CONTENTS OF VOLUME V.

Part XVII.—NOVEMBER, 1907.

Lewis, J. P.—

Topographical Notes on the Jaffna Islands

Ryan, J.—

The Birds of Dimbula ..

Cameron, P.—

Description of a new Species of Apanteles from Ceylon ..

Green, E. E.— ;

Note on the Parasite Apanteles acherontie of the Cater-

pillar of the *‘ Death’s Head” Moth ..

Fletcher, T. B.—

Description of a new Plume-Moth from Ceylon, with some

remarks upon its Life-history

Willey, A.—

Report on the Window-pane Oysters

Perrin, W. S.—

Note on the possible transmission of Sarcocystis by the

Blow-fly

Notes.—

Leaves from my Log. T. B. Fletcher

Rare Colombo Birds. W. A. Cave

Window-tapping by Birds. E. E. Green

An Eighteenth Century Relic. J. P. Lewis

Leocyma sericea. F, M. Mackwood

Singing Fish of Batticaloa. C. Drieberg

Crows as Diggers and Weeders. C. Drieberg

TI OU oo to

——__.-—_.

Part XVIII.—Arri, 1908.

Somerville, B. T.—

The Submerged Plateau surrounding Ceylon

Still, J—

Notes on Adam’s Peak and some of the Paths in the Range

Green, E. E.—

Mimicry in Insect Life eas Pee re

Fletcher, T. B.—

On the Larva of Prodenia synstictis

Fletcher, T. B.—

Notes on Snakes from Diyatalawa

PAGE

Notes.—

1. A new species of Hesperiidae. N. Manders

2. Further Note on Leocyma sericea. E. E. Green

3. Further Note on Crows. E. E. Green

4. Death from Snake-bite. E. E. Green

5. Another fatality from Snake-bite. E. E. Green ..

6. The bite of the ‘‘Brahminy Lizard.” E. E. Green

7. Vitality of Dragonfly Larve. E. E. Green ie

8. Capture of Butterfly by a Hunting Spider. F.E. West

9. Mosquitoes and Eyeflies. R. Maclure a

10. Mosquitoes and Eyeflies. E. E. Green

11. Migration of Butterflies. J. A. Daniel Py

12. Visit to the Nitre Cave at Wellawaya. J. A. Daniel

13. Destruction of Deer. J. A. Daniel fee

14. Further Note on Birds of Dimbula. J. Ryan

15. The Purple-rumped Sunbird. J. Ryan

16. Binomial Nomenclature. Editor

————————

Part XIX.—Avcust, 1908.

Hancock, J. L.—

A new Ceylonese Tettigid of the Genus Hurymorphopus

Wickwar, O. 8.—

Hymenoptera new to Ceylon, with descriptions of new

species

Parsons, J.—

Threshing-floor Ceremonies in Uva

Lewis, J. P.—

The Kandyan Door

Willey, A.—

Placuna Fishery : Inspection of March, 1908

Notes.—

1. Hanguranketa Moonstone. Editor

Stone Pillar from Gampola. Editor

Ceremonial Mango. Editor

Kallima philarchus. W.A. Cave .. Se

Parasite from Gall-bladder of Ceratophora. A. Looss

The Lula’s Enemy, &c. A. L. Hine-Haycock

Fishery Observations. A. Willey ..

A Cobra on the Threshing-floor. C. Drieberg

The Moorman’s Dagger. O. Rothfeld

ee nee

Part XX.—D£ECEMBER, 1908.

Seligmann, C. G., and Seligmann, B. Z.—

An Itinerary of the Vedda Country

Parsons, J.—

The modes of occurrence of Quartz in Ceylon

Robertson, M.—

A Preliminary Note on Hematozoa from some Ceylon

Reptiles ee hd.

Notes.—

1. Miscellaneous Records. A. Willey.. ie

2. Review: Fisheries of New South Wales. Editor ..

3. Spider Mimicry. Editor a

178

186

188

190

Erratum.—On p. 110 of this volume, instead of Tinnunculus alaudariu

read Tinnunculus alaudarius.

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

TOPOGRAPHICAL NOTES ON THE JAFFNA ISLANDS.

By J. P. Lewis, M.A., C.C.S.

With a Map.

TRANAITIVU.

November 30, 1904.—A fine morning. Started for Iranaitivu in

the ‘‘ Serendib ” with Messrs. Ingles and Hornell. Got off about 11

and arrived about 3 p.m. Went ashore and put up our tents. The

huts erected for the accommodation of the Government Agent and

other officials are roofless, the natives having helped themselves to

the cadjans.

The appearance of the island is pleasing, plants of low meadow-

like grass with clumps of suriya trees here and there, under which

are the huts of the islanders, who are all fishers and of Pariah caste,

but fine, strong-looking men. They all wear the rain cap made of

palmyra ola, which is worn by the people of the neighbourhood of

Chavakachcheri in the wet season, and which from its shape, not

unlike the “ canoe cap ” of the British private, gives them a sort of

smart appearance. It is decidedly effective, cheap, and useful.

December 1.—Weather still fine. Went to see the béche-de-mer

curing places on the east island. There was a Moorman trader at

one and a Chinaman at the other. The latter, being an expert as

regards béche-de-mer is employed by traders at Rs. 10 a month to

buy the béche-de-mer from the fishermen and to look after the

curing. This young man is the son of a Chinaman, who was well

known in Jaffna, and who at one time was very rich, but afterwards

managed to lose all his money through the Chetties, it is stated.

His son is penniless. The Moorman had a lot of jaggery in little

packets made of palmyra leaf. He told us that he gave four in

exchange for one béche-de-mer, but the fishermen did not admit

this. The value of each basket is one cent. The truth seemed to

be that he gave four for a very good specimen. |

I noticed a coconut shell containing oil hanging up at the hut, and

found that it was used by the fishermen for making the water clear

when searching for béche-de-mer. An experiment was tried with

it, and it certainly seemed to have some effect, a semi-circle of

clearer water gradually began to show itself. The oil is obtained

from the liver of the shark.

B 8-07

7 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Every male inhabitant of Iranaitivu, man or boy, wears the cap

called “ talaivaraipaddai,”’ or “head basket,” made of palmyra

olas, which, as stated above, the people of Chavakachcheri and

other parts of the Jaffna peninsula wear in wet weather, and he

makes it also answer the purpose of a pocket. In one examined we

found (1) a small looking glass 2 inches by 1, (2) betel-chewing

implements, (3) an ola containing arecanuts, &c.

The people are all Pariah caste, and they only live here during

the north-east monsoon. In the south-west monsoon they go to the

mainland and work as reapers. The men are well made and strong:

looking ; most of the women I saw were miserable looking.

In the afternoon went round the village. The people live in

round low huts, like the Vanni huts, which are secured when they

leave the island by locks and keys made of wood.*

The following is an extract from Mr. Wright’s report on the

botany of Iranaitivu :—‘‘ It is interesting to note the occurrence of

the lemon citronella oil grass (Andropogon scheinanthus), a species

cultivated in India, and considered to yield an oil much more valu-

able than that obtained from the citronella oil grass (Andropogon

nardus) in the low-country of Ceylon. The apparatus required is

very simple and cheap, and the cultivation of this grass should be

encouraged. The cultivation of this plant should be carried out in

rotation with castor oil plants, fibres. and indigo.”

_—

THE RUDDER OF AN IRANAITIVU BALLAM.

The people use ballams without outriggers, which come from

Cochin. They have a quaint-shaped rudder, which I have not seen

on the Jaffna ballams.

There are three Roman Catholic churches, two on the east and

one on the west island. They are built of coral stone, and two at

least are tiled, but the masonry is of a very rough description.

There is a square trigonometrical tower so close to the chief

Roman Catholic church that from the sea it looks as if it belonged

to it. It is about 40 or 50 feet high, but there is no ladder or stair-

* T have sent one of these wooden locks of Iranaitivu to the Colombo

Museum,

TOPOGRAPHICAL NOTES ON THE JAFFNA ISLANDS. 3

case to the top, and if it had to be used again for observations a

staging would have to be erected round it. It is substantially built

of cut coral stone, and as it is so well built it is a pity that it is not

more picturesque. Itis, I think, a pity that the Survey Department

do not make their permanent towers a little less ugly. This one is

exactly like a chimney, but with a little more expenditure it could

have been made quite handsome. It is now a permanent feature of

the Iranaitivu landscape.

- Maviddapuran

Tellippalal

Farida lferesppu. ae

Chan kar ég eh ey,

4 va? fj 5

hava « Madea hho tanclicuppas.

Chile relat

cts Kaya

Mockeh tmarhovi? Do

Anacarrive/ ‘]

Nayina ont |

Mavillunat

fawoarrivel*

fahnunat

Deer 0) PALATIVG.

DAaKaRarive

The Jaffna Islands. :

: Erumeih va —D

I omitted to mention an unfinished grotto of coral, a miniature

Lourdes, just above the seashore, some 200 yards from the Roman

Catholic church.

KACHCHAITIVU.

December 2.—Left for Kachchaitivu about 11 o’clock and arrived

there about 2.30 p.m. This is an island between Delft and Rames-

waram, about 11 miles south-west of Delft, and is uninhabited.

4 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

The wind had been rising since the morning, but we were able to find

deep water close in on the south side, in which respect the chart was

found to be inaccurate, making the depth much less than it was

found to be.

We went ashore and had our tents put up, and Mr. Ingles immedi-

ately began the survey of the island, getting half-way round it

before sunset. The island is covered with vegetation, chiefly

kandal (Rhizophora mucronata), used for dyeing nets and sails, and

stunted suriya trees, also a good many creepers and flowers, includ-

ing Gloriosa superba, which in Jaffna is known as “ November

flower,” as it flowers in that month. Our tent was pitched under

a tree which looked like Callotropis gigantea grown into a tree, the

leaves being very much the same. Some of the servants asserted

that it was “ erukkalai”’ (Callotropis), but as I had never seen a

specimen of this plant larger than a bush, and the flower looked

rather different, I have brought away a branch to send to the

Director of the Royal Botanic Gardens for identification,* also

some specimens of a plant with a flower like clover.

The ‘‘vinalai’”’ root, the size of atiny yam, is found abundantly in

Kachchaitivu. Boiled, itis used for food, and flour is prepared from it.

Twelve tons of it were imported into Delft from Kachchaitivu in

March and April, 1904. It is said to be also known as “ karanai.”

The eastern corner of the island, opposite which we anchored,

terminates in a miniature headland of coral stone, and on this Mr.

Ingles found the remains of ‘a trigonometrical station, evidently

erected when the Indian Government surveyed the coast line of the

Island for the Marine Survey. The island itself has never been

surveyed. There is no good water on it, which accounts for the

fact that it is uninhabited. Mr. Ingles found a wrecked ballam on

the opposite side of the island, and we saw remains of fires indicating

that it had been recently visited by fishermen. It is about a mile

long by half a mile wide. There is a grass plain on the west side.

We were told that there were no snakes on this island nor on Iranai-

tivu, but bothstatements were disproved by finding the skin of asnake

at one of the Roman Catholic churches on Iranaitivu and here also.

December 3.—There were several squalls during the night, and

the wind seemed to be gradually rising, so that it seemed expedient

that we should get away as soon as possible, especially as we only

had a limited supply of water (we had to wash in salt water this

morning), but we had to wait till Mr. Ingles had finished his survey,

which took another 34 hours. We got away about 11.30 a.m. with

a very high head wind blowing and a very heavy sea, so much so

that the captain of the ‘‘ Serendib”’ was rather anxious for the

safety of the vessel, which was built for use as a harbour boat only,

.* It was identified as Fournefortitu argentea ‘‘ a characteristic shore tree of

the Eastern Equatorial Zone, but not hitherto recorded north of Trincomalee,”

The leaves certainly have a silvery shimmer, hence the name I suppose.

TOPOGRAPHICAL NOTES ON THE JAFFNA ISLANDS. P

is long, narrow, and top heavy, and. quite unsuited to the sort of sea

we experienced to-day. I decided that we had better make for

Delft and get under the lee of the southern coast of the island, which

we accordingly did, arriving there about 2.15 p.m. If we had had a

beam sea to deal with, I do not know what the consequences might

not have been. Yet when we left Jafina it was quite calm ; bus at

this time of the year these sudden changes are to be expected.

We had our tent put up at Vellai, close to the horse enclosure, and

found the cadjan shed there most useful, as for the rest of the day

there were incessant squalls of heavy rain, which went on ail night

also. In fact it seemed to me a regular cyclone such as we had in

Jafina in 1884. We congratulated ourselves, however, that we had

got away from Kachchaitivu just in time, otherwise we should have

been marooned on that desert island for two or three days probably.

DELFT.

December 4.—The captain of the “ Serendib ” sent a note ashore

about 8 A.M. requesting us to come on board at once, leaving all our

impedimenta behind, as the wind had shifted from north-east to

east during the night, and he was unwilling to risk another night on

the coast, as he had carried away one of his anchors (it turned out

that it was only the cross-piece), and was afraid it might go round to

the south and perhaps blow him ashore. We had to decide the

question on the spur of the moment, and decided that it was not good

enough going to Jaffna in a cyclone of wind and rain without even

a change of clothes.

The ‘‘ Serendib”’ accordingly started, and we at the same time

started to cross the island to the Government bungalow (34 miles).

The last glimpse we had of the steamer she seemed to be at a stand-

still and making no progress whatever in her eastward course.

I had told the captain to return for us as soon as the weather

moderated, and by evening it had improved a little, though still

squally. However, we had now a dry roof over our heads, and for

once I felt grateful to the Mangalore tiles, which are so unpleasant

in the hot weather and so effective in wet.

We were, however, pestered by sand flies called ‘ vellundu,”

which abound in the bungalow, and are far worse than any mosqui-

toes, their bites causing more intense irritation, while at the same

time they give no other indication of their presence, so that it is

impossible to get at them until the mischief is done. We had very

little sleep this night, and I had none the night before in the cadjan

shed at Vellai from a constant apprehension that the roof would

blow off and leave me entirely exposed to the rain.

December 5.—The wind had completely gone down by the evening,

but there was no sign of the “Serendib” returning for us. Mr.

Ingles made a survey of the Portuguese fort in the morning, and he

and Mr. Hornell went to-see the wells at Sarappiddi in the afternoon.

6 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Mr. Hornell was of opinion that the wells (there are said to be 92)

were neither Portuguese nor Dutch, but prehistoric.

There are no sponges to be found in Delft, but Mr. Hornell found

some good specimens at Ivanaitivu.

The varaku (Pasepalum scrobiculatum), mondi (Andropogon

sorghum), and sami (Panicum miliaceum) fields are thriving. —

The Maniagar of Punaryn, who returned from Iranaitivu with us,

informs me that the sand flies, which are chronic here, are due to the

quantity of dry cowdung lying about the seashore in the neighbour-

hood of the bungalow. There is an extraordinary quantity of it,

and no use of it for manure is made by the Delft cultivator, though

everywhere else in the Jaffna District it is carefully collected for

the purpose. The Delft man has an idea that Delft cowdung is not

good for manure, but this is a mere excuse for laziness. Were it not

for the cost of transport it would be shipped to Jaffna, as the kavoti

plant (Psoralea corylifolia, Sin. bodi) is now shipped to Analaitivu

for the same purpose, and would be shipped to Jaffna were it not

for this reason.

The Udaiyar informed me that snake bite at Kachchaitivu has no

ill-results, on account of the existence of the herb called pochchintil.

This is a super-excellent kind of chintil (a medicinal plant found in

Delft, Tinospora cordifolia), but no one but a yogi can find it.

Sea snakes are common at Iranaitivu, but, as everywhere else,

they are said to be so sluggish that they seldom bite any one, and

“it does not matter if they do, as you have only to drink salt water

three times and no harm will ensue,” so an Iranaitivu fisherman

told me ; yet Sir Emerson Tennent says they are all deadly.

Some catamarans were out yesterday in a very rough sea, and as

one started for Kayts I sent a letter by it. There are about twenty

catamarans on the island.

The Delft man has a cap of his own different from those worn by

the Iranaitivu men, but made, like them, of palmyra leaves. It is

shaped. like a mitre, and is tied down under the ears and under the

chin. I procured a specimen for the St. Louis Exhibition. It is

called the talaivaraipaddai, or head basket.*

ag Adverting to the Sarappiddi wells, the late Maniagar informs me

that they are said to be 92 in number, but Casie Chitty, in his

“Gazetteer,” says that “the Dutch had about 400 dug through a body

ofsolidrock.”’ His authority apparently is the ““Colombo Journal.”

December 6.—The “‘Serendib” was sighted at 9 this morning

coming from Jaffna. It took me about two hours to get on board

by means of a Delft boat, owing to the strong current. The jetty

at Mavilturai, the port of Delft where I embarked, has been knocked

to pieces by the sea since I was here last. :

It turns out that the “‘ Serendib ” did come to a standstill.as we

supposed, and was unable to make a foot of progress against the

i have sent one to the Colombo Museum.

TOPOGRAPHICAL NOTES ON THE JAFFNA ISLANDS. 7

wind and sea on Saturday, and accordingly the captain had to give

up attempting to make Mandaitivu and had to go to Kayts instead.

We arrived off Mandaitivu at 3.15 p.m. Weather quite calm now.

Kayts.

December 29.—There is a miscellaneous collection of vessels in

the harbour, including half a dozen vadas from Masulipatam. This

is a vessel of peculiar rig with very thick masts, and these boats are

said to be very strong. They carry a large lug sail on the foremast,

and some of them are three-masted or rather four, for they all have

a small mast like a stick right on the stern, in addition to their masts

proper.

There were also two kala dhonies from Topputturai. These have

beth masts close together and are rigged with square sails, very

clumsy locking boats, but implicitly believed in by some native

merchants. They have square sterns and immense rudders, and

are always covered in with a cadjan roof.

There were besides barques, brigs, schooners, and Ceylon dhonies,

which are different from the types above described, having an

immense bowsprit with five foresails bent on it.

There was a small schooner without square sails, from Tondi on

the south coast of India.

The kala dhonies from Topputturai bring paddy, rice, and cattle,

and the vadas bring rice. The cattle from Topputturai and Amma-

patam are the ordinary white “ Coast bulls.” Cattle, for slaughter

and for up-country butchers, come from Paumben.

Pots and pans come from Pondicherry, Kudulur, and Porto

Novo; also chatties, but not pots, from Ammapatam. The

Pondicherry pots are much more durable than any made in Ceylon.

The best Ceylon pots known in the Northern Province at any rate,

are from Koddiyar in the Trincomalee District. No Jaffna-made

pots are as good. Tiles and timber come from Ponani, fullers-

earth from Kilakhari and Ammapatam. The timber imported

is “kaltekku,” which is used for boat building. Cowdung for

manure is actually imported from Mannar. Paddy was imported

from Paumben this year for the first time, the Sub-Collector says,

from some fields in Rameswaram island ; also from Kottapatam,

a port on a river near Masulipatam. A considerable quantity

comes also from Akyab.

Kayts is the third port in point of importance in the Island, and,

unlike other ports of the Jaffna peninsula, is, owing to its sheltered

position, open in both monsoons. During the south-west monsoon

vessels come to it from ports on the east coast of India, south of

Coconada, such as Devipatam, Tondi, Ammapatam, Kollapata-

nam, Adriampatam, Muttupet, Point Calimere, Topputturai,

Pondicherry, Porto Novo, Masulipatam, Kottapatam, and from

Coconada. |

8 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

During the north-east monsoon its trade is with the South Indian

ports and ports on the western coast, such as Quilon, Kolochul,*

Alippay, Ponani, Cochin, Calicut, Mangalore, Kilakari.

The trade with India is almost equally divided between the two

monsoons. Vessels from Paumben can come in both. Coastwise

trade is more active during the south-west monsoon. Vessels come

from Mannar, Point Pedro, Valavedditurai, Mullaittivu, Pesalai

during the south-west, and from Galle, Beruwala, Negombo,

Kalpentyn during the north-east monsoon.

The name Kayts is neither Dutch nor Tamil. The Tamil name

of Kayts is Urkavatturai, “ port where the village guard is kept.”

Baldzus corrupts this into “ Ourature, ” and Casie Chitty takes the

first part of this word as being the Sinhalese for hog, and says it is

the Sinhalese for ‘‘ hog ferry.” So it might be were it not plainly

a corruption of the Tamil name by which the place is still known.

Baldeus uses the form “ Cays,” as the name was originally

written, which is the Portuguese for a quay.t It is to be noted

that there is really no name for the whole island on which Kayts is

situated, except the Dutch name Leyden, now disused. The

Survey Department have called it Velanai, but this is the name of

the principal village in the island only.

The Dutch called this island Leyden, and the island of Karaitivu

Amsterdam. Punkudutivu was Middelburg, and the northern of

the two islands of Iranaitivau Enckhuysen and the southern Hoorn.

The two together were called “ The Two Brothers,” a free transla-

tion of the Tamil name which literally means “ the Double Island,”

like Iranaimadu, ‘‘ the Double Tank” on the North road. The

name, “‘ The Two Brothers,” was used even in British times. Delft

is the only one of the Dutch names of these islands that is in actual

use nowadays.

The headland opposite the eastern extremity of Karaitivu is

known by thé*realistic and practical, if somewhat undistinguished,

name of Vrattimunai, which means “‘ Dry Cowdung Point.”

Karaitivu is joined to the mainland now by the Punnalai cause-

way, which was constructed in the time of Sir William Twynam, is

2 miles long in a perfectly straight line, and has ten bridges. It

has been of immense benefit to the people of Karaitivu, who are

now very prosperous.

PUNKUDUTIVU.

December 7, 1905.—Started from Kayts about 2 p.m. by boat for

Punkudutivu ; arrived there about 4.30 p.m., and at the dispensary,

where I am to stop, at 5. Farther down the road, just beyond the

* A port near Quilon, noted for its nettali fish, which are largely imported

into the Jafina peninsula.

+ See «* Ceylon Literary Register,” Vol. V., p. 204.

{ The same names were given to two of the bastions of the Colombo Fort.

TOPOGRAPHICAL NOTES ON THE JAFFNA ISLANDS. 9

Roman Catholic church on the opposite side, is the site of the old

Dutch or Portuguese church, now a heap of ruins. There is besides

a small quadrangular building almost entirely surrounded by a

banyan tree, which may have been the base of a tower.

There is a tank near the dispensary with a bo and a kumbuk tree

(Terminalia glabra) of a good size, which is said to be the only

kumbuk tree in the island. The shores of the island at the landing

place, which is called Puliyadi (‘‘ place of the tamarind tree ”’), are

green with ellu* and mondi-sami.

The dispensary is situated at a place called Perumkadu, “the

great jungle.” There is no jungle there now, but paddy fields and

gardens. Next door to it is the American Mission church with

masonry walls, a belfry of the American Mission pattern which

consists of three spikes on top of a piece of rectangular wall, and a

roof of palmyra leaves.

The population of Punkudutivu at the last three censuses was

1881, 3,499; 1891, 4,098; 1901, 5,201, so that it-has increased by

nearly 50 per cent. in twenty years.

ANALAITIVU.

December 8.—Embarked for Analaitivu at 9.30 a.m. We skirted

Punkudutivu as far as Marutadi (“‘ place of the kumbuk tree ’’)

point, and then sailed across to Analaitivu, which was reached at

1.30 p.m. Here I stayed in the Hindu school, about three-quarters

of a mile from the landing place in this island, which is called

Nadavutirutti. The distance by sea from Punkudutivu to the

landing place on the south-east side must be about 4 miles.

Analaitivu is a very fertile island, where a good deal of tobacco

is cultivated. The fences, as in Punkudutivu, are all of the thorny

kilavai (Balsomodendrum berryi), and therefore have a very neat

appearance, as in fact the whole place has. The village has quite

the aspect of the more prosperous villages in the peninsula, e.g.,

in Valikamam West or Vadamaradchi West, and the soil seems to

be similar to the soil in the former division ; a good deal of rubble

stone has to be dug out of the fields.

Its length is about 2} miles and breadth 14 mile. It is intersected

by two roads, one running lengthwise and the other across the

island. I passed a tank in the north-west corner of the island

called Vadalikulam, which the people say is fed by springs ; also

an abandoned stone-built keni near the cross roads, which is said to

contain brackish water. ;

Between Punkudutivu and Nayinativu there is a small island

close to the former called Kurikadduvan, which means “ place where

the signals are shown ”’ (the word is personified). This is because

“ people who wanted to go to Nayinativu used to show signals here

to the people of this island that they wanted a boat.”

* Sesamum indicum

C 8-07

10 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

A peculiarity of these islands is said to be that there are no

squirrels and no jackals, though I believe jackals cross the shallow

strait between Velanai and Punkudutivu. Analaitivu has the

advantage, too, of having very few pariah dogs ; it was quite quiet

at night.

In Analaitivu there are only 9 licensed carts and 5 farm carts.

The population returns since 187] are 1871, 1,064; 1881, 1,296;

1891, 1,411; 1901, 1,543; an increase of 45 per cent. in thirty

years. The increase in the Jaffna District during the same period

is only 21°8 per cent.

I was altogether much pleased with this island, though I hear

that some of these people are in debt to the Karaitivu money-

lenders, the Jews of Jaffna.

It is described in the directions attached to the naval charts as

‘“* 24 miles long by 1 broad.”

December 9.—Walked about three-quarters of a mile to a place

called Koddaiyadi (“place of the fort’), which is the starting

point for boats going to Kayts, &c., and left for the next island,

Elavutivu, due north of Analaitivu. At Koddaiyadi there is a

mound of earth and stones, the remains, according to the people,

of a Portuguese (‘‘ Paranki’’) fort, which has given its name to the

place.

Between the two islands there is a small one cabled Paruttitivu,

“* Cotton Island,’’ which, owing to want of water, is uninhabited.

ELAVUTIVU.

Landed at the extreme northern end of Elavutivu, on the side

facing Kayts, where there is a good tiled bungalow for the use of the

preventive officer, who is stationed here during the south-west

monsoon. He is now at Mandaitivu.

This side of the island is all sand, the western side is all coral.

Elavutivu is an.island of palmyras, which cover it from one end to

the other (cohsequently it is as untidy as Analaitivu is the opposite).

The people live on the palmyra ; they make baskets, very strong,

as they have a covering of the fibre (nar), and very cheap, the cost

of one being 6 cents.

They have never been required to pay road tax as they have no

road. They are not now poor, the palmyra fibre industry, now

extinct, having put a good deal of money into their—I cannot say

pockets—waist-cloths. A road from north to south through the

island would much improve it. At present it is all higgledy-

piggledy. To get from one end to the other you have to skirt

compounds, first on one side and then on the other, pick your way

through coral stones and prickly pear, and plough peas sand

and meander through the palmyras.

Elavutivu is described in the naval charts as “‘2 miles long, 3

cables’ length broad, trees 70 feet high.”

TOPOGRAPHICAL NOTES ON THE JAFFNA ISLANDS. 11

I was surprised to see some umbrella trees (Acacia planifrons,

Tam. udai) growing here. This is the great tree of Mannar island,

but there are none anywhere in the Jafina or Mullaittivu Districts

except those in this island, which is curious. They grow on the

mainland opposite Mannar island, in places along the Madawachchi

road as far as the 25th mile from Mannar, and then cease. What

are the conditions in this island which induce the tree to select it,

and nowhere else in the Jafina District, to grow in ?

The only other trees, besides the palmyra, coconut, and the udai

tree, are margosa (Azadirachta indica), tulip tree (Thespesia popul-

nea), and tillai (Sapiwm insigne). There is a jak tree in the Police

Vidane’s compound, also some mangoes planted by him.

The Maniagar also tells me that male palmyra trees sometimes

turn female, which seems a curious thing if true. The Kachcheri

Mudaliyar confirms this statement from his own experience.

The population of the island has increased since 1881 from 227 to

324 (1901), or by nearly 43 per cent.

December 10.—Returned to Kayts in the morning. We got

over quickly, the wind not being unfavourable. It must have been

from the N. or N.W. and not from the N.E. The boatmen say

that in the afternoon it would be from the N.K. Fort Hammenhiel,

rising out of the sea on the left, is picturesque (for description of this

fort see “‘ Ceylon Literary Register,” Vol. I., p. 24).

KARAITIVU.

December 11.—With regard to the Karaitivu people, the money-

lenders of the district, the explanation of their flourishing condition

is that they are the most economical of the Jaffna people—the most

Jafinese of the Jaffnese in fact—and it is stated as an instance of

the former characteristic that even women of well-to-do families

work in the fields, which is not the case elsewhere in Jafina, though

the women of the poorer classes of course do. The Karaitivu

people go everywhere, the Straits, &c., and save every penny.

Hence it is not surprising that Karaitivu is one of the most pros-

perous “ parishes ” in Jaffna.

NAYINATIVU.

Nayinativu is just opposite Punkudutivu on the west. It is

chiefly noted for its festival, which takes place annually in July,

lasts ten days, and is attended by from 7,000 to 23,000 people ; and

for its chank fisheries carried out by some of its diving population

and by Moormen from the Coast. It is 24 miles long by half a mile

wide, and is intersected by a road running lengthwise through it,

the temple being at the north end and the Government bungalow

1 SPOLIA ZEYLANIGA.

at the other, with three cross roads. I visited it from Delft in

July, 1902.

July 14, 1902.—In the evening I went to see the procession

round the temple, which started about 9 o’clock. The much-

bedizened image of the snake goddess, sitting on the back of a

flaming red wooden stallion, holding in her hand a whip and flanked

on the right by a small Ganesa under a canopy consisting of a five-"

headed cobra, and on the left by Kartigesar sitting on a bull, was

dragged round the temple to the accompaniment of tom-toms,

flageolets or instruments like them, and a chank. Torches con-

sisting of 3, 5, 7, or more lights headed the procession. There were

not many people as it is too early yet, and the wind is too high for

a large attendance to be expected. On the 19th and 20th there

will be enormous crowds if the wind goes down. On the 20th (full-

moon day) the images are taken round in perfect silence.

Excepting the temples dedicated to her at Kopai North and

Navali, this was until lately the only temple to the goddess Naka

Tambiran in the Jafina District ; but one has recently been started

at Chandilippay in the peninsula.

The goddess is known as Naka Tambiran or Nakeswara, properly

Pushani (a jewel), and is a manifestation of Siva’s wife. One of

Siva’s ornaments and of his wife’s ornaments is the cobra, but the

cobra is not the vehicle of either, but of Vishnu. It is not the snake,

but the goddess that is worshipped.

The explanation of the origin of the cult given me was very hazy.

In the time of Vedi Arasan, the fisher king, who is said to have been

of Mukkuvar caste, a Brahmin found a stone in the sea off this

island, with a representation on it of a serpent coiling, and he

established this worship here. The Maniagar says he has seen this

stone. It is on the north side of the island, and is exposed at low

water.

The Nayinax, who give their name to the island, are a caste of

people living at Rameswaram, who were shipwrecked on it. They

are temple tenants.

The sacred cobra (nalla pambu) of the Tamils of Jaffna: is light

coloured, almost white, and is not more than 18 inches long. It

only appears on Fridays. It is only this cobra that is sacred, the

large cobras which are of pariah caste are not, and no Jaffna man

has any scruple about destroying them, but he will give milk to the

sacred. cobra.

One of the sanitary measures gravely carried out by Government

every year at the time of this festival is “ not to allow the people to

shave their children’s heads for devotional purposes within half a

mile of the temple.” It is curious that this should be a necessity ~

at this festival only, I do not recollect it among the orders issued

with respect to other festivals in the Northern Province.

THE BIRDS OF DIMBULA. le

THE BIRDS OF DIMBULA.

By James Ryan (Talawakele).

HERE is a common delusion that birds are scarce on a tea

estate, and I have heard Dimbula mentioned as exceptionally

poor in bird life. A little careful work with a pair of good binoculars

will very quickly show that birds of many kinds are not only

common, but are there in large numbers.

As a matter of fact up-country birds are usually crepuscular

to a large extent, feeding before dawn and in the gray of the evening,

and they are usually silent and furtive in their habits during the

daytime, and especially at midday. This may be explained’by a

number of reasons more or less adequate. I am inclined to think,

however, that the principal one is that insect life is more abundant

at morning and evening than in broad daylight.

It must be remembered also that the primeval jungle of Dimbula

was very dense, and anything like free flight must have been

difficult, so birds took largely to creeping and hopping from twig

to twig; whilst in tea and coffee it is obvious that the principal

food supply lies in the heart, not on the upper surface of the bush.

What share the necessity for avoiding snakes, lizards, vermin ‘(rats

swarm in the tea field), and hawks may have in determining the

furtive habit of estate birds is difficult to appraise.

There can be no doubt, however, that the numerous hawks and

eagles levy toll on bird and reptile, and that snakes, and probably

some lizards, eat eggs and young birds. It may be remarked that

most of the birds appear to be insectivorous, as I have found

that mulberries and crumbs put out for the birds are very seldom

touched. An exception of course is that “ avian rat,” the sparrow.

Sparrows should be discouraged in every possible way; they do

no good, and drive away many more useful and interesting birds.

The best way to “out” them is to destroy their nests, but a

handful of paddy and an ordinary sieve will soon catch a fair number.

The following list of birds was compiled with the assistance of

Mr. H. F. Fernando, Taxidermist of the Colombo Museum. During

his four days’ visit to Talawakele in July, 1907, in the teeth of the

south-west monsoon (7°34 inches of rain were registered, and the

wind was exceptionally boisterous), thirty varieties of birds were

observed and thirteen shot. It may be remarked that most of

the birds were observed in the immediate neighbourhood of the

bungalow, where there are a few old seed-bearing tea trees and

some fruit trees.

14 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

During the last few years there has been a marked increase in

the number of Babblers. The Scimitar Babbler only appeared

about eighteen months ago, and is becoming almost a nuisance, as he

is a noisy bird with a wonderful voice for his size—little larger than

the Magpie Robin. The Common Babbler (“ Dung Thrush” or

‘Seven Sisters’) has recently put in an appearance. A good

deal of cattle manure has been forked out and horse litter mulched

broadeast, which probably suits the habits of this family. There

are two or three dams in the immediate neighbourhood, and White-

breasted Kingfishers are numerous. I have seen a dozen at a time

in one ravine, but this was probably a family not yet separated.

I have previously never seen more than four young in a brood.

The White-eye, Munia, and Tailor birds are the principal garden

birds. It is interesting to see forty or fifty Munias systematically

cleaning a seed bearer of insects and then flying on to tackle the

next.

Migratory birds mostly come in September and October on their

way in, and in March and April on their return; but the Bee-

eaters and the Painted Thrush (with the Wagtail) are always about

in the north-east monsoon. The Tomtit and the Bulbul are

about all the year round, but for some reason not known seem less

numerous during the burst of the south-west monsoon. It is

possible that they then nest up in the jungle as being more sheltered.

It may be noted that of 358 species recorded as belonging to

‘Ceylon in the Museum Catalogue, 49 are peculiar to Ceylon, and of

these 13 have been seen in Dimbula.

The mean annual rainfall at Dimbula is about 100 inches, with

a minimum of 67 inches and a maximum of 183 inches.

List of Dimbula Birds (Etevation 4,000—5,000 Feet).

[S = Shot.w V = Seen. *= Ceylononly. M = Migratory.]

1. Black Crow, Corvus macrorhynchus (seen once only).

*2. Ceylonese Magpie or Jay, Cassa ornata. V.

3. Indian Gray Tit or Gray-backed Titmouse, Parus atri-

ceps. 8S.

4. Common South Indian Babbler, Crateropus striatus. 8.

5. Ceylonese Scimitar Babbler, Pomatorhinus melanurus. 8.

6. White-throated Wren Babbler, Dumetia albigularis. V.

7. Palliser’s Ant Thrush or Ceylon Shortwing, Hlaphrornis

pallisert. V.

8. Common Indian White-eye, Zosterops palpebrosa.. 8.

*9. Ceylonese White-eye, Zosterops ceylonensis. 8S.

10. Common Tora (‘‘ Bush Bulbul’), Hgithina tiphia. Y.

11. Black Bulbul, Hypsipetes ganeesa. V.

12. Madras Red-vented Bulbul, Wolpastes hemorrhous. 3

*13. Black-capped Bulbul, Pycnonotus melanicterus. V

*47.

' 49,

+51.

*59.

THE BIRDS OF DIMBULA. 15

Racket-tailed Drongo, Dissemurus paradiseus (rare ; resi-

dent in the low-country).

Indian Tailor Bird, Orthotomus sutorius. V.

Ashy Wren Warbler, Prinia socialis. 8S.

Little Black-backed Pied Shrike, Hemipus picatus. S.

Common Wood Shrike, Tephrodornis pondicerianus. VY.

Orange Minivet, Pericrocotus flammeus. § (pair).

Little Minivet (‘‘ Sultan Bird’), Pericrocotus peregrinus. V.

Indian Black-headed Oriole, Oriolus melanocephalus. V.

Ceylonese Dusky-blue Flycatcher, Stoparola sordida. S.

Gray-headed Flycatchér, Culicicapa ceylonensis. 8.

Paradise Flycatcher, Tersiphone paradisi (seen every two

or three years).

Southern Pied Bush Chat (Hill Bush Chat), Pratincola

atrata. V.

Magpie Robin, Copsychus saularis. §.

Pied Ground Thrush, Geocichla wardi (seen once only).

Blue Rock Thrush [M], Petrophila cyanus. YV.

White-backed Munia, Uroloncha striata. YV.

Ceylon Hill Munia, Uroloncha kelaarti. V.

Spotted Munia, Uroloncha punctulata. V.

House Sparrow, Passer domesticus. V.

Common Swallow [M], Hirundo rustica. V.

Nilgiri Bungalow Swallow. Hirundo javanica (seen at Wata-

goda).

Gray Wagtail [M], Motacilla melanope. V.

Purple Sun Bird, Arachnechthra asiaticus. V.

Ceylonese Sun Bird, Arachnechthra zeylonica. V.

Indian Pitta or Painted Thrush [M], Pitta brachyura. S.

Red Woodpecker. Brachypternus erythronotus. VY.

Common Jndian Bee-eater [M], Merops viridis. V.

Blue-tailed Bee-eater [M], Merops philippinus. S$. (not in

July).

Little Indian Kingfisher, Alcedo ispida. V.

White-breasted Kingfisher, Halcyon smyrnensis. SS.

Brown-necked Spine tail, Chetwra indica. V.

Indian Edible-nest Swiftlet, Collocalia fuciphaga. V.

Common Couca or Crow Pheasant, Centropus rufipennis. V.

Layard’s Paroquet, Palewornis calthrope. V.

Brown Wood Owl, Syrniwm indram. V.

Forest Eagle Owl, Huhua nepalensis. V.

Scops Owl, Scops giu. V.

Ceylon Mountain Hawk Eagle (Legge’s Hawk Eagle),

Spizaetus kelaarti. V.

Serpent Eagle, Spilornis cheela. V.

Marsh Harrier [M], Circus eruginosus. V.

Crested Goshawk, Lophospizias trivirgatus. V.

Besra or Jungle Sparrow Hawk, Accipiter virgatus. V.

Ceylon Crested Falcon, or Legge’s Baza, Baza ceylonensis. V.

Common Kestrel [M], Tinnunculus alaudarius. V.

Bronze-winged Dove, Chalcophaps indica. V.

Ceylon Wood Pigeon, Alsocomus torringtonie. V.

Spotted Dové, Turiur suratensis. V.

70.

72.

It will

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Ceylon Jungle Fowl, Gallus iafayettw. V.

Ceylon Spur Fowl, Galloperdix bicalcarata. V.

Blue-breasted Quail, Hacalfacioria chinensis. V.

The Bustard Quail, Turnix pugnax. 8.

Common Sandpiper [M], T'otanus hypoleucus. V.

The Woodcock [M], Scolopax rusticula. A very rare

migrant.

Solitary Snipe, (?) Wood Snipe [M], Gallinage nemoricola,

(seen only once). V.

Pintail Snipe [M], Gallinago stenura. 8.

Jack Snipe [M], Gallinago gallinula. S.

Cattle Egret, Bubulcus coromandus. V.

Pond Heron, Ardeola gray. V.

White-breasted Water-hen (rarely flushed but very

common). Amaurornis phenicurus.

be noted that waterfowl are rare in Dimbula, because

water is rarely stagnant, but I suspect the existence of many rails

and waterhens seldom flushed.

I suggest that for educational purposes a case in the Colombo

Museum containing Dimbula birds would be of great value. 1

would also suggest that photographs be made of the rarer birds

for general guidance from shot specimens. A careful search in the

Medakumbura Valley should show many unrecorded species, and

some Patena dwelling birds, Pipits, &c., still require identification.

NEW SPECIES OF APANTELES. b7

DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES OF APANTELES

FROM CEYLON.

By P. CaMERON.

Apanteles acherontie, sp. nov.

LACK, the cox, apex of hind tibiz somewhat broadly, the

apex of the basal joint of the first antennal joint narrowly,

of the others more broadly, black, the rest of the legs reddish yellow,

except that the trochanters are infuscated. Wings clear hyaline,

the costa, radius, and stigma black, the other nervures white.

Female and male. Length 2:5 mm. Peradeniya, Ceylon. Bred by

Mr. E. Ernest Green from larva of Acherontia lachesis.

Smooth, shining, the mesonotum finely, minutely punctured.

Basal segment of abdomen as long as it is wide, slightly gradually

widened, its sides furrowed, the furrows oblique; it is separated

from the second segment by a distinct transverse furrow.

In the centre of the second segment is a raised pyriform area (the

narrowed end at the base) ; from the base of this a curved, distinct

furrow runs to the outer edge of the apex. Ovipositor short; very

slightly projecting.

%,The fourth abdominal segment is longer tien the second or third,

the latter being of equal length. Metanotum not keeled. Scutel-

lum raised, separated from the mesonotum by a shallow smooth

furrow ; on either side of the latter is a wider, more distinct, weakly

crenulated furrow. |

The larvee of this species, like many others of the genus, spin in

common a large egg-shaped cocoon of white cotton-like substance

of the length of 47 mm. and a breadth of 27 mm., having a peduncle

by means of which it is attached to a twig of about the same length

but very much thinner, the peduncle being about 2 mm. broad at

the top and about 10 at its junction with the common cocoon.

The larval cocoons are about 2 mm. in length and, like the outer

covering, are white. They are enveloped in the cottony mass,

which is much thicker and denser on the outer side than in the

inner where the cocoons are. It is not uncommon for the larvx

of Apanteles to spin their cocoons in company around the caterpillar

upon which they have preyed, but I have never seen a pedunculated

common cocoon before. Being conspicuous objects, it is not

surprising to find that the larve of Apanteles are preyed upon by

other Ichneumons, particularly Hemitcles and Mesochorus, as well

as by small Chalcidide. As Apanteles and its ally Microgaster are

among the commonest enemies of Lepidopterous larve, and are

D 8-07

18 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

consequently beneficial to the farmer and gardencr, Hemiteles,

&c., must be looked upon as injurious insects, unlike the majority

of Ichneumons.

Apanteles taprobane, Cam. (Manchester Mem., 1897, p. 38), was

reared by Col. Yerbury from an unknown Lepidopterous larva ;

A. pratape, Ashm., by Mr. E. KE. Green from the larva of Pratapa

deva, as well as A. tivachole,* Ashm., from the larva of Tiracola

plagiata, Walk. (cf. Ashmead, Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus., XVIII.. p. 647).

* I have not seen the original description of this species, but if this name

is correctly transcribed, it must have been based upon a misreading of the

name of the host.—E, E, G.

ocoons of Apanteles acheront

PARASITE APANTELES ACHERONTIA. 19

NOTE ON THE PARASITE APANTELES ACHERONTIAZ OF

THE CATERPILLAR OF THE “ DEATH’S

HEAD’ MOTH.

By E. Ernest GREEN.

With a figure.

HE huge caterpillars of the “‘ Death’s Head” moth occur com-

. monly upon the ‘“‘dadap” tree (Hrythrina lithosperma), and

might become a serious pest if they were not kept in check by the

parasite described above by Mr. Cameron. This parasite is of almost

miscroscopic dimensions, being only one-tenth of an inch long ; but

makes up for its minute size by the enormous number of individuals

that infest a single caterpillar. It is probable that fully seventy-five

per cent. of the caterpillars are infested and ultimately killed by the

parasites. They feed inside the body of the unfortunate victim

until it is fully grown. The caterpillar then suddenly becomes

flaccid, and hundreds of tiny grubs make their way through its

skin and spin the remarkable compound cocoon—resembling a

mass of white cotton wool—that may frequently be observed

attached to the leaves of the dadap tree. The empty carcase of

the caterpillar usually falls off, and leaves no clue to the origin of

the cocoon. Though externally appearing homogeneous, this mass

is composed of separate cocoons surrounded and bound together

by loose woolly matter. The resulting insects are minute black

wasps. ty

From the smaller cocoon shown in the figure, 1,226 of these tiny

insects emerged, and others (probably several hundred more) failed

to extricate themselves from their woolly covering. It can scarcely

be supposed that this number represents the progeny of a single

parent. It seems probable that the insects attack the caterpillar

en masse.

Mr. Cameron describes the compound cocoon as being attached

to a twig by a peduncle, but this is not usually the case. The larger

cocoon represented in the figure is closely attached to the leaf for

its whole length, and this is the more common formation. The

mode of attachment naturally depends upon the position occupied

by the caterpillar at the time of its death.

20 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

DESCRIPTION OF A NEW PLUME-MOTH FROM CEYLON,

WITH SOME REMARKS UPON ITS LIFE-HISTORY.

By T. Bainsricce FLETCHER, R.N., F.E.S.

With Figures in the text.

Trichoptilus paludicola, n.s.

Male 12—13 mm. Head and thorax brownish-ochreous with a

few white scales intermixed. Palpi grayish; terminal joint white,

fuscous at base ; second joint reaching middle of face, about two-

thirds of third. Antenne ciliated (1), whitish, narrowly annulated

with dark fuscous, with a black line above. Abdomen ochreous-

brown, longitudinally striated with numerous black and white scales,

the latter more developed towards base of abdomen and tending to

form obscure transverse. bands at distal extremities of segments ;

apex of abdomen with two obliquely ascending divergent hair-

pencils and with long hairs concealing genitalia. Tibiee white, longi-

tudinally streaked with black ; posterior tibize dilated with dark

fuscous scales and slightly tufted at points of emission of spurs ;

spurs long (proximal about 1:4 mm., distal about -8 mm.) ; tarsi

banded with black.

Forewings cleft from before middle, segments linear ; brownish-

ochreous with scattered dark fuscous scales; usually a few white

scales mixed with black along basal half of costa; a black spot

followed by a white one on inner margin near base ; sometimes a

suffused white central streak reaching from base nearly to cleft ; a

patch of dark fuscous scales on lower inner edge of cleft : first seg-

ment slightly suffused with darker fuscous, with a white bar before

its middle and another midway between the first bar and apex,

extreme apex usually with some white scales ; second segment with

corresponding but less distinct white markings: cilia dark gray on

costa barred with white opposite white fascize and usually white at

apex, on lower margin of first segment mixed with white below

fascize and with some black scales in middle, on upper margin of

second segment with a row of black scales between two patches of

white scales opposite fasciee and a few black scales nearer apex, on

lower margin of second segment with a white patch of scales before

cleft, another (obsolescent) below proximal fascia, and a third before

apex, with four tufts of black scales, first at one-third of segment,

last apical. ,

Hindwings cleft firstly from before one-third, secondly from base ;

segments linear ; dark fuscous ; cilia gray ; third segment without

any scale-tooth on inner margin.

NEW PLUME-MOTH.

‘poyiuseur yony,

‘ejootpnyed *y, JO Surmesof JO UOTwINeN—'] “SLA

"Gl

22 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

@. 1ll—l12mm. Without hair-pencil at apex of abdomen. An-

tenne ciliated (2).

Otherwise as in male, but usually about 1 mm. less in expanse.

Markings similar, but duller.

NeEvuration.—Forewings. 2 out of 4,3 very short, not reaching

dorsal margin, 4 to apex of second segment, 5 and 6 absent, 7 parallel

to 8 running into hind margin of first segment before apex, 8 to apex,

9 absent, 10 very short (sometimes rudimentary or absent), 11 out

of 8, 12 reaching costa before cleft. (See Fig. 1.)

Hindwings. 2 out of 4, 3 rudimentary or absent, 4 to apex of

second segment, 5 and 6 apparently absent, 7 to apex of first segment,

8 into costa at about one-third.

Fig. 2.—Male genitalia of T. paludicola. Magnified.

CoMPARISON OF T; PALUDICOLA WITH ITs ALLIES.—This species is

extremely similar superficially to 7’. scythrodes, Meyr., from Austra-

lia, but Mr. Meyrick informs me (in litt.) that “there is a good and

reliable distinguishing character in the different arrangement of the

dark scale-teeth in the dorsal cilia of forewings; in scythrodes

there is a scale-tooth at each end of the dark median band of the

second segment, whereas in paludicola there is one in the middle of

the band, but not at either end.”

The Life-History of Trichoptilus paludicola.

. PRELIMINARY REmMarKs.—In the early part of October, 1906,

Whilst encamped in the Royal Nav al Camp at Diyatalawa, I found

NEW PLUME-MOTH. 23

a species of “‘ Plume Moth,” which was quite new tome. Numerous

specimens were taken at sunset on the edge of a boggy piece of

swamp, and from its habitat and from the appearance of the moth

1 suspected at the time that it might prove to be a Drosera

- feeder, in the same way as had been recently proved to occur in

the case of Trichoptilus paludum in Europe. (Note.—‘‘ Obser-

vations on the Life-History of Trichoptilus paludum,’ by

Dr. T. A. Chapman; Trans. Entom. Soc. Lond., 1906, p. 133.)

At that time, however, [ was unable to find any Drosera plants in

the vicinity.

In the following year on my arrival at Diyatalawa I determined to

devote my first energies to a search for the larva of this species, and

at last, on the 3lst July, 1907, in a marshy place which had been

cleared at some former time and had not been grown over to any

great extent by the ordinary rank paludicolous vegetation, I came

across numerous plants of Drosera burmanni, Vahl. T. paludicola

was quite common here, so it seemed a likely place to look for the

larva, which was soon revealed by a close search.

It is unnecessary to refer here to the great interest which was

excited so recently by the original discovery that Drosera is the

food plant of 7. paludum. As is well known, Drosera is an insecti-

vorous plant, deriving almost the whole of its nourishment from the

insects which it captures and digests, and there was therefore the

less reason to suspect it to be the pabulum of a caterpillar which has

apparently no means to protect it from being devoured. Dr. Chap-

man and Mr. Bankes have, however, already shown the fallacy of this

reasoning, and in the present instance I have found that Drosera

burmanni is eaten with impunity by the larve of 7’. paludicola and

of a Noctuid Moth, whilst the flower stems are attacked by a species

of Aphid.

The Drosera plants themselves average about 25 mm. in expanse.

In appearance the colour varies from light pink to bright red

(occasionally pale green, usually in very shady places) ; in reality the

leaves and stems themselves area very pale greenlooking almost white

from the minute silvery glands covering the surface ; the apparent

red or pink colour is given by the long red or pink glandular petioles

which cover the upper surface of the leaves ; those situated along

the external margin of the leaves appear to be clavate at the end,

but the other petioles exude a drop of clear gummy matter which

forms a round drop at the tip of the petiole, and these gummy drops,

as they glisten in the sun, give the plant its rather appropriate

popular name of ‘“‘ Sundew.” The flowers, which are of a pale pink

colour, are borne on a long stem (not gummy), which rises from

alongside the centre of the plant and attains a height of 8 or 9

inches. The roots are very small and barely serve to take a grip of

the ground, but the plants seem to obtain a liberal supply of insect

24 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

food, for nearly every plant examined will be found to have at least

one undigested insect caught on its leaves. A small black ant seems

to be the most frequent victim, but a small red ant, minute grass-

hoppers, small moths, &c., are also to be seen.

