PREFACE

This handbook is designed to suit several

requirements. It is primarily a guide book to

the New Zealand natural history exhibits in

the Auckland Museum, but it is not a cata¬

logue. Actually it is a popular treatise on our

native fauna and as such should fulfil a long-

felt want by both the interested public and

the schools.

The aim is to provide simple descriptions,

recognisable illustrations and brief essential

information concerning the better known and

most interesting of our native animals. As

far as possible the figures have been drawn

from actual specimens, and it is hoped that

these representations will be more readily

recognised than the average diagramatic

text book illustration. By concentrating on

external appearances and emphasising habitat

and behaviour it is expected that the amateur

naturalist will experience no difficulty in

recognising most creatures encountered. Once

a name can be attached to an animal the

way is open for reference to a large amount

of literature published in various New

Zealand books and scientific journals.

In the following text, detailed classification

and comparative anatomy have been largely

omitted, for such information is readily

obtainable in standard text books. However,

the order in which the groups appear coincides

approximately with their systematic position,

and thus a sequence is maintained from the

lowest of the invertebrates to the mammals.

Since this handbook is concerned mainly

with the sight identification of animals, the

writer has ignored the lowly protozoa and

other groups that are mostly of microscopic

size.

The writer has drawn freely from published

sources of information, and in addition wishes

to acknowledge assistance with the insect,

spider and bird sections given by Mr. E. G.

Turbott of the Auckland Museum, and identi¬

fications of bryozoans supplied by Dr. G.

Uttley of Invercargill.

INTRODUCTION

Long isolation from other lands has allowed

the New Zealand native fauna to develop

almost entirely free from outside influences.

The fauna is not remarkably rich in species,

and some widespread groups are either absent

or but poorly represented. Nevertheless, no

other country has such a wealth of endemic

species or so many peculiar developments and

adaptations.

Except for one or two brief interludes, when

land extensions to the north enabled certain

Melanesian elements to enter, New Zealand

has been separated from other lands since

cretaceous times, over sixty million years ago.

When mammals arose and spread over the

larger land areas of the earth, New Zealand

was already an island. Therefore, with the

exception of two species of bats, the land

remained free from mammalian intrusion. The

sea, however, was no barrier to the spread of

aquatic species, and so what we lack in land

mammals is amply compensated for by a

considerable fauna of whales and seals.

The comparatively large number of our flight¬

less birds is resultant upon the paucity of land

mammals, for lack of competition and particu¬

larly immunity from attack by mammals, has

enabled certain birds to become ground for¬

agers, which habit has led to heavier build

and reduced wings.

Our most remarkable flightless birds are the

kiwis and the extinct moas — two extremes

in size — the former little larger than a

domestic fowl, and the latter up to ten feet

or more in height. Both are related to that

group of Southern Hemisphere flightless birds

to which belong the modern Ostrich, Emu

and Cassowary. The presence of birds of this

group can be explained only by the assump¬

tion that New Zealand was once a part of a

great southern land mass.

The Tuatara alone gives distinction to the

fauna, for it is the sole survivor of a group of

reptiles which became extinct elsewhere many

millions of years ago.

The land extensions to the north gave New

Zealand the large Placostylus land snails, and

in the flora, incidentally, the Kauri tree was

a notable gain. There is little doubt also that

this brief Melanesian connection initiated the

remarkable summer migrations of such birds

as the godwit and the cuckoos. Since New

Zealand is one of the few considerable land

masses contiguous to the great Southern

Ocean, it is not surprising that many species

of wide ranging Subantarctic sea birds come

to this country during the breeding season.

On the other hand, warm water marine

organisms, particularly certain fish and shell¬

fish, are induced to invade New Zealand seas,

travelling southward of their normal limits

through the agency of a warm-water current

which proceeds down the East Australian

Coast and thence across the Tasman to influ¬

ence water temperatures as far south as the

Auckland Islands.

New Zealand is long and narrow, covering

over thirteen degrees of latitude, and this

factor alone gives us a wide variety of organ¬

isms, many with a restricted range determined

by water temperatures.

A century of cultivation and acclimatisation

has upset the balance of primeval nature,

causing immense changes in our native land

fauna. Some species have failed to survive

altered conditions, and others, once common,

are now sadly reduced in numbers. In some

areas almost all the characteristic native

elements have been replaced by alien

creatures. Nevertheless, large tracts of native

forest remain, and thus within easy range of

most districts, one may still enjoy the splen¬

dour and solitude of primeval nature, and in

so doing observe the creatures that are truly

New Zealand.

Conditions of life in respect to the sea,

however, have been scarcely altered by the

spread of commerce and the effects of the

advance of cultivation on land. At the sea

ports, harbour pollution has driven out a few

species, but for the most part New Zealand

coastal waters are still in their primeval state.

Of all the haunts of wild life the seashore

affords the greatest and most varied field for

study. Animals and plants of infinite variety

compete to maintain their existence in the

narrow intertidal belt.

All life, vegetable and animal, revolves in

a great cycle dependent in the first instance

upon sunlight. This fact is most apparent

when marine organisms are studied. The

sun’s rays enable the plant forms, seaweeds

and the microscopic diatoms to extract their

chemical food from the seawater. This con¬

sists of inorganic compounds of mineral salts

from which the plants form starch and sugar.

Vegetarian organisms devour seaweeds; car¬

nivorous species prey upon the vegetarian

feeders; decaying vegetable and animal

matter impregnates muds and accounts for a

number of detritus feeders, which consume

the mud and digest from it the organic

particles; while planktonic feeders sift the

minute drifting plant and animal organisms

from the sea water. Finally, decaying plant

and animal life enriches the sea, again to

become available in chemical form to promote

the growth of seaweeds and diatoms.

SPONGES

New Zealand sponges are quite numerous

and varied, but much more work is required

to be done before the fauna is adequately

known. The dead sponge framework is a

common object cast ashore on our beaches

and species of the encrusting habit are fre¬

quently found living attached to the undersides

of stones in the low tidal zone.

A sponge colony consists of vast numbers

of individual animals contained in tiny cells

of a fibrous skeletal framework. Through

this framework larger tubular openings give

access to ramifications which allow a free

passage of water to bring food to the myriads

of animals composing the colony. Water, laden

with microscopic food, is induced to flow

through the larger openings by the concerted

rhythmic action of tiny hair-like processes with

which each sponge animal is provided.

The living sponge bears little resemblance

to the dried out skeleton found on the beach.

In life the sponge colony is heavy and is

usually covered with a slimy coating, through

which only the larger openings are visible to

the eye. Most sponges have a skeleton of

tangled horny fibres, but others are composed

of spicules of carbonate of lime or silica.

The spicules are generally microscopic, and

present a great variety of beautiful and sym¬

metrical forms in different species. Some are

shaped like glassy needles, others like miners’

picks, and a very common form is Y-shaped.

Old shells are frequently found that are so

pitted with tiny holes that one would imagine

that something akin to the house borer had

been at work. This destruction is caused by

a minute boring sponge, Cliona, and it is

assumed that its boring activities are in some

way achieved by an acid secretion.

“ The sponge is not, as you suppose,

A funny kind of weed;

He lives below the deep blue sea,

An animal like you and me,

Though not so good a breed.”

—A. P. Herbert.

1. LONG FINGER SPONGE (Chaiina

ramosa). Cast ashore very frequently on

the Auckland East Coast beaches. Masses

two feet in length and over one foot in

width are not uncommon. The skeletal

mass is of light yellowish brown colour.

The living colonies occur attached to

rock below the lowest tidal level.

2. ORGAN PIPE SPONGE (Chondropsis

syringiartus). A new record for New

Zealand, obtained by trawling in 20

fathoms off Tiri Tiri, Hauraki Gulf.

(Specimens exhibited in the Auckland

Museum). It grows in the form of deli¬

cate thin-walled tubes of up to a foot

in length and one inch or more in

diameter. These tubes grow in erect

position on the sea bed. The species

was found originally in deep water off

the coast of New South Wales.

3. GLOBE SPONGE (Tethya fissurata).

Briliant orange and resembles a golf ball.

It is common in the lower intertidal

rocky zone attached to the undersides of

boulders and to the roofs of caverns.

4. LARGE CUP SPONGE, obtained in 40

iathoms off Cape Brett. This example,

in the Auckland Museum, is of bright

red colour, and is about 10 inches in

height.

COELENTERATES

Jelly-fishes, Sea-anemones and Corals

Although oi very diverse appearance, sea-

anemones, the mussel’s-beard, jelly-fishes, sea-

gooseberries, sea-pens and corals all belong to

one primitive group, the Coelenterata. These

animals may occur as single individuals or

po jps, like the sea-anemones, or they may

torm large colonies as in some corals and the

mussels-beard. The Coelenterates have a

single internal cavity, serving as a stomach,

opening above, which is encircled

, ontacles and through which food enters

and waste escapes. In the common jelly-fish

the mouth is underneath and the umbrella is

en ^ body of a sea-anemone.

al aniI ?? 1 1 . s res emble sea-anemones, but

th J e ™ the a ^ ll ! ty of secreting a limy base, and

the mussel s-beard is a vast colony of tiny

anemone-like creatures which secrete aii

horny matSal 0111118 framework of flexib,e

5. FRESHWATER HYDRA (Hydra virtdis).

A solitary polyp about a third of an inch

in length, usually found attached to the

under surfaces of water plants in ponds

and streams. This animal resembles a

sea-anemone, but is even more simple in

structure; just a hollow cylinder with a

mouth surrounded by tentacles. Hydra

catches its prey by means of these wav¬

ing tentacles. There are two methods of

reproduction — a lump of tissue appears

at the side of the body, develops a mouth

and tentacles and then breaks away as a

new individual, or other swellings pro¬

duce eggs and spermatozoa. Fertilization

takes place and embryo Hydras develop

independently. Three species of Hydra

are known from New Zealand, but all

are identical with European species. It

is suspected that they are accidental

importations since Hydra has been found

only in the immediate vicinity of our

larger cities.

6. PORTUGUESE MAN-OF-WAR (Physalia

utriculus). In reality a colony of hydroid

animals which combine to produce an

air-filled bladder of from 1 to 6 inches in

length. This acts as a float and a sail

to the large number of individual animals

clustered beneath. Each animal is

specialized in the performance of one of

several duties. Some are feeders, some

have no mouths but provide the stinging

capsules, while others, like clusters of

dark-blue grapes, bear the sexual cells.

From the whole are suspended long ten¬

tacles which can inflict a sting, even

upon humans, more powerful than that

administered by nettle. The Portuguese-

man-of-war is a most beautiful peacock-

blue. They inhabit oceanic surface

waters, but. are frequently cast ashore in

large numbers. It is not uncommon to

see hundreds of them left stranded at

high-water line on Muriwai Beach,

Auckland West Coast.

7. BY-THE-WIND SAILER (Velelella cya-

nea). A smaller hydrozoan colony than

the Portuguese-man-of-war, but resembles

it in colour and organisation. Instead of

the air-filled float it has an oblong mem¬

branous raft, set with a diagonal sail. The

float is li-2 inches long and the blue

mass of polyps are crowded on the under

side. It frequently comes ashore on our

Auckland west coast beaches together

with the Portuguese-man-of-war, the

Violet Snails (Janthina) and the empty

shells of the buoyant little ram’s-horn

(Spirula), the animal of which is related

to the octopus.

There is another hydrozoan colony of

similar organisation known as Porpita

pacifica. It has a small circular disc for

a float and is without a sail, but has the

same bright peacock blue colour. So far

as I know Porpita has not been recorded

previously from New Zealand, but I have

found it on several occasions cast ashore

during winter months at Muriwai Beach.

8 . COMMON JELLY FISH (Aurelia labiata).

This requires no introduction to Auck¬

landers, for in spring and summer it may

be seen in countless thousands in the

waters of Auckland Harbour and the

Hauraki Gulf. Aurelia is an individual

animal, not a colony as in the Portuguese-

man-of-war and its kindred. The trans¬

lucent umbrella of from 3 to 5 inches

across has four horseshoe shaped lilac

coloured bodies showing through. These

are the gonads or reproductive organs

The life history of Aurelia is complicated!

for the fertilised egg develops into an

oval shaped embryo termed a planula

which sinks to the bottom of the sea!

There it becomes attached at one end

and bears a superficial resemblance to a

Hydra. After a time the bodv constricts

just below the fringe of tentacles and

ultimately becomes severed, the top

portion swimming off as a perfect little

jelly-fish. The process is repeated until

a seiies of saucer shaped discs is formed

and liberated.

There are numbers of species of jelly¬

fish in New Zealand waters, but much

voik needs to be done before they are

adequately known. From coastal steam¬

ers, particularly in Cook Strait, a large

brownish species Cyanea annaskala, over

twelve inches across, is frequently seen.

9. MUSSEL'S BEARD (Sertularia bispi-

nosa). A yellowish-brown, fine, hair-like

mass which grows commonly amongst

low tidal sea-weeds, in rock pools and

especially upon the shells of living mus¬

sels. The colony is composed of tiny

horny envelopes arranged symmetrically

upon flexible filaments. Each normal

envelope contains a hydroid animal,

complete with its circlet of tentacles, and

at intervals larger envelopes occur, the

gonotheca” or breeding cells (Fig. 9a).

„ iles ^ larger envelopes develop tiny

medusae,” like young jellyfish, which

aie dispersed to torm new colonies else¬

where. The hydroid colony increases by

the simple process of budding and be-

( htnes distributed by the periodic gener¬

ation and release of “medusae.”

^ fi ^e example of the Mussel's beard

about 3 feet in length and over a foot wide

exhibited in the Auckland Museum. If

one could count the individual animals

making up this colony the total would

tesemble an astronomical calculation.

There, are numerous species of

Sertidana and allied genera in New

waters. A common collective

name for these creatures is the Sea-firs.

ihe sea-firs are frequently mistaken for

seaweeds.

10. SEA GOOSEBERRY. A free-swimming

transparent animal resembling a jelly¬

fish, but with eight curious external

bands of short comb-like structures

which run from top to bottom of the oval

or pear-shaped animal. These are used

for propelling the creature through the

water. From the lower or broad end

there are two tendril-like threads, some¬

times of considerable length. The body

of the animal is from half an inch to

several inches in length. Very little has

been written about our New Zealand

species, but examples are commonly

found by towing a muslin net from a

small boat.

11. SEA PEN (Sarcophyllum bollonsi). A

rare species, attaining a length /of six

inches, found at Doubtful Sornd in 40

fathoms. A second New Zealand species,

Virgularia gracillima, has been dredged

in Queen Charlotte Sound and at Lyttel¬

ton. The Sea-pen is a colony of tiny

anemone-like polyps arranged in series

on lateral branches of the upper part of

a horny skeleton. The lower portion is

narrowly cylindrical, designed for embed¬

ding in the sea bottom.

12. RED SEA-ANEMONE (Actinia tene-

brosa). One of our most abundant and

widely distributed anemones; easily

recognised by its deep red or reddish-

browm colour. When contracted it looks

like a blob of red-currant jelly, but in an

expanded condition there is a circle of

numerous pink tentacles. It occurs on

the shaded sides of rocks in the mid-tidal

belt, and is a conspicuous object when

found on the dark lava of Rangitoto

Island.

There are quite a number of species of

New Zealand sea-anemones, many of them

brilliantly coloured, but they are not

easy to identify since there are no books

giving adequate illustrations. The mouth

of a sea-anemone is a fleshy opening in

the centre of a circle of tentacles, and

leads into the stomach which usually

occupies about a third of the bulk of the

body. Below the stomach there are a

number of radiately arranged cavities.

Anemones, in spite of their harmless,

flower-like appearance, are voracious

animals. They use the tentacles to

ensnare and sting their victims prepara¬

tory to swallowing them whole. Indi¬

gestible parts are later disgorged. The

food of anemones consists of any small

fishes, shrimps and shellfish which come

within range of the tentacles.

13. WANDERING SEA-ANEMONE (Phlyc-

tenactis retifera). Grows up to 8 inches

in length and is often found drifting

amongst seaweeds at low tide. It is not

permanently fixed to a base as are most

anemones, but can attach or release itself

at will. The surface is studded with

bladder like projections and it has num-

erous short tentacles encircling the open

end. The colour of the outside is amber,

grey or light brown, and the tentacles

are yellowish. The shape varies accord¬

ing to the mood of the animal — it may

be barrel-shaped when attached, or just

a flabby collapsed cylinder when the

creature is drifting. The species was

found originally in Cook Strait, but within

recent years it has become increasingly

common in Auckland waters.

14. RED ALCYONARIAN (Alcyonium auran-

tiacum). A colony of tiny white polyps

studded on a brilliant orange-red horny

mass. The species was dredged originally

by the French naturalists of the “ Astro¬

labe ” in 8-10 fathoms in the Firth of

Thames, Hauraki Gulf. I have dredged it

commonly from 6-8 fathoms between

Motuihi and Waiheke, Auckland. It

comes up attached to large shells and

grows in masses up to six inches in

height. The tiny individual animals or

polyps have narrow tentacles, always

eight in number.

New Zealand waters are too cold for

reef-building corals, but we have a

number of species of true corals never¬

theless. In structure the individual coral

animal, or polyp as it is termed, is very

like a sea-anemone, the chief difference

being that the coral polyp has the ability

to secrete a limy or chitinous base.

15. CUP CORAL (Caryophyllia). A rare deep

water species taken from the cable in

600-700 fathoms off New Plymouth. These

are simple corals, each cup representing

the skeleton base of a single polyp.

16. FAN CORAL (Flabellum rugulosum).

Another simple coral about 1^ inches in

diameter found attached to rock and old

shells at moderate depths in the Hauraki

Gulf. The coral base is pure white and

the animal scarlet. An intertidal relative,

»label I um rub rum, is not uncommon,

attached to the undersides of stones in

North Auckland waters. The coral base

is dull brownish and the animal salmon

to dull vermilion.

Mill

' • -ivnunn LUtTl-

mcally as an Antipatharian coral, but it

moks very like a gnarled shrub. It is

attached by a root-like base to the sea-

bottom and grows to five or six feet in

leignt with branches several inches in

thickness. The polyps are minute and

aie arranged on the feathery-like por-

11S ‘ , .^ be branches and stem are the

iia?J 01 fl in L S ^ e ^ eton which is formed of

* r d ^xible chitin, having the appear-

ance of ebony. The sea-tree is very

stiong and many fishermen’s nets have

nWm t ? rn t0 Pieces by Ruling these

rini u 1 ! 10118 * . Large brittle-stars with

ge legs, in purple and white, are

lull 1 en 1 u 'l med amongst the branches of

nniTr^ C ° la ’ A 01 tbey feed 011 the individual

1 . i s. One of these brittle-stars is

shown in the illustration. The Sea-tree

is found in from 40 to 100 fathoms on

rocky ground. It is abundant off Cape

Brett and the Three Kings Islands. An

excellent example from the former

locality is exhibited in the Auckland

Museum.

18. RED CORAL (Errina). Occurs abund¬

antly in deep water off the coast of

Stewart Island and the Chatham Islands.

It is not a true coral, but a specialised

group which can be likened to a calcified

sea-fir or Sertularian. They are almost

invariably elegantly branched and of pink

or red colour. In New Zealand, clumps

of Errina up to a foot or more in

diameter, have been obtained.

ECKINODERMS

STARFISHES AND SEA-URCHINS

We now come to the well-known group of

Starfishes and Sea-urchins, to which belong

also, the beche-de-mer sea-slugs and the sea-

lilies. They are known collectively as the

Echinodermata, which means “ Spiny-skinned.”

The echinoderms are an early offshoot from the

main lines of evolution. They are complex

organisms so utterly different from other

groups that comparison is difficult.

The spiny skin differs in development in the

several kinds of creatures classed as echinoids.

Thus a starfish has a network of calcareous

spiny plates embedded in tissue and muscle,

but in a sea-urchin the plates are fused into

a mosaic resulting in a rigid shell, while in

the holothurians or beche-de-mer slugs the

plates are sparse and embedded in the skin.

The most distinctive structure of the echin¬

oids is an elaborate water pumping system

which operates numerous feeler-like processes

known as tube-feet. These tube-feet are very

noticeable on the under side of a starfish, and

they assist greatly in the locomotion of the

animal.

An echinoid has no head, and so in the case

of a starfish the initiative automatically shifts

to the arm which happens to be in the

creature’s intended direction of movement,

then the other arms operate in perfect co¬

ordination with the leading member.

19. COMB STAR (Astropecten polyacanthus).

A perfect five-pointer, 8-9 inches across,

of buff or yellowish brown colour, very

spiny at the sides and underneath, but

with a dense pile-like texture on top. It

is found on sandy bottom from low-water

to about 30 fathoms. Occasionally it is

found on sandy flats between tides in

coastal localities. I have found it at

Kawau Island, Whangarei Heads, Mount

Maunganui and Takapuna. Distributed

around the North Island east coast and

Southern Australia.

20. BISCUIT STAR (Pentagonaster pul-

chellus). Shaped and coloured like a

fancy biscuit. The pairs of rounded knobs

at each extremity have a slightly

browned appearance just like a well-

cooked biscuit. It attains a diameter of

about 3 inches and is fairly common cast

ashore on the South Island sandy

beaches. It has not been recorded in the

North Island from above Napier.

FIRE BRICK (Asterodiscus truncatus).

A large and brilliantly coloured species

taken occasionally by trawlers, operating

in the vicinity of the Hen and Chicken

Islands and in the Bay of Plenty. It is

more plentiful, however, in deep water

off the coast of New South Wales, where

the local fishermen call it the fire-brick

on account of its flaming colours. The

coloration is magnificent, chrome, heavily

blotched with vermilion, the larger

tubercles and the terminal plates being

mauve to purple. It resembles pulchellus

in shape, but is much larger and rela¬

tively thicker. One is reminded of a

confection heavily sprinkled with “ hun¬

dreds and thousands.” (Not figured).

21. CUSHION STAR (Asterina (Patiriefia)

regularis). Common almost everywhere

between tide marks from North Cape to

Stewart Island. It is more truly of pent¬

agonal shape than Pentagonaster.

Greyish-green and dark blue-green are the

usual colours, but it is sometimes yellow,

dull orange or even purple. It grows up

to three inches across and is found near

rocks on sandy or muddy tidal flats.

INFLATED CUSHION STAR (Stegnas-

ter inflatus). A rare species, similar

to the common cushion-star in outline,

but larger, much thicker, arched in the

middle and usually more brilliantly col¬

oured. The colouring may be buff,

orange, orange-vermilion, purple or

greyish-green. Both cushion stars are

actively carnivorous and, like most star¬

fish, have the habit of extruding the

stomach and predigesting their victim

before it is actually swallowed. Starfish

exert great muscular power in forcing

open bivalve shells upon which they fre¬

quently feed. The range of Stegnaster

is Hauraki Gulf to Timaru. The only

locality where it is at all common is the

Takapuna coast, Auckland, at extreme

low tide on rocky ground. (Not figured.)

SUN STAR (Stichaster australis). This

is the large ungainly species common on

surf-beaten rocks from North Cape to

Milford Sound. The arms, which are

shorter than the diameter of the central

disc, vary in number between 10 and 13.

It is grey, tinged with blue and orange.

On the Auckland West Coast these stars

grow to about 10 inches across and are

commonly seen feeding on mussel beds.

SPINY STAR (Coscinasterias calamaria).

Our most abundant starfish, easily recog¬

nised by its rather slender prickly arms,

which are longer than the width of the

central disc. It is drab-coloured and some¬

times reaches a diameter of 15 inches.

Frequently, examples such as (Fig. 23a)

are seen, which have suffered injury and

are in the process of growing new arms.

An extreme case (Fig. 23b) is shown of a

Fijian species in which an arm plus a

small portion of the central disc is com¬

mencing to grow “ a new starfish.”

GIANT SEVEN-ARMED STARFISH

(Astrostole scabra). Our largest starfish,

is similar to calamaria, but has only

seven arms. It grows up to 28 inches

across and is known only from the East

Coast-Mahia Peninsula to Akaroa (Not

figured).

24. COMMON BRITTLE-STAR (Ophioneress

fasciata). It is about five inches in

diameter; a protectively coloured greyish

speckled creature, living under stones

that rest on sand or gravel. All the

brittle stars differ from ordinary starfish

in having slender arms, used solely for

locomotion. The organs of the body are

all crowded into the small rounded

central disc. Brittle-stars are fairly

active and will cast off limbs readily, to

avoid capture.

25. ROSE COLOURED BRITTLE-STAR

(Amphiura rosea). A small, pink, very

slender-armed species which is abundant

in soft mud in from 5 to 20 fathoms in

the Hauraki Gulf. It lives in company

with the heart-urchin and the thin-shelled

bivalve Dosinia lambata. This trio have

adapted themselves to a substratum which

is unfavourable for most forms of life.

Twelve species of Amphiura are known

in New Zealand. A few of them live

under stones between tide marks, but

most occur in deep water.

26. SNAKE-TAIL (Pectinura macuiata). A

large reddish-brown brittle-star with five

smooth, rounded, jointed arms, each sud¬

denly tapered towards the tip. They

sometimes grow over 12 inches across.

Found amongst seaweed from low-tide to

about 10 fathoms; throughout New

Zealand, but rather uncommon. In the

Museum there are specimens from Rangi-

toto Channel and the Great Barrier

Island.

27. MEDUSA-HEAD STARFISH (Gorgonoce-

phalus chilensis novaezelandiae). A

great rarity, known only from 100

fathoms in Cook Strait and 482 fathoms

off Farewell Spit. An allied deep water

English species is better known and

derives its popular name from the many

branched arms like the tangle of snakes

about the head of a Gorgon. The Medusa-

Head uses some of its many branched

arms to fasten itself tendril-like to deep

sea growth while the free arms are used

for gathering food. There is a good

example displayed in the Auckland

Museum, which came up attached to a

deep-sea cable.

SEA CUCUMBER (Stichopus moihs).

This belongs to the same group as the

tropical Pacific “ Beche de mer which

has long been fished commercially ana

shipped to China as a food delicacy. Oui

common species is a mottled light biown

and white, warty, sausage-shaped * slug

from 4 to 6 inches in length, found on

low tidal rocks and in rock pools through¬

out New Zealand. When expanded the

sea cucumber has a circle of tentacles at

one end surrounding the mouth.

Although soft-bodied, the skin is tough

and leathery, with embedded curious hard

plates shaped like tiny wheels and

anchors. The sea cucumber may be

likened to a soft-bodied sea-urchin, drawn

out from mouth to vent into a sausage¬

shaped body. (Not figured.) Figures (2S

and 29) show two deep water species.

The first lives in soft mud at about 16

fathoms in Queen Charlotte Sound, the

second was taken in 13 fathoms, Paterson

Inlet, Stewart Island.

30 . TAILED SEA CUCUMBER (Caudina

coriacea). This is from 4 to 5 inches in

length, and is easily recognised by the

tapering of one end like a rat s tail. It

lives buried in mud with only the “ tail

projecting, for the purpose of maintaining

a respiratory current of water. I hav e

taken specimens from shallow water at

Russell, and it occurs at moderate depths

in the Hauraki Gulf and at Bluff. Occas¬

ionally they are cast ashore in large

numbers at New Brighton, near Christ¬

church.

31 . SEA LILY (Comanthus novaezelandiae).

A great rarity obtained originally from

65 fathoms off the Three Kings Islands.

Three species of Crinoids are known from

New Zealand, but they are all exceedingly

rare. Living Crinoids are survivors of very

ancient stock, and they were much more

abundant in the early geological ages

than they are at present. Crinoids are

like starfishes with branched arms, but

they are usually fixed either temporarily

or permanently to some solid object. The

New Zealand members are of the tem¬

porarily fixed group for they have a circle

of cirri or small tentacles which are used

to anchor the animal to the branching

tree-like deep-water antipatharian coral

upon which they are usually found.

32. CAKE URCHIN (Arachnoides zelandiae).

Common in fine sand of even texture, but

only in certain locations, just within the

entrance to large harbours, where there

is high salinity but comparative shelter.

They occur from low water to a few

fathoms and are especially abundant at

Pilot Bay, Tauranga Harbour, and on the

shallow water sand banks of the outer

portion of the Manukau Harbour. Fisher¬

men of the Manukau call this urchin the

“ Snapper biscuit,” since the snapper

feeds upon the half grown examples to

„ me extent. The cake urchin is a hard

limy disc from 3 to 4 inches in diameter,

flat on the lower side, and slightly con¬

vex above, covered in life witt short

mossy-green spines. The shell,

as it is termed in the echinoderms is

composed of a mosaic of pieces as in the

common sea-urchin, and it readily breaks

into five approximately triangulai seg¬

ments These segments show the internal

strengthening structure of props and

pillars. It is extraordinary what a little

space is available for the animal The

animal feeds by swallowing quantities of

sand from which it extracts organic

detritus.

The second illustration (big. f>2n)

shows this urchin in profile and empha-

• • J n „ i.,A

33 . HEART URCHIN (Echinocardium

austraie) . Abundant around the coasts of

the main islands of New Zealand. It

lives buried in soft mud from extreme

low tide down to about 16 fathoms. The

test is extremely thin and fragile, from

1 to 2 inches in length, and is covered

with fine curved glistening greenish-grey

spines. When the tests of these urchins

wash ashore they are usually denuded of

spines as in the illustration. Large areas

of the sea-bottom in the Hauraki Gulf are

populated with an animal community

consisting of Echinocardium, the brittle-

star, Amphiura rosea, and the bivalve

shellfish Dosinia lambata.

34. (Apatopygus recens), better known as

Echinobrissus, resembles the heart

urchin, but is smaller, more flattened, and

much stronger. It differs notably from

the heart urchin by the presence of an

oval opening, excentrically placed, in a

shallow groove on the upper surface. The

New Zealand species is not common, but

is cast ashore at times on beaches at

Nelson and Stewart Island. It belongs to

a group that has survived with little

change from the Jurassic period of 40

million years ago.

35. (Goniocidaris umbraculum), a deep

water species found in Cook Strait,

Foveaux Strait and off Otago Heads, is

notable for disparity in the form of its

spines; some are pointed, others club-

shaped, a few have incipient branches

and some terminate in flat or concave

rounded discs.

