of the Noachean deluge.

Some held that they were the result of the formation of a fatty

matter, or of terrestrial exhalations or of the influence of the

heavenly bodies, or that they were merely concreations, or

sports ofnature. The abundance of fossils in the strata of the

Apennine range could not fail to arrest attention and excite

inquiries. Leonardo da Vinci (1519) and Fracostaro, whose

attention was engaged by the multitude of curious petrifac-

tions which were brought to light in 1517 on the mountains

of Verona in quarrying rock for repairing the city, had sound

views, and showed the inadequacy of the terrestrial deluge to

collect marine fossils.

Collections were made for museums, that of Canceolarius,

at Verona being the most famous. Descriptive catalogues of

these collections were published

Only a few held that they were the remains of animals.

Palissy in 1580, was the first who dared to assert in Paris that

fossil remains once belonged to marine animals. The ques-

tion was naturally asked “ How came they there?” The re-

sult of investigation showed that the rocks must have accu-

mulated around them, and hence could not always have been

as they were found and that the arrangement must have

changed since they were formed. This brought about the

study of the construction of the earth.

Their chief objects were the examination of the materials

out of which the solid framework of the earth was built, and

the determination of their chemical composition, physical

properties, manner of occurrence, and their characteristics.

Thus they started out with the idea that rocks were made.

through secondary causes.

1896.] Principles of Geology, and its Aim. 181

Steno (1669) observed a succession in the strata, and pro-

posed the theory that there were rocks older than the fossilif-

erous strata in which organic remains oceur. He also distin-

guished between marine and fluvialite formations. He also

published his work “ De solido intra solidum naturalites con-

tento,” in which he proves the identity of the fossil teeth found

in Tuscany with those of living sharks.

Scilla, in 1670, published a treatise on the fossils of Cala-

bria, and maintained the organic nature of fossil shells. But

both Steno and Scilla referred their occurrence to the Noach-

ean deluge.

In England the diluvialists were busy forming idle theories

to give plausibility to their creed, that the Noachean deluge

was the cause of all the past changes on the earth’s surface.

Differing somewhat in detail, they all agreed in the notion of

an interior abyss whence the waters rushed, breaking up and

bursting through the crust of the earth, to cover the surface,

and whither, after the deluge, they returned. Such absurd

notions greatly hindered the advance of science.

Leibnitz (1680) proposed the bold theory that the earth was

originally in a molten state from heat, and that the primary

rocks were formed by the cooling of the surface, which also

produced the primeval ocean by condensing the surrounding

vapors. The sedimentary strata, he held, resulted from the

subsiding of the waters that had been put in motion from the

collapse of the crust on the cooling and contracting nucleus.

Burnet (1680) published his “Sacred Theory of the Earth,”

and it received great applause. It was written in ignorance

of the facts of the earth’s structure, and was an ingenious specu-

lation. It abounds in sublime and poetical conceptions in

language of extraordinary eloquence. In 1692 he published

a work which treated of the Mosaic Fall as an allegory.

Lister sent to the Royal Society, in 1683, a proposal for

maps of salts and minerals. He was the first to recognize the

arrangement of the earth’s materials in strata, continuous over

large areas, and resembling each other in different countries.

Hooke (1688) and Ray (1690), differing as much from Bur-

net as from Leibnitz, considered the esseritial condition of the

182 The American Naturalist. {March

globe to be one of change, and that the forces now in action

would, if allowed sufficient time, produce changes as great as

those of geological time. Hooke published a “ Discourse on

Earthquakes,” which contains the most philosophical view of

the time respecting the notions of fossils and the effect of

earthquakes in raising up the bed of the sea. Woodward per-

ceived that the lines of outcrops of the strata were parallel

with the ranges of mountains. He formed, about the year

1695, a collection of specimens which he systematically ar-

ranged and gave to the University of Cambridge.

They were followed in the same direction by Vallismeme

(1720), Moro (1740,) Buffon (1749), Lehman (1756), and Fuch-

sel (1773), each contributing something additional, and ad-

vanced the most philosophical views yet presented respecting

the fossiliferous strata. The first two made observations

throughout Italy and the Alps. Moro endeavored to make

the production of strata correspond in time with the account

of the creation of the world in six days.

Buffon published his “ Natural History,” in which he ad-

vanced views respecting the formation and modification of

mountains and valleys by the action of water.

Geology did not begin to assume the rank of an important

science until its application to the practical purposes of mining

and agriculture was first pointed out in 1780 by Werner, Prof.

of Mineralogy in the School of Mines at Freiberg in Saxony.

He greatly advanced the science by establishing the super-

position of certain groups, by giving a system and names.

He had very crude ideas regarding the origin of the strata.

He supposed that the various formations were precipitated

over the earth in succession from a chaotic fluid ; even the ig-

neous rocks he held to be chemical precipitations from the

waters. |

Thus we see that the history of geology has been a record of

failures, and it was not until Hutton (1788), rejecting all the-

ories as to the beginning of the world returned to the opinions

of Pythagoras and Ray. He pointed out that geologists must

study the present if they would learn of the past; and he

labored to show that the forces now in operation are capable

1896.] Principles of Geology, and its Aim. 183

of forming rocks and of bringing about the changes that have

occurred on the earth. He held that the strata which now

compose the continents were once beneath the sea, and were

formed out of the waste of preéxisting continents by the action

of the same forces which are now destroying even the hardest

rocks. Hutton was the kind of man the science had so long

been in need of, and by his teaching geologists were at last

started on the only path that could possibly lead them to

truth. He drove out at once and forever the imaginary agen-

cies which the early geologists had been so ready to have re-

course to, and laid down the principle that in geological spec-

ulation “no powers are to be employed that are not natural

to the globe, no actions to be admitted of except those of which

we know the principle, and no extraordinary events to be al-

leged in order to explain a common appearance.” He occu-

pied himself mainly studying the changes that are now taking

place on the earth’s surface, and the means by which they

were brought about, and in demonstrating the fact that the

changes that had happened during the past periods of the

earth’s history were of the same kind and due to the same

causes as those now going on.

The determination of the order ôf the strata, and the group-

ing of them in chronological order, were begun by Lehman

(1756) and carried on by Fuchsel (1773), Pallas (1785) and

Werner (1789). Smith made the most important contribution

to this subject when, in 1790, he published his Tabular View

of the British Strata. He showed their superposition and char-

acterized the different groups by their peculiar fossils.

(To be continued.)

184 The American Naturalist. [March,

THE CONSTANCY OF BACTERIAL SPECIES IN

NORMAL FORE MILK.’

By H. L, Bottey.

It is recognized that aside from actual dirt, as, for example,

drippings from the hands of the milker, dirt from his clothing,

and hairs and manurial particles from the sides of the animal,

that the fore milk constitutes the most productive source of the

bacterial flora of milk. Schultz and others have placed quan-

titative determinations at from fifty to one hundred thousand

per cubic centimeter. As the character of the germ content is

becoming such a matter of importance in economic labors

with milk and its product, it is apparent that a consideration

of the types of germ present in the normal udder should com-

mand early attention of the bacteriologically inclined dairy-

men.

The question is of necessity, one of such breadth that it

must be approached in separate phases, such, as for example,

the study of the presence ðr absence of physiological groups,

constancy of definite species, etc. During the year just closed

two such points have been under investigation. The primary

object, while being a matter of simple interest, had also the

direct aim of determining the relation of normal fore milk to

curd inflation in cheese manufactory. The results of the

work have in part been reported in a paper read before the

General Section of the American Association of Agricultural

Colleges and Experimental Stations, July 19, 1895; showing

that, in so far as the investigation had been carried, gas gen-

erating species such as are accountable for “ pinhole forma-

tion” or curd inflation are not normal to the fore milk of the

healthy udder.

Read before the Section of Botany of the American Association for the Ad-

vancement of Science, Springfield Meeting, August 31, 1895. Also published in

Centralblatt fiir Bacteriologie und Parasitenkunde, Ab. II, B and I, No. 22-23.

? Bolley and Hall : Cheese curd inflation : Its relation to the bacterial flora of

fore milk. Centralb. f. Bact. u. Parasiteuk., II, Ab. I, Bd., No. 22-23.

1896.] Bacterial Species in Normal Fore Milk. 185

This conclusion was based upon preliminary cheese curd

tests made at Madison, Wisconsin, August, 1894, and duplica-

ted at Fargo in October, and finally upon qualitative analysis

made during a period of three winter months, with ten differ-

ent milch cows under consideration.

The point to be reported upon, at this time, is that of the

constancy of species as found : (a) for the same cow for a given

length of time ; (b) in the same teat of the same cow; and (c)

as to whether species are common to different cows or not upon

same dates.

In general, the evidence of the work associated with the last

named report, was to the effect that there is no evidence that

germs are of any certainty common to different animals upon

the same date under like conditions ; but that a certain inhab-

itant of the udder of the same animal may remain quite con-

stant. Thus while only one species, number 30, was observed

to be present in more than two animals of the original ten

animal test upon different dates, several different species were

found to occur at several dates in the same udder.

Commencing July 1st, three animals were placed under cul-

tural investigation, number 24 of which was an animal of the

original ten, also number 21. Cultures were attempted from

each teat upon gelatine and agar, as often as the work could

be handled, the same methods of procuring milk being used

as in the previous work, except in the different tests of the

same animal, the milk tube or trochar, was inserted different

depths. Some sixty of these distinct milkings were taken

upon fifteen different dates, during which time the cows ran

upon a clean pasture during the day, being housed at night.

The milk samples were taken sometimes in thé morning and

sometimes at night. In all, thirty-seven different species of bac-

teria were separated ; and, as in past work, were found to be of

various physiological types, gelatine liquifiers, non-liquifiers,

solid curd types, peptonizing forms, acid and alkali curdlers,

ete., including bacilli, micrococci of various forms, and a strep-

tococcus. Thusit may be said that, in general, forms collected

are miscellaneous.

186 : The American Naturalist. [March,

Results: Again, there is no marked evidence that species

are common among different animals, but there is strong evi-

dence of constancy of appearance of certain types when once

present. This, perhaps, is to be expected, for it is hardly pos-

sible that in an ordinary milking all individuals could be

excluded from the milk cistern and lower teat passages.

The following table and annotations may help to show the

bearings of the work:

Cow No. 24 Species present, per teat, by dates.

Teats = | No. 1 | No. 2 No. 3 No. 4

*Expr. No. 1, July 2nd. | Nos. 1 Nos. 1 Nos. 1 os. 5

Expr. No. 2, Ju ly 3rd. 6 1 9 and 10 5, 100 & 77

Rene. No. 3, J aly, 4th. 16 1 15 (Not taken)

Expr. No. 4, July 6th. | (Not taken) | 17 and 1 20

Expr. No. 5, July 8th. | (Lost Cul.) 23 10, 61 26, 27, 15, 29

Expr. No. 6, July 10th. | 30, 1 (Lost) 31 (Not taken)

Expr. No. 10, July 17th. 58, 53, 1 1 61 66, 20, 15, 1

pr. No. 13, July 23rd. 96, 93, 94 1 96, 97 20, 11, 100, 1

Expr. No. 15, July 28th. 77, 67 (Not taken) | 66, 100 & 67 | 67, 1

*The numbers in each columns—1, 2, 3 and 4 = the laboratory numbers given

the different species.

Annotation No. 1, a solid curd, lactic acid forming micro-

coccus, is seen to be present upon every date, appearing in teat

No. 2 upon all possible dates save one.

Nos. 5, 10, 15, 61 and 67 occurred twice each, the intervening

days being respectively 2, 8,7,4and4. It is worthy of note

that with the exception of No. 67, each of these was found each

time in the same teat.

Cow No. 21 Species present, per teat, by dates.

Teats = No. 1 | No. 2 No. 3 No. 4

Expr. No. 8, July 12th. | Nos. 45 Nos. 31 Nos. 27, 31 | Nos. 20

Expr. No. 9, July, 15th. | (Lost) 31, 50 29,53 |55,56,57,& 31

Expr. No. 12, July 16th.| 53, 51, & 56 3L 45 (Not taken) | (Lost)

1896.] , Bacterial Species in Normal Fore Milk. 187

Annotations :—With this animal it is to be noted that No.

31, a lactic acid forming micrococcus, is constant to all dates,

and upon each date was found present in teat No. 2.

Other germs found twice each were Nos. 45, 53 and 56; but

each time in a different teat.

Cow No. 26 Species present, per teat, by dates.

Teats = No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4

Expr. No. 7, July 1 33, 1 33 39, 61, 67 17, 44, 33

Expr. No. 17, J uly ith. 66, 100, 67 | 33, 15 33 53, 77

and 33

Expr. No. 14, July 23rd.) 33 67, 33 33 (Lost)

In these three milkings from cow No. 26, the common spe-

cies to each date are seen to be Nos. 33 and 67. Out of eleven

milk samples taken No. 33 occurs in the cultures nine times.

The intervening dates being 16,6 and 22 days apart. No. 33 is

a streptococcus and in these distant tests, as to time separation,

is a strong argument of constancy of presence being possible to

an individual species. In growth characteristics this germ is

almost a strict anaerobe.

Studying these tables, we find for each animal the following

numbered germs present:

Cow No. 24.—Nos. 1, 5, 6, 9, 10, 100, 77, 15, 16, 17, 20, 28,

61, 26, 27,,29, 30, 31, 58, 53, ii 96, 93, 94, 97, 11 and 67, a total

of twenty-seven distinct form

Cow No. 21.—Nos. 45, 31, 27, 20, 50, 29, 53, 55, 56, 57 and 51,

a total of eleven.

Cow No. 26.—Nos. 33, 1, 39, 61, 67, 17, 44, 66, 100, 15, 53 and

77, a total of twelve.

The forms common to three animals equal only one, No. 53,

while those common to two of them are seen to be Nos. 1, 100,

77, 15, 61, 29, 31, 66, 67, 29 and 20; eleven constant forms.

General Annotations:—From these summaries it is to be

noted that cow No. 24 from nine different milkings furnished

twenty-seven of the thirty seven germs of the three tests, cow

188 The American Naturalist. [March,

No. 21 six and cow No: 26 four. The numbered germs from

the last named animals are representative of but three milking

dates each. It is thus a possibility, that further milking dates

for these cows might have given others of those common to

cow No. 24. While this point last named, is probably a cor-

rect consideration, it is nevertheless quite clearly indicated

that the great majority of germs are but incidental in a given

udder or teat to the date, perhaps, to the environments of the

animal. There are, however, certain few germs found which

when once present in a teat or udder, remain with marked pre-

sistence. For this capability, these are found to possess what

are presumably the proper physiological functions or require-

ments, as for example, capability to properly thrive in or with-

stand the normal temperature of the animal’s body, and anae-

robic or semi-anaerobic faculties.

As in the case of the paper previously mentioned, this is

given not as final evidence to convince upon the points men-

tioned or suggested, but rather as arecord of preliminary work

accomplished.

Again, an interesting fact is the comparatively low number

of species per milk sample. In the first work, winter collect-

ions, the range was from one to four species, in this it is one to

five with a rather high average number. It is also interesting,

though perhaps to be ex ,that quantitative determinati

vary from low to high numbers for different milkings, very

much in accord to these last named figures,

North Dakota Experiment Station, Fargo, N. D., August, 20,

1895. i

LIFE BEFORE FOSSILS. °

By CHARLES MORRIS.

The beginning of life upon the earth is one of those myste-

ries which, to judge from what we now know about it, seems

likely never to be solved by ascertained facts. There are mod-

1896.] Life Before Fossils. 189

ern facts, indeed, which bear upon it, but few geològical ones,

and none of absolute force. If we leave out of the question the

highly problematical “ Eozoon Canadense,” we find the first

known fossils at a comparatively high level in the rocks; and

these, instead of being, as the theory of evolution requires, of

very simple organization, are of a degree of development which

indicates a very long period of preceding life existence. This

primeval fauna, indeed, contains representatives of every

branch of animal life except the vertebrate, and these not in

their simplest stage, but already divided into their principal

orders: the Ceelenterate class, for instance, yielding examples

of Actinozoa and Hydrozoa ; the Crustacean, of Trilobites and

Phyllopods; and the Molluscan, of Gasteropod

and Pteropods.

This is the beginning of life as we know it. Itis very far

from the beginning of life as evolution demands, or as the char-

acter of the rock strata indicates. Below the Lower Cambrian

beds, which contain these fossils, lie several miles of stratified

rocks similar in physical character to those above them, and

indicating, as Darwin says, “that during a preceding era as

long as, or probably far longer than, the whole interval from

the Cambrian age to the present day. . . . the world

swarmed with living creatures.”

Evidently we are not yet at the origin of life. We are miles

away from it probably—miles of rock strata, that is. Between

the simplest known microscopic creatures and the much devel-

oped Cambrian fossils an immense gap extends. The gap, for

example, between a diatom and an oyster is one that represents

ages of evolution ; yet it is much less in extent than the yawn-

ing gap which we find dividing the line of primeval life, and

which geologists have sought in vain to fill. Believers in

evolution—who represent about all living scientists and the

bulk of living thinkers—cannot but stand in some dismay be-

fore this strange circumstance, which must be proved away or

explained away before their theory can be fully substantiated.

Yet proof is not forthcoming, and only attempts at explanation

remain. :

190 The American Naturalist. [March,

In April, 1885, I presented certain views on this subject

before the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, and

reinforced my arguments by later communications in 1885 and

1886. In 1894 Professor W. K. Brooks, evidently unaware of

the existence of the papers mentioned, advanced a similar hy-

pothesis in the July-August number of the “Journal of

Geology,” presenting a number of interesting facts, though

missing, as it seems to me, much the strongest argument in

defence of the hypothesis.

I propose here to repeat my former hypothesis, with addi-

tional arguments and illustrations—for some of the latter of

which I acknowledge indebtedness to Professor Brooks’s able

paper. :

To begin with, the facts of embryology may be said to point

directly to what was probably the primary condition of life,

The embryos of ocean animals, as a rule, begin life as swim-

ming forms. Even the oyster—a type of sluggishness in

animals—enjoys a brief existence as a swimmer before it ac-

quires a shell and becomes permanently fixed. The same is

the case with the sponge, the coral, and other stationary types,

and with the various creeping or slow moving forms, such as

the echinoderms. Since it has become a settled dogma of

science that each stage of development passed through by the

embryo represents some mature stage in the ancient ancestry

of the animal, the fact stated points almost irresistably to the

conclusion that the far off ancestors of the present stationary

or crawling animals were swimmers—and, for that matter,

naked swimmers, they being as yet destitute of hard skeletal

parts.

Yet no swimming stage of existence is indicated by the old-

est known fossils, or at least only by the minute pteropods and

phyllopods, which were, perhaps, secondary derivatives from

crawling ancestors. The trilobite may have had some swim-

ming powers, yet probably made its way only by crawling, and

the other known forms were crawlers or burrowers, or were

immovably fixed. Thereare traces of jelly fish, it is true, but

these, as they now exist, we know to be derivatives from sta-

tionary forms, and the primeval swimmers indicated by em-

bryology have left no trace of their existence in the rocks.

1896.] ; ` Life Before Fossils, 191

Yet the oceanic waters to-day swarm with swimming life,

and in all probability did so then.. This life, as now existing,

contains many high as well as numerous low forms. Then it

must have consisted of low forms only. The wealth of exist-

ing minor sea life, as observed by the unassisted eye and

revealed by the microscope, is simply boundless. Small jelly

fish are met with in vast armies, hundreds of miles in extent,

and descending to many feet in depth. Pteropods, both the

naked and the shelled forms, occur in prodigious multitudes.

The minute copepod crustaceans are found in countless

swarms, and, though consumed in myriads daily by herring

and other fish, by medusæ, siphonophora and other inverte-

brates, and even by the whale, they are so productive that

their numbers seem undiminished, being found over vast areas

of surface and extending through more than a mile in vertical

depth. Below these again are hosts of microscopic larve and

minute animals, and still lower are countless swarms of proto-

zoa, such as radiolarians, globigerinz, ete.

Here, then, are innumerable swarms of swimming and float-

ing forms, in most part carnivorous, but necessarily requiring

a vegetable basis of nutriment. The foundation food supply for

such a mighty host must be enormous in quantity. The visi-

ble plant life of the ocean, the alge which grow on the bottom,

would not sustain a tithe of such an army. The microscope

must again be brought into requisition, andsthis useful instru-

ment reveals to us an extraordinary profusion of unicellular

plants—diatoms, coccospheres, trichodesmiums, and a few other

types—which extend from the surface to the lowest level of

light penetration, and are so extraordinarily numerous and

prolific as to supply food for all the oceanic host. These, and

the protozoa which feed upon them, form the basic food sup-

ply for the countless myriads of living forms which compose

the fauna of modern seas.

Yet, were the conditions of the ocean as they exist to-day to

be sought for by some far future geologic delver into the myste-

ries of the rocks, almost nothing of this profusion of life would

be revealed, discovery being nearly or entirely confined to

such forms as possess hard skeletons, internal or external, of

192 The American Naturalist. [March,

which most of these forms are destitute. The same was prob-

ably the case with the period which we now have under review,

and of whose life we find few forms except those which habit-

ually dwelt upon the bottom. The ocean may have been as full

of life then as it is to-day, many of the swimmers of that

period, perhaps, representing the ancestral lines out of which

the bottom dwellers had evolved, and which are still in a

measure preserved for usin modern embryos. These primeval

forms may have been even less suitable for fossilization than

their counterparts of to-day. The diatoms, the radiolarians,

and other minute existing forms have silicious shells capable

of preservation. It is quite possible that the early protozoa

and protophytes had no such skeletal prta and that when

they died all trace of them departed.

How far back, then, from the earliest age of fossils must we

place the actual date of the origin of life? Ages perhaps—

epochs—a period as remote from the Cambrian in one direct-

ion as we are in the opposite. It may have taken as long, or

longer, to develop the trilobite as it since has taken to develop

man. During the whole of the immensely long period in

which the miles of earlier strata were being deposited, the

ocean may have been the seat of an abundant life of the lowest

type, and this a very slowly evolving one, the cònditions being

such that competition and the struggle for existence were not

strongly active.

Of the forms of life now existing, the most abundant and

the lowest in organization known to us are the bacteria or

microbes—omnivorous life specks, feeding alike on animals

and plants, and fairly assignable to neither. Possibly life had

its origin in forms like these, or in still lower stages of protoplas-

mic activity, and from this condition developed, after an inter-

minable period, into the simple oceanic protozoa and proto-

phytes typified by the radiolorians and the diatoms, the lowest

forms having characters common to both animals and plants,

while their descendants divided definitely into plants and

animals.

The period here referred to, and.that subsequently consumed

in the development of the trilobite and its companion forms,

1896.] Life Before Fossils. 193.

must have been of very great duration; for the conditions

were such as to make evolution a slow process. The habitat

of these primeval life forms, the oceanic waters, was of the

greatest uniformity, even probably in temperature, and pos-

sessed no condition likely to provoke rapid variation. There

was abundant space and probably abundant food, particularly

in view of the minuteness and slight nutritive demands of

these early animals, and the struggle for existence could not

have been active. Though there were millions devoured

hourly, there were trillions provided for the feast, so that no

great tendency towards the preservation of favorable variations

would have existed.

Yet, though the influences which favor evolution were not

very actively present, they could not have been quite absent.

The innate tendency to vary which all living forms possess

now must have existed then, and the advantage possessed by

the more highly over the more lowly organized forms could not

have been quite wanting. Consequently, development of vary-

ing life forms must have gone on at some rate, and animals

must in time have appeared much higher in organization than

the simple forms from which they emerged.

And the variations which took place were radical in charac-

ter. Variation in the higher recent types of life does not pen-

etrate deeply. After ages of change a vertebrate is a vertebrate

still. Millions of years of change do not convert a cat into some-

thing radically distinct from a cat. Butin the primitive period

the changes were more profound. Variation went down to the

foundation plan of those simple forms and converted them at.

once into something else. A degree of variation which now

would modify the form of a fish’s fin may then have converted

a monad into anew typeof animal. Thus primitive evolution,

working on forms destitute of any definite organization, may

readily have brought into existencea number of highly differ-

ent types of life. As the microbe, for instance, may through

long variation have given rise to the two organic kingdoms of

animals and plants, so the amœba or other low animal form

may have varied into the subkingdoms of mollusca, echinoder-

mata, ccelenterata, etc., or rather into simple swimming forms.

194 The American Naturalist. [March,

each of which was the progenitor of one of these great branches

of the tree of life.

We are here in a realm of the unknown, through which we

are forced to make our way slowly and uncertainly by aid of

the clues of embryology, microscopic life conditions, principles

of variation and development, and the known conditions of

pelagic life. We can only surmise that, as the result of a long

era of evolution,the simple primary forms gave rise to a consider-

able variety of diverse animals, still comparatively minute in

size and simple in organization, swimming by means of cilia,

and typified to-day by the swimming embryos of invertebrate

animals.

As yet—if our hypothesis is well founded—no life existed

upon the bottom of the seas, and the swimming forms were

destitute of any hard parts capable of fossilization. But why

did not some of these forms very early make their way to the

bottom and begin life under the new conditions of contact with

solid substance? And yet why should they have sought the

bottom? Their food supply lay on or near the surface, the

bottom of the shallow waters may have been unsuitable

through the deposition of soft sediment, and the bottom of the

deeper waters very sparse in food. And, more important still,

they were quite unadapted to life on the bottom, and needed a

radical transformation before they could survive under such

conditions. If we look atthe remarkable change which the

‘swimming embryo of a star-fish or sea-urchin, for example,

goes through before any resemblance to the mature form

appears, we may gain some idea of the long series of variations

which the primitive ciliated swimmers must have passed

through to convert them into crawling or stationary bottom-

dwelling forms. Great as was the period needed to produce

these type forms of life, another extended period must have

been necessary to convert them into well adapted habitants of

the solid floor of the seas. ;

(To be Continued.)

1896.] Birds of New Guinea. 195

BIRDS OF NEW GUINEA (FLY CATCHERS AND

OTHERS).

By G. S. Mrap.

Among the many kinds of Flycatchers (Muscicapidz) in-

habiting the Papuan Islands, while there is dissimilarity in so

large a number of species, yet there are not those striking dif-

ferences amounting almost to contrasts which characterize

birds of greater size. Many species have been unnoticed by

travellers and other writers; many exist only in cabinets and

collections, labelled and ticketed, or at most given a few lines

‘of technical summarization in catalogues. With the rank

and file of birds anything more than this is impossible.

Sometimes a particularly attractive specimen of Malurus or

Rhipidura or Pratincola calls attention to itself, or mere acci-

dent brings an individual to the notice of the explorer or

student.

Thus Mr. Wallace notes pointedly “the abnormal red and

black flycatcher,” Peltops blainvillii, so named by Lesson and

Garnot many years since. Itis a sprightly, highly colored

bird with the predominant hues strongly contrasted and still

further accentuated by spots of white on the head and beneath

the wings. In flight this active little flycatcher presents in

turn these conspicuous markings with striking effect. The

red tint is a bright crimson spread over the lower back and

tail coverts. The main color is a steely-green black covering

with greater or less intensity the seven inches of total length.

The genus is represented by this species only.

The same notable expedition to South Eastern New Guinea

that secured the two beautiful prizes Onemophilus macgregorii

and Amblyornis musgravianus, discovered also a new species of

flycatcher, viz., Rhipidura auricularis. It is described as hav-

ing the “upper surface smoky gray; head brownish black ;

tail the same above and below; bill dark brown; legs black.”

The head is marked by black and white stripes, found upon

the wings as well. Upon the chin, throat and breast similar

196 The American Naturalist. [March,

lines of unequal width are plainly drawn. The under parts

are in general buff varied with black and gray. Dots and

bars of white appear on the wings and tail. Its total length

is about six inches.

Rhipidura leucothorax, the Whitebreasted Fantailed Fly-

catcher, is much more widely distributed, being met with in

different parts of New Guinea. The descriptive name here de-

scribes very imperfectly, for the breast is by no means entirely

white as might be inferred; black is almost as prominent, al-

ternating with the white which shows in spaces, though lower

down it crowds the black into narrow bands or crescents. The

general color of the bird above is brown, becoming dark upon the

head, still darker over the bill. The wings are black, finished

off with white spots. This is the appearance too of the tail

feathers as well as of the under side of the wings. There are

also white streaks and lines about the sides of the head and

throat. Bill black above. Length 8 inches.

The family of Wood Songsters (Pecilodryas) are all small

birds rarely exceeding 6.5 inches in total length. The colora-

tion is in general black and white, the former greatly predom-

inating. Pecilodryas albinotata at first sight looks in color not

unlike those fine drongos, the Edolias. In this instance, how-

ever, leaving the disparity of size out of account, the gray is

not nearly so uniform, a dull black and a deep black appear-

ing on the wings, tail and throat including the side face. A

patch of white meets the black on the sides of the neck.

White again is seen on the abdomen and under tail coverts,

becoming discolored along the flanks and sides of the body.

Pecilodryas papuana comes from the same region of the

Arfak Mountains as the foregoing species. It is considerably

smaller in size measuring only 4-5 inches inches in length,

but of brighter color. This is a yellow, somewhat dull an

becoming light brown on the wings and tail. Head and neck

are darker than the body. A crescent of orange runs from

the bill over the eye,

Pecilodryas leucops shares the same habitat. It is not un-

like the preceding in coloration of the body but that of the

head, nape and throat is entirely different. In this case it is

1896.] Birds of New Guinea. 197

a dark gray, to gray on the neck with darker feathers over the

eye. White marks the upper throat and chin and appears as

a prominent spot in front of the eye. Total length nearly five

inches.

From the Arfak Mountains also comes Pecilodryas bimacu-

lata and from the same general region Pecilodryas hypoleuca

and P. brachyura and P. cinerea. The first is conspicuously

black and white, the former color preponderating very largely

of course, while the white shows as bands and bars or stripes.

It is most apparent on the lower parts where it may be reck-

oned as the ground color. l

P. hypoleuca, the Whitebellied, is a rather larger bird, reach-

ing the length of 6 inches. The general color is dusky above,

relieved by white patches on the head. The same color

covers the under parts set off by black on breast and throat.

The last named—P. brachyura, the Shorttailed—is marked

similarly with the tones rather deeper and clearer. Length

5.5 inches.

Monachella mulleriana or saxicolina, a Chatlike Flycatcher,

is a lively little bird found as well in the south of New Guinea

along the Fly River, as in the north among the Arfak Moun-

tains. It is of grayish plumage above becoming nearly white

on the rump and tail coverts; tail feathers and wings are dark

brown. The head is also dark brown with a line of white

over the eye. A spot of black lies near the bill. Below the

colors are nearly those of the upper parts, that is, the body is

a soft white, the wings brown. Bill and feet black. The

sexes are alike in markings and size, the length being about

six inches. They are both assiduous in the pursuit of insects,

generally along streams on level spaces.

Monarcha or Muscipeta melanopsis, the Carinated Gray Fly-

catcher, has a ring of short black feathers about the large full

eye, a discriminating characteristic, imparting with the strong

prominent bill a singular appearance to this Australian bird.

The entire throat and part of the face are also black, crowded

upon by the soft slate color which becomes deeper over the

rest of the body. The long tail above is dusky; below, as

well as under the wings and on the abdomen, the color is a

198 The American Naturalist. [March,

bright rufous. The female is unmasked about the head and

throat. Feet plumbeous. Length 7 inches.

One of the loveliest, certainly the most brilliant of Fly-

catchers is Monarcha chrysomela, the Goldenhooded. Blue-

black and gold are the boldly contrasted colors of this bright

little creature whose length is 6 inches. The ground color is

orangeyellow; this is almost equally rich whenever it is

spread. Jet black with a blue gloss covers the entire throat

and upper breast, the upper back, the outer wing feathers and

tail. An irregular stripe of the same bends round the shoul-

der. The deepest black is on the throat where the thick plu-

mage is metallic. The crown is roughened into a kind of

crest. The bill and feet are black. All besides, as has been

said, is a lovely yellow, making the bird a most conspicuous

object among the dark trees.

Todopsis cyanocephala of the Muscicapide is adorned with a

blue crown, as its name indicates. This rich color appears

besides on the neck, back and wings though of a somewhat

different shade. A purpleblack runs down the lower back and

covers the tail, excepting the two middle feathers which are of

bluish tinge. The under parts are of a dark purple also, be-

coming black beneath the wings. The bill and feet are dull

black. The length of the male bird is rather more than

six inches, the female about an inch less. Her coloring is

almost as rich, but different. A warm brown takes the place

of black above, a light buff of the black below, though along

the sides as far as the under tail coverts the brown reappears.

Blue colors the head and stripes the neck, showing lighter on

the tail where it is much mingled with white.

Malurus albiscapulatus is scarcely 4 inches in length but is

not only of rich velvety plumage but of conspicuous appear-

ance also, for its white patches on a black ground color attract

attention at once. These patches occur on either side of the

body both above and below, those above showing finely when

the bird is in flight, those below lining the chest from the

bend of the wings. Elsewhere the plumage is a deep black of

a bluish cast, soft and lustrous. The home of the species is in

Southeast as well as Northwest New Guinea.

1896.] Birds of New Guinea. 199

Caterpillarcatchers (Campephaga) abound in New Guinea of

varying degrees of beauty, some being bright of hue, others

almost somber. A few individuals not in strict order are con-

sidered here.

Campephaga sloetii or aurulenta, according to d’Albertis

(Vide Journal), is a rare bird in collections but is distributed all

over New Guinea. He found it most numerous far up the Fly

River, but obtained but one specimen in a native’s garden,

feeding on the small berries of a tall tree. It is a yellow bird,

very vivid on certain parts, duller on the wings where there is

more or less black and white as well, and golden yellow on

the breast and abdomen. The head, sides of head and throat

are marked with gray, black greenglossed, and a band of

white. White inclining to yellow lines the under wings.

Bill, feet and eyes are black. The bill is short and strong.

Where the male bird is brilliant and positive in color, the

female assumes paler shades and neutral tones. She is some-

what longer, measuring nearly 8 inches in total length.

The tail feathers of the male are marked with white, espe-

cially the outer ones.

The mountain Cuckoo-shrike, Campephaga montana or Edo-

liisoma montana is a fine bird from the Arfak region. The

contrasted colors, bluegray above, black below, are so care-

fully marked as to render their wearer easily distinguished

from his kind. The same may be said of the female who is

equally conspicuous in unusually clear colors and a perfectly

black tail.

The Bluegray Campephaga, Campephaga strenua (Schl.),

from about the same region is colored mainly as its name in-

dicates, the customary black appearing on the throat and in

a line on the head. The bill and feet are also black ; some of

the tail feathers likewise, but a rusty tinge marks the lower

wing coverts. The bill is unuusally powerful for so small a

ird.

Campephaga melas or Edoliisoma nigrum is found in different

parts of Papua. It isa larger bird and with a coloration not

at all characteristic of the class to which it bears so similar a

name. The male is of a glossy black, reflecting purple along

200 The American Naturalist. [March,

the wing and tail coverts. The female, longer than her mate

in size, is also quite distinct in plumage. A marked reddish

dye takes the place of lustrous black. On the head the color

is warmer than on the body. The wings are shaded, in some

individuals dusky.

Edoliisoma lenuirostris or Campephaga jardinii (Gould), the

Slenderbilled Cuckoo-shrike, is an Australian bird but found

also in New Guinea near Port Moresby. It is about a foot

long, of a cloudy blue color, excepting on the side face where

it becomes black, and on wings and tail which contain rather

more black than blue. The outer tail feathers underneath,

terminate in white. The bill is black and anything but

slender. Feet black, eyes brown.

In 1882 the nest was found by Mr. C. C. L. Talbot in a

Eucalyptus tree. It was composed of wiry grasses securely

fastened together with cobwebs on the thin forked horizontal

branch. The eggs laid in the small shallow depression were

ovoid in shape and of a pale bluish gray ground dotted irreg-

ularly over with dark brown spots and lines.

(To be Continued.)

EDITOR’S TABLE.

—WE notice that the project of a National University to be estab-

lished at Washington has been again brought up before Congress,

Washington has many advantages as a location for a university, and

the Methodists and Catholics have not been slow to take advantage of

them. The Columbian University, a non-sectarian institution, is

located there. That it devolves on the nation under any circumstances

to establish a university there or anywhere else we fail to perceive. So

long as institutions of this kind exist either by virtue of State support

or private munificence, there is no necessity for the intervention of the

Government in this part of the educational field, but there are strong

reasons why it should not do so. The financial basis of all institutions

supported by congressional appropriations is always precarious. The

subsidies are liberal while they last, but changes in the fiscal pol-

icy of the Government produce fluctuations in the revenue, and

expenditures are varied accordingly. Then the faculty of such an

institution would be under bonds to please the congressional majority,

PLATE V.

1. Natrix compressicauda. 2. Lepomis sp.

1896.] Editor’s Table, 201

or the revenues might be reduced or suspended. The teachings on

certain subjects might be interfered with or controlled by the appoint-

ing power, and the appointments to positions would probably become

political perquisites. Nothing more disastrous to the proper conduct

of a university can be imagined, and an institution established under

such conditions would soon cease to be a credit to the nation. We

hope that the project will not prevail, not only for these reasons but for

another. This is, that the Government has in connection with its

departments various commissions and bureaus, which occupy them-

selves with original scientific research in connection with the various

economic objects of their care. These should be continued and ex-

panded if possible, and not, as is sometimes the case, weakened by

insufficient appropriations. If the Government at Washington will

support this work it will be doing more for education than any univer-

sity can do, and will continue to add to its credit among nations in

the future as it has done in the past.

—Tue X-rays of Roentgen will prove of some utility to some

branches of biological research by disclosing the characters of mineral

substances enclosed within the walls of animals and plants. A good

many characters of the skeleton, for instance, may be detected in

specimens which cannot be spared for maceration, and other applica-

tions will occur to both botanists and zoologists. We present, as an

illustration, a sciagraph of a species of sunfish (Lepomis), made by

Messrs Leeds and Stokes, of Queen & Co., of Philadelphia.

—ANOTHER excellent journal, this time a French one, has been Jed

astray by attaching too much importance to the romances of the Ameri-

can newspaper reporter. We refer to the story published some months

ago by a San Francisco journal that a physician of that city had suc-

ceeded in grafting some snakes together by their tails. The fictitious

character of the narrative is demonstrated by the statement that the

said physician selected snakes in which the vertebral column does not

extend to the end of the tail. If the editor of the journal had referred

the question to the professors of the Museum of Paris, he would have

learned that snakes of this kind exist only in the imagination of the

author of the canard.

—WE published a statement some months ago that Mr. L. O. How-

ard of U.S. Dept. of Agriculture had discovered that the application

of oil to water where mosquitoes breed, destroys both the eggs and the

larvæ of those pestilent insects. We are reminded by an exchange

that the alleged discovery was made by Mrs. Eugene Aaron in Phila-

202 The American Naturalist. [March,

delphia. We were probably indiscreet in referring to Prof. Howard’s

observations as involving more than a modicum of “discovery.” On

examination we find that the knowledge of this mode of destroying

mosquitoes antedates not only his observations, but also those of Mrs.

Aaron. The information has, however, not been generally disseminated

until recently.

—Tue American Society of Naturalists, at its last meeting, adopted

a resolution commending to the public the importance of Antarctic

exploration. A committee of three was appointed to take measures

looking towards sending an expedition to Antarctica in the near future.

At about the same time England and Australia joined in supplying

the funds necessary for such an exploration of the land lying south of Tas-

mania within the Antarctic circle. The natural object of an American

expedition is, of course, the exploration of Graham’s Land, which lies

due south of Patagonia. For the advance of knowledge of the physics

of the globe, explorations of the polar regions are of the first import-

_ance; and the results to the history of its biology in past ages, will be

scarcely less important. America has done her full share of Arctic ex-

ploration; and in the person of Commodore Wilkes made a beginning

in Antarctic work. It is now fully time for us to resume this work,

and it is to be hoped that the means of sending the expedition may be

speedily obtained.

—Tue Huxley Memorial Committee have raised the considerable

sum of £1532, and are considering the uses to which it may be put. It

has been resolved to erect a statue of Huxley in the British Museum,

and to endow the award of a medal for meritorious work in biology-

It is now desired that the amount may be increased for the purpose of

creating another endowment. Should sufficient subscriptions be ob-

tained in America, it might become appropriate that this new endow-

ment should have its seat in this country. The scientific men of

America hold in high esteem the biological work of Huxley, and there

are many reasons why a foundation in his memory would be grateful

to Americans.

1896.] Recent Literature. 203

RECENT LITERATURE.

Williams’s Manual of Lithology’ is written for the “ begin-

ner in the subject who wishes a thorough knowledge in the presenta-

tion of the subject, in a fuller and more compact arrangement than

can be obtained in geological text-books. The arrangement is such

that those who wish to continue the work in the microscopic analysis

of rock forming minerals, as taught in petrography, will have nothing

to unlearn.”

The latter statement of the author is not quite true, for, in his clas-

sification of the rocks discussed, he places among the crystalline schists

quartzite, pyroxene rock and olivine rock that present no traces of

foliation. In the main, however, the classification is good. The rocks

are divided into Primary Rocks and Secondary Rocks, and each of

these groups is separated into “ Divisions” in accordance with their

chemical composition. Of the different families or “ divisions” the

effusive rocks are first described and then the intrusive ones. The

Secondary Rocks embrace the Débris, the Sedimentary and the Meta-

morphic divisions, the first of which differs from the second in consist-

ing of unconsolidated materials.

Nearly all the rock varieties recognized by petrographers are briefly

described, and even many that are no longer recognized as distinct

types. The descriptions are all based on macroscopic characters, but

they are, in most cases, full enough to enable the user of the book to

identify the type. í

The terminology made use of in the description is somewhat differ-

ent from*that used in petrographical text-books, but, since it is em-

ployed in the description of hand specimens and not of their sections,

this is to be expected. All the terms used are clearly defined, and

many of the new ones introduced are perhaps needed.

The main faults to be found with the volume are that it attempts to

discriminate between too many rock types, and that it contains too

many rock names that have long since gone out of use. In spite of

these faults, the treatise is a valuable one, and it should meet with

success. The typographical work is excellent. The plates are from

photographs, and are illustrative of rock structures.—W. S. B.

1 Manual of Lethology : Treating of the Principles of the Science, with Special

Reference to Meguscopic Analysis. By Edward H. Williams. 2d Ed. New

York: John Wiley & Sons, 1895. Pp. vi, 418; plates 6. Price, $3.00.

204 The American Naturalist. [March,

The Corundum Deposits of Georgia.’—This preliminary re-

port on the corundum deposits of Georgia, by Francis P. King, has

been issued as Bulletin No. 2 by the Geol. Survey of that State. The

importance of corundum in the arts, and the high price paid for it,

together with the fact that Georgia ranks second in the Union in the

production of this mineral, make the report of special interest. The

introductory chapters give the history, varieties and associate minerals

of corundum, succeeded by a brief account of the geology of the crys-

talline belt in which the mineral occurs and the distribution of depos-

its. Several pages are given to the economics, including natural and

artificial paie There is also a bibliography of the American

literature upon the subject,

The map accompanying the report is well-colored, iiig at a

glance the different formations. The other illustrations are reproduc-

tions from photographs, showing out-crops of the mineral-bearing veins.

Bailey’s Plant Breeding.’—No man in the country, perhaps, is

tter prepared to write a book on plant breeding than the accom-

plished professor of horticulture in Cornell University, and it is a

pleasure to find that in the preparation of the work before us he has

not disappointed his friends. There is, as the author says in his pre-

face, much misapprehension and imperfect knowledge as to the origin-

ation of new forms of plants, and much of what has been written on

the subject is misleading. “ Horticulturists commonly look upon each

novelty as an isolated fact, whilst we ought to regard each one as but

an expression of some law of the variation of plants.” The author

might have included in the foregoing many “ botanists ” as well as the

horticulturists, for, unfortunately, it is true that many who call them-

selves botanists, and who hold positions in honored institutions, have

not yet risen to a biological conception of the science which they pro-

fess to cultivate.

Among the topics treated in these lectures are the following, viz.

individuality, fortuitous variation, sex as a factor in the variation of

plants, physical see and variation, struggle for life, division

of labor, crossing, e

The book should z in every botanist’s library, and every teacher of

botany will do well to make copious extracts from it in his lectures.

2 A Preliminary Report on the Corundum Deposits of se A By Francis P.

King, Bull. No. 2, Georgia Geological Survey, Atlanta, 1

3 Plant Breeding, being five lectures upon the ppd of Domestic Plants.

By L. H. Bailey. New York: Macmillan & Co., 1895. pp. xii, 293, 12 mo.

1896.] Recent. Books and Pamphlets. 205

The following, from page 135, will show many teachers that much

may be learned from this book: “ Some two or three years ago, a lead-

ing eastern seedsman conceived of a new form of bean-pod which would

at once commend itself to his customers. He was so well convinced of

the merits of this prospective variety, that he made a descriptive and

“taking” name for it. He then wrote to a noted bean-raiser, describ-

ing the proposed variety and giving the name. ‘Can you make it for

me?’ he asked. ‘ Yes, I will make you the bean,’ replied the grower.

The seedsman then announced in his catalogue that he would soon in-

troduce a new bean, and, in order to hold the name, he published it

along. with the announcement. Two years later I visited the bean-

grower. ‘Did you get that bean?’ I asked. ‘Yes; here itis.’ Sure

enough, he had it, and it answered the requirements very well.”

HARLES E. Bessey.

RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS.

Annual Report State Geologist of New Jersey for the year 1894. Trenton,

1895. From the Survey.

BARBOZA DU BocacE.—Herpétologie d’Angola et du Congo. Lisbonne, 1895.

From the author

UR Odi Palatingegend der Ichthyosauria. Aus Anat. Anz., Bd. x,

Nr. 14.

—— Ueber den Proatlas einer Schildkröte (Platypeltis spinifer Les.). Aus

Anat. Anz., Bd. X, Nr. 11. From the author.

Brewer, W. H.—Atmospheric Phenomena in the Arctic Regions in their Re-

lation to Dust. Extr. Yale Scientific Month, June, 1895. From the author.

Bronn, H..G.—Klassen und Ordungen des Their-Reichs, Sechster Bd. V

Abth. 42, 43 u 44, Lief. Leipziz, 1895.

feesgeraes No. 30, 1894, and 31, 1895, Agric. Exper. Station Rhode Island Col-

Agric. and Mechanic Arts.

_ Balle No. 44, 1895, Agricultura] Experiment Station University of Wiscon-

Bulletin No. 57, 1895, Massachusetts State Agricultural Experiment Station.

Bulletin No. 112, 1895, North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station.

Bulletins Nos. 21, 22 and 23, Wyoming Experiment Station. Laramie, 1895.

Bulletins Nos. 30, 31 and 32, Hatch Experiment Station, Amherst, 1895.

Cambridge Natural History, Vol. V. Peripatus, Adam Sedgwick. Myria-

pods, F. G. Sinclair. Insects, David Sharp. London and New York, 1895.

S».

CAMPBELL, D, H.—The Structure and Development of the Mosses and the

Ferns. London and tex York, 1895. From the Pub., Macmillan & Co.

Check-List of North American Birds. 2d Ed. Hos York, 1895. From the

Am. Ornithol. Union.

206 The American Naturalist. o [March,

Ermer, TH.—Die Artbilding und Verwandtschaft bei den Schmetterlingen, IT

Theil. Eine Systematische Darstellung der Abinderungen, Abarten und Arten

der Schwalbenschwanz-iihnlichen Formen der Gattung Papilio. Jena, 1895.

From the author.

Froccatt, W. W.—Notes on the Sub-Family Brachysceline, with descrip-

tions of New Species. Pt. IV, Extr. Vol. X (Ser. 2). Proceeds. Linn. Soc. N.

S. Wales, 1895. From the author.

GILETTE, C. P. AnD C. F. BAKER.—A Preliminary List of the Hemiptera of

Colorado. Bull. No. 31, 1895. Colorado State Agric. College. From the au-

HAECKEL, E.—Systematische eh aig der Wirbelthiere (Vertebrata) Dritter

Theil , Berlin, 1895. From the

Hay, O. P.—On the Biao" ‘nfl eyed aa of the Vertebral Column of

Amia. Field Columbiam Museum Pub. 5, Zool. Ser., Vol. I, No. 1, 1895. From

the author.

Hosss, W. H.—A Contribution to the Mineralogy of Wisconsin. Bull. Univ.

Wisconsin, Sci. Series, Vol. 1, 189

HoLLICK, A.—A New Fossil Nelumbo from the Laramie Group at Florence,

Colorado. — Wing-like Appendages on the Petioles of Liriophyllum populoides

Lesq., and Liriodendron alatum Newb., with descriptions of the latter. Extrs.

Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, XXI, 1894.——Descriptions of New Leaves from the

Cretaceous (Dakota Group) of Kansas. Ibid, XXII, 1895. From the author.

Husrecut, A. A. W.—Die Phylogenese des Amnions und die Bedeutung ey

Trophoblastes. Aus Verhandl. K. Acad. Wetenschap. Amsterdam, Tweede Sec

DI. XV, No. 5, 1895. From the author

KLEMENT, M. C.—Sur l’Origine de la Dolomite dans les formations sédimen-

taires. Extr, Bull. Soc. Belge de Geol., T. IX, Bruxelles, 1895.

Laboratory toons ee State Avticultial College, Vol. I, No. 1, 1895.

From F. L. Was

Lucas, F. EME Tongues of Wood-peckers. Extr. Bull. No. 7, Div.

Ornith. and Mam., U. S. Dept. Agric. From the author

MILLER, S. A. anD Wm. F. E. GURLEY. Description of New Species of Paleo-

zoic Echinodermata. Bull. No. 6 of the Ill. State Mus. Nat. Hist., 1895.

From the authors.

Minot, C. S.—Ueber die Vererbung und Verjüngung. Aus. Biol. Centralb.

Bd., XV, Nr. 15, Leipzig, 1895. From the author.

Mrivart G.—On the Hyoid Bone of a Parrots. Extr. Proceeds. Zool.

Soc. London, 1895. From the author.

Morean, T. H.—Studies of the “ Partial ” Larvae of Sphaerechinus.——The

Formation of One Embryo from Two Blastule.—A Study of a Variation in

Cleavage. , Aus. Archiv. f. Entwickelungsmechanik der Organism, II Bd. Leip-

zig, 1895. From the author.

Murray, G.—An Introduction to the Study of Seaweeds. London and New

York, 1895, Macmillan & Co. From John Wanamaker’s.

New York State Museum Reports, 44, 45, 46, for the years 1891, 1892 and

1893. From Prof. Hall, State Geologist.

Records of the a Museum, Vol. II, No. 6. From the Museu

Committee on Royal Society Catalogue. Extr. Bull. Geol. Soc.

Am, Vol. 6, 1894.

1896.] Petrography. 207

Report upon the World’s Markets for American Products. Bull. No. 2, U., S.

Dept. Agric., Sect. Foreign Markets, Washington, 1895. From the Department.

Secques, F.—Deux Monstres Gasteropages adult de Salmonides. Extr. Bull.

Soc. Zool. de France, 1895. From the author.

SINGLETON, M. T.—Gravitation and Cosmological Law. Atianta, Ga., 1895.

From the author

SHERWOOD, W. L.—The Salamanders found in the Vicinity of New York

City, with notes on Extra-Limital or Allied Species. Extr. Proceeds. Linn. Soc.

New York, No.-7, 1895. From the author.

Stosson, E. E.—The Heating Power of Wyoming Coal and Oil. Special

Bull., 1895. Wyoming University. From the author.

Situ, J. B.—Contribution toward a Monograph of the Insects of the Lepidop-

terous Family Noctuide of Boreal North Am.—A Revision of the Deltoid

Moths. Bull. No. 48, 1895. U.S. Natl. Mus. From the Smithsonian Institu-

on.

SMITH, J. goes Study of Migrations of Marine Invertebrates. Extr.

Journ. Geol., Vol. III, 1895.

Tarr, R. S. pg onracd as weds ER New York and Yipee? 1895.

Macmillan & Co. From

TOWNSEND, C. H.—Birds ins Cin ra? Malpelo Islands, with Notes on

oh Obtained at Sea. Bull. Harv. Mus. Comp. Zool., Vol. XXVII, No. 3,

Was L, pees of Sociology to Anthropology. Extr. Am. Anthropol.,

1895. From the a

Weekly Weather Coch Bulletins, 3, 4 and 21. 1895, issued by the North Caro-

lina State Weather Service.

WIEDERSHEIM, R.—The Structure of Man, an Index to His Past History.

Translated by H. and B. Bernard. London and New York, 1895. From Mac-

millan & Co

Wiper, B. G.—The Cornell — Museum of Vertebrates. Extr.

Ithaca Daily Journ., 1895.——The Cerebral Fissures of Two Philosophers,

Chauncy Wright and J. E. Oliver. Extr. Journ. Comp. Neurol.. Yol, V, 1895.

From the author.

WittiaMs, H. S.—Geological Biology. New York, 1895, Henry Holt & Co.

General Notes.

PETROGRA PHY’

The Eruptives of Missouri.—Haworth’ has described in much

detail the dykes and acid eruptives in the Pilot Knob region, Missouri,

The dyke rocks are typical diabases, diabase-porphyrites, quartz-diabase-

1 Edited’ by Dr. W. S. Bayley, Colby University, Waterville, Me.

2 Mo. Geol. Survey, Vol. VILI, 1895, p. 83-222.

208 The American Naturalist. [Mareh,

porphyrites and melaphyres. The author unfortunately classes as

diabase-porphyrites both glassy and holocrystalline rocks. The acid

rocks of the region include granites, granite-porphyries, porphyrites

and quartz-porphyries. The first two are characteristically granophyr-

ic. Their orthoclases are often enlarged by granophyre material

whose feldspar is fresh, while the nucleal feldspar is much altered.

The quartzes likewise, are enlarged by the addition of quartz around

them. There were two periods of crystallization in these rocks. In

the second period the phenocrysts were corroded and the groundmass

was produced. In addition to the quartz and orthoclase there are

present in these rocks also biotite, hornblende, plagioclase and a num-

ber of accessory and secondary components. The porphyries and

porphyrites contain the same constituents as the granites, from which

they are separated simply on account of differences in structure. The

phenocrysts are mainly orthoclose, plagioclase, microcline and quartz,

many of which are fractured in consequence of magma motions. The

groundmass in which these lie is of the usual components of porphyry

groundmasses, and in texture is microgranitic, granophyric, micropeg-

matitic and spherulitic. Many of the porphyries contain fragments of

their material surrounded by a matrix of the same composition in

which flowage lines are well exhibited. These rocks are evidently

volcanic breccias. The author divides the porphyritic rocks into por-

phyries and porphyrites, the latter containing plagioclase phenocrysts

and the former phenocrysts of quartz, orthoclase and microcline.

Rocks from Eastern Africa.—The volcanic rocks of Shoa and

the neighborhood of the Gulf of Aden in Eastern Africa comprise a

number of varieties that have been carefully studied by Tenne? The

main mass of the mountains of the region consists of biotite-muscovite

gneiss. This is cut by nepheline basanites, the freshest specimens of

which contain phenocrysts of olivine, augite and feldspar in a ground-

mass of plagioclase, augite, nepheline and often olivine. Trachytes,

phonolites and basalts occur in the Peninsula of Aden. The trachytes

include fragments of augite-andesite. Inland granophyres with

dospherulites in their groundmass, trachytes and feldspathic basalts

were met with. The granophyres are much altered. In the fine

grained product formed by the decomposition of the groundmass of one

occurrence quartz, feldspar, and a blue hornblende with the properties

of glaucophane can be detected. Al the rocks are briefly described.

They present no peculiar features other than those indicated.

3 Zeits. d. deutsch. geol. Ges., XLV, p. 451.

1896.] Petrography. 209

A Basic Rock derived from Granite.—Associated with the

ores in the hematite mines of Jefferson and St. Lawrence Counties, N,

Y., is a dark eruptive rock that was called serpentine by Emmons.

Smyth‘ (C. H.) has examined it microscopically and has discovered

that it consists of a chlorite-like mineral, fragments of quartz and feld-

spar. By searching carefully he discovered less altered phases of the

rock that were identified as granite. The peculiar alteration of an

acid granite to a basic chlorite rock is ascribed to chemical agencies.

According to the author’s notion the pyrite in a neighboring highly

pyritiferous gneiss was decomposed, yielding iron sulphates and sul-

phuric acid. These solutions passed into limestone yielding the ores

and then into the granite changing it into chlorite. The altered rock

is found only with the ores. The original was probably not always

granite. An analysis of the altered rock gave:

SiO, Al,O, Fe,O, FEO MgO CaO NaO EO HO Total

29.70 17.03 27.15 10.66 168 56 10 11.79=98.67

Cancrinite-Syenite from Finland.—In the southeastern por-

tion of the Parish Kuolajaroe in Finland, Ramsay and Nyholm

secured specimens of a nepheline-syenite containing a large quantity of

what the authors regard as original cancrinite. The rock is found as-

sociated with gneissoid granite at Pyhakurn. The rock is trachytic

in structure and is composed of orthoclase, aegerine, cancrinite and

nepheline as essential constituents and apatite, sphene and pyrite as

accessories. The cancrinite was the last mineral to crystallize. It

occupies the spaces between the other components, and yet it often pos-

sesses well defined hexagonal forms. It occurs also as little prisms

included within the orthoclase. Because of this association and because

the nepheline in the rock is perfectly fresh the cancrinite is regarded as

original. This mineral comprises 29.04% of the entire rock.

The same authors in the same paper describe a porphyritic melilite

rock found as a loose block a few kilometers W. N.-W. of Lake

Wuorijarvi. It contains large porphyritic crystals of melilite, pyrox-

ene and biotite in a groundmass composed of labradorite, zeolites and

calcite. The pyroxenes are made up of a colorless augite nucleus sur-

rounded by zones of light green aegerine-augite and deep green aeger-

ine. No olivine was detected in any of the thin sections.

* Jour. Geology, Vol. 2, p. 667.

5 Bull. Com. Geol. d. 1. Finn., No. 1.

210 The American Naturalist. . [March,

Rocks from the Sweet Grass Hills, Montana.—Weed and

Pirsson® describe the rocks of the Sweet Grass Hills of Montana as

quartz-diorite-porphyrites, quartz-syenite-porphyries and minettes. The

first named rock presents no special peculiarities. The quartz-syenite-

porphyry contains orthoclase, plagioclase and augite-phenocrysts in a

fine groundmass of allotriomorphic feldspar and quartz. The augite

is in short thick prisms composed of a pale green diopside core, which

passes into a bright green aegerite mantle. The minette also contains

aegerine, but otherwise it is typical.

Petrographical News.—Two peculiar phonolitic rocks are de-

scribed by Pirsson’ from near Fort Claggett, Montana. One is a

leucite-sodalite-tinguaite, with leucite pseudomorphs, and sodalite as

phenocrysts in a groundmass composed mainly of a felt of orthoclase

and aegerine. The leucite pseudomorphs are now an aggregate of

orthoclase and nepheline. In the centers of some of them are small

_ stout prisms of an unknown brown mineral, that is pleochroic in brown-

ish and yellowish tints. The second rock is a quartz-tinguaite porphyry

somewhat similar to Brégger’s grorudite.®

In a few notes on the surface lava flows associated with the Unkar

beds of the Grand Cañon series in the Cañon of the Colorado, Ariz.,

Iddings’ briefly describes compact and amygdaloidal basalts and fresh

looking dolerites that are identical in all respects with modern rocks of

the same character.

Laspeyres” estimates that the quantity of carbon-dioxide in liquid

and gaseous form contained in rocks is sufficient to serve as the source

for all that which escapes from the earth’s natural fissures as gas, as

well as that which escapes in solution with spring water. It may be

set loose from the rocks through the action of heat or through the

action of dynamic forces.

In a handsomely illustrated brochure Merrill" describes the charac-

teristics of the onyx marbles and the processes by which they originate.

Differences in temperature, according to the author, are not the control-

ing conditions determining the differences in texture between the

onyxes and travertine. He is inclined to the belief that the banded

onyxes were formed by deposition from warm solutions under pressure

flowing into pools of quiet cold water.

* Amer. Jour. Sci., Vol. I, p. 309.

7 Amer. Journ. Sci., 1895, Nov. p. 394.

3 AMERICAN NATURALIST, 1895, p. 567.

*14th Ann. Rep. U.S. Geol. Survey, p. 520.

1 Korrespond. bl. Naturh. Ver. preuss. Rheinl., No. 2, pee H:

u Rep. U. S. Nat. Mus., 1893, p, 539.

1896.] ` Geology and Paleontology. 211

In a preliminary report on the Geology of Essex County, N. Y.,

Kemp” describes the occurrences of the gneisses, limestones, ophi-

calcites, gabbros, lamprophyres and other igneous rocks of the district,

and gives an account of their geological relationships.

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.

Bear River Formation.—The explorations of Mr. Stanton and

Mr. Charles White in the Bear River Valley have been the means of

correcting a long standing error among geologists concerning the taxo-

nomic position of strata known as the Bear River Formation. A

summary of the facts as presented by Mr. White in a late Bulletin

of the U. S. Geol. Survey shows that the formation under discussion is

not Laramie, to which age it has been hitherto been referred, but be-

longs to the Upper Cretaceous, at or near the base of that series. That

is its position has been determined by Mr. Stanton as beneath the

Colorado formation, and above that series of Jurassic strata which

occurs within a large part of the interior region of North America

generally regarded as of Upper Jurassic age and which in the general

section given is called “Dakota?” This accords with the reputed age

of a formation in Hungary, whose fauna is more nearly like that of the.

Bear River series of strata than of any other known.

Mr. White, therefore, defines the Bear River series as a distinct for-

mation stratigraphically, geographically, and paleontologically, and

states in detail its taxonomic position. All the known fossils of the

formation are described and figured, comparisons are made of its fauna

with those of other nonmarine formations of this and other continents,

and relevant biological questions are di :

In making a general comparison of the Bear River fauna with the

other nonmarine fossil faunas of North America, Dr. White calls atten-

tion to those features of the Bear Fauna by which it differs conspic-

uously from all the others. Reference is here especially made to the

Auriculidæ and Melaniidæ, because it is members of these two families

that give the Bear River Fauna its most distinctive character. In this

connection the author remarks “ this faunal character is all the more con-

spicuous because, of the six genera which represent those two families,

only two of them are known in any other North American fauna,

either fossil or recent.”

12 Report of State Geologist [of New York] for 1893, p. 433.

212 The American Naturalist. [March,

The similarities and contrasts between the fauna of the Bear River

formation and those of the other nonmarine beds of North America

leads to a discussion of their causes. The author suggests that certain

genetic lines of descent have become diverged from the main lines of

succession and destroyed by some of those physical changes which mark

successive epochs, and adds “ we may reasonably assume that one of

those divergent lines terminated in the Bear River fauna; that is, at

the close of the Bear River epoch the area which its nonmarine waters

had occupied having become overspread by the marine waters in which

the Colorado formation was deposited, it is not probable that any

fluvial outlet of the former nonmarine waters was perpetuated, and

there was, therefore, no provisional habitat in which the Bear River

fauna might have been preserved. It was probably in this way that

the distinguishing types of that fauna became extinct, together with

others of its members which were not so specially characteristic of it.”

(Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv. 128, Washington, 1895.)

On the Occurrence of Neocene Marine Diatomacez near

New York.—The rocks which contain Diatomacex (or Bacillariacez)

in America are clayey, that is to say they contain more or less of clay,

and they vary in color from a nearly white to a fawn color and to a

greenish, greyish-brownish or almost black. They are not older than

the Oligocene nor newer than the Plistocene. They can be placed in

the Neocene, a period that ranges from the Eocene to the Plisto-

cene, and not in the recent. Those I have to describe in New York

are not Miocene, but they belong to a place which may provisionally

be classed as Pliocene or Plistocene of the European geologists.

Ever since 1843, the so-called infusorial earth has been known in

Virginia and was thought by Rogers the discoverer to be Miocene

Tertiary, he classifying it as the European rocks were. Bailey accepted

the classification and so did the later geologists. When fresh water

fossilDiatomacez were found in Massachusetts they were thought to be

Miocene also without studying the rocks themselves and seeing how

they stood in the geological scale. When they were found in New

Hampshire I did not classify them nor did Hitchcock attempt to do so.

They were placed in the lacustrine Sedimentary and provisionally in

the’Recent. But now they can be seen to be older than the Recent

andjmust;be placed in a position by themselves. In the Iceberg period,

the Champlain, when the ice which covered the country was beginning

1896.] Geology and Paleontology. 213

to melt, icebergs which formed by the breaking off of the ice on the

border were common. ‘The icy water had Bacillariacee in it, for

they existed, as they do now, when the temperature was at 0° C. This

flowed down to the lower regions from the north and northwest.

In California I did not classify the rocks containing the Bacillariaceæ

leaving that to the older and more experienced geologists. Blake, who

had discovered them at Monterey, supposed them to be Miocene, for he

saw as Bailey showed them to be similar to the Virginian ones. In

Japan where I discovered them also I failed to classify them for Pum-

pelly, who had brought them home did not place them likewise. When

the infusorial earth was found in Florida, it had also been placed in the

Miocene Tertiary by Bailey. And when I had it from that state sub-

sequently at Manatee, I failed to classify it because I. had not visited

the spot where it came from myself. Now I believe these are older

than what is called the Miocene. And I am confirmed in this supposi-

tion by what Towney said of the Virginia stratum. I prefer to place

them as far back as the Upper Eocene, the Oligocene as it is called.

In New Jersey at Asbury Park and Atlantic City the infusorial earth

has been found by Woolman and classified by him as Miocene. But

further north on the Atlantic side of the continent it has not been seen.

I examined the clay that was dug at about two feet down at Foley’s,

South Beach, Staten Island, N. Y., but although it contained marine

Bacillariacese it was not what I wanted. I thought it belonged to the

Raised Coast period. At Martha’s Vineyard, Mass. the clay classed as

Miocene by Dall did not contain any Bacillariace.

It was on the 11th of August, 1895, that I visited Rockaway to get

rest from the turmoil and heat of the city. Rockaway is a beach or

promontory which extends down from a place called Far Rockaway

southwards on the coast of Long Island. Long Island is made up of

hills of no great height extending down the middle or on the north shore

of the island. A low range of country extends down the southern

shore where the Atlantic Ocean begins. It is fringed by sandy bars

which are mostly islands. These islands extend down the coast from

Cape Cod, Mass. to Florida. Key West is the most southern of the

islands which are known in Florida as Keys. The country on the

Atlantic side of the island is low, sloping down to the coast without any

elevation in it.

I knew that I should go down by rail cutting through the hills until

I came transversely to the island to the promontory of Rockaway. It

is true that I wanted to get out of the cities heat but I had also two other

reasons for going. I wanted to study the glacial phenomena which I

214 Fhe American Naturalist. [March,

knew would present themselves there. At the same time I desired to

search for the infusorial earth. At one place we came to a kettle hole,

at the Lutheran Cemetery. I was sure it was a kettle hole and knew

there was clay, a Lacustrine Sedimentary deposit of Diatomacex, at the

bottom. I saw the glacial moraine made up of gravel and sand all

along the road. The moraine was a gravelly till with boulders

scattered through it. On the top it was capped by a layer of about

three feet thick of whitish clay. This I knew to be diatomaceous, the

same as covers the country in New Jersey and on Manhattan or New

York Island. As we approached the station known as Brooklyn Hills

we cut through three high hills which I saw then and afterwards were

made up of moraine stuff, mostly gravel, with a white clay about three

feet thick ontop. The clay was the same as we had just passed. It

makes the bottom of the glacial clay, the Lacustrine Sedimentary de-

posits of Diatomaceze. In this moraine I afterwards got a small dis-

tinctly striated boulder and near the bottom of the hill, about twelve

feet from the bottom was a grey clay with Hematite nodules in it.

Cretaceous clay no doubt.

The country became flat with no rising in it and sloping gradually

towards the coast where we came to the station known as Aqueduct.

Cretaceous clay underlies the country doubtless covered by glacial till

or moraine. At Aqueduct the railroad runs out on tressels to Rock-

away. At Rockaway Beach I landed and wandered south on the

promontory but found nothing but white siliceous sand, they were not

digging anywhere that J could find. I wandered north in the direc-

tion of Far Rockaway where the land became higher and was covered

by the whitish Iceberg period clay which evidently came from the

north-west. At Auvergne they had been digging a ditch to reclaim the

land from the sea. This was on the opposite side of Rockaway to the

Atlantic Ocean, on Jamaica Bay. The digging was over six feet deep.

They had thrown out some of the Iceberg clay and below that some

greyish soil without any stones in it. I saw at once that it was different

in character from the soil on the marshes and which I had learned be-

longed to the Raised Coast or Champlain Period. I took some home

and examined it and came to the conclusion that I had found what I

was in search of, the infusorial earth. It was no doubt what may be

termed Pliocene Tertiary and belonged to the Neocene Period.

I cleaned some and found the following Bacillariceze in it besides

some forms of Dictyota, which are Radiolaria. So me few usual forms

escaped me but will probably be found hereafter.

1896.] Geology and Paleontology. 215

Achnanthes subsessilis C. G. E.

Actinocyclus ehrenbergii J. R.

Actinoptychus undulatus ©. G.

Auliscus celatus J. W. B.

Auliscus pruinosus J. W. B.

Auliscus radiatus J. W. B.

Aulacodiseus germanicus C. G.

Amphora ovalis F. T. K.

Amphiprora elegans W. S.

Amphiprora navicularis C.G. E.

Amphiprora pulchra J. W. B.

Biddulphia aurita A. B.

Biddulphia pulchella G.

Biddulphia rhombus W. S.

Cerataulus radiatus J. R.

Cerataulus smithii W. S.

Cerataulus turgida W. S.

Coscinodiscus asteromphalus C.

G.E

Coscinodiscus excentricus C. G. E.

Coscinodiscus subtilis C. G. E.

Coscinodiscus lineatus C. G. E.

Coscinodiscus nitidus W. G.

Cocconeis scutellum C. G. E.

Cyclotella striata F. T. K.

Dicladia mitra J. W. B.

Doryphora amphiceros F. T. K.

Epithemia turgida F. T. K.

Epithemia museulus F. T. K.

Eunotia monodon C. G. E.

Euotiogramma amphioxys C. G.

Fragillaria pacifica A. G.

Grammatophora marina F. T. K.

Hyalodiscus franklinii C. G. E.

Hyalodiscus se ie . W.R:

Isthmia enervis C. G

Melosira sulcata C. G. E.

Navicula clavata A. G.

Navicula didyma C. G. E.

Navicula elliptica F. T. K.

Navicula hennedii W. 8.

Navicula humerosa A. B.

Navicula lacustris W. S.

Navicula lata A. B.

Navicula peregrina F. T. K.

Navicula permagna J. W. B.

Navicula viridis C. G. E.

Nitzschia acuminata W. S.

Nitzschia balanotis A. G.

Nitzschia sigma F. T. K.

Nitzschia tryblionella H.

Plagiogramma gregoriana R, K.

Pleurosigma angulata W. S.

Pleurosigma balticum C. G. E.

Pyzilla? baltica A. G.

Pyzxidicula compressa J. W. B.

Rhabdonema arcuatum F. T. K.

Roicosphenia currata F. T. K.

Scoliopleura tumida L. R.

Schizonema fætida J. E. S.

Stauroneis aspera C. G. E.

Stauroneis birostris C. G. E.

eg cee appendiculata C.

hup ei turris J. R.

Surirella febigeris F. W. L.

Surirella striatula B. V.

Synedra afnis F. T. K.

Terpsinoe americana J. W. B.

Triceratium punctatum T. B.

These are all the Bacillariaceæ that I have detected up to this time.

There are several forms of Dictyocha, a genus of Radiolaria, present

216 The American Naturalist. [March,

also, And what I consider a new genus of Bacillariaces, which I have

called Ancile radiata. It is free and found rarely in the salt water in

Jamaica Bay, Rockaway and at Foleys, and South Beach, Staten Is-

land. But of this I shall speak hereafter. Mr. W. A. Terry says he

has found broken fragments of Brunia but this I myself have not seen,

although common in a deposit which I will also describe hereafter

taken at fifteen feet from the surface at Hoboken, N. J, I, another

day, visited Coney Island, N. Y., and searched for infusorial earth and

this time was fortunate enough to find it at Sheephead Bay, which is a

village just on the Long Island side of Coney [sland Creek. It was a

_ grayish colored clay, one foot underneath the sand taken at low water,

about eight feet from the surface of the soil. At Canarsie Landing,

which is on Jamaica Bay between Coney Island and Auvergne, I did

not find the infusorial earth, but I was there a very short time. I did

find glacial phenomena and indication of the elevation of the coast, but

of those I shall not speak now as they are not microscopical. But the

finding of Bacillariaceze in the infusorial earth, as belonging to the

Upper Neocene period, is thus a fact, and the date of so finding is

worthy of record. Perhaps they will be found more inland on Long

Island hereafter. I have searched for them as far inland as the

city of Jamaica, but without result.

This layer is in the Upper Neocene, or perhaps the Plistocene, but

the placing of it definitely is extremely difficult if not impossible at

present, for on describing a fossil marine Diatomaceous deposit from

St. Augustine, Florida, Mr. Charles S. Boyer says (Bulletin of the

Torry Botanical Club, April, 1895, Vol. 22, No. 4, page 172) that it,

the St. Augustine deposit, “ overlies an Eocene deposit and is beneath

the Plistocene” and that the Barbadoes deposit, which corresponds

partially with it, “is now claimed to be Pliocene.” In fact, as I have

already pointed out, the marine fossil layers of Bacillariaces, be it from

Mors, Denmark; Simbirsk, Russia ; Sentz Peter, Austria; Oran, Algiers; `

Moron, Spain; Argentina; Payta, Peru; New York to Virginia, Cali-

fornia and New Zealand, including the Nicobar Islands, are Neocene,

be that Miocene or Pliocene.

—ARTHUR M. Epwarps, M. D., Newark, N. J.

The e bt at (321

ial changes.—Evidence has been accumu-

lating during the last few years in favor of the periodicity of glacial

action. Mr. Geikie recognized in Europe six distinct glacial epochs

separated by genial periods, making in all eleven glacial and inter-

glacial stages. For convenience he gives each of these horizons a

separate name. The climax of glaciation was reached in the third

1896.] Geology and Paleontology. 217

stage, that is, the second glacial epoch, after which the cold stage

diminished continuously in importance. In like manner, the earliest

interglacial epoch seems to have been the most genial, each successive

epoch approximating more and more closely to existing conditions.

The American glacial deposits have been classified by Mr. Chamber-

lin, and an attempt made to correlate them with those of Europe. The

following table shows the tentative correlation.

GLACIAL AND INTERGLACIAL STAGES.

EUROPEAN. AMERICAN.

- XI. Upper Tubarian—Sixth Glacial Period.

. Upper Forestian—Fifth Interglacial Period.

IX. Lower Turbarian—Fifth Glacial Epoch.

VIII. Lower Forestian=Fourth Interglacial Epoch.

VII. Mecklenburgian—Fourth Glacial Epoch. Wisconsin.

VI. Neudeckian=Third Interglacial Epoch. Toronto.

V. Polandian=Third Glacial Epoch. Iowan.

IV. Helvetian—Second Interglacial Epoch Aftonian.

III. Saxonian==Second Glacial Epoch. Kansas Formation.

II. Norfolkian=First Interglacial Epoch.

I. Scanian=First Glacial Epoch.

The complex series subsequent to the Wisconsin formation have not

been sufficiently investigated to permit even a tentative correlation,

or indeed, to even designate the specific formations. This statement is

equally applicable to the formations deposited during the advancing

stages of the glacial period in America. (Journ. Geol., Vol. III,

1895.)

Geologic News.—Pa.Eozo1c.—Haworth proposes to divide the

Coal Measures of Kansas into Upper and Lower, the division to be at

the top of the Pleasonton shales, which is at the bottom of the Erie lime-

stone. The division is based principally on paleontological evidence.

In the author’s study of the Kansas Coal Measures he finds that the

shales are of submarine origin, while the entire formation appears to

have been laid down during a period of gentle oscillations, with the

greatest movement to the west, and the least to the east. (Kan. Univ.

Quar., Vol. ITI, 1895.)

An Orthoceras shell of gigantic proportions has been found in the

Lower Coal Measures of Iowa, about forty miles from Des Moines.

This specimen is three inches in diameter and as it is of the same very

slender as the associated forms, it could not have been less than six feet

in length, and probably was even longer. The species is O. faus/lerensis.

(Science, Jan., 1896.)

218 The American Naturalist. [March,

Mesozorc.—In examining the microscopic structure of the flint

nodules found in the Lower Cretaceous of Texas near Austin, Mr. J. A.

Merrill found traces of the following organisms: Foraminifera, sponges,

molluses represented by the nacreous tissue of the shells, and fishes re-

presented by their scales. The fact that the delicate spines of the

sponge spicules, even to the most minute barb are perfectly preserved,

showing no trace of having been subjected to mechanical movement,

leads to the conclusion, that these flints result from the continuous

growth of sponges in situ. Mr. Merrill’s study then confirms to this

extent the view taken by Prof. Sollas in his study of the nodules of the

English flint. (Bull. Harvard, Mus. Comp. Zool., Vol. XXVIII,

1895.)

Crnozoic.—Mr. G. H. Ashley’s studies of the Coast Range Mts. of

California lead him to the conclusion that the east and west ranges of

Santa Barbara, Ventura and Los Angeles counties were elevated at

about the end of the Miocene, while the ranges to the north with a uni-

form strike of northwest and southeast were’elevated at or near the end

of the Pliocene. (Geol. Mag., Vol. III, 1895.)

Mr. A. M. Edwards reports Cenozoic clay containing marine forms

of diatomaceze from Rockaway, Long Island. The clay deposit is dark

green or grey in color, and is capped by a fresh water deposit of white

clay. (Observer, Dec., 1895.)

Prof. H. L. Fairchild enumerates eight reasons for regarding the

Pinnacles Hills, near Rochester, N. Y. as a kame series forming a part

of a frontal moraine. This is contrary to the views of Upham who

considers that they were deposited “in the ice-walled channel of a

stream of water,” “open to the sky.” (Amer. Geol., Vol. XVI, 1895.)

BOTANY.’

A recent paper on the relation between the Ascomycetes

and Basidiomycetes.’—In the October number of the Revue Myco-

logique under the heading “ A Fungus simultaneously an Ascomycete

and Basidiomycete” appears a résumé by R. Ferry of a portion of

1 Edited by Prof. C. E. Bessey, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska.

? Read before the Botanical Seminar of the University of Nebraska, Dec. 21,

1895.

1896.] Botany. 219

a paper published in Mémoires couronnés de [ Académie de Belgique,

1894 by Ch. Bommer. I have not seen the original paper, but as

Ferry gives quite a lengthy account of it and quotes the most

essential parts there seems to he sufficient basis for some remarks.

The fungi under consideration are Mylitta australis Berk. and Poly-

porus mylitte Cooke and Massee. The former is a large irregularly

spherical hypogeous fungous growth found in Australia and Van

Diemans’ Land and called by the inhabitants “native bread.” It was

first described by Berkeley in Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist., 1839 and

referred to Mylitta, a doubtful genus established by Fries upon what

is now known to be a gall. Berkeley says he found no spores but

noticed that the ends of some of the hyphæ were swollen. No one

seems to have examined the fungus for some time after Berkeley de-

scribed it. According to Ferry, Tulasne regarded it as a mycelial for-

mation analagous to Pietra fungifera of Battara and older writers,

which is now known to be the sclerotium stage of Polyporus tuberaster

Fr. Later Cooke and Massee referring to the plant incidentally call

it a sclerotium and Saccardo‘ who examined it recently, says he ob-

served spores (?) which were globose, smooth, hyaline, plainly nucleate

and 14-15. in diameter. Such in brief was the knowledge of the

plant before the appearance of the paper under discussion.

The latter plant Polyporus mylitte C. & M. (fig. 1) was first described

in Grevillea l.c. It is a short stipitate plant with a tough pulvinate

pileus about 10 cm. broad, found growing on Mylitta australis in south-

ern Australia. The authors say in a note; “A most interesting pro-

duction, undoubtedly the ultimate development of the sclerotium long

known as Mylitta australis Berk.”

A year later Saccardo (I. c.) published a slightly different form of the

same fungus under the same name. r the description he adds:

“Growing on Mylitta australis from which it appears to originate. The

texture of the Polyporus and of Mylitta are about the same. They are

formed of intertwining filaments with frequent globose swellings consti-

tuting a soft or suberose white mass. Itis very probable, therefore that

Mylitta is the sclerotium form of the Polyporus and probably bears the

same relation to the Polyporus that Ceriomyces bears to Polyporus

biennis (Bull.) Fr.”

Referring now to Bommer’s paper we shall give the essential

parts of Ferry’s summary and translate the important parts of the

quotations from the author. Ferry first gives an account of Mylittu

australis as observed by Bommer.

3 Cooke and Massee. Grev., 21:37. Dec., 1892.

t Saccardo. Hedw., 32:56. March and April, 1893.

220 The American Naturalist. [March,

Specimens are compact, very hard and covered with a superficial

black crust. In full grown plants the interior is divided into a number

of irregular cavities. The walls of these cavities are formed of a white

tissue which under the microscope is seen to consist of thick-walled

hyphz which are stained by Bismark brown (fig. 2b.). These hyphe

are from 4—8». in diameter. The cavities soon become filled with a

gelatinous substance of a horny consistency in which some thin, hyaline,

flexuose hyphz are found buried. These are not colored by Bismark

brown. Some of these hyphe have ovoid swellings 5-8». long near

their ends which contain 1, 2 or 3 ovoid bodies with very thin walls.

Each body contains a kind of nucleus. Later these swellings (fig. 2 a.),

especially those near the periphery of the gelatinous mass increase in

size and contain only one ovoid body. This is brown, verrucose, very

refringent, presenting all the characters of a spore and is regarded

as such by Bommer. Since he finds what he considers asci and

spores he refers Mylitta australis to the Tuberaceæ. He Ganoribon the

mature asci and spores as follows: “ The asci (fig. 3) are analagous to

win of Tuber melanosporum, being ovoid or spherical and 40-50. i

eir greatest diameter. The membrane is thin and encloses a nals

1896.] Botany. 221

elongated hyaline spore 20-30. long which is either smooth (fig. 4),

verrucose (fig. 6) or echinulate (fig. 5).”

Nearer the centre of the gelatinous mass he says the asci are less

plainly differentiated and frequently contain no spores (fig. 7). He

submitted the fungus to chemical tests and found a great abundance of

cellulose, but no glycogen, a substance usually present in Tubers.

The ordinary structure of the plant is, according to the author, as

described above. As to its relation to Polyporus mylitte which is fre-

quently found growing from it, he says: , “ A specimen from the British

Museum removes all doubt. This specimen like many others has a

central cavity on one of the walls of which is seen a pulvinate mass

formed by the hymenium of Polyporus mylitte. This pulvinus does not

possess true pores, but only small hemispherical cavities on its surface

and numerous small rounded closed cavities in its interior which are

covered by the hymenium. The mass ef hyphe which forms the base

of this hymenium is identical with the opaque white tissue which com-

poses the walls of the cavities of nearly mature examples of Mylitta.

Notwithstanding the presence of the pores and the thicker and more

crowded hyphe disposed after the manner of palisade tissue so char-

acteristic of the hymenium of ordinary Hymenomycetes, the specimen

is unfortunately sterile.

The particular disposition of the hymenium and the continuity and

identity which exists between it and the sterile tissue of Mylitta estab-

lishes the fact that there exists bet Mylitta and the Polyporus an inti-

mate relation of the same nat that which exists between the differ-

ent stages in the life history of many fungi. Hence it follows that a

carpophore of a Hymenomycete (Polyporus mylitte) is here in reality

the conidiophore of an Ascomycete (Mylitta australis). If this conclu-

sion is true in the present case, it ought to be admitted that this is the

relation which exists in general between the Basidiomycetes and

Ascomycetes.” ! 1!

Such are the author’s preposterous conclusions, and thus is the

autonomy of the Basidomycetes calmly disposed of.

One’s first impulse is that this is a huge joke, but when you reflect

that it emanates from the Belgian Academy of Sciences and is tacitly

accepted by Ferry one of the editors of the Revue Mycologique the

matter takes a serious aspect and it seems necessary to file a protest.

Ferry adds that DeBary long ago expressed the opinion that the

Basidiomycetes and Uredineæ may be conidial forms of Ascomycetes.

The only statement I find in DeBary’ touching the point comes far

* DeBary, Comp. Morph. and Biol. of Fungi (Eng. trans.), p. 341.

222 The American Naturalist. [March,

from endursing mehia on idea, The reviewer says further that Brefeld

admits, tl ist of such fungi, but does not admit their

actual existence because he does ace think that two reproductive bodies

of such complex development are able to be produced simultaneously.

This idea Ferry regards as explaining the imperfect development

of the Polyporus in Bommer’s plant, and he adds, with a profundity

equal to that of the author himself, that there are no existing characters

which permit the plain separation of conidial bearing basidia (conidio-

phores) from typical basidia. ,

As to the author’s observations, if accurately made they are of course

deserving of consideration. We have not the space nor is it our pur-

pose to discuss them here. Were it not fur the fact that the normal

form of Polyporus mylitte is frequently found growing on Mylitta, and

is regarded by several observers as being genetically connected with it,

we might possibly disregard the supposed sterile hymenium and accept

Mylitia as a tuber, though several of the author’s observations are at

variance with the characters of any known tuber. I am inclined for

the present, however, to accept Tulasne’s opinion and regard Mylitia

as a sclerotium or a conidial stage of the Polyporus. s to the asci

they may be illusions or may belong to some parasitic fungus. This is

mere conjecture, however. These fungi are interesting forms and it is

hoped that their study may be continued until the author’s observations

are confirmed or rejected. Accurate observations are always welcomed

by botanists, but gratuitous and unfounded conclusions and generaliza- _

tions should find no place in botanical literature —C. L. SHEAR.

Polyporacez, Hydnacez, Helvellacez.—The undersigned

desires species of the above groups from all parts of North America for

the purpose of accumulating materials from which to monograph these

families, In sending specimens, good representatives are desired, not

mere fragments or abortive specimens. Where possible, indicate the

host on which the fungus grows if a lignatile species, and especially

in the case of fleshy or semi-fleshy forms, it is desirable to note the char-

acters in a fresh condition. Even the most common species are desired

in order to determine geographic distribution. When it is remembered

that not a single species of any of these groups has been reported from

more than half of our states and territories, it will be seen how great

the necessity of coöperation on the part of local botanists and botanical

collectors in order that this preliminary monograph may be as fairly

representative of our flora as possible.

Before sending large packages, a preliminary correspondence will be

desirable in order that the package can be sent the cheapest way. So

1896.] Botany. 223

far as possible, specimens will be named for contributors and in all

cases full credit will be given —Lucren M. UNDERWOOD, Auburn, Ala.

The Smut of Indian-Corn (Ustilago zee-mays).—It has been

found out at the Indiana Experiment Station that the smut does not

attack the plant through the seed as has been supposed but like wheat

rust it starts in the leaves and stems, wherever the spores are carried by

the wind and find lodgment and sufficient moisture to enable them to

germinate. The spores will grow as soon as ripe, that is as soon as the

mass containing them turns black, and they will also retain their

vitality for a year or two in case conditions for growth are not favor-

able.

It is evident from this that neither the time of planting nor the pre-

vious condition or treatment of the seed will have any effect upon the

amount of smut in the crop. It is equally evident that meteorological

conditions will have decided influence. Two things can be done to

decrease smut in corn. The growing crop can be sprayed with a suit-

able fungicide and the entrance of the smut into the plant prevented.

That this can be made effective isshown by experiments at the Indiana

station. The other, more convenient but less thorough, method, is to

gather and destroy the smut, and thus eventually rid the fields of it—

(Bull. Ind. Station.)

Antidromy and Crossfertilization.—I have been much inter-

ested in Dr. Macloskie’s article on Antidromy in the November num-

ber of THE NATURALIST. It reminds me of some observations which I

made several years since while investigating the subject of crossfertili-

zation. They will be found recorded in the same journal August, 1880.

A suggestion is ventured as to the possible cause of it in the flowers of

Saxifraga sarmentosa on pages 573 and 574 of that number. In that

case it seems to have little or no value in aiding crossfertilization.

Other cases, however, have been noted where it seems probable that

it may be of essential value in that direction, viz., in Solanum TOS-

tratum and Cassia chamaecrista. They show lateral asymmetry, by

which the pistil is on opposite sides, in successive flowers of a cluster.

These plants will be found described also in THE AMERICAN Nartur-

ALIST, April, 1882.

It may be an item of general interest, also, that the features of the

flowers there pointed out are so remarkable as to have attracted the

attention of Darwin. He addressed a letter of congratulation and

inquiry to the writer with his characteristic candor and cordiality. It

may have been the last letter from that illustrious hand, for he lay cold

224 The American Naturalist. [March,

in death before the missive had reached its destination. He called

attention also to the fact that he had observed similar asymmetry in

Mormodes ignea and had similarly used the terms “ right handed” and

“left handed.” The fact is published in his “ Fertilization of Orchids.”

—J. E. Topp. =

University of South Dakota, Vermillion, S. D., Dee. 2, 1895.

VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.

Water Pores.—Dr. Anton Nestler contributes an interesting

“ Kritische Untersuchungen über die sogenannten Wasserspalten ”

(pp. 38, pl. 2) to Band LXIV, No. 3 of Nova Acta d. Ksl. Leop.- Carol.