Kaa-Layinc.—A female moth confined over plants of Drosera

burmanni laid several ova, most of which were deposited on the seed

capsules and unexpanded flower buds. One ovum was laid midway

on a petiole on the edge of a young leaf.

Ovum.—When first deposited the egg is of a pale shining green

colour, showing prismatic tints. There seems to be a system of

rather coarse reticulation disposed regularly over the surface, but the

enclosed depressions are very shallow. It is oval in longitudinal,

circular in transverse, section. Its length is about ‘45 mm., and its

diameter about ‘18 mm.

Larva.—There are apparently four instars :—

First Instar.—The newly hatched larva is about 1 mm.long. In

colour it is a pale transparent yellow which takes a reflected tint from

the Drosera leaves, thus making the young larva very difficult to

see ; the prothoracic segment is a little darker, and the head is brown

and comparatively very large. Scattered over the body are short

white hairs, but they are neither conspicuous nor plentiful. No

warts are visible.

The larva crawls about without hesitation amongst the glandular

hairs of the Drosera leaf, the gummy tips of the petioles standing

up above it, so that it can walk about among their bases with

impunity. In this stage it seems to feed entirely on the petioles

and gum.

Before undergoing its first ecdysis the larva grows to about 1:5 mm.

in length, and the segmental interstices are more plainly marked in

a lighter yellowish colour, whereas the segments themselves have

become of a darker greenish-yellow.

Second Instar:-—About 2 mm. long and rather stout. Colour a

greenish-yellow, paler below and on the sides on which the spiracles

stand out darkly ; there are apparently small latero-dorsal tubercles

which bear rather long white clubbed hairs.

It feeds on the glandular petioles, biting through the base and

drawing the stalk into its mouth by a series of movements and

finishing by devouring the drop of gum. It seems fairly voracious,

but is evidently rather fastidious in its selection of the glandular

hairs.

Third (2? antepenultimate) Instar—About 3 mm. long and fairly

stout. Colour a pale green with interrupted pinkish latero-dorsal

lateral, and supraspiracular stripes. Tubercles green at’ base,

brownish at points of emission of the white hairs. The disposition

of the tubercles is shown in the figure (fig 3).

NEW PLUME-MOTH. 25

Fig. 3.—dth, 6th, 7th, and 8th Somites of larva of T. paludicola

(penultimate instar.). Much magnified.

At this stage the larva feeds indifferently on the leaves and the

gummy glands of the Drosera.

Fig. 4.—6th and 7th Somites of larva of T. paludicola (ultimate instar. ).

E 8-07

——

26 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Fourth (ultimate) Instar.—A fully fed larva on the point of pupa-

tion is just over 7 mm. long, moderately stout, stoutest about middle

of body, tapering rather more rapidly towards the head. Colour

pale green, a dark rather reddish narrow medio-dorsal stripe ; latero-

dorsal tubercles red and surrounded with dark red dashes, which

assume rather a longitudinal direction, so that the larva seems to

have an interrupted rather broad latero-dorsal stripe. Head pale

green with dark ocellar marks on either side. Jaws and mouth parts

reddish. Long palps on either side of jaws (fig. 4).

The larve, however, vary much, but seem divisible into three

types :—

(1) Pale green with a distinctly reddish tinge; a narrow darker

green dorsal stripe bordered on either side by a pale yellowish longi-

tudinal line; head pale green with dark reddish ocellar patches ;

tubercles reddish-brown ; hairs white, as long as diameter of seg-

mental interstices, slightly and regularly dilated towards apex ;

prolegs pale green, almost transparent.

(2) Paler green, on which the tubercles show up conspicuously

as a bright dark red.

(3) Very much suffused with red, so as to appear of almost as

red a colour as the Drosera itself.

The intensity of the dorsal stripe is very variable; in some

specimens it is very distinct, in others quite obsolete.

Tn its final instar the larva shows a decided preference for the

buds and seeds of the Drosera, eating a hole in the side of the seed

capsule and devouring the contents, but it also eats the leaves

(fig. 6).

GENERAL REMARKS ON THE LarvaL State.—In all its stages the

larva is extremely similar to the Drosera and difficult to distinguish.

Even a full-grown larva may easily be passed over as a glandular leaf

seen edgewise, and vice versd. .

Ordinarily the larva seems sluggish, but can move along fairly fast

when it likes. It has, indeed, little incentive to move from the food

plant. When resting across the centre of the plant, with plenty of

food within reach, it seems to remain there for days, until a large

pile of flaccid dark-yellowish-green frass accumulates.

In some cases the frass is jerked away by a rapid movement of

the anal extremity. In one instance which I noted it went about an

inch up into the air and fell on to the Drosera plant about half an inch

away from the larva; but usually, I should imagine, it falls clear

of the food plant, or there would be no object in flicking it away in

this manner. However, as noted above, the frass often does: accu-

mulate on the foodplant, so evidently this process of removal is not

an invariable habit, but is a peculiarity confined to certain indivi-

duals.

—— Se

NEW PLUME-MOTH. 2

When crawling on to a Drosera plant the larva seems very careful

to keep clear of the gummy petioles, and is assisted to do so by

its long hairs, more especially those situated upon the head, for

these hairs are seen to have enlarged basal attachments, which are

evidently correlated with hypertrophied tactile nerves. (See fig. 5).

When crawling over the leaves the gum is often seen to adhere to

the legs of the larva, which then stops, bends down its head,

and cleans them by passing the gummy legs through its mouth.

The whole process rather reminds one of a cat licking itself clean.

Bel

Fig. 5.—Head and Prothorax of larva of T. paludicola

showing tactile hairs.

(Note the enlarged basal attachments of these hairs, evidently correlated

with a hypertrophied tactile nerve.)

Pupation.—When searching for the larve I must have examined

several scores of Drosera plants, which either contained full-fed larvee

or showed signs of having recently done so, but only in one case have

I as yet found the pupa in a natural position, and, judging by the

restless behaviour of larve in confinement just prior to pupation,

I am constrained to believe that the larva wanders away from the

plant and fixes itself up for pupation on some grass stem or other

similar object, where its discovery would be rendered exceedingly

difficult by its resemblance to a pendulous grass seed.

_ This pupa, which was found in situ in its natural position (on 27th

August), was on a medium-sized Drosera plant, which was growing

28 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

under the shade of a tuft of grass. The plant had evidently been

badly eaten by the larva, and there was no flower stalk. The pupa

was attached by its cremastral hooks to a silken pad spun on the

base of a leaf just below the central bud and was lying, dorsal

surface uppermost, across some leaves whose gummy petioles had

been eaten away by the larva. This pupa was of a greenish-yellow-

brown colour, just the tint of the faded sundew leaves, and it looked

rather like a grass seed which had fallen on to the plant and stuck

to the gum; it may be added that ripe grass seeds are often so found.

In confinement the larva exhibits a certain preference for suspen-

sion from the flower stalk of its food plant, whose colour is of a reddish

green. Even when the stem is growing at an angle, its double set

Fig. 6.—(Upper figure) Pupa from the side.

Fig. 7.—(Lower figure) Full-grown larva eating into a seed-capsule.

(From drawings by E. E. Green.)

of cremastral hooks enables the pupa to keep its ventral surface

closely appressed to the lower side of the stem, so that it is not sus-

pended freely. It seems possible that this pupa possesses a certain

amount of colour adaptability, those pup attached to the reddish

flower stems having usually an increased red suffusion in comparison

with those attached to glass or white paper.

When on an approximately horizontal surface, the pupa is usually

found dorsum uppermost ; otherwise it invariably suspends itself head

downwards and with the ventral surface appressed to its support.

In the case of a pupa in a horizontal position the cast larval skin

is sometimes seen lying near it, but quite free and shrivelled up. The

NEW PLUME-MOTH. 29

suspended pupa always gets rid of the larval skin entirely. This

habit is the exact opposite of that found in T'richoptilus oxydactylus,

Wlk., whose discarded larval skin is not shrivelled up, but is stretched

out along the stem just above the pupa.

When first formed the pupa is of a light apple-green colour, the

wing-covers and appendages of a darker green, and a narrow darker

medio-dorsal stripe. On either side of this last is a series of eight

red tubercles, each bearing two black spines, both pointing longi-

tudinally in opposite directions ; on about the eighth somite, however,

the foremost of these two spines becomes obsolescent and quite

disappears before the anal extremity is reached. (See fig. 7.) The

cremaster consists of two portions approximately equal to one

another, one in the centre of the ventral surface of the twelfth somite,

the other at the anal extremity.

In some cases the newly formed pupa is wholly suffused with a deli-

cate pink flush, which almost becomes a dull red in some specimens.

After a couple of days the bright green begins to fade and ulti-

mately becomes a dull uniform pale yellowish-brown, by which time

the eyes and antenne are clearly marked in black.

The pupa is formed about thirty hours after the larva has sus-

pended itself, and the moth emerges after about nine or ten days in

the pupal state.

EMERGENCE OF ImMaco.—The moth always emerges in the

morning, usually at about 8 a.m.

The following notes refer to one particular case of eclosion, which

was watched throughout :—

* 10th September, 1907, 7.30 a.m.—Pupa of paludicola bent away

from the supportingstem. Wingcoversvery dark, the wingsshowing

through; abdomen dark yellowish-brown ; capital extremity lighter.

‘© 8 a.m.—A dark mark along base of wing covers, which seem

quite separated from segments. Pupa quiescent.

‘© 8.20 a.m.—A reddish suffusion along dorsal segments (about

fifth to eighth).

** 8.40 am.—A tremulous motion, and the pupa hangs down a

little more freely.

*©8.45 a.m.—Segments apenas tips of wing covers look very

loosely separated, and there is a constant slight motion in the

ventro-dorsal plane.

*¢ 8.48 a.m.—Antenna-case separate; a distinct split in lower

surface near eye. Head emerging. Emergence of thorax quickly

follows in rapid gliding jerks.

“© 8.50 a.m.—Abdomen is half emerged; tips of wings still

retained ; legs and antennz free. There is now a distinct pause.

_ ** 8.54 a.m.—A sudden jerk and the abdomen is wholly withdrawn

from the pupa case, which is grasped by the first and second pairs of

legs, The abdomen now hangs down, the hind legs crossed over it,

30 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

whilst the wings are raised over the back. The forewings are now

about as long as the abdomen ; they seem comparatively very large

on emergence. The anal tufts are erect and separate, but the hairs

look a little matted together.

«9 a.m.—The wings are almost fully expanded, but the cilia are

rather matted together.

‘¢ 9.07 a.m.—The wings are separated and held in a plane parallel

with the abdomen, the costal margins of the forewings being at about

a right angle with one another. The third segment of the hind wing

is kept separate between the other segments and the abdomen. The

cilia still look matted. The antenne are laid along the costa. The

hind legs are now at an angle with the abdomen underneath the

wings, which seem rather to be stretched over the spurs. Can these

spurs be for the purpose of stretching and drying the wings, a thing

which must be somewhat of a difficulty in the case of these long

slender segments ? Anyway, it certainly is the case that amongst the

Plume Moths there is a correlation between long spurs and extreme

fission of the wings. Normally, too, when the moth has flown,

the long spurred hind legs are stuck straight out when at rest, well

away from the wings.

‘* 9.24 a.m.—The legs have now been slipped down a little, and

each outer distal spur is now pressing on the costa of the second

segment of the forewings, separating it out from the first segment,

whilst the outer proximal spur similarly opens out the second

segment of the hind wings from the first segment.

‘9,29 a.m.—The legs have now been slipped down nearer the

body, and are directly beneath the third segment of the hind wings.

The outer distal spur is just touching the cilia of the inner margin of

the second segment of the forewings, and probably acts as a sort of

comb to separate the hairs.

‘9.34 a.m.—The third segment of the hind wings is now resting

with its apex on,the outer distal spur, which spreads out the long

cilia very well. The outer proximal spur combs out the inner

marginal cilia of the third segment. .

‘9.40 a.m—The hind legs are now laid along the abdomen quite

clear of the wings, which are still deflexed.

9.45-9.50 a.m.—The wings are being brought forward very slowly

until the costal margins are at about right angles with the abdomen.

Meanwhile the antenne are laid beneath the wings and comb out the

basal cilia as the wings are drawn forward.”

1 would call particular attention to the light now thrown on the

use of the long spurs which occur on the hind legs of so many Plume

Moths. The facts exhibited in the above notes, together with the

constant correlation of long ‘spurs with extreme fission of the wings,

seem to point out that these spurs have been developed expressly to

stretch the wings, to separate the segments, and to comb out the

long cilia,

NEW PLUME-MOTH. 31

Hasits or Imaco.—The moth seems to fly naturally from about

half an hour before to just after sunset, and again in the morning

until about half an hour after sunrise: the flight is fairly swift, but

gentle and floating, and not sustained. If flying naturally they

rarely seem to fly more than a yard or so at a time, and not more

than four or five yards if disturbed. They stop with a jerk and

pitch on a grass stem, flower head, leaf, &c., with the wings rolled

up and stuck out at right angles on either side, and the long spurred

hind legs projecting upwards between the wings and abdomen.

I have never yet seen two in copula. Perhaps they pair after

sunset, remain coupled all night, and separate at sunrise, the female

ovipositing next evening.

Even in localities where it is abundant, 7’. paludicola is a very

inconspicuous little insect, and there are so many small Rhynchota

and Diptera extremely similar to it when on the wing and abundant

in the same habitats that it is at first by no means easy to distinguish

it even when one is on the look out for this particular “‘ Plume.”

Its jerky floating flight will, however, soon become familiar to any

one who is searching for it.

The moth is never to be found away from the immediate vicinity

of the Drosera.

TIME OF APPEARANCE.—The moth was first found by me in the

beginning of October, 1906. On my return to Diyatalawa at the end

of July, 1907, it was quite common, and has remained on the wing

quite abundantly up to the time of writing, and during the whole of

this period the larva has been found in all stages, so that it appears

probable that this species is continuous-brooded throughout the year.

Hasitat.—Ceylon, Province of Uva, Diyatalawa (4,000 feet).

July to October, and probably throughout the year.

Mr. Meyrick informs me (in litt.) that he has also received this

species from the Khasi Hills, Assam.

EneEmies.—Amongst the agencies destructive to this species must

be reckoned the human inhabitants of the districts in which it occurs ;

these burn off the grass, &c., of the patanas regularly, and these

constant fires must destroy vast numbers of 7’. paludicola in all its

stages. Luckily, however, for the moth, it is never likely to be

wholly exterminated by this means, since the vegetation of the boggy

valleys, which form its headquarters, is usually too lush to burn.

The adult moth is preyed on by a small crab spider (T’homiside)

which lives on the seed heads of grasses, with whose colour it agrees

exactly.

The larva falls a victim to a small blackish Ichneumonid, which

emerges from the larva when it is full grown, and spins a small oval

pale yellow silken cocoon on the Drosera flower stalk or on a neigh-

bouring piece of grass or occasionally on a Drosera leaf. Mr. E.

Ernest Green, to whom I had sent some paludicola larve, was lucky

32 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

enough to observe the actual emergence of this Ichneumonid grub

from the parasitized larva, and writes as follows :—

“ My first attempt was interrupted by the sudden emergence of an

Ichneumon grub. Whilst endeavouring to draw this caterpillar a

lump appeared between the 7th and 8th somites, inside which

vigorous movements were seen. Presently a yellowish grub forced

its way through the skin at this point. The grub has a row of

rounded tubercles on each side, which it alternately protrudes and

retracts during its efforts to free itself from the body of the larva.

While its hinder extremity was still attached to the side of the

caterpillar, the grub commenced to spin its cocoon. Bulk for bulk,

the grub is little smaller than the larva from which it has emerged.

Within an hour the grub has completely enclosed itself in a pale

yellow silken cocoon. Meanwhile, the caterpillar had completely

collapsed.”

Roughly, about one-third of the larve collected seem to be

attacked by this parasite, which emerges from its cocoon after

about eight days.

IT am indebted to Mr. E. Ernest Green for the drawings of figures

6 and 7.

THE WINDOW-PANE OYSTERS. oo

REPORT ON THE WINDOW-PANE OYSTERS (PLACUNA

PLACENTA, “MUTTUCHCHIPPI’’) IN THE BACK-

WATERS OF THE EASTERN PROVINGE

(JUNE, 1907).

By ArtTHur WILLEY, F.R.S.

With Plate and Text-Figures.

INTRODUCTION.

5 oo first systematic biological survey of the Tamblegam pearl

fishery grounds in recent years was carried out by Mr. James

Hornell in 1905, and an account of it was published in Part IL. of

the Ceylon Marine Biological Reports (June, 1906).* There was no

inspection of the beds in 1906.

On June 5, 1907, exactly at the break of the south-west monsoon, I

proceeded to Trincomalee to examine and report upon the occurrence

of window-pane oysters in the estuaries and backwaters lying to the

south of Koddiyar Bay. At this time a strong wind was blowing

almost incessantly day and night, rendering the harbour and great

bay as well as lake Tamblegam, which lies in the midst of a flat

plain, very choppy. Shortly after my arrival the Assistant Govern-

ment Agent at Trincomalee, Mr. C.S. Vaughan, C.C.S.,+ informed

me that the open season for pearling in the Tamblegam lake had

terminated on May 15, according to the terms of the lease schedule,

and that it now became necessary to make a fresh inspection of the

Tamblegam pearl fishery grounds; accordingly I added this work

to my programme.

By the terms of the new lease of the Tamblegam placuna fishery,

which commenced on January 1, 1907, window-pane oysters may

not be collected during a close season extending from the middle of

May to the end of the year, and during the open season, from Janu-

ary | to May 15, they may not be collected of a less size than 54

inches in shortest diameter. As the close season is not known to

coincide with the spawning season, it will be seen that these restric-

tions as to season and size can only have a partial effect on the

restoration of the beds to their former productivity so long as there

* Also as Sessional Paper XLVI., 1905.

y+ Lam indebted to Mr. Vaughan for the correct rendering of many of the

Tamil names in this paper. The old spellings of the Sambore river and

Uppu-aru are retained in the text in place of the new official spellings

Sampur and Uppar, respectively. The Savaru is the same as Shava-aru on

the maps.

F 8-07

34 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

is no ground set apart as a breeding reserve, and that without this

provision they might even tend towards the virtual extinction of the

spawning oysters.

The placuna beds occur in the backwaters of two neighbouring

divisions of the Trincomalee District, namely, Koddiyar and Kiniyai,

which are under the supervision of their respective Vanniyas, and

are separated from each other by the Mahaweli-ganga. Lake Tam-

blegam lies within the Kiniyai boundaries, and has long been known

as the headquarters of the placuna fishery in Ceylon. There are,

however, two other backwaters, the Sambore river and the Uppu-

aru, connected with the great bay at Trincomalee, where the nature

of the bottom and the salinity of the water offer more or less favour-

able conditions for the window-pane oyster. The Uppu-aru lies to

the west on the Kiniyai side of the Mahaweli-ganga, and is connected

with this important river about 10 miles inland by a winding

channel called the Savaru, a fact which has a bearing upon the

well-being of the placuna beds in the Uppu estuary, owing to the

likelihood of an excessive sedimentation and freshening of the water

during the rainy season, both of which may act calamitously upon

the placuna communities. To the east of the Mahaweli-ganga occurs

the Mutur-aru, and beyond this again the Sambore river, of which

the most considerable expanse is known as the Kaddaiparichchan-

aru. The Mutur-aru forms part of the delta of the ganga, and the

water opposite to the present resthouse at the old port of Koddiyar

is nearly fresh.

SAMBORE RIVER.

After consultation with Mr. Vaughan, I took passage in a Koddiyar

dhoney and crossed the bay to the Mutur estuary and resthouse,

where I met the Vanniya of Koddiyar by arrangement. On the

following morning (June 11) the Vanniya accompanied me nearly

2 miles along thé Sambore road, across the Batticaloa road, to the

Kaddaiparichchan ferry or Paikiraturai, a spot marked by a double

tamarind tree and a pile of edible oyster shells perhaps destined

to be calcined. This ferry leads to the Topur road across the river.

Here [embarked in a large log boat which was in readiness, manned

by three boatmen and two divers. A hundred yards or so below

the ferry we pass the entrance to the great inlet called the Kaddai-

parichchan-aru on the right bank of the river. About a quarter of

a mile farther down on the same side there issues another winding

ramification named Irattamaddikkali-odai. It is important to note

that the main stream of the Sambore river has a fresh water connec-

tion with the ancient but recently restored Allai tank, about 6 miles

from the sea.

In the lower reaches of the river where the tide runs strongest the

bottom is sandy ; in the more sheltered recesses there are patches of

THE WINDOW-PANE OYSTERS. 35

mud, some of which have been colonized by window-pane oysters.

Such a recess occurs at the mouth of the Irattamaddikkali-odai, shut

off from the main current by a long mangrove eyot or “ nadutivu.”

A small quantity of shells thrown upon the bank indicated what had

been taken last year. It may be stated at once that the placuna

fishery is not an important industry in the Sambore river and hardly

shows promise of becoming one, but the occurrence of placuna here

is an important biological fact for several reasons.

In his 1905 report, to which I have referred above, Mr. Hornell

describes his original investigations into the causation of pearls in

Placuna placenta, and announces his discovery that the same larval

cestode which stimulates the formation of pearls in the Mannar

pearl oyster (Margaritifera vulgaris), also furnishes the nucleus

of the pearls produced by placuna. Mr. Hornell remarks upon the

singularity of this parasitological uniformity in divergent environ-

ments.. The tidal Sambore river introduces us to a third class of

conditions of existence, inasmuch as instead of opening to the sea

by a wide and comparatively deep strait as does lake Tamblegam,

the discharge of the river takes place over a shallow surf-ridden

sand bar. Nevertheless, the parasitological conditions remain ap-

parently the same in all essential respects. Later on I shall have

something more to say upon the subject of the multiplication and

migrations of the parasitic larvee, which are so abundant in the liver

of these bivalve molluscs. Following the usual custom I now pass

on to the enumeration of the various stations where samples were

collected during my first inspection.

Station I1.—At the seaward extremity of Irattamaddikkali-odai ;

depth 2-4 feet. In spite of the shallowness the water contained so

much matter in suspension that the bottom could not be’seen from

the boat, and the divers waded about depending upon the tactual

acuity of their feet to find the shells. This method serves well

enough for moderately large specimens in shallow water, but is not

sufficiently delicate for the young thin-shelled stages. In the course

of about half an hour only six living placune were taken, as shown

in the subjoined table, the measurements being made with the

callipers on a scale of millimetres ;:—

Length. Height. Remarks.

1 .. 158 .. 148 .. Pearls found in the right mantle

- only, a cluster of small pearls

inside the mantle opposite the

labial tentacles. Copepod ecto-

parasites with bright roseate

ovisacs glided rapidly over the

gills.

2 .. 148 .. 135 .. Several of the red Copepod Crus-

tacea present.

36 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Length. Height. Remarks.

3... 150 .. 139 ..~- An‘encysted Nematode worm*

observed ; one very small pear!

in. left mantle.

4 .. 166 .. 150 .. Twosmall pearls in right mantle,

one in left.

' Two Copepods present, and a

minute pear! in cach mantle.

Gat,. 1386, 0. EEL! oo (Many liver ‘parasites!//buti imo

pearls were found.

or |

—

Ou"

With reference to the above, it is to be noted that the standard

height, 53 inches, is equivalent to 139 mm., and according to Mr.

Hornell’s calculations, based upon observations extending over the

years 1902-1905, represents an age of about two years.

Station I1.—Across the river opposite to preceding ; bottom con-

sisting of a mixture of sand and mud. The search yielded one living

placuna, length 117 mm., height 94mm. When held up to the light

the shell was sufficiently transparent to allow the beating of the heart

to be seen ; some time after removal from water the heart stopped,

commencing again after being returned to the water. Fish spawn

(goby eggs) and small dome-shaped, sand-encrusted Gastropod egg- '

capsules, from one of which I liberated 15 operculate veligers, were

attached to the right valve. In the normal prone position of the

window-pane oyster the flat right valve is uppermost, the shell

resting upon the convex left valve as with the edible oyster, which of

course adheres to the surface upon which it settles, placuna being

free. When the creature is breathing and feeding, these two func-

tions being performed simultaneously as in all lamellibranchiate

mollusca, the right valve is raised slightly like a lid, usually about

a quarter of an inch or less above the level of the left valve. If the

thin blade of a knife be inserted between the gaping valves, touching

the sensitive edge of the mantle, they will instantly close, and the

entire shell can then be lifted out of the water holding on to the

blade. Both large and small specimens retain this grip for many

. days under artificial conditions.

Station I11.—On the western side of the above-mentioned man-

grove eyot no placunz were found.

Station 1V.—A short distance up river off the left bank, where there

were some remnants of last year’s takings. Found only two dead

mud-buried placunze with mud between the valves ; height of the

shells about 5 inches.

Station V.—In the Irattamaddikkali-odai (so-called on account of

the abundance of an edible cockle “‘ Irattamaddi, blood-cockle,”’

* Mr. Hornell recorded the presence of Chetracanthus uncinatus encysted

within the adductor muscle of Placuna,

THE WINDOW-PANE OYSTERS. 37

Arca rhombea).* The results were chiefly negative. At Maram-

poddaturai, on the right bank, a likely looking spot marked by a

fine ‘* pasari maram,”’ one living placuna was picked up in very

shallow water, measuring 157 by 143 mm. Nearer the head of this

backwater no more were found.

Station VI.—In the Kaddaiparichchan-aru about three-quarters of

amile along thisarm of the backwater, beyond the village of the same

name where there is a bifurcated coconut tree and past a slight bend

where weathered rocks with cleavage grooves jut out into the water.

Here the divers picked up and I subsequently measured upwards of

thirty dead and buried placune with both valves complete. This

is a good example of an entire bed having been destroyed by natural

though catastrophic means, namely, mud-burial. In the subjoined

table I give a few selected measurements to show the range of size.

The insidious nature of the disaster which overtook this bed may be

imagined when it is stated that in several cases the delicate ear-

like lobes of the shell which occur on either side of the hinge

line, especially in young individuals, are still retained (text fig. 1).

Fig. 1.—Left valve of a Placuna from the inside, from a photograph x 4

1. 1. Lobes of the shell. c, Hinge area, the longer cardinal tooth is

posterior (the figure being reversed). m. Muscle-impression.

Length. Height. Length. Height.

1 209 .. 168 | 5 120 4.120

2 160<fye0s (Lid | 6 D4 tina, eno

3 142 8 Bd | 7 76 .. 64

4 Lea eae |

* This molluse has red blood and dark red gills. + Left valve only.

38 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Station VI1.—On the left side of the aru, opposite to the preceding

station, just above a sandbank occupied by a colony of small crabs

with nearly spherical bodies and long slender curved chelz. I sent

a couple of these crabs to my friend Dr. J. R. Henderson at Madras,

and he kindly identified them as Dotilla mycteroides (H. Milne-

Edwards) belonging to the family Ocypodide. In Dr. Henderson’s

“ Contribution to Indian Carcinology ” (Trans. Linn. Soc. London,

Vol. V., 1893, p. 390) this species is mentioned under an alternative

title, Scopimera mycteroides, the generic name referring to the

presence of thin, smooth, soft,oval areas on the meropodites of the

legs and on the sterna, which have been termed “‘ tympana.” Ina

very large series of this species only males occurred, and Dr. Hender-

son tells me that he has never seen a female.

From this station I obtained seven examples of the youngest living

brood met with during the entire inspection. The first specimen to

be found was picked up casually in company with a dead shell ; the

other six were obtained by the two divers in about half an hour by

the hand-trailing method, which can only be employed in very

shallow water. The details are given in the following table :—

Length. Height. Observations.

Ds ae 71 .. 59 .. No parasites were found.

2 .. 75°... 64 = .. One cystic parasite was found in

the liver containing a single

contractile endogen (for expla-

nation of the use of this term

see below under Parasitic Lar-

ve). (Fig. 9.)*

65 .. 54 = .. One larva only was seen in the

liver, without adventitious

cyst. (Fig. 8,)*

AS)

4 GL ots. 58 .. Preserved whole in formalin.

5) OMe SN one Do.

6 60 .. 52 .. No'parasites were found.

a Ree. Dilee bos Do.

The presence of a buried colony on one side of the river and a

growing colony on the opposite side should presumably be considered

in conjunction with the configuration of the banks at this spot, a

rocky point on the one side and a sandy bight on the other, the

former causing, the latter indicating, a deviation of the tidal currents

and consequent alteration of deposit during the period of maximum

sedimentation.

Station VIII.—In a stretch of the river known locally as the

Eraiyattiwu-aru, close above the Kaddaiparichchan ferry (Paikira-

turai); depth 4-5 feet. At this spot edible oysters of large size

occurred, often coated with a yellow encrusting sponge. A placuna

* These refer to the figures on the plate at the end of this article.

THE WINDOW-PANE OYSTERS. 39

valve had edible oysters attached to it. Only two living placune

were taken here within half an hour, as under :—

Length. Height. Observations.

1 ere tOT le 98 .. Many cysts containing 1-12 en-

dogens.

2. et ll2. 7.) 103 >a) Observed in, all ‘about, 15 cysts:

including one bearing an en-

dogen, another with several

endogens, and one free endo-

gen.

About 200 yards further along in a wide, shallow bight on the

eastern shore, where the tide was running very slowly, four dead

complete shells were taken, three measuring on the average 150 mm.

long by 143 mm. high, the fourth smaller, 129 mm. by 105 mm.

The mangroves which border the lower reaches of the river

presented a remarkably even line of foliage jutting out over the maze

of roots some 3 feet above the level of the water, curiously like

the undercut cliffs of some coral islands. Another characteristic

feature, at this season, of the complex of waterways which consti-

tute the Sambore river was afforded by the presence of great

numbers of Rhizostome Meduse (“ jelly-fish’’) belonging to the

series of forms included under the name Himantostoma flagellatum,

the eight oral arms carrying superficial fringes and long terminal

contractile streamers. In the morning they were to be seen drifting

up the river with the inflowing tide against the wind; towards

evening the outflowing tide left many of them stranded upon the

sandbanks, which were then exposed. They varied in size from

about 13 to 5 inches in diameter, and many of them, both large

and small, had a purple spotted umbrella, while others were colour-

less. It is furthermore worth noting that they occurred up the

river as far as the Batticaloa road. beyond the upper limit of the

placuna beds.

LAKE TAMBLEGAM.

On June 20 I went to Niroddumunai, where the road from

Trincomalee to Batticaloa abuts upon the wide channel by which

this lake communicates with the sea, the village of Kiniyai lying on

the opposite shore. Here, by kind permission of the District

Engineer, Mr. W. Brice Gregson, I occupied the conveniently

situated Public Works Department bungalow. ;

The object of my visit, as I have indicated at the commencement

of this report, was to make the first official inspection since the

passing of “‘ The Pearl Fishery Ordinance, 1906,” and since the

lease concession 1907. It is currently known that much unlicensed

collecting took place in 1906, and that the legitimate fishery this year

has not yielded a satisfactory return. It is to be regretted that the

40 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

statistical information, which is so freely forthcoming from the Man-

nar fishing grounds, is utterly wanting at Tamblegam, a somewhat

unfortunate deficiency, where everything depends upon numbers.

At the same time it is not easy to find a remedy except by the

co-operation of the contractors.

Examination of the recent shell-heaps at different points of the

shore showed that not less than 50 per cent. were undersized. For

instance, the measurements of the heights of 10 entire left valves

gathered at random from one pile were 4, 441, 33, 54, 42, 44, 53,

44, 5,43 inches. Evidently an undersized brood had been fished,

perhaps during the previous year, and it is hard to believe that the

collection can have brought any return worth naming.

I am informed by one of the contractors that during the fishing

season of 1907 ten boats were engaged for four or five days only

collecting daily 300-400 oysters each ; then for about six weeks four

boats were employed daily. The season’s catch yielded forty-six

rupees weight of pearls worth six hundred and ninety rupees,

one rupee’s weight of placuna pearls being valued at fifteen

rupees.*

The topography of the lake and the position of the principal

placuna beds were described and illustrated by Mr. Hornell (1905),

so that I can proceed at once to record my notes for the present year

in the month of June. At this time the salinity of the water, as

ascertained from a sample from Nachchikuda, was approximately the

same as that of the sea, a ship’s salinometer showing a reading of 12,

as against 10 in the Sambore backwater.

Station I.—In the mouth of the inlet called Nachchikkuda, about

midway between the hill on the east side called Makilankaraimalai

(exposing a broad front of rugged weathered rock surfaces) and

Vellaikkallumunai (white stone point) to the west; depth about

two fathoms. This station lies to the south-east of the coconut

planted village’ of Sinnakkulam. Three divers in fifteen minutes

brought up ten large living oysters and a dead one overgrown

with hydroids (Obelia). No window-pane oysters were recorded at

this spot by Mr. Hornell in 1905. In this material I noted two

single endogenous larve. In most of the individuals patent cysts,

visible without magnification, occurred in the anterior portion of

* In astatement submitted by the principal lessee, Mr. Abdul Rasool to

the Assistant Government Agent and self at the Trincomalee Kachcheri in

October, it is certified that this quantity of pearls was obtained from 627,672

window-pane oysters fished and opened during 125 days by 23 men. The

number of oysters can be stated with such precision, because a payment of

25 cents per thousand is made for opening them. The actual yield was

indeed greatly below what was anticipated from the examination at the

Kachcheri in February, 1906, of a sample of 2,000 oysters, in accordance

with a recommendation made by Mr. Hornell. The pearls procured from

this sample were valued at six rupees.

THE WINDOW-PANE OYSTERS. 4]

the suspensory membrane of the gills; but the pearl yield was

I give the sizes for future reference :—

poor.

AAS oF WD

Length.

155

166

151

161

146

156

150

165

172

Height.

142

134

147

141

TEU eric

157

141

133

148

150

Contents.

No pearls.

Do.

Do,

Do.

A minute pearl in each mantle-

half.

No pearls.

One small pearl in right mantle.

A small pearl in left mantle edge

and a small hinge pearl.

Sheets of encrusting Bryozoa occurred at base and apex of both

valves of No. 9; the right valve of No. 10 was bored in four places,

the holes being covered internally by thin nacre.

Station II.—Opposite Sinnakkulam Ur, south of the point called

Mutalaippiddi ‘‘ crocodile shallow,” in 13} fathom. In Mr. Hor-

nell’s sketch plan of the lake the Nachchikkuda bed is localized

between Mutalaippiddi and the head of the bight. Three divers

within ten minutes brought up six living and six dead well-grown

placune. Details of the living specimens are given below :—

—

Length.

154

159

152

147

153

142

Height.

143

148

150

147

149

134

Observations.

Many patent cysts; no pearls.

Right valve overgrown with

yellow encrusting sponge.

Edge newly bordered with thin

shell-substance. About a

dozen small pearls, eight of

which were lying close to the

lower border of the adductor

muscle.

Patent cysts present.

Station I1I.—Abreast of Mutalaippiddi, where there is a sandy beach

with low trees in front of the coconut plantation. Three divers

found eight living oysters in about 13 fathom within five minutes :—

om w WW

Length.

145

154

173

1s 2 gy

166

Height.

145

148

162

144

153

Observations.

Large patent cysts; one hinge

pearl.

Double hinge pearl.

No pearls.

One very small pearl.

One mantle and one hinge pearl.

8-07

42 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Length. Height. Observations.

6 .. 167%. 66) ceo Onethinge pearl:

7 .. 144 .. 137 + .. Numerous patent cysts; no

pearls.

8 .. 151 .. 147 .. Two mantle pearls and a. small

hinge pearl.

What I have called “hinge pearls” always occur near the

posterior cardinal ridge or tooth imbedded in the fleshy substance

of the central triangular lobe of the mantle which lies between the

cardinal teeth.

Station IV.—On the Nachchikkuda bed round Mutalaippiddi,

nearly opposite to a pile of this year’s shells on the beach; depth

about 5 feet. From this spot and also from another diving farther

up the inlet off an outstanding thicket of mangroves near the

Sinnakkulam side I recorded twenty measurements. This station

evidently corresponds with Mr. Hornell’s station 5a (1905), where he

found “great abundance of very young Placuna placenta,” this being

the only part of the Nachchikkuda where he obtained any placunz

at all. From this fact we may apparently draw the conclusion

that placuna attains the standard size in about 24 years :—

Length. Height. Observations.

1 .. 140 .. 1438 .. Capulids attached to the right

valve in the umbonal region

and on the inner upper pos-

terior margin of left.

Qo. SAT.” 148) 7 No pearls.

O- vsine et WAG airacet Sse oes Do.

4 Ge" 1407 oy BOBS oo Do.

5 .. 149 .. 133 .. Twosmall pearls in left mantle ;

an invasion of mud coated by

nacre.

6 158 «. 140 '... One pearl.

7 157... L5r..... No pearls.

8 160 _.. 148 .. One pearl.

9 163. .. 152 .. Numerous patent .cysts in the

usual position.

10... 166 .. 151 .. Right valve with Capulids, left

with adherent sand-tube.

Many patent lymphoid cysts

in the suspensory membrane

of the gill.

ll .. 166 .. 159 .. Patent cysts present, some

adjacent to the organ of

Bojanus.

12° 22 169" 3.) 155%... 4 (Nompenrin:

LS Someta! by.) SAR aA sea Ls Se Do.

i4.. 171 .. 149 ., Capulids and sand-tubes on left

valve.

THE WINDOW-PANE OYSTERS. 43

Length. Height. Observations.

Rae 228172 cabot Mal. ‘Ewo' pearls.

BGM 2 LT Lbs? C0) None.

Pie) 175... bain a None.

RSrthaa | LTS: \ aed DAT olest/ alone.

19 .. 180 .. 152 ..— Several patent white cysts at

anterior base of gills (the usual

position) each containing a

normal parasitic larva sur-

rounded by adventitia.

DOW cos USS: i230, 162) .., Onexpearl:

A sample for comparison with the above from the same place

should be examined towards the end of the year before the next

fishery.

The sand-tubes which adhered to several of the shells were in-

habited by Polychaet worms, Eunice indica, all in the same

immature condition, about an inch in length (after preservation),

the head entire or but slightly notched in front, antenne and cirri

smooth, gills commencing on the third foot and ending on the

26th—28th feet.

Station V.—Off the Nachchikkuda (east) shore, opposite to Sinnak-

kulam ; depth about one fathom. Many oysters of the statutory

size, several slightly below it (54 inches). Ten specimens yielded

two hinge pearls and five mantle pearls.

Station V1.—Before Kakkaimunai, ‘‘ Crow Point,” in one fathom ;

collected a sample of a dozen. Nos. 1 and 9 contained a hinge

pearl apiece, that from the latter measuring 2 mm. long by nearly

1-5 mm. wide.

Length. Height. Length. Height.

1 L20..642,, "LES 7 FOO < ae°. 99

2 LL ies fee Soh seenlese ay 11S

3 124 St 2 hs By Sat pbZ0lj ee) TO9

4 12h... ~ 124 10 DEG eG thLOS

5 Diss 00 11 122) yee LEO

LES ee. LLC Pecan LOL kroted Lae

This bed might make a good showing next year ; it corresponds

with Mr. Hornell’s station 8-8 (1905). Other parts of the Kakkai-

munai bed exhibit abundant crops of the sponge called “ kadal-

palam,” referred to by Mr. Hornell, to the almost entire exclusion

of placuna. Whether or not it really ousts placuna from its position

on the beds is a question which could only be answered after repeated

observations, the point to decide being whether placuna would settle

down where the sponges now reside if it were given the chance. I

think it probably would.

44 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Station VI1.—The Sembianar Velanga.* In Mr. Hornell’s sketch

plan this is regarded as forming part of the Kakkaimunai bed. On

this ground there were living placunz of standard size as well as

dead of all sizes. Particularly the young taken at different points

of the bed were all dead. I teok footrule measurements of the living

material, which may be omitted ; in general the height ranged from

54 to Ginches. One specimen had two hinge pearls adjacent to each

other and near to the posterior cardinal ligament ; another had as

many as six hinge pearls in the same position.

Station VIII.—Palampoddar bed. The Amaikkalam, ‘‘ Turtle

shallow,” a submerged sandbank, yielded two live oysters with

clean, worn valves, measuring 152 by 129mm. and 151 by 140 mm.,

respectively. Steering towards the Tampalakamam-aru we find fine

mud, but very few chippi, and these requiring much search. Off the

Periya Palampoddar (according to the unanimous declaration of

my boatmen, although it is labelled ‘‘Sinna Palampat”’ on Mr. Hor-

nell’s plan) only old valves were found. In fact this bed seems to

be nearly exhausted. I do not know whether it has ever been

notably productive, but the proximity of the rivers is againstit.

Station IX.—Kappalturai bed. Numbers of living placune,

sparsely distributed, occurred here, the shells being mostly bent

and contorted, with worm-tubes on the valves. In point of size they

were, as a rule, well over the mark, ranging from about 5 inches to

63 inches in height. One had a very small pearl in the superficies

of the mantle, a larger one at the edge, and a third still larger at the

hinge. Another specimen showed two pearls near together over the

gastro-hepatic region ; and a third had one mantle pearl and a good

hinge pearl.

The Tamblegam lake is estimated to cover an area of 5,006 acres.

The beds which seem to deserve most attention are Nachchikkuda,

Chempiyanar, Kakkaimunai, and Kappalturai, the first-named being

especially well placed for future observation and experiment. At

no great expense oyster parks could be staked out, and the course

of events carefully watched and recorded. The divers can hardly

be expected to discriminate under water between shells differing in

one dimension by a fraction of an inch, and the lease indenture does

not bind them to carry a footrule, nor are they directed to return

undersized shells to the water. It is certain that large numbers

ought to be returned, not however by rudely casting them overboard,

but by placing them by hand the right way up (¢.e., resting upon the

left or convex valve) on the bottom in a definite space. ‘The heavy

log boats of these parts can be moored quite securely against the

strong south-west wind by means of a long pole which they carry

for the purpose, driving it deeply into the mud. It would be a

* More correctly, Chempiyanar Vilakku.

THE WINDOW-PANE OYSTERS. 45

comparatively simple matter to stake out rough enclosures, which

could then be thickly stocked with the window-pane oysters.

Uppu-ARU OR UPPAR.

This backwater is deeper than the Sambore, upwards of a fathom

in most parts, so that genuine diving is required. Before diving,

and while the divers were under water, the boatmen beat the sides

of the boat to scare away sharks and crocodiles should any be in the

vicinity.

The beds, such as they are, occur on the Kiniyai side of the wide

bay into which the Uppu-aru expands atits mouth. On the opposite

side, bordering upon the “‘ Oopah estate ” the current is too strong.

Just inside the bay, round the point of the ferry, two bivalve chippi

were picked up looking quite normal, but they proved to be dead.

It was indeed the common saying that the ‘‘ muttu chippi”’ of the

Uppu-aru were alldead. Nevertheless, on the north side, which is

flanked by a bank of mangroves, whose lower line of foliage was flush

with the surface of the water, some living placune were found. A

sample of half a dozen ranged from 54 by 5 inches to 7 by 6 inches.

I returned all except one, which harboured the same Copepod gill

parasites that I found in the Sambore river, but failed to find in the

Tamblegam chippi, although I searched carefully for them.*

Proceeding along towards the head of the bay some healthy looking

specimens of medium size were procured, but they also were dead ;

then approaching a kallam in one fathom more dead valves were

found. Striking off towards the centre a diver picked up a pale

grayish gelatinous sea-haref (A plysiide) studded with bright emerald

green areole and with retractile pinnate tassels all over the body ;

they called it “‘ kadalnatthu”’ (sea-foam). Nearer the shore we took

three more dead bivalves.

At the head of the bight between two creeks, among dead rem-

nants, one living placuna of medium size (5% by 5 inches) was taken,

the shell showing the marks ofa fish bite. In the mid-bay, opposite

to the sea-opening, only dead valves were found.

Parasitic LARVz.

It is still uncertain how the primary infection of the liver with the

flatworm larve, which are believed to be identical with the pearl-

inducing parasites, takes place, whether they are passively ingested

with the food or actively migrate from the outside. However this

may be, it stands to the credit of Mr. Hornell to have shown for the

first time how secondary infection may occur, namely, by the endo-

genous formation of a new generation of larvz within a parent cyst.

* Since found (October). + Perhaps Acclesia cirrifera.

46 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Out of some hundreds of cysts passed in review under the microscope,

Mr. Hornell tells us that he found “in three different instances a

miniature reproduction of the parent within the bladder-like

posterior division of the body.’ Mr. Hornell adds: ‘‘So far

as my observations go only one secondary larva is produced at

a time.”

Whilst confirming Mr. Hornell’s discovery, I find that the endo-

genously produced larve, or briefly the endogens, are not so rarely

to be seen as might appear from the above quotations from Mr.

Hornell’s work, but that, on the contrary, most of the individual

placunee which I examined contained some of them ; and secondly,

I have to add that the multiple formation of endogens within a single

cyst isa common phenomenon. One of my first preparations showed

a cyst, 0°38 mm. in diameter, containing numerous (about twenty)

endogens, each exhibiting small granules near the posterior end, the

larger concretionary granules (calcareous corpuscles) of the parent

occurring round about them in the interstices (compare fig. 1).

The encysted larvee vary much in size, but in general two sizes

may be distinguished, a small one less than 0°25 mm. in diameter

(becoming greater when turgid with endogens), and a larger one

ranging from 0°5 to 1:0 mm. Both forms are capable of producing

endogens, and are therefore potential blastogens. For convenience

of description and reference it may be useful to refer to the former

as microblastogens (in short microgens). and to the latter as macro-

blastogens (macrogens).. A parent encysted larva bearing one

endogen isa phase or “ instar,” which may be described in one word

as a monogen ; with two endogens it becomes a digen ; with three a

trigen ; with four a tetragen ; with many a polygen. The utility of

this terminology can perhaps only be appreciated by those engaged

in practical investigations of a like nature, but whether this be so or

not it happens to suit the occasion.

A completé-cyst consists of an outer adventitious fibrous layer

surrounding the parasite, sometimes closely investing it, sometimes

with an intervening space which may be occupied by a flocculent

substance. A spherical or rounded larva closely surrounded by the

fibrous cyst-wall may show in its anterior hemisphere a series of |

backwardly directed bristles such as may sometimes be observed in

the endogens (fig. 4). Another appearance occasionally met with

is that of a well-defined striated cuticle, the cuticular striz stretching

at right angles between the body of the larva and the inner surface

of the membrane which is in contact with the fibrous layer. The

strie are involved in the constant contractions or swaying movements

of the body. I do not know what may be the significance of these

different appearances, or whether they are connected in any way

with the distinction which must exist between the primary and

secondary larval generations.

THE WINDOW-PANE OYSTERS. 47

Parasitic infection takes place at an early age, as is indicated by

the observations recorded under Sambore river, Station VII. A

simple larva with large granules from the smaller of the two infected

specimens is shown in fig. 8. The larger (No. 2) had a monogen

(fig. 9), the contained endogen undergoing continual movements of

contraction and expansion. An older placuna (Sambore river,

Station VIII., No. 1) exhibited many different stages, from the barren

microgen to the polygen. The irregular shape of the endogens is a

consequence of their soft contractile bodies.

Fig. 2.—Monogen cyst of intermediate size. The large granules are outside

the endogen. Zeiss. 3 C. cam. luc. Tamblegam.

In fig. 6 the endogen appears like an imaginal disc carved out of

the substance of the parent ; in this instance the cluster of small

granules had not yet formed, those seen in the sketch being peripheral

granules of the parent outside the endogen. Frequently when a

single endogen is present it occupies the greater part of the body

of the parent, but sometimes the contrast in the size of parent and

offspring is very great as will be noticed below.

In another cyst from the same host (Sambore river, Station VIII.,

No. 2) seven endogens could be clearly distinguished, and I noted

that, as a rule, the endogens were placed peripherally in the cyst, the

bulk of the calcareous concretions internally. In this placuna dia-

tomaceous 00ze was seen adhering to the tip of the crystalline style,

indicating the nature of the food upon which placuna subsists.

Fig. 7 shows a monogen from the same host, in which the endogen

appears with its anterior end retracted, and a pore is visible at the

hinder end of the parent. In the preparation from which this was

taken about eight larve were found in the field of the microscope,

48 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

but only the one figured contained an endogen. In another prepara-

tion a free endogen with small granules was seen, but it may have

been artificially liberated.

A trigen, ¢.e.,an encysted larva containing three equally advanced

endogens, is shown in fig. 4; close by it in the preparation were

two monogens, a macrogen with three endogens, and many simple

microgens.

Fig. 3.—Giant monogen in optical section, or macrogen bearing a single

endogen (E). Only a few of the large granules are indicated.

The body is somewhat contracted and the rostellum

is everted. Zeiss. 3 C. cam. luc. Tamblegam.

Not only are the normal larvee contractile within their cysts, but

they retain their contractility after they have become spontaneously

gravid. ‘The pentagen shown in fig. 2 was very contractile in toto,

as also were the several endogens. In the same host a polygen with

THE WINDOW-PANE OYSTERS. 49

ten endogens was observed, also a spherical monogen of the ordinary

type, and a motile larva in a spacious spherical adventitious cyst.

The latter is the outer fibrous layer formed from the connective

tissue of the liver in which the larva is imprisoned, and, as stated

above, in some cases a cavity is enclosed in which the larva can enjoy

a certain amount of freedom (text fig. 5).

Fig. 4.—Another macrogen of large size with a single endogen (E) adjacent

to the retracted rostellum. Large granules omitted; they completely

fill the body. Zeiss. 3 A. cam. luc. Tamblegam.

When an encysted larva produces more than five endogens, it

would appear from my observations and sketches that the indivi-

duality of the parent tends to become lost, and the rostellum

H 8-07

5) SPOLIA ZBEYLANICA.

gradually disappears. But it also seems that a microgen can grow

independently and become a macrogen, with or without the formation

of one or more endogens. Thus, side by side, we find microgens

containing offspring, and barren macrogens ; or a larva larger than

the average may bear a single endogen as in text figure 2. I have

also noted a mobile macrogen 0°5 mm. in length with only one

endogen. But the greatest disproportion between the sizes of the

parent and that of the offspring which I have seen is represented in

text figures 3 and 4 ; in the former the contracted body with everted

rostellum measured 0°9 mm. in length, the latter was over a milli-

metre long. In each case the body was crowded with the usual

large concretions. but there was only a solitary endogen.

Fig. 5.—Encysted larva from liver of ‘‘ pakku maddi” (Venus sp.).

Sambore river. Zeiss. 3 C. cam. luc.

I should mention that I have seen a tetragen, #.e., an encysted larva

containing four endogens. Fig. 11 is a sketch of what I take to be

an endogen having emerged from a ruptured cyst, about to give rise

to a new cyst ; it will be noticed that it contains both large and small

granules ; its greatest diameter is 0°1 mm.

The greatest number of endogens which I have counted in a single

cyst is upwards of twenty (Sambore river, 12-VI.-07)._ The example

shown in fig. 1 on the plate has fourteen endogens (Lake Tam-

blegam, Station IV., No. 11).

T have also found the same kind of larval forms in other bivalve

molluses which live in the sand and mud of the Sambore river,

namely, in the “irattamaddi” (Arca rhombea) and in two species

of Venus called pakku maddi” and “ valukkal maddi” (see text

fig. 5). In a liver preparation from the last-named I observed a

free larva moving swiftly along by the alternate protrusion and

retraction of its rostellum ; on the addition of sea water it pressed

itself between the lobules of the liver and became motionless.

THE WINDOW-PANE OYSTERS. 51

_ The multiple endogeny which I have described as occurring in

these parasites finds a parallel in the life-history of the common liver-

fluke, where a ciliated free-swimming larva actively penetrates into

the liver of a gastropod mollusc and there becomes transformed into

a so-called sporocyst, which produces offspring, endogenously. All

those larve in the liver of placuna which carry endogens are there-

fore in the condition of sporocysts.