36. COMMON SEA URCHIN or SEA EGG

(Evechinus chloroticus). Found towards

low tide in rock pools and crevices

amongst seaweeds. It grows from 4 to

6 inches in diameter and in life is con¬

spicuous with its dense covering of long

daik gieenish spines. When the spines

are removed there is a depressed circu-

lar limy “ shell ” of light greenish colour,

composed of a mosaic of plates, many of

which have small rounded knobs,

arranged in regular series. These are

the bosses upon which the movable spines

are attached. Between the rows of

bosses there are perforated plates

through which the soft tube feet operate

and these are connected with an internal

water pumping system characteristic of

all urchins and starfishes. The sea

urchin moves about by the concerted

action of the long spines and the tube

feet. The large circular opening under¬

neath is the mouth, largely occupied by

a five-sided bony structure, the jaws, and

referred to as Aristotle’s-lantern, for it

bears a striking resemblance to an

ancient lantern. The animal of a sea-

urchin is very fluid except for five bodies

like segments of an orange both in shape

and in colour. These are the genital

glands, which in the breeding season

become enormously swollen with eggs.

Many people, the Maoris in particular,

eat the sea urchin animal in a raw

state. It is a taste I have not yet steeled

myself to acquire.

ANNELID WORMS

These are the true worms, which have their

long narrow bodies divided by rings into a

number of segments. Earthworms progress

by alternately extending and contracting their

bodies, at the same time obtaining a purchase

by means of inconspicuous bristles on their

sides. Their marine relatives, the polychaetes,

differ in having these bristles much enlarged

and so conspicuous that they resemble legs.

Earthworms are mainly vegetable feeders,

dragging decayed leaves and twigs into their

burrows and partially devouring them. While

burrowing worms swallow quantities of earth,

absorbing any organic matter contained in it,

but bringing the greater part to the surface

as “ worm-casts.” Charles Darwin described

' how worms on an acre of pasture were

capable, in a year, of bringing ten tons of new

earth to the surface in this way. The earth¬

worm therefore is a valuable agent in the

enrichment of the soil.

There is a considerable number of native

species of earth-worms in New Zealand, but

few of them occur in land under cultivation.

In the gardens and fields they have been

largely replaced by accidentally introduced

kinds. A giant worm from the Little Barrier

Island (Diporochaeta gigantea) attains a

length of 41 feet and a diameter of over half

an inch.

37. SEA CENTIPEDE (Nereis amblyodonta).

Grows to eight inches or more in length

and is a common species under stones at

low tide. This and a large number of

marine worms are the polychaetes (many

bristles), so named because of the con¬

spicuous bunches of bristles which

operate like legs.

oo MASON WORM (Thelepus rugosus).

C ’ Forms a protective tunnel or case to

which fragments of shell and sand are

attached. It is found partly buried in

shell-sand under stones and in rock pools

at low tide.

gg THORNY WORM (Glycera ovigera). A

large slender species found in mud at

low water. It sometimes grows to nearly

two feet in length. Only the curious

head is shown, which bears four short

curved hooks resembling iose thorns.

40 SAND-TUBE WORM (Pectinaria anti-

poda.) Forms a graceful, very fragile,

tapered tube, about 2 inches long, and

made up of agglutinated grains of sand.

The tube, which resembles the shell of

the mollusc, Dentalium, is often washed

ashore, particularly on sheltered beaches,

in harbours.

41. SPIRAL WORM (Spirorbis zelandica).

Makes a tiny flattened spiral shell which

is found attached to seaweeds. They may

be found on almost any bunch of brown

seaweed cast ashore on our beaches.

42. SEA MOUSE (Lepidonotus giganteus).

A broadly oval worm with two series of

overlapping plates or scales down the

back and numerous pairs of tufted

bristles extending sideways from the

under surface of the body. It is of dull

brownish colour, about 3 inches long, and

is found half buried in mud or under

stones at low tide, but only in the south¬

ern parts of New Zealand.

43. SPINY TUBEWORM (Vermilia carini-

fera). Forms coral-like masses up to 3

feet in diameter and more than a foot

in height. The strong shelly individual

tubes are irregular, prominently ridged

and with a spiny projection overhanging

the round aperture. The worms are from

1 to 2 inches in length and occupy only

the outer end of their tubes, the middle

of the colony consisting of old tubes and

compacted mud. This worm may be

found as isolated tubes, cemented to

intertidal rocks as well as in colonies as

described above.

44. ZEBRA EARTHWORM (Notoscolex

equestris). Found burrowing in leaf

mould at the Poor Knights Islands, off

the east coast of North Auckland. It is

just over eight inches in length and is

our only earthworm that could be con¬

sidered handsome. The body is banded,

zebra-fashion, with broad alternate zones

of pale cream and purplish-brown.

OTHER GROUPS OF WORMS

45. LAND FLATWORMS (Geoplana), also

called planarians, are very flat, narrowly

leaf-shaped, slug-like animals, which are

found in damp places under logs and

stones. There are over twenty native

species and they vary between two and

eight inches in length. They are usually

dull brownish and very slimy, but the

figured specimen, taken at Waiheke

Island, is black with a narrow white

stripe down the middle. Planarians are

carnivorous, feeding largely on earth¬

worms. Allied to the planarians are a

number of parasitic worms like the liver-

fluke which infests sheep and the tape¬

worm, which may occur in the intestines

of man. All these worms have flat,

bilaterally symmetrical bodies, without

the segments of true worms.

46. BROWN MARINE FLATWORM (Lepto-

piana brunnea). A small oval creature

from 1 to 2 inches in length, common

under stones at low tide in Auckland

waters. It has no distinct head or ten¬

tacles, and is brownish, darkest at the

middle, and minutely speckled all over in

dark brown.

47. FRILLED MARINE FLATWORM (Thy-

sanozoon brocchii). Occurs in the same

location as the previous species. It

differs from it in having the whole of

the back covered with short tentacle-like

processes as well as a beautifully waved

or undulating margin. When this creature

swims the margin or edges of the animal

are rapidly undulated, reminiscent of the

graceful actions of a ballet dancer. It

grows to 2 inches in length and is pale

grey marbled with white and reddish-

brown. Both species resemble the nudi-

branch sea-slugs, but these are mollusca,

having gills and rhinophores, those curi¬

ous club-like organs near the front of

the body.

48. NEMATODE WORM (Cerebratuius) . A

common intertidal worm of a dull orange

colour belonging to the group of round-

worms. These resemble the flat-worms,

but usually have the body approximately

round in cross section. Better known

examples of this group are the Ascaris,

parasite of the human intestine, and

related species which infest pigs and

horses. Although these round worms

more nearly approximate the appearance

of the true worms, they are still without

visible body segments.

49. GORDIAN WORM (Gordius). A thread¬

like worm of six to eight inches in length

which coils itself into a tangle, hence the

reference to the classical “ Gordian-knot.”

This is the hair-worm of ponds, streams,

and ditches. Many country folk in Eng¬

land have a fanciful notion that this

worm is generated from horsehairs that

have fallen in the water. The larvae of

these worms are parasitic in the bodies

of aquatic insects.

.50. LONG SIPHON WORM (Siphunculus

maoricus). Belongs to a group of worms

that are segmented in their early stage,

but show no trace of this feature in the

adult. They are of various shapes — some

long and worm-like — others swollen like

a sausage. They possess the curious

ability of turning the front ot then bodies

outside in so that the head disappears

inside the body. They feed by swallow¬

ing quantities of sand or mud from which

they extract organic particles. The figured

siphon worm was first found cast on the

beach at Ahipara, North Auckland, but

the Auckland Museum has a good seiies

taken from sand in shallow water at

Awhitu, Manukau Harbour. This worm

is about eight inches long and white with

grooves running both ways vhich cut the

surface into tiny squares.

51. FLASK-SHAPED SIPHON WORM (Den-

drostoma aeneum). This is about 2 inches

long and shaped like an old-fashioned

soda water bottle. It is a dirty-brownish

colour and groups of them are often found

under stones resting on mud in the low

tidal zone. At the narrow end there is

a frilled tentacular fold surrounding the

mouth. The figured species occurs in

the North Island, but in the South Island

there is a similar species, Physcosoma

annulatum.

52. SAUSAGE WORM (Echiurus novaeze-

landiae). A smooth inflated worm from 5

to 8 inches in length which lies buried in

soft mud from shallow water to a few

fathoms. It varies from dull salmon

colour to bright purplish red. At the

front end there is a short proboscis with

a slit down one side. Behind this there

are two metallic looking hooks, like rose

thorns, and a ring of similar processes

at the posterior end. The species was

described from material cast ashore at

New Brighton, near Christchurch, but I

have examples taken by the suction

dredge from off Devonport, Auckland

Harbour.

BRACHIOPODS OR LAMP-SHELLS

Although they resemble sea-shells the so-

called Lamp-shells are not molluscs, but a

distinct group of very ancient lineage, really

more akin to the bryozoa. The name Lamp-

shell is derived from the fact that in typical

forms the bivalved shell, more or less oval in

form, shows a round hole at one end through

which the animal attaches itself to rock or

some other solid object. The shell therefore

bears a striking resemblance to an ancient

Roman lamp which was a closed-in oval dish

with an opening at one end for the wick. The

shelly valves of a brachiopod are not left and

right as in a true shellfish, but upper and

lower. To the inside of the lower valve is

fastened delicate shelly loops which support

the brachia, fleshy arms which combine the

functions of breathing and directing small

food particles to the mouth. A peculiar feature

of the inside of a brachiopod is the rela¬

tively small size of the soft parts.

In the distant Palaeozoic era brachiopods

were dominant animals of the sea, but they

have gradually dwindled and now there are

relatively few living species. There are nine

species of brachiopods living in the New

Zealand region.

53. LARGE RED BRACHIOPOD (Terebra-

tella sanguinea). This has a radially

ridged shell of bright red colour, up to

1| inches in diameter. It occurs in shal¬

low to moderately deep water from Cook

Strait southwards, being most plentiful

at Stewart Island, where it frequently

washes ashore. It is found on muddy or

sandy bottom, usually attached to shells.

There is a related species common on

horse mussel shells (Atrina), in from 20

to 25 fathoms in the Hauraki Gulf. This

is T. haurakiensis.

54. SMALL RED BRACHIOPOD (Terebra-

tella inconspicua). Grows from | to |

of an inch in diameter, and is smooth

and deep red in colour when not

encrusted. It is found throughout New

Zealand, but only in a few localities does

it occur commonly in the intertidal zone.

At Rangitoto Island, for instance,

immense numbers crowd the under sur¬

face of the lava blocks at low tide, but

elsewhere in the Auckland district the

species is scarcely ever found. Other

localities where it occurs commonly are

Stewart Island and the Chathams.

55. BLACK BRACHIOPOD (Hemithyris

nigricans). A broadly oval, radially

ribbed, purplish black brachiopod up to

i of an inch in diameter, strongly flexed

and of variable outline. It is most

commonly seen at Stewart Island and

Chatham Islands.

56. LARGE OVAL BRACHIOPOD (Neo-

thyris lenticularis) . Our largest species,

with a smooth inflated shell of over 2

inches in diameter, characterized by

having an extremely small foramen or

opening. The colouring ranges from

dull pink to an ashy-grey. The species is

of southern distribution and occurs com¬

monly on the oyster beds in 10 to 15

fathoms, Foveaux Strait. The lower

illustration shows the form of the shelly

loop in lenticularis, while the one at the

top of the plate illustrates a vertical

section through a typical brachiopod. The

brachia attached to the loop and the

muscles for operating the upper valve of

the shell are shown.

BRYOZOA

The name Bryozoa means “ moss-animals.”

These are the “ sea-mats ” and “ corallines,”

colonies of tiny animals with either a horny

or a limy covering which form coral-like

growths or else encrust the surfaces of sea¬

weeds, shells and stones. They occur in salt

and fresh waters, but mostly in the former.

Although some species resemble corals the

Bryozoa are much more complex and alto¬

gether higher in organisation.

Some grow as broad flexible fronds, or as

miniature trees; others spread as a delicate

tracery around the stems and fronds ot sea¬

weeds. The most beautiful forms are the so-

called “ Lace-corals,” bright pink or cream

rosettes of open textured carbonate of lime.

A number of bryozoans possess peculiai

external accessory organs of uncertain

function known as “ avicularia ” and “vibra-

cula.” The former resemble the head of a

bird, and in life the jaws are constantly

opening and shutting, seizing and holding

small organisms or particles which come

within range. The “ vibracula,” as the name

suggests, are constantly in motion. Both

these organs probably function in feeding,

and in keeping the colony free from the

deposition of sediment. The body of a bryozoan

within its hard casing is shaped like a letter

“U”; the first stroke of the “U” being a

compensating sac and the second or up-stroke

the body proper which is crowned with ten¬

tacles. The compensating sac takes in water

which forces the body upwards and the

tentacles out of the opening into a feeding

position. For such small creatures the bryozoa

are very complex in structure.

A large number of bryozoans have been

described, but a specialist’s knowledge is

essential for the recognition of most of the

New Zealand species.

57. SEA-MAT (Beania bilaminata). This is

not hard and limy, but composed of a

brownish flexible material. It is very

like a seaweed in appearance, but a

glance with a lens shows that both sur¬

faces are composed of a fine network of

regular cells arranged back to back, a

single layer opening on each side. The

figured example is from Cape Maria van

Diemen. The upper inset diagram shows

how a typical bryozoan is extended into

a feeding position by the operation of

the compensating sac, as described above.

The lower inset diagram shows the

* outward appearance of byrozoans of the

encrusting type. They grow together in

close formation and form regular

geometric patterns.

58. BRYOZOAN (Steganopore!la neozelanica).

It grows in clusters of curved cylindrical

hard limy rods, about 2 inches in length,

each with a honeycombed surface, the

cavities being occupied by the individual

animals. Each rod is anchored by a series

of threads. It is found washed ashore at

Cape Maria van Diemen and on other

northern beaches.

59. BRYOZOAN (Steganoporella neozelanica

perplexa). Similar to the above in detail,

but the colonies assume the form of thin

spreading white discs instead of cylin¬

drical brownish rods. Found at Cape

Maria van Diemen also.

60 A BRYOZOAN (Cellepora agglutinans).

This forms the massive free lumps

resembling weathered pumice, which fre-

auently wash ashore on harbour beaches.

The surface is greyish to white, irregular,

with slightly raised pimply protuber¬

ances, and the whole is minutely pitted,

the pits being the vacant cells. Another

species, C. pumicosa, forms little white

balls attached to Sertularia, one of the

hydroids.

61. LACE-CORAL (Retepora). A very beau¬

tiful bryozoan colony of distinctive form,

for it is always like a delicately folded

rosette of lace. The thin layers are hard

and limy, perforated with numerous

regular holes, and the cell openings are

on the upper surfaces only. The figured

example is deep rose colour and comes

from 40 fathoms off Cape Brett. Other

New Zealand species, mostly from deep

water, form colonies of several inches in

diameter and are white, cream or red.

Remains of a pink species form much of

the sea bed in 90 to 150 fathoms off the

Three Kings Islands.

MOLLUSCA OR SHELLFISH

The first difficulty encountered with shell¬

fish is in the name, for not all “ shellfish ”

possess shells, and a large number of the

known species dwell exclusively on dry land.

The difficulty is overcome by the use of the

scientific term “ mollusc,” which means soft-

bodied. That is to say, molluscs lack true

internal skeletons and are thus true inverte¬

brates. They may or may not possess an

external or an internal shell. The animal is

not jointed as in the worms and crustaceans,

and each mollusc is one complete unit. It may

surprise those who have not studied shellfish

to learn that the octopus and the garden slugs

are molluscs just the same as oysters, whelks,

limpets and snails.

The mollusca may be conveniently divided

into five great classes: —

THE BIVALVES (Pelecypoda) . Cockles,

mussels, oysters and all shells composed

of two pieces or valves hinged together

with a flexible ligament. They live in

the sea and in fresh water.

THE UNIVALVES (Gasteropoda). Peri¬

winkles, limpets, whelks, snails, and all

shells in one piece, usually spirally

coiled. They live in the sea, on land and

in fresh water. The garden slug is a land

univalve that no longer secretes a shell.

THE CHITONS (Amphineura) are the limpet¬

like sea creatures composed of eight

movable shelly valves surrounded by a

leathery girdle. They are exclusivelv

marine.

THE TUSK-SHELLS (Scaphopoda) are rather

lare deep water shellfish contained in

small tapering tubes open at both ends

Ihey live only in the sea.

THE OCTOPUS and its allies (Cephalopoda)

are the highest developed of all the shell¬

fish. They have long sucker-bearing

“ arms,” really legs, since they have

been derived from the foot of the animal

The octopus no longer grows a shell,

but it is a near relative to the beautiful

white-shelled paper nautilus. They are

exclusively marine.

BIVALVES

62. RAZOR MUSSEL (Solemya parkinsoni).

A thin-shelled bivalve about 2 inches

long covered with a dark chestnut col¬

oured shining epidermis which extends

beyond the edge of the shell as a scal¬

loped fringe. The live Solemya lives

deeply buried in soft mud, but the dead

shells wash ashore on the beaches. They

may be found by digging at low tide at

St. Helier’s Bay, Auckland, and in

Tauranga Harbour.

63. LARGE DOG COCKLE (Glycymeris

iaticostata). Lives half buried in sand

and shelly beds in from 3 to 15 fathoms.

It grows to about 3 inches in diameter,

is very thick, strengthened on the outside

by radial ridges. The hinge-teeth are of

a primitive style, simple interlocking

short ridges and pits, occupying most of

the upper margin of the shell. The

colouring is light reddish brown, blotched

and mottled on a whitish ground. The

ribs bear interrupted markings of dark

reddish-brown. The species is common

in both the North and South Islands and

at the Chathams. Beds of them occur in

Auckland waters in the Hangitoto and

Motuihi Channels and they are frequently

cast ashore on Takapuna Beach.

64. GOLDEN OYSTER (Anomia waiter!).

This is not a true oyster. It has a thin

wrinkled upper valve varying from white

to a beautiful golden colour, but the

lower valve is greenish or white with

an oval hole through it, near to the hinge.

Through this opening is a calcified

extension of the foot, which fastens the

shellfish securely to some solid object

such as lock, larger shells, or even wharf

piles. The golden oyster is found com¬

monly around Auckland and north of

Auckland. The golden valves can be

fashioned into very realistic artificial

Iceland poppies.

65. AUCKLAND ROCK OYSTER (Saxostrea

giomerata). Found only in the upper tidal

rocky zone ol the northern portion of

the North Island and at the Chatham

Islands. It cements the lower valve of

the shell to the rock and because of its

clustering habit assumes varied shapes.

A conspicuous feature is the violet to

bluish black edging to the shell. Hock

oyster beds are owned and operated by

the Government, and unauthorised per-

sons taking these oysters in any locality

are liable to a heavy penalty. The season

for the marketing of rock-oysters is

usually from May to about the end oi

September.

STEWART ISLAND OYSTER (Ostrea

sinuata). Occurs throughout New Zea¬

land and is usually found unattached on

mud in shallow water and to a depth ol

about 15 fathoms. The richest beds of

these shellfish are in Foveaux Strait,

from 10 to 15 fathoms, where they are

extensively dredged by a fleet of small

vessels operating from the port of Bluff.

(Not figured). The Maori name for an

oyster is Tio para.

It has been estimated that an oyster

may in the course of one season produce

between twenty and sixty million eggs.

However, thanks to the balance of

Nature, only a small fraction of these

ever reaches maturity. If appalling mor¬

tality did not take place the oyster would

in a few months rank as the world’s

greatest marine pest. When oysters

spawn, eggs and sperms are independ¬

ently cast adrift in the sea after the

manner of most fishes. They are at once

at the mercy of wind and tides, and the

hungry mouths of myriads of other

marine creatures. As the survivors

develop into their free swimming stage

they are still beset by countless enemies.

The fortunately few that live to com¬

mence adult growth continue to receive

attention from creatures of murderous

intent. The rock oyster is troubled by

a small univalve, Lepsiella scobina, less

than an inch in length, yet capable of

drilling a hole through the oyster’s shell

and devouring the animal within.

Finally, man takes his toll of the adults

for food. Who would wish to be an

oyster ?

66 . COMMON MUSSEL (Mytilus canaliculus).

The large greenish mussel so abundant

in the North Island. In the South Island

the common species is the small bluish-

black Mytilus planulatus. The largest

and finest mussels are fished commer¬

cially from deep-water beds off Coroman¬

del, Hauraki Gulf. Maori names for the

mussel are Kuku and Kutai.

67. NESTING MUSSEL (Modiolaria impacta).

An oval, rather inflated mussel from 1 to

1J inches in length, found under stones

at low tide, throughout New Zealand. It

forms a nest of fibrous threads which

completely covers the shell.

68 . DATE MUSSEL (Zelithophaga trun-

cata). This is about 2 inches in length

and has a thick, reddish-brown epidermis.

This mussel bores into soft mudstone,

aided by an acid secretion which does

not dissolve the shell because of the thick

horny outer covering. Date mussels are

common in the mudstone tidal platform

at Cheltenham and the Takapuna Coast,

Auckland.

69.

QUEEN SCALLOP (Notovola novae-

zelandiae). This is the large scallop with

one valve convex and the other one flat.

They occur throughout New Zealand on

muddy and sandy flats at low tide and

in deeper water. They are very abund¬

ant in places on the mud banks of the

Manukau Harbour. This scallop swims

by suddenly closing the shell with a snap

which sends out a jet of water that

propels the shellfish forwards. Queen

Scallops are our most delicate flavoured

shellfish, but they have not been com¬

mercialised. The Maori name is Tipa.

70. FAN SCALLOP (Chlamys zelandiae). A

small scaly ribbed shell of two equally

convex valves. It is brilliantly coloured

— lemon-yellow, red orange, lilac, purple

or delicate greys, and is one of the most

attractive shells of the New Zealand

beaches. Living examples are obtained

by turning over boulders at low tide. The

shell is fastened to the rock by several

strong threads which are associated with

the foot of the animal. This scallop is

frequently covered with living sponge.

Stewart Island examples are much larger

and just as brilliantly coloured, but are

a different species, Chlamys celator.

71. HORSE MUSSEL (Atrina zelandica).

Like a half closed fan, grows to a foot

or eighteen inches in length. The shell

is thin, covered with hollow spines, and

is purplish-black with a metallic lustre

at the narrow end and inside. This mussel

lives about three parts buried, point

downwards in soft mud, from low tide to

about twenty fathoms. In Auckland if

one walks across the concrete sewer

conduit from the Orakei side to the

railway these shells can be seen partially

protruding from the mud on the side of

the channel, at low water spring tides.

72. PURPLE COCKLE ( Venericardia pur-

purata). Grows to about 1| inches in

diameter. It is pinkish to light brown on

the outside, which has heavy banded

radial ribs, and pinkish to reddish purple

within. It lives below low tide to a few

fathoms off many of our sandy coastal

beaches. They wash ashore in numbers

at Oneroa, Waiheke Island. South

Island specimens usually lack the bright

pink and purple coloration.

73. LARGE WEDGc. SHELL (Macomona

liliana). Grows up to 2§ inches across

and is common throughout New Zealand

on sandy coastal beaches. Note how the

shell is flexed or twisted along the

straight upper margin. This species is

common at extreme low tide on Chel¬

tenham Beach, Auckland. A more elon¬

gated species is Angulus gaimardi and

a brilliant pink one, Maoriteilina huttoni.

74. ; RIANGLE SHELL (Spisula aequiiater-

a!is). Grows to about two inches in

diameter. Four of these shells placed

tops to the centre make a perfect circle.

It washes ashore in great abundance

on our ocean beaches, particularly from

Waikanae to Wanganui.

75. OVAL TROUGH SHELL (Mactra ovataL

Grows up to 21 inches in length, is in¬

flated, thin and fragile. It lives buried

in soft mud within harbours and

estuaries.

76. TUATUA (Amphidesma subtriangu-

latum). Very abundant on coastal sandy

beaches of the northern half of the North

Island. It is white and solid, from 1J to

3 inches in length and can be distin¬

guished from the common pipi by the

position of the apex of the shell, which

is not central. It resembles the Toheroa

in shape, but is always smaller, more

solid, and the valves fit tightly all round.

In the Toheroa the shell gapes slightly

at each end. Tuatua has an excellent

flavour, sweeter than the toheroa.

<7. TOHEROA (Amphidesma ventricosum).

Grows up to six inches in length. It

burrows deeply in sand on exposed

beaches that are backed by extensive

sand dunes. Fresh water seepage from

lagoons in the dunes promotes the

growth of diatoms and affords a rich

inshore concentration of plankton upon

which the toheroa feeds. The largest

beds of toheroas are on the Muriwai

Beach, West Coast, near Dargaville and

the Ninety Mile Beach. The toheroa has

long been esteemed as a food, but unfor¬

tunately supplies have to be limited for

the beds have become depleted.

78. Pi PI (Amphidesma australe). The com¬

mon elongated species with the apex in

the middle. It is abundant in sandy or

silty mud in harbours. This species was

a favourite food of the old time Maoris,

and vast heaps of the shells can be seen

in many districts adjacent to former

Maori villages.

/9. LANCE-SHAPED MACTRA (Resania

lanceoiata). This is smooth and polished

with two internal strengthening ridges.

It grows to about 4 inches in length

and lives in clean sand below tide off

the ocean beaches.

80. SCiMiTAR-SHAPED MACTRA (Zenatia

acinaces). Resembles the previous

species, but has the apex towards one

end. It is of similar size to Resania, and

lives under the same conditions.

81. TUANG! (Chione (Austrovenus) stutch-

buryi). Well known as the New Zealand

“ cockle,” but is not a true cockle. Venus

shell, or the Maori name, Tuangi, are

preferable. The Tuangi grows up to 2

inches in width and is white with a

violet coloured blotch on the inside of

82.

each valve. It lives in large colonies just

beneath the surface in muddy localities

from mid-tide to low tide, and occasion¬

ally to a depth of two fathoms. It is.

MORNING STAR (Tawera spissa). A

small Venerid about an inch in length,

very abundant on most of our northern

sandy beaches. It is conspicuously

marked with reddish-brown radiate

bands and zigzag lines in varied patterns.

Tawera is the Maori name for Venus

as morning star.

83. RINGED DOSINIA (Dosinia arms). A

large, rather thickened and flat disc¬

shaped shell, coarsely sculptured with

concentric sharp ridges. It grows up to

3 \ inches across and is common washed

ashore on sandy coastal beaches. It

lives buried in sand below low tide. . A

slightly smaller more inflated species

with smooth and finer concentric ridges

is Dosinia subrosea. A third species,

Dosinia lambata, little more than an inch

across, is thin-shelled and looks practic¬

ally smooth.

84. FRILLED VENERID (Bassina yatei).

About the size of the common Tuangi

but less inflated. It is cream coloured

with a violet tinged tip and has beautiful

thin ridges standing out from the sur¬

face, often frilled at the edges. The

purpose of these ridges is to anchor the

shellfish in the sand, for it is not an

active burrower. The species lives buried

in fine clean sand on coastal beaches at

and below low tide.

85. SUNSET SHELL (Gari lineolata). A

smooth, rather fragile bivalve growing

up to 3 inches in length. It is brilliantly

coloured with concentric bands of pink

and reddish purple, often overlaid with

radiate bands of violet. It comes ashore

fairly frequently on coastal sandy beaches

and may be found alive at low water in

some localities, burrowing into clean

sand. A more abundant species (Gari

stangeri) is less elongated and although

dull on the outside has the inside of the

shell violet to deep purple.

86. LARGE MYADORA (Myadora striata).

A curious white bivalve an inch or more

across, notable for having one valve con¬

vex and the other perfectly flat. The

inside of the shell is slightly pearly. It

lives partly buried in fine sand at low

water on coastal beaches. I have found

it commonly at Cheltenham, Auckland,

Worser Bay, Wellington, and Horse Shoe

Bay, Stewart Island.

87. ROCK BORER (Anchomasa similis).

Grows up to four inches in length. It is

very common around Auckland, where it

burrows completely out of sight into the

soft mudstone of many of the tidal plat¬

forms. The ridges on the shell wear away

)

the rock as the animal moves its shell.

A shelly plate in addition to the two

normal valves serves to protect the liga¬

ment which hinges the shell. Anchomasa

is gaping at the larger end of the shell

but a related species, Pholadidea spath-

ulata, somewhat smaller, is closed in

front.

88. SHIFWORM (Teredo antarctica). This

is scarcely recognisable as a shellfish.

The long fleshy tube consists largely of

the siphons which bring food to the ani¬

mal. The shell is a tiny structure at the

thickened end of the body. The Teredo

is found only in timber, which it riddles

with holes of up to nearly half an inch

in diameter, and sometimes almost a

foot in length. It does great destruction

to wharf piles and the hulls of wooden

ships. The New Zealand native timber

most resistant to teredo attack is totara.

$9. DEEP BURROWER (Panope zelandica).

A large bivalve 3 to 4 inches in length,

remarkable for the gaping opening at

one end, which allows for the extension

of the animal into a long, much thickened

covering for the siphon tubes. Panope

lives from nine to eighteen inches below

the surface of sand at low tide on many

of our coastal beaches. It is seldom

taken alive, but the shells frequently

wash ashore in numbers.

The long siphons reach the surface of

the sand, enabling the animal to sift

organic food from the sea and at the

same time to lie hidden deeply below

the surface.

90. (Cuspidaria traiili) is a small shell, quite

rare and obtainable only by dredging. It

is remarkable for having the gill fila¬

ments fused into the form of a pump.

UNIVALVES

PAUA (Haliotis iris). Grows up to six

inches in diameter, and is one of our most

handsome shells. It is at once recognised

by its large, oval, flattened shell, the row

of holes along the back and wonderful

internal lustre of opalescent greens and

blues, with occasional fiery flashes. The

shape of the paua is a special adaptation

for clinging to flat surfaces of rock, after

the manner of a limpet; the holes in

the shell being for the purpose of expell¬

ing water used in the aeration of the

gills. The paua is found at lowest spring

tide level, and in deeper water, on rocky

ground in open coastal situations. It is

seldom exposed to view and the rough

encrusted exterior of the shell renders it

almost indistinguishable from its sur¬

roundings. Pauas cling to the rock with

great suction, and a quick deft thrust

with a broad thin bladed knife is neces¬

sary to prise them off. They favour deep

low tidal rock pools, under sides of

boulders, beneath ledges and in narrow

channels and crevices in the rock. The

best localities for the paua aie Gieat

Barrier Island, Wellington roast Kan

koura, Stewart Island and Chatham

Islands.