Deutschen Akad. d. Naturforscher. The term “ water pore” was intro-

duced by DeBary to designate a mechanism supposed to be distin-

guished from ordinary stomata by (1) Presence of liquid water, at

least at times, in the substomatic opening; (2) Rigid guard cells; (8)

Often very considerable differences in form and size ; (4) Location near -

the edge of the leaf in the teeth over the end of a vascular bundle. The

following subjects are considered in this paper: Previous literature ;

development of the water pores; structure, number, and size ; rigidity

of the guard cells; plants destitute of water pores. Dr. Nestler shows

that water pores originate from stomatic mother cells in the same way

as ordinary stomata (48 species of Ranunculus were examined and

also plants of many other families) ; that while water pores sometimes

exceed ordinary stomata in size they are quite as often of the same size

or smaller, and frequently show plain transitions into the latter; that

rigidity of the guard cells is not always present in the water pores nor

always absent in ordinary stomata; that water pores sometimes dis-

charge vapor of water; and, finally, that the ordinary stomata some-

times, and probably often, excrete liquid water (over the whole upper

surface of the leaf in Vicia Faba).—Erwin F. Smrru.

_ Biology of Smut Fungi.—The third part of Dr. Brefeld’s Smut

Fungi (Heft XII of the Untersuchungen) contains 140 pages of quarto

text and 267 figures packed into 7 lithographic plates, the crowding

together of which makes difficult the comparison of text and figures.

All told 13 genera and 64 species are described, of which latter 22 are

reckoned as new. The germination of the smut spores is figured for

most of the species as well as described. The descriptions are long and

include a wealth of biological detail drawn from the behavior of the

1896.] Vegetable Physology. 225

various forms in Nährlösung. Two new genera are established: Ar-

throcoidea, founded on two old species (Ustilago subinclusa and U.

carycis), separated from Ustilago by peculiarities of germination, and

Ustilaginoidea, a most peculiar genus, founded on Patouillard’s Tilletia

oryze and on a new species found by Moller on Setaria Crus-Ardee in

Brazil. Material for the study of the fungus on rice was obtained from

Barclay in India. This fungus which causes a swelling of the ovaries:

of the rice plant to several times the normal breadth of the grain and

which has the external appearance of a smut, has nothing to do with

Tilletia, but seems to belong to some other group of fungi. Its prin-

cipal peculiarities are (1) the production of a large number of smut-

like spores on the outer part of the transformed grain, the interior of

the same being occupied by a hard mass of nonsporiferous hyphæ sug-

gesting an immature sclerotium ; (2) germination in a manner totally

different from that of any other smut spores and resembling that of

some Ascomycetes, i. e. by the development of a much branched septate

mycelium which, in dilute Niahrlésung, bears succedaneously on the

ends of the hyphæ, small, oval, colorless, nongerminating conidia, and

in concentrated Niahrlésung omits these conidia and develops in their

stead and also anywhere on the walls of the hyphæ, sessile dark green-

ish-black, echinulate, thick walled spores one in a place or sometimes two

together, one above the other. In the species received from Brazil

most of the dark spores had fallen off and the development of the

central mass of hyphz had proceeded a step further, being changed into

a true sclerotium with a black rind and an internal thickwalled white

seudoparenchyma. Additional facts are promised as soon as these

sclerotia can be induced to germinate. The descriptions are followed

by a discussion of the relationship of the smuts to each other and to

other fungi. A full account of culture methods and some additional

notes on fungi are promised for Heft XIII to appear soon.

Incidentally Dr. Brefeld pays his compliments to the perfunctory

grinders out of species: “The accidental circumstance that the all

naming Patouillard has given to the fungus on rice the name Tilletia

oryze shows once more how worthless are the namings of a spore

material without the developmental history. The latter shows that in

Patouillard’s supposed Tilletia oryze we have to do not with a Tilletia

and not even with a smut fungus but with a form out of the highest

group of fungi.” This is quite to the point. The labors of the “all

naming” mycologists of the past have filled this part of systematic

botany with a mass of rubbish mountain high, and still the brave work

goes on, exactly as if it were not known that fungi are exceedingly

226 The American Naturalist. [March,

variable organisms, or that it is possible by holding on to the old notion

of fixity of species to make half a dozen new ones out of the product of

a single spore by a little variation of the substratum, or even without

the latter device by drawing up separate descriptions of old and young

and large, small and medium sized spores. Is it not indeed time we

should have a reform and begin to reduce the number of species by

carefully studying those which have been badly described (by far the

larger number), learning their life history and the extent of their

variability under ordinary conditions, and throwing out the synonyms?

This method carefully applied would unquestionably reduce the number

of so-called species of fungi and bacteria nearly or quite one-half.

This must necessarily form a large part of the work of the next genera-

tion of mycologists, and no one familiar with the ground can doubt

that the task of properly classifying these plants would be immensely

easier if half the descriptions had never been written—Erwin F.

MITH

Function of Anthocyan.—The following is an abstract of a short

paper by Prof. Leopold Kny, of Berlin, Zur physiologische Bedeutung

des Anthocyans, published in Atti del Congresso Botanico internazion-

ale di Genova, 1892 (pp. 185-144). The name anthocyan has been

given to a coloring matter occurring in the vegetative and floral organs

of many plants in numerous transitional shades from red through

violet to blue. It occurs dissolved in the cell sap and is sensitive to

acids and alkalies, changing from one shade of color to another as they

are used. It is probable that several different substances have been

included under this term, for while in most plants these colors appear

only on exposure to light, especially bright sunshine, in others they ap-

pear just the same in total darkness, e. g. in the perianth of Tulipa ges-

neriana, Crocus vernus, and Scilla siberica, the inner tissues of the root

of the red beet, and the inner leaves of the red cabbage. In case of

the floral organs anthocyan undoubtedly serves to make them conspic-

uous to insects, etc., but for the most part it can have no such function

in the vegetative organs. Its use to these parts of the plant has been

explained in three different ways. (1) When young leaves and stems

either from seedlings or from buds take on a distinct red or violet color

and subsequently lose it wholly or in part, it is but a step to the hypo-

thesis that this color has been developed for the protection of the

chlorophyll from injury by light. It is explained in this way by Ker-

ner von Marilaun. On this supposition, it is difficult to understand

how many young shoots get along without it, e. g. species of Iris, the

young leaves of which are bright green. As proof, Kerner makes

1896.) Vegetable Physiology. 227

prominent the abundance of anthocyan in many alpine plants as well

as the fact that when a species grows on the plains as well as in the

mountains it is in the latter locality that the vegetative and floral

organs show an inclination to become red with anthocyan. (2) In

cases where the cells holding the anthocyan are on the under side of

the leaf, the upper side being pure green (Cyclamen europeum, Hydro-

charis Morsus rane) the lightscreen hypothesis naturally falls to the

und. Here there is every reason to believe, according to Kerner,

that the light rays which would otherwise pass out of the plant and be

lost are converted into heat rays in passing through the cells contain-

ing anthocyan. In conformity with this hypothesis we find that the

leaves of trees and shrubs which are lifted up from the soil and have

other green leaves below to catch the filtered light, are never violet on

their under surface, while, in very leafy under shrubs, only the lower-

most leaves next the ground are provided with anthocyan. Another

indication of the warming influence of anthocyan is its abundance in

alpine plants, as already mentioned, and its frequent development in

the perennial leaves of other plants during the winter season (Semper-

vivum tectorum, Ligustrum vulgare, Hedera helix, Mahonia aquifolium)

the leaves being enabled thereby, in sunny winter days, to break up

carbon dioxide even at relatively low temperatures. (3) There are,

however, a series of facts going to show that the preceding hypotheses

are not sufficient to explain all cases. On full grown shoots of many

herbs and woody plants the sunny side of the internodes frequently be-

comes red while the opposite side remains nearly or quite pure green

(Salix species, Polygonum fagopyrum, and many other plants). -The

same difference is frequently observed on petioles, the red color being

not rarely prolonged into the midrib and its branches. These facts

lead to the conclusion that the screen of anthocyan may have some use

in connection with the breaking up and translocation of plastic sub-

stances through the vascular system. This is also indicated by the fact

that when the roots of willows and other plants grow down from a bank

into the water and are subject to direct sunlight they become red on

the ex surface. Pick considers the anthocyan screen as a means

of bringing about the outward movement of starch in large quantities

without seriously disturbing the assimilatory activity of the chloro-

phyll bodies. Some effort has been made to demonstrate this third

view, but so far as known, no one has tried to establish the first two by

means of experiment. The following experiments were, therefore, un-

dertaken to fill this gap. (1) Does anthocyan protect chlorophyll from

the destructive action of light? Owing to the manifest difficulty of deal-

ing directly with the chlorophyll bodies the experiments were made

228 The American Naturalist. [March,

with an alcoholic solution derived from grass leaves. Two beakers

were filled with this green solution and placed in tin chambers with

blackened inner walls but having on one side a quadrangular opening

with strongly projecting edges for the entrance of light. In front of

each opening was placed a parallel walled glass vessel 196 millimeters

high, 93.5 mm. wide and 40 mm. thick. Into one of these vessels red

beet juice was poured and into the other white beet juice, both filtered

and of the same specific gravity. The result was decisive. The light

which passed through the anthocyan solution discolored the chlorophyll

much less rapidly than that which passed through the colorless solution.

(2) Does anthocyan convert the light rays into heat rays? Experiments

were made with the foliage of green and red leaved varieties of the fol-

lowing species, viz. Fagus sylvatica, Corylus avellana, Berberis vulgaris,

Acer platanoides, Brassica oleracea, Dracena ferrea, Canna indica; with

decoctions of white and red beets ; and with the petals of a white and

a red rose. Exactly weighed quantities of the leaves, etc., were placed

in the parallel walled glass vessels already mentioned, thermometers

were then plunged into the center of the mass, and the vessels were ex-

posed to the action of direct sunlight filtered through a nearly saturated

alum water screen 4 em. thick (to absorb the heat rays). In most of

the species (Dracena ferrea and Canna indica gave contradictory

results) the ability of anthocyan to convert light rays into heat rays

seems to have been demonstrated conclusively. In one to two minutes

in favorable cases there was a rise of temperature in the vessels contain-

ing the red leaves, the maximum difference amounting to as much as

As soon as the sun was covered by a cloud there was a notice-

sins fall of temperature in both vessels, and when the cloudiness lasted

10 to 20 minutes the temperature became the same or nearly the same

in both vessels. Subsequently an effort was made to determine whether

the different sete sa = the solar spectrum behaved differently. For

taining, in turn, red leaves of several species

of plants were exposed to direct light under the following conditions ;

the light entering one vessel was filtered through the alum solution, that

entering another was filtered through a screen of sulfuric-copper-oxide-

ammonia, that entering the third was passed through a solution of bi-

chromate of potash, it having been determined in advance spectrosco-

pically that the two colored screens divided the spectrum in about the

middle of the green. Under these conditions the rise of temperature

was less behind the blue screen than behind the orange one, and less

behind the latter than behind the alum screen. A consideration of the

third supposed function of ame is left by Dr. Kny for a subse-

quent paper.—Erwin F. Suir

1896.] Zoology. ! 229

ZOOLOGY.

A posthumous paper on Myxospridia by M. Prosper Thélohan has

recently appeared prefaced with a short account of the authors’s

scientific career by E. G. Balbiani. The Memoir, intended as a thesis

for the degree of Doctor of Science, while complete in the essen-

tial parts, lacks the final chapter in which the author intended to

indicate the relations of the different genera and families of the Myxos-

poridies.

Briefly stated, Myxosporida are parasitic Sporozoa found living in

certain fishes, batrachians and reptiles. They have also been observed

living in various arthropods, notably spiders and crustaceans. Certain

families are limited to vertebrates host : Myxobolide and Chloromyx-

idx. It is to the latter forms that the author devotes his paper.

It has long been known that the Myxosporida of the vertebrates

assume two forms; one, a small ameboid body swimming free in the

liquid which contained in certain organs, chiefly the gall and urinary

bladders, and a second form which is found distributed in compact

tissues, like the connective tissues and the muscles. In either case they

may be harmless to the host, or on the other hand, give rise to grave

disorders, resulting in the death of the animal which they have

invaded. ;

The free swimming species are variable in form, the most common

one being that of an elongated cone the base of which corresponds to

the anterior extremity; others are almost spherical. It is, however,

difficult to decide upon a definite species form, since each individual

exhibits such extraordinary polymorphism. The organisms found in

the tissues are generally spherical.

Ordinarily these parasites are colorless, but yellow ones have been

seen, and a few green ones are reported.

In dimensions, as in form, there is great diversity. The free swim-

ming species are from 10 or 12%. in diameter to 5 mm. in diameter.

Reproduction is accomplished by sporulation, and, probably, also

by fission. The protoplasmic body of the Myxosporida is plainly dif-

ferentiated into a peripheral zone, ectop/asm, surrounding the central

sarcode, endoplasm. The former functions as a protection for the

latter and, also is capable of putting out pseudopodia which act as

organs of locomotion or fixation. These pseudopodia are localized in

certain species, in others they appear at random. They take no part in

the phenomena of nutrition. ;

The endoplasm of young individuals appears homogeneous, but in

older ones there are found, in some cases, certain products of differentia-

230 The American Naturalist. [March,

tion, among which the author distinguished, fatty globular masses and

rhombohedral crystals of hematoidin. In others, there are vacuoles,

containing protoplasmic matter which differs from the rest of the

endoplasm. It is in the endoplasm also that the nuclear elements are

found, often in great number, around which the spores develop. The

author traces the development of these spores, describing minutely

the various stages of growth. Upon arriving at maturity they remain

enclosed in the endoplasm for a varying length of time. When set

free it seems to be connected with the destruction of the protoplasm

which persists in the mother organism after the formation of the spores.

The free-swimming species are expelled from the host either with the

fæces or the urine, but the ones imprisoned in the tissues continue

where they are until set free by the death and subsequent decay of the

tissues of the host. The spores rarely germinate in the old host, never

in any exterior medium, but stay dormant until chance provides them

a new host.

As to the food habits of the Myxosporida, M. Thélohan observa-

tions are to the effect that they imbibe nourishment from the fluids in

which they live. In no case did he see food particles ingested.

The following classification of the Myxosporida was proposed by

the author in 1892, and his subsequent researches confirms the distin-

guishing characters.

( ( no vacuoles in 2 capsules. I. Myxidiide.

the plasma. \4 capsules. II. Chloromyxide.

form

variable } 1 vacuole which

| colors a reddish III. Myxobolidæ.

brown by iodine.

Spores 4

pyriform,a single polar cap-

sule, not easily seen, with

a pointed sorte a IV. Glugeidæ.

able with iodine, at the

| larger end.

Myxidiide contains 6 genera with 25 species; Chloromyxide has 1

genus, 6 species; Myxobolide 2 genera, 14 species ; Glugeide 3 genera,

16 species.

The Segmentation of the Hexapod Body.—In a recent

paper” giving the results of work upon the early stages of certain of

the Orthoptera, Dr. Heymons gives the whole number of segments in

the Hexapod body as twenty-one, of which six form the head; three, the

1 Anhang. Abh. K. preuss. Akad. Wiss., Berlin, 1895.

1896.] 7 Zoology. 231

thorax ; and twelve, the abdomen. At some time during the develop-

ment of the insect, appendages are present upon all except the first,

third and twenty-first segments. The frons, clypeus, labrum and com-

pound eyes are parts of the first segment. The second segment bears

the antennz, the fourth the mandibles, and the fifth and sixth the two

pairs of maxille. The hypopharynx does not belong in the series of

appendages but is formed by a folding of the ventral portions of the

fourth, fifth and sixth segments. The cerci, contrary to the views of

some authors, are the true appendages of the twentieth (eleventh ab-

dominal) segment. Considerable emphasis is laid upon the similarity

between the first and twenty-first segments, in their relations to the

openings of the alimentary canal, in being free from appendages, in

the lateral position of their ganglia and in the relative changes of the

appendages of the adjoining segment. Concerning the position of the

genital openings, Heymons reiterates his former opinion that they may

belong primitively to the tenth segment, their position in the ninth

being a secondary development.—G. M. WInsLow.

The Coxal Glands of Thelyphonus caudatus.—In a brief

note in the Zoologischer Anzeiger, Dr. Theo. Adensamer adds a few

facts to complete Sturany’s work on the Arachnoidea. The two glands

occur between the gastric cæca and the muscles, and extend as un-

branched and unlobed sacs to the abdomen. From the anterior end of

each extends a simple duct to the coxe of the first pair of legs through

which they open. A thin chitinous intima was distinguished in the

ducts. An histologically differentiated portion of the gland corre-

sponding to Lankester’s medullary substance and Sturany's Marksub-

sanz was not found.

The following table shows the location of the openings of the glands

in the several groups:

Limulus, openings in the 5th append:

Scorpio, openings in the 3d pair of legs = = 6th appendages.

Pseudoscorpionidea, openings in the ? =

Thelyphonus, openings in the 1st pair of legs = 3d appendages.

Araneida:

a. Tetrapneumous, openings in the 3d pair of legs = 5th append-

ages. ;

b. Dipneumous, openings in the 1st pair of legs = 3d appendages.

Phalangida, openings in the 3d pair of legs = 5th appendages.

Acarina, openings in the ? pair of legs =? one

2 XVIII, p. 424.

232 The American Naturalist. [March,

Cross Fertilization and Sexual Rights and Lefts Among

Vertebrates.—The November number of this journal, page 1012,

under the title “Sexual Rights and Lefts,” called attention to sexual

peculiarities I had recently discovered in certain Cyprinodonts. At

that time no satisfactory explanation of the purpose or origin of the

strange conditions offered itself. At present I would like to note in

these pages what upon further consideration appears to me the best

solution of the problem. Additional study has satisfied me that the

sexual conditions in the genus Anableps prevent close “ inbreeding,”

or, in other words, they secure cross fertilization. What in certain

plants is attained by means of short stamens with the long ones is in

these fishes realized by sinistral and dextral males and females. This

is a view in the case of Anableps that brings us in face of probable

benefit from the novel features, and of the possible causes of their evo-

lution. As bearing on the inception of the dextral and the sinistral

peculiarities we must consider the habit possessed by so man y of these

fishes of swimming in pairs, side by side, a habit that induced Professor

Agassiz to name one of the genera Zygonectes, that is yoke swimmers.

The acquisition of more or less of a dextral or of a sinistral tendency

would not be at all unnatural in each of a pair habitually swimming

side by side in the same relative positions to one another. It may be

that cross fertilization will afford an explanation of conditions some-

what similar among molluscs.

While writing of matters concerning the publication “ The Cyprino-

donts,” it should be mentioned, as kindly pointed out to me by Dr. A.

Smith Woodward of the British Museum, that the name of one of the

new genera, Glaridodon, was recently preoccupied among fossils, and

it may be well here to discard that name (p. 40) for the term G@lari-

dichthys.—S. Garman, Cambridge, Mass.

Abnormal Sacrum in an Alligator.—Among a lot of young

alligators procured from New Orleans for the University of Chicago one

in which the skeleton was prepared, showed a very peculiar variation

in the pelvic region there being three instead of two sacral vertebree.

There are as usual 24 presacral vertebre. The 25th has the sacral

ribs inclined backwards and becoming slender. The 26th has strong

thick ribs, and the 27th, the first caudal in normal specimens, has also

well developed ribs articulating strongly with the ilium. The 27th is

seemingly biconvex. The first chevron is attached between the 28th and

29th and is, therefore, in the normal position as regards the serial num-

ber of the vertebre, but is attached to the first vertebre the last sacral

instead of the second. The whole pelvis has migrated backwards one

1896.] Zoology. 233

vertebre, the first true sacral tending to become a lumbar and the first

caudal has become a sacral. The two side are strikingly symmetrical.

The figures giving views from above and below are natural size and

include the 24th-28th vertebre.

The other known cases of variation in the sacrum of Crocodilia are,

as far as I am aware, as follows: Rheinhardt' examined 11 specimens

and found 3 abnormal.

1. Alligator selerops Schn.: Last lumbar become a sacral; 23 pre-

sacrals,

2. Crocodilus acutus: 3 sacrals, 3 plane-convex, 1st caudal concave-

convex and bearing a chevron, thus the first caudal has become a sacral

23 presacrals.

3. Crocodilus acutus: First caudal has become a sacral, 24 pre-

sacral.

Baur’ reported two cases :

1. Gavialis gangeticus: 25 presacrals. One intercalated between

the 9th and 10th.

2. Alligator mississippiensis: Last lumbar become a sacral, showing

on one side a small sacral rib and which does not reach ilium, 23 pre-

sacrals.

Baur’ reported three cases.

1. Crocodilus acutus: A specimen in the museum at Cambridge,

Eng.shows on the right side of the 25th vertebra a strong and separate

rib, on the left side the rib is smaller and coéssified with the centrum.

The 26 shows typical sacral ribs. The 27th shows on the left side a

1(Anomalier i Krydsvirvierne hos Krokodelerne, Copenhagen, 1873, and Sur

les anomalies des vertébres sacrées chez les crocodilieus. Jul. de eee TUL

No. 4. Paris, 1874.)

2 Zoologischer Anzeiger, IX Jahrg., No. 238, 1886. Osteolog. Not. über

appear Anz. XII, Jahrg., No. 306, 1889. Revision meiner Mittheilungen

in Zoologisher Anzeiger, mit Nachträgen.)

(234 The American Naturalist. [March,

strong free rib and on the right side a weaker rib but free. The 28th

biconvex.

2. Crocodilus acutus: Two specimens in the Royal museum at

Leiden have only 23 presacrals.—E. C. Case.

The Polar Hares of Eastern North America, with De-

scriptions of New Forms.—In 1819 Captain John Ross, in the

fourth Appendix of the second (octavo) edition of his “ Voyage of Dis-

covery ” in Baffin’s Bay, described a hare which he procured in Baffin

Land, in latitude 73° 37’.

To this animal he gave the name “ Lepus arcticus Leach,” stating at

the end of his description that “ Dr. Leach thinks it to be very dis-

tinct from the common White Hare of Scotland (Lepus albus Brisson)

and equally so from the Lepus variabilis, Pallas.” Ross then makes a

reference to “ Appendix No. V,” of the same volume, which he evi-

dently supposed would contain Leach’s description of the same animal.

Leach’s chapter on the “ New Species of Animals” obtained by Ross,

however, does not come in appendix number five but is part of the same

appendix in which Ross’ description appears. It is on page 170,

while Ross’ description is on page 151. Leach evidently described

the same specimen which Ross had in hand, but gave it the name

Lepus glacialis. Owing to its precedence in paging, Dr. J. A. Allen’

rightly adopts the name arcticus for the American Polar Hare, glaci-

alis of Leach becoming a synonym.

The question has been raised by my friend, Mr. Outram Bangs,

whether Ross, and not Leach, should have credit for the name arcticus.

We may justly infer from Ross’ description that he intended that

Leach should have this credit and that he published it with such in-

tention. He must have consulted with Leach about its relations

to the European and Scottish Hares and quotes Leach in his diagno-

sis, using, without doubt, the specific name then suggested by Leach.

The fact that Leach gave it another name does not affect the status of

the one given by Ross, nor weaken Leach’s claim to it. From the

present custom, not definitely formulated in our American Ornitholo-

gist’s Union’s canons of nomenclature, I see, however, no alternative

but to call the Baffin Land Hare, Lepus arcticus Ross.’

i Mon. N. l. Amer, ee 1877, Be 288.

325. d ra rd

Ph By 1 5 a l Lehat tl = fib,

person to wh na

writing it in this case Lepus ¢ arcticus Leach. The A. O.U., with one Ae two ?) exe

ceptions, adopts the reverse rule in their check list of birds, and would make it

read Lepus arcticus Ross. Neither method does justice either pid public or to

1896,] Zoology. 235

Dr. J. A. Allen (l. c.) concludes that the American Polar Hare is

not specifically separable from the European L. timidus (=variabilis

Auct.), and the deficient material which he had for examination at

that time probably justified such a verdict as the safest one, especially

when we consider the standard of species and varieties adopted at that

date by American mammalogists, Through the kind liberality of

Messrs. G. Brown Goode and F. W. True of the Smithsonian Institu-

tion, and of Mr. Outram Bangs of Boston, I have been favored to ex-

amine, in connection with the specimens in the Academy of Natural

Sciences of Philadelphia, an unusually large series of skins and skulls

of the Polar Hares of America and northwestern Europe. The results

of this study, so far as they relate to the Polar Hares of eastern North

America, and Scandinavia may be summed thus briefly. —

_ 1. Lepus trmrpus L. Scandinavian Polar Hare.

Type locality (hypothetically restricted), Southern Sweden,

Nasals nearly or quite reaching to anterior vertical plane of pre-

maxillaries. Posterior frontal swelling on a plane with the postorbital

processes. Upper incisor with transverse sectional diameter greater than

the longitudinal diameter ; the chord of the are of its exposed surface

(with skull, minus mandibles, resting on a plane horizontal surface)

is vertical ; the radius of the are described by the incisors is one-eighth

(25) of the basilar length of skull; their inner faces indented by a

deep broad sulcus and they are rooted on the premaxillaries at or

slightly anterior to the inferior maxiWo-premaxillary sutures. Roots of

lower incisors extending to base of pm, 1.

Summer pelage ; above blackish brown, sprinkled with gray; ears

darker, but not black, tail white, dark above.

2. Lepus ARCTICUS “ Leach,” Ross. Baffin Land Polar Hare.

Type locality, lat. 73° 37’, northern Baffin Land, southeast of Cape

owen.

Size larger (?) than timidus, with relatively smaller and wider skull

and shorter ears. Skull of the same type as timidus, with the follow-

ing differences: Nasals, rostrum and incisive foramina relatively

those personally interested. I suggested ( Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila, 1895, p.

395), that both the publishing and the manuscript or verbal authority for such

names should be indicated. My friend, Witmer Stone, h ggested an imp

ment on my formula which I heartily endorse, viz.. that instead of “ Rana clam-

itans Bosc., Mss., Sonn., Latr.” (l. c), it should read Rana clamitans “ Bose.,””

Sonn. & Latr., and the Baffin Land Hare would read Lepus arcticus “ Leach,”

This comports far better with our motto that, “ Zoological nomenclature

is a means, not an end, in zoological science.”

236 The American Naturalist. [Marech,

shorter and broader, the incisive foramina never reaching to middle of

pm.1. Palatal bridge longer than width of postpalatal fossa. Supra

orbital processes of frontals deeply notched anteriorly, upraised and

widely flaring. Frontals, at their posterior constriction, remarkably

tumid, their anterior plane greatly depressed.

Summer pelage (fide Ross and Leach (l. c.) and Sabine’), white,

“The back and top of the head are sprinkled with blackish brown

hair which is banded with white, the sides of the neck are covered

with hairs of the same color, interspersed with white. The extreme

tips of the ears are tipped with black.”—Leach. “In some of the full-

grown specimens, killed in the height of summer, the hair was a gray-

ish brown towards the points but the mass of fur beneath still remained

white, the face and front of the ears were a deeper gray.”—Sabine.

In south Baffin Land, as evidenced by a specimen from Cumberland |

Gulf, the type form intergrades into the following subspecies :

3. LEPUS ARCTICUS BANGSI Rhoads, subsp. nov. Newfoundland Polar

Hare. Type locality, Codry, Newfoundland. (Diagnosis as given

below

4. LEPUS GRÆŒNLANDICUS Rhoads, sp. nov. Greenland Polar Hare.

Type locality, Robinson’s Bay, Greenland. (Diagnosis as given be-

low.)

LEPUS ARCTICUS BANGSII, subsp. nov. Newfoundland Polar Hare.

Type, Ad. 9, No. 3752; Cof. of E. A. & O. Bangs. Collected by

Ernest Doane at Codry, Newfoundland, Aug. 3d, 1895.

Description.—Size equal to L. timidus L., of Southern Sweden, with

shorter ears, shorter and hroader skull, nasal bones and incisive fora-

mina, weaker dentition and narrower frontal breadth anterior to the

supraorbital processes.

Adult summer pelage : entire back and upper sides, including neck,

shoulders and outer surfaces of thighs, uniform dark grizzled gray,

faintly suffused with tawny. A pinch of hairs from near middle of

back shows the following color pattern: under-fur fine, tawny-white

basally, becoming tawny at distal end ; over-fur white or black at base

in about equal proportions, the coarser black-based hairs black

throughout, the finer white-based hairs with terminal half black, in-

terrupted by a subterminal band of white or pale tawny. Lower head

3 Suppl. Appx., Parry’s Voy., 1824, pp. 187-188.

4Named for Mr. Outram Bangs, who has done so much in making known the

mammal fauna of Newfoundland, and who has there collected the finest study-

series of Polar hares that can be found in this country.

1896.] Zoology. 237

(including chin), lower neck, nape, forebreast to forelegs, lower sides,

edges of thighs and rump, dark plumbeous gray, flecked with very

long, slender, white hairs. Lower breast, belly, vent and tail white,

bordered by a nearly clear plumbeous edging which separates the ven-

tral from the abdominal regions and joins the dark rump along the

inside of thighs. Inner anterior border of hams, sides of hind feet and

toes, and lower surfaces of forelegs, white, thinly intermixed with leaden

hairs. Outer surfaces of fore and hind legs and superior surfaces of

the feet, tawny gray. Ears and space between them, black, becoming

grayish at base and with a narrow whitish outer posterior margin from

near base to tip. Upper head, including cheeks and nose, grizzled

buffy gray, appreciably lighter than the gray shades of the back.

Eyelids whitish, edged with black. Whiskers weak and sparse, white

and black in equal proportions, the longer black hairs tipped with

white. s

Winter pelage (No. 1187, Ad. 9, Col. of E. A. & O. Bangs. Bay

St. George, Newfoundland, Mar. 1, 1895): Entire pelage, exclusive of

ears, white. Extreme tips of ears black, the median anterior borders

of ears grayish.

Measurements (of type).—Total length, 626 millimeters ; tail verte-

bre, 63; hind foot, 160; ear (from crown), 85. Skull: total length,

97; basilar length, 76; greatest breadth, 48.2; anterior frontal con-

striction, 23 ; length of nasal (longest diagonal), 40; greatest breadth

of nasals, 22 ; alveolar breadth of upper incisors, 9; greatest length of

mandible, 76 ; greatest width of mandible, 47.

The above measurements both of body and skull are a very fair aver-

age of the dimensions of five adults taken for Mr. Bangs in Newfound-

land by the same collector, Mr. Ernest Doane. Summer specimens

from northern Labrador are inseparable from those taken in the same

month in Newfoundland. A summer series from Great Slave Lake

may show the existence of another race of arcticus in that region.

LEPUS GRENLANDIcUS sp. nov. Greenland Polar Hare.

Tpye, No. 1486 ad. ¢. Col. of Acad. Nat. Sciences, Philadelphia.

Collected by Chas. E. Hite at Robinson’s Bay, North Greenland, Aug.

2, 1892, for the Peary Relief Expedition.

Description—Size larger than L. timidus L. of Sweden, with radi-

cally distinct coloration and incisor dentition.

Adult summer pelage, white, suffused with light tawny and sparingly

sprinkled with gray on upper head and ears. Back with scattering

black and gray hairs. Tip of ears black. Tail, sides and lower sur-

238 The American Naturalist. [March,

faces pure white. Half grown young in July and August like adult,

but darker, owing to greater abundance of colored hairs and the leaden

under fur. Appearances of young and old at a distance at all seasons,

white.

Winter pelage, pure white throughout, except the tips of ears, which

are black.

Skull with rostral portion anterior to pm. 1, relatively much longer

and more attenuate, owing to the outward prolongation of the pre-

maxillaries and the small calibre of incisors. Upper and lower incis-

ors very long, produced and slender, their transverse diameter being

less than the longitudinal. Upper incisors describe the are of a circle

whose radius is one-fifth (7%) the basilar length of the skull. The

chord of their exposed ares (with cranium, minus mandibles, resting

on a plane horizontal surface) forms an angle of 45° to the horizontal

plane. Face of upper incisors mulfistriate, the normal sulcus peculiar

to all other members of the genus being so filled with dentine in adult

grenlandicus as to obliterate the depression, presenting an even,

rounded, enameled contour marked with three minute striæ.

Roots of upper incisors based on the maxillaries and reaching back

nearly half way from inferior maxillo-premaxillary sutures to pm. 1.

Roots of lower incisors extending to the base of pm. 2.

Measurements (of type taken from dry mounted skin, relaxed) : ear,

from crown, 100 millimeters; hind foot, 145; tail vertebrae (dry), 50?

Skull : total length, 100 ; basilar length, 84.5 ; greatest breadth, 50 ;

anterior frontal constriction, 22.5; length of nasals (longest diagonal),

41; greatest breadth of nasals, 20.5; alveolar breadth of upper incis-

ors, 8.5; greatest length of mandible, 76; greatest width of mandible,

Five skins, seven skulls, and one skeleton, all from North Green-

land, comprise the Academy series of Greenland Hares, and all con-

firm the peculiar characters of this species as above given. I regret

that more complete body measurements are not available. Average

adult measurements of ear and hind foot are 100 millimeters for the

former and 145 for the latter. The total length of an adult skeleton

(ligamentous) is 519 millimeters, measured as in the flesh, from tip of

nose to end of tail vertebra.

It is possible that Spitzbergen and Iceland Hares are of the same

type as those of Greenland. None of these have come into my hands.

The Bavarian, Swiss, Scottish, Irish and Siberian representatives of

timidus are also likely to prove separable, at least into definable races,

already named. From what is known of Linnzus at the time of writ-

1896,] Entomology. 239

ing his tenth edition of the System, it is most fitting that the Polar

Hare of Southern Scandinavia should be made the type of the timidus

group, the Swedish Hares being those which would most naturally em-

body and form the source of his original diagnosis.

The writer is now preparing a more compendious revision, with illus-

trations, of the New World representatives of the Lepus timidus group,

which will probably appear in a future number of the Proceedings of

the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia.

—SamveE N. RHOADS.

ENTOMOLOGY.

On Certain Geophilidæ Described by Meinert.—The Chilo-

poda of the Museum of Comparative Zoology were studied by Dr.

Meinert, and the results published in a paper entitled “ Myriapoda

Musei Cantabrigensis.””? Many new species were described, but as no

figures were given, identification is not in all cases easy, although the

descriptions are of considerable length. With reference to the Geo-

philidæ, at least, there are certain misleading statements and unfortunate

omissions. During a recent visit to Cambridge I had the pleasure of

a very brief examination of the types of several of Dr. Meinert’s species,

and some long-standing curiosity was satisfied.

Geophilus georgianus Meinert.

According to Dr. Meinert this species has but a single pleural pore.

For some years past I have had specimens from the South which agreed

well with the description of this species, but had two pores. As this

character is a very constant one, my determination was not made with

confidence. The type of georgianus has, however, two large pores -on

each side concealed under the last ventral plate, so that the anomaly is

disposed of. The pores are similar in structure and location to those of

G. rubens.

Geophilus cephalicus Wood.

The specimens described by Meinert, and previously by Wood as

cephalicus belong to G. rubens Say. I have examined the type in the

British Museum. It is the most common geophilid in the northeastern

states.

Geophilus urbicus Meinert.

No ventral pores could be made out. The sterna are uneven and

the whole animal is very hairy. The form of the body, the armature

1 Edited by Clarence M. Weed, New Hampshire College, Durham,’ N. H.

2Proc. Am. Phil. Soc. XXI, pp. 161-233 (1885).

240 The American Naturalist. [March,

of the prehensorial legs and other strong similarities leave little doubt

that this is a member of the genus Escaryus, as was conjectured when

that genus was erected? The anal legs were also strongly curved under

as has been the case with all the specimens of Escaryus yet observed.

That the differences enumerated between E. phyllophilus and E. urbicus

can be maintained, is doubtful, for the Cambridge specimen is in rather

poor condition, so that some of the characters ascribed by Dr. Meinert

may easily prove to have been accidental.

Scolioplanes robustus Meinert.

The locality of this species was not known. I have collected what

is evidently the same in central New York and southern Pennsylvania,

and am unable to separate it from Sager’s Strigamia fulva, the probable

type of which I have seen in the Museum of the Academy of Natural

Sciences at Philadelphia. The only difference between it and bothrio-

pus and robustus seems to be that of size. The large specimens always

show evidences of good living. The creatures are also constructed so

as to be capable of considerable distention, besides being variable in

size and number of legs, even in the same localities.

Scolioplanes parviceps Meinert.

The label in this bottle, probably in Meinert’s handwriting is

“ Scolioplanes parviceps n. sp.” The bottle also contains a label

marked “ Strigamia bidens Wood, N. A. loc.?” It is evidently to this

label that Dr. Meinert refers when he says, (p. 226). “ A specimen,

which was said to be a type of Dr. Wood, was labeled ‘ Strigamia bidens

Wood.” To thus rename a type specimen seems a remarkable pro-

ceeding, especially when the new name proposed has already been used

in the same genus. Yet this is probably what Dr. Meinert proposed to

do, for Mr. Henshaw kindly showed me a list of the collection, care-

fully made out in Dr. Meinert’s handwriting, and in this the species is

again given as new. That it did not so appear when the paper was

printed, may have been the work of some American editor who knew

of Wood’s species and naturally supposed that the same was intended

by Meinert.

Wood’s parviceps is a Californian species, while bidens is found in

the East. I have collected it in the vicinity of Washington. I hada

specimen of parviceps at Cambridge with me to compare, but the differ-

ence was evident. There was no other specimen of bidens at hand, but

the size, form of the body and other characters agree well with the east-

ern species.

3 Proc. U. S Nat. Museum XIII, p. 394 (1890).

1896.] Entomology. 241

Scolioplanes longicornis Meinert.

This species was looked upon by its author as the probable type of a

new genus. The prehensorial claws are very long and slender, and

the basal tooth very small. That it represents a new genus is well-nigh

certain, but it would be idle to name it until drawings can be made.

Scolioplanes exul Meinert.

This is a large specimen with a strong general resemblance to large

males of fulvus (robustus). The last pleure are without pores except

close under the edge of the last ventral plate, where there is a large

porose cavity. Anal legs with the claw minute, almost rudimentary,

in this offering a strong contrast to the other American species known

to me. The anal legs are also very robust, much stouter than a

Californian specimen of parviceps.

Mecistocephalus breviceps Meinert.

The type specimen is minus the cephalic lamina and antennæ. There

is another specimen labeled breviceps, but with no locality given. If

the type was really collected at Nantucket the species must be very

rare or local, for it seems not to have been found elsewhere.

Mecistocephalus heros Meinert.

It has been conjectured by Mr. Pocock that this species should be

added to the long list of synonyms of punctifrons. I have never exam-

ined carefully authentic specimens of punctifrons, but the form of the

prehensorial legs in the Cambridge specimen, especially the armature

of the coxa is different from that of Haase’s diagram of punctifrons.

There is no distinct tooth, only a rounded prominence at the distal

corner.

Himantarium indicum Meinert.

This specimen is in poor condition and has evidently been allowed

to dry at some time in its history. The antennz are distinctly attenuate.

The ventral pores are in a posterior, transverse, subreniform area three

or four times as broad as long. This area is scarcely epee, but is

quite definite. Pleural pores are not visible.

Himantarium teniopse (Wood).

Ventral pores in a small, round, impressed, posterior area. No

pleural pores visible, but they may be concealed under the very broad

last ventral plate, as is the case in the following species.

Himantarium laticeps (Wood).

The ventral plates appear to be unusually long. The pores are

located about two-thirds back, in broad, short, transverse areas. Three

242 The American Naturalist. [March,

large pleural pores, subeoncealed. There seemed to be no specimen of

Himantarium insigne Meinert in the collection.—O. F. CooK:

Life-history of Scale Insects.—In an excellent account of the

Scale Insects affecting deciduous fruit trees Mr. L. O. Howard dis-

cusses‘ the life-history of the Coccide as follows: In respect to life history,

the family Coccidx, which includes all of the so-called scale insects, is

very abnormal. The eggs are laid by theadult female either immediately

beneath her own body or at its posterior extremity. Certain species

do not lay eggs, but give birth to living young, as do the plant lice.

This abnormal habit is not characteristic of any particular group of

forms, but is found with individual species in one or more genera. The

young on hatching from the eggs are active, six-legged, mite-like

creatures which crawl rapidly away from the body of the mother,

wander out upon the new and tender growth of the tree, and there

settle, pushing their beaks through the outer tissue of the leaf or twig

and feeding upon the sap. Even in this early stage the male insect can

be distinguished from the female by certain differences in structure.

As a general thing, the female casts its skin from three to five times

before reaching the adult condition and beginning to lay eggs or give

birth to young. With each successive molt the insect increases in size

and becomes usually more convex in form. Its legs and antennz be-

come proportionately reduced, and its eyes become smaller and are

finally lost. As a general thing, it is incapable of moving itself from

the spot where it has fixed itself after the second molt, although certain

species crawl throughout life. The adult female insect, then, is a

motionless, degraded, wingless, and, for all practical purposes, legless

and eyeless creature. In the armored scales she is absolutely legless

and eyeless. The mouth parts, through which she derives nourishment,

remain functional, and have enlarged from molt to molt. Her body

becomes swollen with eggs or young, and as soon as these are laid or

born she dies.

The life of the male differs radically from that of the female. Up to

the second molt the life history is practically parallel in both sexes, but

after this period the male larva transforms to a pupa, in which the

organs of the perfectly developed, fledged insect become apparent. This

change may be undergone within a cocoon or undera male scale. The

adult male, which emerges from the pupa at about the time when the

female becomes full grown, is an active and rather highly organized

creature, with two broad, functional wings and long, vibrating antenne.

t Yearbook U. S. Dept. Agr., 1894.

1896.] Embryology. 243

The legs are also long and stout. The hind wings are absent, and are

replaced by rather long tubercles, to the end of each of which is articu-

lated a strong bristle, hooked at the tip, the tip fitting into a pocket on

the hind border of the wings. The eyes of the male insect are very

large and strongly faceted. -The mouth parts are entirely absent, their

place being taken by supplementary eye spots. The function of the

male insect is simply to fertilize the female, and it then dies. The

number of generations annually among bark lice differs so widely with

different forms that no general statement can be made.

EMBRYOLOGY.

The development of Isopods.—Last Winter when M. Louis

Roule published a long paper in French on the development of an Iso-

pod, Porcellio scaber Leach, it seemed advisable to present a rather full

abstract in this magazine, for the benefit of those readers who would

not see the original or who did not read French. That abstract ap-

peared in February and contained, besides the descriptive account of

the embryology, some interesting conclusions based on these results.

In the May number of the Journal of Morphology Dr. J. Playfair

McMurrich publishes a long paper, illustrated with excellent figures,

which is not at all reconcilable with M. Roule’s views. It must be re-

membered, in comparing the two papers, that M. Roule studied a single

species of Isopod, that he gives rather diagrammatic figures, and that

his description of the segmentation, on which apparently the. whole

fabric rests, is of a very general nature.

Dr. McMurrich took up the work in 1890, hoping to make out the

cytogeny of a Crustacean as Whitman had done for Clepsine, and

as E. B. Wilson has later done for Nereis and other forms. This

author’s results rest then on a thorough study of the segmentation, and

as he did not confine his attention to one form, but observed and figured

the segmentation and early differentation in a number of Isopods, the

paper is of especial interest.

The forms studied were Jera marina Mobius (1873); Asellus communis

Say; Porcellio scaber; Armadillidium walaete with some observations

Ligia.

The segmentation is centrolecithal. The nucleus of the unsegmented

ovum lies in a central mass of protoplasm surrounded by yolk, and

1 Edited by E. A. Andrews, Baltimore, Md., to whom abstracts, reviews and

preliminary notes may be sent.

244 The American Naturalist, [Mareh,

from the central protoplasm a network extends out through the yolk

to a peripheral layer. It is possible to determine the second plane of

division as that of the long axis of the embryo as has been shown to be

the case in Nereis, Crepidula, and Umbrella. In discussing the

segmentation, the author uses the term cell as a convenient one for the

nucleated bodies of protoplasm which appear on division in the yolk,

but he insists on the syncitial nature of the ovum to a late period.

The cleavage is apparently a spiral one, and results in what may be

spoken of as a blastula stage, in which considerable differentiation has

taken place. From the eight cell stage, especially in Jeera, it is possible

to trace the history of different areas of this blastula to certain well

marked cells. For instance, in Jeera, a cell at the posterior pole

gives rise to the future Vitellophags, three cells immediately en-

circling it are the ancestors of the mesendoderm, while the ectoderm

arises from the remaining four anterior cells. There are some interest-

ing variations in this history in the forms studied, though the end result

is practically the same. The author concludes with E. B. Wilson that,

“cells having precisely the same origin in the cleavage, occupying the

same position in the embryo, and placed under the same mechanical

conditions may nevertheless differ fundamentally in morphological

significance.”

In connection with the segmentation Dr. McMurrich thinks that the

existence of a syncitium up to so late a period in differentiation is of

special interest in relation to the current disscusion of the cell-theory.

The question is asked, “ are we to believe that there is no continuity in

Lucifer, between the blastomeres, notwithstanding that in all prob-

ability there was continuity in the ova of its ancestors?” In Peripatus

capensis there is an approach to holoblastic cleavage associated with

less yolk and still a syncitium results. This is regarded as supporting

“the supposition that, even in such cases as Lucifer, there may be also

a continuity of protoplasm, the separation into distinct spherules being

only apparent.”

It should be remembered that, however, plausible this argument is, of

course the fact of continuity between the blastomeres of Lucifer or of

other holoblastic ova still remains to be proven by direct observation.

The conclusion that “the existence of a syncitium is no bar to a cer-

tain amount of differentiation,” certainly seems justified from the facts

described for Jera. Continuing this subject, such a syncitium is com-

pared with the differentiation in certain protozoa, and a peculiar

phenomenon in Porcellio is considered, where there is a precocious

_ segregation of a portion of the cytoplasm which is to take part in the

1896.] Embryology. 245

formation of the blastoderm. This segregation is said to take place,

“not in accordance with any previous location of a nucleus, but inde-

pendently.” Dr. McMurrich thinks that “ this phenomenon seems to

demonstrate that cytoplasmic differentiation may occur independently

of definite nuclear influence.” He immediately adds, however, that

“ he, of course does not mean to assert that the nuclei may not possess

- a codrdinating or even a rp hie action apon the sronlonm, but that they

are directly responsible for th

an unwarranted assumption.

It is difficult to understand just what is meant by these statements.

The remarkable concentration of the peripheral protoplasm of the ovum

of Porcellio toward the definitive ventral side, independently of any

previous location of nuclei, is notewothy. Does it, however, “ demon-

strate cytoplasmic differentiation independent of definite nulcear influ-

ce?” Can this movement of protoplasm, even toward a definite

int, be correctly spoken of as differentiation and compared with the

specialization in the cytoplasm of certain protozoa? Having in mind

the condition of the ovum when this phenomenon takes place, is it not

possible that the movement may be the result of nuclear influences from

the center, acting through the central network on the periphal proto-

plasm ?

Again, if the phenomenon demonstrates cytoplasmic differentiation

independent of definite nuclear influence, why does the author add that,

e he does not mean to assert that the nuclei may not possess a codrdi-

nating action upon thecytoplasm?” Thereseems to bea contradiction

in these two statements, which may destroy the force of the argument.

It should also be remembered that in Jæra, and in the other Isopods

studied, there is a contraction of the blastoderm cells toward the ventral

surface. Here the nuclei, as well as the cytoplasm, of the blastoderm

are evidently directly involved. Perhaps the precocious segregation of

cytoplasm ventrally in Porcellis is but an early appearance of this pro-

cess. If it be admitted that the nuclei possess codrdinating influences

on the cytoplasm, how can it be claimed that in the case of the highly

differentiated protozoa such influences were not active during the

differentiation ?

Another point discussed is the extent of external influences and their

action, in holoblastic and in centrolecithal ova like those of J æra. The

conclusion reached from a review of the that “ the

cleavage form of Jera is determined entirely by intrinsic conditions.”

The phenomena of segmentation “ leave us no choice but to refer the

vis essentialis which determines the direction of the Karyokinetic

seems to him

”

246 The American Naturalist. [March,

spindle, and therefore, the cleavage form of Jeera, to the constitutional

peculiarity of the ovum.” “ Holoblastic ova, the author believes, can

not be excluded from the action of external forces, but the presumption

is allowable, for several reasons, that even in these intrinsic forces are

important.” The assumption must consequently be made “ that intrinsic

forces reside in all ova, though they may be overshadowed by external

influences in some cases.” 3

It is important to examine the assumption which forms the founda-

tion of this argument. The author quotes E. B. Wilson’s conclusion -

that “ cleavage forms are not determined by mechanical conditions

alone,” and assumes that by “ mechanical conditions,’ Wilson means

conditions extrinsic to the ovum. This can hardly be so, for it is

necessary to include among the “ mechanical conditions” in fluencing the

cleavage of an ovum like that of Jera, the presence in the cytoplasm of

a great accumulation of food-yolk, (excessive in quantity when com-

pared with that in holoblastic or meroblastic ova). It is true that this

mass is within the ovum, and in so far “intrinsic ”, but its action is

usually looked on as that of a foreign body, so to speak, which modi-

fies and obscures the primitive phenomona of cleavage and differentia-

tion as seen in holoblastic ova. Hence it is important to remember

that Dr. McMurrich, in maintaining that “the cleavage form of Jeera

is determined entirely by intrinsic conditions,” must include the action

of the nutritive mass. This would seem to weaken materially the posi-

tion that extrinsic influences, (in the generally accepted sense as

extrinsic to active cytoplasm), are excluded from action on the spindles

of centrolecithal ova. The confusion seems to lie in the use of the

word intrinsic to include, in the case of the ovum of Jæra, both inher-

ent properties of the protoplasm, and secondary forces due to the pres-

ence of a body of nutritive material which is morphologically not a part

of the protoplasm. Dr. MeMurrich’s conclusion, that “ instrinsic

forces reside in all ova”, or preferably, as E. B. Wilson has just it,

“ cleavage forms are not determined by mechanical conditions alone,”

will probably be accepted as truth by most observers. However, I can

not see that he has shown that “in Jæra we have practically a demon-

stration of the correctness of this view” of a more convincing charac-

ter than is exhibited by holoblastic ova.

“The cleavage form of Jeera, is said to be, determined entirely by

intrinsic conditions.” A conclusion from which Dr. McMurrich sees

‘no escape, after a review of the changes of position in the yolk assumed

_ by the nuclei during segmentation. The Karyokinetic spindles then

are regarded as entirely beyond the influence of forces external to the

1896.) Embryology. 247

ovum in such eggs as those of Jæra, and their direction, with conse-

quently the cleavage form, is due without other alternative entirely to

the constitutional peculiarity of the ovum. After carefully considering

the evidence presented by Jera and similar centrolecithal eggs, the

assumption does not seem warranted, that they are any more removed

from the influences of external forces, than are holoblastic ova. It

may be true that it is difficult to understand how forces external to a

centrolecithal ovum may affect the spindles within it, but many will

find the same difficulty in the case of holoblastic ova. Does the great

increase of yolk in a centrolecithal ovum remove the spindles from the

action of the external world? I, for one, can not see that this neces-

sarily follows, and hence do not see that the condition of segmentation

in Jæra leaves us no escape from the conclusion that its cleavage form

is determined entirely by intrinsic conditions.

Returning to the description of the embryo, it will be remembered

that the germ-layers are already distinguishable in a blastula stage on

the surface of the yolk in Jeera, and somewhat less distinctly in the

other forms. Now the blastoderm cells gradually concentrate towards

the ventral surface of the egg. This results in the mesendoderm and

vitellophag cells being crowded beneath the surface in the form of a

solid plug, and in the ectoderm of the ventral surface marking out a

somewhat triangular area, the base of which lies anteriorly while the

apex is posterior, This area is the Nauplius region. The rudiments

of the eyes are placed anteriorly at the angles of the base, the append-

ages appear later along the sides, while the blastoporic plug of mesendo-

dermal cells lies just under the posterior apical end. In a most

interesting discussion of the formation of the germs layers in the Crus-

tacea, the author concludes that the primitive Crustacea probably

passed through a blastula stage which was filled with yolk, and in

which a plug of cells migrated into the yolk to be later differentiated

into mesoderm and endoderm. This is the condition exhibited by the

Phyllopods (Samassa, 1893 and Bauer, 1892). Jzra, the Decapods

and especially Lucifer are examples of precocious differentiation of the

germ layers. The entire mesendoderm of Crustacea has a blastoporic

origin, and is not (except in Decapods, where there are secondary

phenomena) formed by delamination of extra-blastoporic region. The

under layer of the latter regions is formed by a migration of cells from

the blastoporic plug. In Armadillidium this is especially well made

out. An interesting question is raised in regard to the mesenteron of

Astacus. Dr. McMurrich suggests the probability that the yolk-

pyramids do not form it, but eventually form mesodermic tissues, while

248 The American Naturalist. [March,

the mesenteron is really formed by cells of the entodermic plates. This

interpretation would be more in line with what is known of other Crus-

tacea. me of the most interesting observations and conclusions of

the paper are those concerning the development of the metanaupliar

regions of the embryo. It is a remarkable fact that the Naupliar and

more posterior metanaupliar regions are very sharply distinguished by

differents methods of growth. Dr. Patten was the first to call attention

to the fact of teloblastic growth in the ectoderm and mesoderm of

Cymothoa. Dr. McMurrich has gone further, and in his comparative

study, has made out in detail the character and limits of this method

of growth in Isopods. While the Naupliar is formed as described, the

metanaupliar regions, are the result of teloblastic growth in ectoderm

and mesoderm, just as the metatrochophoral regions of Polygordius are

due to a similar process. The author is inclined to regard these two

instances of teloblastic growth as acquired independently. He thinks

that in the Isopod “the development points back to a period where a

free-swimming Nauplius occurred in the development of the ancestors

of the group, the egg embryo being a nauplius.” At such a time the

metanaupliar regions were developed after hatching. Now, however,

this posterior region is developed in Isopods before hatching, but it still

retains the peculiar teloblastic method of development, and is sharply

‘distinguishable from the Naupliar area.

There is unfortunately not space to describe this remarkable process.

It is interesting to note, however, that, while the ectoderm of the

metanaupliar regions arises from the successive divisions of a row of

ectodermal teloblasts, the rythm of these divisions is not the same as

that of the row of mesodermal teloblasts which lies beneath. The meso-

dermal teloblasts divide just 16 times giving rise to 16 transverse rows

of mesoderm cells, “ each of which rows is equivalent to a segment,” as

is proved on the appearance of appendages. The ectodermal teloblasts

divide twice as many times.

Though these are the main points of the paper, a number of impor-

tant observations and conclusions have been necessarily crowded out

of this review. For instance, I have not touched on the processes of

impregnation, the formation of membranes, the details of segmentation

and differentiation, the formation of the digestive tract, the history of

the vitellophages, or the development of certain organs.

—H. McE, Kyower.

1896.] Psychology. 249

PSYCHOLOGY.

Consciousness and Evolution.—The quotation by Professor

Cattell in Scrence, July 26, of Professor Cope’s table (from the Monist,

July, 1895) shows that he was equally struck by it with myself. Prof.

Cope gives in this table certain positions on points of development, in

two contrasted columns, as he conceives them to be held by the two

camps of naturalists divided in regard to inheritance into Preformists

and the advocates of Epigenesis. The peculiarity of the Epigenesis

column is that it includes certain positions regarding consciousness,

while the Preformist column has nothing to say about consciousness.

Being struck with this I wrote to Professor Cope—the more because

the position ascribed to consciousness seemed to be the same, in the

main, as that which I myself have recently developed from a psycho-

logical point of view in my work on Mental Development (Macmillan

& Co.). I learn from him that the table’ is not new; but was pub-

lished in the the ‘annual volume of the Brooklyn Ethical Society in

1891 ;’ and the view which it embodies is given in the chapter on

‘Consciousness in Evolution;’ in his Origin of the Fittest (Apple-

tons, 1887).

Apart from the questions of novelty in Professor Cope’s positions—

and that Mr. Cattell and I should both have supposed them so can only

show that we had before read hastily ; I myself never looked into

Professor Cope’s book until now—I wish to point out that the placing

of consciousness, as a factor in the evolution process, exclusively in

the Epigenesis column, appears quite unjustified. It is not a question,

July 26, of a causal interchange between body and mind. Ido not

suppose that any naturalist would hold to an injection of energy in any

form into the natural processes by consciousness ; though, of course,

Professor Cope himself can say whether such a construction is true in

his case. The psychologists are, as Mr. Cattell remarks, about done

with a view like that. The question at issue when we ask whether con-

sciousness has had a part in the evolutionary process is, I think, as to

whether we say that the presence of consciousness—say in the shape of

sensations of pleasure and pain—with its nervous or organic correlative

processes, has been an essential factor in evolution ; and if so, further,

1 This table is given in the issue of Science for July 26, p. 100. The three

points from it which are taken up now are cited below.

250 The American. Naturalist. [March,

whether its importance is because it is through the consciousness aspect

of it that the organic aspect gets in its work. Or, to takea higher form

of consciousness, does the memory of an object as having given pleasure

help an organism to get that object a second time? This may be true,

although it is only the physical basis of memory in the brain that has

a causal relation to the other organic processes of the animal.

Conceiving of the function of consciousness, therefore, as in any case

not a deus ex machina, the question I wish to raise is whether it can

have an essential place in the development process as the Preformists

construe that process. Professor Cope believes not. His reasons are

to appear fully in his proposed book. I believe that the place of con-

sciousness may be the same—and may be the essential place that Mr.

Cope gives it in his left-hand column and which I give it in my Mental

Development—on the Preformist view. I have argued briefly for this

indifference to the particular theory one holds of heredity, in my book

(Chap. VIL), reserving for a further occasion certain arguments in

detail based upon the theory of the individual’s personal relation to his

social environment. The main point involved, however, may be briefly

indicated now, although, for the details of the social influences appealed

to, I must again refer to my book (Chaps. on ‘ Suggestion’ and ‘Emo-

tion’).

I have there traced out in some detail what other writers also have

lately set in evidence, i. e., that in the child’s personal development, his

ontogenesis, his life history, he makes a very faithful reproduction of his

social conditions. He is, from childhood up, excessively receptive to

social suggestion; his entire learning is a process of conforming to

social patterns. The essential to this, in his heredity, is excessive in-

stability, cerebral balance and equilibrium, a readiness to.overflow into

the new channels which his social environment dictates. He has to

learn everything for himself, and in order to do this he must begin ina

state of great plasticity and mobility. Now, my point, but ‘briefly, is

that these social lessons which he learns for himself take the place

largely of the heredity of particular paternal acquisitions. The father

must have been plastic to learn, and this plasticity is, as far as evidence

goes, the nervous condition of acute consciousness; the father then

learned, through his consciousness, from his social environment. The

child does the same. What he inherits is nervous plasticity and the

consciousness. He learns particular acts for himself; and what he

learnsis, in its main line, what his father learned. So he is just as well

off, the child of Preformism, as if he had been the heir of the particular

lessons of his father’s past. I have called this process ‘Social Hered-

1896.] Psychology. 251

ity, since the child really inherits the details; but he inherits them

from society by this process of social growth, rather than by direct

natural inheritance.

To show this in a sketchy way, I may take the last three points

which Professor Cope makes under the Epigenesis column, the points

which involve consciousness, and show how I think they may still be

true to the Preformist if he avail himself of the resource offered by

‘Social Heredity.’

I do this rather for convenience than with any wish to controvert

Professor Cope; and it may well be that his later statements may show

“that even this amount of reference to him is not justified.

1. (5 of Cope’s table). *“ Movements of the organism are caused or

directed by sensation and other conscious states.”

The point at issue here between the advocate of Epigenesis and the

Preformist would be whether it is necessary that the child should

inherit any of the particular conscious states, or their special nervous

dispositions, which the parent learned in his lifetime, in order to secure

through them the performance of the same actions by the child. I

should say, no; and for the reason—additional to the usual arguments

of the Preformists—that ‘Social Heredity’ will secure the same result.

All we have to have in the child is the high consciousness represented

by the tendency to imitate the parent or to absorb social copies, and

the general law now recognized by psychologists under the name of

Dynamogenesis—i. e., that the thought of a movement tends to dis-

charge motor energy into the channels as near as may be to those

necessary for that movement.’ Given these two elements of endow-

ment in the child, and he can learn anything that his father did, with-

out inheriting any particular acts learned by the parent. And we must

in any case give the child this much; for the principle of Dynamo-

genesis is a fundamental law in all organisms, and the tendency to take

in external ‘ copies’ by imitation, etc., is present in all social animals,

as a matter of fact.

The only hindrance that I see to the child’s learning everything that

his life in society requires would be just the thing that the advocates of

Epigenesis argue for—the inheritance of acquired characters. For

such inheritance would tend so to bind up the child’s nervous sub-

stance in fixed forms that he would have less or possibly no unstable

substance left to learn anything with. So, in fact, it is with the animals

in which instinct is largely developed; they have no power to learn

any thing new, just because their nervous systems are not in the mobile

2 Both of these ents orked out in detail in my book.

252 The American Naturalist. [March,

condition represented by high consciousness. They have instinct and

little else. Now, I think the Preformist can account for instinct also,

but that is beside the point; what I wish to say now is that, if Epigen-

esis were true, we should all be, to the extent to which both parents do

the same acts (as, for example, speech) in the condition of the creatures

who do only certain things and do them by instinct. I should like to

ask of the Neo-Lamarckian: What is it that is peculiar about the

strain of heredity of certain creatures that they should be so remark-

ably endowed with instincts? Must he not say in some form that the

nervous substance of these creatures has been ‘set’ in the creatures?

ancestors? But the question of instinct is touched upon under the

next point.

2. (6 of Cope’s table). “Habitual movements are derived from

conscious experience.” This may mean movements habitual to the in-

dividual or to the species in question. If it refers to the individual it

may be true on either doctrine, provided we once get the child started

onthe movement—the point discussed under the preceding head. If,

on the other hand, habitual movements mean race movements, we raise

the question of race habits, best typified in instinct. I agree with Mr.

Cope that most race habits are due to conscious function in the first

place ; and making that our supposition, again we ask: Can one who

believes it still be a Preformist? I should again say that he could.

The problem set to the Preformist would not in this case differ from

that which he has to solve in accounting for development generally :

it would not be altered by the postulate that consciousness is present in

the individual. He can say that consciousness is a variation, and what

the individual does by it is ‘ preformed’ in this variation. And then

what later generations do through their consciousness is all preformed

in the variations which they constitute on the earlier variations. In

other words, I do not see that the case is made any harder for the Pre-

formist by our postulate that consciousness with its nervous correlate is

areal agent. And I think we may go further and say that the case

is easier for him when we take into account the phenomena of Social

Heredity. In children, for example, there are variations in their

mobility, plasticity, ete. ; in short, in the ease of operation of Social

Heredity as seen in the acquisition of particular functions. Children

are notoriously different in their aptitudes for acquiring speech, for

example ; some learn faster, better, and more. Let us say that this is

true in animal communities generally ; then these most plastic individ-

uals will be preserved to do the advantageous things for which their

variations show them to be the most fit. And the next generation will

1896,] Psychology. 253

show an emphasis of just this direction in its variations. So the fact

of Social Heredity—the fact of acute use of consciousness in ontogeny

—becomes an element in phylogeny, also, even on the Preformist

theory.

Besides, when we remember that the permanence of a habit learned

by one individual is largely conditioned by the learning of the same

habits of others (notably of the opposite sex) in the same environment,

we see that an enormous premium must have been put on variations of

a social kind—those which brought different individuals into some

kind of joint action or coöperation. Wherever this appeared, not only

would habits be maintained, but new variations, having all the force of

double hereditary tendency, might also be expected. But consciousness

is, of course, the prime variation through which coöperation is secured.

All of which means, if I am right, that the rise of consciousness is of

direct help to the Preformist in accounting for race habits—notably

those known as gregarious, codperative, social.

3. (7 of Cope’s table). “The rational mind is developed by exper-

ience, through memory and classification.” This, too, I accept, pro-

vided the term ‘classification’ has a meaning that psychologists agree

to. So the question is again: Can the higher mental functions be

evolved from the lower without calling in Epigenesis? I think so.

Here it seems to me that the fact of Social Heredity is the main and

controlling consideration. It is notorious how meagre the evidence

is that a son inherits or has the peculiar mental traits of parents beyond

those traits contained in the parents’ own heredity. Galton hasshown

how rare a thing it is for artistic, literary or other marked talent to

descend to the second generation. Instead, we find such exhibitions

showing themselves in many individuals at about the same time, in the

same communities, and under the same social conditions, etc. Groups

of artists, musicians, literary men, appear, as it were, as social outbursts.

The presuppositions of genius—dark as the subject is—seem to be

great power ef learning or absorbing, marked gifts or proclivities of a

personal kind which are not directly inherited but fall under the head

of sports or variations, and then a social environment of high level in

the direction of these sports. The details of the individual development,

inside of the general proclivity which he has, are determined by his

social environment, not by his natural heredity. And I think the

phylogenetic origin of the higher mental functions, thought, self-con-

sciousness, etc., must have been similar. I have devoted space to a

detailed account of the social factors involved in the evolution of these

higher faculties in my book.

254 The American Naturalist. [February,

I fail to see any great amount of truth in the claims of Mr. Spencer

that intellectual progress in the race requires the Epigenesis view. The

level of culture in a community seems to be about as fixed a thing as

moral qualities are capable of being; much more so than the level of

individual endowment. This latter seems to be capricious or variable,

while the former moves by a regular movement and with a massive

front.. It would seem, therefore, that intellectual and moral progress

is gradual improvement, through improved relationships on the part of

the individuals to one another; a matter of social accommodation,

rather than of natural inheritance alone, on the part of individuals. It

is only a rare individual whose heredity enables him to break through

the lines of social tissue and imprint his personality upon the social

movement. And in that case the only explanation of him is that he

is a variation, not that he inherited his intellectual or moral power

Furthermore, I think the actual growth of the individual in intellect-

ual stature and moral attainment can be traced in the main to certain

of the elements of his social milieu, allowing always a balance of varia-

tion in the direction in which he finally excels.

So strong does the case seem for the Social Heredity view in this

matter of intellectual and moral progress that I may suggest an

hypothesis which may not stand in court, but which I find interesting.

May not the rise of the social life be justified from the point of view of

a second utility in addition to that of its utility in the struggle for

existence as ordinarily understood ; the second utility, 7. e., of giving to

each genefation the attainments of the past which natural inheritance

is inadequate to transmit? Whether we admit Epigenesis or confine

ourselves to Preformism, I suppose we have to accept Mr. Galton’s law

of Regression and Weismann’s principle of Panmixia in some shape.

Now when social life begins we find the beginning of the artificial selec-

tion of the unfit; and so these negative principles begin to work directly

in the teeth of progress, as many writers on social themes have recently

made clear. This being the case, some other resource is necessary

besides natural inheritance. On my hypothesis it is found in the

common or social standards of attainment which the individual is fitted

to grow up to and to which he is compelled to submit. This secures

progress tn two ways: First, by making the individual learn what the

race has learned, thus preventing social retrogression, in any case; and

seecond, by putting a direct premium on variations which are socially

available.

Under this general conception we may bring the biological phenom-

ena of infancy, with all their evolutionary significance: the great

1896.] Anthropology. 255

plasticity of the mammal infant as opposed to the highly developed in-

stinctive equipment of other young; the maternal care, instruction

and example during the period of helplessness, and the very gradual

attainment of the activities of self-maintenance in conditions in which

social activities are absolutely essential. All this stock of the develop-

ment theory is available to confirm this view.

And to finish where we began, all this is through that wonderful

engine of development, consciousness. For consciousness is the avenue

` of all social infiluences—J. Marx Bautpwry, Princeton.

The preceding communication from Prof. Baldwin is copied from Science of

August 23, 1895. Itis reprinted in order to render intelligible a review of it

which I propose to publish in the next number of the NATURALIST.—E, D. Cope.

ANTHROPOLOGY.

Mercer’s Cave Explorations in Yucatan.’—This a hand-

somely illustrated volume which describes in detail the researches

made by the Corwith Expedition to Yucatan, under the direction of

Mr. H. C. Mercer of the University of Pennsylvania. The object of

the expedition was to search for the remains of prehistoric man in the

cave deposits, and to learn who were the predecessors or ancestors of

the peoples whose civilization is attested by the remarkable ruins

which are such a conspicuous feature of that country. Explorations

of this kind made in Europe have achieved such important results to

archeology, that every research in America must be watched with

great interest. As a summary of his work, Mr. Mercer remarks:

“ The intervening two months seemed a long time; nor was it easy

to realize that, after all, the area gone over had not exceeded one

hundred miles in length by ten in breadth. Twenty-nine caves had

been visited in sixty days, of which ten had been excavated. Thirteen

had archeological significance. Six had yielded valuable, and three,

decisive results.

“ We had seen but little of the ruins. We had not passed south-

ward over the boundary line into the great wilderness, whence fables

of lost cities reach the traveller’s ear. Our continued study of an un-

1 This department is edited by H. C. Mercer, University of Pennsylvania.

The Hill Caves of Yucatan: A Search for the Evidence of Man’s Antiquity

in Central America; being an account of the Corwith Expedition of the Depart-

ment of Archeology and Paleontology of the University of Pennsylvania, by

Henry C. Mercer. J. B. Lippincott & Co. Philadelphia, 1896. 8vo., pp. 183.

256 The American Naturalist. [March,

derground layer of human refuse substantially the same in all the

caves, instructive as it was, had taught us but little of details. Evi-

dently a wide range of tools and implements had not been left, lost or

broken in the subterranean rooms. We did not find, and did not

expect to find, that the water producing underground chambers had

been used as burying places. Neither were they dwellings, but rather

temporary halting spots, which, but for the water supply, would prob-

ably have shown fewer human traces than do the caves of the United

States. Human bones scattered in the rubbish indicated that the old

inhabitants of Yucatan practiced cannibalism. Beyond that, the

traces of pre-Columbian cookery at the underground sites referred to

an ancient cave visitor, who was rather an agriculturist than a hunter,

and who (unless the dog found at Sabaka be an exception) possessed

no domestic animals.

“We had learned little of stone chipping, and had found in the

scanty list of stone blades but one imperfect point that might have

served for an arrowhead. The secret of stone carving we had failed

to discover, and though the whole mystery had seemed within our

grasp at Oxkintok, we had to rest content with proving that the chis-

elling of the ruins could not have been done with chips of the parent

block or round hammer stones. We had found no copper, or gold, or

silver, no jade, no gums, no preserved grains, no cloth, no apparatus

for weaving, and had discovered no pipe, and learned nothing of pre-

Columbian smoking or tobacco.

“ A close examination of the potsherds showed a ware mixed with

powdered limestone that reacted strongly under acid on the fractures.

A smooth red make, strong, wellbaked, and symmetrical, and whose

dull polished surface resisted the action of nitric acid, was abundant,

while a very few fragments were decorated with brightly colored de-

signs, though their polish, after the manner of varnish, yielded readily

to the acid test. Many, though better baked than the ware of the

Delaware Indians, were coarse. A very common hard variety had

been striped with brown lines on a white or bluish background. But

there was nothing brilliant or striking about these fragments of dishes,

cooking pots, or water jars. Few were ornamented, and only two or

three highly so. None were marked with hieroglyphs. Nevertheless, a

variety of tones, colors, and polish struck the eye when many sherds

were laid side by side and brushed.

“ But results more important than these had rewarded our close ex-

amination of the position and contents of the human rubbish heap

everywhere present in the caves. Though this layer was the only cul-

PLATE VI.

1. Wi

a bin. Tiong, aie wide,

ft. 7 jeep - ug to rock

Witte

WA, DUM

Stone water dis! n =

Wf as

and pot sherds. - nii Hy Dy

5 iy í

heh 3 ps o 2. MUMU l ahere Ue Wh

Indian wes ere biti

ni j

ug tor ock . iy

YZ “4 vs f

1. Cave of Sayab Actun, interior. 2. Section of Cave of Actun Xmak.

PLATE VII.

a =

FEARS ESS s

eesse, NTR

LAYER 1, (1 - 3 INCHES) SURFACE FILM,

CAYE EARTH AND ASHES. POTSHERDS

ASE CTs EISTE >

e (EER eo ERC RU ee

32 SRE? eee secant SV S WAS TRASTE LAEST

Poe UEA eal eee Soh SREY ROR SR a CN Jeda CEART

: 2 aa.

LAYER 2. (11 IN. - 1 FT. 2 IN.) THIC

MASS OF SMALL LOOSE STONES. NO

DISTINCT ASH BANDS. LARGE POTS-

LAYER 3.

, ET: {1 IN. = 2 FT. -2 FT. 10 IN.)

OCCUPANCY AND FIRST COMING OF MAN

‘TO THE CAVE. BELOW IT NO HUMAN SIGN

LAYER 4. (91 . BIN, - 1 FT. 10

LIGHT BLFF pee aan CAVE vice

Sees: st cnn THAN LAYER

NO HUMA!

LAYER 5 as

CAVE EARTH RESEMSLING ASHES IN

ASS

A FINELY STRATIFIED BAND OF PURE GREYS

TEXTURE. NO HUMAN SIGN

LAYER 6.

LAYER seid ey irae pis Hes eng

NO SIGN OF MAN ee

SCALE i

E T RSE ee ca) 5

S 3 :

ee S a oN Y

Section of Cuve of Loltun.

1896.] Anthropology. 257

ture layer, our digging had fairly proved at Oxkintok, Loltun and

Sabaka, and though we had often failed to reach rock bottom at other

- caverns, there was nowhere ground for supposing that deeper digging

or blasting would have upset our inference. An earlier people visit-

ing Yucatan under its present topographical conditions must needs

have left their trace in the caves, and because the undisturbed earth

beneath the culture layer discovered, always failed to show trace of any

deeper, older or more primitive human visitor, the conclusion was that

no such earlier people had seen the region while its stony hills, its tor-

rid plain, and its damp caves were as they now are.”

The evidence secured by Mr. Mercer justifies this conclusion so far

as it goes. To prove that a human population existed in Yucatan

prior to that whose remains were actually found, it will be necessary

to discover another series of deposits inside or out of an older type of

caves. No such caves were found, and while it cannot be asserted that

such will not be found, it is evident that they must be very rare if

existing in the region explored. The case of Yucatan may prove to

be similar to that of the United States, where I have shown on paleon-

tologic grounds,’ that cave deposits of two different ages exist. ,The

remains of vertebrate life found in the caves of Yucatan explored by

Mr. Mercer, are those of the existing fauna of the country, and the de-

posits correspond, therefore, with those of the second (postchamplain)

age of the northern caves. Caves of prechamplain age are rare in the

United States, as shown by Mr. Mercer’s earlier researches, having

been probably removed by the action of water during the Champlain

submergence. That such a submergence may have also taken place

in Yucatan is indicated by the recent researches of Spencer ; but if so,

a cleaner sweep of them was made than was the case in North Amer-

ica.

Among the remains of animals which were discovered, those of the

horse occurred in two caves, and the dog in one. It is probable they

-both belong to the domesticated species.

I append some examples of the very admirable illustrations with

which the book abounds.

Apart from its scientific value, this book will interest the general

reader for various reasons. It is written-in a pleasant style, and many

side lights are thrown on the characters of the country and people.

That the exploration was not without the element of danger is shown

by the tragic death of one of the natives; while the sufferings of the

3 American Naturalist, 1895, p. 598.

258 The American Naturalist. [March,

party from heat and insects show that, none but hardy explorers could

undertake such labor. We recommend the book as an admirable ex-

Interior of grand rotunda of Cave of Actun Benado.

ample of the combination of utility with adventure which character-

izes scientific research in the wilds.—E. D. Corr.

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

Academy of Science of St. Louis.—President Gray in the

chair and twenty-two other persons present, Mr. Trelease exhibited

several specimens, about three feet square, of a curious silk tapestry,

taken from the ceiling of a corn-storing loft in San Luis Potosi, Mexico,

by Dr. Francis Eschauzier, stating that he was informed that the larger

specimen had been cut from a continuous sheet over twenty yards wide

and about four times as long. The specimens, of a nearly white color,

and of much the appearance and feeling of a soft tanned piece of sheeps-

kin, were shown to be composed of myriads of fine silken threads, cross-

ing and recrossing at every conceivable angle, and so producing a seem-

ingly homogeneous texture. Although specimens of the creatures by

which they are produced had not been secured, it was stated that there

1396,] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 259

wag no doubt that these tapestries are the work of lepidopterous larvæ

which feed upon grain, the presumption being that they are made

the larvee of what has been called the Mediterranean Grain or Flour

Moth (Ephestia kiihniella). The speaker briefly reviewed the history

of this insect and its injuriousness in various parts of the world, and

quoted from a report of Dr. Bryce, showing that in Canada, where it

became established in 1889, “a large warehouse, some 25 feet wide, 75

feet long, and four stories high, became literally alive with moths in

the short course of six months.” — WILLIAM TRELEASE.

Boston Society of Natural History.—February 5th.—The

following paper was read: Mr. Herbert Lyon Jones, “ Biological adapta-

tions of desert plants to their surroundings—Samur, HENSHAW,

Secretary.

Nova Scotian Institute of Science.—13th of January.—The

following papers were read: “ Notes on the Superficial Geology of

Kings County, Nova Scotia,” by Prof. A. E. Coldwell, M. A., Acadia

College. “ A Note on Newton’s Third Law of Motion,” by Prof. Mae

Gregor, D. Se., F. R. SS. E. & C., Dalhousie College—Hanrry PIER,

Secretary.

New York Aiad of Science, Biological Section.—Jan-

uary 13th, 1896.—The papers presented were: G. 8. Huntington on

“ The Visceral Anatomy of the Edentates.”’ The characters of the brain,

alimentary, respiratory and genito-urinary tracts were especially con-

sidered. The folomiðg prins were — sok eet Sam oo

m, i a a hued ham ttanta

novemcincta, Manis longieaudate, In the brain characters the Po

ing features were considered ;—the transverse frontal sulcus, the great

longitudinal fissure, and the absence of a distinct Sylvian fissure. In

the alimentary tract the Sloths are to be sharply separated from the

remaining groups, the stomach structure with its pyloric gizzard not-

ably aberrant: the ileo-colic junction is traced throughout the edentates

in a well marked series of transitional forms.

O. S. Strong, “ On the Use of Formalin in Injecting Media.” The

paper made especial note of the advantages possessed by this preserva-

tive in injecting the brain in situ. Formalin (40 per cent formalde-

hyde) diluted with an equal volume of water is injected into the ceph-

alic vessels until it runs from the cut jugulars. After a few minutes

the same quantity is again injected and once or twice again after an

elapse of fifteen to twenty minutes. The brain is then removed and

will be found to be a fixed throughout. The swelling usually

260 The American Naturalist. [Mareh,

noticed in formalin hardened brains does not appear to take place when

this method is employed. Besides the many general advantage of fix-

ing brains by injection, formalin has the especially merit of giving them

the best consistency for macroscopic work, and further such brains are

available subsequently for the Golgi and Weigert methods as well as,

possibly, for cytological methods. Formalin has also the advantage that

it can be used, as above, stronger than is necessary for fixation and

thus .allowance made for its dilution when permeating the tissue.

When only the Golgi method is to be used, an equal volume of a 10

_ per cent solution of potassium bichromate may be added to the formalin

instead of water. Pieces can be subsequently removed, hardened fur-

ther in formalin-bichromate and impregnated with silver.

Bashford Dean, “ On the Supposed Kinship of the Paleospondylus.”

A favorably preserved specimen of this interesting fossil, received by

the writer from Wm. T; Kinnear of Forss, Scotland, appears to warrant

the belief that this lamprey-like form was possessed fins, a character

decidedly adverse to the now widely accepted view of Marsipobranchian

affinities. The structure referred to consists of a series of transversely

directed rays, arising from the region of the postoccipital plates of

Traquair. From this peculiar character, as well as from many unlam-

prey-like features of the fossil, it would appear accordingly that the

kinship of the Paleospondylus is as yet by no means definitely deter-

mined.—C. L. BRISTOL, Secretary.

Nebraska Academy of Sciences.—The following program of

papers was presented. First Session— Thursday, Jan. 2, 1896. “ Amer-

ica the Primitive Home of Civilization,” H. S. Clason ; “ The Home of

the Buffalo Grass,” Dr. C. E. Bessey; “Early Rainfall Records in

Nebraska,” G. D. Swezey; “The Volcanic Ashes of Nebraska,” Dr. E.

H. Barbour. Second Session—F; riday, Jan. 3.—“ The Relative Impor-

tance of Economic Fungi, East and West,” F. W. Card ; “ Animal

Parasites of Nebraska,” Dr. H. B. Ward; “ Diatomaceous Deposits of

Nebraska,” Dr. E. H. Barbour; “Some Fossil Diatoms from Ne-

braska,” C. J. Elmore; “ Wind Velocities in N ebraska,” G. A. Love-

land ; “ Report of Progress on the Study of Demonelix,” Dr. E. H.

Barbour; “Origin of the Present Flora of Nebraska,” Dr. C. E.

Bessey.

1896]. Scientific News. ` 261

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

Huxley Memorial.—Since the first meeting of the General Com-

mittee on November 27, which was fully reported by the Press, two

meetings of the Executive Committee have been held.

At the first of these, at which Lord Shand accepted the office of

Chairman, it was reported that a number of foreigners of eminence had

expressed a wish to be associated with the proposal to commemorate

Mr. Huxley’s distinguished services to humanity. It was resolved, in

the first instance, to. invite subscriptions from the members of the

General Committee.

At the second meeting, held on December 18, it was reported that

the subscriptions, which at the General Meeting had amounted to

£557, had been increased to about £1,400, and it was resolved that a

wider appeal for subscriptions should now be made to the friends and

admirers of Mr. Huxley amongst the general public. The sum sub-

scribed now exceeds £1,500.

The Honorary Secretary stated that in America Committees were in

the course of being formed to promote the realization of an adequate

fund.

The Committee resolved to communicate, by means of a sub-com-

mittee of their number, with Mr. Onslow Ford, R. A., who had the

advantage of being well acquainted with Mr. Huxley, in reference to

the statue, which it is proposed should be erected beside those of Dar-

win and Owen in the Natural History Museum, South Kensington.

The extent to which the Committee may be able to carry out the

other intended objects of founding exhibitions, scholarships, and med-

als for biological research and lectureships, and possibly in assisting

the republication of Mr. Huxley’s scientific works, will, of course, de-

pend on the subscriptions which may now be received.

Meehans’ Monthly is a magazine for the lovers of gardening; and

covers the whole field of general intelligence in so far as it may have

the remotest bearing on the chief topics it sets out to advance. For

instance, a beautiful Prang colored plate of some wild flower is given

every month, with a description which illustrates the whole ground of

classical history that has any bearing on the topic. Information on

the most diversified topics abound. Corn from Indian mounds will

not grow—swamps that are real swamps are among the healthiest of

localities. There is no sickness in the great dismal swamp of Virginia.

262 The American Naturalist. [Marceh,

Elderberry root is found to be a deadly poison. Foul water is pro-

nounced to be a self-purifier, because bacteria eat out vegetable matter

and then die of starvation. The hickory and the chestnut are proven

cousin—Germans. Weeds are useful, by forcing the cultivator to work

to aerate the soil. Illustrations of a curious maze, formed of yew

hedges at Hampton Court, pruning and keeping trees from insects,

chrysanthemum culture, and practical information on fruits and flow-

ers are among the topics treated. Sample copies may be had of the

publishers, Thomas Meehan & Sons, Germantown, Philadelphia.

In the January Monist, of importance to students of evolution will

be the article on Germinal Selection, by the famous German biologist,

Prof. August Weismann, of Freiburg. In the theory of germinal selec-

tion, Prof. Weismann propounds a doctrine which rounds off and per-

fects, as he claims, the theories of Darwin and Wallace, and which

consists essentially in applying the principle of the struggle for life to

the minutest parts of organization, viz., to the germinal and determin-

ant particles generally. Weismann’s article is a complete summary

of the present status of the discussions in evolutionary theory, and will

itself doubtless constitute one of the most important recent acquisitions

to biological science.

Abnormal pleasures and pains are treated by Prof. Th. Ribot, who

applies to their explanation the pathological method, using diseases as

a means of analysis. His results as regards the pleasure which some

people take in pain are highly interesting.

The fourth annual meeting of University Extension and other

students will be held in the four weeks beginning July 6, 1896, in the

buildings of the University of Pennsylvania. The Summer Meeting

combines the advantages of an ordinary summer school with the co-

operative feature which distinguishes conventions, or associations, in

which there are representatives of many universities and colleges.

Professor E. Selenka, of Erlangen, has resigned his position in order

that he may make a scientific journey. He has been appointed Hon-

orary Professor of Zoology in Munich. His place at Erlangen is

temporarily filled by Dr. Albert Fleischmann. í

The Paris Academy of Science has recently elected the following

corresponding members: Dr. G. Retzius, of Stockholm, as successor to

Carl Vogt; and Prof. R. Bergh, of Copenhagen, as successor to Huxley.

Dr. F. Miescher, Professor of Physiology in the University of Basel,

died at Davos, Switzerland, Aug. 26,1895, aged 51 years. Dr. Rudolf

Metzner, of Freiburg i B, has been appointed his successor.

1896.] Scientific News. 263

Dr. Felix Hoppe-Seyler, Professor of Physiological Chemistry in the

University of Strassburg, died in Wassenburg, on the Lake of Con-

stance, Aug. 11, 1895, aged 70 years.

The Australian Association for the Advancement of Science, will hold

its annual meeting at Sydney, Jan.3 to 10,1896. Professor A. Livers-

edge is the President.

The Berlin Academy of Science has elected Professors K. W. von-

Giimbel, K. A. von Zittel, A. Cossa, and Mr. Alexander Agassiz as cor-

responding members., :

Dr. R. Krause, who formerly had charge of the Anthropological Sec-

tion of the Museum Godfroy in Hamburg, died in Schwerin, Mecklin-

burg, July 25, 1895.

Dr. A. Schaper, of Zürich, has been appointed instructor in Histol-

ogy and Embryology in the Harvard Medical School.

Ernst Baumann, formerly head of the station of Misahöhe, West

Africa, died in Cologne, Sept. 4, 1895, aged 24 years.

Professor Hellriegel, botanist and Director of the Agricultural Ex-

periment Station in Bernburg, died Sept. 24, 1895.

F. Nies, Professor of Mineralogy and Geology in the Agricultural

School of Hohenheim, is dead at the age of 56.

Dr. Herman Credner has been advanced to the Ordinary Professor-

ship of Geology in the University of Leipzig.

Dr. V. Rohon has been appointed Extraordinary Professor of Histol-

ogy in the Bohemian University in Prag.

= Dr. Valentin Häcker has been advanced to Extraordinary Professor

of Zoology in the University of Freiburg.

Dr. Emil Yung is the successor of the late Carl Vogt as Professor

of Zoology in the University of Geneva.

Dr. Moritz Willkomm, formerly Professor of Botany in Prag, died

Aug. 26, in Wortenburg, Bohemia.

Dr. Kallies of Göttingen, has been promoted to Extraordinary Pro-

fessor of Anatomy in Tübingen.

Joseph Thompson, African explorer and geologist, died in London,

Aug. 2, 1895, aged 37 years.

Dr. F. Reinitzer, of Prag, has been appointed Extraordinary Pro-

fessor of Botany in Graz.

264 The American Naturalist. [March,

Mr. R. Trimen has resigned his position as Director of the Cape

Town (Africa) Museum.

L. Perry Arcas, anne died in Requena, Spain, Sept. 24

1895, aged 70 yea

: Dr. D. Brandza, Professor of Botany in Bucharest, died August 15,

1895, aged 48 years.

Dr. A. S. Dogiel, of TON. goes to St. Petersburg as Professor of

Histology.

Dr. H. Lenk, of Leipzig, has been called to the chair of Geology in

Erlangen.

F. Kitton, the student of diatoms, died at Norwich, England, July

22, 1895.

E.J. Chapman, Professor of Geology in Toronto, has resigned his

position.

Dr. F. Czapek is now Privat-docent in eth in the University of

Vienna.

Professor Sven Loven, of Stockholm, died Sept. 4, 1895, aged 86

years.

Dr. H. Strahl has been appointed Professor of Anatomy in Giessen.

Dr. P. H. Macgillivray, the student of Australian Polyzoa, is dead.

Dr. M. Miyoshi has been called to the chair of Botany in Tokyo.

Dr. A. Senoner, geologist, died in Vienna, Aug. 30, 1895.

Dr. J. Vesque, botanist, of Vincennes, France, is dead.

Dr. F. Müller, herpetologist, died at Basel in May.

ADVERTISEMENTS. i

Perfect specimens (Uterus extirpated) in strong nae of the follow-

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Tupaja javanica

Tarsius Spectrum $10.00

Nyclicebus tardigradus

Galeopithecus volans $20.00

Gymnura Rafflesii - $30.00

Address: J, G. deGROOT,

Schoolstraat, 32, Utrecht, Holland.

OF INTEREST TO ALL STUDENTS AND LOVERS OF NATURE.

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it ADVERTISEMENTS.

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No. 352

CONEENES:

PAGE

THE BEARING OF THE ORIGIN AND DIFFERENTI-

ATION OF THE SEX CELLS IN Sich apsk

ON THE i OF THE. CONTINUITY OF T

GERM PLAS Carl H. eared 265

THE HISTORY AND PRINCIPLES. OF GEOLOGY AND

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Lire Berore Fossits.. (Continued.)

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UINEA (Fry porny AND

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PAGE

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AMERICAN NATURALIST

VoL. XXX. April, 1896. 352

THE BEARING OF THE ORIGIN AND DIFFERENTI-

ATION OF THE SEX CELLS IN CYMATOGASTER

ON THE IDEA OF THE CONTINUITY OF

THE GERM PLASM:

Cart H. EIGENMANN.