The general type to which. these parasitic larve belong is known

as the Cysticercoid, and a close analogy with the phenomena noted

in connection with the proliferation of the Cysticercoids of Placuna

seems to be afforded by the proliferating form named Polycercus by

Villot (1883).* This form was discovered by Metschnikoff in the

earthworm Lumbricus terrestris in 1868, and was described without

being named. An account of it, quoted from Leuckart’s work on

** Die Menschlichen Parasiten,” is to be found in a paper by Profes-

sors Haswell and Hill,+ describing a new species from the earthworm

Didymogaster sylvatica, Fletcher, common under stones and dead

timber in New South Wales. These authors say that the infested

earthworms usually contain immense numbers of cysts of sizes

grading up to 1 mm. in diameter, adhering in clusters to the outer

surface of the alimentary canal. Each cyst contains usually 8-12,

sometimes 30 Cysticercoids, which have arisen by a peculiar method

of budding from a primordial larva. This species was subsequently

named Polycercus didymogastris by Hill (1894).t In its earliest

stages it is a solid, spheroidal mass of small-celled tissue.

Metschnikofi’s larva may be called Polycercus niloticus, since it is

now known to be the bladder stage of the tapeworm 7'enza nilotica out

of Cursorius europeus.§ “In its mature condition it consists of a

thin-skinned bladder, which contains a varying number (up to 13) of

small Cysticercoids. Although the latter lie quite free in the interior

[of the cyst], and possess, like the ordinary Cysticercoids, the distinc-

tive caudal bladder, they are of very unusual origin, inasmuch as

instead of developing directly from the six-hooked embryos, they

arise by proliferation of the wall of the surrounding bladder. ‘The

bladder is thus the brood-capsule of the enclosed Cysticercoids, and

corresponds in some respects to the brood-capsule of the Hehinococcus,

* Méinoire sur les cystiques des Ténias. Ann. Sci. Nat. Zool. (6), XV.,

1883 (reference taken from Haswell and Hill).

7 W. A. Haswell and J. P. Hill. On Polycercus, a proliferating ae

Parasite of the earthworms. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.&.W. (2), VIIL., 1893,

pp. 365-376, two plates.

¢ J. P. Hill. Contribution to a further knowledge of the Gystie

Cestodes. Op. cit., Vol. IX., 1894, pp. 49-84, 3 plates.

§ See W. B. Benham. Platyhelmia, &c., in Lankester’s Treatise on

Zoology. Part IV., 1901, pp. 142-143.

5? SPOLIA ZEYLANIOA, Se

or perhaps to a Cenurus bladder, and, like these, is undoubtedly to

be referred to the six-hooked embryo. The first developmental stage

observed by Metschnikoff appeared to be a solid ball of about 0°08

mm., with an unusually thick cuticular envelope and cellular contents.

The latter subsequently became clear on attaining a diameter of 0°14

mm., when the embryo lies on the inner surface [of the cuticle] in the

form of acellular layer. Soon the buds begin to form, and that exclu-

sively from the cellular wall, which becomes thicker at certain spots

and sends little projections into the inner cavity. Although at first

flat and connected by their broad bases with the cellular wall, the

protuberances, as they grow larger, gradually detach themselves

from the subjacent layer.”

Thus although the proliferating Cysticercoid of placuna is not a

Polycercus, yet it is an analogous form, for which the provisional

name Merocercus may be suggested. Looked at broadly it seems to

represent a type intermediate between Monocercus and Polycercus.

The latter, according to Haswell and Hill, “is not nearly related to

Echinococcus, but finds its closest ally in Staphylocystis”’ (out of

Glomeris).

MorTALIty oF PLACUNA.

The direct observation of mud-burial in the Sambore river

and the collection of many prematurely dead specimens in lake

Tamblegam indicate the existence of a destructive agency in the

rainfall.

Mr. H. O. Barnard, Superintendent of the Meteorological Branch,

has kindly supplied me with information on this matter (see the

Appendix to this report), from which it appears that there was in fact

an exceptional downpour of rain at Trincomalee in January, 1907,

the bulk of the rain falling within the space of a few days. This

is of the nature of a torrential or catastrophic cloud-burst, causing

freshets and floods and boding ill to placuna. ;

The average rainfall for the month of January at Trincomalee for

the last 37 years is 5°66 inches ; in January, 1906, the actual rainfall

was 2°28 inches; in January, 1907, 10°23 inches, of which 5°42

inches (i.¢., nearly the whole average) fell during the first four days

of the month. The actual figures are January 1, 0°29; January 2,

2°27; January 3, 2:00; January 4, 0°86. The figures for the other

months of the rainy season at Trincomalee are given below, the

average being reckoned for the last 37 years :—

Inches:.:

October average .. As ‘s 7°83

1905 ite 8 ae 3°90

1906 ns ar Sy 8-68

THE WINDOW-PANE OYSTERS. 53

Inches.

November average HS .. 14°23

1905 AS 2 ora 15°5

1906 “s ~ aay joekee

December average. . Ac a 14-91

1905 or E as 5°39

1906 ae Se are 11°39

The above figures show clearly enough a disturbance of meteoro-

logical conditions in the rainy season immediately preceding the

placuna fishery of 1907, and the same indications are continued

during February and March :—

Inches.

February average .. eh we 2°16

1905 a a7 a 0°93

1906 0 vs at 0:00

1907 se 5c ae 1°48

March average... sp A 1°48

1905 a sh 4 0°03

1906 ic a oe 0°22

1907 oe oxe Ae 1°94

REGENERATION OF THE TAMBLEGAM BEDS.

The main object of placuna fishery investigations in Ceylon must

be to foster the Tamblegam fishery in particular. I have already

pointed out that it is not enough to limit the season and the size.

In order to replenish the partially exhausted beds, some control

should be exercised over the breeding facilities so as to ensure

an adequate reserve of spawning oysters. It is an axiom among

European and American ostreiculturists ‘‘ that the amount of spat

annually occurring in a region appears to be directly in proportion to

the number of spawning oysters in that region.”* This is evidently

a safe principle.

The Nachchikkuda, being devoid of rivers opening intoit, and being

by its position secluded to a great extent from other outside

influences, is peculiarly suitable for the introduction of simple and

inexpensive cultural operations. I would recommend the immediate

laying down of an enclosure about 30 feet square and thickly

planting the bottom with placunz, of which the average size has

been ascertained by previous measurement. Bysuch means inform-

ation could in course of time be expected concerning actual rate of

growth, natural longevity, maturation, spawning, and distribution

of the fry.

It is important to note that in spite of the mortality recorded in

this report, placuna is none the less a hardy mollusc; and can be

*Bashford Dean. Report on the European Methods of Oyster-culture

Bull. U. 8. Fish Commission for 1891, pp. 357-406. Washington, 1893.

54 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

kept for hours or overnight out of water in a cool place with impunity.

Tn the excellent wide-mouthed chatties which are made at Koddiyar,

they can be kept almost indefinitely in sea water renewed every

other day. ‘There is, therefore, no difficulty to be met in regard to

the manipulation of the window-pane oysters.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATE.

Fig. 1.—A polygen cyst containing 14 endogens. Tamblegam,

Sta. IV., No. 11. 22-VI.-07. Diameter 0°32 mm. Zeiss 3C, cam.

lue.*

Fig. 2.—A pentagen cyst. The whole body is mobile indepen-

dently of the mobile endogens. Tamblegam, Sta. IV.,No. 5. Most

of the calcareous concretions:are omitted from the sketch.

Fig. 3.—Another pentagen with crowded endogens. Sambore,

Sta. VIII. 14-VI.-07.

Fig. 4.—A trigen cyst bearing a triplet of endogens. The latter

show stiff cilia pointing backwards. Tamblegam, Sta. VI., No. 10.

Fig. 5.—A digen cyst. In front of the upper endogen in the figure

is seen the rostellum of the parent. From same host as fig. 3.

Fig. 6.—Encysted larva containing a transparent homogeneous

endogen surrounded by a rim of the parent sarcode. All granules

seen are outside the endogen, and, upon focussing through it, there

appeared a continuous sheet of concretions on the other side. Zeiss

3D. Sambore, Sta. VIII., No. 2. + = rostellum of parent.

Fig. 7.—Monogen from same host as preceding, containing a more

advanced endogen. Zeiss 3D.

Fig. 8.—Young larva, 0°12 mm. in longer diameter, from liver of

young placuna. Sambore, Sta. VII., No. 3.

Fig. 9.—Encysted larva containing an endogen (e) with small

granules, surrounded by the large granules of the parent. r =

rostellum of parent. Sambore, Sta. VII., No. 2.

Fig. 10.—A monogen from a Tamblegam placuna ; stiff cilia or

bristles are seen at the surface of the endogen. Zeiss 3D. 23-VI.-07.

Fig. 11.—A microgen which may have arisen from an escaped

endogen since it contains both large and small granules. This

occurred in the same host as the macrogen shown in text figure 4,

and was lying close to it. Tamblegam, Sta. IV., No. 11.

APPENDIX.

Tables and diagram of curves illustrating the distribution of the

rainfall at Trincomalee from 1900 up to date, prepared by Mr. H. O.

Barnard, Superintendent of the Meteorological Branch.

* The magnification is always the same except when otherwise

stated.

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WINDOW-PANE OYSTERS.

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SPOLIA ZEYLANICA,

Table I1.—Groups of Heavy Rainy Days at Trincomalee from

1900 up to Date.

Year.

1900

Month.

January

April

Do.

August

September

October

Do.

November

Do.

December

March

April

August

September

Do.

October

November

December

Do.

January

Do.

February

March

Do.

June

September

October

Do.

November

Do,

December

Do,

January

February

May

June

July

September

Do.

October

November

December

January

Do.

_ February

May

Do.

July

August

Dates.

29-31

23-24

25-29

4—6

2-5

28-Nov. 1..

16-20

27-Dec. 1..

16-20

28-29

26-28

28-29

8-12

8-10

16-19

2-4

6-7

9-13

8-9

27-28

19-21

18-19

9-13

23-27

8-12

19-23

2-6

7-11

Total Fall.

Inches.

*84

°82

-38

-48

37 (

-91

°43

°86

-12

*52

-80

-14

°37

“45

-29

aft

ay |

-43

-64

ay,

-98

-68

-38

-87

“27

“hi We:

-98

arf,

-96

-06

+26

*83

“21

*89

-32

hrf |

-86

-90

°O7

-72

-56

*22

‘18

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pe ee” aor

—

“Spolia Zeylanica, 1907" —

€

‘an

ele

oa)

rs}

”

(a)

(82h)

~ FROM 1900 UP TO DATE, ~~

AT TRINCOMALEE

Figures along the Curves demote the Number of rainy days .

Big ee eS RT

2ERSSRS SCRE

i As iv

BSE (SRR ENERERS NERV

eae | ee eae

fe fa ed

Ree CARRERAS

CN ee

pp tte

INONES

Means quring DE COTE, = nee

Means during 3, Year Pr

Mears AM NgG 32 YOar gs

Means AUS NG 33 YEAS. _------~

Means during PA YECOIS,

Means during 37 Years ——-_-__-

Means Luring JIE Years.________

4.2 Barnard delet fec.

THE WINDOW-PANE OYSTERS.

Month.

October

Do.

November

December

Do.

January

April

May

August

Do.

September

October

November

Do.

December

April

Do.

August

Do.

September

Do.

October

November

December

Do.

January

Do.

February

March

April

May

Do.

Dates.

8-12

19-23

20-21

2-5

17-19

6-7

15-18

8-12

1-2

18-19

16-18

12-14

13-17

21-24

2-6

Total Fall.

Inches.

“32

*93

a Hy

-99

°45

-79

*Sl

-26

“17

-92

-69

-70

*95

Dts }9)

MESS

-10

-08

“20

-99

Ty Uy

-98

-36

—

ptwreE wah wow NDNNNN YP EE PROD Ee DEAE OD ss

58 SPOLIA ZRYLANICA,

NOTE ON THE POSSIBLE TRANSMISSION OF SARCOCYSTIS

BY THE BLOW-FLY.

By W.S. Perrin, B.A., Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge.

AA EEN we were examining the gullets of some sheep infected

with Sarcocystis tenella, it occurred to Mr. Adam Sedgwick

and myself that the Blow-fly (Calliphora) or the Flesh-fly (Sar-

cophaga) might afford a means of transmission of this parasite.

Accordingly experiments were instituted to test the hypothesis,

but owing, partly to pressure of other work and partly to the

difficulty experienced in obtaining material richly infected with

Sarcocystis, the experiments, which had hitherto yielded only

negative results, were discontinued. At Dr. Willey’s suggestion I

thought, however, that it might be useful to publish the following

account of our theory in Spolia Zeylanica, in the hope that some one

may be induced thereby to test it in Ceylon, where material

abundantly infected with Sarcocystis bubali is provided by the

carcases of buffaloes slaughtered for meat.*

The experiments necessary to be performed are few and simple,

and a month’s work might be sufficient to prove or disprove the

hypothesis ; while, if the result of the experiments were to show

that the hypothesis is correct, a discovery, not only of scientific,

but also of considerable economic importance, would be made, as

the presence of Sarcocystis in meat spoils it for human consumption.

As is well known, Sarcocystis is a Protozoan parasite which

belongs to the Sporozoa, and is found in the muscles of various

vertebrate hosts. Nearly all sheep} and pigs are infected, while

horses, oxen, buffaloes, mice, and rabbits frequently are. The

effect produced by the parasite upon the health of the host differs

for different animals. Sdrcocystis causes death in mice, the host

becoming rapidly overrun with the parasite, while in other forms,

e.g., buffaloes and sheep, the infection although widespread gives

rise apparently to no inconvenience.

Sarcocystis forms elongated, whitish cysts in the muscles of the

host, which in the case of Sarcocystis bubali measure a half to one

inch in length and about a quarter of an inch in diameter. The

most frequent seats of infection are the esophagus and the trunk

muscles in the region of the stomach, although any or all of the

muscles may be infected with the cysts. The cysts contain numer-

ous minute sickle-shaped spores which in Sarcocystis tenella are

* See Spolia Zeylanica. vol. I1., part VI., 1904, p. 65.

} Bertram records that 182 of the 185 sheep he examined for S. tenella were

infected (Zool. Jahrb. Abth. f. Anat. V.).

fac

Age

= }e

fe =-----p

Fic. 1. Spore of Sarco-

cystis tenella (from Minchin,

after Laveran and Mesnil).

nm Nucleus with karyo-

some.

e Striated body (? polar

capsule), not visible in

stained preparations.

Fig. 2. Herpetomonas musce

domestice (after Prowazek).

f Double flagellum

d Diplosome, two _ deeply

staining granules from which the

flagellum takes its origin.

r Rhizoplasts, two strands of

deeply staining material running

between diplosome and biepha-

roplast.

6 Blepharoplast, the smaller

of the two nuclei possessed by

Herpetomonas.

n Main nucleus.

TRANSMISSION OF SARGOCYSTIS. 59

about 0°014 mm. long and 0°003 mm. broad. These measurements

are probably the same for the spores of 8. bubalt.

The spore is rounded at one end and pointed at the other. A

large nucleus containing a central deeply staining body, the karyo-

some, is present near the rounded end, while the faint striations

at the pointed end mark the position of a body which is possibly

identical with the polar capsule found among the Myxosporidia.

It is these structures which presumably carry the infection. Now

these spores possess no firm outer investment, which in the case of

the closely allied Myxosporidia is exceedingly well developed and

resistent. In fact it seems impossible to avoid the conclusion to

which such authorities as Wasielewski and Laveran and Mesnil

have come, that there must be an intermediate host conveying the

parasite from vertebrate to vertebrate.

In the case of mice Smith* has shown that murine cannibalism

may account for the conveyance, but such an explanation is im-

possible in the case of herbivorous forms, such as sheep and buffaloes.

Might not, however, some such insect as the blow-fly be the carrier ?

The blow-fly lays its eggs upon meat, and the larva, which feeds

upon the flesh, would, if it were infected with Sarcocystis, take the

spores into its gut, where it is conceivable that their further develop-

ment might result in the production of resistent cysts. These cysts

might persist inside the larva through the metamorphosis and

then gain access to the alimentary canal of the vertebrate host,

either by the adult blow-fly being swallowed alive, an untimely fate

which must not seldom overtake unwary individuals, or by the

decomposition of dead blow-flies upon the grass. It is also possible

that the adult blow-fly may transmit the infection direct by feeding

upon infected carrion or upon open sores of the living animal dis-

playing the cysts. That infection of the vertebrate host probably

takes place by the alimentary canal is indicated by the fact that the

most severely infected areas are always the cesophagus and trunk

muscles near the stomach.

To test this hypothesis all that is necessary is to shut up a number

of blow-flies in a wire cage with a small quantity of sugar for food

and a piece of freshly killed buffalo meat containing ripe cysts of

Sarcocystis. In a few hours eggs are deposited upon the carrion,

and these in a warm atmosphere develop rapidly into fat, white

blow-fly larve. After the larve have fed for some time upon the

meat, the gut of the larva should be dissected out and examined

for spores of Sarcocystis or possible developmental forms.

The method recommended for examining the gut contents is as

follows: The gut is cut out and slit open with a fine pair of scissors,

and the contents scraped out gently with a scalpel on to a coverslip.

The coverslip is then rapidly placed on a glass slide, and the edges

* Theobald Smith. Journ. Exp. Med., Baltimore, VI., pp. 1-21.

60 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

sealed with wax. When the larva is large and the gut contents

considerable, the fluid is divided between two or more coverslips

according to the size of the gut. Stained preparations can readily

be made by gently spreading the fluid over the surface of the cover-

slip and allowing the film so obtained to dry. The dried film is

then immersed in absolute alcohol for ten minutes, again dried,

and finally stained for fifteen minutes in an aqueous solution of

Giemsa’s ready prepared solution of eosine and azure II., one drop

of the stain to one cubic centimetre of distilled water. After

staining, the film is washed in water, allowed to dry, and finally

mounted in cedar wood oil. This method is very barbarous, but

it has the advantage of not consuming much time. It proved very

convenient for diagnosing the presence of S. tenella in the gullets

of sheep, which did not present well-grown cysts. For accurate

investigation of structure some wet method of fixation must of

course be adopted.

In the one set of experiments which I performed with gullets

of sheep infected with Sarcocystis tenella negative results were

obtained with the larve, but as the gullets used had no cysts

upon them, the parasite only having been detected by microscopic

examination of teased fragments of the gullet, the results cannot

be regarded as by any means conclusive. Assuming either that

the spores of Sarcocystis or developmental forms of these are shown

to be present, the next step would be to allow some of the larve

to develop into adult flies and to examine the organs of the adult

for further stages. It seems unlikely that these later stages would

be found in the gut of the full-grown blow-fly, as the histolysis which

takes place at the metamorphosis is so complete that the larval

organs entirely disappear, the adult organs being reconstituted

entirely from the imaginal discs.*

Finally, experiments upon transmission to uninfected buffaloes

would be made.

There is a parasite present in the gut of the blow-fly with which

any one working with blow-flies is likely to meet, and of which a

short description may be useful. This is a biflagellated organism

allied to the Trypanosomes and belonging to the genus Herpetomonas.

Two allied species, H. muscee domestice and H. sarcophage, both

of which give rise to cysts, have been fully investigated by Prowazek.}

It seems very improbable that this form has anything to do with the

life-cycle of Sarcocystis, but in view of the protean transformations

* Vide ‘« The Blow-fly,” Lowne, vol. I., p 4.—*‘ If the pupa-case be opened

just before it becomes black, it will be found to contain nothing apparently

but a white cream-like fluid; but on careful microscopic examination some

of the imaginal discs will be detected and many of the muscles of the larva

still remain at the posterior end.”’

* Die Entwicklung von Herpetomonas. Arb. a. d. kais. Gesundheitsamt.

Ba. XX., Heft 3, 1904.

TRANSMISSION OF SARCOCYSTIS. 61

which take place among unicellular animals, it is a possibility which

should not be entirely forgotten.

Herpetomonas possesses two nuclei, one larger or the main nucleus,

one smaller called the blepharoplast. From the latter two strands

of deeply staining material, the rhizoplasts, pass to the diplosome,

which consists of two deeply staining granules, from which the

double flagellum takes its origin (see Fig. 2),

Even if, as indeed is very unlikely to be otherwise, Sarcocystis

has no connection with Herpetomonas, a flagellated stage might

well be present, as the structure of its spore rather indicates.

Minchin,* in his article upon the Sporozoa, mentions the blow-fly

and also the burying-beetle as possible transmitters of Sarcocystis,

though he does not state how he supposes the infection to be carried

out in either case. From a consideration of the habits of the

burying-beetle it does not seem likely that this form transmits the

infection. The cockroach (Periplaneta) is far more likely to be the

second host if the blow-fly is not, since cockroaches, especially in

hot countries, are by no means particular as to their diet.

= Sporozoa in Lankester’s Treatise on Zoology, 1903, p. 305.

62 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA

NOTES.

1. Leaves from my Log.—

Flying Foxes (Pteropus medius) at Barberyn.—On February 23,

1907, I had another opportunity of landing on Barberyn Island

to have a look at the flying foxes. Of thirteen specimens obtained,

eleven were males and two females ; of the males, only one seemed

to be old by the appearance of the teeth, the others being young

adults. One of the females was shot singly, the other was hanging

alongside a male (? her mate), and both came down to one shot ;

each female contained a single well-developed foetus in utero. The

presence of these females renders necessary an amendment to

my previous note on these bats (Spolia, IV., 36.)

Besides wishing to ascertain the sexes of the individuals in this

colony, I was desirous of obtaining more specimens of the Nycteribia

(NV. sykesiz) parasitic on these bats, and in this was quite successful.

Not a single bat was wholly free from these insects. Some of the

male bats only harboured three or four Nycteribia, but the average

was about a dozen; of the females, one had about half a dozen,

the other a single individual only. Perhaps this points to the fact

that the male bat is more attractive to the parasite than the female,

probably on account of the blood in the latter being temporarily

poorer owing to the drain on the system caused by reproduction.

The roosting habits of these bats and crows in Barberyn has a

very noticeable effect on the trees they affect. The branches of

the coco-palms have a most ragged and bedraggled appearance,

practically only the ribs of the leaves being left.

Cicindela biramosa.—This handsome “ Tiger-beetle ’’ seems to be

abundant aleng the sandy beaches all round the Island. It is

especially fond of running along the damp sand on the very edge

of the water, having indeed to take to wing sometimes to escape

a wave; but, asa rule, it does not seem to flymuch. I have watched

one for about half an hour, during which time it only flew twice,

and then only for a few inches. A small gray muscid fly is common

in the same localities as the beetle, and is often its victim. I have

seen one or two beetles make a clumsy attempt at a fly, but they

were always unsuccessful ; usually they catch the flies on the wing,

in which case their movements are too swift to follow. On several

occasions I have seen a Cicindela crawl under a piece of wood or

similar substance, which was lying on the beach, as if in search of

Gammarid shrimps.

Cicindela trilunaris, from Madagascar, is stated to have the power

of running upon water, and it occurred to me that probably

NOTES. 63

C. biramosa would be found to have some similar faculty, since

it is so fond of running along the very edge of the waves. When

at Trincomalee at the end of June, 1907, I watched C. biramosa on

the beach, to find out whether I could see any running along on the

water. This I failed to do, but I saw one overtaken by an incoming

wave, which washed right over it, yet the beetle ran up the beach

quite unhurt. I then tried to see if I could drive them over the

water to make them settle on it. This was very difficult to do,

as they generally flew wp the beach, but I was able to corner them

on a sandy spit, whence they had to fly over the water. Amongst

numerous specimens which I made to fly over the water in this

manner, I distinctly saw one settle on the water; rise and fly a few

yards, settle again, then rise again and fly out of sight. A second

specimen I saw settle on the water, but then lost sight of it, as

the water was rough here.

I next determined to see whether they could rise up from the

water if actually immersed in it, as they would be when caught

by a wave on the beach. Three beetles were therefore caught and

experimented with as follows :—

(a) Thrown into the water ;

(6) Held under water about half a minute ;

In all these cases the beetle flew off from the surface of the water

without hesitation.

This shows, I think, that C. biramosa can stand an occasional

wetting by an incoming wave, or even by being blown into the

water.

False-warning Coloration in a Syntomid Moth.—Colombo, March

12, 1907. This morning our First Lieutenant caught a battered

specimen of Huchromia polymena, which had flown on board the

ship. One of the bluejackets advised him not to touch it, thinking

it_a wasp, and said it had bitten one of the men! This seems a

certain amount of evidence as regards the ES nature of its

colour pattern.

Swallows and Seed-dispersal.—On the evening of March 16, 1907,

I was watching some swallows flying about over the ramparts at

Galle, and noticed one of them with something white attached to its

tail. It appeared to be some fluffy seed—such as thistledown or

cotton—and was firmly attached, as it remained there, whilst the

bird was rapidly hawking on the wing. This is interesting as an

example of means of dispersal, particularly in the case of such a

far-flying bird as a swallow.

Resting Position of a Butterfly —On April 20, 1907, there were a

good many Limnas (Danais) chrysippus along the ramparts at

Galle, congregated together quite gregariously in one place. It

was just about sunset, and they were evidently settling down for

64 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

the night. I noticed that they exhibited a distinct preference

for resting on small dead bushes, whose dry and withered leaves

approximated closely in colour to that of the under surface of the

butterfly.

Leaf-nesting Ants.—Trincomali, June 22, 1907. I was much

interested to-day in watching the common red tree ants (Hcophylla

smaragdina) making a new nest. They were dealing with two

separate leaves, one of which they were rolling up transversely,

the other one longitudinally, but the process was the same in both

cases. The ants laid hold of the edge of the leaf with their jaws

and hauled on it until they curved it over, a dozen or twenty

working side by side according to the size of the leaf. In some

cases the space between the surface of the leaf (on to which they were

clinging to get a grip for their pull) and the edge of the leaf (on to

which their jaws were fastened) was too great to be spanned by the

body of a single ant, and in this case the ant holding on to the edge

was gripped in the jaws of another standing on the leaf ; if the two

together could not span the gap, the second ant was gripped by a

third, so that the middle ant was suspended between the two others

without touching the leaf at all. I did not see more than three

ants (on two occasions) hauling on to one another like this, and that

only in the centre of the leaf where the space was greatest, but in

many cases there were two ants, the hindmost tailing on to the fore.

But if they could reach the edge themselves, they seemed strong

enough to hold it.

This nest was evidently just being begun. Although, when I

repassed it in the evening, the leaf seemed quite rolled up, it was

still being held in position by the ants, and no larve had been

brought down to spin it together with their silk.

Twenty-four hours later the leaf had been sewn up, but was

not finished, as the ants had two or three larve inside still, and

seemed to be still engaged on the construction of the nest.

A scarce Moth.—Capnodes tetraspila seems to be quite a rare

moth in Ceylon collections, but it appears to be fairly common

at Trincomalee, where I took it in June, 1906, and in the beginning

of July, 1907. It is to be found in shady places under trees, where

there are plenty of dead leaves, from amongst which it is readily

disturbed.

Behaviour of Frogs when confronted with a Snake.—I have noticed

a curious action of the part of some frogs (Rana cyanophlyctis) put

into its cageas food for a ‘‘ Green Keel-back snake (Macropisthodon

plumbicolor). As the snake was moving about, whenever its head

came near a frog, the latter raised itself on its legs (whereby the

rump was elevated aloft, whilst the head was almost on the ground)

at the same time blowing itself out. However, the snake took

no notice of the frogs; it was not hungry at the time, being about

NOTES. 65

to cast itsskin. Messrs. Green and Austen have recorded (Spolia,

III., 196, and IV., 32) a similar defensive action on the part of toads,

but my frogs did not “alternately raise and lower the hinder

part of the body ” as their toads did.

T. BAINBRIGGE FLETCHER.

H. M.S. Sealark,

September 13, 1907.

2. Rare Colombo Birds.—On January 6 last I saw two Alpine

Swifts (Cypselus melba) hawking within twenty feet of the ground

near the General Cemetery. The appearance of these birds, which

rank amongst the speediest birds in existence, in Colombo, is, I

think, worthy of record, as they are not often seen as low as this.

Legge says :—“ It takes up its quarters amongst the upper regions

of the Kandyan Province,” and adds “ but, being a bird of such

immense powers of flight, it wanders with ease, in the course of a

day’s hawking, over all parts of the Island.”

During last December and January a flock of seven Black-sided or

Sociable Lapwings (Chettusia gregaria) (see Spolia Zeylanica, II.,

p. 190) were to be seen on the racecourse. They were very tame,

and allowed riders to come quite close before taking wing.

I should be glad if any ornithologist can tell me whether the

Wire-tailed Swallow (Hirundo smithii) has been observed in Ceylon.

I am almost certain I saw one hawking over the sides of the Colombo

lake on July Ist of this year. The bird was very much like H.

rustica, but the length of the outer tail feathers, white underparts,

.and conspicuous white spots on the rectrices attracted my attention.

If it was not A. smithit it must have been a common swallow in

full summer plumage, and its presence here on the above-mentioned

date is somewhat unusual, and I think worthy of record.

W. A. CAVE.

Colombo, September, 1907.

3. Window-tapping by Birds.—Various species of birds have

been noticed to indulge in the above habit. In the hills a species

of Wagtail is a constant performer. But I do not think that the

common honeysucker (Cinnyris zeylonicus)* has been included in the

list of window-tappers.

The window of my laboratory in the Peradeniya Gardens has

recently been assaulted in this manner. The birds were building in

* Now named Arachnechthra zeylonica, the Purple-rumped Sun bird.

(Fauna Brit. Ind. Birds, vol. IT., p. 364)

K 4 8-07

66 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

a shrub close by, and the male bird amused itself by repeatedly

scrabbling and pecking at the windowpanes.

K. E. GREEN.

Peradeniya, May, 1907.

4. An Highteenth Century Relic.—There is an annual pilgrimage

in the Jaffna peninsula to the church of St. James the Great at

Kilali on the Jaffna lagoon between Chavakachcheri and Pallai,

which is attended by from 1,500 to 3,000 people. It takes place

in July on the festival (25th). The church possesses an image of

the Saint, who is represented as a mounted warrior wearing a

military cloak and in seventeenth or eighteenth century costume.

There appears to have been a shrine here dedicated to the Apostle

in the Portuguese period, when the village was inhabited by Parawas

from Tuticorin. During the time of the Dutch the church was

destroyed, but it is said that about 100 years ago, during the early

years of the British occupation, a box was dug up here by

Samerasekara Mudaliyar alias Don Louis Poothar, who acted as

guide to the British forces on an expedition into the Vanni, which

contained this image, a representation of it cut on a piece of wood

and a gold hat belonging to the image, all of which are still

preserved.

It is the hat to which I wish to draw attention. It is of the

three-cornered shape characteristic of the middle of the eighteenth

century, with a Portuguese inscription giving the name, I presume,

of the donor : ‘“‘ Servo do Santiago Mayor, Ls. Ferras” (or Ferrar?),

the meaning of the description being that he was a “Servant of

St. James the Great.” It is a curious instance of the survival of

the Portuguese language among a Tamil caste.

It weighs 14 ounce, the length of each side of the brim is 24

inches and the diameter of the crown nearly 14 inch. I give

drawings of the exact size of the hat. While the image is of clay

or pottery, the hat is of gold. The present Samerasekara family

have provided a gold sword.

Samerasekara Mudaliyar rebuilt the church and founded the

pilgrimage, which has gone on now for five generations.

Kilali was a stage on the old Jafina Coast road, and had a resthouse

in Dutch and early British times.

J. P. LEWIS.

Kandy, September, 1907.

5. Leocyma sericea.—In November, 1906, hearing of the great

number of moths coming to the electric lights round the Boer camp

at Diyatalawa, I became a guest of one of the officers there for three

days.

NOTES. 67

Each evening, within half an hour of the lights being lit, the

moths appeared in numbers and great variety, and by a quarter

past seven there were myriads whirling around the lamps. Pre-

dominant among them was Leocyma sericea, a pure white satin-

winged Noctuid, about 12 inch. across the wings.

In walking from the various military quarters to dinner in the

mess house, quite short distances, every one was so covered with this

moth that we presented the appearance of having come through

a snowstorm. The strange thing about Leocyma sericea on this

occasion was that amongst those caught or examined I did not see

a single male, and as one of the soldiers was helping me we must

have seen thousands.

Most of my work was in the morning from 5.30 to 7.30 search-

ing the ground, foliage, lamp-posts, and any buildings where the

moths had pitched and rested during the night well into the morning.

At one place near the hospital there must have been from five

thousand to ten thousand moths, large and small, visible within a

radius of twenty yards. The sentry walk was a sludge of wings and

bodies, some of the former indicating rare species.

By 8 a.m. what with the crows, sparrows, swifts, frogs, and heat

of the sun scarcely a moth was to be seen, and yet each evening

while I was at the camp their numbers seemed as great as ever.

Ordinarily Leocyma sericea is not a plentiful moth in Ceylon, and

at the period of emergence from the chrysalis in September to

November one is fortunate in getting three or four of a night at

ordinary light, and on these occasions I have not found the females

outnumbering the males more than two or three to one.

F. M. MACKWOOD.,

Colombo, September 17, 1907.

6. Singing Fish of Batticaloa.—As one who has lately visited

Batticaloa and heard the so-called singing fish in the lagoon there,

I wish to give you my impressions of the phenomenon.

The sound produced (from whatever cause) is not easy to describe,

but it may be said at one time to resemble, though may be remotely,

that given out by a loose banjo string when struck, and at another

to remind one of a distant (very distant) motor horn. I have tried

_ to reproduce it on the piano, and find—at least to my mind—that

it corresponds as nearly as possible to the discord produced by

striking the notes 6 and ¢ (natural) together, with the soft pedal

down. I noticed that the pitch of the singing fish varied at times,

going up and down by intervals I could not determine. I will not

attempt to formulate a theory with regard to the origin of the

musical sound, but I might mention that it recalled to me the

high-pitched cry (not the exasperating guttural note) of the frog

68 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

which one hears when, after a prolonged drought, there is a heavy

downpour of rain. But the “song” of the fish is more subdued.

Whether these observations will suggest a clue is more than I can

say.

C. DRIEBERG.

7. Crowsas Diggers and Weeders.—At Weligama resthouse on the

morning of May 15 I watched a company of crows actively engaged

in digging the soil and wrenching out grass plants with their beaks,

cawing lustily at the same time. This was after a heavy shower

of rain. I tried to assign a purpose to this digging and weeding

operation combined, but without satisfactory issue.

(1) The grass was wanted for nest making, but it was not being

carried away. If it is supposed that the grass was being left to

wither before use, why were the birds working fresh areas when

there was so much dry grass lying about as the result of previous

work ?

(2) The crows were in search of bulbs of the nut grass (S. Kalan-

duru), Cyperus rotundus, but the grass on examination proved to be

wild kurakkan (S. Belatana), Hleusine indica, and there was

no nut grass about.

(3) The birds were digging for earthworms, but I did not observe

any worms being unearthed and swallowed. Besides, the whole-

sale uprooting of grass seemed hardly necessary to get at them.

The resthouse-keeper who examined the ground declared that there

were no traces of worms. In the absence of direct corroboration of

any of the above theories, I am inclined to think the last the most

plausible, ¢.e., that the crows were in search of earthworms, which

are known to come up to the surface after rain and there deposit their

casts. In this instance the birds might have been on the wrong

track. That they have a great partiality for earthworms cannot

be denied, ¢nd their behaviour on the occasion referred to may

be taken as an indication of the pains they will take to get at the

worms, for hoeing up the ground and wrenching out grass tufts

cannot be very easy work for a crow.

Some one suggested the idea—rather far fetched to my. mind—

that the birds were only amusing themselves, with no other object

than giving way to a sense of exhilaration.

C. DRIEBERG.

SUBMERGED PLATEAU SURROUNDING CEYLON. 69

THE SUBMERGED PLATEAU SURROUNDING CEYLON: SOME

CONSIDERATIONS REGARDING THE FORMATION OF

THE COAST LINE.

By Commander Boyie T. Somervitte, R.N.

(Late of H.M.S. “ Sealark.’’)

With Diagrams.

I.—GENERAL REMARKS.

i sam Island of Ceylon has the peculiarity of being surrounded by a

submerged plateau, which extends to an average distance of

twelve miles from the land. The edge is strongly marked : first by

a drop, in most places of 400 feet in about 200 yards, and then of

3,000 feet more in two miles ; the oceanic depth of 6,000 feet (or

1,000 fathoms) being reached at about eight miles beyond that

again. (See figs. I., II., and IIT.)

To the northward the plateau merges into that surrounding the

south-eastern coast of India, off which a similar formation prevails ;

but to the southward it gradually deepens, still preserving its shelf-

like form along the eastern, western, and southern coasts of the

Island, and is both narrowest and deepest (as regards soundings) in

the vicinity of Dondra Head.

The 100-fathom line, which may be taken as the outside edge of

the plateau, follows the general trend of the coast line; but off the

eastern side of the Island there are several remarkable deep and

narrow notches, the two most notable of which are off Trincomalee

(Koddiyar Bay) and five miles north of Batticaloa respectively,

where the point of the deep water approaches to less than a mile off

the shore in the first instance and to within two miles in the other.

IT am unable to speak definitely of the rest of the plateau, except

of that part which occurs within the limits cf the “ Sealark’s ”

survey during the last two years, as represented in fig. I., and in

that area but one notch occurs, namely, off Panadure, where the

100-fathom line approaches the coast to within about nine miles.

In fig. I. it will be seen that the plateau shoals progressively

from the south towards the north. The average depth at the

southern part is about 36 fathoms, and this continues to abreast of

Barberyn lighthouse, at which point a gradual shoaling begins,

until, just northward of Colombo, the plateau is covered by only

20 fathoms of water. ;

Ti 7(2)08

70 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

A characteristic feature of the plateau is that there is a slight

deepening—a sort of irregular channel—running along its central

line and parallel to the outer edge throughout nearly the whole of

its length.

Where the plateau is of an average depth of 35 fathoms this

depression is, roughly speaking, of a depth of 42 fathoms; and

where, as off Moratuwa, the general depth is 23 fathoms, the

depression is about 33fathoms. Near Colombo, however, this feature

becomes lost ; and, instead of a depression, there is, on the other

hand, a series of banks: one with a depth of but 10 fathoms, the

others less shallow.

The 20-fathom line also, which gradually increases its distance

from the coast between Galle and Mount Lavinia, takes a most

decided bend outward at this point, »nd, together with the banks

referred to, causes a marked general shoaling on the plateau in this

neighbourhood.

Fig. Il. represents a section taken from the “ Haycock ” (Hini-

dumakanda) to the coast at a spot about ten miles eastward of

Galle and through the narrowest part of the plateau.

Fig. III. gives a section from the same mountain through Waal

island (at the south-west corner of Ceylon), and again through the

plateau into the deep water beyond, the plateau at this point being

of average width and normal character. The vertical scale in each

case is the same as the horizontal scale, so that the plateau and the

fall into deep water are shown with their true relativity, though the

central gully is scarcely realized.

A section taken through Colombo would exhibit very similar

features to both figs. I. and Il. as regards the plateau, but the land

being low and level for many miles inland it would scarcely be

apparent as an elevation on this scale, which is 6,000 feet to one

inch.

The above gharacteristics may therefore be thus summarized :—

(1) The plateau extends on an average to a distance of twelve

miles from the coast with depths slowly shoaling from the south-

ward to the northward from 40 to 20 fathoms.

(2) In all parts a sudden and very well-marked drop into oceanic

depths occurs at the outer edge. .

(3) A slightly deeper channel or gully is found in the centre,

tapering off to the northward, and ended by

(4) A marked shoaling, and the existence of banks, beginning off

Mount Lavinia and extending to the northward.

Tl.—EFFrrct OF THE PLATEAU UPON CURRENT AND SWELL.

It must be supposed that such a natural barrier fringing the coast

would cause some considerable modification in the direction and,

speed of the ocean currents reaching the vicinity of Ceylon, as

SUBMERGED PLATEAU SURROUNDING CEYLON. 71

well as on the swell accompanying the monsoons, on each side of

the Island.

Currents.—It would be beyond the scope of these remarks to dis-

cuss the ocean currents of the Indian Ocean, the Bay of Bengal, and

of the Arabian Sea; but it is necessary to note that Ceylon lies

within touch of all three systems ; and it is probably due to their

mingling near these shores that so many perplexities and discord-

ances have been recorded by navigators approaching the Island.

The main oceanic currents alter their path (but not their direction)

throughout the year, moving north and south with the sun. The

change of monsoon is also occasioned by the same alterations in

position of the source of heat, and it is thus convenient to refer to

the currents in connection with the monsoons, for the changes in

each take place, necessarily, at about the same times of year. It

seems improbable that one is actually occasioned by the other : the

currents by the monsoons, or vice versdé. The effect in either case

would seem too great for the cause under such a hypothesis.

The combined general effect on the coast of Ceylon, however

caused, is that the currents circulate round the Island in the direc-

tion of the hands of a watch during the north-east monsoon period,

and contrary to the hands of a watch during the south-west monsoon.

At the change of monsoon the currents are variable ; that is, they do

not alter suddenly from one direction to the other.

As regards their rates, the greatest recorded occur off the eastern

coast during the months of December and January, and then vary

from 14 to 4 knots. (One knot means one nautical mile per hour.)

Off the western coast the current never runs more than about one

knot, being strongest in January and August.

The above statements of the direction and speed of the currents

must be taken as very broad ; for, in my own experience, when

sounding off the western and southern coasts of the Island, or at

anchor (when definite observations for current alone are possible),

the surface currents were often found to be of the ‘‘ wrong ” character

for the time of year ; and not only that, but on steaming outwards

on a line of soundings from the coast (which necessitates the

accurate positioning of the ship by the land every few minutes),

two perfectly distinct sets of the current have not infrequently been

observed, running in diametrically opposite directions, within a

mile or less of one another and parallel to the shore. This has also

been reported on the eastern side of Ceylon.

The plateau probably has a considerable part in producing these

results. The actual depth of oceanic and indeed of all currents

is still a matter of great controversy ; and such observations as

exist for the Indian Ocean and these coasts refer solely to surface

currents. It is very possible, and indeed probable, that the lower

layers of water are moving with different speeds and directions to

that of the surface, actuated by differences of temperature, salinity,

12 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

by the topography of the bottom over which they are travelling ;

and other reasons. It cannot therefore definitely be said how the

outer wall of the plateau acts as a deviator of the ocean currents in

this case. If the current is deep, it would of course play a very

important part, but if shallow, less so. In any case the increase

which would be caused in the ocean temperature by the sudden

alteration in depth from 1,000 fathoms to 35 fathoms within a few

miles must have a profoundly modifying effect. It may also be con-

jectured that the gully in the middle of the plateau may produce

some alteration in the speed of the currents, if the currents reach so

far down.

Swell.—As regards swell, it is possible to speak moredefinitely.

How and where the motion through the water known under that

name originates it would be difficult to say ; but it is certain that

its effect is greatly increased, and finally converted into motion of

the water—.e., breaking waves—on coming into shallows.

This is clearly seen along the south-west coast of Ceylon, where

it is no doubt aggravated by its 12-mile journey over the plateau

before it reaches sufficiently shallow water to break, as it does, in

enormous rollers on the beach.

The shoaling of the plateau to the northward, and especially the

presence of the banks before mentioned (which lie exactly in the

line of the south-west swell on its path towards Colombo), make an

extremely well-marked difference in the amount of the swell, which

is both higher and more constant in this locality than, say, 30 miles

farther south, as at Barberyn (Bentota district).

Had this fact been known, it should have been an additional

reason against the attempt to build a harbour at Colombo which

should be clear of swell—an attempt which, as we see, has hitherto

been attended by failure. Almost any other notch in the coast to

the southward (and especially Galle, off which bay the plateau is

considerably deeper and narrower) would have offered a better

chance of success from this cause.

Character of the Bottom.—During the course of sounding opera-

tions it is usual to obtain specimens of the material forming the floor

of the sea. On Fig. I. the general appearance of these specimens is

given beneath the figures representing the depths. Dr. Willey, to

whom the samples were sent, reports that the specimens from the

shore plateau consist of shelly and coralline débris, worm tubes,

bryozoa, echinoderm spines, foraminifera, &c., almost entirely

calcareous. A sample from 185 fathoms, on the other hand, from

outside the plateau, though on its exterior slopes, consists of caked

and powdery mud, principally calcareous, with a few minute quartz

grains, siliceous spicules, and organic particles. In fact the bottom

in the deeper water over the edge of the plateau consists of fine mud,

essentially the same at all depths and all stations, containing

numerous calcareous remains of foraminifera, chiefly Pulvinulina.

SUBMERGED PLATEAU SURROUNDING CEYLON. 73

The deep sea mud off the plateau of Ceylon has a greenish colora-

tion, which Mr. M. Kelway Bamber, F.1.C., F.C.S., pronounces to be

organic in nature, dissolving out in hot alcohol, and leaving an

amorphous green colour on evaporation, easily soluble again in

alcohol. Mr. Kelway Bamber has kindly undertaken a chemical

analysis of this mud, and the results are given in the Note accom-

panying this paper.

It is noticeable that the area in which occurs what I havé termed

“oreen mud ” is the deep water outside the plateau, whilst on the

plateau we found only brown sand, broken shells, and occasionally

broken coral, always in very small quantities. This would seem to

point to the probability of currents existing along the bottom over

the surface of the plateau, preventing the accumulation of soft

material composed of light particles, such as is represented by the

“ sreen mud ”’ of the greater depths. When at anchor in 12 fathoms

on the easternmost of the three small banks off Mount Lavinia, a

diver from the ship procured a specimen of the bottom for investi-

gation. He reported the surface to be flat, smooth, and hard, with-

out sand or any loose material lying on it. The specimen, which

had to be levered up from its position with an iron bar, consists

of coral, which Dr. Willey informs me to be Porites coated with

nullipore in places.

_ The green colour above noticed is usually associated in bottom

specimens with “terrigenous” material, and is found only on

continental slopes. On reaching true oceanic depths the deposits

are almost invariably coloured gray, or pale brown (except in the

cases of recent volcanic upheavals).

More extended collection of specimens round the outside of the

plateau will, no doubt, produce the correct reasons for the occur-

rence of the green coloured deposit, and also the outside limits at

which it is found from the coast, but since the material is not of a

properly constituted “ oceanic” colour, but rather “ terrigenous,”

we may suppose that its greenness is due to the finer washings of the

detritus from the rivers, which, held in suspension for a considerable

period in the sea water by reason of their lightness, have been

carried by the surface current over the edge of the plateau and not

deposited until deep water has been reached; while the coarser and

heavier particles have remained behind to be acted on by bottom

currents near the land and on the plateau. These conjectures refer

solely to the southern and western surroundings of the Island, no

specimens having yet been obtained elsewhere.

IiI.—Tue Coast Line or CEYLON.

I do not know whether the considerations which I now propose

to set forth have been previously advocated, but while dealing with

the plateau, the currents, and swell, I should like to point out an

effect on the coasts of the Island, which is probably due to these

74 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

oceanic causes, in combination with others originating in meteor-

ological conditions affecting the land. 1 refer to the growth and

changes in the coast line.

My attention was drawn to the matter first of all by the strange

absence of coral reef the whole way round the southern half of

Ceylon, from Chilaw to Trincomalee. It is true that little patches occur

here and there, as at Hikkaduwa and Galle, but after a considerable

experience of tropical seas, it seemed remarkable to me that there

was not only no wide fringing or barrier reef to Ceylon, but that

scarcely any specimens were brought up on the lead whilst sounding.

The brown colour of the sand forming the beach round the

southern shores would alone point to the absence of coral, being

so dissimilar to the typical glaring whiteness of the beach behind

a coral reef.

The first explanation that occurred to me was when journeying

by the coast railway. I saw in the vicinity of Ambalangoda the

strange spectacle of natives digging coral out of an apparently not

very ancient reef, which is now about half a mile from the coast,

and covered by four or five feet of black humus.

It is thus apparent that the coast line, in that locality at any rate,

is in process of extension outwards ; and it seems possible that the

following considerations point to such a process being not only

continuous, but sufficiently rapid to prevent the growth of coral,

except in favoured corners, such as that now to be seen by the

resthouse at Hikkaduwa, or as in the case of the reef, now overcome

by the accumulation of soil, that I saw from the train, which may

originally have been similarly circumstanced.

Attention is now called to the existence and distribution of the

lakes that fringe the coast line of Ceylon, as exhibited in fig. IV.,

and it will be noticed that—

(1) These lakes or lagoons occur practically all round the Island;

but

(2) In mich greater frequency on the east coast than on the west,

and to the north than to the south ;

(3) That while those to the southward are now all enclosed from

the sea and become fresh, those to the northward—Negombo,

Puttalam, Jaffna, and Batticaloa, for example—are still open to

the sea and salt ; and that

(4) While those still open to the sea on the west of the Island

have been formed by bars of sand, &c., pointing to the north, those

on the east of the Island have their bars pointing in the other

direction, namely, to the southward.

It will further be remarked, under the above numerical headings,

that—

(1) The contributing causes must be of a similar nature in all

cases ; but

SUBMERGED PLATEAU SURROUNDING CEYLON. 75

(2) Differing in degree, not only according to the side of the

Island, east or west ; but

(3) Also as between north and south ; and that

(4) One of the moving causes emanates from the south, and the

other from the north.

I beg to offer the following suggested explanations :—

Firstly, in a large and general way, it is noticeable that Ceylon is

constructed in two marked divisions, namely, mountain country

and flat country ; there is scarcely any midway between them ; and

the hills, whether isolated or taking the mountain district as a

whole, appear each to be swimming in a flat ocean of soil (if one may

use such a simile) from which they spring abruptly.

The next large point to be noticed is that the greater part of the

flat country is spread out to the northward of the hills, tailing off

in a point of lagoons and shallows ; but that there is also a spreading

out of flat land to the eastward and westward’, though not so exten-

sive, and practically none at all to the extreme south.

A consideration that here intervenes is the probability that the

mountain region of Ceylon has never been submerged at any time ;

or if it has, not for any great length of time, and this is evidenced by

the entire absence of chalk or sedimentary limestone, or of any

calcareous aqueous deposit. The Ceylon mountains have existed,

it may confidently be stated, in their present average condition

since their first formation, giving a condition of stability and a field

for the continuous action of denudation for immense ages.

What the meteorological conditions of Ceylon were at the time of

its first appearance it would be hard to say ; but a good antiquity

may be predicted for the monsoons, which have probably existed

as long as the ocean, though modified in degree by the changes in

the obliquity of the ecliptic.

And, springing from the same cause as the monsoons (namely,

the annual movement of the sun and its heat focus), the ocean

currents have similarly visited the Island with equal regularity and

antiquity.

The point to which I am leading is this, namely, that the low-

country of Ceylon has, on the whole, been derived from the

denudation of the mountain country, and has been laid down on a

plateau, of which we now find remaining a 12-mile fringe sur-

rounding the Island.

Following these prefatory remarks, I now refer to the four points

for consideration above stated in numerical order :—

(1) The soil of Ceylon is on the whole friable, and easy to be

detached and washed down by the monsoon rains on either side.

76 ; SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

This, one may suppose, has always happened, as it is now happen-

ing, each river carrying to the coast from the inland vast loads of

detritus on every day that it is affected by the monsoon rain—

material which, on reaching the coast, has been carried by the

sea currents and deposited until it has formed the outline of the

shore that we now see, an outline which it is still extending and

altering.

The method of extension seems to be, first, the formation of bays

along the coast, by the gradual banking up of sand and detritus at

some little distance from the shore line, banks originally. induced

perhaps by some obstacle, such as a slight rocky ridge. The

banking process seems to continue until the bay becomes a lake—

at first salt, then more and more brackish by degrees, and finally,

after many monsoons, perfectly fresh.

The succeeding process would no doubt be that such a lake would

slowly fill up with vegetable humus and detritus due to the rains,

until it assumed its final stage as a slight depression in the land or

as a swamp.