The paua animal has a considerable

food value and is very palatable, provided

the following rather drastic culinary pre¬

parations are attended to:—Remove t e

animal from its shell and discard all the

soft parts, leaving only the tough foot

and muscle, and taking care that a Jong

white ribbon-like structure is removed

from the mouth. This is the dental appar¬

atus, which is studded with hundieds ot

hard, sharp, tiny teeth. If you do not

like the black appearance of the animal,

this coating will rub off with a coarse

rag, leaving the flesh a dirty 'white 01

blue-grey colour. Next place the animal

inside a cloth and pound it with a hea\j

piece of wood or the flat of a hammei,

just sufficiently to relax the muscular

tension. The paua is now rolled in flour

or covered with batter and grilled lor

three minutes. Omit the pounding, or grill

for more than three minutes and the

paua becomes as tough as old leather.

Species related to our paua are highly

esteemed in other countries, particularly

in California, Japan and Guernsey

Island. The paua was almost a staple

food with the old time Maori people, who

used the shell also to great effect in

their carvings and in the making of fish¬

ing spinners. Paua shell is now much

sought after for the manufacture of

trinkets, but as yet no serious attempt

has been made to market the animal as

food.

92. SILVERY PAUA (Haliotis australis),

Hihiwa of the Maoris. This is from 3 to

4 inches in diameter, and is readily dis¬

tinguished from the large paua by the

silvery iridescent internal lustre of the

shell, strong cross ridges and the colour

of the animal. It is found together with

iris, but is not so common. The animal

is black with a dark grey foot in iris;

black with an orange foot in australis,

and black with a dirty-white foot in

virginea, the next species.

VIRGIN PAUA (Haliotis virginea). This

is from 1 to 2| inches in diameter and

is more brilliantly iridescent than

either of the above mentioned species. It

is comparatively rare although distributed

from the North Cape to Stew^art Island.

Two sub-species are known, morioria

from the Chatham Islands and huttoni

from the Auckland Islands. (Not figured).

93. SHIELD SHELL (Scutus breviculus). An

internal shell just sufficient to protect

the vital organs of the animal, which is

a large black slug very like a paua animal

minus its shell. Scutus belongs to the

same family as the slit-limpets, but

instead of a slit the shell has a broad

shallow notch shown at the lower margin.

The shell is solid, white, up to 2 inches

in length, but the animal glows fiom 3

to 5 inches in length. It lives under

boulders at low^ tide in clean water

coastal situations throughout the North

and South Islands. The Maori name is

Rori.

94 GROOVED LIMPET (Tugali elegans).

Not a true limpet but another relative of

the slit-limpets. It has a solid wffiite

shell, up to lh inches long, brownish on

the outside and criss-crossed wdth deli¬

cate ridges. The edge is crenulated or

delicately toothed, and the inside smooth

with a shallow groove. The animal is a

large, yellow to orange mass, which when

expanded almost envelops the shell. It

is widely distributed in Nevr Zealand and

lives under boulders at low' tide in clean

water coastal localities.

95. SLIT LIMPET (Emarginula striatula).

Grows up to 1 of an inch long and is at

once recognised by the deep cut in the

margin of the shell. It is widely distri¬

buted in New Zealand also, but is not

common. Living specimens are some¬

times found by pulling up seaweeds at

extreme low tide.

96. KEY-HOLE LIMPET (Monodilepas mon-

ilifera). Grows up to 1 of an inch in

diameter and is conspicuous on account

of the key-hole shaped opening in the

apex of the shell. It is of deep water

occurrence and is often obtained, along

with other shells, in the stomach of the

blue cod. This species occurs at Stewart

Island, but there is a related species at

the Chatham Islands and further deep

w r ater representatives off Otago Heads

and at Cape Maria van Diemen.

97. OPAL TOP-SHELL (Cantharidus opalus).

A most beautiful shell, reminiscent of a

tropical beach rather than of our cool

seas. It grows up to 11 inches in height

and lives on the fronds of kelp at and

below r low tide, in coastal situations. The

colour pattern is of delicate zigzag lines

and stripes of purple on a blue ground.

The inside of the aperture reflects light

in the manner of a magnificent fire opal.

Cook Strait and Stewart Island are the

best areas for this species. A smaller

and more common bright pink relative

is Cantharidus purpuratus.

98. SMALL OPAL SHELL (Micrelenchus

dilatatus). This is scarcely half an inch

in height, but the interior of the shell

is even more brilliantly opalescent than

in the previous species. The outside of

the shell is russet to red-brown with a

lew pale dots. It is common living on

seaw r eeds at low tide on the open coast.

There are^ thirteen species of Micrelen¬

chus in New Zealand, but only five of

them occur abundantly.

99. GREENISH TOP-SHELL (Thorista

viridis). Grows to | of an inch in height

and occurs commonly at low tide in

rocky situations on the open coast. The

top bears rather large rounded knobs,

but the base is flat, spirally lined and

grooved. It is white to greenish, but

usually the top is encrusted. Dead shells

on the beach show a pearly undercoating

as the surface layer flakes off.

100. DARK TOP-SHELL (Melagraphia aethi-

ops). Grows up to an inch in height and

is one of the most abundant species of

the coastal rocks throughout New Zea¬

land. It is easily recognised by the

pattern of spiral rows of white-chequered

patches on a dull purplish-black ground.

101. MUDFLAT TOP-SHELL (Zediloma sub-

rostrata). Smaller than aethiops and has

a few strong spiral ridges and wavy dull

purplish bands on yellowish-white ground.

This species is common on the mudflats

of the North Island, but in the South

Island it is replaced by another, Zediloma

corrosa.

102. TIGER SHELL (Maurea tigris). Grows

to 3 inches in diameter and is at once

recognised by its delicately tapered spire

and conspicuous pattern of zigzag red¬

dish-brown radiating bands. It lives under

boulders in clean water sheltered situa¬

tions, but is nowhere common. Whanga-

rei Heads, Mount Maunganui and West

Haven Inlet, Nelson, are good localities

for this handsome species. The scientific

name Maurea is based upon the Maori

name for these shells.

103. PALE TIGER SHELL (Maurea cunning-

hami). Smaller than tigris and is dis¬

tinguished by its pale yellowish brown

colour pattern and sharply keeled edge

of the shell. It lives in shallow water

off our ocean beaches and frequently

washes ashore in larger numbers. They

are especially abundant on the west

coast beaches of Wellington Province,

from Waikanae to Wanganui.

104. CIRCULAR SAW (Astraea heliotropium).

This requires no description. It occurs

throughout New Zealand in moderately

deep water. Dead shells wash ashore on

ocean beaches, but living ones are obtain¬

able only by dredging. Numbers come up

with the Stewart Island oysters taken in

Foveaux Strait.

105. COOK'S TURBAN SHELL (Cookia sul¬

cata). This is related to the above

species but is quite common. It lives

under rocky ledges, at low tide, in clean

water coastal situations. In life the shell

is dull and encrusted, but when the outer

coating flakes off a beautiful pearly under

layer is revealed. The aperture is stop¬

pered with a strong shelly oval operculum.

Maori names for this shell are Karaka,

Toitoi and Ngaruru.

106. CAT'S EYE (Lunella smaragda). Best

known of all our shells of the intertidal

rocks. It feeds on seaweeds and lives

in the mid-tidal belt of the grape-seaweed,

Hormosira. Lunella sometimes grows to

over two inches in diameter. The circular

greenish operculum, the cat’s eye, is its

most conspicuous feature. The Maori

name is Ataata.

107. WHEEL SHELL (Zethaiia zelandica). A

small, flattened, solidly-built shell dis¬

tinguished by a radiate pattern of dark

reddish brown, like the spokes of a

wheel. It lives at and below low tide on

ocean beaches. They are particularly

abundant on the beaches south of

Whangarei Heads.

108. BLACK NERiTA (Nerita melanotragus).

Grows to about an inch in diameter and

is abundant in the Northern parts of

New Zealand on the rocky upper tidal

belt. It has a tightly-fitting operculum

with a projection which acts as a hinge.

A related species of the West Indies is

the well-known “ bleeding tooth.”

109. FRAGILE LIMPET (Atalacmea fragilis).

Lives under smooth stones between tides

in clean water situations. It is about I

an inch in diameter and has 'a pattern

of concentric brown rings on a green

ground.

110. ENCRUSTED LIMPET (Patelioida corti-

cata corallina). A small flat limpet, more

or less star-shaped, which is found at

extreme low tide on the open rocky coast.

The encrusted shell is almost indistin¬

guishable from the surroundings.

111. BLACK-EDGED LIMPET (Notoacmea

pileopsis). Lives on exposed rocks

towards high tide. It is mottled greyish-

green on the back and bluish-white inside

with a black border and a brownish

central area.

112. RADIATE LIMPET (Cellana radians).

The common northern limpet. It grows

up to two inches in length and has a

great variety of colour markings; any¬

thing from plain silvery-grey to an

intricate tortoiseshell design in yellow

and rich reddish-brown. At Wellington

the common limpet is Cellana denticu¬

late* at Dunedin, Cellana redimiculum

and at points along the East Coast from

north of Dunedin to East Cape the beau¬

tiful orange coloured Cellana radians

flava may be found. The best localities

for flava are Kaikoura coast and Napier.

The Maori name for a limpet is Ngakihi.

113. PERIWINKLE (Melarhaphe oliveri). A

most abundant shell on high tidal rocks

throughout New Zealand. It seldom grows

laiger than three eighths of an inch and

is bluish white with a broad spiral band

of bright blue. This shellfish lives at

extreme high water mark, where it is

reached by salt spray only for a brief

period each day. It feeds on an incon¬

spicuous dark grey lichen. This is a true

periwinkle, but that name is frequently

applied locally to other shellfish, some of

the top-shells and the cat’s-eye.

114. HORN SHELL (Zeacumantus lutulentus).

Grows to about 1 of an inch long and is.

extremely abundant on mud flats of the

northern parts of New Zealand.

115. TURRET SHELL (Maoricolpus roseus).

This is from 1J to 2 inches in length

and lives from low tide to moderately

deep water. Where conditions are favour¬

able they occur in vast beds. Beds off

Devonport, Auckland Harbour, in 6 to 8

fathoms, are so prolific that there are

several hundreds of these shells to each

square yard. The shell is a mottled

reddish-brown.

116. CORKSCREW (Pyxipoma weldii). This

shell, which is from 2 to 2J inches long,

is loosely coiled and has an open slit

running up one side. It lives embedded

in sponge, and is obtained only by

dredging, or when a piece of sponge

containing a colony of them is cast

ashore. Pyxipoma is one of the Verme-

tidae, the worm shells, but the other

members of this group are difficult to

distinguish from the serpulids which

construct similar masses of shelly tubes.

117. OSTRICH FOOT (Struthiolaria papulosa).

A fine shell up to 3 inches in length,

conspicuous for its strong white lip to

the aperture and radiate pattern of

reddish-brown bands. It lives half buried

in sand on coastal beaches. Its name is

derived from an alleged resemblance of

the foot of the animal to that of an

ostrich.

118. CARRIER SHELL (Xenophora neoze-

lanica). A rare deep water species of

the northern part of the North Island.

It is a wonderful example of the appli¬

cation of camouflage in shellfish. In

order to evade detection the carrier

cements to the back of its shell bits and

pieces of rock or shell from the surround¬

ing debris of the sea-bottom. It is even

careful to select odd valves of bivalves

and to cement them with the concave

side uppermost, thus emphasizing their

emptiness to prowling carnivorous fishes.

The carrier is about three inches across

and lives in from 20 to 50 fathoms.

119. WHITE SLIPPER SHELL (Zeacrypta:

monoxyla). A limpet-shaped shell, up to

la inches long, with a curious internal

shelf. It lives attached to large shells

and assumes a variety of shapes accord¬

ing to the convex or concave nature of

the base of attachment.

120. RIBBED SLIPPER SHELL (Maoricrypta

costata). Similar to the previous species

but stronger and prominently ribbed. It

is found on the backs of mussel shells

and also on the under sides of rocks at

low tide.

■le

[

121. CIRCULAR SLIPPER SHELL (Sigapa-

tella novaezelandiae). This grows to 1|

inches in diameter and is also found

attached to mussel shells. It has a light

brown epidermis and is white with a red¬

dish brown to violet coloured patch

inside. The open is off centre in Siga-

patella, but centrally placed in the

related but smaller Zegalerus tenuis.

122. NECKLACE SHELL (Tanea zelandica).

About an inch in diameter, and has a

beautiful pattern of reddish brown mark¬

ings on a light brown to white polished

surface. It lives on the open coast in

sandy localities, but is seldom found

alive. The operculum is white and shelly,

completely sealing the aperture. It is a

carnivorous species and employs its

teeth (radula) to drill holes in the shells

of its victims. Most of the vegetarian

snails have a complete circular aperture

without grooves or siphonal tubes —

Tanea is an exception.

123. VIOLET SNAIL (Janthina violacea).

Resembles the garden snail in size and

shape, but in colour it is brilliant violet.

It lives on the surface of the ocean, off

shore, and vast numbers are frequently

washed up on our coastal beaches after

storms. The animal constructs a small

raft of imprisoned air bubble to which

the egg capsules are attached. A speci¬

men taken at Muriwai, Auckland west

coast, had 70 egg capsules attached to

the raft; each capsule contained 500

young which makes a total of 35,000

embryos for each raft. A smaller species

seldom more than half an inch in height

is Janthina exigua, and a smooth one

that glistens as though it was newly

varnished is Janthina globosa. They are

common in the north, but become scarce

as one travels southward.

124. NEW ZEALAND COWRY (Ellatrivia

memorata). This is about | an inch long

with a group of pink blotches on the top

of the shell, and is our sole representative

of a family very well represented in all

tropical countries. The New Zealand

species is very scarce, and I have never

taken a living example. Dead shells wash

ashore occasionally at Cape Maria van

Diemen, Ahipara and Mount Maunganui.

125. LARGE TRUMPET (Charonia capax

euclioides). Grows to about 8 inches in

length and is found adjacent to rocks

near the entrance to harbours in many

localities from Tauranga northwards.

They are fairly abundant, especially in

spring, when they come into shallow

water to breed, at Mount Maunganui and

Whangarei Heads.

126.

SPENGLER’S TRUMPET (Cabestana

spengleri). Smaller than euclioides, is

strongly spirally corrugated and knobbed

and has a dense golden-brown pile-like

epidermis. It favours the quiet waters of

harbours and lives around boulders am

under rock ledges of reels in the piox-

imity of mud-flats.

127. HELMET SHELL (Xenophalium pyrum).

Grows from 2 to 2J inches in length and

is a handsome smooth shell with a row

of small knobs around the shoulder. The

colouring is pale yellowish-brown to pink¬

ish with revolving series of reddish-brown

blotches. The animal has a horny oper¬

culum shaped like an open fan. It is

found on sandy beaches of the open

coast from low water to deeper water.

At times it washes ashore in numbers on

the Bay of Plenty Beaches, Port Yv aikato

and Waikanae Beach.

128. CURLY OR WENTLE-TRAP (Cirsotrema

zelebori) . A charming little white shell

up to an inch in length with a long

tapered spire sculptured with regular

vertical ridges crossed by finer spirals.

They wash ashore on sandy beaches of

the east coast, particularly in the Bay

of Plenty.

129. CASK SHELL (Torrna haisrakiensis).

This is very large and thin, sculptured

with strong spiral corrugations. It grows

up to nine inches in height and has a

very large aperture. Occasionally these

shells wash ashore on North Auckland

beaches, but they live on sandy or muddy

bottom in from 15 to 30 fathoms.

130. SIPHON WHELK (Austrosipho adusta).

Common in the northern part of the

North Island on rocky reefs at low tide.

It is usually rugged and encrusted and

grows to about 5 inches in length. It is a

solid brownish or greyish shell spirally

ridged and lined in dark brown. Note

the long canal, a feature of most car¬

nivorous species. The southern relative,

Austrosipho mandarina, is spirally ridged

but lacks the nodular shoulder.

131. KNOBBED WHELK (Austrofusus glans).

This is less than half the size of adusta

and has a thin shell gaily painted with

vertical wavy bands of reddish-brown on

a white base. It lives at and below low

tide on open sandy beaches. This species

is abundant in the Bay of Plenty,

Waikanae to the Manawatu River and at

Golden Bay, Nelson.

132. LINED WHELK (Buccinulum lineum).

Grows to 1| inches in length and is dis¬

tinctly marked with clean cut purple-

brown lines on a white surface. It is

found under stones at low tide on coastal

reefs m the northern part of the North

Island. There are 33 more or less closely

allied species of this group in New

Zealand.

Tuangi (Chione stutchburyi). Adspersa

grows up to 2 inches in height, but a

much smaller species, Cominella glandi¬

form is, is even more common and cer¬

tainly more widely distributed.

134. SPINY MUREX (Poirieria zelandica). A

handsome long spined white shell up to

2 inches in height. It is often washed

ashore on coastal beaches, but the best

specimens are found only in deep water.

These shells often become tangled in the

nets of fishing vessels.

135. OCTAGONAL MUREX (Murexsul octo-

gonus). A rugged, more or less eight¬

sided shell, with short curved spines. It

is dull purplish brown, up to 2 inches in

height and is found under stones at low

tide in clean water situations. Good

specimens are found at Rangitoto Island,

Auckland.

A smaller and differently shaped

Murex, Pteronotus eos, is a highly prized

rarity, occasionally found at the Bay of

Islands. It is a glorious pink, and hence

the name eos, in reference to the Greek

goddess of the dawn.

136. WHITE ROCK SHELL (Neothais

scalaris), Hopetea of the Maoris. A thick,

coarse, spirally ridged white shell up to

3| inches in height. It is common

amongst rocks at low tide, both in har¬

bours and on the open coast. The egg

cases are deposited in quantities on the

sides of boulders and in caverns. They

are crowded together, honeycomb fashion,

are of cream to lilac colour, and each has

a pin hole in the top. The larval shell

which emerges from the egg is an

efficient free-swimmer. Hence the species

is widespread in New Zealand and occurs

in Tasmania and Southern Australia

also.

137. DARK ROCK SHELL (Lepsia haustrum).

Smaller and thinner shelled than scalaris,

and is easily recognised by the large

open mouth with a conspicuous brown

patch, within the aperture. It is an

active carnivorous species and has been

known to force open oysters and other

bivalves by inserting the lip of its own

shell as a wedge. The Maori name is

Kaeo or Ngaeo.

138. OYSTER BORER (Lepsiella scobina).

This is less than an inch in height, but

it plays havoc on local rock oyster beds.

The animal uses its teeth (the radula)

to drill holes through the oysters’ shell

and then extracts the oyster piecemeal.

I timed one once and it took 45 minutes

to pierce the thick shell of an adult

oyster.

13 Q

spe CKLED WHELK (Cominella a

pcrsa) Rawari of the Maoris. Abum

m the North Island, particularly on rc

ground, near mud, in harbours It i<

active carnivorous species and group

them are a common sight feeding on

lo9. ARABIC VOLUTE (Alcithoe arabica).

Grows to about 6 inches in height, is dis¬

tinguished by the spiral folds on the

pillar or axis of the shell, strong tubercles

on the shoulder and bold pattern of

reddish-brown zigzag stripes and blotches.

This volute lives half buried in sand at

a low tide and in deeper water on the

coastal beaches. In the South Island

another species, Alcithoe swainsoni, is

often found. It is more elongated, lias less

colour and lacks the shoulder and strong

^ tubercles. The egg of Alcithoe is a white

3 opaque dome about half an inch in

diameter. It is usually cemented to some

t other shell. The Maori name is Pupu

rore.

140. SOUTHERN OLIVE (Baryspira aus¬

tralis). A handsome polished shell up to

lh inches in height. It is bluish slate

around the middle and dark brown both

on the spire and on the base. Baryspira

lives buried under little mounds of sand

on our coastal beaches. There are five

New Zealand species, but australis is the

one most frequently seen. It is common

at Pilot Bay, Tauranga Harbour, where

fine large examples occur.

141. NOTCHED TOWER SHELL (Phenatoma

novaezelandiae) . This is charasteristic

of 77 New Zealand species, most of which

have a pronounced cleft or sinus in the

outer lip. None of the species are really

common and most of them are of deep¬

water occurrence. The figured one is

about an inch in height, of delicate rose

colour, and is found occasionally at and

below low tide on coastal sandy beaches.

142. WHITE BUBBLE SHELL (Haminoea

zelandiae). Very thin and frail, from 1

to I oi an inch in diameter. It occurs

partially embedded in the folds of a soft

greenish slug-like animal, which lives on

the green sea-grass beds of the northern

mudflats.

143. OVAL BUBBLE SHELL (Quibulla quoyi).

Twice the size of Haminoea, more solid,

and light brown, marbled with reddish-

brown. Empty shells frequently wash

ashore on harbour beaches, but living

examples are seldom seen.

144. SEA BUTTERFLY (Cavolina telemus).

A small fragile inhabitant of the open

seas, which washes ashore at rare inter¬

vals on our ocean beaches. The Sea

Butterfly is a Pteropod (wing-footed),

which name refers to the expansion of

the foot of the animal into two spreading

lobes used for swimming.

145. WARTY SEA SLUG (Archidoris welling-

tonensis). A large orange coloured slug

covered on the back with numerous round

blisters. Note the circle of feathery gills

at the back and the two club-shaped

organs of smell at the front end. There

are 46 species of sea slugs in New Zealand

seas, all of which are soft bodied, but

a few have an internal shell remnant.

Sea slugs or nudibranchs (naked gills)

often have most brilliant colours, but

unfortunately there is no means as yet

discovered of preserving them satisfac¬

torily.

146. FEATHERY SEA HARE (Bursatella

glauca). A greenish soft slug about 3

inches in length. It has a cleft in tbe

back from which a purple fluid is ejected

when the animal is molested. This pro¬

vides the equivalent of a “ smoke screen ”

to enable the animal to escape under

cover. The true sea-hares (Tethys) have

a flat internal shell-remnant, which is

little more than a membrane. Bursatella

has become extremely abundant in

Orakei Basin, Auckland, since the tidal

waters have been impounded by the

railway embankment.

147 SIPHON LIMPET (Siphonaria zelandica).

Not a true limpet, but an interesting

example of a highly developed pulmonate

or air-breathing shellfish, akin to a land

snail, which has reverted to the limpet

shape to suit its environment. These

false limpets are distinguished by a deep

internal groove at one side of the shell

which leads to the opening of the lung.

Siphonaria zelandica is about § of an

inch in diameter and it lives attached to

rocks, high up in the inter-tidal zone. A

large southern species 2 inches in length

is Benhamina obliquata.

148. MUD SNAIL (Amphibola crenata). This

is about | of an inch in diameter and is

found in thousands high up on most

tidal mudflats throughout New Zealand.

Its most interesting feature is that it

is the only pulmonate snail with an

operculum. The Maoris of old esteemed

this shellfish as a food and called it

Titiko.

149. FILHOL’S EAR SHELL (Marinula

filholi). A small, high-tidal, air breathing

shellfish found under rocks and decaying

seaweed in the zone of the glass-wort,

Salicornia. Note the teeth-like projec¬

tions inside the aperture, which gives

a resemblance to the human ear.

150. BANDED EAR SHELL (Ophicardelus

costellaris). This is larger than Marinula,

but does not exceed half an inch in

height. It belongs to the high tidal fauna

also and is very common around the

northern coastline of New Zealand. It

is of dull brownish colour with reddish-

brown spiral bands.

CHITONS AND TUSK SHELLS

151. SNAKE’S-SKIN CHITON (Sypharochiton

pellisserpentis). This is typical of a

separate class of the Mollusca which

stands uniformly distinct from all other

groups. The shell is always composed

of eight movable pieces fastened together

by muscles and a surrounding leathery

girdle, which is often studded with

scales. Variation in the number of valves

of the shell is not unknown, but such

discrepancy can always be traced to

some injury. Chitons are vegetarian

feeders, but spend most of their time

fastened to rocks by suction. Sixty New

Zealand species are known, but many

of them are rare. The figured one is a

common intertidal species, with well

developed girdle scales. One species,

Cryptoconchus porosus, has beautiful

greenish-blue internal valves. These are

the “ butterflies ” so keenly sought by

amateur collectors at Tauranga. Our

largest species, Endoxochiton nobiiis,

grows up to 4| inches in length. Many

chitons have interesting composite shell

eyes which are actually studded on the

valves of the shell and under a high

power lens look like small black dots.

152. TUSK SHELL (Dentalium nanum). A

white, tubular, tapering shell, open at

each end and about an inch in length.

It is seldom seen on the beaches, for it

lives buried in mud in shallow to moder¬

ately deep water. The tusk-shells make

up still another class of the mollusca,

distinct from all other kinds. These

shells were highly prized by the ancient

Maoris, who threaded them to form

necklaces. Dentalium is most abundant

in the Manukau Harbour.

OCTOPUS AND ITS ALLIES

153. BROAD SQUID (Sepioteuthis bilineata).

A deep-water, soft-bodied mollusc with

eight rather short sucker-bearing arms

and two long arms. The body extends

into a broad flange on each side, and

under the skin down the middle, a mem¬

branous shell remnant, very like a fea¬

ther, is found (153a). Squids and cuttle¬

fish resemble the octopus except for the

long body and their ten arms. The body

of the broad-squid grows to about 10

inches in length, but some veritable

giants of other species have been found

in New Zealand waters. One of these,

Architeuthis longimanus, fifty-seven feet

in total length, was washed ashore at

Lyall Bay, Wellington, in 1881. At times

during June and July giant squids are

seen off Cape Campbell, Marlborough.

They apparently live in deep water and

are often attacked by sperm whales.

No doubt most of the stories of sea-

serpents are based upon fleeting glimpses

of the writhing arms of giant squids. A

fabulous sea creatures of Norse mytho¬

logy, the “ Kraken,” as well as the famed

“ Hydra of Lerna,” destroyed by Hercules,

are simply legendary exaggerations based

upon these creatures.

The cuttle-fish resembles the squid

except for the more solid internal shell

remnant, or cuttle-bone, which is the

well-known oval friable object given to

caged birds to sharpen and clean their

beaks. Living cuttle-fish have not been

found in New Zealand seas, but fragments

of the cuttle-bone of the large Southern

Australian Sepia apama wash ashore at

times on our northern beaches.

153a

154.

155.

ARROW SQUID (Nototodaru* sloanii^

This has an arrow-shaped body, lou

eight inches in length, and is more often

seen than the above species. Sometim^ ,

especially at night, they are encountered

bv people spearing flat-fish on tula

mudflats. This species has a me “^-anous

internal shell remnant also, but it is

narrow like a reed. Squids are: veiy.fa

swimmers and they have no difficulty m

capturing crabs and small fishes upon

which they feed. The squids swim by-

ejecting a strong jet of water through a

funnel shaped opening. The principal of

iet-propulsion is not new.

RAMS HORN SHELL (Spirula spirula).

This is the white openly coiled shell

about an inch long, which washes ashore

in great numbers on our West Coast

beaches. Note the compartments, with

pearly partitions, each connected to the

next by a tiny tube. This shell is interna

in the body cavity of a small squid. Until

a few years ago Spirula in a living state

was a great rarity, but thanks to the

persistent researches of the late Profes¬

sor J. Schmidt it was found that Spirula

lives neither at the surface nor on the

sea bottom, but in an intermediate

position at depths between 100 and 1100

fathoms. The compartments of the shell

are evidently used in some way as

air or gas chambers to assist the animal

in adapting itself to varying depths.

156. COMMON OCTOPUS (Octopus maorum).

As the name indicates, the octopus has

eight sucker-bearing arms, really legs,

since they have been derived from the

foot of a normal mollusc. The octopus is

entirely without a shell, the only hard

parts being a pair of jaws shaped just

like a parrot’s beak. This is located in

the middle of the circle of arms. When

fully grown the arms of the octopus are

about three feet in length, and these

creatures can be quite unpleasant if

encountered in the vicinity of rocks or

seaweed.

Some years ago, while collecting shell¬

fish at Island Bay, Wellington, I noticed

a large octopus idly drifting amongst

surging kelp. Presently it became ani¬

mated and gave a splendid exhibition of

swimming, which was accomplished by

forcing a jet of water from the siphon

and then catapulting the whole body

through the outstretched circle of arms.

Soon it disappeared from view beneath

the kelp and a few seconds later appeared

right at my feet, and with incredible

swiftness slid its whole body out of the

water and fastened two of its arms firmly

around my leg. I had an open pocket-

knife in my hand, so lost no time in

slashing at the creature’s arms; but it

was not until three of them were severed

that the octopus retired, no doubt con¬

vinced that he had underestimated his

intended victim.

The octopus feeds mostly upon other

shellfish, sometimes crawling over a

cockle bed and clinging to numbers of

these bivalves by means of sucke

bearing arms. It then crawls back to a

cavern or under a rock ledge and settles

down to eat the cockles at leisure. It

disturbed the octopus clouds water

with an inky fluid, and is then able to

make a retreat under cover ot the dis¬

coloured water, just like the smoke

screens used by battle fleets m modern

warfare. This fluid was the ongm ol

the artists’ sepia colour, which was for¬

merly made from the octopus. Another

curious feature of the octopus is its

ability to change colour at will, toi m

a few seconds one may be seen to change

157 . PAPER NAUTILUS (Argonauta tuber-

cuiata). This is related to the octopus,

and the animal is similar in most

respects, except that the female produces

a delicate pure-white embossed shell,

which sometimes reaches nine inches in

diameter. This shell is exclusive to the

female, and she uses it to house the egg

mass. The male Argonauta is completely

overshadowed by the female, lor he is

without a shell, and is seldom more than

an inch in length. The shell is scaicely

0 Y 0 i* seen on mainland beaches, but at

times they come ashore in numbers on

the off shore islands and in the Marl¬

borough Sounds. Some fine specimens

have been taken at the Great Barrier

Island and on Mayor Island.

LAND SNAILS

Land snails are univalve shellfish which

through the ages have managed to for¬

sake the sea, develop lungs, and live on

dry land. In all other respects they are

essentially “ shellfish.”

158. PUPURANG! or KAURI SNAIL (Pary-

phanta busbyi). A North Auckland

representative of a group of large carni¬

vorous snails found only in New Zealand,

but with near relatives in Tasmania and

Victoria. The pupurangi is coincident in

range with the kauri tree, but there is no

relationship between the two — in fact

the snail shuns the immediate vicinity of

the kauri for the ground there is usually

too dry for the existence of worms, upon

which the pupurangi feeds. The shell is

a flattened spiral of dark greenish colour,

about 2\ to 3 inches in diameter. It lays

hard limy shelled white oval eggs of

about i an inch long, which are deposited

in nests in the leaf mould of the forest

floor (158a). Thirty-eight kinds of these

large carnivorous snails are now known

from New Zealand and they are distri¬

buted from the North Cape to Southland,

but occur mostly west of the dividing

range either in rain forest or in subalpine

forest and tussock. Some of the South

Island species are brilliantly coloured —

9 9

o ~i

Paryphanta superba grows to 3^ inches

in diameter and is uniformly khaki,

P. gilliesi is red-brown like rosewood,

P. lignaria is alternately dark brown and

yellowish in radial stripes and P. hoch-

stetteri from the mountain tops of Nelson

is variously spirally banded and lined in

reddish-brown on a yellowish to light-

brown ground. Snails of this type have

no difficulty in capturing and eating

worms of over eight inches in length.