At the meeting of the American Microscopical Society last

August I read a paper on the Evolution of Sex in Cymatogaster,

of which the present paper is a part. Itis not, and was not

intended as a full discussion of heredity, but contains observa-

. tions and conclusions forced upon me while tracing the sex

cells from one generation to the next in Cymatogaster aggregatus

Gibbons, one of the viviparous perches of California.

Since writing it, I have received from Dr. Minot his article

“ Ueber die Vererbung und Verjiingung,” which is just being

republished in the NATURALIST. I have thought best to present

my results as read at the Ithaca meeting, with a note written

after the receipt of Dr. Minot’s article, although the details of

the observations on which the conclusions are based may not

appear for some time.

? Contributions from the Zoological Laboratory of the Indiana University, No.

12.

266 The American Naturalist. [April,

The origin of the heredity cells may be explained in one of

three ways:

I. The sex cell is the product of the whole organism, and is

in this apart from the other tissues. This is the Pangenesis of

Darwin.

II. The sex cell is an unchanged but increased part of the

sex cell of the previous generation, and something apart from

the rest of the body. This is Jaegerism, or, more popularly,

Weismannism, and, according to it, the body has no influence

over the hereditary cells and changes arising during the life of

one individual cannot be transmitted to the next generation.

III. The sex cell is the product of histogenesis and of pre-

cisely the same significance and origin as any other cell in the

body. This view is held by Morgan, Minot and myself.

As a corollary of the last two is the fact that “in the

ancestry of the individual cells of which our body is composed

there has never been a death.”

The first two theories are not based on observation. They

have been evolved from the attempts to explain the heredity

power of the sex cells.

The idea of the cellular continuity of successive generations

first suggested by Nussbaum in 1880, is now generally accepted.

Indeed, there is, perhaps, now no one who would contend that

the reproductive cells are new formations in the individual.

The reproductive cells are known to be of the same origin as

the retinal or any other series of cells. There is but little less

unanimity over the idea of the continuity of the unchanged

germ plasm, although the number of observations bearing on

this point have, necessarily, been very limited.* So often is

the idea restated without actual examination of the data, the

whole subject has become hackneyed. I have taken up this

subject because it seems to me the conditions observed in Cy-

matogaster warrant a conclusion differing from the one gener-

ally accepted.

gong Osborn, Am. Nat., 1892. Morgan, Animal Life and Intelligence, 1891,

7 5 Boveri, Befruchtung in Ergebnisse der Anatomie a Repeaters sn I,

` 1892, records an apparent case of unchanged transmiss'

1896.] Sex Cells in Cymatogaster. 267

There is no doubt concerning the continuity of the repro-

ductive cells in Cymatogaster; they may be followed from

very early conditions till sexual maturity without once losing

their identity. No somatic cells are transformed into repro-

ductive cells, and the comparative constancy of the number

of the latter present in any embryo up to 7 mm. long makes

it probable that none* are ever changed into any other struc-

ture. These statements apply with equal force to other tissues.

The difference between the reproductive and the somatic

cells is that the latter, after development has begun, continue

to develop, divide, grow and adapt themselves to their new

duties without intermission. Thesex cells, on the other hand,

stop dividing at a certain point and remain at apparent rest

for a long period. Owing to this arrest in division the sex

cells soon stand out prominently as large cells among the

smaller somatic cells. Such an arrest in segmentation has

been observed in a number of other animals in which the re-

productive cells are early segregated, and it cannot be without

meaning. It has been supposed that during such periods of

apparent rest the cells remain dormant, retaining their em-

bryonic character unchanged. I do not think this is the true

reason for the difference of development between the soma and

the reproductive cells. The reason seems to me to lie in the

fact that the sexual organs are the last to become functional,

and their development is consequently retarded. The sex

cells, when first segregated—that is, when they first lag behind

in segmentation—are not exactly like the ovum from which

they have been derived, and there is just as true histogenesis

in their development into the reproductive tissues as in the

case of any other embryonic cells into their corresponding tis-

sue. Even during the long period of rest from segmentation,

the process of tissue differentiation produces a visible and

measurable change. But the difference between embryonic

cells and undifferentiated reproductive cells being small, the

histogenic changes in them during early stages is correspond-

ingly small. This small change has been supposed to amount

to no change, and has given rise to that fascinating “ myth”, the

‘For possible exceptions see Eigenmann, Journ. Morph., V, No. 3, 1891.

268 The American Naturalist. [April,

hypothesis of the continuity of unchanged germ cells, and

later, when observation in other animals had made this theory

untenable, to the theory of the continuity of unchanged germ

plasm which is beyond the ken of direct observation.

If the sex cells are the result of histogenesis, it will be neces-

sary to explain their peculiar power. They seem to me to be

due to the same processes that have given the retinal cells

their peculiar properties.

Assimilation, reproduction and the closely allied hereditary

power are the diagnostic characters of protoplasm. These,

with numerous other powers, such as contractility, conductiv-

ity and irritability, are the properties of every protozoan cell.

Even here we find that certain of these functions are more or

less restricted to definite parts of the cell. Inthe higher ani-

mals this differentiation has gone so far that definite functions

predominate in highly specialized cells to almost the exclusion

of the other powers.

With this division of labor and the consequent histogenic

differentiation of definite cells in the metazoan corm for pur-

poses of contraction, conduction and irritation, we have also

the differentiation for heredity, and it would be surprising if

we did not.

In lower forms, where the cells of the body often perform

many duties, where the division of labor and histogenesis has

not been carried to the extreme, many of these cells also retain

the hereditary power to a great extent as shown in the power

of budding or regeneration.

There seems to he no necessity to conjure up a substance

and processes in the genesis of the reproductive tissues differ-

ent from those obtaining in the muscular tissues.

During the long ages of the rise of animals those possessing

sufficiently differentiated contractile tissue to move the corm

to food or from danger have survived, and in precisely the

same way those corms containing cells capable of developing

into other similar corms have survived. Similar causes have

operated in producing each tissue.

~~ The sex cells are proven to influence the formation of the

sex ridge. The peritoneal cells rise to form the ridge only

1896.] Sex Cells in Cyiratogaster. 269

when sex cells are present without regard to whether this po-

sition is normal or not. If the sex cells thus influence the

surrounding tissue, may we not safely assume a reciprocal in-

fluence of the surrounding tissues on the reproductive cells?

Sexuality can first be distinguished not by the difference in

the sex cells, but by the character of the peritoneal covering.

While this difference in the peritoneal covering may be the

expression of an invisible difference existing in the repro-

ductive cells, it is quite possible that sex is determined by

the body. In frogs, butterflies, ete. the sex determining power

of the soma has been experimentally demonstrated. Later it

is well known that the character of the sex cells influences

the remotest parts of the organism, although we are not at all

familiar with the processes by which this is accomplished.

Changes in the sex cells introduced by the body which do

not become apparent until the development of the cells into

young, seem, therefore, to be not impossible, although we are

entirely unable to tell just how such a change might be ac-

com plished.

Since writing the above, I have received, through the kind-

ness of the author, Dr. Minot’s “ Ueber die Vererbung und Ver-

jingung.” While the views expressed are not identical with

those given in the present chapter, there is considerable agree-

ment. Dr. Minot recognizes that the problem of the origin of

the reproductive cells is also the problem of the origin of the

tissue cells (p. 580), and that “a germ plasm in the Weismany-

ian sense does not exist.” So far we agree. According to him

all parts inherit from the germ and possess, as well as the re-

productive cells, the power of multiplying and morphogenesis,

but this power cannot manifest itself on the part of the somatic

cells because the conditions of the body prevent it. The con-

ditions are the increased amount of protoplasm and the

specialization of the tissues. According to my views it is not

so much a high state of tissue differentiation which holds cap-

tive the morphogenic power in muscle cells for instance as it

5 In one interesting larva a few of the sex cells were belated in their migration

and situated in front of the normal position. Sex ridges (germinal bands) formed

about these sex cells entirely independent of and separated from the sex ridges

occurring in the normal place.

270 The American Naturalist. [April,

is the process of tissue differentiation which emphasizes the

contractile power in the muscle cell, at the same time limiting

and finally eliminating the morphogenic power, and which

gives the sex cells morphogenic power in such marked degree

while it deprives them largely of contractile power. In a

former paper,’ I stated this view thus: “The segmentation

nucleus of metazoa contains, as in the infusoria, both micro

and macro nuclear elements, but these are retained in varying

proportions in its descendants, i.e., in the cells of the adult

organism. Through a process of division of labor the power

of rejuvenescence becomes restricted to comparatively few of

the cells derived from the segmentation nucleus.”

While Minot’s views are in part borne out by the conditions

in Cymatogaster, the italicised part of the quotation below

finds no support, and is negatived by all the observations made

in Cymatogaster. His conclusion, as translated by me, is:

“ Somatic cells are simply cells in which the activity of hered-

ity is prevented by senescence, viz.: tissue differentiation, but

the somatic cells can, under favorable conditions, be translated into

the rejuvenated stage and then develop the most complete or, at least,

more complete, hereditary power.”

ABSTRACT OF OBSERVATIONS ON WHICH THE ABOVE CON-

CLUSIONS ARE BASED.

The sex cells originally segregated retain their individ-

uality, but undergo a measureable change between the time of

their segregation and 7 mm. long larve. Soon after the

larva has reached a length of 7 mm., the sex cells begin to di-

vide. In the meanwhile they have migrated laterad and lie, for

the most part, in a longitudinal groove formed by a duplica-

tion of the peritoneum into which a few peritoneal cells have

also migrated. In one such case an extra sex ridge was formed

much further forward than usual, in connection with a few sex cells

which were accidentally belated in their migration. The peri-

toneal cells which have migrated into the sex ridge give rise

to the entire stroma of the future sex glands, and together

with the sex cells form a core quite distinct from the covering

6 Bull. U. S. Fish Comm., XII, 442, 1894.

1896.] Principles of Geology and its Aim. 271

of peritoneum. Posteriorly the sex ridges of the two sides are

united into a single ridge. There is considerable variation in

the rate of segmentation in larve of the same size, but the fol-

lowing table will give an idea of the segmentation and the

number of cells in successive stages :

Size of larva. No. of sex cells. No. of generations from fertilization.

45-5 mm. -15

8 22 6

10 28-183 6-9

12 39-1438 7-9

15-17 638-2280 11-13 sexes distinct.

16-25 2200-8000 13-15

The sexes can first be distinguished not by the differences

in the sex cells, but in the tunic of peritoneal cells. A small

groove on the outer ventral pert of the sex ridge is the first

indication of the ovarian cavity and the surest criterion of the

female. In the male the sex gland remains much more cir-

cular in cross section and no groove is developed. Much later

histological differences in the sex cells themselves can be made

out. The long slender chromatin threads of the female cell

just before dividing are represented in the male by short, thick

bars.

THE HISTORY AND PRINCIPLES OF GEOLOGY, AND

ITS AIM. i

By J. C. HARTL, Jr., M.S.

(Continued from paye 183.)

Lamarck and Defrance earnestly engaged in study of fossil

shells, and the former, in 1802, reconstructed the system of

conchology and introduced into it the new species collected

by the latter from the strata underlying the city of Paris and

quarried for the construction of its buildings. Six years pre-

vious to this Cuvier had established the different specific char-

acter of fossil and living elephants and he devoted himself to

researches throughout the remainder of his life. Jameson,

in 1808, pointed out the nature of all the rocks and the mode

in which they were formed, and made use of the observations

272 The American Naturalist. [April,

of Desmorest, who, in 1768, traced the origin of basalt to the

erater of volcanoes.

In 1807 the Geological Society of London was established

with the professed object of encouraging the collection of data

and the making of observations. In 1819 the Society pub-

lished a map of England by the aid of Greenough. About

the same time Buch prepared a similar map of a large part of

Germany. A geological survey of France was ordered in 1822

by the French government, and as a result a geological map

was published in 1841. Conybeare and Phillips published a

treatise on the “ Geology of England and Wales,” in 1821. In

1814 Aiken published his work on mineralogy, which had a

large circulation at home and in this country. Previous to

this Sowerby published a work on “ British Mineralogy, illus-

trated with colored plates,” but the date of which I do not

know. The publication of the Geological Map of England, in

1815, by Smith, may be said to form an epoch in the history

of geology.

In 1809 Maclure published an article on “‘ Observations on

the Geology of the U. S., explanatory of a Geological Map,” |

and he is rightly called the father of American geology. He

visited all parts of the Union and all the principleming ni dis-

tricts of Europe. In 1817 he presented a report to the “ Phil-

osophical Society of Philadelphia” of his work, and accom-

panied it with a colored map. In 1816 and 1817 he visited

the Antilles and published a paper on their geology. In 1810

Bruce, of New York, published the first purely scientific jour-

nal supported by original American contributions. His jour-

nal was devoted principally to mineralogy and geology.

Science was also promoted by the collections in the colleges

and societies, and by those made by scientific men. In 1816

Cleveland published a treatise on mineralogy. In 1818 Dana

published a detailed report on the mineralogy and geology of

Boston and vicinity. In the same year the American Journal

of Science was first published, The first geological survey

made by State authority was that of North Carolina in 1824.

In 1830 the Principles of Geology, by Lyell, appeared and

has most powerfully influenced the direction of scientific

1896.] Principles of Geology, and its Aim. 273

thought in the 19th century. It broke down the belief in the

necessity of stupendous convulsions in past times. He adopted

and improved the views of Hutton, eliminating the baseless

theories mingled with them. He rendered great service in

elucidating North American geology, and published his travels

on this continent in 1845 and 1849. His “ Geological Evi-

dences of the Antiquity of Man,” published in 1863, startled

the public by its advocacy of Darwin’s theory in the “ Origin

of Species.”

And so the science has advanced with rapid strides and is

solving the problems that are constantly arising in regard to

our planet, and upon its fixed data are based many of the

fundamental principles of philosophy.

Having ‘considered the history of the progress of geology,

let us now consider its aim and the fundamental principles

upon which the geologist bases his work.

In the broadest sense, geology is the science whose province

is the planet upon which we live, its history from the begin-

ning to the present, including changes which have occurred

in regard to the condition at different periods, its several

physiographic features, its atmosphere, temperatures, and

aqueous bodies, and its life at different stages. In a nutshell,

the evolutionary progress of the earth.

The narrow or commonly accepted view does not consider

the changes that have occurred, other than those that occurred

to the visible portion of the earth. Back of what is supposed

to be the earliest formation, it does not attempt to go.

The latter view is sufficient for the ordinary geologist or for

the geologist who does not care to speculate on hypotheses

which refer to the origin of the earth; but to the geologist

who is anxious to grapple with problems which require a

drawing upon the imagination for solution, this is not enough.

Chemists are not satisfied to study a drop of water, but they

are anxious to know its origin; its composition is not suff-

cient for them. Botanists and zoologists desire to know the

origin of plants and animals, not caution their structural and

physiological features. : .

274 The American Naturalist. [April,

Geologists who study the earth, not merely to satisfy their own

curiosity as to the present condition of things, but for the pur-

pose of advancing the science, and unraveling the mysteries of

the past, in order to produce a history of the planet as accu-

rately as human knowledge in its present condition will per-

mit, are only satisfied with the broad and comprehensive view.

Geology, by the aid of astronomy and physics, therefore, be-

gins with a great nebulous mass, of which all celestial bodies

were component parts. It traces the evolution of each body,

and that of the earth in particular. Starting when the earth

was thrown off as a ring of cloudy or gaseous elements, it

traces it through its transformation into asphere of molten

matter surrounded with gases, through which the parent bodys

the sun, could not penetrate. We learn of the war that existed

between the congealing surface and the liquid interior in

which the former came off victorious, and formed a crust

through which the latter seldom broke. Then began the war

between the condensing vapors and the heated crust, in which

the latter succumbed to the overpowering element that fell

upon it and fairly covered it.

Geology tells us of the life that existed in this mighty ocean

after it became sufficiently cooled, and in the powerful in-

ternal movements that resulted in the upheaval of masses of

rock that were to be the nuclei of the present continents, the

history and the formation of which is traced with great min-

uteness, and the life of each is described with great care, from

the lowest forms to the highest, and also the period in which

each form lived.

There are several principles by which the geologist is guided

in answering the questions that continually arise as he studies

the earth with its many characteristics.

1 In the first place, he understands that geology is an induc-

tive science. That is, it is a process of demonstration in which

a general truth is gathered from an examination of a self-

evident truth. Let me illustrate: From the study of modern

glaciers he learns certain facts in regard to conditions neces-

sary for their formation, their modes of action, and the results

of those actions.

1896.] Principles of Geology and its Aim. 275

Now, whenever a geologist sees the results of some great

force and those results are similar to the phenomena produced

by glaciers, he concludes that at some previous time the con-

ditions were such as to make it possible for glaciers to exist in

the locality in which his observations were made, for no other

force could produce them.

2 He reasons that all affects must be referred to secondary causes.

In other words, law governs all phenomena, and forces are so

balanced as to produce all known and unknown phenomena.

All events that have transpired in the development and con-

figuration of the earth have been brought about by law. In

the formation of glaciers certain laws are obeyed, and those

laws are always obeyed unless an equilibrium is sustained be-

tween them and some other laws are overbalanced.

When the conditions are favorable for the action of glacial

laws glaciers will be found. The same principle holds good

in the distribution of life.

3. The forces in existence to-day are capable of producing all

phenomena that have and may oceur. Therefore, the geologist

must study the methods by which they are producing changes

at present, and thereby be able to judge of what took place

ages ago, and the manner in which great events trans-

pired. In other words, the past is understood by the present

and to some extent the future may also be understood. No new

law is, nor has been, necessary for the explanation of phe-

nomena and, therefore, there have been no accidental happen-

ings. There may be laws that man has not as yet learned the

nature of, and they may be so balanced as to be beyond man’s

comprehension, but that there are being or have been created

new laws, and that there are accidents, the geologist does not

admit.

4. The earth is undergoing and therefore has undergone changes.

He sees this in studying the phenomena of denudation and

disintegration. He sees that the mountains are being de-

stroyed by chemical and physical agencies, and that they are

being gradually carried into the valleys, and then into the

sea. This, he reasons, must have been going on ever since the -

first continent made its apppearance.

276 The American Naturalist. (April,

5. Finally, from a consideration of the above principles, the

geologist realizes that his work must be systematic, and that the

bulk of it must be done in the field. Field investigation is indis-

pensable. Laboratary work holds a subordinate position.

It is safe to say that geology has advanced more rapidly

than any other science, and the number of those who are mak-

ing a specialty is steadily growing. New periodicals devoted to

the science are continually appearing, and its literature is

quite comprehensive. Very little attention was paid to it in

our colleges at no late date, but to-day it occupies a prominent

position.

The great advance which has been made is due to system-

atic field work, followed, by laboratory work, and the latter is

of but little value from a geological standpoint unless it is

based upon accurate field investigation. It is necessary to re-

duce to a practical formula the data secured in the field, and

to have a definite method of procedure, for without such,

much time is wasted, and many results that otherwise would

have been valuable are entirely lost. Mere conjecture must

not be indulged in, but “ work persistently back from the seen

and known to the unseen and unknown,” should be the

maxim. Conclusions must not be arrived at too hastily.

Professor Dana once said, “ I think it better to doubt until

you know. Too many people assert, and then let others

doubt.” Hence, in drawing conclusions from the results of

field and laboratory work, be sure you are right, before giving

publicity to them, and if a doubt exists, state it, and be willing

to change your theory. Dana says, “ I always like to change

when I can make a change for the better.”

It is obvious, from what I have said, that geology is a field

science. Different characteristics of the earth’s surface cannot

always be taken into the laboratory for study at leisure, and

it is necessary to see the objects under study if we would ar-

rive at correct conclusions and fix them indelibly in our

minds., Facts then become real, and we acquire a correct un-

derstanding in regard to the forces that have been at work

- preparing this planet for man.

1896.] Principles of Geology and its Aim. 277

It is necessary to have a knowledge of other sciences if one

would make practical use of geology, that is, to understand

the many phenomena that are presented to him.

Natural philosophy and chemistry are necessary in order to

determine the composition of rocks and to understand how

they were formed and changed. Botany is necessary to un-

derstand paleobotany, zodlogy is necessary to understand

paleozodlogy, astronomy figures very prominently in the de-

termination of the relations of this planet to other heavenly

-bodies. Anything that the telescope and the spectroscope re-

veal is of geological importance, and bears upon the past and

future condition of the earth. Mathematics is constantly in

use, and without that science little or nothing could be accom-

plished.

The foundation work of a geologist, therefore, should be a

knowledge of the natural sciences, for without them he will be

materially hampered in his work.

Geology is practical as well as literary in nature. Ever

agriculturalist would become more scientific, and would reap

better “crops” if he had a knowledge of the science, for it

gives a knowledge of soils and fertilizers. To the engineer it

is of great importance, for thereby he understands drainage

and the best methods for excavating. It is of great impor-

tance to the manufacturer, for he can better understand clays,

ores, fuels, etc., and in mining it is of great value for it enables

the miner to understand the nature of the rock in which the

metals occur and assists him in “ prospecting.”

This use of the science is termed “ Economic Geology ” and

is of inestimable value and importance in developing system-

atically the resources of a state or of a nation

The United States government has realized the importance

of thorough and accurate investigation of this vast country of

ours from an economic standpoint, and established the U. 8.

Geo. Survey in 1879 for this purpose. Most of the states have

their surveys and work for the same ends, but on a smaller

scale, and assist, and are assisted by, the government survey,

and so work in harmony with each other.

278 The American Naturalist. [April,

Individuals are at work gathering information in regard

to particular formations, correcting mistakes, advancing new

theories, devising new plans for more thorough and accurate

works and imbuing students with the grandeur of the science.

What is there more sublime than a science that reveals the

universe in all its beauty and grandeur and as the result of

the balancing of forces which emanate from a creative will?

Geology reviews the history of the planet from the earliest

known formation to the present. Back of this it goes by

retrograde calculation, and hence we have a complete resumé

from the time “the earth was without form and void,” to the

phenomena observed to-day. It tells us of periods of time of

immeasurable duration, during which was being molded that

upon which it would be possible for life to exist, and over

which mind should rule.

There is no science which presents so many problems to be

studied, nor in which so much of interest can be taken. It

carries one over plains, up the rugged mountains and down

into valleys. On every hand is found something new upon

which to concentrate the mind, and which demands a satis-

factory explanation. How came these-plains, these moun-

tains, these valleys? How came those masses of rock, thous-

ands of feet high? Why is sandstone here, limestone there,

and granite yonder? What mean those remains of animals and

plants that are not in existence to-day? Why are those

masses of rock in every conceivable position? Whence came

the waters and the land? The plants and animals? Is there

a reason for all we see? Are these things accidental, or was

there a purpose in their formation ?

And so questions crowd upon us, and fill us with wonder

and admiration, and with a determination not to be satisfied

until they are answered. We see that law is at work, fashion-

ing the universe, and we have brought very forcibly to our

minds the fact that there was a purpose involved in the crea-

tion of the universe, and that from this realized grand concep-

tion is being evolved a divine purpose. That which at first

appeared to be outside the domain of law, is seen to be the re-

sult of the balancing of forces; and we come to realize the fact

1896.] Life Before Fossils. 279

that law pervades the universe, and although we do not know

as yet the way in which these laws are balanced to produce

all phenomena, that they are so balanced as to produce har-

mony, and that in proportion as the human mind develops it

will be capable of grappling with problems that are not now

within its reach.

LIFE BEFORE FOSSILS.

By CHARLES MORRIS.

(Continued from page 188.)

Such a new stage of existence may have been essayed fre-

quently. The dwellers in the early seas, in their descents

below the surface, must often have come into contact with the

bottom, and at times temporarily rested upon it. This contact

with hard substance doubtless produced some effect upon them,

and certain variations in structure may have proved of advan-

tage in these new circumstances and been retained and further

developed. Particularly if food was found there, and habita-

tion on or near the bottom was thus encouraged, would such

favoring variations tend to be preserved.

But, as has been said, myriads of years may have passed in

the slow development of swimming pelagic animals before

this phase of evolution was completed. And, perhaps, not

until this was fully accomplished did contact with the bottom

set in train a new series of changes, and in time give rise to

the greatly transformed bottom-dwellers. The change, indeed,

was a great one, if we may Judge by the wide diversity in

‘character between the swimming embryos and the mature

forms of oceanic invertebrates, and must have needed a long

period of contact with the bottom for its completion. Yet it

- was probably much more rapid than had been the preceding

pelagic development. Contact with solid substance was a

decided change in condition, and may have greatly increased

280 The American Naturalist. [April,

the preservation of favorable variations. And the area of hab-

itation on the single plane of the sea bottom is so restricted as

compared with that within the many planes of oceanic waters,

that the struggle for place and food must have been greatly

increased, and the development and preservation of newly

adapted forms have been more rapid in consequence.

This may seem to bring us to the very verge of the kingdom

of life as it is known to us from the oldest fossils yet discovered.

Yet in truth we are probably still remote from it. We are

still dealing with soft bodied animals, not with those possessed

of the hard external skeletons from which fossils are produced.

There is no good reason to believe that mere contact with the

earth induced the previously naked swimmers to clothe them-

selves in solid shells. In truth, the earliest bottom-dwellers

may have long continued soft bodied, the hard case or shell

being only slowly evolved. The mantle of the mollusk, for

instance, with its shell-secreting glands, is not likely to have

been a primary accessory of molluscan organization. The

same may be said of the chitin-forming glands of the crusta-

cea, and the analogous glandular organs of other types. Such

conditions must have developed slowly, and their appearance

was probably due to an exigency of equally slow unfold-

ment.

For now we come to another highly important problem, that

of the true disposing cause of the development of dermal

skeletons, on which there exists some basis for speculation.

In truth the fossils preserved for us in the Cambrian rocks have

an interesting tale to tell which has a strong bearing upon the

story of animal evolution. And this is, that all these bottom-

_ dwellers, with the exception of the burrowing annelids, became

covered with what was probably defensive armor. They all

seem to have sought protection in one way or other, and in so

doing became in a measure degenerated forms of life, their

former ease of motion being now partly or wholly lost.

All this represents an interesting. stage in the process of

evolution, and indicates some special exigency in life condi-

tions which the animals of that age could only meet by ren-

dering themselves heavy and sluggish with a weight of inclosing

1896.] Life Before Fossils. 281

armor. This new phase of evolution may have proceeded

very rapidly, many forms of early life disappearing, while

those that quickly became armored survived.

What was this exigency? „Protection, apparently, as is above

stated. But protection from what? Against what destruc-

tive foe did these ancient animals need such strong defence?

Which among them was the rapacious creature whose ravages

imperilled the existence of all the others? Certainly not the

sponge or the ccelenterate; they feed on smaller prey. The

mollusk or the echinoderm, in their agile unclad state, may

have. been actively predatory, but they were among those

forced to seek protection. Of the known forms the trilobite

seems most likely to have been the aggressive foe in question.

It was the largest, the most abundant, and, perhaps, the most

active of them all, its size and numbers indicating an abun-

dance of easily obtained food, while its great variety of species

points to the existence of varied conditions of food or methods

in food getting.

To all appearances the trilobite was then the lord of life, the

Napoleon of that early empire. Awkward and clumsy as such

a creature would appear now, it was then superior in size,

strength, and probable agility to all other known animals,

while its numbers and variety indicate that it was widely dis-

tributed and exposed to all the varying conditions of existence

at that time. Whata hurrying and scurrying there must have

been among those small soft creatures to escape this terrible

enemy, from whose assaults nothing seems to have availed them

but an indurated external covering, too hard for its soft jaws

to master. As the prey became protected in this manner the

destroyer probably improved in strength of jaw, and there may

have been a successively more complete growth of protective

devices in the prey and of powers of mastication in the foe.

And thus arose the conditions which first made fossilization

possible, in the development of a series of armor-clad creatures

which were really late comers upon the stage of life, remote as

they seem when measured by our standard of time.

But the story is only half told. The trilobite, as itis! to

us, is under armor also. Not only is it clothed in a dermal

282 The American Naturalist. [April,

skeleton, but, in its later forms, is capable of rolling up intoa

hard ball with no part of its body exposed. Evidently the

destroyer himself in time came into peril and needed protec- -

tion. Some still more powerful and voracious foe had come

upon the field, and the triumphant trilobite was forced to

acknowledge defeat.

We cannot well imagine any of these animals assuming such

armor except for protective purposes. The weight laid upon

them rendered them slow and sluggish, fixed some of them

immovably, and greatly decreased their powers of foraging.

The only cause which seems sufficient for their assuming this

disadvantageous condition is that of imminent peril—a peril

which affected all known forms alike.

Whence came this peril? Where is the voracious foe against

whom they all put on armor, even the preceding master of the

seas? No trace of such a creature has been found. In truth,

we cannot fairly expect to find it, since it was probably desti-

tute of hard parts, and left behind it nothing to be fossilized.

It had no foe and needed no armor, while lightness and flexi-

bility may have been of such advantage to it that armor would

have proved a hindrance. It probably was a swimming creat- .

ure and thus left no impress of its form upon the mud. It is

to this unknown creature that we must ascribe the armored

condition of all known forms of life at that period, even the

later cephalopods, large and powerful mollusks, becoming

clothed in a cumbrous defensive shell, which they were obliged

to drag about with them wherever they went.

It is a strange state of affairs which thus unfolds before our

eyes. All the life we know of seems diligently arming itself

against some terrible enemy, which itself has utterly vanished

and left as the only evidence of its existence this display of

universal dread. The creature in question would appear to

have been without internal or external hard skeleton and with-

out teeth, trusting to indurated jaws for mastication. At a later

date, when its prey became less easily destroyed, teeth may

have developed, and it is possible that we have remains of

them in the hard, cone-like, minute substances found in the

lower Silurian strata, and known as conodonts.

1896.] Life Before Fossils. 283

If we may try and rebuild this vanished beast of prey from

conjecture, aided by collateral evidence, we should consider it

an elongated, flexible form, developed from some swimming

worm-like ancestor, perhaps like the Ascidian embryo, stiff-

ened internally by a cord of firm flesh extending lengthwise

through the body, and moving not by cilia, but by the aid of

fleshy side flaps, the progenitors of the fin. We conjecture it

to have been, in short, the early stage of the fish, a creature

perhaps of considerable size and strength, due to the abund-

ance of easily obtained food, but as destitute of hard parts and

as little likely to be fossilized as Amphioxus.

We may offer this conjecture with some safety, for it is not

long before we come upon actual traces of fish, and of a degree

of development which indicates a long preceding stage of evo-

lution. In fact, the fish in time appears to have been forced

to put on armor, as its prey hadearlier done. Internicine war

began in the fish tribe itself. A wide specific variation arose,

with great differences in size and strength, the stronger at-

tacked the weaker species, and eventually two distinct types of

fish appeared, the Elasmobranch and the Ganoid ; the former,

represented to us by the modern sharks, being much the most

powerful and voracious, and holding the empire of the open

seas, while the latter dwelt in shallower waters. The Ganoids,

preying on the bottom forms, become themselves the prey of

their strong and active kindred, and, as a result, the evolution-

ary process just described was resumed. The weaker fish put on

armor, in many cases heavy and cumbrous, a dense bony cov-

ering which must have greatly reduced their nimbleness, but

which safety imperatively demanded. It is these armored

forms that first appear to us as vertebrate fossils; the first fish,

as the first mollusk or crinoid known to us, being the resultant

of a very long course of development. As regards the Elasmo-

branchs, they, too, became in a measure protected, though not

sufficiently to indicate any very active warfare among them-

selves.

There is little more which we can say in this connection.

The story of the evolution of life bears an analogy worth men-

tioning to that of the development of arms of offense and de-

284 The American Naturalist. [April,

fense among men. After thousands of years of war with un-

armored bodies, men began to use defensive armor, the body

becoming more and more covered, until it was completely

clothed in iron mail, and became rigid and sluggish. In the

subsequent period offensive weapons became able to pierce this

iron covering, and it was finally thrown aside as cumbrous and

useless. A similar process is now going on in the case of war

vessels, they being clad in heavy armor, which may yet be ren-

dered useless by the development of cannon of superior pierc-

ing powers, and be discarded in favor of the light and nimble

unarmored ship.

The analogy to animal evolution in this is singularly close.

After long ages of active warfare between naked animals,

defensive armor was assumed by nearly every type of life, ex-

cept the lowest, highly prolific forms, and the highest, which

had no foes to fear. But the powers of offense grew also, and ,

in time the employment of armor ceased, as no longer avail-

able, its last important instance being that of the ganoid fishes.

The later fish reduced their armor to thin scales, and gained

speed and flexibility in proportion, while in land animals

armor was seldom assumed. In several instances creatures

have gone back to the old idea, as in the armadillo, the porcu-

pine, the turtle, ete., but the thinly clad, agile form has be-

come the rule, armor no longer yielding the benefit that was

derived from it in the days of weak powers of offense. This

result is a fortunate one, since with increase of agility mental

quickness has come into play, the result being a development

of the mind in place of the old development that was almost

wholly confined to the body. In the highest form of all, that

of man, physical variation has almost ceased, in consequence

of the superior activity of mental evolution.

In conclusion it must be admitted that there are certain for-

mations in nature which seem to militate against the argument

here advanced. I have already spoken of the much questioned

Eozoon canadense. In addition there are the beds of lime-

stone and graphite in the Laurentian formation. But these

prove too much for the advocates of their organic origin. If

so large a fossil as Eozoon had appeared so early, the subse-

1896.] Birds of New Guinea. 285

quent barrenness of the rocks would be incomprehensible.

And had coral animals and large plants capable of producing

such masses of limestone and graphite existed so early, the

absence of any fossils earlier than the Cambrian would be in-

explicable. It is acknowledged, however, that such formations

might have been produced by inorganic agencies, and the facts

strongly indicate that such was their origin, and that fossils

began to be preserved very shortly after the power in animals

to secrete hard skeletons appeared.

BIRDS OF NEW GUINEA (FLY CATCHERS AND

OTHERS).

By G. 8. MEAD.

(Continued from page 195.)

The Thickheads (Pachycephala) are of many spécies and

scattered widely over the Archipelago. Many have come

under trained observation only during recent years. Prob-

ably many more await discovery.

Pachycephalopsis poliosoma, Gray Thickhead, was discovered

by Mr. A. Goldie in Southeastern New Guinea, and owing to

its distinctive coloration was classed as a new genus. It is

really one of a group of birds which might form a subgenus

and is accordingly so divided by Mr. Gadow. Above the gen-

eral color is dark gray, almost brown, with the head still

darker. The square, rather short tail is also dull of hue. Be-

neath is dull gray, lighter on the abdomen and tail coverts,

whitish to white on the jugulum, throat, chin and side face.

It is a pretty, soft colored little bird about 6 inches long, suffi-

ciently numerous among the mountains of the Astrolabe

range to be called common. f

Pachycephala melanura ranges widely over Northern Aus-

tralia and the Archipelago. The general color above is olive-

green ; wing coverts, tail, head and an irregular band passing

286 The American Naturalist. [April,

over the head, neck and breast, black and glossy black. The

under parts, with a broken collar about the neck, are a warm

light yellow. Throat a pure white. Whitish lines the under

side of the wings and tail. Bill and feet black. The female

lacks the vivid coloring of the male, being brownish where he

is a jet black, buff or whitish where he is a bright gold.

Length 7 inches.

Very like the above, but of reduced size, is Pachycephala

schlegelii, whose total length is under 5.5 inches. The differ-

ences lie in the greater width of black band across the breast,

in the line of black edging the wings, and the orange rufous

on the abdomen. The female resembles the female of Pachy-

cephala soror, found also among the Arfak Mountains. This

bird is olivebrown above, wings and head darker. The under

surface is a bright yellow, omitting the grayish wings and

dull thighs. Like her mate, the throat and chin are white.

The male P. soror is unmarked by the yellow nuchal collar

but is not without the black crescent. A bright yellow covers

the breast and abdomen. The head is black, the tail dusky.

Total length about 6 inches.

There are several other species of Pachycephala resident in

Papua, almost all bearing a greater or less resemblance to each

other. Among these may be mentioned without detailed de-

scription, P. hyperythra from Southeastern New Guinea whose

under parts are of the warm reddish color that gives it its spe-

cific name.

P. albispecularis, from the Arfak region, is another species—

a somewhat larger bird than its kind, gray and dark brown

in general coloring with white markings on the wings.

Still another is P. griseiceps or virescens, with local differ-

ences, a bird of the average length, somewhat diversified plu-

mage and a mottled head.

Smaller than the foregoing but with throat and chest cres-

cent more distinctly outlined, is P. leucogaster, collected in the

Motu country. PP. leucostigma, from the northeast, is consider-

ably mottled, with much rufous on the under parts, the usual

white in this instance somewhat discolored, on the throat, and

much streaked on the mantle.

1896.] Birds of New Guinea. 287

Pachycephala fortis has its habitat in the Astrolabe Mountains,

though found probably elsewhere in New Guinea. Its total

length is nearly 7 inches, colored almost entirely above dark

olive, below ashy gray. The head and mantle are dark gray,

the tail dusky, the back and wings greenish olive. On the

face are gray shadings. White prevails on the abdomen,

passing into yellow. The under wings do not differ from the

uniform cloudiness but are, if anything, even duller than the

body.

Pachycare flavogrisea, set apart from Pachycephala, is colored

a bluegray above, somewhat varied on the tail and wings by

black or white edgings, while the under parts are a “ deep,

shining yellow, the yellow on the forehead and the sides of

the head and neck being separated from the bluegray of the

head by a broad dark stripe.” Total length 4.5 inches.

If we look for those attractive little birds—the Titmice—in

New Guinea, we shall find very few, if any, specimens. One

is mentioned in the books, viz., Xerophila leucopsis, an Aus-

tralian species, abundant in Queensland but not so numerous

in Southern Papua. The little bird in question has a length

of 4inches. Its general color is brown, ashy above, whitish

and yellowish beneath. Along the tail, neck and head the

brown is positive; this is true also of the under wings; else-

where, however, the colors are pale and indistinct, shading off

gradually, as on the sides and breast, into a clouded white.

Several species and subspecies of the genus Cracticus range

between Australia and New Guinea. These are Lanidine

birds of good size, strong of beak, black, white or gray of color.

Cracticus quoyi, a typical representative, is one of these dis-

tributed pretty generally over North Australia and Southern

Papua. It is almost entirely black and blueblack, the only

variation being in the shading and lustre. The length is

about 14 inches. Sexes alike. :

Cracticus cassicus or personatus is more peculiarly insular,

being confined chiefly to New Guinea and its islands.

The bird is strikingly conspicuous in its contrasted black

and white. The former color covers the head and neck,

throat and chest, upper wings and tail, excepting the two

288 The American Naturalist. [April,

middle feathers which are partially white. There are scat-

tered markings, moreover, of black, intermingled with white

on the back and wings. All else isa pure white above and

beneath. The female is perhaps not of such glossy plumage

and has less white on the back. She is also smaller than her

mate by half an inch. Total length 13 inches.

Another species from Southeastern New Guinea, collected

by Mr. Stone and others, is called Cracticus mentalis or spald-

ingu. This Dr. E. P. Ramsay of the Sydney Museum believes

to be identical with C. crassirostris, a species separated by

Count Salvadori from C. quoyi, already described, though by

some regarded as one and the same. C. mentalis is about 10

inches long. The white is banded so as to divide the black of

neck and back. Chin black. .

In addition to those not very happily named birds—Eupe-

tes—already mentioned in a previous article, two or three spe-

cies may be briefly described.

Eupetes incertus is colored above a warm ruddy brown, the

tail not quite so bright. White, bordered by dusky covers

the throat, side face and abdomen. Over the chest and along

the side body the plumage is rufous, the under tail coverts

buff. Bill and feet are dark. Total length about 7 inches.

The mountains of the northwest are the home of this species,

as also of Eupetes leucostictus whose breast is flecked with white

as its name indicates. This Eupetes is boldly colored with its

chestnutbrown head and mantle, and its glossed dark green

body and black wings spotted white on the coverts. Instead,

however, of the usual white throat, the throat is black, al-

though there is much white on either side. Black marks, too,

lie on the face near the eye, the chin and upper breast. The

lower parts are gray with a bluish tinge. The tail is black,

the exterior feathers tipped with white, the middle ones oily

green. The bill, feet and eye are black. Altogether this spec-

imen is a remarkably fine one, unlike, in many respects, most

of its family. ett

Eupetes pulcher, discovered in the Astrolabe Mountains, by

Mr. Goldie, may be briefly described as differing from E. cas-

tanotus (AMER. Nart., No. 343, p. 634) only in having the head

1896.] Birds of New Guinea. 289

a decidedly dusky shade instead of chestnut, and a narrow

black edging to the throat in place of a somewhat broad band

of black. Length 9 inches. Female a trifle smaller.

Eupetes ajax (Temm.) or Cinclosoma ajax, as Dr. Sharpe pre-

fers to call it, classing it as distinct from the Eupetes, is a

thrushlike bird about the same size as the foregoing. The

general color above is a dull brown, becoming darker near

and upon the tail and wings. The wing coverts, however, are

a shining black ; the same is true of the exterior tail feathers,

excepting their ends. About the head also there is consider-

able glossy black which runs down the sides of the neck and

becomes the sole color of the throat and upper breast.

White, which appears on the face, is seen on the underparts

sometimes rimmed with a streak of black, as on the breast

and abdomen, sometimes intermixed with it as on the tail and

wing coverts. The sides of the body are of a ruddy tinge.

The general color of Eupetes nigricrissus above, including

the tail and wings, is bluish, becoming dark, almost black

towards the wing extremities, with bluish margins. On the

face, especially about the eye there is much black; a band of

the same runs around the neck, bordering the pure white

throat. White spots the cheeks, also enclosed by black. The

under parts are a slate color, with a bluish cast; this is true as

well of the tail and under wing. Length 8 inches. The fe-

male is similar though a little smaller. The male lacks the

clear stripe of white above the eye, which the female possesses.

Habitat, Southeastern New Guinea.

Of the Drymoedus, a group allied with the Eupetes, a species

named Drymocdus beccarii is the inhabitant of Southern New

Guinea and the neighboring islands. The color of this pretty

bird is a warm brown above, the head darker, the wings pale

brown and black with white tips. The tail is similarly

marked. White and black markings diversify the side face

about the eye. The rest of the face and throat are clear white.

The under parts are a buff, more or less variable ; the crissum

a dark brown. As on the wings above, so below the colora-

tion contains bars of white in addition to the dusky brown.

The bill is black. The length is about 7 inches.

290 The American Naturalist. [April,

Another bird of kindred species and not very unlike in

plumage is Orthonyx noveguineae. In this case, however, the

white on the under surface is far more extended. This hue is

intruded upon by brown and black. The white above is less

developed.

Pomatorhinus isidorii of the same family does not differ

greatly in appearance. It is rather longer than the preceding

and of a prevailing brown or russet, shaded more or less. Its

length is about 8 inches. The female is like the male, per-

haps a trifle larger in size.

A much smaller genus of birds is Crateroscelis, represented

in New Guinea by two species, ©. murina and C. monarcha.

Here the ground color is still brown, brighter on the tail,

darker on the head. Even the throat which is white is

slightly tinged. So, too, the abdomen and lower parts gener-

ally. Total length 4.5 inches. The latter species has more

white upon the under body, otherwise is mainly like the pre-

ceding.

RECENT LITERATURE. -

Murray’s Introduction to the Study of Sea-Weeds.'—In

this work from the press of Macmillan & Co., George Murray has given

us a book which will be of much service to those beginning the study

phycology. The introduction treats briefly of the history of phycology,

of the geographical and littoral distribution, and the structure of sea-

weeds, and there is appended thereto some valuable information on the

collection and preservation of material. Following the introduction

thereis given a well selected list of eighty books and papers on phycol-

ogy. The book is illustrated by eight full paged colored plates—four

on the red, two on the green and two on the brown sea-weeds— and

eighty-eight figures in the text. The figures in the colored plates are

hat crowded, and the specimens figured are in some cases rather

1 An Introduction to the Study of Sea-weeds, by George Murray, F. R. S. E.,

F. L. S., Keeper of the department of oe British Museum. With eight ak

ored plates and eighty-eight other illustrati: London, Macmillan & Co., and

. New York, 1895, 271 pp., 12 mo.

1896.] Recent Literature. 291

fragmentary, but the figures in the text are very good. Most of them

having been taken from the recent works of Retuke, Solms-Lauback

. and the author.

Five sub-classes are recognized, i. e., Phaophyceew, Chlorophycee,

Diatomacee, Rhodophycee and Cyanophycee. The general arrange-

ment of the book is poor; the more complex groups are treated of first

and the simpler last, except in the Rhodophycew, where the reverse

order is followed. The Rhodophycee moreover “ present so many dif-

ficulties to be understood only after the study of other groups that the

author has chosen the Pheophycew with its familiar forms of sea-

wracks and tangles for the first sub-class. The Chlorophycee and

by themselves, and finally, come the simple Cyanophycee. In the

Pheeophycee seventeen orders are recognized which are the same as

those of Kiellman in Engler and Prantl’s Pflanzenfamilien with a few

exceptions. Spermatochnus is placed in the Sporochnacee and Myrio-

trichia in the Elachistacee instead of each standing in an order by it-

self; the Dictyotee are placed between the Cutlereacee and Tilopteri-

dace instead of being left out altogether; the Ralfsiacee are placed

near the Sphacelariacee instead of near the Laminariacee as they

have been by Kiellman and others. Splachnidium, a monotypic

genus found only in the southern oceans, which has until recently been

included among the Fucacee, is placed in an order by itself—the

. Splachnidiacee. It has been found that the conceptacles of Splach-

nidium contain sporangia similar to those of the Laminariacee instead

of oospores and antheridia, hence it is placed near that order. The

marine Chlorophycee are treated under eleven orders; many recent

facts as to their reproduction being incorporated. At the end of two

groups, the Pereclinee and the Coecospheres and Rhabdospheres are

briefly mentioned as being on the borderland between the vegetable

and animal kingdom. In the twenty pages devoted to the Diatomacee,

the structure, reproduction, geographical and geological distribution

are quite fully discussed, but nothing is said of the arrangement of the

groups and very little of its systematic position. We can agree with

the author that the diatoms should not be placed in the Phaeophycee

solely because they have a coloring matter closely related to that of the

brown sea-weeds, but we can hardly agree that a siliceous covering and

the presence of diatomine are sufficient to separate so widely two groups

otherwise so closely related as the diatoms and desmi

According to the preface “ the account of the Rhodophycee is based

on the scattered papers of Schmitz, who by utilizing his own researches

292 The American Naturalist. [April,

and the splendid investigations of Thuret and Bornet, has almost

wholly altered the classification of the sub-class.” Four orders are

recognized, based upon the development of the cystocarp; the Menalio-

nacee, Gagartinacee, Rhodomenacee, Cryptonemiacee. e Bun-

giacee, including Perphyra, are placed at the end of the Rhodophycee

asan Anhang. In the last ten pages the Cyanophycee are briefly

treated under two orders, the Nostocacee and Clerocaccacee. Through-

out the work each order and in the larger orders each family is synop-

tically treated under four heads; general character, thallus, reproduc-

_ tion and geographical distribution. In it are embodied the results of

the latest investigation on all groups, much having been taken from

the able investigations of the author and his associates. Errors are

comparatively few, one of the most noticeable being the mentioning of

genus Egregia as one of the Fucaceae (P. 55). It is again mentioned

in its proper place among the Laminariaceae (P. 85).

De ALTON SAUNDERS.

Taxonomy of the Crinoids.—The true position of a science in

the scale of progress is measured by the degree of perfection exhibited

in the systematic arrangement of the phenomena of which it treats. Its

claims to philosophic recognition are proportional to the accuracy of

the genetic relationships shown in its system of classification. If this be

true of a general science, it is no less a reality in its various depart-

ments. There is, perhaps, nowhere a better exemplification than the

Crinoids; and no zoological group has made in recent years more rapid

progress towards a rational classification.

The data upon which the systematic arrangement of the stemmed

echinoderms rests are elaborately set forth in the lately issued work of

Messrs. Charles Wachsmuth and Frank Springer.’ It is of great inter-

est to know that the advancement in an understanding of the group

has been almost wholly from the paleontological side and that the re-

sults are accepted practically without change by the most eminent

students of the living forms. As is well known, the crinoids are to-day

almost extinct; but that in past geological ages they were the most

prolific forms of life. On account of the peculiar construction, un-

usually great opportunities are afforded for the solution of morphologi-

cal problems, and full advantage has been taken, Upon so firm a

foundation does the classification of the crinoids, as prepared by Wach-

smuth and Springer now rest, that it is hardly probable fhat it will

require radical change for a century to come.

_ * North American Fossil Crinoidea Camerata : Memoirs Museum Comp. Zool.,

2 parts, 800 pp., and atlas of 83 plates. Cambridge, 1895.

1896.] Recent Literature. 293

As regards the major subdivisions of the stemmed echinoderms three

groups are recognized: the cystids, the blastoids, and the crinoids.

These are considered as groups of equal rank. The forms of the first

are earliest in time, lowest in taxonomic position, and are regarded ‘as

the ancestral types of the other two. The crinoid type itself is a very

old one, dating from the Cambrian in which it is even then in a high

stage of development. During the Ordivician the cystidian features

had almost wholly disappeared. The crinoidal group is remarkable

for the persistence it has shown in preserving its pentamerous symme-

try; and although the introduction of the anal plate so disturbed it as

to well nigh produce a permanent bilateral arrangement, the former

was finally permanently retained.

Neocrinoidea and Palocrinoidea, the two primary groups of crinoids

which were formerly almost universally recognized, are abandoned.

In their stead are recognized three principal subdivisions: Inadunata,

Camerata and Articulata. It is quite remarkable that this ternate

grouping of the crinoids is essentially the same as Wachsmuth origi-

nally proposed more than twenty years ago, and that often being com-

pelled by students of the recent forms to abandon it and to substitute

others, a careful survey in the light of recent discoveries of all crinoids

both fossil and living has clearly shown that the main subdivisions first

suggested are essentially valid and are applicable to all known forms.

The criteria for separating the crinoids into orders are briefly as fol-

lows:

1. Condition of arms, whether free above the radials or partly incor-

porated in the calyx.

2. Mode of union between plates of the calyx, whether movable or

rigid. :

a Growth of stem, whether new plates are formed beneath the prox-

imal ring of the calyx or beneath the top stem joint.

The simplest forms, the Crinoidea Inadunata, have the dorsal cup

composed invariably of only two circlets of plates or three where infra-

basals are present ; there are no supplementary ossicles except an anal

piece, which is, however, not always present ; the arms are free from

the radials up. In the construction of the ventral disk two different

plans are recognizable, and upon these are established two sub-groups,

the Larviformia and Fistulata. The former has the disk in its simplest

possible form, being composed of five large orals arranged in a pyramid;

the second has the ventral side extended into a sac or closed tube often

reaching beyond the ends of the arms.

294 The American Naturalist. [April,

The Camerata are distinguished by the large number of supplemen-

tary pieces which bring the proximal arm plates into the calyx, thus

enlarging the visceral cavity ; all plates are heavy and immovable ;

the mouth and food grooves are tightly closed.

The Articulata have to some extent the incorporation of the lower

arm plates with the calyx, but the plates are movable instead of rigid.

The mouth and food grooves are open. The infrabasals are fused with

the top stem joint which is not the youngest plate of the stalk. Ac-

cording to whether or not pinnules are present two suborders are

recognized : the Pinnata and Impinnata.

An analytical synopsis of the families of Camerata as proposed by

the authors and as now understood is as follows:

I. Lower brachials and interbrachials forming an important part kå the

dorsal cup.

A. ĪNTERRADIALS POORLY DEFINED.

The lower plates of th completely separated from the grid emes

by irregular supplementary pieces; dicyclic or monocyclic RETEOCRINIDÆ.

B. I LS WELL D

T, Dicyclic,

a. Radials in contact exc nia as the posterior side THYSANOCRINIDÆ.

b. Radials separated all arou RHODOCRINIDÆ.

2 mites, ie

Radials in EN all around.

Symmetry of I cup, if not strictly pentamerous, disturbed by the eis

tion of anals between the brachials ae MEL

Arms borne in compartments formed by p: attached to tegmen ; denii cup

perfectly pentamerous; plates of Awp st to a definite number

CALYPTOCRINIDAE.

d È anal

b. sen) in contact except at the posterior side, where th

they p

p l foll ol a ae * 1 tė

5 7

CRINIDAE.

First anal p'ata hexagonal, followed by vida interbrachials without a second anal,

bifurcation

ACTINOCRINIDAE.

II. Brachials and interbrachials slightly represented in the dorsal cup.

1. Dieycuic, ‘

in contact except at the posterior side CROTALOCRINIDAR,

2. Monocycuic.

a. Radials in contact all around: base pentag« PLATYCRINIDAE.

ie nee at posterior side a base hexagonal.

Basals pam followed by the radials HEXACRINIDAB.

Basal A fi dials by a y Pieces ACROCRINIDAE.

Regarding the terminology employed, special attention should be

a to the clear and concise definitions given of the various struct-

ural parts. The terms should be universally adopted, and they form

1896.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. 295

by far the best collection ever proposed. American writers especially

will need no appeal to at once use them, not only in order to secure

uniformity in nomenclature but to insure precision of description.

Heretofore the names of the various plates or groups of ossicles have

been used in a rather haphazard way. Not only have different desig-

nations been given to the same part but the same title has been repeat-

edly applied to structures widely separated morphologically.

Cuaes R. KEYES.

RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS.

Annual Report for 1892-93 Geol. Surv. Canada (new series), Vol. VI, 1895.

From the Surve

BouLENGER, G. A.—Catalogue of the Fishes in the British Museum. 2d Ed.

Vol. I, London, 1895. . From the Trustees of the Mu

CayeEux, L.—De l’Existence de nombreux Debris de Spongiaires dans le Pré-

je ve Bretagne (Première note). Extr. Ann. Soc. Geol. du Nord, T.

XXIII, 1895. From the auth

CHAMBERLIN, T. C.—Recent Glacial Studies in Greenland. Extr. Bull. Geol.

Soc. Amer., Vol. 6, 1895. From the Soc.

Conn, H. W.—The Outbreak of Typhoid Fever at Wesleyan University. Extr.

Conn. State Board of Health for 1894. From the author.

Dai, W. H. Anp Harris, G. D.—Correlation Papers—Neocene. Bull. U. S.

Geol. Surv., No. 84, 1892. From the Dept. of the Interior.

Grecory, H. D.—A Layman’s Look at four Miracles. Philadelphia, 1894.

From the author.

Lesouce, H.—Zur Frage nach der Herkunft überzähliger Wirbel ;—Einschal-

tung oder peripherer Zuwachs?

Die Querfortsiitze der Halswirbel in ihrer Beziehung zu Halsrippen. Aus

Verhandl. der Anat. Gesell. Mai, 1894.

LINDGREN, W.—Characteristic Features of California Gold-Quartz Veins.

Extr. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. 6, 1895. From the Society.

Lucas, F. A—The Main Divisions of the Swifts. Extr. The Auk, Vol. VI,

1889.

A dditional Ck t f theM t id Extr. The Auk, Vol. XII,

1895.

—— The Species of Orangs. Extr. Proceeds. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. XXI,

1881.

otes on the Osteology of the Paridae, Sitta and Chameæ. Extr. Proceeds.

U. 8. Natl. Mus., Vol. XIII, 1890.

—-Notes on the Osteology of the Thrushes, Miminae and Wrens. Extr. Pro-

ceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., 1888. a

—— Classification of the Macrochires. Extr. The Auk, Vol. IV, No. 2, 1887.

—— Swifts and Humming-birds. Extr. Ibis, 1893. From the author.

296 The American Naturalist. [April,

Lyman, B. 8.—Folds and Faults in Pennsylvania Anthracite Beds. A Paper

read before the Amer. Inst. Mining Engineers, Oct., 1895. From the author.

MERRIAM. L. S.—Higher Education in Tennessee. Contributions to American

Educational History, No. 16, Washington, 1893.

MERRILL, G. P.—Notes on some Eruptive Rocks om Gallatin, Jefferson and

Madison Counties, Montana. Extr. Proceeds. U. S. . Mus., Vol. XVII,

1895. From the author.

Morgan, g oe Formation of the Embryo of the Frog. Aus. Anat. Anz.

Bd. IX, Nr.

—Half “feta and Whole gree from one of the first two Blastomeres

of the Frog’s Egg. Ibid, Bd. IX, No.

PeckuaM, G. W. & E. C.—Spiders of m Marptusa Group of the Family Atti-

dae. Occasional Papers of the Wisconsin Nat. Hist. Soc., Vol. II, No. 2, 1894.

—Spiders of the apere Group of the Family Attidae. Ibid, Vol. II,

No. 3, 1895. From the a .

PETER, K s die pak des Atlas der Amphibien. Aus Anat. Anz.

Bd., X, N

Zur aes von Scolecomorphus kirkii. Aus Berichte der naturf. Gesell.

zu Freiburgi. B. Bd. IX, Heft. 3. From the author

RaspaiL, X.—Durée de incubation de I’ oeuf du Coucou et de l'éducation du

jeune-dans le nid. Extr. Mém. Soc. Zool. de France, 1895. From the author.

Report of the Geological Survey of Ohio, Vol. VII. Norwalk, Ohio, 1893.

Rogertson, C.—Flowers and Insects, XII, XIII, XIV. Extr. Bot. Gazette,

Vol. XIX

——Notes on Bees, with descriptions of new species. aads Paper. Extr.

Trans. Entom. Soc., XXII, 1895. From the author.

——Harshberger on the Origin of our Vernal Flora. Extr. Science N. S.,

Vol. 1, 1895.

RorTtzeELL, W. E.—Some Vestigial Structures in Man. Extr. Hahnemannian

Monthly, June, 1895. From the author

enth Annual Report, 1894, of the Agric. Exper. Station of the Colorado

Agric. College, Fort Collins.

SIEBENROCK, F.—Zur Kenntniss des Rumpfskeletes der Scincoiden, Anguiden

und Goieki. Extr. Ann. K. K. Naturh. Hofmus. Bd., X, 1895. From

the author.

Simpson, C. T.—Distribution of the Land and Freshwater Mollusks of the

West Indian Region, and their evidence with regard to past changes of land and

sea. Extr. Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVII. Washington 1894. From

. the author.

Sixth Annual Report of the Rhode Island Agric. Exper. Station, 1893, Part

Il. From C. O. F

SMITH, E. T.—Bacillus tracheiphilus sp. nov., die Ursache des Verwelkens

- verschiedener Cucurbitaceen. Aus Centralblatt fiir Bakterioiogie und Parasiten-

kunde. get I, 1895.

C.—History of Education in Maryland. Contributions to Ameri-

can esis No. 19. Washington, 1894.

tunnel G.—Das Os intermedium antebrachii des Menschen. Aus. Morph.

Jahrb. V, Bà., Erstes Heft. From the author.

1896.] Petrography. 297

THURSTON, E.—Pearl and Chank Fisheries of the Gulf of Manaar. Bull. No.

1, Madras Gov. Mus. Madras, 1894. From the Muse

Twelfth Annual Report of the Board of Control of the State Agric. Exper.

Station of Aniherst, Mass. Boston, 18

WEED, W. H. ann L. V. Pirsson, A Mountains of Montana. Extr.

Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. 6, 1895. From the Soc.

WINGE, H.—E =i Lundii. En Samling af Afhandlinger om de i det indre

Brasillens Kalkstenshuler af Professor Dr. von Peter Vilhelm Lund udgravede

ogi den Lundske palaeontologiske afdeling af Kjobenhavds Universitets zoolo-

giske Museum opbevarede Dyre-og Meuneskeknogler. Andet Bind. Forste Halv-

bind. espera ed: 1893.

Woo . S.—On some Fish Remains of the Genera Portheus and Clado-

cyclus, from si Rolling Downs Formation (Lower Cretaceous) of Queensland.

Extr. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. Ser., Vol. XIV, 1894. From the author

WRIGHT, M. O.—Birderaft. A Field Book of two hundred Song, Game and

Water Birds. New York, 1895, Macmillan and Co., Pub. From John Wana-

maker’s.

ZITTEL, A. yrs or bata and the Liogenetic Law. Extr. Natural Sci-

- ence, Vol. VI,

— Grundziize ets Paleontologie (Paleozoologie). Miinchen und Leipzig,

1895. From the author

General Notes.

PETROGRAPHY:

Examples of Rock Differentiation.—Yogo Peak in the Little

Belt Mountains, Montana, consists of a stock of massivei gneous rock

which breaks up through surrounding horizontal sediments, that have

been metamorphosed on their contact with the eruptive. A vertical

section through the south face of the mountain caused by a branch of

Yogo Creek has affored Weed and Pirsson’ and excellent opportunity

to study the relations of different phases of the eruptive to one another.

The massive rock shows a constant variation and gradation in chemical

and mineralogical composition along its east and west axis which is two

miles in length. In its eastern portion the rock is a syenite, containing

pyroxene, hornblende, biotite, orthoclase, oligoclase, quartz and a few

accessories. The pyroxene is a pale green diopside and the shears

a brownish-green variety. - The latter is thought to be paramo

after the former. In structure the syenite is hypidiomorphic eg a

1 Edited by Dr. W. S. Bayley, Colby University, Waterville, Me.

3 Amer. Journ. Sci., Vol. L, 1895, p. 467.

298 The American Naturalist. [April,

tendency toward the allotriomorphic structure. Further west, about

in the center of the mass, the syenite changes to a darker gray roc

with a tinge of green, somewhat resembling a diorite. It is more

coarsely crystalline than is the syenite and is much more basic. The

minerals are the same as in the syenite, except that quartz is lacking,

but differ somewhat in their character and in the proportions present

in the two rocks. The augite is now a bright green idiomorphie min-

eral, Hornblende is rare and biotite abundant. The great difference

between this rock, which the authors call yogoite, and the syenite, is in

the relative proportions of augite and orthoclase present in them. In

the yogoite the pyroxene predominates over the orthoclase, while in

the syenite the reverse ratioexists. In the western portion of the rock

mass, the prevailing type is shonkinite, a very dark basic rock, very

similar to that of Square Butte. Augite and biotite are very abun-

dant as compared with the orthoclase, which in turn predominates over

plagioclase. This latter mineral is represented by andesine, a more

basic feldspar than that in either the syenite or the yogoite. Analyses

of the three types of Yogo Peak rocks follow:

Si0, TiO, AlO; CrO FeO, FeO MnO MgO CaO BaO SrO NaO KO H,O P,O; Total

Syenite 61.65 .56 15.07 2.03 2.25 09 -3.67 461 .27 10 4.35 -67 33 = 100

Yogoite 54.42 .80 14.28 tr oa SAS IO en TR ao a tu An 60 .59 = 100.19

Shonkinite 48.98 144 12.29 tr 2.88 5.77 .08 919 965 .43 08 22 4.96 82 .98 = 99.77

mkinite contains in addition .22 per cent. of F1.

From a consideration of the nature of the three types of rock the

authors conclude that the Yogo Peak stock exhibits the results of a

progressive differentiation along its major axis. There is a progressive

increase in the ferro-magnesian constituents from the east to the west

and a consequent increase in basicity. All the components of the three

types exhibit the effects of this differentiation in the proportions pres-

ent in the different rocks. The Yogo Peak mass is thus an illustration

of a “ Facies suit” as distinguished from a “ rock series.” In the for-

The authors close their paper with an appeal for a more specific

nomenclature in petrography—a nomenclature that will take account

not only of the qualitative relations between the minerals that make up

rock masses but of the quantitative relations as well. The Yogo Peak

3 Compare AMERICAN ‘NATURALIST, 1895, p. 737.

1896.] Petrography. 299

rocks form a natural series with sanidinite and peridotites. Rocks

composed of orthoclase and no augite = sanidinite; when orthoclase

exceeds augite=augite-syenite; when orthoclase equals augite =

yogoite; when augite exceeds orthoclase = shonkinite; when augite

alone is present = pyroxenite and peridotite. In this scheme the term

augite includes also other ferro-magnesian minerals, and the terms

orthoclase other feldspars.

In connection with the article above referred to Iddings* mentions

the existence of a series of rocks associated with typical basalts and

andesites in the Yellowstone National Park. They represent like

phases of differentiation belonging to separate, but similar rock fami-

lies. Most all of these rocks are basaltic looking. They occur in flows

and dykes and sometimes as breccias, constituting the major portion of

the Absaroka Range. These rocks present a wide range of composition

within definite limits, forming a series connected by gradual transitions.

Three classes are distinguished, the first of which is characterized

usually by abundant phenocrysts of olivine and augite and an absence

of feldspar phenocrysts ; the second class is characterized by the pres-

ence of labradorite phenocrysts in addition to those of olivine and

augite, and the third class by the presence of labradorite phenocrysts.

The names given to the three classes are absarokite, shoshonite and

banakite. The distinctions between the classes is based principally

upon their chemical relationships. A large number of analyses, most

of which were taken from other papers, illustrate their points of differ-

ence. A comparison of the analyses, besides showing the close relation-

ships existing between the rocks of the three classes, shows also what

mineralogical differences may obtain for rocks of the same chemical

composition. The shoshonite from the base of Bison Peak and the

banakite from Ishawooa Canyon have practically the same chemical

composition. The former, however, contains abundant phenocrysts of

labradorite, augite and olivine, while the latter contains numerous

labradorite phenocrysts, but few and small ones of the other two min-

erals. The groundmass of the first shows much less orthoclase than

that of the second, and no biotite, which abounds in the second. The

author compares the series of rocks studied by him with the series

studied by Merrill’, with the series discussed by Weed and Pirsson and

with Brégger’s® grorudite-tinguaite series. The conclusion reached by

this comparison is to the effect that it may be doubted whether the gen-

‘Journal of Geology, Vol. ITI, p. 935

5 Cf. AMERICAN NATURALIST, 1896, p. 128.

® Cf. AMERICAN NATURALIST, 1895, p. 567.

300 The American Naturalist. [April,

etic relations between igneous rocks can properly mark the lines along

which a systematic classification of them may be established.

Petrographical Notes.—In a phyllite-schist found in blocks on

the south shore of Lake Michigamme in Michigan, Hobbs’ has discov-

ered large crystals of a chloritoid like that described by Lane, Keller

and Sharpless in 1891. The rock in which the crystals occur is a mass

of colorless mica scales through which are distributed large flakes of

biotite, small blades of chloritoid, a few acicular crystals of tourmaline

and grains of magnetite. Most of the chloritoid is in large porphyritic

crystals imbedded in this matrix. The optical properties of the mineral

correspond to those of masonite.

In a summary of the results of this work in the upper Odenwald

Chelius announces the existence there of two granites—the younger a

fine grained aplitic variety and the older a coarse grained porphyritic

variety, with a parallel structure due to flowage. Pegmatitic veins

that cut this granite are looked upon as linear accumulations of por-

phyritic feldspar crystals. Many notes are also given on the diorites,

gabbros and basalts of the Odenwald, on the basic enclosures in the

granite, which the author regards as altered fragments of foreign basic

rocks, but nothing of a startling nature with reference to these subjects

is recorded. A gabbro porphyry was found occurring as a dyke mass.

It consists of phenocrysts of labradorite in a gabbro-aplitic ground-

mass

In a general paper on the divisibility of the Laurentian in the Morin

area N. W. of Montreal, Canada, Adams? describes the characteristics

of the members of the Grenville series of gneisses, quartzites and lime-

stones. The augen gneisses, the thinly foliated gneisses and the granu-

lites of the series are all cataclastic or granulitic in structure. They

are regarded as squeezed igneous rocks. The erystalline limestones and

quartzites are recrystallized rocks that are thought to be changed sedi-

mentaries. Pyroxene gneisses, pyroxene granulites and other allied

rocks are of doubtful origin. In addition to all these rocks there is

present in the series a group of peculiar banded garnetiferous gneisses

which from their chemical composition are regarded as in all probabil-

ity metamorphosed sedimentary rocks.

T Amer. Jour. Sci., Vol. L, 1895, p. 125.

* Amer. Jour. Sci., Vol. L, 1895, p. 58.

1896.] Geology and Paleontology. 301

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.

The Paleozoic Reptilian Order Cotylosauria.—A paper was

read before the American Philosophical Society, November 15, 1895,'

by Prof. E. D. Cope, on the reptilian order Cotylosauria. The fol-

lowing is an abstract of the characters of the order.

Quadrate bone united by suture with the adjacent elements. Tem-

poral fossa overroofed by the following elements: Postfrontal, post-

orbital, jugal, supramastoid, supratemporal, quadratojugal. Tabular

bone present. Vertebree amphicoelous; ribs one headed. Episternum

present. Pelvis without obturator foramen.

This order is of great importance to the phylogeny of the amniote

Vertebrata. The structure of the temporal roof is essentially that of

the Stegocephalous Batrachia, while the various postorbital bars of the

amniote Vertebrata are explained by reference to the same part of its

structure.

The palatal elements in this order are more or less in contact on the

middle line, and the pterygoids diverge abruptly from this point, and

return to the quadrate. The occipital condyle is single, and does not

include exoccipital elements (unknown in Elginia).

Intercentra are present in Pariasauride, Diadectide and Parioti-

chide, and they are wanting in Elginiide. The hyposphen-hypan-

terum articulation is present in the Diadectide, but is wanting in the

Elginiide and Pariasauride.

The scapular arch is best known in Pariotichide, Pariasauridx’ and

Diadectidez. In the two former there is a T-shaped episternum, over

which are applied the median extremities of the clavicles; and there

are well-developed coracoid and praecoracoid. In Diadectidæ* (prob-

ably genus Empedias) the episternum is articulated by suture with the

clavicles.

In the Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 1892, p.

279, in a paper on “The Phylogeny of the Vertebrata,” I wrote as

follows: “Moreover, the Pelycosauria and the Procolophonina have

the interclavicle, which is an element of membranous origin, while in

the Prototheria we have the corresponding cartilage bone, the epister-

num. This element is present in the Permian order of the Cotylo-

1 See Proceedings Amer. Philos. Soc., Vol. XXXIV, 1896, p. 436.

? Seeley, Philos. Trans. Roy. Soc. London, 1888, p. 89; 1892, p. 334.

3 Cope, Proceeds. Amer. Philos. Soc., 1883, p. 635.

302 Fhe American Naturalist. [April,

sauria which is nearly related to the Pelycosauria.” The examination

of the sternal region in Pariotichus has led me to the conclusion that

the episternum and interclavicle are present and fused together in that

genus, and also to the belief that the episternum is present in the

genus Procolophon, The structure is generally similar in the two

genera, and I think that Seeley is in error in determining the element

in question in Procolophon as the interclavicle only. Gegenbaur

pointed outin his Comparative Anatomy the different (i. e., membranous)

origin of the interclavicle of the Lacertilia, but he included it with the

episternum under the same name. The true episternum is not present

in the Lacertilia. It is present in the Sauropterygia and Testudinata

and probably in all the orders with one postorbital bar, or Synapto-

sauria, while it is wanting in most or all of the Archosaurian series,

and in the Squamata. Whether the element I have referred to in the

genus Naosaurus as interclavicle, is that element or the episternum,

must remain uncertain until I can see it in place. Its edges are thin,

as in the interclavicle of the Lacertilia. Of course, the Reptilian

order which is in the line of ancestry in the Mammalian will have an

episternum and not an interclavicle only. The Stegocephalia among

Batrachia possess an episternum, with, perhaps, an adherent inter-

clavicular layer as in the Testudinata.

Seeley describes four sacral vertebra in Pariasaurus. In Empedias

there are but two. The pelvis is without obturator foramen. The

humerus has an entepicondylar foramen. The tarsal and carpal ele-

ments are incompletely known.

There are palatine teeth in Empedias and Pariasaurus, but none in

Elginia; vomerine teeth none.

The inferior surface of the cranium is known in Elginia, Pariasau-

rus, Empedias and Pariotichus, and has been described as to the first

three genera by Newton, Seeley, and myself. Pariotichus displays

generally similar characters. There is a pair of posterior nares, and

a pair of zygomatic foramina, but no palatine foramen. The palatine

elements meet on the middle line, but gape behind. The vomers

(prepalatines) are distinct, and are well developed anterior to the pala-

tines. The ectopterygoid is large and has a prominent posterior border.

Ihave stated that in Empedias there are teeth on the vomer. Better

preserved specimens of Pariotichus show that the teeth are really borne

on the edges of the palatines, which are appressed on the median line

but are wanting in Elginia. Teeth are also present on the posterior

* Philos. Transac. Royal Society, 1889, p. 275, Pl. IX, fig. 9.

1896.] Geology and Paleontology. 303

edge of the ectopterygoids in Pariasaurus and Pariotichus, but not in

Elginia or Empedias, A character of the American genera is the

weakness of the attachment of the basioccipital to the sphenoid. The

basioccipital is lost from the only known specimen of Elginia, and the

sphenoid projects freely below it in Pariasaurus, The roof of the

mouth in this order is a good deal like that of the Lacertilia, lacking

the palatine foramen.

The order Cotylosauria was defined by me in the AMERICAN NAT-

uRALIsT for 1880, p. 304, and in 1889 (October). In 1889 (Transac.

Roy. Soc. London, p. 292), Prof. Seeley gave it the name Pariasauria.

In my Syllabus of Lectures on Vertebrate Paleontology (1891, p. 38), I

arranged the group as a suborder of the Theromora. In 1892 ( Trans-

Amer. Philos, Soc., p. 18, Pl. I), I again regarded the Cotylosauria as

an order, and described the characters of the skull in three of the gen-

era, and gave figures of them.

Seeley has objected to the reference of the genera Pariasaurus and

Empedias to the same order, on the ground that the elements connect-

ing the supraoccipital and the quadrate rest on the occipital elements

in the latter, while they are elevated above them in the former. This

character would not, however, define orders, as both conditions are

found in Lacertilia; but might distinguish families within an order.

However, Seeley’s description and figure of the occipital region in

Pariasaurus bainii® show that the structure only differs from that of

the Diadectidae in the presence of a large foramen between the supra-

occipital and exoccipital bones on each side.

The known species of the Cotylosauria range in dimensions from that

of the South American Caimans (Chilonyx, Pariasaurus sp.) to that of

the smaller Lacertilia, e. g., Eumeces quinquelineatus (Isodectes and

Pariotichus sp.). They range from the Coal Measures to the Trias,

inclusive, and have been found in South Africa, North America and

Scotland. A single genus has been found in the Coal Measures of

Ohio, which is represented by a species which I called Tuditanus punc-

tulatus® Itis of small size, and as the maxillary teeth are of equal

length, I cannot distinguish it from Isodectes, which belongs to the

Pariotichide. The other species which were referred to Tuditanus are

Stegocephalia” This is the first identification of a true reptile in the

Coal Measures.

5 Philos. Transac. Roy. Soc. 1892, p. 326, Pl. XVIII, Fig. 2.

6 Transac. Amer. Philosoph. Society, April, 1874, separate p. 11. Report Geol.

Survey of Ohio, 1875, Paleontology, p. 302, Plate XXIV, fig. 1 Unes

named in aoe Tuditanus longipes).

1 Proceeds. r. Philos. Soc., 1871, p. 177.

304 The American Naturalist. [April,

This order embraces, at present, four families, comprising 24 species

distributed among 12 genera, as follows: Elginiidae, 1 genus, 1 species ;

Pariasauride, 3 genera, 7 species; Diadectide, 5 genera, 9 species ;

Pariotichide 6 genera (of which 3 are new, viz.: Isodectes, Captor-

hinus and Hypopnous), and 12 species, of which 5 are new. Total, 29

species, 15 genera—E. D. Corr.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE VIIa.

Pariotichus aguti Cope. From the Proceeding Amer. Philos. Society,

November, 1895. Fig. 1, Skull, from side. Fig. 2, Skull, with angu-

lar parts of mandible adherent, cervical vertebrae and scapular arch,

from below. Fig. 3, Skull, from above, with cervical vertebrae. Fig.

4, Anterior two-thirds of mandibular arch, with adherent premaxillary

bones, from above. Fig. 5, Humerus. N., Nasal bone; F., Frontal ‘

Pef., Prefrontal; Pof., Postfrontal ; P., Parietal; Pmz., Premaxillary ;

Mr., Maxillary; J., Jugal; Qj., Quadratojugal ; St., Supratemporal ;

Sm., Supramastoid ; Tab., Tabulare; So., Supraoccipital ; V., Vomer;

Pa., Palatine; Par., Paroccipital; Eep., Ectopterygoid ; Ps., Ptery-

goid; Q., Quadrate; Ce. Clavicle ; Ep., Episternum ; H., Humerus.

The Puget Group.—Sir Wm. Dawson confirms the opinion

advanced by Dr. G. M. Dawson in 1890 that the formation in the

north-western part of the United States to which the name Puget group

has been given, extends into British Columbia as far as Burrard’s Inlet,

This great estuarine deposit extends southward as far as the Columbia

River and from the coast line to the Cascade range, within which its

beds rise to a height estimated at from 800 to 5000 feet above the level

of the sea. They overlie the Cretaceous Chico series in the United

States, and its equivalent the Nanaimo formation in Canada. The

latest views of paleobotanists and geologists of the United States seem

to be that these beds are of Eocene age and that the fossil plants may

be best compared with those of the Upper Laramie of the interior

plains. In so far as Canada is concerned it has been established that

the Upper Laramie beds underlie a formation containing animal fossils

of the White River Miocene period, so there can be no doubt as to their

Eocene age, and consequently of the Eocene age of the Puget group in

Canada.

A further confirmation as to this view of the age of the formation

__ in question is found in a collection of fossil plants from the vicinity of

Burrard Inlet. These were referred to Sir Wm. Dawson for identifica-

tion who sums up the results of his study as follows:

PLATE VILS

PARIOTICHUS AGUTI COPE.

1896.] Geology and Paleontology. 305

“ A comparison with the flora of the Upper Cretaceous Nanaimo

series shows that the Burrard Inlet species are distinct and of more

modern aspect. On the other hand, they are also distinct from those of

older Miocene deposits of the Similkamen district and other parts of the

interior of British Columbia. Between these they occupy an inter-

mediate position ; in this resect corresponding with the Laramie of the

interior plains east of the Rocky Mountains. They also resemble

this formation in the general facies of the flora, which is not dissimilar

from that of the Upper Laramie or Fort Union group.”

“We may thus refer these plants to the Paleocene or Eocene, and

regard them as corresponding with those of the Atanékerdluk beds in

Greenland, the lignitic series of the McKenzie River, and the beds

holding similar plants in Alaska.”

“ This flora thus serves to fill the gap in our western series of fossil

plants, namely, that between the Cretaceous and the Lower Miocene.”

(Trans. Roy. Soe. Can. (2), Vol. I, 1895-’96.)

The Geological Structure of Florida is according to Prof. E.

T. Cox, remarkable for its simplicity. The underlying rock is a soft

limestone of Upper Eocene age; resting on this are beds of phosphate

of lime; and covering the phosphate and limestone is a bed of sand

that varies from a few inches to 20 feet and more in depth.

The Eocene limestone is filled with fossil marine shells. It shows no

evidence of disturbance and is without a trace of stratification. It has

an amorphous structure and is of unknown thickness. The phosphate

of lime occurs in detached masses scattered over an area about 20 miles

wide, and exending in a belt, follows in general way the trend of the

Gulf coast from the northern limits of the state and beyond, to the

western edge of the Everglades on the south. The author believes the

phosphate to be the result of the mineralization of guano.

The covering of sand is found all over the Peninsula. It has been

blown by the winds from the gulf and ocean beaches. Mixed with the

sand is clay in the form of fine dust. In several localities the associated

clay has been separated from the sand by running water and deposited

as kaolin. This kaolin has been tested and found to be of superior

quality for the manufacture of the finest porcelain.

Florida is not a level plain. A ridge from 30 to 50 miles wide ex-

tends from the northern part of the state to the Everglades, having an

elevation of more than 230 feet in some places. From this ridge the

land slopes to the Atlantic on the east and the Gulf on the west.

The elevation of the Peninsula was due to that continental force, ex-

tended over a vast period of time, which brought the tops of the Rocky

306 The American Naturalist. [April,

Mountains above the waters of the Pacific. (Trans. Amer. Inst. Min-

ing Engineers.)

The Eocene age of part of Florida was first asserted by Prof. Eugene

Smith of Alabama, and this conclusion was confirmed by paleontologic

data by Prof. Heilprin, of Philadelphia. Dr. W.H. Dall subsequently

delimited exactly the area of these beds with the Neocene and Plisto-

cene beds to the south, east and north of them.

Notes on the fossil Mammalia of Europe Pt. II.—On the

affinities of the Genus Tapirulus, Gervais—Tapirulus is one of those

aberrant types, where we find a curious assemblage of characters, which

to the systematist is a great annoyance, although to the morphologist

most instructive.

A superficial examination of the teeth has lead some paleontologists

to assign this genus a position near the Tapir. Gervais' established

this genus on the characters of the lower true molars. He referred

Tapirulus to the family Anoplotheriide, which I shall endeavor to prove

is its proper position, although this reference on his part I believe was

accidental, as he placed in the same family the genus Adapis. Gaudry*

has assigned Tapirulus a position near the genus Tapirus, and Zittel*

. referred it to the Suide.

Through the great kindness of Prof. Albert Gaudry, who has so

generously allowed me to study so many of the beautiful specimens in

the collection of the Jardin des Plantes, I have had the opportunity of

examining a skull of Tapirulus, in which the greater part of the upper

dentition is preserved. On examination of this skull I was at once

struck by its close resemblance to that of Anoplotherium, and Daery-

therium.

The skull in Tapirulus is slender and much elongated, the dorsal

contour is nearly straight, and the facial portion is strongly compressed

and slender. There is no preorbital fossa, as in Dacrytherium, and the

occiput is high and narrow, like that of Anoplotherium. The auditory

region very closely resembles that of Dacrytherium, the paroccipital pro-

cess is long, slender and the posttympanic and glenoid processes are

applied closely to the external auditory meatus, The brain case in the

Anoplotheriide is much extended anteroposteriorly, being about one-

half the total length of the skull in Dacrytherium. In Tapirulus the

* Comptes Rend. Acad. Sci., 1850, p. 604.

2 Zoologie et Palzontologie Francaise, p. 173, pl.

* Journal de Zoologie, XIV, 1875, p. 5.

*Traité de Palzontologie, Sis p. 338

1896.] Geology and Paleontology. 307

cranial portion of the skull is shorter relatively than in Dacrytherium

and with this decrease in length I observe a greater development of

the anterior part of the brain case, which encloses the frontal lobes of

the brain. In short the brain of Tapirulus as compared with the size

of the skull, must have been much larger than in Dacrytherium, and

this greater development effected especially the frontal region of the

brain.

As the Suilline type of skull was well established in the Phosphorites

or Upper-Eocene of France (Cebocherus), I shall compare the cranium

of Tapirulus with that of Cebocherus. In the latter genus the brain

case is very much reduced with the extremely prominent zygomatic

arches; sagittal and lambdoidal crests are very heavy and the occiput

is broader than high. The cranial portion of the skull in Cebocherus

is much heavier and broader than the facial. All these cranial char-

acters in Cebocherus differ decidedly from those of Tapirulus and I

enumerate them, so as to prove that Tapirulus has no direct affinity

with the Suillines. The skull of Tapirulus somewhat resembles that of

the primitive Selenodonts, (Cenotherium), but it is more slender and

its general form more closely resembles that of the Anoplotheride.

It is, however, the peculiar structure of the teeth, which is the most

important consideration in studying Tapirulus. It is upon the char-

acters of the teeth that Tapirulus has been assigned its various positions

in the Ungulata. On a superficial examination of the upper true

molars of Tapirulus, they exhibit a certain resemblance to those of the

Tapir, but studied in detail I shall endeavor to prove that the molars

of Tapirulus differ fundamentally in their plan from any of the

known Lophiodonts. In the first place the external lobes of the supe-

rior molars in Tapirulus are concave, and not convex as in the true

Tapirine molar. Again the transverse crests are straighter and their

relation to the external lobes differ from those of the Tapirs tooth. At

the junction of the transverse crests and the external lobes there is a

strong notch, and in one specimen I can detect a faint trace of the

intermediate tubercles.

The superior molars of the Anoplotheriide. as is well known, have

deeply concave external lobes, the prot le is distinct from the proto-

cone, the latter element being in its primitive bunodont condition. In

Anoplotherium and Daerytherium the hypocone is selenodont in struct-

ure. In other words the form of superior molar found in the Anoplo-

theride is a slight modification of the buno-selenodont type, it differs

from the exact form of this type in having the hypocone crescentoid.

308 The American Naturalist. [April,

Now in Tapirulus the two external concave lobes of the superior

molars have nearly the same structure as those of Daerytherium, and

the internal primitive bunodont elements of the crown, have been trans-

formed into crests, this occurred before the Anoplotherium type of

molar had reached its present stage of evolution. It is then not difficult

to derive the form of superior molar found in Tapirulus from the true

buno-selenodont type, and I believe this to have been the origin of the

peculiarly modified molar occurring in Tapirulus.

The superior and inferior premolars in Tapirulus have the same

elongated form so characteristic of the Anoplotheriide in general, and

like the latter group, the canines were not differentiated in form from

the anterior premolars. The lower true molars of Tapirulus depart

widely in structure from those found in any of the known genera of the

Anoplotheride, although like the upper molars they are much special-

ized and can be derived from a less modified type, which was the

common stock of both Tapirulus and Anoplotherium. A peculiarity

in the structure of the lower molars of Tapirulus is the presence on

each tooth of a well developed third lobe, hypoconulid, which projects

posteriorly a considerable distance. The portion of the molar crown

anterior to the hypoconulid consists of two high transverse crests, the

antero-external termination of the front crest exhibiting a rudiment of

the anterior spur, which is so largely developed in all the other genera

of the Anoplotheride. The lower jaw in Tapirulus is long and ex-

tremely slender and its form closely resembles that of Daerytherium.

In conclusion I believe the natural position of Tapirulus is in a sub-

family of the Anoplotheriide, and that both Tapirulus and Anoplother-

ium have been derived from a common stock, the ancestral form hav-

ing had the pure type of buno-selenodont molar. As already shown

above, the resemblance in structure of the molars of Ta irulus to that

of the Tapir is not exact, the Tapirs tooth having been derived direct

from the bunodont type (See Euprotogonia and Systemodon).

characters as Tapirulus, but which unites in a: certain degree the

Suillines and the Anoplotheroids. Prof. Zittel in his “Traité de

Palzontologie” does not consider Mixtotheriwmn as a good genus, and

refers it to the milk dentition of Diplobune. I am quite confident that

Prof. Zittel is mistaken in this determination, and I shall endeavor to

*Mém. quelques Mam. fossiles, Toulouse, 1882,

1896.] Geology and Paleontology. 309

prove that Miztotherium is a valid genus and entirely distinct from

either Diplobune or Dacrytherium.

The genus Adiotherium was described by Filhol in 1884, This

genus is referred by Zittel to the milk dentition of Daerytherium, I can

not agree with Prof. Zittel on this reference either, as I believe Adio-

therium to have been based upon the milk dentition of Mizxtotherium.

The skull in Mizxtotherium is essentially Suilline, but exhibiting some

characters like those of the Anoplotheroids. The form of the brain

case is longer and narrower than in Cebocherus, and it closely resem-

bles that of Acotherulum which is one of the most primitive of the early

Suillines of Europe. The occipital region of the skull in Miztotherium

is much broader than high, and is not constricted in the middle as in

Daerytherium ; the occiput has nearly the exact form of Acotherulum

and Cebocherus.

In the primitive pigs of the Phosphorites the auditory bulle are

extremely small, in Mixtotherium they are large. The basioccipital

region of the skull in Mizxtotherium is rather long and narrow, and like

that of Daerytherium. In Cebocherus of the Phosphorites, the pecul-

iarly elongated and constricted snout of the pigs is well differentiated,

however, in Mixtotherium as well as Acotherulum the facial region of

the skull is broader and shorter, its form being more as in Dacrytherium,

Mixtotherium agrees with Diplobune and differs from Dacrytherium in

lacking a preorbital fossa in the maxillary bone, The general form

and proportions of the skull in Miztotherium is very much like that of

the peculiar American genus, Oreodon.

The dentition of Mixtotherium resembles that of the Anoplotheride

in the absence of any diastemas, it differs, however, from this family in

the large size of the canines, which in form resembles more those of the

Suillines. The superior premolars are normal in form, and not elon-

gated as in the Anoplotheroids. The last upper premolar closely

resembles in structure a true molar, it has two external cusps, which

are intermediate in structure between the bunoid and selenoid forms.

The deuteroconid forms a crest with the antero-intermediate tuber-

cle, the tetastoconid is present, but small and bunoid in structure.

The structure of the superior molars of Miztotherium differ from those

of Diplobune and Daerytherium in the following details ; the external

crescents are united externally by a prominent mesostyle, which is more

constricted than in Diplobune; in Daerytherium this portion of the

molar is open widely internally.

In the Anoplotheride the protocone is distinct from the protoconule,

whereas in Miztotherium these elements are united and form a well

310 The American Naturalist. [April,

developed protoloph. In Miztotherium the hypocone is selenoid in

structure as in Dacrytherium, but this cusp is much smaller and it is

much less extended internally than in that genus. I emphasize especi-

ally the large development of the mesostyle, and the presence of a pro-

toloph, characters of the upper molars of Miztotherium which differs

decidedly from those of Dacrytherium. The structure of the fourth

upper premolar in Miztotheriwm resembles somewhat that of Agrio-

cherus, but differs from this genus in the presence of the postero-

internal cusp. In Diehodon Owen, the complication of the fourth

upper premolar is carried still further than in Miztotherium, as in

Dichodon this tooth is completely molariform and selenodont in struct-

ure. However, I believe, that Miztotherium has no close affinity with

Dichodon, as the structure of the skull and dentition in Dichodon is

quite modernized.