Note should here be made of the fact that the coast extension

work probably takes place chiefly during the south-west monsoon

period on the western side and during the north-east monsoon on

the eastern, for it is during these periods that the heaviest rainfall

occurs in each case, bringing the necessary material down to the

coast.

(2) There is, however, a marked difference to be noticed in the

results, due to the different character of the two monsoons.

The south-west monsoon rains, speaking generally, fall steadily

and constantly, and the greater amount of moisture in the air

throughout the year on the western side of the Island induces a dense

vegetation, which tends to hold together the particles of soil.

The north-east monsoon rains, on the other hand, though less

in total amount, fall with great violence and suddenness on a soil

which has for several months been exposed to the action of a fierce

unclouded sun and an intensely dry air, so that it is in a defenceless

condition against the momentum of the sudden torrents of water

by which it is assailed.

It is probable, therefore, that a larger amount of detritus is carried

down to the eastern coast than to the western, thus occasioning a

larger number of lagoons on that side ; and also the fact that the

low-country, taken as a whole, is more extensive on the eastern side

of the mountains than on the other. There are, besides, many more

water-courses from the hills to the eastward to bring down material,

though many of them cease to flow during the dry season.

(3) The fact that the lagoons of the northern side are still open

to the sea is probably due to the much greater distance that the

material has now to be carried from the hills, the freshets not being

sufficiently strong to carry it, except, as it were, in loads, a bit at a

SUBMERGED PLATEAU SURROUNDING CEYLON. 77

time, down to the coast line. The flatness of the course of the

streams must also greatly reduce their velocity.

(4) Sufficient time and sufficient material, with transport for the

same having now been provided for the formation of the low-country

by denudation, it remains to be seen why the extension should

have taken place chiefly to the northward. The fact is undoubted ;

but the explanation of it is not at all obvious. The currents, at a

little distance off the shore at all events, run throughout the year to

the southward just as much as to the northward, and on the eastern

side with a greater velocity to the south than to the north.

The meteorological conditions in ages past and the trend of the

ocean currents may have been different, when the Island of Ceylon

was represented by the mountain country, from those now existing,

and in any case the gradual northward growth of the land would

slowly deviate the courses of the streams in the sea. ;

No observations have yet been made, but it seems at least pos-

sible that there is, on the western plateau at all events, a steady

current along the bottom making to the northward. The diver em-

ployed in obtaining the bottom specimen from the 10-fathom bank

off Mount Lavinia (see above) could scarcely keep his legs, owing to

the strength of the north-going current over the bank, which itself

had been swept bare of sand or other loose matter, no doubt from

this cause.

It is this which may have formed the protecting arm of Negombo

lake, and the still greater one enclosing Puttalam ; and it may quite

possibly be the agency that covers with sand and again uncovers

the pearl banks. The only evidence of its existence is the

barrenness of the plateau to the southward, and its greater

depth, as compared with its sandiness northward of Colombo, and

shoalness.

The shapes of the mouths of the rivers that occur on fig. I. (which

are presented on fig. V. on a iarger scale) may be additional

evidence as to a north-going current of the present day, so far as the

western coast rivers are concerned, since all are formed with sandy

peninsulas across their mouths trending to the northward.

This is very clear in the case of Colombo, where both the interior

peninsula and the present exterior bar of the Kelani-ganga point

north, and all the points in the Colombo lake have the same

direction.

At Panadure-ganga the flood water breaks out at a weak spot to

the southward it is true, yet the interior peninsula has grown to the

northward ; and there is a small lagoon northward of it again, which

may indicate a former mouth. The land in that vicinity is at

present occupied by the town of Moratuwa, and human agencies

may have been at work to make the river or lake (as it really has

now become) empty itself at a different spot.

M 7(2)08

78 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

The Kalu-ganga, having been gradually headed by a bar working

up from the south, has now broken out at the northern end; and

the Bentota-ganga bar is a complete instance of a northward

trend.

The mouth of the Randomba lake (connected with the Madu-

ganga), which meets the sea at Balapitiya on the western coast, has a

northward pointing peninsula of beach fronting it, and so also has

the Madampe lake, not far to the south of it, at Ambalangoda.

The mouths of the Hikkaduwa-ganga and of Ratgama lake (near

Dodanduwa) have sand spits directed to the southward ; and the

Gin-ganga, the next outlet of fresh water along the coast to the

southward, has a very decided sandy bar pointing to the south-east.

This introduces another proposition as to the formation of the

lagoon and river bars, namely, that when the material is brought

_ down the rivers, it is at the time when the monsoon is blowing

strongly ; and there is not only a “ wind-slop” of waves driving

before the wind, but also a heavy swell running in the same direction.

It is not at all improbable that these forces combined may form a

current of no great width—a forced current, as one may say—run-

ning along the beach to the northward up the western coast, and to

the eastward and southward past Galle, towards the Basses. This

theory may possibly suffice to explain the whole phenomenon of the

growth of the coast line, but until properly systematized observations

of currents with a current meter are taken at various depths over

the plateau the problem must remain in doubtfulness.

On the eastern side there is less difficulty of explanation, for the

current is running most strongly to the southward at the time of the

north-east monsoon and its rains, and thus all the requisite condi-

tions are fulfilled.

It cannot be predicted how long it will be before the coast lines _

will have worked outwards all round to the 100-fathom line, for

there is no reason to suppose that the coast-forming work has now

reached a standstill. On reaching the edge of the plateau it will

practically cease, from the great depth that would have to be filled

up with detritus. This is probably beginning to be felt in the case

of the Mahaweli-ganga at Koddiyar Bay, where the edge of the great

alluvial plain which has been formed by the river now approaches

the head of the deep bight that there occurs in the 100-fathom ling,

within little more than half a mile.

On fig. IV. I have included the more important of the artificial —

tanks scattered over the low-country. These certainly indicate

depressions, which in former days may have held swamps or small

lakes, whose presence suggested to the tank builders the improve-

ment of their depths or dimensions. These tanks need not neces-

sarily have once been coastal lagoons, though it is quite within the

bounds of probability to suppose so, and especially those that occur

near the courses of rivers.

yl Re ey

ely sini:

dee le

CEFLON

MM Lavinia

Showing the Coast-line and the Submerged Plateau

between Colombo and Galle,

together with the 100 fathom line,and soundings beyond.

Soundings in Fathoms.

TRUE MERIDIAN

Moratuwa

ord

GYM BOLS

628 Bottom contour line of 700 fathoms ——

a ee. EF el Paes Nee a Oo eS

Pac | ey) do. Se aN mee a a tw

Be Lk 7 rer See

He Pee: & edo een Lee ire

gam 444

ae The character of the bottom vs this denoted :—

G8. Oh ...blach gn. greek

vied BFK. broker Ginn an GFCY.

a GPL. 5.2 oe ee ......... wt

wd d. .... dark s . sand

Sy Ce: ells oft soft

oe \y an eo

has Kalutara : :

\ SCALES

tee | o / 2 J cal Ss e 7 & 3 ” ” 4 ws “a Ss “6 id Lis cad A peueataour

—_—— a nt Din Ta a iw he oy ey, ey ae ee SOS IREANE MILES ;

620 HE

332

SEE NAS eof 4 GS

S05

686

grim.

A4inigume Kanda

(Hagcock)

3/8 6/9

GRAS. gam.

693

fefs Gn.

AAburets Kanda

382

on om Lidl a

M82 652

GAM. grim.

7IS $08

gn.m.

“M38

gn.m.

S45

1040

IRM.

‘780

&. gn.m. 1092

Lith $B NEMYp,,

MEAN SEA LEVEL

£ND OF PLATEAU

S ‘WSE® Niger sake G2) ce)

PL A EA

Fins Furs Fres Fs Fre

oS 3O 25 20 1S_

. cal \section from Hinduma Kanda ts wough the C 7 SO 5 sais

Miistrating the narrowest part of 4 e Plateau surrounding the lat

y x

= Qs

= Sy

i Ss q

rs, s

4 NS

Sl ss

: r

Fis i x 8 ¢

ee rhers N.S ee ae ae RELL LE Lo MN tars ccee,

SCALES

Standard Miles

I5 6 z 8 Sa 10 tt 12 13 14

Fig: IL

S Lindurma Kanda.

(Haycock")

2160 feel high

The outline of the features of the land 1s imagmary,; but elevations given are to scale,

| | se PPP MMM 7/7 YWWUMMMOM OM oww, YUMA YW. YY: YYW. ane YY), YY Wp =e WT, MEAN SEA LEVE,

[a 7 2 2

j Wii 7] _. 2 Y// Md Vi Wd _ _.. _

SeALe Ss

3 10 is_® {2 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 0 Nautical mules

of 6046.6 feet

Standard Miles

9. | 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 0 Standard wiles

GF 5280 feet

N8 104/07.

; ustrating the average width o i — submer. 77,

i i —

Ae ISLAND OF CEYLON.

tical section from Hiniduma Kanda through the Coastline at Hitthadiwa (Heal lsd)

lateau surroun Z

—s

CESS Mi Ree

# ‘ oe . __isi 2) haa oe ee

Bet

| : fig I

a/ wniles fo seaward | {

aeoths beyond |

ge -

8 = y

: | sk Bes

Ele rh AIRS

x3 q et S Sy

N ri : $4 SS

ae ; a NN

ss | aes

NS 5 .

‘i The cutine 2 of the features of the land is WI AGIALYy but elevations given are +o sca/e ‘|

fos - !

zz |

a : = je z 77 — ee == 7 rer EEE ELEEEZEZXZXEXXEXEEEEZ 7 YY Zi SEA LEVEL

Yy lL / Vy _

7) YY

U VM Vi Y/7 / Vi _ Niifld _

SCALES |

s 77 A 18 19 20 Nout Miles of |

6046.6 /eé7

Standard Miles 4

20 Standard Miles of

5280 feer

W2 /05/0

. Scale, 12 Milesto an Inch...

Illustrating the salt lagoons and lakes fringing

the Island, tagether with the principal Rivers

and Tanks

The general outline of the mountain district

is also indicated

{

Trincomalie

id Foie

ANURADHAP

of VS

WN OME

\SATTICALOA

wonvhecaas”

NPE

pee

peshoms Orme

Nea riagae cane

MS 60. Clomic Wey

RIVER MOUTHS ON SOUTH-WESTERN COAST OF CEYLON

. =

SCALES.

3 STANDARD MILES

} i. me , ‘ , urvre

SUBMERGED PLATEAU SURROUNDING CEYLON, 79

A comparison of the species of fishes and other forms of life

inhabiting these tanks, with those of the lagoons, both salt, brackish,

and fresh, at present situated on or near the coast line, would be of

great interest, and would possibly aid in the proof of the conjec-

tures as to their origin, which are here put forward on other grounds.

Note to Commander Somerville’s Article.

Analyses of Sea Mud Deposits, by M. Kelway Bamber, F.I.C.,

WEES Ee.

Sample No. 1 is from 615 fathoms, 18 miles west by south from

Ambalangoda ; No. 2 is from 1,138 fathoms; No. 3 is from 1,180

fathoms, 20 miles west from Dodanduwa. All the samples were of a

gray brown colour, which became a greenish gray on drying. When

dry all passed through a mesh of 90 to the linear inch, or 8,100 per

square inch, the material being in an impalpable condition :—

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION.

Node No. 2. No. 3.

Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent.

: Moisture .. oh TSO es 4°480 .. 4°500

Organic matter and com-

bined water aie 3° 850 32 2BO0s 3 3° 600

Oxide of Iron iis 2°400 2° 805, i). 3°600

Oxide of Alumina she 15 0 a PesGi 1°482

7 Manganese Se BESO STORE. *800

Lime 3% 4 37 Bia hen 32°480 .. 29-200

Magnesia eps a ey ee Soa 4. 1°137

yt Potash ... Sis "366. s- 15.) aaa *424

Phosphoric Acid on “OBS as ALSDAES *102

Sulphuric Anhydride abs 19000: j 42 24°850 .. 31° 600

Carbonic Acid ne 27 930i ps oc 24°720 ... 21°680

Sand and Silicates Se ee eis 3°230 °.. 1°634

Undetermined ve i E3042 2s 0°241

100-000 100° 000 100-000

Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent.

Containing Nitrogen 308 "336 °476

* Equal to Ammonia *374 *408 °578

Additional Note on bottom samples (see above, p. 72).—A sample from

133 fathoms taken on April 6, 1906, 14 miles west off the Clock

Tower, Colombo, consists of small calcareous nodules, and shells of

foraminifera and pteropoda (pelagic molluscs). Another sample from

155 fathoms, taken on the same date, 13 miles west on the northern-

most line, consists of a larger (12” « 1” Xx 2”) porous calcareous nodule ;

this is exhibited in the Mineral Gallery at the Museum, together

with dried samples of the green mud from the greater depths.

Ste

80 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

NOTES ON ADAM’S PEAK AND SOME OF THE

PATHS IN THE RANGE.

By J. Srit..

po eee

HE areas and paths explored by me during a fortnight spent

in the Peak range in December, 1902, were as follows :—

(1) The Maskeliya-para, including all its ambalams.

(2) The cone of the Peak itself, including the caves and clifis on

the eastern and north-eastern faces.

(3) The Gilimale-para and its ambalams as far down as

Palabadalla.

(4) A path which pushes under the northern cliffs of the Peak

and connects Idikatu-pana ambalam on the Maskeliya-

para with Andiyamalatena on the Gilimale-para.

(5) A path which connects the Heramiti-pana ambalam on the

Gilimale-para with the path over the range to the north

of the Peak. :

(6) Asmall part of the Erane-para.

(7) An abandoned path connecting Dharmaraja-gala and

Heramiti-pana ambalam, both on the Gilimale-para.

(8) The deep gorge below the cliffs at Nilihela on the Gilimale-

para.

(9) The large cup-shaped valley between Adam’s Peak on the

one side and Bena Samanala-gala on the other.

(10) About 14 mile of the bed of a stream in the jungle on the

heights to the E.S.E. of Nissangala ambalam on the

Maskeliya-para and above the first ambalam.

Nos. (4), (5), (6), (8), (9), and (10) were archeologically drawn

blank, though they possessed other interests. I am inclined to

believe that although I was unsuccessful in the last of the places

mentioned, there is something there worth hunting for.

MASKELIYA-PARA AND AMBALAMS.

The first ambalam on the Maskeliya-para is only a boutique, and

is of no interest whatever. From here to the second ambalam,

which is called in Sinhalese Nissangala-lena and in Tamil Kal-—

podavu, must be a mile or more, and the path contains nothing of

interest until it crosses a suspension bridge a few hundred yards

below the second ambalam ; here a stream runs between high banks,

on one side clothed with jungle, and on the other planted with tea.

NOTES ON ADAM’S PEAK. Sl

In the jungle, at a height of about 20 ft. above the stream and some

50 yards below the bridge, there is a curious cave running straight

into the side of the hill for about 15 ft. or rather more ; the peculiar

part of the cave is that it is almost round, with a diameter of about

5 ft., and looks rather as though bored by some gigantic awl. The

walls, which are of gneiss, show no signs of having been cut or worked

in any way, but a number of flowering trees, evidently planted

round the mouth, testify to occupation fairly recently. There

are no tenants now except a few swallows, which build in the roof.

Up a steep path and on a little level slab is Nissangala-lena ;

here there is supposed to be buried a great treasure, including the

regalia of the king, from whom the cave takes its name [Nissanka ?].

The cave is formed by an enormous mass of rock that overhangs and

shelters a space about 130 ft. long by 18 ft. wide; the height

varies from about 10 ft. in the front of the cave to 5 ft. at the

back. The rock is split into two portions, one about half as big

again as the other. A drip ledge runs along the entire length.

There is no inscription, nor any remains of a wall.

The remainder of the path from here to the third ambalam has

been described so often, and with such blood-curdling exaggerations,

that I have nothing to add, except that at the foot of the Peak,

where the Kehelgama-para joins the Maskeliya-para, a good new

bridge has been built within the last two years, taking the place of

the rather dangerous ford. A signpost and pointing hand with a

burnt-in inscription, apparently in Chinese, makes the way impos-

sible to miss.

The third and last ambalam on the Maskeliya-para is called

Idikatu-pana in Sinhalese and Usimalley in Tamil. Just above it

is the first set of chains, now'replaced by an iron rail. The rock on

which these chains are fastened contains a few short inscriptions in

modern Sinhalese, but nothing old.

When last I visited this ambalam the pilgrim season had not yet

begun, and the whole of the rather ramshackle buildings were buried

in a cloud of yellow calceolaria, while all the rock ledges were beds

of pink begonias. From this ambalam to the summit there is

nothing of any archeological interest, save a few caves, &c. ;

which will be described together with the eastern cliffs.

CoNE OF THE PEAK AND EASTERN CLIFFS.

To start with, it is necessary to explain what is meant by the

“cone” of the Peak. I have taken it to mean the rocky bell-

shaped point that rises from the main range.

The southern and western faces of this cone seem to be too abrupt

to be climbed, save where the pilgrims’ path winds its way up. The

northern face is a series of precipices that might possibly be climbed,

but which would probably contain no caves; my explorations were

therefore confined to the eastern and north-eastern faces.

82 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Some 70 or 80 ft. below the level of the summit, and about 20 yards

to the north of the Maskeliya-para, is a cave formed by an over-

hanging rock, along the whole length of which is cut a drip ledge.

The cave, which faces east, is 40 ft. long, 8 to 9 ft. broad, and

varies from 7 ft. in height at the front to 2 ft. at the back. Part of

the back wall, however, is higher, and on this there are two rock-cut

inscriptions, one shorter and seemingly more modern than the other.

The larger is written on ruled lines; it contains thirteen lines of

writing, each 5 ft. 2} in. in length. The smaller is unruled, and

contains only seven lines, each 8 in. long. Both are in the

Sinhalese character. Forbes, in his “ Eleven Years in Ceylon,”

mentions this cave by the name of Bhagawalena.

A little below this and on the south side of the path there are

three small caves, the two further of which are reached by means of

notches cut in the stems of the rhododendron trees.

These caves show no sign of ancient occupation, but recently one

of them was occupied by a Chinese devotee ; he is said to have lived

in the same cave for seven years as a penance. There are Chinese

letters scraped on the wall of the cave and gilded ; these are quite

modern to my certain knowledge. It is possible to climb past these

caves, but nothing is to be gained, as one is brought up short by a

steep slope ending in a precipice.

I climbed along the ledges of the eastern cliffs wherever it was

practicable and found four more small caves, none of which were

of interest. In one place a ledge ceases suddenly, and to proceed

it is necessary to climb along the tops of the rhododendrons.

About 150 ft. below the summit and just to the right of the path

there is a pool and spring, evidently used for generations. The

spring just below the summit, which is reached by a path that

descends from the “belfry” in the south corner, shows no signs

of workmanship either ancient or modern.

The rock on which the shrine is placed has a number of short

inscriptions on it, some in Sinhalese, a few in Tamil, and some in

Chinese. The latter I know to be modern; some of the Sinhalese

ones may be old, but they do not look so.

There are a few stone lamps in the shrine, very similar in shape to

those found in Anuradhapura, but I am told they are modern.

The only piece of stonework on the summit that seems old is one

of the steps up to the shrine on the western side ; this step is formed

of what looks like a pillar alternately square and octagonal. The

footprint is edged with cement, and two Muhammadan pilgrims

told me that when they visited it several years ago the length of

the footprint was 4 inches more than at present, owing to the

improvement of the toes by cement. This would account for the

various sizes different authors ascribe to it. Several writers mention

a metal case which used to fit into the footprint, and which was

kept there in the pilgrim season. In the course of five visits to the

NOTES ON ADAM’S PEAK. 83

Peak I have never seen this, nor heard of it, so it has probably been

discontinued.

Just in front of the shrine a large iron bar, bent at an angle,

is fixed in the rock. This is said to have supported the royal

umbrella.

GILIMALE-PARA AND VARIOUS PATHS, VALLEYS, &C.,

CONNECTED WITH IT.

The first objects of interest met with in the descent of the

Gilimale-para are the chains, which are of all shapes and sizes ;

in places there are eight or nine sets hung one above the other

in bunches. I only noticed two inscriptions on the chains, but there

maybe more. The two I saw were both on iron plates let in between

the links ; one plate measured 1 ft. long by 3 in. broad, the other

measured 93 in. by 24 in., and had besides its inscription, the figure

of three birds engraved upon it, two at one end and one at the other.

A short distance from the summit, and just below the main set of

chains, there is a rock-cut inscription measuring 4 ft. by 24 ft.; it

contains twenty-three lines, and is modern.

A few hundred feet below this there is a dilapidated hut and a

small flat space. Until last year this was the Menik-lena ambalam,

so called from the cave of that name ; but the monsoon of 1901 so

loosened the rock which formed the cave that it slipped and fell

into the valley half a mile below. A Sinhalese man, who knew the

place well, told me that there used to be an inscription on the rock,

but that now it is buried, being on the underside of the rock as it

now lies. Neither Skeen nor Forbes mentions this inscription, so

perhaps it did not exist.

Between this and Andiyamalatenna there is nothing of interest.

From Andiyamalatenna a path runs round the neck of the

Peak, under the northern precipices, to the third ambalam on the

Maskeliya-para.

I.followed the path, which is very rugged and overgrown, but

found nothing except masses of beautiful flowers and innumerable

_ traces of elephants.

From Andiyamalatenna to Heramiti-pana ambalam the path,

though steep, is in no way dangerous. .

Even above Menik-lena, where the chains are, no part of the

path is in the least difficult or dangerous in ordinary weather ; but

most people who have written accounts of the ascent of the Peak

from this side describe it as little better than the Matterhorn. The

fact that women frequently climb it with children astride their hips

is sufficient to disprove this ; I have seen a man with one leg swollen

to an enormous size, two blind men, and numerous very old men

and women make this climb at night, and a cooly with a 60 lb.

weight on his head by daylight,

84. SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

From Heramiti-pana four paths start. First the path to the

summit just described ; second, the main path down to Ratnapura,

the Gilimale-para; third, an abandoned path that crosses the

Ganguli-helli gorge and again joins the Gilimale-para at Dharma-

raja-gala ; fourth, the Erane-para, which branches at about a mile

from the ambalam, one branch crossing over into Maskeliya and

cutting into the Maskeliya-para at its junction with the Kehelgama-

para, and the other descending rapidly towards Kunudiya-parawida

and Higgashena. This last I only explored for a mile or two and

found nothing. In one place, just off the path, I found a space about

20 ft. square beaten quite flat and hard by elephants ; it was like a

small room, being walled with thick bamboos.

The abandoned path descends very steeply below a cliff called

Yaku-at-awa to the Sitala-ganga, which is crossed by a very rocky

ford, where tradition says many lives have been lost in rainy

weather ; certainly nothing seems more probable, and it is possible

that this may have been the reason for the newer and easier route

being substituted. From the ford the path rises a little and then

proceeds along a level ridge for some distance before descending

to the two caves known as Telehi-lena or Sanguli-galge.

Below this level ridge and to the south of the path a small stream

runs, on the other side of which there is a jumbled mass of rocks

containing many hollows and a few caves. One of these caves,

though it has no drip ledge, has at one time been inhabited, as can

be told from the floor being roughly levelled, stones being jammed

into the hollows between the rocks.

Telehi-lena consists of two caves. One formed by an overhanging

rock is 21 ft. long, 12 ft. wide, and quite high enough to stand up

in; it has a drip ledge all along its length. The floor is roughly

paved with different sized dressed stones, and just outside the cave

is one short wedge-marked stone pillar. From the mouth of the

cave a good view may be had of the Peak. The other cave,

which is fermed by one large boulder lying across two others,

measures 16 ft. by 6 ft., and varies from 9 ft. to 3 ft. in height.

Several flat dressed stones lie in it, one of which looks like a curry

stone.

From here the path lies through a fairly level piece of ground

overgrown with thick bamboos, and crossed and re-crossed by

elephant tracks. It joins the main path at the top of the Dharma-

raja-gala flight of steps.

This abandoned path, which is. known as Gangulihelli-para, is

entirely overgrown and has trees lying across it ; if it were not for

the cut steps in all the steep rocky places, it would be hard to find

and harder to climb.

T tried to climb the Yaku-at-awa cliff, but only succeeded in

reaching a ledge about 20 ft. wp, where water was standing in a little

pond.

NOTES ON ADAM’S PERAK. 85

Dharmaraja-gala has been described by various writers, some of

whom say that the inscription on the side of the path is modern. It

looks old, and a Sinhalese who was with me could not read it, though

he could read ordinary Sinhalese. The inscription contains sixteen

ruled lines, each 44 ft. in length. The figure of a man which is

traced in the rock just below the inscription is 5 ft. 5 in. in height ;

from the waist to the ankles a cloth is depicted, and the hands hold

a rosary up before the face. The figure is neither sunk nor in

relief, but merely outlined. From here down to Gatanetula the

path passes two abandoned ambalams, both of which, with their

legends, are described by Skeen. At Gatanetula there are the

remains of an ambalam, and on a stone there, just by the side of the

path, there is a curious design traced. It consists of a pointing

hand with five fingers and a thumb, a circle, and something that

might have been meant for an elephant ; the length of the hand is

41 in., that of the ‘‘ elephant’ 64 in., and the diameter of the circle

4 in.

Shortly below this is Nilihela ambalam, perched on a high narrow

tongue of the hills, where they run into the low-country. To the

south-west the pilgrims’ path follows along the ridge down to Pala-

badalla. To the north the hill slopes steeply down to a river;

while to the south is a great cliff opposed by another greater cliff,

with a deep valley between them. It is from a legend concerning

these cliffs that the place takes its name, viz., Niliakka was a young

mother of the dhoby caste, and she lived on the verge of the cliff.

One day, having put some clothes to dry on a bush that grew near —

the precipice, she sent her little son to bring them in. He could not

reach the clothes, and in stretching up the bush he fell over the ~

cliff into the valley more than 1,000 feet below. The distracted

mother rushed to the edge and plunged after her child. The

Sinhalese say that to this day that if one shouts across the cafion,

Niliakka will answer. Certainly there is a wonderful echo.

Just below the ambalam, on the south side, there is a small cave,

which has not been improved by art in any way. A path in the

same direction leads to a spring; to the north, in the jungle, there

is another spring, but neither of them seems to have been built in,

though doubtless they are old. I explored a good deal of the jungle

to the north, but found nothing.

The tremendously deep valley below Nilihela on the south con-

tains a great number of boulders, under some of which are caves.

Two have been occupied recently, but none shows signs of ancient

workmanship. The ‘‘ fierce leech ” here flourishes.

I followed the pilgrims’ path down as far as the outskirts of Pala-

badalla, but found nothing of interest.

There still remains to be described the valley between Kdesmet 8

Peak and Bena Samanala-gala and the stream on the hills above

the first ambalam. The valley is full of caves, especially under

N 7(2)08

86 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Bena Samanala; but none of them have been occupied. I must

have examined scores, some of them very suitable for building up.

I followed the main stream to its source, worked along the ridge,

and broke back through the bamboo, but found nothing. The

undergrowth is very thick indeed, and is composed of tough wiry

bamboo. Except where there are elephant paths, it is hard to make

one’s way. . Altogether, exploring this valley, five days were spent

in vain.

The last place, the bed of the stream on the heights above the first

ambalam on the Maskeliya-para, was nothing but a series of enor-

mous slab rocks and waterfalls ; stretches of rock 50 yards square

rose in terraces, divided one from another by broad waterfalls some

20 ft. high. These are where the princesses of old used to bathe.

This legend possibly refers to the Veddas. After leaving this place

I was told by an old Sinhalese man that there is a stone ruin in the

jungle there and a cave with an inscription. My guide knew nothing

of it.

There still remains to be explored the Kehelgama-para and the

Erane-para. I am told, both by Englishmen resident in the neigh-

bourhood and by natives, that the former of these contains both

ruins and inscriptions.

MIMICRY IN INSECT LIFE. 87

MIMICRY IN INSECT LIFE, AS EXEMPLIFIED

BY CEYLON INSECTS.*

By E. Ernest Green, F.E.S., Government Entomologist,

Royal Botanic Gardens, Peradeniya.

With [llustrations.

EFORE describing some of the more interesting instances of

so-called mimicry in insect life, I must ask you to disabuse

your minds of the idea that such mimicry is in any way conscious.

One frequently hears the epithets “ wise,” ‘“‘ clever,” and “‘ ingen-

ious’ employed in connection with some particularly successful

case of adaptation, and it is often difficult to avoid such misleading

terms in ordinary conversation.

As a matter of fact it is probable that these wonderful arrange-

ments of form and colour are the result of natural selection uncon-

sciously working upon accidental variations or mutations through

countless generations, those favourable to the organism having the

better chance of being perpetuated and accentuated.

The word ‘‘ mimicry ” itself is unscientific in this connection, but

is the term that has been generally adopted for the phenomena

in question.

In studying animal mimicry, two main classes or purposes may be

at once distinguished, protective and aggressive, though the latter

may—and often does—serve both purposes. Protection may again

be subdivided into protective resemblance, where the insect simulates

some inanimate object, and protective mimicry proper, in which the

insect assumes the appearance of some other species that is naturally

protected either by some weapon, such as a poisonous sting, or by

some unpleasant taste or odour. Of the former class—protective

resemblance—we have abundant beautiful instances in Ceylon.

The best known is that of the leaf insects.

(Fig. 1.) Our more common Ceylon species (Pulchriphyllium

crurifolium) carries its disguise throughout every stage of its

existence. The eggs are remarkably like the seed of some plants,

and they are shed upon the ground, and lie amongst the dead leaves

just as might the seeds of any tree. I must confess that I have

never found the particular seed that matches them, but I am con-

fident that such exists. If I were to send a packet of these eggs to

* This article is the substance of a lecture delivered by the author in

Kandy in 1907.

88 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

some horticultural friend in Europe, he would almost certainly plant

them carefully and expect to raise some interesting tropical plant

from them. When first hatched the young insects are of a bright

reddish colour, harmonizing with the young leaves of many of our —

shrubs and plants, and it is upon such tender leaves that they feed

during this early stage. As they grow older they prefer the more

mature leaves, and at the same time the red tints are gradually

changed to green. The upper surface of-most leaves is darker and

more glossy than the underside. In the half-grown insect we find

a reverse arrangement of the tints. The back of the insect is of a

dull pale green tint, while the underside is of a deeper colour and

more shining surface. This at first sight would appear to be

faulty adaptation ; but such is far from being the case, for the

habitual attitude of the insect in this stage is head downwards,

with the hinder leaf-like part of the body re-curved over its back, in

which position the under surface of the body is uppermost. So

perfectly leaf-like are the full-grown insects that they may be said

to partially defeat the purpose of their disguise, for they are some-

times mistaken by their fellows for actual leaves, and may have

parts of their wings nibbled off before they realize what is happen-

ing. Perhaps, though, this accident may really enhance their

disguise, for the ragged insect looks like a leaf that has been

partially devoured by a caterpillar.

(Fig. 2.) The allied ‘“‘Stick Insects” (Phasmide) resemble the

stalks of grasses or the thin twigs of bamboos and shrubs. One

species frequents the common yellow-stemmed bamboo. It has a

smooth cylindrical yellowish body, jointed at intervals like the

bamboo upon which it lives. Another is covered with thorn-like

processes and simulates a piece of bramble. Their eggs, like those

of the leaf insects, resemble seeds of various kinds. They are either

attached to the leaves of plants or shed upon the ground.

Another small insect (belonging to the family Membracide)

apparently*relies upon its similarity to the thorns of the plant

upon which it is most frequently found. Both the young and

the mature insects resemble thorns, but in a different manner.

The young insect is green, and has a single erect-pointed promi-

nence on the back. It frequents the young shoots. where the

natural thorns are soft and green. The adult insect has a pair of

backwardly directed curved black horns, and may often be found

on the older shoots where the thorns are dark coloured. To obtain

the highest degree of imitation the young insects should rest with

their heads towards the base of the stem, while the adult insects

should adopt the opposite position. And this is most frequently

found to be the case. By so doing the curve of the horns of the

insects takes up the direction of the thorns of the plant. This

thorn-like Membracid is named Leptocentrus substitutus, Wlk., and

the thorny plant upon which it lives is Capparis sepiaria, L.

MIMICRY IN INSECT LIFE. 89

(Fig. 3.) The “ Leaf Butterfly ” (Kallima philarchus) is.a very

beautiful example of protective resemblance. While it is on the

‘wing the bright blue tints of the upper surface render it a con-

spicuous insect, but when the wings are folded together in the resting

position, their form and colouring exactly imitates a withered leaf.

The markings take the form of the midrib and veins of the natural

leaf, while the resemblance is heightened by a blunt tail-like process

from the hind wing, which takes the place of the stalk of the leaf.

It even copies the frequent blemishes that are found on a dead leaf.

There are often irregular dark-coloured blotches, such as are caused

by fungus diseases of the plant, and in some examples there is a

small transparent spot suggesting a hole in the leaf. In natural

history books this insect is usually represented perched on a leafy

branch, in which position the brown tints of the wings would not

harmonize with their surroundings. But in nature the insect more

usually settles head downwards on the trunk of a tree, and it has

acquired the habit of swaying gently from side to side. It might

then be mistaken very easily for a detached leaf that in its fall has

hitched up in a cobweb and is being shaken by the breeze.

Then there are many insects that habitually rest on the bark of

trees. These have assimilated themselves most perfectly to such

surroundings. And as bark is very frequently spotted and mottled

with gray and greenish lichens, so these particular insects are

usually variegated with similar markings. Moths of various kinds,

certain beetles, several Homoptera, and a few grasshoppers exhibit

this form of protective resemblance.

(Fig. 4.) Even such a large and bulky insect as our large

Wood-boring Moth (Duomitus leuconotus), which has a wing expanse

of nearly 8 inches, can conceal itself very successfully by its

resemblance to a patch of lichen-covered bark. Its wings are

closely mottled with gray and black. Another large moth (Llphos

hymenaria), with similar markings, rests with outstretched wings

on the trunks of trees, where it is in perfect harmony. with its

surroundings.

The large “ Hawk Moth z (Pseudosphinx discistriga) becomes

practically invisible when resting in similar situations.

A large beetle, common in the Kandy districts, is ornamented

with irregular streaks of light and dark brown, and _ looks

curiously like the fibrous surface of wood where some branch has

been torn off.

(Fig. 5.) Another beetle (Alaus speciosus), which, when seen by

itself, appears to be most conspicuously marked, when resting—

as it frequently does—on the charred stump of some tree in a newly

burned clearing, would be mistaken for an irregular patch of white _

ash. But in this case it is doubtful if the apparent adaptation is

real, for the insect cannot of necessity confine itself to recently

charred stumps, and the gradual evolution of this pattern must date

90 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

back to a period long before the clearing of our forests commenced.

Possibly the scheme of coloration was unconsciously modelled upon

the form taken by some of the shapeless white fungi that grow upon

decaying wood.

(Fig. 6.) There is a common long-horned grasshopper with

mottled brownish wings, which clings close against the branches of

the trees upon the leaves of which it feeds. Its wings partially

encircle the branch, and its back is rugged like the bark. When at

rest in this position it looks merely like some natural excrescence of

the branch itself.

(Fig. 7.) And a small Homopterous insect (Atracis neitneri)

is so like—in texture and colouring—to a patch of gray-green

lichen that it is indistinguishable until it is disturbed and flies off.

Another common form of protective resemblance, in which the

insect imitates a small lump of earth, has been adopted by many

members of the beetle tribe. Such species are of a dull brown

colour, and have a rough granular or warty surface. They do not

necessarily live in the soil, but have acquired the habit—when

alarmed—of suddenly dropping from their perch and falling to the

ground, where they lie perfectly motionless, with limbs close pressed

to the body, until the danger has passed. The habit of feigning

death is itself a form of protective mimicry.

As a general rule, predatory animals will not touch even their

natural prey when it is dead or motionless. A preying mantis, one

of the most voracious of insects, will take no notice of a motionless

insect, but will seize it as soon as it shows any signs of life. Many

defenceless insects, therefore, have acquired the habit of lying inert

and to all appearances dead when alarmed.

Insects that inhabit grass land have very generally assumed an

elongate narrow shape that assimilates itself to the form of the

stems and blades of the grasses amongst which they conceal

themselves. Examples of many different families may be found

exhibiting this device. We find in the patanas long narrow grass-

hoppers, stick insects, mantises, bugs, caterpillars, and even moths

of the same general form.

The caterpillar of a small green moth (Thalassodes, sp.) disguises

itself by fastening pieces of leaves and withered blossoms to the

fleshy spines on its back.

The phenomenon of protective mimicry proper is closely involved

with that of warning colours, in which an insect has assumed con-

spicuous colours or markings that are recognized by insectivorous

birds and other animals as associated with something dangerous or

distasteful. In contradistinction to protective resemblance, which

results in rendering the object inconspicuous, protective mimicry

usually tends in the direction of conspicuousness. The wasp tribe

are usually brightly banded with orange and black, and any bird

MIMICRY IN INSECT LIFE. . 9]

that had once been stung by a wasp would instinctively avoid

another insect similarly coloured. We consequently find that many

harmless insects have acquired this type of marking, and so escape

molestation by their resemblance to their self-protected models

Thus, there are certain moths and flies with banded bodies, and

beetles in which the same pattern is produced on the closed wing

cases. Hven members of the spider tribe have found the advantage

of "mimicking better protected insects. That very pugnacious

insect, the “red ant” (Hcophylla), is naturally protected not only by

its powerful jaws, but by the copious secretion of pungent formic

acid, which renders it obnoxious to most insectivorous creatures.

It is imitated both in form and colour by several other insects, more

especially by a slender “ hunting-spider.” So close is this resem-

blance that most persons to whom I have pointed out the spider

have declared unhesitatingly that it was verily the red ant itself.

We have in Ceylon a whole series of such ant-like spiders, each

apparently modelled upon some particular species of ant. Spiders

are possessed of eight legs, while ants have only six apiece ; but this

does not interfere with the resemblance, for the first pair of the

limbs of the spider take the place of the antenne of the ant. The

- deception is only noticeable when the spider becomes alarmed by a

close inspection and lets itself down by a silken thread—a feat that

is impossible to any kind of ant.

While on a recent tour in the neighbourhood of Trincomalee I

saweon the ground what I supposed to be a species of Mutilla—a

peculiar genus of wasp, the females of which are apterous and

brilliantly coloured. Knowing that these insects are armed with a

powerful sting, I was careful to pick it up with a pair of forceps, and

it was not until I had bottled it that I realized that my capture was

of much greater interest. It was a species of spider that had adopted

the characteristic form and colouring of a Mutilla. Isubsequently

captured a second specimen, of the opposite sex, which apparently

mimicked yet another species of Muiilla.

Large groups of insects, containing many widely distinct species,

genera, and even families, are sometimes found to have acquired

a type of coloration and pattern common to all of them. Such an

association is distinguished by the term “‘ Mullerian,” after the

famous naturalist (Fritz Miiller) who first drew attention to the

phenomenon. Each individual of such a group is usually itself

protected by some disagreeable property, but by their common

likeness to each other it is supposed that they contribute to the

safety of the other members. This may require a little explanation.

Every animal has to learn for itself what is good, wholesome food,

and what is injurious or distasteful. An inexperienced young bird

or lizard would not know that a certain gaudily coloured insect

had an unpleasant taste until it had discovered the fact by actual

experiment. But once learned, the lesson is never forgotten. The

92 SPOLIA ZEYLANIOCA.

victim of the experiment itself is none the better off for its warning

colouring, but its sacrifice has probably saved the lives of many

others. The more general the particular type of coloration, the

fewer subjects for experiment are required, whereas, if each separate

species adopted a distinctive danger signal, they would each have

to pay toll for the education of their mutual enemies.

Such Miillerian associations of self-protected insects are not quite

so conspicuous in Ceylon as in some other countries, notably in

Africa and South America, but we have a few instances.

Thus, amongst the butterflies we find two species (Danais

chrysippus and Hypolimnas misippus) belonging to distinct families

(the Danaine and Nymphaline respectively) that are practically

indistinguishable except by the most close examination. In the

second species it is curiously the female only that has adopted

the warning colour. The male is such a different looking insect that

the relationship of the two sexes would never be suspected. A still

more remarkable fact is that there are two varieties of the Danais

and two corresponding varieties of the female Hypolimnas.

Yet another species of another family (V'elchinia viole) has

somewhat the same general appearance. Though the similarity is

not so complete, this insect probably reaps some advantage from

its partial resemblance to the other two.

Four other Danaine butterflies (all different species of Euplea)

and a species of Papilio form another associated group. Here,

again, we have the remarkable coincidence that the Papilo

has two very distinct varieties, one of which resembles the Hupleas,

while the other has the likeness of another self-protected species

(Danais septentrionis).

A common type of warning colour, found in nearly all parts

of the world, consists of a uniform’ reddish tint in front,

followed by a more or less sharply defined hinder part. The mem-

bers of this group comprise various pEeeee of beetles, bugs, wasps,

flies, and moths.

Under protective mimicry may be classed the menacing markings

that have been adopted by many insects.

(Fig. 8.) The most common form of this is the development of

eye-like markings on various parts of the body. The true eyes of an

insect are usually inconspicuous, but the ocellated spots—the sham

eyes—found on the wings of so many butterflies and moths attract

attention at once by their intense colouring and disproportionate size.

Though in some cases these specialized markings may serve the pur-

pose of distracting the attention of a formidable enemy from a vital to

a non-vital part, as by allowing an insect to escape from a bird with

the comparatively unimportant loss of a fragment of wing, in others

the eye-spots have a more directly protective function. . We have

in Ceylon a particular kind of praying mantis that preys principally

upon butterflies. I have kept a living specimen of this mantis in a

a ns

MIMICRY IN INSECT LIFE. 93

cage for some time, and have fed it upon a small species of butterfly

that happens to be very abundant in the immediate neighbourhood—

a species that is ornamented with several conspicuous eye-spots.

I have noticed that while one of these butterflies is walking quietly

about the cage, when its markings are clearly visible, the mantis

seems to be afraid of it : but as soon as it commences to flutter and

the markings are obscured by the rapid movement of the wings, it

is promptly seized and devoured.

The caterpillars of many of our large “ Hawk Moths” show a pair

of large and brilliantly coloured false eyes on the front part of ‘the

body that gives them a very alert and formidable appearance. These

markings must be distinctly protective.

(Fig. 9.) Akin to this form of protection is that in which the

markings simulate a sham head at the opposite end of the body,

while the real head may be much less conspicuous than the false one.

This is found in some small hopping insects, whose principal enemies

are the “hunting-spiders ”’ that spin no snare, but stalk their prey,

endeavouring to take it unawares and seize it from behind. These

hunters would be puzzled—when stalking one of these double-

headed creatures—to know which was its blind side, and might be

likely to approach it from the wrong end, and so give it timely warn

ing of its danger.

Aggressive mimicry is adopted by predaceous insects, and usually

takes the form of some disguise that enables them to approach their

prey without alarming it. The disguise at the same time affords

the wearer protection from its own enemies.

All the disguises that we have seen adopted for protection are

repeated for the purposes of aggression. Thus, we find praying

mantises that simulate leaves, others that frequent the trunks of

trees and resemble lichen-covered bark; and one peculiar species

(Gongylus gongylodes) with leaf-like body and wings, while just

behind its head is a hood with brightly coloured lining that is

thought to imitate a flower. This is the species that has already

been described as feeding upon small butterflies. It takes its stand

on some leafy branch and awaits its opportunity. The head is

elevated to display the coloured area. Presently a passing butterfly

is attracted by the patch of pink, it approaches in expectation of

finding a honey-laden flower, and finds itself seized by a pair of cruel

arms arrayed with formidable teeth like a steel rat-trap. “‘ And the

subsequent proceedings interested it no more.” The juicy body is

soon devoured, and the unnutritious wings are dropped.

There are several small hunting-spiders that have adopted the

same kind of manceuvre. They are of a bright yellow colour, and

lurk among the yellow stamens of flowers. From this coign of con-

cealment they pounce upon small flies and moths that come to feed

at the flower. When insect hunting I have on several occasions

been deceived by some moth that appeared to be busily engaged in

0 7(2)08

94 Le SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

sipping honey, but on attempting to capture it I have found myself

forestalled, and the specimen already in the jaws of one of these

little spiders.

Other predaceous insects assume the proverbial “sheep’s cloth-

ing,” and imitate the form of the creature upon which they prey.

(Fig. 10.) An interesting example is that of a large fly (Hypere-

chia xylocopiformis), which so closely resembles a species of “ Car-

penter Bee ” (Xylocopa fenestrata) as to completely deceive its victim.

Ihave watched one of these flies mount into the air to meet a passing

bee, which appears to welcome it as a mate, with fatal results to the

bee. ; One might suppose that the bee could protect itself with its

powerful sting, but it discovers its mistake too late, when the fly

is firmly perched on its back and has driven its sharp beak into the

body of its victim.

It is possibly the same purpose that has led to the similarity of

colour and pattern between two distinct insects of the bug tribe

(Antilochus nigripes and Serinetha augur), for the former preys upon

the latter.

Another device employed by one family of predaceous bugs is to

cover their bodies with dust and small particles of rubbish until they

look like anything but living insects. In this disguise they lie in

wait and pounce upon their prey—other small insects—or are able

to creep up within striking distance without being cbserved.

In these few examples of mimicry that I have described I have

touched but the fringe of a most interesting and complicated subject.

There are endless other instances to be seen around us by any

intelligent observer. In fact it is probable that fully one-half of

the insects that exist in Ceylon exhibit in some degree one or other

of the several forms of mimicry.

‘SOAROT BALNS UOdN SuIpsey SyoosUT JeoT “| “OTT

‘BIMY pelip 8 UO SJOSUT YONG °Z ‘YLT

PAIS wscthais:

Si pans

Ses

atic

"YUNI}-0014 UO YO SuUMog-poom = *F “HIT 904} 8 JO YUNA} oY UO .

‘premumop poy “4yser ye Apiojyng Jeet “¢ “OL

dey a ee ee eo ee

I I a ew a en A Ne an IY a aS

“SUIM OY} UO PUB SIM UO 4Sor 4B ‘Msohns

Suo'TyT

nyjphiydosyiog ‘teddoyssery pouroy

9 “SI

‘duinjs poareyo 8 uO

‘snsovads snp) Pp ‘a}je0g pleye[y uy

¢ ‘oy

Atracis nietnert on lichen-covered trunk.

Fig. 8.

Butterflies and Moths with ocellated

markings on the wings.

*TOULLOJ OY SOLUITUT YOM *A[Y pOsutIMm-omy v

JAMO] 94} fo0q B St omnsy doddn oyy, ‘OF “D1

(ie Z : ‘OINDY OY} JO FJo] OYJ UO UMOYS SI OzIS [eANZRU OT,

*puryoq soXo os[ey SULMOYS JoosuT UW

“QUBISIC] ‘SOL200U0UL SHUDYODUL *6 OT

LARVA OF ‘‘ PRODENIA SYNSTICTIS.”’ 95

ON THE LARVA OF “PRODENIA SYNSTICTIS,”

Hampson.

By T. Barysriceze Firetcuer, R.N., F.E.S.

N August 3, 1907, whilst searching on plants of Drosera

burmanni, Vahl., at Diyatalawa, for the immature stages of

Trichoptilus paludicola, 1 found a small dark noctuid larva beside a

Drosera plant, on which it was feeding. It was placed on sundew,

and on the next day was observed to have taken up a position on

the underside of a grass stem preparatory to undergoing an ecdysis.

On August 7 it was noted as feeding on the red glands of the

Drosera. It was then naked and nearly black in colour; each

abdominal segment bore a square black dorsal spot ; the thoracic

segments bore a narrow interrupted dorsal line ; each segment had

a black sub-dorsal spot bordered below by two contiguous yellow

dots ; there were also numerous minute yellow dots scattered over

the larva. The head was nearly black, with a paler A-shaped mark,

and the mouth parts of a dirty orange colour. Legs all present,

the same colour as the body—a very dark fuscous, almost black.

On the head and prothorax were numerous short black hairs ;

probably these, as in the case of 7’. paludicola, act as ‘‘ feelers ” to

prevent too close contact with the Drosera gum. |

On August 10 the larva is noted as being 9 mm. long and pro-

portionately stout. When not feeding it liked to rest on a grass

stem, especially if the stem was within reach of a Drosera plant.

On August 12 it was feeding on the flower buds and unripe seeds

of the Drosera, and at a casual glance it looked quite black.

By August 18 it had attained a length of 19 mm., and was eating

the Drosera flower stems.

On August 20 the larva was about 20 mm. long, stoutly built,

almost black in colour, sprinkled with minute yellowish dots (which

were not distinguishable except under a lens), with a series of

creamy yellow dots along the latero-dorsal region, these last giving

to the naked eye the appearance of a narrow yellow stripe. ‘The

larva is very voracious, and prefers to feed on the seed pods and buds

of the Drosera, though it will also eat the leaves, and has now

apparently little fear of the gum.”

On August 23 the larva had just undergone an ecdysis and

assumed a very handsome appearance. “It is 23 mm. long, stout,

96 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

jet black, interstices of segments whitish. The dorsum of each

segment bears two or three minute yellow dots, which do not

form a dorsal stripe. A fairly narrow latero-dorsal stripe may be

described as composed of a series of yellow spots almost united to

form a stripe. Just below the spiracles passes a similar stripe

composed of a row of yellow dots, but it is not so distinct as the

upper stripe. Below the sub-spiracular stripe the black surface is

sprinkled over with minute white dots, most numerous along the

lower edge of the yellow stripe. Legs black. Prolegs black, feet

and claspers yellowish, head black.”

On August 29 this larva was very nearly full-fed, and presented a

very handsome appearance. A description made at the time reads

as follows :—

“Tt is 30 mm. long and 5:5 mm. broad. Its colour is jet black,

the segmental interstices (except between head and prothorax)

broadly creamy white. The prothorax has anteriorly three bright

yellow spots, one medio-dorsal, the other two sub-dorsal ; the other

segments bear a few scattered medio-dorsal pale yellow spots, which

hardly make a line ; a fairly broad latero-dorsal longitudinal line is

seen to be composed of numerous irregular pale yellow markings on

each segment behind the prothorax ; just below the spiracles runs a

similar pale yellow stripe, a little broader and less sharply defined

than the latero-dorsal one ; this sub-spiracular stripe is bordered

below by small white dots scattered irregularly over the whole

ventral surface, which is of a very dark glaucous green, almost

black. The margins of the anus are of a bright orange. Legs black ;

prolegs greenish yellow, the upper exterior parts black. Head black,

with a narrow obsolescent creamy A-shaped mark across the face

and an obsolescent orange spot just above the jaws; the head is

thickly studded with short, black, bristly hairs. There are a few

very short black hairs scattered over the body segments, but they

are so inconspicuous that their positions cannot be distinguished

even under‘a strong lens, as they are only visible when viewed against

the light. This larva is very voracious, and feeds indiscriminately

on the Drosera leaves, but seems to prefer the stems, eating buds, —

seeds, stem, and all.”

On the afternoon of August 31 the larva excavated a chamber in

the earth beneath a small clump of Drosera, but it did not pupate

until the night of September 3/4. A slight but regular cocoon was

formed. The pupa seems very small in comparison with the bulk

of the larva; it is black, the abdominal segmental interstices

‘yellowish.

The moth emerged about 7.30 a.m.on September 22 and proved

to be Prodenia synstictis, Hmpsn.

Although there is little doubt but that this particular larva of

P. synstictis was actually feeding on Drosera burmanni when found,

LARVA OF “‘ PRODENIA SYNSTICTIS.”’ 97

and that it throve exceedingly well on a diet of this insectivorous

plant, yet it seems to me improbable that this forms its usual pabu-

lum. One of my reasons for this conclusion lies in the fact that no

other specimens of this larva were found during a close search, on

probably several hundreds of plants, for larve of T'richoptilus

paludicola ; but perhaps other searchers may be more successful.

At any rate a certain interest is attached to any insect which

subsists with impunity on so essentially entomophagous a plant as

sundew.