Recent research by the writer has

shown that the many forms of these

snails each occupy a restricted area

bounded by topographic features such as

mountain ranges, rivers, and arms of

the sea which have been the segregating

influence. The study throws important

light upon the land connections and

topography of the past. They provide

fairly conclusive evidence of the very

recent formation of Cook Strait.

159. GREENWOOD’S SNAIL (Rhytida green-

woodi). A flattish brown snail of about

an inch in diameter. It is carnivorous

also, and is widely distributed in the

North Island forests from Auckland

southwards. There are a number of

related species in both islands, but they

are mostly smaller. A North Auckland

one with a keeled edge is R. dunniae.

160. PUPUHARAKEKE or FLAX SNAIL

(Placostylus hongii). A tall-spired

solidly built chocolate to reddish-brown

coloured snail about 3 inches in height.

Formerly they were abundant along the

coastal areas from Whangarei Heads to

Whangaroa, but with the clearing of much

of the vegetation they now exist only

in a few isolated spots. However, the

species still lives in great numbers at

the Poor Knights Islands, off the North

Auckland East Coast. These snails are

vegetarian and feed largely upon fallen

karaka leaves. They are found hidden

under leaves and around sedges, but

only in flax when there is no other cover.

They lay thin shelled limy eggs of about

* of an inch in diameter. Another

species, P. ambagiosus, with several sub¬

species, belongs to the Cape Maria van

Diemen-North Cape area, and a third,

P. bollonsi, the largest of them all, is

found on Great Island of the Three Kings

Group. The latter species occurs in very

small colonies, but its survival is now

assured by the excellent action of the

Hon. Minister of Internal Affairs in having

the island cleared of goats, which were

playing havoc with the flora and fauna of

the island.

The Placostylus snails are significant in

tracing ancient land connections, for they

occur outside New Zealand only in the

Melanesian islands, northwards to the

Solomons and eastwards to Fiji. This

area of distribution coincides exactly

with the now largely submerged “ Melan-

esian Plateau/’ a complex system of

connecting land which at no great depth

more or less links the North Auckland

Peninsula with these Melanesian Islands.

Deep water in the Tasman Sea separates

this former land mass from Australia,

where no Placostylus snails are known.

161. Phrixganthus celia and 162. Suteria ide,

are small snails taken at random to

represent the large number of native

species found in our forests. Some occui

under fallen leaves on the ground, others

under lichens and on ferns and mosses,

and a few crawl on the foliage of trees.

Almost any patch of undisturbed native

bush has snails — it is just a matter of

keen sight and concentration to find

them, for some are no larger than the

head of a pin. Good localities for these

snails near to the main centres are as

follows:—Auckland: the Waitakere

Ranges, particularly Titirangi. Well¬

ington: Wilton’s Bush and near Day’s

Bay. Christchurch: Riccarton Bush.

Dunedin: the Leith Valley.

163. OPERCULATE SNAIL (Liarea carineila).

A brownish snail, little more than \ ot

an inch in height. It is found on the

forest floor under leaves. Its chief

interest lies in the fact that it has an

operculum and its anatomy indicates

that in the distant past it was derived

from the marine periwinkles. Most

other snails had their origin in ancestors

of the marine pulmonates.

164. VEINED SLUG (Athoracophorus biten-

taculatus rufovenosus). “What’s in a

name ? ” This is a native slug about 2

inches in length, of light yellowish colour

conspicuously veined like a leaf in red¬

dish-brown. It is found behind the clasping

leaf bases of the nikau palm, at the bases

of flax and under the bark of decaying

logs.

The common garden snail and all the

slugs found in cultivated surroundings

are not native species but accidental

importations from Britain.

FRESH WATER SHELLS

Representatives of both the univalves

and the bivalves have succeeded in adapt¬

ing themselves to fresh-water conditions,

but the three remaining molluscan

classes are exclusively marine.

165. SPINY WATER SNAIL (Potamopyrgus

corolla). A buff coloured snail about l

inch long and, armed with bristles. It

lives on water weeds in lakes and

streams, and is particularly abundant at

Lake Pupuke, Auckland.

166. DARK WATER SNAIL (Potamopyrgus

antipodum). Slightly larger than corolla,

often has a black coating and is always

smooth. It is abundant everywhere in

fresh and even brackish waters.

167. FLAT POND SNAIL (Planorbis corinna).

This is little more than an eighth of an

inch across. It is often found adhering

to the underside of water lily leaves m

ponds.

168. LEFT-HANDED WATER SNAIL (Isidora

tabulata moesta). This grows to slightl>

more than 2 an inch in height. It is

invariably coiled in a left-handed mannei,

and is found on aquatic plants in lakes,

ponds and drains.

A water snail, Myxas ampulla, of similai

shape to Isidora but smallei and nor¬

mally coiled, is the local intermediate

host for the liver-fluke which causes sick¬

ness and mortality in sheep.

169 FRESHWATER LIMPET (Latia neri-

toides). It attains l an inch in diameter

and is found attached to stones in fast

running streams. Mostly it is covered

with a black coating, and has a curiously

shaped internal shelf.

170. DECAPITATED WATER SNAIL (Melan-

opsis trifasciata) . This is greenish .with

several brown spiral bands or black

when adult. It looses the tip of the spiie

with age, due to the erosive acid nature

of fresh water. This snail grows up to

an inch in height and is found on stones

in streams, particularly near the sea

under slightly brackish conditions. It

is widely but by no means generally

distributed in the North Island.

171. FRESH-WATER MUSSEL (Hyridella

menziesi). This or related species 01

subspecies are found buried in mud in

most of our lakes, rivers and streams.

They grow from 2 to 4 inches in length,

and are covered with a thick dark green

horny epidermis. The interior of the

shell is white and pearly. This is the

kakahi of the Maoris, formerly much

favoured by them as a special food for

young children and the sick. These shell¬

fish have an interesting early stage in

which the larval shell attaches itself to

the fins or body of a small fresh-water

fish.

ARTHROPODS

The most successful of the invertebrates or

lower groups of animals are undoubtedly the

arthropods. They include the crustaceans, the

centipedes, the insects and the spiders; all

characterised by having jointed legs and a

more or less hard but flexible body-covering,

divided into segments.

These creatures have exploited most success¬

fully every type of habitat where life can

exist. The sea and freshwaters teem with

crustaceans, the land has its hordes of insects,

spiders and centipedes, while the air vibrates

with the flight and drone of innumerable

flying insects.

CRUSTACEANS

Crustaceans include shrimps, crayfish, crabs

and barnacles. They are best represented in

the sea, but there are freshwater and land

forms also.

The chief differentiating feature of Crustacea

as opposed to other arthropods is the posses¬

sion of gills and two pairs of antennae. Bar¬

nacles appear to be a queer inclusion in this

group, since they have an external shell of

carbonate of lime. The larval history, how¬

ever, shows that barnacles originate from

shrimp-like creatures. At the conclusion of

its free-swimming stage the larval barnacle

comes to rest on some solid object, head down¬

wards, and then grows about itself the charac¬

teristic limy shell. • The feeler-like processes

which often protrude from a barnacle are the

modified legs now used for raking in food.

Most Crustacea achieve growth by means of

a series of moults. They are able to cast their

old armour complete, even to the jointed

covering of the legs, just as a hand is with¬

drawn from a glove.

172. COMMON SHRIMP (Leander affinis).

This attains a length of from 2 to 2 k

inches and is semi-transparent with

green lines on its body and red spots on

its legs. It is frequently found in rock

pools, darting about with great rapidity

when disturbed. Note the serrated lance¬

like projection on the head. It is very

common in Auckland waters.

173. SNAPPING SHRIMP (Crangon novae-

zelandiae). About the same size as the

common shrimp, but is at once distin¬

guished by the large unevenly developed

“ chelae ” or claws. The movable finger

of the large claw makes a distinctly

audible snap when the animal operates

the claw. The colouring is opaque green,

yellowish-brown or dull blue mottled with

white. It is found under stones, resting

on mud, at low tide. I have found it

commonly on the shore immediately east

of Greenhythe Wharf, Auckland Upper

Harbour.

174. SHIELD SHRIMP (Lepidurus viridis).

Found in fresh-water ponds, puddles and

ditches throughout the South Island and

occasionally in the North Island. It is

usually seen in early spring, particularly

in Canterbury, and for some peculiar

reason occurs mostly in waters of a

temporary nature. The shield-shrimp is

thin, semi-transparent greenish, about 11

inches long and bears some resemblance

to the large Limulus or horse-shoe crab

of China Seas and the Atlantic seaboard

of North America. There is no close

relationship, however. Lepidurus has a

thin sub-circular shield over the forward

part of the body and sixty pairs of

swimming legs underneath.

175. SEA CENTIPEDE (Idotea elongata). A

slender crustacean of the order known

as Isopoda, the same group that contains

the common wood-louse of our gardens.

It grows up to 2 inches in length and is

coloured brown in harmony with the

intertidal seaweeds upon which it lives.

A bright green species (Idotea ungulata)

is found on the green sea-lettuce. It is

very widely distributed, occurring from

the Auckland Islands to Akaroa, and

abroad it has been recorded from Aus¬

tralia to the Falkland Islands. Other

species of Idotea are known from the

South Island and Subantarctic Islands.

176. A SANDHOPPER (Corophium contrac¬

tu m) from 4-5 fathoms in Dunedin Har¬

bour serves to illustrate the order Amphi-

poda of which a large number of New Zea¬

land species is known. These are the tiny

shrimp-like hoppers which abound under

decaying seaweed on our sandy beaches.

Both the Amphipods and the Isopods are

good scavangers and serve to keep the

beaches clean. If you kick aside a patch

of decaying seaweed on a sandy beach

the acrobats amongst the disturbed

creatures are the Amphipods, the scut-

tlers the Isopods. Our most abundant

sea-beach species belong to the genus

Talorchestia. Some are of fresh-water

occurrence and others live entirely on

land quite remote from the sea. A

common species found under decaying

leaves in gardens is Parorchestia

sylvicola.

177. ARMOURED ISOPOD (Isocladus arma-

tus). A small species common in rock

pools around our whole coastline. It varies

in colour from dull brown to greenish

white. Two other isopods, Limnoria and

Sphaeroma, together with the amphipod

Chelura, combine with the shellfish

Teredo in the destruction of wharf piles

and other marine timber structures.

Another small isopod in Auckland

waters has the annoying habit of biting

one's legs if one stands still too long

in shallow water.

PILL BUGS (Armadillo sp.) are land

forms of isopods usually found under

rotting logs in native forest. When dis¬

turbed they coil themselves into a hard

ball, about the size of a pea.

“ WHALE-FEED,” as applied in New

Zealand, refers to the larval stage of

several species of crustaceans. Masses

of reddish-purple “ whale-feed ” fre¬

quently wash ashore in summer on North

Auckland East Coast beaches. In Cook

Strait and off the east coast of the South

Island “ whale-feed ” commonly occurs in

such vast concentrations that pinkish or

bluish patches on the surface of the sea

are visible from a distance.

178. BARREL-SHRIMP (Phronima novae-

zelandiae). Remarkable for the habit of

the male of excavating the body of a

transparent jelly-like pelagic or floating

sea-squirt, known as a salp, and taking

up her abode within. Phronima is

about 1 inch in length and transparent

except for its red eyes. It is a cieatuie

of the open seas, but numbers often

wash ashore after storms, particularly at

St. Clair, Dunedin.

179. FISH LOUSE (Livoneca novaezelandiae)

is an example of another group of the

Crustacea, many of which have become

parasitic upon certain species of fish.

The species illustrated is the one com¬

monly found in the mouth of the piper.

Its legs are developed as hooks to fasten

itself firmly in the fish’s mouth, where

it exacts its toll of the food taken by

its involuntary host. Piper taken in

Auckland waters are largely parasitised.

WATER FLEAS AND OSTRACODS are

tiny Crustacea, the former common in

fresh-water ponds and the latter equally

common in fresh or salt water. The

Ostracods are enclosed in tiny bivalved

shells. Examples may be found by wash¬

ing seaweeds or pond-weed. A tiny

fresh-water one of emerald green colour

is common at Onehunga Springs.

180. SPINY CRAYFISH (Jasus lalandii). The

common marine crayfish of the fish

markets. It grows to about 16 inches in

length and occurs all around our rocky

coasts, where it lives in caverns and

amongst seaweed. It is a brightly

coloured species variously marked with

reddish-purple and orange. When cooked

the shell of the crayfish goes a uniform

red. The species is widespread, being

common also in Chile, South Africa and

Southern Australia.

Like crabs and other crustaceans the

crayfish increases its growth by an extra¬

ordinary series of moults. In this process

ol casting the shell, the whole of the limy

jointed armour comes off in one piece,

the limbs being withdrawn as a hand is

withdrawn from a glove. For a brief

time the crayfish is soft-bodied and must

retire to a safe hiding place until a new

shell forms and hardens.

The temale crayfish carries her eggs

attached to the swimmerets under the

tail. The number of eggs carried by one

female varies from 3000 to nearly 100,000.

The marine crayfish differs from a

lobster in lacking pincers. The best

locality for crayfish I have seen is

George Sound, West Coast of the South

Island. They were so numerous that

pots Vv ei e almost filled after being down

but a few minutes, and the shore was

littered with the cast shells.

181. SMOOTH TAILED CRAYFISH (Jasus

ugeln). This is not nearly so abundant

111 ^ ea ^ an d waters as the Spiny

an( ^ ^ seems to occur only in

North Auckland waters and in the Bay

o enty. Outside New Zealand it is

round at the Kermadec Islands, New

South Wales and at many localities in

the Indian Ocean. It grows much larger

than lalahdii and is readily distinguished

by its uniformly dark greenish colour

and smooth segments of the tail. A

specimen taken by Mr. A. T. Pycroft at

the Cavalli Islands near Whangaroa

measured 24 inches along the body and

seven inches in width.

182. FRESH WATER CRAYFISH (Parane-

phrops planifrons). New Zealand has

three species of fresh-water crayfish,

which should be termed lobsters since

they have powerful pincers. They are

found in most districts in small streams,

lakes and ponds. At Rotorua the Maoris

fish for these crayfish by lowering small

bushes to the bottom of the lake. The

crayfish shelter underneath from the

light and the Maori fisherman then hauls

the bush slowly to the surface, the cray¬

fish coming up with it. A hand net

passed under the bush as it nears the

surface secures the catch. These cray¬

fish are about five inches in length and

are of dull greenish colour. Just prior

to moulting, crayfish form a dome-shaped

body of lime in the stomach. This is a

reservoir of lime to be used in the for¬

mation of the new shell. P. zealandicus

is found in South Canterbury, Otago and

Stewart Island, P. setosus in Canterbury

to as far south as Winchester, and

P. planifrons in the North Island and

Northern and Western parts of the South

Island.

183. MANTIS SHRIMP (Lysiosquilla spinosa).

This is 3 to 3i inches in length, of pink¬

ish-buff colour, mottled with dark

purplish-brown. It occurs throughout

New Zealand and lives on sandy or

muddy intertidal fiats where it excavates

deep burrows sometimes to a depth of

two feet. Since the body is very flexible

the animal can turn and completely

reverse its position in the narrow burrow.

Note the curious pincers which resemble

those of the insect, the praying-mantis.

The pincers operate like the blade of a

pocket-knife snapping into the handle. I

have taken specimens at Hobson Bay and

at St. Helier’s Bay, Auckland.

184. PRAWN KILLER (Ibaccus alticrenatus).

This is of dull salmon colour and grows

about 4 inches long. It is a very rare

deep water species found originally in

150 fathoms off Cape Egmont, but it is

now known from additional specimens

trawled off Cape Maria van Diemen and

in the Bay of Plenty. In South Australia

a related species is termed the “ prawn-

killer.” Note the broad shovel-shaped

plates in front, which are a modification

of the second pair of feelers.

THrrrrmr

185 LARGE SHORE CRAB ( Leptograpsus

variegatus). The aggressive crab which

scuttles away into crevices when dis¬

turbed. With back to the wall he always

shows fight — claws open and i aised

ready to contest with any intruder. This

crab is found about half tide on rocky

ground, particularly on the Auckland

west coast. It is mottled dull reddish-

purple and white with some edging of

bright violet. The legs are flattened and

smooth and the back or “ carapace ” is

approximately square with inconspicuous

oblique folds at the sides. It is common

in the North Island, the Kermadec Group,

Australia and the islands of the South

Pacific.

186. LARGE RED CRAB (Plagusia chabrus).

This is even larger than variegatus, some¬

times having an overall width of nine

inches. It is more or less brick-red in

colour, has sharp serrations on the edge

of the carapace, ridged legs, and is

partially covered with short, stiff, brown¬

ish hairs. Its movements are very fast

and it will frequently attack or feign

attack if one enters the water near to it.

This crab is wide ranging also, for it has

been recorded from Australia, South

Africa, and Chile. In New Zealand it is

found amongst seaweed covered rocks at

low tide, and is common in both the

North and South Islands to as far south

as Lyttelton.

187. SWIMMING CRAB (Ovalipes bipustu-

latus). This is common on most exposed

sandy beaches throughout New Zealand.

It is at once distinguished by the broad

paddle shaped back legs which are admir¬

ably adapted for both swimming and

digging in loose sand. If you disturb these

crabs in shallow water they place their

claws aloft in a defensive attitude and

then subside quickly into the sand until

only their eyes appear above the surface.

Something like the gradually disappear¬

ing Cheshire Cat in “ Alice in Wonder¬

land. They are very aggressive and will

nip the soles of your feet if you stand on

the sand over the spot where they lie

hidden. The general colouring is speckled

bluish to sandy grey with two violet

coloured blotches near the bottom of the

cai apace. They grow from 3 to 5 inches

in total width.

--- onutK ukad (Para-

mithrax peronii). The slender-legged

triangular-bodied crab which is rendered

inconspicuous by a tangled covering of

marine growth. These crabs have been

o seived m the act of removing living

^ a ?\ ee . ( S anc * other marine growths with

en c a A\s and attaching these growths

K° ked hair Processes on the back,

i^ Ch fl are adapted for the purpose. The

camouflage is so perfect that only the

nr^Io ment m° f the orab reveals its

t nee. The most common species is

the small moss-crab, Paramithrax

latreilli, and it is usually found in rock

pools.

189. NEW ZEALAND CANCER CRAB

Cancer novaezelandiae). Distinguished

by its large, broadly oval back, but

comparatively small legs. It is of dull

reddish-brown colour and grows up to

,J inches across the back, or carapace

It is very sluggish and makes little effort

to escape. Common in both North and

South Islands under stones at low tide.

190. FRESH WATER CRAB (Hymenosoma

lacustris). Our only freshwater crab is

an insignificant species with a carapace

about the size of a threepenny piece. It

was found originally in Lake Pupuke,

Takapuna, Auckland, but is now known

from Lake Waikare, Waipa River and

lagoons at Ahipara and Waikato Heads.

That the change from a marine habitat

is not recent is evidenced by the wide

distribution of this crab, which occurs

also in freshwater at Norfolk Island,

Lord Howe Island and Victoria.

SMALL SEA SPIDERS (Halicarcinus)

are the tiny marine crabs of similar

shape to the above. The carapace seldom

exceeds half an inch across and they

are remarkable for their flatness. The

carapace is sharp edged like a coin and

the middle is indented. They live

amongst bunches of seaweed, sertularian

growths on mussels and under smooth,

clean stones at low tide. About nineteen

species are known from New Zealand.

The two most frequently found are: —

Halicarcinus planatus — the seaweed

dweller, and

Halicarcinus pubescens — a minute

species which clings motionless to the

underside of smooth stones. (Not

figured.)

191. MUD CRAB (Helice crassa). Everyone

has noticed the scuttling scurrying

hordes of little square-backed drab-

coloured crabs so evident on all our

mud-flats and in tidal creeks. They feed

upon the minute particles of organic

matter with which the mud is impreg¬

nated. They are quick in their move¬

ments, always ready to dart down tunnels

which they construct in the mud, but in

spite of their activity and waryness,

fish, seabirds, and kingfishers in par¬

ticular, claim many victims. Both

Helice crassa and a similar species,

Hemiplax hirtipes, are very abundant on

the mud-flat at Hobson Bay, Auckland.

PEA CRAB (Pinnotheres novaezelandiae).

The small soft-bodied crab found within

the shell of the common edible mussel.

Probably a case of commensalism — that

is, the crab is not parasitic on the

mussel, but merely lives in close asso¬

ciation with it, taking a toll of the

mussel’s food, but no doubt making some

small return by cleansing the mussel of

192.

193.

waste matter not suited to its combined

respiratory and feeding mechanism.

HAIRY CRAB (Pilumnus novaezelandiae).

This grows to about two inches in total

width, is solitary in habit and not active.

It occurs under stones at low tide, and

is easily recognised by its dense cover¬

ing of greyish or light brownish hairs.

COMMON ROCK CRAB (Hemigrapsus

sexdentatus). Much smallei than the

LARGE SHORE CRAB, but it resembles

that species in its mottled reddish-brown

coloration. The chief distinguishing

feature is recalled by its name sexden¬

tatus, which refers to the six scalloped

spines, three on each side of the back.

It is common under stones between tide

marks in both the North and South

Islands.

194. HALF CRAB (Petrolisthes elongatus) is

not a true crab. It has long antennae or

feelers like those of the crayfish and

shrimps, and the tail, although normally

folded under the body, is not reduced to

a narrow flap as in the true crabs

(Brachyura, which means short tail).

This is the small dark greenish-blue

species so abundant under stones be¬

tween tide marks. It is equally abundant

on shelly bottom, down to ten or fifteen

fathoms, and contributes to a consider¬

able extent to the diet of the snapper

and other bottom feeding fishes.

195. HERMIT CRAB (Eupagurus novaezelan¬

diae). Like the half-crab, this species

has peculiarities which separate it from

the company of the true “ short-tails,”

the Brachyura. The chief differentiating

feature is the hooked abdomen which is

designed to enable the hermit to occupy

an empty spiral shell as a temporary

refuge. As the hermit grows, larger and

larger shells have to be found for occu¬

pation. Househunting must be a compli¬

cated business for hermits, for they have

to undergo the normal crustacean moult

as well. It is a queer sight to observe

in a rock pool, to all intents and pur¬

poses, a slow-moving shellfish which sud¬

denly makes off at speed — a hermit has

taken possession.

19 l - GOOSE BARNACLE (Lepas anatifera).

This is so named on account of the

fanciful medieval legend in which the

barnacle goose was supposed to hatch

out of the white shell of these stalked

barnacles. The species is of world-wide

distribution, being carried on driftwood

and the bottoms of ships. Timber cast

ashore on the Auckland west coast

beacnes is often completely covered with

uiese barnacles. They are attached by

a long flexible leathery stalk and the

imy plates are held together by a

similar leathery skin. The barnacles

pioper are about lh inches long, but the

stalk may extend to 6 or 8 inches.

198. STALKED BARNACLE (Mitella sertus)

A more rugged relative of the goose

barnacle, varying considerably in shape

due to station. It is readily distinguished,

side view, by showing three large shelly

plates of approximately equal size,

embedded in a dark-brown leathery

material. The stalk is shorter, broader

and more rugged than in the previous

species. It is often found in rock

crevices and caverns at low water on

exposed coasts. The figured example is

from deeper water off Mokohinau Island.

199. DEEP-SEA STALKED BARNACLE

(Calantica villosa). An uncommon species

found only in deep water. The figured

specimen is from the deep-sea cable off

Doubtless Bay. It is distinguished from

the two above species by its more

numerous and differently arranged plates.

Note the cirri, which are adaptations

from the legs of a normal crustacean.

In the barnacles the cirri are used to

gather in food.

200. STRIPED STALKED BARNACLE (Con-

choderma virgatum). Occurs mostly on

the bottoms of ships, but is sometimes

found attached to the bodies of fishes.

The shelly plates are so reduced that

they are scarcely apparent. The animal

has a conspicuous pattern of three longi¬

tudinal brown stripes. It is of almost

world-wide distribution.

201. EARED STALKED BARNACLE (Con-

choderma auritum). Related to the last

species, but it is usually found attached

to the body of the humpbacked whale.

The eared barnacle is often found clus¬

tered on the whale barnacle, Coronuia

(described below). Conchoderma inter¬

cepts much food that would otherwise

be gathered in by its involuntary host

Coronuia. It is soft and rather shape¬

less, and does not show any shelly

valves.

202. WHALE BARNACLE (Coronuia dia-

dema). This has a massive white shell,

2 to 3 inches in diameter. It lives

exclusively attached to the humpbacked

whale, where it clusters along the jaws

and fins. The base of the barnacle has

cavities separated by thin plates which

embed firmly into the skin of the whale.

Specimens have been taken from hump¬

backs caught at Whangamumu and Te

Awaite, New Zealand’s two whaling

stations. The latter, at the entrance to

Queen Charlotte Sound, is still operating.

Coronuia is not truly parasitic on the

whale, it merely travels along with the

whale, enjoying no doubt an abundant

food supply from the plankton laden

waters to which the whale migrates for

its own food of larger planktonic food,

the shrimp-like “ whale-feed.”

203. LARGE PINK BARNACLE (Balanus

decorus). This grows up to two inches

in height and is readily recognised by

the alternate white and pale pink valves

of its shell. It is common cast ashore

on most New Zealand coastal beaches,

usually attached to large shells, but it

is seldom found alive, for it lives mostly

at moderate depths. It is most abundant

on the Foveaux Strait oyster beds at

about 15 fathoms. Marketed Stewart

Island oysters frequently have living

barnacles of this species attached to

their shells.

204. COMMON SMALL BARNACLE (Eiminius

modestus). The star-shaped white bar¬

nacle which clusters in thousands in the

intertidal zone on anything that will

afford a base of attachment. This is the

pest that smothers wharf-piles and the

bottoms of boats. It grows up to half

an inch in diameter and is found all

around our coasts as well as Tasmania,

Victoria and New South Wales. Breeding

is continuous throughout the year and

hence the constant need for copper¬

sheathing or anti-fouling paints on the

bottoms of vessels.

One recalls the apt verses of Mr. A. P.

Herbert on the subject of barnacles;

particularly the lines—

‘‘Barnacles family grows and grows

Little relations arrive in rows and

rows.”

CENTIPEDES AND MILLEPEDES

Although they were once classed together

centipedes and millepedes are as distinct from

each other as they are from other arthropods,

such as insects, spiders, and crustaceans.

Centipedes have long narrow flattened

bodies divided into a large number of seg¬

ments, each encased in a hard, chitinous

armour. In spite of their popular name, many

centipedes have considerably less than a

hundred legs. Centipedes are found only on

land, usually under the bark of decaying logs

and beneath stones. They are carnivorous,

feeding upon insects, earthworms and slugs.

Each of the body segments, except the last,

two, has one pair of walking legs. Two of

the appendages on the first body segment,

are modified as poison claws, for they are

perforated, allowing a poisonous secretion to

be injected into their victims. Millepedes are

misnamed also, for none possess a thousand

legs. They have two pairs of legs to each body

segment which is round in cross section.

Millepedes are herbivorous, feeding mostly on

decaying vegetation and living roots. When

disturbed millepedes move much more slowly

than centipedes, and frequently coil them¬

selves like a watch spring.

The useful qualities of the centipede as

opposed to the destructive habits of the mille¬

pede are summarised in the humorous verse

of Mr. A. P. Herbert:

“The gardener says I ought to add,

The centipede is not so bad;

He rather likes the brutes.

The millepede is what he loathes:

He uses wild bucolic oaths,

Because it eats his roots.

And if you see a centipede

Approaching with a millepede,

Some precious root of his,

On one of them you drop a stone,

The other one you leave alone —”

205. COMMON CENTIPEDE (Cormocephalus

rubriceps) is the largest native species.

It grows to over six inches in length by

half an inch in breadth, and is shining

dark brown to black, the paler legs often

with a bluish-green tinge. This species

occurs in the North Island of New

Zealand, Tasmania and Eastern Aus¬

tralia. It is particularly abundant around

Auckland, where it is usually found

under stones and leaves and in decaying

wood.

206. HOUSE CENTIPEDE (Scutigera

smithii) differs from other centipedes in

having long delicate legs which increase

in length from the head hindwards, so

that the body slopes forwards and down¬

wards. It lives in damp places in houses

and basements, but does no harm, for it

feeds on cockroaches and other insects.

The species is known to occur only

around Auckland, where it is common,

and at Great Island, Three Kings group,

where it may have been introduced with

stores and equipment when the provision

depot was built. It grows to about lh

inches in length.

207. MILLEPEDES are very common in New

Zealand, but the majority are less than

two inches in length. They are found

under bark and decaying leaves, and

occur both in gardens and in the forests.

Their bodies are round in section and

frequently alternately ringed in dark and

light bands. They are sluggish and

usually coil themselves into a flat spiral

when disturbed.

PERI PATUS

In spite of its small size and not very

distinctive appearance, Peripatus is scientific¬

ally a most important animal, for it is the

nearest approach to a “ missing link.” It

almost bridges the gap between two great

divisions of the animal kingdom, the worms

and the arthropods. Peripatus has survived in

widely separated parts of the Southern Hemi¬

sphere, and these recent descendants have an

ancestry reaching back into the dim and

distant past.

208. PERIPATUS NOVAEZELAN Dl AE is a

velvety greenish or greyish green cater¬

pillar-like creature about two inches in

length. It has numerous stumpy legs, each

fitted with pairs of curved claws and the

body shows no external segmentation.

Peripatus thrives only in moist situations,

always away from the light. It may

be found under moss and within the

shelter of the leaf sheaths of Nikau

palms. It never occurs abundantly,

but is not uncommon at Titirangi, near

Auckland.

INSECTS

Insects are the most abundant of all animal

groups. They are classified into 24 orders,

each of which has a happily chosen scientific

name. In the majority of species there are

two pairs of wings, but these may be reduced

to one pair, as in the flies, or may be alto¬

gether absent, as in the silverfish. The body

is divided into three parts, the head, thorax

and abdomen, and there are three pairs of

legs all attached to the thorax.