The lower jaw in Miztotherium is rather short and deep below the

last lower molar, these characters differ strikingly from those of the

Anoplothertide, where the jaw is very slender and elongated. The

mandibulz are strongly ankylosed at the symphysis as in the primitive

pigs, Acotherulum and Cebocherus, this is a character I believe seldom

found in the Mammalia outside of the Primates. The last lower pre-

molar in Mizxtotherium is intermediate in structure between a last milk

tooth and permanent molar. It consists of an antero-median cusp,

bunoid in form, and posterior to it, of two external crescents and two

flattened internal elements. The structure of the inferior true molars

is like that of Dacrytherium.

It appears to me that the genus Mizxtotheriwm is of importance phy-

logenetically, and demonstrates how closely the Suillines and Anoplo-

theroids are related. In the characters of the skull and the large

development of the canines Mixtotherium is more like the pigs, but show-

ing affinities to the Anoplotheroids in the form of the brain case. The

structure of the molars, as already shown, resemble very closely those

of the Anoplotheriide@ and have gone one step further in their specializa-

tion by the development of a well defined protoloph.

Schlosser in his paper, “ Stammesgeschichte der Hufthiere” speaking

of the origin of the Sullines remarks “ die Herkunft diese Stammes ist

noch in vollständiges Dunkel gehiillt, nur so viel dürfen wir als sicher

annehmen, dass derselbe wohl von der gleichen Grundform ausgegan-

gen ist wie der der Suiden.” The Oreodonts are considered by Scott to

be related to the Anoplotheroids, and if this be the case it is not strange

that the skull of Mictotherium resembles that of Oreodon. The genus

Protoreodon of the Uinta or Upper Eocene, has the five lobed superior

molar typical of the Anoplotheroids, and the primitive Suillines.

1896,] Geology and Paleontology. 311

In conclusion, Miztotherium is then a type intermediate between the

Suillines and the Anoplotheroids, and has been derived from a common

stock, which also gave origin very probably to the Oreodonts.—

CHARLES EARLE, Laboratoire de Palæontologie, Jardin des Plantes,

Paris.

The Glaciers of Greenland.—Prof. Chamberlin’s report on the

Geology of Greenland contains the results of his observations of glacier

phenomena in the region explored by the Peary auxillary expedition

of 1894. The seventeen glaciers visited fall into two classes designated

the southern and northern types. The former are distinguished by

ending in a slope of moderate declivity, the latter end in abrupt terminal

walls which rise to heights of 50 to 150 feet. The author notes here

that he is speaking of glaciers that end upon the land. Obviously,

those that reach the sea terminate in vertical walls through the break-

ing away of the ends. Not only are the ends of the glacial tongues

vertical, but in some instances the sides are so likewise. To some

extent the edge of the ice-cap itself is vertical.

The stratification of these glaciers is remarkable for extent and

definiteness. The ice is almost as distinctly bedded as sedimentary

rock. The following points are noted by the author:

“ In the vertical face there are usually presented two distinct divisions,

an upper one of nearly white ice, whose laminations are not conspic-

uous, from lack of rarer coloration; age á Iwer one discolored by

debris, which gives great d to the t The lower

divisions is divided by very numerous partings, along which are distrib-

uted rocky debris, embracing not only sand and silt, but rubble and

boulders. Often the amount of this interspread debris is so sligbt as to

constitute the merest film, while at other times it reaches a thickness of

an inch or two. . . . . . In general, the rocky debris is arranged

in very definite and limited horizons leaving the ice above and below

as clean and pure as any other. It is very notable and significant that

the ice next the debris layers is the firmest and most perfect that the

glacier affords. The coarser debris is arranged in the same horizons

with the fine silt and clay. . . . . . Where ice is well lamina-

ted, as it commonly is, the laminations bend under and over the em-

bedded boulders. This seems to indicate that the embedded boulders

do not descend through the ice by virtue of superior gravity, but are

retained in the original position given them by the embedding process.

The extent to which the basal portion of the ice is laminated is remark-

able. In selected cases twenty laminations might be counted to the

312 The American Naturalist. [April,

inch. These laminations are sometimes symmetrical, straight and

parallel. At other times they are undulatory, and in instances they

are greatly curved and contorted in an intricate fashion.”

It was observed that the debris bearing layers were parallel to the

base of the glacier and were confined to its lower 50 or 75 feet, with

some few exceptions. Even at the border of the glacier clean layers of

white ice above the debris strata constituted one-third or more of the

section. This is contrary to the view that the debris habitually works

up to the surface and forms a layer there as it nears the border of the

glacier.

Prof. Chamberlain was fortunate in being able to observe the process

of introduction of debris in progress. At a point in the Gable glacier

there was found an embossment of rock over which the ice was forced

to pass and in so doing to rise in a dome-like fashion. One side of the

dome was melted away, revealing operations at its base. Combining

a number of observations, the author gives the following interpretation

of the process :

“The bottom layer of the ice in passing over the crest of the em-

bossment would be pressed with exceptional force upon it, and woulds

as a result, be especially liable to detach fragments from it and imbed

them within itself. If debris were being pushed or dragged along

between the ice and the rock surface beneath, it would be pressed into

the ice and the ice compacted about it with exceptional force. As any

given portion of the basal layer passed beyond the crest of the emboss-

ment, the vertical pressure would tend to cause it to follow down the

lee slope, while the horizontal thrust of the moving ice would tend to

_ force it straight forward. If any given portion yielded to the first and

passed down the slope, it would produce a curve in the hardened basal

layer ofice. Asa result of this, the horizontal thrust, instead of continu-

ing to act along the disadvantag ine, and against the superi

friction of the bottom, would be disposed to cause the layer to buckle

at the bend. The fold so formed would beelongated and appressed by

the continuation of the process and become a layer. The ice, beneath,

however, would gradually yield, and the debris layer would settle down

out of the line of maximum thrust and the conditions for a new fold be

induced.”

Cases of true faulting and overthrust were seen, the rocky debris

being carried along the fault plane.

As to the method of movement, Prof. Chamberlin presents evidence,

which taken in connection with the intrusion and interstratification of

earthy material, would seem to indicate that tl glaci „in some

notable part at least, by the sliding of one layer upon another.

1896.) : Botany. 313

Several instances were noted where the glaciers had advanced over

their terminal moraines by riding up over them, but none where the ice

showed any competency to push the frontal. material, even its own

debris, before it.

A driftless area was discovered on the east side of Bowdoin Bay im-

mediately adjoining the present great ice-cap. (Bull. Geol. Club,

Phila., 1895.)

BOTANY?!

New Species of Fungi.—The activity of our fungologists is in-

dicated by the long lists before us which have been published within

the last few months. From the Proceedings of the Academy of Nat-

ural Sciences of Philadelphia (1895, pp. 413 to 441) we have “ New

Species of Fungi from Various Localities,’ by J. B. Ellis and B. M.

Everhart, including ninety-nine species. Many of these are from Col-

orado and other western regions. We note among the more interest-

ing species the following, viz.: Fomes alboluteus, from an altitude of

10,000 feet, in Colorado ; Bovista cellulosa, Lycoperdon alpigenum, both

from Colorado, the latter from an altitude of 11,500 feet; Rosellinia

geasteroides from Louisiana; Phyllachora plantaginis, parngilic on

Plantago rugelii, in Wisconsin.

The same authors publish in the October (1895) Bulletin of the Tor-

rey Botanical Club, a paper on “ New Species of Fungi” in which

there are described eight new species from the Sandwich Islands,

eleven from Florida, and six from Mexico. It is with much pleasure

that we observe that but two of the specific names are dedicated to

persons, viz.: Schizophyllum egelingianum (probably a synonym for S.

commune) aud Melogramma egelingii from Mexico. It is to be hoped

that the good example here set may be followed by others upon whom

it falls to find names for new species.

In the Fourth Report of the Botanical Survey of Nebraska, just is-

sued, fifty-five new species of fungi are described by Roscoe Pound, F.

E. Clements and C. L. Shear. These are distributed as follows: in the

Mucoracee,i ; Spherioidee,1; Mucedinacee, 2; Dematiacee,2; Stil-

bacee, 1 (in the new genus Trichurus of Clements and Shear); Tuber-

culariacee, 2; Helvellacew,2, Pezizacee, 24; Bulgariacee,1; Agari-

1 Edited by Prof. C. E. Bessey, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska,

314 The American Naturalist. [April,

cacee, 20. In the last named family the name Gymnochilus is substi-

tuted for Psathyra of Fries (1821) which must fall, since it is identical

with Commerson’s Psathura (Juss. Gen. ,1789). In the Pezizacee the

name Lachuea Fries (1822), being identical with Lachuea L. (Sp. Pl.

1753), must give way to Sepultaria Cooke (1879).—CuaR Es E. BEs-

SEY

Alaskan Botany.—In the Contributions from the U. S. National

Herbarium (Vol. III, No. 6), F. V. Coville makes a report upon

the collections of plants made on Yakutat Bay, Alaska, in 1892,

by Frederick Funston. Mr. Coville’s paper is preceded by a Field

Report made by Mr. Funston. The latter contains much in-

teresting information as to the country and its vegetation. In

regard to the latter the author says, “The plant life of the region

about Yakutat Bay is characterized by the dense and vigorous growth

of a comparatively small number of species, giving the forests espe-

cially an appearance of great sameness. The almost level country

lying on the eastern side of the bay, between Ocean Cape and the foot-

hills of the mountains, is covered with a forest growth practically im-

penetrable. The great amount of fallen timber, together with

the tangled and heavy undergrowth constitute such obstacles to

travel that even the Indians who have lived here many years have

never penetrated the forests of the mainland for a mile from their own

village. The great bulk of this forest is composed of the Sitka Spruce

(Picea sitchensis), which in this region reaches a height of seventy feet.

This tree extends from sea level to an altitude of 2,200 feet on the

sides of Mt. Tebenkof; but as one follows the coast line up the bay

from this mountain, the upper limit becomes lower and lower, until at

the entrance of Disenchantment Bay it reaches sea level, the tree not

being found on the shore of this bay. A large forest lies along Dalton

Creek, and there are several of considerable extent between this place

and Point Manby.”

“The timber of the spruce tree plays a most important part in the

economy of the natives, as from it are constructed their houses and

canoes, and it is used in the manufacture of oil crates, bows, arrows

and other implements, while the smaller roots after being boiled and

split are used in basket weaving.”

The other woody ari mentioned are the hemlock (Tsuga merten-

siana), Sitka cypress ( Chamæcyparis nootkatensis), red alder (Alnus

rubra), a willow (Salix barclayi), the elder (Sambucus racemosa), the

Menziesia (Menziesia ferruginea), high bush cranberry (Viburuum

pauciflorum), the blueberry (Vaccinium ovalifolium), salmon berry

1896.] Botany. 315

(Rubus spectabilis), devil’s club (Echinopanax horridum), and black

currant (Ribes laxiflorum).

The catalogue of species includes 159 species, of which 122 are An-

thophytes; 3, Gymnosperms; 9, Pteridophytes; 25, Bryophytes.

The ten largest families are as follows: Rosacee, 13 species; Carduacee

( Composite), 10; Poacee (Graminee), 10; Ranunculaceae, 9 ; Saxifra-

gacee, 9; Scrophulariacee, 8; Ericacee, T; Polypodiacee, 6 ; Ammia-

cee (Umbellifere), 6; Brassicacee (Crucifere), 5.—Cuar.es E. Brs-

SEY.

Aquatic Plants of Iowa.—R. I. Cratty has published in the

Bulletin of the Laboratories of Natural Science of the University of

‘Towa (Vol. III, No. 4) some “ Notes on the Aquatic Phenogams of

Towa,” which will be useful in recording the past and present distribu-

tion of plants which are fast disappearing. It is a pity that author

and editor permitted the antiquated spelling of Phanerogam to be

used. There can be no valid excuse for “ Phenogam.” The species

noted are Arisaema triphyllum, A. dracontium, Symplocarpus fætidus,

Acorus calamus,. Lemna minor, L. trisulea, L. polyrrhiza, Wolfia bra-

ziliensis, Typha latifolia, Sparganium simplex, S. androcladum, 8. eury-

carpum, Naias flexilis, Zannichilia polustris, Potamogeton natans, P.

amplifolius, P. nuttallii, P. lonchitis, P. heterophyllus, P. illinoensis, P.

prelongus, P. perfoliatus, P. zosteræfolius, P. foliosus, P. major, P.

pusillus, P. spirillus, P. pectinatus, Triglochin maritima, Scheuchzeria

pulustris, Alisma plantago, Echinodorus rostratus, E. parvulus, Sagit-

taria arifolia, 8. latifolia, S. rigida, S. graminea, S. cristata.—CHARLES

E. Bessey.

Another Elementary Botany.—Professor MacBride has re-

cently brought out a little book on botany for secondary schools, under

the title of “ Lessons in Elementary Botany,” issued by the house of

Allyn and Bacon of Boston. The author presents in small space es-

sentially that phase of botany with which we have long been familiar

in Gray’s “ Lessons,” Miss Youmans’s “ First Book,” “Second Book ”

and “ Descriptive Botany,” and Wood and Steele’s “ Fourteen

Weeks in Botany.” Whatever merits and demerits these works have

are here reproduced, somewhat modified of course. The lessons begin

with “buds,” followed by “stems,” “ roots,” “the leaf,’ “inflores-

cence,” “ the flower,” “the fruit and seed.” These topics occupy about

eighty-five pages, and while the subject matter is essentially similar to

that in Gray’s “ Lessons,” the treatment resembles that of Youmans’s

books, considerably simplified. The pupil is required to work out the

316 The American Naturalist. [April,

details of structure by actual examination. The remainder of the

body of the book (pp. 85 to 207) is taken up with selected plants

whose structure is to be worked out, and here the treatment reminds

one of Wood and Steele’s book and the corresponding chapters in Miss

Youmans’s earlier books. There is here, however, a considerable im-

provement in the presentation of the matter, the pupil being led on by

questions which direct attention to different details.

_ A valuable part of the book is found in the appendix, where direc-

tions are given for collecting and preserving materials for study.

Taken altogether, the book is a good one, although we cannot agree

with the author that gross anatomy alone, and that practically confined

to the flowering plants, is all that can be done in the secondary schools.

We prefer the work suggested by the Natural History Conference, as re-

ported by the Committee of Ten, and know from much personal ex-

perience that the high schools are rapidly supplying themselves with

compound microscopes, by means of which the pupils are obtaining

some knowledge of the lower plants, and of the vegetable kingdom as

a whole. Neither can we endorse what the author says in the preface

as to the relative value to the pupil of a knowledge of the higher rather

than the lower plants. But with all these criticisms it must not be

thought that the book is a poor one; on the contrary, for schools where

the conditions are such as the author describes and where they must so

remain, the book isa very good one-—Cuar es E. BESSEY.

Botany in the United States Department of Agriculture.

—From the recent Report of the Secretary of Agriculture, we glean

the followings items, relating to the work in botany. Investigations

for determining the strength of timbers of various species have been

continued in the Division of Forestry, no less than 13,000 tests having

been made during the year preceding the report. Measurements upon

a large scale of the rate of growth of pine trees have been begun and

some preliminary results obtained. Under this head the announce-

ment is made of the establishment of experimental plantings at several

points upon the Great Plains, In the Division of Botany the following

announcement is gratifying to botanists. “The herbarium of the

Department of Agriculture, commonly called the National Herbarium,

having out-grown its old quarters, was, by kind permission of the

Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, removed and well installed

in the fire-proof building of the National Museum, where it will be

cared for by the botanists of this Department. This herbarium is

steadily being built up and enlarged at the expense of the Department

of Agriculture.”

-1896.] Botany. 817-

The new division of Agrostology, established during the current fiscal

year has for its special work the scientific and economic study of the

grasses and others forage plants. In connection with this work it is

the purpose of the officers of the Division to establish “ Experimental

Grass Stations” in which the study of particular species may be more

readily pursued.

The division of Vegetable Pathology “has been broadened during

the year to include plant physiology,” and the Secretary adds, “ It is

believed that this will add materially to the value of the investiga-

tions.”

The abolition of the “ Division of Microscopy ” is announced. When

first established, twenty years ago microscopy “ was considered a sepa-

‘rate branch of technology, but since that time the microscope has come

into daily, almost hourly, use in nearly all scientific laboratories.”

The Secretary very properly concludes that a separate division is now

“an absurdity.” —CHARLEs E. Bessey.

Notes on Recent Botanical Publications.—From the Divi-

sion of Botany of the U. S. Department of Agriculture we have John

M. Holzinger’s “ Report on a collection of Plants made by J. H.Sand-

berg and Assistants in Northern Idaho in the year 1892.” Some new

species are described, viz., Cardamine leibergii (figured in Plate III as

C. sandbergii), Peucedanum salmoniflorum, Dicranoweisia contermina,

Orthotrichum holzingerti, Bryum sandbergii, and Peronospora gilie.—

Another contribution from the same source is the “ Report on Mexican

Umbelliferse, mostly from the State of Oaxaca, recently collected by

C. C. Pringle and E. W. Nelson,” by John M. Coulter and J. N. Rose.

As was to be expected, many new species were found in the collection.

—With the preceding paper is a smaller one by J. N. Rose, entitled

“Descriptions of plants, mostly new, from Mexico and the United

States,’ the new species from the United States are Ligusticum east-

woode, from the La Plata Mts., Colorado; Vlæa glauca, from Ore-

gon; and Thurovia triflora, a curious Texan composite for which

a new genus had to be erected.—From the Field Columbian Mu-

seum we have ©. F. Millspaugh’s “Contribution to the Flora of

Yucatan,” which is marked “ Botanical Series, Vol. I, No. 1,” of

the publications of this new centre of scientific activity. It includes

the results of an expedition to Yucatan made in January, 1895, to

which the author has added species compiled from Hemsley’s Biologia

Centrali-Americana.—M. E. Jones’s “Contributions to Western

Botany,” published in the Proceedings of the California Academy of

318 The American Naturalist. [April,

Sciences, is mainly taken up with the new species discovered by him

while acting as Field Agent for the U. S. Department of Agriculture.

The author says “the long delay in the publication of the report

necessitates the early publication of the new species.” The author

does not follow the “ Rochester Rules” of nomenclature, and gives

some reasons for not doing so, but the reader is amused to find under

Oxytropis acutirostris (Watson) the remark “should it be necessary to

reduce this genus to Spiesta, the name must be S. acutirostris (Watson),”

and again under Oxytropis nothoxys (Gray), the synonym Spiesia noth-.

oxys (Gray). For one who does not accept the “ Rochester Rules”

this is indeed a remarkable proceeding, since it is the deliberate addi-

tion of two synonyms (with “Jones” as the authority) to what the

author calls “ the mass of new names, nine-tenths of which are wholly

useless.”—K. C. Davis has issued a “Key to the Woody Plants of

Mower County, in Southern Minnesota, in their Winter Condition” in

the form of a five-page pamphlet. It will be useful in the region for

which it is intended.—An interesting paper comes from Dr. G. Clau-

triau of Brussels, entitled Etude Chemique du Glycogéne chez les

Champignous et les Levures,’ from which we hope to make extracts in

some future number.—CHARLES E. Bessey.

VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.’

Ambrosia.—By this name Schmittberger designated a soft watery

substance found in the burrows of certain beetles and supposed to be of

use in feeding the larve. The exact nature of this ambrosia appears

to have been for a time in doubt, owing to the fact that it was gener-

ally seen by entomologists rather than by mycologists. Of late years,

however, it has been conceded to be of fungous origin, although

no one appears to have studied it critically. Since the appear-

ance of Mdller’s book on the Fungous Gardens of South American

Ants, the subject of ambrosia has received renewed attention. In this

country, Mr. Henry G. Hubbard, who has long paid especial attention

to the habits of coleoptera, has repeatedly observed this substance in

the chambers of Xyleborus pubescens in orange trees in Florida, and

has recently discovered it in the burrows of Corthylus punctatissimus in

1This department is edited by Erwin F. Smith, Department of Agriculture,

Washington, D. C.

1896.] Vegetable Physiology. 319

the roots of whortleberry near Washington, D. C. Specimens from the

latter source were submitted to various students of fungi in Washing-

ton last autumn for identification, and the writer had full opportunity

to examine this substance. Some of the chambers were filled with it,

others partly filled, and others free from it. It is a colorless much

septate mycelium, inclined to be constricted at the septa, and in places

consisting of rounded, nearly iso-diametric, colorless, rather thick-walled

cells, not sufficiently differentiated from the mycelium to be considered

as true spores. It appears to be the mycelial or oidial stage of some

higher fungus, probably of some Ascomycete. From its distribution

in the burrows and the behavior of the beetles toward it, there can be

little doubt that it serves them for food. Whether like the ants they

actually cultivate it, is another question and one more difficult to solve.

In Germany, where this ambrosia was first discovered, Prof. R. Goethe,

Director of the Royal Lebranstalt fur Obst-Wein-und Gartenbau zu

Geisenheim am Rhein, has recently published an account of its discov-

ery in the chambers of Xyleborus dispar. Prof. Goethe’s’ brief note

(p. 25, Berichte d. Kgl. Lehranstalt ete.) is accompanied by a good

figure, judging from which the fungus appears to be the same as that

found in the chambers of Corthyllus punctatissimus near Washington.

This fungus is said to be the same as that found in 1883 in the burrows

of Xyleborus in cherry trees at Kamp am Rhein. Concerning the use

made of this fungus by the beetles he makes the following statement :

Seine Wucherungen dienen ganz unzweiflehaft den Kafern zur

Nahrung, denn man sieht deutlich, wie der Ueberzug stiickweise

abgeweidet wird. Further study of this subject would undoubtedly

bring to light many interesting things. In the next number of the

Narvuraist I hope to publish a note from Mr. Hubbard on this sub-

ject—Erwin F. SMITH. :

White Ants as Cultivators of Fungi.—In connection with the

preceding it may be worth while to reprint part of a note which ap-

peared in Grevillea, June, 1874, p. 165-6, relative to the occurrence of

fungi in the nests of termites in India. A writer in the Gardeners’

Chronicle stated that he had never seen any fungi on or in nests of white

ants except very small ones less than the size of a pin head. In op-

position to this Mr. W. F. Gibbon, Doolha, Goruckpore, wrote to the

Horticultural Society of India as follows: “I send you now a bottle

containing mushrooms I extracted a few days ago from the center of a

white ant hillock. When I collected them they were in appearance

like asparagus, over 14 inches in length, and the people about here

320 The American Naturalist. [April,

consider them particularly good eating, partaking of them both raw

and cooked. When I read the above article in your Society’s Journal

somewhat over a year ago, I was then aware that mushrooms existed

in the interior of ant hills, for I had often seen them, but I did not

know their season of sprouting, and whenever I searched was unsuc-

cessful till the other day. I have now ascertained the season they

sprout is the end of August or the beginning of September, and I be-

lieve all ant hills produce them. These mushrooms appear to me

to proceed from a peculiar substance always found in ant hills in

this country (whether white or black), generally called ants’ food, a

bluish gritty substance, like coarse wheat flour turned mouldy and ad-

hesive. In dry weather brittle, and in damp weather like soft leather.

It is this substance, under the combined influence of heat, damp and

darkness from which the mushrooms grow. As my experience is at

variance with the writer in the Gardeners’ Chronicle, you may care to

record it. * * * I would like these mushrooms, if possible, re-

ferred to some mycologist, and their names ascertained; and I would

like also to know if the bluish substance, the ants’ food, was collected

and treated artificially, could similar mushrooms be raised.” These

mushrooms were submitted to Dr. D. D. Cunningham, who reported as

follows: “I herewith return the letter sent to me more than a month

ago, along with specimens of fungi said to have been procured from

the interior of a white ant hill. The specimens apparently belong to

some species of Lepiota, and are chiefly remarkable for the extreme

length and coarse fibrous contents of the stem. The occurrence of

fungi in connection with ant hills is well known, but in so far as I am

aware, those hitherto described as occurring on the hills of the white

ant belong to species of the Gasteromycetous order Podaxinei, so that

the occurrence of a species of one of the sub-genera of Agaricus in such

localities is a new and interesting fact. With regard to the material

from which they arise, and which must apparently be of the same

nature as the so-called spawn of the cultivated mushroom, consisting of

vegetable debris permeated by the mycelium of the fungus, it may be

noted that a similar substance is described by Belt as occurring in the

nests of the leaf-cutting ants in Nicaragua, and is supposed by him to

serve as food—the ants culling and storing the leaves for the sake of

the fungi which are subsequently developed in the debris (Naturalist

in Nicaragua, p. 80). Were this spawn artifically exposed to condi-

tions similar to those which it naturally encounters in the interior of

the hillocks—heat, darkness and moisture—I believe that the pilei

1896,] Vegetable Physiology. 321

might very probably be raised at will, and if they really are good eat-

ing, the experiment would be well worth trying.”

—Erxwin F. SMITH.

Desert Vegetation.—Perhaps the most interesting part of Rev.

George Henslow’s recent book, The Origin of Plant Structures, are the

two chapters on desert plants. The first of these chapters is devoted

to a consideration of the origin of the morphological peculiarities of

desert plants; the second to the histological peculiarities of such plants.

A large amount of data are brought together, rather hastily it would

appear, going to show that the peculiarities of desert plants are the

direct outcome of the conditions under which they grow, in other words,

that these peculiar modifications, such as reduction of leaf surface, in-

crease of succulency, acquisition of spines, development of water storage

tissues, sinking of the stomata below the level of the surface, excessive

development of cuticle, of wax, or of hairiness, change from annual to

biennial or perennial, increased length of roots, etc., are all brought

about by the direct action of environment on the plant. “ Natural

selection,” in the author’s own words, “ plays no part in the origin of

species.” These two chapters are well worth the perusal of all who are

interested in the study of the flora of our western mountains and arid

plains, and the whole book will serve to provoke thought. Other

chapters deal with origin of structural peculiarities of alpine and arctic

plants; maritime and saline plants; phanerogamous aquatic plants,

ete. The book is a companion volume to the author’s Origin of Floral

Structures through Insects and other Agencies—Erwin F. Smita.

A Second Rafinesque.—Die Pestkrankheiten (Infectionskrank-

heiten) der Kulturgewachse ; Nach streng bakteriologischer Methode

untersucht und in völliger Uebereinstimmung mit Robert Kochs Entdeck-

ungen geschildert von Prof. Dr. Ernst Hallier, is one of the querest

books it was ever the lot of the writer to read. It was published at

Stuttgart in 1895 by Erwin Nagale, and contains 144 8 vo. pages and

7 fairly well executed plates. Concerning this book it may be said

that its author is either an undiscovered great genius or else a very

crazy man. About one-third of the book is given up to caustic abuse

of Anton de Bary and his students, relative to which it may be said

that Dr. de Bary’s reputation is safe not only in the hands of his

friends but also in the hands of all who love clear thinking and honest

work ; and all this without defending any of the errors into which he

may have fallen. Another third of the book or thereabouts is devoted

to the description of old and well known species of Peronosporacez,

322 The American Naturalist. [April,

little that is really new being added, but most facts being correctly

sta The names of many of the species, however, are changed for

reasons which would not be recognized as good even by the most ultra

radical. For example Oystopus candidus is changed to C. capselle E.

H. because the fungus is said to grow mostly on Capsella and every

fungus should be named as far as possible from the host it infests. In

like manner Cystopus cubicus becomes C. compositarum E. H.; Phyto-

phthora infestans, P. solani E. H.; Peronospora sparsa, P. rose E. FE.

ete. In the same way the author puts his initials after many old genera

e. g., Phytophthora and Peronospora, or substitutes other names, e. g.

Zoospora E. H. for Plasmopara, because he concieves the name to have

been originally employed in a different sense from that in which it is

now used or in which he employs it. The other idea running through

the book and occupying at least a third of it is that bacteria originate

from plastids developed inside of the cells of fungi, and that we shall

never make any progress in the study of animal and plant diseases due

to bacteria until we determine from just what fungi they originate.

The potato rot, for example, is due to bacteria developed from the

broken down mycelium of the fungus Phytophthora infestans.

“ If now one keeps for a long time in observation under the micro-

scope such an escaped mass of plasma [from the mycelium or conidia

of Phytophthora] one beholds, just as in the cases already mentioned

by us, the freeing of the plastids, their change into micrococcus, and

the elongation, division, etc. of these.” (P. 82). In Peronospora fica-

rie also “ the origin of the microdrganisms is unquestionable, but until

now I have not been able to follow them further, These organisms are

visible in a fresh section in the interior of the leaf tissue of the host.”

(P. 134.) The converse of this proposition is also true i. e. that under

certain conditions bacteria change back again into the original fungus,

the growth of certain yeast cells into mycelium being cited as a case in

in point. “If these [bacteria] arise from definite fungi by the finally

free development of the plastids, it must also come to pass that the

micrococcus, which is the first product of the freed plastids, will again

give rise to the higher fungous form from which it originated. Of this

the first well known and precise example is the history of the develop-

ment of the beer yeast.” (P. 105.). The author who is a graduate of

one of the German Universities, formerly held a chair of botany in one

of them, and has been writing books similar to this one for the last 30

years claims to have seen the change from fungous plastids inside of

mycelia or spores into genuine free swimming bacteria, rods and cocci.

This change is difficult to bring about artifically, requiring long watch-

1895.] Zoology. ; 323

ing at the microscope and the partial exclusion of air from the prepara-

tion. Figures are given of these plastids and of the bacteria, All of

which reminds us of the proof of miraculous healing by holy water at

certain wells, viz., “ the well is with us to this day.” The author com-

plains that nobody reads his books, but this cannot be charged against

the writer who has patiently waded through the whole of this one, to

very little profit, however, it must be confessed. The absurdities, how-

ever, are not so numerous as in the author’s Phytopathology, published

in 1868. Therein may be found, full fledged or in embryo, most of

the queer notions here set forth and also many others.

Erwin F. SMITE.

ZOOLOGY.

The Cruise of the Princess Alice.—The zoological material

obtained by the Prince of Monaco during the past summer cruise of his

yacht, the Princess Alice, is abundant and valuable. The fortunate

capture of a sperm whale in the vicinity of the yacht, off the coast of

Terceira Island, resulted in the acquisition of some rare specimens of

.the animal kingdom which otherwise might never have been known.

From the Prince’s narrative ofthe voyage we learn that the cachalot was

the “ catch” of some Portugese whalers with whom the Prince arranged

to secure what portions of the animal he wished, especially the brain.

Unfortunately some days elapsed before the skull was penetrated, and

then the brain was found to be in too advanced a stage of decomposi-

tion to be of use for preservation. Meantime a large number a parasites

were collected from the stomach, the digestive organs, the blubber and

the skin of the animal, and the contents of the stomach secured for

examination. While in the act of death the whale ejected several

large cephalopods which it had only just swallowed, as was evident

from their perfect preservation. These were also obtained by the Prince

for his collection. Amongst them were three large specimens, each

over one meter in length, of a species probably new, of the little-known

genus Histioteuthis; also the bodies of two other immense cephalopods

so different from all hitherto known that it is impossible to place them

in any genus or even family of this order. M. Jonbain proposes for

them the name Lepidoteuthis grimaldii. One of these specimens is a

female, of which the body, or visceral sac after prolonged immersion in

formol and alcohol, still measures 90 cm. in length, from which it is

324 ; The American Naturalist. [April,

estimated that the length of the complete animal would exceed 2 meters.

The surface of the sac is covered with large, solid rhomboidal scales,

like those of a pine cone. The fín is very powerful, forms one-half of

the length of the body and is not furnished with scales.

When the stomach of the whale was opened it was found to contain

over a hundred kilogrammes of partially digested debris of cephalopods,

all of them of enormous size. The crown and tentacles of a Cucio-

teuthis were identified. This genus has hitherto been known only by

few fragments. The muscular arms, though shrunken and contracted

by the preserving fluid, are as thick as those of a man, were covered

with great suckers, each armed with a sharp claw, as powerful as those

of the larger carnivora. More than one hundred of these suckers

remain adhering to the arms.

Another cephalopod found in the stomach of the whale is provided

with a large fin, in the skin of which are enclosed certain photogenic

organs. The form of the body suggests a new species, but as the head

is wanting, it cannot be positively identified.

These cephalopods are all powerful swimmers, and very muscular.

They appear to belong to the fauna of the deep intermediate waters, an

almost unknown region. They never come to the surface, no do they

lie on the bottom of the sea. Their great agility prevents their capture

in nets, hence it would seem that the only way to obtain these interest-

ing gigantic creatures is to kill the giant who feeds upom them and

rescue the fragments from his huge maw.

Accordingly, for the next season’s cruise, the Princess Alice is to

have, in addition to her present fittings, those of a sperm whaler, or else

to have as a compainion a special whaling tender.

The further working up of the material in hand is being pushed for-

ward with energy, and interesting results are anticipated. (Nature,

Jan., 1896.)

Australian Spiders.—Among the new Arachnida reported from

New South Wales are three species of Nephila; N. fletcherii, N.

edwardsii and ventricosa. These are described and figured by Mr. W.

J. Rainbow in the Proceeds. of the Linn. Soc. N. South Wales. The

author includes in his paper some interesting observations on the habits

of Nephilz and their supposed bird-snaring propensities. Representa-

tives of this genus abound in tropical and subtropical regions. Their

webs are composed of two kinds of silk ; one yellow, exceedingly viscid

and elastic, the other white, dry and somewhat brittle. The latter is

used fur the framework of the web, the guys and radii, and the former

1896.] Zoology. 325

for the concentric rings. These snares are at varying heights, some-

times within reach, again 10 to 12 feet from the ground, but always in

a position exposed to the rays of the sun. The diameter is also variable,

from 3 feet upwards. One seen by Griiffe in the Fiji Islands (prob-

ably a Nephila) constructs a web 30 feet in diameter.

These snares are strong enough to entrap small birds. In the

author’s opinion the web is not set for such game, and the spider does

not feed on her ornithological victim, In the cases where she has been

observed with her fangs in the body of the ensnared bird it is probable

that it is for the purpose of hastening the death of the bird in order to

prevent its injuring the web in its struggles to escape.

Spiders of the genus Nephila are easily tamed. Although exceed-

ingly voracious, they can nevertheless exist for many days without

either food or water. They pairin autumn. The sexes inhabit the

same web for a considerable time, the female in the center and the male

on the upper edge of the web. His efforts to ingratiate himself in the

favor of his mate are not always successful. It not infrequently happens

that he has to retire from her presence minus two or three legs. “ Ulti-

mately says the author, he succeeds in attaching himself in the

requisite position, and performing the necessary act of fecundation.”

(Proceeds. Linn. Soc. N. South Wales, [2] Vol. X, Pt. 2, 1895.)

Autodax iecanus.—According to Mr. Van Denburg, Autodax

iécanus, a black Salmander first found in Shasta Co., California, is a

nocturnal forager. It usually walks slowly along, moving one foot at

a time, but is capable of rapid motion when necessary. At such a time

it aids the action of the legs by a sinuous motion of the whole body

and tail. In addition to being prehensile, the tail is put to a third

use. When caught the animal will often remain motionless, but if

touched will raise the tail and strike it forcibly against the surface upon

which it rests, and accompanying this action with a quick motion of the

hind legs, will jump from four to six inches, rising as high as two or

three inches. Mr. Van Denburg finds that the species has a wide dis-

tribution in California. (Proceeds. Calif. Acad. Sci., Vol. V, 1895.)

_ Reptiles and Batrachians of Mesilla Valley, New Mexico.

—The following list may be worth publishing as a contribution to the

more exact knowledge of the distribution of animals in New Mexico.

It may be relied upon as correct, as all the species have been identified

by Dr. L. Stejneger, and the specimens are to be found in the U. S.

National Museum. The valley about Las Cruces, where most of the

species were obtained, is 3800 ft. above sea-level, its extreme sides rise

326 The American Naturalist. [April,

to about 5000 ft. The records marked Lane Coll. are based on spec-

imens obtained by Mr. Lane of Las Cruces, mainly by purchase from

the Mexicans.

(1.)* Bufo lentiginosus v. woodhousei. Common about the town.

(2.) Rana pipiens v. brachycephala. Common in suitable places.

(3.) Amblystoma tigrinum. Not rare about the town. A large spe-

imen found by Mr. J. Schmidt.

(4.) Cistudo ornatus. Common about the town.

(5.) Sistrurus edwardsii. Close to the College building.

(6.) Heterodon nasicus. Close to the College, rather common.

(7.) Coluber emoryi. One near Las Cruces, April, 1894 (J. M.

Walker).

(8.) Pituophis sayi. Our commonest snake. One specimen had the

head-scales arranged as in the so-called genus Churchillia.

(9.) Baseanion testaceum. One specimen.

(10.) Thamnophis dorsalis. Frequent, the commonest snake after

Pituophis.

(11.) Lampropeltis pyrrhomelas, H. B. Lane Coll.

(12.) Lampropeltis splendida. Lane Coll.

(13.) Diadophis regalis. Lane Coll.

(14.) Arizona elegans. Lane Coll.

(15.) Bhinocheilus lecontei. - Lane Coll.

(16.) Liopeltis vernalis. Lane Coll.

(17.) Tantilla nigriceps. Lane Coll.

(18.) Leptotyphlops dulcis. Lane Coll., also one obtained by Prof.

C. H. T. Townsend.

(19.) Eumeces obsoletus. Not rare near the College.

(20.) Cnemidophorus tessellatus. Common about the mesquites

bushes.

(21.) Cnemidophorus perplexus. Lane Coll.

(22.)* Sceloporus magister. One in Coll. Exp. Sta., one in Lane

Coll. ;

(23.)* Uta stansburiana. Our commonest lizard, abundant on the

college campus.

(24.)* Crotaphytus wislizenii. One. Remains of beetles in stomach.

(25.)* Crotaphytus baileyi. Apparently not uncommon, One had

two young Phrynosoma modestum in its stomach.

(26,) Phrynosoma cornutum. Common. At Lamy and Santa Fé

it is replaced by P. hernandezii, which in the neighborhood by Santa

Fé ascends to 7475 ft. 7

1896.] Zoology. 327

(27.) Phrynosoma modestum. Common. There also occurs a bluish

mutation.

The Death Valley Expedition, much further west, obtained 56

reptiles and batrachians, of which only five (those marked with an

asterisk) are common to our list. It is especially noteworthy that there

is not a single snake in common.

—T.

D. A. CocKERELL, N. M. Agr. Exp. Sta.

Professor Cope’s criticisms of my drawings of the squam-

osal region of Conolophus subcristatus Gray; (Amer. Nat-

ural., Febr., 1896, p. 148-149) and a few remarks about his

drawings of the same object from Steindachner.—In the Feb-

ruary Number of this Journal Prof. Cope makes the following remarks:

“Dr. Baur again denies that the exoccipital [paroccipital] articulates

with the quadrate in certain genera of the Iguanide and gives some

figures of that region in the Conolophus subcristatus, to sustain his

allegation. Unfortunately, though he seems to have taken the elements

apart, as I suggested that he do, he did not put them together in

their original relation when he had them drawn. I now give two

drawings traced from the skull of the same species given, by Dr. Stein-

dachner. As these plates represent exactly the characters, which I

have observed and described in allied genera, I regard them as correct.

It will be observed that there is a considerable contact between the ex-

occipital and the quadrate. There is also contact with the supratem-

poral [prosqamosal] and probably with the paroccipital [squamosal].

The articulation of the quadrate with the exoccipital is universal in the

Iguanide.”

To this I have to reply the following: 1. The single elements of

the skull of Conolophus were not taken apart at all. The quadrate,

prosquamosal, and squamosal of the right side were separated from the

rest of the skull, in such a way, that they remained together in natural

position. The corresponding left side of the skull remained intact.

All this was done two years ago, without the advice of Prof. Cope. My

figures were drawn with the camera-lucida and are absolutely correct

in every respect. I have two other skulls of Conolophus; several of

Amblyrhynchus, Iguana and Cyclura. In all I find the same condi-

tion. I have not to change a single word in my original description

nor a line in my drawings. The quadrate is not supported by the par

occipital [exoccipital Cope] in the Lizards, as ro stated, but ie the

squamosal [ paroccipital Cope], the 1 Cope]

taking also part, if present. The paroccipital ie not even touch the

quadrate.

330 The American Naturalist. [April,

Colo., May 11, 1890. Food, Euphoria inda, one specimen, almost

whole; Cicindela sp., fragments ; hymenopterous insects, broken, rather

large, thorax black, abdomen red

(7.) Pyranga ludoviciana.$. Shot by Mr. P. Lowe, Big Arroyo,

Colo., May 14,1890. Food, fragments of a blow-fly (Lucilia or Calli-

phora) ; fragments of a beetle (perhaps a longicorn) ; and some green

eggs, apparently those of a Smerinthus. These eggs were numerous,

but I found no fragments of the 9 moth in which they must have been

when eaten.

(8.) Salpinctus obsoletus. Shot by Mr. W. P. Lowe, Big Arroyo,

Colo., May 14, 1890. Food, fragments of bettles, including a weevil.

(9.) Geocoecyx californianus, 3. Shot by Mr. W. P. Lowe, Big

Arroyo, Pueblo Co., Colo., Dec. 5, 1889. Food, grasshoppers (Aerid-

ide), Ophryastes tuberosus and perhaps another allied species, and a

blue-green rugose metallic fragment of an unknown insect.

(10.) Ampelis garrulus, 9. Shot by Mr. W. P. Lowe, Badito, Huer-

fans Co., Colo. Food, berries of juniper (Juniperus communis).

(11.) Aphelocoma woodhousei, $. Shot by Mr. W. P. Lowe, Badito,

Huerfans Co., Colo. Food, fragmentary seeds (papilionaceous?), frag-

ments of bones of a small passerine bird.

(12.) Merula migratoria. Cusack Ranch, Custer Co., Colo., April,

1888. Food, seeds and geodephagous beetles.

Mr. Lowe is responsible for the identification of the birds shot by

him ; he sent me only the stomach-contents.

—T. D. A. CocKERELL, N. M. Agr. Exp. Sta.

The Manx Cat.—A correspondant of the Zoologist notes an

interesting fact concerning a Manx cat in his possession. This tailless cat

took of its own accord a mate of the normal type, and from the union

resulted a litter of three, which like the mother lacked tails. Friendly

relations continued to exist between the parent cats until six successive

litters had been produced, each litter in turn showing to a Jess degree

the mother Manx cat’s influence upon the form of the progeny, as may

be seen in the following table compiled by the owner of the cats.

Litters. Tailless. Half tail. Normal tail.

1 3 0

g 2 0

3 1 2 0

4 0 2 1

5 0 1 2

6 0 0 3

1896.] Zoology. : wees |

It would be interesting to carry the experiment further and see if a

union of the Manx cat with one of her own race would result in restor-

ing with the same regularity with which she lost it, the power to pro-

duce her own type. (Revue Scientif. T. 4, 1895.)

A case of Renal Abnormality in the Cat.—Anomalous condi-

tion of the renal organs and accompanying blood vessels was recently

disclosed in a dissection in this labora-

tory. The accompanying diagram ex-

plains the phenomenon. The left

kidney was a miniature of the right

though functional. The dimensions of

the right kidney in another subject of

equal size as the specimen under dis-

cussion were found to be—length 3 cm.,

width 2 cm. and dorso-ventral thick-

ness bo mm.; the left os is natural

being slightly smaller than this. The

dimensions just given may be regarded

as normal.

In the subject whose renal anatom

has been here figured, the measure-

ments of the right kiduey were as

follows: length 4 cm. breadth 24 em.

and thickness (dorso-ventral) 19 mm.,

considerably above the normal as one

would expect when the extremely small

size of the left kidney is considered.

The dimensions of the latter were as

follows: length 12 mm., breadth 8

m., and thickness or dorsoventral

diameter 5 mm., less than one-third the dimensions of the right kidney.

Upon hardening, staining and sectioning in the usual way the

glomeruli and uriniferous tubules were found to be normal though, the

presence of a small amount of fat in the kidney was noted. The histo-

logical condition of the kidney and the presence of the left ureter, which,

though smaller than the right was clearly functional, proved that the

left kidney was of value in the vegetative processes of the organism.

The right renal artery (ra) was, as one would expect larger than the

left (ra). The posteava (pe) in this cat was divided very far forward

in the lumbar region to form the common iliac veins, causing the left

332 The American Naturalist. [April,

renal vein (rvi) to empty into the left common iliac. This variation

from the normal in postcaval structure is by no means uncommon.

Letters in the figure, not referred to in the text are as follows: da.

dorsal aorta, cav. cœliar axis, a. m.s. anterior mesenteric artery, rv

vein from right kidney, R,. right kidney, R,. left kidney, ar. and ari.

left and right adrenal bodies with accompanying veins. Jl left and

right common iliacs, imb. ilio-lumbar veins u ureters, wrocyst urinary

bladder.—F. L. Wasnsurn, Biological Laboratory, University of

Oregon.

Zoological News.—Mr. O. I’. Cook has published a monograph

of Scytonotus. He considers this genus to be the most specialized of

the Polydesmid Myriapoda, basing his conclusion on its secondary

sexual characters. He recognizes nine species as belonging to the

genus. (Ann. New York, Acad. Sci., VIIT).

A gigantic Cephalopod, supposed to be a new species of Architeuthis,

was driven inshore on the eastern side of the bay of Tokyo. A descrip-

tion of it, illustrated with drawings, is published by K. Mitsukuri and

S. Ikeda. It is characterized by shape of its fins and of its beaks, the

unequal lengths of the sessile arms, and other minor details. (Zool.

Mag., Vol. VII, 1895).

Prof. Gegenbaur has in the Morphologisches Jahrbuch for the year

1895, instituted a study of the clavicle and the elements adjacent to it

and the scapular arch. He calls attention to the fact that there are

two elements in the position of the former in Dipnoi, Crosopterygia

and Chondrostei. He then shows that the element nearest the scapula

is retained in some of the Stegocephalia, while the anterior and distal

element is increased in length. He calls the former the cleithrum, and

retains for the latter the name clavicle. The clavicle only remains in

the existing order of Batrachia, and higher groups, while the cleithrum

only remains in the higher fishes, beginning with Lepidosteus and

Amia.

According to Dr. Delisle the cranial capacity of the Orang-Outang

averages 408 cubic centimeters. (L’Anthropologie Tome, VI, 1895.)

Ranke’s researches show that the weight of the human brain is much

greater in proportion to the weight of the spinal cord than in any other

vertebrate. (Correspondenzblatte).

Dr E Ri E N Re | Se ae a E h AS | A 1 bh ie L T 1895,

an investigation into the reduction of the number of the incisor teeth

which is seen in the human species. He shows: first, that the loss of

1896.] Entomology. 333

the external incisor, which was first pointed out by Cope, and which

has been observed independently by several others, is frequently

observed in Europe as well as in America ; second, that the loss of the

first inferior incisor is also not very uncommon in Europe and that the

final reduction of the inferior incisors, should it take place, will be by the

loss of this tooth and not by that of the external incisor as in the supe-

rior series. He, therefore, believes that the ultimate formula of the

incisive dentition in man will be I}, and not Iż, as Cope left it.

ENTOMOLOGY:

The Segmental Sclerites of Spirobolus.—The structure of

the segments of Diplopoda has long been a morphological puzzle. On

account of the possession of two pairs of legs they have in a general

way been supposed to be double segments, that is, formed by the coal-

escence of two distinct embryonic or theoretical segments. Toward a

morphological demonstration of this idea there has been little progress.

Indeed, there are many facts which give grounds of suspicion as to its

correctness. Among these may be noticed that the double footed state

does not occur in the embryo at all, and that the segments which in

the adult bear two pairs of legs either do not exist in the newly hatched

larva or do not bear any legs at that stage, the newly hatched diplopod

larva having but three pairs of legs, the posterior of which is attached

to the fourth segment (at least in the Polydesmoidea). Moreover, all

Diplopoda have apodous segments not differing otherwise from those

which bear legs; also all Diplopoda have segments which bear but one

pair of legs, and yet have not been found to be greatly different from the

others. Growing Diplopoda acquire segments by intercalation in front

of the last. The segment is added at one moult, the legs for it at the

next. As the possession of two pairs of legs has been the occasion of

the theories of duplex segments, these facts are the more relevant as

objections, since more difficulties are introduced than are disposed of

by the theories.

The existence of plurz in the Oniscomorpha has long been known,

and for a less period in the Colobognatha and Limacomorpha. In the

other orders these elements of the segmental ring are so thoroughly

coalesced or eliminated that their existence was theoretical until their

1 Edited by Clarence M. Weed, New Hampshire College, Durham, N. H.

334 The American Naturalist. [April,

discovory in Stemmatoiulus. In that form, however, the multiplicity

of peculiar characters weakens the application of homologies to the

other orders, unless these can be based on structural facts. It is thus a

matter of interest that the existence of pleurz in another Diplopod

order can be affirmed.

Some weeks since in examining large African Spirobolide I noticed

what seemed to be traces of pleural sutures. On mentioning this fact

to Mr. F. C. Straub who was studying with me, he called my attention

to a specimen of Spirobolus marginatus Say which proved to be very

remarkable. Possibly it was collected just after moulting, before the

sclerites had become coalesced, or it may have been merely an individ-

ual anomaly. At any rate, it had on each side an obliquely longitudi-

nal white line across each segment above the pedigerous lamina,

indicating a pleural element about as broad asthe lamina, That this

is the pleural suture seems very probable, on theoretical grounds and

more so that on the surface a special striz followed the line of white.

What is more remarkable, this line was met above by two others

which were transverse, dividing the segment into three subequal parts.

These two lines extended completely over the animal, the space between

them being somewhat greater above. There is also a median longitu-

dinal suture, and a lateral just below the pore, thus dividing the dorsal

portion of the ring into twelve subequal parts. The posterior of the

transverse sutures follows the depression found in the segments of Spi-

roboli and usually called “the suture” in descriptions. The anterior

line and the median line are indicated by minute differences in the

sculpture, which would not have been noticed had not the white line

drawn attention to them. It should be added that the lighter color

was not due to anythiny inside or outside the segmental wall, but was

in the wall itself and clearly indicated some structural difference. The

phenomenon was exhibited by the anterior and middle segments of the

body, becoming indistinct caudad. In all cases the pattern was the

same; the whole series of lines could be made out on many segments,

and there were no other similar lines or discolorations. The lines were

not straight if examined under a microscope, even the median showing

minute irregularities. Median sutures are known in four or five of the

Diplopod orders and hence may reasonably be expected in all.

Had only the median line been marked as related, there would have

been no hesitation in supposing that a median suture was indicated.

Theoretical considerations only stand in the way of the reasonable

presumption that the other exactly similar lines indicate sutures. If

such an interpretation is allowed we are brought to the position that

1896.] Entomology. 335

the segmental ring of Spirobolus consists of sixteen sclerites; twelve

dorsal, two pleural and two ventral or pedigerous laminz. It will be

seen that only the last tend to indicate a transverse division of the

segment, and in no Diplopod as yet has there been shown a transverse

suture carried around the segment and dividing it into two parts.

Only the legs and the parts necessarily connected with them, such as

the pedigerous laminz and nerve ganglia are duplicated. Even in the

Oniscomorpha, Limacomorpha and Colobognatha where the pleuræ are

most distinct, there is not the slightest indication that they were ever

divided, and as they are the elements to which the pedigerous laminz

are next related, their evidence is more important than any drawn

from the dorsal parts of the segment.

There is another way, however, in which a diplopodous animal might

be developed from a monopodous ancestor. Alternate segments may

have been suppressed, while the corresponding legs have been pre-

served. For such a supposition we have the analogy of the Chilopoda,

where the pedigerous segments alternate with more or less rudimentary

segments. In this case, however, the legs have been lost, that is, we

must suppose so if we claim the analogy. Such a theory, while no

more fantastic than the other, is probably no nearer the truth. After

theoretical explanations have been exhausted we may, perhaps, learn

that the double-footed condition is a peculiarity of this group of ani-

mals, not explainable by any general morphological considerations, but

sui generis, after the manner of the branched segmental appendages of

the Crustacea.—O. F. Cook.

Secretion of Potassium Hydroxide.—Mr. O. H. Lalter has

some further notes? on the secretion of potassium hydroxide by Dicra-

nura vinula and similar phenomena in other Lepidoptera. He finds

that the imagines of eight species secrete from the mouth an alkaline

' fluid on emerging from the pupa. The three species of Dicranura

wear what is called a shield, derived from the pupa case as they emerge,

and they subsequently remove it by their legs. He finds that the

strength of the solution in D. vinula is about 1.4 grm. of potassium

hydroxide in every 100 cem. of liquid. The mesenteron of the same

species develops an anterior dorsal diverticulum for storage of the

alkali during pupal life—Jowrnal Royal Mic. Society.

Lake Superior Coleoptera.—Mr. H. F. Wickham publishes?

` an admirable list of Coleoptera from the southern shore of Lake Supe-

2Trans Ent. Soc. Lond.. 1895, 399-312.

3 Proc. Davenport Acad: Nat. Science, VII, 125-169.

336 The American Naturalist. [April,

rior. More than 200 species are enumerated in this list which have

not before been credited to the region of the Lake. The collections

were made at Bayfield, Wisconsin, during June and July.

The following introductory remarks are of sufficient general interest

to be quoted at some length. The time for an accurate map of the

faunal regions of the continent has not yet come—nor will it before

another century at least of careful investigation has enabled us to fix

approximately the range of the rarer forms of insect life. It is evident

to any one who will read with care and with some understanding of the

general principles of distribution, that many of the recent theories as to

the division of our country into “ life-zones” have very little foundation

in fact. If better proof were wanting of this, we might point to that

of authors changing from year to year their arbitrary arrangement of

our z00-geographical regions—uniting to-day two or three of those of

older authors, and separating them again a few months later on. All

this may or may not be progress, but it will all have to be gone over

again.in the light of a wider knowledge than seems to be at present in

the possession of certain writers who cannot rest without having first

shown us that all previously conceived ideas are totally wrong, and

that their explanation of the distribution of life is the only plausible

one. A single group of animals may or may not indicate in a general

way the lines of distribution followed by a larger number—but it is

manifestly unreasonable to hope for a stable method of division of a

country into life-zones before the life of that country is well-known.

EMBRYOLOGY.

The Effect of Lithiumchloride upon the Development of

the Frog and Toad egg (R. fusca and Bufo vulgaris.)’—The

results of the series of experiments performed in the histological labora-

tory at Münich with this salt seem of no little interest, and especially is

this the case with the result obtained with a 0'5 per cent solution. In

every instance the eggs were placed in the solutions (varying from 1

per cent to 0°2 per cent) between a half and an hour and a half after

fertilization.

1 Edited by E. A. Andrews, Baltimore, Md., to whom abstracts reviews and

reliminary notes may be sent.

? A. Gurwitsch, cand. med. Anat. Anz., XI, 65-70. °

1896.] Embryology. 337

The blastula obtained with the 5% solution the author attempts, with

some degree of plausibility, to make out to be of far reaching morpho-

logical importance. Whereas in all other cases development was either

more or less hindered or was abnormal, in this case it was entirely sym-

metrical. The first indication of gastrulation appeared as a ring sinking

about the equatorial plane and embracing the entire circumference. Sec-

- tions showed a large mass of what the author calls passive yolk cells or

endoderm forming the lower half, while the upper half, composed of a

layer of ectoderm and one of active endoderm, forms a sort of cap

-covering it.

At a later stage this cap almost includes the lower passive entoderm,

‘and, as the author points out, forms a gastrula that, if the passive yolk

‘be removed, very closely resembles the gastrula of Amphioxus. From this

it may seem more or less probable that the primitive amphibian gastrula

may have been radially symmetrical, and that bilateral symmetry

appeared later. Further it appears that the upper or large invagina-

tion of the amphibian egg is not the blastopore, but this is represented

by the entire circle including the yolk plug.

It may be noted also, that if instead of supposing the passive ento-

«derm to be removed, it be supposed to be greatly increased, one then

has a gastrula of the meroblastic type.

Another point of interest is the manner in which the cells of the so-

-called “ active endoderm,” or those bordering the equatorial ring, pro-

liferate. This proliferation according to the author has already begun

when the invagination of the outer surface commences ; so that instead of

there being a pushing in of the outer surface, as the process is usually

described, there seems to be a pulling in. Whether this process is due

to the “cytotropism” described by Roux for the cells of the dividing frog

egg, or to the taking up of the space occupied by the absorbed contents

of the blastula cavity, as described by Hatschek for Amphioxus, is not

clear.

The embryos obtained differ from those obtained by O. Hertwig with

NaCl, in that the brain capsule does not close up and the dying away of

the brain matter does not take place, and again instead of the animal

cells breaking down as in NaCl, it is the yolk cells that crumble away.

Finally one abnormal lithiumchloride embryo has an adverse sig-

nificance for the concrescence theory.

It is to be hoped that the author intends later to publish a more ex-

tensive paper, which shall be more fully illustrated.—F. C. K

338 The American Naturalist. [April,

ANTHROPOLOGY:

An Inquiry into the Origin of Games.—An examination of

the games of the Far East (Korea, China and Japan) and a compari-

son of them with certain games of the North American Indians as ex-

plained by Mr. F. H. Cushing, has induced Mr. Culin (Korean Games,

with Notes on the Corresponding Games of China and Japan, by Stewart

Culin, Director of the Museum of Archeology and Paleontology of the

University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, 1895) to believe that the

true game in the American and Asiatic region referred to, is a trace-

able descendant of primitive religious divinatory formule, reaching

back to a time in the process of human development, when man freshly

inspired by the phenomena of earth an sky, symbolized in his cere-

monies the directions of the four winds, and foretold fate or fortune

with arrows.

Because American Indians divine by arrows, because archery, and

sets of arrows corresponding in number to Asiatic cosmic divisions, arrow

derived grave posts, and guild tallies notched and named like arrows,

still survive in Korea, and because arrow like rods are still used there

in divinatory formule by fortune tellers, Mr. Culin has been led to

regard arrow divination asa primitive and original form of fortune

telling, and while the totemic arrow marks on short round gambling

Fig. 1. Haida Indian gambling stick suggesting derivation from the arrow.

supposed to have been derived (traceably perhaps through an intermediate set

marked with colored ribbons) from arrow shaftments such as were used by the

McCloud River Indians.

sticks of northwest coast Indans are urged as indications of the arrow

ancestry of the latter, the same interesting suggestion is made as to the

cylindrical earthen stamps from Ecquador and the round and flat en-

graved cylinders from Babylonia. Twenty-three out of the ninety-

seven Korean games described (though in many cases the clue is not

' This department is edited by Henry C. Mercer, University of Penna, Phila.

1896.) Anthropology. 339

stated) and jaca games played on diagrams like the Korean

Nyout, (Pachesi) or chess, are held to suggest a primitive divining board

Fig. 2. Cylindrical earthenware stamp from Ecuador suggesting derivation

from the arrow. It bears a highly Seelam eer device Senne | a a rd.

It’s striking resemblance to the Haida gambli

from the carved shaftments of arrows and furnishes also a clue to the en

origin of the Babylonian seal cylinders.

—the world, with the quarters of the four winds “the heavens above

and the earth beneath,” where the relations of arrows t , scattered

red or distributed, symbolized the early callings of man upon fate, the

first soothsayer’s translation of unseen causes into the events of life.

The investigation deals with evanescent and elusive conditions and

of necessity the family tree of games is often vague and disjointed.

An etymology, arrow notches on a card, scorings on sticks, the pas-

ig. 3. Count Staves of wood used by Kiowa enda derivation

from arrows, emplosed in the game of Zohn afl, they are inscribed with marks

esembling arrow decoration and shaftment.

times of Indians in America and of far Orientals in Asia depending

often upon the impartial testimony of the investigator have seemed to

lead hnmanity backward in the cases and countries cited, not to the

flight of birds, the observed instincts of animals, or the virtues of

plants or minerals, but to the arrow as the ancestral symbol of the

human necromancer. The Korean game of Nyout, where the throw-

ing of marked sticks scores on a dotted diagram, seems related to divi-

340

The American Naturalist.

[April,

nation because its arrangement of dots looks like magical diagrams in

an ancient Chinese book fof divination while there are throws,

nf ve

pet th es ite

and

Kwa Zsin Chinese a pets Hs, divining splints.

Four of a set of sixth-

Fig. 4.

four, suggesting by their notched points and name (tsim resembling tsin, arrow)

a derivation from arrows.

arrangements, and suites, and figures in the game that seem to connect

it with chess, and with dice and backgammon and other Korean dice

and board games,

thus, we are told, putting the latter familiar and

Europeanized class of games into the line of succession from the prim-

itive formule of the arrow diviner.

Long narrow Korean playing

cards, resembling a set of Chinese lottery arrows similarly marked,

mpraet i numerals on the backs of Korean playing

Fig. 2 Devi

Sair is -tjyen fighting tablets).

from the cut cock feathers on arrow

naia ces suggests in their shape a deriva-

1896,] Anthropology. 341

and with arrow feathers painted on their backs refer us strikingly

to the arrow, and this fact, illustrated by aseries of surprising pic-

tures is one of the telling features of Mr. Culin’s book. Whether we

agree or not, whether we prefer to wait till more evidence is in

for regions like parts of Australia, Tasmania and the Andaman ~

Islands where man appears never to have had arrows, and whether

we believe that we have reason to doubt that the notion of the

four world quarters ever was universally impressed upon humanity

the original suggestions of Mr. Culin pointing out new and seemingly

widespread relations among games and tracing or seeking to trace in

them fresh illustration for the story of human development, is of

importance and interest.

Following further the author’s dignified and always sympathetic

presentation of the subject into a description of other games which

sometimes, like the counting out rhymes of children, are regarded

as less conscious survivals of the diviners’ doings, sometimes as

mere festive or athletic pastimes, we gather pleasing evidence of

the world kinship of children in the record (often illustrated by

native Korean artists in color), of blind man’s buff, leap frog, horse

stick, tug of war, stone fighting, pop guns, tops, tilt ups, and jack

stones. Too briefly the pages reflecting remembered joys of youth tell

of the loosened waters of a brook breaking, if they can, a juvenile dam,

of hostile kites sawing their abraisive strings as they soar, of violet

whipping, of shovel playing, of youthful mouths crammed with cher-

ries, to be eaten without swallowing the stones, and of dragon flies,

caught in spider webbed hoops by children reciting poems and released

with unconscious cruelty when impaled with paper banners. But new

aspects of an ever present floral sympathy in the land of cherry blos-

soms and the chrysanthemum are revealed to us when we learn of such

Japanese names for bands of combatants as “ spring willow blossom,”

“ summer rest forest,” and “autumn garden,” shouted across the green

turf in the foot ball game.

Notwithstanding the similarities urged between some of the arrow

games of North America and their Asiatic representatives we look in

vain in thé book for suggestion of contact of races, or proof of migra-

tion. Lines of investigation such as other observers might choose in

tracing the rolling of stone discs scored in motion with sticks or arrows

- (Chungke) from the Sandwich Islands to Georgia, the author eschews

as unfruitful and inconclusive “unless supported by linguistic evi-

dence.” His valuable and original investigation has not essayed to

furnish new light as to the geographical origin of the human race but

has rather multiplied the evidence showing that man’s mind has

worked alike everywhere —H. C. MERCER.

342 The American Naturalist. [April,

PSYCHOLOGY.

Prof. Mark Baldwin on Preformation and Epigenesis.

—In the last number of the Narura.isr was republished from Science,

Prof. Baldwin’s observations on my presentation of the contrasted hy-

potheses of the development of mind.’ One of these theories was sup-

posed to be in accordance with the evolutionary doctrine of preforma-

tion, the other was thought to bear the same relation to that of epigene-

sis. Prof. Baldwin asks why the three theses arranged under epigenesis

may not with equal or greater propriety be arranged in the preforma-

tion column. He believes that consciousness has had an influence in

directing the course of evolution in accordance with the “general law

now recognized by Psychologists under the name of Dynamogenesis—

i. e., that the thought of a movement tends to discharge motor energy

into the channels as near as may be to those necessary for that move-

ment.” He also says, “I do not suppose that any naturalist would

hold to an injection of energy in any form into the natural processes

by consciousness. The psychologists are, as Mr. Cattell remarks, about

done with a view like that.” Prof. Baldwin also remarks that “ Prof.

Cope can say whether such a construction is true in his case.” He adds

that “it is only the physical basis of memory in the brain that has a

causal relation to the other organic processes of the animal.”

To reply to the last question first. The facts seem to show that con-

scious states do have “a causal relation to the other organic processes

of the animal.” I have gone into this subject briefly, but more fully

than can be done here, in Chap. X of my book on the “ Primary Fac-

tors of Organic Evolution” (1896). The evolution of the brain, the

organ of consciousness, would indicate this, as well as the evidence for

Kinetogenesis or evolution by motion. This would follow, if the doc-

trine of Dynamogenesis referred to by Prof. Baldwin be true, at the

psychic end of the process, and if acquired characters be inherited, as

required by the doctrine of epigenesis If then consciousness has such a

function, the question arises as to its immediate mode of action. Prof.

Baldwin says “only the physical basis of memory has a causal rela-

tion,” ete. This proposition I can accept, and it is true whether that

physical basis be due to a conscious state called a sense-impression, or

not. But the directions of the acts (motions) which flow from that

physical basis are very various in organic beings, having adaptations

1 See Primary Factors of Organic Evolution, 1896, p. 14.

>»

1896.] -= Psychology. 343

to as many ends as there are benefits to be obtained. Itis evident that

the physical basis of. memory undergoes a change from the condition

in which it is first produced. Its component parts are evidently rear-

ranged in accordance with some purely psychic factors, i. e., in accord-

ance with quàlities and properties which are only appreciable by con-

scious states. One may suppose that a reflection of the physical basis

of a memory may be transmitted to different parts of the cortex, and

that in one part it is located in accordance with one criterion of classi-

fication, and in another region in accordance with another criterion.

In other words, the representative functions of the brain control the

structure of the physical basis of memory, or cause a modified repro-

duction of it. These representative functions may be of the simplest

—i.e., they may consist only of criteria of size, color, utility, etc., or

they may be more complex, involving judgments, concepts, ete.

Finally, no criteria can violate the ultimate “forms of shicvgght, R

which are essentials of all representative mental aes These, in

short, are the fundamental reasons why mental conditions may be be-

lieved to direct the course of energy, without increasing the amount of

that energy.

The relation of this factor of evolution to the the theories of Prefor-

mation and Epigenesis may be now considered. The reason why I be-

lieve that the process of mental evolution has been and is at bottom epi-

genetic, is because there is no way short of supernatural revelation by

which mental education can be accomplished other than by contact

with the environment through sense-impressions, and by transmission

of the results to subsequent generations. The opinion is simply a con-

sistent application to brain tissue of a doctrine supposed to be true of

the other organic structures. The injection of consciousness into the

process does not alter the case, but adds a factor which necessitates the

progressive character of evolution.

I do not perceive how promiscuous variation and natural selection

alone can result in progressive psychic evolution, more than in struc-

tural evolution, since the former is conditioned by the latter. The ob-

jections to this mode of accounting for progressive s structural evolution

are well known, and are enumerated in my book on page 474. It is

true, no doubt, that as we rise in the scale of mental faculty the capa-

city for acquisition increases. How far these acquisitions are in in-

— is a question of detail, but no one denies, so far as I am

cepting consistent preformationists, that they are more or less

telat It is to be supposed that the longer special aptitudes are

cultivated the more likely they are to be inherited, precisely as the ef-

344 The American Naturalist. [April,

fects of constant use of an‘ organism are inherited, while sports and

mutilations are not inherited. The importance of the social influences

among men on which Prof. Baldwin justly lays so much stress, consists

in the fact that they are continuous in their operation, and produce

permanent habits. This accounts for the phenomena referred to by

him when he remarks that “ the level of culture in a community seems

to be about as fixed a thing as moral qualities are capable of being;

much more so than the level of individual endowment. This latter

seems to be capricious or variable, while the former moves by a regu-

lar movement and with a massive front.” Here we have portrayed

exactly what occurs in structural evolution. The habitual influence of

the environment, internal and external, conditions the steady advance,

while sports produce only temporary effects or are effective only in

proportion to their ratio to the entire movement.

In an essay published in Science of March 20th, 1896, Prof. Bald-

win comments on the lectures of Prof. Lloyd Morgan, in support of

his own doctrine of Social Heredity. This is the name he has applied

to this transmission of habits through their persistence in societies, so

that the young acquire them through imitation or instruction, without

the intervention of physical heredity. Asa foundation for this view

he disputes the necessity of any inheritance of acquired habits by the

inheritance of the nervous mechanism which they express, and denies

therefore that use is a necessary agent in the evolution of such habits.

In order to prove that instincts are not “lapsed intelligence ” he says;

“ The intelligence can never by any possibility create a new movement

or effect a new combination of movements, if the apparatus of brain,

nerve and muscles has not been made ready for the combination which

is effected. This point is no longer in dispute,” etc. Immediately

before this, however, he says. “But let us ask how ae intelli-

gence.brings about codrdinations of muscular movement. The phys-

chologist is obliged to reply ; “ Only by a process of selection —

pleasure, pain, experience, association, etc.,) from certain alternative

complex movements, which are already possible for the limb or mem-

r used.”

It is granted in the last quotation that pleasure, pain and other

conscious states, select the motions which become habits. Such selec-

tion is intelligent, and such act is an expression of intelligence, though

of the simplest sort. All that Prof. Baldwin alleges is that intelli-

gence is impotent to construct the mechanism of new habits out of

mechanisms already too far specialized in definite directions to permit

such a reorganization of structure. This truth in nowise contradicts

1896.] 2 Psychology. ` 345,

the construction of the mechanism of new habits from tissues capable

of reconstruction or of modification, a quality which resides very

probably in brain tissue, or at least certainly has resided in it at various

stages of organic evolution, when new ‘selections through pleasure,

pain, experience, association, etc.,” were made ; otherwise the selection

would have been impossible. This is the history of all the other tissues,

and why not of brain tissue? Though Prof. Baldwin denies the neces-

sity of the Lamarckian Factor, he admits it in this doctrine of selec-

tion; and his denial of inheritance, only covers the case of physcho-

logical sports, as above pointed out. Hence he both admits and

denies both Lamarckian and Weismannism.

Weismannism has recently struck the physchological camp, and in

Prof. Baldwin and in Mr. Benjamin Kidd, we see some of its recent

effects. But since the biologists have generally repudiated Weismann-

ism, the evolutionary physchologists must try and get along without it.

Nevertheless, as above remarked, Prof. Baldwin’s “Social Heredity ”

is a real factor, especially in human evolution ; but asit is not heredity,

I think it should have a new name, which shall. be less confusing.

E. D. Cope.

Psychologic Data Wanted..

ison I wish data as to habit, instinct or intelligence in animals, above

all, minor and trifling ones not in the books, useless or detrimental ones,

and the particular breed, species or genus showing each. Purring,

licking, pai mos kneading objects with fore-paws, humping back,

and “worrying” captured prey (like the cat), baying (at moon or

otherwise) ; urination and defecation habits (eating, covering up, etc.) ;

disposition of feces and shells in nest; rolling on carrion ; cackling (or

other disturbance) after laying; biting “afterbirth ” or young; sexual

habits ; transporting eggs or young; nest-sharing; hunting partner-

ships or similar intelligent associations ; ; hereditary transmission of

peculiarities; rearing young of other specics with resulting modification

of instinct; feigning death; suicide; “fascination ;” are examples.

Circular of information will be sent and full credit given for data wsd,

or sender’s name will be confidential, as preferred.

Answer as fully as possible, always stating age, sex, place, date (er

season), species, breed, and whether personally observed.

é R. R. Guruey, M. D.”

Clark University, Worcester, Mass.

346 The American Naturalist. [April,

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

Nova Scotian Institute of Science..—March 9th—The follow-

ing paper was read: “Some Illustrations of Dynamical Geology in

Southwestern Nova Scotia,” by L. W. Bailey, Esq., M. A., Ph. D.

Harry Prers, Seeretary.

Boston Society of Natural History.—February 19th—The

following papers were read: Mr. Outram Bangs: “The Terrapin an

Inhabitant of Massachusetts.” Dr. Joseph Lincoln Goodale: “ The

Vocal Sounds of Animals and the Mechanism of their Production.”

March 4th.—The following paper was read: Prof. F. W. Putnam:

“Symbolism in Ancient America.”.—SamuEL HENSHAW, Secretary.

New York Academy of Sciences—Biological Section.—

February 7th, 1896.—Dr. J. G. Curtis in the Chair.

A communication from the Council was received asking that the

Section take action on Rep. Hurley’s bill “ To fix the standard of

Weights and Measures by the adoption of the metric system of weights

and measures.” `

On motion of Dr. Dean, the Section approved the bill and the Sec-

retary was directed to express the entire commendation of it to the

Council.

Dr. Arnold Graf read a paper on “ The Structure of the Nephridia

in Clepsine.” He finds, in the cells of the intra-cellular duct, fine

cytoplasmic anastamosing threads which form a contractile mechan-

ism. These are stimulated by granules which are most numerous near

the lumen of the cell, and thus a peristalsis is set up which moves the

urine out of the duct. In the upper part of the intra-cellular duct, the

two or three cells next to the vesicle or funnel have no distinct lumen,

but are vacuolated ; the vacuoles of the first cell being small, those of

the second larger, and so on, till the vacuoles become permanent as a

lumen. He explains the action of the first cell as being similar to the

ingestion of particles by the infusorians. The matter taken up thus

from the funnel by the first cell is carried by the rest, and so on till the

cells having a lumen are reached. The presence of the excretum

causes the granules to stimulate the museular fibres of the cells; pen-

stalis results and the substance is carried outwards. ‘The character of

this contractile reticulum offers an explanation of the structure of a

cilium as being the continuation of a contractile reticular thread.

1396.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 347

N. R. Harrington, in “Observations on the Lime Gland of the

Earthworm,” described the minute structure of these glands in L.

terrestris, and showed that the lime is taken up from the blood by

wandering connective tissue cells which form club-shaped projections

on the lamellae of the gland, and which pass off when filled with lime.

The new cell comes up from the base of the older cell and repeats the

rocess. This explanation is in harmony with the fact that in all other

invertebrates lime is laid down by connective tissue cells. Histological

structure and the developmental history confirm it. _

Dr. Bashford Dean offered some observations on “ Instinct in some

of the Lower Vertebrates.” The young of Amia calva, the dogfish of

the Western States, attach themselves, when newly hatched, to the

water plants at the bottom of the nest which the male Amia has built.

They remain thus attached until the yolk sac is absorbed. As soon as

they are fitted to get food they flock together in adense cluster, follow-

ing the male. When hatched in an aquarium they go through the

same processes. The young fry take food particles only when the par-

ticles are in motion, never when they are still. The larve of Necturus

also take food particles that are in motion.—C. L. BRISTOL, Secretary.

American Philosophical Society.—January 17th.—Prof. Hil-

precht presented a paper on “Old Babylonian Inscriptions, Chiefly

from Nippur,” Pt. ii. :

February 21st.—Prof, A. W. Goodspeed read a paper on the Rönt-

gen method, with demonstration. Remarks were made by Prof. Hous-

ton, J. F. Sachse, Prof. Robb of Trinity College, and Prof. Trowbridge

of Cambridge.

March 6th.—The following paper was presented: “ Eucalypti in

Algeria and Tunisia from an Hygienic and Climatological Point of

View,” by Dr. Edward Pepper.

Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia—Anthropo-

logical Section.—February 14th—The following papers were read :

Dr. Allen on “ Prenasal Fosse of the Skull;” Dr. Brinton on “ Hu-

man Hybridism ;” Dr. McClellan, Skulls and Photographs exhibited.

Cuas. Morris, Recorder.

The Academy of Science of St. Louis.—February 17, 1896.

—Dr. Adolf Alt spoke of the anatomy of the eye, and, by aid of the

projecting microscope exhibited a series of axial sections representing

the general structure of the eye in thirty-one species of animals, com-

prising two crustaceans, the squid, three fish, two batrachians, two rep-

tiles, ten birds, and eleven mammals.

348 The American Naturalist. [April,

Professor F. E, Nipher gave an account of the Geissler and Crookes

tubes and the radiant phenomena exhibited by each when used in

connection with a high-tension electrical current of rapid alternation,

and detailed the recent discoveries of Professor Röntgen, showing that

certain of the rays so generated are capable of affecting the sensitized

photographic plate through objects opaque to luminous rays. Atten-

tion was also called to the experiments of Herz and Lodge with dis-

charges of very high tension alternating currents, which showed that

by the latter certain invisible rays are produced, which, like the Ront-

gen rays, are capable of passing through opaque bodies, such as pitch,

but differing in their refrangibility by such media.

March 2d.—Mr. F. W. Duenckel presented a comparison of the

records of the United States Meteorological Observatory, loeated on the

Government building in the city, with the record for the Forest Park

station, showing that the daily minimum averaged decidedly lower at.

the Forest Park station than in the city,-while the wind averaged de-

cidedly higher for the city station.

Professor E. E. Engler spoke on the summation of certain series of

numbers.— WILLIAM TRELEASE, Recording Secretary.

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

The Journal of Comparative’ Neurology, which is now entering upon

its sixth volume, has its editorial facilities considerably: enlarged by

the addition to the staff of Dr. Oliver S. Strong, of Columbia College.

Professor C. L. Herrick continues as Editor in-Chief. The Managing

Editor for 1896, is C. Judson Herrick, to whom business communica-

tions should be addressed at Denison University, Granville, O. Edi-

torial communications may be sent to either of the three editors.

ADVERTISEMENTS.

Perfect specimens (Uterus extirpated) in strong spirit, of the follow-

ing rare mammals are offered:

Tupaja javanica

Tarsius Spectrum $10.00

Nyclicebus tardigradus

Galeopithecus volans $20.00

Gymnura Rafflesii ‘ $30.00

Address: J, G. deGROOT,

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OF INTEREST TO ALL STUDENTS AND LOVERS OF NATURE.

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Practical Microscopy.

E. F. BIGELOW, Managing Editor and Publisher, Portland, Conn.

at ADVERTISEMENTS.

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i7 30th YEAR. 1896

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THE PROBABLE INFLUENCE OF DISTURBED NUTRI- et sses ane Sieve Rock’ of Ontarto—Pet-

ION ON THE EVOLUTION OF THE VEGETATIVE raphica te + BOE ee

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Vou. XXK. May, 1896. 353

THE PROBABLE INFLUENCE OF DISTURBED NUTRI-

TION ON THE EVOLUTION OF THE VEGETA-

TIVE PHASE OF THE SPOROPHYTE.

By Geo. F. ÅTKINSON

In this paper the discussion of the influence of nutrition,

applies chiefly to that source of nutrition in plant organs pro-

vided with chlorophyll, and presupposes, in general, that the

ordinary physiological processes, other than the one which is

termed carbon assimilation, are normal. In all such plants

some development of this vegetative part of the plant must take

place before spore production, or fruiting, of a kind which re-

presents a real increase at the time, can be accomplished.

Some apparent, but not-real, exceptions to this might be noted.

In germination of the spores of Oedogonium, frequently spore

production takes place without the development of any such

vegetative part of the plant, but there is no real increase of the

plant substance. This kind of spore production is only a

means, perhaps, to tide over some condition unfavorable for

the elaboration of the vegetative phase of the plant, which is

present at the time and place. In Coleochete, germination of

the oospore results in the formation of a cellular mass, which

1 Cornell University.

350 The American Naturalist. [May,

is larger than the oospore, breaks the enclosing wall, and the

cells escape as a number of zoospores in place of one. But in

this oospore are the stored products of carbon assimilation of

the parent chlorophyll phase of the plant, and this case only

differs from that of the Bryophyta, in that the sporophyte be-

comes separated, with stored products, from the gametophyte,

before the differentiation of the spores.

In the higher plants many cases of bulbs, corms, tubers, etc.,

might be cited to show that the development of the sporophylls,

and even fruit, might take place without the accompaniment

of chylorophyll bearing organs. But here also the bulbs,

corms, ete., represent, in the stored products of carbon assimila-

tion, the preceeding green leaves. In certain ferns, as Osmunda

cinnamomea, the sporophyll, which is completely differentiated

from the vegetative leaf, appears first in the spring, and could

mature its spores without the aid of the vegetative leaves of

that season, but the green leaves of the previous season formed

` the necessary carbohydrates, which are stored in the rhizome

and rudimentary leaves during the winter and in fact the spo-

rophylls and sporangia are partly developed at the close of

the previous season.

We might say, then, that in general, all spore production in

plants, which themselves assimilate carbon dioxide, is neces-

sarily preceeded by a greater or lesser development of chloro-

phyll bearing organs. This may appear to be a too well known

axiom for even the brief discussion here given, but it is neces-

sary in view of what is to come to have this axiom well in

mind. Chlorophyll bearing organs, or tissues, then, as com-

pared with sporogenous organs or tissues, are, in point of time

within the life cyle, primary, while the latter are secondary. This

proposition should not be regarded as opposed to the primary

evolution of the sporophylls as compared with the foliar organs

of the sporophyte. It applies only to a comparatively limited

extent of time; to the usual cycle between the vegetative

_ and fruiting phases; to the ontogenetic, not to the phylogene-

tic, development. It applies with equal force to plants in

which either the gametophyte or the sporophyte forms the

chlorophyll bearing organ.

yee ties oes a i

LAN nee ye ELA EEN E T ee eT ae

1896.] Vegetative Phase of the Sporophyte. 351

There is a strong tendency in nature to an economy in the

distribution of the food supply between foliar, and sporophyl-

lary, organs; between the vegetative and fruit products of the

plant. This is well seen in the varying sizes of plants having

varying amounts of food supply, where with limited food sup-

ply small plants have few and small leaves accompanied by a

limited out-put of fruit (other conditions are considered nor-

mal); while with increasing amounts of food, other things

being equal, each of these plant products is increased, though

not in the same ratio. With high feeding the vegetative

increase shows a higher ratio than the fruiting. The food

may be so abnormally abundant as to cause an abnormally

abundant vegetative growth, accompanied in some cases with

rudimentary fruit, or in others with the entire suppression of

the fruit. In some rare cases it may be accompanied by the

transformation of the sporophyllary organs to vegetative ones.

These facts teach that the fruit product, or sporophyllary

development of plants is very sensitive to food supply, requir-

ing a certain amount of food for perfection in even small

quantities, increasing with additional food supply up to a given

point, when it decreases again to zero; or in rare cases the

sporophyllary organ may be transformed to a vegetative one,

so antagonistic has the ratio between the vegetative and sporo-

phyllary organs become because of the abnormally favorable

conditions for vegetative growth. In addition to the sensitive-

ness which the fruit organs exhibit to varying amounts of food

derived from the soil, they are very sensitive to disturbances

in the supply of carbohydrates as a result of carbon assimila-

tion in the vegetative organs, especially of a kind which partly

or completely cuts off that supply. This is well seen in the

diminished crops as a result of injury to the leaves at critical

periods from insects or fungi, or as result of unfavorable

meteorological conditions.

When the nutritive supply of the carbohydrates is suddenly

disturbed by certain kinds and amounts of injury to the foliage

leaves, or by pruning severely, thus cutting off a large number

of forming or developed leaves, certain parts of the plant,

either simple or in a rudimentary condition of development,

352 The American Naturalist. [May,

have the function of carbon assimilation forced upon them to

save the plant from destruction and to provide for the develop-

ment of the fruiting organs. As is well known, latent buds,

which have been in a dormant condition, may be, for years,

are frequently in such cases stimulated to development and

form leafy shoots. It is a very common occurrence as a result

of severe pruning or of injury to the ordinary leaves for young

flower axes, or buds, to develop leafy shoots with other flower

buds in the new leaf axils. There is a tendency here to force

the vegetative function upon the young flower axes, and if this

influence is felt before the specialized character of the floral

organs has been developed from the cells at the apex of the

axis, the development of these organs will be deferred, while

these cells assume the form and function of vegetative organs.

This is a matter, perhaps, of common observation as a result

of severe pruning, and in some plants can be very,easily dem-

onstrated by trial. But it serves well to show the influence of

disturbed nutrition on other or dormant parts of the plant

when the function of the existing vegetative leaves is arrested.

That function is forced from the ordinary and well developed

organs upon undeveloped or rudimentary ones, which readily

under this influence adapt themselves to continue this im-

portant office. This must not be regarded as an attempt to

explain the development of adventitious or supernumerary

buds, etc., or latent buds, in all cases, into leaf branches. Local

stimuli, and a number of other causes at times, call forth leafy

shoots from these. Nevertheless, in view of what has been said

above, the following proposition might be formulated. Nutri-

tion disturbed, and the development of the fruit product of the

plant being threatened, by the loss of carbon-assimilating

organs, the function of the latter may be taken up by some

other part of the plant, either rudimentary or undifferentiated,

their development into said organs being a direct result of that

disturbance.

In the cases dealt with above, the function is either trans-

ferred to latent vegetative organs, or to undifferentiated tissues.

It is, therefore, simply and easily comprehended. Observa-

tions have been made, however, which tend to show that in

1896.] Vegetative Phase of the Sporophyte. 353

the Angiosperms the vegetative function can be assumed not

only by the floral envelopes, but also by the sporophyllary

organs, more commonly by the macrosporophylls, or gyne-

cium. In some cases these open and expand into green leaves

with the ovules, in a more or less imperfect stage of develop-

ment, exposed. Perhaps no definite experiments have been

carried out to demonstrate the cause of this transformation of

form and function. It is supposed to be due to either exces-

sive nutrition, or to some injury to the vegetative system of

the plant. While such cases are unsatisfactory because of the

lack of definite tests, they indicate that the sporophylls can

assume the form and function of foliar organs when there is

a disturbance of nutrition of a kind considered above. Since

these sporophylls are, from a morphological standpoint, con-

sidered homologous with the green leaves, this change of func-

tion is not incompatible with that theory.

In the Pteridophytes direct experimentation proves beyond

a doubt, that the sporophylls can be made to assume the form

and function of the foliar organs by cutting off the latter, thus

disturbing the nutrition and forcing the vegetation function on

the sporophylls. The experiments performed upon Onoclea

sensibilis and O. struthiopteris may be cited. In these cases

after cutting off the early developed vegetative leaves the

sporophylls appeared later in all stages of transformation, some

complete vegetative leaves with only vestigial remnants in the

form of rudimentary indusia to indicate to which series of

organs they primarily belonged in the ontogeny of the plant.

Between these and perfect sporophylls all gradations of inter-

mediate forms occurred, the terminal portions of the sporophyll

and of the pinne always being more fully expanded, while `

the basal portions of the same partook more or less completely

of the true sporophyll. The details of the experiment and of

the gradations of the development are given elsewhere, and

cannot be dwelt upon here..

As an outgrowth of these experiments and observations a

second proposition may be formulated as follows. Disturbed

nutrition, resulting from the loss of the carbon assimilating

organs of the sporophyte (vegetative leaves), may, and does,

354 The American Naturalist. . [May,

force the vegetative function on the sporophylls, causing them

to develop into more or less complete vegetative leaves.

The experiments on Onoclea convince me that there are a

number of Pteridophytes, as well as Phanerogams, which

would yield the same results following the amputation of their

leaves, when carefully conducted, especially in those plants

where, during one season, the vegetative leaves are developed

sometime in advance of the sporophylls. Plants like some of

the Lycopods would make extremely interesting ones to work

with, and especially in the case of some of these should I

expect to see a transformation of the sporophylls into vegeta-

tive leaves. This would be entirely in harmony with the rela-

tion and development of these organs. In species of Lycopod-

ium and Selaginella all gradations between sporophylls with

normal sporangia and the vegetative leaves can be found.

The transitional stages are marked by the gradual degenera-

tion of the sporangia on some of the leaves, the sporophyllary

character being shown only by vestiges of the sporangia.

Bower has shown how the strobilus of the Lycopods elongat-

ing by apical growth would result in the increase in the num-

ber of the sporophylls, and that the demand thus made on the

vegetative system for nutrition would result in the transforma-

tion of some of the sporophylls to foliage leaves, accompanied

by a corresponding sterilization of some of the sporangia.

Practically it would disturb the balance of nutrition between

the sporophyllary and vegetative systems, the effect being the

same as it would be if some of the foliage leaves were destroyed.

In view of the ultimate purpose of this paper the question

must be raised here as to whether this transformation of the

` sporophylls to foliar organs is a case of reversion, or whether it

is an advance of a primary organ to a secondary organ of the

sporophyte. . It is my conviction that the latter alternative is

the logical and true one, that we can by experimentation dem-

onstrate phylogeny in ontogeny. Bower” has called attention,

to the importance which must be attached to the fact that the

primary function of the sporophyte was not only the produc-

tion of spores, but an increasing number; that the increase in

2 Ann. Bot., VIII, pp. 345-365, 1894.

1896.] Vegetative Phase of the Sporophyte. 355

the mass of sporongenous tissue was necessarily accompanied

by a sterilization of potential portions of the mass for purposes

of protection, support, and for the conduction of nutritive

material. From this condition he reviews the theoretical

grounds for the relegation of the spore-producing cells to a

superficial position, and the eruption of outgrowths on which

the sporangia are supported, citing as illustrations of the early

conditions of these outgrowths the strobilus of Equisetum and

Phylloglossum. From the latter he traces the development of

the elongated and branched leafy stem of species of Lycopod-

ium by continued apical growth of its strobilus, while the

sporangia on some of the lower sporophylls would be arrested,

and the sporophylls themselves would develop as foliage leaves.