98 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

NOTES ON SNAKES FROM DIVYATALAWA, CEYLON.

By T. Batypricce Fietcuer, R.N., F.ES.

(pee a stay in camp at Diyatalawa (4,000 feet) between

July 27 and October 9, 1907, I obtained a few specimens of

various species of snakes, and as all information concerning the

distribution of even the commonest snakes in Ceylon seems to be

rather a desideratum, it may be of interest to give a list of them

here.

Rhinophis blythit.

One specimen, 102 inches long, was taken on October 2, amongst

flood refuse washed down by a small stream after heavy rain on the

previous night. The ventrals in this example number 192, and

the proportion of its length to diameter is as thirty-seven to one, so

that its length is comparatively greater than usual, as shown both

by its greater slenderness and by the increased number of ventrals.

This specimen is now in the Colombo Museum. |

Aspidura trachyprocta.

One specimen, taken in June on Craig estate, Bandarawela (about

5,000 feet), was given to me by Mr. J. F. Jowitt. Although this is

probably not an inhabitant of Diyatalawa in the strict sense of the

word (i.e., “water plain’’), yet this specimen seems sufficiently

interesting to record here; the head scales are asymmetrical, the

preocular being present on the left side of the head but totally

absent on, the right side. The other scale peculiarities (much

broader frontal, &c.) leave no doubt that this specimen is trachy-

procta. Wall records a specimen with no preocular (‘‘ Spolia,”

III., 145), but in his example the variation was presumably

symmetrical.

Oligodon sublineatus.

One specimen was taken on August 12, just below the Railway

station.

‘

Zamenis Mucosus.

Common all round the camp, and large individuals are often seen

on the rifle range. During the forenoon of August 27 a rat-snake

shed its skin in the drain just outside our hut; the cast skin was

quite perfect, and measured 6 feet 5 inches.

NOTES ON SNAKES FROM DIYATALAWA. 99

Tropidonotus stolatus.

(1) One (153 inches + 52 inches) on September 3.

(2) One (about 18 inches) seen on the range on September 6.

(3) A mangled example (about 18 inches) found on a path on

October 4.

Fairly common ; found on the dry hillsides as well as in the

marshy valleys.

Tropidonotus asperrimus.

A hatchling (83 inches) was brought to me on September 3.

It is a fairly common snake at Diyatalawa.

Macropisthodon plumbicolor.

On August 19, just before 8 a.m., I noticed a crow on the hillside

a couple of hundred yards away. The crow seemed to be attracted

by something on the ground but appeared afraid of it, as it kept

jumping about around the object of attraction. I thought it was

probably a snake, so took a stick and went over to investigate ;

sure enough, when I got to the place (the crow having flown off at

my approach), I found a fine example of this snake there. It did

not seem to have been hurt by the crow, but was defending itself by

flattening itself out along the ground in a most peculiar manner.

The head was raised slightly off the ground, and the whole of the

body (especially the forepart just behind the neck) was flattened out

so as to appear very broad. The snake did not attempt to bite, or

even hiss, when J picked it up. It was a fairly large specimen,

22 inches long.

This snake ate three small frogs and a young Calotes on August

23, but refused to take any more frogs or lizards, although both

were kept constantly in its cage. On October 5, however, a large

toad (Bufo melanostictus) on being introduced, was at once attacked

and ingested.

On October 8 I caught a second and smaller specimen of this

snake ; this was also taken in the early morning. This individual

did not flatten itself out at all-when caught, nor make any attempt

or threat to bite.

Tn spite of its particularly gentle disposition and harmless charac-

ter the natives appear to be very much afraid of this snake, and I

think that they are quite unable to discriminate between this species .

and the “ green tic-polonga ” (Lachesis trigonocephalus). The local

name for it is “ pala-polonga”’; pala apparently means “a herb,”

so the name may be translated “ herb-green viper.” I was told a

strange tale of a native who had “ pinched one of these snakes and

afterwards rubbed his eye with his fingers, with the result that he

had a very bad eye for some days.” Any foundation of fact in this

100 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

yarn might be explained by the possibility that the snake com-

municated some secretion from the parietal gland of a toad with

which it had recently had an encounter.

M. plumbicolor appears to be fairly common on the patana around

Diyatalawa.

Naja tripudians.

On September 21 a native brought along a cobra which had been

killed in the camp. Its length was 291 inches + 6 inches. On dis-

section its stomach was found to contain a frog. The head scales

were quite normal.

On October 4 another example (31 inches long) was killed in the

Naval camp.

Probably the cobra is fairly common at Diyatalawa, but not often

identified as such. A planter, resident in the neighbourhood, who

saw the first-mentioned specimen when it was brought in was

positive that it was ‘‘ only a rat-snake,” because the hood was not

expanded.

Vipera russellit.

In spite of the local inhabitants’ assertions to the contrary, the

“‘ tic-polonga ” appears to be quite a common snake at Diyatalawa.

(1) On August 21 an example about 3 feet long was brought in

by the natives.

(2) On September 4 a baby specimen, only 93 inches long, was

caught near the Railway station. Even at this early stage the fangs

are well developed, and there is a reserve fang almost as large as the

first one.

(3) On the evening of September 12, when it was getting dark,

my companion, who was walking just in front of me on our way back

to the camp, stepped right over an individual which was lying on

the path: Luckily for him it had just swallowed a shrewmouse,

and so was too torpid to strike at him. It measured 16? inches

+ 23 inches.

(4) On September 20 one of our men (W. Humphreys , able

seaman) brought along the skin of a Russell’s viper which he had

just killed close to the camp. This specimen was a female, about

forty inches long, and in skinning it he had removed twelve fully-

formed young ones in wero. Each foetus was enclosed in a roughly

oval membranous packet about 43 mm. long by 20 mm. broad, the

membrane being liberally supplied with blood vessels filled with red

blood. Nearly half of the packet was filled with a glairy opaque

whitish albuminous matter; in the other half the young viper was

coiled up, the tail in the middle of the coil, ventral surface of tail

next enveloping membrane ; further up the body took a half turn,

and the dorsal surface was appressed to the membrane ; the head

NOTES ON SNAKES FROM DIYATALAWA. 101

was not visible, and was apparently next to the albuminous matter.

The immature males had the usual double set of genitalia fully

extended.

As brought to me, there was one string of five membranous

envelopes, one of three, a single one detached, and three small vipers

which had been freed. The dimensions of these last were: (i.) male,

7 inches ; (ii.) male, 74 inches ; (iii.) female, 73 inches. The fangs

were quite developed in these unborn vipers, being about 3 mm.

(4 inch) long.

(5) Humphreys told me that he had killed a number of snakes

around the camp lately, finding them driven out on the paths when

the hillside vegetation is set on fire. A short time before he had

got a larger V. russellit and showed me the skin, which measured

40 + 5 inches, the extremity of the tail being absent.

(6) A male (344 + 53 inches) was brought in by a native on

September 24. On dissection the stomach was found to be empty.

102 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

NOTES.

1.—A new Species of Hesperiide in Ceylon.—At the end of 1902,

when I was leaving Ceylon for England, Mr. F. M. Mackwood handed

to me a species of Abaratha which he was unable to name, and which

he wished presented to the British Museum. The Museum had one

other similar specimen, captured by the late Major Watson in the

Shan States. These insects have recently (Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser.

7, vol. xx., p. 432) been named by Colonel Swinhoe Abaratha siamica,

Swinhoe, the type being Watson’s insect. I remember Mr. E. Ernest

Green showing me a similar specimen to Mr. Mackwood’s in his

collection, which I believe was captured somewhere in the Kandy

district ; and I have seen a third specimen in Mr. Oswin Wickwar’s

collection captured at Ratigalla. Mr. Mackwood’s was taken at

Haldummulla ; it is therefore widely distributed and apparently very

scarce. Its geographical range is very extraordinary, and the Shan

States, so far as [ know them, have a far more temperate climate than

the Ceylon hills. In all probability, however, it will eventually be

discovered in the hill districts of India.

London, November 30, 1907. N. MANDERS.

2. Re Mr. F.M. Mackwood’s Note in “ Spolia Zeylanica,’’ Novem-

ber 17, 1907, ». 67.—There must be some error in the date. The

electric plant was dismounted some time before the year 1906.

On an earlier visit I collected a large series of Leocyma, and upon

examination of the frenulum found that both males and females

were almost equally represented. As the male of L. sericea is readily

distinguished from its female by the peculiar form of the front wing,

I came to the conclusion that the Diyatalawa species must be

L. cygnus, Walk. (now referred to tibialis, Fabr.), a species in which

the two sexes have similarly shaped wings, and on reference to

Sir Geo. Hampson my surmise was confirmed. There is apparently

no character by which the females of sericea and tibialis can be

distinguished from each other. JL. sericea proper (or at any rate

the male of the species) appears to be extremely scarce. During

twenty-six years’ collecting in Ceylon I have taken only a single

specimen, and that one was captured in Colombo. What I take to

be L. tibialis is abundant at certain seasons in Kandy.

E. E. GREEN.

NOTES. 103

3. Mr. Drieberg’s Note on Crows (ibid, p. 68).—It is possible that

the fleshy grubs of a cockchafer were the object of the attention of

the crows. These grubs are often found in localized areas of grass

land, and are known to be preyed upon by crows and minahs.

When grass has been attacked by the grubs, the roots are often so

completely destroyed that the plants can be lifted with very little

effort.

KE. E. GREEN.

4. Note on the death of a Cooly from Snake-bite—The number of

reported deaths from snake-bite is so great, and the cases in which

the snake has been identified so few, that any authentic records are

of especial value. Hearing of a recent fatality on an estate in the

Gampola district, and learning that the snake had been killed and

preserved, I applied for the loan of the specimen. It proved to be

a male of the Ceylon krait or karawala (Bungarus ceylonicus),

measuring without its head (which had been cut off) 25$inches. The

total length must have been about 27 inches. There were 22 white

rings on the body, and the black areas were continued—as well-

defined dark bands—across the under surface. It is noticeable that

this dark banding of the under surface is found in all of our terres-

trial Colubrine venomous snakes: the cobra, the karawala, and the

scarce Callophis, and, as far as I know, in none of the harmless

species.

The particulars of this case have been kindly supplied by the

superintendent of the estate. It appears that the man went outside

his lines at 4 a.m. and was bitten on the left foot. He went back to

his room, brought a lamp and a stick, and killed the snake. He is

said to have recognized the snake as a deadly one, but returned to

his lines and discussed the matter with his relatives until about 5.30,

when it was time to start for muster. The man at this time felt

sleepy and did not attend muster. The drowsiness increased until

10 a.m., when the case was reported to the Superintendent, who

immediately went down armed with a bottle of whisky. But the

man was able to swallow very little and was sick after each dose,

the vomit being of a yellow colour. The patient was walked about

until his legs refused to move. He was very cold. Artificial respi-

ration (as applied in cases of drowning) was kept up until the arrival

of the medical officer. The doctor’s treatment consisted of whisky

and ammonia, every half hour. At 2-.m. the man was very feverish

and quite insensible. At 4 p.m. he was reported dead, exactly

twelve hours after the occurrence of the bite.

E. E. GREEN.

104 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

5. Another fatality from Snake-bite.—A visitor to my laboratory,

while handling one of my caged snakes, was bitten on the thumb

by a small specimen of Dipsas ‘ceylonensis. This is one of those

interesting species that, while possessing grooved fangs, have

apparently no poison gland in connection with them. The bite

drew blood, but the patient suffered no subsequent inconvenience

whatever. On the other hand, the snake was found dead next

morning, without any signs of injury to account for its decease.

To paraphrase the well-known rhyme, ‘‘ The man recovered of his

bite, the snake it was that died.”

K. E. GREEN.

6. The Bite of the “ Brahminy Lizard.’”’—Year by year the Regis-

trar-General’s annual mortality report includes one or more cases of

‘death from bite of the Brahminy lizard.”’ The Brahminy lizard is

the common skink (Mabuia carinata), the bite of which is firmly

believed by the natives of the country to be of a most venomous

character. Dissection reveals no poison glands. The teeth of the

animal are not grooved, nor are they even sharply pointed, their

crowns being obliquely truncate. I have however received at first

hand particulars that seem to show that the bite of this lizard can

be followed by slight symptoms of poisoning. A lady tells me that,

happening to place her hand on the floor under a table, she felt a

distinct bite on the finger, and’one of these skinks ran out. The

wound was scarcely appreciable and drew no blood ; but in three

hours’ time that finger was very swollen and tense. There was

some tenderness on pressure, but no general disturbance. The only

remedy adopted was the dipping of the injured finger in raw whisky

at intervals. The swelling gradually abated and had almost dis-

appeared by the following morning.

It seems probable, therefore, that the tee saliva of this lizard

has some poisonous quality, in which case it might be possible for

a person in weak health to be so seriously affected as to succumb

from the effects of the bite.

| E. E. GREEN.

7. Vitality of Dragonfly Larve.—ti recently received by post a

match box containing several specimens of the aquatic larve of a

dragonfly (Libellulid). To my surprise the insects, though they

must have been out of the water for nearly twenty-four hours, were

alive and very active. When placed in their native element they

were so dry and so full of air that they were quite unable to sink

below the surface. One of them managed to crawl down a stick to

the bottom of the vessel, but upon releasing its hold it itt

rose to the surface again.

NOTES. 105

The larva of the dragonfly is purely aquatic ; it breathes water,

and never of its own free will leaves the water until it emerges in

preparation for the final change into the winged insect. Under such

circumstances it is astonishing that these larve were able to survive

without apparent injury so prolonged an absence from their proper

element. On dissection their trachez were found to be completely

filled with air.

K. EK. GREEN.

8. Capture of a Butterfly by a Hunting Spider—While I was

watching a small group of butterflies on a sandbank at Haragama,

I was fortunate enough to see the capture of one of them by a large

Lycosid spider.

The spider suddenly rushed out from some leaves, and seizing an

outlying member of Huphina remba made for the water. Wishing

to secure the specimens I netted them, or it would have been

interesting to see whether the spider would actually have taken to

the water. On examining the spider later it was found to be afemale

with a large number of young crowded on the back of its abdomen.

The body of the spider measured approximately ? of an inch in

length. While in captivity it finished its meal, completely dis-

membering the butterfly and entirely consuming only the softer parts

of the body.

February, 1908. F. E. WEST.

9.— Mosquitoes and Hyeflies—Have entomologists noticed how

these pests seem to be getting prevalent at higher and higher

elevations ? I remember when there were no mosquitoes at an estate

in this neighbourhood about 4,500 feet elevation; it was pleasant

to be able to sleep without a mosquito curtain, now a necessity.

The eyefly is another pest that seems to be getting worse up-country,

and I know of no really effective means of destroying them. I think

there must be some particular tree or shrub that brings them,

otherwise why is it that they are conspicuous by their absence in

some bungalows and swarming in others, even though every atten-

tion is paid to clean surroundings in the latter ?

Perhaps Mr. Green could throw a light on the problem. If he

could tell us how to get rid of them, he would earn the gratitude of

many. As usual, Nature seems to be moving to the rescue,

though somewhat slowly. One sees everywhere now a small green

flycatcher, about the size of the “ white-eye,” a friendly little

bird. He will sit on a bough quite close to you and suddenly

106 SPOLIA ZEYLANIGCA.

dart down on a fly a few inches away from one’s face. It would

be interesting to know the proper name for this little friend,* he

certainly seems to keep down the eyeflies.

R. MACLURE.

Maskeliya, January 13, 1908.

10. Mosquitoes and Hyeflies—The distribution of mosquitoes

depends principally upon facilities for breeding. Most of the species

are dependent upon stagnant or approximately still water. I have

found certain species abundant at all elevations in the Island, though

the bite of those frequenting the higher altitudes does not appear to

be so virulent. I remember experiencing considerable trouble from

mosquitoes in a bungalow in the Dikoya district at an elevation of

over 4,000 feet in the year 1881. The greater frequency of

mosquitoes on up-country estates in recent years may possibly be

attributed to the greater attention now paid to horticulture. Small

pieces of ornamental water are more common, and pits to catch

water for irrigation purposes. The presence of large numbers of pot

plants in a verandah is often a source of mosquitoes. If water is

allowed to accumulate in the saucers of the pots, it will soon become

infested with the small wriggling larve of several species of mosqui-

to, particularly of the vicious little “tiger mosquito ” (Stegomyia

scutellaris). '

The life-history of the so-called ‘‘ eyefly” of Ceylon is still

unknown, and I have so far been unable to obtain even its scientific

name. Its greater abundance round up-country bungalows seems to

be associated (whether coincidentally or otherwise) with the increase

of ornamental trees, and I have thought that it may possibly breed

amongst the accumulation of fallen and decaying leaves. But until

the early stages of the insect have been discovered any explanation

must be merely guesswork. Eyeflies can be excluded from a

bungalow by keeping the premises darkened. Bamboo tats lined

with green cloth will afford almost complete relief from this pest.

They should be let down a little before midday and can be rolled up

after 4 o’clock.

E. E. GREEN.

11. Migration of Butterflies—While travelling from Sirigala in

Uva to Liangolla in the Eastern Province for four days (October

18 to 21, 1907), I noticed large number of butterflies migrating

towards the east.

* This will be the Gray-headed Flycatcher, Culicicapa ceylonensis.

eee ee ee

Sea OO

NOTES. 107

Catopsilia crocale and Papilio polytes were very abundant, but

amongst the captured were :—

Papilio nomius

Ergolis ariadne Danais limniace

Papilio crino | Hebomoia australis | Danais aglea

Papilio demoleus | Appias paulina | Bindahara sugriva

Junonia iphita Catopsilia pyranthe | Telchinia viole

Junonia almana Castalius rosimon Euplea asela

The migration was not noticed while travelling from Liangolla to

Pottuvil.

JOSEPH A. DANIEL,

December 23, 1907. Assistant Mineral Surveyor.

12. A visit to the Nitre Cave ot Wellawaya, Uva.—On September 12

last I visited the Nitre Cave at Wellawaya, mentioned by Dr. John

Davy in his “Account of the Interior of Ceylon,” pp. 429 et seq. (1821).

The surroundings of the cave are scarcely changed at all. The

cave is in the heart of forest about 24 miles from the Koslanda-

Wellawaya road. We observed evidences of elephants visiting the

vicinity of the cave. We struck the entrance into the cave after

searching for some time.

The cave is situated on the side of a hill. It is formed in a band

of limestone running across the hill in 8.W. and N.E. direction.

The limestone band dips about 45° to the west. The limestone

collected from the sides of the cave is made up of fairly pure good-sized

crystals of calcite. Iam inclined to think that the cave is primarily

formed by natural causes. The solvent action of waters and the

decomposition of the rocks owing to chemical and physical actions

are the chief agencies which wrought this cave. The limestone

might have been subjected just at this place to unequal strain,

which would then favour solubility. It is very probable that this

cave was formed before the surface features of the surrounding

district were fully developed.

The entrance into the cave was steep, and a loathsome smell

emanated from it owing to damp, as we found later on owing to

the excreta of bats. We lit our lanterns and candles and began to

descend into the gloom of the cave. Then we heard a sound like

that of gushing waters, and I thought there was a stream flowing

through the cave. But this was a delusion, as I quickly discovered.

We had already disturbed the bats, and they were flitting about like

shadows in the gloomy cavern. The gushing sound was caused by

the fluttering of thousands of bats.

After descending about thirty feet we found ourselves at the

entrance of a huge hall. Thesides were rugged, but the roof at this

place had apparently a smooth surface. Where the bats had settled

on the roof from time to time little white patches were left, which

108 SPOLIA ZEYLANIOA.

gave one an impression of a curiously patterned ceiling. There were

similar patches on the sides of the cave. The roof dipped towards

the west, evidently along a certain weak foliation, or may be along

the junction plane of limestone and gneiss, which I could not ascer-

tain. Huge blocks of rock had fallen down and were scattered on

the floor. At other places the roof was irregular and rugged, but

covered with white patches. Fine blackish dust and bats’ dung lay

evenly over the blocks lying on the floor, so that we had to move

very cautiously. The dust in several places I found more than 5 feet

thick, and lying so loose that one might have sunk through it if one

had walked unwarily. In some places it was thicker than 5 feet.

It was easily disturbed, and our walking had raised quite a large

amount ; but it was stifling when we started digging.

The number of bats here was enormous. Like a whirlwind they

hovered round us. ‘They constantly dashed against us, settling

on us, one even clinging to the mouth of a cooly.

Very high in the roof of some parts of the cave were funnel-shaped

openings communicating with the surface. Light streamed in and

dimly lit up the rugged sides of these openings and the part of cave

immediately below. It gave one an impression of a deep dark

dungeon oily lit up from a side window from a tower high above.

This, with the bats flitting aimlessly in the sombre light, made a

most melancholy and gloomy impression.

We crossed the hall, which I believe is more than 200 yards long

and more than 150 yards broad, for the further end. Here we had

to climb on all fours about 20 feet, when we found ourselves at the

entrance of small tunnels which opened into chambers. These appear

to have been worked by men.

Here the stench was overpowering. We worked up asmall tunnel.

It was very low and narrow, so that only one person can pass at a

time in a stooping posture. The bats having perhaps no other egress

from the passage dashed against us in a continuous stream. We

dug in one of the chambers. By the time we finished it was simply

stifling, also the heat was tremendous. So we returned to the

entrance of the cave.

The economic value of the tons of manure found in this and several

other caves is yet to be proved. Davy states that this cave was

worked for many years for saltpetre by ‘‘ natives, a party of whom,

whose express occupation and duty it was, came annually from the

neighbourhood of Passara for the purpose.”

The formation of saltpetre in the cave is due to the decomposition

of alkali-bearing silicates, such as the felspars, in contact with bats’

dung. It does not occur in the bats’ excreta.

Davy gives a very interesting account of the manufacture of

saltpetre by the ancient Sinhalese in his book, pp. 265 et seg., which

should interest many a reader.

January 4, 1908. ' JOSEPH A. DANIEL.

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NOTES. 109

13. Destruction of Deer.—I desire to bring to the notice of all

interested in sport and in the beautiful wild animals of Ceylon the

heartless destruction of deer in the Island. Recently, when on an

extended tour in the western part of the Island, I stopped at

Wellawaya and Telulla for some time, and regretfully noticed the

terrible slaughter of the deer at the time of close season for

sport. Every cart coming from Hambantota way had deer skins,

especially the spotted deer (Cervus axis), hanging out, and venison

was usually procurable. Every night I heard the report of guns in

the jungle close by, and knew too well that that usually meant a

deer wounded or killed.

The villagers take advantage of the condition of the female deer

during the close season to kill them. This fact can be borne out

by a well-known sportsman who was staying at the resthouses

mentioned above about the same time as myself. This gentleman,

on tracking some villagers in the jungle, discovered the uterus of a

deer contaiming a live fawn, which would probably have been born

in a few days. A little further in the jungle he found bags of

venison hidden away.

I noticed on several occasions during my tour in Uva in September

male deer wandering alone, which to my mind tends to prove that a

good many of the females with the young had fallen victims to the

guns of the villagers. I may mention that itis a common sight to

see villagers wandering with guns.

The game laws, I may mention, are practically a dead letter. The

sportsman who probably would be content with the head of a male

deer as a trophy is debarred from shooting during the close season,

but villagers, actuated by commercial or selfish motives, shoot what

they will with impunity, sparing neither male nor female, old or

young.

I write purely in the interest of the Ceylon fauna, and trust this

note may attract attention, and that greater vigilance may be ensured

for the protection of the wild animals, and of deer in particular. |

T feel sure that unless the latter are protected they will not take long

to be extinct.

December 16, 1907. JOSEPH A. DANIEL.

14. Further Note on the Birds of Dimbula.—In sending in

the original list I was a little doubtful about inserting Ward’s

Ground Thrush* (Geocichla wardi), but on January 17, 1908, I was

able to shoot both male and female and to send the specimens in

first class condition to the Museum (see figure). ,

* Jerdon called it Ward’s Pied Blackbird.

Q 7(2)08

110 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

I was able to observe the characteristic grounding habit of this

bird in a ravine where a driblet of water was running over rock and

sand. When shot its mouth was full of oose. Cichla is the Greek

for a bird generally identified with the Ousel, and Geo cichla alee

Ground Ousel.

In the first list I unaccountably left out the up-country Minah, with

his starling plumage and yellow ear lappets. They used to be quite

common, nesting in the woodpecker holes and other hollows in the

giant doon trees, which are now, alas ! of the past in Dimbula. They

fed a good deal on the fruit of the wild nutmeg (Malaboda), and I

have shot them with their crops full of the fruit—not a bad swallow

for a bird not much bigger than a starling.

The scientific name of the hill Minah is an amusing example of

the turgidity of the classic chamber-naturalist—literally translated

Eulabes ptilogenys means the “ cunning (fellow) with a feathery |

. lower jaw.”

Apropos of the general ignorance on the subject of birds, one of

our oldest planters recently made the statement to me that hardly

any of the birds now visible were in Dimbula in the jungle days. It

is seldom worth arguing out an abstract question like this verbally,

but it is interesting to note that nearly every bird in my list had

been identified fifty years ago by that keen observer Kelaart.

Very little has been added to our numbers since then, although the

labours of Legge, Bligh, Layard, Lewis, and others have added much

to our general knowledge of habits, nidification, &c.

Classical Nomenclature.—This is from either a naturalist’s or a

scholar’s point of view rather a woful hash, but in the first place

it is a mistake to call it classical; and in the second place to

complain of it is merely to betray want of familiarity with the

principles of zoological nomenclature. In many cases the literal

translation of the Linnean name leads to an absurdity. In rare

instances it may be considered an improvement on the common

name, as with the common Kestrel, Tinnunculus alaudariu,

literally the lark-hunting kestrel.

Talawakele. JAMES RYAN.

X a

15. The Purple-rumped Sunbird.—Mr. Ernest Green has recently

drawn attention to the well-known habit of this bird of fluttering

continuously against window panes. Its scientific name being

‘‘ Spiderhater ” (Arachnecthra), I had the idea that possibly it

came to window panes in search of spiders or the flies in their webs.

As, however, they frequently allow an approach to within a few

inches of the inner side of the glass, I am convinced that they are

merely attacking their own reflection in the glass, and that therefore

the advancing observer is hidden from them by reflection.

NOTES. il

This window tapping habit is shared by the Gray Wagtail. By

the way, I notice the Gray Wagtail is almost invariably solitary in

his habits. However many one sees of a morning, they are always

alone. So perhaps he is driving away an imaginary rival.

The Sunbird must be one of our lightest birds, as they may

frequently be observed swinging on the stigma of the common Abutilon

(Chinese Lantern flower) in search of insects, on which, in spite of

their common name (Nectarinide), they mainly feed.

It may be worth noting that the Gray Wagtail came in this year

to a day with the Autumn Equinox, but I fancy the phase of the

moon coinciding had something to do with this. Most migratory

birds prefer a full moon when not hustled by frost and consequent

want of food. Then they fly at any time, but mostly by night—in

the daytime so high as often to be invisible, except to highly posted

observers.

A criticism has been recently made that I have confined my list

of birds to those in my own neighbourhood. This is incorrect. Of

74 birds identified, 33 may be said to be found everywhere, 16 are

only seen in jungle or on patana, paddy field, and marsh, while the

remaining 25 are mainly based on single specimens shot or observed

on six other estates covering an area of upwards of two miles square.

No bird has been put in unless shot or identified by a competent

observer. Several specimens reported by witnesses of doubtful

credibility, or not identifiable from the description given, have been

kept out.

Talawakele. JAMES RYAN.

NOD Parte. "2.

16. Binomial Nomenclature—This is the method of naming

animals and plants by a Latin form of words, one for the genus and

one for the species, which was introduced by Linneus a century and

a half ago. It is not a very good method, but it is the best that is

known. In many instances a classical or a personal name is adopted

for the genus, e.g., Nereis, Argonauta, &c., while the specific term

may indicate a character or the distribution, or may again com-

memorate the name of a person, as Vesperugo tickelli, commemorating

Mr. Tickell. Often, however, the etymology of a name will not bear

looking into, frank nonsense being sometimes employed. But it

ceases to be nonsense as soon as it is used to designate a particular

species of animals or of plants. It is commonly a mistake to read

a meaning into an artificial term.

Very often the same species has been named twice by two different

observers, and in such an event the name first given is that which

stands by rule of priority. Frequently, alas, names which have been

sanctioned by long usage of fifty or a hundred years are suddenly

discovered by some too diligent inquirer to have no legal title, and

J be SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

they are forthwith abolished by a stroke of the pen, or at least the

stroke is not omitted. This rigorous application of an arbitrary rule,

which allows no latitude, leads to pedantic discussions of the utmost

triviality, and exposes systematic zoology to the suspicion of dilet-

tantism. The effect of it is to close the door to many who might

otherwise have been willing to enter ; and the lesson which it teaches

is that one should respect names, but use them as seldom as possible,

and not pry too closely into their hidden meanings, confounding

zoology with philology. It is quite possible to imvent a better

system of nomenclature, and this will probably be done in the course

of another century, but it will be a laborious task, and moreover

will not help us.

On this matter of nomenclature, it may be useful to repeat the

words of Professor T. H. Huxley, one of the foremost British

biologists of the nineteenth century. Speaking of the lobster and

crayfish (neither of which occurs in this country), he notes that then

(1880) “‘ the recognized technical name of the crayfish is Astacus

flumatilis, that of the lobster is Homarus vulgaris. And as this

nomenclature is generally received, it is desirable that it should not

be altered. Science is cosmopolitan, and the difficulties of the study

of zoology would be prodigiously increased if zoologists of different

nationalities used different technical terms for the same thing.

Thus, we have a nomenclature which is exceedingly simple in prin

ciple and free from confusion in practice. And I may add that

the less attention is paid-to the original meaning of the substantive

and adjective terms of: this binomial nomenclature the better. Very

good reasons for using a tétm may exist when it is first invented,

which lose their validity with the progress of knowledge. -Thus,

Astacus fluviatilis was a significant name so long as we knew of only

one kind of crayfish ; but now that we are acquainted with a number

of kinds, all of which inhabit rivers, it is meaningless. Nevertheless,

as changing it would involve endless confusion, and the object of

nomenclature is simply to have a definite name for a definite thing,

nobody dreams of proposing to alter it.”

All the same the lobster and the crayfish do not carry the same

technical names as they did in Professor Huxley’s time.

Of course, as has been indicated above, all this trouble, which

arises from a laudable attempt to control half a million natural

species by half a dozen strictly logical rules, will amount to nothing

in a hundred years’ time.

Kd. ‘8. Z.”

A NEW CEYLONESE TETTIGID. 113

A NEW CEYLONESE TETTIGID (ORTHOPTERA) OF THE

GENUS EURYMORPHOPUS.

By J. L. Hancock.

With one Figure.

HE following description of a new Tettigid is based on four

specimens recently received from Mr. E. Ernest Green,

Government Entomologist of Ceylon. These interesting little

Orthoptera belong to the genus Hurymorphopus, which was first

described by the author in Genera Insectorum.* Only one other

species is known, namely, #. cunctatus, Bolivar, which is from the

Island of New Caledonia. The latter species forms the type of the

genus, and is like the present species in being small and apterous,

but unlike it in several specific characters. Owing to these differ-

ences it may be necessary to modify the definition of the genus

slightly to receive both species. Mr. Green informs the author that

the new species, H. latilobus, here described, “‘ frequents the surface

of dry rocks in the shade of the jungle.’ They were taken at

Undugoda in September, 1907.

In a previous work by the present author, on the ‘‘ Tettigide of

Ceylon,” sixteen Ceylonese genera were recognized.t To this number

the genus Hurymorphopus, Hancock, may now be added. It belongs

in the third sub-tribe ‘‘ Metrodorine ” of my table there presented.

Eurymorphopus latilobus, sp. nov. (Fig. 1.)

Body small, apterous, depressed, conspersed with granulations,

the lateral lobes very’ widely dilated; the hind femora propor-

tionately stout ; colour fuscous or fusco-ferrugineous variegated with

light ochreous yellow, especially on the lateral lobes of pronotum and

legs. Vertex barely produced beyond the eyes, viewed from above

very narrow, strongly narrowed forward, tricarinate, subacuminate,

and slightly longitudinally canaliculate on either side of the small,

abbreviated, median carina; at the middle of vertex between the

eyes the width scarcely more than one-half that of one of the eyes.

Head but very slightly elevated above the dorsum of pronotum ;

eyes globose, the occiput behind only little exposed ; face oblique,

- the frontal costa depressed and but little roundly elevated between

the antenne ; posterior ocelli situated opposite the lower third of

the eyes ; antenne short, filiform, not so long as the vertical facial

diameter of the head, inserted little below the eyes. Pronotum

* 48th Fascicule, pp. 35-36, 1906. ~ Spolia Zeylanica, Vol. IL., 1904.

B 7(8)08

114 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA,

depressed, granulate, truncate anteriorly, the apical process scarcely

or not extended backward to the apices of the posterior femora,

cuneate, backward toward the acute apex subemarginate and

slightly turned downward ; dorsum somewhat bifossulate behind the

shoulders on each side of the median carina ; between the shoulders

provided with two short, abbreviated, supernumerary carine ;

humeral angles wanting, the lateral carine inconspicuous and

convex ; median carina more distinct, percurrent, subundulate in

profile. Elytra and wings wanting; lateral lobes of pronotum

widely ampliate, the margins externally rounded, posteriorly

distinctly truncate, and here the posterior angles formed in promi-

nent subacute apices, not so acute in the female, the transverse

diameter between the angles being the widest part of the body.

Anterior femora compressed, above convexo-carinate, inferior cari-

ne lobate at the outer third ; middle femora compressed, the outer

face carinate, inferior carine biundate, or lobate at the outer third

part ; posterior femora stout, the longitudinal carine below the

middle of the external pagina strongly expressed, viewed from above

arcuate, entire, the oblique rug prominent ; the femoral and geni-

cular spines of ordinary form and size; posterior tibial margins

minutely serrulate and spinose ; first and third articles of the

posterior tarsi equal in length.

Length of body female (to end of ovipositor) 7 mm., pronotum

6 mm. ; post. fem. 4:5 mm. Male 6 mm.; pronot. 5 mm. ; post.

femora4mm. Two males and two females from Undugoda, Ceylon ;

collected by E. Ernest Green.

Eurymorphopus latilobus, n. sp.

Dorsal view of pronotum and head.

Male, enlarged eight times.

——

HYMENOPTERA NEW TO CEYLON. 115

HYMENOPTERA NEW TO CEYLON, WITH DESCRIPTIONS

OF NEW SPECIES.

By O. S. Wickwar, F.E.S.

With Plate; and Appendix by Col. Bingham.

HESE notes will deal with the tribes and families described in

Col. Bingham’s work on the Hymenoptera of British India, -

Vols. I. and IIL. (Fauna of British India Series).

The following list, compiled from the volumes in question, gives

four tribes with their respective families and relative number of

species, showing a total of 193 species recorded from Ceylon, 59 of

which are endemic, against a total of 30 species recorded in Sir

Emerson Tennent’s work on Ceylon about fifty years ago.

The fact that many of our commonest species are not recorded

from Ceylon will show what little attention has hitherto been given

by collectors to Ceylonese Hymenoptera.

I have to thank Dr. A.Willey, the Director of the Colombo Museum,

who has kindly placed at my disposal the Museum collection. My

thanks are also due to Messrs. E. E. Green, F. M. Mackwood, Col.

N. Manders, R.A.M.C., and Mr. Thos. Bainbrigge Fletcher for the

gift of several specimens. Above all, I am indebted to Col. C. T.

Bingham for his generous assistance at all times, and for ready help

proffered in verifying my identifications and checking several

descriptions. It is proposed to continue these notes from time to

time when sufficient information and material have accumulated.

The abbreviations ‘‘ Col. Mus.’ mean in Colombo Museum.

Table of recorded Families and Species.

Already recorded Now

from Ceylon. recorded New

Number of Endemi for First Species.

Tribe: Fossorrs :— Species. | OCS Time.

Mutillidze ie EEGs, a omc tS 2

Thynnide .. YI CA Be Me Ba | eee

Fam. { Scoliide wa ye te its aise Wi tine see aed kaa

Pompilide .. sigs Serbia gta A NUCLLS berarta Oy are alae

_ Sphegidze ae ee, Aare LO we LO ce 1

Tribe: DreLopreRA :—

Eumenide .. AWE AULD ye 5 4

ete Vespide ae aa 1? ake —

Tribe : ANTHOPHILA :—

F Colletidze a oh 19) | rE i —

‘3 Wa Aide a Camby? Fe casas ae 1

. Tribe: TUBULIFERA :—

Fam. Chrysidide .. oo — — 1

Sub-Fam. Chrysidine Juel 12 3 — —

Total .. 193 62 32 9

116 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

From the above table it will be seen that 32 species have been

added. to the number previously recorded from Ceylon (according to _

Bingham’s latest work), and the short note on each in the following

list is all the available information I can obtain up to the present.

The new species, marked with an asterisk, are, so far as I know,

described for the first time. To these must be added Nomia

basvpicta, n. sp., and Chrysis spectrum, n. sp.

List of Species now recorded for the First Time from Ceylon.

MUTILLID &.

Mutilla cicatricifera (André), Nos. 82, 83, 84, Col. Mus. Females,

locality unknown.

Mutilla placida (Smith), No. 245, Col. Mus. ¢ taken in Northern

Province, April, 1904.

Mutilla interrupta (Oliv.), No. 86, Col. Mus. ¢ from Matale.

Mutilla soror (Sauss.), Nos. 87, 90, Col. Mus. ; No. 87 from Pundalu-

oya ; No. 90, locality unknown.

Mutilla pulchriceps (Cam.), No. 91, Col. Mus. *, locality unknown.

Mutilla subanalis (Mayr.), No. 93, Col. Mus. 6, locality unknown.

*Mutilla indostana (Sauss.), No. 96,Col. Mus. é from Pomparippu,

April, 1887. The 2, which was previously unknown, is now

described for the first time with the other new species.

Mutilla pilosella (Mayr.), No. 98, Col. Mus. © from Kayts,

Northern Province, August, 1903.

*Mutilla willeyi, n. sp. ; ¥ No. 94, Col. Mus., from Delft.

POMPILID #&.

Salius.

Salius ceruleopennis (Sauss.), No. 38, Col. Mus. Locality unknown.

Regarding this specimen Col. Bingham writes: “‘ I have never

seen this,species before ; answers the description, but is not of

slender form, and the wings are lighter in colour.” Although the

difference is considerable, it would be premature to separate it

until further local specimens are available and the difference

found to be constant.

Salius nicevellii (Bing.), No. 39 ?, No. 40 6, both in Col. Mus.,

from Balangoda. —

Salius sericosoma (Smith), No. 47, in Col. Mus., from Matale.

Pompilus.

Macromeris violacea (Lepel), No. 2, Col. Mus. ? from Northern

Province, July, 1887; another * from Mamadu, Northern Prov-

ince, April, 1964. A é inColl.O.S.W., from Habarana, North-

Central Province, October, 1902. This very handsome species

may be easily mistaken for Salius madraspatanus, the females

especially closely resembling each other in size and colouration.

HYMENOPTERA NEW TO CEYLON. 117

Pompilus unifasciatus (Smith), No. 29, 9 Col. Mus., from Tissa-

maharama, February, 1903. Col. Bingham is now of opinion

that P. bioculatus (Bing.) and P. wnifasciatus are one and the same,

the former being a variety of the latter. The specimen in question,

No. 29, was examined by him, and has some of the characters of

both. P. bioculatus will therefore be a synonym.

Pompilus acceptus (Bing.), No. 44, ¥ in Col. Mus. labelled ‘‘ Ceylon.”

Pompilus ilus (Bing.). ¥ in Coll. O. S. W. differs from Bingham’s

description in having the apical halves of the wings purple efful-

gent, as well as fuscous. Taken at Kandy, August, 1902.

Pompilus subsericeus (Sauss.), in Coll. O. S. W. from Colombo,

April, 1903, a common species. I have often watched the females

burrowing, generally in dry sandy places, but before descending

any depth they would leave off and start again in another

place.

Pompilus canifrons (Smith), No. 265, Col. Mus. ¢@ from Namba-

pana, April, 1904.

SPHEGID &.

Tachytes sinensis (Smith), No. 128, ¥ Col. Mus., locality unknown.

Tachytes modesta (Smith), No. 129, Col. Mus. Common in Colombo,

especially in May, June, and July. A very variable insect in

size.

Larra fuscipennis (Cam.), No. 15, Col. Mus., from Deltota. Com-

mon in Colombo in March.

Liris nigripennis (Cam.), No. 60, Col. Mus., locality unknown.

Piagetia ruficornis (Cam.), No. 130 in Col. Mus., from Palatupana,

January, 1902. This species has been common in Colombo in

March for three successive years, but I have not observed it here

during any other month. I have taken specimens at Ganawatta,

north of Kurunegala, in April, 1904. Nothing is on record of

its nesting habits. I have often watched it for a long time running

about the walls of mud huts as though in search of prey. The

only other species recorded from British India, P. fasciatipennis,

has been recorded from Ceylon. * :

*Ammophila basalis (Smith), No. 73 ¢, No. 72 2, in Col. Mus. The

former taken at Colombo in November, 1903, and the latter at

Henegama (below Balangoda) in April, 1902. I have in my

collection four males, two taken in Colombo in November, 1903,

and two at Henegama in April, 1902, and two females from

Henegama in April, 1902. It is interesting to note that the

male of this species was previously unknown. It nearly answers

the description of A. atripes, but is much smaller and slighter in

build—length 15 to 18 mm., exp. 16 to 20 mm.—and is easily

distinguished from A. atripes by the much lighter colour of the

wings, which are very pale fusco-hyaline against the dark fuscous

and purple effulgent wings of A. atripes 6.

118 SPOLIA ZEYLANTIOA.

Sceliphron coromandelicum (Lepel), Nos. 147, 148, in Col. Mus.,

locality unknown. I have in my collection specimens from

Henegama, Ganawatta, and Matale, and have seen it in Colombo.

Sphex splendidus (Fabr.), No. 24. ¢ in Col. Mus. taken at Kal-

pitiya. A very handsome species, probably confined to the dry

hot districts.

Sphex egyptus (Lepel), No. 54, in Col. Mus., from Puttalam.

Sphex xanthopterus (Cam.), Nos. 141, 142, in Col. Mus., from

Colombo, January-February, 1902. Very common in Colombo

I have watched a ¥ burrowing in the sand, but she did not

complete the nest. It set to work at great speed, scraping with

its fore legs and kicking back the sand for some distance behind

with its hind legs.

EUMENID&. ~

Montezumia impavida (Bing.), No. 260, ¥ in Col. Mus. (variety),

Fr from Nedunkerni, Northern Province, April, 1904. This is the

only specimen I have seen.

*Montezumia rufipetiolata, n. sp. 6 from Mamadu, Northern

Province, in Col. Mus.

Eumenes edwardsii (Sauss.), No. 3, in Col. Mus., taken at Ritigala

rock (2,500 ft.), North-Central Province, July, 1887. Another in

Coll. O. 8S. W. from Madulsima, August, 1904. This last varies

slightly, and I doubtfully identify it as #. edwardsii. Probably

a local race.

Kumenes punctata (Sauss.), No. 52 (variety) in Col. Mus., from

Matale, is the only specimen I have seen.

Eumenes esuriens (Fabr.), Nos. 158, 159, 2 2 in Col. Mus., one from

Delft island, June, 1903, and the other from Battulu-oya, October,

1902. These vary slightly with the descriptions of the Indian and

Burmese forms, but are probably varieties, as the species is variable.

*Kumenes ichnogastroides, n. sp. 2. Fig. 9. From Nedunkerni,

April, 190%, in Col. Mus. 3

Rbynchium abdominale (Illig.), No. 21, 2 in Col. Mus. from Put-

talam, another from Nedunkerni, Northern Province, April, 1904,

No. 267. A é in Coll. O. S. W. from Ganewatta, April, 1903.

*Labus campanulatus * n. sp. Figs. 10, 11, 12, 13, Col. Mus.

No. 226.

*Odynerus subfistulosus, n. sp. Fig. 8, Col. Mus. No. 224.

Descriptions of New Species.

*Mutilla indostana (Smith). Fig. 6. Col. Mus. No. 222.

2 New. 6 Known.

Taken in cop. with typical M. indostana 6. (Second abdominal

segment with two pubescent white spots.) Head and thorax very

closely and coarsely punctured, coarser and deeper on the thorax

HYMENOPTERA NEW TO CEYLON. 119

and running into furrows on median segment. Abdomen closely

and finely punctured under the black velvety pubescence. Vertex

cheeks and emargination of the thorax covered with recumbent,

downy, silvery pile. The whole covered with sparse erect pubes-

cence, thickest on the abdomen, median segment, and vertex.

Head and thorax dark ferruginous red, merging into black on the

lateral edges of thorax, pronotum, lower portion of face, and behind

the eyes. Median segment has a prominent lateral tubercle—similar

to male—black, shining, and inclined posteriorly. Abdomen above

covered with black pubescence ; a large central spot at apex of first

segment, two similar spots, one on each side of the centre of second

segment, two quadrate spots—their lower corners converging

towards the centre—on the third segment, silvery white. Apical

segment and ventral portion of abdomen with long whitish pubes-

cence. Length 13 mm. Described from one specimen caught at

Nedunkerni, Northern Province, in Colombo Museum No. 222.

* Mutilla willeyi, n. sp. 2. Fig. 7. Col. Mus. No. 94.

Head, thorax, and abdomen very coarsely punctured and granu-

lar ; head a little narrower than the thorax, the last rather narrowed

towards median segment, transverse in front. Black. The whole

covered with close recumbent pile golden on the thorax (except the

anterior margin, where it is black), first and basal two-thirds of

second abdominal segment above. The head, anterior lateral

angles of pronotum, lateral round spots on segments 2-5, and medial

round spots on posterior margins of second, fourth, fifth segments,

the legs, sides, and a thin medial line on first and second segments

above—of glistening silvery pile. Profusely studded with long,

stiff, erect hairs, which are black on the black and silvery portions,

and brown on the golden portions. A prominent sharp keel, ending

in a sharp tubercle, dividing the emargination of the sides, the keel

fringed with long thin white hairs. Length 12 mm.

This gorgeous little Mutilla, the only one I have seen, was captured

by Dr. Willey on the little island of Delft off the north-western coast

of Ceylon.

*Humenes ichnogastroides, n. sp. Fig. 9. Col. Mus. No. 228.

Head and thorax closely and evenly punctured, finer on the

clypeus ; petiole and basal segment smooth, polished, and shining ;

the petiole as long as head and thorax united, gradually broadening

towards the apex, a short transverse sulcation just before the apex

of same, giving it a flattened appearance. Clypeus convex and

widely emarginate. Thorax globular; a fine central longitudinal

carina the whole length of the mesonotum. The whole covered

with short golden pubescence. Reddish brown. The mesonotum

with a black patch anteriorly and a broad black semicircular band

120 SPOLIA ZBEYLANICA.

interrupted above. Petiole above black with two rather indistinct

yellow streaks on the sides and a yellowish band just before apex.

Basal segment with two oval spots laterally and a broad sharply

defined band along the basal portion yellow ; above this band the

segment is black, merging into reddish brown towards petiole ;

following segments reddish brown touched with yellow on the

apical margins. Wings flavo-hyaline along the costal margins, the

rest fusco-hyaline with a dark fuscous spot covering half the radial

cell and extending down into the cubital cell.

This species may be easily mistaken for Ichnogaster fraterna

(Bing.), which it resembles in form and especially colouration, but

an examination will at once reveal the genus, and the intermediate

legs will be found to bear only one tibial calcar, besides the claws of

tarsi being dentate, which at once separates it from Ichnogaster.

Length to anterior margin of basal segment 13 to 14mm. Expanse

20 to 22 mm.

Nedunkerni, April, 1904.

* Montezumia rufipetiolata, n. sp. g. Figs. 14, 15.

Col. Mus. No. 223.

Head, thorax, and abdomen smooth, shining, and punctured ;

the punctures close and even on the front, thorax, basal, and

anterior margins of segments 2 and 3; vertex and petiole shining,

with few scattered shallow punctures. Median segment rounded

and steeply sloped with a deep longitudinal groove ; petiole with

two lateral blunt teeth about the middle. Clypeus convex and

emarginate. Glossy black ; the clypeus, except the anterior margin

narrowly, a line on the scape in front, a club-shaped mark between

the antenne, the sinus of the eye, a narrow spot behind it, a line

along the anterior margin of the pronotum, interrupted in the

middle, a marginal band on the basal segment—twice interrupted—

and a central spot on margin of second segment, pale yellow. Legs

testaceous red, touched with black on the femora. Basal two-

thirds of petiole red, apical one-third black ; a shallow longitudinal

groove on petiole above, rising about the middle and ending abruptly

in a hollow, just before reaching the apex. Wings fusco-hyaline,

hind wings paler. Length (to margin of first basal segment) 10 mm.

Expanse 20 mm.

This species-can at once be distinguished from its only ally

M. impavida by the red on the petiole.

Taken at Mamadu, Ceylon, April, 1904.

* Odynerus subfistulosus, n. sp. Fig. 8. Col. Mus. No. 224.

This species differs structurally from typical O. fistulosus in the

following important respects. The basal three segments as coarsely

punctured as head and thorax, the apical two segments without

punctures. Clypeus emarginate, scutellum without a furrow, |

HYMENOPTERA NEW TO CEYLON. 121

medium segment produced sharply into a waved ridge, the trun-

cation shining and punctured, not striate. The yellow markings in

the sinus of the eyes and behind the latter, the lines on the pronotum,

tegule, mesopleurz, the marginal lines of all segments except the

second, and the lateral spots and markings on legs, median segment,

and ventral segment absent. It appears to me that the above

differences are sufficient to separate this from 0. fistulosus.—

*Labus campanulatus. Qn. sp. Figs. 10, 11, 12, 13.

Col. Mus. No. 226.

This species may at once be distinguished from L. humbertianus

by its larger and heavier build and by the much larger and distinct

coarse punctures covering the whole.

Head, thorax, petiole, and basal segment of abdomen very

coarsely and evenly punctured, the punctures on the head finer

and closer. Clypeus convex deeply emarginate. The pronotum in

front laterally toothed. Median segment deeply incised forming a

hollow for the petiole, the lateral margins of the incision with two

teeth. The petiole broad and heavy, abruptly truncate at its base

with a raised ridge at the verge of the truncation above. Basal

segment of the abdomen long and campanulate. Black and glossy ;

the head with obscure silvery pile. The anterior half of the clypeus,

the mandibles, the scape beneath, a minute spot between the bases

of the antenne, the apical margins of the petiole and first segment,

yellow.

*Chrysis spectrum, n. sp., Fig. 3. Col. Mus. No. 227.

Division C, Bingham’s Key A, 5!, b?, a®°—close to C. singalensis.

Metallic green with golden effulgence. The region of the ocelli,

the medial areas of the mesonotum, scutellum, first, second, and

third segments of the abdomen above, and the bases of the last two,

purplish blue. The blue markings on the head and thorax centrally

touched with black. Sides of the mesonotum golden red with fine

longitudinal carine. First, second, and third segments of the abdo-

men, laterally, with bright cupreous golden spots extending in a band

along the posterior margins of the second segment ; the spot on this

segment largest and brightest and of deep ruby red. Pronotum

touched with golden red. Antenne black, about as long as pro- and

mesonotum united, first two joints of the flagellum touched with

golden brown above ; the scape in front, and legs more golden than

green; the tarsi brown. Pilosity, short, erect, and whitish, fairly

abundant ; facial hollow finely transversely striate, with rather long

whitish recumbent hairs on the sides; head, thorax, and abdomen

densely and somewhat evenly punctured, finer and closer on the

second and third segments. Head, from the front, about twice as

broad as long, widely emarginate posteriorly ; eyes large, prominent ;

clypeus broad, very narrow, sub-porrect and, emarginate in the

s 7(8)08

1 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

middle. Anterior ocellus enclosed in a curved indistinct carina, the

two ends of which terminate at the verge of the facial hollow. Thorax

and medial area rectangular, the anterior lateral angles prominent.