There is usually a distinct metamorphosis

or change in form during growth. The climax

is reached in the butterflies and moths, which

hatch from the egg into a caterpillar, pass

through a dormant chrysalis stage, to emerge

as a winged adult, totally unlike either cater¬

pillar or chrysali^. Once adult the insect

grows no more. On the other hand, some of

the primitive insects undergo very little

bodily change from larva to adult.

The New Zealand fauna has representatives

of 19 out of the 24 recognised orders, but in

the following account only 14 of these groups

are illustrated by examples. The following

synopsis gives their scientific names, deriva¬

tion and the common names of the insects

belonging to each.

1. Apterygota (Not winged). Insects which

are wingless and have never possessed

wings. Silverfish and Springtails.

2. Ephemeroptera (living for a day). Wings

reticulated by veins; hind-wings much

smaller than fore-wings. Mayflies.

3. Odonata (toothed). Two pairs of wings

each reticulated by veins; abdomen

long, straight and slender. Dragonflies

and Damsel-flies.

4. Orthoptera (straight wings). Two pairs

of veined wings, the fore-wings slightly

thickened to form a cover for the hind-

wings. Cockroaches, crickets, wetas,

grasshoppers, locusts, mantids and stick-

insects.

5. Isoptera (equal wings). Social insects,

living in nests. The adult only has two

pairs of wings of equal size, but these

are later cast off. White ants or

termites.

6. Dermaptera (wings in skin). The fore¬

wings are hard, opaque flaps under which

the membranous hind-wings are folded

in a complicated manner. Earwigs.

7. Plecoptera (folded wings). Wings veined,

unequal in size; hind-wings fan-like.

Stone-flies.

8. Hemiptera (half-winged). Wings unequal,

the fore-wings longer and narrower than

the hind, and forming a covering for

them. Bugs, cicadas, leaf-hoppers, plant-

lice and scale insects.

9. Coleoptera (sheath-winged). Fore-wings

tough opaque covers for the membranous

hind-wings. Beetles and weevils.

10. Hymenoptera (membrane winged). Fore¬

wings longer than hind-wings; both lock

together as one pair in flight. Bees,

wasps, ants and sawflies.

11. Neuroptera (many-veined wings). Two

pairs of equal-sized wrings, with a very

intricate pattern of veins. They resemble

Dragon-flies. Lacewings.

12. Diptera (two-winged). Fore-wings mem¬

branous and veined; hind-wings absent

or replaced by tiny stabilisers. House¬

flies, blow-flies, mosquitoes, sand-flies and

crane-flies.

13. Trichoptera (hairy-winged). Two pairs

of wings covered with hairs. Caddis-flies.

14. Lepidoptera (scale-winged). Two pairs

of wings clothed with tiny scales. Butter¬

flies and moths.

209. NATIVE SILVERFISH (Notolepisma

zelandica) . Lives under the bark of the

native beech tree (Nothofagus), but is

not common. The silverfish is far better

known from the introduced species which

infests houses and does considerable

damage by eating paper and cloth. Silver¬

fish and the Spring-tails belong to the

most primitive of the insect orders. They

are entirely w'ingless and have never at

any stage in their past history possessed

wings. These insects undergo little

metamorphosis, or change in form, during

growth.

210. A SPRINGTAIL (Entomobrya exori-

carva) serves to illustrate the Collem-

bola, a group of minute wingless insects,

most of which have a curious. forked

appendage bent beneath the abdomen.

This appendage is the spring, which

enables these insects to leap out of harm’s

way when they are disturbed. These

insects have been intensively studied in

recent years by Dr. J. T. Salmon of the

Dominion Museum, who has added over

200 species to the New Zealand faunal

list. Collembola are found in almost all

damp situations; in leaf mould under

trees, or in the forest, under bark, stones,

moss, crevices of rock and even on damp

sand in the inter-tidal zone. Although so

small the Collembola are a vital factor

in the breaking down and enrichment

of soils.

211. MAY-FLY (Atalophlebia dentata). A

reddish-brown winged insect about 1 h

inches in total length, at once distin¬

guished by the very small hind wings

and the three conspicuous tails which

resemble those of the silverfish. The

larvae of the mayflies live in the fresh¬

water streams; they are wingless, but

have gills and the characteristic three

tail filaments. They are either vegetarian

or carnivorous, and hide under stones or

in burrows in the banks of streams. May¬

flies are entirely beneficial, both as

larvae and as adults, for they form one

of the best foods for fresh-water fishes.

The adult May-fly has no mouth parts, so

takes no food and lives for a few days

only.

212. LARGE DRAGON-FLY (Uropetala caro-

vei). This is often inappropriately called

the “ Horse-stinger,” for it does not sting

and appears to take no special interest

in horses. It is a handsome insect with

a wing spread of up to five inches, and

a slender abdomen banded with black and

yellow. These insects are rapid and agile

fliers for they spend most of their time

on the wing capturing small insects for

food. The larva of the dragon-fly lives

in mud at the margins of streams and

lakes, and it takes five or six years to

reach maturity.

213. COMMON DRAGON-FLY (Procordulia

• smithii). This has a wing spread of

about 3 inches and is easily distinguished

by the colouring of the abdomen, which

is dark in the middle but marked at the

sides with broken lines of orange-brown.

The head and thorax are green. Its

habits are similar to those of the large

Dragon-fly, but it is much more abund-

in many districts, particularly in the

vicinity of swamps.

d 214. BLUE DAMSEL-FLY (Austrolestes

colensobis). The damsel-flies are smaller

than the dragon-flies, have a more slender

abdomen, and rest with their wings in a

vertical position, not outstretched. The

general colour of the male Blue Damsel-

fly is purplish-black with blue markings,

but the female is black and green with

white and purplish markings. These

insects are often seen flying near the

surface of streams and ponds in sum¬

mer.

215. RED DAMSEL-FLY (Xanthocnemis

zelandica) is abundant in the vicinity

of fresh water, darting about in pursuit

of small insects or hovering over water.

The male is bright red, but the females

are black or bronze on the abdomen and

yellowish on the thorax and head. Dragon

and damsel-flies are wholly beneficial on

account of the immense numbers of

noxious insects, such as mosquitoes and

sandflies, which they destroy.

216. PRAYING MANTIS (Orthodera minis-

tralis). A bright grass green insect, a

little over 1| inches in length, at once

distinguished by the curious front legs,

which form a pair of pincers, by the first

jointed section folding back on the next,

very like the action of the blade snapping

back into the handle of a pocket-knife.

Thus the “praying” front legs are not for

devotional purposes, but for “preying”

upon smaller insects. It is of interest

that limbs of similar form and function

are found in a crustacean group — the

Mantis-shrimps. The egg cases are hard

brownish oblong structures about £ an

■> ,1 i . .<1 *

inch long, commonly seen cemented to

tree branches, fences or the outer walls

of houses. This Mantis is common in

both New Zealand and Australia, but is

considered by some that the species is

not truly native to New Zealand, but

was accidentally introduced in the early

years of settlement.

217. FIELD CRICKET (Gryllus servillei). The

common shining black cricket whose

cheerful high-pitched chirping is so no¬

ticeable during late summer evenings.

Crickets and mantids have their ears in

a curious place — just below the knee

of the fore-limbs. Like the last species,

the field cricket is common in Australia,

and probably acclimatised itself here in

the early colonial days.

218. SPINY STICK INSECT (Argosarchus

horridus). In spite of its formidable

appearance and name, this is a harmless

vegetarian. It grows to slightly more than

five inches in length, and its long slender

drab-coloured body merges so perfectly

with the dead twigs of a bush that only

movement betrays the insect’s presence.

219. GREEN STICK INSECT (Clitarchus

laeviusculus). Smaller and more slender

than the last species. Its bright green

colouration is a perfect camouflage, for

this species frequents the outer green

foliage of trees and bushes.

220. MAORI BUG (Platyzosteria novae-

zelandiae). The evil-smelling flat-backed

black cockroach common throughout New

Zealand. Its food consists of decaying

vegetable and animal matter, and it

shelters under loose stones, logs and

debris. In many districts these bugs

invade houses and are quite destructive

to cloth, particularly curtains. The vile

stench this insect liberates when dis¬

turbed is a most annoying characteristic.

221. MOUNTAIN GRASSHOPPER (Paprides

nitidus). A small but handsome species

of shining green with a yellow stripe

along each side and bright red hind legs.

It is found on the mountains around

Lake Wakatipu. The common small dull

brownish grasshopper is Phaulacridium

marginale. The females never have wings

and only about 1 per cent of the males

are ever fully winged.

222. LOCUST (Locusta migratoroides) is a

large flying grasshopper. The term locust

in New Zealand is frequently but errone¬

ously applied to the cicada. In Palestine

and Africa closely allied species often

migrate in vast swarms, leaving devas¬

tation in their wake. The plague locust

has harassed men in these countries for

as far back as historic records go, and

control of such visitations, even to-day,

requires all the ingenuity that science

has to offer. In summer the New Zealand

species abounds on grasslands and tus¬

sock, and is easily recognised by its

rapid but short and clumsy flight. It is

greenish and brown with speckled fore¬

wings, and has large powerful hind legs,

and is about 2 inches in length.

223. GIANT WETA (Deinacrida heteracantha).

A large, fearsome-looking insect with a

body up to four inches in length. It is

now very rare on the mainland, but still

exists in fair numbers on the Poor

Knights Islands and Little Barrier

Island. This weta lives on green leaves of

trees and shrubs, and may be seen

crawling over the outer foliage, particu¬

larly if the sun is shining. At other times

they are amongst the tangle of fallen

leaves and twigs on the forest floor. They

have very long slender antennae and

huge hind legs, studded with sharp

thorns, which can inflict a painful wound.

When disturbed they kick violently and

rear their hind legs almost straight

upwards.

224. CAVE WETA (Pachyrhamma acantho-

cera). A large insect, remarkable for the

' extreme length of its antennae and hind

legs. The figured species was first dis¬

covered at the Waitakere Ranges near

Auckland. It has a total length of 12 to

14 inches, and is to be found on the

walls of damp caves in the forest. The

body is small for the size of the legs,

and it can be well imagined with what

agility this weta leaps about when one

intrudes upon its domain. The long

j antennae are each made up of no fewer

than 550 segments. Several other species

of cave wetas are found in New Zealand,

but none are as large as acanthocera.

1 225. LARGE-HEADED WETA (Hemldeina

megacephala). The common weta, found

throughout New Zealand in rotten logs,

old trees, and under loose bark. At night

in the bush one notices a peculiar scrap¬

ing sound made by these insects rubbing

their hind legs against ridges on the

s sides of the body. The body of this

species grows to about 2 inches in length,

e and the antennae are up to four inches

long. It is easily recognised by the large

ungainly head. Wetas belong to the

j same group as the crickets.

226. NATIVE TERMITE (Stolotermes rufi-

ceps). Found in rotten logs, but another

native species, Calotermes brouni, com¬

monly attacks wooden houses. Fortun¬

ately its rate of destruction of timber is

not nearly so rapid as with the intro¬

duced Australian species, which can

render a property almost valueless in a

few months. Several of these Australian

species have already proved very destruc¬

tive to suburban dwellings in Auckland.

The native termites, or white ants, of

which there are three species, are small

with flattened white bodies, little more

than three-eighths of an inch long. The

illustration shows a winged female, a

worker and a soldier. The allocation of

duties in the termite nest is as rigid

and orderly as with the true ants.

227. STONE-FLY (Stenoperla prasina). The

green gauzy-winged insect seen flying

feebly over running water about dusk, in

summer. Stone-flies differ from the

dragon-flies in that the hind-wings greatly

exceed the fore-wings in size. The larva

lives in rapidly-flowing streams, where it

actively pursues its prey, which consists

mainly of may-fly larvae and other small

aquatic insects or their larvae. The

stone-fly is not nearly so abundant as

formerly, for both the larvae and the

perfect insect are keenly sought for food

by the introduced trout.

228. NATIVE EARWIG (Anisolabis littorea).

This does not crawl into people’s ears as

popular fancy has it, nor is it dangerous,

as it looks. This shining black insect is

most frequently found under stones, logs

and decaying seaweed at or near to the

| sea coast. The native earwig does no

damage for it feeds on decaying seaweed

and small crustaceans. The powerful

forceps of the male are always of unequal

length.

229. LARGE CICADA (Melampsalta cingulata).

A handsome insect with a wing span of

about 3 inches. The body is green with

black markings and on the fore part of

the head there are three red eyes like

jewels, set between the two larger com¬

pound eyes. This cicada has a loud

chirping song which ends with a click

caused by a flick of the wings. On a hot

summer’s day the air seems to crackle

with the volume of sound produced by

hundreds of these insects singing

/ together.

Perhaps the strangest fact concerning

cicadas is that only the males are cap¬

able of producing sound, and in this

connection one cannot help admiring the

daring of the obviously “hen-pecked”

Greek poet, Xenarchus, who wrote: —

“Happy are cicadas’ lives,

For they have only voiceless wives.”

The larvae burrow into the ground,

where they extract juices from the roots

of trees. When fully grown the larva be¬

comes clothed in a horny armour and

has rudimentary wings. On reaching

maturity it leaves the ground, climbs a

few feet up a tree trunk and finally the

peifect insect emerges, leaving the light

brown horny case attached to the tree

trunk. There are a number of smaller

species of cicadas native to New Zealand.

A dull dark-grey one, common in Auck¬

land, is quite fearless and frequently

alights on people. It is harmless, how¬

ever, and most people are not alarmed

by its friendly advances.

ii‘

230. SHIELD-BUG (Cermatulus nasalis). This

belongs to a large group of brightly-col¬

oured bugs noted for the triangular plate

on the central part of the back. Most of

the species suck the juices of plants and

are especially injurious to fruit trees, but

the one here figured is carnivorous and

does good work by preying upon the

larva of the Pear-slug. A recently acquired

habit is that it preys upon the caterpillar

of the Monarch butterfly.

231. A NATIVE PLANT HOPPER (Cenchrea

maorica) which lives on the under sides

of tree fern leaves serves to illustrate a

group of small insects which feed by

sucking juices from plants. There are

many native species, but the best known

example is the Australian Passion Vine

Hopper, accidentally introduced into the

North Island of New Zealand, where it

often swarms on vegetation and is espe¬

cially harmful to passion-vines. This

is the stiff-looking little insect which

rests on plants with its wings folded in

the form of a triangle, and then hops

a considerable distance if you attempt

to touch it. The wings are transparent,

dark-veined and margined with black.

Another species of similar shape but

bright green is the Eucalyptus Hopper,

also accidentally introduced from Aus¬

tralia. A greyish-coloured introduced

species, Sephena cinerea, is a proved

carrier of fireblight amongst pear and

apple trees.

232. BACK-SWIMMER (Anisops wakefieldi).

The small, dark, narrow-bodied bug that

swims upside down in ponds and stag¬

nant pools. It rows itself through the

water with powerful strokes of the hind

pair of legs, which are flattened and

fringed with hairs to increase the bear¬

ing surface. When at rest the oar-like

legs project obliquely forwards. Along

the under side of the abdomen there are

two grooves closed over with hairs to

imprison air required for breathing

during submergence. The back-swimmers

are carnivorous, and do good work in

destroying mosquito larvae.

233. WATER-BOATMAN (Arctocorisa arguta).

Similar in size and in habits to the back-

swimmer, but the body is flattened dor-

sally instead of being narrowed laterally.

It is a common insect in still fresh-waters

and is brown mottled all over with darker

brown. The water-boatman does good

work also by devouring quantities of

mosquito larvae.

234. HUHU BEETLE (Prionoplus reticularis).

The largest beetle native to New Zea¬

land. It is brownish, with an oblong body,

and two long, conspicuously jointed feel¬

ers. The hard wing cases have an

embossed pattern like crocodile skin.

This is the large beetle that, attracted

by light, enters houses during summer

evenings and often causes consternation

to the inmates by its noisy, clumsy

flight. If incautiously handled this beetle

can give a powerful nip with its large

mandibles. The larva is a large fat grub

known to the Maoris as the “ huhu.” This

grub causes considerable damage by

boring tunnels into timber. Standing

trees, posts, and dead trees, particularly

introduced Pinus, are all susceptible to

attack from this troublesome insect. The

grub pupates in one of the tunnels it has

formed in the wood, and the perfect

insect emerges in the following summer.

The Maoris were very fond of eating the

huhu grub, and it was also a favourite

item of diet with the now extinct huia.

235. LARGE GREEN CHAFER (Chlorochiton

sutural is). The bright shining green

beetle, about 1 inch in length, which

often flies in considerable numbers at

dusk on summer evenings. The larva

lives beneath the ground, where it feeds

on the roots of grasses and other plants.

It is generally observed lying on its

it side, curved in the form of a semi-circle.

A dark yellowish-brown chafer Odon-

tria zelandica, is less than half the size

it of the large green chafer, but the larva

does considerable damage to the roots

of cultivated grasses. This is the well-

id known grass grub.

236. SAND SCARAB (Pericoptus truncatus).

A large, massive, shining black beetle

frequently found on coastal sand dunes.

It is common along the coast from Well-

it ington to Wanganui and at Muriwai,

west of Auckland. The larvae are usu-

le ally found in cavities in the sand under

d driftwood, and it is presumed that they

d feed largely upon decaying wood. The

r . meandering tracks of these beetles are a

;e familiar sight on the damp sand in the

early morning, for they are nocturnal.

, g Those that fail to reach adequate cover

by daylight are frequently scorched up

by the heat-absorbing iron sand of our

west coast dunes.

237. GIRAFFE WEEVIL (Lasiorrhynchus

barbicornis) as the common name indi¬

cates, has an extremely long neck or

'' proboscis. The male sometimes reaches

a length of nearly four inches, but the

female is always smaller. The feelers

are situated near the tip of the proboscis

in the male, but half way down in the

female. The terminal position of the

)d feelers gives the male a decided advan¬

tage, for it is left to the female to do

all the hard work of boring into wood

or bark for the purpose of depositing the

eggs.

E r

The larvae are active borers of a

great variety of our soft-wood trees, but

the perfect insect is by no means

common.

,[! 238. TIGER BEETLE (Cicindela tuberculata).

This is one of sixteen New Zealand

species, all of similar appearance and

habits. The figured species is the most

common one, and is a small narrow-bodied

insect of greenish colour with a cream

it design on its back. In summer they mav

be seen on dry clay banks alternately

running and flying short distances in

their quest for flies and other insects.

The larvae are the “penny doctors” of

the children, who often endeavour to fish

for them by placing straws in the long

straight tunnels which are made in clay

or hard earth. The larvae may be'seen

at times with their heads just emerging

from the tunnels, ready to seize any

insect that unsuspectingly comes within

range.

239. NATIVE LADY-BIRD (Scymnus accep-

tus). This is one of the commonest

species native to New Zealand. It is

recognised by a large pale yellow spot

on the shoulder of each wing case. It

may be found from November to January

by beating the foliage in the forest. The

lady-birds are of small size, but they do

an immense amount of good in destroy¬

ing Aphides and scale-insects. The two

species most commonly seen are the

introduced British species, Cocci ne! la 11

punctata, which is orange with black

spots, and the Steel-blue lady-bird, Orcus

chalybeus, an Australian species intro¬

duced to New Zealand to combat scale

insects on lemon trees and oaks.

240. CLICK BEETLE (Thoramus wakefieldi).

Grows to more than an inch in length,

and is the largest of a group of insects

which feign death, and, if resting on

their backs, will suddenly right them¬

selves by springing into the air, and in

so doing they make a decided clicking

noise. These insects are shining dark

brown or black, long and narrow, and

have deep longitudinal grooves in the

wing cases.

The larvae of some of the numerous

species of click-beetles found in New

Zealand are the “wire-worms” which do

considerable damage to the roots of

plants.

241. GROUND BEETLE (Trichosternus diffor-

mipes). A handsome bluish-black, slender

waisted beetle with deep longitudinal

striations on the wing-cases. It is one

of the most abundant ground beetles

in the Wellington district, where it occurs

under stones and logs in damp situations.

This species is just under an inch in

length, but another, T. planiusculus, is

slightly larger and even more abundant.

They are very ferocious and highly pre¬

dacious, and will nip the human skin

with their powerful mandibles, unless

handled carefully. The larvae is about

li inches long and is found under large

logs where there is dry soil beneath.

242. PINE LONGHORN (Navomorpha sul-

catus). A native boring beetle which has

come into prominence in recent years

on account of the destruction it causes

in Pinus plantations. The adult insect is

under | an inch in length, narrow bodied

and tapering behind. It is dark-brown

with a greenish sheen, while down each

side is a broad greyish split stripe with

a forked one in the middle. The female

bores small holes in bark and deposits

her eggs, which on hatching develop into

white cylindrical larvae with broad

heads. The larvae eventually bore deeply

into the .heart timber. Other well-known

longhorn or “longicorn” borers are the

Lemon-tree Borer, Aemona hirta, the

Tawa Longhorn, Coptoma variagatum,

and the Two-toothed Longhorn, Ambeo-

dontus tristis, which does considerable

damage to wooden buildings. A much

more destructive beetle is the introduced

Anobium domesticum, the larva of which

is the common house borer.

243. LARGE BLACK BEETLE (Cilibe otago-

ensis). One of twenty closely allied

species commonly found in and under

logs which are in an advanced state of

decay. The species otagoensis is nearly

two inches in length, very highly polished

and deep yellowish-brown.

The New Zealand beetle fauna is very

large indeed, for over 4000 native species

are known. The 10 kinds here described

and figured are typical of the more

familiar groups.

TWO-WINGED FLIES

This group includes the crane-flies or daddy-

long-legs, mosquitoes, sand-flies, blow-flies and

house-flies. Many of them are prime agents

in the spread of dread diseases. Some mosqui¬

toes are the carriers of malaria, yellow fever

and dengue. Although the New Zealand native

species are not drastically injurious to health

their nocturnal biting and buzzing makes

them a great annoyance. As if by mutual

agreement the tiny sandfly takes over by day

— he is a silent worker, however, and dis¬

penses with the buzz. Another common pest

of this group is the blue-bottle blow-fly, which

will “blow” fresh or cooked meat, wool and

even blankets. The equally pestiferous house¬

fly, Musca domestica, is introduced.

The Diptera, as the same suggests, have

two wings only, the hind-wings being replaced

by a tiny pair of paddle-shaped stabilisers.

244. CRANE FLY or DADDY-LONG-LEGS

(Holorusia novarae). One of the largest

of some 500 species known in New Zea¬

land. This one, which has a narrow body

about an inch in length, but with a leg

spread of over 3 inches, is found around

Auckland in great numbers during spring

and summer, usually resting on the outer

walls of houses. They seem much

attracted by new paint work and almost

invariably manage to get stuck in it. The

wings are smoky-grey, veined and marked

in brown. Another common species,

Macromastix albistigma, is pale green.

Our most attractive species, M. ferrug-

inea, is bright orange and black. The

decaying wood® "T? in damp ground,

decaying wood, and especially in the

marshy banks of streams and swamps

245. COMMON MOSQUITO (Culex pervia-

Ians). One of three species of mosqui

citv T.rL in , and around Auckland

city. The figured species is the usual

intruder of dwellings, whose high-pitched

buzzing and irritating bite disturbs

one s slumbers. The larvae are the com¬

mon “wrigglers'- which infest all stag¬

nant water. Old tins and bottles littered

m untidy properties, and rubbish dumps

especially, act as excellent nurseries for

this little pest. Any container that col-

lects ram water, however small assists

the breeding of this species. Subject to

favourable temperatures this mosquito

will breed all through the year. Another

local mosquito, Aedes notoscriptus, is a

silent flier and a daytime biter. Its fav¬

ourite habit is to quietly settle and bite

the legs rather than the hands or face.

It operates mostly in the early morning

and late afternoon, or all day during dull

weather. The larvae of notoscriptus

favours water containers that are well

sheltered from bright light, and it is able

to remain submerged for a longer period

than that of pervigilans, which frequently

wriggles to the surface to breathe.

246. NEW ZEALAND GLOW WORM (Arach-

nocampa luminosa). Few countries can

boast of a tourist attraction based upon

a two-winged fly. The Waitomo Caves in

New Zealand and a similar cave in New

South Wales are world famous for the

brilliant phosphorescent spectacle caused

by the presence of huge colonies of the

larvae of one of the fungus gnats. The

figured adult is a male of rather similar

shape to a crane-fly, but it has a long

slender abdomen just under half an inch

in length which is alternately banded in

light and dark brown. The wings are

smoky-grey veined in dark brown. Glow¬

worms in New Zealand are not confined

to the Waitomo Caves, but may be seen

on dark nights under shaded damp banks

in most areas of native forest. The

larva spins a small web in front of its

burrow and later the pupa is suspended

from this web. The phosphorescent

light is emitted from the rear end of

the body.

247. HOVER-FLY (Helophilus trilineatus). A

handsome fly somewhat resembling a bee.

It is about three-quarters of an inch in

length and brightly coloured — the

thorax is grey with three vertical broad

bands bf black and the abdomen is vel¬

vety black with a golden rectangular

patch on each side of the top segment.

This is the fly of the countryside which

alternately hovers and darts off at speed.

Adult Hover-flies feed on the nectar of

flowers, but the larvae of some species

do good work in destroying aphids and

other plant destroying insects.

246

248. BLUE-BOTTLE (Calliphora quadrima-

culata). The common blow-fly, found

throughout New Zealand from the shore

to the snow line. It is about half an

inch in length, has a black thorax and

a violet-blue abdomen. The larvae feed

on dung, decaying seaweed,^ and any

putrifying matter. This fly is a great

pest for it “blows” meat, woollen mater¬

ials and especially blankets, if they are

hung out in the sunlight.

249. BLACK HUNTER WASP (Salius mona-

chus). A handsome shining black wasp

with a wing span of 1J inches. The

wings are iridescent coppery. Better

known wasps are the “mud-daubers” or

so-called “mason-bees” which block up

keyholes and construct clay compart¬

ments in odd corners of houses. These

structures are used to imprison small

spiders, which are stung and rendered

torpid by the wasp and ultimately

serve as food for the larvae, for an egg

is laid in each compartment. Wasps are

distinguished from bees by their slender

waists and general absence of hairs on

the body.

250. GIANT RHYSSA (Megarhyssus fractiner-

vis). A rare species of “Ichneumon,” or

long-tailed wasp, which is found mostly

in the western rain forests of the South

Island. It is a handsome black and yel¬

low insect with pale gold iridescent

wings. The body is li inches long and

the ovipositor, trailing aft like a sting, is

2| inches in length. The larvae of the

ichneumons are all parasitic, a large

number of them of caterpillars and the

larvae of saw-flies and wood-boring

beetles. The extremely long ovipositor

is for the purpose of probing into wood

and soil to reach and infest the larvae

with eggs.

251. A NATIVE BEE (Paracolletes fulvescens)

is typical of several species of native

bees, all of which are smaller than the

introduced honey-bee and are noted for

their extremely hairy pollen-carrying hind

legs. They are mostly dark grey with

golden-brown hairs. These bees burrow in

the ground, especially in clay and are

solitary in the sense that each builds its

own nest and gathers its own supply of

honey. There are twenty species of

native bees in New Zealand, but they

are becoming increasingly uncommon, no

doubt partly because of the greatly

reduced native flowering vegetation and

partly through the competition of the

introduced honey bee.

252. A NATIVE ANT (Monomorium antarc-

ticum) is one of about twenty species of

native ants. It is nearly three-eighths of

an inch long and is golden brown with

three black bands on the abdomen.

Volumes have been written on the social

habits of ants, for their ways are even

more complex than those of the bees.

The fact that an ant colony is the off¬

spring of more than one female makes

for its greater permanency, for where

only one female is present, as with the

bees, an accident may bring disaster to

the whole community. Only males and

females are winged — the males die in

this condition, but the females return to

the nest and cast their wings before

commencing egg-laying. The neuters,

ordinary workers and soldiers, are per¬

manently wingless and have the thorax

very narrow. Their daily routine consists

not only of keeping the nest clean, gather¬

ing food, and feeding the larvae, but

also the carrying of eggs to those parts

of the nest where they will obtain the

greatest warmth. This involves moving

them to within the influence of the sun’s

warmth during the day and again to the

depths of the nest for the night. The

oblong white objects which ants are seen

moving about with such determination

are the cocoons containing the pupae.

Most native ants are to be found under

stones and logs in open country or in the

forests. The chief invaders of houses are

introduced species.

253. LACEWING (Myrmeleon acutus). This

bears some resemblance to a dragon fly,

except that the veining of the wings is

blotched with brown in places. It has

the effect of a drawing done on absorbent

paper, resulting in the smudging of some

of the lines. Also, these insects rest with

their wings folded back, roof-like, over

the body. The larva of the lacewing is

the extraordinary anti-lion (Fig. 253a).

which constructs little craters in sand or

dust. At the bottom of the crater the

ant-lion lies buried, all except his power¬

ful jaws, which immediately grab

unsuspecting ants as they slither down

the loose sides of the crater. The adult

lacewing has a span of about 3i inches

and is seldom seen on the wing for most

of the species are nocturnal. Occasion¬

ally the lacewing enters houses, being

attracted by bright lights.

254. CADDIS-FLY (Hydropsyche colonica). An

insignificant four-winged insect with

extra-long hind legs, found only in the

vicinity of fresh water. The wings span

about 1 inch and are clothed with fine

hairs. The early stages of caddis-flies are

passed entirely in water. The eggs are

laid in a gelatinous mass attached to

rocks and roots under water in streams.

Upon hatching the larvae construct

interesting portable cases or fixed abodes.

These are the caddis cases which one

sees on stones picked out of a stream

bed. The larvae of H. colonica occupies a

fixed case of tiny pebbles (Fig. 255 ). The

tubular one (Fig. 256) belongs to Olinga

feredayi and the spiral one (Fig. 257)

like a snail shell is constructed by Hydro¬

psyche albescens from minute grains of

sand. Caddis-flies are entirely beneficial

both as laivae and as adults for they form

an important contribution to the diet of

fresh-water fishes. Birds, lizards, frogs

and dragon-flies devour the adult flies.

BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS

New Zealand is singularly deficient in but¬

terflies, for there are only sixteen species and

rnoie than half of this number are seldom seen.

Also the several large attractive members are

cosmopolitan species which no doubt first

arrived here as chance migrants. To compen¬

sate for this paucity in butterflies the native

moth fauna is most extensive, covering over

twelve hundred kinds.