For these and similar reasons elaborated by himself, he con-

cludes, rightly I think, that the sporophylls are, from a phylo-

genetic point of view, primary, while the foliage leaves are

secondary.

All the evidence which we have points to the fact that in

the early development of the sporophyte, it was entirely de-

pendent upon the gametophyte for nutrition including the

supply of carbohydrates. The expanded green prothalloid

structure performed the same function for the sporophyte, that

foliage leaves of the sporophyte do in plants where this becomes

independent of the gametophyte. This is practically true now

in all the thalloid liverworts, and in all the Bryophyta is the

sporophyte practically dependent upon the gametophyte for

this function. In most of the Pteridophytes the sporophyte

is dependent upon the gametophyte for its carbohydrates dur-

ing the embryo stage. In some of the Pteridophytes, in the

Gymnosperms, and in the Angiosperms, the gametophyte has

entirely lost the function of carbon assimilation, this function

being solely performed by parts of the sporophyte.

What influences led to the gradual transfer of this function

of the gametophyte to parts of the sporophyte? Nutritive dis-

turbances have been shown to play a very important partin the

formation of sporophyllary organs quantitatively, in varying

ratios between the vegetative and sporophyllary structures

with increased food supply ; in a tendency to produce a natural

356 The American Naturalist. [May,

but variable equilibrium between these two functional kinds

of organs; and especially in the transformation of sporophyl-

lary organs to vegetative ones. If these disturbances, espe-

cially in the nature of partial or complete loss of carbon

assimilating organs of the sporophyte produce such an effect,

why should there not be a similar influence brought to bear

on the sporophyte, when the same function resides solely in

the gametophyte, and a disturbing element of this kind is

introduced? To me there are convincing grounds for believ-

ing that this influence was a very potent, though not the only

one in the early evolution of sporophytic assimilatory organs.

By this I do not mean that in the Bryophyta, for example, in-

jury to the gametophyte would now produce distinct vegeta-

tive organs on the sporophyte, which would tend to make it

independent of the gametophyte. But that in the Bryophyte-

like ancestors of the Pteridophytes an influence of this kind

did actually take place appears to me reasonable.

In the gradual passage from an aquatic life, for which the

gametophyte was better suited, to a terrestrial existence for

for which it was unadapted, a disturbance of this function was

introduced. This would not only assist in the sterilization of

some of the sporogenous tissue, which was taking place, but

there would also be a tendency to force this function upon

some of the sterilized portions of the sporophyte; and to expand

them into organs better adapted to this office. As eruptions

in the mass of sporogenous tissue took place and sporophylls

were evolved, this would be accompanied by the transferrence

of the assimilatory function of the gametophyte to some of these

sporophylls. Even the protophylls may -have originated by

the eruption of certain of the sterile portions of the sporophyte

under the influence of disturbed nutrition.

The sporophyte from its nature presented greater possibil-

ities in the way of the elaboration of a complex, robust, peren-

nial inhabitant of terrestrial zones. Increased sporogenous

tissue was necessarily accompanied with a more bulky struct-

ure, which then necessitated a differentiation of its tissue by

sterilization of certain external, then internal, parts for protec-

tion and circulation. Robust types of land plants could more

naturally be developed from such a phase than from the ex-

1896.] Progress in American Ornithology. 357

panded and delicate gametophyte. When the sporophyte had

largely assumed this function of the gametophyte, and by the

development of absorbing organs in the soil was enabled to

live an independent existence, it became gradually established,

as conditions changed, in situations where the gametophyte

could not exist. It has thus become the dominating vegetative

feature of most land areas, while the gametophyte in these

higher forms, has become an organ entirely dependent upon

the sporophyte for nourishment, or has been developed into an

organ to serve a secondary purpose in the nourishment of the

sporophytic embryo.

PROGRESS IN AMERICAN ORNITHOLOGY.

1886-1895.

By R. W. Suuretpt, M. D:

What I have to say here in reference to the progress in

American ornithology for the past nine or ten years is prompted

by the recent appearance of the second edition of The A. O: U.

Check-List of North American Birds. Most naturalists are

familiar with the first edition of this work, it having been pub-

lished in 1886. It was officially promulgated by the Ameri-

can Ornithologists’ Union, and zoologists the world over have

carefully considered “ The Code of Nomenclature” that formed

a part of the volume. Moreover, it contained a List of North

American Birds which had been prepared according to the

aforesaid Code of Rules, and classified in accordance with the

views of the majority of the committee appointed by the Union

to prepare it. In so far as the orders and families of this classi-

fication were concerned, the arrangement could be appreciated

at a glance by reference to the Table of Contents of the book,

and, as for the List itself, it not only was intended to represent

the nomenclature of the Birds, but “a classification as well”

(p. 15). At the close of the volume was presented a “ Hypo-

thetical List” to which had been referred those species and

subspecies the zoological status of which could not be satis-

factorily determined ; and following this was a list of the fossil

species of North American birds.

As the years passed by a second edition of this book was

358 The American Naturalist, [May,

eagerly looked for by zoologists at large, but it did not make its

appearance until towards the close of December, 1895. It comes

to usin the same form as its predecessor, but it does not appear >

to be as substantially bound or printed upon as good paper.

Apart from the substitution of one member of the committee

for another, it is likewise gotten out under precisely similar

auspices, plans, objects and general arrangement. From it,

however, has been omitted the “ Code of Nomenclature,” but in

it are included all the new existing and fossil birds known to

the committee, and which were not in the first edition of the

Check-List. For this and minor changes it has but 372 pages

against 392 of the original volume. In its preface it contains

“extracts from the Introduction to the Code of Nomenclature,”

intended to serve “to explain the scope and plan of the Check-

List, including the method of incorporating additions.”

The second edition, then, of this work may be taken as set-

ting forth the progress in North American ornithology as un-

derstood by a committee appointed by the American Ornith-

ologists’ Union, and for a period extending between the years

1886 and 1895 inclusive. In considering this from such a

standpoint, let us first take into account the number of species

and subspecies added to, or subtracted from, the List of 1886,

in connection with other changes, and the same for the “ hy-

pothetical list ” and for the “ fossil birds.” After this I will con-

sider what improvements, if any, have been made in the mat-

ter of classification.

Designating the two volumes simply by the years of their

publication, as 1886 and 1895 respectively, we find that in the

first group of birds presented, or the Order Pyaopopss, there

were included, in 1886, 33 species and 4 subspecies, while in

1865 but 32 species are given and 4 subspecies, the change being

due to the omission of Synthliboramphus wumizusume (Tem-

minck’s Murrelet, No. 22).

In 1886, the Great Auk (Plautus impennis, No. 33) was “ Be-

lieved to be now extinct,” while in 1895 it is confidently as-

serted to be “ Now extinct.” This being the case, we would

like to inquire what place has it in a list of the existing birds

of this or any other country? It is simply absurd to include

birds that have no existence in nature in a list of living forms.

1896.] Progress in American Ornithology. 359

Passing to the second group, or Order LONGIPENNES, we find

upon comparison that in 1886 it contained 44 species and 4 sub-

species, while in 1895 it is seen to contain 46 species and 4 sub-

species. The additions here are the two new species Larus bar-

rovianus and Larus minutus (a straggler). Another change in

this group is the calling Pallas’s Gull (Larus cachinnans, No.

52) the Vega Gull (Larus vege [1895)).

In the third group, or the Order TuUBINARES, were included,

in 1886, 31 species and 3 subspecies, to which list was added a

new species in 1895 (Oceanodroma macrodactyla), making 32

species and 3 subspecies for that year. Peale’s Petrel (Æstrelata

gularis) (No. [99]), was likewise changed to the Scaled Petrel

(Æ. scalaris) in this group.

In 1886, the fourth group, or the Order StEGANOPODES, was

made to contain 17 species and 5 subspecies, and, in 1895, 19

species and 5 subspecies, the increase being due to the addition

of the two new species of Gannets, Sula gossi and S. brewsteri.

Coming to the fifth group, or the Order ANsrEREs, there

were contained in it in the 1886 List, 57 species and 6 subspe-

cies, and, in the 1895 List, 51 species and 8 subspecies, the change

being effected as follows: Anas fulvigula maculosa, the Mottled

Duck, was added as a new subspecies, and Somateria mollissima

was made the subspecies S. m. borealis; finally, Chen cexrules-

cens was included in the list. Camptolaimus labradorius now

being “ extinct,” it has no place in the List and ought not to

appear there.

Group six, the Order ODONTOGLOSSÆ, remains the same, each

List having the 7 species of Flamingo (P. ruber).

In the seventh group, or the Order Heropronss, there were

to be found 19 species and 2 subspecies, to which were added in

the 1895 List a new species and a new subspecies (Ardetta

neoxena and Ardea virescens frazari). Botaurus exilis becomes in

the new List Ardetta exilis, and Ardea rufa becomes A. rufescens,

while the “subgenus” Nyctherodius is changed to Nyctanassa.

The Order Patupicot® (eighth group) in the 1886 List,

contained 17 species and 3 subspecies, to be changed in the 1895

List to 21 species with only 7 subspecies. ` This was effected by

considering the subspecies Rallus longirostris crepitans (1886) to

be the species Rallus crepitans,and adding also to the 1896

360 The American Naturalist. [May,

List the species Rallus scottii and Rallus longirostris caribæus.

The subspecies Porzana jamaicensis coturniculus (1886) became

the species P. coturniculus (1895). From these changes a less

important one is to be noted, viz.: Rallus longirostris saturatus

became, in 1895, R. crepitans saturatus (No. 211 a).

Passing to the Order LımıcoLæ (ninth group), it is to be

noted that in the List of 1886 there were included 66 species

and 4 subspecies, and in 1895 these became 68 species and 6 sub-

species, the changes being the addition of Tringa damacensis (a

straggler); the two subspecies Totanus solitarius cinnamomeus

and Symphemia semipalmata inornata, and the new species Hæ-

matopus frazari. Other changes in this group are the subgenus

Rhyacophilus (1886) to read the subgenus Heladromus, and the

name of the Mexican Jacana, instead of being Jacana gymnos-

toma (Wagl.), is now J. spinosa (Linn.).

Coming next to the Order GALLINÆ (tenth group), it is to be

seen that in the 1886 List 22 species are given and 18 subspe-

cies, while in 1895 there are 27 species and 22 subspecies. This

reduction in the number of species was caused by the dropping

out of Colinus graysoni, while the subspecies were increased by

adding to the List Oreortyx pictus confinis, Tympanuchus ameri-

canus attwateri, and the two Turkeys, M. g. osceola and M. g.

ellioti. Callipepla gambeli of the old work was corrected to read

C. gambelii} ;

In the eleventh group, or the Order Cotumss, there were

included in the List of 1886 72 species and no subspecies. In

the 1895 List we find but 71 species, while 4 subspecies have been

added. Columba fasciata viosce was recognized, while Engyp-

tila albifrons (1885) became Leptotila fulviventris brachyptera.

There was also added the subspecies Columbigallina passerina

pallescens and the species Columbigallina passerina has became

the subspecies C. p. terrestris.

There appeared 53 species and 29 subspecies in the twelfth

group or Order Raporres in 1886, while in 1895 these were

increased to 54 species and 37 subspecies. In this group the

"In making these comparisons it is to be understood that they are direct be-

tween the Check-List of 1886 and that of 1895, and that the seven supplements

(1889-94) and the Abridged Edition of 1889 are not taken into consideration.

The second edition (1895) is taken to be the final finding of the Committee.

1896,] Progress in American Ornithology. 361

changes to be noted are first the addition of the subspecies

Buteo borealis harlani (337 d) and the omission of Buteo harlani

(338, 1886). Buteo albicaudatus becomes the subspecies B. a.

sennetti ; the subgenus TacHyTRIORCHIS being introduced be-

tween Nos. 340 and 341 in the genus Buteo. Falco regulus is

added to the list (a straggler in Greenland). Falco sparverius

deserticolus and F. s. peninsularis, two new subspecies of Sparrow

Hawks, are also added, and Falco sparverioides is changed to F,

dominicensis. Falco tinnunculus is also added to the 1895 List

as a straggler. Megascops asio mccallii is now determined to be

M. a. trichopsis ; while M. a. trichopsis of the 1886 List now be-

comes M. a. cineraceus of 1895. Again the generic name Ulula

is set aside for that of Scotiaptex of Swainson. There are also

added Megascops a. aikeni, M. a. macfarlanei, M. a. idahoensis and

Glaucidium g. californicum as new subspecies, and also the new

species Glaucidium hoskinsii. The genus of Elf Owls formerly

in the genus Micrathene have had that name replaced by Micro-

pallas. The Order Psirracr (13th group,) remains identical

in the two Lists, having but the 7 species, the Carolina Para-

quet.

Following these we have the fourteenth group or Coccyzgs,

an Order containing the Cuckoos, Trogons and Kingfishers.

All told, in 1886, there were 9 species of these, and, in 1895, 9

species and 4 subspecies. These latter consist of 3 Cuckoos

(Coccyzus minor maynardi, C. americanus occidentalis and Cuculus

canorus telephonus), also the Texas Kingfisher (Ceryle a. septen-

tridnalis). This latter was formerly Ceryle cabanisi. In the

1895 List Ceryle torquata is added [390. 1].

Next we come to the Order Pict (15th group), in which there

were 23 species and 11 subspecies in 1886, which, in the 1895

List, stand as 22 species and 14 subspecies. Upon comparing the

records we find that Dryobates villosus hyloscopus has been added

as a subspecies, and also Dryobates pubescens orewcus. Dryobates

scalaris becomes D. s. bairdi, while Dryobates stricklandi is re-

placed by D. arizone.

That “ highly polymorphous Order,” the Macrocuires (16th

group), containing the Goatsuckers, Swifts, “ ete.” presented in

the 1886 List, 26 species and 3 subspecies. In the present vol-

362 The American Naturalist. [May,

ume (1895) it is seen to include 26 species and 7 subspecies. The

following alterations, subtractions, and additions have been

made in the interim. Antrostomus vociferus arizone becomes A.

v. macromystax. The genus Phalexnoptilus has two new subspe-

cies, P. n. nitidus and P. n. californicus. Chordeiles v. minor be-

comes C. v. chapmani, and Chordeiles texensis becomes C. acuti-

pennis tevensis. The genus of Swifts formerly in Micropus are

now in Aéronautes. We have but one species of it in this coun-

try—the White-throated Swift; which, known formerly as

Micropus melanoleucus, now is written Aéronautes melanoleucus.

Among the Hummingbirds we have the new species Trochilus

violajugulum, Trochilus costæ is changed to Calypte costæ, and T.

anna to Calypte anna, in other words, the subgenus CaLyprE has

been raised to the rank of a genus. So likewise the subgenus

SELASPHORUS has been similarly dealt with, and another spe-

cies added to it, viz.: Selasphorus floresii. Also the subgenera

STELLULA and CALOTHORAX become genera, each containing a

single species. Trochilus heloisa has been omitted from the list,

and Basilinna leucotis added to it.

Finally, we come to the last, or seventeenth group, that vast

assemblage known as the Passeres. It will not be as conven-

ient to deal with these as the foregoing sixteen groups were dealt

with, as many of the families contain more birds than several

of the other “ Orders” combined, so I shall resort to tabulating

the comparisons, comparing family with family.

This comparison goes to show that in 1886 there were re-

corded 313 species of North American Passeres, and, in 1895,

321, giving a gain of 8 species for the nine years, while, for the

same years and interval of time, there were 117 subspecies,

and, in 1895, 185, showing a gain of 68 subspecies.

With respect to the Cotingidx, the single species indicated in

the above Table is Xantus’s Becard (Platypsaris albiventris).

Among the Tyrannidæ the following changes were made: (1)

The new subspecies Myiarchus cinerascens nuttingi was added,

and also (2) the subspecies Contopus richardsonii peninsula ; (3)

_ the species Empidonax cineritius is added, and (4) Empidonax

acadicus becomes E. virescens, as does (5) E. pusillus become E,

trailli, and (6) E. traili alnorum (1895) has taken the place of

1896.] Progress in American Ornithology. 363

TABLE COMPARING THE PASSERES.

Families. 1886. 1895. Remarks.

Sp. | Subsp. | Sp. | Subsp.

CLAMATORES.

Cotingide.............. 1 This family not in the

À 1886 list.

Tyrannide ............ 29 7 32 9

OscINES

\laudids 2 zi 9 10

‘orvidee 15 9 To 2B

Sturnide. 1 0 1 0 (Sturnus vulgaris).

iS ARA RT 19 7 19 8

Fringillidæ.... 87 44 87 71

nagridæ 5 1 6 1 (Piranga rubiceps).

Hirundinide.......... 7 0 10 1

peli PS 3 0 3 0

Laniide (5) veciis cc 2 1 2 2 (L. l. gambeli).

ara EE EA 11 5 11 9

Ceerebide...... ...... 1 0 1 0

] {niotiltide Masia siunes 57 9 57 13

Motacilli 6 1 6 1 No changes.

Cinclide pics] 1 0 1 0 No changes.

Troglodytide........ 24 7 24 16

Certhiide............2. 0 2 0 4

Paride oone nN 19 9 20 15

Sylviidæ credd 7 1 i 2 Polioptila cxrula ob-

scura added.

Kardi di nine ain 15 7 14 | 10

eel Ls

Total | 313 | 117 | 321 | 185 |

E. pusillus trailli; (T) E. obscurus (1886) becomes E. wrightii,

and, finally, (8) Empidonax griseus appears as a new species.

In the family Alaudidæ, three new subspecies of “ Horned

Larks” are added to the List (O. a. adusta, merrilli and pallida).

` In the family Corvide we have Cyanocitta stelleri annectens

added as a subspecies, and Aphelocoma cyanotis as a species. In

this genus occur also A. californica hypoleuca, A. c. obscura and

A. insularis. A new subspecies of Raven is also recognized (C. c.

principalis). Finally, and very properly, the generic name

is replaced in the 1895 List by Nucifraga of Brisson.

364 The American Naturalist. [May,

Among the Icteridz I note that Dolichonyx o. albinueha (1886)

has been omitted, and that the genus Callothrus of Cassin has

been adopted and made to contain C. robustus, which was form-

erly Molothrus xneus (1886). The subspecies Agelaius phæni-

ceus sonoriensis and A. p. bryanti have been added.

The largest of all the passerine groups of birds is the family

Fringillidæ. The following synopsis will show the changes

that have been made in it since 1886:

SPECIES ADDED..

Junco ridgwayi.

Junco townsendi.

Melospiza insignis.

Euetheia canora.

SPECIES OMITTED.

Carpodacus frontalis.

Zonotrichia intermedia.

Zonotrichia gambeli.

Sporophila morelleti.

SUBSPECIES ADDED.

Coccothranstes vespertinus?

montanus.

Carpodacus mexicanus fron-

talis.

Carpodacus mexicanus ruberri-

henax nivalis iria

sendi.

Poocætes gramineus affinis

. Ammodramus henslowii occi-

dentalis.

Ammoilronius caudacutus sub-

virgatus.

Spinus tristis pallidus.

ctrop

Ammodramus maritimus pen-

insulæ.

Ammodramus maritimus sen-

netti.

Zonotrichia leucophrys inter-

media.

Zonotrichia leucophrys gam-

eli.

Spizella pusilla arenacea.

Junco Da shufeldti. .

Junco hyemalis thurberi.

Melospiza fasciata graminea.

Melospiza fasciata clementæ.

Pipilo fuseus senicula

Cardinalis ¢. canicaudus.

Pyrrhuloxia sinuata beckhami.

jrrhuloxia sinuata peninsulæ.

Passerina versicolor pulchra.

Sporophila el d sharpei.

SUBSPECIES OMITTED.

Carpodacus Fronts rhodocol-

pus.

* So long as she aopa range of a species is ¢ extended it makes not an

iota’s difference how that extension has been accomplished, whether it has been

through human y l i

agency (“introduction ”), or by other means, for when the bi

th hl t bers, and , it is entitled to

A bate any List rl xine gore de ornis of the country into which it has come. |

oo gained ap recognition, in

the A. O. U. és nameng tang the yg it has been successfully “introduced”

from PRAN Tf this be granted, the Committee were guilty of very unscienti

practice when t omitted the Engli w (Passer ) fi

List,” (also camel alee; a and it can only stand as an example of how far

men devin their prejudices to carry them, and blind their scientific inst’

“vespertina” in 1886 edition. |

1896.] Progress in American Ornithology. 365

Between the species Carpodacus cassini and the subspecies

Carpodacus mexicanus frontalis, the subgenus Barrica is intro-

duced.

Progne subis hesperia has been added to the Swallows (Hirun-

dinidæ), as well as Progne cryptoleuca, and Petrochelidon fulva as

a straggler. The Bahaman Swallow (Callichelidon cyaneoviridis)

having accidentally occurred on the Dry Tortugas, it intro-

duces both the species and genus to which it belongs.

To the Vireonidx were added V. s. alticola and V. s. lucasanus,

as well as V. n. maynardi and V. huttoni obscurus.

In the case of the family Coerebide, the genus Certhiola is

superseded by Ceereba, and consequently Certhiola bahamensis

becomes Cereba bahamensis. —

But few changes are noticeable among the Mniotiltide, and

these principally the addition of new subspecies. The Dusky

Warbler (Helminthophila celata sordida) is one of these, Dendro-

ica æ. sonorana, Geothlypis trichas ignota and Geothlypis polio-

cephala ralphi being the others.

To the family Troglodytidæ there are to be noted a number

of additions and some few changes. They may be shown thus:

1886. 1895.

Harporhynchus longirostris = H. L. sennetti.

' Subsp. added.

Harporhynchus cinereus mearnsi.

Genus Campylorhynchus = Genus Heleodytes.

C. brunneicapillus = H. brunneicapillus.

Subsp. added.

H. b. bryanti.

714. C. affinis = Omitted.

Subsp. added.

713b. H. b. affinis.

Catherpes mevicanus peta

- Thryothorus brevicaudus = T. brevicauda.

366 The American Naturalist. [May,

Subsp. added.

Troglodytes xdon aztecus.

Cistothorus palustris paludicola.

Cistothorus palustris griseus.

Sp. added.

Cistothorus marianæ.

In the Certhiidæ, Certhia familiaris mexicana becomes C. f.

alticola, and C. f. montana and C. f. occidentalis are added as new

subspecies.

Among the Nuthatches and Tits (Paridæ) the following addi-

tions and changes are to be noted.

1886. 1895.

Subsp. added.

Sitta carolinensis atkinsi.

Sitta pygmæa leuconucha.

Parus bicolor texensis.

Subgenus Parus inserted.

Parus carolinensis agilis.

- Parus hudsonicus stoneyi.

Parus hudsonicus columbianus.

i Species added.

Psaltriparus santaritæ.

[745] P. mlanotis = Psaltriparus lloydi.

Finally, among the family Turdidæ, we have:

1886. 1895.

Turdus f. salicicolus ` = F. f. salicicola.

Sialia mexicana ` == K. m. occidentalis.

Subspecies added.

| Vialia mexicana bairdi.

Sialia m. anabelæ.

_ T am now prepared to present some comparisons with respect

to the numbers of species and subspecies in 1886 and 1895, and

these may be best shown again by means of a Table, as follows :

1896.] Progress in American Ornithology. 367

TABLE.

Recorded in | Recorded in

1886. | 1895,

GROUP. |

| j

Sp S. sp. | Sp. | S. sp.

Pygopodes...... E E EE TEEST CRE Ea A TATE F 38 4 32 4

L ces inc 44 4 46 4

i ahii Ae res 81 8 32 3

St p 17 5 19 5

e e sarod 1 0 1 0

Herodiones 19 2 20 3

Hal aAtartes 17 3 21 1

Limicolze 4 68 6

Gallinse 22 18 21 22

Columb 12 0 11 4

Raptores 53 29 54 37

a E, PAE piers Ma Aaa cal) S ESE R EAE IA I 0 1 0

Pici 23 i 22 14

-cusissen da MRA TRT ss 3 26 7

Pa Seah, a Senin tee 313 117 321 185

Grand total 738 209 755 307

This table will go to show that taking the species and sub-

species together in 1886, they amounted to 947, while in 1895

there were no less than 1062. In substracting the number of

species recorded in 1886 from those in 1895, we find that there

has been a gain of 17 species, and in dealing with the subspe-

cies in the same manner, we find that there has been a gain of

98 subspecies. A study of this table is interesting in other

ways, as the making of similar comparisons of any single

group, or those groups exhibiting the greatest increase and the

causes therefor; but all such data can be easily appreciated by

the reader from what has been given above, and my space will

not admit of enlarging upon it here.

For a moment we may now turn to the “ Hypothetical hale’ 4

of the two editions of the work I have under consideration. In

1886 there were 26 species and subspecies relegated to its hy-

pothetical list, ranging from 1 to 5 for the families in which

they occurred. In 1895, Diomedea exulans is seen to be added

368 The American Naturalist. [May,

to the number, while Chen cxrulescens is considered to belong

to our avifauna, and has therefore been added to the list of

1895. The Swallow-tailed Gull, given as Oreagrus furcatus in

1886, is now Xema furcata, and nine examples of it are said to

be known to science, instead of only three, as reported in 1886.

Numenius arquatus and Chordeiles v. sennetti are also added to

the hypothetical list of 1895, while Buteo fuliginosus is ignored

entirely.

Coming at last to the “ List of Fossil Birds of North America,”

we find that as compared with the existing species, a greater

number has been added to those previously known than there

has been to the list of living birds. In 1886 there were 46

species of fossil birds reported, while in 1895 there were 64

upon the record. No doubt there are others that should have

been added to these, overlooked by the Committee, as, for ex-

ample, the rail-like bird called Crecoides osbornii Shufeldt, from

the Upper Cenozoic of the staked plains of Texas. Marsh in-

creased the list of Cretaceous Birds by the addition of three

species, and the Tertiary Birds by one species, while Shufeldt

added no less than fourteen new species of fossil birds as be-

longing to this latter geological horizon.

To this list should also have been added those belonging to

the “ Recent Era,” as, for example, Plautus impennis—the Great

Auk—and Camptolaimus labradorius—the Pied Duck. Of the

first named species there is an abundance of subfossil material

in existence, and of the latter there are doubtless bones to be

found in the dried skins of specimens in museums and else-

where. Both birds are quite as extinct as is the famous Juras-

sic bird, the Archezopteryx of the Solenhofen States of Bavaria.

But the addition of new birds to the avifauna of any coun-

try is by no means all there is to ornithology. Nor does the

science see its end when these new forms have been described,

figured and printed in an official list. The importance of giv-

ing a new bird a name, recording its superficial characters, and

defining its geographical distribution is not to be underrated,

the more especially so as all this greatly helps those who are

engaged with the science of their morphology, their taxonomy,

and their present affinities and past origin. One of the chief

1896.] Progress in American Ornithology. 369

aims of ornithology is to establish the true relations of existing

and extinct forms of birds to each other, and to other groups

of animals that are either to be found living at the present

time, or else have existed during past ages of the earth’s his-

tory. In other words, the true classification of birds is to be

sought for, and ornithology in this sees its most difficult prob-

lem and its final goal.

But the knowledge of the origin of this most perplexing

group of vertebrates, their evolution, and our power to correctly

classify them can only come to us in one way, and that is

through a complete understanding of their structure, and a

comprehension of the anatomy of those groups more or less

nearly related to them. Other departments, however, can lend

great assistance here, and the avian taxonomist can have much

light thrown upon his arduous task through the revelations of

researches in the fields of physiology, of geographical distribu-

tion, nidology, paleontology, and other biological sciences.

With these facts before us, it is with no little interest that

the taxonomist scans the pages of the second edition of “ The

A. O. U. Check-List of North American Birds,” with the view

of ascertaining what evidences there may be in the direction

of a beéter knowledge of the classification of our birds. There

may have been some excuse for the numerous symptoms of the

somewhat antiquated taxonomy that characterized the arrange-

ment of North American birds in the 1886 edition of the A. O.

U. Check-List, but not so this last one, provided we find that

the earlier classification has been retained. For, be it known,

in the meantime, that is, from 1886 to 1895, the avian morph-

ologists had not been idle. There were very many useful sug-

gestions in the admirable work done by Dr. Stejneger that ap-

peared shortly before the 1886 edition was printed. This was

followed, in 1888, by the superb volumes of Fiirbringer, with

one of the most elaborate classifications of birds the world has

ever seen ; Seebohm, of England, had done a great deal, while

the present writer had published accounts of the osteology of

nearly every family of N. American Birds, and Mr. Lucas

stands prominent in his excellent anatomical work upon many

of the groups. English pens had contributed memoir after

370 The American Naturalist, [May,

memoir along similar lines, and one has but to turn to the

essays and volumes of Newton, Gadow, Beddard, T. J. Parker,

Sharpe and many others to appreciate this. But for one to

fully know what a deal was done during the nine years I speak

of, it is but necessary to read the enthusiastic address of Fiir-

bringer given before the Section for the Anatomy of Birds at

the Second International Ornithological Congress, held at

Budapesth in 1891. A powerful light has been thrown upon

the structure and affinities of the various groups of birds, and

has it in any way affected the classification of the 1895 Check-

List of North Ameican Birds, that is, in so far as the main

groups are concerned? Not in the least. Apart from the ad-

dition to the List of the family Cotingidz, the taxonomy of the

orders and families as given in 1886 are identical with the ar-

rangement reproposed in 1895. For example, we still find the

Grebes, Loons and Auks retained together in the Order Pyco-

PODES, with the first-named separated from the last two by

subordinal lines ; whereas, Fiirbringer, Thompson, Sharpe, my-

self and others, all of whom have examined the structure of

these birds, have shown the affinity existing between the Grebes

and Loons, and that these two families are very distinct from

the Auks. The Auks, in fact, occupy a group by themselves,

and are more nearly related to the Longipennes. Fiirbringer

separated them very widely from the Grebes and Loons, in

which opinion Sharpe and others concur. That the Longi-

pennes and the Limicol are akin is now generally recognized

by those who have studied the anatomical structure of the

members of the two groups, yet in the A. O. U. classification,

six entire Orders stand between the Gulls and the limicoline

assemblage. Fiirbringer makes a “Gens” Laro-Limicole, and

Sharpe keeps the two groups close together. As long ago as

1867 Professor Huxley clearly showed the osteological agree-

ment between the skull of a- Plover and that of a Gull.

That the Fowls (Gallinx), Pigeons (Columb), Raptorial

Birds (Accinitres), Parrots (Psittaci) and the Cuckoos (Coccyges)

as groups should stand in lineal series I can well believe—but

as Gadow, Hubert Lyman Clark, myself and others have

frequently pointed out, the Owls do not belong with the Acci-

1896.] Progress in American Ornithology. 371

pitres or the Falcons and their kin, while I make separate

groups for the Cuckoos, Kingfishers and Trogons. The Wood-

peckers are not separated from the Passeres by the Goatsuck-

ers, Swifts, and Hummingbirds, as the A. O. U. List now have

them arranged, but the Woodpeckers, in the list of North

American Birds, taxonomically arrayed, should stand immed-

iately next to the Passeres, while the “ Macrochires ” is a thor-

oughly unnatural group, inasmuch as birds are no longer

classified and restricted to groups on account of their having

long pinions.

Finally we come to the Passeres with the lineal arrangement

of the 21 families composing the group. Now, as a classifica-

tory scheme, this lineal method of showing it is unsatisfactory

in the extreme, but it appears to be the only available one to

adopt in the Lists in books. A “tree” shows what is meant

much better and truer, but it can never form a part of a List.

Still these Lists show something, for we can, among other

things, indicate in them the families that should, in our opin-

ions, occupy the extremes—as, for instance, the Tyrannide and

the Corvidx, but in numerous cases it will be found to be ex-

ceedingly difficult to complete the sequence, even to carry out

the hopes of the classifier. However, marked violences can

usually be avoided, and marked affinities often shown in a

classification of this kind.

The scheme adapted in the A. O. U. Check-List, although

not altogether a bad one, is capable of showing a more truthful

arrangement of the families of passerine birds. In the first

place, this List should be completely reversed; then the

Thrushes (Turdidæ) placed more nearly where they belong;

and the Laniide removed very much nearer the Clamatorial

end of the sequence, and away from the Vireos, with which

family they have no special affinity. Thus much for the

progress in American ornithology during the past ten years;

our ornis has been most carefully studied in so far as the

identification of new species and subspecies is concerned, but

the matter of scientific classification of birds demands increased

attention, and it is to be hoped that a greater number of avian

morphologists will arise,and should that come about, the clas-

372 The American Naturalist. [May,

sification of the next edition of the A. O. U. Check-List will, in

truth, be archaic if again printed without change; the 1895

one, just out, is a number of years behind the science of the

times, so we may easily imagine how very backward it will

appear ten years hence.

THE PATH OF THE WATER CURRENT IN CUCUM-

BER PLANTS. E

By Erwin F. SMITE.

Although Sachs’ notion that the ascending water current in

plants passes through the walls of the vessels and not through

their interior, was rendered very doubtful long ago, if not

thoroughly exploded, by the experiments of Elfving, Vesque,

Erera, Boehm and others, the old statement still remains in

many of the text books and continues to be taught. For this

reason, and because the papers of the opponents of this view

do not seem to have received much attention in this country,

while Dr. Sachs’ Lectwres on the Physiology of Plants in H. Mar-

shall Ward’s admirable translation, is known and read every-

where and deservedly so, it may be worth while to call atten-

tion once more to the present state of our knowledge on this

subject. This I shall do by presenting some experiments of

my own, which were made a year ago on Oucumis sativus L.

These were undertaken partly to verify some of Strasburger’s

statements in his book Ueber den Bau und die Verrichtungen der

Leitungsbahnen in den Pflanzen, and partly to determine, as

accurately as possible, the path of the water current in Cucur-

bitaceous stems, subject to the attack of Bacillus tracheiphilus.

They were begun about March 20, and continued till some time

in April, the weather being by turns warm and cold, sunny,

windy, cloudy and rainy. About 30 well grown cucumber

vines were experimented upon, the following being selected

to the cultivation of cucumbers forthe winter market. None

of the vines trailed on the ground, but all were trained up on

1896.] Water Current in Cucumber Plants. 373

stakes or over high strung wires. A sharp razor was used in

cutting the stems,

Before proceeding to the experiments, it will be necessary

for the sakeof those who are not familiar with the structure

of the cucumber stem, to briefly indicate its anatomy. The

bundles are bi-collateral, i. e., there is a group of phloem on

the inner, as well as on the outer face of the bundle. The

outer phloem is separated from the central strand of xylem

by a cambium zone, which is restricted to the bundle, i. e., not

inter-fascicular. The inner phloem is separated from the

xylem, by a meristematic tissue structurally much like cam-

bium, but functionally different. The phloem consists of

numerous large sieve tubes, with the usual accompanying cells

and cambiform cells. The central or xylem strand of the bun-

dle consists principally of large pitted vessels, held together by

shorter tracheids and lignified parenchyma. The mode of ori-

gin of the pitted vessels, i. e., out of a series of large superposed

cells, is plainly visible, the cross septa being sometimes pres-

ent and perfect, but more often partially wanting or reduced

to mere rims on the inside of a continuous tube. The walls

of these tubes contain thousands of very thin places, or actual

perforations, (in many cases the central slit takes no stain), and

the tubes appear to be admirably adapted for water reservoirs,

any adjacent portion of the plant being clearly able to draw

from them without hindrance. It appears to me somewhat

doubtful, whether they also function as direct water carriers.

This business seems more suited to the spiral vessels which

occur in a little group on the inner face of the xylem strand,

embedded in a delicate, non-lignified living parenchyma,

which frequently contains chlorophyll. The walls of these

spirals are not pitted ; their bore isalmost capillary, i. e., much

less than that of the pitted vessels; and they are of great

length, probably by means of splicings extending as open

tubes the whole length of the vine. That they are of more

fundamental importance to the plant than are the pitted ves-

sels, appears from the fact, that they are the only tubular

parts of the xylem to be found in the smaller roots, and are also

the only xylem-vessels passing out of the stems into the peti-

374 The American Naturalist. [May,

oles and ramifying in the veins of the leaves. It seems to

follow from this that whatever be the path-of the water cur-

rent in the stem itself, it can enter the body of the plant in

quantities sufficient for transpiration purposes only along the

pathway of the spirals, and can reach the leaves only through

the same channels.

The pitted vessels are probably sometimes nearly full of

water, and at other times nearly empty, the amount depend-

ing on the quantity in the soil and on the activity of transpi-

ration. Owing to the number of very thin places or actual

perforations in their walls, they undoubtedly contain air at all

times and probably often in large quantities. I regard these

vessels as water reservoirs. In this capacity they appear to

be admirably adapted to serve the needs of a class of plants

which (on account of the extent and unprotected nature of

their transpiring surface) often make sudden and very large

demands on the stem for water—demands greater than can

be met by the immediate activity of the roots. There is, how-

ever, nothing against the supposition that when they are not

full of water, they may also serve as aerating organs, the

stems being alive and chlorophyll-bearing clear to the cen-

ter. The function of the spiral vessels, according to my con-

ception, is quite different. They also contain a greater or lesser

quantity of water, according to the activity of transpira-

tion and the amount procurable from the soil or from the

neighboring reservoirs (the pitted vessels), but unlike the pitted

vessels, they are surrounded by a living, non-lignified, non-

lacunose parenchyma, and there is no free access of air to

their interior, but, on the contrary; so far as we can judge

from the anatomical structure, this part of the plant has been

developed with special reference to keeping it out. When the

spirals are not full of water, they probably contain rarefied

air. The very thin walls of these spiral vessels bear on their

inner face lignified annular or spiral thickenings, which are

probably of great service in strengthening the delicate walls,

so that they may be strong enough to resist the collapsing

tendency of the vacuum pull due to the osmotic pressure, and

yet remain thin enough to readily allow water to filter into

1896.] Water Current in Cucumber Plants. 375

them or out, as the case may be. Such, roughly sketched, is

the nature of the bundle, the xylem part of which contains 5

or 6 spirals and from 12 to 15, or more pitted vessels. The

cucumber stem, exclusive of the hypocotyle, usually con-

tains 9 such bundles, the 5 larger ones forming an inter-

rupted ring or cylinder in the central part of the stem,

and the four smaller ones alternating with the larger ones

nearer the surface of the stem, the fifth bundle of the outer

series being usually wanting in this species. These bun-

dles are separated from each other by thin-walled, living

cells which are nearly iso-diametric. The central portion

of this parenchyma and that between the bundles, may be

designated as medullary tissue, and that farther out as cortical

parenchyma, although all of this fundamental tissue bears

chlorophyll, and is used to store starch in prior to the develop-

ment of the fruit. Outside of the bundles, and not far from

the surface of the stem, is a compact tissue formed of numer-

ous elongated, thick-walled, flexible, strengthening cells.

These are the bast fibres, forming collectively, the stereomatic

sheath. This sheath is several rows of cells thick and forms an

broken or nearly unbroken cylinder in the young stem, but’

is afterwards ruptured longitudinally into a dozen or more

strands by the growth of the stem in thickness. Between these

strands of stereome, the cortical parenchyma finds its way to

the epidermis, except where the latter is specially strengthened

by sub-epidermal strands of collenchyma. The stem appears

to have so developed as to secure every advantage to be de-

rived from a combination of lightness with flexibility and

strength.

To indicate the movement of the water in the stems and

leaves, various aniline stains were tried, e. g., eosine, soluble

nigrosene, methyl green, methyl orange, acid fuchsin, ete.

Eosine proved by far the most satisfactory, none of the other

stains moving with anything like the same rapidity, and some

of them causing copious precipitates in the vessels. None of

the substances in the sap of the cucumber vessels cause any

precipitate with eosine, and it is probable that dilute solutions

of this substance, while clearly poisonous to the plant, move

with the same rapidity as pure water, at least at first.

376 The American Naturalist. — [May,

1. Upwarp3Movement or OnE PER Cent. EosInE WATER

THROUGH CUT STEMS.

(No. 9). This vine was 215 centimeters long and bore a

number of small leaves and 17 large ones, 10 of which aver-

aged 20 cm. in breadth. March 21, 2:30 p.m. The stem near

the earth was cut under water and put at once into 1 per cent.

eosine water! 2:43 p.m. The stain is now distinct in all of

the principal veins of a leaf only 15 cm. from the end of the

stem, i. e., it has passed up the stem a distance of two meters

in less than 13 minutes, probably in 10 to 12 minutes. 2:47

p.m. The red stain is now distinct in the veins of the small

undeveloped uppermost leaves of the stem. 3:25 p.m. Slight

droop of the foliage, but much less than in No. 10 (a similar

vine in 10 per cent. eosine water). Foliage decidedly-less red

than that of No. 10. 4:35 p.m. Leaves drooping very decid-

edly. The leaves of No. 10 are flabbier and redder, but much

less fluid has passed up the stem. 5:10 p.m. About 21 ce.

of the eosine water has passed up the stem in 2 hours and 40

minutes. March 22, noon. Leaves, tendrils and surface of the

young fruitsreddish. The stain doesnot make its way readily

into the coiled tips of the tendrils. Many of the leaves are

dry shriveled, so that they crackle on touch. Stem not shriv-

eled. Most of the petioles are still turgid and but little stain is

visible in them, except. in a few toward the top of the vine.

4:00 p.m. Not nearly so red as No. 10. Stem quite green and

not noticeably shriveled. The stem of No. 10 in the 10 per

cent. eosine has shriveled decidedly to-day. March 23, 12:25

p.m. About 10 cc. of the stain has passed up the stem since

last night. 4:30 p.m. About 10 cc. of the stain has gone up

the stem since the last record. March 25,12:30 p.m. About

20 cc. of the stain has passed up the stem since the last record.

Most of the leaves are crisp dry, but the terminal ones are still

moist, although shriveled and soft like old rags, the parenchyma

being yellow and the veins bright red. Most of the petioles

are bright red, and all of them are limp and hang straight

down ; the stem has shriveled and become reddish, except the

‘Distilled water containing Dr. Griibler’s ‘‘ Eosine Soluble in water.”

1896.] Water Current in Cucumber Plants. 377

submerged part, which has kept its turgor and resists diffuse

staining better than the parts in the air. The plant is dead.

March 26, 2:40 p.m. About 12 cc. of the eosine has passed up

the stem since yesterday p. m.

In this plant over 40 cc. of the eosine water passed up the

stem during the first 24 hours, and in the next four days an

additional 45 cc., part of which after the plant was dead.

Vine No.1 which was 188 centimeters long, also took up the

eosine water after it was dead.. This absorption of the stain

continued long after the leaves had become dry-shriveled, and

did not entirely cease until all parts of the bright red stem

became bone-dry. This vine was under observation 14 days,

during which time about 150 cc. of 1 per cent eosine water

passed up the stem, only 57 cc. of which went up during the

first 49} hours.

(No. 25). This was a young vine, measuring 100 centime-

ters above the cut surface. It bore 17 leaves, the largest 6

averaging 13 cm.in breadth. March 28, 11:56 a.m. The stem

was cut under water and put at once into an alkaline eosine

water, made by putting 1 gr. eosine into 100 cc. of rs caus-

tic soda (the solution stood in the laboratory over night

and became darker colored). 12:01 p.m. The red stain is dis-

tinctly visible in the veins of all the leaves, even the upper-

most ones, i. e., it has gone straight up a distance of one metre

in 5 minutes. It is sunny and windy, and transpiration is

active. The dry bulb registers 22° C.; the wet bulb 17.3° C.

12:10 p.m. The foliage begins to droop. 12:40 p. m. Foliage

wilting very badly. 2:10 p.m. About 5 cc. of the stain have

passed up the stem. The lower leaves have begun to crisp at

the margin. March 29, 2:30 p.m. About 7 cc. of the stain

have passed up the stem since the last record. The blades of

the leaves are crisp and the petioles are bright red. March 30.

Fluid quite dark ; an additional 4 to 5 cc. has gone up the stem.

Stem and petioles much brighter red than yesterday. April

3,11 a.m. The entire stem and all of the petioles have become

extremely bright red, the eosine water (20 cc. of it) having

continued to pass up the dead stem since the last record. The

leaves appear to have taken up no stain since March 29.

378 The American Naturalist. [May,

They are not now crisp, but feel limp like old rags. The veins

are bright red, but the parenchyma is yellowish-white. The

surfaee of the stem feels moist and stains the fingers red when

rubbed.

Similiar results were obtained with a 1 per cent. solution

of sodium chloride containing 1 per cent. eosine. Acidulated

waters (1 per cent. citric acid and 1 per cent. hydrochloric acid)

also passed up the cut stems rapidly and in large quantity,

and after the stems were dead. The 1 per cent. hydrochloric

acid proved much more poisonous to the plant than did the

1 per cent. citric acid. Similar experiments were made with

hydrant water. In the latter, after a few days, the plants

reduced their foliage to a minimum, and then lived on for

many days, i. e., in case of a plant used for comparison with

No. 1, until long after the latter was dead and dry.

To sum up the results of these experiments, of which the

preceding are only examples, we have the following prop-

ositions :

(1). The rate of movement of the water current in cucum-

ber stems during active transpiration is at least 10 to 12

meters an hour. (2). Absorption of water and transpiration

continues in dead stems for some time, i. e., until they have

become dry. (3). Large quantities of fluid passed through

the cut stems during the first few days. (4). When the cut

stems were plunged into water tinged with eosine, sufficient

of this stain was taken up to color all the tissues of. the plant

bright red, including parenchyma, sclerenchyma, collenchyma

and epidermis; the first parts to show the stain being the

spiral vessels.

(To be Continued.)

1896.] On the Mississippi Valley Unionide. 379

ON THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY UNIONIDA FOUND

IN THE ST. LAWRENCE AND ATLANTIC

DRAINAGE AREAS.

By Cuas. T. SIMPSON.

The entire Mississippi drainage area is peopled by a pecu-

liar Unione Fauna.'

The species are exceedingly numerous. and many of them

attain great size, or become very solid at maturity. A large

number are characterized by strong sculpture in the form of

knobes, pustules or plications, or by striking outlines, and

the species in general are more richly colored externally or

internally than those of any other part of the globe.

The Atlantic drainage area, including a considerable part

of the St. Lawrence River system, is occupied by a very dif-

ferent Naiad fauna. As a rule the species are moderate in size

and conform nearly to the ordinary oval or eblong-oval Unione

type; they are of light structure, without sculpture or strong

angularities and lobes, and are plain colored in nacre and

epidermis.

The dividing line between these two Unione faunas is not

directly on the Height of Land, which separates the St. Law-

rence and some of the other Atlantic drainage systems from

that of the Mississippi, but it is considerably to the northward

and north-eastward of it.’

To the westward the Red River of the north, the Sas-

katchewan and Mackenzie are largely inhabited by Missis-

sippi Valley Uniones, and they are found abundantly in all

‘the great lakes, the southern peninsula of Michigan, the

streams in Wisconsin, Indiana and Ohio that drain into these

lakes, and well up into Eastern Canada, Lake Champlain and

1 See paper by the writer “On the Relationships and Distribution of the

North American Unionidæ ” in Am. Naturalist, XX VII, p, 35:

2 This matter will be discussed in a paper by the writer, which will soon be

published inthe Proc. N. S. National Museum ‘On the Classification and Dis-

tribution of the Naiades,’’

380 The American Naturalist. [May,

the Hudson River, in some places mingling with the forms

belonging to the Atlantic drainage area proper, in others

occupying the waters exclusively.

I think we may safely take it for granted that the only way

in which the Mississippi Valley Unionide could have entered

these northern and north-eastern river systems was by migrat-

ing along connecting fresh water. As there is no such con-

nection to-day between these systems the question as to how

they reached their present distribution becomes an extremely

interesting one.

If the theory of the Ice Age as held by most glacialists is

a true one I think it will fully explain the present remarkable

distribution of these extra-limital Mississippi Valley Naiades.

And at the same time I believe the evidence of these fresh

water mussels is strongly corroborative of the glacial theory.

It is held that at the close of the Ice Age a great cap of ice of

immense thickness covered North America east of the Rocky

Mountains, down to about Latitude 40°. That with the com-

ing on of warm weather it gradually melted away at its south-

ern extremity, and that when this thawing was continued

north of the height of land great lakes were formed whose

southern shores were the slope of the land which raised

towards the south, and whose northern borders were the slowly

dissolving wall of ice. On account of the ice to the north-

ward this water could only drain into the Mississippi system,

or to the Southeastward, and several old channels are found

through which it is believed that it flowed. One of these is

the Red River of the North, which almost connects by means

of Traverse Lake at its head with Big Stone Lake at the head

of the Minnesota River. There is still a broad channel near

the western end of Lake Superior which connects with the St.

Croix River, and at Chicago there was no doubt an overflow

from Lake Michigan into the Des Plaines River, and Lake

Erie is believed to have had its outlet into the Wabash through

the Maumee which nearly connects with it. The two streams

are connected over a very flat country by an old channel not

less than a mile and a half wide, and having an average depth

of 20 feet. For 25 miles this character continues, and there is

1896.] On the Mississippi Valley Unionide. 381

very little fall either way. To the northeast this channel opens

out into an ancient lake, and at the southwest it touches bed

rock at Huntington, and then descends more rapidly.’

It will be noticed on the map that the St. Josephs, St.

Mary’s, and Auglaize Rivers, tributaries of the Maumee, flow

in the direction of the Wabash, that the two former join at

Fort Wayne and flow partly backward as the Maumee; the

whole looking like a tree with its branches broken down, and

hanging against its trunk. If the river was continued into

the Wabash, and the water all flowed to the southwest it would

form a natural looking system. It is quite within the bounds

of probability that there were old overflows from the St. Law-

rence drainage to the eastward of this through the Oswego

River into the Mohawk, or by way of the Sorel into the Hud-

son, and possibly through eastern Lake Erie into the Alle-

ghany system.

Now if the water from this region north of the Height of

Land flowed over into the Mississippi drainage area at various

places it would be almost certain that the Unionide of this

system would migrate up these overflows and into the northern

lakes, that in this region they would obtain a foothold and

flourish, for the reason that at the time of their entrance it is

quite probable that all freshwater life of this area was destroyed

by the grinding and crushing of the great ice cap. It is

possible that a few of the Naiades of the eastern drainage sys-

tem might have survived in the St. Lawrence Valley but it is

more likely that such as are now found there have since

reached that region by migration from the overflows through

the Mohawk and Oswego Rivers, or the Sorel. There has

probably been at some time since the close of the Glacial Epoch

a connection between the Hudson River and Lake Champlain,

as the latter is largely peopled with Mississippi Valley Naiades.

These forms, most likely, entered Lake Erie through the old

Maumee Channel, or by some connection with the Upper Ohio

system, passed into Lake Ontario, thence through the Oswego

3 See a paper “On the Ancient Outlet of Lake Michigan,” by Prof., W. M.

Davis. Pop. Science Monthly, XLVI, No. 2, p. 217. Also a paper on this old

system by G. K, Gilbert, in the first volume of the Ohio Geological Survey.

382 ` The American Naturalist. [May,

and Mohawk Rivers into the Hudson, and across into Lake

Champlain; or they may have gone down the St. Lawrence

and up the Sorel. If by a subsidence since that time Lake

Champlain has been connected with the ocean, as is now be-

lieved, the Naiads of that lake no doubt retreated up the small

streams flowing into it, and returned after the elevation of the

land when its waters again became fresh.

I think I am not making too sweeping an assertion when I

say that all the Mississippi Valley species of Naiades that have

entered the St. Lawrence, or in fact any part of the Atlantic

drainage areas, have become changed in some of their charac-

ters. Asa rule, though not in every case, they have become

smaller, and simpler in their outlines; the sculpture is less

pronounced or is almost obliterated ; in many cases the shells

are thinner, the nacre has lost its brilliancy, and instead of the

bright epidermis, often painted beautifully with rays or a

wonderful pattern of rich greens, yellows, and olives we have

mostly dull, livid, ashy or rusty reddish or brownish exteriors,

and they are very often somewhat distorted. Thisis not, as I

believe, in any great measure due to climate or colder water,

for these same species are as vigorous and finely developed in

parts of Wisconsin drained into the Mississippi, Minnesota

and Dakota as in any part of their area; besides Anodonta

edentula under the name of A. undulata, and Unio (Margarita-

na) marginata when found in Maryland, Virginia, and probably

even south of that are so dwarfed and stunted as to be

scarcely recognizable. This changing of characters has been

well illustrated in a lot of Unionidæ recently submitted to me

for examination by Prof. B. W. Everman of the U. S. Fish

Commission, which was collected mostly from the Maumee

basin by Dr. Philip H. Kirsch, of Columbia City, Indiana.

This region lies in Lat. 41° to 41}°, the most southerly part of

the St. Lawrence drainage. Unio. luteolus Lam., U. subrostratus

Say, U. circulus Lea, U. phaseolus Hild., U. multiplicatus Lea,

U. multiradiatus Lea, and Anodonta grandis Say, are so dwarfed

and stunted, and changed in color as to be scarcely recogniz-

able, while the same species from the. Wabash, from which

these have no doubt all been derived, are as vigorous and

finely developed as any in the Mississippi Valley.

1896.] On the Mississippi Valley Unionide. 383

This great change in size, form and coloring has caused stu-

dents to bestow many specific names on what I believe are

merely northern races or varieties of common Mississippi Val-

ley species. Thus Anthony’s Anodonta subangulata and Lea’s, A.

Sootiana, A. marryattana and A. benedictii are merely dwarfed and

slightly changed forms of Say’s, A. grandis. Anthony’s A.

subinflata is probably a form of A. corpulenta Cooper, and A.

subcylindracea Lea, is the northern manifestation of Lea’s well

known A. ferussaciana. Say’s Anodonta edentula becomes in

Michigan Alasmodonta rhombica of Anthony, and further east

and southeast A. undulata of Say; Lea’s Unio circulus of the

central Mississippi area changes in Lake Erie to the dwarf

U. leibi of the same author; his U. canadensis is only an altered

over U. ventricosus of the western States, and A. Gray’s U.

borealis is a very much changed form of the common U.

luteolus, while U. hippopeus Lea, of Lake Erie is, I believe,

only a stunted U. plicatus that has almost entirely lost its pli- -

cations, and has assumed a dirty, reddish or olive color.

Some of these are possibly valid species; most of them

would certainly be considered so, together with a number of

other northern manifestations of Mississippi Valley species

were it not that so many intermediate links are found.

It sometimes happens that specimens of a given species are

found in the Mississippi area, growing, no doubt, under un-

favorable conditions, that so closely imitate the same species

found in northern waters as to be indistinguishable from it.

Thus Lea has in his collection what he called Anodonta

footiana, a Michigan form, from Illinois, and depauperate Unio

plicatus are sometimes found in the Mississippi area that are

almost exactly like U. hippopzus. And on the other hand

occasionally fine specimens of Unio rectus, U. rubiginosus,

nodonta ferussaciana and A. grandis are found in the St. Law-

rence drainage that are perfectly normal. Yet as a rule

an expert can tell at a glance whether a ppemnien grew in the

Mississippi area or was extra-limital.

Anodonta simpsoniana Lea, is, I believe, a good species,

although it is probably an altered and dwarfed A. grandis.

384 ` The American Naturalist. [May,

It is possible that here we have an opportunity to make

some kind of an estimate as to the time required in develop-

ing species and varieties among the Unionide. It is well

known that the Laramie strata of the northwest, belonging

perhaps to the upper cretaceous or earlier Tertiary systems

contain the remains of a large number of Unios which

appear to be very closely related to existing Mississippi Val-

ley forms, and are probably their progenitors. Some of these

old fossils are so much like certain recent species that they

might easily be taken for them by an expert, and nearly or

quite all of them can be placed in existing groups.

Yet it is more than probable that the great variety. of

changes that have been produced in the Mississippi Valley

forms which now inhabit the St. Lawrence drainage area have

taken place since the Ice Age began to draw to a close,

because it is almost certain that all fluviatile and lacus-

tine life under the ice sheet was destroyed, and that any

forms closely allied to those of the Mississippi Valley now

found north of the Height of Land migrated there since. It

is held by most glaciologists, I believe, that the Glacial Epoch

reached down probably to within from 10,000 to 20,000 years

of the present. This amount of time might probably be

taken as the age of these peculiar forms of St. Lawrence

Mississippi Naiades.

Unio radiatus, ochraceus, cariosus, heterodon, tappanianus, and

Margaritana undulata, which are found in the Atlantic drain-

age south of the line of the ice cap, and which are all closely

related to common Mississippi Valley forms are probably

older, and may have been derived from some migration made

from the western to the eastern drainage at a much earlier

date. At any rate I believe that all the Uniones which belong

properly in the Atlantic drainage system were derived at one

time and another from Mississippi Valley species; that some

peculiarity of environment common to this entire region

has had a tendency to dwarf them, to simplify their forms and

dull their colors.

x “ss

1896.] Editor’s Table. 385

EDITOR’S TABLE.

Naturalists need not feel unkindly just now towards representative

Dingley of Maine, who introduced a bill for the destruction of the seal

herd of Behring Sea, which has passed the lower house of Congress.

From the point of view of the lover of nature this bill appears to be an

atrocity, but everything does not appear on the surface. The sole ob-

ject is to destroy the commercial value of the herd, so as to put a stop

to the slaughter by reckless Canadian poachers. A sufficient number

will be preserved to serve as a basis of a new herd, whenever the Brit-

ish and Canadian Governments are ready to join hands with us in the

effort to preserve it. The Dingley bill is really a plan for preserving

the herd and not destroying it. The fact is that our neighbors across

the bcrder have been running up a bill of small accounts against

themselves, which will in the aggregate prove burdensome to them

some day if continued. It is poor policy for a weak party to make

- itself unpleasant, especially when the stronger party is desirous of

friendly relations. Canadians and Americans are really one people,

and we ought to combine not only to protect the seals, but to increase

theirs numbers, and develop the industry which depends on them.

Some naturalists think it is quite the proper thing to protest that it

is of absolutely no importance whether they receive credit for a discovery

or not, and it is more than intimated in print from various quarters

from time to time, that interest in such questions is quite inconsistent

with the lofty aims of science. We must confess to having become

somewhat weary of this alleged elevation of sentiment, for we find

human nature to be in scientific investigators not so very different from

that which is common to the rest of- mankind. Under the circum-

stances these protestations savor of cant. The naturalist like other

men must live. In order to live he must be known ; hence necessity

forbids that he hide his light if he have any, under a bushel. And in

fact the majority of naturalists do not do so. They understand the

value of honest advertising. The product of a laborer should be labelled,

first for his own advantage, and second for the information of others, who

know his personal equation. What we want is honest goods with

honest labels, and for these no protestations of pseudomodesty, or

depreciation on the part of unpractical idealists, is in place.

We are pleased to notice the excellent scientific work which is being

done by the Field Museum of Chicago. The management has called

386- The American Naturalist. [May,

to its aid a number of able scientific men, and is publishing the result

of their work in suitable style. The papers of Hay on the Vertebral

Column of Amia, and the skeleton of Protostega, are important con-

tributions to knowledge. We hope soon to give an abstract of the

illustrated paper of Holmes on the Yucatan ruins, It seems that the

useum is not to be merely a show place, but is to be a center of

original research, worthy of the great city in which it is sitnated.

Perhaps a year ago we objected in rather caustic terms to the pro-

posed publication by the Filson Club of Louisville, Kentucky, of the

life and bibliography of Rafinesque. We are at the time under the

impression that the club was a scientific body, and we were then of the

opinion, as we are now, that such a society might easily find better use

for its money than the publication of such a work. The fact is, how-

ever, that the object of the society is the preservation of historic records,

and not of the results of scientific research. Hence the publication in

question was precisely within its scope, and Prof. Call, the author,

conferred a benefit on us all in writing the book. The history is a very

curious one, and will interest even the non-scientific reader. Manu-

scripts in the possession of the U. S. National Museum show that Rafine-

sque had a skillful pencil, and that the figures which accompany his

printed works do him injustice.

President Cleveland deserves well of his fellow countrymen for

various reasons, but he deserves least, of his scientific constituency.

His latest appointment, that of the U. S. Commissioner of Fish and

Fisheries, was made in spite of different recommendations of the scien-

tific men of the country, and for reasons which are to this class quite

inscrutable. The new appointee was, as we are informed, retired

from the navy on account of rheumatism. He has no scientific knowl-

edge or experience of the habits of fishes or the conduct of fisheries,

and would seem to be physically incapacitated from learning. Doubt-

less the President has told him as the old lady told her daughter who

asked her if she might go in to swim; father may I the fishes save

from thoughtless cruel slaughter? yes, yes my son, save every one, but

don’t go near the water.

1896.] Recent Literature. 387

RECENT LITERATURE.

Geological Survey of New Jersey.'—The Annual Report of

the State Geologist for the year 1894 contains an account of the pro-

gress made in the study of the surface geology, by R. D. Salisbury; a

report on the artesian wells in southern New Jersey, by L. Woolman,

and a statement of the results of the surveys made with reference to

ascertaining the forest area of the state, by C. C. Vermeule.

Mr. Salisbury makes an especial point of the influence that “ stag-

nant ice” has had upon the deposition of the stratified drift of the

valleys of the northern part of the state. In his description of Flat

Brook Valley he remarks that “the form of topography characteristic

of this valley, and of stagnant ice deposits in general, is the following :

A broad and somewhat swampy flood plain in the axis of the valley

is bordered on one or both sides by a strongly-marked kame belt a

few rodsin width. This kame belt is lowest near the axis of the valley.

It rises in the opposite direction, and finally grades into a flat-topped

terrace.” These terrace differ from normal river terraces primarily in

the fact that the slopes which face the axis of the valley are not erosion

slopes.

Mr. Woolman’s report confirms the conclusions of former observa-

tions, that the principal water-bearing horizons are found in Cretaceous

strata.

The forestry report includes a paper on the forest conditions of south

Jersey, by John Gifford. The interest of this paper centers in the

practical suggestions it contains as to the treatment of forest lands,

both for their preservation, and for pecuniary return for money and

labor spent in their care. The paragraphs on Forest Influences, and

Forest Economies should, in the interest of the people, be quoted in

eiry local Paper of the State,

Lament illustrations, and a geological map of the

valley of the Passaic—topographic sheet 6 in envelope, accompanies

the Report.

Annual Report, Vol. VI, Geological Survey of Canada.’—

This volume comprises the summary reports on the operations of the

Annual Report of the State Geologist of New Jersey for the year 1894.

aoe N. J. 1895.

2 Annual Report ( new series) Geological Survey of Canada, Vol. VI., 1892-93,

Ottawa, 1895; Dr. H. R. C. Selwyn, Director.

388 The American Naturalist. [May,

survey for the years 1892 and 93, by the Director ; reports on the

Geological investigations conducted in central Ontario and south wes-

tern Nova Scotia by F. D. Addens and L, W. Bailey respectively ; a

contribution to the knowledge of the minerals of Canada, as shown by

chemical analyses, by G. C. Hoffman; and a report on mineral statis-

ties and mines, by E. D. Ingall and H. P. H. Brumell.

The Director’s report includes much valuable information concern-

ing the hitherto practically unex plored regions of the Labrador

peninsula, and the western coast of Hudson’s Bay.

Sketch maps of southern Keewatin, and of the south-western part of

Nova Scotia accompany the reports on those regions, and a number of

statistical diagrams show the progress of the mining indutries.

Elementary Physical Geography.’—A new text book of phys-

ical geography has been long needed, so that this work of Mr. Tarr’s

is well timed. The author divides the subject into three parts the Air,

the Ocean, the Land, giving the physiographic side more prominence

than is customary in works of this kind. The language is clear, the

illustration apt, and the information up to date. Each chapter is sup-

plemented by a list of reference books and an appendix contains

descriptions of meteorological instruments, apparatus and methods of

use, suggestions to teachers, and questions upon the text.

The text is usually well illustrated with diagrams and reproductions

of photographs many of them new, while the addition of 29 plates

and charts completes a most attractive volume. We can recommend it

for use as the best text book for colleges before the public.

Guide Zoologique.‘—A reference book, published for use during

the meeting of the International Congress of Zoology at Leyden in

1895. Brief accounts are given of the zoological courses offered in the

various schools of Holland, also of the Zoological institutions, gardens,

and societies. The fauna of the country is summarized by specialists,

the history of the domestic animals revewed, and a short account of the

fishing industry closes the zoological part of the volume. The final

chapter is devoted to the climate of Holland.

The many maps and plates which are distributed through the book,

its convenient size, and the clear, concise language of the text, combine

to make an admirable guide book,

* Elementary Physical Geography. By R. S. Tarr. New York and London,

1895. Macmillan & Co.

* Guide Zoologique. Communications diverses sur les Pays Bas. Leyde,

Septembre, 1895. :

1896.] Recent Literature. 389

Marshalland Hurst’s Practical Zoology.’—The fourth edition

of this work being called for, the work of revising and editing it has

devolved upon Mr. Hurst, to bring the work up to date numerous

changes have been made, the most important of which, perhaps, are in

the chapter on Amphioxus.

The werk as originally written was intended to give the junior stu-

dents of Owens College, Manchester, England, a practical acquaintance

with animal morphology, and the present revised edition will be found

a useful laboratory text book for any one who wishes to acquire an

insight into the leading facts of Animal structure, and a technical

knowledge of the principal methods of research.

The illustrations are intentionally few, as it is expected that the stu-

dent will make drawings from his own dissections. These are, however,

of excellent quality.

Works of this class are of utility in the laboratory, but they do not

take the place of general text books as guides to the larger problems

of zoology.

Elementary Lessons in

petent teacher this book will be of value in Foe a student a fair start

in the study of zoology. It isin reality a Laboratory Manual. Four

simple types of animal structure are given to familiarize the student

with the meaning of the terms, cell, protoplasm, tissue, differentiation

sexuality, ete. Considerable attention is given to insects; then follow

in turn common forms of Crustaceans, Worms, Molluscs and Verte-

rates. The study of the animal alive, and in its biological relation to

its environment, is made a prominent feature. To this end methods of

observation are given with suggestions as to the facts to be ascertained.

In this way the student acquires a practical knowledge of the life

histories of the animals studied.

An appendix contains directions for the preparation of material for

study.

The illustrations are intended as guides to identification, and in a

very general way, they answer the purpose.

Chats about British Birds.’—The depiction of bird life in this

volume is quite a vivid and interesting as was that of insect life, by

5 A Junior Course in Practical Zoology. By A. Milnes Marshall and C. Her-

bert Hurst. Fourth Edition revised by Mr. Hurst. New York, 1895. G. P.

Putnam’s Sons.

6 Elementary Lessons in Zoology. By James G. Needham. New York, 1895.

American Book Co.

7 Chats about British Birds. By J. W. Tuft, London, Geo. Gill & Sons.

390 The American Naturalist. [May,

the same author, in Rambles in Alpine Valleys. Members of thirty

three families are described in an easy, gossipy fashion, with special

reference to their food and nesting-habits. No opportunity is lost for

pointing out that in general, birds are the farmers best agents for

protecting crops from insects and worms. The fruit eating proclivities

of the Thrush and the Black bird in the late summer are excused for

the wholesale destruction in early spring of insects, worms, slugs and’

snails.

The book is intended to interest young people in the study of Orni-

thology, but from the facts set forth, it may also be of use in creating

among farmers a better appreciation of the service rendered them by

birds, and lead them to see the necessity of organized protection for

the feathered race. :

Check List of North American Birds.’—The American Orni-

thologist’s Union have issued a second edition of the Check-list pub-

lished in 1885. The new addition includes the numerous additions and

nomenclature changes made in the several supplements to the Check

List since the publication of the original edition, together with a

revision of the “ habitats” of the species and subspecies, but omitting

the Code of Nomenclature.

Species whose status as North American birds is doubtful are listed

separately under the heading “ Hypothetical,” and the fossil birds are

likewise separately classified.

Atan anthos tak 1

u Ke p | L3

ator t ch value, but it could

be rendered more authoritative if the A. O. U. would insist on cor-

rect orthography in all cases where this is ascertainable. In several

instances the list adheres to obvious misspelling and typographical

errors; such as hasitata for hæsitata ; cincinatus for cincinnatus ;

Leptatila for Leptoptila ; Ammodramus for Ammodromus, etc.; Greek

spellings instead of Latin are retained wherever the original authors

used them, and some bad examples of the vot hybrida are perpetuated.

RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS.

Annual Report of the State Geologist of New J ersey for the year 1893. From

the.

AsHLEY, G. H.—Studies in the Neocene of California. Extr. Journ. Geol. f

Vol. III, 1895. From the author.

* The A. O. U. List of North American Birds. Second Edition. New York,

1895.

1896.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. 391

BARRAT, M.—Sur la Geologie du Congo Française. Extr. Ann. des Mines,

Paris, pe From the author.

. Baur, G.—The diffetentiation of species on the Galapagos Islands and the

Origin of the Group. Fourth Biol. Lect. delivered at the Marine Biol. Labor.,

Wood's Holl, 1894.

Bout, M.—Le Massif Central de la France. Extr. du Dictionaire géogra-

phique de la France, Paris, 1

——Note sur les Fossils rapport de Madagascar par M. E. Gautier. Extr.

Bull. Mus,. d’Hist. Nat.,

—— [Las Ballastiére de Tiek Extr. L’ Anthropologie T. VI, 1895. From

the author.

Bronn, H. G.—Klassen und Ordnungen des Thier-Reichs, IV. Bd. Vermes,

38, 39, 40, 41 and 42 Lief. Leipzig, 1895.

Bulletin No. 28, 1895, Iowa Agric. College Experiment Station.

Bulletin from the Laboratories of Natural History of the State University of

Towa. Vol. III, Nos. 1 and 2,1895. The Bahama Expedition. From C. C.

ng.

CHAMBERLAIN, T. C.—Classification of American Glacial Deposits. Extr.

Journ. Geol., Vol. ITT, 1895.

Eighteenth Annual Report of the State Entomologist on the Noxious and

Beneficial Insects of the State of Illinois, for the years 1891 and 1892. Spring-

field, Ill., 1894.

Evermann, B. W., AND W. C. KEnDALL.—The Fishes of the Colorado Basin.

—A List of the Species of Fishes known from the Vicinity of Neosho, Missouri,

Arts, 23 and 22, Bull. U. S. Fish Comm. for 1894. Washington, 1895. From

the authors

GEIKIE, J _—Classification of European Glacial Deposits. Extr. Journ. Geol.,

Vol. ITI, 1895.

E.—Daim quaternaire de Bagnéres-de-Bigorre. Extr. L’ Anthropol-

ogie, 1895. From the author.

Hicks, G. H.—Pure Seed Investigation. Extr. Yearbook, U. S. Dept. Agric.,

1894. From the Department.

HURTER, J.—Catalogue of Reptiles and Batrachians found in > Vicinity of

St. Louis, Mo. Extr. Trans. St. Louis Acad. Science, Vol. VI, 18

Jorpan, D. S.—The Fishes of Sinaloa. Leland Stanford, ro Univ. Pub.,

1895. From the author.

Kirscu, P. H.—Report upon the Investigations in the Maumee River Basin

during the summer of 1893. Extr. Bull. U. S. Fish Comm. for 1894. Washing-

ton, 1895. From the Pie Commission.

York, 1895. een & Co. From the a

LypEKKER, R.—On Bones of a Sauropodous Dinosaur from Madagascar. Extr.

Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., 1895. From the author.

MacCattum, W. G.—On the Anatomy of Two Distome Parasites of Fresh-

water Fish. Extr. Veterinary Mag., Vol. II, 1895. From author.

MARSHA .M., AND C. H. Hurst.—A Junior Course of Practical Zoology.

4th ed. New York, 1895. G. P. Putnam’s Son’s. From the Pub.

392 The American Naturalist. [May,

Minot, C. S.—Ueber die Vererbung und Verjiingung. Aus Biol. Centralb.,

1895. From the author

NEEDHAM, J. -Elementary Lessons in Zoology. New York, etc., 1895.

American Book Co. From

ORDONEZ, J. G. “Expedicion € Cientifica al Popocatepetl. México, 1895. From

the Comision Geologica Mexica

Ossory, H. F.—The Rise of pe Mammalia in North America. Address be-

fore the Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1893. From the author

Ransome, F. LesLIE.—On aa onite. A new w aae formiig mineral from the

Tiburon Penn., Marin Co., Cal. Extr. Bull. Dept. Geol., Univ. Cal., Vol. I,

RockHiLt, W. W.—Diary of a Journey through Mongolia and Thibet. Wash-

ington, 1894. From the Smithsonian Institution.

Romanes, G. J.—Darwin, and after Darwin. Vol. II. Heredity and Utility.

Chicago, 1895. Open Court Pub. Co. From the Pub.

» C.—Ueber die Zahnentwicklung von Chlamydoselachus anguineus Garm.

träge zur Zahnentwicklung der Schwanzmolche. Aus Morp. Arb.

Viator Bd. Zweites Heft

——Ueberreste einer p ai prälactealen und einer vierten Zahnreihe

beim Menschen. Aus der Oest ung. Vierteljahrsschrift für Zahnheilkunde, XI

—— Ueber die Zahnverderbniss in der Volkeschulen. Ibid X. Jahrg., 1893.

——Ueber die Zahnentwickelung der Fische. Aus Anat. Anz., Bd. IX, 1894.

From the a.

ScHMIDT __Reitriige zur Kenntnis der niederen Myriapoden. Aus. Zeitschr.

i, Wisenschal. Zool., LIX, Bd. 3 Heft. Leipzig, 1895: From the author.

Scupper, S. H. —Frail Children of the Air. Boston and New York, 1895.

Houghton, Mifin & Co. From the Pub.

, C. H.—The Bath in Modern Medicine. Extr. Journ. Am. Med.

Assoc., 1895. From the author.

SMITH, T, AND V. MOORE. Rpg Concerning Infectious Diseases

soe Poultry. Bull. No. 8, U. S. Dept. Agric., Bureau Animal Industry..

8 Dept.

Taron, c. ETa Savings of Millions. Philadelphia, 1895. From the

autho:

Wirta, E —Does the Delaware Water Gap consist of Two River Gorges?

Extr. Proceeds. Phila. Acad. Nat. Sci., 1895. From the author.

Warp, L. F.—Saporta and Williamson and their work in Paleobotany. Extr.

Science, n. s., Vol. II, 1895.

——The Place of Sociology among the Sciences. Extr. Amer. Journ. Sociol-

ogy, Vol. I, 1895.

— Fosil Plants. Extr. re Universal Cyclopedia, 1895.

——Sociology and Cosmology. Extr. Amer. Journ. Sociology, Vol. I, 1895.

——The Nomenclature Question. Extr. Bull. Torrey Botanical Clu b, Vol. 22,

1895. From the author.

‘Wituiams, T.—The Advanced American Plan for Homeless Children. Re-

print f from oo London Times, Oct., 1894.

, J. L.—Osteology of Agriochoerus. Extr. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat.

“iiy Vol ¥ VII, 1895. From the author.

1896.] Petrography. 393

General Notes.

PETROGRAPHY:

Ancient Volcanics in Michigan.—In an area in Michigan

covered by Townships 42 to 47 N. and Ranges 30 to 34 West, is a

succession of granites and gneisses overlain by a thickness of some 3000

eet of volcanic rocks, embracing acid and basic flows and tuffs.

Among the basic rocks Clements’ finds porphyrites and melaphyres,

and among the acid ones quartz-porphyries and devitrified rhyolites.

The melaphyres and porphyries are described under the names apo-

basalts and apo-andesites, because they are altered forms of basalts and

andesites. Some of the andesites are amygdaloidal, and nearly all

show the effects of pressure. Andesitic and basaltic tuffs are both pres-

ent. They exhibit no special peculiarities. The quartz porphyries

among the acid flows are notable for the existence in them of corroded

phenoerysts of quartz in which there has been developed a well marked

rhombohedral cleavage. The groundmass of these rocks is sometimes

micro-granitic and at other times is micro-poicilitic. The latter struct-

ure is peculiar in that it is produced by a reticulating uet work of uni-

formly oriented quartz, between the meshes of which are irregularly

shaped areas of orthoclase. The other acid lavas and the acid tuffs are

similar to corresponding rocks elsewhere. The series is interesting as

affording another illustration of a typical volcanic series of Pre-Cam-

brian age. Itis one of the oldest accumulations of volcanic debris and

lavas thus far described.

Gneisses of Essex Co., N. Y.—In a recent bulletin on the

geology of Moriah and Westport Townships, Essex Co., N. Y., Kemp*

gives a general account of the petrography of the gneisses, limestones,

black schists, gabbros, anorthosites and dyke rocks of these regions.

Most of these rocks have already been described in more detail in

other papers. The gneisses are of several varieties. The most com-

mon is a member of the basement complex underlying the other rocks

of thedistrict. It is a biotite gneiss composed of quartz, micro-perthite,

orthoclase, plagioclase and brown biotite, all of which minerals exhibit

evidences of dynamic metamorphism. Near iron ore bodies the gneiss

becomes more basic, abundant green or black hornblende, green

1 Edited by Dr. W. S. Bayley, Colby University, Waterville, Me.

2 Journal of Geology, Vol. III, p. 801.

3 Buli. N. Y. State Mus., Vol. 3, No. 14, 1895, p. 325.

394 The American Naturalist. [May,

augite and a large quantity of plagioclase taking the places of the

usual gneissic constituents.

Volcanic Rocks in Maine.—Ina preliminary notice on the rocks

of the Flox Islands, Maine, G. O. Smith‘ gives a brief account of the

association of lavas and breccias on North Haven and Vinal Haven

Islands. On North Haven the series consists of beds of porphyrites

and of coarse volcanic breccias and conglomerates, layers of tuffs and

sheets of quartz-porphyry. The porphyrites are sometimes olivinitic.

The conglomerates and breccias are composed of fragments of the por-

phyrites cemented by a porphyritic matrix. The quartz-porphyry pos-

sesses no unusual features. On Vinal Haven the rocks are predomi-

nantly acid, comprising many banded and spherulitic felsites that were

originally glassy rocks. The spherulites are felsitic or fibrous and are

certainly original structures, since transitions from the felsitic into

brecciated rocks may be traced, in the latter of which occur spherulites

that were formed prior to the brecciation. The acid layers of the

series are younger than the basic beds.

Spotted Quartzites, S. Dakota.—The Sioux quartzites in Min-

nehaha Co., S. Dakota, grade upward into variously colored quartz

slates that are composed of quartz grains, iron oxides and mica in an

argillaceous matrix that has crystallized in part as sericite, kaolin and

chlorite. Many of the slates are marked by spots that are lighter than

the body of the rocks. These spots are essentially of the same compo-

sition as the groundmass in which they lie, except that they contain

less iron oxide. Their lighter color is due to bleaching out of the iron

salt through the acid, probably of decomposing organic matter.”

The Gneisses and ‘Leopard Rock’ of Ontario.—The gneisses

interstratified with the limestones in the Grenville series, north of

Ottawa, Canada, vary much in character. The predominant variety

is a granitoid aggregate of reddish orthoclase and grayish-white quartz,

a little or no mica, and sometimes garnets. Its bedding is very obscure.

When the mica is abundant in the rock foliation is distinct. One

variety of the rock is called by Gordon syenite-gneiss. It includes

the ‘leopard rock’ of the Canadian geologists. The rock occurs as

dykes cutting quartzites and pyroxenites. All the phases of the

gneisses show the effects of pressure. The ‘leopard rock’ consists of

* Johns Hopkins Univ. Circulars, No. 121, p. 12. :

° Beyer: Ib., No. 121, p. 10.

€ Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. 7, p. 95.

1896.] Petrography. 395

ellipsoidal or ovoid masses of feldspar and a little quartz, separated

from each other by narrow anastomosing partitions of green interstitial

substance composed of pyroxene and feldspar. When the ellipsoids are

flattened by foliation the rock becomes a streaked gneiss. Under the

microscope, in sections of the coarse grained gneisses, large crystals of

pyroxene, microcline and quaitz are seen to be imbedded in a fine

ained aggregate of microcline and quartz. In the ellipsoidal varie-

ties the ellipsoids are composed mainly of microcline grains and the

interstitial mass is a fine grained mosaic of feldspar, quartz and augite.

In the streaked gneiss the augite is partially changed to green horn-

blende, while erystalloids of idiomorphic hornblende indicates that some .

of this component is an original crystallization. The rocks are

evidently sheared pyroxene-syenites. The author discusses the use of

the term ‘gneiss’ and suggests that the term ‘gneissoid’ be restricted

to the description of foliated eruptive rocks whose structure is due to

magma motions, that ‘gneiss’ be used as a suffix to the name of any

rock that has assumed the typical gneissic structure since its original

consolidation, as diorite gneiss, etc., and that the ending ‘ic’ be used

with reference to the mineralogic composition of a foliated rock whose

origin is unknown—a dioritic gneiss, in this sense indicates a folaited

rock whose present composition is that of a diorite.

Petrographical Notes.—In thin sections of sandstone inclusions

that have been melted by basalts, Rinne’ finds the remains of quartz

grains surrounded by rims of monoclinic augite, cordierite, spinel, etc.

In some of the glasses formed by the melting of the sandstone are tri-

chites and crystallites of orthorhombic pyroxene. While this substance

is found abundantly as a contact mineral in the sandstones enclosed in

the basalts of Sababurg, the Blauen Kuppe and Steinberg, the author

nevertheless regards it as a comparatively rare product of the contact

action between these two rocks.

Bauer? declares that the rubies, sapphires, spinels and other gem

minerals from northern Burma occur in a metamorp limestone on

its contact with an eruptive rock whose nature is not known.

Penfield? pears a heavy solution for the separation of mineral pow-

ders whose densities range between 4.6 and 4.94 by melting together

silver and thallium nitrates in different proportions. The molten mass

1 Neues Jahrb. f. Min., etc., 1895, II, p. 229.

8Sitzb. d. Ges. z. Beford der gesamnet Naturw. Marburg, 1896, No. 1.

° Amer. Journ. Sci., Dec., 1895, p. 446.

396 The American Naturalist. [May,

attacks sulphides, but otherwise is of much value in separating mixt-

ures of heavy minerals.

La Touche” describes an apparatus to be used in connection with

diffusive columns of methylene iodide for the purpose of determining

the density of minute fragments of minerals.

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.

Geology of the French Congo,—The Congo region belonging

- to France is greater in extent than the parent country. Through the

enterprise of different explorers and the researches of scientific men,

notably geologists and paleontologists, much information concerning

this great tract of country has been acquired since 1871. M. Barrat

has systematized the facts on record and publishes an interesting paper

under the title “ Geology of the French Congo,” in which he embodies

also the results of his own explorations in the valley of the Ogoove.

The observations of M. Pouel, made during a stay of many years in

the region under. discussion, confirm the conclusions of M. Barrat as to

the great stratigraphic uniformity of the Congo. Furthermore, the

formation of the basin after the uplift of the African plateau is ex-

plained by the progressive draining of a series of reservoirs, more or

less depressed, placed at different altitudes and discharging from one

to another toward the ocean. ‘The limits of these reservoirs are in

relation to the ancient rock ridges now hidden beneath the sandstone

but occasionally laid bare by erosion.

Around the border of the basin, the formations plainly demonstrate

that they were elevated as early as the carboniferous epoch, and al-

though greatly leveled since, still show the primary reliefs. One of

the most interesting is the formation of Adamaona ; its substratum is

granitic and metamorphic like the Crystal Mountains and the Mou-

amba Mountains and the region of Katanga, and there are also rocks

which are similar to the Devonian of the Lower Congo. The whole

formation has been intersected and to a great extent covered by

erupted material, probably Cenozoic, and by outflows from volcanoes

of undoubtedly much more recent age.

The structure of the plateaus of Adamaona is somewhat analogous

to that of the central plateau of France. (Extr. Ann. des Mines liv.

d’Aril, 1895.)

Nature, Jan., 1896, p. 198.

1896.] Geology and Paleontology. 397

Geology of the Nile Valley.—In a paper on the geology of the

Nile Valley, Prof. E. Hull calls attention to the two great periods of

erosion in this region, the first during the Miocene period, after the

elevation of the Libyan region at the close of Eocene times, and the

second during a “ pluvial ” period extending from late Pliocene times

into and including the Plistocene. In the second part of the paper

the terraces of the Nile Valley are described and full details given of

the characters of a second terrace, at a height varying from 50 to 100

feet above the lower one, which is flooded at the present day. This

second terrace is traceable at intervals for a distance of between 600

and 700 miles above Cairo. Two old river channels are also described,

one at Kom Ombo and the other at Assuan itself. The author dis-

cusses the mode of origin of the second terrace and the old river val-

leys, and believes them to be due to the former greater volume of the

river and not to the subsequent erosion of the valley. He gives fur-

ther evidence of the existence of meteorological conditions sufficient to

give rise to a “ plnvial” period, and points out that other authors have

also considered that the volume of the Nile was greater in former

times. (Nature, March, 1896.)

The Antarctic Continent.—Mr. C. Hedley has published the

data to date concerning the forms of life held as common stock by the

converging land masses of the southern continent, together with the

conclusions reached by several naturalists as to a former antarctic land

area and the continuity of the southern land masses. The author

states that the evidence collected tends to show Antarctica as an un-

stable area, at one time dissolving into an archipelago, at another re-

solving itself into a continent. From the distribution of the pond

snail Gundlachia, he argues a narrow land connection during Mesozoic

time between Tasmania and Terra del Fuego across the south pole,

and that New Zealand at that time reached sufficiently near to this

Antarctic land to receive by flight or drift many plants and animals

(Proceeds. Roy. Soc. N. S. Wales, 1895).

Two Epochs in Vegetable Paleontology.—A late number of

Science contains a tribute by Lester Ward to the memory of two emi-

nent paleontologists, Marquis de Saporta and Professor William C.

iamson. In the author’s judgment, the most important contribu-

soa of the former to science is the conclusion that the most important

subdivisions of the geological scale must be drawn at different points

for plant development from those at which they are commonly drawn

for animal development. For example, the Mesophytic age properly

398 The American Naturalist. [May,

ends with the Jurassic instead of with the Cretaceous, while the terti-

ary for fossil plants closes with the Miocene instead of with the Plio-

cene.

Of the many important discoveries made by Williamson, the most

valuable is the demonstration of the existence of exogenous structure

in the Carboniferous Pteridophytes. (Science, Vol. II, 1895.)

The Appalachian Folds.—The faults and folds in Pennsylvania

Anthracite beds are most admirably shown by Dr. Benjamin Smith

Lyman in a paper illustrated by thirty-three page plates containing

177 sections. These sections were prepared by the author from the

valuable cross-section sheets of the State Geological Survey, and are

accompanied by a key map showing where the sections are made.

From a comparison of these cross sections Dr. Lyman draws the fol-

lowing conclusions :

“Steep northerly dips in the Pennsylvania anthracite region are

much less prevalent than was formerly supposed; nearly half the ba-

sins and saddles are about symmetrical; nearly three-fourths of the

subordinate ones are so in the Western Middle field ; less than quarter

of the main ones are so in the Southern field. Again, the subordinate

folds throughout the region are confined to subordinate groups of beds

of inferior firmness, and are not parellel to the main folds, but prob-

ably at uniform profile distances from the main axes, so as to descend

the flanks of a sinking anticlinal. Further, that the faults are most

invariably longitudinal or reversed faults, occasioned by the overtrain-

ing of subordinate folds, and corresponding in three-fourths of the

cases to an overturned southerly dip, with the upthrow to the south ;

such broken subordinate folds, whether dipping southerly or northerly,

ride in equal number on the northerly dipping and southerly dipping

sides of the main folds; the stratigraphic throw averages only about

62 feet, and never exceeds 160 feet ; the displacement averages 72 feet,

and never exceeds 240 feet.” (Trans. Amer. Institute Mining Engi-

neers, 1895.)

The Ancestry of the Testudinata.—In the Narurauist for

1885, I advanced the hypothesis that the order of the Testudinata

arose from the Paleozoic order of the Theromora. In the latter I in-

cluded at that time the forms I afterwards distinguished as an order

under the name of Cotylosauria. In 1892 (Transac. Amer. Philosoph.

Society, p. 24) I specified that the Testudinata must have been de-

rived from this latter order. It is now possible to bring positive evi-

dence that this view is correct, since the anticipation so expressed is

1896.] Geology and Paleontology. 399

now verifiable. Parts of the skeletons of a new form of Cotylosauria

from the Permian bed has come into my hands, which represents a

new family of the order, and one which may well have been ancestral

to the Testudinata. (See Narurauist, 1896, April for a description

of the order). The family may be defined as follows:

OTOCŒLIDÆ fam. nov. Cranial roof excavated laterally behind,

forming a large meatus auditorius. Teeth present, in a single row, not

transversely expanded. Ribs immediately overlaid by parallel trans-

verse dermodssifications, which form a carapace.

To this family I refer two new genera, viz., Otocceelus and Conodec-

tes, which differ as follows:

Suspensorium directed anteriorly, except at free extremity ; nostrils

lateral ; Otocelus.

Suspensorium directed posteriorly ; nostrils vertical ; Conodectes.

Teeth subconical. Mandible not projecting beyond quadrate. Clavi-

cle expanded at both extremities, overlapping the episternum. Scapula

with a proscapular lamina. Ribs transversely expanded, not united

by suture with each other, alternating with the dermal bands. Limbs

well developed.

The type species of the genus Otoccelus is the

OTOCŒLUS TESTUDINEUs sp. nov. The skull is short wide and

flat, and the orbits are large and are situated near the auricular exca-

vations. Surface roughly sculptured with small pits and ridges.