Median segment vertical, almost hidden, its posterior lateral ‘angles

produced and toothed. Wings hyaline, nervures dark brown,

tegule dark blue. Abdomen, medially distinctly carinate ; the

first segment with a medial short broad groove at base with a slight

hollow on each side ; the third segment with the medial and lateral

angles dentate, the margins between the teeth straight, not sinuate,

an antiapical series of six foveae on each side of the medial tooth. A

magnificently marked species possessing every colour of the rainbow,

which its name indicates. Length 7 mm. Expanse 10 to 11 mm.

(Four specimens, Colombo.)

*Nomia basipicta, n. sp. Figs. 1, 2. Col. Mus. No. 225.

I would place this species in Bingham’s Key Class B, Division

b, a, and close to his description of NV. pilipes, from which it differs

in the following respects. Vertex, front, mesonotum, and scutellum

without pubescence. Abdomen very finely and closely punctured

throughout, the punctures coarser on the margins of the segments.

The enclosed space at base of median segment longitudinally rugose.

Black, the basal segment red with a dark brownish patch in the

centre reaching the margin and a deep V-shaped hollow at base,

which is smooth and shining; remaining segments dark brown

merging into black on the last three. Post-scutellum and margins

of second to fifth abdominal segments thickly covered with very

fine white plumose pile having a waxy appearance. Legs dull.

ferruginous brown; posterior femora with a tubercle beneath.

Clypeus and front, from just above bases“of antenne, cheeks, sides

of thorax, median segment (except the enclosed space at base), and

legs covered with long silvery pubescence. A variety of the above

has the whole abdomen brownish black, no red on basal segment.

Abundant at Colombo. Length 10 to 12 mm. Expanse 13 to

14 mm.

Appendix to Mr. Wickwar’s Paper by Col. C. T. Bingham.

Podalirius wickwari, form. nov.

6 Head thorax, and abdomen very dark brown, almost black ;

legs dark castaneous brown, a narrow transverse band on the ante-

rior margin of the clypeus and the tegulz of the wings dull yellowish

white, the apical margins of the segments of the abdomen very

narrowly testaceous. Head clothed with white pubescence, which

is long and comparatively dense-on the front, on the occiput, behind

HYMENOPTERA NEW TO CEYLON. 123

the eyes and on the under parts of the head, while on the clypeus at

the sides and front and on the labrum it forms a thin fringe. Thorax

covered somewhat densely with long brown hairs above, on the sides

below extending on to the sides and posterior face of the median

segment. Legs almost bare, the tibiz and tarsi clothed and out-

wardly fringed with long whitish hairs; tibial calearia yellowish

white, preceded on the inner side of the tibize of the anterior and’

intermediate legs by a yellowish white curved robust hook and on

the tibiz of the posterior legs by a similar larger brown process or

hook. There is a further armature on the inner side of the femora

at base of a short thick blunt tooth. Claws bifid. Wings hyaline,

“nervures dark brown. Abdomen in the two males before me almost

bare of pubescence, only the basal face of the abdomen, the sides,

and apical margins of all the segments above and below fringed

with brownish hairs. This absence of pubescence is evidently due

to attrition ; in fresh specimens the pubescence is probably fairly

abundant. The whole head, thorax, legs, and abdomen beneath

the covering of hair very minutely and closely punctured.

Length 6 10; exp. 19 mm. Habitat, Colombo, Ceylon.

This is a very distinct form, not closely allied to any Indian

Podalirius known to me. It more nearly resembles the European

P. senescens (Lepel) in general appearance, but the armature of the

legs distinguishes it at once from any form known to me.

Oryssus (Mocsarya) metallicus, Mocsary.

Oryssus metallicus, Mocsary, Termesz. Fuzetek, XIX., 1896,

pl. 1, fig. 2 2.

Mocsarya metallica, Konow, Termesz. Fuzetek, XX., 1897,

p. 608 2. .

It seems strange that this beautiful insect, described from the

Sunda Islands by Mocsary, should occur also in Ceylon, but a Ceylon

specimen of an Oryssus kindly submitted to me for examination by

Mr. O. 8. Wickwar corresponds so closely to Moesary’s description

of O. metallicus that without an actual comparison with Mocsary’s

type I do not like to describe it as new.

So far as I can make out from Mocsary’s description and plate,

the Ceylon insect differs only as follows :—

Forewing : the fuscous cloud much paler, without purple reflections

and limited to the apex of the wing extending into the apex of the

radial cell, but not into the cubital cells. Legs nearly black, tarsi

of all the legs bright orange red, posterior femora and tibie dull

dark, not bright, red.

Professor Konow has split up Latreille’s genus Oryssus into four

genera, making O. metallicus the type of his new genus Mocsarya.

124 * SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Explanation of Plate.

Hig. 1.—Nomia. basipicta.

Fig. 2.—Nomia basipicta, showing tubercle on posterior femora.

Fig. 3.—Chrysis spectrum.

Fig. 4.—Oryssus metallicus (Mocs.).

Fig. 5.—Oryssus metallicus, front view of head.

Fig. 6.—Mautilla indostana (Sauss.), # new.

Fig. 7.—Mutilla willeyi.

Fig. 8.—Odynerus subfistulosus.

Fig. 9.—Eumenes ichnogastroides.

Fig. 10.—Labus campanulatus. :

Fig. 11.—Labus campanulatus, mandible.

Fig. 12.—Labus campanulatus, showing median segment in profile.

Fig. 13.—Labus campanulatus, front view of head. , 7 .

Fig. 14.—Montezumia rufipetiolata. Ff

Fig. 15.—Montezumia rufipetiolata, enlarged view of petiole, seen

from above. ;

, eee cara £: é

ear 1S

; io Las

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. 7 VolrVv1908.

. West, Newman del.et lith.

WICKWAR. ACULEATE HYMENOPTERA.

Fig.4. Oryssus metallicus (Bingham.)

. wl

THRESHING-FLOOR CEREMONIES IN UVA. 125

THRESHING-FLOOR CEREMONIES IN UVA.

By JAMES Parsons.

anu. protective offerings were found buried in the threshing-

floor of a paddy field in the village of Dehiwinna, Yatipalata

division, Uva, a week or two after the yala* threshing and

winnowing had taken place. The stone or arak-gala covering the

offerings was found concealed beneath some straw.

From. below upwards, #.e., in. the order in which they were placed

in the hole or arak-wala, the following were noted :—

(1) Two stalks of iluk grass (Imperata arundinacea).

(2) Two leaves of tolambo (Crinum asiaticum).

(3) Seven 56 leaves (Ficus religiosa).

(4) A piece of rambuk stalk (Saccharum arundinaceum).

(5) Two stalks of dluk grass.

(6) A piece of the creeper maduwela (Ipomcea obscura).

(7) Five stalks of paddy with the ears.

The iluk, maduwela, and paddy were tied into rough rings about

10 cm. in diameter. Resting on the offerings and half projecting

from the ground was the arak-gala, a roughly ellipsoidal stone of

quartz rock measuring about 18, 12, and 10 cm. along its axes,

obviously shaped by natural agencies and probably obtained from

the nearest stream.

It is interesting to compare this list of offerings with those that

should, at least theoretically, be placed in the threshing-floor

according to the threshing-floor song translated by Dr. Coomara-

swamy in his paper on ‘‘ Paddy Cultivation Ceremonies in the

Ratnapura District.”

Here seven prlila (1.e., the parasitic plants) from different sorts of

trees or plants are recommended. It was suggested to me that

one at least of the tuk offerings was intended to be iluk pilila, a

plant which is said to be exceedingly rare, and would appear to

share the sanctity attached to parasitic plants in most primitive

religions. The parasitic plants of the genus Loanthus are known as

pilila, but as these plants are shrub-like and have woody stems,

the iluk pilila, swpposing it actually exists, can hardly belong to

this genus. Assuming that the iuk represents its pilila, the

reasons for the use of the other ingredients of the offering are fairly

obvious.” ‘

* The second paddy harvest of the year, or autumn Lena:

+ Journal R.A.S., C.B., Vol. XVIII., 1905.

126 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

The blossom of the tolambo has a sweet smell ; the 66 leaves have

evident religious value, and itis interesting to note that seven leaves

were used, that ever-recurring number in Oriental mysticism.

The piece of rambuk stalk may have been placed as a substitute

for sugar-cane, and maduwela is used in Sinhalese medicine. The

paddy ears are the first that are gathered in the field after the

threshing-floor has been reaped and the sheaves piled on the sides

of the floor. It thus constitutes a sort of first fruit. It is, however,

the paddy cut from the threshing-floor* which is the first, to be

threshed.

Certain objects are placed on the floor, but not in it at the time of

threshing, viz., a shell, presumably the arak-bella mentioned by

Dr. Coomaraswamy, a piece of gold, iron, or other metal, and a

piece of kohomba wood (Azadirachta indica). Also, if it can be

obtained, the géréchanna, or hair ball (— the gore of Dr. Coomara-

swamy) of a buffalo. According to the Ratnapura threshing-floor

song seven gordchannas should be used.

These objects are kept in the paddy while it is being trodden and

removed when the threshing is finished. They therefore seem to

be simply talismans, while the leaves, &c., from the fact that they

are buried and allowed to remain in the ground, would rather lead.

one to consider them as propitiatory offerings to evil spirits.

The word arak, or in its Sanskrit form draksha, means preser-

vation or protection.

A distinct set of offerings is made to the gods (déwas). These,

consisting of betel leaves and various flowers, are placed in a mal-

pela or rude shrine erected on the margin of the floor, and usually

made of cadjan, but in this case of rambuk, on account of the

scarcity of coconut trees in the neighbourhood.

* It is to be noted, according to the Ratnapura threshing-floor song, that,

in addition to the paddy pilila, paddy from the last year’s crop should be

placed in the hole.

THE KANDYAN DOOR 127

THE KANDYAN DOOR.

By J. P. Lewis, Government Agent, Kandy.

5 plesepe Kandyan door is of a much more massive character than

the modern guasi-European construction that is everywhere

supplanting it, and in a short time the-old Kandyan pattern of door

and doorway will probably have ceased to be copied. The latest

example of it is one that has just been constructed for the Kandyan

Art Museum building, which also contains five old doorways of

excellent workmanship 7m situ.

iz o___.

] 1 Uturulélla

= in

=a P |

ik 2 |2 Haraskade

| 3 3 Dova

4 | 4 4 Uluwahukanu

) an z

“ 5) . ) 5 Padikanda

PratE I.—Exterior view of Kandyan door (the projecting

ends must be imagined as hidden by the wall)

The same pattern of door frame and door is always followed, so

that it may be said to have become stereotyped. Doors are of

two kinds, single (tani-doruwa) and double (depiyan-doruwa). I

send herewith a very accurate model of a single door and door

frame, which will help to explain its design and construction.

128 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA,

The chief peculiarity of a Kandyan door is that it has no hinges.

One might say of the Kandyan what Browning says of Sordello’s

builders (who are referred to I have been unable to fathom), that he

** dreams and shapes

His dream into a door post, just escapes

The mystery of hinges.”

Instead of hinges, the door, which is very thick, is rounded off on

the side where, if there were hinges, the hinges would be, and the

ends of this rounded portion project slightly at top and bottom and

fit into holes, so that the door swings on these ends. These rounded

ends are called wafaw (singular watawwa, not in Clough).

6 Bapatalélla

eeescsscceasr ar 7 Agulkanuwa

Pee 9 Elipatkanda

PuatE IT.—Interior view.

A single door with its door frame consists of nine parts, which are

indicated in the accompanying diagrams showing the door from the

exterior and interior. :

The whole door frame is called uluwassa. The two perpendicular

posts are the uluwahukanu. The agulkanuwa is the post on the

inside into which the big wooden bolt (agula) fits. There is some-

times an ornamental border round the door frame on the outside.

This is called lissara or lissarapati. The lintel (haraskade), which is

THE KANDYAN DOOR. 129

usually of the pattern shown above (though sometimes it is more

elaborate or has a double arch), is also called udilipatkanda. These

Kandyan terms, however, are beginning to be forgotten, and the

ordinary low-country word rdémuwa to take their place.

The door handle is called kayipudiwalalu, which by the way is a

Tamil word. The circular metal plate round it is called békkdlé

(a word which does not occur in Clough) ; the key is yaturumudda ;

the key plate muénattahaduwa (in Clough), and the iron bolt on the

outside, which has a lion’s head, narissayatura or ndrassara. It is

unnecessary to enlarge on the artistic character of this metal work,

as everybody is familiar with it.

The inner bolt is agula, and the iron rod used to move it from

outside agultattuwa. The hole through which this is inserted is

kappakata, which is not in Clough and sounds like Tamil.

The only difference between this door and a double door (depiyan-

doruwa) is that the latter is divided down the middle, and therefore

is rounded at the two sides and requires two sets of wafaw. The bolt

is also, of course, different ; it is a double bolt in the centre of the

door, and keeps the two halves together (see Plate ITL.). Both single

and double bolts and the kanwwa into which the former is set are

usually artistic in design,

Pravre I1I.—Bolt of double door. The upper bolt is shown

open, and the lower closed. One opens in one direction,

and the other in the opposite.

In a Kandyan building the horizontal beam that supports the

roof is called dewa (in Clough), and. the carved end of it (it always

has a carved end) dewasuliya. The transverse beams that rest on

these under the edge of the rough are called wadimbu (in Clough).

r 7(8)08

130 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

PLACUNA FISHERY: INSPECTION OF MARCH, 1908.

By A. WILLEY.

I.—OVULATION AND MATURATION OF PLACUNA.

HE Tamblegam pearl fishery, which has recently come to an

end, has been conducted by contractors under a lease from

Government, and was the second out of a series of five annual

fisheries contemplated by the terms of a quinquennial lease. Indis-

criminate fishing is reported to have occurred during the years

1905-1906 ; this ceased when the lease came into force at the

beginning of 1907.

It was naturally supposed that the oyster beds would be auto-

matically re-stocked at least once a year during the course of the

lease ; but this expectation has not been fulfilled, since the oysters

which have been taken this year belonged to the same generation as

those of last year, so that the end of the fishery means the end for

industrial purposes of that generation. It is fortunately impossible,

with the best efforts, to collect all the oysters ; some few are certain

to escape the vigilance of the divers ; and these are the sole hope

of the future, unless measures are taken, as they have been, to keep

a special stock of oysters in reserve for breeding.

During my first inspection of the beds in June, 1907, Iwas unable

to determine the sexes of any of the oysters examined fresh, owing

to the immaturity of the gonads; and upon my second visit in

October, 1907, I was not able to gather much further information

on this matter for the same reason, even the largest specimens

“measuring more than seven inches in long diameter and more than

six inches in height, being quite immature. I was able to detect

the presence of occasional nests of developing ova amidst an abundant

stroma ; but this was not sufficient to determine whether the sexes

were distinct, or whether the individuals were hermaphrodites ; it was

enough, however, to establish the fact of the commencement of

ovulation. In some preparations there appeared an ovarian reti-

culum associated with an aggregation of the brown pigment, which

is more or less diffused throughout the substance of the gonad.

The alcoholic extract of the gonads has a clear yellow colour like a

solution of picric acid.

At the same time (October) I examined the gonads of other

Lamellibranchiate Molluses, e.g., Venus, &c., and found them to be

perfectly mature, male and female in separate individuals, the

PLACUNA’ FISHERY. 131

ovaries packed full of microscopic eggs, each in its own follicle, to

the wall of which it was attached by a stalk. I looked in vain for

this condition in Placuna in June and October (1907), but fownd at

prevailing on all the beds in March (1908). Male and female gonads

are in separate individuals, as they are in the Mannar pearl oyster

(Margaritifera),* and are either quite mature or submature in this

month of March.

I am not aware that there exists any previous statement regarding

the periodicity of the maturation of the gonads in the window-pane

oyster, so that this definite observation may be regarded as a signi-

ficant contribution to our knowledge of the natural history of this

species ; and, moreover, it yields information which will relieve future

fisheries from arbitrary restrictions, affording a biological basis for

whatever regulations may be drafted. The fact that the largest

oysters examined ia October last were immature (this does not mean

that they were spent) was somewhat surprising, and seems to indicate

that Placuna does not produce an annual brood, but that one

generation succeeds another at intervals longer than one year, the

exact period remaining for future discovery; and that sexual

maturity is only attained after the completion of the superficial

growth of the shell.

In the specimens examined in October I noted evidence of new

growth at the shell-margin, chiefly in the form of a delicate lace-like

fringe on the left valve. This was not conspicuous in March, and.

although the cessation of peripheral growth of the shell cannot be

timed exactly, yet it would appear, from the evidence at hand,

to coincide with the period of sexual maturity. In this respect,

therefore, Placuna offers a striking contrast to the true pearl oyster,

which attains sexual maturity at a very early age.t

The gonad of Placuna is a single organ chiefly connected with the

right half of the mantle, and, contrary to what is observed in the

common pelecypod (axe-footed) lamellibranchs, is mainly indepen-

dent of the foot, which, in Placuna, has an acetabular structure

at the end, is very protrusible, and remarkably like a proboscis in

position and superficial Appearance. Its action is probably like

that of a contractile muscular proboscis when the animal imbeds

itself in the mud; but I have not observed this directly. In the

fresh condition the colour of the gonad varies commonly from a

very pale, almost whitish yellow, to rich orange, the average colour

being a creamy yellow. The differences in colour are not related

* W. A. Herdman. Observations and Experiments on the Life-history and

Habits of the Pearl Oyster ; in Herdman, ‘‘ Ceylon Pearl Fisheries,” Part I.,

p- 125, 1903.

7 J. Hornell. Biological Results of the Ceylon Pearl Fishery of 1904;

in Reports from the Ceylon Mar. Biol. Lab., No. 1, p. 8,1905. Also printed in

Sessional Paper XTIT. of 1904.

132 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

to distinctions of sex, but are to some extent correlated with indivi-

dual variations in the black pigmentation of the mantle. In some

cases the mantle round the adductor muscle up to the apex of the

median hinge lobe is intensely black, the free peripheral portion

being destitute of the black pigment, unless there happens to be a

peripheral mantle pearl present, in which case, after removal of the

pearl, the pigmented sae in which it was contained shows up clearly

in the middle of the colourless tract. The dwarfed oysters of

Kakkaimunai were noted in general to be pale throughout, often

very little pigment being present in the mantle. Occasionally the

gonad has a dark smoky brown tint ; this was first observed in March

in an individual which proved to be a female.

In both sexes the gonad is smooth externally, but internally a

fine sacculation may be seen with a lens. Frequently, when the

sacculation is coarse and even visible without a lens, the individual

turns out to be a male ; when the sacculation is so fine as to give a

minutely spotted appearance when viewed with a lens, the indivi-

dual may be a female ; but this distinction is not absolute, and the

only ultimate criterion is afforded by microscopic examination.

Out of twenty individuals thus examined in March (1908), nine

were male, eleven female. One of the Kakkaimunai oysters, though

of small size, 43 by 44 inches, gave an impression of being old,

and was in fact a mature female. .

If an incision-be made into the gonad of a mature female, a

quantity of minute brown-coloured ova will stream out; but in a

mature or submature male the contents are viscid.

The spermatozoa, as they appeared at this time, had round heads

and very delicate tails (fig. 1). They moved, on the addition of

sea water, in a jerky, spasmodic manner. The morule, from which

they originated, had in very many instances not yet become disso-

ciated, and in these cases the long tails could be seen, under high

magnificatian, radiating on all sides from a mass of heads. Often

two or several spermatozoa were seen with heads still agglutinated

together (fig. 2). By way of comparison the ripe spermatozoa of a

species of Cardium, common at Niroddumunai (where it is called

** pakku maddi,” this term being differently applied at Koddiyazr),

were sketched. These have elongate heads with hooked extremity

and broad base, from which the tail proceeds (fig. 4). I have not

yet had an opportunity to study the finer structure of the reproduc-

tive organs by means of sections.

The observations described above lead to the conclusion that the

window-pane oysters living in lake Tamblegam in the first quarter

of 1908 displayed synchronous maturation of the gonads ; and that

Placuna is a periodic spawner, or at any rate does not become

continuously reproductive until a late age, in contrast with the

chronic maturity of other burrowing bivalves, such as Venus,

Cardium, and Arca.

Figs. 1-3, Spermatozoa ot Placuna.

Fig. 4, Spermatozoon of Cardium.

€

PLACUNA FISHERY. 133

I].—AGE oF THE OYSTERS.

I take it that my inspection of the Tamblegam beds in June and

October, 1907, allows me to assert positively that there was no

effective fall of spat in that year ; and I found no evidence of any

having taken place in 1906. In June I did find yearling oysters in

the Sambore river, but not in lake Tamblegam.*

The following tables show the growth of the oysters on the various

beds since Mr. Hornell’s inspection of 1905.; The term “‘ plants ”

is applied to those oysters which I placed in an enclosure in Nachchik-

kuda in October, 1907, as will be mentioned later. Oysters taken

from their natural positions on the beds are distinguished, when

necessary, as “* topotypes ” :—

Table I.—Nachchikkuda.

The dimensions given in this and subsequent tables are the averages

of numbers of individuals, the numbers in each case being stated for

the sake of completeness, although the actual number makes no

appreciable difference to the average in a normal series. The standard

height is 54 inches or 139 mm. In the measurements given below the

length precedes the height.

Date. Observations.

May, 1905 (Hornell) .. The bed “ consists of very young indivi-

duals, none exceeding the size of a

crown piece,” 7.e., 1? to 2 inches in

diameter, or about 50 mm.

June, 1907 .. Average of 44 specimens: 159 by 147

mm., decimal points being omitted.

October, 1907 .. Average of 66 specimens : 168 by 154 mm.

March, 1908 .. Average of 9 “ plants”? : 173 by 163 mm.

Do. .. Average of 15 topotypes : 171 by 162 mm.

_ The averages taken in March of this year show that the transplanted

oysters behaved normally.

Table [1.—Kapaltura.

May, 1905 (Hornell) .. “* The bed off Kapalturai is also composed

of young individuals, older by some

three months than those of Nachchil-

kuda. The average size is 3°33 inches

by 2°92 inches (83°25 by 73 mm.), and

over the greater part of the bed they

lie in great profusion, from 10 to 22

being commonly brought up at one

dive.”” These may be estimated at not

less than one year old.

June, 1907 .. Average of 16 specimens: 6°6 by 6°1

inches, or 165by152mm. These would

be three years old.

October, 1907 .. Average of 15: 169 by 153 mm. This is

nearly the same as the June average,

and just double the 1905 average ;

about 34 years old. .

* A. Willey. Report on the Window-pane Oysters (June, 1907). Spolia

Zeylanica, Vol. V., November, 1907, p. 38.

+ J. Hornell. Report on the Placuna placenta Pearl Fishery of lake

Tampalakamam (May. 1905). Ceylon Mar. Biol. Lab. Rep., Part I1., June,

1906.

134 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Date. Observations.

March, 1908 .. Average of 22: 181 by 165 mm. These

are large scattered individuals living

under conditions favourable to growth ;

and the apparent average increase of

size since October may depend as much’

upon individual variation as upon the

general growth of the colony ; about

4 years old.

Table [I11.—Kakkaimunai.

The Kakkaimunai oysters are in general dwarfed and of unequal

growth, hence the averages are only approximately comparable. The

observations indicate that this bed is a favourable spot for the settle-

ment and rapid, though limited and stunted, growth of Placuna. The

oysters are crowded side by side, thus prejudicing their bodily

growth, and perhaps also their total pearl productivity, but not

affecting their sexual maturity; hence the Kakkaimunai bed acts as

a natural reserve.

May, 1905 (Hornell) .. Of two samples, one estimated at 14 year

old gave an average size of 111°4 by

102 mm.; the other estimated at 1?

year old gave an average of 125°2 by

114°96 mm. Combining these two

sets we obtain an average of 118°3 by

~ 108°48 mm. ;

June, 1907 .. Average of 12 specimens: 119°3 by I11

mm. It seems certain that these

oysters belong to the same generation

as those seen by Mr. Hornell in 1905.

It would follow, therefore, that there

had been practically no growth in

superficial area, but only in the thick-

ness of the shell.

October, 1907 .. Average of first sample of 30 (October 17),

131-5 by 123°5 mm. A total of 79

oysters was measured on this date:

the smallest 106°25 by 92°75 mm.; the

largest 159°4 by 146°9 mm. This is

an extreme variation tending to vitiate

the average. Second sample of 30

(October 22): 135 by 124°25 mm.

March, 1908 .. Average of 16 topotypes : 129°2 by 122°1

mm. ‘This is nearly identical with the

average of the October topotypes.

Do. .. Average of 16 plants (7.e., oysters trans-

planted in October, 1907, from Kakkai-

munai to Nachchikkuda): 141°8 by

130°1 mm.

Table IV.—Sembian-aar.

It will be noticed that while the oysters on this bed show a larger

growth than those on the Kakkaimunai bed, yet they resemble the

latter in having made little increase in size since 1905.

May, 1905 (Hornell) .. This bed ‘“‘ was particularly .prolifie in

fine, well-grown oysters from 10 to 16

to a dive.” Average size: 155 by

142-25 mm. (63 by 53 inches) ; “ prob-

ably over 2 years old.”

PLACUNA FISHERY. 135

Date. Observations.

June, 1907 .. Average of 12: 150°5 by 142°5 mm.

The difference in average long diameter

between this and the 1905 sample is

negligible and the height is the same.

I assume that they belonged to the

same generation, and were therefore

more than 4 years old.

October, 1907 .. Average of 20: 154 by 149 mm.

March, 1908 .. Average of 20: 166°4 by 154°75 mm.

Shells very old, heavy, and mostly worn

at the edges ; some blackened (‘‘ mica-

ceous ’’) about the hinge area.

Table V .—Polokarai-aru.

This bed hes rather near the shore, between Sembian-aar and

Kakkaimunai.

October, 1907 .. Oysters scattered like those of Sembian-

aar. Average of 18: 154°7 by 149°6

mm,

Table VI.—U ppu-aru.

I inspected this bed in March, 1908, with an entirely negative

result, apparently due to an excessive deposition of mud during the

recent rains. This backwater is a simple estuary, whereas the

Tamblegani lake is to a great extent an arm of the sea.

Ill.—Tue Fisuery or 1908.

The measurements tabulated above show that the oysters living

in the lake at the time of the 1908 fishery were to all intents and

purposes of the same age. There was not one too young to be

taken by the divers, no fall of spat being known since 1904-1905.

It follows from the facts which have been brought forward that the

fishery of this year has not been an independent fishery like the

annual Mannar fisheries, but it has been the conclusion of the

industrial collection of one growth, or, to use an agricultural

expression, one crop of Placuna.

The fishery commenced on February 3 and ended on March 17.

Although short it went briskly, being better organized than in the

previous year ; and it gave better results in consequence of this fact,

and also because of the increased average size of the pearls.

Arrangements had been made for the filling in of forms of daily

return. signed by the manager of the fishery on behalf of the lessees.

These offered no difficulty of any kind and yielded just the infor-

mation that was wanted and would otherwise have been lacking.

Their use should be made an indispensable condition of future

fisheries.

. The total number of oysters recorded as having been taken in

1907 was 1,255,344. Ofthese, one-half belonged to the lessees, the

other half to the divers; and the half share of pearls secured by

the former amounted to the weight of 46 rupees, valued by weight

136 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

at Rs. 690. But many of the pearls have a definite qualitative

value in native jewellery, so that the weight gives no reliable

indication of the true worth of the pearl-yield.

The numbers of oysters entered on the schedules represent half the

total quantity taken on each day. The half share of the entire

catch this year aggregated 130,568 oysters, the number actually

taken being therefore twice this amount, namely, 261,136.

The total number of days occupied by the fishery was 38, no

diving being undertaken on Fridays, in accordance with Muham-

madan custom,

a ee

Daily Returns of February, 1908.

Date. Boats. Divers. Oysters. Place.

Br Xi elle De eee nb So ieee LD OOR I. y Usealkicninanar

Aas eo Oe turds JON nT AG cyeee. os do.

5 ee OM ya oxo ieee OOO Mma do.

Gee SOO OOM. aS Ome do.

Sie tod cee moo) aie Delton uae do.

Oey er (Oa) ae Oe oe DOA) uae do.

LODGES CTS 2 cee. oe 1,289 .. Saliyatuwai

11) eee Ae ee 215) G30. < do.

OA tu Ay ches 2OG es TOM) nh do.

Srapees « WAS dey “Oui G7 Oetes: do.

(Mae ES 6x sate AZ eres SOON ten do.

Gie Ave i Meee SPAN Lae 536 .. Mukkikallu

LY aio ul eee OO ee t2O0GO Der do. ;

ST Mes Se ae Ae oe DORs do.

LO eon WORe a cae OOn sss LIRA ELYay ye ac do.

PA Ne 28% 3 ke eM ue 200) az do.

DOE ah, Men)? ake SG lees 545 .. Nachchikkuda

Oe Le ee UO Re 6Sils do.

Pye ae rene <1 Boer PAR | ie do.

eye SR Peel weet «Gey he a 1,114 .. Saliyatuwai and Nach-

chikkuda

DG UR 2 2H ee OS. 891 .. Sembian-aar

Ay hie epee Bek Senne, ECE ve hn 10960... do.

DO Mra s. HOS covigunets (merc 2,159 .. Polokarai-aru

March, 1908.

ik LSD eT We 984 .. Polokarai-aru

2 LO aioe AO Ota 1,130 .. Polokarai and Setukuda

3 1g Is SR C7 Ct 1,540 .. Setukuda

AF ors COM Beds = er: 1655)" Se. do.

pe eee US epee BEY hg do.

vf LO tera wb Oy tt LES dG do.

8 LE eae ie: (0 ere 404. do.

Sania esha oI Le bt Meee spans ats Gigs FIs do.

HO PEOVER eM he 853 .. Sembian-aar

acc leh ee rool es 536 .. Nachchikkuda

1 Nea G) hee Bea as as S00) Fae do.

14: ig eeu Uae rc 2 Ol gearere do.

fers Hehe ol US Roe 375 .. Polokarai-aru

LG cnspehingimenst 2G ih 207... Saliyatuwai ‘

1 by aaa Dees ELOMee c 3490 oc do.

130,568

PLACUNA FISHERY. TS,

TV.—PEARL-YIELD.

During the course of the 1908 fishery it became clear that the crop

of pearls was a great deal better than that of last year, and the

actual figures show a disproportionate increase. For, whereas in

1908 the lessees’ half share of oysters numbered only 130,568, or a

little more than one-fifth of their share (627,672) in 1907, the weight

of pearls secured in 1908 is returned at 92 rupees, double the

quantity recorded in the preceding year.* This result is somewhat

surprising, and can only be attributed to the continued growth of the

pearls. After a pearl has reached a certain size, its further growth by

the apposition of fresh layers of nacre must add greatly to its volume

and value as compared with the earlier stages in its formation.

As this is the first occasion on which a comparison of the pearl-

yield in successive years has been possible, it may be tabulated

as under :— Lessees’ Share Rupee Weight

Date. of Oysters. of Pearls.

1907 ae 627,672 ae 46

1908 ve 130,568 ic 92

The practical conclusion to be drawn is that in the case of Placuna

the maximum pearl-yield coincides with the period of sexual

maturity. If subsequent observations should confirm this conclu-

sion, it will become an economic fact of controlling importance.

From what has been said it will be clear that a short lease is a

pitfall, fatal to the spawning oysters. It is not to the interest of

contractors holding a lease of only five years’ duration to spare the

spawners, but, on the contrary, it is their business to take as many

as they can get, to which in fact they are legally entitled.

Moreover, seeing that superficial dimensions give no safe index

to the state of maturity of the oysters, it follows that the provision

as to size limit can only be a very crude approximation, especially

when it is considered that size depends upon a dozen environmental

conditions. The three-year theory of the longevity of Placuna seems

to be based at least, in part, upon the length of life permitted by

boring whelks, sponges, and human enterprise. When dead shells

are brought to the surface with the two valves still adhering together,

it is generally found that one of the valves, usually the convex valve

near to the cardinal teeth, has been perforated by some enemy ; and

I attribute the mortality on the Nachchikkuda bed chiefly to

the whelks, whose erect, subcylindrical egg-capsules are attached in

dense clusters to dead valves of Placuna lying upon the bottom of

the lake; each capsule contains a multitude of embryos, and ovi-

position appears to be chronic.

V.—RAINFALL.

In my former report I urged the desirability of noting the rainfall

in connection with the annual condition of the Placuna beds. In

* Cf. my June report, op. cit., 1907, p. 40.

U 7(8)08

138 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

the Sambore river, the Uppu-aru, and the Palampat-aar the freshen-

ing of the water appears to have a direct and injurious effect upon

the health of the oysters. The greater portion of the Tamblegam

lake seems to be much more independent of the rainfall than the

localities named, and successfully withstood the last rainy season.

The following table, kindly prepared at my request by Mr. H. O.

Barnard, F.R.A.S., F.R.Met.S., Superintendent of the Meteoro-

logical Branch, shows the frequency of the rainfall in the

Trincomalee District during the months October, 1907, to March,

1908; inclusive ;— Rainfall at Trincomalee.

1907. Inches. Days.

October 3 oe 1339755 7/ $i 20

November St se DOr fe 7

December Me nee 6°07 ve 13

1908.

January he wg 4°99 - ll

February ae he 6°85 she 5

March tw it 2°06 dr 6

VI.—PLACUNICULTURE.

It is only necessary to state here that the first steps have been

taken towards placing the Placuna beds of the Tamblegam lake

under conditions of culture. In October, 1907, a limited number

(about 450) of oysters was transplanted by hand from the natural

beds to a reserved enclosure marked off by stakes in Nachchikkuda.

In March, 1908, these ‘‘ plants”? were found to be in good condition,

and to have achieved their maturation in a normal manner.

There is a strong theoretical reason in favour of planting the

oysters close together in a confined space. The effect of a fishery

is. necessarily to thin out the beds, so that the few surviving indi-

viduals become isolated and more or less widely separated. As the

sexes are distinct the chances of fertilization are correspondingly

reduced after a fishery, and transplantation may therefore be

supposed to-counteract the effects of depletion.

In March, 1908, a further experiment was set on foot. Twelve

baskets of special construction were suspended from crossed poles

in mid-water and stocked with mature oysters. It is hoped that

some result will manifest itself before the end of the year.

Finally, one of the most necessary precautions in cultural oper-

ations, namely, the surveillance of the protected areas, has not been

neglected. Three watchers have been appointed by the Assistant

Government Agent at Trincomalee to look after the beds until the

next fishery takes place.

Samples of the Plankton (floating micro-organisms) were collected

and preserved in October and March, chiefly with the object of —

overtaking the free-swimming embryos of Placuna ; so far; however,

without success in this respect. Observations on other animals

associated with Placuna have been made, but these do not at present

affect the practical issues,

‘D “UWDIDy ap "Hf 4 fig uayn, ydnuboyoyd p wo1g

“VIO MNVYOONVH WOU ANOLSNOOIW

NOTES. 139

NOTES.

1. Hanguranketa Moonstone.—Readers of Fergusson’s History of

Kastern Architecture will not need to be told that the ornate semi-

circular threshold stones, commonly known as moonstones, which

occur at the bases of flights of steps leading into the pansalas and

viharas of Ceylon, are an exclusive character of the ancient archi-

tecture of this Island, and are not found in India nor elsewhere on

the Asiatic continent. Crossing the threshold must have formed

a solemn part of the daily routine in the old days of militant

Buddhism.

The stone here portrayed has been lying at the Museum for many

years (see Spolia Zeylanica, II1., p. 26, ‘‘ Floral Moonstone ’’), but it

has never been illustrated before. It is unique of its kind, and the

~extremely conventionalized nature of the decorative scrolls may

point to the fact that it belongs to a somewhat later period than

the zoophorous or processional moonstones (with representations of

animals in procession).

The disc, which might serve equally well as a lotus emblem or

as a sun emblem, is framed within a succession of what may either

be flower vases or water pots, terminating on each side in the sign

of the blessed footprints of Buddha. Outside these there is a com-

plicated terminal scroll, which appears to be a makara derivative ;

and behind these scrolls there isan actual makara with open mouth,

from which a minor scroll issues surmounted by a small uplifted

trunk; behind the head the legs are seen, and the body ends in a

coiled tail. |

It has been said that when an object expressive of an artistic

conception and having the character of a sacred emblem is removed

from its original environment and brought to a Museum it loses all

its significance. Such a reproach, however, only proceeds from one

point of view, since, in addition to the original motive of the design,

which nothing can alter, it acquires anew meaning. The conversion

of a res sacra, even though it may have become obsolete, into a

Museum specimen may seem a cruel turn of fortune’s wheel, but

it may be urged that its ethnographic value becomes accentuated.

This moonstone is said to have belonged to the palace of a

Kandyan king at Hanguranketa. It is a great slab of gneiss with

roughly dressed edges and. finely sculptured upper surface, measur- -

ing 7 feet across the straight border, about 4 feet 8 inches from

the middle of the latter to the middle of the convex border; the

140 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

diameter of the disc is 2 feet 8 inches, and the thickness of the slab

about 8 inches. It is lying flat upon the ground, and is not easy to

photograph, but Mr. J. H. de Saram, C.M.G., whose effort is here

reproduced, succeeded admirably.

2. Stone Pillar from Gampola.—A handsome stone pillar has

been recently unearthed and presented to the Colombo Museum by

Mr. T. B. Yatawara, Ratemahatmaya. It is carved differently on

the four sides. The shaft of the pillar is octagonal, the base and

capital square. The basal carvings represent a trisul ornament,

a tom-tom beater, a flower vase, and a sedent lion ; at the top there

are dancing figures and a peacock.

The following further information has been kindly supplied by

Mr. J. P. Lewis, Government Agent of the Central Province, who

was instrumental in securing the presentation :—

** One tradition is that Bhuvaneka Bahu V. transferred the seat

of government to Kotte (1410), leaving the other members of the

royal family at Gampola; and Raja Sinha I. of Nilambe, when on

his way to Sabaragamuwa from Nilambe, received information of

the sojourn at Gampola of these royal people, and fearing that

they might kill him and take the kingdom had them killed. But

one of them, Konnappu Bandara, escaped death, and remained at

Gampola disguised as a Buddhist priest, and started to build a

palace on a hill at Tiyambara-ambe, commanding a view of the

low-country as well as the hill country. Whilst he was building it

the king heard of it, and sent ministers to inquire into the matter.

Konappu in consequence fled to Colombo, and from thence to Goa.

He returned after the death of Raja Sinha, and became king under

the title of Wimala Dharmasuriya I. (1592).

‘* Another tradition is that a prince of Gampola, who was occupying

the palace at Sinhapitiya, found that Raja Sinha’s visits to Gampola

were too frequent for his safety, and, fearing death, started to build

a palace at a spot not easily accessible. For this he chose the hill

Eraminiyagammana at Tiyambara-ambe, and removed thither the

materials of the old palace ; and when the king heard of it he sent

emissaries to kill him. The prince was warned of this by somebody,

and he fled from the place. The king’s men pulled down what was

erected and went away.

“This pillar is one of the four that have been found at the spot.

‘Tiyambara-ambe is a village situated 9 miles from Gampola on

the Gampola-Kurunduwatta road in Gangaihala korale.”

TWO VIEWS OF THE GAMPOLA PILLAR.

From photographs taken by Mr. J. H. de Saram, C.M.@.

CEREMONIAL MANGO.

Lent to the Colombo Museum by Mr. Paul Pieris.

NOTES. 14]

3. Ceremonial Mango.—A fine example of a large brazen mango

has recently been deposited in this Museum on loan by Mr. P. E.

Pieris, M.A., C.C.S. It is made with a pale alloy crowned by a

mounting of yellow brass bedecked with crystals and terminated

by a high knob carrying a hook. On each side there is a figure of a

mythical bird catled Garuda, and below these an incised Bo leaf

design. The mango ends in a lotus flower with crystal (glass)

centre. It is hollow and contains loose metal pellets, which rattle

when carried about. Along the lower concave border there is a

cleft, as in the Pattini bangles, armlets, and anklets, through which

the pellets can be seen.

The following is the story of Pattini devi or the birth of the

goddess Pattini out of a mango :—

*“In the garden of the King of Pandya was a well-grown mango

tree which bore a remarkable mango, out of which Pattini devi was

born.

‘* This mango was more beautiful and larger than the other mangoes

on the tree. It was arranged to pluck this mango by arrow shots.

Headed by the King of Pandya, all the archers of the place tried in

vain to shoot it down. Seeing this the god Sakra in the form of an

old man with an arrow in his hand came to the spot. The King of

Pandya said: ‘Oh! old man, how can you shoot this mango after

all these renowned archers, including myself, have failed?’ The old

man replied: ‘ Although I am old, there is no one among you who

can lift my arrow.’ Thereupon, knowing his power, the king asked

him to shoot the fruit, so that the mango should not fall to the

ground. A cloth being held up, the old man taking aim shot the

mango. The fruit, separated from the stalk, began to fly round in the

air. Whilst beholding this wonder, a drop of sap from the fruit fell

into the eye of the king and blinded it. Thenceforth, the king being

afraid to keep the wonderful mango in his country or to harm or

eat it, ordered his people to put it into a pot, place the pot in a

small boat on the water, and let it drift away. The boat was found

by a Moorish queen, who carried off the pot with the green mango

to her palace. A few days afterwards Sakra, chief of the seven

heavens, came as an old beggar asking alms. The queen remembered

the mango, and thinking to give a part of it to the old man looked

in the pot. There she saw instead of the mango a female infant,

more beautiful than a golden image, sucking her fingers. Sakra

then disappeared.

‘This strange infant, born from the mango, was named Pattini

devi. Having grown up, she is said to have performed various

marvels and supernatural acts. The story of the miracles she

wrought is fully told in the Ambawidamana, Walalukathawa Salam-

basantiya, Wesamedima, and Ankeliupata.”

The total length of the mango image and hook is about 22 inches,

the mango alone measuring about one foot in length. It is said to

142 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

have come from the Seven Korales, and to have been used at the

Pattini dewales, being carried in procession by the Kapuralas or

Pattini Hamis in a lacquered box. At dewal maduwas they still

perform the ceremony of shooting the mango.

4. A Note on Kallima philarchus.—Whilst on a visit to an estate

in the Uda Pussellawa district (5,200 feet) I had a good opportunity

of watching the habits of Kallima philarchus. This interesting

‘* Oakleaf ”’ butterfly is one of those remarkable instances of colour

protection, for, although the prevailing colour of the wings above

is a brilhant blue, the under parts resemble a dead leaf, so that when

the butterfly has settled with closed wings it is extremely difficult

to distinguish it from a dead leaf. For two days a butterfly

frequented a certain spot on the trunk of a tree quite close to a

footpath, and thus I was able to watch it at close quarters. I noticed

with much curiosity that as soon as the butterfly settled, which it

did in the usual way, it immediately turned round so that its head

pointed downwards. I was much puzzled over this proceeding,

which occurred every time the butterfly settled, until I discovered

the reason. The butterfly turned round so that the ‘‘ tail” of its

two hind wings would almost come into contact with the trunk of

the tree, thus representing a stalk, and the apparently dead leaf

would hang in a perfectly natural way, drooping downwards, or, as

Mr. Green remarks (Spolia Zeylanica, Vol. V., Part XVIII., p. 89),

‘‘it might be mistaken very easily for a detached leaf, that in its fall

has hitched up in a cobweb...... a

W. A. CAVE.

5. Parasite from the Gall-bladder of Ceratophora.—Whilst dis-

secting a specimen of the Unicorn Lizard (Ceratophora stoddart:) from

Nuwara Eliya in April, 1905, a parasitic flat worm was found in

the gall-bladder. It was forwarded through Mr. A. E. Shipley to

Professor A. Looss at the School of Medicine, Cairo, who kindly

furnished the following provisional report. A second specimen was

taken from the same species at Hakgala in January, 1906. The

lizard is one of those which are peculiar to Ceylon, occurring at the

highest elevations, and the occasional presence of a fluke in its gall-

bladder is rather an interesting case of parasitism to put on record.

Dr. Looss’s report :—

‘* T have examined your specimen, and am herewith sending you

a sketch of what I have been able to make out (see text-figure).

The worm is-a Distome, as I had surmised, but its organization

rather differs from what I believed to see in your sketches (made in

Ceylon). There is as yet no genus established for this structural

NOTES. 143

type, but Distomum mutabile, Molin, from the gall-bladder of Lacerta

muralis, so closely resembles your form that there can be no doubt.

that both forms are congeneric. The most recent description

of D. mutabile is given by Liihe in Centrbl. Bakt., &c¢., XXVIII.,

1900, p. 563. A comparison of that description with my sketch”

will show you this resemblance, which extends also to the habitat

(t.e., the gall-bladder). You might therefore safely establish a new

genus for your parasite. I should not, however, advise you to do so,

since the state of preservation of the specimen does not admit of

giving a full diagnosis of the genus.

y Gen Pore

\ [Cirrus pouch & Vagina

/ faintly discerns b!

fntestinal | ig ene reel Le),

Caeca

\ Seminal Receptacle

eal! partly dorsal of ovary

— Initial uterine coils

Distomid parasite from gall-bladder of Ceratophora.

‘‘The details in the organization of the worm which I have not

succeeded in settling are the following :—(1) The length of the intes-

tinal coeca : they disappear from view at the anterior border of the

testicles, but apparently do not terminate there. (2) The structure

of the copulatory organs: they are present, but so faintly outlined

that nothing more is visible. (3) The shape and extent of the

excretory vesicle, the pore being alone discernible. (4) Finally,

the skin has fallen off, and the question whether it is or is not

armed with spines remains an open one. These four points ought

to be mentioned in the diagnosis of the new genus (speaking from a

strictly scientific point of view); but practically it will be recog-

nizable without them.”

School of Medicine, A. Looss.

Cairo, December 14, 1905.

144 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

6. The Lula’s Enemy and the Adventurous Squirrel.—lI was out at

Horana last week and noticed a black and white snake about two

feet long and as thick as a man’s thumb holding a lula in its mouth

sideways by its back. The fish was about eight inches long, and

‘twice the thickness of the snake. It was bleeding freely where the

snake had hold of it with widely distended jaws. I got the fish

away and put it back in a part about 10 feet off, when it immediately

dived beneath the mud. The snake remained stationary, even

refusing to move Gn being pushed with a stick, and seemed either

exhausted or stupefied.

‘Another rather curious incident occurred in a bungalow I was

staying at. There is a stuffed crocodile in the verandah, with its

mouth wide open. It les well inside the house. A squirrel came

in and walked up to the crocodile, looked inside its distended

jaws, and then bolted. It seemed fully to realize that the beast was

stuffed.

Colombo, April 14, 1908. A. L. HINE-HAYCOCK.

7. Fishery Observations —A knowledge of the breeding and

swarming habits and periods of marine, estuarie, and fresh water

fishes must form the basis of intelligent action in regard to fish

preservation and culture, and it is from this point of view that the

following notes are offered.

I.—SHOAL oF PLorosus FRy.

Plotosus is a genus of Siluroid fishes (sometimes called Cat-fishes)

represented in Ceylon waters by two species, P. canius, which may

be the same as ‘* Kalapu-anguluwa,” although I am not certain

about this; and P. arab, which has been called ‘‘ Mudu-hunga.”’

The respective Tamil names for these species are given by Mr. A.

Haly in his list of fishes likely to be found on the coasts of Ceylon

(Colombo, 1890) as ‘‘ Kelura”’ and ‘‘ Kadalsungen.”* The former is

an estuarine fish not found in the Red Sea ; the latter ranges from

the Red Sea to Japan and Polynesia.

Whilst I was inspecting the Tamblegam window-pane oyster

beds on June 24, 1907, and passing a point called Peyaddumunai,

near the mouth of the Periya Palampat-aar, I noticed, at a distance,

a dense black mass floating close to the surface, which looked like

drifting seaweed, and was actually pronounced to be ‘‘ pasi”’ by the

boatmen. Upon approaching it, however, it resolved itself into a

* At Niroddumunai the general term for these fishes is ‘‘ kelethi,’’ and they

distinguish between Nagalam or Mampalam kelethi and Muttei or Arthu

kelethi, the latter being a species of Macrones (M. gulio).

NOTES. 145

vast multitude of small tadpole-like fishes, moving in unison, each

one characterized by two longitudinal white stripes commencing

from the head between the eyes and converging backwards to either

side of the dorsal fin. A diver jumped overboard and secured a

quantity of them in a bucket. Subsequent examination proved

them to be the fry of Plotosus, by reason of their many-rayed ventral

fins and confluent second dorsal, caudal, and anal fins.

At first I concluded from their habitat that they were the fry of

P. canius, but the proportions of the eyes and of the eight barbels

to the length of the head afterwards led me to assign them to

P. arab.

Their size varied very slightly from about 18 to 19°5 mm. in

extreme length from the snout to the tip of the rounded tail fin.

Just in front of the origin of the anal fin and behind the vent there

is a pair of disc-like organs with sinuous margins. Between them

occurs the urogenital papilla. The character which would seem to

clinch their specific identification, namely, the total number of rays

in the conjoined vertical fins, was not available, inasmuch as the

anterior portion of the second dorsal fin membrane is destitute of rays

at this early stage.

I do not know of any previous records of the pelagic swarming

habit of the fry of Plotosus. They formed, in the mass, a conspi-

cuous object, and might easily have been passed by as seaweed had

not curiosity prompted nearer acquaintance. Whether or not this

casual resemblance ¢an really afford them an effective screen from

their enemies seems questionable.

Il.—Louta Fry.

The lula (Ophiocephalus striatus) is the most important fresh water

food fish of Ceylon, both as regards quality and quantity. It is also

known by its Hindustani name “‘ murral,” according to Mr. H.S.

Thomas’s latest spelling of the word, and by its Tamil name

‘* viral.” The Hindustani name is the one most currently employed

outside Ceylon.

It is what Dr. Day calls a compound breather, being more

essentially an air-breathing fish. The Ophiocephali ‘‘ never obtain

oxygen for any length of time from the air in solution in the

surrounding water, but inspire it direct from the atmosphere, no

matter how cool and charged with air the water may be”; and

they ‘‘ expire in a longer or shorter interval if unable to reach the

atmospheric air.” They are thus independent of the state of the

water in which they are living, and ‘‘ in carrying live specimens

from the plains to the Nilgiri hills, this was most successfully

accomplished in water largely mixed with mud.’’*

* Day, F. Report on the Fresh Water Fish and Fisheries of India and

Burma. Calcutta, 1873, p. 25.

a 7(8)08

146 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

The adult lula feeds upon smaller fishes and frogs. In Ceylon it

is known to be particularly partial to a near relative, the ‘‘ pandaral

kanaya’’ (Ophiocephalus gachua), whose recognition marks are the

barred yellow and black pectoral fins and the tubular nostrils ; it

also likes ‘‘ issu”’ (fresh water prawns) and ‘‘ dandiya ”’ (the Ceylon

minnow, Rasbora daniconius).

Mr. H. 8. Thomas (Rod in India, 3rd edit., 1897, p. 234) says that

‘‘murral are the easiest of all Indian fish to introduce ”’; they will

‘‘ thrive in ponds and at various altitudes, so you can easily stock a

pond if you desire, but they will speedily depopulate it of other

sorts of fish.* The natives frequently put them into their wells,

from which they can take them fresh as they want them.” This

last practice does not seem to be common in Ceylon, but is occa-

sionally met with, as in the resthouse well at Alut-oya in the

Tamankaduwa district, North-Central Province. They are kept

here, however, merely for show, being fed artificially once or twice

a week with small fish.

Dr. Theodore Gill notes that the Ophiocephalids are in prime

condition when perfectly fresh and throbbing. It would appear

that they cannot be salted or dried successfully, and therefore that,

however plentiful they may be, they cannot compete with the

customary dried fish in curry.