The difference between a butterfly and a

moth is not always easy to define, but as a

general rule butterflies are brightly coloured,

told their wings face to face vertically, have

slender antennae, clubbed at the tip, and are

day fliers. Moths are mostly dull coloured,

fold their wings horizontally and backwards

or tent-wise over the body, have furry tapered

antennae, and are nocturnal. The magpie moth

is a notable exception in that it is a day

flier. Butterflies and moths belong to the order

Lepidoptera, which means scale-winged. They

are the most advanced of all the insect orders.

258 a, b. MONARCH (Danaida piexippus). A

handsome orange-coloured butterfly, con¬

spicuously veined and patterned in black,

and with a wing span of about 3 to 4 inches.

Until quite recently the Monarch was a

rare migrant to New Zealand, but thanks

to the enthusiasm of an Auckland nature

lover, the late Mr. T. Skeates, the local

landscape is now the richer by the spread

of this colourful insect. Mr. Skeates

achieved results through inducing people

to rear this harmless species by growing

suitable food plants, the Milk-weed

shrub, Asclepias, and the so-called “Swan-

plant,” both of which form the food of

the attractive caterpillars. These cater¬

pillars are conspicuously ringed with

cream and black, and have a pair of soft

wavy tentacles at each end of the body.

The chrysalis is a pale jade casket with

a circle of gold-like specks near the top.

The male monarch butterfly can be dis¬

tinguished by the presence of two blotches

on the veins of the hind-wings. These

are scent organs believed to function in

attracting the female. Originally the

Monarch belonged to North America, but

for some unaccountable reason it has

vastly increased its range during the

past 100 years. It is a strong flyer and

has been observed on the wing over 400

miles from land. Monarchs are charming

creatures to rear, and since the life

cycle occupies only about six weeks they

make admirable demonstrations for the

school classroom.

259 BLUE MOON (Hypolimnas bolina). A

great rarity in New Zealand, where it

occurs from time to time as a chance

migrant, probably from Australia,

where it is common. The male

is velvety black with a rounded

white spot edged with electric-blue,

one on each of its four wings. The

slightly larger female has a wing span

of four inches and includes patterns in

orange and cream additional to a general

colouration as in the male. So far neither

the eggs nor the caterpillar of this species

have been found in New Zealand. In

Australia the food plants are Si da rhom-

bifolia and S. retusa (Paddy’s lucerne)

and several species of Portulacaceae.

260. YELLOW ADMIRAL (Vanessa itea). A

common butterfly with a wing expansion

of up to 2 h inches, seen from November

till May. The fore-wings are black and

reddish-brown, divided by a broad diag¬

onal patch of yellow. The hind-wings are

black and reddish-brown, having four

black circles with blue centres on the

lower part of each wing. The food plant

of the caterpillar is the common stinging

nettle. Beyond New Zealand the species

is found throughout Australia, Tasmania

and the Loyalty Islands.

261. RED ADMIRAL (Vanessa gonerilla).

This is about the same size as the Yellow

Admiral and like it the caterpillar feeds

on nettles. The butterfly is black with

conspicuous transverse bars of red on

each wing. Those of the hind-wings each

bear four black rings with blue centres.

The species is generally distributed in

New Zealand and appears from January

to April. The three species of Vanessa

are all strong fliers, and are very wary

and hard to catch.

262. PAINTED LADY (Vanessa cardui). As

the popular name suggests, this is a

brightly-coloured butterfly of from 2 to

2| inches wing span. The upper portions of

the wings are black with white markings

and the lower portions orange, distinct¬

ively patterned in black. Near the lower

edge of the hind-wings are a series of

black rings with blue centres. This species

is a well-known migrant, for it makes its

way to practically all parts of the world,

sometimes moving in vast swarms. In

New Zealand it has been recorded from

most districts, but it seldom occurs

abundantly, and its numbers appear to

fluctuate greatly from season to season.

It is usually seen from January to April.

263. LITTLE BLUE (Lycaena labradus). This

is about an inch across with pale blue

wings bordered with dull brown. It is

seen abundantly on dry grassland and

sand dunes during summer.

264. COMMON COPPER (Chrysophanus sal-

ustius). This has a span of up to 1§

inches and the wings are bright coppery

orange, bordered and veined in black It

is seen from November to April and is

most abundant on tussock grasslands

and amongst low scrub.

265. BLACK MOUNTAIN BUTTERFLY

(Erebia pluto). This is restricted to the

tops of the mountain ranges of the South

Island. It has a wing span of up to 2

inches and is bronzy black except for a

pale patch at the outer extremity of each

fore-wing, upon which there are four or

five small black rings with white centres.

The species freQuents shingle screes at

from 4000 to 6000 feet and the caterpillar

most probably feeds on the carpet grass

Poa colensoi.

266. MAGPIE MOTH (Nyctemera annulata).

The black and white day-flying moth so

abundant throughout New Zealand. The

catei pillai is black and red, covered with

numerous tufts of black hair; it is the

well-known “woolly-bear” commonly found

feeding on the leaves of many plants of

the daisy family, particularly groundsel

and ragwort. The caterpillars, when

about to pupate, attach themselves by a

silk casing to a tree trunk or any suitable

object. In from four to six weeks the

perfect insect emerges. The season for

the regular appearance of the moth is

from September to April.

267. PEACOCK MOTHS (Dasypodia cyma-

toides and selenophora) . Handsome moths

up to 3 inches in wing span, which are

frequently found quietly resting on the

walls or ceilings in houses during the

months of February, March and April.

They are dark velvety brown, with darker

zigzag markings, and two conspicuous

bluish crescents on the fore-wings. The

caterpillar is over two inches in length,

cylindrical, and dull yellowish brown

thickly speckled with black. They feed

on the leaves of wattle.

268. BLACK SPECKLED MOTH (Declana

atronivea). A very handsome species

restricted to the North Island. It has a

wing span of up to 2 inches and is at

once distinguished by the black and

white patterned fore-wings and grey hind-

wings. The apparently startling con¬

trast of colour in this moth is actually

distinctly protective when the insect is in

its natural setting. The vigorous black

markings tend to confuse the outline of

the insect in the same way as bold

camouflage on wartime vessels and

vehicles has proved most effective.

269. CABBAGE-TREE MOTH (Venusia verri-

culata). Another fine example of pro¬

tective resemblance. The moth always

rests lengthwise on the dead leaves of

the cabbage-tree, so that the brown lines

on the insect’s wings merge with the

parallel veins of the leaf. Also the ground

colour of the moth is light brownish, of

similar colour to that of the dead leaf.

The caterpillar feeds on the green leaves

of the cabbage-tree. The moth lias a wing

span of li inches, is generally distributed

in New Zealand, and is seen from

October until May.

270. SPHINX MOTH (Sphinx convolvuli). This

handsome, widely distributed moth is oi

almost world-wide occurrence. In New

Zealand it is most abundant in the

Nelson and Auckland districts. The wing

span is of about inches and it is greyish,

marked and speckled with dark brown.

The abdomen is ringed with black, red

and white, and has a vertical dark median

stripe. The caterpillar (270a) reaches 3

to 3| inches in length, is either green

or brownish, and has at the rear end a

large backwardly curved spine like a

rose-thorn. It feeds on any of the several

species of convolvulus, particularly the

pink and white one common near the sea

shore. It is also found at times feeding

on kumara leaves. The caterpillar buries

itself in the ground in February to pupate,

but does not emerge as a perfect insect

until November or December.

271. PLUME MOTH (Alucita furcatalis). A

delicate little moth with a wing expan¬

sion of less than an inch. It rests with

its narrow forked fore-wings rigidly out¬

stretched and looks just like a tiny

aeroplane. The hind-wings are divided

into delicate plume-like processes. The

figured species is found in most parts of

New Zealand in dense forest, but it and

allied species are not uncommon in gar¬

dens and houses during summer.

272. CASE MOTH (Oeceticus omnivorus). This

is best known by its tapering, conical,

brownish case of silk, strengthened with

bits of leaves and twigs, which is com¬

monly found suspended from the limbs

of trees, particularly manuka and macro-

carpa. The male case moth is an incon¬

spicuous, dark brownish, swift-flying

moth, but the female is without wings,

legs and antennae, for it remains in the

case to produce and tend to the eggs.

273. GHOST MOTH (Hepialus viescens), often

called the Puriri Moth. This is the largest

of our native moths, and it is confined to

the North Island of New Zealand. Allied

species occur in Australia. The male

puriri moth has bright green fore-wings

with various paler markings, the hind-

wings are yellowish brown near the

body, but merge into white and finally

green at the edges. In the female the

fore-wings are green, mottled with black,

and the hind-wings reddish-brown to

green. The wing expansion of the male

is four inches, but the female some¬

times spans up to 6 inches. The cater¬

pillar bores large tunnels in the outer

heart-wood of a number of native trees,

usually 3 inches in from the bark, and

in cultivated surroundings it has been

known to attack willows, oaks and apple

trees. The native trees most frequently

attacked are wineberry, hoheria, puriri,

mangeao, manuka and titoki. The eggs

are produced in laige numbers, and

resemble small round smooth shot. They

are yellowish at first, but latei turn black.

The perfect insect emerges from October

onwards, and although they are seldom

seen in their natural surroundings a

certain number find their way into houses

or the vicinity of street lights, for, like

most moths, they have a self-destroying

fascination for bright lights.

VEGETABLE CATERPILLAR MOTH

(Porina). There are some 19 New Zealand

species of these reddish-brown moths.

Their chief distinction is that the

caterpillars of three of them at

least, enysii, dinodes and signata,

are frequently parasitized by the

spores of the fungus Cordyceps.

The caterpillars are attacked in the

ground, and when practically all the ani¬

mal tissue is replaced by the fungus a

spore-bearing bulrush-like stalk pushes

its way above ground and the cycle is

repeated. The Porinas are clumsily built

moths with hairy bodies and are those

commonly seen on windows and flutter¬

ing around street lights on summer even¬

ings. (Not figured.)

SPIDERS

Spiders are easily distinguished from insects

by having eight legs instead of six and only

two body divisions, the cephalothorax (head

and thorax combined), and the abdomen,

which is usually soft and unsegmented. They

lack the compound eyes of insects, but have

as a rule either six or eight simple eyes.

Underneath at the front, spiders have power¬

ful fangs, used to hold their prey, which is

then paralysed by the injection of a toxic

fluid. The webs which spiders construct with

such care and artistry are produced from a

sticky substance extruded from the spinnerets

at the terminal end of the abdomen. The silken

threads so produced often span considerable

distances between trees, for the spider takes

advantage of wind and produces a long slender

thread in the first instance which drifts across

the gap. The web is so sticky that insect

victims are easily snared by it. Newly-hatched

spiders resemble their parents and grow by

casting their skins five to six times. They do

not undergo the elaborate metamorphosis

of the insects.

The New Zealand spider fauna numbers just

over three hundred named species.

274. NURSERY SPIDER (Dolomedes minor).

The large active spider of the fields, gar¬

dens and swamps. It is best known by

its gauze-like nests which envelop the

outer twigs of bushes. This spider is

brownish with pinkish grey and black

vertical streaks on the cephalothorax

(combined head and thorax). The legs

are thick at the body but taper rather

rapidly, and the span is approximately

two inches.

Other species of Dolomedes are the

water-spiders, which are quite capable of

entering either fresh or salt water, but

they require a partially immersed object

to crawl down in order to exert sufficient

leverage to break the surface film. Some

of these spiders span up to 3 inches.

They have been known to kill small fish.

275. ORB SPIDER (Araneus pustulosus). This

is very abundant and produces the elab¬

orately designed geometric webs which

are objects of great beauty, particularly

when they are heavily covered with dew

in the early morning. The orb spider has

small slender legs, but a broad and in¬

flated soft abdomen, which tapers below.

276. SOUTH ISLAND TRAP-DOOR SPIDER

(Arbanitis gilliesii). A heavily built

dark-brown spider with thick hairy legs,

and a span of nearly 2 inches. It has a

very characteristic dent in the smooth

cephalothorax, and the abdomen is oval,

thickly set with fine hairs. The trap-door

and related spiders have powerful fangs

which work up and down instead of side¬

ways as in other spiders. The nest of

gilliesii is neatly and cleverly constructed,

consisting of a tubular tunnel in the

ground of about an inch in diameter,

lined with silk, and closed at ground

level with a tightly fitting, circular hinged

lid made of the same material. Other

spiders closely allied to the above form

tubular nests, but without the lid. One

Hexatheie hochstetteri, not uncommon

in both the North and South Islands, is

easily recognised by the extremely long

spinnerets.

277. KATIPO (Latrodectus katipo). This is

neither large nor common, but it is

dreaded because of its venomous bite.

This spider is little more than an inch in

span and is characterised chiefly by its

large globular abdomen, often with an

orange or red stripe down the middle.

The Katipo occurs northwards of Banks

Peninsula, but its distribution appears

haphazard. It is most often seen under

driftwood on coastal sand dunes, par¬

ticularly in the vicinity of Foxton and

Wanganui. Some years ago people en¬

camped near the mouth of the stream

about three miles along the Muriwai

Beach encountered these spiders in fair

numbers.

Deaths have occurred in New Zealand

from the effects of the bite of the Katipo,

but I have been unable to find any sum¬

mary of local cases. In Australia, how¬

ever, medical literature refers to 98 in¬

stances of attack,* six of which proved to

be fatal.

278. LEAPING SPIDER (Trite bimaculosa).

An active little spider less than an inch

in length, easily recognised by its large

powerful fore-limbs and small narrowly

cylindrical light-coloured abdomen. It

runs at considerable speed, darting over

the ground in search of insect prey. This

spider does not construct a web for the

ensnaring of its prey, but actively hunts

small insects.

279. DADDY-LONG-LEGS SPIDER (Pholcus

phalangioides). This is most abundant in

outbuildings and also in houses if clean¬

ing is neglected for more than a few

days. It is easily recognised by its

extremely long and slender light coloured

legs and ridiculously small soft body. The

web is rather untidy and usually bridges

a corner of a ceiling or the eaves of

houses. It is a cosmopolitan species, very

common around Auckland, but it is almost

certainly introduced.

TUNICATES OR SEA SQUIRTS

The Sea-squirts are those dull, uninterest¬

ing leathery growths on rocks or wharf piles

that suddenly eject a narrow jet of water.

Their shapelessness masks a relatively high

organisation, for structurally they are almost

vertebrates. They may be regarded as a

degenerate offshoot from the ancestral stock

that gave rise to the backboned animals. The

larval sea-squirt is a free-swimming creature

with a tail and semblance of a notochord, the

forerunner of the backbone. After a short

time, however, the larva attaches itself to

some stationary object, the tail and notochord

disappear, and it grows about itself the tough

leathery tunic to which the name tunicate

alludes. In its adult form the tunicate’s body

is largely occupied by a complex sieve-like

system of gills. The two openings in the tunic

allow a continuous passage of sea water from

which organic particles are extracted by the

animal.

280. BARREL SALP (Doliofum). One of a

large group of pelagic or drifting open sea

tunicates which are referred to as Salps.

The tunic is transparent and jelly-like

and they are almost invisible in the

water. The Barrel-salp is about li inches

long and is notable as the victim of the

Barrel-shrimp (see under Crustacea)

which eats out the interior of the salp

and takes up its abode within.

281. FIRE SALP (Pyrosoma). This is really

a large colony of tunicates living attached

to the outside of a semi-transparent hol¬

low cylinder. They are pelagic denizens

of the open sea and at night are remark¬

able for their fiery phosphorescence. The

figured example is about four inches long

and was taken in Cook Strait. Some

species attain a length of four feet.

282. SEA TULIP (Boltenia pachydermatina).

A tunicate with a long stalk attachment

known as Kaeo by the Maoris of the

Chatham Islands. They are found in num¬

bers amongst seaweeds at low tide in the

South Island, and especially at the Chat¬

ham Islands. The stalks grow from (>

to 10 inches in length and the body

pioper lip to 3 inches in length. They are

buff coloured, mottled with reddish-

purple.

283. A warty, dirty-white to brownish tunicate

common in Auckland waters, where it

occuis attached to stones, old shells and

seaweeds.

284. A smooth tunicate of the genus Styela.

They are about two inches in length and

are found attached to the undersides of

stones at low tide, in crevices, and often

inside old bivalve shells. One, S. caerulea,

is bluish, and others are pink or red. The

two diagrams at the bottom of the plate

show respectively, larval tunicates and a

section through an adult.

FISH AND FISH-LIKE ANIMALS

True fishes, like the snapper, have a well-

developed bony skeleton which makes them

undoubted members of the great group of ver-

tebiates to which lizards, birds and mammals

belong. The three other groups of fish-like

animals, the lancelets, the lampreys and the

sharks, together with the more primitive sea-

squirts, bridge .the gap between the soft-bodied

invertebrates and the back-boned vertebrates.

The lancelet has no head, and a gelatinous

rod of tissue, the “notochord” instead of a

skeleton.

The lamprey has a head, but no lower

Jaw, and still the “notochord,” not a back¬

bone.

The sharks and rays have back-bones but

they are composed of cartilege, not bone.

285. LANCELET (Heteropleuron hectori). A

very primitive relative of the fishes, a

small leaf-like semi-transparent creature

of about 2 inches in length. It has no

head, limbs or paired fins, and no back¬

bone, just an unjointed rod of gelatinous

tissue, termed the “notochord.” It bur¬

rows in clean sand at slight depths off

coastal beaches. I obtained some good

specimens by dredging in four fathoms

off Mt. Maunganui Beach, Tauranga.

Lancelets are better known in text books

as Amphioxus.

286. LAMPREY (Geotria australis). This,

also, is not a true bony fish like the

similarly shaped eel, but a primitive sur¬

vivor of the archaic group that has

successfully withstood competition from

the more specialised true fishes. The

lamprey differs from the true fishes in

the total absence of paired fins, jaws

and other bony structures; the backbone

being represented by its primitive fore¬

runner, the “notochord.” The mouth is a

weird-looking roundish sucker having a

series of rasping teeth, with sharper and

stronger ones on the tongue. There are

no scales and the skin is slimy.

In habits the lamprey is as revolting

as is its appearance, for it is predaceous

upon other fish. It fastens its disc-shaped

mouth to the victim and rasps away the

flesh. It does not make a point ol eating

the tissue, but confines its efforts to

extracting blood and juices.

Lampreys spend part of their lives in

the fresh-water rivers and streams, and

part in the sea. The eggs are laid tar up

the rivers, but during its growth the

young lamprey descends the river by easy

stages and is almost of adult size upon

reaching the sea.

In the next stage the lamprey spends a

certain time in the sea, taking on a new

appearance, with a bright silvery and

blue coloration. As the breeding season

approaches the now adult lampreys,

about 18 inches in length, ascend the

rivers, gradually losing their bright

colours and resolving into a dirty brown.

Maoris esteemed the lamprey as food

and formerly captured large numbers of

them during the seasonal migration or

“runs,” which normally occur at night.

The old-time Maori was expert at pre¬

dicting the exact times for these runs.

287. HAG FISH (Heptatretus cirrhatus). This

grows to about 2 feet in length, is exclu¬

sively marine and in habits even more re¬

volting than the lamprey, to which it is

closely allied. Parts of the Otago trawl¬

ing grounds are termed “hospitals” by

fishermen on account of the large num¬

bers of wounded fish which have received

attention from the voracious hag-fish.

When placed in a bucket of sea-water

this fish frequently exudes so much

slime that the water becomes almost

jellified.

288. ELEPHANT FISH (Callorhynchus milii).

A member of the group of sharks and

rays, all of which have the skeleton of

cartilege, not bone, as in the true fishes.

The elephant-fish is confined to the

Antarctic Basin and the South Pacific

ocean. The New Zealand species grows

up to 2 feet in length and is common

along the whole of the East Coast of the

South Island and occurs at times to as

far north as the Bay of Plenty.

The favourite breeding ground of this

fish is off Sumner Beach, Canterbury.

Here they deposit their curious eggs,

which are encased in a dark-brown horny

jacket up to ten inches in length. (Fig.

288a), and resembling a piece of seaweed.

In the centre of the egg case is a cavity

in which the embryo fish develops; from

one end of this cavity a passage, closed

by a special valve, leads to the exterior,

and it is through this passage that the

young fish in due course makes its

escape.

The eggs are laid in the sand below

low-water during October and November,

but development is slow and actual

hatching does not occur until about April.

Large numbers of the discarded egg cases

are frequently found washed ashore on

Sumner Beach.

The curious trunk-like proboscis of the

Elephant-fish is probably an organ of

touch, useful in locating buried shellfish,

which form part of its food.

The flesh of the Elephant-fish is of good

edible quality and closely resembles that

of Hapuku. It requires prior soaking in

fresh water to eliminate a slight ammonia

taste.

289. GHOST SHARK (Chimaera novaezelan-

diae). This is related to the Elephant-fish,

but is not common. It lacks the trunk-

like appendage and has a long tapering

tail. An excellent specimen in the

Museum was trawled off Kaipara Heads

in 1921.

290. MAKO SHARK (Isuropsis mako). A

well-known “big-game” fish common in

North Auckland waters. There is a fine

cast of this fish in the Auckland Museum,

which was prepared from a record speci¬

men 11 feet 6 inches in length and

weighing 798 lbs., caught by the late Mr.

W r hite Wickham at the Bay of Islands in

January, 1931. The species occurs also

in Tasmania, Victoria, South Australia

and New South Wales, where it is known

as the Blue Pointer or Snapper Shark.

This shark is electric blue above and

white below, has a pointed snout and

sharp awl-like teeth. It preys on kahawai

and other fish, and is according to anglers

the only shark that takes a fast moving

bait. The Maoris prized the teeth of the

mako as ear ornaments.

291. HAMMERHEAD SHARK (Sphyrha

lewini), Mangopare of the Maoris, is well

named, for the lateral extensions of the

skull are shaped just like a double¬

headed hammer. It grows up to about 15

feet in length, but most examples seen

locally are only half that length. The

colour is ashy-grey above fading to pale

yellowish below. The dull bluish and

brown eyes are at the extremities of the

hammer-head. In Australia this shark is

regarded as dangerous, since large

examples frequent bathing beaches.

292. WHITE SHARK (Carcharodon aibimors),

Mango tuatini of the Maoris, is a large,

heavy-bodied shark attaining a length of

16 feet and a weight of over 1700 lbs. A

928 lb. example caught off W T hangaroa

had in its stomach a four-foot Mako, the

backbone of another, a 40 lb. Hapuku, a

gannet, a 25 lb. lump of whale blubber

and seven strands of whalebone. This

voracious shark occurs in Australian

waters also, where its name “White

Death” indicates that it is a dangerous

species. It is greyish above, white below

and has large triangular teeth with ser¬

rated edges. In spite of frequent refer¬

ences in the press to the occurrence of

“Grey-nurse” sharks in New Zealand

waters, this notorious Australian species

has never been definitely recorded from

our seas.

293.

THRESHER SHARK (Alopias caudatus)

Mango npi of the Maoris, is very easily

recognised by the extremely large upper

fluke of the tail, which is as long as the

combined length of the head and body

The colour of the thresher is dark bluish

grey above and white below. The mouth

and teeth of this shark are small, but it

uses its long tail to beat the water and

round up small fish upon which it feeds.

The thresher is not uncommon in North

Auckland waters and is generally distri¬

buted in Australia. It attains a length

of 18 feet and a weight of at least 922

lbs.

294. GUMMY SHARK OR DOGFISH (Emis-

s°la antarctica), Manga of the Maoris

grows up to 3& feet in length and is

ashy-grey with lighter spots on the back.

It is easily recognised by its small blunt

teeth, arranged like a pavement, which

render it inoffensive to man. The Maoris

of old relished the sun-dried flesh of this

and other small sharks. At night the

dogfish comes into very shallow water

in search of food and is frequently

encountered on the shallow flats of

Auckland Harbour.

295. PIKED DOGFISH (Flakeus griffinl).

This is greyish without markings and

about 20 inches in length. It is easily

recognised by the sharp spine along the

front edge of both dorsal fins. The

species is often trawled in the Hauraki

Gulf.

296. SEVEN-GILLED SHARK (Notoryn-

chus cepedianus), Tuatini of the Maoris,

differs from all other New Zealand

species in having seven gill slits instead

of the usual five. The dorsal fin is small

and rounded and situated well back

towards the tail, which has the upper

fluke much the larger. In colour it is

sandy-grey above and white below. The

teeth are distinctive and differ in each

jaw; the upper ones are more or less

single pointed, but the lower ones have

8 or 9 cusps and resemble short sections

of a hacksaw blade. It grows to over

9 feet, but is rather uncommon in New

Zealand. In South Australia it is regarded

as a dangerous species. There is a speci¬

men in the Auckland Museum taken

from inside Manukau Heads.

297. SCHOOL SHARK or TOPE (Notogaleus

australis). This is very similar in shape

to the Dog-fish, having a double-tail and

pointed nose, but it has proportionately

a greater girth and is much larger,

attaining a length of from 6 to 7 feet.

In colour it is slaty-purple to brownish

above and much lighter below. The teeth

are sharply pointed and serrated, but

this shark is harmless to man. It is

very common in Now Zealand coastal

waters and. occurs in Australia also. A

closely allied American species, the

Soup-fin shark, is valued in California

for its liver oil, and the fins, which are

sent to China as a delicacy in the pre¬

paration of a special soup. Several fac¬

tories are now in operation in New

Zealand for the extraction of shark-liver

oil, which has a rich vitamin content.

298. BASKING SHARK (Halsydrus maccoyi),

Reremai of the Maoris, is our largest

shark, but it is quite harmless, for its

teeth are blunt and only a quarter of

an inch in length. Its food consists of

small fishes and crustaceans. This shark

attains a length of over 30 feet, and it

is purplish-brown above and greyish

underneath. The most conspicuous fea¬

ture is the extremely long gill slits which

almost sever the head from the body.

The gills are provided with comb-like

processes, which the fish uses as a

strainer, when swallowing quantities of

small crustaceans. The Reremai occurs

both in New Zealand and Australia. A

related European species grows to over

35 feet in length. Two extra large New

Zealand examples are on record — one

stranded near Whangaparoa, Hauraki

Gulf, in 1889, 34 feet 3 inches in length,

and another which came ashore at Te

Kaha, Bay of Plenty, a few years ago,

28 feet 6 inches in length.

299. CARPET SHARK (Cephaloscyllium Isa¬

bella). This is a small, harmless species,

about 3 feet in length, which frequents

the sea bed, where it feeds on crabs,

worms and other marine organisms. It

is brown, mottled and spotted with

darker brown. The body is flattened dor-

sally and the tail resembles that of a

Dog-fish. In shape the carpet-shark some¬

what approaches the spreading form of a

Sting-ray. It is rather sluggish and

prefers the deeper waters.

300. EAGLE RAY (Aetobatis tenuicaudatus).

This grows to about three feet in width

and has a thick body with a bluntly

rounded snout, but the flukes are ex¬

tended laterally to tapered points, so

that the whole outline resembles the

shape of a kite. The colour varies from

dirty greenish grey to almost black. It

is harmless except for a hard bony spine

set at an angle on the smooth, whip-like

tail. This spine can inflict a nasty wound,

and is dangerous since there are poison

glands and ducts associated with it. The

eagle-ray feeds largely upon shellfish,

which it crushes w r ith powerful jaws lined

with hexagonal flat teeth set like paving

stones. This fish is common in northern

waters, especially in the Hauraki Gulf,

where they are frequently seen in shallow

water during summer. The flesh of this

ray is edible and quite palatable if soaked

in fresh water for some hours to dispel

a slight ammonia flavour.

301. STINGAREE or STING RAY (Bathytoshia

brevicaudatus). Our largest species

growing to a diameter of 7 feet and a

length of 14 feet. It is found in South¬

ern Australia, Tasmania and New Zea¬

land, more commonly in the North Island.

In the Auckland Museum there is a cast

of a large one captured in the Manukau

Harbour in 1932. This specimen is 8 feet

long by 5| feet wide and the tail is 39

inches in length. This ray is sandy to

greyish in colour, and apart from its

large size is easily recognised by the

rows of spines on the tail, which resemble

rose thorns, and the hard bony sting up

to 8 inches in length which projects at an

angle about half way down the tail.

302. SKATE (Raja nasuta), Whai of the

Maoris, is easily distinguishable from

other rays by its comparative thinness,

long pointed snout, two dorsal fins on the

tail, and absence of the long bony tail

spine. It is light brown, mottled and

spotted with dark brown on the top side

and white beneath. The skate is common

at moderate depths all round the New

Zealand coast, especially in Hawke’s Bay

and Otago. It is usually from 20 inches

to 3 feet in length and is an excellent

food fish.

303. ELECTRIC RAY (Narcobatus fairchildi),

Whai repo of the Maoris, has a shark-like

tail, but the front of the body is

expanded as a large fiat disc. It is dark,

almost black, and grows to about four

feet in length. There is no spine on the

tail, but this fish has the remarkable

ability of inflicting a powerful electric

shock. Beneath the skin on each side of

the forward flukes of the body there are

intricate cells, connected with the ner¬

vous system, which operate in producing

an electric discharge. An example caught

on a line at Maraetai a few years ago

administered a distinct shock which was

transmitted up the line to the fisherman’s

hands, the circuit being completed from

the fact that the man’s feet were

immersed in the bilge water of a small

boat.

304. KOKOPU or NATIVE TROUT (Galaxias

fasciatus). A sluggish fish found under

stones, banks and around sunken logs in

most streams throughout New Zealand.

It is a dull brownish fish variously

marked, when adult, with undulating pale

streaks, especially towards the tail. It

grows to about a foot in length, and the

body is scaleless. The young of a closely

related smaller and more slender fish,

G. attenuatus, forms the well-known

Whitebait. Prior to 1929 the eggs and

larval history of New Zealand Whitebait

was unknown, but as the result of inten¬

sive investigation by Captain Hayes, then

of the Fisheries Department, the com¬

plete life history of Galaxias attenuatus,

or the New Zealand Minnow, as it is

often termed, was made known.

305.

306.

It was found that the minnow migrates

to the tidal parts of the rivers during

spring tides and spawns at the highest

margin amongst rushes and grasses. As

the tides fall off the eggs are left high

and dry and develop free from aquatic

enemies. When the next spring tides reach

the eggs, hatching takes place and the

larvae are carried down by the ebb tide.

The post larval stages of these minnows

are our whitebait or the inanga of the

Maoris. They are an esteemed delicacy

with both people. Nature’s ingenious

scheme for the protection of whitebait

eggs has been largely upset by the

advance of agriculture, for where stock

have access to the river banks their

trampling destroys countless numbers of

potential whitebait.

LONG-FINNED EEL (Anguilla dieffen-

bachii).