Malar and mandibular bones shallow. Teeth small, com pressed conic

smooth, and without serrations. Scapular arch without sculpture of

the inferior surface. Humerus with widely expanded head and narrow

shaft. Bands of carapace of moderate transverse extent, and roughly

sculptured with pits and tubercles, Width between auditory meatuses

74 mm.; do. between orbits 32 mm.; do. between auditory sinus and

orbit 16 mm.; transverse diameter of orbit 30 mm.; depth of mandi-

bular ramus below middle of orbit, 28 mm.; width of carapace 80

mm.; length of clavicle 80 mm. ; transverse width of head of humer-

us 35 mm.; length of femur 67 mm. ; length of vertebral centrum 10

mm.; width of do. 19 mm. ; width anterior rib distally 11 mm.

A second species is the O. mimeticus Cope. But one species of Con-

` odectes is known, the O. favosus Cope.

This form is of especial interest since it constitutes, with the genus

Dissorhophus which I described in the Narura.ist for 1895, p. 998,

aremarkable example of homoplassy. It is doubtful whether the cara-

- paces of the two forms could be distinguished externally, but Dissor-

` hophus is a Stegocephalian Batrachian with rhachitomous vertebre,

400 The American Naturalist. [May,

while the present form is a Cotylosaurian reptile. Although so similar

superficially, the carapaces of the two differ as follows. In Dissorho-

phus transverse expansions of the neural spines of the vertebræ support.

the transverse dermal bands below, and the ribs are free, and only reach

the border of the carapace by their extremities. In Otoccelus the

neural spines are not oe and the dermal bands rest immediately

on the ribs.—E. D. Core

The Extent of the Triassic Ocean.—In a short note contrib-

uted to the Paris Academy of Sciences on December 30, Prof. Iness

calls attention to the striking geographical results of the researches of

his Vienna colleagues on the marine Triassic fauna. While to English

geologists the Trias is the typical example of an unfossiliferous land

deposit, the work of Mojsisovics on the contemporaneous deposits of

the Alpine region has been the starting point for a series of discoveries

in many parts of the world. A rich marine Triassic fauna is now

known, extending from Spain to Japan and California, and from

Spitzbergen to New Zealand. Yet among the thousands of these fos-

sils gathered together in Vienna from all parts, there is not a single

marine fossil from the regions bordering the Atlantic or Indian

Oceans. The conclusion is obvious, thas the regions of these modern

oceans were not covered by sea in Triassic times. On the other hand,

all the districts bordering the Pacific and Mediterranean yield the

marine forms, as does a great stretch of land extending from the Med-

iteranean to the Pacific through Central Asia, and another extending

from the Pacific through Eastern Siberia to the Arctic Ocean. Thus

the Pacific Ocean was the main ocean in Triassic times, and stretched

out two arms across the continental region—the one called the Tethyan

ocean, of which the Mediterranean is the last remnant, the other, the

Arctic branch. This distribution of the Triassic seas strikingly agrees

with that of the structural features of modern coast lines indicated by

Neumayr: the oceans bordered by lands with marine Trias are the

oceans of the Pacific type, of which the coasts are determined by the

convex margins of earth folds; while the oceans of Atlantic type, i

which the margins cut across the mountain folds, are those aro

which the only fresh water Triassic strata are found. Thus is con-

firmed the opinion that the latter oceans are of comparatively recent

origin, and have been produced by a process of wholesale depression,

which has cut off the three great triangular upstanding masses (or

horsts) of Greenland, Africa and India, which form so striking a fea-

ture on the surface of our planet. (Nature, Jan., 1896.)

The Ancient Beaches of Erie and Ontario.—In his correla-

_ tion of the moraines of western New York with the Raised Beaches

TPE and Sheridan) of Lake Erie, Mr. — makes the fol-

lowing statement in regard to the Lake Outlets

1896.] Geology and Paleontology. 401

“ The evidence is clear that during the formation of the upper two

beaches an outlet was found to the Wabash, past Fort Wayne, Indi-

ana. t the time the third or Belmore beach was formed (and its

probable continuation, the Sheridan beach) this outlet had been aban-

doned. It is thought that the ice sheet had retreated so far from the

Huron and Michigan basins as to open a lower outlet through these

basins than past Fort Wayne. It seems improbable that an eastward

outlet was then open, for the district south of Lake Ontario was appar-

ently still occupied by the ice sheet. It is evident that no outlet to the

east could have existed until the ice sheet had withdrawn from the

Lockport moraine sufficiently for a passage eastward along its southern

margin. If my interpretations are correct, the Crittenden beach had

been for a long time occupied by the lake before an eastward outlet

was opened, a time sufficient, not only for the Lockport moraine, but

for several other slightly older minor moraines to be formed. During

that time, the lake in all probability discharged westward through the

Huron and Michigan basins past Chicago. When the gates to the

eastward were opened by the withdrawal of the ice sheet there was

probably a brief period in which the lake discharged through the Sen-

eca Valley into the Susquehanna. But soon the lower outlet by the

Mohawk was opened and the lake fell rapidly to that level, leaving

but feeble traces of beach or wave action in its intermediate stages.”

(Amer. Jour. Sci., Vol. L, 1895.)

Geological News.—GerNERAL.—The periods of volcanic activity

in New Brunswick, as stated by Wm. D. Matthews, are:

1. Huronian.—Southern New Brunswick and the northern water-

shed.

2. Silurian and Early Devonian—Passamaquoddy Bay, Baie Cha-

leur, ete.

3. Sub. Carboniferous—Borders of the central plain, Grand Lake,

Blue Mountains of the Tobique.

4. Triassie—Quaco, Grand Manan. (Bull. Nat. Hist. Soc., New

Brunswick, No. XIII, 1895.)

Pa.Eozo1c.—The “ shists lustrés ” of Mont Jovet are shown by Dr.

Gregory to be older than the Trias (1) by the occurrence of fragments

of the schists in the Trias; (2) by the discordance of strike between the

two series ; (3) by the occurrence of masses of dolomite resting uncon-

formably on the flanks of the shists ; and (4) by the fact that the Trias

has escaped the metamorphism which the schists have undergone.

(Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe., 1896.)

Mr. C. H. Gordon’s investigations of the St. Louis and Warsaw for-

mations in southeastern Iowa furnishes evidence in favor of Calvin’s

402 The American Naturalist. [May,

conclusion that dolomites are essentially offshore products. (Journ.

Geol., Vol. Il], 1895.)

Crnozoic.—Certain data accumulated by H. B. Kümmel indicate

the glaciation of Pocono Knob and Mts. Ararat and Surgar Loaf in

Wayne County, Pennsylvania. It has been hitherto held by the

Pennsylvania State Geologists that these peaks were nunataks, (Amer.

Journ. Sci., 1876.)

According to Dr. Grossmann, glacial phenomena in the Færoes com-

prise roche moutounées, glacial stri, glacial mounds and boulder

clay. The author states that there is no doubt that the islands had a

glaciation of their own, a conclusion which is inconsistent with the hy-

pothesis of a big northern ice cap. (Geog. Journ., Vol. VII, 1896.)

M. Harlé has identified the canine tooth and phalangeal bones of a

lion, two molar teeth of a reindeer, and a molar tooth of an elan

(Alces) in the fragmentary specimens from the Tourasse caverns in the

southwestern part of France. From the evidence of other remains, M.

Regnault fixed the age of this cave as intermediate between late Paleo-

lithic and Neolithic. The presence of lion remains at Tourasse shows

that this carnivore lingered long in the Pyrenees. (L’Anthropol.,

1894.)

Cave EXPLORATIONS IN TENNESSEE.—We discovered the tapir-

peccary layer in the cave breccia together with a later fauna in a layer

of cave earth, associated with Indian remains, in Zirkel’s Cave near

Mossy Creek, east Tennessee. Prof. Cope, our informant, had pre-

_ viously found the former in 1869.—H. C. Mercer.

BOTANY:

The Conifers of the Pacific Slope.—Every botanist who is

interested in the Conifers (and what botanist is not?) will be pleased

with the pocket edition of Mr. J. G. Lemmon’s “ Hand-book of West

American Cone-bearers,” which appeared somewhat less than a year

ago. It is aduodecimo volume of about a hundred pages, and includes

seventeen half-tone plates, from photographs, of the foliage, cones, and

other characteristic features. The text consists of brief descriptions of

the genera and species, interspersed with notes, discussions and narra-

1 Edited by Prof. C. E. Bessey, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska.

1896.] Botany. 403

tion. In a prefatory note we are informed that this is but a prodrome

to a complete work which the author has in preparation, in which full

scientific and popular descriptions are to be given. The little volume

before us with its modest price of but one dollar should find its way

into the library of every botanist, and all will look with expectation to

the completion of the larger work.—CHARLES E. Bessey.

Still another High School Botany.—It will not be the fault of

the book-makers if the young people of the country are not versed in

Botany, for one scarcely takes up a scientific journal nowadays without

finding an announcement of some forthcoming book, or of one just

issued. It is a sign of much botanical activity in the public schools,

for it is very certain that the publishers are bringing these books out

in response to what they regard as a sufficient demand. The last one

on our table is the Elements of Botany prepared by J Y. Bergen,

instructor in Biology in the English High School of Boston. It is, we

are told in the preface, “ for the most part an expansion of the manu-

script notes which have for some years formed the basis of the botany

teaching in the Boston English High School.” The book is thus to a

large extent a growth ; and not a creation. It looks usable, and what

is more it has every appearance of being a profitable book to the user.

An importance feature of the work is found in its many physiological

experiments and observations which are to be made by the pupil. The

whole work has a strong physiological bias which will be of much value

in leading the pupil to the study of the plant in action, rather than to.

the identification of species.

Still with all its excellence the book presents the elements of botany

. in a fragmentary way. After over two hundred pages given to flower-

ing plants, we find but twenty-seven pages given to “Some Types of

Flowerless Plants.” The pupil will imbibe the notion from this book

that the flowerless plants are of less importance than those which

receive so much more attention. The book should be called the

Elements of the Anatomy and Physiology of the Flowering Plants, and

thus restricted it is admirable; but the author was not warranted in

calling it the elements of Botany, that is of the whole science, for it

certainly does not present the elements of the science of Botany. We

are glad to. note in the very much abridged Flora at the end of the

book a departure from the usual sequence of families, but we regret

to see that the Gymnosperms, while given their proper place below the

Angiosperms, are described in accordance with the old views as to their

morphology. When we describe the staminate cones of the pine as

eatkins of monandrous flowers, and the ovaliferous cones as catkins of

404 The American Naturalist. [May,

“spirally arranged carpel scales,” we must be consistent, and put the

Gymnosperms where Bentham and Hooker, Gray and Watson put them,

as the simplest of the Apetale.—Cuartes E. Bessey.

Popular Botany.—We frequently deplore the ignorance of people

‘in general as to the main facts of botanical science, and sometimes we

berate them}forjnot taking more interest in what we find so attractive.

Yet when we are asked to recommend a book to a non-botanical friend

we are sorely puzzled. It is true that we may name Kerner’s Natural

History of Plants, which no doubt if well read would be greatly edify-

ing, but it costs so much, and is so big a book that few can afford the

time or money it demands. We know that it is regarded by many botan-

ists as quite the thing to sneer at Grant Allen’s books on plants, but

we are not of these, and on the contrary have always admired his ability

to state scientific facts—dry facts too—in a way which makes them

readable and even entertaining. In his latest booklet—The Story of

the Plants—he maintains his reputation for entertaining and at the

same time instructive writing. We commend it to the non-botanical

who wish to get some general notions of plants, and may we also make

bold to suggest that our severely critical and truly scientific botanists

run it through. It may be suggestive to them, even.

The author pleasantly tells us “ How plants began to be,” “ How

plants came to differ from one another,” “ How plants eat,” “ How

plants drink,” “How plants marry,” “ Various marriage customs,”

“The wind as a carrier,” “ How flowers club together,” “ What plants

do for their young,” “The stem and branches,” “Some plant-biogra-

phies,” “ The past-histories of plants.” That he makes slips here and

there may well be granted, but not more, we venture to say, than are

made by authors of some more ambitious works.—Cuar Es E. Brssry.

Notes of Botanical Papers.—Edward C. Jeffrey in the Dec-

ember Annals of Botany figures and describes polyembryony in Ery-

thronium americanum, in which four embryos developed in each ovule

by the division of the fertilized oosphere—The freshwater Chloro-

phyce of Northern Russia, are enumerated by O. Borge, in a 40 page

paper, accompanied by three plates, the latter mainly of new species or

varieties—The Adirondack Black Spruce is treated fully, both eco-

nomically and scientifically by Wm. F. Fox the superintendent of state

forests for New York, in the Report of the Forest Commission for 1894.

This paper has been issued under its title as a separate book of eighty-

two pages. It is illustrated by many half-tone and two colored plates.

—A. P. Morgan continues his studies of North American Fungi in the

1896.] Vegetable Physiology. 405

Journal of the Cincinnati Society of Natural History (April—July,

1895) and describes some new genera and species. Three plates accom-

pany the paper, giving illustrations of every species —In El Barbareno

(Santa Barbara, California), Mrs. Ida Blochman writes pleasantly and

instructively about the California wild flowers. Such papers will do

much to help acquaint busy people with the plants about them. It

would be well if botanists elsewhere were to imitate Mrs. Blochman,.—

The recent death of Julien Vesque July 25, 1895) brings to us a series

of necrological papers by Dehérain, Bonnier, Duclaux, Schribaux and

Bertrand, accompanied by a photogravure of the lamented investigator.

Julien Vesque was born in Luxembourg, April 8, 1848, educated in

the Grand Ducal Atheneum of Luxembourg, studied in Berlin (under

Braun and Kny) and afterwards in Paris with Brongniart, Duchartre

and Decaisne. He was early madea member of the Institut Agronom-

ique, in which he was an active worker at the time of his death. The

collected titles of his botanical papers number sixty-seven, covering

twenty-two years (1873-1895).—Lewis’s Leaf-Charts promise to be

very useful. They consist of very accurately drawn life-size drawings

of characteristic leaves of North American trees. Their moderate price

(50 cents per chart, 22 x 28 inches) should warrant their being placed

in many of the public schools——Century III of C. L. Shear’s New

York Fungi is now in course of distribution. It will prove to be

of more than usual interest containing as it does several new or recently

described species. This distribution of fungi has met with unusual

success, every copy of Century I having long since been taken, no doubt

due to the excellence of the specimens. It should be mentioned that

the author has removed to Lincoln, Nebr. where he is engaged in botan-

ical studies.

VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY-.'

Change in Structure of Plants due to Feeble Light.—The

evidence that new species of plants are developed directly and rapidly

out of old ones by changes in the environment is becoming more and

more conclusive each year. Plants put into markedly different sur-

roundings either perish or become rapidly modified to meet the changed

demands made by the new conditions. One of the most recent and

1 This T is edited by Erwin F. Smith, Mepartment of Agriculture,

Washington, D.

406 The American Naturalist. [May,

interesting pieces of evidence is that brought forward by M. Gaston

Bonnier in a long article,—Influence de la lumière électrique continue -

sur la forme et la structure des plantes,—running through four num-

bers (78, 79, 80 and 82) of the Revue générale de Botanique, Paris,

1895. Ina previous study (Les plantes arctiques comparées aux

mémes espéces des Alpes et des Pyrénées, Rev. générale, VI, 1894, p.

505) M. Bonnier had shown that arctic plants differ noticeably from

the same species growing in alpine regions, e. g., in the greater thick-

ness and simpler structure of the leaves, and had attributed this to the

feebler light of the arctic region and to the greater degree of moisture.

By means of feeble electric lighting and a moist cool temperature he

has now been able to produce these differences synthetically in Paris,

i. e., to take alpine plants and convert them into arctic ones. He has

also shown by experiments on a great many plants, details of which are

given, that feeble continuous electric lighting for a period of six months

causes decided histological and morphological changes in nearly all

of them, except such as grow in the water. Many plates are given in

connection with this paper showing morphology and histology of nor-

mally grown and continuously lighted plants and the changes in the

structure of the latter are frequently so great that no one would believe

the sections to have been derived from the same species. About 75

species were experimented on and these belonged to many different

families. The structural changes obtained in Helleborus niger, Fagus

silvatica, Pinus austriaca, Picea excelsa, and Pteris tremula are particu-

larly striking. To illustrate, in the needles of Pinus the characteristic

arms or folds of the cortical parenchyma disappear entirely and there

are several other equally striking changes. In Pteris the petiolule

under the influence of the continuous electric light takes on an epider-

mis which is clearly distinct from the subjacent cells, and the cells of

which are elongated perpendicularly to the surface of the petiole and

are much larger than the neighboring layers of cortical tissue while

their walls are not thickened ; the cell layers immediately under the

epidermis (sclerenchymatic tissue) do not become thick-walled and are

rich in chlorophyll; the intercellular spaces in the cortical parenchyma

have wholly disappeared ; and, finally, there is no endodermis, although

it is well developed in the normally lighted plant. The palisade tissue

was imperfectly formed in bright electric light and in many cases en-

tirely disappeared in feeble electric light thus confirming what has been

believed for some time on other grounds, namely that the development

of the palisade tissue of leaves stands in direct relation to the intensity

of the light. Additional experiments seemed to indicate that most of

1896.) Vegetable Physiology. 407

the results obtained were due not to the kind of light but to the grade

ofi intensity. The whole paper will repay careful perusal. The author’s

main conclusions are given in the following paragraphs, as nearly as

possible in his own phraseology: Modifications due to continuous

electric light. The organs completely developed in continuous light

have the following characters: (1) The chlorophy]] is more abundant

and is more uniformly distributed in all the cells which contain it

under normal lighting. Moreover, chlorophyll grains may appear even

in elements which do not contain them in a normal state, in the bark

clear to the endodermis, or even in the medullary rays, in the pith,

sometimes even to the central cells of the pith. (2) The structure of

the blade of the leaf is simplified ; the palisade tissue is less distinct or

disappears entirely, the epidermis has cells with thinner walls, and the

cortical cells lose their special differentiations (transformation into

sclerenchyma of the petioles of the fern, reduplication of the membrane

of the cortical cells of the needles of the pine, etc.). (3) The struct-

ure of the stem is simplified ; the bark is less clearly divided into two

different zones or even has all its elements alike; the cork is tardy or

but little developed, the endodermis is less well defined, or is no longer

distinct from the neighboring cells; the cortical tissue, the tissue of the

medullary rays, and that of the pith are composed of elements which

more nearly resemble each other ; the sclerification and the lignifica-

tion of the pericycle or of the wood fibres is diminished or disappears

entirely ; the interior calibre of the vessels is often greater; the peri-

_ medullary zone and the libre are less differentiated.

It may be added that the structure in discontinuous electric light

approaches more nearly the structure in normal light than that in the

continuous electric light. Finally, it should be noted that this latter is

intermediate between the normal structure and that in obscurity,

except the greening. The simplification of structure under continuous

feeble electric lighting is, therefore, to be ascribed partly to the contin-

uity of the light and partly to its feebleness. To sum up, a sort of

green etiolation is produced by SEEREN Ppeti lighting, ir oe two

principal characteristics of the ch

of chlorophyll and the simplification of the structure.

Somewhat similar results may be obtained by growing plants for some

time in weak daylight in the middle of a room and then comparing

their structure with that of the same species cultivated in the bright

light of a window. Modifications of form and cell structure are still

more pronounced if the same plants are grown in total darkness.

Anatomical characters are sometimes used in classification and M..

408 The American Naturalist. [May,

Bonnier suggests that the electric light may be used to determine which

of these are most constant.—Erwin F. SMITH.

A Graft Hybrid.—At a meeting of the Biological Society in

Christiana, Nov. 21, 1895, Prof. N. Wille, the well known algologist,

exhibited the fruit and leaves of a so-called graft hybrid which is said

to have resulted from the working of a pear upon a white thorn ( Cra-

tægus oxyacantha L.). This tree stands in the Hofe Torp in Borge

Kirchspiel in south east Norway. According to the statement of Herr

Apotheker Johns. Smith, of Fredriksstad, the tree is about twenty years

old and stood for fifteen years in an unfavorable place without blos-

soming. It wa then set in a better placeand has blossomed and borne

fruit for five years. The flowers are like those of the pear tree but

somewhat smaller and borne in corymbs like those of Crategus. The

pedicels and the fruit are smooth, but the calyx lobes are triangular

and woolly hairy with the tips somewhat bent back. The small fruits

(1:5 to 3 em. long by 1:3 to 2 cm. broad) are pear-shaped but with the

color of Crategus fruits. The fruits are five-celled and usually with

two sterile seeds in each compartment ; the pericarp is somewhat firmer

than the flesh of the fruit and recalls the so-called stone of the Crate-

gus fruit, but is by no means so hard. The taste of the flesh is insipid

and lies between the taste of the pear and that of the white thorn.

All the fruits examined by Prof. Wille contained only sterile seeds,

but Herr Apotheker Smith stated to him that he once found a single

perfect seed. The leaves of the tree have retained the appearance of

pear leaves and do not appear to be changed, but out of the wild stem

below the point of union shoots of the white thorn now and then grow

out and these have the characteristic leaves of that tree. This account

is taken from Biologisches Centralblatt, Bd. 16, No. 3, Feb. 1,1896. It

would add much to the credibility of this case if it could be learned

when, by whom, and from what sort of pear tree this white thorn was

grafted. A sceptical pomologist suggests that the top of this tree may

pitied be the Japanese Pirus Toringo, or some allied species —ERWIN

F. SMrrH.

Ustilaginoidea. The following note should have sada in the

March number of this journal, p. 226, after BroLogy or Smut FUNGI,

in connection with which it should be read.

~- Nore.—Since the above was written, Dr. Brefeld has succeeded in

Sister the full life history of Ustilaginoidea. The sclerotia, after

lying on damp sand for six months, developed an ascus fructification

closely resembling Claviceps. Dr. Brefeld’s last paper on the subject _

1896.] Zoology. 409

may be found in a recent number of Botanisches Centralblatt, Bd. 65,

No. 4, 1896. It is entitled, Der Reis-Brand und der Setaria-Brand, die

Entwicklungsgleider neuer Mutterkornpilze.—Erwin F. Smiru.

ZOOLOGY.

Respiration of Trilobites. Dr. C. E. Beecher comments as

follows on the probable method of respiration of the trilobite genus,

Triarthrus. “ No traces of any special organs for this purpose have

been found in this genus, and their former existence is very doubtful,

especially in view of the perfection of details preserved in various

parts of the animal. The delicacy of the appendages and ventral

membrane of trilobites and their rarity of preservation are sufficient

demonstration that these portions of the outer integument were of

extreme thinness, and therefore perfectly capable of performing the

function of respiration. Similar conditions occur in most of the

Ostracoda and Copepoda, and also in many of the Cladocera and

Cirripedia.”

“The fringes on the exopodites in Triarthrus and Trinucleus are

made up of narrow, oblique, lamellar elements becoming filiform at the

ends. Thus they presented a large surface to the external medium,

and partook of the nature of gills.’ (American Journal Science,

April, 1896.)

A Criticism of Mr. Cook’s Note on the Sclerites of

Spirobolus.—I have read with some interest Mr. Cook’s description’

of certain lines found upon the rings of a specimen of Spirobolus

marginatus, but I am unable to agree with him in the conclusions

drawn from them, nor with his remarks relative to the diplopod seg-

ment in general. It seems somewhat surprising that Mr. Cook made

no examination of the musculature, either of the specimen described

or of any other, to determine whether the lines discovered coincided in

any way with lines of muscular attachment, an examination that is

necessary to give his conclusions more than a very superficial footing.

Had he made the examination, it is extremely doubtful whether he

would have found this necessary data, since in more or less closely

related forms no lines of attachment corresponding to his lines are to

be found.

1 This journal, p. 333.

410 The American Naturalist. [May,

Indeed there are many facts that he either ignores or of which he is

unaware that are far from lending support to his interpretation of the

lines. Some of these I have pointed out elsewhere’ when considering

the subject of the diplopod segmentation. Mr. Cook seems unfor-

tunate in thinking of the greatly overgrown dorsal plate in the diplo-

pod ring as the segment or somite, and in drawing his comparison from

the geophilids. Had he examined the conditions occuring in the

pauropods and those in Lithobius, Scutigera and scolopendrids, and

taken into aecount some of the ontogenetic facts known regarding

diplopods, he doubtless would have plainly seen indications of alter-

nate plates (not segments) having disappeared and of the remaining

plates over-growing the segments behind them, so as to give rise to the

anomalous double segments. There would then have been no reason

for bringing forward the most decidedly unprogressive supposition,

namely, that the double or apparently double condition of the diplopod

segment is a condition sui generis unexplainable upon general morpho-

logical principles.

With reference to his supposition that alternate leg pairs have dis-

appeared even in the geophilids, the case that he has in mind in

mentioning the Chilopoda, I must say there is no evidence whatever.

To adduce the geophilid condition as evidence is to adduce the thing

to be explained. Therefore, | at least am not able to agree with him

in saying that this view is no more fantastic than the old fusion idea

of Newport, since the latter has some real ground and many favorable

Spprerances in its support, even though it be incorrect.

—F. C. Kenyon.

The Sight of Insects.—M. Felix Plateau has been conducting

a series of experiments to settle the question as to whether an insect

in flight will go through a net the size of whose meshes would offer no

obstruction to the passage of the insect. The question has a bearing

upon the difference of vision of Insects and Vertebrates. Mr. Plateau’s

recent experiments would seem to confirm the statement made by him

in 1889 that the vision of insects is obscure as to form, and is adapted

more to the perception of movements.

The data upon which the paper is based were acquired by means of

ingeniously contrived nettings of various shapes, with meshes 26 to 27

millimeters and 1 to 2 centimeters in size. These nets were placed

over attractive lures, such as flowers that insects frequent and in other

cases decaying animal matter. The results of the author’s observations

are given in the following conclusions :

2? The — and classification of the Pauropoda, Tufts College

Studies No.

1896.] Zoology. 411

“1. A net extended does not arrest the flight of insects in every

case.”

“2. During flight the insects act as if they did not see the meshes

of the net.”

“3. A direct passage by flying is always rare. In the great majority

of cases the insect hurls itself upon the net where it rests on one of the

threads, and then passes through as any other animal would go through

an opening which it discovers.”

“4. The only explanation possible for these facts rests on the defec-

tive vision due to the compound eyes of Insects. The threads of the

net produce in the insect an illusion of a continous surface, just as the

cross-hatchings of an engraving do for a human eye. The Arthropod

believes itself to be confronted by an obstacle, more or less translucent,

in which it can perceive no openings.” (Bull. Acad. Roy. Sciences

Bruxelles, Nos. 9-10. 1895.)

Dr. Baur on my Drawings of the Skull of Conolophus

subcristatus Gray.—In the No. of the Naturalist for April (last p.

238), Dr. Baur criticises Steindachner’s drawings of the skull of the

above species and my copies of them published in the Naturalist for

February, p. 149. He says of the former: “ These drawings have not

been made to show the detailed relations of the different elements of

the skull. Especially the regions copied by Cope are drawn quite

insufficiently. The sutures between the different elements can not be

made out.” To this I have to remark that the sutures between the

quadrate and adjacent bones are distinctly drawn, and can be made

out perfectly well by any one familiar with the subject, but some of the

others are less distinct. Dr. Baur then goes on to say that “ Prof.

Cope’s drawing are not exact tracings from Steindachner for he has

drawn sutures which do not exist at all in Steindachner’s figure.

There is no such suture between the postorbital. Pob, and his super-

— St., in the actual specimen, nor in Steindachner’s drawing.

In Prof, Cope’s figure the outer and upper portion of the

tied gis of the paroccipital process separates the parietal process

from the prosquamosal (supratemporal Cope.) This is not the case ;

the parietal process is always united with the prosquamosal. * The

prosquamosal (supratemporal Cope) is also drawn quite incorrect ;

besides, its true relations cannot be made out at all from Steindachner’s

figures. = x”

It will be noticed that in the above criticism nothing is said about

the articulation of the quadrate with the exoccipital, which is the

412 The American Naturalist. [May,

question at issue between us; I alleging that the articulation exists,

and Dr. Baur denying it. Dr. Steindacher’s figures show conclusively

that the articulation exists, as it does in nearly all other Lacertilia, and

Dr. Baur has not alleged that this plate is wrong in this particular, or

that my tracing of it is not an exact copy: On comparing my tracing

with the original again, I find that it is an exact copy, and that if

any errors exist they are altogether irrelevant to the question at issue.

The separation of the parietal process from the superatemporal is shown

in Steindachner’s plate, but it may be erroneously, as Baur alleges.

The suture separating the postorbital from the supratemporal in my

drawing may also be an error, but it represenis a feature of Steindach-

ner’s drawing, which he did not perhaps intend for a suture, although

it looks like it. These two points are obscure to the eye without close

examination, and it is probable that Baur is right as to their condition

in nature. They however do not discredit the accuracy of the con-

spicous features of the articulations of the elements with the quadrate,

which I find to agree with other Iguanide.

Dr. Baur’s assumption as to what I “really believe,” is not quite

_correct, as can be easily seen by reading my previous articles. What I

have endeavored to show is that until the character of the paroccipital

(squamosal Baur) of the Pythonomorpha is explained, I hold that the

determination of that element as squamosal as is made by Baur, is pre-

mature. I am agnostic, and am open to conviction, but Dr. Baur has

not yet convinced me.—E. D. Corr.

Zoological News. The Tokio Zoological Magazine, for 1895,

Vol. VII contains an account by R. Mitsukuri of a Japanese species of

Hariotta, for which he proposes the name H. pacifica. The type species

of this remarkable chimaeroid genus is now in the U. S. Natl. Mus. It

was found in deep water off the coast of Virginia and described by Goode

and Bean under the name H. raleighana. See Naturalist 1895 p. 375

Plate XIX. The Pacific form agrees with the Atlantic one in general

appearance, especially in the elongate muzzle and feeble claspers, but

differs in five essential points which are enumerated by the author.

The occurrence of this interesting genus in both the Atlantic and Pa-

cific Oceans is an interesting fact.

Recent explorations in the Gulf of California along the coast of

Sinaloa have resulted in a collection of fishes, which while yielding

232 species, by no means exhausts the richness of that locality. The

collection was sent to Prof. Jordan for identification. Thirty new

species were found among. the specimens, all of which are described

1896.] Entomology. 413

and figured in the proceedings of the Calif. Acad. Sci. Vol. V. 1895.

Among the new fishes described during the past year is Razania

makua from the Hawaiian Islands. The species is very rare, only two

specimens being known. It is a deep-sea fish by habit, and is espe-

cially remarkable for its rapidity in swimming. A colored plate

accompanies the description given by Mr. O. P. Jenkins in the Pro-

ceeds. Calif. Acad. Sci. Vol. V., 1895.

Two new genera and species of fishes, belonging to the family Per-

cophidex, are reported from Australia, by J. D. Ogilby. They are

described by him under the names Centropercis nudivittis and Tro-

pidostethus rothophilus. The latter are surf-fishes, never descending to

the bottom, but swimming a few inches beneath the surface of the

water. (Proceeds. Linn. Soc. N. S. W. (2) Vol. X. Pt. 2, 1895.)

In an examination of 52 specimens of Vipera berus from Denmark,

Mr. Boulenger finds a wide range of individual variation. The differ-

ences observed are in the shape of the snout, the scaling of the head,

body and tail, size and coloratiun. The observations as to color con-

firm those previously made by Geithe in Germany. (Zoologist, 1895.)

The same anthor in a recent classification of the American Box

Tortoises in the British Museum, adopts Baur’s definitions of species

and distinguishes six of which he gives a synopsis. He holds to the

generic name of Cistudo although it has been shown that Terrapene

has priority. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. 1895.)

ENTOMOLOGY:

A New Diplopod Fauna in Liberia.—From the west coast of

Africa large numbers of Diplopoda are already known, and yet very

little of the vast extent of territory has been thoroughly searched for

members of this group. In connection with an attempted exploration

of Liberia under the auspicies of the New York State Colonization

Society, there has been an opportunity for careful collecting in the

western part of that country, some of the results of which are here

offered. The majority of Liberian Diplopoda belong to the suborder

Polydesmoidea. The only other families represented are the Polyxen-

idx, Stemmatoiulide, Spirostreptide and Spirobolid, and these offer

no very remarkable novelty in structure or form. This is in strong

contrast to the great number and variety of Polydesmoidea ; indeed it

1 Edited by Clarence M. Weed, New Hampshire College, Durham, N. H.

414 The American Naturalist. [May,

has proved necessary to establish genera and families in attempting to

properly recognize their structural novelty and diversity. Some of

these new groups have already received names,’ but their characters

have been only formally indicated.

Family AMMODEsMID&.

Two minute Glomeroid genera were discovered, one of which, Am-

modesmus, is the smallest member of the suberder, if not of the entire

class. The only species, Ammodesmus granum, is less than two milli-

metres long, and about half a millimetre broad. A single specimen

was secured while collecting minute Oniscide, but diligent and repeated

search failed to find another. It did result, however, in three spec-

imens of a very distinct, though evidently allied, genus which it is pro-

posed to name Cenchrodesmus. Both genera have the habit of coiling

into a sphere. The second segment is enormously enlarged so as to

completely conceal the head and first segment when viewed from the

side, as well as to cover the space left between the decurved carinæ of

the other segments when the creatures are coiled. Ammodesmus has

the dorsum roughened by a transverse row of large papilliform tuber-

cles rising from the posterior part of each segment, while Cenchrodes-

mus volutus has the segments nearly smooth. The surface of Ammo-

desmus is rough and dusted with earth. When disturbed it coils up

and lies motionless, and is then perfectly concealed, having exactly the

appearance of a grain of sand. My specimen would certainly not have

been seen had it not been crawling. Cenchrodesmus is pinkish in life

and mottled with pale horn-color in alcohol. Both genera live on the

ground under decaying wood or leaves.

Family CAMPODESMIDÆ.

This also contains two genera similar in size and general shape, yet

evidently distinct, in that Campodesmus has the segments ornamented

with two conspicuous clusters of coarse tubercles, while Tropidesmus

jugosus has two transverse rows of short longitudinal carinz, a form of

sculpture previously quite unknown in Polydesmoidea. The carinæ

are depressed in both genera, and the dorsal surface is very rough with

fine granules and tubercles. Pores are visible on the fifth and seventh

segments, but I have been unable to find them on the others. Both

forms are denizens of the deepest forests, where the light is so deficient

that they are sure to be overlooked unless specially sought for. They

are very sluggish in their movements, and are seldom found crawling.

When disturbed they coil up into a spiral, and also assume that posi-

*Proc. U. S.. Nat. Museum and Annals N. Y. Acad. Science, 1895.

1896] Entomology. 415

tion in aleohol. The first segment is not enlarged to conceal the head,

nor are the anterior segments larger than the others. The general ap-

pearance is strikingly different from that of other Diplopoda, the resem-

blance being rather to certain lepidopterous larve.

Familly COMODESMIDÆ, new.

The type of this family is a small, reddish-brown, subcylindrical

form, very rare, and also inhabiting the denser parts of the forest. The

pore-formula is unique: 5, 7, 9,12, 15, 17,18. The pores are located

in the front part of the posterior subsegments. The dorsal surface is

beset with conic piliferous granules, giving a wooly appearance. The

last segment is scarcely produced beyond the anal valves, but is

rounded off at apex as in many Iulidæ. ` The head is not concealed by

the first segment, which is narrower than the second and somewhat in-

cluded between the carine of the latter, much as in Scytonotus gran-

ulatus (Say). Two other allied genera, also granular and hairy, are

found in similar situations in Liberia, but both have the normal pore-

formula as in Polydesmus. Thelydesmus is nearly black, larger and

much more abundant than Comodesmus. The generic name alludes to

the fact that the females are in a large preponderance. Although

about a hundred females were taken, careful and extended collecting

resulted in only four males. The remaining genus is minute and very

rare, cylindrical, and without carinæ. The posterior subsegments are

abruptly thicker than the anterior, giving the appearance of a series of

of discs laid together, whence the generic name, Discodesmus. In the

Berlin Museum is another form evidently allied to Thelydesmus, but

with broader carinæ and more resemblance to the Pterodesmidx, to be

noted later on. It was collected in the German Colony of Togo by Dr.

K. Biittner, and may be known as Xyodesmus planus.

In addition to the above genera there may be referred to this family

Cylindrodesmus Pocock, from Christmas Island. It is even more evi-

dently allied to Comodesmus than the other genera mentioned. There

is also in my collection a new generic type from the mountains of Java,

not closely related to the other genera, but evidently belonging to the

same family group.

Family PREPODESMIDZ, new.

Under this name it is proposed to arrange West African forms

hitherto referred either to Paradesmus or to Oxydesmus, from the

latter of which they differ in having the apex of the last segment nar-*

row and bituberculate. The affinities of the group seem to be with the

Oxydesmidee, although no connecting links have yet turned up. In a

416 The American Naturalist. [May,

large number of forms the poriferous segments are wholly or partly red

or yellow, while the remainder of the body is nearly black, giving a

most striking appearance. Prepodesmus includes several such forms,

all with the anterior corner of the second segment greatly produced and

embracing the first segment. Tylodesmus has the corner rounded and

not produced. Cheirodesmus is similar to the last in general shape,

but is more slender and with the male genitalia resembling in shape a

gloved hand. Anisodesmus is peculiar in that the fourth segment is

distinctly, though slightly, narrower than the third or fifth. The

species are uniform dark red in color and the type is closely allied to

Polydesmus erythropus Lucas. Isodesmus is evidently related, but with

the fourth segment not narrowed, and remarkable in that the pores are

not borne on a distinct callus as in the other genera of the group. The

copulatory legs are also very peculiar being deeply divided into

several laciniæ. In all these genera the dorsal surface is finely and

evenly granular, though differing somewhat in other respects. The

family is probably distributed along the entire West Coast, and I have

seen two forms from South Africa, one of which, Lipodesmus, is in the

Berlin Museum,

Family OxypDEsMID&.

The Liberian forms which belong to this family in the more limited

sense" are all referable to the genus Oxydesmus, and belong to three

species, O. grayii Newport, O. mediusand O. liber, both new. The first

is a very striking form, black in color with a narrow median stripe of

bright vermillion. The other species are also black, O. liber with

bright yellow submarginal ridges

Family POLYDESMIDÆ.

Of Liberian species referable to this family in its stricter sense there

seem to be but two; small pinkish-red forms, similar in general appear-

ance to some species of Brachydesmus. The dorsal elevated areas are

each supplied with a clavate hair. The antenne are strongly clavate,

though rather slender, and the second pair of legs is crassate in the

*The African forms having the apex of the last segment broad, the femora

spined, and the carine with a submarginal ridge, constitute the family Oxydesm-

- There are five genera now known, two confined to the east side of the con-

tinent, three to the west. Of the east coast forms, Orod with

strongly tuberculate segments, Mimodesmus those with the body slender and the

e dorsum nearly smooth. of the west coast genera Oxydesmus has three rows of

; Scytodesmus has five or six rows, while

Plagiodesmus r resembles Oxydesmus, but has the submarginal ridges very broad

_ and oblique, and the copulatory legs large and exposed.

1896.] Entomology. 417

male. For this genus the name Bactrodesmus is proposed; it will

probably be found to be next related to the form described from Ceylon

by Humbert as Polydesmus cognatus, but which is generically different

from the European P. complanatus, and may be denominated Naso-

desmus.

Family Preroprsmips”, New.

This family is proposed for Polydesmus gabonicus Lucas and its

African relatives, by more recent writers referred to Cryptodesmus. I

have examined the type of Cryptodesmus olfersii in the Berlin Museum.

The diversities seem to be of family importance. The African forms

are very curious, the development of the lateral carinz being carried

to its greatest extent. They are very much flattened, elliptical in out-

line, and only four or five times as long as broad. They never coil

into a spiral, even when placed in alcohol. At least five genera are

found in Liberia. `

All the African forms yet known to me have repugnatorial pores,

and we may expect to find these in the others, notwithstanding the

statements of several writers to the contrary. The location of the pores

is, however, very unusual. They are far remote from the lateral mar-

gin, in the anterior part of the carinz, in some cases so far ahead as to

be concealed by the posterior margin of the preceeding segment. An

even more remarkable condition obtains in Pterodesmus brownellii, the

type of the genus and family. The fifth segment has no pore!

Liberian forms are further peculiar in that all are more or less pruinose.

Pterodesmus is the largest of the Liberian genera. It is pure white

when young, but mature individuals are ysually dusted with earth

which adheres to the pruinosity and gives them the advantage of

protective coloration. Gypsodesmus, on the other hand, is pure white,

even when mature. Lampodesmus is partly pruinose and appears to be

black and white when alive, though it is brown in alcohol. It is

structurally peculiar in that the sternum of the sixth segment bears

two hollow processes fringed along their apical edges with long hairs.

These may be of use as a protection to the copulatory legs. Compso-

desmus is the broadest of the Liberian forms. When alive it is one of

the most varied and brilliant of Diplopoda. A large median area of

the dorsal surface of each segment is dark brown, while the space be-

tween it and the posterior margin on each side is nearly white or bright

yellow. Carinz tinted with bright orange or pink, or both. Below,

except near the edges of the carinz, the body is covered with a pure `

white bloom or chalky powder. Last segment nearly white. Motions

very sluggish.

418 The American Naturalist. . [May,

From the German colony of Togo comes a genus evidently allied to

the last, but distinct by reason of the more slender body and narrower

carinæ, which are also scarcely produced at the posterior corners.

From Lampodesmus it is distinct in the absence of the process from the

sternum of the sixth segment, and in the form of the copulatory legs.

A small horn-brown or yellowish creature with remarkably agile

movements it is proposed to name Choridesmus citus. The first segment

is pure white, pruinose, and abruptly different in color from the

remainder of the body. The pores are large, and are located in the

middle of the carine, remote from the margins. The quick, jerky

movements remind one strongly of Polyxenus.

Family SrRONGYLOSOMATIDE.

Of this group there are two genera in Liberia, both new, though prob-

ably not confined to the West Coast. Scolodesmus grallator represents

the usual Strongylosoma type, with long legs and antenne. It is dark

wine-color, nearly black. Habrodesmus letus is a rare species appar-

ently confined to the darkest forests. It is exceedingly quick and

agile, very graceful in form and brilliantly colored. The legs are

orange and pink, and the segments have the posterior margin yellow,

shading through orange and brown to black on the remainder of the

segment.

In gardens at Monrovia Orthomorpha vicaria (Karsch) is not un-

common; it is probably not indigenous.

Family STYLODESMIDÆ.

The type of this family js a bizzare creature named Stylodesmus hor-

ridus. The generic name alludes to the fact that the pores are borne

on long stalks placed near the lateral margins of the broad, decurved

carinæ. The pore-formula is the usual one, 5, 7, 9, 10, 12, 13, 15-19.

The whole dorsal surface of the animal is setose and coal-black. There

is almost always an incrustation of dirt which furnishes a completely

protective coloration. The head is completely concealed under the

flabelliform, anteriorly lobed, first segment, and the last segment is

reduced, included in, and concealed by the penultimate. The most

striking feature is that each of the segments except the last bears

dorsally a pair of long slender processes. Those of the anterior and

a segments are close together and show a tendency to unite at

the base. These processes are also rough and setose, and almost

always so incrusted ae dirt as to appear several times their actual

size. Ifsegments of Stylodesmus had been found in fossil condition

they would probably have been looked upon as allied to some of the

1896.] Entomology. 419

Archipolypoda, so much greater is the general resemblance to the fossils

than to previously known extant genera. Yet there are in Liberia at

least three other genera which have evident affinities with Stylodesmus.

In all the pores are located on special processes or tubercles, and the

first segment is enlarged and scalloped in front. Udodesmus telluster

differs from Stylodesmus in being much more slender and without the

long dorsal processes. These are replaced by two longitudinal crests of

two or three large tubercles. The body is very rough, setose, and in-

crusted with earth. Hercodesmus aureus is a beautiful little species,

more slender than Udodesmus, and usually without a covering of earth.

In Stiodesmus the dorsal ridges of tubercles are not much more prom-

inent than the numerous large, rounded tubercles with which the whole

surface is beset. The result ıs a creature which on first view might be

supposed to have affinities with Scytonotus.

Besides these, the present family will contain four East Indian

genera, Pyrgodesmus and Lophodesmus, described by Pocock, and two

new ones from Java. In the Canary Islands is a beautiful and evi-

dently allied form inhabiting the nests of ants, and called Cynedesmus,

on account of the form of the first segment. The Stylodesmide do not

coil up into a close spiral; they usually remain nearly straight, even

when in alcohol. Though there is no close resemblance in form or

structure between the Stylodesmide and Campodesmide, yet both are

strikingly different from other Diplopoda. That two groups of such

remarkable creatures should inhabit the same locality seemed at first

very strange, but as the various new and equally interesting forms con-

tinued to be found it was soon apparent that we were really in the

presence of a new fauna.

That the new families are not all confined to Africa is shown by re-

cent. papers, notably those of Mr. Pocock. As yet, however, the

Ammodesmide and Campodesmide are known only from African

representatives. Of the larger, long known forms the Oxydesmidz and

Prepodesmide, appear to be confined to Africa. In East Africa is an-

other family of several genera, none of which has yet been reported

from the West Coast. Indeed, speaking with regard only to families

and genera, there are four very distinct diplopod faunz in the African

continent, the northern, southern, eastern and western parts having

little in common. The species are, of course, even more local. I have

examined the collections of the Berlin Museum and the British Muse-

um, as well as the literature of the subject, and with the exception of

Oxydesmus grayii and Orthomorpha vicaria, collected at Sierra Leone,

know of no Liberian diplopod from any other part of the West Coast.

420 The American Naturalist. [May,

We are thus assured of an African fauna of surpassing richness, not a

tithe of which has yet been revealed.—O. F. CooK.

Entomological News.—Prof. Clarence M. Weed of the New

Hampshire College spent several weeks in December and January,

studying the Bermuda Islands. Many species not before recorded

from there were collected.

EMBRYOLOGY.’

The Sense Plates, the Germ of the Foot, and the Shell

or Mantle Region inthe Stylommatophora.’—To our knowl-

edge of these subjects, Dr. Ferdinand Schmidt contributes the results

of his numerous observations upon the embryos of Succinea, Limax and

Clausilia. Concerning the sensory plates he shows that immediately

behind the budlike rudiments of the future egg-bearing and the simple

tactile tentacles, in Limax where the development is most easily fol-

lowed, there arises a third pair of buds like the first two pairs in all

respects except in size. From these buds arises the so called oral lobes,

subtentacular lobes, or labial tentacles. They have no relation to the

velum whatever, since they arise in a pre-velar region. This is com-

pletely at varience with the observations of Jayeux-Laffuie on Onchi-

dium and those of Ray Lankester on Limneus in which the subtenta-

cular lobes are asserted to arise from the velum or a rudiment of the

same. Should further studies upon these forms substantiate the asser-

tion, we would then have two groups of oral lobes, one in which they

arise from the velum and to be homologized with the oral lobes of the

lammellibranchiata, where they undoubtedly have such an origin, and

the other in which they arise from the sensory plates and are homolo-

gous with the tentacles.

In his account of the development of the foot in Succinea he supports

the conclusion long since put forth by Lankester, namely, that the —

typical form of the blastopore is an elongated cleft on the ventral side

of the embryo, from which arises in some cases the mouth, in others

the anus, according as the cleft persists anteriorly or posteriorly.

This form of a blastopore is certainly important, considering his con-

- l Edited by E. A. Brna Baltimore, Md., to whom abstracts reviews and

preliminary notes may be seni

? Beitrage zur Kenntniss i PEPER apart der Stylomatophoren,

with 9 text figs. Zool. Jahrbücher, VIL, 31 j

1896.] Embryology. 421

clusions with regard to the foot. This, he says, is to be distinguished

very much earlier than has hitherto been recorded and, as one

would naturally expect from Patten’s study of Patella, which he

quotes, it arises from a pair of folds and not from a single one as

has generally been stated for related forms. In Succinea these two

folds appear close behind the blastopore between the region of the

mouth and anus, and approaching one another fuse in the median line

forming an oval area. A median furrow persists for some time as evi-

dence of the union as in Patella. This last fact gives some meaning to

the similarly furrowed appearance occuring in Limneus, Planorbis

and Ancylus.

A study of over 100 embryo showed him that this paired origin is

the rule, although examples were found where the elevation was un-

paired, forming then a broad disc. In one apparently pathological

case the blastopore had retained its supposed primitive elongated form

and the beginning of ‘the foot had the form of a horseshoe embracing

its hinder end. ;

His conclusion that the foot represents the fused lips of the elon-

gated blastopore removes the possibility of the organ being some kind

of secondary formation, and makes it out to be a metamorphosed very

ancient structure: and if the conclusion is correct, the mollusean foot

is not quite such an anomalous structure as it has hitherto seemed.

A few remarks concerning the podocyst and the so called “ Nacken-

blase ” are of interest in that they show that the latter structure is not

an organ at all, and that the contracting motions that have been ob-

served in it are due to the contractions of the podocyst which acts as

an organ of circulation. For in Swecinea where the structure in ques-

tion has an enormous development and where no podocyst occurs there

are no such movements to be seen. The structure is, he says, a mass

of endoderm cells swollen with albumen, the embryonal liver and the

outer body epithelium.

With regard to the shell gland, Schmidt substantiates, in the main,

the early observations of Gegenbaur or Clausilia and shows Kor-

schelt’s doubt concerning them to be unfounded. A large series of

Clausilia embryos gave ample opportunities for study, and as a result

it appears that very early the shell gland arises as an invagination of

the outer epithelium, and closing up, becomes completely cut off from

its parent layer. Sections show it to be completely surrounded by `

mesoderm. The hollow vesicle thus formed becomes flattened out so

that he distinguishes in it an outer and an inner layer of cells sepa-

‘rated by a narrow space. The outer layer remains more or less un-

422 The American Naturalist. [May,

changed, but the cells of the inner one proliferate and begin to lay

down the shell, which may be distinguished in sections as a very thin

lamina. At about this time observations of embryos by reflected

light show a small invagination or hole near the center of the newly

formed shell, which is thus laid bare. The hole then is of secondary

formation and not, as Korschelt supposes, something that has persisted

from the original invagination.

It appears then that the internal formation of the shell, as it has

been generally recognized in the so called naked pulmonates is not an

exception to a rule but the rule itself, and that the condition obtaining

in Limax and others differs from that in the rest of the pulmonates

only in so far as a rudimentary condition is retained in the adult ani-

mal.—F’, C. Kenyon, Ph. D., Clark University, Worcester, Mass.

PSYCHOLOGY.

Physical and Social Heredity.—The great courtesy of the

Editor of this journal in reprinting one of my paper from Science pre-

liminary to replying to it encourages me to ask him for a page or two

of comment on his reply. This is the more needful since the second of

my papers which he criticises may not have been seen by the readers

of the Naturatist, and the third has only just appeared in Science,

(March 20 and April 10, 1896).

The main question at issue is the relation of consciousness or intellig-

ence to heredity ; the other matter, that of the relation of consciousness

to the brain, being so purely speculative that I shall merely touch upon

it at the end of this note.

Prof. Cope’ says: “ there is no way short of supernatural revelation

by which mental education can be accomplished other than by contact

with the environment through sense-impressions, and by transmission

of the results to subsequent generations. The injection of consciousness

into the process does not alter the case, but adds a factor which neces-

sitates the progressive character of evolution.” Both of these sentences

I fully accept, except that the word “ transmission ” seem to imply the

Lamarkian factor, which I think the presence of consciousness renders

unnecessary. Using the more neutral word “ conservation ” instead of

“transmission,” I may refer to three points on which Prof. Cope criti-

cises my views: first, ti intelligent acquisitions from ge

nara

1 Amer. NAT., April, 1896, p. 343.

1896,] Psychology. 423

tion to generation ; second, “ the progressive character of evolution ;”

and third, “ mental education ” or acquisition.

First, agreeing as we do on the fact of mental acquisition or “ selec-

tion through pleasure, pain, experience, association, etc.,” Prof. Cope

cites my second paper (Science, Mar. 20th) in which I hold that con-

sciousness makes acquisitions of new movements by such selections.

He then says, if so, then I admit the Lamarkian factor. But not at

all; it is just the point of my article to refute Romanes by showing that

adaptation by intelligent selection makes the Lamarkian factor un-

necessary. And in this way, i. e., this sort of adaptation on the part

of a creature keeps that creature alive by supplementing his reflex and

instinctive actions, so prevents the operation of natural selection in his

case, and gives the species time to get congenital variations in the lines

that have thus proved to be useful (see cases cited). Farthermore, all the

resources of Social Heredity—the handing down of intelligent acquisi-

tion by maternal instruction, imitation, gregarious life, etc.—come in

directly to take the place of the physical inheritance of such adapta-

tions. This influence Prof. Cope, I am glad to see, admits ; although in

admitting it, he does not seem to see that he is practically throwing

away the Lamarkian factor. For instead of limiting this influence to

human progress, we have to extend it to all animals with gregarious

and family life, to all creatures that have any ability to imitate, and

finally to all animals which have consciousness sufficient to enable then

to make conscious adaptations themselves: for such creatures will have

children that do the same, and it is unnecessary to say that the chil-

dren must inherit what their fathers did by intelligence, when they can

do the same things by their own intelligence. As a matter of fact Prof.

Cope is exactly the biologist to whose Lamarkism this admission is,

so far as I can see, absolutely fatal; for he more than all others holds

that adaptations all through the biological scale are secured by con-

sciousness? If so, then he is just the man who is obliged to extend to

the utmost the possibility of the transmission also of these adaptations

by intelligence, which, as I said, rules out the need of their transmission

by physical heredity. At any rate he is quite incorrect in saying

that “ he [I] both admit and deny Lamarkism.”

To this argument of mine Prof. Cope presents no ohjediini that I see

except one from analogy. He says: “Ido not see how promiscuous

variation and natural selection alone can result in progressive psychic

evolution, more than in structural evolution, since the former is condi-

2 Andin this I think he is right: see chaps. VII and IX of my Mental Develop-

ment (Macmillans, 2d. ed.).

424 The American Naturalist. [May,

tioned by the latter.” As to the word “ progressive,” I take up that

question below; but as to the analogy with structural evolution, two

auswers occur to me. In the first place, Prof. Cope is, as I said,

the very man who holds that all structural evolution is secured by

direct conscious adaptations. He says: “mind determines movements

and movements have determined structure or form.” If this be true

how can psychic be conditioned by structural evolution? Would not

rather the structural changes depend upon the psychic ability of the

creature to effect adaptations? And then, second, at this point Prof.

Cope assumes the Lamarkian factor in structural evolution. Later on

he makes the same assumption when he says: “ But since the biologists

have generally repudiated Weismannism,” ete. This is a curious say-

ing; for my impression is that even on the purely biological side, the

tendency is the other way. Lloyd Morgan has pretty well come over;

Romanes took back before he died many of his arguments in favor of

the Lamarkian factor; and here comes a paleontologist, Prof. Osborn,

—if he is correctly reported in Science, April 3rd, p. 530—to argue

against Prof. Cope on this very point with very much the same sort of

argument as this which I have made.’ And while Prof. Cope will agree

with me that this sort of argumentum ex autoritate is not very convinc-

ing, yet he will not object to my balancing off his dictum. with the fol-

lowing from a letter which just comes to me from another distinguished

biologist, Prof. Minot: “ Neo-Lamarkism seems to me an impossible

theory.”

But Prof. Cope goes on to say that I “ both admit and deny Weismann-

ism ;” on the ground that “ his [my] denial of inheritance only covers

*Since writing this I have heard Prof. Osborn read a paper which confirms the

agreement between him and me which I supported in the text above. I reached

my conclusion independently and one of my Science articles gives report of it as

pressed in a criticism of Romanes before the New York Academy of Science

on Jan. 31st, 1896. Prof. Osborn’s expression “ ontogenic variations” i. e. those

brought out by “environment (which includes all the atmospheric, chemical,

nutritive, motor, and psychical ci t Jer which the animal is reared) ”

seems to make these adaptations after all constitutional. As Prof. Osborn says

this will not do for all cases; and I think it will not do for instinet, where consti-

says) to keep the animal alive while correlated variations are being perfected

- phylogenically. But it seems to answer perfectly where intelligent or other

aptations supplement the constitutional variations—and that is just the point

made in my Science paper. As to the way these ontogenic variations or adapta-

tions are brought about in the individual creature, see the remarks on “ organic

Selection” below. I am printing in the next issue of this journal (June) a full

statement of the entire position.

1896.] Psychology. 425

the case of psychological sports.” But I do not see the connection. If

Prof. Cope means denial of the inheritance of acquired characters then

I deny it equally of sports and other creatures; but I do not deny that

the native “ sportiveness ” (!) of sports tends to be transmitted. In my

view the “ massiveness of front” which progress shows (and which

Prof. Cope accepts) shows that in social transmission the individual

is usually swamped in the general movement as the individual sport

is in biological progress. As a matter of fact, however, the analogy

from “sports” which Prof. Cope makes does not strictly hold. For the

social sport, the genius, is sometimes just the controlling factor in social

evolution. And this is another proof that the means of transmission

of intelligent adaptations is not physical heredity alone, but that they

are socially handed down. I do not see, therefore, what Prof. Cope means

by saying that I “admit and deny Weismannism,” for I have never

discussed Weismannism at all. I believe in the Neo-Darwinian position

plus some way of getting “ determinate variations.” And for this lat-

ter I think the way now suggested is better than the Lamarkian way.

Like many of the biologists (e. g., Minot) I see no proof of Weismann-

ism (just as I protest mildly against being sorted with Mr. Benjamin

Kidd!) ; yet I have no competence for such purely biological specula-

tions as those which deal in plasms!

. Second, the question as to how evolution can be made “ progressive.”

Prof. Cope thinks only by the theory of “ lapsed intelligence” or “ in-

herited habit.” Admitting that the intelligence makes selections, then

they must be inherited, in order that the progress of evolution may set

the way the intelligence selects. But suppose we admit intelligent

selection (even in the way Prof. Cope believes) ; still there are two in-

fluences at work to keep the direction which the intelligence selects

apart from the supposed direct inheritance. There is that of social

handing down, imitation, etc., or Social Heredity, which I have already

pointed out; and besides there is the survival by natural selection of

those creatures which have variations which intelligence can use. This

puts a premium on these variations and their intelligent use in follow-

ing generations. Suppose, for instance, a set of young animals some

of which have variations which intelligence can use for a partic-

ular adaptation, thus keeping these individuals alive, while the others

who have not these variations die off; then the next generation

will not only have the same variations which intelligence can use

in the same way, but will also have the intelligence to use the varia-

tions in the same way, and the result will be about the same as if the

second generation had inherited the adaptations directly. The direc-

426 The American Naturalist. [May,

tion of the intelligent selection will be preserved in just the same sense.

I think it is a great feature of Prof. Cope’s theory that he emphasizes

the intelligent direction of evolution, and especially that he does it by

appealing to the intelligent adaptations of the creatures themselves ;

but just by so doing he destroys the need of the Lamarkian factor.

Natural selection kills off all the creatures which have not the intelli-

gence nor the variations which the intelligence can use; those are kept

alive which have both the intelligence and the variations. They use

their intelligence just as their fathers did, and besides get new intelligent

adaptations, thus aiding progress again by intelligent selection. What

more is needed for progressive evolution

ird. We come now to the third maS method of intelligent

selection—and on this point Prof. Cope does not understand my position,

, I think. I differ from him both in the psychology of voluntary adapta-

tions of movement, and in the view that consciousness is a sort of force

directing brain energies in one way or another (for nothing short of a

force could release or direct brain energy). The principle of Dynamo-

genesis was cited in my article in this form: i. e., “the thought of a

movement tends to discharge motor energy into the channels as near

as may be to those necessary for that movement.” This principle

covers two facts. First, that no movement can be thought of effectively

which has not itself been performed before and left traces of some sort

in memory. These traces must come up in mind when its performance

is again intended. And second (and in consequence of this) that no

act, whatever, can be performed by consciousness by willing movements

which have never been performed before. It follows that we can not

say that consciousness by selecting new adaptations beforehand can

make the muscles perform them. The most that psychologists (to my

knowledge) are inclined to claim is that by the attention one or other

of alternative movements which have been performed before (or com-

binations of them) may be performed again; in other words, the selec-

tion is of old alternative movements. But this is not what Prof. Cope

seems to mean; nor what his theory requires. His theory requires the

acquisition of new movements, new adaptations to environment, by a

conscious selection of certain movements which are then carried out the

first time by the muscles.’

“I keep to ‘‘intellegent ” —— here; but the same principle applies to

all adaptations made in ontogene. Iam am using the phrase “ Organic Selection "in

io patene to raot in aes Canal to designate this “factor” in evolution (see

shes por nem states do have a causal relation to the other organic processes.” I

do not find, however, that Prof. Cope has made clear just how in his opinion the

“selection” by consciousness does work.

1896,] Psychology. 427

It may very justly be asked ; if his view be not true, how then can

new movements which are adaptive ever be learned at all? This is one

of the most important questions, in my view, both for biologists and

for psychologists ; and my recent work on Mental Development is, in its

theoretical portion (chap., VII), devoted mainly to it, i. e., the problem

of ontogenetic accommodation. I can not go into details here, but it may

suffice to say that Spencer (and Bain after him) laid out what seems to

me, with certain modifications urged in my book, the only theory which

can stand in court. Its main thought is this, that all new movements

which are adaptive or “fit” are selected from overproduced movements

or movement variations, just as creatures are selected from overproduced

variations by the natural selection of those which are fit. This process,

as I conceive it, I have called “ organic selection,” a phrase which em-

phasizes the fact that it is the organism which selects from all its over-

produced movements those which are adaptive and beneficial. The part

which the intelligence plays is “through pleasure, pain, experience,

association, etc., to concentrate the energies of movement upon the limb

or system of muscles to be used and to hold the adaptive movement,

“select” it, when it has once been struck. In the higher forms both

the concentration and the selection are felt as acts of attention.

Such a view extends the application of the general principle of selec-

tion through fitness to the activities of the organism. To this problem

I have devoted some five years of study and experiment with children,

etc., and I am now convinced that this “ organic selection ” bears much

the same relation to the doctrine of special creation of ontogenetic

adaptations by consciousness which Prof. Cope is reviving, that the

Darwinian theory of natural selection bears to the special creation

theory of the phylogenetic adaptations of species. The facts which

Spencer called “heightened discharge” are capable of formulation

of the principle of “motor excess”: “the accommodation of an

organism to æ new stimulation is secured—not by the selection of

the reinstatement of it by a discharge of the energies of the organism,

-concentrated, as far as may be, for the excessive stimulation of the

organs (muscles, etc.), most nearly fitted by former habit to get this

stimulation again,” ê in which the word “stimulation” stands for the

condition favorable to adaptation. After several trials with grotesquely

excessive movements, the child (for example) gets the adaptation aimed

at more and more perfectly, and the accompanying excessive and use-

* Mental “SEP P 179. Spencer and Bain hold that the selection is of

urely random movements.

> r

428 The American Naturalist. [May,

less movements fall away. This is the kind of “selection” that con-

sciousness does in its acquisition of new movements. And how the

results of it are conserved from generation to generation, without the

Lamarkian factor, has been spoken of above.

Finally, a word merely of the relation of consciousness to the energies

of the brain. It is clear that this doctrine of selection as applied to

muscular movement does away with all necessity for holding that con-

sciousness even directs brain energy. The need of such direction seems

to me to be as artificial as Darwin’s principle showed the need of special

creation to be for the teleological adaptations of the different species.

This necessity of supposed directive agency done away in this case as

in that, the question of the relation of consciousness to the brain be-

comes a metaphysical one; just as that of teleology in nature became

a metaphysical one; and science can get along without asking it. And

biological as well as psychological science should be glad that it is so—

should it not?

I may add in closing that of the three headings of this note only the

last (third) is based on matters of my private opinion ; the other two

rest on Prof. Cope’s own presuppositions—that of intelligent selection

in his sense of the term, and that of the bearing of Social Heredity

(which he admits) upon Lamarckism. In another place I hope to

take up the psychology of Prof. Cope’s new book in some detail.

J. Marx BALDWIN.

Observations on Prof. Baldwin’s Reply.—In order to com-

prehend the question at issue, it is necessary to state certain fundamen-

tal principles of evolution. This process consists in the development

of the heterogeneous from the homogeneous as Spencer expresses it ;

or in more specific language, evolution consists in the development of

specialized structures from generalized material. Primitive organic or

living beings consist of protoplasm which is, as compared with higher

_ organisms, generalized. That is, they are without disfinct muscular,

nervous, or digestive organs, ete. How are psychic conditions related

to this process of specialization? Prof. Baldwin states that an animal

is able to “ select through pleasure, pain, experience, association, etc.,

from certain alternative complex movements which are already possible

for the limb or member used.” This means that under guidance of a

form of consciousness, certain existing muscles are selected to perform

certain movements, while other muscles are neglected. Now if this be

possible to a muscular system specialized into discrete bundles, it is also

possible to a primitive contractile protoplasm which is not yet differ-

1896.] Psychology. 429

entiated into discrete muscular and other bodies. In other words it is

possible to contract that part of the homogeneous protoplasm which is

necessary for the production of a certain movement, and leave that

part of the protoplasm which is not necessary to produce the movement,

uncontracted. And this is exactly what undifferentiated animals (Pro-

tozoa) do, and it is what is done at all stages of differentiation of the

muscular system, so far as the differentiation which that muscular system

has attained, will permit. It is the sentence which I have quoted above

from Prof. Baldwin which induced me to say that he admits the Lam-

arkian factor. For there is no doubt that it has been this habitual

contraction of certain parts of undifferentiated protoplasm which has

produced muscular bands, sheets, etc., as distinguished from other his-

tological elements of the organism. Ifthis be true, there is no necessity

for the hypothesis of “ overproduced movements” as the source of new

habits, since those habits may be produced by the direct effect of the

selective power of the animal over its own protoplasm. It is not in-

tended by this expression to claim anything more than simple sensation

for simple forms of life, or that anything higher than hunger, reproduc-

tion temperature, etc., constitute their pleasures and pains.

The theory of natural selection from “ overproduced movements” as

a source of new movements stands on the same basis as all the other

theories of natural selection as explanations of the origin of anything

new. They are impossible in practice, and inaccurate in logic, since

in my opinion, following that of Mr. Darwin, they demand of Natural

Selection a function of which it is by its definition incapable. That

natural selection regulates the survival of movements after they have

originated, goes without saying. It is evideut that “overproduced

movements”? must on Prof. Baldwin’s “ Organic Selection” theory,

include the adaptive one which is destined to survive. The question

then is as to the origin of this particular “ overproduced ” and adaptive

movement. The explanation has been given above; i.e. that it is a

direct response to the stimulus supplied. The foia! in the organism

of the responsive movement depends on the location of the stimulus, a

fact testified to by the close local connection of motor with sensory

_ nerves of general sensation. In the case of responses to special sensa-

aep we may suppose that the responses only became exact as to locality

after a period of trial and error, the new movement always having a

local relation to the point of stimulus. The beast bites his wound,

before he has traced the pain to his enemy. As already pointed out, this

process would result in a perfected mechanism which would be inherited.

No one can yet explain the mechanism of the control of a mental state

430 The American Naturalist. [May,

over a contraction of protoplasm. It is one of the ultimate facts of the

universe. When Prof. Baldwin admits that an animal can select which

of two muscles it will use, or when he admits that an animal can con-

tract any muscle under the stimulus of “ pleasure, pain, ete., he admits

this ultimate fact, but does not explain it.

As to the scope of Social Heredity as a factor in psychic evolution, it

appears to me to be, like that of the higher intelligence, mainly

restricted to the higher animals and to man. Maternal instruction

among all but the higher animals probably has no existence. Imita-

tion may be supposed to be possible to animals a little lower in the

seale. But both factors are to my mind only supplementary to the

more vigorous education furnished by the environment, with its wealth

of stimuli to “ pleasure, pain, experience, association, ete.” In regard- `

ing Social Heredity as the sole factor of psychic evolution, Prof. Bald-

win temporarily loses sight of the intimate connection between mind

and its physical basis. The inheritance of mental characteristics is as

much a fact as the inheritance of physical structure, and for the reason

that the two propositions are identical. One does not believe in either

education or imitation as a cause of the repetition of insanity in family

lines. We rather believe in a defective brain mechanism, which is

inheritable, though fortunately not always inherited. The doctrine of

Weismann that acquired characters are not inherited, if true, would

furnish the physical conditions for the theory that Social Heredity is

the only psychic heredity, but it is impossible to believe that Weis-

mann’s doctrine is true. Hence while Social Heredity is true as far as

it goes, Lamarkism is also true, and expresses the more fundamental

law. The fact that no adequate physical explanation of the inheritance

of acquired characters has been reached does not disprove the fact.

E. D. Corps.

1 ANTHROPOLOGY:

Indian habitation in the Eastern United States.—Mr.

Thomas Wilson of the Smithsonian Institution in a recent letter refer-

ing to a discussion in Washington as to the shape of Indian habitations

east of the Mississippi, says, that while certain of the disputants

“ agreed that the Plains Indians of the present or modern times used

wigwams made with poles fastened together at the top and spreading

out in a circle at the bottom after the fashion of a Sibley tent, they

1 This department is edited by Henry C. Mercer, University of Penna , Phila.

Se S

1896.] Anthropology. 431

denied that any such structures were used by Indians, in the East.

They insisted that these wigwams. were confined to the plains and to

the prairies and treeless countries, and did not exist, or were not found,

and had never been used in the timbered countries—that in the tim-

bered country Indian houses were made of wooden logs with upright

sides and a flat or sloping roof. While I knew that many of these

were made among the Iroquois of the East, and that this form was

adopted in making the long houses (as they were called), I doubted

whether they were so built among the nomadic and wandering tribes

of Pennsylvania and the West Ohio, Indiana, ete. Can you give me

any enlightenment thereon? If so, I will be obliged.”

While it is not improbable that the shape of ** wigwams,” like burial

customs varied considerably among the forest Indians, and while any

camper out feels that a shelter often temporary, framed in the woods

with available boughs, would vary in shape according to circumstances

and suggest variation in more permanent structures, no one need hope

to speak with final authority upon this subject, who has not ransacked

the records of explorers, the narratives of individuals captured by

Indians, the relations of the Jesuits, and the significant sketches of

travellers in the last two centuries.

Dr. Daniel G. Brinton informs me that certain of the Brazilian

forest Indians use the tepee form, and speaking of the Lenni Lenape,

and quoting Nelson’s History of New Jersey, writes: “ William Penn

describes the dwellings of the Delaware Indians as ‘houses of mats,

or barks of trees, set on poles, hardly higher than a man.’ Pastorius

states that ‘ young trees would be bent towards a common centre and

the branches interlaced and fastened together asa frame work, and

covered with bark.’ Wassenaer says, ‘they would construct a circu-

lar matted hut, with either angular or rounded top, thatched or lined

with mats, a rent hole in the top serving for the escape of smoke.’

This last description is strictly that of a tepee and shows that the

angular pointed hut was in use by the Mohigan and Lenape Indians.

Wassenaers’ History is printed in Vol. III New York Documentary

History.” i i.

The above quotation from Penn, however, if given ‘€orrectly in

Watsons’ Annals of Philadelphia Vol. II. p., 153 reads distinctly

against the tepee form. “ Their houses were made of mats or barks of

trees set on poles, in the fashion of an English barn, but out of the

power of the winds for they are hardly higher than a man.” And we

find a rectangular structure again ascribed to the work of a band of

Lenapes squatting in the suburbs of Philadelphia about 1770-80, in

432 The American Naturalist. [May,

Watson Vol. II. p. 31 where a person 80 years old in 1842 relates

that he well remembers seeing colonies of Indians of twenty or thirty

_ persons, often coming through the town (Germantown) and sitting

down in Logan’s woods, others in the present (1842) open field south-

east of Griggs’ place. They would make their huts and stay a whole

year at a time and make and sell baskets, ladles and tolerably good

fiddles. He has seen them shoot birds and young squirrels there with

their bows and arrows. Their huts were made of four upright sap-

lings with crotch limbs at top. The sides and tops were of cedar

bushes and branches. In these they lived in the severest winters.

Their fire was on the ground and in the middle of the area.”

As the barn structure with its ridge pole would take six upright

crotched saplings, this rectangle set up by half civilized indians with

only four, was not barn shaped but single sloped like the simplest

form of shed. The form described above by Pastorius judging from

the tendency of elastic saplings when pulled together at the top to bow

outward, would probably have resulted in a round roofed structure of

the bee hive pattern if round at the base, or if rectangular, in such a

building as De Brys’ picture made in 1690 refers to Virginia Indians

(Contributions to N. A. ethnology Vol. IV) or Captain John Smith

carefully draws over the head of the sitting Powhatan in the upper left

hand- corner of his map of Virginia (see Narr. and Critical History of

Am., III, 166.) But if we believe Wassenaer who distinctly describes

the Sioux Tepeé we must allow the latter form to the Delawares.

Too much importance need not be ascribed to the minute realistic

outlines of habitations made to stand for Indian villages upon certain

old maps drawn on a large scale as for instance in Dumont de Mon-

tigny’s map of Louisiana (1746), when all Indian villages are marked

with tepee like points from the Illinois River to New Orleans and from

the Mobile to the Misissippi Rivers. Onthe other hand Du Prats, ina

similar map (1758) gives the barn shape.’ In other maps the struct-

ures seem too carefully and designedly drawn to be without archzolo-

ical value. As when Father Abrahams Almanac Map 1761 (Narrative

and Crit. Hist. V, 497) marks seven indian towns in the tepee shape

near the junction of the Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers, and

Hennepin in his map (1740) of the Mississippi valley and lakes (Narr.

and Crit. Hist. IV 252 and 249) and again in his map of the lake

region (1683) clearly shows pointed wigwams about the head waters of

the Mississippi, as against small rectangular figures for the lower val-

ley. Hawkins describes a communal Indian house seen in Florida as

? Narrative and Critical History of America Vol. V. p. 66.

1896,] Anthropology. 433

like a great barn in strength, not inferior to ours. Lescarbot’s map of

Montreal 1609. (Narr. and Crit. His. IV 304) shows the palisaded

Indian village of Hochelaga with barn-shaped round-roofed rectangu-

lar structures as in John Smith’s cut, and in a map of Lake Ontario

and the Iroquois Country 1662-63, (from one of the Jesuit relations)

the indian villages are barn-shaped and with pointed roofs. La Hon-

tain suggests the same shape in his map of the lake region 1709

(Narr. Crit. Hist. IV 281-261-258) and several Indian lodges of the

circular bee-hive pattern surrounded by cultivated enclosures are given

by Champlain in his map of Plymouth Harbor 1605. (Narr. and Crit.

History IV 109). While not only the round bee-hive pattern, but

also the long rectangle with round roof, as in Smith, are carefully

drawn by the same explorer in his map of Nauset Harbor, 1604-05

(Land fall of Leif Erickson by Eben Norton Horsford p. 78).

More interesting is the direct evidence of the Indians themselves.

The Lenape Stone, found in the Lenape region in 1872, and whose

authenticity after ten years observation I have been unable to doubt,

shows three pointed figures near trees, unmistakably referring to

tepee shaped habitations in the right of the drawing, and another fig-

ure similarly outlined on the reverse, (See the Lenape Stone or the

Indian and the Mammoth by H.C. Mercer, Putnam, N. Y. 1885).

Another stone figured by me from the same locality. (See Lenape

Stone p. 94) seems again to be inscribed with three tepee like forms.

No less explicit is the tepee figure upon the so called Winnipese-

ogee Stone found on the shores of Lake Winnipeseogee. (See Abbotts’

Primitive Industry p. 362). George Copway (See Bureau of Ethnology

Report 1888-89 p. 493 and 242) shows us Ojibway drawings which

doubtless refer to the same pointed form of habitation.

That the sides of the barn shaped structures when built as by the

Iroqois were invariably made of logs, is not to be supposed from the

statement above quoted from Wm. Penn., and the drawing by Captain

John Smith. All things considered, we have reason for supposing,

subject to correction from documentary investigation, that though the

barn shaped and round roofed rectangular structures were common, not

only the bee hive, but the true tepee form were in use by Indians

in the Pre-Columbian forest east of the Mississippi.

es Henry C. MERCER.

434 The American Naturalist. [May,

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

Novia Scotian Institute of Science.—The 13th of April_—The

following papers were read: Preliminary Notes on the Orthoptera of

Nova Scotia. By Harry Piers, Esq. Notes on the Newt (D.

viridescens) and on the Ring-Necked and Garter Snakes (D. punctatus

and E. sirtalis.) By A. H. MacKay, Esq., LL. D., F. R. 8. C., Super-

intendent ‘of Education. On the Calculation of the Conductivity of

Mixtures of Aqueous Solutions of Electrolytes having a common ion.

By D. MacIntosh, Esq., Physical Laboratory, Dalhousie College.—

Harry Piers, Secretary.

Boston Society of Natural History.—March 18th.—The

following paper was read: Prof. Charles R. Cross, “ The X rays.”

With experimental] illustrations.

April 1st.—The following paper was read: Prof. William Libbey,

“ The Hawaiian Islands.”

April 15th.—The following papers were read: Mr. M. L. Fuller,

“ A new occurrence of Carboniferous fossils in the Narragansett Basin.

‘Prof. Alpheus Hyatt, “ The evidence of the descent of man from the

ape. A discussion upon the subject of Prof. Hyatt’s followed, Prof.

Thomas Dwight, Prof. C. S. Minot, and others participating —SamuEL

HENSHAW, Secretary.

American Philosophical Society.— March 20th.—An obituary

of Rev. W. H. Furness, by Jos. G. Rosengarten, was presented; Mrs.

Cornelius Stevenson read a short paper on “ Remains of Libyan hie

ders of Egypt,” discovered in 1895 by Mr. Flinders Petrie.

April 10.—Prof. Cope made some observations on the figures

on a tablet from Nippur, pointing out the physical characters of the

men and animals represented

Academy of Natural Science, Philadelphia.—A meeting of

‘the Anthropological Section was held the 13th of March.—The follow-

ing papers were read: Prof. F. Edge Kavanagh, addressed the

Section on “ Right Handedness,” was the subject discussed by Drs.

Mills, Allen and Brinton, Professors Witmer, Culin, Jastrow and

Gudeman

Anthropological Section was held at the Academy on Friday,

April 10th.—The following paper was read: Prof. Lightner Witmer

on “ Psycho-physical Measurement.” —CHARLES Morrris.

1396,] Proceedings of Scientific Societies, 435

New York Academy of Sciences.—Biological Section, March

‘9th.—Mr. F. B. Sumner read a paper on “ The Descent Tree of the

Variations of a Land Snail from the Philippines,” illustrated by a

lantern slide. Mr. Sumner described the range in variation in size

and markings in the shell, and arranged the varieties in the form of a

tree of three branches diverging from the most generalized type. It

was shown that these several varieties occupy the same geographical

region and Mr. Sumner was of the opinion that their occurrence could

not be explained by natural selection since if the colorations were

supposed to be protective it would be impossible to explain the evolu-

tion of these three types. Prof. Osborn, in discussion, was inclined to

take the same view. Dr. Dyar, however, thought the explanation by

- natural selection not necessarily excluded, since the variations seemed

analogous to the dimorphism in sphinx larvae, which has been shown

by Poulton to be probably due to this factor.

The other paper was by Dr. Arnold Graf on “The Problem of the

Transmission of Acquired Characters.”

Dr. Graf discussed the views of the modern schools of evolutionists

and adopted the view that the transmission of acquired characters

must be admitted to occur. He cited several examples which seemed

to support this view, and especially discussed the sucker in leeches as

an adaptation to parasitism and the evolution of the chambered shell

in a series of fossil Cephalopods.

Prof. Osborn remarked in criticism of Dr. Graf’s paper that this

statement does not appear to recognize the distinction between ontogenic

and phylogenic variation, or that the adult from any organism is an

exponent of the stirp, or constitution. The Environment. If the

environment is normal the adult would be normal, but if the environ-

ment (which includes all the atmospheric, chemical, nutritive, motor

and psychical circumstances under which the animal is reared) were to

change, the adult would change correspondingly; and these changes

would be so profound that in many cases it would appear as if the

constitution, or stirp, had also changed. [Illustrations might be given

of changes of the most profound character induced by changes in

either of the above factors of the environment, and in the case of the

motor factor or animal motion, the habits of the animal might, in the

course of a life time, profoundly modify its structure. For example,

if the human infant were brought up in the branches of a tree as an

arboreal type instead of as a terrestrial, bi-pedal type, there is little

doubt that some of the well known early adaptations to arboreal habit

(such as the turning in of the soles of the feet, and the grasping of the

436 _ The American Naturalist. | May,

hands) might be retained and cultivated, thus a profoundly different

type of man would be produced. Similar changes in the action of

environment are constantly in progress in nature since there is no

doubt that the changes of environment and the new habits which it so

brings about far outstrip all changes in constitution. This fact which

has not been sufficiently emphasized before, offers an explanation of

the evidence advanced by Cope and other writers that change in the

forms of the skeletons of the vertebrates first appears in ontogeny and

subsequently in phylogeny. During the enormously long period of

time in which habits induced ontogenic variations it is possible for

natural selection to work very slowly and gradually upon predisposi-

tions to useful correlated variations, and thus what are primarily

ontogenic variations become slowly apparent as phylogenic variations or

congential characters of the race—C. L. BRISTOL, Secretary.

The Academy of Science of St. Louis.—March 16th.—Mr.

Trelease presented some of the results of a recent study of the poplars

of North America, made by him for the Systematic Botany of North

America, and exhibited specimens of the several species and recognized

varieties. Specimens were also exhibited of an apparently undescribed

poplar from the mountains of northern Mexico, which he proposed to

characterize shortly, and, for comparison, specimens of the two other

species of poplar known to occur in Mexico, and of the European allies

of the supposed new species, were laid beforethe Academy. The paper

was discussed by Drs. Green, Glatfelter, and Kinner, Mr. Winslow,

and Professor Kinealy.

The Academy, in co-operation with the joint committee of the scien-

tific societies of Washington, adopted resolutions favoring the appoint-

ment of a permanent chief for the scientific work of the United States

Department of Agriculture.

April 6th.—Prof. C. R. Sanger spoke on the an synthesis of

acetylene, illustrating the flame procurable from this gas when burned

with a proper proportion of air.

Prof. Sanger also presented the results of a preliminary biological

and chemical examination into the ice supply of St. Louis, and ex-

hibited a device for melting the ice in such examinations without

danger of contamination from atmospheric ammonia, ete.

The Secretary presented for publication, by itea paper by Mr.

Charles Robertson, entitled “ Flowers and Insects

Mr. William H. Roever presented a paper on iie geometry of the

lines of force from an electrified body, in which it was shown that:

1896.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 437

(a.) the curve representing a line of force proceeding from a system

consisting of two parallel electrified lines, is the locus of the intersec-

tion of two straight lines, rotating in the same plane about these two

parallel lines as axes with uniform but different angular velocities.

(b.) the curve representing a line of force proceeding from a system

consisting of two electrified points, is the locus of the intersection of

two straight lines, rotating, in the same plane about parallel axes

passing through those points, in such a manner that the versines of

their angles of inclination to the plane of the axes change at uniform

but different rates.

April 20th.—Dr. C. M. Woodward presented the results of a study

of certain statistics of school attendance, from which it appeared that

the average age of withdrawal from the public schools in three cities

compared was as follows: Boston, 15.8 ; Chicago, 14.6 ; St. Louis, 13.7.

Professor J. H. Kinealy exhibited and gave a mathematical discus-

sion of the Stang planimeter, an interesting and simple instrument of

Danish invention, but improved in the United States.

= WILLIAM TRELEASE, Recording Secretary.

U. S. National Academy of Sciences.—April 21,1896.—The

following papers were read: The Geological Efficacy of Alkali Car-

bonate Solutions, E. W. Hilgard ; On the Color Relations of Atoms,

Tons and Molecules, M. Carey Lea; On the Characters of the Otocceli-

dæ, E. D. Cope; Exhibition of a Linkage whose motion shows the

Laws of Refraction of Light, A. M. Mayer; Location in Paris of the

Dwelling of Malus, in which he made the discovery of the Polarization

of Light by Reflection, A. M. Mayer; (1) On Experiments showing

that the X-Rays cannot be Polarized by passing through Herapathite ;

(2) The Density of Herapathite; (3) Formulæ of Transmission of the

X-Rays through Glass, Tourmaline and Herapathite, A. M. Mayer;

On the X-Rays from a Statical Current produced by a Rapidly Revol-

ving Leather Belt, W. A. Rogers and Frederick Brown ; Biographical

Memoir of James Edward Oliver, G. W. Hill; Biographical Memoir

of Charles Henry Davis, C. H. Davis; Biographical Memoir of George

Engelmann, C. A. White; Legislation Relating to Standards, T. C.

Mendenhall; On the Determination of the Coefficient of Expansion of

Jessop’s Steel, between the limits of O° and 64° C., by the Interferen-

tial Method, E. W. Morley and W. A. Rogers; On the Separate Meas-

urement, by the Interferential Method, of the Heating Effect of Pure

Radiations and of an Envelope of Heated Air, W. A. Rogers; On the

Logic of Quantity, C. S. Peirce ; Judgement in Sensation and Percep-

tion, J. W. Powell; The Variability in Fermenting Power of the Colon

438 The American Naturalist. [May,

Bacillus under Different Conditions, A. W. Peckham (Presented by J.

S. Billings); Experiments on the Reflection of the Röntgen Rays, O.

N. Rood; Notes on Réntgen Rays, H. A. Rowland; Some Studies in

Chemical Equilibrium, Ira Remsen; The Decomposition of Diazo-

compounds by Alcohol, Ira Remsen; On Double Halides containing

Organic Bases, Ira Remsen; Results of Researches of Forty Binary

Stars, T. J. J. See; Ona Remarkable New Family of Deep-sea Cepha-

lopoda and its bearing on Molluscan Morphology, A. E. Verrill; The

Question of the Molluscan Archetype, an Archi-mollusk, A. E. Ver-

rill; On some Points in the Morphology and Phylogeny of the Gastro-

poda, A. E. Verrill ; Source of X-Rays, A. A. Michelson and S. W.

Stratton; The Relative Permeability of Magnesium and Aluminum to

the Réntgen Rays, A. W. Wright ; The State of Carbondioxide at the

Critical Temperature, C. Barus; The Motion of a Submerged Thread

of Mereury, C. Barus; On a Method of Obtaining Variable Capillary

Apertures of Specified Diameter, C. Barus; On a New Type of Tele-

- scope Free from Secondary Color, C. S. Hastings; The Olindiade and

other Medusæ, W. K. Brooks ; Budding in Perophora, W. K. Brooks

and George Lefevre; Anatomy of Yoldia, W. K. Brooks and Gilman

Drew; On the Pithecanthropus erectus from the Tertiary of Java, O.

C. Marsh.

C. D. Walcott and R. S. Woodward were elected members.

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

Prof. Charles L. Edwards of the University of Cincinnati is to open

a biological station this summer at Biscayne Bay, Florida. The place

is well situated for the study of the tropical and sub-tropical flora

and fauna, while its situation upon the continent makes it more readily

accessible than the West India Islands. There will be opportunity for

investigation while less mature students will have lectures and labora-

tory instructions. The session begins June 22d, and continues six

weeks. A laboratory fee of $25,00 covers tuition, use of apparatus,

reagents, etc., and Prof. Edwards estimates the total necessary expenses

of each student, including board, railroad fares, etc., at from $100 to

$125. It is also proposed to open a department of laboratory supply

and to furnish all available material properly prepared at reasonable

rates. For further information address Prof. Edwards at the Univer-

aed of Cincinnati.

1896]. _- Setentifie News. 439

Among the recent appointments to honorary membership in

Learned Societies we notice, Sir W. H. Flower, by the Swedish

Academy of Science; Prof. E. Ray Lankester, by the Russian Academy

of Science; A. N. Beketow, Prof. Jas. Hall, Charles D. Walcott and Dr.

G. Retzius by the St. Petersburg Academy of Science.

Dr. G. Lawson, botanist, of Halifax, N. S., died December 10th,

1895. It was owing to a confusion in names that the report of the

death of the Canadian geologist, G. Dawson, arose.

The French Association for the Advancement of Science held its

meeting this year at Tunis, from April 1 to11. The Botanical Society

of France, met at the same time and place.

Dr. George Baur, of the University of Chicago, will spend the sum-

mer in Munich, his former home, where he will study the rich paleon-

tological collections of the University.

An expedition started, the middle of March to explore the interior

of New Guinea. Dr. Lauterbach the leader takes charge of the

botany, Dr. Kersting of the zoology.

The report of the death of the botanist K. Wilhelm, of Vienna is

an error, caused by a confusion of names, his brother G. Wilhelm

having died Nov. 30th, 1895.

Dr. H. M. Ward, of Cooper’s Hill, England, accepts the Professor-

ship of Botany in the University of Parbridge as successor to the

late Professor Babbington.

Prof. K. G. Huefner, of Tübingen, has been called to the University

of Strasburg where he succeeded the late Prof. Hoppe Seyler in the

chair of Physiological Chemistry.

Prof. F. von Sandberger, who recently celebrated his fifty year

Doctor-jubilee, has retired from the Professorship of Mineralogy in the

University of Würzburg.

Prof. W. A. Locy, for several years Professor of Biology in Lake

Forest University goes to Northwestern University, Evanston, Ill., as

Professor of Zoology.

H. A. Miers, assistant keeper in the British Museum, goes to the

University of Oxford as Professor of Mineralogy, succeeding the late

Professor Maskelyne. :

Dr. H. Schauinsland, of Bremen, has gone to the Island of Laysan

fora ten month’s exploring expedition, intending to study both the

flora and fauna.