The habit of brood-nursing or parental care of the eggs and

young has been often described, as, for example, by Day, Thomas,

and. others, and more recently, from a comparative standpoint, by

Gill.t In Mysore it was observed by Colonel Puckle (quoted by

Day) that O. striatus breeds twice a year, in June and December,

the males constructing their nests amongst the vegetation at the

edges of the tanks. In South Canara it is said to breed in December

and January.

Although I have not yet had an opportunity of witnessing the

nidification*and brood-nursing of the lula, I have on two occasions

secured samples of the fry. Part of a swarm was taken from the

Galelawala, Barawe, near Hanwella, in the late afternoon on

February 19, 1908. The total length (from snout to tip of caudal

fin) varied from 32 to 37 mm.t The ground colour, especially at the

sides of the body, was pellucid red, and the upper half of the eyes was

bright red. The general shape was that of a tadpole, and there is

reason to think that this is a fundamental form.

They were poured into a bath, where they were kept over night,

restored. to the chatty next day, and brought to Colombo (18 miles)

by bullock coach arriving at 1 p.m. All except one or two were

alive on arrival ; many dead ‘‘ kuni,’’ small fresh water shrimp-like

* See below.

t Gill, Th. Parental care among Fresh Water Fishes. Ann. Rep. (1905),

Smithsonian Inst., Washington, 1906, p. 492.

~ About 1} to 1 inch.

rex,

NOTES. 147

crustacea belonging to the genus Caridina, were in the chatty with

them, which they were not eating. These ‘‘ kuni”’ thrive equally

well in running water, as low-country rivers and mountain streams,

where they retreat under stones, &c., and in still water, as tanks

and ponds, where they flourish among the vegetation near the edge.

In some places they occur in such quantity as to make it worth

while to dry them for use in curry. Their presence in water is a

good sign, and they constitute an important source of fish food.

Those which had been put into the chatty with the lula fry were

perhaps too large. I was unable to keep a running supply of live

** kuni,”’ and did not succeed in finding out definitely the best food

for the young fishes, but I kept some of them alive in an aquarium

for more than 5 months, during which time I put in various nutrient

substances, water plants, chironomus larvee (7.e., lake-fly larve),

roast gram, rice, chopped hard-boiled egg-yolk, &c., the principal

pabulum being gram and yolk.

These substances promoted a luxuriant multiplication of micro-

organisms, more especially ciliate infusoria of the genera Stentor,

Paramecium, Blepharisma (with hook-shaped rostrum), and Spiros-

tomum.* The water became absolutely milky with Spirostomum,

a protozoan animalcule, which is easily visible to the unaided eye,

and is in fact the longest of the Ciliata. Gram which had been

placed over night in the aquarium sometimes appeared like large

flakes of snow in the morning, owing to the enormous aggregation

of Spirostoma about the grains. I cannot say whether the young

lulu fed upon the protozoa, but those which survived were vigorous

to the end. They were actually seen to nibble at the particles of

yolk, but the truth is that to this day I do not know precisely what

is the best vehicle of nutrition for lula fry when kept in close

confinement under artificial conditions not even approximating to

nature. The experiment, however, is useful in so far as it demon-,

strates their great viability.

The water supplied to the tank was well-water, and it was kept at

a depth of 14 to 3 inches. At the outset a great many died owing

to the too abrupt change. After the initial mortality more deaths

occurred from time to time for which I was unable to account, except

on the supposition that they were starving. On March 25, however,

more than a month since the beginning of the experiment, I noticed

one floundering helplessly amongst the floating weeds on the surface.

It presented a meagre, starved appearance, but on opening it a

prominent white fat-like mass was found in the body cavity partially

concealing the viscera. This turned out to consist of two soft

writhing Cestode worms (possibly Schistocephalus larve). Exploring

farther forwards in the body cavity, I found another worm of the

* On April 11 a pair of Stentor was seen in conjugation. On April 19

Paramecium was noted as conjugating, Blepharisma dividing.

148 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

same kind encysted ; this also writhed inside its envelope. Other

fry, which had died previously and had been preserved, were then

examined and found to be similarly infected.

The body of the parasitic worm is shortly segmented, and the

elongate head or scolex has a groove along each side and a terminal

exserted sucker or rostellum. The integument contains numerous

scattered oval calcareous corpuscles. Larval cestodes which are

found in young fishes usually achieve maturity in the intestine of

fish-eating birds.

On April 19 a vigorous young lula was caught and measured. It

had distinctly grown both in bulk and in length. The eyes reflected

a delicate red flush from the lens ; iris pale golden ; a slight reddish

tinge was still apparent along the sides of the caudal region ; the

definite markings had commenced to appear as about nine short

black vertical demi-stripes on either side of the dorsal fin. It was

very strong, active, and erect, not easily put on oneside. The total

length was 41-5 mm. ; body length (excluding the tail fin) 34°5 mm.

At this time the aquarium contained, besides the protozoa named

above, some Rotifers and some Natd worms.

Two dead lulu removed from the aquarium on May 21 and 22

measured 43 and 40 mm. respectively. Another in full vigour, with

the definitive body-markings well indicated, was taken from the

aquarium on June |; it measured no more than 38 mm. in total

length ; body length (excluding tail fin) 32 mm. ; diameter across the

branchial region 6°5 mm., across the projecting eyes 7 mm. At

first | missed the red flush of the eyes which is so characteristic of

young lulu, particularly after they have attained a length of 4 or 5

inches, but upon placing the specimen in dilute alcohol the red

colour developed. On July 8 seven of the healthy young fishes

were caught, measured, and returned to the tank; their total lengths

(including the tail fin) were 42°5, 44, 44:5, 45, 46, 47, and 48 mm.

Another sample of lula fry of the same age, or rather younger than

those taken in February, was brought from Hanwella on May 22.

They measured 30 to 31 mm. in length, and showed the same sub-

translucent reddish or golden red colour throughout when seen from

above. ‘The sides of the body were of a pure roseate hue, the upper-

most dorsal region being darkened in varying degree according to

circumstances by the presence of scattered chromatophores capable

of expansion and contraction, producing a more or less smoky

appearance.

The occurrence of this second brood indicates an extended period

of spawning during the first few months of the year, both before and

after the rains. The first brood was taken towards the end of a

period of drought, the second after heavy floods.

The predaceous habits of the adult lula, which seem to debar it

from association with other fishes in stock ponds, do not apply in

the same degree to the fry, nor to the adolescent stages up to a

—— ee,

NOTES. 149

minimum length of 6 inches, and it would be possible, sooner or

later, to establish reserves for rearing the young in places where the

The laboratory experiment described above shows that the transi-

tion from a late postlarval stage (without any trace of the definitive

body-markings) to an early adolescent stage takes place slowly, and

that during this transition period they are exposed not only to the

rapacity of avowed enemies, but also to the more insidious attacks

of internal parasites.

TII].—Fry oF MADA-KARAYA.

Madaya or mada-karaya (Ophiocephalus punctatus) is a near

relative of the lula, from which it differs in colour, scale-rows, fin-rays,

and in habits. A young lula compared with a madaya of approxi-

mately the same length (5-6 inches) had 46 dorsal fin-rays, as against

31 in the latter ; the lateral lme dipped down two rows of scales

below the twelfth dorsal ray in the lula, whereas it dipped to the

next row only in madaya ; anal fin of lula with 28 rays, of madaya

22 ; about 57 scales along the lateral line in lula, about 40 in

madaya ; ventral fins of lula below the pectorals, in eae nearly

reaching the vent.

The madaya is a mud- oe fish, extensively eaten, and also

used as live bait for ‘‘ moda ” (Lates calcarifer) and other large river

fish, which are caught with a special bamboo rod supported over

crossed sticks from the bank after sundown, for example, in the

Kalu-ganga at Tebuwana.

On April 15, 1908, during rainy weather with intervals of sunshine,

I observed a couple of mada-karaya in a clear shallow “‘ wala”? in

the paddy fields at Bellana on the Matugama-Badureliya road in

Pasdun Korale East. They were guarding a small brood of very

young fry, a sample of which I secured with the assistance of

Mr. John Dassenaike of Bellana, who accompanied me. One of the

elders, rather smaller than the other (estimated about 6 inches long)

and more brightly spotted, was probably the male. They were

frightened away at our approach, but returned to the brood, which

was advancing slowly in unison.

The young fry were all of one age, and measured only 6 milli-

metres in total length. They present (after preservation) three

longitudinal white bands, namely, one median dorsal band with

two spindle-shaped enlargements in front (see figure) and a pair of

broad lateral bands commencing from the eyes.

They were moving about freely exposed in very shallow water

under bright sunlight, in contrast with the usual habits of the adults,

which are intensely cryptozoic. My sample consisted of upwards

of 130 individuals, perhaps about one-tenth of the entire brood.

Some much older madaya fry were brought from Hanwella on

May 22 in company with the second lot of lula mentioned above, and

150 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

some very young kavaiya (Anabas scandens, the climbing perch).

They evidently did not belong to one brood, since they varied in

length from 21 to 39 mm. One of about 32 mm., which may be

selected for description, showed only a faint indication of a median

dorsal golden line in front of the dorsal fin ; this, however, is more

distinct at a younger stage (21-26 mm.), where both the lateral and

dorsal bands have a brilliant greenish golden tinge. A bright golden

band commences from the snout, passes through the upper part of

the eye and above the pectoral fin to the tail fin. The rest of the

back is dark, the ground colour being resolved into about five close-set

dark stripes on each side between the dorsal fin and the lateral

golden band, and three or four similar stripes below the latter.

The ventral surface in front of the anal fin is whitish, as it is also

in lula fry. At the age represented by a length of 36-39 mm. the

dorsal band has gone and the lateral bands have faded, merging

into the ground colour and losing the golden sheen. The general

arrangement of pigment in longitudinal stripes shows up very clearly

after preservation. The madaya fry seemed to be rather less hardy

than the lula fry.

IV.—Tue JAKkoTUWA FISHERY IN THE PANADURE RIVER.

When crossing the bridge on the coast railway over the Panadure

river one may notice that the river is traversed as far as the eye can

reach by a series of fences, which stretch a short distance from the

shore, or half-way across the river, or right across with but slight

interruption. It is to be feared that the interruption in an other-

wise continuous fence barricading the river is not made primarily

in the interests of the migrating fishes, for a net is often bent across

it, as will be seen later. Connected with each fence and forming

part of its construction is an elaborate fish-trap ; sometimes several

traps are intercalated in the course of a single fence. The whole is

called a jakotuwa, or fish-weir.

A typical jakotuwa consists of a wattle fence of split bamboo

(batta-li) extending nearly half-way across the river from one side,

and a similar fence on the opposite side, leaving a passage between

them guarded by high bamboo scaffolding, which serves as watch

towers. At the shore end on each side of the river there is another

passage with coir ropes stretched across it under water, between the

strands of which the bleached leaflets of the coconut palm are looped,

forming a white fringe in the water, called ‘‘ pan-rena ” or ‘‘ pan-

adinawa.”* This is said to direct the fish alongside the fence

* In Clough’s Sinhalese Dictionary ‘‘ pan-adinawa” is defined as the

operation of drawing an extended rope on the water on which white strips of

coconut leaflets are suspended for the purpose of driving fish into nets. It

is thus employed as an aid to netting in the Kuda-ganga, a tributary of the

Kalu-ganga.

Fry of Ophiocephalus punctatus. seen trom above.

x about 5.

QR — a

PLAN OF A JAKOTUWA FISH-TRAP.

The dotted line represents the fence, and the arrow points to the shore. I., II., and ITI.

are the successive chambers of the trap, the last covered with coir netting.

NOTES. 15]

towards the mouths of the traps. The latter have two entrances,

one on either side of the fence, as shown in the diagram.

In each half fence of the typical jakotuwa which I have selected

for description three traps are inserted at intervals. Each trap

consists of an ingenious triple cone-in-cone arrangement rising from

the bottom and projecting above the surface of the water, strength-

ened by upright poles and horizontal bars. The trap acts as a maze,

and the fish which penetrate into the terminal chamber (IIT.) find

themselves in a blind alley, from which there is practically no escape.

In order to remove them a man climbs over the top and drops into

the water in the middle compartment (I1.), from whence he lets

himself into the end chamber under water ; this chamber is covered

over by coarse coir-netting to prevent the fish from leaping out.

Another man ina boat stands by with a hand net called *‘ atanguwa,”’

by which the diver catches the entrapped fishes. This being done,

the opening into the inner chamber is made secure, and the diver,

having first returned to the middle chamber, re-enters the boat.

The apices of the cones point towards mid-stream. At the

central end of the fence on the north side there was another trace

of coconut leaves before the bamboo watch tower of that side.

Between the two watch towers (guarding the central channel) was

stretched a large net called ‘‘ atoniya,” held up-stream by the two

watchers, the corners of the net being attached on each side of the

passage to a long pointed pole driven into the bottom ; the opposite

or sea end of the net was held above water by two men in a boat ;

the up-stream border of the net is below water ; it is a plain net, not

a bag. As soon as the watchers see fish passing over the line of

demarcation they quickly raise the poles, thus lifting the forward

leach of the net out of water, and so the fish are netted. The boat-

men then haul in the net and secure the fish, of which I saw only

three or four caught at a time, half-sized gray mullet. The jakotuwa

is what is termed a ‘‘ fixed engine”; the atoniya was at work at

dawn, early afternoon, and again towards sundown.

The fish which were taken out of a jakotuwa in my presence in

December last included marine, estuarine, and fresh water forms,

e.g., ‘‘ eliyalu ” (Platycephalus), ‘‘ kalanda ”’ (Sillago), ‘‘ parattiya ”’

(Caranzx), *‘ anguluwa ” (Arius), ‘* koraliya ” (Htroplus), ‘‘ godaya ”

(Mugil).

The jakotuwas are lighted up at the mid-river end of each fence

by a lantern at night; this burns all night, and the netting and

diving operations are repeated at about 5 a.m. on the following

morning.

A small or single jakotuwa consists of a single cone-in-cone trap at

the end of a fence projecting a longer or shorter distance into the

river from the shore, always with the guiding trace of coconut leaves

at the shore end. In this case there is often an arrangement with

rope attachment permitting the entire terminal chamber to be raised

152 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

up bodily. The movable cages of the single jakotuwas were in fact

raised in the early morning and appeared like huge funnels or

chimneys ; at night a lamp is suspended inside these cages, on the

principle of the moth trap.

Sometimes the shoreward coconut traces are made fast to a

‘* yolkotuwa ”’ for soaking coconut husks. A great quantity of

coir yarn is required in the making of the fences for binding the

horizontal slips to the upright poles.

The jakotuwas are numerous, extending far up the river, being

very thick about the Gorakapola ferry, beyond the 16th milestone

from Colombo ; about the 14th milestone they become rarer, and are

usually only single, on account of the width of the river here. Not

many were visible from the Moratuwa bridge near the 12th mile-

stone in December, but when crossing the bridge again at the end

of May I saw a large one above the bridge close to the spot, where

there is a permanent wooden hut for fish watchers in the river.

The jakotuwa system is the chief method of fishery in the Panadure

river, and constitutes a remarkably brisk industry. Even the stretch-

ing of the “ atoniya ” across the central channel need not be objected

to, so long as men are in attendance ; but nothing should be allowed

to block this channel when fishermen are not standing by. The

Panadure river, together with the Bolgoda lake, is a great tidal

backwater, sometimes nearly fresh, sometimes brackish, without

any direct mountain source. It is connected by canals with the

Kelani-ganga to the north and the Kalu-ganga to the south. The

Lunawa lake, between Colombo and Panadure, which joins the sea

(during the north-east season) at Angulana, is a separate sheet of

water, and is also the seat of a jakotuwa fishery.

Colombo Museum, A. WILLEY.

July 20, 1908.

8. A Cobra on the Threshing-floor.—On February 27 last while

watching the threshing of paddy in a field near Rayigama, not far

from Horana, a cobra of immense ‘proportions formed one of the

party, gliding about near the threshing-floor quite calmly, in spite

of the presence of over a dozen persons and the usual clamour that

accompanies the operation of threshing in this country. As the

reptile moved about it passed between the legs of one of the men,

who stood his ground as unconcernedly as the Colossus at Rhodes.

I endeavoured to convince the company of the unwisdom of allowing

the reptile to go free, but no one was enthusiastic about a hunt and

slaughter. Their attitude was said to have arisen from a belief that

the snake was an incarnation of a deceased owner of, or claimant to,

the field, and that so far from doing it injury it was their duty to

welcome the visitor and take advantage of the opportunity offered

NOTES. 153

of propitiating it. The more reasonable, if unromantic, explanation

would seem to be that the cobra was after field rats which frequent

the neighbourhood of threshing-floors.

March 7, 1908. C. DRIEBERG.

9. The Moorman’s Dagger (see Spolia Zeylanica, Vol. IIT.,

p. 213).—The dagger or ‘‘ kathar ” is undoubtedly the same as is used

by Charans and Bhats in Gujarat, Kathiawad, and Rajputana.

By them it is commonly used for purposes of suicide, to which they

resort when they have stood surety for a chief and the chief breaks

his word. It also always accompanies their signature on documents

a8 a mark, usually drawn as under :—

ae or |B

A note on it will be found in Forbes’s Rasmala. There is a very

well-known Gujarat (Kathiawad) tradition of voyages to Ceylon,

especially from Saurashtra, 7.e., the modern Junagahd, &c. Java

is definitely stated by all Gujarat tradition to have been colonized

from there by a cadet of one of the Rajput houses. Query :—

Can this dagger have thus been acclimatized in Ceylon, and is it

known in Java ?

December, 1907. OTTO ROTHFELD, I.C.S.

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AN ITINERARY OF THE VEDDA COUNTRY. 155

, LI8

AN ITINERARY OF THE VEDDA COUNTR ae

By C. G, Seriemann, M.D., and Brenva Z. Seriemayny “4%

ae describing the route followed and some of the incidents

that occurred during a recent sojourn in the Vedda country, it

is perhaps worth while to refer, for the benefit of others who may be

engaged in similar work in the East (e.g., in the Malay Peninsula),

to the great assistance derived from a preliminary survey of the

country conducted from a motor car and without going further on

foot from the main road than ten miles. Opinions at Colombo and

Kandy varied greatly as to the prospect of successful work among

the Veddas ; two views were generally held : the first asserted that

there were no genuine Veddas left—half-breeds and Village Veddas

there were, and with these it would no doubt be possible to make

friends ; the other view referred to the extreme shyness of the hosts

of Veddas who, clad only in leaves, still roamed about the wilder

parts of the Island. It was pointed out that not only should we be

unable to find these, but that this was really as well, for should we

chance to surprise them we might expect to be riddled with arrows.

As might have been anticipated, the truth as to the existence of

“wild” Veddas lay between these two extremes, and it was by

quickly visiting a number of settled Veddas by means of a motor

car, and ascertaining the direction from which they had come, that

a route was plotted which enabled the greater number of existing

Vedda groups to be visited, and ultimately led to satisfactory inter-

course with a number of the few Veddas uncontaminated by recent

Sinhalese or Tamil influence.

After leaving Bandarawela the first halt was made at Bibile,

- where, among a number of coins and pebbles collected by the rest-

house keeper and brought by him for sale, there was noted a moder-

ately good example of the type of quartz implement discovered by

Messrs. Green and Pole. An early start the next morning permitted

of an interview with a number of the Veddas and half-breeds settled

on the big chena at Rerenkada in the neighbourhood of Kallodi ; of

_ fifteen folk seen here only one man and woman appeared to be even

moderately pure-blooded Veddas : the woman was only 53% inches

tall, while the man measured 63 inches. The next stop was made

a few miles further on at Maha-oya, and the afternoon was spent in

talking to three Veddas from Omuni ; these men were too poor to

pay the tax of a rupee and a half due from each of them, and had

yo 7(12)08

156 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

just been brought down to spend a week working on the road in lieu

of their tax. They were not pure-blooded Veddas. In spite of this,

their thin hungry appearance pointed to the truth of their story that

they were really short of food, and that if they were kept from home

for a week their wives and families would be reduced to a condition

of starvation. Luckily Mr. G. W. Woodhouse, the District Judge,

believed their story and sent them back to their village, for when we

visited Omuni about a week later, although we were met with the

customary gift of honey, to which were added a few berries, it was

obvious that even the small number of folk left in the settlement were

really short of food, and this in spite of a number of families having

left some time before to wander into Tamankaduwa, where they

hoped to get yams, and perhaps some game. Indeed, so short of

food were these people that, in spite of the interest one of us (B. Z. 8.)

inspired, a number of women left the village immediately after our

arrival, explaining that if they did not go and find some yams they

and their children would get nothing to eat that night.

The folk of Omuni share with the people of Mudugala, now living

at Unuwatura Bubule, about four miles from Maha-oya, the pos-

session of some most interesting beads, the like of which we did not

see elsewhere among the Veddas. At Omuni they are worn by the

women and regarded as heirlooms, and descend from grandmother

to granddaughter; or, when a woman dies before a granddaughter

is born, from mother to daughter; and it appears to be usual for a

grandmother to give a number of her beads to a granddaughter

soon after the latter’s birth, and again at her marriage. At Unu-

watura Bubule these beads are not worn, as they are regarded as

too precious—indeed they are considered quasi-sacred, at least as

the property of the yakku, and are used in the ceremonial dances in

which the yakku are invoked. The beads themselves, which are

much worn, are of glass, generally red or green, and have been identi-

fied at the British Museum as Venetian beads of the sixteenth

or seventeertth century—indeed most of the actual patterns are

identical with the beads in a traveller’s sample book preserved in

the Museum.

From Maha-oya our route lay to Batticaloa, where, after a delay

to pick up an interpreter kindly put at our disposal by Mr. Freeman,

we went on to Kalkudah in order to visit the coast Veddas to the

north of Batticaloa. Although these coast Veddas, or Verdas as

they call themselves, have intermarried with the Tamils and have

adopted many Tamil customs, they still have remains of the old

clan system of the Veddas, and although they usually speak Tamil,

the majority of them say they have a language of their own which

they consider to be the old Vedda language, and which was found

to be Sinhalese. They have roughly built temples, and we were told

independently in two settlements that the chief agency worshipped

was called Kapalpé or Kabalpé, ¢.e., “‘ ship spirit.” At first we

AN ITINERARY OF THE VEDDA COUNTRY. 157

feared some misunderstanding, but when one of us was shown within

one of their temples, into which after some trouble he was allowed

to penetrate, a small model of a ship partly square rigged was seen,

and it was stated that at a special ceremony this was hoisted to the

top of a pole some thirty feet tall which stood outside the temple ;

it appeared that there was no reason to doubt the substantial accu-

racy of the information given, and the matter.is brought forward

here in the hope that some of the readers of Spolia may be able and

willing to give some details of this worship, and perhaps trace its

origin. On the way back from Batticaloa we stopped at Kallodi,

and here, from the remains of the folk of Unapane and Idipola we

obtained the first hint of the possible existence of the remains of a

hunting language, for an informant, of whom we asked the words

for bear and deer, showed considerable hesitation before he would

give these words.

We reached Bandarawela with some hours to spare, which were

spent on the patanas quite close to the town, where we were de-

lighted to find a number of flakes and worked fragments of quartz.

We returned to Colombo, and after a certain amount of delay,

caused, first, by the necessity of overhauling gear and going through

the collections in the Colombo and Kandy Museums, and subse-

quently by the wet weather, work was begun with Bibile as base.

Through lack of appreciation of the amount of fresh food that was

always obtainable in the jungle, we were unduly hampered at the

outset by the amount of tinned food and biscuit that we carried,

and the number of our éavalam bulls was unnecessarily great. The

first day’s march was to the Public Works Department bungalow

at Nilgala, where, owing to the unexpectedly wet weather, several

days were spent. On the way to Nilgala we passed a number of

graves of the village Sinhalese, usually occurring in groups of two or

three ; the litter, ornamented with red and white, on which the body

is carried to the grave, being left to decay by the side of the burial

mound. Mr. Bibile, who had been attached to us as interpreter and

assistant, told us that usually each family had its own burial area.

In spite of the wet the time spent at Nilgala bungalow was/ not

wasted, for we were kept busy making colour and other tests wpon

the local Sinhalese for comparison with the results which we hoped

later to obtain from the Veddas. A number of optical illusions were

also shown these people, who were most interested, and saw nearly

all the illusions well, afterwards explaining the reason of parallel

line illusions to each other with much excitement and illustrating

their reasoning on their fingers. ;

On the first fine morning we started early for the Danigala Veddas,

about eighteen of whom are all that remain of the Nilgala Veddas,

who in 1858 numbered 72 souls.* The road was interesting, for it

* J. Bailey: ‘‘ Wild Tribes of the Veddads of Ceylon.”’ Trans. Ethn. Soc.,

1863, p. 28. '

158 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

soon crossed the Kalugalbemma, with its extraordinary surface of

rounded and spherical masses of stone. This is figured on the maps

and usually described as an old road leading from Anuradhapura

eastwafds, but, as pointed out by Mr. James Parsons, the Chief

Mineral Surveyor, this alleged road is a natural dyke of dolerite

which extends for many miles across the country. About six miles

from Nilgala we reached the site of one of the camps of the Drs.

Sarasin, and we soon plunged down the face of a wooded rocky hill,

descending some 450 feet in twenty minutes. Then, crossing a

small talawa and a stream our way led up a similar but loftier hill,

till at a height of about 1,200 feet we came on a rounded shoulder

of rock, on which stood the skeleton hut of the Danigala Veddas,

built on the.pattern of the ordinary village Vedda habitation, but

entirely lacking the slats of bark which make the sides of these

moderately weather-proof. By its side there was an even rougher

shelter consisting of a large bough with the smaller branches over-

laid with banana leaves. Near the hut were the “ patriarch ”

Kaira and three other men; there were also present three women

and a boy of about twelve and two much younger children, and

although both of the latter had many teeth they suckled persistently.

Kaira, who is the vidané of the group, has a number of swellings on

the abdomen which are adherent to the skin and firm to the touch ;

the largest is hemispherical and as big as half an orange. He attri-

butes these to stings of bambara, the rock bee, but since we saw no

similar masses subsequently, although we met many Veddas who

must have been frequently stung while honey-taking, this does not

seem very likely, and these masses are almost certainly fatty tumours.

We did not get much information from the Danigala Veddas, who

were, however, perfectly ready to be photographed and to discuss

generalities, but who did not speak unless addressed. We put this

down to shyness, and so, after a short visit, returned to the bun-

galow, having, after obtaining permission to do so from Kaira,

determined*to make our first camp at the foot of the hill on which

the hut was perched. Accordingly on our next visit a small camp

was made, and the next morning we reached the top of the hill in

good time, and found the same folk there, but after a little talk we

discovered that it was not possible to learn anything of their cus-

toms from them, for they lied freely in answer to all genealogical

questions, maintaining that there were no more members of their

group. We then proposed that we should go and see their other

houses on a chena, said to be less than an hour’s walk from their look-

out hut. This request was met with a blank refusal, and Mr. Bibile

explained that the old man asked him not to tell the white folk about

their affairs, and the cultivation they did, and the grain they had

stored ; in fact, from what we learnt on that morning and subse-

quently from peasant Sinhalese of the neighbourhood, it is clear

that the Danigala community have adopted the role of professional

AN ITINERARY OF THE VEDDA COUNTRY. 159

primitive men. Quite a number of the village Sinhalese have deal-

ings with these folk, who herd their cattle, the Veddas receiving

in return every fifth calf that is born. Synthesismg what we heard,

it appears that in the ordinary course of events the Nilgala headman

sends word when strangers are expected; then the folk we saw

repair to their very striking hut on the rock dome and post a look-out

on a big rock about half way up, and on our second visit the leading

man of our party who was carrying the camera stated that he saw a

Vedda bolting from this rock as we came up. These folk, who, when

we saw them, wore their Vedda loin-cloths and were smeared with

ashes, are reported to wear ordinary Sinhalese clothes when not in

their professional pose, and Mr. Bibile, who has himself seen one or

more of them in sarongs, points out that the imposture is kept up

for two main reasons : firstly, they fear that their cultivation might

be stopped ‘evidently an echo of the chena difficulty of the Eastern

Province), or that they might be taxed if they did not appear to be

poor fellows living on hardly-won jungle produce ; and secondly,

their pose of poverty interests strangers and procures them visitors,

whose generosity varies directly as the degree of primitiveness with

‘which appeal is made to them.

Under these circumstances, it did not take long for us to decide to

move to Ambilinne, whence we should be able to reach the Hene-

bedda and Kolombedda Veddas. These folk occupy the land

immediately to the east of the Danigala rock massif, but as it was

quite impossible to get our baggage across the hills, it was thought best

to return to Nilgala and thence follow the track to the Public Works

Department bungalow at Ambilinne. Here we had the opportu-

nity of getting to know four of the younger men of the Henebedda

community. We gave them rice and curry materials, and it was

interesting to find how extremely pungent they made their curry,

which suggests that they have long been acquainted with Sinhalese

cookery, for previous experience in the Pacific and in Borneo had

seemed to show that folk unaccustomed to hot and spicy food con-

* sidered even a slight amount of pungency most objectionable. They

passed the night on sacking on our verandah and were immensely

interested in everything that went on, being especially pleased with

a little boxwood top which they learned to spin immediately. About

nine they quite spontaneously began to sing and dance, the

rhythm being supplied by their song and the slapping of their hands

on their chests and flanks; but beyond this there was very little

regularity in the performance. In one figure, in which an arrow was

struck in the ground, the performers began to move round it clock-

wise with their right hands inwards, but very soon one dancer was

circling i the opposite direction between the other two, who were

still moving clockwise. The two performers who had not struck

their arrows into the ground held these in front of them in their

hands, which were separated by the length of the shaft, while their

160 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

bodies were somewhat bent forward over the arrows, which were

moved from side to side as they danced. The steps were taken with

the legs tolerably wide apart, the weight of the body being supported

on one leg while the other was scraped along the ground by some-

what tilting the pelvis. This movement took place on the two legs

alternately, a double step (somewhat as in polka) being sometimes

substituted for the scrape. After a little time, when the circling

movement had been entirely broken up, and all three men were

dancing more or less independently, they shouted Ah-h, and pointing

their arrows at the sky, waved them furiously before suddenly falling

supine in a condition of pretended exhaustion and unconsciousness.

The fallen men were at once lifted up and supported by a number of

Sinhalese, who had by this time been attracted to the bungalow,

and the Veddas then came to us and promised game in abundance,

giving, as we subsequently discovered, a remarkably good imitation

of the ritual of their shaman when he is possessed by the yakku.

When they were shown the phonograph, comparatively little per-

suasion was required to get them to sing into it, though some of the

English songs which we gave them impressed them not at all ; but

when the song was reproduced which one of them, Sitawanniya by

name, had sung into the machine, they were greatly amazed, though

they were neither so scared nor so shy as a Papuan would have been.

Their astonishment was expressed by placing one hand over the

mouth and chin with its palmar surface towards the face, the fingers

spread on either side of the nose and mouth so as to cover the more

or less nervous grin which was to be seen on all their faces.

At the time of our visit the Henebedda and Kolombedda Veddas

were gathered in two caves, or more properly shallow rock shelters,

called Bendiagalgé, in that portion of the jungle known as Hene-

bedda, and our camp was formed about 200 yards from these caves.

We stayed in this camp for some time and found the Veddas excel-

lent informants, the only difficulty we experienced being to prevent

them wandering away when the novelty of our visit had worn off

after the first two or three days. This was overcome partly by”

small presents, but more we think by making them free of our camp—

a freedom which they never abused—and by keeping a constant

supply of chewing materials (arecanut, betel, tobacco, and lime) at

their disposal. It was, of course, necessary to feed our informants,

who had no store of food to fall back upon, and as we had not

expected to meet so many folk, a part of the tavalam was sent back

to Bibile to fetch an extra supply of kurakkan, (millet), which, with

smaller amounts of coconut and rice, kept themreasonably contented.

It may be well to record, for the possible benefit of others, that an

effort which had been made to retain a small number of the best

informants in our camp and to allow the others to go did not succeed.

The less desirable, because less knowledgeable, individuals would

return to the caves and the camp after short’ absences to see how we

ee ees

ge 161),

iagaleé (pa

.—Bendi

Fig. 1

AN ITINERARY OF THE VEDDA COUNTRY. 16]

were getting on, and it was soon obvious that these also must be fed

if any regular work was to be done. The extreme courtesy and con-

sideration of these somewhat sophisticated Veddas, although not so

great as that of the wilder groups we were to meet later, made all

our dealings, including the serving out of supplies, easy, slight

awkwardnesses or mistakes being often hailed with roars of almost

childish merriment. We record these facts deliberately, as they

are contrary to the statements that have so often been made con-

cerning the Veddas, and we may point out that all the Veddas we

met, although somewhat shy, were merry, courteous, kindly, géner-

ous, and truthful folk, the only exceptions being found among the

members of communities such as Danigala and Dambani, who are

accustomed to pose to visitors as primitive Veddas.

It is not the purpose of this slight sketch to describe our work or

the results we obtained, but in view of the recent discussion on

quartz implements discovered by Messrs. Green and Pole, and lately

desciibed in the Ceylon Observer and in this journal by the Drs.

Sarasin, we give here a short account of the results of our explora-

tion of the Bendiagalgé caves. These consist of two rock shelters

formed by a single mass of rock, broadly speaking rectangular in

shape, with its long axis running roughly in a N.-S. direction. The

rock mass is somewhat tilted, so that its southern edge is high above

the talawa, towards which its northern extremity slopes, and the

whole rock somewhat resembles an immense wedge. Its eastern

face has weathered so as to form two rock shelters ; each of these has

a well-cut drip ledge in no respect differing from those admittedly

cut by the Sinhalese about the time that Buddhism was introduced

to the Island, and the lower cave has in addition two square sockets

cut in its roof resembling those discovered by Mr. F. Lewis at Nu-

waragala and figured by him, and such as we afterwards saw at

Mullegamagalgé. Further, there are three steps cut in the solid

rock between the two rock shelters and other smaller steps, and signs

of ancient working are to be found about the rock mass. Figure 1

is a photograph of the upper of the two caves showing the drip

ledge ; the figure also shows two sets of steps hewn from the rock.

There is no inscription on the rocks of either of these caves, but

below the drip ledge of a rock shelter used by the same community

of Veddas, and not more than an hour’s walk from Bendiagalgé,

there is an inscription, of which Mr. H. C. P. Bell says :—‘ The

Brahmi (characters) ‘are of the oldest type, therefore B.C.’ This

inscription has been read by the same authority, to whom my

best thanks are due, as ‘‘ (cave of) the chief........ son of the chief

Vela.” There is thus reason to suppose that the Bendiagalgé caves

were used by the Sinhalese some 2,006 years ago, and this together

with the present occupancy by the Veddds makes it worth while

to record the results of our excavation, although we had not time

to make it complete. .

162 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

The nature of its bottom made the lower cave the easier to

examine, and so a longitudinal trench was dug in the longer axis of

the cave. The results of the excavation of the first two feet may

at present be ignored ; massive rock, which was taken to be the bed

rock of the cave, was reached at about 24 feet, and the interest of the

excavation centres in the lowest few inches immediately above the

cave floor under a deposit roughly 2 feet in thickness. In this zone —

just above the bed rock there were found many fragments of quartz, -

some milky, some ice-clear, some faintly opalescent, some smoky,

and some amethystine. A few of these were as big as hen’s eggs,

the majority varied from the size of an apricot to a haricot bean,

some were even smaller. From the larger number of pieces of

quartz—nearly 300—collected at the depth mentioned from this

trench, and a smai trench driven at right angles to it, as well as the

absence of pieces of country rock, there can be no doubt that these

pieces of quartz were brought to the site in which they were found by

man. They were not waterworn, and the variety of colour and

opacity they presented make it certain that they had not weathered

out in situ, in spite of the fact that quartz (but not as far as we

could determine ice-clear quartz) occurs in segregation masses in the

gneissic rock of the neighbourhood. When all the fragments were

carefully washed and examined it was found that some 3 per cent.

of the pieces of quartz obtained from this cave showed signs of work-

ing. They are in fact implements similar to those shown me by

Messrs. Green and Pole.

Additional proof that the fragments of quartz had been brought

by man to the site on which they were found, was afforded by some

irregular digging done in the upper cave formed by the same rock

mass as the lower cave, and separated from it only by a few feet.

The floor of this cave was so rocky that a regular trench could not be

dug, but a number of holes—the largest perhaps 6 feet by 4 feet—

were dug down to what was apparently the country rock at the _

bottom of the cave. Fragments of pottery and the bones of animals

were found in plenty in these holes, but altogether they yielded only

four pieces of quartz, namely, two waterworn pebbles and two

broken pieces of clear glassy quartz.

A well-marked bulb of percussion is present in a number of the

quartz implements ; this applies both to those in Mr. Pole’s collec-

tion and to those we collected : some are worked on both edges,

others on one side only. In the majority the working is somewhat

rough, though this is not to be wondered at considering the refrac-

tory nature of the material, but a few of the best in the Pole

collection would be considered pretty specimens had they been

produced in soft stone.

As regards the type of these quartz implements, tlfere seems no

good reason to consider them other than neolithic ; and except for

the material of which they are composed, many of the specimens

Fic. 2.—Mullegamagalgé, showing the arch leading into the hall of

the cave (page 163).

Fic. 3.—Mullegamagalgé: the under surface of the overhang

(page 163).

AN ITINERARY OF THE VEDDA COUNTRY. 163

differ in no respect from implements of the neolithic age found in

Europe. ©

Although the folk of Bendiagalgé have bows, they do not seem to

use them very much. Some of the younger men are certainly ac-

customed to guns, and as their stalking is magnificent they kill a

good deal of game when they have a gun of their own or can borrow

one from the Sinhalese. But in spite of the little use of the bow,

the arrow is still their almost universal tool, and as there was no

knife in the community we had the opportunity of seeing the remark-

able skill with which a deer was skinned and cut up with an arrow.

The Veddas certainly desired no better tool, and when we pressed a

butcher’s knife on one of them in order to see how he would handle

the unaccustomed tool, it was interesting to note how slowly he

worked and how poor the result was compared with that he obtained

with the arrow, which he held just above the blade somewhat as a

European holds a penholder. No less astonishing was the skill

employed in removing the skull cap with a few strokes of the axe:

not only was the brain lifted out entire, but it was removed so neatly

and cleanly that the result was more suggestive of an anatomical

preparation than a piece of butcher’s work.

On our return to Ambilinne a day was devoted to a visit to a big

cave, Mullegamagalgé, which lies less than a mile to the north of the

Ambilinne-Namal-oya road. The character of the scenery changes

some 34 miles from Ambilinne, the open park country giving place

to thicker jungle. About four or perhaps five miles from Ambilinne

we loft the track and worked our way through jungle uphill for about

three quarters of a mile until we reached the cave situated on a rock

ledge. The front of the cave had been closed by a brick wall about

24 feet thick and about 25 yards long, the bricks being covered with

a stucco-like casing, apparently of rough plaster. There are two

doors in the wall with hard wood frames, which have been attacked

by wood-boring bees, and there is also an open arch with no evidence

of a door having been fitted to it which opens into the cave (figure 2).

The inclined rock which forms the roof of the cave overhangs the

wall by 10 feet or more, and a drip-ledge is cut out in this which at

one end is continuous with a second drip-ledge cut almost vertically

down the face of the cliff, the two forming a system admirably

arranged so as to carry off to one end of the ledge the water, which,

even when we visited the cave after a few days of dry weather, drop-

ped continuously from the rock forming its roof. The under surface

of the highest part of the overhang of the rock is shown in figure 3,

but we do not feel capable of pronouncing whether the step-like

arrangement of the rock is due to natural planes of fission or whether

the rock has in part been worked smooth. A number of square

holes, judged to be some 9 inches deep, had been cut into the solid

rock of the overhang about 3 feet above the junction of the wall and

the rock; three of these can be seen dimly in figure 3.

2A ‘ 7(12)08

164 SPOLIA ZEYLANIGA.

On entering the cave we disturbed an immense number of bats

who had taken it for their own. The whole place literally swarmed

with them, and as the floor had a covering of two or three inches

of their dung, the odour was most oppressive. Entering by the arch

we found ourselves in a hall about 14 yards long by about 8 broad,

the back of which, consisting of a brick wall, is pierced by four

doors, each leading into a separate cell, the sloping roof of the cave

forming the back walls of them all, as wel! as the outer side walls of

the two outer cells. The partition walls between the cells are made

of brick covered with a layer of mud or plaster. The two ends of

the cave are separated from the main hall by low mud walls, which

do not reach to the top of the cave; both present a rectangular gap

through which the hall communicates with the small antechamber

which these walls cut off, one of which has a door communicating

with the exterior. Ona “table” built up of bricks and mud in the

hall there is a large flat stone with a circular excavation on its upper ~

surface about 2 feet in diameter and half an inch deep. A similar

stone was found lying on the floor in that antechamber which com-

municates with the outside of the cave. Figure 4, reproduced from

a flashlight photograph, shows a number of these features. It was_

taken with the camera pointed obliquely down the length of the

hall, and shows the inner wall and the doorway leading into one

of the cells. The stone with the circular depression is also shown

against this wall, while the low wall with its rectangular opening

leading into one of the small end chambers, into which daylight

streams through a gap in the outer wall of the cave, occupies the

background of the photograph. The subjoined plan will make

clear the arrangement of the chambers of this cave.

Plan, not to Scale, of Mullegamagalgé.

A, main hall; B, antechambers; C, cells; D, doors; E, arch.

At one end of the wall closing in the front of the cave, where some

bricks had worked loose, it could be seen that the lowest tier of bricks

was laid on the face of the rock separated only by a layer of cement,

formed of crushed pieces of quartz set in some adhesive substance,

and part of the floor of the central and largest chamber of the cave

seemed to be covered with the same substance. The local ideas

concerning this cave are, that long ago it was the habitation of Vedda

chiefs, and that it was used again in 1818 by refugees during the

Rebellion, to whom the bricked-in front and the brick walls of the

cells within the cave are attributed.

Fic. 4.—Mullegamagalgé: view inside the hall of the cave, showing the

stone with circular depression on a brick table against

the wall (page 164).

Fie. 5.—Hemberawa. A buffalo skull is seen at the base of a betel vine

(page 169).

AN ITINERARY OF THE VEDDA COUNTRY. 165

Our next camp was formed at Kotalinda inthe Eastern Province,

beyond Namal-oya. On our way there we met a community of

gypsies. These folk travel with large herds of cattle and goats, and

appear to subsist by doing a trade in these, and by begging, snake-

charming, thieving, and blackmailing. Their camp consisted of a

number of scattered shelters, more or less circular in outline and

formed of leaves of the talipot palm. Many of the men have medium

brown or hazel coloured eyes and are very good-looking, some having

distinctly aquiline noses. The women, who are less good-looking,

would pass as Tamils, but were immediately differentiated from all

the Tamil women we had seen by the masses of ornaments they

wore, many of them being literally covered with bangles and neck-

laces, the former made of silver, brass, and some silver-like alloy,

and the necklaces composed of glass or shell beads. They were said

to speak a dialect of Telegu, and they told us that their ancestors

had come from the neighbourhood of Madras, though the members

of the community we saw had all been born in Ceylon. They say

they worship and dance the god at Kataragam, whom they call

Yelnoth, identifying him with the Tamil’s Kanda Sdémi. The fore-

arms of the majority of the women were tattooed, the patterns

looking as though they might have been flower derivatives ; there

were also small tattoo marks on the foreheads and temples of most

of the women.

We were detained in the neighbourhood of Kotalinda for some

days, partly owing to wet weather, but more to the determination

of the villagers to assist us as little and as slowly as possible in clear-

ing away the trees that had fallen across the track during the cyclone

of the year before, so that they might make us believe that there

was a great deal to do and be paid accordingly. It was not till a

week after we had left Namal-oya that we reached Bandaradiwa,

where there was a large Sinhalese chena settlement with two Vedda

houses on it. These Banddradiwa folk and a few scattered families

living in the neighbourhood are all that remain of the Kovil Vana-

mai Veddas, a group of whom we had heard a good deal, and who

twenty years ago appear to have been very much in the condition

of the present Henebedda Veddas, that is to say, a community

making rough chenas and building good chena huts, but still passing

part of their time in caves and living to a certain extent on game

and honey. - It was; however, immediately clear that these Veddas

had much foreign blood in their veins, for all the men were over five

feet high. .

The day after our arrival a Vedda called Kaira came to our camp

sobbing and shaking, and protested that he could not stay with us

as his brother was dead. He seemed deeply affected, though an-

other brother, Kaurdla, who was with him, appeared quite calm,

which led us to suspect that his uncontrollable agitation was due

to something more than mere affection for the dead man, and we

soon discovered that his brother had died in his hut, and it was

‘166 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

therefore his duty to make an offering to the Buddhist priest and to

provide the necessities for a dance to the Ne Yakd, and that he had

not the wherewithal to fulfil these duties. If these matters were

neglected the spirit of the dead man would be angry, and after seven

days, when the spirit had become a yaka, would cause sickness, and

probably kill him. His manifest relief when we offered him the

money needed to purchase the offerings, showed that his sorrow

for the loss of his brother was the least of his troubles, and he was

quite gay when he started on his twenty-mile walk to the nearest

boutique with Rs. 3°50 in his betel pouch, and readily assented to

our condition that he must return and perform the Ne Yaku dance

near our camp. He declared that the place of the dance was im-

material, but that it must occur on the seventh day after death,

because on the third day the spirit visited the Kataragam god, who,

on the seventh day, gave it permission to receive offerings and to

exercise power for good or evil over its living relatives.

The things which it was necessary to present to the Buddhist

priest and their price in cents at the native boutique were :—Three

measures of rice, 60; two coconuts, 20; five balls of jaggery, 15;

twenty-five arecanuts, 6 ; five tobacco leaves, 12; 100 betel leaves,

18 ; one plate, 30 ; one cup, 25; one mat, 25; one handkerchief, 36 ;

half bottle of coconut oil, 50; total, Rs. 2°97. Onthe other hand,

the offering to the Ne Yaku consisting of rice, betelnuts, and a coco-

nut, costing less than 50 cents. Notwithstanding this unpromising

beginning the Ne Yaku dance they performed seemed to be entirely

Vedda in purpose and feeling, agreeing closely with that seen later

among the “‘ wild’? Veddas near Nuwaragala, the chief feature of

both dances being that the dancer possessed by the spirit of the dead

man, on seeing the good things provided by his relatives, showed

his lovingkindness to them by feeding them with part of the offering

and promising them protection and good hunting.

While at Bandaradtiwa we also had the opportunity of seeing a

Sinhalese ‘‘ devil” ceremony at the village of Gonagola, some four

miles from Banddradiwa. The ceremony was got up to cure a

woman and child of what seemed to be chronic malaria, though the

woman also had a number of chronic sores which suggested multiple

granulomata. The ceremony, which began about 2.30 p.m., lasted

about six hours, the katiadirdla being possessed by a number of

demons in turn, to all of whom offerings of various foods were made.

A living fowl was offered to one of the demons, Riri Yaka by name,

but no masks were worn, and the ceremony could not begin until

fresh blood, other than the blood of a fowl, of which there were many

running about the village, had been obtained. To this end the

villagers borrowed a gun from a member of our party, and although

nominal Buddhists, having shot a monkey but not quite killed “it,

they could not be persuaded to kill it until the rice with which the

blood was to be mixed was cooked, since the fresher its blood the

more pleasing it would be to the spirits invoked.

AN ITINERARY OF THE VEDDA COUNTRY. 167

From Banddradtiwa a long day’s walk brought us to Uniche,

where we arrived tired and in advance of our carriers, to be most

hospitably entertained by the Engineer in charge of the construction

of the bund of the big new tank. After sleeping that night in un-

wonted luxury in the Irrigation bungalow, we went on to Tumpa-

lamcholai, and from there to Maha-oya, whence, with the resthouse

as our base, we made a number of trips to the Vedda communities

in the neighbourhood. The most interesting of these was a visit to

four families that lived in the wild country to the south of Nuwara-

gala. These folk make no chena and have no huts, but live a wan-

dering existence, spending their time in caves and rock shelters and

living entirely on game, yams, and honey. We had heard vaguely

of this group of Veddas for some time past, and had tried to reach

them from the neighbourhood of Bandéradtiwa, as, if this had been

possible, it would have saved us the long and wearisome tramp to

Tumpalamcholai, but there had been illicit chena making in the

neighbourhood, and every effort had been made to lead us off by the

local drachchi, and it was only after the matter had been taken up

by Mr. G. D. Templer of the Forest Department that we were able

to reach them. Among the most interesting things we saw among

these people were the rough drawings of men, dogs, elephants, and

leopards with which the walls of their caves were decorated. These

drawings are made by moistening wood-ash with saliva, and drawing

on the walls of the cave with the finger dipped in the paste thus pro-

duced ; the spots of the leopards being indicated by dots of black

made by working up charcoal with a little saliva. These drawings

were extremely crude and rougher than the Australian cave drawings,

which have been described by many observers, though they did not

compare unfavourably in artistic skill with some of the rock drawings

of the North Queensland aborigines, of which, indeed, one of us was

strongly reminded.

There are a number of other small Vedd4 communities within a

few miles of Maha-oya, who, though more sophisticated than the

Nuwaragala community, well repaid visiting. Those of Mudugala,

now settled at the hot water springs (Unuwatura-bubule) within a

couple of miles of Maha-oya, although socially much influenced by

the surrounding Sinhalese, must be regarded as tolerably pure

blooded, for they are all extremely short men—the shortest member

of. this community being only 534 inches—while two other men who

seemed about the average height of the people were 56 and 56}

inches respectively.

From Maha-oya we went on to Kallodi, where we were Bee

for a couple of days by the temporary loss of three of our bulls, that

were finally caught some ten miles from where they had got away

from.our tavalam leader. Part of this time was spent in the partial

excavation of a cave on the slopes of Kokagala hill. The roof of

this cave was horizontal, the shelter having been formed by the

wearing away of a soft horizontal stratum. A trench, some 12 feet

168 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

long, was first cut ; immediately under the superficial soil were two

layers of bricks, directly below which there lay a flat worked stone

with a flange cut on one surface of it. The stone itself was nearly

3 feet long by some 15 inches broad and about 5 inches thick. So

far no bone or fragments of pottery had been found, and it was not

until a depth of about 30 inches was reached that fragments of pot-

tery appeared. Nearly a foot lower we found a considerable quan-

tity of coral, some bones, a couple of pieces of very poor iron ore or

very rich slag, fragments of pots, and a number of badly preserved

pieces of wood charcoal. Below this there was a fine gray layer of

ashes about six inches thick, resting upon what appeared to be the

bedrock floor of the cave. Only a,very few pieces of quartz, and

these such as might easily have got there without human assistance,

were found, so that there was nothing to show that this cave was

ever inhabited by the same folk who at one time occupied the

Bendiagalgé caves and left their worked quartz implements behind

them. A good drip-ledge is cut on the rock above the mouth of the’ |

cave, onthe roof of which, some 5 or 6 feet above the present floor

level, there are a few traces of a whitish substance which may be the

remains of rotten plaster.

From Maha-oya we walked to Alutnuwara, stopping on the way

at several settlements of Village Veddas. These are the people

visited and so well described by Deschamps, and we are able to con-

firm all he says as to their unpleasant behaviour. They live in well-

built huts and have good chenas, and do a considerable traffic with

Sinhalese hawkers, a couple of whom were staying in the village of

Dambani at the time of our visit. These folk have been utterly

spoilt by being sent for to dance and make sport for visitors, generally

more or less distinguished. They ask for presents every five minutes,

and when one manis given a present for any assistance rendered,

every member of the village clamours to receive the same. They

have preserved a number of words, which are not obviously Sinhalese,

or are SinhaleSe periphrases, and speak in a loud, harsh tone; this

being very largely a matter of pose got up to impress the visitors,

though the singularly helpful and kindly Arachchi of Beligala seems

unintentionally to have fostered the habit. He is the usual guide

to visitors who come to see these Veddas, having, as he says, known

them well for thirty years, and he always speaks to them in the same

harsh tone of voice.