SHORT-FINNED EEL (Anguilla aus¬

tralis schmidtii). These are the common

fresh-water eels called tuna by the

Maoris. They are much alike except for

the relative length of the dorsal fin, and

regarding this feature the popular names

are self-explanatory. A New Zealand eel

survey carried out by the late world

authority, Professor J. Schmidt, showed

that the short-finned eel belongs mainly

to the north and east and the long-finned

eel to the south and west. New Zealand

can claim to have the world’s largest

fresh-water eels, for examples over five

feet long and weighing up to 46 lbs. are

on record. These extra large eels are

senile creatures that have ceased to obey

the breeding urge to migrate and simply

stay behind, steadily putting on weight.

The remarkable migrations of the Euro¬

pean and American eels to breeding

grounds in the West Indies is now well

known, but it is not generally realised

that our own species indulge in a similar

migration. The actual site of the oceanic

breeding ground for the New Zealand

eels is not accurately known, but it is

presumed to be somewhere near Tonga.

Many people are still loath to believe

that our eels proceed to the open sea to

breed. The fact remains that the leaf¬

like larvae of our eels have never been

taken in local waters.

07. CONGER EEL ( Leptocephalus ver-

reauxi), Ngoio of the Maoris, is the com¬

mon one of a number of marine eels. It

grows up to 6 feet in length, with a

weight of 35 lbs., is restricted to salt

water and is variously coloured, for it

may be dark grey, pale brown, yellowish,

or pale greenish. It seldom has markings,

but is usually paler below. Other species

of congers have elaborate patterns in red-

brown, orange and grey. The remarkably

slender bronzy-brown snake-eel, Ophisurus

serpens, attains a length of eight feet,

but its maximum diameter is no more

than 2 inches.

308. CLING FISH (Diplocrepis puniceus) This

is found by turning over stones at low

tide, for it frequently makes no attemnt

to escape, but clings tightly to the stone

by means of a specially designed suction

disc on the under side of the body Tr

is a small fish, only 3 inches in leneth

with a broadly flattened body and is

bright pink marbled and spotted’with red

and brown. A related species, D. tumidus

is variously coloured, but always has a

pattern of purplish-brown longitudinal

lines. Both are common in Auckland

waters.

309. SILVERY GARFISH (Regalecus argen-

teus). This is a bizarre inhabitant of the

ocean depths, which comes to the sur¬

face on rare occasions in New Zealand

waters. In the Auckland Museum there

is a cast of one taken near Motueka

Nelson, in 1932. It is 9 feet 2 inches in

length, 6 inches in depth, and narrow like

a ribbon. The body is bright silver spot¬

ted with mauve, and with irregular black

stripes and spots round about the head.

Right along the back runs a vermilion

coloured dorsal fin, and over the head

there is a high crest of red rays. On the

under side near the head are two long

feelers with broadened tips and from

these it gets its popular name of oar-

fish. Oar-fishes of several species are

widely distributed, but they never occur

abundantly. Their sinuous movements

and great length, sometimes over 20 feet,

have provided more than one erroneous

record of a “ Sea-serpent.”

310. SEA-HORSE (Hippocampus abdominalis).

Not uncommon around seaweed covered

rocks in harbours throughout New Zea¬

land. This quaint little fish grows from

5 to 6 inches in height, and it is usually

mottled in browns. The body is narrow

and strongly cross ridged on the sides.

The resemblance of the head to that of

a horse is most marked, and the likeness

is further strengthened by a well-formed

neck and prominent chest. The tail,

however, is coiled and used for attach¬

ment to seaweeds, where this little fish

awaits its tiny crustacean victims, which

are sucked into its tubular mouth.

311. LONG BEAKED PIPE FISH (Stigmato-

phora longirostris). This is slender with

the tail tapered to a fine point. The mouth

is long and tubular with tiny jaws at the

extreme tip. The Pipe-fishes are like

stretched out Sea-horses, but they always

remain thus and the tail is not prehen¬

sile. The figured species is usually 6 to

8 inches in length, but they sometimes

grow up to 14 inches. It is greenish or

brownish with two rows of dark brown

dots along each side. This species is com¬

mon in Wellington Harbour and occurs

around Auckland also. It is found hiding

amongst masses of seaweeds, but a more

abundant species, obtainable at Auckland

in the same manner, is the smaller

Ichthyocampus filum, which is brownish

with black crossbars, and has a much

shorter beak.

312. PIPER (Hemirhamphus intermedius).

This is common in the harbours and

estuaries of both the North and South

Islands. The piper is excellent eating,

and its usual mode of capture with a light

rod and line and float provide sport for

young and old alike. This fish grows to

about a foot in length, is narrow, and at

once distinguished by its curious mouth,

with the beaked lower jaw protruding

much beyond the upper.

313. LARGE FLYING FISH (Cypselurus mel-

anocercus). This grows up to 15 inches in

length, and is generally distributed in

East Coast waters from the Bay of

Plenty northwards. The colour is dark

steely blue on top and lighter below. The

so-called wings are enlarged membranous

fins, and these enable this fish to accom¬

plish planing flights of up to 100 yards, at

speeds of between 20 and 30 miles an

hour. The reason for these flights is for

eluding fast swimming predaceous fish.

314. JOHN DORY (Zeus faber), Kuparu of

the Maoris, is found mostly in the deeper

waters of the North Island, where it is

obtained by trawling. It grows up to

about 18 inches in length and is dirty

white to dull greenish and grey with a

conspicuous round black spot on each

side of the body. The European Dory has

these spots also, and in the early ages

this feature gave rise to the tradition

that this was the fish from which St.

Peter obtained the tribute money, the

spots being regarded as the inherited

imprints of the Apostle’s finger and

thumb. Unfortunately for the tradition

St. Peter’s fish was the inhabitant of a

lake. In summer the John Dory comes

into shallow water and may be netted —

they make curious grunting sounds on

being captured. It is much esteemed in

Auckland as a food fish.

315. SAND FLOUNDER (Rhombosolea ple-

beia), Patiki of the Maoris, is one of

three closely allied species of flat-fish

commonly marketed in New Zealand.

They are the inhabitants of shallow tidal

sandy or muddy flats, but some occur in

deep water also. The remarkable feature

of a flat-fish is the fact that it is born

with a symmetrical body, having an eye

on each side of the head, but once it takes

up its permanent mode of living with one

side resting on the bottom the lower eye

migrates and adjoins its fellow on the

upper side. The common flounder with

the yellow under-side is the “Yellow-

belly,” R. leporina — it is commonly taken

on mud-flats in harbours and in estuaries.

The third common species, the “Green¬

back,” R. tapirina, grows up to 20 inches

in length and frequents both shallow and

deep water either in harbours or off the

open coast.

if,

316. SOLE (Peltorhamphus novaezelandiae)

Patiki rori of the Maoris, is distinguished

from the flounders by its oval shape

rounded region of the head and the

almost continuous fringe of fins. Most

of the market supply is trawled in mod¬

erately deep water, but it is occasionally

found in shallow estuarine locations The

Sole is olive-grey, dotted with black and

extra large examples have been recorded

up to 30 inches in length. It is esteemed

as a food fish, but only because it is

less common in the markets than floun¬

der, which are superior in taste and food

value. A related species is known as the

Lemon-sole, Pelotretus flavilatus. Thir¬

teen species of flat-fishes are known from

New Zealand waters, including a large

Turbot, Colistium nudipinnis, which is

comparatively rare, and the Megrim,

Caulopsetta scapha, which is not popular

as a food fish as it is usually very thin

The latter species abounds in the Te

Whanga Lagoon, Chatham Island.

317. GREY MULLET (Mugil cephalus), Kanae

of the Maoris, is an excellent food fish,

rich in fat and protein. It averages about

18 inches in length and is dull bluish

above and silvery below. A familiar

sight in northern harbours is the gleam¬

ing flash as a mullet leaps out of the

water and returns to its element with a

resounding splash. These leaps are evi¬

dently for the purpose of evading pre¬

daceous fish. The mullet was once

extremely abundant in most North Island

harbours and estuaries, and it still occurs

plentifully in waters that have not been

extensively fished.

318. YELLOW-EYED MULLET (Agnostomus

forsteri), Awa of the Maoris, is usually

called the Herring, but it is not related

to the English fish of that name. It is

usually about 7 to 12 inches in length

and is similarly coloured to the grey

mullet except for the bright yellow iris

of the eye, and it is more slender. This

is a common fish throughout New Zea¬

land, especially in the Hauraki Gulf,

where it can be netted on almost any

beach in great quantities. The yellow¬

eyed mullet is good eating except for the

annoyance occasioned by many small

bones.

319. SCHOOL TREVALLY (Usacaranx lutes-

cens), Araara of the Maoris, is a common

school fish in North Auckland waters.

During summer, schools some square

miles in extent are often seen off the

coast. These fish, which average about

15 inches in length, move with consid¬

erable speed, but ignore all attempts at

trolling. When not schooling the trevally

is easily taken by hook and line from

the sea-bottom. Aged females of this

species become solitary and reach a large

size. One such taken at Motutapu Island,

Auckland, was 35 inches in length. The

trevally is recognised by its rather deep

laterally compressed body, conspicuous

bony spines on the lateral line towards

the tail, and brilliant colouring 0 f

iridescent blue and green, paling below

to iridescent silvery. The flesh is firm

and very tasty, and it is surprising that

its worth is not generally realised.

320. KINGFISH (Regificola grandis), Haku

of the Maoris, is an excellent sporting

fish which readily takes the trolling hook

or spinner. It grows up to about 4 feet

in length, with a weight of over 100 lbs.,

but the average examples are about 2

feet in length. It is much thicker in the

body than the trevally and more rounded

in cross section. In colour it is greenish-

blue or purplish-blue above and silvery-

white below. It feeds on small school-

fish and is frequently seen pursuing small

fish right into shallow water. Small fish

often leap from the water, high and dry

on the shore, in their frantic endeavours

to evade the kingfish. Fresh kingfish is

rather dry and flavourless, but it

improves as a canned product.

321. KAHAWA! (Arripis trutta). A common

school fish from Cook Strait northwards,

but it is comparatively rare in the south.

Although only 18 inches to 2 feet in

length the kahawai is a good sporting fish,

for it readily takes the spinner and

fights gamely to the end. It is a greenish-

grey above and white below, frequently

zigzag striped and spotted in brown on

the upper part of the body. Half-grown

kahawai is good eating, but they tend

with age to become dry and tasteless.

Like the kingfish it improves with can¬

ning, and is a fair substitute for canned

salmon.

322. SNAPPER (Pagrosomus auratus). The

principal food fish at Auckland, but it

becomes increasingly uncommon as one

proceeds southwards. The snapper is

reddish-bronze above, spotted with light

blue, and silvery grey below. It has a

deep body and a large head. The snapper

is a great scavenger and a voracious

feeder, and will eat almost anything in

the way of animal food. For most of the

year it is a bottom feeder, partaking of

crabs, other Crustacea, shellfish, heart-

urchins and small fishes, but in December

and January those of breeding age con¬

gregate at the surface in definite areas

where spawning takes place. During this

period the snapper feeds on surface

organisms, especially salps, which are a

floating kind of sea-squirt. The breeding

ground for Auckland snapper is between

Tiri Tiri Island and Kawau Island. The

average snapper is about a foot in length,

but a huge example, 28 lbs. in weight and

41 inches in length, was taken some years

ago at Gannet Island, near Kawhia. A

lik

X>K

in I

Iht

Ch(,

si;

111

ist

r ar

:fc

nii

ro*

te;

it:

323.

cast of this specimen is exhibited

Auckland Museum. Frequently the

is incorrectly spelt as “Schnapper.

in the

name

TARAKIHI (Dactylopagrus macropterus}

This is another good food fish common

throughout New Zealand. It is ’about the

same size as the snapper, but has a

smaller head and a long spiny ray

extending from each of the pectoral or

side fins. The colour is silvery grev with

a black saddle behind the heacL ‘ *

9 94

u+j i.

nr U .h, TE M FISH <Co |' id , odax pullus), Marari

ot the Maoris, is a kelp fish found through-

out New Zealand, but most commonly in

the South. It grows to about 20 inches

Z 6 T\ 1S PUrplish Si'ey, lighter below',

and the fins are variegated with bright

blue. An alternative name is “Green-

bone” irom the fact that the bones

and the flesh in contact with them are

stained bright bluish green. It is of

excellent flavour and is keenly sought

on the maiket. A distinctive feature is

the broad sweeping dorsal and anal fins.

3 „o. BLUE COD (Parapercis colias), Rawaru

ol the Maoris, is our most esteemed food

fish. It occurs throughout New Zealand,

mainly in deep water, but the best con¬

centrations are in Cook Strait, Stewart

Island and the Chatham Islands. It

grows to a length of 24 inches with a

weight of 12 lbs. In colour it is dark

greenish to bluish grey marbled with

brown.

328. MAOMAO (Scorpis violaceus). This is

a common fish north from East Cape. It

is from 8 to 10 inches in length and easily

recognised by its blue to violet colour,

fading to bluish silvery-white below. It

is usually found around sunken rocks and

reefs on the open coast, and a shoal of

them in clear water is a fine sight. Mao-

mao is an excellent food fish, but as it fre¬

quents rocky ground, hook and line is

the only satisfactory means of capture,

hence it is seldom seen in the markets.

327. HAPUKU or GROPER (Polyprion oxy-

geneios). A very large deep-water species,

highly esteemed throughout New Zealand

as a food fish. It frequents reefs and

caverns in deep water, and is remarkable

for its lack of fight when hooked. Some

examples attain a length of 5 feet and

a weight of over 100 lbs., but the average

is 40 to 50 lbs. Most of the very large

ones are from 100 fathoms or more and

are a different species, the Bass, P.

moeone, distinguished by having a

much larger head and a deeper body.

328. YELLOW-FINNED ALBACORE (Neo-

thunnus itosibi). A magnificent torpedo¬

shaped fish of the mackerel group, known

as Tuna or Tunny. It ranges far and

wide over the Pacific, for it is known

from Hawaii, Japan, and northern New

Zealand. The largest known New Zea¬

land specimen was taken near Whanga-

roa in 1935 by Mr. Stanley Ellis, and it

measured 6 feet 2 inches in length and

weighed 187 lbs. This species is dull

blue above, silvery below, and the fins

are bordered with bright yellow. A

feature of the fish is the large sickle¬

shaped dorsal and anal fins. A cast of

the Whangaroa specimen is in the

Auckland Museum.

329. TUNA (Thunnus phillippsi). This is of

similar size, shape, and general colour

to the above, but the dorsal and anal

fins are much smaller and lack the yel¬

low border. It was originally described

from a Bay of Islands specimen. This

species is closely allied to the giant

tunas, which sometimes attain a weight of

up to 1400 lbs. The flesh of the tuna

fishes is pinkish and of excellent flavour,

especially when canned. A huge ocean¬

going fishing fleet operates from Califor¬

nia, the vessels going as far afield as

Panama and the Galapagos Islands. It

is likely that tuna will eventually be

fished commercially in New Zealand.

330. LONG-FINNED ALBACORE (Germo

germo). This is at once distinguished by

the very long pectoral or side fins. It

grows to about 2 feet 6 inches in length

and is a brilliant blue above and bluish

silver below. This fish is not uncommon

off shore around the North Auckland east

coast during summer. All members of

the tuna group are powerful swimmers

and almost invariably they will not take

the trolling hook at speeds under ten

knots.

331. BON1TO (Katsuwonus pelamis). A

widely distributed oceanic fish which

comes as a summer migrant to northern

New Zealand waters. It grows up to about

2 feet in length and is violet blue above

and pale purplish to silvery grey below

with about six dark grey streaks running

lengthwise. All the tuna fishes achieve

their speed by a sculling action of the

large powerful tail. The other fins are

used for manoeuvring or as stabilisers.

While swimming, the dorsal fins fold back

into sunken grooves, and the pectoral

or side fins fit exactly into depressions

in the fishes’ body.

332. SOUTHERN MACKEREL (Pneumato-

phorus australasicus). This closely

resembles the well-known English Mack¬

erel. It is shining bluish-green on the

back with spots and meandering bars of

dark colour; the underside is silvery. It

is a surface fish usually found in schools,

and is not uncommon from Cook Strait

northwards.

333. BROADBILL or TRUE SWORDFISH

(Xiphias gladius). This ranges all tropi¬

cal and temperate seas, but in New

Zealand it is a rare visitor. In the

Auckland Museum there is a cast of an

exceptionally fine specimen, 13 feet 8

inches in length and weighing 620 lbs,

m -

caught by Mr. H. W. Burch at Mayor

Island in March, 1937. The Broadbill

differs from the Marlins in having: a

longer and stouter sword, which is broad

and fiat, a massive and permanently

erect dorsal fin, and single lateral flanges

on each side near the tail. It is purplish

brown above and silvery white below

The only known breeding place of the

species is in the Mediterranean

334. BLACK MARLIN (Makaira nigricans

marlina). The larger of two species

of marlins which have brought New

Zealand into prominence as a base for

excellent big-game fishing. The best

grounds are off the Bay of Islands,

Whangaroa, and Mayor Island. There is

a cast of a large Black Marlin in the

Auckland Museum, weighing 876 lbs.,

caught off Cape Brett in March, 1928, by

Mr. W. A. Britton. It is dark blue above

with indistinct vertical stripes and bluish

silver below. It is deeper in the body

and a much larger and heavier fish than

the Striped Marlin.

335. STRIPED MARLIN (Makaira mitsukurii).

The common big-game fish of New

Zealand waters, but the species ranges

over most of the Pacific. It grows to

about 9 feet in length with a weight of up

to 380 lbs, but the average is about 250

lbs. It differs from the Black Marlin in

having less depth to the body, more con¬

spicuous vertical stripes and is consider¬

ably smaller. Both species visit northern

New Zealand waters from December to

April. Marlins differ from the broadbill

in having a retractive sail-like dorsal

fin, paired flanges on each side near the

tail, and curious bony extensions of the

vertebra which interlock and give both

strength and flexibility to the backbone.

The vertebra in the broadbill lack these

bony interlocking structures. Marlins

fight magnificently and frequently leap

clean out of the water. The flesh is good

eating, having a distinctive, very palat¬

able flavour.

336. BARRACOUTA (Thyrsites atun), Manga

of the Maoris, is a long narrow fish

attaining a length of almost 4 feet and a

weight of 8 lbs. It is found throughout

New Zealand and Australia, and usually

occurs in surface shoals. It is predaceous

on other fishes and is notable for the

unrelenting fury with which it attacks

other fish, sometimes larger than itself.

The teeth are long and pointed ^ like

needles. The upper part of the body is

dark grey with bluish reflections, and the

lower part silvery grey. The Barracouta

is most abundant in the South Island,

where it is regarded as an important

edible fish.

337. FROST-FISH (Lepidopus caudatus), Para

of the Maoris, is like a long narrow rib¬

bon of burnished silver, from 3 to 5 feet

in length. They derive their name from

the fact that numbers of these fish come

ashore around the coast, usually on calm,

clear frosty nights. No satisfactory

explanation has yet been advanced for the

Frost-fishes’ apparent propensity for self-

destruction. Numbers of these fish are

taken at times by trawlers operating in

northern waters, from depths of between

30 and 50 fathoms. The flesh is excellent,

and, on the infrequent occasions when it

is offered for sale, commands a high

price.

338. LING (Genypterus biacodes), Hokarari of

the Maoris, grows up to 4 feet in length,

with a weight of 30 lbs, and looks just

like a giant tadpole. The colour is red¬

dish-purple, marbled and speckled in

darker shades, and fading to pinkish-

white below. The Ling is very abundant

in deep water from Cook Strait south

wards. It is a good food fish, but is not

popular for some unaccountable reason.

339. RED GURNARD (Chelidonichthys kumu),

Kumukumu of the Maoris, is easily recog¬

nised by its parchment-like side fins,

which resemble wings, and curious finger-

like processes associated with these fins.

These fingers are employed to feel the

sea bottom in search of crustaceans and

other animal food. The Gurnard grows up

to 21 inches in length, but the usual size

is 14 or 15 inches. It is largely reddish

to reddish-brown, but the side fins are

dark green relieved by sky-blue spots and

crossed by bright red rays. It is a good

food fish and occurs abundantly every¬

where in New Zealand except in the

extreme south.

340. ROCKFISH ( Acanthoclinus quadrid-

actylus), Taumaka of the Maoris, is the

small brownish-olive fish, about 7 inches

in length, which is found lurking under

boulders at low tide. It is an ugly fish

with stout fin rays which are thickened

at the ends, not tapered to a fine point as

in most fishes. The egg mass is a yel¬

lowish jelly-like ball, about 3 inches in

diameter and usually deposited amongst

sea-grass.

341. PORCUPINE-FISH ( Allomycterus jacu-

liferus). This belongs to a group of

poisonous tropical fishes, most of which

have the power of greatly inflating the

body as a means of defence. When the

body is thus inflated long spines embedded

in the skin become rigid and erect. This

fish, which is often well over a foot in

length, is frequently trawled in North

Island waters. It is white variously

blotched and spotted with brown and

yellow.

342. LEATHER-JACKET (Cantherines convex-

irostris), Kokiri of the Maoris, is a

curious rough-skinned fish with a small

mouth and a trigger-like spine on the

back which can be locked into a vertical

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position at will. This fish resembles

brown suede leather except for the fins,

which are bright yellow. It is a good food

fish and is sold in the Auckland markets

in the form of skinned fillets under the

name of “cream-fish.” The leather-jacket

is under a toot in length and is common

in the outer Hauraki Gulf, where they

are often seen feeding amongst seaweed-

covered rocks.

343. STARGAZER (Leptoscopus macropy-

gus). An ugly fish with a broad depressed

body and the mouth inclined upwards. It

grows up to a foot in length and is dark

brown or grey mottled with oval to

crescentic light patches. This fish is

sluggish, for it lurks amongst rocks or

shingle on the sea-bottom, ready to seize

and devour any crustacean or small fish

that comes within reach of the cavernous

mouth. It is found in low-tidal rock pools

and in deeper water.

344. OBLONG SUNFISH (Ranzania laevis).

This is a great rarity, known from New

Zealand by only two specimens, one

caught at the Bay of Islands in 1936 and

the other washed ashore at Waikanae,

Cook Strait, in 1941. This sunfish is little

more than a foot in length and is specially

designed for deep vertical diving. The

dorsal and ventral fins as well as the

short fringed tail are all bunched at the

end of the body. It is nowhere common

and on the rare occasions when it makes

its appearance at Honolulu the natives

regard it as the fish god ancestor of the

mackerels and bonitos and on no account

must it be molested.

345. OCEAN SUNFISH (Mola rnola). A giant

compared with the last species, for it

grows up to 14 feet in height with a

length of 10 feet and a weight of over

two tons. In the Auckland Museum there

is a cast of one 9 feet high and weighing

10 cwt. 7 lbs., w^hich was taken at Leigh,

Hauraki Gulf, by Mr. J. Torkington in

1931. These giant fish are not uncom¬

mon in New Zealand waters, and from

time to time odd ones become stranded

in shallow water. A few years ago a half-

grown one found its way up the shallow

reaches of the Tarnaki Estuary, Auck¬

land. They have a small mouth and are

harmless, for they feed on squids and

other small marine creatures.

REPTILES

Reptiles are represented in New r Zealand by

some 14 species of small lizards, two sea-

snakes and tW'O turtles, which stray occasion¬

ally to our shores, and the remarkable Tuatara,

a unique surviving member of an archaic

group which became extinct elsewhere many

millions of years ago.

Reptiles are cold-blooded vertebrates with

a scaly skin, and they breathe by lungs, but

of less complex form than those of birds and

mammals. They are a stage higher than the

amphibia, since the land members do not

require to spend their early existence in

water.

Reptiles were once the dominant land

animals, and many of them achieved a great

size. It is interesting to note that the marine

turtles come to land to lay their eggs, thus

reversing the procedure of the amphibia.

Reptiles develop from hard-shelled eggs, or

they may be born alive. Birds and mammals

undoubtedly arose from reptilian stock, and

so w'e find that the birds continue the egg-

laying habit and the mammals, except for the

most primitive, give birth to active young.

346. YELLOW BELLIED SEA SNAKE (Pel-

amis platurus). An occasional visitor to

our shores from the tropical Pacific. It

grows from 30 to 40 inches in length and

is easily distinguished from the conger-

eels by the flattened end of its tail and

the conspicuous colour pattern. The

upper half of the body is black and the

lower portion yellow with large black

spots near the end of the tail. The yel¬

low-belly is highly venomous, but the

fangs are small. There are about fifteen

records of this snake from North Auck¬

land waters, but they are usually found

either washed ashore or in a spent

condition.

347. RINGED SEA SNAKE (Laticauda coiu-

brina). Another occasional visitor to

North Auckland waters. It grows to five

feet in length, but is very slender and

circular in section, the end of the tail

alone being flattened. The general colour

is bluish-grey conspicuously marked with

numerous broad rings of dark brown. It

is venomous, but has very small jaws.

The species is widely distributed, for it

occurs from the Bay of Bengal to Japan,

Australia and throughout the tropical

Pacific.

348. LEATHERY TURTLE (Lepidocheiys

olivacea). This turtle is the sole survivor

of a group of fossil species, differing

from all other living species in the form

of the carapace or “shell” which is, a

mosaic-like structure of a large number

of closely-joined, irregular, bony discs,

covered by a leathery exterior, having sev¬

eral prominent longtitudinal keels. When

partly submerged it looks just like an

upturned dinghy. There are four definite

records of the Leathery Turtle in North¬

ern New Zealand waters. The first was

taken at Cape Brett in May, 1892, the

second between Mangonui and the Bay

of Islands in 1894, the third off Cape

Brett on January 3rd, 1939, and the latest

came ashore near Thames in May, 1945.

The 1939 example was 7 feet 6 inches

in length and weighed 1062 lbs. This

species is widely distributed throughout

the tropical Atlantic, Indian and Pacific

Oceans, from which it occasionally

wanders to the cooler regions. Yearly

becoming scarcer, it is one of those

species which seems to be nearing

extinction.

349. GREEN TURTLE (Chelone mydas). This,

the famed edible turtle of the tropics, is

also an occasional visitor to New Zealand

waters. It has a thick, bony shell covered

with large, closely-fitting smooth plates

of “tortoise”-shell. In the Auckland

Museum there is a specimen three feet

in length, taken at Manukau Heads in

1885. The late Mr. T. F. Cheeseman

recorded another from near Parengarenga

in 1896, and on a number of subsequent

occasions yachtsmen have encountered

them in northern waters.

350. BROWN SKINK (Lygosoma moco). This

is the sleek brownish mottled lizard com¬

mon under stones and logs, particularly

in the Auckland district. It is the little

lizard of our gardens which darts away

at great speed when disturbed. Our true

lizards are referred to as either skinks or

geckos — the former have small heads,

are smooth and scaly all over and live on

the ground — the latter have broad

heads, a soft skin, with scales only on

the head and belly and are to be found

mostly amongst the foliage of trees and

shrubs.

One of the best known peculiarities of

the lizards is their ability to cast off a

large portion of the tail when disturbed,

and apparently without ill effect. The

common belief that they can fasten them

on again is, however, quite incorrect. A

new tail eventually grows and is usually

slightly different in contour and colour

pattern. The breaking off of the tail

without severe injury to the lizard is

due to the presence of cartilaginous

bands between certain of the tail verte¬

bra, making intentional points of weak¬

ness.

On Great Island of the Three Kings

group there is a very abundant fat-bodied

skink which grows up to ten inches long.

They are very fond of basking in the

sun, and some of them appear to share

the burrows of petrels in the same

manner as in the case of the tuatara.

351. GREEN GECKO (Nauitinus elegans). A

most handsome lizard, about six inches in

length, and normally a velvety bright

grass green. Occasionally sulphur yel¬

low ones are seen, and examples with

varied patterns of both colours are not

uncommon. This lizard is not often seen,

lor in its natural haunts the protective

colouring renders it most inconspicuous

amongst the foliage of shrubs and small

bushes.

^ The species is widely distributed in

New Zealand, and they have been taken

on a number of occasions on manuka

scrub at Titirangi near Auckland.

I lie gieen lizard is easily kept in cap¬

tivity, and makes a charming pet. A

supply of flies may be maintained by

allowing fruit to decay in the cage. A

small allowance of honey and a little

water in a shallow dish are the only

other essentials.

There are some 14 known species of

lizards in New Zealand, and all of

them are native.

352. TUATARA (Sphenodon punctatus). A

reptile of up to 2 feet in length which

still exists in small numbers on some 16

islands, mostly off the North Auckland

East Coast, Bay of Plenty and Cook Strait.

Tuataras once occurred on the North

Island mainland, but have long disap¬

peared.

The tuatara is not a lizard, but the

sole survivor of a group of ancient

reptiles somewhat akin to the fossil

Dinosaurs. It is truly a living fossil, one

of the most remarkable instances of the

survival of a group which elsewhere

became extinct many millions of years

ago.

The tuatara has a strange habit of

sharing the occupation of petrel burrows.

The bird forms the burrow and in sum¬

mer petrel and tuatara occupy it jointly,

but in winter when the petrel goes to

sea the tuatara is left in undisputed

possession. Tuataras live to such a ripe

old age that eventually they outlive the

petrel and acquire the burrow's in their

sole right. The nesting petrel does not

seem to object to the presence of the

tuatara in its burrow — during the day

they both sleep, and at night when the

petrel wakes to welcome her mate, the

tuatara sets out on his nocturnal hunt

for insects.

The tuatara has many primitive

features; beneath the skin on the head

is the problematic pineal gland which is

considered to be the remnant of an

original pair of eyes, and the jaw does

not possess socketed teeth, but merely

serrations of the jawbone. There are

records of tuataras kept in captivity for

over fifty years, and the Maoris claim

that one has lived in a shell pit at Motiti

Island for nearly three hundred years.

This claim is not unreasonable wdien we

consider that another reptile, the tortoise,

has been known to live 250 years.

The tuatara is absolutely protected

under the “Animals Protection Act/’

From time to time odd occurrences of

the tuatara on the mainland are reported,

but these have been brought from the

offshore islands by unauthorised persons.

It must be borne in mind that the removal

of these reptiles and the keeping of them

in captivity is just as serious an offence

as killing them.

AMPHIBIANS

FROGS

Frogs 1 , belong to the Amphibia, the oldest

and lowest group of the land vertebrates.

Their ancestors, many millions of years ago,

learned to crawl from their watery birthplace

and .complete their existence on dry land.