440 The American Naturalist. [May,

Dr. Looss, for several years docent in the University of Leipzig,

has been advanced to the position of Extraordinary Professor.

Dr. E. Sickenberger, Professor of Botany and Chemistry in the

medical school of Cairo, Egypt, died December 10th, 1895.

Dr. L. Edinger, of Frankfort, A. M. well known for his researches

on the brain, has been honored with the title of Professor.

Dr. F. Saccardo, has been appointed Professor of Plant Pathology

in the school of Oenology and Viticulture at Avellino.

Dr. P. Tauber, of Berlin, has sailed for South America intending to

study the plants of Brazil, Venezuela and Guinea.

Dr. G. Wagener, Professor of Anatomy in the University of Mar-

burg, died February 10th, 1896, at the age of 70.

Dr. F. Hochstetter, formerly of Vienna, goes to the University of

Innsbruck, as ordinary Professor of Anatomy.

Dr. Katzer, has been elected Director of the Mineralogical-Geo-

logical section of the Museum of Para, Brazil.

Dr. L. Neumann has been appointed Ordinary Professor of

Geography at the University of Freiberg.

Dr. E. Topsent, of Rheims, has been called to the chair of zoology

in the Medical School at Rennes, France.

Dr. Seidentopf, of Bremen, has been appointed Assistant in Miner-

ology in the University of Göttingen.

Dr. G. Horvath of Budapesth has been appointed Director of the

Royal Hungarian Museum, zoological section.

Lieut H. E. Barnes, well known through his studies of Asiatic

ornithology, died recently at the age of 48.

Dr. A. Schadmberg, an investigator of the flora and ethnology of

the Philippines, died recently in Manila.

_ Count J. von Bergenstamn, the well known student of the Diptera,

died January 31, 1896 in Vienna.

Dr. A. Zimmermann, becomes Private docent in Vegetable Physiol-

ogy in the University of Berlin.

Dr. L. Buscalone, of Turin, goes to the University of Gottingen as

Assistant in Plant Physiology.

G. C. Druce has been elected Custodian of the Fielding herbarium

of the University of Oxford.

ADVERTISEMENTS. t

Dringende Bitte

Um das Erscheinen des

Botanischen Jahresberichts

möglichst zu beschleunigen, wie eine Steigerung der Zuver-

lassigkeit in der Berichterstattung zu erlangen, richten wir

an die

Botaniker aller Lander

die dringende Bitte um gefillige schleunige Zusendung ihrer

Arbeiten, namentlich auch der Sonderabdriicke aus Zeit-

schriften, etc.

Alle Sendungen sind zu richten an den Herausgeber.

Professor Dr. E. Koehne,

Friedenau-Berlin,

Kirchstrasse 5.

OF INTEREST TO ALL STUDENTS AND LOVERS OF NATURE.

THE OBSERVER

All Departments of Nature Studies.

OUR MOTTO:

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E. F. BIGELOW, Managing Editor and Publisher, Portland, Conn.

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Vor. XXX. June, 1896. 354

A NEW FACTOR IN EVOLUTION,

By J. Marx BALDWIN.

In several recent publications I have developed, from differ-

ent points of view, some considerations which tend to bring

out a certain influence at work in organic evolution which I

venture to call “a new factor.” I give below a list of refer-

ences' to these publications and shall refer to them by number

as this paper proceeds. The object of the present paper is to

! Referen

"HY. Tein a Chapter in the Natural History of Consciousness, Mind, (Lon-

don), Jan., 1894. Citations from earlier papers will be found in this article and

in the next reference.

(2). Mental Development in the Child and the Race (1st. ed., April, 1895; 2nd.

ed., Oct., 1895; Macmillan & Co. The present paper expands an "e

dhaptar (Chap. XVII) added in the German and French editions and to

incorporated in the third English edition.

gens Consciousness and Evolution, Science, N. a , August, 23, 1895; reprinted

printed in the AMERICAN NATURALIST, April, 18

Ze Heredity and Instinct = Science, splat 20, 1896. Discussion before N

Acad. of Sci., Jan. 31, 1

i i and Instinct co Science, April 10, 1896.

(6). Physical and Social Heredity, Amer. Naturalist, May, 1896.

(7). Consciousness and Evolution, Psychol. Review, May, 1896. Discussion

before Amer. Psychol. Association, Dec. 28, 1895.

442 The American Naturalist. [June,

gather into one sketch an outline of the view of the process of

development which these different publications have hinged

upon.

The problems involved in a theory of organic development

may be gathered up under three great heads: Ontogeny, Phy-

logeny, Heredity. The general consideration, the “ factor ”

which I propose to bring out, is operative in the first instance,

in the field of Ontogeny; I shall consequently speak first of the

problem of Ontogeny, then of that of Phylogeny, in so far as

the topic dealt with makes it necessary, then of that of Her-

edity, under the same limitation, and finally, give some defi-

nitions and conclusions.

Ontogeny : “ Organic Selection” (see ref. 2, chap. vii)—The

series of facts which investigation in this. field has to deal with

are those of the individual creature’s development; and two

sorts of facts may be distinguished from the point of view of

the functions which an organism performs in the course of his life

history. There is, in the first place, the development of his

heredity impulse, the unfolding of his heredity in the forms

and functions which characterize his kind, together with the

congenital variations which characterize the particular indi-

ual—the phylogenetic variations, which are constitutional to

him ; and there is, in the second place, the series of functions,

acts, etc., which he learns to do himself in the course of his life.

All of these latter, the special modifications which an organism

undergoes during its ontogeny, thrown together, have been called

“acquired characters,” and we may use that expression or

adopt one recently suggested by Osborn, “ ontogenic varia-

tions” (except that I should prefer the form “ ontogenetic

variations ”), if the word variations seems appropriate at all.

? Reported in Science, April 3rd.; also used by him before N. Y. Acad. of Sci.,

April 13th. There is some confusion between the two terminations “genic” and

** genetic.” Ithink the proper distinction is that which reserves the former,

$ genic,” for application in cases in which the word to which itis affixed qualifies

a term used actively, while the other, “genetic” conveys similarly a passwe sig-

nification ; thus agencies, causes, influences, ete., and “ ontogenic phylogenic,

etc.,” while effects, consequences, etc, and “ ontogenetic, phylogenetic, etc.”

1896.] A New Factor in Evolution. 443

Assuming that there are such new or modified functions, in

the first instance, and such “ acquired characters,” arising by

the law of “ use and disuse ” from these new functions, our far-

ther question is about them. And the question is this: How

does an organism come to be modified during its life history ?

In answer to this question we find that there are three dif-

ferent sorts of ontogenic agencies which should be distin-

guished—each of which works to produce ontogenetic modifi-

cations, adaptations, or variations. These are: first, the physi-

cal agencies and influences in the environment which work

upon the organism to produce modifications of its form and

functions. They include all chemical agents, strains, con-

tacts, hindrances to growth, temperature changes, etc. As far

as these forces work changes in the organism, the changes

may be considered largely.“ fortuitous” or accidental. Con-

sidering the forces which produce them I propose to call them

“ physico-genetic.” Spencer’s theory of ontogenetic develop-

ment rests largely upon the occurrence of lucky movements

brought out by such accidental influences. Second, there is a

class of modifications which arise from the spontaneous activ-

ities of the organism itself in the carrying out of its normal

congenital functions. These variations and adaptations are

seen in a remarkable way in plants, in unicellular creatures,

in very young children. There seems to be a readiness and

capacity on the part of the organism to “rise to the occasion,”

as it were, and make gain out of the circumstances of its life.

The facts have been put in evidence (for plants) by Henslow,

Pfeffer, Sachs; (for micro-organisms) by Binet, Bunge; (in

human pathology) by Bernheim, Janet; (in children) by

Baldwin (ref. 2, chap. vi.) (See citations in ref. 2, chap. ix, and

in Orr, Theory of Development, chap. iv). These changes I pro-

pose to call “ neuro-genetic,” laying emphasis on what is called

by Romanes, Morgan and others, the “selective property ” of the

nervous system, and of life generally. Third, there is the

great series of adaptations secured by conscious agency, which

-we may throw together as “ psycho-genetic.” The processes

involved here are all classed broadly under the term “ in-

telligent,” i. e., imitation, gregarious influences, maternal in-

444 The American Naturalist. [June,

struction, the lessons of pleasure and pain, and of experience

generally, and reasoning from means to ends, etc.

We reach, therefore, the following scheme:

Ontogenetic Modifications. Ontogenic Agencies.

1 Se NVROP PONONG. oe ke 1. Mechanical.

2 Neuro- DONOR. e oes o Soa ss 2. Nervous.

o P DO OUDIO o e r eona 3. Intelligent.

Imitation.

Pleasure and pain.

Reasoning.

Now it is evident that there are two very distinct questions

which come úp as soon as we admit modifications of function

and of structure in ontogenetic development : first, there is the

question as to how these modifications can come to be adap-

tive in the life of the individual creature. Or in other words:

What is the method of the individual’s growth and adapta-

tion as shown in the well known law of “use and disuse?”

Looked at functionally, we see that the organism manages

somehow to accommodate itself to conditions which are favor-

able, to repeat movements which are adaptive, and so to grow

by the principle of use. This involves some sort of selection,

from the actual ontogenetic variations, of certain ones—certain

functions, ete. Certain other possible and actual functions and

structures decay from disuse. Whatever the method of doing

this may be, we may simply, at this point, claim the law of

use and disuse, as applicable in ontogenetic development, and

apply the phrase, “ Organic Selection,” to the organism’s be-

havior in acquiring new modes or modifications of adaptive

function with its influence of structure. The question of the

method of “ Organic Selection ” is taken up below (IV); here,

I may repeat, we simply assume what every one admits in

some form, that such adaptations of function—“ accommoda-

tions” the psychologist calls them, the processes of learning

new movements, etc.—do occur. We then reach another ques-

tion, second; what place these adaptations have in the gen-

eral theory of development.

Effects of Organic Selection—First, we may note the results

of this sees in the creature’s own private life.

1896.] A New Factor in Evolution. 445

1. By securing adaptations, accommodations, in special circum-

stances the creature is kept alive (ref. 2, 1st ed., pp. 172 ff.). This

is true in all the three spheres of ontogenetic variation distin-

guished in the table above. The creatures which can stand

the “storm and stress” of the physical influences of the environ-

ment, and of the changes which occur in the environment, by

undergoing modifications of their congenital functions or of the

structures which they get congenitally—these creatures will live ;

while those which cannot, will not. In the sphere of neurogen-

etic variations we find a superb series of adaptations by

lower as well as higher organisms during the course of onto-

genetic development (ref. 2, chap. ix). And in the highest

sphere, that of intelligence (including the phenomena of con-

sciousness of all kinds, experience of pleasure and pain, imita-

tion, etc.), we find individual accommodations on the tremen-

dous scale which culminates in the skilful performances of

human volition, invention, etc. The progress of the child in

all the learning processes which lead him on to be a man, just

illustrates this higher form of ontogenetic adaptation (ref. 2,

chap. x—xili).

All these instances are associated in the higher organisms,

and all of them unite to keep the creature alive.

2. By this means those congenital or phylogenetic variations

are kept in existence, which lend themselves to intelligent, imitative,

adaptive, and mechanical modification during the lifetime of the

creatures which have them.. Other congenital variations are not

thus kept in existence. So there arises a more or less wide-

spread series of determinate variations in each generation’s onto-

genesis (ref. 3, 4, 5)3

3 “Tt is necessary to consider further how certain reactions of one single organ-

ism can be selected so as to adapi the organism better and give it a life history.

Let us at the outset call this process ‘‘ Organic Selection” in contrast with the

Natural Selection of whole organisms. . . . If this (natural selection) worked

alone, every change in the environment would weed out all life except those or-

ganisms, which by accidental variation reacted already in the way demanded by

the changed conditions—in every case new organisms showing variations, not, in

any case, new elements of life-history in ene oe a In order to the jen

we would have to conceive . . . some fthe old reactions i

ganism through the influence of new conditions, A We are, DANES

left to the view that the new ht by changes in the environment

446 The American Naturalist. [June,

The further applications of the principle lead us over into

the field of our second question, i. e., phylogeny.

Phylogeny: Physical Heredity—The question of phylogen-

etic development considered apart, in so far as may be, from

that of heredity, is the question as to what the factors really

are which show themselves in evolutionary progress from gen-

eration to generation. The most important series of facts re-

cently brought to light are those which show what is called

“determinate variation” from one generation to another.

This has been insisted on by the paleontologists. Of the two

current theories of heredity, only one, Neo-Lamarkism—by

means of its principle of the inheritance of acquired charac-

ters—has been able to account for this fact of determinate

phylogenetic change. Weismann admits the inadequacy of

the principle of natural selection, as operative on rival organ-

isms, to explain variations when they are wanted or, as he

puts it, “the right variations in the right place” (Monist,

Jan., 96).

I have argued, however, in detail that the assumption of

determinate variations of function in ontogenesis, under the

principle of neurogenetic and psychogenetic adaptation, does

away with the need of appealing to the Lamarkian factor.

In the case i. g., of instincts, “if we do not assume conscious-

ness, then natural selection is inadequate; but if we do assume

conve nanos, then the inheritance of i sl characters is

unnecessary ” (ref. 5

“ The intelligence which is appealed to, to take the place of

instinct and to give rise to it, uses just these partial variations

which tend in the direction of the instinct ; so the intelligence

supplements such partial co-ordinations, makes them func-

tional, and so keeps the creature alive. In the phrase of Prof.

themselves modify the reactions of an organism. . The facts show that

individual organisms do acquire new adaptations in their lifetime, and that is our

first problem. If in solving it we find a principle which may also serve as a prin-

čiple of race-development, then we may possibly use it against the ‘all sufficiency

nr selection’ or in its support” (ref. 2, Ist. ed., pp. 175-6.)

1896.] A New Factor in Evolution. 447

Lloyd Morgan, this prevents the ‘incidence of natural selec-

tion.’ So the supposition that intelligence is operative turns

out to be just the supposition which makes use-inheritance

unnecessary. Thus kept alive, the species has all the time

necessary to perfect the variations required by a complete in-

stinct. And when we bear in mind that the variation re-

quired is not on the muscular side to any great extent, but in

the central brain connections, and is a slight variation for

functional purposes at the best, the hypothesis of use-inherit-

ance becomes not only unnecessary, but to my mind quite

superfluous” (ref. 4, p. 439). And for adaptations generally,

“the most plastic individuals will be preserved to do the

advantageous things for which their variations show them

to be the most fit, and the next generation will show an

emphasis of just this direction in its variations” (ref. 3, p.

221).

We get, therefore, from Organic Selection, certain results in

the sphere of phylogeny:

1. This principle secures by survival certain lines of determinate

phylogenetic variation in the directions of the determinate ontogen-

etic adaptations of the earlier generation. The variations which

were utilized for ontogenetic adaptation in the earlier genera-

tion, being thus kept in existence, are utilized more widely

in the subsequent generation (ref. 3,4). “Congenital varia-

tions, on the one hand, are kept alive and made effective by

‘their use for adaptations in the life of the individual ; and, on

the other hand, adaptations become congenital by further

progress and refinement of variation in the same lines of func-

tion as those which their acquisition by the individual called

into play. But there is no need in either case to assume the

Lamarkian factor” (ref. 3). And in cases of conscious adap-

tation: “ We reach a point of view which gives to organic evo-

lution a sort of intelligent direction after all; for of all the

variations tending in the’ direction of an adaptation, but inad-

equate to its complete performance, only those will be supple-

mented and kept alive which the intelligence ratifies and uses. The

principle of ‘selective value’ applies to the others or to some of

them. So natural selection kills off the others; and the future

448 The American Naturalist. [June,

development at each stage of a species’ development must be in the

directions thus ratified by intelligence. So also with imitation.

Only those imitative actions of a creature which are useful to

him will survive in the species, for in so far as he imitates

actions which are injurious he will aid natural selection in

killing himself off. So intelligence, and the imitation which

copies it, will set the direction of the development of the com-

plex instincts even on the Neo-Darwinian theory ; and in this

sense we may say that consciousness is a ‘ factor’ ” (ref. 4).

2. The mean of phylogenetic variation being thus made more de-

terminate, further phylogenetic variations follow about this mean,

and these variations are again utilized by Organic Selection for on-

togenetic adaptation. So there is continual phylogenetic prog-

ress in the directions set by ontogenetic adaptation (ref. 3, 4,

5). “The intelligence supplements slight co-adaptations and

so gives them selective value; but it does not keep them from

getting farther selective value as instincts, reflexes, etc., by far-

ther variation ” (ref. 5). “The imitative function, by using

muscular co-ordinations, supplements them, secures adapta-

tions, keeps the creature alive, prevents the ‘incidence of

natural selection,’ and so gives the species all the time necessary

to get the variations required for the full instinctive perform-

ance of the function ” (ref. 4). But, “ Conscious imitation, while

it prevents the incidence of natural selection, as has been seen,

and so keeps alive the creatures which have no instincts for the

performance of the actions required, nevertheless does not sub-

serve the utilities which the special instincts do, nor prevent

them from haying the selective value of which Romanes

speaks. Accordingly, on the more general definition of intel-

ligence, which includes in it all conscious imitation, use of

maternal instruction, and that sort of thing—no less than on

the more special ia still find the principal of nat-

ural selection operative ” (ref. 5

3. This completely disposes of oi Lamarkian factor as far as

two lines of evidence for it are concerned. First, the evidence

drawn from function, “ use and disuse,” is discredited ; since

by “ organie selection,” the reappearance, in subsequent

` generations, of the variations first secured in ontogenesis is ac-

1396] A New Factor in Evolution. 449

counted for without the inheritance of acquired characters.

So also the evidence drawn from paleontology which cites

progressive variations resting on functional use and disuse.

Second, the evidence drawn from the facts of “ determinate

variations ;” since by-this principle we have the preservation

of such variations in phylogeny without the inheritance of ac-

quired characters.

. But this is not Preformism in the old sense; since the adpa-

tations made in ontogenetic development which “set” the direc-

tion of evolution are novelties of function in whole or part

(although they utilize congenital variations of structure).

And it is only by the exercise of these novel functions that the

creatures are kept alive to propagate and thus produce further

variations of structure which may in time make the whole

function, with its adequate structure, congenital. Romanes’

argument from “ partial co-adaptations ” and “ selective value,”

seem to hold in the case of reflex and instinctive functions (ref.

4, 5), as against the old preformist or Weismannist view, al-

though the operation of Organic Selection, as now explained,

renders them ineffective when urged in support of Lamark-

ism. “We may imagine creatures, whose hands were used

for holding only with the thumb and fingers on the same side

of the object held, to have first discovered, under stress of cir-

cumstances and with variations which permitted the further

adaptation, how to make use of the thumb for grasping op-

posite to the fingers, as we now do. Then let us suppose that

this proved of such utility that all the young that did not do

it were killed off; the next generation following would be

plastic, intelligent, or imitative, enough to do it also. They

would use the same co-ordinations and prevent natural selec-

tion getting its operation on them; and so instinctive

‘thumb-grasping’ might be waited for indefinitely by the

species and then be got as an instinct altogether apart from

use-inheritance” (ref. 4). “ I have cited ‘ thumb-grasping’ be-

cause we can see in the child the anticipation, by intelligence

and imitation, of the use of the thumb for the adaptation

which the Simian probably gets entirely by instinct, and

which I think an isolated and weak-minded child, say, would

also come to do by instinct’ ” (ref. 4).

450 The Americais Mutustilie. [June,

5. It seems to me also—though I hardly dare venture into a

field belonging so strictly to the technical biologist—that

this principle might not only explain many cases of widespread

“determinate variations” appearing suddenly, let us say, in fossil

deposits, but the fact that variations seem often to be “ discon-

tinuous.” Suppose, for example, certain animals, varying,

in respect to a certain quality, from a to n about a mean

x. The mean x would be the case most likely to be preserved

in fossil form (seeing that there are vastly more of them).

Now suppose a sweeping change in the environment, in such

a way that only the variations lying near the extreme n

can accommodate to it and live to reproduce. The next

generation would then show variations about the mean n.

And the chances of fossils from this generation, and the subse-

quent ones, would be of creatures approximating n. Here

would be a great discontinuity in the chain and also a wide-

spread prevalence of these variations in a set direction. This

seems especially evident when we consider that the paleontol-

ogist does not deal with successive generations, but with

widely remote periods, and the smallest lapse of time which he

can take cognizance of is long enough to give the new mean

of variation, n, a lot of generations in which to multiply and

deposit its representative fossils. Of course, this would be

only the action of natural selection upon “ preformed ” varia-

tions in those cases which did not involve positive changes, in

structure and function, acquired in ontogenesis ; but in so far as

such ontogenetic adaptations were actually there, the extent

of difference of the n mean from the z mean would be greater,

and hence the resources of explanation, both of the sudden

prevalence of the new type and of its discontinuity from the

earlier, would be much increased. This additional resource,

then, is due to the “ Organic Selection ” factor.

We seem to be able also to utilize all the evidence usually

cited for the functional origin of specific characters and group-

ings of characters. So far as the Lamarkians have a strong

case here, it remains as strong if Organic Selection be substi-

tuted for the “inheritance of acquired characters.” This is

especially true where intelligent and imitative adaptations are

1896.] Water Current in Cucumber Plants. 451

involved, as in the case of instinct. This “may give the

reason, e. g., that instincts are so often coterminous with the

limits of species. Similar structures find the similar uses for

their intelligence, and they also find the same imitative

actions to be to their advantage. So the interaction of these

conscious factors with natural selection brings it about that

the structural definition which represents species, and the

functional definition which represents instinct, largely keep to

the same lines” (ref. 5).

6. It seems proper, therefore, to call the influence of Organic

Selection “anew factor;” for it gives a method of deriving

the determinate gains of phylogeny from the adaptations of

ontogeny without holding to either of the two current theories.

The ontogenetic adaptations are really new, not performed ; and they

are really reproduced in succeeding generations, although not physi-

cally inherited.

(To be continued.)

THE PATH OF THE WATER CURRENT IN CUCUM-

BER PLANTS. =

By Erwin F. SMITH.

(Continued from page 378).

3 UPWARD MovEMENT OF ONE Per Cent. Eosıne WATER

THROUGH Cut STEMS PLUGGED WITH GELATINE.

In all of these experiments a somewhat stiff gelatine was

used (15 per cent.) to secure a relatively high melting point

(about 27° C.) and this was tinged with India ink, so that the

location of the gelatine plugs inside of the vessels could be

determined accurately on cross section. Both substances

being as far as has been determined inert to the plant, it is

not likely that they could have in any way injured the carry-

ing capacity of the walls of the vessels.’

Recently Dixon and Joly (Annals of Botany, Sept., 1895, p. 403) have raised

some objections to this view, but it cannot be said that they have fully established

their case. i

452 The American Naturalist. [June,

(No. 5). A much branched large vine, bearing many

leaves, at least 60, the breadth of the best ones being 17 cm.

The distance from the cut stem to the extremity of the longest

shoot measured 218 centimeters. March 20, 1:52 p.m. The

basal part of the stem was plunged into gelatine at 45° C.,

severed smoothly and left 40 minutes, the temperature of the

1:30 p.m. the dry bulb registered 18° C, and the wet bulb

16.5° C., and transpiration during the afternoon was probably

not very active. On removing the cut stem from the melted

gelatine, it was immediately plunged into water at 16° C., and

kept there 10 minutes, i. e., until the gelatine was congealed.

At 2:38 p.m. the stem was shortened about 3 millimeters and

plunged into 1 percent eosine water at a temperature of 16° C.

A careful examination of the 3 millimeter segment showed

that by far the larger number of the vessels of the stem

(nearly all) were full of the black gelatine, but for unknown

reasons, some of the spirals and a very few of the larger pitted

vessels were not filled. 4:10 p.m. No trace of color in the

veins of any of the leaves. 4:50 p.m. Not a trace of color in

any of the leaves. The stem has now been in the eosine

water 2 hours and 12 minutes. March 21, 11:30a.m. The

_ house is dryer than yesterday, and the demand on the plant

for water is enormous. The foliage is shriveled or flabby, in-

cluding the petioles,and hangs down, but not a trace of eosine

is to be seen anywhere in any of the leaves, although the

lowest leaf is within 24 centimeters of the cut end. There

has also been no perceptible lowering of the level of the

eosine water in which the stem rests. The sun shines hot

through the glass, the temperature in the shade on a level

with the bench being 24° C., while in the sun, four inches

above, it is 29° C. 12:20 p.m. No trace of eosine visible ex-

ternally in any part of stem or leaves, although it is nearly

22 hours since the stem was plunged into the stain. The stem

was now removed and cut for examination with the following

results: 2 cm. up.—There is a trifling stain. Nearly all of

the vessels are full of gelatine,and in some of the bundles

the stain shows only in those spirals which did not fill. 4 cm.

1895.] Water Current in Cucumber Plants. 453

up.—Most of the vessels are full of gelatine. 8 cm. up.——About

one-third of the vessels are full. 12 cm. up—No gelatine in

the vessels. Three of the nine bundles show no trace of

stain. There is no fluid in the lumen of any of the vessels of

the other 6 bundles, but the walls of the vessels and connect-

ing tissues are partially stained in 4 bundles, and entirely in

2.30 cm. up, i. e., above several nodes—The walls of a part of

the vessels of each bundle are tinged with the stain, but less

strongly than at 12 centimeters. The lignified parts of all of

the spiral vessels show the stain, but part of the pitted vessels

are free from stain, and all of the phloem, fundamental tissue,

collenchyma and sclerenchyma. It would seem as if the

spirals brought up the stain (the almost inappreciable quantity

which passed by the gelatine plugs), and that from these it

diffused out into the rest of the xylem. When the walls of

the pitted vessels were stained, those of the connecting tra-

cheids were also stained. 50cm. up—The red color is restricted

to 4 inner and 2 outer bundles. In one of the two outer bundles

and in all of the inner ones, the stain is confined to the region

of the spirals and is barely visible in these. Longitudinal

and oblique cuts also show in a striking way the restriction of

the stain tothe spirals. 60cm. up.—Barest trace of stain in

3 bundles. 65 cm. up.—Only slightest trace of stain, restricted

to the spirals of 2 bundles. 70 cm. up.—No trace of stain.

80 cm. up.—No trace of color. Two branches were given off

just under the 50 cm. cut: In the lower there was a trace of

stain in two bundles at 5 cm. from the main stem; in the

the other there was no trace of the stain, 2 cm.or 5 cm. out.

Here there was every opportunity for water to pass through

the walls of the vessels, the osmotic pull probably amounting

to a pressure of several atmospheres, but there is no conclu-

sive evidence that even a single drop passed up in this way.

The very slight amount of eosine which passed up the stem

may have gone through the walls of the vessels in obedience

to the law of surface tension or may have passed through the

lumina, owing to the incomplete plugging of some of the ves-

sels, those which showed no gelatine being probably plugged

by air and inoperative.

454 The American Naturalist. . [June,

(No. 15). An old, much branched vine which has borne

fruit and is nearly past profitable culture. The principal

stem is 200 centimetres long (measured from the cut near the

earth); the longest branch is 105 cm. ; the next longest is 65

em. The vine has lost much of its foliage but bears about 60

medium sized leaves (10 to 15 cm. broad) and as many more

smaller ones, mostly from short, lateral branches, so that the

transpiration on a sunny, windy day, like this, must be very

considerable. March 22, 2:05 p. m. The base of the vine,

which had previously been dug up carefully by the roots, and

put at once into water, was cut 30 cm. above the roots under

leaves have begun to wilt, showing that the transpiration and

negative pressure must be very great. The stem was now

shortened under the gelatine one centimeter and the segment

examined. Most of the vessels were full of gelatine but not

all. A dozen or so of the pitted vessels were empty and more

than that many spirals. The vessels of some bundles ap-

peared to be completely full including the spirals. 2:40 p. m.

The foliage now shows a decided droop. Stem cut again

under the still fluid gelatine 4 cm. up. Fully one-third of the

pitted vessels are free from gelatine (contain air), but most of

the spirals seem to be full. The torn central stem cavity is

also full of gelatine and was in those examined yesterday.

3:30 p.m. Marked droop of all the foliage. Stem removed

quickly from the gelatine which has been kept at 40° C. and

plunged into water at 19° C. 3:50 p.m. Stem shortened

slightly and put at once into 1 per cent eosine water cooled

down to 14° C. An examination of the segment just removed

shows that nearly all of the vessels are full of the solidified

gelatine, but not all. 4:10 p.m. No trace of stain in any of

the leaves, although those nearest the cut are only 15 centi-

meters up. 5:00 p.m. The vine is drooping and needs water

badly, but can get none either through the walls of the vessels

or through the gelatine plugs. An hour and ten minutes has

: since the stem was plunged into the eosine and yet

there is not a trace of stain in any leaf, although the eosine

water would have gone to the end of the vine and been dis-

1896.] Water Current in Cucumber Plants. 455

tinctly visible in the veins of every leaf in 15 minutes but for

the gelatine plugs, as we have seen from the preceding experi-

ments. March 23, 11:00 a.m. Two-thirds of all the foliage

of this vine is now dry-shriveled, and the remainder is very

flabby, but there is not a trace of eosine visible in any of the

leaves, not even in those which are near the cut end and still

living. Sun shining, hot, some wind outside. Tempera-

ture in the shade, 6 inches above the bench, 27° C.; in sun,

30° C.; dry bulb, 26.5° C.; wet bulb, 22°C. Active transpir-

ation. 1:45 p. m. Nine-tenths of the foliage is crisp-dry.

No trace of color in any part of the stem or foliage. The stem

was now removed from the fluid and cut for examination with

the following results: One-half centimeter up.—Most of the

pitted vessels were full of the black gelatine, one showed a rim

of gelatine with a central air bubble. Spirals mostly not full.

Diffuse stain in the parenchyma. The stain has passed

through the gelatine itself in many instances (owing perhaps

to its liquefaction on a.m. of March 23, when a beaker of

water, in which the eosine bottle rested, became lukewarm and

a beaker of gelatine on the bench near by became fluid). Six

cm. up.—Comparatively few pitted vessels have gelatine in

them ; some of these are full, others have only a rim of gela-

tine around a succession of air bubbles. Eight em. up.—The

torn central stem cavity, which is still visible, contains no

gelatine. A few pitted vessels contain gelatine mostly as rims

around the walls, air being in the center. Ten cm. up.—No

gelatine. Stain very feeble, diffused somewhat into the par-

enchyma. About } of the pitted vessels unstained; color re-

stricted to the spiral vessels in one bundle. Twenty cm. up.—

No gelatine. Stain slight, not entirely restricted to the bun-

dles but diffused out into the parenchyma on one side of the

stem. Forty-three em. up.—Slight traces of stain in 7 bun-

dles, restricted to the spirals in 4; in two other bundles, only

the outer angle of the xylem wedge is stained, on one side

or the other, i. e., those vessels which frequently fill with bac-

teria in advance of the rest of the pitted vessels, when the

plant suffers from cucumber wilt. Seventy-five cm. up.—Stain

restricted to six bundles, and very slight; confined to the

456 The American Naturalist. [June,

spirals in three bundles and almost so in a fourth. Several

nodes have been cut. The stain is deepest in these parts of

the stem and more widespread in the walls of the pitted ves-

sels. Ninety cm. up—tThere is still a trace of stain in three

bundles; in one it is restricted to the walls of the spiral ves-

sels, in the other two it does not occur in the spirals but on

one side of the xylem, midway out in one, and in the outer

angle of the other. Some of the branches were also examined.

The branch 65 cm. long, separated from the parent shoot only

ten centimeters above the cut surface. At 20 cm. from its

junction with the main shoot, 7 bundles showed a trace of

stain in the xylem part; in two of these the stain was re-

stricted to the spirals, and in the other five it seemed to have

diffused outward from the spirals into the neighboring pitted

vessels. Twenty-three cm. up.—Only slightest trace of stain,

restricted to the spirals of one bundle. Twenty-five cm. up.—

Not a trace of stain. Thé branch 105 em. long, separated from

the parent shoot 41 centimeters above the cut surface. It was

first cut at the junction with the main stem. Here the stain

was to be seen in 7 bundles, but very slight and almost wholly

restricted to the spiral vessels. Thirty cm. from the junction,

i. e. past several nodes.—Stain in xylem of all of the nine

bundles; restricted to the spirals in 6, diffused in3. This cut

was made just above anode. The stain appears to be more

restricted to the spirals in the internodes than in the nodes.

Vessels empty. Sixty cm. up.—Only the slightest trace of

stain in one bundle, so slight as to be readily overlooked.

Sixty-five cm. up.—Color still present but so slight that no

one would recognize it unless informed that stain had passed

through the stem. Seventy cm. up.—aAll trace of the stain ha

disappeared.

It will be remembered that this vine was in the 1 per cent

eosine water nearly 24 hours, during which time there was no

perceptible lowering of the liquid, consequently all of the in-

ternal stain is readily accounted for, especially when we re-

member the powerful tinctive character of eosine, by the few

_ drops of stain which managed to get past the gelatine plugs.

We are warranted, therefore, in concluding that not a drop

1896.] Water Current in Cuewmber Plants. 457.

passed up through the walls of the vessels, or if this be too

strong a statement we are at least safe in saying that not

enough passed up the walls to serve even most inadequately,

the transpiration purposes of a single leaf, and this, perhaps, is

the better forins in which to leave the statement. Neither can

it be said, by way of objection that the eosine behaved differ-

ently from ordinary water for we have already seen that 1 per

cent eosine water passes up unplugged stems readily, even for

days and long after the stem is dead.. In this case, judging

from the state of the atmosphere, the temperature, and. the

amount of transpiring surface, (approximately 1,500 sq. cm.)

at least 25 and probably 50 cubic centimeters would have

been taken up by the plant in the first 24 hours but for

the gelatine plugs. No explanation is open, therefore, except

that the transpiration water passes up through the lumen

of the vessels in the stem of the cucumber, and presum-

ably in all other stems of similar structure, unless we as-

sume that the gelatine passed into the walls of the vessels

and destroyed their conductive power, and no one has proved

this to be possible or even set forth facts rendering it prob-

able. Considering the fact that the walls of the vessels

in most plants are solid lignified structures and that the ves-

sels are long open tubes, comparable to water pipes and in

many plants probably continuous through the whole length

of the stem, it would seem strange that this other view, viz.

that the water passes upward through the wall itself and not

through the lumen of the tube, should have ever gained

credence, did we not know how often, even in science, the

weight of a great name carries everything before it.

(To be Continued.)

458 The American Naturalist. [June,

EXTENSIVE MIGRATION IN BIRDS AS A CHECK

UPON THE PRODUCTION OF GEOGRAPHICAL

VARIETIES.

By Tuomas H. MONTGOMERY, JR.

Two problems have of late years received much attention

from ornithologists, and deservedly, namely, the faunal dis-

tribution of species, and their ranges of migration. But to my

knowledge, no one has raised the question of the possible ex-

istence of a relation between the extent of the periodic migra-

tion and the amount of geographical variation evinced by a

species. The object of this paper then is to show that such a

relation does exist, that extensive migration tends to act as a

check upon the production of geographical varieties, or races

so-called.

In the first place, on comparing the amount of faunal vari-

ation with the extent of the periodical migrations in a given

species, it will be found to be usually, if not always, the case,

that those species which undertake migrations of more than

the average extent—migrating through 30° or more of lati-

tude, have no tendency to give rise to geographical varieties.

In order to see how far this law extends, and whether excep-

tions to it may be found, I have compared all the species of

North American birds with regard to this relation existing be-

tween variation and range of migration, using Ridgway’s ex-

cellent “ Manual of N. A. Birds” as my authority for the

amount of variation and extent of migration in these species.

For our present purposes the North American species may be

divided into three groups, based on the extent of their migra-

tions: (1) species with exceedingly protracted migrations, but

irregular as to the localities traversed ; (2) species with more

or less regular migrations, of 30° lat. or more in extent; and

_ (3) species which undertake migrations less in extent than 30°

lat., or species which do not migrate at all. We may now

consider each of these groups in turn, with regard to the ques-

tion at issue.

1895.] Extensive Migration in Birds.

I. Species with protracted but irregular migrations.

Diomedeide,

Procellariidx.

II. Species with a migration range of 30° lat. or more.

Podicipide.

Urinatoride (all ?)

Stercorartide.

Laride (most).

Sulidx (most ?).

Anatide.

Gruide.

Rallus virginianus.

f Porzana.

Fulica americana.

Phalaropodidæ.

Recurvirostridæ.

Scolopacidæ (most).

Charadriidæ (most).

Aphrizidæ.

Columbidæ (most).

Cathartidæ (?).

Circus hudsonius.

. Accipiter velox.

| Falco (2 species).

Ceryle alcyon.

Sphyrapicus varius.

Micropodide.

Trochilus colubris.

Phaethontide (?)

Fregatide (?)

[ Tyrannus (2 species).

Myiarchus crinitus.

Contopus (3 species).

Empidonaz (5 species).

Dolichonyx oryzivorus.

Icterus galbula.

Calcarius.

Zonotrichia (2 species).

Spizella (2 species).

Melospiza (2 species).

Habia ludoviciana.

Passerina cyanea.

Spiza americana.

Piranga (8 species).

Hirundinide.

Vireo (4 species).

Mniotiltide (most).

Motacillide (most).

Galeoscoptes.

Regulus (2 species).

Turdus (3 species).

| cm (2 species).

459

Now the species enumerated in Lists I and II migrate peri-

odically through an area of 30° lat., or more, that is, a migra-

tion range of considerable extent, and, with a few exceptions

to be considered later, all are sharply defined species, and

even though the breeding areas of most are very broad, none

of them have a tendency to split into geographical varieties.

Accordingly there must be be some relation existing between

= Aleedinidz (most).

460 The American Naturalist. Tome

the range of migration and the tendency to produce geo-

graphical races, for otherwise this coincidence could not be

explained. So having found that those species undertaking

long migrations do not, as a rule, tend to give rise to local

varieties, we must conclude that the process of taking exten-

sive migrations is a check upon the tendency to produce geo-

graphical varieties. But in order to round off further deduc-

tions, we must first determine whether species which do not

migrate extensively have a greater tendency to geographical

variation than those just considered; and this assumption

will be strengthened by a comparison of the species in the fol-

lowing List III with those in Lists I and II.

III. Species with a short or no migration range.

Alcidæ. Picidæ (most).

Rhynchops. Caprimulgidæ (most).

Anhinga. Trochilidæ (most).

Phalacrocoracidæ (most). Cotingidæ. ; '

Pelecanidæ. Tyrannidæ (most).

Phænicopterus. Alaudidæ.

Plataleidæ. Corvidæ.

Ibidide. Icteridx (most).

Ciconiide. Fringillidx (most).

Ardeidæ (most). Euphonia.

Aramide. Piranga (most).

Rallidz (most). : Ampelide.

Hematopodide. Laniide.

Tetraonide. Vireonidx (most).

Phasianidz. Corebide.

Cracide. Mniotiltide (a few).

Falconidæ (most). Cinclidæ.

Strix pratincola. - Troglodytidæ (most).

Bubonidæ. Certhiidæ.

Psittacidæ. Paridæ.

Cuculidæ. Polioptila.

Turdidæ (most).

1896.] Extensive Migration in Birds. 461

It is at once apparent that almost all the species of North

American birds which are divisible into geographical varieties

are classed in this third list, that is, that those species evincing

the greatest tendency to geographical variation, are also those

which undertake migrations of the least extent. Thus, for in-

stance, Melospiza fasciata is usually resident in most localities

throughout the whole year, and has become differentiated into

a number of geographical races, while Melospiza georgiana is

migratory, and though it breeds in an area nearly equal in

extent to that of fasciata, has not produced local varieties; the

non-migratory Megascops asio shows great geographical varia-

tion, while the migratory Asio acciptrinus, though almost cos-

mopolitan in its breeding area, shows no tendency toward

such variation. And, in fact, an examination and compari-

son of List III with Lists I and II, will lead to the conclusion,

' that given any two species of equally extensive breeding

areas, the one with the smaller range of periodic migration

will, as a rule, evince a greater tendency to produce geo-

graphical varieties than will the species with the greater range

of migration. This conclusion may be concisely formulated

as follows; it is the rule that the amount of geographical variation

in species with more or less extensive breeding areas, stands in in-

verse ratio to the extent of its periodic migrations. Naturally, this

law is only applicable to species with extended breeding areas,

since diverse conditions in different sections of this area are

necessary, according to the theory of Natural Selection, for the

production of geographical subspecies or varieties; and in a

limited breeding area, throughout which the conditions of the

environment are similar, there could be no cause to produce

geographical varieties, irrespective of the migratory or non-

migratory habits of the species.

I have not meant to imply, in the preceding pages, that spe-

cies with migration ranges of 30° lat., or more, are all sharply

definable, i. e., that such species are never divisible into geo-

graphical varieties; but, on the contrary, that this tendency

to produce geographical races is less in the species with exten-

sive migrations, than in those with shorter ranges of migration.

For it is usual, even in species with extensive migrations, whose

462 The American Naturalist. [June,

breeding areas are extraordinarily great, so as to include the

whole of the arctic region, or northern America together with

northern Eurasia, for them to subdivide into two geographical

varieties, occupying respectively the eastern and western hem-

ispheres. Thus, the eurasiatic Colymbus nigricollis is repre-

sented by a variety (californicus) in western North America;

and to give other examples where an eurasiatic form, which

undertakes long periodic migrations, is represented by a geo-

graphical variety in North America, may be mentioned one

species of Fratercula, 1 Uria, 1 Larus, 1 Hydrochelidon, 2 Aythya,

1 Glaucionetta, 1 Somateria, 1 Anser, 1 Tringa, 1 Limosa, 1 Char-

adrius, 2 Falco, 1 Pandion, and others. But no species with ex-

tensive migration ranges shows any tendency to geographical

variation, unless its breeding areas are also very large in

extent. And the species with the least demonstrable tendency

to produce local races, are those in which the wing power is

greater, and the range of migration more extensive, than in

any other species of birds, namely, those enumerated in List I.

Further, we find it to be the rule, that in those avian families

most of the species of which undertake long migrations, if spe-

cies are present which are divisible into geographical varieties,

that these latter are more restricted in their migrations than

the former ; examples are Uria troile, Rissa tridactyla, Fulmarus

glacialis (only North American species of the family presenting

geographical varieties), Rallus longirostrus, Porzana jamaicensis,

Aegialitis wilsonia and Ae. meloda, and others. After the con-

sideration of these facts it is certainly permissible to conclude

that, as a rule, species which undertake annual migrations of

comparatively great extent, through distances of 30° lat., or

more, evince no tendency to give rise to geographical varie-

ties, unless their breeding areas are very extensive ; and, con-

versely, that species which do not undertake extensive migra-

tions, owing to insufficient wing power or to some other cause,

and which occupy broad breeding areas, have the tendency to

produce geographical varieties. Consequently, also, extended

migration acts as a check upon the production of varieties;

and the extent of the range of migration will, therefore, stand

in inverse ratio to the amount. of geographical variation

1896.] Extensive Migration in Birds. 463

evinced. Thus the postulate of Darwin, that wide-ranging

species vary most, must be modified after a consideration of

the facts given here. But to pass over to certain apparent ex-

ceptions to the rule. Falco columbarius, breeding chiefly north

of the United States, and migrating in winter as far as South

America, has a variety (suckleyi) on the Pacific coast from

Sitka to California ; Helminthophila ruficapilla, breeding as far

north as Hudson’s Bay, and migrating in winter as far as

Guatemala, has a variety (gutturalis) from the Rocky Mts. to

the Pacific coast, in winter to Mexico; and a number of simi-

lar cases could be mentioned, where the species, although it

has a wide range of migration, and a breeding area which is

not extraordinarily extensive, has, nevertheless, the tendency

to geographical variation. But such apparent exceptions to

the rule are, in fact, not valid objections, since in these cases

the geographical variety is much more restricted in the range

of its migration than the type species, or vice versa. And in

any of these cases, the species, including the variety, is to be

regarded as a number of individuals, some of which undertake

extensive migrations, while others migrate not at all or

through much shorter distances. Therefore, these are not

true exceptions to the law, that the extent of the migration

stands in inverse ratio to the amount of the tendency to pro-

duce geographical varieties; since a number of the individuals

do not undertake extensive migrations. Real exceptions may,

however, be found in such cases where the individuals of the

type species as well as its varieties make prolonged periodic

migrations; and after a careful examination of all the North

American species and their varieties, I have found only four

species which represent such exceptions to the rule: Dendroica

æstiva, with its variety morcomii, Seiurus noveboracensis, with the

subspecies notabilis, Sylvania pusilla, with the variety pileolata,

and Turdus ustulatus, with its eastern variety swainsonii. These

four species represent cases where, with not very extensive

breeding area, both races of the species possess extensive migra

tion ranges. But I think that the importance of these cases as

exceptions to the rule is diminished, when we consider that in

each case the migration route of the variety is different from

464 _ The American Naturalist. [June,

that of the species, one being west of, while the other is east of

the Rocky Mts. And hence, since not only in its breeding area

but also in its migration range, the variety is subjected to

conditions of environment different from those influencing the

type species, we would naturally expect that the species (as a

whole) would become differentiated into two geographical

races.

The reason for the law, that extensive migration acts as a

check upon the production of geographical varieties, is not far

to seek. The barn swallow, for instance, remains in its breed-

ing area from four to five months each year, spending the re-

mainder of its time, except that consumed by its actual migra-

tion to and fro, in its tropical winter quarters. Roughly

speaking, we may say that it spends about half a year in its

breeding area, and the remainder in its winter home. In

other words, the swallow is subjected to one environment for

half the time of its existence, and to a more or less different

environment during the remainder of its life. The result of

this on the organism is obvious: the action of the two en-

vironments during approximately the same length of time,

would prevent it from becoming more particularly adapted to

the one than to the other, and would lead to the production of

more generalized characters, fitted to respond more or less

equally to both environments. In this way individuals of the

species could not become especially adapted to a certain por-

tion of the breeding area, if such adaptations should be un-

favorable for its existence in the winter quarters, and vice

versa ; in other words, the influence of the winter environment

acts as a check upon the acquisition of adaptations suited

alone to the summer environment. This is, to my mind, the

only adequate explanation for the law that extensive migra-

tion exerts a check upon the production of geographical vari-

eties. Species with wide-ranging breeding areas, on the other

is but with none or only restricted migrations, may give

ise to geographical varieties, suited respectively to the diverse

Paico found in different portions of its habitat, since such

species are influenced by the conditions of but one environ-

ment, owing to the absence or restriction of migration.

1896.] The Plant-Geography of Germany. 465

THE PLANT-GEOGRAPHY OF GERMANY.

: By Roscor Pounp.

In a recently published address Dr. Coulter speaks of a new

movement in botany which is sending botanists “to the great

laboratory of nature,” and replacing collecting trips by biolog-

ical surveys. “The old-fashioned collection of plants,” he

says, “will hold no more relation to the new field work than

the old geology, with its scattered collection of fossils, holds to

the topographic geology of to-day.” Geographical botany as

it is now understood is comparatively a recent development.

Collectors and cataloguers for a long time have been gathering

a portion of the bare facts upon which geographical botany

must proceed, and the facts of plant-distribution have been

more or less ascertained. But the systematic collating and

grouping of these facts and the application of biological and

physiological facts to them is a matter of the last few years

and is still going on. At first localities were catalogued, and

collectors were eager to add new and rare stations to those

recorded for species; then came statistical comparison of

families and genera, especially in relation to altitude and the

media of plant-migration. The limits of distribution of species

were ascertained, particularly of those which are characteristic

and controlling in vegetation. Such work laid the foundations

of geographical botany.

Bui the statistics as to the distribution of families, which

have been worked out ir one method and another, gave no

promise of leading to important results. It was not until

biological groups began to be made for the purpose of com-

parison, and statistics began to be applied to those groups, that

such work acquired importance. It is apparent that a mere

statement of the number of species of the various natural plant-

groups occurring in a certain region tells us very little of the

vegetation of that region except in the most general way. A

group represented by comparatively few species may yet as far

as the occupation of the soil is concerned be dominant and

466 The American Naturalist. [June,

controlling. To understand the vegetation of a region one

must ascertain not only what are its physical, meteorological

and geological features, but much more what sorts of plants

control its water, meadow, plain, or forest vegetation. Directed

towards the latter ends, statistics have a very different mean-

ing. Such work is the aim of the new geographical botany.

“When we hear of a district,” say Schreeter and Stebler, “that

it is covered with extended fields of turf-rush or of brome-

grass, that tells us more of the nature of the region than long

lists of meteorological data. It also tells us more than the

mere occurrence of the species in question of itself”

A notable contribution to this department of the science is

Dr. Drude’s new work, “ Deutschlands Pflanzengeographie,”

of which the first part appeared in January last. The sub

title of the work gives a clue to its purpose. It is stated to

` be “ein geographisches Charakterbild der Flora von Deuts-

chland.” Much has been done in recent years towards such

characterization of restricted districts, or for large areas as

regards certain kinds of vegetation. But Dr. Drude in giving

a complete picture of the vegetation of as large a country as

Germany has, in one sense, made an epoch in geographical

botany. Such a work demonstrates that the era of preparation

is passed. A mere cursory examination of the work serves to

convince the reader that the theory and system of plant-

geography have been thoroughly worked out, and that hence-

forth workers will be busied chiefly with their application to

other regions rather than with devising new methods.

As has been remarked, in order to be of value, statistics must

be based not upon the systematic groups of plants but upon

groups founded on biological considerations, so far as they

indicate a positive role in the vegetation of the region in ques-

tion. Such groups are called vegetation-groups. Dr. Drude

points out also that the proportions of the number of repre-

sentatives of the several orders, genera, or other systematic

groups are not to be reckoned with the whole flora of a region

as represented by a certain number of Species, but with the

biological plant-community of the region. Accordingly he

constructs some thirty-five vegetation-groups for the flora of

1896.] The Plant-Geography of Germany. 467

Germany. The thoroughness of this may be judged from the

fact that he begins with trees and ends with plankton-alge.

Germany belongs to the Middle-European region which,

bounded by the Pyrenees, the Alps, and the Balkan system,

stretches along the northwest border of the Russian steppes to

the arctic flora which extends over the north of Europe. The

region includes also the wooded portions of the Scandinavian

countries. Throughout this large region, as regards the dis-

tribution of families and genera, the same fundamental char-

acter prevails. Carrying the principles of division further,

and observing on the one hand lesser influences of climate and

physiognomy and on the other the division of the floral-ele-

ments into “ Genossenschaften,” subdivisions, or “Vegetations-

regionen” are made. Germany and the neighboring regions of

the Alps and Carpathians fall into five such divisions; the

region of the north-Atlantic lowlands, the region of the south-

Baltic lowlands and uplands, the region of the middle and

south German highlands and lower mountain districts, the

region of the higher mountain districts and subalpine forma-

tions, and the region of the higher mountain formations of the

Alps and Carpathians. The region of central France and the

west-Pontic region, to which belong the southwestern and

southeastern neighbors of Germany respectively, include also

isolated spots in Germany itself. Dr. Drude’s maps show that

the first two regions are continuous in extent. The first

includes Holland and North Germany west of the Elbe and

the western portion. of the Danish peninsula, the second East-

Prussia and Pomerania, being bounded roughly by the Oder on

the west. Between the Elbe and the Oder is a neutral zone,

transitional between the two regions. The whole of middle

and south Germany to the Alps constitutes the third region.

But along the northern borders of the Alps and here and

there throughout south Germany, as for instance the Harz

forest, the Thuringian forest, the Black forest, in isolated spots,

we find the fourth region, the region of subalpine forests.

Along the upper Rhine here and there are localities belonging

to the region of central France, and in the southeastern por-

tion are many localities belonging to the west-Pontic region.

468 The American Naturalist. [June,

But geographical botany today does not stop with the dis-

tribution of the wild flora. Cultivated plants, native useful

plants, weeds, and the flora of waste places come in for their

share of consideration and are treated in turn. The plants

whose seeds are mixed with those of cultivated plants and are

thus sowed and grown involuntarily are placed in the group

of cultivated plants. Buta more important group is formed

by the species introduced and supported incidentally by the

cultivation and occupation of the soil by man. A notable in-

stance of this is a group of “saltpetre plants” due to the use

of nitrate fertilizers. |

It would become tedious to enumerate the many striking

features of the work and the ideas which they suggest. The

work is in some sort a summary of geographical botany as it

now stands. So much material necessarily takes on a new

aspect when brought together and digested, though we have

been more or less acquainted with a large part of it in its

scattered condition. As part of a whole, each fact seems some-

thing new. We may safely predict that a great impetus will

be given to this kind of botanical work in regions remote from

Germany by Dr. Drude’s book, since it presents a practical

outline which will not fail to be taken advantage of. Ourown

country furnishes many excellent opportunities which the

various biological and botanical surveys now in progress are

already beginning to seize. The example of such a geogra-

phico-botanical survey of a large country, on 4 large scale, will

be a great inspiration.

Dr. Drude’s book is most interesting hadi and as a com-

pendium of the latest results in a growing and important de-

_ partment, as well as in its more immediate purpose, is of the

' highest value.

EDITOR’S TABLE.

Tne bestiarians are still actively engaged in endeavoring to prevent

humanitarians from prosecuting their good work of relieving human

disease and suffering. Their latest move is to endeavor to get national

SE to suppress physiologic research by vivisection in the Dis-

1896.] Recent Literature. 469

trict of Columbia. There are various reasons why humanitarians

should take especial pains to prevent this attempt to restrict human

knowledge and prevent the dimunition of human suffering. They sup-

pose, that National legislation once secured, State legislation will be

easily obtained. . Perhaps they expect to get a national law forbidding

such research in all parts of tne United States! . Such people must,

however, present very clean hands in the cause of prevention of cruelty

to animals before they appear as advocates of the suppression of the

most important method known of reducing human suffering. Do any

of them wear articles made from the furs of animals? Do they carry

pocket-books or grip-sacks made of the skins of animals? Do they per-

mit animals to be plucked of feathers for their comfort or ornament ?

Finally, do they encourage the enormous slaughter of animals by land

and sea, for food and other purposes?

There is much important work done in the departments at Washing-

ton which will be affected by the bill that is soon likely to come before

the Senate, and the educational institutions of the highest grade will be

injured by it if it passes.

The bill it is said will be favorably reported to the Senate. It will,

however, probably not come up for final action before the next session.

Meanwhile biologists and humanitarians generally should urge on their

Senators and Representatives the importance of defeating the bill in

the interest of progress and humanity. Let them write to their Repre-

sentatives for the Public Documents on Antivivisection of the District

Committee of the Senate. The Medical men are active, but the biolo-

gists are not yet sufficiently awake to the importance of the situation.

If members of the National legislature are folly informed, they will

hardly pass the bill.

RECENT LITERATURE.

The Cambridge Natural History.'—Sometime ago we referred

to the volume of this series containing the Molluscs and Brachiopods ;

the second volume in order of publication is now before us. As in the

former volume there isa great lack of uniformity in the different parts

1 The Cambridge Natural History, Vol. V. Peripatus by Adam Sedgwick ;

Myriapods by F. G. Sinclair; Insects, Part I by David Sharp. Tontos Macmil-

lan and Co., 1895, pp. xi-584.

470 The American Naturalist. [June,

which compose it, a lack, in part attributable to the individuality of

the authors, in part to an apparent failure on the part of the editors to

lay down guiding rules for their authors.

Mr. Sedgwick devotes 26 pages to Peripatus, giving a good general

account of the group, in its structure, development and habits, and fol-

lowing it with a list of the known species, essentially the same as that

in his previous monograph. From his familiarity with the group no

one was better able to treat of the group than he.

Mr. Sinclair should have been almost equally familiar with the

Myriapods for he has published both on the structure and the embryo-

logy of the group, and yet his account is much less satisfactory. The

general account of the habits is good and is based to a large extent

upon the author’s own observations, but we wish he had put into Eng-

lish some of the facts ascertained by vom Rath. The classification

adopted, that of Koch, is rather antiquated (1847) while the investiga-

tions of Grassi, to say nothing of the later researches of Schmidt and

Kenyon, show that the Scolopendrellidz and Pauropide are not to be

set aside as distinct from the Diplopoda, and the elevation of Cermatia

to ordinal rank has very little in its support. One or two typograph-

ical errors are annoying. Scudder’s figures of fossil Myriapods are

attributed to “ Meek and Worth,” the author persisting in depriving

the American paleontologist of the last syllable of his name. Here

may be mentioned one of the inequalities of the work. While in treat-

ing of Peripatus a diagnosis is given of all (?) known species, in the

Myriapods only the families are thus treated. Concluding the account is

a discussion of the relationships of the group, and in this we find mixed

up myths from Pliny and facts from other authors, including (p. 78) a

quotation showing that the people of Rhytium were driven from their

quarters by Myriapods, a statement which also occurs (p. 30) in an-

other place. But in this whole part we see nothing but a feeble grop-

ing, not the firmness of the master hand. The chapter as a whole shows

the lack of editorial supervision ; its prolixity on minor points should

have been suppressed.

_ The best of the book is that by Mr. Sharp—accounts of the Aptera,

Orthoptera, Neuroptera and the lower Hymnoptera, the author using

these names in the widest sense. In the introductory sections, deal-

ing with the anatomy and embryology of the Hexapods, the author is

evidently less at his ease that in the more systematic portion. Here he

has given us one of the best of all books upon insects. The strictly

systematic portion is well done, while the account of habits and trans-

formation is excellent, and the perspective good. Thus the Mallophaga

1896.] Recent Literature. 471

are accorded 6 pages, the White Ants, 44. On the whole we like the

retention of the almost Linnean system of classification, especially since

the systems which are proposed in its place are open to almost as many

objections as the older scheme ; the remarks made upon this point seem

to us especially appropriate.

The illustrations, of which there are some 370, are all fresh and are

very well engraved. Some of them would, we think, look better in

“halftone,” especially those dealing with anatomical and develop-

mental points, but against this is the apparent inability of English

printers to get good results from such plates, (witness several transla-

tions from the German where these half-tone illustrations, beautifully

printed in the original, are extremely muddy). One more fault and

we are done. The price charged for the work seems to us much too

high.

W. Fraser Rae’s biography of Richard Brinsley Sheridan, that re-

markable man “ who could rival Congreve in comedy and Pitt and Fox

in eloquence ” is announced by Messrs. Henry Holt & Co. It is to be

in two volumes, and to include portraits and facsimile autographs of

Sheridan and his famous contemporaries. Interesting documents

written by the Prince of Wales, Sheridan, the Duke of Wellington,

and the Marquis of Wellesley will be made public for the first time.

The Introduction is by the Marquis of Dufferin and Ava, who is a great

- grandson of Sheridan.

Geological Biology.'—This treatise, in octavo form of 395 pages,

is a study of organisms and their time-relations. The general laws of

evolution are stated, and their formulation explained by detailed de-

scriptions of characteristic examples. The examples are, for the most

part, taken from the invertebrate forms. Mutability of species is illus-

trated by Spirifer strictus Martin, var. S. loganii Hall, the progressive

evolution of class, ordinal, subordinal, etc., characters, by Magellania

flavescens ; the modification of generic characters is shown by the life-

histories of Brachiopod families. The history of the Spirifers, a study

of Cephalopods, and the evolution of the suture lines of Ammonoids,

are each in turn used to demonstrate the fundamental laws of evolu-

tion. Throughout the book the author emphasizes the idea that these

laws are best understood by a study of fossil forms.

The closing chapter sets forth the philosophy of evolution from the

author’s point of view. Beginning with the statement that “ Evolu-

1 Geological Biology. An Introduction to the Geological History of Organ-

isms. By Henry Shaler Williams. New York, 1895. Henry Holt & Co.

472 The American Naturalist. [June,

tion is concerned with two distinct fields of human inquiry,” he dis-

tinguishes them as follows: |

“ On the one hand, evolution is the name for the natural order of un-

folding of the characters of organic beings that have lived on the earth ;

on the other hand, evolution is the name for our conception of the mode

' of operation of the fundamental energy of the universe. Thus it will be

seen that the notion of God is as intimately involved in a discussion of

evolution as is the notion of an organism.” He sees in evolution the

mode of creation of organic beings, a process that has been more or less

continuous throughout geologic ages. “It is this continuation of the

process of phenomenalizing that distinguishes the mode of creation in

the organic realm from that in the lower realm of inorganic matter.

Whatever is characteristic of organisms was not created at once, but

has been unfolded by degrees, and there is no reason for supposing that

the process is not still going on. Such expressions as ‘ effort,’ ‘ growt

force,’ ‘ reactions,’ etc., used in describing the phenomena of evolution,

all express the notion of the preéxistence of some unphenomenal prop-

erty, or power, or potency, which constitutes the cause of the particu-

lar characters which are acquired by organisms in the process of their

evolution.”

The tendency of organisms to, vary is designated by the author as

primarily a force acting from within, to which he gives the name “i

trinsic evolution.” Differentiation of form and function are T

sions of vitality, but these are modified by conditions of environment `

and natural selection.

A summary of the leading points in the work are thus given:

“ The great facts attested by geology are that the grander and more

radical divergences of structure were earliest attained ; that, as time

advanced, in each line intrinsic evolution has been confined to the ac-

quirement of less and less important characters ; such facts emphasize

with overwhelming force the conclusion that the march of the evolu-

tion has been the expression of a general law of organic nature, in which

events have occured in regular order, with a beginning, a normal order

of succession, a limit to each stage, and in which the whole organic

kingdom has been mutually correlated.”

This book will prove instructive to the general reader, both on ac-

count of its facts and generalizations. The author, as a distinguished

specialist in paleontology presents facts in an authoritative way, so that

the reader may feel safe in his premises. The inferences made are

obvious, so that while there is little exposition of efficient causes of

evolution in the scientific sense, one can agree with the general conclu-

1896.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. 473

RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS.

Boum, J.—Die Gastropoden des Marmolatakalkes. Paleontographica, Bd.

XLII, 4 u 5, Lief. Stuttgart, 1895.

Bulletins No. 32 and 33, 1895, een: Experiment Station of the Rhode

Island Coll. Agric. and Mech. s.

Bulletin 34, 1895, Hatch eons Station, Mass. Agric. College.

Bulletins No. 29, 30 and 31, 1895, Iowa Agric. Exper. .

Bulletins No. 91, 92 and 93 (n. s.), 1895, New York Agricultural Experiment

Station. j

CALL, R. E.—The Unionidae of the Ohio River.

—— The Strepomatidae of the Falls of the Ohio. Extr. Proceeds. Indiana

Acad. Sci., No. IV, 1894, From the author

CLEMENTS, J. M.—The Volcanigs of the Michigamme District of Michigan.

Extr. Journ. Geol., Vol. ITI, 1895. From the author.

Cooke, M. C.—Down the Lane and Back

——Through the Copse.

——A Stroll ina Marsh.

— Around a Cornfield. London, Edinburgh and New York, 1895. T. Nel-

son & Sons. From the Pub

Dwicut, T.—Notes on the Dissection and Brain of the Chimpanzee “Gumbo.”

Extr. Mem. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. V, No. 2, 1895. From the author.

Time ag H. Le R.—Proceeds. ôf the Seventh Summer Meeting, Springfield,

.. 1895. Extr. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., 1895.

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tale. Memoria presentata all’Accademia fontaniana nella tornata del 3 Nov.,

rage Napoli, 1895. From the author.

Forty-third Annual Report of the Regents of the New York State Museum for

*the year 1889.

Gorpon, C. H.—Syenite-gneiss (Leopard rock) from the Apatite Region of

Ottawa County, Canada. Extr. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., 1895. From the

Society.

Harrop, H. B. anp.L. A. WALLIS.—The Forces of Nature. Columbus O.,

1895. From the authors

Hiti B. Niyi Areas of f the Comanche Series in Kansas, Oklahoma

and New Mexico. Extr. Am. Journ. Sci., Vol L, 1895. From the author.

JORGENSEN, A.—Ueber = Ursprung der Alkoholhefen. Kopenhagen, 1895.

From the author.

Janet, C.—Sur Vespa crabro L. Histoire d'un nid depuis son origine. Extr.

Mam. Soc. Zool. de France, 1895. From the author.

Lampert, Dr. K.—Die Thierwelt Wiirttembergs. aus J ahresh. Ver. f. faterl.

Das Thierreich des Oberamis Cannstatt. Aus Oberamtsbeschreibung

Cannstatt., 1895. From the author. i

Le Conte, J.—Critical Periods in the History of the Earth. Extr. Bull.

Dept. a Univ. Cal., Vol I, 1895. S

474 The American Naturalist. [June,

Lyman, B. S.—Metallurgical and other Features of Japanese Swords. From

the Advance Sheets Journ. Franklin Inst., Jan., 1896.——The Yardley Fault;

and the Chalfont Fault Rock, so-called. Extr. Proceeds. Am. Philos. Soc., Vol.

XXXIV, 1895. From the author

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MATTHEW, W. D.—The Effusive at Dyke e Rocks near St. John, N. B. Extr.

Trans. New York Acad Sci., XIV, 1895. From the author

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Washington, 1895. From the U. S. Dept. Agric.

MILLER, S. A. AND F. E. GurLtey.—Some New and Interesting Species of

Paleozoic Fossils. Extr. Bull. No. 7, Illinois State Museum, 1895.

Mivart, ST. G.—The Skeleton of Lorius flavopalliatus compared with that of

Psittacus eritha acus. Pt. I. Extr. Proceeds. London Zool. Soc., 1895. From the

author.

Newton, E. T.—On a Human Skull and Limb-bones found in the Paleolithic

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the Survey.

Proceedings of the Seventh Annual Session of the Association of American

Anatomists, Dec. 28, 29, 1894.

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From the Survey.

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gart, 1895.

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1896.] Petrography. 475

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the author.

` Wuirteaves, J. F.—Paleozoic Fossils, Vol. III, Pt. II, 1895. From the Cana-

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Prep. Schools, 1894. From the author.

General Notes.

PETROGRAPHY.’

Malignite, a New Family of Rocks.—Lawson’ uses the name

malignite for a family of basic orthoclase rocks constituting an intru-

sive mass, possibly laccolitic, in the schists around Poohbah Lake, in

the Rainy River district, Ontario. Three phases of the intrusive mass

are recognized—a nepheline-pyroxene-malignite, a garnet-pyroxene-

malignite and an amphibole-malignite. The constituents common to

all phases are orthoclase, aegerine-augite and apatite. In the nephe-

line variety the nepheline occurs as patches in the orthoclase, or as

micropegmatitic intergrowths with it. The orthoclase is in poikilitic

relations with all the other minerals, surrounding them like the glass

1 Edited by Dr. W. S. Bayley, Colby University, Waterville, Me.

2 Bull. Dept. of Geol. Univ. of California, Vol. I, p, 337.

476 The American Naturalist. [June,

in a partially crystallized lava. It was evidently the last component

to solidify. The composition of the rock is as follows:

SiO, ALO, FeO, FeO CaO MgO Na,O KO H,O P.O, Total

47.85 13.24 2.74 2.65 14.36 5.68 3.72 5.25 2.74 2.42 = 100.65

This composition is so similar to that of the Vesuvian leucitophyres,

that the rock is regarded as the plutonic equivalent of these lavas.

The low percentage of silica and the high lime percentage separate the

rock from the eleolite syenites.

One form of the nepheline-malignite is panidiomorphic through the

development of the orthoclase and all the other components in crystals.

In the garnet-pyroxene phase of the rock the orthoclose is intergrown

with albite in the form of phenocrsyts imbedded in a hypidiomorphic

aggregate of aegerine-augite, melanite, biotite, titanite and apatite.

The augite, melanite and biotite are allotriomorphic. They seem to

have crystallized contemporaneously with each other, and with a part

of the orthoclase. In the amphibole-malignite the distinguishing char-

acteristic is the prevalence of a very strongly pleochroic amphibole,

and the absence of any large quantity of aegerine. The augite that is

present occurs intergrown with the amphibole. Melanite is wanting,

otherwise this rock is very much like the mellanite-pyroxene malig-

ite

The author points out the fact that the great mineralogical differ-

ences observed in the three types of malignite, are accompanied by

very slight differences in chemical composition. The three types are

regarded as differentiation phases of the same rock mass.

Foliated Gabbros from the Alps.—Schifer® gives an account

of the olivine gabbro and its dynamically metamorphosed forms which

constitute the rocks of the region in the vicinity of the Allalin glacier

between the Zermatthal and the Saarthal in the Alps. The normal

gabbro contains in its freshest forms much or little olivine. In its

altered forms it consists of saussurite, amphibole, talc, actinolite and

garnet. Ottrelite is often found enclosed in the tale and sometimes im-

bedded in the saussurite. In one of the granular varieties of the met- |

amorphosed gabbro a blue amphibole is very abundant. Itis inter-

grown in part with omphacite. The granular alteration forms of the

gabbro pass gradually into foliated forms and through these into rocks

called by the author “ green schists.” The schistose gabbros are min-

eralogically similar to the granular alteration phases of the rock,

except that they contain in addition to the minerals named above a

3 Neues Jahrb. f. Min., ete.. B.B., p. 91.

1896. ] Petrography. 477

newly formed albite, zoisite and white mica. The final stage of the

alteration is a zoisite-amphibole rock. The green schists are composed

of ellipsoids of zoisite, feldspar and epidote imbedded in a schistose

green amphibole clinochlor aggregate. Some of the schists are rich in

garnets, and others are practically chlorite-schists. All are supposed

to be derived from the gabbro.

In addition to the gabbros there are also in the region several ex.

posures of serpentine whose contact with the green schists with which

they are associated are always sharp. The original form of the rock is

unknown, but it is supposed to have been a peridotite. Its most inter-

esting feature is the possession of light yellow and brown crystals of

some member of the humite family.

On the west side of the Matterhorn the author also found normal

and olivine gabbros, both more or less altered. The former is cut by

little veins of aplite. The peak of the Matterhorn is scarred by numer-

ous fulgurites. Its rocks are fine grained green schists, some of which

are like those described above, while others are dense and homogeneous

in appearance. They consist of amphibole, clinochlor, zoisite, altered

plagioclase, tale and alkali-mica. These rocks are defined as zoisite-

amphibolites.

The Rocks of Glacier Bay, Alaska.—Cushing* gives a few

additional notes on the petrography of the boulders and rocks of

Glacier Bay, Alaska. The principal rocks of the region are diorites,

altered argillites and limestones that are cut by dykes of igneous rocks.

In addition to the diorites and quartz-diorites reported by Williams®

from this vicinity, there are also in the region mica and actinolite-

schists. The dyke rocks are mainly diabases. The author gives some

additional information concerning the diorites and briefly describes the

schists. The actinolite schists are aggregates of finely fibrous actinolite

needles, in whose interpaces is a granular mixture of quartz and epi-

dote and an occasional grain of plagioclase. The mica schists present

no unusual features except that some of them are staurolitic.

Petrographical Notes.—As long ago as 1836 Thomson reported

the occurrence of light yellowish-green rounded masses which he called

huronite, imbedded porphyritically in a boulder of diabase from Drum-

mond Island. Other occurrences of the same substance have been

found by the Canadian geologist in diabase dykes cutting the rocks of

the Lake Huron region. These have been investigated by Barlow’

‘Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci., Vol. XV, p. 24.

5 Cf. AMERICAN NATURALIST, 1892, p. 698.

ê Ottawa Naturalist, Vol. IX, p.25.

478 The American Naturalist. [June,

and are pronounced by him to be aggregates of zoisite, epidote, sericite

and chlorite in a mass of basic plagioclase. In other words, huronite

is a saussuritized plagioclase. Descriptions of a number of dyke rocks

containing ‘huronite’ are given by this author.

Bauer’ describes a number of specimens of snow-white, lilac and

emerald-green jadeite from Thibet and upper Burmah. One of the

green varieties is cut by little veins of nepheline, containing plates of

basic plagioclase and little bundles of a monoclinic augite (jadeite)

with the same properities as that which constitutes the mass of the

jadeite. The rock, according to the author, is made up of this augite

and nepheline, the latter mineral acting asa groundmass. The veins

are those portions of the rock in which the augite is in very small

quantity. In other specimens nepheline occurs in small quantity, and

plagioclase is abundant. His conclusion is that the rock is a jadeite-

plagioclose-nepheline rock in which locally the one or the other compo-

nent is most prominent. If the rock is, as the author supposes, a crys-

talline schist, the occurrence of nepheline in it is of extreme interest.

In a second article the same author? describes a serpentine from the

jadeite mines at Tauman. It is composed of olivine, picrolite, chryso-

tite, webskyite and a few other accessories in an albite-hornblende

matrix, consisting of an aggregate of single individuals of untwinned

albite, in the midst of which lie brown and gray hornblendes sur-

rounded by zones of a bright green variety of the same mineral.

Between this zone and the albite there is a fringe of green augite nee-

dies. The rocks associated with the jadeite and the serpentine are also

described. Among them is a glaucophane-hornblende-schist. All the

rocks exhibit the effects of pressure.

In avery short note Beck’ calls attention to the fact that the mole-

cular volume of dynamically metamorphosed rocks, i. e., of the min-

erals composing these rocks—is less than that of the original rocks

from which they are derived. For instance, a mixture of plagioclase,

orthoclase and water in the proportion to form albite, zoisite, muscovite

and quartz has a molecular volume of 547.1, while the corresponding

mixture of albite, zoisite, etc., has a volume of 462.5,

"Neues Jahrb. f. Min., ete., 1896, I, p. 85.

° Record of Geol. Survey of India, XXVIII, 3, 1895, p. 91.

* Kais. Ak. Wiss. in Wien. Math. Naturw. Class, Jan., 1896.

1896.] Geology and Paleontology. 479

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.

Phylogeny of the Dipnoi.—In a memoir recently published, M.

Dollo adduces fresh evidence for the theory recently advanced by vari-

ous English scientists that the diphycercy among the Dipnoi is in

reality a secondary diphycercy or gephyrocercy. The author regards

this as an important fact, and uses it as a basis in developing his theory

of the origin and evolution of the order. The results of his researches

are as follows:

I. Dipterus valenciennesii isthe most primitive of the Dipnoi known.

II. In a general way, the evolution of Dipnoi, since the lower De-

vonian, is represented in the following series in the order of the enum-

eration of its ada

Diptei Ua 1a— Phan-

icra: — Uronemus — Cienodus—- 0s ea Fe

sire

TI, The origin of the Dipnoi must be looked for among the Cros-

sopterygia.

IV. The Batrachians are not in the line of the Dipnoi.

V. The specialization of the Dipnoi has been from a pisciform type

toward an anguilliform type.

This order is a terminal group, derived from the stem that gave ori-

gin to the Batrachians.

In conclusion the author gives the phylogeny of the gnathostome

vertebrates in a tabulated form. (Bull. Soc. Belge de Geol. T. ix,

Fase. 1, 1895, Bruxelles, 1896).

Fauna of the Knoxville Beds.’—The Knoxville beds are a

Cretaceous series confined to the coast ranges of California, Oregon

and Washington. They are characterized by the great abundance of

Aucella, usually without associates, but, through the explorations of

Mr. Diller and other geologists, a rich and varied invertebrate fauna

has been discovered in the Aucella-bearing series of the Pacific Stutes,

The description of this fauna was assigned to T. W. Stanton, and is

now published as Bulletin No. 133 of the U.S. Geological Survey.

The author recognizes 77 distinct species and varieties, of which 50 are

new. All but 7 of the species are Mollusca, including 33 species of

1 Bulletin United States Geological Survey, No. 113. Contributions to the

Cretaceous Paleontology of the Pacific Coast ; The Fauna of the Knoxville Beds.

By T. W. Stanton. Washington, 1895, [issued Feb. 3, 1896].

480 The American Naturalist. (heme

Pelecypoda, 1 of Scaphopoda, 18 of Gastropoda, 18 of Cephalopoda

(15 Ammonoids, 3 Belemnites). The other 7 species include 5 Brach-

iopoda and 2 Echinodermata.

The brief introduction comprises a geological description of the beds,

with a discussion of their age, and of their relations to various other

formations characterized by a similar fauna.

The new species are figured on twenty page plates.

Notes on the Fossil Mammalia of Europe, IV.—On THE

PsEUDOEQUINES OF THE Upper Eocene or France.—Under the

term Pseudoequines may be included the various species of the genus

Paloplotherium, which occur in the Upper Eocene and Oligocene of

Europe. This phylum parallels in a remarkable manner many of the

characters which are typical of the true horses, but these characters,

strange to say, are much earlier differentiated than in the real equine

phylum,

Kowalevsky’ in his great work on “ Anthracotherium” clearly rec-

ognizes in his phylogenetic table of the Ungulates, that Paloplotherium

is not in the direct line of the horses. Schlosser is also of the same

opinion as Kowalevsky in regard to the relations of Paloplotherium to

the horses. Professor Gaudry* as late as 1888 placed all the species of

Paloplotherium in the direct line leading to Equus.

The earliest known species referred to Paloplotherium is the P. codi-

ciense Gaudry ; this form is from the Calcaire Grossier or Middle

Eocene. In P. codiciense there are four upper and lower premolars,

- whereas in the more typical species of Paloplotherium from later de-

posits there are only three premolars. Moreover, in the P. codiciense

all the upper premolars are simpler in structure than the true molars.

The last upper premolar in this species is tritubucular in structure, and

there are two well defined crests running outwards from the deutero-

cone, in other words this tooth is well adapted for further evolution

into the molariform last premolar of the typical Paloplotheroids. In

the true molars of P. codiciense the ectoloph has nearly the same form

as that of the Palaeotheridz in general, the metaloph or posterior crest,

however, is less oblique in position than in the later species of Palo- .

plotherium and Paleotherium. The type specimen of Paloplotherium

codiciense consists of a facial portion of a skull with the teeth well pre-

served. This species is much larger than P. minus and corresponds

more nearly in size with P. annectens.

2? Monographie der Gattung Anthracotherium, p. 152.

* Les Ancéstres de nos Animaux, Paris, 1888.

1896.] Geology and Paleontology. 481

In “ La Petite Galerie” of Paleontology at the Jardin des Plantes,

Paris, there is a well preserved skeleton of Paloplotherium which is la-

belled Paloplotherium minus. This specimen is of some importance, as

we have here a case where the skeletal parts and teeth are associated

and from the same individual. This skeleton was found in the Calcaire

` Grossier de Dampleix, Départment of Aisne,‘ and it is important to add

that Professor Gaudry’s type of P. codiciense is from the same horizon

of this Départment, but from another locality.

Although this skeleton has been determined as P. minus it differs

widely from this species, and also in fact from P. codiciense. In the

upper and lower jaw there are four premolars as in P. codiciense, but

these teeth are much more complicated than in that species and are

exactly transitional in structure between P. codiciense and the typical

species of Paleotherium. The premolars in this type are badly worn,

but I can distinctly trace on one side that the internal cones are nearly

double, but not distinctly separated as in Paleotherium ; the structure

the true molars is like that of P. codiciense. As will be seen the den-

tition of the skeleton above referred to differs from Paloplotherium

minus in having four premolars, also the second upper tooth of this

series is more complex than in the latter.

The parts of the skeleton associated with the teeth and skull consist

of a scapula, radius and ulna, and also some metapodials. Among the

latter there is a Mc. III and also another metacarpal, which I think

may be Me. V. If this determination be correct, we have here a

Paleotheroid with four digits to the mamus. In the species of Paleo-

rium from the Upper Eocene, Me. V is represented only by a rudiment.

I would like to add that the metapodial in this skeleton which I have

determined as Me. III is flatter and less triangular in section than in

the typical Paloplotherium minus ; this goes to show that the lateral

toes were larger, and supports my view as to the presence of four ante-

rior digits in this as yet undescribed species.

- From the characters above adduced I conclude that this new species

of Palzotheroid is more closely related to the true Paleotherium than

to Paloplotherium, and moreover it is the most primitive form of

Paleotherium yet discovered.

I am not able to learn that the beds in which this skeleton was dis-

eovered are any later than those in which the P. codiciense was found.

However, from the structure of the premolars in the two species, I

would conclude that P. codiciense came from an earlier subdivision of

*T am maeh indebted to my friend M. Marcellin Boule of ea esate: des

Plantes for in relation to this specim

482 The American Naturalist. [June,

the Calcaire Grossier of Aisne than that in which this skeleton was

ound.

The most abundant species of Paloplotherium found in France is the

P. minus. This species was described by Cuvier and referred to the

genus Paleotherium, but it was later raised to a generic rank by Owen,

and also by Pomel. In regard to Paloplotherium minus it is of import-

ance to attempt to show that the teeth and feet of this species are prop-

erly associated. Osborn and Wortman’ have lately questioned the

correctness of this association, and furthermore these authors think it

probable that the feet referred to P. minus by the French Paleontolo-

gists really belong to a small species of Lophiodont-like animal, closely

related to the American genus Colodon. I cannot agree at all with

these authors in this supposition, as I believe that the feet tending to

monodactylism found in the Upper Eocene of France, which are re-

ferred by the French Paleontologist to Paloplotherium, are correctly

identified.

Among the large collection of fossilsin the Jardin des Plantes, many

of which formed the types of Cuvier, and which were described by him

in his “ Ossemenes Fossiles,” there is a nearly complete skeleton re-

ferred by Cuvier to Paloplotherium minus; this is figured by Cuvier

and also by Blainville.’ In this specimen the feet are absent, but there

are a few teeth embedded in the skeleton which have the same struct-

ure and size as those referred to P. minus. Again, Blainville figures

an anterior extremity of a small Perissodactyles which he refers to Palo-

plotherium minus, and this specimen is of the same size as the fore limb

of the nearly complete skeleton of P. minus described by Cuvier. Both

these specimens are from the Gypse de Paris. However, since the time

of Cuvier, Paloplotherium minus has been found in great abundance

in the Upper Eocene of Débruge. The collection in the Jardin des

Plantes from Débruge contains a large number of jaws and teeth, and

portions of limbs containing numerous metapodials. These bones cor-

respond exactly in size with those of the original skeleton described by

Cuvier, and I am of the opinion that this is pretty conclusive evidence

that the skeletal parts of Paloplotherium minus and the teeth are cor-

rectly associated. Moreover, I am not aware that any small Lophio-

dont Perissodactyle occurs.in the Débruge Eocene. I use the term

“ Lophiodont ” strictly in the sense as applied by Osborn and Wort-

man.

5 Bulletin American Museum Natural History, 1895, p. 361.

. * Ossemenes beets plate 15.

ainville, Palæotherium, plate VI.

1896.] Geology and Paleontology. 483

Having now attempted to show that the monodactyle type of foot

found in the Upper Eocene of France is in all probability correctly

associated with the teeth of Paloplotherium, I shall review the charac-

ters of this phylum and indicate those points which parallel the true

horses, and also point out those aberrant structures of the teeth which

exclude the possibility of placing this series in the direct line leading to

Equus.

Through the kindness of Professor Albert Gaudry, I have been en-

abled to study a beautifully preserved skull of Paloplotherium javvalii

from the Phosphorites. This cranium is remarkably like that of the

horse in many of its characters, and I think most Paleontologists would

say at once that this type of horse-like skull should be associated with

a foot tending to monodactylism. The position of the orbit is as in the

primitive horses, its anterior termination being placed over the second

true molar. The form of the facial region closely resembles that of the

horse, being high and strongly compressed. The premaxillaries are

elongated and slender, and slope gradually backwards as in the horse.

Among the Palxotheroids, P. crassum has a skull resembling some-

what that of Paloplotherium javalii, but in the former the facial region

is shorter and broader than in P. javalii. In the skull of P. javali,

there is a large flat area between the orbits, and the sagital crest is well

marked. The post-orbital processes of the frontals are largely devel-

oped and extends well downwards towards the zygomatic arch. The

post-tympanic and paroccipital processes are united as in Paleotherium

erassum. The basal region of the skull in P. javalii is long and narrow,

like that of the horse.

The structure of the skull in Paloplotherium minus is not known,

only fragments of the occiput having been found. The teeth of P.

javalit have been described by M. Filhol, and as is well known the

crowns of the upper molars are much elongated and tending strongly

to the hypsodont condition of Equus. Moreover, the valleys between

the crests are filled with cements and the external and internal surfaces

of the crown are coated with the same substance.

In Paloplotherium the last upper premolar is completely molariform

and the posterior crest of this tooth, and that of the true molars is very

oblique in position. The metaloph owing to its oblique position, only

unites with the ectoloph after a long period of wear; this crest, in the

true horses, moreover, is nearly at right angles to the ectoloph and

unites early with the latter. In Paloplotherium also, the hypostyle—

an element so essential in the evolution of the horse’s molar, is absent.

The lower true molars in the Paloplotheroids lack the reduplication of

484 ‘The American Naturalist. [June,

the metaconid, which is present in the members of the true Equine

phylum.

No metapodials of P. javalii have been found associated with the

teeth ; however there are in the collection of the Jardin des Plantes

and also in the Ecole des Mines, a number of enlarged third metacar-

pals and metatarsals from the same beds in which they find the teeth

of P. Javali, and in all probability belong to this species. As already

stated the horse-like skull and teeth of Paloplotherium javalii support

the view that this type of cranium belong with these specialized meta-

podials. The third metacarpal in P. javalii is long and slender, and has

a large facet for the unciform, the section of this bone is triangular

with the lateral surfaces very oblique. This structure of the metapo-

dial shows that the lateral digits were placed far to the inside and be-

hind. The posterior cannon bone is more progressive in its horse-like

character than the anterior, the proximal surface is much expanded

transversely and the postero-lateral cavities for the metapodials are

placed further behind than in the fore foot.

M. Filhol has described remains of Paloplotherium minus from the

Oligocene of Ronzon, and in these beds they again find the enlarged

third metapodials which are so abundant in the Débruge Eocene.

This is another proof that the teeth and podial elements in Paloplothe-

rium are properly referred.

A form closely related to the Palxotheride is the genus Anchilo-

phus. This genus is more normal in its tooth structure in comparison

with the early horses than Paloplotherium, and is considered by some

authors’ as in the direct line leading to Equus. Kowalevsky® however,

calls Anchilophus a “ Versuchgenus in der Pferderichtung, der Ver-

such war aber erfolglos, und der Anchilophus erlischt im Eociin, ohne

directe Nachfolger zu hinterlassen.” Kowalevsky reached this con-

clusion from studying the carpal bones of Anchilophus. I have had

access only to the teeth of Anchilophas desmarestii and consequently

must base my conclusions upon the characters of one species only of

this genus. A comparison of the superior molars of A. desmarestii with

those of Mesohippus, a genus which is considered by all competent

anthorities to be in the true Equine series, shows the following differ-

ences: The ectoloph in both genera has nearly the same form, but in

Anchilophus the mesostyle is absent, this is well developed in Mesohip-

pus. In A.desmarestii the hypostyle is wanting, which is so prominent

in the molars of Mesohippus. The direction of the metaloph in An-

$8 pu: + Dt La

Soc. Nat. de Moscou, 1888, p. 148. _

des Ongules. Par Mme. Pavlow. Bull.

1896.] Geology and Paleontology. : 485

chilophus is less oblique than in Paloplotherium and is more as in Meso-

hippus. In the lower molars of Anchilophus the metaconid is not re-

duplicated, and the crescents are in form more like Palaeotherium.

From the fact that Kowalevsky, in studying the podial elements of

Anchilophus, concluded that this genus could not be in the true Equine

series, adds mnch weight to the view of its non-persistence. Again, we

have seen that the molars of Anchilophus are wanting in a number of

important elements which are present in all later genera leading to

Equus. The above evidence points to the fact that Anchilophus must

be. considered as another aberrant form not leading to permanent re-

sults—CHARLES EARLE.

Reclamation of Deserts.—The shifting of the sand dunes in

the Sahara desert frequently ends in destruction of fertile oases. To

prevent the encroachment of the dunes upon the arable land has long

been a problem with the French. Commandant Godron has inaugu-

rated a system of tree planting in the neighborhood of Aiu-Sef-ra,

Ouargla and El-Golea from which excellent results have been ob-

tained. Following out the theory that tree plantations would prevent

the dunes being at the mercy of the wind, and finally make them sta-

tionary, M. Godron planted a neighboring dune with seedlings of

various species of trees and shrubs. To prevent the sand from shifting

while the new plants were establishing themselves, a light covering of

alfa straw was spread over the ground. This was found to effectually

shield the sand from the action of the wind.

In making a plantation, Mr. Godron combines seeding, cuttings and

plants already rooted. The species best adapted for growing on the

dunes have proved to be the Barbary fig, peach, aspen, Italian poplar,

weeping willow, driun, grape-vine, Spanish broom, acacia and roses.

To supply the demand for cuttings and rooted plants for this new

desert industry, M. Godron has established local nurseries at Aiu-Sefra

and at El-Golea. The water supply for maintaining the growth of

vegetation is from artesian wells. The reclaimation of vast extents of

desert land is hoped for in the future, through the adoption of the

plantation methods of Commandant Godron. (Revue Scientif., Fev.,

1896).

° Anthracotherium, p. 157.

486 The American Naturalist. [June,

BOTANY.’

Botany in the National Education Association.—An effort

is now under way to bring about greater interest in the teaching of Bot-

any than has hitherto been shown by American botanists. The new

department of Natural Science Instruction is intended to bring together

the teachers of science (Botany, Zoology, Chemistry, Physics, etc.) who

are interested in science as a means of culture, and to stimulate thought

and discussion as to how this end may best be obtained. What rôle

should Botany play in the mental development of a man? In what

way may the study of plants be made an efficient factor in a man’s

mental training? When and how should plant study be made a part

of a man’s training? These are some of the questions which will be

discussed by the botanists in the Buffalo meeting of the National Edu-

cational Association on July 9th and 10th next. It is to be hoped that

many who are interested in this department of Botany will be present.