We slept a night at Dambani, and early the next morning started

the phonograph, against which even these disagreeable people were

not proof, and with its aid were able to collect a good deal of inform-

ation about the yaku and obtain a number of their songs and incan-

tations. Warned by our experience at Dambani we did not visit

the other big Village Veddaé settlement of Bulugahalandena, but

sent for some of these men to visit us at Beligala, where for a couple

of days we made a most comfortable camp in the outhouses belong-

ing to the Gamarala, whose courtesy was very marked, From here,

AN ITINERARY OF THE VEDDA COUNTRY. 169

after a brief visit to the chena settlement of Welanpelle, which was

certainly not worth the detour we made to reach it, we went on to

Alutnuwara, where we found the main part of our baggage which

had been sent on by the good track from Kallodi.

The Sinhalese new year now made it necessary to give our men a

holiday, so; after a couple of days of quiet spent in working up notes,

we crossed the Mahaweli-ganga and walked to Madugoda, climbing

en route the Gallepadahulla, or pass of one thousand steps, the old

pilgrim route to Alutnuwara. A zig-zag road up the hill, which is

practicable for bulls, has been made, but in spite of this and the

disrepair into which the stone steps of the pass have fallen, we met

a fair number of pilgrims, and, tiring though the climb was, the view

from the top of the pass over Uva and the valley of the Mahaweli-

ganga was certainly worth the effort. After a pleasant week spent

at Kandy we returned by the same route to Alutnuwara, where we

encountered considerable trouble in obtaining coolies, which would

have been really serious if it had not been for the kindness of Mr.

C. Herft, District Engineer, who lent us a batch of road Tamils.

From here we started to walk down the valley of the Mahaweli-ganga

to visit the Vedd4 communities which were said to exist stretching

northwards and eastwards into Tamankaduwa. Although we ex-

pected to find these Veddas had come much under Sinhalese and

Tamil influence, it was necessary to do this in order to obtain a full

list of the Vedda clans (warge), for there were a number of clans of

which we had obtained the names without being able to verify the

existence. Our first halt was made at Hemberawa, about eighteen

miles from Alutnuwara, a compact village of potters who are con-

sidered of so low a caste that the Arachchi, who is theoretically in

charge of them; lives at or in the neighbourhood of Alutnuwara, one

of their own men being appointed Vidané; and making an extremely

efficient village headman. This man told us that he and his people

were the descendants of Vedd4s; whether this accounts for the

greater energy than usual displayed by the villagers seems doubtful,

but we had little difficulty in persuading this man and a number of

his villagers to act as guides and carriers to Polonnaruwa in place of

the Alutnuwara men, who were already clamouring to be sent back.

The houses of the village of Hemberawa are rather unusually closely

crowded together ; very many of them have a potter’s wheel in front

of them under a lightly built thatch, and between the houses there

are many fragments of broken pots, some of them of extremely good

design and evidently portions of vessels of unusual dimensions.

There were a number of young betel vines growing about the village,

and one of these was protected from the evil eye in an interesting

and, as we believe, infrequent manner. Instead of the usual

blackened inverted pot with white designs on it, the skull of a buffalo

was carefully placed at the foot of the prop up which the vine was

climbing, in order, as we were assured, to exert the protective

influence already alluded to (figure 5).

170 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

As. the folk of Girandura, the nearest Vedda settlement, were

hopelessly sophisticated and entirely resembled the local Sinhalese,

we walked on next day to Elakotaliya, where it had been alleged that

there were true wild Veddas, but as we did not think this likely we

were not disappointed when the Elakotaliya folk turned out to be a

small group of pleasant, well-nourished people, living on a good

chena, who remembered only a few of their Vedda customs. Passing

the night at Elakotaliya we started in the dusk of the dawn next

morning for Yakure, leaving ourselves time and opportunity to spend

whatever time was desirable at Kalukalaeba, where there is a Vedda

chena. These folk still remember the warge to which they belonged,

but have adopted a Sinhalese mode of life ; so, after a few hours

we went on to Yakure, a large and populous village doing a big

cattle breeding trade and inhabited by folk resembling Tamils and

worshipping Hindt gods, but who still call themselves Veddas and

are of the Vedda clans and observe clan exogamy.

These folk told us that there were Veddas less sophisticated than

themselves at Ulpota and Kohombane, some ten or twelve miles

distant, so we sent for some of these. The headman of these people

knew a few words of the “ Vedda ” or “ jungle” dialect which has

been already referred to, but when asked on what occasions he used

these, replied : ““ When sent for by visitors and Government officers.”

He, however, confirmed the information concerning the clans that we

had already obtained from the folk at Yakure. The next morning

we walked to Polonnaruwa, where we heard of a group of descendants

of Veddas living at a place called Rotéawewa, who make rice fields

in the same way as do their admittedly Sinhalese neighbours, and

a small community who at one time lived near Sigiri. It appeared

that these were the people who have been spoken of as Polonnaruwa

Veddas, but we did not visit their village. After a couple of days at

Polonnaruwa we went on to Sigiri, where we were for the first time

able to approach near enough to a colony of bambara to obtain good

photographs» There ended our journey ia the Veddé country, a

journey leaving, amidst many pleasant recollections, two dominant

remembrances—the extraordinary beauty of the park country and

the charming courtesy of the still unsophisticated remnants of its

inhabitants.

OCCURRENCE OF QUARTZ IN CEYLON. 171

THE MODES OF OCCURRENCE OF QUARTZ IN CEYLON.

By James Parsons, B.Sc., F.G.S.

N view of the attention which has recently been directed to the

occurrence of artcient quartz implements in Ceylon, it may be

of interest to indicate the nature of the varieties of quartz which have

been found in the Island, and the special physical characteristics

of these varieties with reference to their mode of origin.

Quartz may be defined as silica or silicon oxide crystallizing in the

trapezohedral group of the hexagonal system. Its specific gravity

is 2°65 ; its hardness on Mohs’ scale 7, thus easily scratching ordinary

window glass. It melts at a temperature of over 1,400° C., but in

igneous rocks it is, as a rule, the last constituent to solidify, being

moulded by and filling the interstices between other minerals which

in the laboratory have been shown to melt at lowert emperatures.

This reduction of the fusion point is probably due to the presence of

water vapour under great pressure.

Quartz when quite pure is colourless and transparent, but when

impure may be found of all colours from white to black, and be

translucent or opaque.* |

The white colour is due, as a rule, to minute inclusion of gas or

liquid. Shades of green, yellow, red, and blue are due to traces of

metallic oxides, and when dark brown or black it has been shown

that it often contains organic compounds.

When in the form of crystals, these commonly appear as hexagonal

prisms with pointed terminations, which approximate to hexagonal

pyramids. There are usually transverse striations on the prism faces.

The eonchoidal nature of its fracture may be well seen in any arti-

ficially chipped piece of crystalline quartz or flint, when it gives rise

to what is known as the “ bulb of percussion.’ It has practically

no crystal cleavage, 1.e., shows no disposition to split along any

definite plane in relation to its crystal outline. ;

The term quartz will be here taken to include the vitreous or

phenocrystalline forms, to which it is popularly and perhaps correctly

confined, as well as the cryptocrystalline or chalcedonic forms,

including chalcedony and impure forms, such as flint, chert, and

jasper. There is some question whether the cryptocrystalline form

should be considered hexagonal, part at least of the silica in chalce-

-dony appearing to be triclinic.

* Clear quartz is known in Sinhalese as palinguwa and the white translucent

variety as tirwwanda.

+ As shown later a schistosity or slaty cleavage may he developed in quartz

masses.

2B , 7(12)08

132 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Opal is an amorphous, hydrous form of silica. It occurs in

Ceylon in some cherts, and occasionally forms independent masses.

Precious opal is not known to occur in the Island.

Quartz is the most abundant mineral in Ceylon, as indeed it is

in the whole crust of the earth. Taking first the vitreous varieties

known to occur, these have a wide distribution in the series of

erystalline schists or gneiss, of which practically the whole of Ceylon

is composed. In the majority of these it forms an essential con-

_ stituent, and may even be present as an accessory in the crystalline

limestones which occur interfoliated with the gneiss. In the gneiss

it occurs usually in irregular grains moulded by the other rock con-

stituents and interlocked with them. It may also be intergrown

with the felspar in micropegmatitic fashion or extended in parallel

rods. The characteristic colour of charnockite is largely due to the

dark quartz, whichis an important constituent of the rock, but the

cause of this colour in the quartz is obscure. The different divisions

of the gneiss have very varying quartz contents, and bands may be

found ranging from almost quartz-free rocks through types contain-

ing only isolated grains of felspar and garnet to rocks entirely com-

posed of quartz. These granular quartz rocks attain considerable

development over the central part of the Island, forming bands which

may have a thickness of several yards. It is important to note that

the quartz rocks are simply highly siliceous folie of the gneiss, and

not quartz veins. Casual gold prospectors in Ceylon have often

referred to them as “lode quartz,’ and many assays have been made

of the rock, which has only ccasionally shown traces of gold, due

probably to the introduction of the metal by infiltration along

cracks.

When unaffected by earth movements, the rock is more or less

friable, and consists of interlocking grains of white quartz, sometimes

-with occasional grains of kaolinized felspar and garnet. Recent

observations have, however, shown that this granular white quartz

is the source of the greater part of the glass clear quartz and quartz

erystals which are common, but not often observed in situ. It is the

clear quartz derived from the granular quartz which probably forms

the greater part of the material from which the ancient implements

have.been made. The rock is more readily than any other in Ceylon

affected by comparatively slight earth movements. The earliest

stage in this dynamo-metamorphism is to shatter the rock, rendering

it exceedingly friable. This may be seen on a considerable scale

in the mountain ridges dividing Uva from the Central Province,

where the friable character of the quartz caused some difficulty in

tunnelling operations during the construction of the Nanu-oya-

Bandarawela section of the railway. It may also be seen about

Passara and several other localities. The next stage is the develop-

ment of aregular cleavage, which was first observed by me near the

Badulla-Passara road on the flanks of Namunakulakanda. The

* OCCURRENCE OF QUARTZ IN CEYLON. 173

most beautiful and striking case, however, has been lately noted at

Crystal Hillestate near Matale. In one place where the quartz rock

has been thrown into a small low anticline, a regular fine cleavage

has been set up radially to the fold, and the quartz has been entirely

re-crystallized, becoming glass-clear, and, in places, hypidiomorphic

crystals of quartz have been developed, irregularly intergrown with

their long axes parallel to the cleavage. This longitudinal inter-

growth of the crystals sometimes produces forms approaching “‘ scep-

tre quartz,”’ ¢.e., long crystals bearing at one end a stumpy crystal.

A good example of ‘‘sceptre quartz” may be seen in the mineral

gallery of the Colombo Museum, though the origin of that actual

specimen is not known. In the clear quartz are discontinuous

faint milky lines at right angles to the cleavage, which represent the

partings of the original foliation. I would not suggest that all the

idiomorphic and hypidiomorphic quartz crystals found in river

. gravels, especially in the Ratnapura District, originate from the

metamorphism of quartz rock, but it is certainly a mode of origin

which has previously been overlooked.

The passage of granular quartz into homogeneous transparent

quartz may also be well observed on the Passara-Madulsima road,

where the rocks are thrown into undulations at right angles to the

general foliation strike. Here it is the pink or rose quartz that is

_ developed. In places the rock is full of iron ore, probably ilmenite.

On examination of a hand specimen with a lens abundant grains

of garnets are seen. These show no crystal outline, but appear as

pale pink blotches, fading almost insensibly into the surrounding

pink quartz. Under the microscope these garnets are seen to be

elliptical in section, with their long axes parallel. They show obvious

signs of crushing. The quartz is traversed by faint parallel lines

or cracks, also parallel to the long axes of the garnets and marked

by some pale green decomposition product. These cracks appear to

indicate the original grains. Between crossed nicols the whole of

the quartz in the slide, except one grain, extinguishes parallel to

these cracks and to the garnets, indicating that the quartz has been

re-crystallized and oriented in this direttion, which would,be the

direction normal to that in which the metamorphosing strain

occurred. The one grain which is not parallel to the others

extinguishes at an angle of 45° with the general direction.

Under a high power, especially by oblique substage illumination,

the quartz is seen to be crowded with rutile needles, of which a large

number are parallel, arranged at right angles to the garnet axes.

One or two beautifully developed little idiomorphic crystals of

rutile are also seen. The colour of rose quartz is usually attributed

to the presence of titanium dioxide, and the abundant presence of

rutile would confirm the supposition in this case.

Rose quartz is fairly common in the Island, but seldom seen in situ.

When in uncracked pieces of sufficient size it may be cut en cabochon

174 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

as a gem and used for decorative purposes. A good example, show-

ing a star by reflected light, similar to a star sapphire, may be

seen in the mineral collection of the Colombo Museum, to which it

was presented by Mr. W.C. Wild. Cleaved transparent quartz is

found in situ in several places (e.g., near Morawaka) besides the

Matale District, forming knots in the granular quartz. Its com-

parative scarcity, however, im situ may be attributed to the fact

that the surrounding granular quartz disintegrates readily, the

homogeneous transparent portion being left intact.

It is of course possible that cleaved quartz may sometimes arise

from the dynamo-metamorphism of pegmatite or infiltration veins,

but I have seen no example of this ; the effect of earth movements

on small masses of quartz being rather to shatter the mineral than

effect any re-arrangement of its particles. Since writing the above

I have observed near Naula, 18 miles north of Matale, an occurrence

of idiomorphic and hypidiomorphic transparent quartz associated

with a pegmatite (graphic granite). The crystals were intergrown,

and faces were found as much as 2 ft. long. They were not

' actually in situ, but the quartz was undoubtedly that of the peg-

matite. I am inclined to think that their origin was due to

re-crystallization, as near the locality cleaved granular quartz was

found, and other rocks near showed clear signs of strong earth

movements. ;

The series of crystalline schists or gneiss is invaded by intrusive

pegmatites, in which the quartz is often intergrown with orthoclase

and microperthite, forming graphic granite. The quartz in coarse

varieties of these pegmatites may sometimes form masses of

considerable size. It is, as a rule, translucent, andis fairly homo-

geneous in structure.

Fine quartz veins also occur filling fissuresin the gneiss. These in

many cases can be shown to be genetically related to the pegmatites.

That they were sometimes injected at a considerable temperature is

seen by the metamorphism they occasionally produce in the gneiss,

invading it, silicifying it, and giving rise to the formation of iron ores

(e.g., at Morahela near Balangoda). The quartz of these veins is, as

a rule, white, and has a loosely crystalline structure. It often bears

hornblende (e.g., at Rambuke near Rakwana), iron ores, especially

ilmenite, also tourmaline, which occurs in needles, or is sometimes

seen intergrown with the quartz in graphic fashion. A fine example

of this curious rock is exhibited in the Mineral Gallery. To be distin-

guished from these quartz veins, which are magmatic, or at least

solfataric in origin, are the later infiltrations of silica, following rock

crystallize in idiomorphic forms, and in one observed case, near

Rakwana, was amethystine.

Veins of quartz are often seen associated with basic lenticles in the

gneiss. These veins often appear to be the result of crush due to

OCCURRENCE OF QUARTZ IN CEYLON. 175

earth movements, and follow lines of thrust and faulting. The basic

lenticles and pinched bands with associated quartz segregations, in my

experience, only occur in regions affected by earth movements, and

may result from later metamorphism rather than original magmatic

segregation. Insome cases the veins resemble pegmatite intrusions.

The quartz weathers out in small fragments, which may be opaque

or transparent.

Quartz of all varieties in more or less rounded shapes naturally

forms the bulk of the river gravels. Granular quartz pebbles

are most common, and transparent cleaved quartz can with

some certainty be referred to the same rock which has been

subjected to dynamo-metamorphism. The transparent crystals in

the river gravels sometimes attain a considerable size, and may be

colourless, yellow, or brown. Such crystals are occasionally sold in

the Ratnapura District to Chinese merchants, and fetch a rupee or

seventy-five cents a pound. The coloured varieties are also cut as

gems, when the stone may be described as citrine or cairngorm,

good specimens of which when well cut show a beautiful transparency

and depth of colour.

Crystals of amethystine quartz are often found when gemming.

The colour, which is due to traces of manganese, is not, as a rule,

evenly distributed throughout the crystal, but confined to the central

portion. Hence almost all cut gems of Ceylon amethyst are parti-

coloured, but on account of their fine deep purple are highly esteemed,

indeed the only other important locality for amethyst is Brazil, since

the supply at Oberstein is exhausted. Brazil crystal of all colours

is, however, cut at Oberstein.

Clear quartz containing needles of rutile or tourmaline is known as

sagenitic quartz. It is sometimes found in gravels, and may be cut

en cabochon to form ornaments that are more curious than beautiful.

Mention should be made of the quartz cat’s-eye or “ tiger’s-eye,”

which contains numbers of minute fibres of asbestos or siliceous

pseudomorphs after that mineral, showing when cut en cabochon a

ray of light similar, though inferior, to that of the true cat’s-eye,

which is a variety of chrysoberyl. Ceylon is referred to in text books

as a locality for the stone, and examples may sometimes be seen in

local jewellers’ shops. I have however never seen it in the field.

Recent sandstones and pits of quartz grains with quartz cement

occur near the sea coast at Puttalam, Negombo, and other places.

Coming now to the cryptocrystalline varieties of quartz, excellent

examples of chalcedony are sometimes found in the river gravels,

doubtless washed from the cavities in decomposed gneiss where they

were formed. It also occurs, but rarely, as a thin coating on the

joint faces of rocks (Nildandahena).

Of special interest with relation to stone implements are the cherts.

Chert is an impure siliceous rock containing chalcedony and some-

times opaline silica stained with iron oxides. As arule, the silica of

176 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

cherts is derived from an organic source, such as sponge spicules

and the tests of radiolaria and diatoms. The Ceylon cherts,

however, are entirely inorganic in origin, and may be described

as silicified rocks. Dr. A. K. Coomaraswamy* has shown that

‘ the original rock was, in all the cases he investigated, crystalline

limestone, in which the carbonates have been replaced by silica

introduced in solution by percolating water. Thin sections of the

rock, which commonly occurs in the neighbourhood of crystalline

limestone, when examined under the microscope, show that it con-

sists of spherulitic aggregates of chalcedony or structureless opal,

or both, which may enclose individuals of phlogopite, graphite, and

spinel, characteristic minerals in crystalline limestones. In one case

corroded dolomite crystals were observed. It was doubtful at the

time of Dr. Coomaraswamy’s observations if these silicified rocks

could originate except from limestones, but since then similar rocks

have been found (e.g., near Dodanduwa) which are far from any

exposures of limestone, and bear unmistakable evidence in the form

of decomposed felspar individuals of their origin from some siliceous

rock by decomposition and silicification. The cherts are most

commonly shades of brown and red, but are also white and green.

The green varieties consist principally of opal, and are softer than

the brown. Brown chert was formerly worked for gun flints and

strike-a-lights, and is known in Sinhalese as gonapitta or ginigala.

Pebbles stained brown with iron oxide, and wholly or partly

siliceous, are often dredged up in gemming operations from the beds

of rivers, and are known as kahdnda. They appear to be water-worn

pieces of orthoclase or micropegmatite which have been decomposed

and silicified.

It is hoped that these notes on the different forms of quartz in

Ceylon, and their modes of origin, may be some guide to local

collectors of stone implements in forming an opinion as to the nature

and probable source of the material used for implements or brought

from rock or stream for purposes of ornament.

Implements of white quartz have been found in South Africa

and elsewhere, but those of clear vitreous quartz are of extreme

rarity in all other parts of the world, except Ceylon, where it was the

chief material used, and where implements of that material are found

in abundance in certain localities.

For the manufacture of implements the transparent cleaved quartz,

which has been shown to be of metamorphic origin, was admirably

adapted, as it split naturally into more or less flat flakes which could

be easily worked to an edge. Implements showing a cleavage face

or fractures are common. Crystals were also worked. The white

translucent forms of quartz do not appear to have found so

much favour among the ancient artificers in Ceylon, but this may

* Geological Magazine, Decade V., Vol. I., 1904, pp. 16-19.

OCCURRENCE OF QUARTZ IN CEYLON. Mig

be more apparent than actual, as the somewhat hackly fracture of

this variety cannot so indubitably show signs of work as the one

clear quartz.

In the case of the finds at Maskeliya, Bandarawela, and in certain

caves, the material used was often obtained from derived pebbles,

which must have been carefully searched for, as pebbles of clear

quartz are certainly not common in the neighbouring streams.

Only a few implements formed of chert have hitherto been found

in Ceylon, and as the clear quartz cannot be said to be distributed

in great abundance in the localities where the implements have been

found, and could then only be obtained in comparatively small

unfractured pieces, it is somewhat remarkable that chert was not

more widely employed, but still more so that one of the compact

siliceous varieties of gneiss, such as the common charnockite rock,

was not fashioned to form the larger and ruder tools.

178 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

A PRELIMINARY NOTE ON HAEMATOZOA FROM SOME

CEYLON REPTILES.

By MurieL RoBErtTson.

With Plate.

URING a recent visit to Ceylon I had the. opportunity of

coming across a number of blood-inhabiting protozoa. J

chiefly confined my attention to the examination of the blood of

reptiles, and obtained a number of positive results. The following

paper gives a very brief preliminary account of the infections met

with.

It gives me much pleasure to have this opportunity of expressing

my recognition of Dr. Willey’s kindness in forwarding the work in

every possible way.

I propose for the present to treat the parasites according to their

occurrence in the vertebrate host, rather than according to their

classification in the Protozoon System.

The two common tortoises in Ceylon are the lake tortoise—

Nicoria trijuga, and the milk tortoise or kiri-ibba—Hmyda vitiata.

Nicoria trijuga is very generally infected with Hamogregarina

nicorie, described in 1905 by Dr. Castellani and Dr. Willey. This

particular tortoise has two habits ; it either lives in ponds or lakes,

and these individuals, in even such different parts of the Island as

Colombo, Kandy, and Trincomalee, are almost always infected by

the same parasite ; or it lives an almost dry land existence in ditches.

Generally speaking, the dry-land tortoises are not infected. I have

often found ticks upon these last, but they never showed any sign

» The water-living tortoise carries a little water leech, an apparently

undescribed species of Branchellion. The leech lives on the tortoise

and lays its eggs on the carapace in large numbers, and although

the leech takes up its abode on its host in a much more permanent

way than is the case with most of its kind, it nevertheless will

wander off it at apparently very slight provocation. This Branchel-

lion appears to me to be the transmitting host for the Hzmogre-

garine in the blood of the Nicoria.

The Hemogregarine is of a very ordinary type ; it shows multipli-

cation in the vertebrate host, but the details of the process have not

yet been quite made out. It also shows the two endocorpuscular

types of Hamogregarines—one a broad type with a large nucleus,

the other a slender recurved type with a dense nucleus. In the

HAMATOZOA FROM SOME CEYLON REPTILES. 179

alimentary tract of the leech the Hzemogregarine is easily to be

distinguished ; it becomes motile in the intestine, and at a later

stage the parasites disappear. They may perhaps pierce through

the intestinal wall as described by Siegel, but I am not as yet at

all certain upon the point.

The other tortoise, Hmyda vittata, is a true aquatic creature ; it

harbours in its blood both a Trypanosome and an interesting

Hemogregarine—I propose to call these provisionally Trypanosoma

vittate and Hemogregarina vittate, as this confuses their ultimate

classification less than any other method of nomenclature.

The Trypanosome is a large creature, rather reminiscent of

Trypanosoma raie in its general appearance. The kinetonucleus

is rod-shaped, and lies at a considerable distance from the non-

flagellate tip of the animal; there is a very well developed frilled

membrane. The trophonucleus generally les rather near to the

kinetonucleus, but in some specimens is much further forward.

The myonemata of this species are to be seen with remarkable

clearness, particularly in the live state during certain phases. The

analysis of its various methods of locomotion is interesting, but I

do not propose to go into it just now ; suffice it to say that it shows

at times a very characteristic spiral movement. In fact, although

this is a distinctly massive trypanosome, it frequently executes the

corkscrew figure backwards and forwards, so characteristic of such

a spirochet as, for instance, Spirocheta anodonte, only, of course,

the movement is much slower. If a slide with infected blood is

sealed and kept for from 12 to 24 hours, small chrythidial flagellates

are seen to appear. The first time I came upon these I was much

surprised, and hoped not unnaturally that they had arisen from

the many hemogregarines which were also present in the blood.

The conditions were repeated, and I was able to follow on the live

specimens the development of these small forms from the large

trypanosome. *

I can only, in a paper of this type, give the barest sketch of the

process. The trypanosome rolls itself up and the flagellum breaks

free, but generally still remains attached at the kinetonucleus end.

The flagellum is motile for a long time, but finally comes to rest,

lying often in an untidy tangle round the creature. The trypano-

some divides into two, the daughter individuals generally remaining

more or less in contact ; a further division into two occurs ; the

divisions in every case involve both the tropho and the kinetonucleus.

The result of these divisions is a group of four often very irregular

little creatures. They become pear-shaped, and put out each

* A somewhat similar multiplication of trypanosomes has been already

observed by Franga (Bull. Soc. Port. Sciences Nat.) and by Dutton, Todd,

and Tobey, Ann. of Trop. Med. and Parasit. 1, No. 3, 1907. Both these

cases deal with the trypanosomes of frogs, but I have not as yet had the

opportunity of seeing the original papers.

20 7(12)08

180 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

a flagellum from their blunt ends.’ I have over and over again

watched this part of the development under an immersion lens, and

all that I can say is that a little blunt stiff process simply appears.

This gradually lengthens and becomes motile, but at first it is quite

unable to move the body of the creature. Finally, it can be observed

that the attachment of the flagellum is no longer quite at the blunt

end, but has shifted slightly to one side, and a small protoplasmic

ridge, which I take to be the first sign of the membrane, is to be

detected. The four little flagellates separate and move actively

about. This short description does not take into account the

considerable variation in detail which occurs. This trypanosome

is true to the versatile traditions of the genus, and many slight

differences, especially in the relative times at which the processes

occur, are to be observed.

The intermediate host for this species is another little water leech.

The trypanosome undergoes the above development at once upon

being taken into the crop of the leech, and further divisions after

the two mentioned seem to occur. The creature finally develops

into a slender trypanosome of very varying size with a narrow

membrane and a short flagellum ; the kinetonucleus very generally

lies very close and just anterior to the trophonucleus. It is, I

think, important to note that they are to be found in large numbers

in infected leeches at the close of digestion, when there is no blood

left in the alimentary tract.

Many interesting experiments were tried with the big horse leech,

but I have not space to describe them here. The horse leech, by

the way, has distinctly catholic tastes, as one specimen started to

feed eagerly upon my own hand, and upon being persuaded to desist,

took equally kindly to the tortoise. In the blood of the Emyda

vittata, the trypanosome infection is almost invariably associated

with a hemogregarine infection.

The hemogregarine shows two distinct types—a long slender

recurved individual with pale faintly reticulate protoplasm and a

dense nucleus ; and a broad type with deep blue staining protoplasm

and a very characteristic loose meshed nucleus. This nucleus is

not like that of any other hemogregarine that I have ever seen,.and

is much more suggestive of the nucleus of a large resting trypano-

some, not that I wish to imply that there is a connection between

the two infections.

These broad hzemogregarines show a very interesting feature,

namely, two large oval bodies which stain from a pale pink to a deep

slightly brown red with Giemsa’s stain. They are not present in

all the broad specimens, especially not in the smaller ones, but they

are a very characteristic feature of the larger broad forms. At

first they were very suggestive of structures with kinetonuclear

affinities, but from their highly refractive appearance in the live

state and the variability in their staining properties, I am rather

H&MATOZOA FROM SOME CEYLON REPTILES. 181

inclined to consider them as of the nature of plastids. However,

I do not wish to make any very definite statement just at present.

Besides these ‘“‘ red bodies,’”’ as I have called them, there may be

many staining granules present in certain cases.

The slender recurved type is much less numerous in the blood .

than the broad type. It is tempting to consider the recurved

type with the pale protoplasm and the dense nucleus as a male

gametocyte, and the broad form as the female gametocyte, but

I do not at present see any very striking evidence to support such

a view.

Multiplication occurs in the spleen and to a lesser extent in the

liver, the parent organism giving rise to eight reproductive bodies,

These, it is interesting to note, are found to lie in pairs, each pair

being enclosed in a delicate boat-shaped capsule. This is very well

seen in the live specimen.

In the alimentary canal of the little water leech both the endo-

corpuscular forms become motile, but I have not as yet got the

details of their further development.

The Ceylon lizards do not seem to harbour protozoon parasites

to any great extent—a circumstance contrasting with the cone

ditions obtaining in other countries. Thus the common Calotes

and the beautiful Brahminy lizard, which the ancient Sinhalese

naturalists’ firmly believed to be hatched out of cobra eggs, and

the skink and the horned up-country lizard were all negative, so

also the common little house gecko who lives on the walls and

eats flies.

Two species of forest gecko, however—Hemidactylus triedrus and

Hemidactylus leschenaultii—certainly made up for the deficiencies of

the other members of the group. These geckoes, by the way, come

from the Trincomalee side of the Island ; it is all very jungly country

with very little cultivation of any kind.

Hemidactylus triedrus harbours a large hemogregarine with a

double capsule. I have called this Hamogregarina triedri. Asso-

ciated with it in one case was a very delicate trypanosome with a

compact circular nucleus ; the small kinetonucleus lies immediately

behind the trophonucleus, and the body extends for some distance

behind the two nuclei. This trypanosome has a very characteristic

appearance. I propose to call it Trypanosoma pertenue ; it is found

curiously enough in both Hemidactylus triedrus and Hemidactylus

leschenaultii.

Hemidactylus leschenaultii shows, besides .this last-mentioned

trypanosome, three other protozoon parasites, which may be found

singly or in any combination. ‘The first of these is the Heemocysti-

dium described in 1905 by Drs. Castellani and Willey. This is a

pigmented organism showing a very marked differentiation into a

pale form and a deep form ; the nucleus is a very delicate structure,

182 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

rather difficult to demonstrate satisfactorily. There is little doubt

that in this case the differentiation marks off the male and female

gametes or gametocytes.

The second parasite is a Hemogregarine (Ha@mogregarina lesche-

naultit).—This creature has two free motile forms always present in

the blood and two endocorpuscular forms. The one free form is a

slender creature with the power of carrying out a truly amazing

set of gregarine movements ; it is also able to bend double and to

execute swimming or gliding movements. This creature has a

dense nucleus and pale protoplasm without granules; it has an

exactly corresponding endocorpuscular form, which lies with one end

slightly curled up.

The other motile form is massive and granular. This creature

moves much less actively than the slender form, and its periods of

rest alternate with periods of movements something after the fashion

of Coccidium Schubergi, Schaudinn.

There is a massive endocorpuscular form which is always rather

scarce ; I think it corresponds to the broad free form, but the nucleus

differs slightly.

The third parasite of this gecko is a trypanosome (7'rypanosoma

leschenaultit)—This trypanosome differs very markedly from T'ry-

panosoma pertenue ; I never found them together in one individual.

Cf. figs. 8, 9, and 13.

All these gecko parasites were first sent me from Niroddumunai,

near Trincomalee, by Dr. Willey. Later on, when I went over to

Trincomalee myself, I had the opportunity of studying them all in

the live state. The transmitting hosts were not discovered.

Among the snakes only hemogregarines were found. Zamenis

mucosus, the common rat snake, which lives on the roofs of houses,

and Chrysopelea ornata both showed a species with a very marked

capsule thickened at both ends. The hemogregarine lies in the

capsule, andvoften shows a deep red staining area at either end ;

the nucleus is rather delicate.

Fig. 12.—I have not named this, as I notice that there is a

Hemogregarina zamenis named by Laveran, and I have not yet

had the opportunity of seeing his description. There is a young

endocorpuscular phase without a capsule, and a free motile form

also without a capsule. (

The cobra also showed a hemogregarine ; possibly it will prove

to correspond with some of the already named species found in this

snake.

A large python harboured a hemogregarine, which was most

interesting on account of its extraordinary activity. The free form

moved with a rapid swimming motion, and was repeatedly seen to

enter a blood corpuscle by simply piercing it, to swim round between

the nucleus and the corpuscle wall, and burst’ the corpuscle by

—

HAMATOZOA FROM SOME CEYLON REPTILES. 183

curling itself up and suddenly straightening itself. The process

takes only a very few seconds ; it also can be seen to injure corpuscles

which it touches in passing, the corpuscle losing all its hemoglobin

immediately.

The rapidity and the business-like precision of the animal’s

movements were positively amazing. I was able to make out that

the animal swims by means of rapid shallow waves of contraction

passing backwards down its body, a slightly spiral twisting of the

whole creature often taking place at the same time. This hemo-

gregarine shows an endocorpuscular stage very closely resembling

the free form.

I do not wish it to be inferred that I have in any way made an

exhaustive search through the Ceylon reptiles. I examined the

animals I met, but it was more to my purpose to try and follow up

the positive cases than to spend the time reviewing the reptilian

fauna. In a later publication I hope to deal with these forms in

much greater detail.

I subjoin the diagnoses of the new species mentioned in this

paper.

Trypanosoma vittate, mihi. Fig. 1.

Massive trypanosome, body about 50-56 p» in length, and about

6 #- well developed membrane. Free flagellum 22-30 ,» in length.

Rod-shaped kinetonucleus body behind kinetonucleus very variable

in length. Trophonucleus generally about 6-8 » in front of

kinetonucleus, but sometimes much further forward. Characteristic

spiral movement, very small forms present in the blood of vertebrate

host. Divides in transmitting host into four (also on sealed slide) ;

small flagellated individuals with kinetonucleus anterior to the

trophonucleus. These develop later in slender trypanosomes. Trans-

mitting host, a small water leech, Glossiphonia (sp. ?) ; vertebrate

host, Emyda vittata. Infection found all over Ceylon.

Hemogregarina vittate, mihi. Figs. 2 and 3,

Hemogregarine infection associated almost invariably with 7.

vittate. Two forms present : (1) broad massive form ; (2) recurved

form with pale protoplasm ; the two limbs are equally long, dense

nucleus, length when uncurled 22-26 yw. Broad form shows

reticulate dense protoplasm, rather delicate loose nucleus; the

larger forms have two red staining plastid (?) like bodies at one

end. Schizogony occurs in the spleen and liver; 8 reproductive

bodies are formed; these are enclosed in pairs in a delicate

boat-shaped capsule. Transmitting host probably Glossiphonia, as

above; vertebrate host, Hmyda vittata. Infection found all over

Ceylon. '

184 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA,.

Heemogregarina leschenaultit, mihi. Figs. 4, 5, 6, 7.

Hemogregarine with two free motile forms always present in the

blood. (1) Slender free form with dense nucleus rather actively

motile ; no granules in the protoplasm ; length 26-28 ». (2) Broad

massive granular form; less active periods of movement succeeded

by periods of rest; length about 26--28 ,. Two endocorpuscular

forms also present: (1) long recurved form corresponding exactly

with the slender free form, causes hypertrophy of blood corpuscle ;

this is always the prevailing type in any infection ; (2) broad form

with reticulate nucleus, grows to a large size, as much as 30 p#

(specimen in the figure is not full grown) ; never very numerous even

in good infection. Schizogony occurs in the blood. Transmitting host

not known. Parasitic in the blood of Hemidactylus leschenaultit.

Found at Trincomalee, Ceylon, October, 1907.

Trypanosoma leschenaultii, mihi. Figs. 8 and 9.

Length of body of larger specimens 56-60 +, length of free

flagellum, 17-22 ». Many specimens much smaller; rod-shaped

kinetonucleus, well-developed membrane. Body extends a long

way behind the kinetonucleus ; actively motile, often revolving in

the figure of a wheel ; body very flexible. Parasitic in H. leschen-

aultti. Transmitting host not known. Found at Trincomalee

Ceylon, October, 1907. ;

Trypanosoma pertenue, mihi, Fig. 13.

Very delicate trypanosome; length of body 30-35 p, length of

free flagellum 15-20 ». Body very thin with very little proto-

plasm ; no granules; small compact circular nucleus lying about

half way from the non-flagellate tip. Kinetonucleus very minute,

situated immediately behind the trophonucleus membrane, not

sharply marked off from body. Parasitic in both Hemidactylus

triedri and Hemidactylus leschenaultii. Got at Trincomalee, in

Ceylon, October, 1907. Transmitting host not known.

Heemogregarina triedri, mihi. Figs. 10 and 11.

Hemogregarine with double capsule, delicate inner capsule, and

loose outer capsule, with tendency to stain very deeply with Giemsa’s

stain. The inner capsule has an opercular lid at one end. Long

slightly recurved specimens with elongated nuclei present, so

also broader rather bean-shaped forms. Both forms frequently

show an irregularly shaped body at one end, which stains a bright

red with Giemsa’s stain. The young forms have no capsule.

Parasitic in Hemidactylus triedri. Got at Trincomalee in Ceylon,

October, 1907. Transmitting host not known. The length of this

,orm is from 18-15

——— _

HAMATOZOA FROM SOME CEYLON REPTILES. 185

Description of Figures.

1. Trypanosoma vittate, M. R.

2. Broad form of Hemogregarina vittate, M. R. Note the two

*“ red bodies”’ at the one end.

3. Slender recurved form of H. vittate.

4. H. leschenaultii, M. R., broad endocorpuscular form ; this

specimen is not full grown.

5. Free slender form of H. leschenaultii.

Slender recurved endocorpuscular form of H. leschenaultit.

Broad free form of H. leschenaultit. Note granular protoplasm.

Trypanosoma leschenaultit, M: R., large form.

ees

T. leschenaultit, smaller specimen.

10. Broad endocorpuscular form of Hamogregarina triedri, M. R.

Note the deeply staining outer capsule.

11. Slender endocorpuscular form of H. triedri. Note the dark

outer capsule and the delicate inner capsule with the operculum.

12. Hemogregarine from Zamenis mucosus and Chrysopelea

ornata. Note the highly refringent capsule thickened at either end.

Note also the deep staining area at either end of the hemogregarine.

13. Trypanosoma pertenue, M.R. Note characteristic appear-

ance of the trophonucleus and the kinetonucleus, and absence of

granules of any kind.

186 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

NOTES.

1. Miscellaneous Records. Callophis trimaculatus——This small

snake is so rarely met with in Ceylon that the capture of a specimen

is something of an event to a naturalist. Whilst riding along the

road from Niroddumunai to Trincomalee, shortly after sunrise on

October 4 last, I came upon a very slender snake lying across the

track, and rode over it without injuring it, so slim is its body. Upon

picking it up I recognized it at once by its black head relieved by

two pale round occipital spots behind the parietal shields. Besides

the black upper surface of head and nape, there is a more or less

interrupted band of black behind the vent and another similar

fenestrated band before the tip of the tail. The specific name doubt-

less refers to these three patches of black, which are conspicuous

upon an otherwise uniform pale grayish brown ground colour. The

nearly white occipital spots are sharply defined, about half a

millimétre in diameter, and evidently an important element in the

scheme of coloration. They may possibly belong to the category

of the so-called ‘“‘ false eyes,”* which may produce a terrifying

effect on certain enemies, and thus act as warning signals. They

can only be faintly discerned in specimens preserved in alcohol.

Another feature which disappears in alcohol is the orange colour

of the ventral surface. Beginning in the anterior region as a pale

yellowish median tract, it gradually widens and becomes denser,

until it occupies the whole extent of the ventral shields as a bright

orange yellow band until it reaches the end of the abdomen, where

the anal and preanal shields are dark orange red, almost scarlet.

This brilliantly coloured preanal tract is immediately followed by

the post-anal black belt. The subcaudals are pale bluish, with a

few irregularly distributed orange red spots.

Tt is a venomous snake allied to the cobra and bungarum, but is

too small to be dangerous, and can be handled with impunity,

making no attempt to bite. In captivity it seeks to hide its head

under whatever cover may be afforded.

The length of the specimen under description is 12 inches, the

diameter 4 mm. The previous records of the occurrence of this

species in Ceylon are summarized in this Journal, Vol. I., p. 85.

From these it appears that the snake is a characteristic member of

the eastern fauna of the Island.

Flight of Butterflies at Trincomalee—Between 11 a.m. and

1 p.m. on last October 4, I witnessed an extraordinary flight of

brown and speckled butterflies at Trincomalee, comparable in

* See this Volume, p. 92.

NOTES. 187

intensity to the November flight of the yellow Catopsilia which

occurs annually northwards over Colombo. The great majority

consisted of the brown Huplea asela, but perhaps two or three

per cent. (this small percentage representing a goodly number, so

vast was the total swarm) were the speckled Danais septentrionis,

the male of which has a peculiar pouch on the hind wing. They were

passing in a southerly direction over Trincomalee.

The brown Euplea is a very common species occurring diffusely

throughout the country, often met with in considerable companies

settling upon damp places by the roadside. This time, however,

there was no such casual meeting of individuals alternately flitting

low and resting, but a high concerted and sustained movement over

the trees and houses and along the seashore in incredible numbers.

It is a seasonal flight, and is recognized as such by the inhabitants

of the district, who aver that the butterflies are going to Kataragam,

a famous Hindw sanctuary in the south of the Island, a few miles

from Tissamaharama.

Small samples of each kind were taken for examination. Of 16

examples of Huplea asela, 12 were males, 4 females ; of 14 Danais

septentrionis, 10 were males, 4 females.

The suddenness with which the apparition vanished was remark-

able. Looking out over the maidan in front of the resthouse at

1.25 p.m. not a butterfly was to be seen. It was essentially a

mid-day fight. During the afternoon a few isolated stragglers were

noticed, but the main advance ended sharply as described. It is

not difficult to assign a climatic reason for this flight. The date at

which it occurred was during the lull which succeeded a strong access

of the south-west wind, preceding the onset of the north-east rains,

the clouds for which were already banking up to burst in a blind

squall the next evening. In this part of the Island the south-west

and north-east monsoons coincide accurately with the dry and rainy

seasons respectively. This is not the case in the Western Province.

‘The south-west blow which freshened during the last ten days of

September was accompanied on the west coast by heavy rain, but

not in the neighbourhood of Trincomalee.

Probably the swarm had been travelling in a column for miles

along the seaboard. No enemy was following them. I do not

know whether a corresponding flight had taken place at noon on

the day previous, but I do know that on the day following, which

happened to be the occasion of the annual Kumbom or Flower

Festival, there was no repetition of it.

The fact of the simultaneous emergence of the butterflies in

myriads in powerful flight in a fixed direction gives to it an appear-

ance of objectivity which it may not possess in reality. It may be

nothing more than a static seasonal brood, not an actual migration

from one place to another. One is reminded of the story of the

Catopsilias heading towards Adam’s Peak to dash themselves to

2D 7(12)08

188 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

death against the Samanalakanda or Butterfly Rock. I have seen

them, however, in the month of December (1907) flying across the

Labugama Reservoir away from the direction of Adam’s Peak,

being pursued by numerous Philippine Bee-eaters at ‘noontime.

Owing to their rapid zigzag flight the birds found considerable

difficulty in catching them on the wing, often missing. When one

had been caught, the bird would fly away with it to a tree, not

bolting it outright. Amongst the bee-eaters was to be seen an

occasional Ashy Wood Swallow, also hawking over the reservoir.

A. WILLEY.

2. Review: Fisheries of New South Wales.—In view of the

interest which is being displayed in the local fisheries, it may be

useful to append some extracts from the report of the Board of

Fisheries of New South Wales for the year 1907, which has been

received at the Museum by the courtesy of the authorities.

The subject matter may be divided into three main sections :

statistical, restrictive, and constructive. As in all cases where the

State takes cognizance of the fisheries, the utility of recording

returns of the catches is recognized. A return compiled from

‘“ Weekly Statements furnished by Fish Agents in the Metropolitan

Markets ” shows the quantity of fish received by them for sale.

The form of return includes the following headings :—Name of

Water, Name of Market, Description of Fish (classified as fish ;

“crayfish,” by which is meant the spiny lobster or Langouste,

Palinurus hugelii ; lastly, prawns). The total quantities for 1906

and 1907 are—

a - Baskets of Dozens of Baskets of

Fish. Crayfish. Prawns.

UOO0G HS. 128,854 ... 4. 9Gies. 2 2,984

907) es 124,078 .. WOU Dieter 4,678 .

Clarence river is the leading watér, with an output of 23,737

baskets of fish ; Port Jackson and Parramatta river yielded only

3,559 baskets of fish, 61 dozens of crayfish, and 228 baskets of

prawns in 1907. Lake Illawarra contributed 5,294 baskets of fish,

3 dozens of crayfish, and 2,916 baskets of prawns. Hastings river

furnished 3,037 baskets of fish, 2,833 dozens of crayfish, and 20

baskets of prawns. The average price of crayfish in the market is

estimated at 8 shillings per dozen.

The numbers quoted above are from the Sydney market returns,

and do not include quantities consumed elsewhere. Thus, the report —

of the Inspector of Fisheries for the Northern District shows that

the total catch from the Hastings river waters was 5,451 baskets

NOTES. 189

of fish in 1907, as against 2,167 in 1906. A table on page 48 shows

the quantities of different kinds of fish taken in each month of the

year, the most productive months being March and September-

November, November leading. The sub-totals for the year are

the following :—

Hastings River Returns, 1907,

Baskets.

Mullet .. ire ve 2,319

Whiting .. ana Ae 897

Bream .. 0 ae 838

Blackfish ae a7 684

Schnapper re ox 253

Garfish .. at a 219

Jewfish ... = ous 113

Miscellaneous 23 ay 164

Total)... 5,451

Besides this grand total, the Hastings river yielded 4,085 dozens

of crayfish (of which 2,833 dozens were put upon the Sydney markets),

“This industry has at length been systematically established at

Port Macquarie, and has been carried on during the year by two

steam smacks from 15 to 20 tons, each working from 35 to 40 pots.”

The smacks at the same time were employed in line-fishing for

schnapper or red fish, which were very plentiful, but when sent to

market they failed to bring satisfactory prices, ‘‘ and consequently,

when the crayfish season ended, they gave up the line-fishing and

returned to Newcastle.” As numbers of crayfish died in transit in

the hot weather, the divisional inspector recommended that they.

should be carried in ships’ tanks, “‘ preferably of wood, fed with a

constant supply of salt water, and subdivided fore and aft and

athwart them with perforated parting boards to prevent damage to

the fish by the wash in heavy weather.”

Restrictive measures depend partly upon the conflict between

line-fishing and net-fishing. Certain waters are closed to net-fishing

for a specified term, ranging from eighteen months to three years.

Mr. H. C. Dannevig, Superintendent of Fisheries Investigations

and Fish Hatcheries, proceeded to Hobart on July 21 to obtain

a stock of Tasmanian flounder, during the spawning season, for

transfer to Gunnamatta Hatchery. About 1,500 fishes of various

sizes were placed in fish-tanks on board a steamer which conveyed

them to the hatchery. When placed in the pond at the hatchery,

they commenced to spawn almost immediately. About fifteen

million fry were hatched out and liberated in suitable localities at

Port Hacking, Botany Bay, Middle Harbour, Lane Cove, and

Brisbane Water.

In the month of July Mr. H. Dawson, Representative of Inland

190 SPOLIA ZEYLANIGCA.

Fisheries, visited Melbourne to arrange for the introduction of live

roach in New South Wales. It was intended to strip the fish, and

after fertilization to convey the eggs in suitable vessels from Mel-

bourne to Sydney. Unfortunately they were not able to secure

any fish for stripping, “‘ as the roach shoal passed from the lower to

the upper waters of the Yarra river without being observed by the

scouts who were on the look out for them, and they were therefore

compelled to collect eggs which were deposited in weeds in the

river.” About 30,000 eggs were collected in this manner, and were

hurriedly despatched in wooden buckets to Sydney ; but on arrival

at Prospect Hatchery on the following day, all but about 100 were

dead, and the survivors were so low in condition as to give no hope

of fry being obtained for any practical purpose. “ The eggs were

evidently in too advanced a stage of development when obtained

from the river to ensure success, and this was evidenced by the

bulk of them hatching out on the journey, and the fry dying at

once on account of the unsuitable conditions.”

Other work in connection with inland fisheries chiefly concerned

river pollution and trout acclimatization. .

A conference of fisheries experts, convened by the Federal

Government in connection with the Australian fisheries, was held

at Melbourne in August, 1907. It was agreed that the first duty

was to ascertain the nature and extent of the native fish. For this

purpose it was decided to equip a vessel, and to appoint a person of

practical acquaintance with fish and fisheries to be Commissioner of

Fisheries, whose duty would be to engage upon a systematic investi-

gation of waters off the coasts of Australia and Tasmania and of

the biological and physical problems which they present, “ with the

object of determining the character, abundance, distribution, and

economic value of the inhabitants of the waters, as also their migra-

tions and the causes influencing or regulating the same, the object

being to arzive at the life-history of all species having economic

value, as well as those species to which they are intimately and

essentially related.”

The report from which the preceding selections have been made

is a lengthy one of 71 pages. It will be seen that the Australian

Commonwealth have quite recently inaugurated a system of fishery

investigation in no niggardly spirit.

3. Spider Mimicry.—Last year Mr. E. E. Green described a

remarkable case of mimicry on the part of an Attid spider which

resembled a Mutillid wasp (see Spolia Zeylanica, vol. IV., p. 181;

NOTES. 191

and V., p. 91). The spider has recently been identified by Mr. R. I.

Pocock as belonging to the species Canoptychus pulchellus, Simon,

1885. Some years later it was described and figured by another

arachnologist, Dr. F. Karsch, who gave it the synonym Onycho-

cryptus mutillarius, not knowing that it had been already recorded

under another name (cf. E. Simon, Hist. nat. des Araignées, 2nd

edit., vol. 2, p. 174, 1897; and F. Karsch, Arachniden von Ceylon

und Minikoy gesammelt von Drs. P. und F. Sarasin, Berliner Entom.

Zeit. XXXVI., 1891, pl. XI., fig. 17).

From the specific name given by Karsch it is clear, as Mr. Pocock

points out in a letter, that he too had noticed its similarity to a

Mutillid wasp. Mr. Green’s confirmation of this case of mimicry is

therefore very interesting.

Ep.

Erratum.

On page 110 of this volume, instead of Tinnunculus alaudariu

read Tinnunculus alaudarius.

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SPOLIA ZEYLANICA,

ISSUED BY

| PEM COLOMBO: MUS RUM. |

| CEYLON. Vy 4

Von. V.—PaRt XVII. NOVEMBER, 1907.

CONTENTS.

1. Lewis, J. P— PAGE

Topographical Notes on the Jaffna Islands a l

2. Ryan, J.—

The Birds of Dimbula ... ft oe 13

3. Cameron, P.—

Description of a new Species of Apanteles from Ceylon Ee

Green, BH. K.—

Note on the Parasite Apanteles acherontie of the

Caterpillar of the “ Death’s Head” Moth vee Gs

4. Fletcher, T. B.—

Description of a new Plume-Moth from Ceylon, with some

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5. Willey, A.—

Report on the Window-pane Oysters (Placuna placenta,

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6. Perrin, W. S.—

Note on the possible transmission of Sarcocystis by the

Blow-fly TF van et 58

7. Notes.—'T. B. Fletcher, W. A. Cave, E. E. Green, J. P.

Lewis, F. M. Mackwood, C. Drieberg ... ie 62

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SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

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The Snbmerged Plateau surrounding Ceylon : some con-

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Line ey ae Sis 69

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A Quarterly Publication designed to promote a knowledge of

the Natural History of Ceylon (exclusive of Botany), for the

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ment of Science.

It will contain Records and Contributions, together with Notes,

Abstracts, and Reviews, relating to the economic and systematic

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‘lopography, Geology) of the Island and of the surrounding seas.

Each Volume will consist of four Parts, the size of which will

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