This transition is still apparent in the develop¬

ment of the common frog, which recapitulates

past history by undergoing a metamorphosis

from a tailed swimming tadpole to an adult

tail-less frog, which can live both on land and

in the water. The word Amphibia is from two

Greek words meaning “both and life’ 7 and

refers to this dual existence.

The only native Nev r Zealand amphibia are

three uncommon species of small frogs.

353. NATIVE FROG (Leiopelma hochstetteri).

Seventy years ago New Zealanders w r ere

unaccustomed to the croaking of frogs.

The frog now so abundant in swamps and

ponds throughout the country is not a

native but an introduced Australian

species. Our truly native frogs are known

from a few localities only and they are

far from common. There are three

species of native frogs, L. hochstetteri

from the Coromandel Range, Warkworth.

Waitakere Range and near East Cape;

L. archeyi, also from the Coromandel

Range, and L. hamiltoni from Stephen

Island, Cook Strait. They are small,

seldom exceeding lh inches in length

and are mottled dark and light brown.

These frogs frequent the vicinity of

mountain streams or under stones and

logs on the higher ridges. Native frogs

have a modified life history in which

there is no free-swimming tadpole stage,

but a minute tailed frog emerges straight

from the egg.

BIRDS

A century of European occupation has

wrought great changes in the New Zealand

bird fauna. Many species that once occurred

in countless thousands have dwindled greatly

with the depletion of the indigenous forests.

A few have adapted themselves both to culti¬

vated surroundings and to the keen

competition from some thirty-one introduced

species. In districts under cultivation it is

the introduced species that are almost invari¬

ably in evidence — the native species must be

sought in their natural surroundings of bush,

swamp and shore. Our native bird fauna con¬

sists of 230 species and includes some unique

flightless species and remarkable migrants.

Our bird fauna has descended partly from

ancient stock of Malayan affinity, derived

before the isolation of the New Zealand land

mass,/ and partly from widely distributed

southern sea birds.

KIWIS AND MOAS

Our two groups of primitive flightless birds,

the diminutive living kiwis, and the huge

extinct moas, up to 10 feet 6 inches in height,

probably became differentiated in the distant

geological past when New Zealand was a

much larger land mass.

Twenty species of moas once lived in New

Zealand, but all are now extinct. The last of

these giant birds fell victims to Maori hunts¬

men in prehistoric times. There. are com¬

plete mounted skeletons, a restoration of the

largest species and two complete eggs on view

in the Auckland Museum.

351. NORTH ISLAND KIWI (Apteryx man-

telli). The kiwi has become so widely

known as a symbol of New Zealand that

description is scarcely necessary. It is a

rather small, sturdily built, flightless

bird, noted for its long beak, with the

nostrils at the tip, a position unique

among living birds. The wings are rudi¬

mentary, the tail absent, the feathers

barbless like hairs, and it lays one or

two enormous eggs out of all proportion

to the size of the bird.

The North Island Kiwi stands about 12

inches in height and its plumage is

largely dark reddish-brown streaked with

black. Formerly it was widespread in

the North Island, but it is now compara¬

tively rare and confined to the more

extensive forest areas north of Wellington

Province. It is a nocturnal bird frequent¬

ing the dense damp recesses of the forest

where the soft ground and rotting leaves

enable it to probe its long beak in search

of worms, large grubs and their larvae.

The Kiwi nests in holes beneath the roots

of trees or in steep banks in the forest.

One egg is usual, but frequently two are

laid. The size of the egg is approximately

5| inches by 3-J- inches, truly remarkable

for a bird no larger than a domestic

fowl.

SOUTH ISLAND KIWI (Apteryx aus¬

tralis), Tokoeka of the Maoris, is larger

and more robust than the North Island

species, but similar in appearance, col¬

oration and habits. It is found to the

west of the Southern Alps and at

Stewart Island.

LARGE GREY KIWI (Apteryx haastii),

Roa of the Maoris, is almost as large as

australis, but is greyish brown, mottled

and cross banded with brownish black.

It is restricted to the western portion of

the South Island, from Tasman Bay to

Foveaux Strait.

LITTLE GREY KIWI (Apteryx owenii),

Kiwi-pukupuku of the Maoris, is the

smallest of the four species. It is yellov r -

ish grey, mottled and irregularly cross

banded w r ith blackish-brown. It occurs in

the dense forested areas of Marlborough,

Nelson, Westland and Western Otago.

The only North Island occurrence is based

upon a record from the Tararua Range

m 1875, but none have since been seen.

PENGUINS

The Penguins are a fascinating group of

fnr C th 0t S i >Ut f he J n 0cean ori ^in, remarkable

loi then adaptation of the wings into flippers

designed for swimming. The feathers are

1 educed to small scale like structures.

KING PENGUIN (Aptenodytes pata-

gonica). The most handsome of the nine

species of penguins inhabiting the New

Zealand area. It is a fine erect bird about

2 feet in height, strikingly coloured with

gi eenish-black head, silky white breast,

pale blue and speckled black back and a

deep golden yellow belt across the throat

and neck. The species is widely distri¬

buted in the Subantarctic waters of

Tierra del Fuego, Falkland Islands and

South Georgia, but in New Zealand the

one breeding colony is on Macquarie

Island. Stragglers are sometimes seen

on the other islands of the New Zealand

Subantarctic, Stewart Island and the

coasts of Otago. Ruthless killing of these

birds for oil by the early sealers has

reduced the Macquarie colony, once

known to occupy from 30 to 40 acres, to

not more than 7000 birds.

■o56. LITTLE BLUE PENGUIN (Eudyptula

minor). Common all around the coasts

ol the North and South Islands, Stewart

Island and the Chathams. It is never

seen far from land, and during August

and September comes ashore on isolated

parts of the coast to nest in rocky

caverns and burrows. The food of this

penguin consists of small fishes and vari¬

ous marine organisms which it pursues

under water with the speed and agility

of a voracious fish. In early summer it is

not an uncommon sight to observe these

birds from the ferry steamer crossing

between Auckland and Devonport. It is

more abundant on the Auckland West

Coast and usually nests at no great

distance above high-water on the more

or less inaccessible portions of the coast¬

line.

Other penguins of the New Zealand area

are THE GENTOO PENGUIN (Pygos-

celis papua), a widely distributed South¬

ern Ocean species which nests at

Macquarie Island; THE YELLOW

CROWNED PENGUIN (Megadyptes anti¬

podes), which nests singly or in small

colonies on Otago Peninsula, Stewart

Island and the Auckland and Campbell

Islands; THE VICTORIA PENGUIN

(Eudyptes chrysocome), which nests on

all our Subantarctic Islands; THE

CRESTED PENGUIN (Eudyptes pachy-

rhynchus), which nests at the Snares

Islands and the South West Otago

Sounds. Stragglers have reached as far

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north as the Bay of Islands. THE BIG

CRESTED PENGUIN (Eudyptes sclateri),

which nests in large numbers on the

Campbell, Antipodes and Bounty Islands,

and sometimes strays on the mainland to

as far north as White Island. THE

ROYAL PENGUIN (Eudyptes schlegeli),

which breeds in immense colonies on

Macquarie Island, and THE WHITE FLI

PERED PENGUIN (Eudyptula albosig-

nata), a near relative of the Little Blue,

which breeds plentifully all round the

.onot rvi' Ranks Peninsula.

357 WANDERING ALBATROSS (Diomedea

exulans). This is one of nine magnificent

oceanic species found in New Zealand

waters. These birds range the vast tur¬

bulent southern ocean, but at least seven

of them nest regularly on selected breeding

grounds either among the southern

islands of New Zealand or at the Chat

ham Islands. Within recent years

Diomedea epomophora, the Royal Alba¬

tross, has taken to nesting in small

numbers at Taiaroa Head, near Dunedin.

There is no other instance of a breeding

colony of albatrosses adjacent to a laige

city.

The wandering albatross has a wing

spread of nine feet, and is common off

shore throughout New Zealand, especi¬

ally to the south of the main islands.

It has a white head with an irregular

brown patch on the crown, the back is

white marked with transverse zigzag bars

of grey or brown, the wings are slaty-

black above, mottled with white along

the edges and are mostly white under¬

neath. The tail is black or white tipped

with black. The Royal Albatross is

almost entirely silvery white except for

black wing tips.

The beak of the albatross is very

stout and strong, and is conspicuously

hooked at the tip. Their apparently

effortless soaring and gliding flight is

the most perfect aerial achievement

known.

358. GIANT PETREL (Macronectes gigan-

teus). The largest of the petrels, haying

a wing spread of about seven feet.

Petrels are allied to the albatrosses, and

are distinguished mainly by differences

in the structure of the beak. The Giant

Petrel is dark slaty-brown and certainly

not handsome. To the sailors it is known

as the Nellie or Stinkpot. The species

ranges the whole of the southern ocean

and it breeds on most of the subantarctic

islands, including those of the New Zea¬

land area. It is frequently seen resting

on the surface of the water at Kaiwarra,

Wellington Harbour, where it feeds on

offal from the freezing works. In stormy

weather this bird is often seen in the

Hauraki Gulf and occasionally hi

Auckland Harbour.

359. MUTTON BIRD (Puffinus griseus) Titi

th 0l °5v, the Maoris > was and still *is in

th e s° u th an important item in the diet

250 non Ma ° n pe : ople * E ven now some

from hrppr 118 birds are taken annually

from breeding grounds off the coast of

Stewart Island. The birds are split

saked and preserved in their own fat

m bags made from sections of the giant

kelp. The mutton bird or Sooty Shear

vatei has an immense range over the

whole of the southern ocean and at

times extends to as far north as Green-

land and Alaska. In New Zealand this

bird is commonly seen in great flocks in

coastal waters. It is blackish brown

with bluish-grey feet and is slightly

laiger than a domestic pigeon.

360. FAIRY PRION (Pachyptila turtur), Titi

wamui of the Maoris, is the small dove-

grey petrel which skims the surface of

the sea in its energetic quest for food.

Until the white under-surface shows

when they wheel in flight, these birds are

scarcely visible against the sea. This

petrel, along with many others found in

our seas, nests in deep burrows formed

in the soft humus on offshore islands.

361. PIED SHAG (Phalacrocorax varius),

Karuhiruhi of the Maoris, is a common

coastal species from North Cape to

Stewart Island, and is distinguished from

the 15 other species of New Zealand

shags by its greenish-black back and

white breast 'which continues to above

the eyes. The Pied-shag builds large,

untidy nests in trees overhanging cliff

faces. Its food consists principally of

fishes taken along the sea coast, and it

seldom goes inland. Two other species,

the Black Shag and the White-throated

Shag, range inland and certainly destroy

numbers of fresh-water fishes. It is

doubtful, however, if the wholesale de¬

struction they suffer from the hands of

man is commensurate with the damage

they do. A most unfortunate fact is that

several quite harmless species succumb

to the indiscrimate warfare on shags in

general.

362. BROWN BITTERN (Botaurus poicilop-

tilus), Matuku-kurepo of the Maoris, is a

bird of the swamps and lagoons through¬

out the country, but now less common

than formerly owing to the advance of

settlement. It closely resembles the

herons in shape, but the plumage is buff

to brownish, speckled and barred with

dark-brown. A conspicuous feature is the

ruff of feathers around the neck. It

feeds on insects, eels, rats and mice, and

apart from claiming a few young trout is

entirely beneficial to man.

363. GANNET (Morus serrator), Takapu of

the Maoris, is common around the coasts

of the North Island. Its high vertical

dives into the sea are a frequent sight

and almost invariably some small fish

around our coasts to as far south as

Canterbury and Westland. At times they

can be observed at close quarters by

walking over the concrete sewer at

Hobson Bay, Auckland. The Caspian Tern

has an immense range extending over

Europe, Asia, North America, Africa,

Malaya and Australia. In New Zealand

it nests about November on remote

shingle beds and sandy beaches.

368. RED-BILLED GULL (Larusnovaehollan-

diae), Tarapunga or Akiaki of the

Maoris, is abundant throughout New

Zealand, Australia, New Caledonia and

South Africa. This is the small grey

and white gull with black and white

wing tips and red bill and feet. This

gull is entirely beneficial, for it is a use¬

ful scavenger in harbours and at times

goes inland to devour insects in the wake

of the plough. It nests during early

summer on rocky islands off the coast.

A related species, the Black-billed Gull

(Larus bulleri), is very similar except for

the black bill and dark brown feet, but

it frequents the inland fresh waters. It

is common at Lake Rotorua and especially

in Canterbury.

369. BLACK-BACKED GULL (Larus dominl-

canus), Karoro of the Maoris, is easily

distinguished from either the Red or the

Black-billed gulls by its much larger size,

approximately that of a duck, and con¬

spicuous black and white plumage in the

adult. The young birds are mottled and

streaked with buff and brown, and it takes

3| years before the adult plumage is

completely assumed, then the back and

top of the wings are black except for

white bars at the tips of the primary

feathers. The bill is yellow and the feet

greenish yellow. The Black-back is widely

distributed in the Southern Hemisphere.

In New Zealand it congregates in har¬

bours, especially near freezing works,

where it gorges itself on offal. The

practice of dumping fish offal and other

refuse off the outside coast of Rangitoto

Island, Auckland, has been instrumental

in a great increase in the number of

Black-backs around Auckland. Several

extensive breeding colonies are now

found annually on the lava strewn fore¬

shore of Rangitoto from November.

becomes a victim. Gannets nest on out¬

lying islands in large colonies of most

regular arrangement. This is achieved

by each bird nesting as close as possible

to a neighbouring nest, yet just out of

range of the powerful beaks of its com¬

panions. The best known gannet colony

is at Cape Kidnappers, Hawke’s Bay.

The young gannet is hatched naked and

black, but soon becomes a ball of pure

white down. Immature birds are speckled

with dark grey and white, but the adult

is white except for black wing and tail

feathers and a golden brown patch on

the head and back of the neck.

364. GREY DUCK (Anas superciliosa) , Parera

of the Maoris, is the common brownish

native duck found throughout New Zea¬

land. This duck frequents fresh waters

everywhere and feeds largely on insects,

crustaceans, shellfish and even aquatic

plants and their seeds. It is an excellent

table bird and is shot under licence

seasonally.

365. PARADISE DUCK (Casarca variegata),

Putangitangi of the Maoris, is a hand¬

some bird variously mottled, freckled and

lined with brown and white on a brownish

to black ground. The head and neck

are black, shot with bluish-green in the

male, and are pure white in the female.

This species was generally distributed in

the South Island and over the lower

half of the North Island, but it has de¬

creased greatly with the alvance of

settlement. Its food consists of soft

grasses, herbs and insects.

366. WHITE FRONTED TERN (Sterna

striata), Tara of the Maoris, is abundant

all around the New Zealand coasts and

occurs in Tasmania and Eastern Australia

as well. This is the graceful little “Kaha-

wai-bird” or “Sea-swallow,” which pur¬

sues schools of small surface fish,

wheeling, darting and dipping to the

water, in its energetic quest of food.

Since the Kahawai fish is predaceous on

the small school fish also, the tern is an

excellent indicator of the presence of

Kahawai. The cry of the tern is a single

sharp note frequently sounded. In colour

these birds are pale grey above and

white below, with a conspicuous black

cap on the head. It has a rather long

white forked tail, but the body of the

bird is smaller than that of the Red¬

billed Gull. Nesting colonies of these

terns are found in early summer on sandy

fiats and rocks off the sea coast, often

only a few feet above high-water mark.

367. CASPIAN TERN (Hydrcprogne caspia),

Tara-nui of the Maoris, is a larger and

more solidly built bird than the White-

fronted Terns. It is distinguished also

by its strong red bill, but has a similar

black patch on the head. The plumage is

pale grey above and white below. This

bird may be seen in small numbers

370. WHITE-HEADED or PIED STILT (Him-

antopus leucocephalus) , Poaka of the

Maoris, is widely distributed in both

the North and South Islands of New >

Zealand. Its favourite haunts are the

tidal mudflats and the inland swamps and

lagoons. It stands about 14 inches in

height, but is a small bodied bird for the

legs are very long and slender. The back

and back of the head are black, the tail

feathers smoky grey and the rest white.

The beak is very long and thin and the

head distinctly rounded. The long legs

of this bird are admirably suited to its

wading habits. On the mudflat at Hobson

Bay, Auckland, and on the Manukau Har*

boui, they may be seen in numbers,

especially towards low water, stalking up

and down at the water’s edge in search

of food. Owing to a tidal difference of

almost three hours between the Auck¬

land and Manukau Harbours these birds

frequently fly backwards and forwards

in order to gain a lengthened period of

low tidal feedings. Their cry is like the

shrill yelp of a small pup and while on

the wing their long legs are trailed

behind. They nest in September and

October, usually inland on river flats or

near lagoons and swamps.

371. BANDED DOTTREL (Charadrius bicinc-

tus) or Tuturuwhatu is a characteristic

little bird ot the sand dunes, river beds

and tussock clad plains. As one ap¬

proaches it more often runs ahead in a

zigzag manner, than flies. It is about

the size of, a starling and in coloration is

largely greyish-brown on the back and

white below, with a band of black across

the breast and one of chestnut lower

down. It is widespread in New Zealand,

and occurs also in Tasmania and Aus¬

tralia, but the only known breeding places

are in New Zealand. The eggs are dark

greenish-yellow, heavily spotted and

blotched with dark brown. Little effort

is made to conceal the nest, which is

often just a hollow in the sand, either

in the open or near a clump of tussock,

but nevertheless the nests are not easily

located for the eggs seem to merge per¬

fectly with the surroundings.

372. GODWIT (Limosa lapponica) or Kuaka

of the Maoris is our best known migrant.

The route is from Alaska and Siberia via

Japan, China and the Philippines to New

Zealand, where they arrive in October

and November. They depart on the

northward migration during March and

April. It seems probable that these birds

make non-stop flights between Northern

Australia and New Zealand. Much pub¬

licity has been given to the alleged spec¬

tacular departure of the godwits from

the extreme north of New Zealand, but

in actual fact large flocks of godwits

are on the move most of the time, rang¬

ing from one local feeding ground to

another and to the best of my knowledge

a mass departure from our shores has not

as yet been witnessed. Although the

godwit is essentially a summer migrant

to our shores many remain throughout

the year. The godwit nests in Alaska,

Siberia and Eastern Asia during the lat¬

ter part of May, the young birds are

flying by the middle of July and the

migration commences in August. This

bird is easily recognised by its speckled

brown plumage and long slender black

beak which is slightly tilted upwards.

Godwits are plentiful throughout New

Zealand, but especially in our northern

harbours, where there are extensive tidal

flats. These birds were an important

article of food for the Maoris and to-day

they are keenly sought by sportsmen

during the open season.

373. WOODHEN or WEKA (Gallirallus greyi)

is slightly smaller than the domestic hen,

a tawny brownish and blackish streaked

bird with degenerate wings making it

incapable of flight. It can run with great

speed, but is most inquisitive and will

venture very close to habitations with a

stealthy gait and an enquiring demean¬

our. It has a fascination for annexing

small shining objects such as spoons,

and bushmen complain that even watches

have been purloined. The figured species

is the North Island weka, but there are

three other species in the South Island.

The North Island weka, once abundant

everywhere, has now disappeared from

most districts, largely due to the depre¬

dations of dogs, cats, stoats and weasels.

In 1915 the weka was most abundant

from Waimauku to the Muriwai Beach,

west of Auckland. Their shrill calls

could be heard any evening in consider¬

able volume and females with their

chicks came fearlessly around camps, but

to-day not a single bird remains. The

weka conceals its nest in thick scrub

and lays four large eggs, creamy white

with scattered reddish-brown and purp¬

lish blotches.

374. SWAMP HEN or PUKEKO (Porphyrio

melanotus). This is a truly handsome

bird over 20 inches in height; indigo blue

and black with white tail and red beak

and legs. It is common in the swamps

of both the North and South Islands and

is most conspicuous against the bright

green background of the raupo or bul¬

rush. It usually struts about, but can

run rapidly and fly short distances. It

feeds largely upon the soft shoots and

roots of water plants. The nest is a large

untidy construction about a foot in height,

and is located amongst raupo or rushes

in a swamp.

The Takahe (Notornis mantelli), now

probably extinct, is a giant relative of

the pukeko, which it closely resembles.

The four known living examples of the

Takahe were taken in Western Otago.

375. HARRIER (Circus approximans), Kahu

of the Maoris, is the common bird of

prey of the countryside. It soars in wide

circles with a slow steady flight, often

remaining on the wing for hours, but ever

watchful for small birds. All kinds of

animal food, either dead or alive, are

taken by the harrier, and it has been

known to attack birds as large as ducks

and the pukeko. The plumage is mostly

brownish, streaked and barred with dark-

brown and reddish-brown. It is com¬

monly referred to as the hawk, but our

true hawk or falcon is another species,

Falco novaeseelandiae, which frequents

the forested high country and some of

the off shore islands. The harrier breeds

in the swampy areas and the nest is

usually found in a large clump of toetoe.

These birds are ferocious from birth,

for the more advanced young often

devour their weaker brethren.

376. MOREPORK (Ninox novaeseelandiae).

or Ruru of the Maoris is the New Zealand

native owl. For a bird of prey the more-

pork is not objectionable. It feeds largely

on insects and will also kill and devour

rats and mice. Except for its occasional

depredations on small birds the morepork

is almost 'wholly useful. The nocturnal

eerie “morepork” cry so often heard, even

in suburban gardens, is by no means

unpleasant. By day the morepork seeks

the dark masses of foliage and if dis¬

turbed glides to another spot with noise¬

less flight. It is about a foot in height

and is mainly dark chocolate-brown

streaked and spotted with light brown.

The breast is light brown barred with

dark brown. The nest is usually in a

hollow tree.

377. REEF HERON (Demigretta sacra),

Matuku-moana of the Maoris, is a grace¬

ful dark slaty grey bird with long beak

and legs of bright yellow. It stands

about 25 inches in height and is to be

seen actively searching for food on the

rocky foreshore of estuaries and sheltered

bays. It has a leisurely droopy-winged

flight. This species is common through¬

out New Zealand and ranges as far away

as Burma, Japan and the Eastern Pacific.

It nests in small caves on the seashore

and lays a clutch of two or three green¬

ish-blue eggs.

378. WHITE HERON (Casmerodius albus),

Kotuku of the Maoris, is a stately white

bird larger than the Reef Heron. The

beak is bright yellow and the feet black.

Adult white herons have beautiful

long white plumes down the back

these are the “ospreys” which once com¬

manded high prices when feminine

fashion placed them in demand. This

heron frequents lakes, margins of rivers,

swamps and sometimes the sea beach,

where it feeds on small fishes and

eels, but it is not common in New

Zealand. Its range includes Australia

Asia, Africa and Europe. The only known

breeding place for this bird in New

Zealand is at Okarito in South Westland.

Solitary examples have a habit of winter¬

ing in widely separated localities. In May,

1933, one appeared at Lake Pupuke,

Auckland, and remained for six months,

while another during this same period

took up residence within the city area at

Christchurch.

379. LONG TAILED CUCKOO (Urodynamis

taitensis). A spring migrant which

arrives in this country in October and

leaves again in February and March,

probably for Norfolk and Kermadec

Islands or other groups of the Western

Pacific. It is a larger bird than the

shining cuckoo, has a long tail, and the

plumage is conspicuously spotted and

barred in dark-brown and reddish-brown.

The long-tailed cuckoo is an unpleasant

bird, for it not only parasitizes a number

of species of our smaller birds by intro¬

ducing its eggs to their nests, but will

also prey upon small birds in addition to

its normal diet of insects and lizards

This bird has been seen to lay its egg

on the ground and carry it in its beak

and then place it in the nest of a grey

warbler. Once the egg hatches the young

cuckoo soon acquires suffiicent strength

to tip the young warblers out of the nest.

The long-tailed cuckoo reaches most parts

of New Zealand, but is never so abundant

as the Shining Cuckoo.

380. SHINING CUCKOO (Lamprococcyx

lucid us). Another Spring migrant, which

arrives in September or October and

departs in January and February. The

migration route is unknown, but it prob¬

ably includes Norfolk Island, Queensland

and New Guinea. The Shining Cuckoo

is a little larger than the skylark and

differs noticeably from the above species

in having a comparatively short tail. The

plumage is most attractive, green, shot

with purple and copper on the back and

golden-green broad bands across the white

under parts of the body. Its food consists

almost entirely of insects, but it has the

same disagreeable parasitic habits as the

long-tailed cuckoo. The grey warbler is

the chief victim, but fantails, tomtits,

robins, whiteheads, bellbirds and the in¬

troduced sparrow, blackbird and chaffinch

also claim its attention at times.

381. WOOD PIGEON (Hemiphaga novae-

zelandiae), Kereru of the Maoris, is the

most handsome and characteristic bird

of the forest. Its fearlessness and rust¬

ling flight soon betrays its presence. It

is a large plump bird about 20 inches in

height, with a white breast, green head,

coppery green to greyish gr6en back and

a brown tail with a greenish lustre. It

feeds largely upon the berries of forest

trees, particularly those of the tawa,

miro, kahikatea, konini and puriri. The

Maoris were very fond of eating the

Kereru and snared great numbers of

them by setting up wooden drinking

troughs in the forest. The birds become

very thirsty when feeding and soon find

the troughs. They were caught by the

neck in nooses which the Maoris set

over the troughs. Unfortunately both

Maoris and the early European settlers

took a heavy toll of the pigeons, but since

they are now rigidly protected by law

there are still ample survivors in the

larger forested areas. The wood pigeon

occurs in the North, South and Stewart

Islands, but at the Chathams an allied

species, H. chathamensis, is found.

382. RED-FRONTED PARRAKEET (Cyano-

ramphus novaezelandiae). This is a

handsome long-tailed bird about 11 inches

in length. It is mostly grass-green except

for crimson patches on the head and

rump and a blue and black tail. This bird

was once very abundant throughout New

Zealand, but it is now restricted to the

dense forests and the off-shore islands.

A bird of very similar appearance, the

introduced Australian Rosella, is now

quite common in the Waitakere Ranges,

Auckland, and it causes considerable

damage to fruit and grain. The native

species feeds on forest berries and seeds.

Three other parrakeets are native to

New Zealand — the yellow-fronted, the

orange-fronted, and the Antipodes Island

Parrakeet.

383. BROWN KAKA (Nestor occidentalis). A

large, plump-bodied parrot about 18

inches in length. It is not uncommon in

the forested areas of the North Island

and south-west of Otago. The plumage

is mostly olive brown and grey, speckled

and barred with dark-brown and with

crimson patches under the wings and on

the rump. The food of the Kaka con¬

sists of grubs and the larvae of moths

and beetles. They are noisy birds, the

harsh cry resembling the Maori name

Kaka, which is a phonetic rendering of

the sound. The Kaka is a sprightly

bird; it climbs with rapidity, hops on the

ground and often performs acrobatics on

the wing. The South Island Green

Kaka, Nestor meridionalis, is more

greenish than brown and is readily dis¬

tinguished by the colour of the head,

which is almost white.

KEA (Nestor notabilis). This is slightly

larger than the Kaka, but similar in most

respects except for a longer beak. The

prevailing colour is dull green with the

under sides of the wings scarlet. The Kea

belongs to the mountainous country ol

the South Island. It is a friendly and

entertaining bird and it is to be regretted

that on occasions it forsakes its normal

diet of insects, grubs, worms and vege¬

table substance in favour of the fat and

llesh of both dead and living sheep. It

is the only instance of a parrot with

carnivorous tendencies. (Not figuied.)

384. KAKAPO (Strigops habroptilus). A

heavy bodied parrot v r hich is much laigei

than either the Kaka or the Kea This

clumsy bird is incapable of flight, u

can climb with agility. It is tounr n

the densely forested mountain ranges n

both the North and South Islands,

plumage is yellowish-green and biovv

buff, mottled and barred with black. The

Kakapo feeds largely on vegetation and

it nests either in rock crevices or in

holes under the roots of forest trees.

385. KINGFISHER (Halcyon sanctus). This

is abundant near the sea, especially

around Auckland, where it feeds largely

on crabs and other inhabitants of the

mud flats. Inland, the kingfisher prefers

the open country and vicinity of fresh

water streams to the depths of the

forest. Its food in inland localities con¬

sists largely of insects and lizards. Our

kingfisher is a handsome bird with deep

green or blue head, back, wings and. tail,

contrasting with the light buff of the

neck, throat and breast.

The nest is sometimes in a natural

hole in a tree, but more often the bird

excavates a tunnel with its bill in a

steep clay bank. The tunnel is a foot

or more in depth, terminating in a

spacious chamber, where the clutch of

five to seven white eggs is laid, usually

from November to early January. Woe

betide the unwary person who places

his hand in the burrow, for the king¬

fisher has a powerful bill and knows how

to use it. On the whole kingfishers

are most useful birds to the agricultural¬

ist, for they consume large quantities of

grubs and insects. The Maori name is

Kotare.

386. RIFLEMAN (Acanthisitta chloris). This

is a wren and our smallest bird, being

only three inches in total length. There

are two forms, typical chloris from the

South Island and A. chloris granti, the

North Island rifleman. The rifleman is

essentially a bird of the deep forests and

higher altitudes, and is especially charac¬

teristic of beech forests. Wellington

people may make the acquaintance of

this bird by visiting the Butterfly Track

at the back of Day’s Bay. The food of

the Rifleman consists of small insects

which it diligently searches for on the

trunks and branches of trees. The Maori

name is Titi-pounamu.

387. NEW ZEALAND PIPIT (Anthus novae-

seelandiae), also called the ground lark,

is a common bird throughout the country.

It is readily recognised by its habit of

continuing to fly short distances ahead

as one approaches, and by giving a flick

of the tail every now and then as it

watches the advance of an intruder. The

two outer feathers on either side of the

tail are white, otherwise the bird is

light brownish and speckled like a sky¬

lark. The pipit is essentially a bird of

the open country, and with the clearing

of large tracts of forest it is now much

more abundant than formerly. It is one

of the few instances of a native species

that has gained through the advance of

civilisation. The nest is made on the

ground, generally in a clump of tussock

of similar growth. The Maori name is

Pihoihoi.

388. FERN-BIRD (Bowdleria punctata). A

small brownish striped and speckled

bird with curious tail feathers, having

disconnected barbs, so that each looks

like a delicate fern frond. The fern-bird

lives in the raupo swamps, and is now

quite scarce since large areas of swamp

have been drained and brought under

cultivation. This bird has a curious

double-note cry which sounds like

“U-tick.” It is the Matata of the Maoris.

389. GREY WARBLER (Pseudogerygone

igata), Riroriro of the Maoris, is a small

brownish grey bird abundant in all parts

of New Zealand. The grey warbler is