—Cuarues E. Bessey.

Coulter’s Revision of N. A. Cactacez.—Nearly two years

ago Dr. Coulter brought out the first part of his revision of the N. A.

Cactaceze (Contrib. U. S. Nat. Hist., Vol. III, No. 2), and now in No.

7 of the same volume we have the concluding part. The family as re-

vised now includes North American genera and species as follows:

Cactus Linn., Sp. Pl., 466 (= Mamillaria Haw. Synop.,177), with 64

species and varieties; Anhalonium Lem., Cact. Gen. Nov., with 5 spe-

cies ; Lophophora Coulter, a new genus, with 2 species; Echinocactus

Link & Otto, Verh. Preuss. Gartenb. Ver., 3,420, with 52 species and

varieties; Cereus Mill. Gard. Dict. Ed. 8, with 82 species and varie-

ties; Opuntia Mill. Gard. Dict. Ed. 7, with 101 species and varieties.

We have thus a total of 306 species and varieties of North American

eactuses. The work is styled a preliminary revision, and the author

says, in his prefatory note, that on account of the peculiar difficulties

attending the revision “the undertaking would have been abandoned

only that it seemed but proper to contribute to the knowledge of the

group such facts as had come to light in the course of several years’

study,” a most commendable conclusion, indeed.

—CuarR.es E. Bessey.

Botanical News.—Dr. Charles A. White has recently prepared

a Memoir of George Engelmann for the National Academy of Scien-

1 Edited by Prof. C. E. Bessey, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska.

1896,] Botany. 487

ces. It is a sympathetic sketch of the life of a strong and industrious

man.

A recent bulletin (No. 10) from the Division of Forestry of the U.

S. Department of Agriculture, with the title “ Timber,” contains much

of general botanical interest. Such topics as “ wood of coniferous

trees,” “ wood of broad-leaved trees,” “ weight of wood,” “shrinkage of

wood,” “mechanical properties of wood,” ete., illustrate the scope of

the work. It is deserving of a place in any botanical library

Professor R. A. Harper’s confirmation of the act of fertilization in

Sphaerotheca costagnei, in the Berichte der Deutschen Botanischen

Gesellschaft (Bd. XIII, heft. 10) brings grateful relief from the monot-

onous repetition of doubts as to the accuracy of DeBary’s work. The

applicability of modern imbedding processes to the study of the life-

history of the smaller TE has rarely been better demonstrated than

in this satisfactory pape

The Eli Lilly Co., of Indianapolis, have recently issued an “ Ex-

change List” of thee herbarium. It includes 976 names, all in the

modern nomenclature.

The Report of the Botanical Department of the New Jersey Experi-

mental Station, by Dr. Halsted, possesses more than the usual interest

of similar publications. With much of practical value, the author has

mingled a great deal which possesses high scientific interest.

In Professor Scribner’s New North American Grasses (Bot. Gaz.,

March, 1896), four new species and one new genus are described, viz. :

Avena mortoniana from Silver Plume, Colo.; Danthonia parryi from

Georgetown, Colo. ; Zeugites smilacifolia, a curious broad-leaved species

from Cuernavaca, Mexico, and Pringleochloa stolonifera, from the

vicinity of Mt. Orizaba, Mexico. The new genus is apparently very

close to Bulbilis ( Buchloé).

The Field Columbian Museum recently issued No.2 of the Botanical

Series of its publications. It contains the “ Flora of West Virginia,”

by Dr. Millspaugh, and is a considerable enlargement of an experi-

ment station report made by the same author a couple of years ago.

It includes 2584 names, of which 980 are Fungi, 115 Lichens, 123

Bryophytes, 57 Pteridophytes, and 1309 Authophytes. The nomen-

clature is modern and the work is well done, but one is sorely puzzled

with the peculiar sequence of families in the Fungi, in which one finds

in strange juxtaposition Saccharomycetacee, Diatomacee and Myx-

E ai (pp. 84-85).

rofessor Greene’s “New Western Plants,” in the Proceedings of

a Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia (Feb. 7, 1896), con-

488 The American Naturalist. [June,

tains a degeripbions of some interesting plants, e. g., Trifolium truncatum,

ilacinum, T. rostratum, Boisduvalia diffusa, Valerianella magna,

V. ciliosa, Lessingia pectinata, Pyrrocoma eriopoda, P. solidaginea, P.

subviscosa, Aster militaris, A. frondeus and Vagnera pallescens. To the

same paper is appended a revision of the genus Tropidocarpum, includ-

ing four species.

An important paper comes to us from the College of Agriculture of

the Imperial University of Japan (Bull. 5, Vol. II, Dec., 1895). It in-

cludes a descriptive list of the winter state of the trees of Japan, by

H. Shirasawa, illustrated by twelve crowded plates of twigs and buds.

Dr. J. C. Arthur has found out that the common notion of farmers

that one of the seeds in the bur of the Cocklebur (Xanthium canadense)

germinates one year and the other does not grow until the following or

some subsequent year is true. He details his observations and experi-

ments in a paper in the Proceedings of the 16th Annual Meeting of

the Society for the Promotion of Agricultural Science. ‘‘ The purpose

of this seemingly unique character is to distribute the two seeds of the

bur in time, the customary distribution in space being impossible owing

to the indehiscent structure.’

The announcement that the Botanical Gazette is hereafter to be pub-

lished by the University of Chicago will please every friend of science,

since it insures its permanence and provides for that growth which the

development of American botany demands.

Suggestions About Antidromy and Didromy.—The inter-

esting notes from Prof. Todd in the Naruratist for March seem to

me to bear upon a phenomenon which is different from what I have

called antidromy: upon the secondary changes in the ordinary growth

which seem to be intimately related to the direction of light and the

necessities of exposure to air. They are commonly shown by the foli-

age of such plants as the elm, morningglory, peach, and Forsythia,

and very often by flowers, in which they may subserve cross-fertiliza-

Antidromy, in its strict sense, is a diversity of a primitive character,

arising phylogenetically away down in the cryptogams, and maintained

with singular constancy through all the Phaenogams ; and ontogenet-

ically it starts in the ovule, depending on the circumstance that every

plant bears two castes of seeds, one set on each border of the carpellary

phyllome. I have not yet determined whether it is a dextrose seed that

grows on the right margin of the carpel: but all the carpels on the

same plant seem to retain the twist of the plant which bears them (well

1896,] Botany. 489

shown by the twisted pods of species of Prosopis), whilst the seeds

which arise from the two sides of a carpel are diverse. The order of

development in the carpel may depend on the direction of the nutri-

ment, and on the lines of least resistance in the crowded condition of

young organs resulting in right-handed and left-handed ovules. The `

outcome is that in the adult plant the whole phyllotaxy, including the

floral structure and ramification of the entire organism and its inflor-

escence, are of one and the same order in any one individual plant,

and of a different order in other plants of the same species. Whether

this is of any special advantage to the grown plants I cannot say; but

possibly by imparting different habits of growth to the various mem-

bers of crowded vegetation, it may cause them to separate from each

other, and so may diminish the intricate interlacing which is so injuri-

ous to gregarious plants.

Now that the season of vegetation is returning it is to be hoped that

some of our young botanists will make and record their observations

on this subject. We want especially to find out exceptions, apparent

or real. My first paper was incorrect as to the supposed antidromy of

rows of grains in the case of maize; dissection seemed to teach this ;

but I might have foreseen that the ear is just like the male panicle,

having a disorderly crowd of grains rearranged by a secondary process

into orderly rows, each row, however, including both dextral and sinis-

tral grains. The case of the Bilsted (Liquidambar) is a puzzle, some

of the branches of the same tree having dextral phyllotaxy, and others

having sinistral phyllotaxy; this is the only case of the true internal

antidromy known to me, though I shall not be surprised by the dis-

covery of other similar cases. A somewhat similar condition is re-

ported to me by Prof. Francis E. Lloyd, of Forrest Grove, Oregon, in

ten cases of Acer circinatum. Perhaps these cases are allied to that of

plants arising from rootstalks, as Iris and Calla, Helonias, Nuphar, ete.,

in which different plants arising from the same rootstalk are antidro-

mic. It will be worthy of examination whether sarmentose plants, as

strawberry, and the Saxifraga described by Prof. Todd are antidromic

as between those grown from the same original stock.

The phenomenon which I have termed didromy, where the same

member is twisted in opposite directions at its two extremities, seems

to me to be always related to the immediate life of the plant, and to

have no genetic significancy. The didromic twist of the awn of Dan-

thonia and other grasses, results in the upper part penetrating an object

sv soon as the lower part untwists by the application of water: that of

the long peduncle of Vallisneria approximates the extremities, thus

490 The American Naturalist. [June,

pulling the fertilized flower down through the water without turning it

around. If I am correct in the observation that some plants of Valli-

sneria have the dextral twist at the lower part, and others have the

sinistral twist below, this would be a complex of the primitive anti-

dromy having superposed upon it a recently acquired didromy.

A different line of investigation will search out the relation of dex-

trorse or sinistrorse phyllotaxy to the leaf-traces in the stem. I am con-

vinced that inattention to this point has marred some of the work on the

histology and the plan of the fibrovascular bundles, and that even with

opposite-leaved plants, many species will be found to exhibit a dupli-

cate pattern as between the arrangements in different individuals of a

species.—GEORGE MACLOSKIE.

Princeton College, March 16, 1896.

VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.’

-A New Classification of Bacteria.—In a recent number of

Die Natirlichen Pllanzenfamilien (Lieferung 129, Leipsic, 1896) Prof.

W. Migula, of Karlsruhe, gives a classification of the bacteria which is

much more practical and satisfactory than that of Dr. Alfred Fischer,

noticed in the September (1895) number of this journal. Migula’s ar-

rangement seems, on the whole, to be the best yet devised, and will

probably come into general use, at least among botanists. The charac-

ters of several genera are amended, properly it seems to the writer,

e. g., Bacterium, Bacillus, Streptothrix, and other genera are discarded

as being founded on purely biological grounds, e. g., Photobacterium,

Nitromonas, Clostridium. Of course, biological peculiarities are recog-

nized as indispensable in the differentiation of species. In reading this

paper one is occasionally surprised at the omissions, but taken in its

entirety the work of consulting literature seems to have been very care-

fully done, and what is more important the classification appears to

have grown out of a long and wide experience in the laboratory, and

seems to be eminentlyusable. This paper treats briefly of most important

literature, morphology, vegetative condition, resting state, cultures on

artificial media, biological peculiarities, geographical distribution, rela-

This wpa is edited by Erwin F. Smith, Department of Agriculture,

Washington, D

1896.) : Vegetable Physiology. 491

tionships, earlier classifications, etc., and then proceeds to the descrip-

tion of the families and genera. The group Schizomycetes forms the

first section of the Schizophyta, and is divided into five families; Coc-

caceæ, Bacteriaceæ, Spirillaceæ, Chlamydobacteriaceæ and Beggiatoa-

ceæ, as follows:

I. Cells globose in a free state, not elongat-

ing in any direction before division into

1, 2 or 3 planes 1. Coccacee.

II. Cells cylindrical, longer or shorter, only

dividing in one plane, and elongating

to twice the normal length before the

division.

(1) Cells straight, rod-shaped, with-

out a sheath, non-motile or mo-

tile by means of flagella 2. Bacteriacez.

(2) Cells crooked, without a sheath 3. Spirillaceæ.

(3) Cells enclosed in a sheath 4, Chlamydobacteriacesx.

(4) Cells destitute of a sheath, united

into threads, motile by means

of an undulating membrane 5. Beggiatoaceæ.

The genera recognized by Prof. Migula are as follows:

(1) Coceaceze

A. Cells without organs of motion

a. Division in one plane . Streptococcus.

b. Division in two planes Micrococcus.

c. Division in three planes 3. Sarcina.

B. Cells with organs of motion

a. Division in two planes 4, Planococcus.

b. Division in three planes 5. Planosarcina.

(2) Bacteriaceze

A. Cells without organs of motion 1. Bacterium.

B. Cells with organs of motion (flagella)

a. Flagella distributedover the whole

2. Bacillus.

body

b. Flagella polar . Pseudomonas.

(3) Spirillaceze

A. Cells rigid, not snake-like flexuous

a. Cells without organs of motion 1. Spirosoma.

b. Cells with organs of motion (fla-

lla

n 1. Cells with 1, very rarely 2

— -3 polar flagella 2. Microspira.

492 The American Naturalist. [June,

2. Cells with polar flagella-

tufts 3. Spirillum.

B. Cells flexuous 4. Spirocheeta.

(4) Chlamydobacteriaceæ

Cell contents without granules of sul-

fur

a. Cell threads unbranched

I. Cell division always only

in one plane 1. Streptothrix.

II. Cell division in three

planes previous tothe for-

mation of conidia

1. Cells surrounded by a

very delicate, scarcely

visible sheath (marine) 2. Phragmidiothrix.

2. Sheath clearly visible

(in fresh water) 3. Crenothrix.

b. Cell threads branched 4. Cladothrix.

B. Cell contents containing sulfur gran-

ules 5. Thiothrix.

(5) Beggiatoaceæ

Only one genus known (Beggiatoa Trev.) which is scarcely separa-

ble from Oscillaria. Character as given under the family.

This scheme is simple in comparison with that of Fischer, but to fully

appreciate it one showld compare it with that of de Toni and Trevisan

in Saccardo’s Sylloge Fungorum, where cumbrousness and triviality

reach a climax, these authors breaking up the group into no less than

50 genera.

From among the various general statements we cull the following:

For the most part the wall of the cell is formed not out of cellulose or

any similar carbohydrate, but out of albuminoids. The wall may,

however, contain embedded in its substance variable quantities of a

carbohydrate coloring blue with iodine. There is no “ centralkérper ”

in the true bacteria, but vacuoles have frequently been mistaken for

such bodies. Most bacterial pigments are non-nitrogenous bodies

related to the analin colors; others are nitrogeneous substances related

to the albuminoids, such apparently are the fluorescent pigments. The

manner of cell division is a fundamental distinction between Bacteria-

ce and Coccaceæ. Cell division always takes place at right angles to

the longitudinal axis when any such is clearly visible. With few

exceptions motility is accomplished by means of flagella. These are

1896.] Vegetable Physiology. 493

extremely delicate protoplasmic structures originating directly from the

membrane. This mode of origin makes it still more probable that the

wall of the cell is only an external denser layer of plasm. Bacteria in

which the contents has been drawn away from the point of insertion of

the flagella by plasmolysis are apparently still capable of motion.

The flagella are either fastened to one or both poles of the cell or else

are scattered irregularly over the whole body. This position of the

flagella on the bacterial body is constant and may be used to distinguish

genera. In some species all of the plasma of the mother cell is not

used up in spore formation, but sometimes a considerable part is left in

the rod. In germination the spores swell up, lose their refractive

power, and usually open either at the pole or equatorially allowing the

young germ to protrude, but sometimes the wall of the spore entirely

deliquesces before the germ has protruded, the latter simply elongating

as a vegetative cell. It is not always easy to determine the charac-

ter of the refractive contents of bacterial cells, and in such cases abso-

lute demonstration of their sporiferous nature can only be had by see-

ing them germinate. All bacterial cells may pass into a resting state

when for any reason growth ceases, but such cells do not possess any

spore character and are only ordinary vegetative cells under conditions

unfavorable to growth. Arthrospores do not exist,and this term

should be discarded. Gonidia occur in the Chlamydobacteriacex. In

Cladothrix these bodies escape from the sheath as swarm cells. In

Crenothrix and Phragmidiothriz the contents of the vegetative cells

becomes septated into Sarcina-like cubical packets, the individual

cells of which finally round off and escape on the opening of the sheath

as non-motile bodies which soon grow out into new threads. In Strep-

tothriz the contents of the cell breaks up into a series of ovoid or round

non-motile cells which escape from the sheath and grow wherever they

happen to lodge.

This paper can be had from Wilhelm Engelmann, Leipsic, for 3

marks, and ought to be in the hands of every working hacteriologist.

Erwin F. Sirsa.

Ambrosia Once More.—There are two species of Xyleborus

which bore in orange wood, one is X. fuscatus and the other is really

undescribed, but goes well enough for the present under the name of

X. pubescens. Both of these are associated frequently with Monarthrum

fasciatum and Monarthrum mali, not only in the orange but in other

hard wood trees of any kind, and even in the wood of wine and ale

casks, in which they are able to propagate their “ ambrosia ” as well as

in living or rather in dying trees: +The ambrosia is very probably a dif-

494 The American Naturalist. [June,

ferent fungus for the different species of these beetles, even where several

species occur in the same tree trunk. The ambrosia of X. pubescens

and X. fuscatus is deep black in its stain, or in its later stages, and the

same fungus may serve both these species; but X. zylographus, a cos-

mopolitan species frequently found in hickory, oak, beech and the like,

has a very different ambrosia, which is olive-green when dry, or leaves

a stain of that color in the chambers. The ambrosia of X. celsus, a

large species found in hickory, is dark brown in stain and in the form

of its conidia is entirely different from that grown by any other of the

species I have mentioned.

In the orange trees injured or killed by frost the most numerous

borer is Platypus compositus. Its ambrosia is entirely different from

that of the Xylebori in the orange, and stains the chambers dark

brown. Several species of Platypus are found in the Southern States

in all sorts of timber, conifers and deciduous treesalike, P., compositus

attacks all sorts of trees, including our pines.

The scolytid boring into the whortleberry, which I brought to the

Department of Agriculture last fall is Corthylus punctatissimus. It

lives in the roots of several shrubs, as hazel, witch hazel, ete. Its

ambrosia leaves a deep black stain. - Corthylus columbianus, discovered

. by Hopkins, makes notable black stains in Liriodendron wood.

I have had the opportunity of examining three or four kinds of am-

brosia and have found them very distinct in the form and arrangement

of the conidia as well as in the habit of growth of the mycelium. There

is, I think, very little doubt that the different species of ambrosia are

connected with certain scolytid beetles irrespective of the wood in

which they make their galleries. The different genera in which I have

. found the food to consist of ambrosia are Platypus, Xyleborus, Mon-

arthrum and Corthylus. It is useless to give lists of plants attacked

by these ambrosia-raising beetles because most of them make their gal-

leries and brood chambers in a great variety of trees and shrubs

Some species live preferably in the roots of plants and others in the

trunks or larger branches, but very few species are restricted to one or

even a few kinds of timber.

I expected to learn much about the forms of ambrosia found in gal- —

leries of the different borers in orange trees, but I find on my return

here this winter that a ferment has taken complete possession of all the

ambrosia which I have examined, and the operations of the beetles are

for the time being at a standstill. A slide of the material now lining

the galleries [Feb. 20, 1896] shows only fragments of the mycelium of

the fungus, and the entire field swarms with bodies like yeast (or bac-

1896.] Zoology. l 495

teria ?) in active eruption. These spores form dense masses and entirely

fill up many of the burrows, often smothering the insects. Iam curious

to know whether this is really the end of a prodigious attack that has been

made by the beetles during the past summer upon the dying orange

trees, oaks and other timber injured by the great freezes of last winter

[Dec. 27-29, 1894 and Feb. 7-9, 1895], or whether it is only a tem-

porary condition due to the inactivity of the beetles during the winter

I should not be surprised to find that it has put an end to further in-

crease of the colonies of ambrosia-eating insects by making it impossi-

ble for them to propagate their food fungus—Henry G. HUBBARD,

Crescent City, Florida.

Note.—Mr. Hubbard reports (May 13) that the beetles were finally over-

whelmed by this “intruding ferment,” and now believes that their depredations

are usually brought to an end in this manner.—E. F. S.

ZOOLOGY.

The Feeding Phenomena of Sea Anemones.—Nagel has

claimed that only the tentacles of the sea anemones were stimulated by

food, while Loeb has shown that other parts of the oral disc were

equally sensitive. To settle which was correct Dr. Parker made his

experiments on our common Metridium marginatum.' When the ani-

mal is expanded, carmine dropped on the tentacles is gradually carried

outwards by the ciliary action until it is dropped outside the disc. In

this there is at first only a slight muscular action, and then the tenta-

cles are quiet as before. If, however, a bit of crab-flesh be dropped on

the tentacles, these are stimulated much more. They now gradually bend

inward, and the flesh, carried toward the tips of the tentacles like the

carmine, is dropped inside the lips of the mouth. Experiments showed

that this stimulation was produced by the juices of the meat, sugar,

quinine, meat and picric acid—all substances with taste—as well as —

filter paper, rubber, etc., produced no stimulation. Each tentacle was

stimulated alone. Between the tentacles and’ the lips is an intermediate

zone in which no stimulation occurs. Bits of crab meat dropped upon

it remain quiet for a time, and then gradually move outwards. Dr.

Parker was not able to explain with certainty how. When, however,

1 Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. XXIX, No. 2, 1896.

496 The American Naturalist. [June,

the meat reached the tentacles, these were stimulated, and acted just

as before.

The region of the lips was different in its action. At either end

(sometimes at only one) is the ciliated siphonoghlphe, and here the

ciliary action is constantly directed inward, and all matters placed

upon them were invariably carried inward—paper, meat, quinine, sand,

all acting alike. At both siphonoghyphes the current was the same—

directed inward. The rest of the oral area between the siphonoghyphes

is also ciliated, but here the current is normally outward. Sand or

carmine dropped here was carried outward, across the intermediate

zone and over the tentacles as before. If, however, a bit of meat be

placed here, it at first starts outward, then stops and moves in toward

the mouth, thus indicating, as did other experiments, that there was a

reversal of the direction of ciliary action. Stimulation of one side in

this way did not cause reversal in the other lip, Again, indifferent

substances and crab-meat placed near each other moved in different

directions, thus indicating that the reversal affected only a small area

and not the whole of the lip. Filter paper alone was passed outward ;

filter paper soaked in crab juice was swallowed. No such ciliated areas

occurred on the column, and this region did not react in any way to

food stimuli. ?

The Relation of Myrmecophile Lepismids to the Ants.—

The relation of the numerous forms of animal life found in ant hills (and

therefore myrmecophilous) to the owners of the hills is varied. It has

long been well-known that the plant-lice found in the hills have a rela-

tion to the ants nearly analoguous to that of the cow to man. They

are retained and cared for by their owners for the liquid that they

exude from their bodies when tickled by the “ milker’s” antennæ.

- Certain staphylinids also exude a substance of which the ants seem

to be fond, and in return are fed by the ants. Asa consequence of

this symbiotic relation, Wasmann has pointed out that the palpi of the

staphylinids have become more or less noticeably reduced in size, thus

indicating some degree of dependence upon the ants. In the case of

Clawiger testaceus found in the ant hills in the neighborhood of Paris,

this dependence is so complete, according to Janet,? that the beetles

perish upon being separated from the ants. To this sort of symbiotic

relation the name-coiners have applied the term myrmecoxeny. $

In addition to these myrmecoxenous forms there are those that like

Myrmedonia funesta capture and devour either the ants themselves or

* Comptes Rendus, CXXII, 799-802.

1896.] Zoology. 497

their young, and must in consequence bear the term myrmecophagous.

Then there are nematode internal and acarid external parasites. Then

there are forms, that like the isopod Platyarthrus hoffmanseggi of Eu-

rope, flourish in and upon the detritus of the hills without molesting or

being molested by the ants, a mode of life denominated syneketic.

Lastly, come the lepismids, living what Janet calls a myrmecocteptic

life. Notwithstanding the name, the relation of the lepismids as told

and illustrated by the above named writer is peculiar, and withal

rather interesting. His experiments were performed with Lepismina

polypoda Grassi, captured along with a colony of Lasius umbratus Nyl.

Some twenty-one of the lepismids were separated from the ants, and

fed upon a mixture of honey, sugar, flour, and yolk of egg. At the

end of two years and six months only nine remained in good condition.

These willingly eat the drops of food presented to them upon the

points of fine pincers. Those left and reared along with the ants were

much more active than the separated lot, running incessantly among

the ants, always seeming to avoid remaining quiet in their presence.

Sometimes they were pursued, but owing to their superior agility were

able to escape. In the conditions of the artificial nest, however, where |

places of safety were doubtless fewer than under natural conditions,

they were often captured. Two days after the beginning of the experi-

ment five Lepismid cadavers were noted. In order to save the rest the

colony was given a new nest, where certain places would be less fre-

quented by the ants. These the Lepismids found, and in them remained

quiet ; but as soon as a single ant made its appearance, they scampered

precipitously away.

When the ants were fed with their customary supply of small drops

of honey, the Lepismids, by their agitation, manifested that they. had

become aware of the proximity of very desirable food. Meanwhile,

the ants that had discovered it, gorged themselves to fulness. Then,

returning to the neighborhood of their companions, who had not found

498 ` The American Naturalist, PRR

the supply, seemed to be requested by the latter to “give me some;” a

request that did not seem to be refused. Soon pairs of ants became

locked together mandible to mandible, the one giving, the other receiv-

ing, a drop of honey. As quickly as a lepismid perceived this condi-

tion of affairs, he rushed in between the pair and intercepted the drop

or a portion of it in its passage, and then retreated precipitately, but

only to treat another pair in a similar manner, and so on until his

hunger was appeased. Lepisma then is not in the ant hill for an exchange

of services, like some of the staphylinds ; nor to be “ milked,” like the

aphid, nor to be a common parasite, nor a common thief; but is there

as more or less of a wary freebooter.—F. C. K.

Lipophrys a Substitute for Pholis.—In my article on the

application of the name Pholis to the gunnels, I find a note was omit-

ted, replacing the homonymous name of the blennioid genus. As the

latter will be left without a proper name on account of the preoccu-

pation of the one it has so long borne by the gunnel, a new one will

be requisite for the blennioid genus, then, [ propose the designation

Lipophrys (ùz, indicating want or absence; o¢pis, eyebrow)’ in illu-

sion to the absence of the superciliary cirri, and its type is the common

Blennius pholis (Linn) of Europe.

I have given the family name Pholidide, because there are some

who will not retain Xiphidion on account of the existence of a prior

Xiphidium, and therefore would not adopt the family name derived

from that genus. If, however, the latter is retained, it would be better

modified as Xiphidiide.—TueEopore GILL.

Blind Batrachia and Crustacea from the Subterranean

Waters of Texas.—From an artesian well, 188 feet deep, recently

bored at San Marcos, Texas, there were expelled more than a dozen

specimens of a remarkable batrachian, together with numerous crusta-

ceans. The latter are described by Mr. Benedict, and the batrachian

by Dr. Stejneger.

The crustaceans comprise numerous shrimps (one new species, Pale-

monetes antrorum, a lesser number of Isopods of a new genus (Ciro-

lanides), and a very few Amphipods.

All the species are white, blind and have unusually long, slender

feet and antenn. —

The Batrachian, for which Stejneger creates a new genus, is de-

scribed under the name Typhlomolge rathbuni. It belongs to the

family Proteidæ, and is more nearly allied to Necturus than to Proteus.

-In analogy with anM pos, without eyelids, and Aéroyàņvos, with-

out mea or sightless.

1896.] Zoology. 499

Like the crustaceans, it is blind. The most remarkable external fea-

ture is the length and slenderness of the legs. In commenting on this

peculiarity, Dr. Stejneger says: “ Viewed in connection with the well-

developed finned swimming tail, it can be safely assumed that these

extraordinarily slender and elongated legs are not used for locomotion,

and the conviction is irresistible that in the inky darkness of the sub-

terranean waters they serve as feelers, their development being thus

parallel to the excessive elongation of the antennz of the crustaceans.”

The gills are external, its color nearly white, having the upper sur-

faces densely sprinkled with minute pale gray dots, and its total length

measures 102 mm. (Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVIII, 1896.)

Lungless Salamanders.—Following up the observations of Dr.

H. Wilder, certain tailed Batrachia examined by Dr. Einar Lönnberg

with reference to their possessing functional lungs have brought to

light the following facts: Desmognathus auriculatus Holbr. and Pletho-

den glutinosus Green exhibit no trace of either lungs or larynx. A

median longitudinal groove is the only remaining rudiment of the

aditus ad laryngem. The transverse laryngeal muscles are well de-

veloped in Plethodon glutinosus, as is also the median narrow strip of

connective tissue at which the muscles insert themselves.

Maneulus quadridigitatus has no trace of lungs, larynx or aditus ad

laryngem, and, although the laryngeal muscles are well developed, the

connective tissue between the muscles is very feebly developed. The

median strip of connective tissue forming a point of insertion for the

laryngeal muscles can be seen. This species exhibits the most reduced

rudiments of the laryngeal apparatus of the specimens under obser-

vation.

Amblystoma opacum possesses rudimentary lungs and a small aditus

ad laryngem. The author regards the lungs as rudimentary, because

they are so very small and narrow, measuring about 9 mm. in length

and 1} mm. in width at the broadest place. It is probable that the

function as respiratory organs in conjunction with some other organ,

either the skin or “la cavité bucco-pharyngienne,” as Camerano has

found to be the case with Spelerpes fusca.

The theory suggested by the author to explain the reduction and

oss of lungs in these animals is stated as follows: When these sala-

manders lost the gills and increased in bulk, the small and not very

composite lungs were insufficient for respiration, so that the bucco-

pharyngeal cavity (? together with the exterior integument) even from

the beginning had to play a certain part. In some of the forms the

500 The American Naturalist. [June,

respiratory capacity of that cavity increased more rapidly than that of

the lungs, which is the easier to understand, as the air breathed must

first pass through that cavity, and because the cavity is rather large.

When this capacity had developed to a certain extent, the lungs were

no longer needed, and gradually atrophied from disuse.

All the salamanders examined lead a more or less terrestrial life ;

but the peculiar characteristic of reduction of lungs is not confined to

terrestrial forms. (Zool. Anz. XIV, Bd., No. 494, 1896.)

Batrachia. Found at Raleigh, N. C.—WNeeturus maculatus.

Water Dog. This species is caught by anglers in the spring, and seems

scarce, as I have only seen eight specimens so far, none of which

measured over 72 inches in total length. Some of them were evidently

breeding females.

Amblystoma opacum. Marbled Salamander. Common. They lay

their eggs in dry season under logs on the edges of dried-up pools, and

the eggs hatch out quickly when the pools fill up again from rain;

whether they do this in wet seasons I do not know. Sonietines

the larve are very abundant, sometimes very scarce. This winter,

after a dry autumn, they are abundant. Last winter, after a wet

autumn, I found difficulty in securing any. The eggs are laid in

October and November.

Amblystoma punctatum. Quite rare here.

Plethodon glutinosus. Viscid Salamander. Very common under

rotten logs in woods.

Manculus quadridigitatus. Tolerably common. This species enters

the water in December to breed, and retires to dry land again about

February. It seems entirely terrestrial, except when breeding. I took

nearly full grown larve in May, 1

Spelerpes bilineatus. Striped Salamander. Common. This sala-

_mander is found in the water, breeding from December to March; the

larvee first appear in May, and do not attain their full growth till a

year or more afterwards. Except in the breeding season I believe it to

be entirely terrestrial.

Spelerpes guttolineatus. Tolerably common. Found mostly in or

around rocky springs or on the edges of rocky brooks, or of the larger

streams. They can be taken containing eggsin November; but I have

never seen any larve that had any sign of belonging to this species.

_ Spelerpes ruber. Red Triton. Aquatic, though like the next species

sometimes found under logs not far from the water. J udging from the

varying size of larvz taken at the same time of year, I think it proba-

1896.] Zoology. 501

ble that this species spends at least one whole year, and possibly two,

in the larve state.

Desmognathus fusca. Brown Triton. Found in all brooks, and is

very common. The larve attain the adult condition in a shorter time

than those of Spelerpes bilineatus, as though they are both hatched

about the same time; the larve of this species complete their meta-

morphosis in the autumn or winter following their birth, being then

only about one-half the size of larvee Spelerpes bilineatus of the same age.

We get specimens of very varying coloration ; some being nearly

black, some very light.

Diemyctylus viridescens. Newt. Common in weedy pools.

- Amphiuma means. Rare. l know of eight adults and twenty-two

larve having been taken here, all being two-toed specimens.

Bufo americanus. Common Toad. Very abundant. Breeds in

spring and summer.

Scap hiopus helceobee: Last May I collected fifty breeding in a pool

only a few yards from my house; in every case the grasp of the male

was inguinal. The cry was not much louder than that of the common

tuad. I have occasionally dug them out of the ground.

Hyla versicolor. Common.

Hyla pickeringii. Abundant. Breeds in March and April.

Chorophilus feriarum. Abundant. Breeds in February and March.

I have never seen this species except at the breeding season.

Acris gryllus. Cricket Frog. Abundant. Active all the year round

except in the severest weather. This species breeds from April through

most of the summer.

Engystoma carolinense. This species is very abundant in the breed-

ing season, which is in J uly and August, and possibly the two preced-

ing months. Have never seen any except when breeding; I think

they are nocturnal.

Rana pipiens. Leopard Frog. — Breeds in March.

Rana clamata. Spring Frog. Comm

Rana catesbiana. Bull Frog. Not as common as the preceding two

breeds in February and March.

Rana palustris. Pickerael Frog. Rare, Only four specimens so far.

—C. S. BRIMLEY.

The Frilled Lizard.

ydosaurus kingii) TEU the tropical parts of the Australian

continent, is in the habit of running erect on its hind legs, receives

confirmation from W. Saville Kent. Specimens in captivity were

502. The American Naturalist. [June,

seen by him to run thirty or forty feet at a stretch, in an erect position

on their hind legs, and when after resting momentarily on their

haunches, to resume a running course. The conformation of the hind

foot is such that when running only the three central digits rest upon the

ground. Consequently the track made by this lizard in passing erect

over wet sand would correspond with such as are left in mesozoic strata

by various Dinosauria (Nature, Feb., 1896). Mr. Kent suggests

affinities with the latter order; but these do not exist, as Chlamydo-

saurus is a typical Lacertilian. It is not the only lizard that progresses

on its hind legs, as Mr. Francis Sumichrast pointed out several years

ago that a species of the Iguanid genus Corythophanes found in Mexico

has the same habit.—(Ep.)

The Palatine Process of the Mammalian Premaxillary.—

While engaged in the study of the comparative anatomy of Jacobson’s

Organ, Mr. R. Broom came across some interesting facts in connection

with the palatine process of the mammalian premaxillary, which he

puts on record in the Proceeds, of the Linnean Soc., N. S. W., Vol. X,

1895. From his observations he concludes that the os paradoxum in

Ornithorhyncus, the anterior vomer (Wilson) in Ornithorhynchus, the

anterior paired vomer in foetal Insectivora, etc. (Parker), the prepala-

tine lobe of vomer in Caiman (Howes), and the vomer in Lacertilia

and Ophidia (Owen, Parker, etc.), are homologues or synonyms of the

process under discussion. He therefore suggests the name prevomer,

to cover all the designations which the different forms of this ossification

has received. (Proceedings of the Linnean Soc. of N. S. Wales).

New formation of nervous cells in the Brain of the

Monkey, after the complete cutting away of the occipital

lobes.—It is known that the noviformation in the nervous cells in the

nervous centres and above all in the brain has not yet received a

definite solution. There has been made, however, anumber of researches

on this important question, but the contradictory results arrived at,

have not as yet advanced our knowledge on this subject. On the con-

trary, the conclusions arrived at by M. G. Marinesen, presented to the

Society of Biology in 1894, are that the cells and nervous fibres of the

nervous centres do not grow again after their destruction.

In pursuing his studies on the physiology of the occipital lobes, M.

Alex. N. Vitzou has discovered the presence of cells and of nervous

fibres in the substance of noviformation, in the Monkey, two years and

two months after the complete cutting away of the occipital lobes. The

entire extirpation of these lobes results, as is known, in a total loss of

1895.] Zoology. 503

sight in both monkeys and dogs. The experience of the author, con-

cerning this point agrees with that of M. H. Munck and confirms

his conclusions. The later researches of different scientists have con- `

firmed the facts which he demonstrated.

Repeating the experiment of total extirpation of the two occipital

lobes of monkey, February 19, 1893, M. Vitzou noticed that during the

fourth month the animal commenced to perceive persons and objects,

but with great difficulty. At the end of fourteen months, the ability

to perceive was greatly increased. The monkey could avoid obstacles,

which he could not do during the first months following the operation.

On the 24th, of April, 1895, Mr. Vitzou repeated the operation

upon the same animal. After denuding the skull he found the orifices

of trepanation closed by a mass of rather firm connective tissue. On

- lifting this mass with care, to his astonishment and that of the assistants

standing about him, he found the entire space which had formerly

been occupied by the occipital lobes completely filled with a mass of

new formed substance. This he proceeded at once to examine.

A portion was taken from the centre of the mass closing the orifice

of trepanation, and another from the posterior part of the new formed

substance found in the skull. Employing both the rapid method of

Golgi and Ramon y Cajal, and the method of double coloration with

hematoxyline of Erlich and eosine in aquous solution, M. Vitzou

demonstrated the presence of pyramidal nervous cells and of nerve

fibres. The nerve tissue was present in large quantities and the nerve

cells less numerous than in the occipital lobes of the adult animal, but

their presence in the new formed mass was constant.

In brief the conclusion from the preceding experiment is that the

new substance occupying the place of the occipital lobes, was of

nerve nature, and that it was due to a new formation of cells and of

nerve fibres in the brain of the monkey. Here is a fact, says the

author, which demonstrates the possibility of regeneration of nerve

tissues in the brain, as well as, what was previously known, that active

nutrition is maintained in the rest of the organ.

Moreover, we find in the presence of cells and nerve fibres in the

new formed mass an explanation of the fact concerning the betterment,

although slight, of the’sense of sight. This explains also contradic-

tory facts presented by different scientists, in the case of partial extir-

pation of the brain followed-by an amelioration of the functions lost

during the first operation.

M. Vitzou adds that the monkey having been subjected to a second

operation lost the sight from both eyes for three months and a half, at

504 The American Naturalist. [June,

the end of which time he gave signs, although somewhat uncertain, of

recovering his vision. The animal is well cared for in order that the

author may continue his observations for some time to come; then

later, he will be sacrificed in order that a complete study may be made

of the new formation. (Revue Scientif. 1895, p. 406.)

ENTOMOLOGY.

Domestic Economy of Wasps.—Much attention has recently

been given to the biology of wasps. One of the most interesting ac-

counts is that of M. Paul Marchal’ summarized in the Annals of Mag-

azine of Natural History. The investigator studied the earth-burrow-

ing wasps (Vespa germanica, V. vulgaris). The fully-formed nests

contain small and large cells, the latter constituting two or more of the

lowest combs, while the others make up the six to ten upper combs.

The large cells, built only by the workers in August, may, at an early

period, receive indifferently either females or males, the former being

either queens or very large workers, the latter always in small propor-

tion ; after the first of September these cells are entirely set apart for

the queens, so that in October no males are to be found in them.

The small cells, from the time that the laying of eggs for males has

begun, contain indifferently up to the end of the season either workers

or males. The proportion of males in the combs of small cells decreases

from below upwards, with this remarkable exception—that if there be

a mixed comb containing both large and small cells, the small cells are

influenced by the proximity of the large cells, and contain very few

males.

The beginning of the period for laying males coincides very nearly

with the time of appearance of large cells, early in August. The curve

which represents their production rises suddenly in an almost vertical

manner to reach its maximum ; it then descends gradually with or

without oscillations to the end of tbe reproduction. The queen takes

a prominent part in this great production of males, because the laying

workers have already long since disappeared, whilst the young male-

larvæ are still to be found in great numbers in the nest.

The queen has then (at least after the early days of September) the

power to determine with certainty the female sex of the eggs which

1 Edited by Clarence M. Weed, New Hampshire College, Durham, N. H.

? Comptes Rendus, t. cxxi, pp- 731-734.

1896.) Entomology. 505

she lays in the large cells; on the other hand, she lays indifferently

either female or male eggs in the small cells. One can only admit in

order to explain this remarkable fact, the principle of the theory of

‘Dzierzon, based upon the fecundation, because if the production of

males were due, for example, to the influence of season, it is evident

that the eggs laid at the same epoch in the large cells would become

male just as much as the others. In order to interpret all the facts, M,

Marchal thinks this theory should be modified, by allowing the inter-

vention of another factor than the will of the queen, and continues:

We will admit, then, that after her first deposit of eggs, exclusively

those of workers, which lasts until the first of August, the reflex which

brings about the contraction of the seminal receptacle at the moment

of the laying of each egg is no longer produced with the same energy,

and that therefore the eggs can be laid without being fecundated ;

thence the almost sudden appearance of males corresponding to the rela-

tive state of inertia of the receptacle. Then it is that the workers

building the large cells give the queen a choice between two distinct

classes of the alveoli, and she, stimulated by the presence of the large

alveoli, which seem to possess the power of rendering her reflexes more

energetic, will concentrate from that time all her energies upon them

and will lay only fecundated eggs and females. The modification thus

introduced into the theory is important because it replaces the volun-

tary act of the queen by a passive one. The queen does not deposit

males and females at will; but there comes a time when she cannot do

otherwise than deposit males, because of the relative inertia of her re-

ceptacle.

` M. Marchal finds that the laying of eggs by workers is normal in

August to a small extent, and that it is greatly increased in case the

queen is removed or stops laying.

Circulars on Injurious Insects.—A valuable series of circulars

on injurious insects is being issued by the United States Division of

Entomology. In each, one of the more important pests is discussed, its

method of work, distribution, life-history, natural enemies and reme-

dies being clearly described. Recent issues include circulars 9 to 15,

with the following titles: Canker-worms, by D. W. Coquillet; The

Harlequin Cabbage Bug, by L. O. Howard; The Rose Chafer, by F.

H. Chittenden ; The Hessian Fly, by C. L. Marlatt ; Mosquitoes and

Fleas, by L. O. Howard; The Mexican Cotton-Boll Weevil, by L. O.

Howard, and Shade Tree Insects, also by Mr. Howard.

506 The American Naturalist. [June,

Gypsy Moth Extermination.—The last Report of the Massa-

chusetts Gypsy Moth Commission shows that decided progress has been

_ made in checking the pests. About $130,000 was spent during 1895.

In commenting on the policy of State control of the pest, Prof. C. H.

Fernald writes :

The value of the taxable property in this State is $2,429,832,966,

and an appropriation of $200,000 is a tax of less than one-twelfth of a

mill on a dollar. A man having taxable property to the amount of

$5,000 would have to pay a tax of only 41 cents and 6 mills. This

beggarly sum of money would make but a small show in the work of

clearing gypsy moth caterpillars from an infested $5,000 farm, while

in the uninfested parts of the State the land owners would be paying

an exceedingly small premium to the State to insure them against the

ravages of the gypsy moth. This premium on a $1,000 farm would

be 84 cents, and for fifty years it would amount to only $4.163 cents.

This protection would extend not only to farmers and owners of forest

lands, but also to residents in villages and cities who own lots with trees

and shrubs on them, and to vegetation wherever grown within the

limits of our Commonwealth.

Entomological Notes.—Messrs Howard & Marlatt publish, as

Bulletin No. 3, of the United States Division of Entomology, an

elaborate discussion (80 pages) of The San José Scale: Its Occurrences

in the United States, with a Full Account of i its Life-history and the

Remedies to be used against it.

In reporting’ on the 1895 experiments with the Chinch-Bug diseases,

Prof..F. H. Snow says that the year’s experience corroborates the con-

clusion of former years that Sporotrichum is ineffective unless the

weather conditions favor its development.

In Bulletin 36, of the Hatch Experiment Station of Massachusetts,

Messrs Fernald and Cooley discuss the imported Elm Leaf Beetle, the

Maple Pseudococcus, the Abbot Sphinx and the San José Scale.

Some potato insects are discussed MA Prof. H. Garman in — 61

of the Kentucky Experiment Statio

Mr. M. V. Slingerland continues g excellent entomological bul-

letins from the Cornell University Experiment Station. Recent issues

deal with Climbing Cutworms (Bulletin 104), Wireworms and the Bud

Moth (107) and the Pear Psylla and Plum Scale (108).

In Bulletin No. 43, of the Minnesota Experiment Station, Prof. Otto

Lugger discusses Insects Injuriousin 1895. The Bulletin covers about

3 Fifth Report of Experiment Station of the University of Kansas. Lawrence,

r inc eee ee itut

n A APE OSESE a a E PaO ea en on ES ge

1896.] Embryology. 507

150 pages with sixteen plates, and shows that a large amount of work

has been done. The entomological department has a special annual

appropriation of $5,000 which enables it to carry on extensive field

>- experiments.

In the December, 1895, Bulletin of the Tennessee Station, Chas. E.

Chambers discusses the Chinch Bug.

Mr. Frank Benton’s admirable Manual of Instruction in Apiculture,

issued as Bulletin No. 1, New Series of the United States Division of

Entomology, is being most cordially welcomed by the bee keeping fra-

ternity.

EMBRYOLOGY:

Morphology ofthe Tardigrades.’—R. v. Erlanger has published

the results of his observations on the early development of Macrobiotus

macronyx Dujardin. The division of the egg is total and equal, seg-

mentation resulting in the formation of a long oval blastula with the

segmentation cavity located nearer the posterior, more pointed pole.

Regular gastrulation takes place, with the cells of both ectoderm and

entoderm at the anterior more flattens, pole nny larger than

those posterior to the blastopore, this di through

out the entire development. The embryo bends ventrally and the

entoderm becomes constricted into two sections, the anterior, the germ

of the cesophagus together with the sucking stomach and the posterior,

the germ of the true stomach. The ectodermal cells of the anterior

- and ventral walls increase in number and size, representing respectively

the starting points of the eyes and ventral nerve chain. The hind gut,

extending dorso-ventrally, represents the third division and is in open

communication with the blastopore. In the ensuing stage the blasto-

pore becomes closed and later the true anus breaks through in the same

place.

Up to this stage the embryo has consisted of but the two primary

germ layers. The mesoderm develops as paired cælomic pouches from

the Archenteron, the first pair appearing at the posterior end of the

embryo forming the fourth segment, the second pair in the anterior end

giving rise to the first segment, the third pair in the second segment

1 Edited by E. A. peti Baltimore, Md., to whom abstracts reviews and

preliminary notes may be

2 Morph. Jahrbuch., Ba, ‘XXII, 1895,

508 The American Naturalist. [June,

and the fourth pairin the third segment. In addition to these the first

pair of mesodermal pouches, right and left of the first pair of append-

ages divide and give rise to a pair of head pouches. The gonad

develops as a dorsal evagination of the archenteron between the second

and third segments and later pushes itself forward into the region of

the second segment.

There develops further, in the region between the stomach and mid-

gut an unpaired accessory sexual gland and at the same stage there is

developed a larger pair of evaginations of the midgut which the author

designates as the midgut glands. The salivary glands develop as ecto-

dermal invaginations of the head segment. The author does not con-

sider the musculature, the nerves, or the transformation of the ccelomic

pouches, reserving those points for another paper.

After a careful consideration of historical and comparative points,

in which he discusses the results and views of the various authors who

have published papers on the tardigrades and presents his own ideas on

the questions concerned, the author, in closing, hopes that what he has

contributed to a knowledge of the morphology of the tardigrades will

be sufficient to give them a place at the bottom of the arthropod stem.

He does not maintain that the tardigrades represent the stem form of

the arthropods but that they have branched off early and at the very

bottom of the arthropod phylum and in many respects developed

partially, but a considerable number of primitive characters remain

which seem to show that they are transitional forms to other phyla.

In a second paper by the same author? the earlier embryonic stages

of Macrobiotus macronyx Duj. are described as follows.

Contrary to condition found in the terrestrial tardigrades, in the

species studied, the males are equal to the females in number. The

males are smaller by half than the females, the latter appearing brown-

ish-yellow in color owing to the eggs in the ovary which in a ripe con-

dition attains a considerable size. The author was unable to distinguish

a copulatory apparatus as described by Graff and the manner of

fertilization precludes the existence of such an organ. The female

withdraws her body into the chitinous envelope so that the hinder part

is clear as far as the second pair of appendages and the eggs are

extruded into this cavity through the anus. The hinder end of the

chitinous shell of the female is turned in for a short distance, forming

a short tube.

During copulation the female moves about dragging the male cling-

ing to her back. The male deposits the spermatazoa near the posterior

3 Biologisches Centralblatt., 15.

1896.] Embryology. 509

end of the female and they are sucked in-through the tube at the pos-

terior end of the female by a sort of pumping motion maintained by

some peculiar muscular action on the part of the female.

The{maturation stages viewed externally and in section present the

usual phenomena with one peculiarity, the formation of four polar

globules instead of three, the second globule extruded dividing in the

same manner as the first, thus giving rise to the additional body.

The first division of the egg presents a two cell stage, the second

division, a three cell stage, the third division a four cell stage followed

by the eight, sixteen and thirty-two cell stages. In the four cell stage

only two of the four cells are in contact, the former being somewhat

oblique to the long axis.

_ The egg membrane is a product of the egg itself, and probably

derived from the alveolar layer. In the young the appendicular

glands, opening through tubes between the claws are much larger than

in the adult and consist in great part of the coelomic pouches. In con-

trast to the terrestrial tardigrades Macrobiotus macronyz does not revive

after desiccation.—F. D. LAMBERT.

An abnormal chick.—In a brood of chicks there occurred one case

in which there was an opening in the abdominal wall on the right side

through which extended what seemed to be a loop of the intestine. The

loop ligatured the tibio-tarsus just above the ankle joint.

—

era)

j \

i h,

fi FIF

Upon dissection, however, it appeared the loop was nothing more nor

less than a region of the yolk sac constricted by twisting. The

510 The American Naturalist. [June,

(smaller) portion of the yolk—sac thus constricted off was darker and

had begun to undergo decay. The opening in the abdominal wall is

nearly oval, 9 mm. long by 7 mm. broad. The edges are smooth as if

about a natural opening.

A glance at the accompanying figure will reveal a certain amount

of asymmetry, due mostly to the position of the yolk sac.

The youngster was hatched alive. How long he might have lived,

or whether the opening would have healed cannot be said, as the owner

did not give it a chance.

In all probability the condition just described was caused by some

inadvertent movement of the embryo, thus displacing the yolk sac or

a part of it—Francis E. Luoyp.

PSYCHOLOGY.

A Study in Morbid Psychology, with some Reflections.

—When Descartes uttered his famous aphorism, “Cogito, ergo sum,” he

reasonably flattered himself on having made an irrefutable proposition.

But the “abysmal depths of personality ” are not as easily sounded as

the great French philosopher imagined. Certainly something thinks;

but is it one consciousness or more that is represented in one human

brain? The celebrated experiments of Professor Janet, of Havre, led to

the discovery of no less than three distinct personalities in his patient,

Madam B., and the no less noted cases of Félida X. and of Louis V1

show one or more personalities controlling the same brain. And there

are epileptiform and hypnotic states where all the functions of civilized

society are discharged without the consciousness of the ordinary pri-

mary self.

I will now proceed to describe the case, which forms the main sub-

ject of this article—that of Ansel Bourne, a carpenter and itinerant

preacher of Rhode Island. The experiences of Ansel Bourne are

amongst the most curious to be met with in the annals of morbid psy-

chology. Whether the symptoms of this case are due: to epilepsy

—“ masked epilepsy ”—or post-epileptic mental disturbance, they are

equally worthy a study.

Ansel Bourne, who is of New England parentage, was born in New

York City, July 8, 1826, and worked steadily at his trade as a carpen-

1 Nore.—See article “ Double Consciousness,” in the Dictionary of Psychologi-

eal Medicine, edited by D. Hack Duke, M. D., where cases are given, including

those of Louis V. and Félida X. (cases 4 and7 y,

1896.] Psychology. 511

ter till his thirty-first year. At that time, as the result of some stran

experiences ending with the direct promptings of a hallucinatory (?)

voice, he gave up his trade, and spent some thirty years as an itinerant

preacher or “evangelist.” At the time of his extraordinary seizure he

was about 61 years old, and, except for some mental disturbance caused

by the objection of his second wife to his work as an itinerant preacher,

he seems to have been in excellent health.

On January 17, 1887, he went from his home in Coventry, Rhode

Island, to Providence, in order to draw money from the bank to pay

for a farm he had arranged to buy. He left his horse at Greene Sta-

tion in a stable, expecting to return that afternoon from the city. He

drew out of the bank $551, and paid several bills, after which he went

to his nephew’s store, 121 Broad Street, and then started to go to his

sister’s house. This was the last that was known of his doings at that

time. He did not appear at his sister’s house, and did not return to

Greene, where his horse remained for about three weeks, till it was

taken away by Mrs. Bourne.

On Thursday, Jan. 20, the following paragraph appeared in the

Bulletin, of Providence, R. I., the information having been given by

police :

A MISSING PREACHER.

“This morning, Mrs. Bourne, the wife of Ansel Bourne, of Greene

Station, called at police headquarters and reported that her husband

had been missing since Monday last. Rev. Mr. Bourne is quite widely

known as an evangelist, and during the past twenty-five years he has

carried on his religious work in various parts of the United States.

For some years, it is said, he has been subject to attacks of a peculiar

kind, which rendered him temporarily insensible, and on some occa-

sions he has remained in an unconscious state for many hours. .....

Mr. Bourne was in Providence on Monday, but he did not return to

his home, and has not been heard of since.”

Notwithstanding the publicity given to the fact of his disappearance,

no tidings whatever were received of him till about March 14, eight

weeks later. The account of the morning of March 14 was furnished

to Dr. Weir Mitchell (one of the many medical men interested in this

extraordinary case) by Surgeon-General L. H. Read, who was sum-

moned to examine Ansel Bourne on the morning of March 14, soon

after he regained his ordinary waking consciousness.

It appears that Ansel Bourne arrived at Norristown, Pa., about

Feb. 1, 1887, i. e., two weeks after his disappearance from Providence,

R. I. Under the name of A. J. Brown he rented a store room at 252

512 The American Naturalist. [June,

Main Street, from Mr. Pinkston Earle, and divided the room into two

by means of curtains. The rear portion of the room he filled with fur-

niture and used as a “ general living” apartment, sleeping and pre-

paring his meals there. The front portion of the room he stocked with

paid for in Philadelphia, which he visited each week with the purpose

i to his window reading

ough to say so he might truly

have exclaimed, “Cogito ergo sum!” only the particular ego which

was thinking would unhesitatingly have called itself A. J. Brown!

The room which he rented was part of a house in which the Earle

family were dwelling, but although they came into daily contact with

“ Mr. Brown,” there was nothing in his manner or proceedings which

suggested anything peculiar. He was quiet in his behavior, precise

and regular in his habits, and paid his bill promptly. He was espe-

cially punctual in the closing of his store at 9 P.M. on ordinary week

days and at 10 P. M. on Saturdays. He attended the Methodist church

on Sunday, and on one occasion, at a religious meeting, he related an

incident he said he had witnessed on a steamer years previously, on

the passage from Albany to New York, and his remarks were thought

particularly relevant to the point under consideration. In short, none

of the persons who had any dealings with him conceived any suspicion

that he was in any unusual condition.

On the morning of Monday, March 14, about five o’clock, he heard,

he says, an explosion like the report of a gun or a pistol, and waking,

he noticed there was a ridge in his bed not like the bed he had been

accustomed to sleep in. He noticed the electric light opposite his win-

ows. He rose and pulled away the curtains and looked out on the

street. He felt very weak, and thought he had been drugged. His

next sensation was that of fear, knowin g that he was in a place where

he had no business to be. He feared arrest as a burglar. He says

this is the only time in his life he ever feared a policeman.

The last thing he could remember before waking was seeing the

Adams Express wagons at the corner of Dorrance and Broad Streets

in Providence, on his way from the store of his nephew in Broad Street

to his sister’s residence in Westminster Street, on January 17.

He waited to hear some one move, and for two hours he suffered

great mental distress, Finally he tried the door, and finding it fast-

ened on the inside, opened it. Hearing some one moving in the next

room, he rapped at the door. Mr. Earle opened it and said, “ Good

morning, Mr. Brown.” B.: “Where am I?” E: You’re all

1896. | Psychotogy. 513

right.” - B.: “I’m all wrong. My name is’nt Brown. Where am I?”

E.: “Norristown.” B.: “ Where’s that?” E.: “In Pennsylvania.”

B.: “ What part of the country?” E.: “About 17 miles west of Phil-

adelphia.” B.: “What time in the month is it?” E.: “The 14th.”

B.: “Does time run backwards here? When I left home it was the

ith.” E.: “17th of what?” B.: “17th of January.” E.: “It is

the 14th of March.”

Mr. Earle thought Mr. “ Brown ” was out of his mind, and said that

he would send for a doctor. He summoned Dr. Louis H. Read, to

whom Mr. Bourne told the story of his doings at Rhode Island, and

how he remembered nothing between the time of seeing the express

magona on Dorranee Street and waking up that morning March 14th.

“ These persons,” he said, “tell me I am in Norristown, Pennsylvania,

and that I have been here six weeks, and that I have lived with them

all the time. I have no recollection of ever having seen one of them

before this morning.” He requested Dr. Read to wire to his nephew,

Andrew Harris, at 121 Broad Street, Providence, R.I. Dr. Read tele-

graphed :* Do you know Ansel Bourne? Please answer.” The re-

ply came: “ He is my uncle. Wire me where he is, and if well.”

Later this nephew came up to Norristown, sold the goods in the

store by auction, and settled up the business affairs of “ Mr. Brown,”

who, as Ansel Bourne, travelled back with him to Rhode Island. Dr.

Read adds, in the account of the case, which he furnished to Dr. Weir

Mitchell ; “ He said he was a preacher and farmer, and could not con-

ceive wir he should have engaged in a business he knew nothing

about and never had any desire to engage in. When asked about his

purchasing and paying for goods, and paying freight bills, he said he

had no recollection of any such transactions.”

The family with whom he lived say that after the occurrence of that

morning he was greatly changed. He was annoyed at any reference to

his store, and never entered it afterwards. He became despondent,

took no food, was unable to sleep, and became greatly prostrated, both

physically and mentally.

Whether or no this was a case of “ masked epilepsy,” no one famil-

iar with the peculiarities of the hypnotic state can fail to see the

likeness between the experience of Ansel Bourne and that of patients

who have purposely been kept for considerable periods under the in-

fluence of hypnotic suggestion. Such patients, when aroused from the

hypnotic trance +have never any recollection of the time which has

elapsed since they were “ put to sleep,” although in the interim they

have been carrying on the ordinary business of life as if the whole

“ego” were acting.

514 The American Naturalist. [June,

Early in 1890, Professor James, of Harvard, hearing of the case,

conceived the idea that if Mr. Bourne could be hypnotized, a complete

history of the whole incident might be obtained from him whilst in the

hypnotic trance. The circumstances had naturally left a painful and

perplexed impression on Mr. Bourne; he was anxious to have any

light possible thrown on his strange experience, and he readily acquie-

sced in the proposals made for hypnotism.

Here, it must be noted, that no amount of suggestion, however strongly

urged or frequently repeated, ever succeeded in merging the consciousness

of “Albert Brown” in that of “Ansel Bourne ;” the one personality was

absolutely separated from the other.

Ansel Bourne came to Boston on five consecutive days, May 27-31,

and during that time Professor James and Mr. Hodgson obtained from

him, in the “deep” hypnotic state, the following detailed account of

his doings during the eight weeks from January 17 to March 13, 1887.”

He said that his name was Albert John Brown, that on January 17,

1887, he went from Providence to Pawtucket in a horse-car, thence by

train to Boston, and thence to New York, where he arrived at 9 P. M.

and went to the Grand Union Hotel, registering as A. J. Brown. He

left New York on the following morning and went to Newark, N. J.,

thence to Philadelphia, where he arrived in the evening, and stayed

for three or four days in a hotel near thedepot. He then spent a week

or so in a boarding house in Filbert Street, about No. 1115, near the

depot. It was kept by two ladies, but he could not remember their

names. He thought of taking a store in a small town, and after look-

ing round at several places, among them Germantown, chose Norris-

town, about twenty miles from Philadelphia, where he started a little

business in five cent goods, confectionery, stationery, ete. `

He stated that he was born in Newton, New Hampshire, July 8,

1826 [he was born in New York City, July 8, 1826], had passed

through a great deal of trouble, losses of friends and property ; loss of

his wife was one trouble, she died in 1881 ; three children living, but

everything was confused prior to his finding himself in the horse-car

on his way to Pawtucket; he wanted to get away somewhere, he did’nt

know where, and have rest. Hehad six or seven hundred dollars with

him when he went into the store. He lived very closely, boarded by

himself, and did his own cooking. He went to church and also to one

prayer-meeting. At one of these meetings he spoke about a boy who

* Professor Janet, of Havre, discovered accidentally that by inducing a deeper

condition of hypnotic trance, a personality can be “tapped” which would other-

wise be unknown.

1896.] Psychology. 515

had kneeled down and prayed for the passêngers on a steamboat from

Albany to New York?

He had heard of the singular experience of Ansel Bourne, but did

not know whether he had ever met Ansel Bourne or not. He had been

a professor of religion himself for many years, belonged to the “ Christ-

ian” denomination, but back there everything was mixed up. He

used to keep a store at Newton in New Hampshire, and was engaged

in lumber and trading business; had never been previously taken up

with the business which took him to Norristown. He kept the Nor-

ristown store for six or eight weeks. How he got away from there

was all confused; since then it has been a blank. The last thing he

remembered about the store was going to bed on Sunday night March

13, 1887. He went to the Methodist church in the morning, walked

out in the afternoon, stayed in his room in the evening and read a

book.*

During the enquiry, one of the most remarkable phenomena is the

utter failure of suggestion to combine the Bourne with the Brown

state, thereby demonstrating that suggestion is not the principal factor

in hypnotism. I will give two instances:

At 11.45 A. M., May 31, Mr. Hodgson hypnotizes Bourne, and, after

a couple of minutes, says, “ What’s your name? It’s Bourne, is’nt it ?”

“ No, it’s Brown.” Mr. Hodgson wakes him up and tries the same

experiment again, with the same result: at the first touch of trance he

is Brown. Other experiments were made on succeeding days to con-

nect the two personalities, but vainly. On July 7, at 10 P.M.,

Ansel Bourne was entranced by Mr. Hodgson who tells him he will re-

main Ansel Bourne after being hypnotized. In vain; he passes at

once into the Brown state. Mr. Hodgson then enumerates the chief

events of Bourne’s life, telling ‘‘ Brown ” that he is “ Bourne,” and that

he remembers these events. This is repeated several times, and Mrs.

Bourne and Professor James reiterate the same circumstances.

“Brown,” however, reaches nothing more than a faint remembrance

of the year of his birth, of his first marriage and of the death of his

first wife. It seems doubtful, though, if these remembrances were not

connected with the “ Brown ” state, because “ Brown ” always gave the

date of his birth (though not the place) correctly, and remembered he

had had a wife who was dead.

3 An experience of his real life.

t A detailed account of the — and answers in this enquiry is given, but

would take up too much space

516 The American Naturalist. [June,

It would take too long to recapitulate all the evidence collected by

Mr. Wm. Romaine Newbold, Lecturer on Psychology in the Univer-

sity of Pennsylvania, in verification of Ansel Bourne’s statements

whilst in trance. At the Kellogg House, where “ Brown” stayed for

about two weeks before going to Norristown, he was well remembered

by the colored waiter Jackson, and by Mrs. Kellogg. They described

him as a very quiet man, who said he was a carpenter and came from

“ down east, somewhere.” Every day he used to go out and look out

for a suitable place to begin business in. After a while he came one

day and said he had found just the place for him, and that was Norris-

town. Then he bought goods for the store he intended to open there,

all of which goods he left in Jackson’s care. “Seemed perfectly him-

self,” and never gave any reasons for wishing to commence business

here. Afterwards, Jackson and Mrs. Kellogg had seen accounts in

the papers and recognized the man there referred to as the man who

had stayed with them. They thought, however, he had become crazy

after leaving them, but it never occurred to them that there had been

anything wrong with him whilst with them.

I will now give an account, as briefly as I can, of the curious exper-

iences which befel Ansel Bourne when he was about thirty years of

ge; experiences which were accounted for by the medical man who

attended him (Dr. Thurston, of Westerly, R. I.) as the results of sun-

stroke, and by the people in the village where he lived as “ Wonderful

Works of God.” .

Ansel Bourne, as already stated, was of New England parentage,

and, up to the age of thirty-one, was a hard working carpenter who,

from being a member of the Baptist church, became a “ convinced

atheist,” not of the aggressive sort, but “silent and stubborn.” It

must be noted that this “ atheism” in a man of scanty education must

have been of the shallowest sort, and that beneath the surface lay

depths of Calvinistic ancestry and training. He had conceived a rooted

aversion for a sect calling itself the “ Christian” church, and for one

of its ministers who was his near neighbor.

In August, 1857, he had several attacks of sickness, brought on pos-

sibly by working in extremely hot weather, and these attacks culmi-

nated in a fit of unconsciousness which lasted from Sunday, the 16th of

August, till the following Tuesday, when he became conscious of his

condition, but remained in a critical state for some days, The next

two months were passed in renewed attempts to work, and fresh at-

tacks of illness, though of a less serious character than those of August.

On Sunday, the 25th of October, he spent the day and evening at his

1896.] Psychology. 517

own house playing cards—a horrible — for the Calvinist conscience

which was lying ready to revenge itse

°On the 28th of October, Ansel ices started for the village of

Westerly, and was noticed by some neighbors to be walking fast, as

‘though feeling quite well. He was conscious of no unusual feelings

till the thought came vividly into his mind that he ought to go to

meeting (i. e to church). Mentally he enquired, “ Where?” The

inner voice replied, “ To the ‘Christian’ chapel.” To this idea his

spirit rose in bitter opposition, and he said within himself, “ I would

rather be struck deaf and dumb forever than to go there.” A few

minutes after he felt giddy, and sat down on a stone by the wayside to

rest. He saw an old man in the distance approaching him with a

wagon, and immediately after felt as though some powerful hand drew

down something over his head and face and finally over his whole

body, depriving him of his sight, his hearing and his speech, and leav-

ing him perfectly helpless. Yet, he declares, he had as perfect a power

of thought as at any time in his life, and the awful choice he had made

(that he would rather be deaf and dumb forever than go to the Christ-

ian chapel) came with awful significance before him. His whole mind

was full of agonizing horror and dread of the God he thought he had

so irretrievably offended. He was conscious of being taken up in the

wagon ; of being carried into a house and placed in a chair, and then

of being put in bed.

Dr. Thurston, who was summoned immediately, says that on reach-

ing his patient’s bedside he “ found him perfectly insensible ioy

the pupils of his eyes quite insensible of light, widely dilated and ik

contracting on the application of stidden and vivid light.” The patient

himself, however, constantly maintained that he was entirely conscious.

“About him,” he says, “all was as silent as though there were neither

a God, nor life, nor motion in the whole, wide universe. The silence

was as though the soul had been cast into a deep, bottomless and shore-

less sepulchre, where dismal silence was to reign eternally.” He fully

acknowledged the justice of God and spurned from his soul the thought

of insulting God by asking mercy for such a sinner.

Powerful counter-irritants were applied, and by Friday consciousness

was partially restored for external things. He felt the posts of his bed-

stead and the window near, and was satisfied he was in his own house ;

he felt movements on the bed and recognized the caresses of his little

children ; then, about 26 hours after the attack, his power of sight sud-

denly returned. He saw his wife and a neighbor, and made signs that

5 From an account written under the direction of Ansel Bourne.

518 The American Naturalist. [June,

he wanted pen and paper. An internal voice asked “if he were will-

ing to forgive those he had injured?” and he immediately answered in

the affirmative. He expressed in writing a wish to see the minister of

the “ Christian” church and another neighbor with whom he had been

on bad terms. Both came and treated the sufferer with kindness and

sympathy ; and then when he was reconciled with his brother men, he

felt emboldened to approach God and offered up “ unutterable prayer.”

A prayer-meeting was held in Ansel Bourne’s house, and he wrote

saying he was determined thenceforth to be on the Lord’s side. On

November 11th, just two weeks from the time of his seizure, he was

carried to the Christian chapel, and though unable to speak or hear, he

endeavored to signify his altered feelings to the congregation by stand-

ing and holding up his hands. He also wrote a very touching message

to be delivered for him by the minister. He was requested by the

minister, after his second visit to the chapel, to stand up in the pulpit,

and here suddenly his hearing returned—in his own words, “ Every

manner of sound that comes from the living things of nature broke

upon bis ears” - . his tongue was unloosed instantly, and he

exclaimed, in the hearing of the whole congregation, “ Glory to God

and the Lamb forever!” It is needless to say that this scene, and the

moving exhortation from the convert which followed, caused the deep-

est emotion in the congregation.

From that day onward, until the 17th of January, 1887, Ansel

Bourne’s faculties were unimpaired. But two weeks after the restora-

tion of his speech and hearing in chapel, he had a “vision” which

commanded him to “Settle your worldly business and go to work for

me.” This vision came back several times in the same night, and the

result of all these experiences was that Ansel Bourne became an

“evangelist,” and for more than thirty years went about preaching,

attending at revivals and performing strenuously all the offices of an

unattached minister. At the wish of his second wife, whom he married

in 1882, he gave up his itinerant preaching; and he thinks the distress

of mind, caused by leaving what he considered the path of duty, may

have led to the strange mental experiences which I have already de-

seribed.— A LICE BODINGTON.

(To be Continued.)

A Match-Striking Bluejay.—The note in the November, 1895,

NATURALIST, concerning the striking of matches by oue of the mon-

keys (Cebus) has just fallen under my notice.

It may interest the readers of the NaTuRALIsr to know that a neigh-

bor of mine once had little bluejay ( Cyanocitta eristata (Linn.)) which

1896.] Anthropology. 519

had acquired the same habit, but confined exclusively to the so-called

“parlor” or “popping” matches. I never knew how he acquired the

habit—perhaps accidentally, by striking them with the beak or beating

them against some hard substance as he did much of his food.

When given a match he always hopped to a chair-round and struck

it almost directly downward, fulminate “end on,” and if it did not ex-

plode at once his blows were repeated rapidly until it ignited. He

would then drop it, spring away and watch it wonderingly while it

burned. All matches about the house had to be kept from him. He

knew them by their odor, and would tear open packages to get them

out. On one occasion his mistress came in and found him with a box

from which he had ignited nearly three dozen.

—James Newron Baskert.

Mexico, Mo.

ANTHROPOLOGY.

Professor Holmes Studies of Aboriginal Archictecture in

Yucatan.—Professor W. H. Holmes in his recent visit to the Islands on

the east coast of Yucatan, the sites of Chichen Itza, Izamal and Uxmal

and certain -shell heaps, near Progreso (See Archeological Studies

among the ancient cities of Mexico, by W. H. Holmes. Field Colum-

bian Museum Publication 8. Chicago 1895) has presented us with a

valuable and characteristically clear summary of the important archi-

tectural features of the Peninsular ruins.

Eschewing archaeological investigation in such directions as those of

implements, pottery, metals, art, food, burial, ete., he fixes our attention

upon the stones used in building, the manner of dressing and laying `

them and the purpose of completed structures. The details of this

subject casually referred to by Charnay and Waldeck and in the un-

indexed pages of Stephens, are summed up to together with certain

original observations and arranged in order, until we see the relation-

ship, in purpose that characterizes the ruined structures in the region.

No demonstration has yet been made as to the kind of tools used

in carving the limestone of the facades and Professor Holmes like all

previous travellers, leaves the question unanswered. Neither does he re-

fer to Mr. McGuires’ theory that the work was done with round ham-

merstones. But a block fortunately found at Chichen Itza, pecked on

1 This department is edited by H. C. Mercer, University of Pennsylvania.

520 The American Naturalist. [June,

the surface with a pointed instrument and lined off for edge dressing

with a flat edged tool, is shown as an interesting illustration (Fig. 1) of

Fig. 1. Fragment of Stone from Chichen Itza, supposed to have been hewn

by the ancient masons of Yucatan, the tools used are unknown, but we see the

peckings of a pointed implement on the dressed side, and the long cuts of an

edged tool along the upper margin.

the effect on stone of the kind of tool we are hunting for. Until we find

` the implement, however, we may believe on early Spanish authority, that

hard copper was used, or imagine adzes and chisels of stone as we please,

while we recognize with Professor Holmes the importance of ransacking

the sites of quarries, where the innumerable blocks (20,000 carved on

the facade of the “Governors House”, at Uxmal alone) were pro-

cured.’ Happily chosen general observations give a clearness to the

whole presentation, and the delightful yet confused and complex

impression of the ruins left upon the mind by the accounts of

travelers becomes simple in the colder light of Professor Holmes

systematic observations. The reader continually thanks him as he

would thank the compiler of an index to a work of many volumes.

Such characteristic general features as the ignorance of a master

principle of mason craft like joint binding, the feeble grasp of the

* Captain Theobert Maler informed me in Ticul in 1895, that he had seen

several such quarries.

PLATE VIII.

ue A

_ i Se Se a Seite

1e Island of Cozumel, a little entrance only

4 feet 6 inches high, to a diminutive building not over 20 feet square by 10 to 12 high resting on

mat

Fig. 4. Miniature portal of a small temple on t

a terrace about 5 feet high, of the two round columns supporting the stone lintels, one is carved to

represent a kneeling human figure. From a photograph by Mr. E. H. Thompson.

PLATE IX.

cone

4 ; i

ae SA ctr AYO

at Aa

BOOK,

; at

Soak y y

- Ruins of Tuloom as seen from the Sea

The building fronts oh and its rear walls facing the water are withouk doors and windows.

1896.] Anthropology. 521

facade upon the structure where no long stones project from the pud-

ding like hearting within into the face, to clinch the crust to the mass,

the V shape and consequent lack of catch of many of the facing

Eig. 2. .Examples of Terraces and Pyramids, superstructures omitted.

stones, are dwelt upon in order, and a series of sketches disposed to

catch the attention and impress the memory, show the varying forms

of tumuli, (Fig. 2) the generally rectangular ground plan of buildings,

(Fig. 3) and the construction of the arch by the edging in of opposing

walls, :

A question of much interest is touched upon when Professor Holmes

in the introduction, refers to the geological age of the rock floor of

the region in question, since the chance for establishing conclusions in

Yucatan as to man’s existence in geologically ancient times diminishes

according as we learn that the Peninsula was too long under water

522 The American Naturalist. [June,

to count as an early human foothold. My statement (See Hill

Caves of Yucatan. Lippincott, Phila., 1895, p. 21) referring to the .

rocks of Yucatan as of Mesozic Age, is at variance with the recent

observations of geologists, while Professor Holmes says on the other

hand, (p. 18): “The massive beds of limestone of which the Peninsula

is formed contain and are largely made up of the remains of the

marine forms of life now flourishing, along the shores. Fossil shells

obtained from the rocks in various parts of the country are all of living

species and represent late Pliocene or early Plistocene times, thus

possibly bringing the date of the elevation of Yucatan down somewhat

near that of the reputed sinking of Atlantis, some eleven or twelve

thousand years ago, or not far from the ‘period that witnessed the oscilla-

tions attending the glacial period.” Though true that the peninsular

limestone is largely composed of existing marine forms we learn on

err

Fig. 2. Examples of Terraces and Pyramids, superstructures omitted.

closer examination that it is not entirely so, and that the shells are not

all modern. We find that the full list of age denoting fossil mollusca

collected from the rocks of Yucatan by the expedition in 1891 of the

Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia (See Geol. Researches in

Yucatan, by Prof. Angelo Heilprin, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. 1891. p-

136) does not characterize the Yucatan rock as of Plistocene Age

while the recent researches of geologists (Prof. J. W. Spencer makes

the Niagara Gorge 32,000 years old) now tend to add to the antiquity

of the Glacial Epoch. Professor Heilprin who conducted the Yucatan

1896.] Anthropology. 523

expedition informs me that “ the fossil shells are not all recent species

since even the level plains about twenty to twenty five miles from the

coast contain fossil mollusca (Amusium mortoni, from Cenotes near

erida, Turritella perattenuata and Turritella apicalis from R. R. cut

one-half mile east of Tekanto. Ostrea meridionalis and Arca species

undetermined, from a digging near Merida and Lucina disciformis ) not

now known to be living, and which make part of the Floridian forma-

tion (the typical Pliocene, of the United States). Furthermore in

the Sierra which contains the caves, a number of fossil forms have

been found the determination of which is rather doubtful, but which

Fig. 3. fae various ae of cae plans used in p aa Yuca-

tecan) temples.

a) Single chamber building with plain door.

(b) Single chamber temple with wide doorway and two square columns.

Two chamber temple with wide doorway and round columns and the

Sanctuary with single plain doorw

d) Two chamber temple, the EN AEE with simple doorway and the Sanc-

tuary with three doorways and a low altar

(e) Four chamber temple Palenque type, the vestibule with three entrances

and two squarish piers, the Sanctuary with tablet chamber, and two small

lateral chambers.

(f) Three chamber temple, Chichen Itza type, the vestibule entered by

wide portel with two serpent columns, this Sanctuary enlarged by introducing

two square columns to support the triple vault, and a long gallery with three

doorways extending behind.

: may be of early Pliocene or even of Miocene Age.” Professor Pilsbry

— of the Academy of Natural Sciences and Mr. C. W. Johnson of the

.. Wagner Institute say further after examination of the shell bearing

rock specimens brought home by the Expedition above mentioned

and now in the Academy of Natural Sciences, that “ the shells indicate

late Pliocene but by no means Plistocene Age, the presence of several

characteristic Pliocene species Turritella (2 species) Fulgur rapum.

Pecten eboreus Amusium mortonii, and Ostrea meridionalis pre-

venting the possibility of the rocks being assigned to a later Epoch

than the Pliocene while the fossils extinct and still existing considered

together, indicate that the formation was contemporaneous with the

Floridian formation of Prof. Heilprin.”

524 The American Naturalist. [June,

In the second part of the volume a talent for lucid simplification

impresses us in novel panoramic views of Uxmal and Chichen Itza,

when stationed upon an imaginary height, we view the arrangement

of walls and mounds clear of obscuring masses of leafage and rubbish,

add to this something of the ever delightful charm of the landscape

painter in sketches illustrating the course of expedition along the east

coast, as we follow it from the Isle of women (Mujeres) to Tuloom, and

from Cozumel to Cancun and El Meco. Looking from water to land we

seem to see the tropical distance taking on its mirage like garb of cool-

ness, and by grotesque pinnacles of rock, hear the rush of green waves

upon the sands, where mysterious walls set softly in the deceitful blue

allure us from the shore.—HENRY C. MERCER.

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

Nova Scotian Institute of Science.—May 11, the following

papers was read: Notes on the Geology of Newfoundland, by T. C.

Weston, Esq., F. G.S. A., Ottawa; Phenological Observations for

1895, by A. H. McKay, Esq., LL. D., F. R.S. C., Superintendent of

Education ; Glacial Succession in Central Lunenburg, by W. H. Prest,

Esq., Chester Basin, N.S.; On the Flora of Newfoundland, No. 3, by

Rev. Arthur C. Waghorne, New Harbour, Newfoundland ; Notes on

Nova Scotian Zoology, No. 4, by Harry Piers, Esq.; Water Supply of

the Towns of Nova Scotia—Financial, Sanitary and other Considera-

tions, by W. R. Butler, Esq., M. E., Professor of Mathematics, Natural

Philosophy and Engineering, King’s College, Windsor; On the Broad

Cove Coal Field, by W. H. Ross, Esq., C. E—Harry Pirrs, Secretary.

Boston Society of Natural History.—The Annual Meeting was

held Wednesday evening, May 6th. The following business was trans-

acted: Reports of the Curator, Secretary, Librarian, Treasurer and

Trustees ; Announcement of the award of the Walker Prize for 1896;

Election of Officers for 1896-97. The following paper was read: Prof.

Charles S. Minot: On the Principles of the Construction of the Micro-

tomes. There was shown a collection of the microtomes illustrating

the evolution of the instrument, and also a microtome of a new model.

May 20.—The following papers were read: Prof. E.S. Morse: Man

as a Tertiary Mammal; Dr. G. A. Dorsey: On the Photograph and

Skeleton of Neddy Larkin, a native of Australia.—SAMUEL HENSHAW,

Secretary.

1396] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 525

American Philosophical Society.—April 17.—Dr. D. G. Brin-

ton read an obituary notice of Henry Hazelhurst.

May 1st.—A Symposium on the Factors of Organic Evolution was

held. Three stated papers were followed by open discussion. The

papers were read by Prof. E. D. Cope, who approached the subject from

the standpoint of paleontology ; Prof. E. G. Conklin, who discussed it

from the embryologic point of view; and Prof. L. H. Bailey, who ad-

duced the facts of botany in support of his conclusions. Dr. D. G

Brinton discussed the papers previously read.

May 15th-—Prof. A. H. Smyth read an obituary notice of Henry

Phillips, Jr. Prof. E. D. Cope read two papers, entitled Sixth Contri-

bution to the History of the Miocene Vertebrata of N. A. ; and Second

contribution to the history of the Cotylosauria.

Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences.—May 8th.—

Anthropological Section— Papers were read by Dr. M. V. Ball on

“ Tattooing among Convicts.” and by Dr. H. Allen on “ Ethnic Bear-

ing of the Classification of the Hand.”—Cuas. P. Morris, Recorder.

The Academy of Science of St. Louis.—At the meeting of

May 18, 1896, Professor C. M. Woodward presented a critical examina-

tion of some of the mathematical formule employed by Herbart to re-

present mental phenomena, in which these formulæ were criticised as

inadequate. Though not considering any formule likely to be adequ-

ate, from the nature of the case, the speaker offered a substitute for. the

Herbart formula pertaining to the bringing into consciousness of a sub-

latent concept through the suggestion afforded by another concept

similar in some respects while differing in others.

Dr. A. N. Ravold made a report on the use in St. Louis of diphtheria

antitoxine, prepared by the Health Department of the city. During

the past winter, 342 cases of diphtheria had been treated with this

serum, by 93 physicians. Doses of from 2.5 to 106 cc. had been ad-

ministered. As a rule, the recovery was far slower when the quantity

used was small than when a larger quantity was employed. Usually

the serum was administered only once. In about half the cases a

decided change for the better was noticeable within 24 hours, and these

cases were practically cured within 48 hours, although attention was

called to the fact that for some weeks the throat of a convalescent is a

breeding-place for the diphtheritic bacilli, the virulence of which did

not seem to be diminished by the serum treatment. Of the cases re-

ported on, 9.06 per cent. only, died, and as a considerable number of

cases were hopeless when treatment was administered, the patients dying

526 The American Naturalist. [June,

within 24 hours thereafter, it was considered fair to deduct these deaths

from the total, which reduced the mortality to 4.6 per cent. when the

serum was administered in the earlier stages of the disease. The

injurious consequences of administering the serum were fully considered,

but held to be practically insignificant. It was also stated that when

used on persons who had been exposed to but had not manifested the

disease, the serum proved an unfailing means of conferring immunity

for a certain period of time. Among the advantages in the use of this

serum was mentioned that of lessening the chances of secondary infec-

tion, so frequent after an attack of diphtheria.

' A committee presented resolutions on the death of Dr. Charles O.

Curtman, for many years a member of the Academy.— Wm. TRELEASE,

Recording Secretary.

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

The Biological Laboratory of the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and

for its seventh session. As in the previous years Prof. Herbert W.

Conn, of Wesleyan University is the Director. This year heis assisted

by Prof. H. T. Fernald who gives instruction in Embryology, Prof. H.

S. Pratt who takes charge of general zoology, Dr. D. S. Johnson,

instructor in Botany, Dr. Edward L. Rice Assistant in Biology and W.

H. C. Pyncheon instructor in photography. The session lasts six

weeks but students, upon special arrangement, can remain longer.

The Institute now possesses five buildings for the use of the laboratory,

a good equipment of the apparatus necessary for collecting and for

investigation and can accommodate about sixty students. The labora-

tory fees are as follows: The laboratory fee, including any one course of

instruction, the general lectures and the use of the laboratory privileges

is $20.00. For each additional course of instruction an additional fee of

$5.00 is charged. The fee for the course in elementary zoology is

$15.00. Board is furnished for $4.50 a week; rooms from $1.50 to

$3.00 a week. The total expense for the session is thus from $55.00 to

$75.00. For circulars and other information address, Prof. H. W.

Conn, Middleton, Ct.

The second Annual Meeting of the Botanical Society of America

will be held in Buffalo, N. Y., on Friday and Saturday August 21 and

22,1896. The Council will meet at 1.30 p.m. on Friday, and the

ao Society will be called to order at 3 p. m. by the retiring President, Dr.

1896]. Scientific News. 527

William Trelease, Director of the Missouri Botanical Garden. The

President-elect, Dr. Charles E. Bessey, Professor of Botany in the Uni-

versity of Nebraska will then take the chair. The afternoon session

will be devoted to business. At the evening session the retiring Pres-

ident will deliver a public address on “ Botanical Opportunity.” The

sessions for the reading of papers will be held on Saturday at 10 a. m.

and 2 p.m. The Botanical Society of America is affiliated with the

American Association for the Advancement of Science whose sessions

this year begin on Monday August 24th, in Buffalo.

At the Springfield Meeting of the American Association for the Ad-

vancement of Science, it was voted that the Sectional Committee of

Section E be directed to prepare a program for the meeting of the Sec-

tion, and to transmit the same to the Permanent Secretary for printing

and distribution not less than one month before the meeting.

It is therefore requested that members intending to present papers

at the Buffalo Meeting of the Association send title and abstract of the

same to the Secretary of the Section on or before J uly 15, 1896.

A. C. GILL, Secretary Section E.

Prof. S. P. Langley states that the Smithsonian Institution has de-

cided to rent a table at the Naples Zoological Station for another period

of three years, for the benefit of American students. The interest

manifested by American educators and biologists in this matter has

convinced the Institution that in so doing it best cooperates with the

educational institutions of the United States.

About July 1st next a party under the direction of Mr, T. H. Mobley

will start from Lacomb, Alberta, for a two year exploring trip through

northern Canada, taking in all points of interest between Edmonton

and the Arctic Sea. There are four in party, all of which are thor.

oughly experienced men, of whom two are naturalists.

Dr. H. Baumhauer, formerly of Liidingshausen, goes to the Univer-

sity of Freibourg, Switzerland, as ordinary professor of Mineralogy,

while Dr. O. Miigge, of Miinster, goes to a similar position in the

University of Königsberg.

Two of the honors received by Prof. Leuckart in connection with his

fifty year doctor-jubilee were elections to honorary membership in the

Zoological Society of France and the Russian Academy of Sciences.

Dr. G. B. Grassi, of Catania, well-known for his researches on the

structure of the lower Arthropods has been called to the University of

Rome as professor of comparative anatomy.

528 The American Naturalist. [June,

Mr. F. E. Willey, formerly of the Kew Botanical Gardens, has gone

- to Sierra Leone, West Africa, as director of the botanical gardens

there.

Prof. O. Biitschli, of Heidelberg, has been elected president of the

German Zoological Society for the years 1896 and 1897.

Dr. M. von Lenhossék has been advanced to the position of professor

extraordinarius in the University of Tubingen.

Dr. Dannenberg is now privat docent for Mineralogy and Geology

in the technical school at Aix-la-Chapelle.

A. Quadri, Professor of Zoology in the University of Siena, Italy,

died December 25th, 1895.

Dr. G. Karsten, of Leipzig, goes to the University of Kiel as

Private docent in Botany.

` Mr. H. T. Wharton, a well known English ornithologist, died

recently at the age of 50.

Prof. F. Chatin, has been elected Vice-President of the French,

Academy of Sciences.

Dr. O. L. zur Strassen is now private docent for. Zoology in the

University of Leipzig.

Dr. A. Weiss has been appointed assistant in Mineralogy in the Uni-

versity of Greifswald.

Dr. Jean Miiller, Director of the Botanical gardens of Geneva, is

dead at the age of 68.

Dr. F. von Wagner, of Graz, goes to Giessen as assistant in the

zoological institute.

Dr. A. N. Beketow, of St. Petersburg, has resigned from the chair

of botany there.

Dr. P. Vuillemin has been appointed to the chair of botany at

Nancy, France.

Dr. P. Voglino has been appointed Docent in Botany in the Univer-

sity of Turin.

Dr. F. Dahl, of Kiel, has gone to New Guinea, to study the flora

and fauna.

Dr. P. Knuth, of Kiel, | ived the title of Professor of Botany.

J. B. Wilson, botanist, of Gerlong, Victoria, died October 22, 1895.

Dr. L. Jacoby, ichthyologist, of Zürich, Switzerland, is dead.

The botanist Prof. K. Rattlef, died recently.

ADVERTISEMENTS. i

Dringende Bitte

Um das Erscheinen des

Botanischen Jahresberichts

möglichst zu beschleunigen, wie eine Steigerung der Zuver-

lässigkeit in der Berichterstattung zu erlangen, richten wir

an die

Botaniker aller Länder

die dringende Bitte um gefällige schleunige Zusendung ihrer

Arbeiten, namentlich auch der Sonderabdrücke aus Zeit-

schriften, etc.

Alle Sendungen sind zu richten an den Herausgeber.

Professor Dr. E. Koehne,

Ft iedenau-Berlin,

_ Kirchstrasse 5.

OF INTEREST TO ALL STUDENTS AND LOVERS OF NATURE.

THE OBSERVER

DEVOTED TO

All Depart: suji of Nature Studies.

‘ Keep Your Eyes Open ”

(To observe the wonders and beauties of Nature.)

ø Official Organ of the Agassiz Association.

Consists of Three Departments:

1. The Outdoor World. 2. Agassiz Association.

Practical Microscopy.

E. F. BIGELOW, Managing Editor and Publisher, Portland, Conn.

ADVERTISEMENTS,

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Professor E. D. Cope, of the University of Pennsylvania, writes; “Useful to the student

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esident D JILM i i

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