CONTENTS OF VOLUME VIII.

Part XXITX.—JANUARY, 1912.

PAGE

Kieffer, Dr. J. J.—

Nouveaux Chironomides de Ceylan 36 as 1

Kieffer, Dr. J. J.—

Cecidomyies de Ceylan decrites a + 25

Pearson, Dr. J.—

Biological Survey of Trincomalee Harbour ate 30

Pearson, Dr. J.—

Survey of Lake Tamblegam, September, 1911 - 4]

Fernando, H. F.—

Whales washed ashore on the Coast of neta from 1889

to 1910 , C 52

Henry, G. M.—

Ornithological Notes .. ne we 55

Henry, G. M.—

Fishes of Batticaloa, Trincomalee, and Jaffna ote 62

Notes.—

1. Tuipulidz from Ceylon 65

2. Arboreal Habits of the Kabaragoya and the Tala-

goya. C. T. Symons 65

3. Arrival of Migrant Birds in Colombo. xk. Symons

and W. A. Cave 66

4, Vibration of the Tails of Snakes. E: Bainbrigge

Fletcher 67

5. “‘ Megaderma lyra.”” ie, Bainbrigge Fletcher Si 67

6. The bell at Kayman’s Gate. P. E. Pieris 68

7. The growth of Marine Organisms in Colombo Harbour 68

8. Composition of Ancient Bronze from Polonnaruwa.

G. Brinton Phillips 69

9. Notes on the Food of the Jackal and that of the

Talagoya. G. M. Henry sa 70

10. Spur Fowls breeding in captivity. Se Steventon .. 70

1]. The Habitat of Ramcia inepta, Annandale. A. J.

MacDougall a as 71

12. Note on a Web-spinning Psocid. E. E. Green... cal

Part XXX.—JungE, 1912.

Symons, C, T.—

The Ceylon Natural History Society .. <F 73

Green, . E.— ed

The Pioneers of Ceylon Natural History ve 76

Annandale, Dr. N.—

Description of a eee Fly of the pes Epona

associated with Ants.

Brunetti, E.—

A new species of Blood abner = aes eae) from

Ceylon

Green, EK. H.—

On a Remarkable Mimetic Spider

Cave, W. A.—

The Birds of Colombo ..

Bobeau, Dr. G.—

The Venom of Snakes ..

Perera, E. W.— ; :

The Galle Trilingual Stone

Notes.—

13. Stray Notes on Ceylon Animals. N. Annandale

14. Notes on Ceylon Butterflies. E. E. Green

15. Large Parasitic Thread Worm in a Butterfly

16. A Curious Tree. C. Drieberg :

17. The Ceylon Natural History Society. Gerard A.

Joseph

18. The Elephant Stylobate in the Colombo Museum.

Gerard A, Joseph ae

19. Flints, &c., from a Cave at Weqenutre: K. Lewis ..

20. Three Des Coins. P. EH. Pieris

21. A. Dutch Gold Medal. P. E. Pieris

22. A.Sinhalese Toy. Arthur A, Perera

23. Sinhalese Iron and Steel

PAGE

116

122

147

Ceylon Natural History Society— proceedings of 149- 152

Part XXXI.—NOVEMBER, 1912.

Guide to the Collections of the Colombo Museum. Part I.,

Archeology and Ethnology ae 153-194

Part XXXII.—Janvuary, 1913.

Legge, J. A.—

The Ceylon Pearl Oyster Fisheries

Pearson, J.—

A Review of the Scientific Work on the pen Pearl Banks

from 1902 to 1912

Pearson, J.—

Report on the Window-pane Oyster Investigations, 1912

195

205

223

Pertwee, A, H.—

Notes on the Fresh-water Fishes of Ceylon

Stephenson, J.—

On a Collection of Oligochzta mainly from Ceylon

Holmgren, N.—

On some Termites collected by Mr. Green in Ceylon

Green, HK. E.—

Some Suggestions for Members of the Ceylon Natural

History Society : “+

Notes.—

24. Note on a Cup-marked Rock found at Kudagama in

the Kende korale, North-Central Province. F.

Lewis 3

25. The Mathematical Boy, Arumugam. F. Lewis

26. Pioneers of Natural History in Ceylon. J. P. Lewis

27. Cave Inscription at Kurunegala. P. E. Pieris

28. Some Dutch Medals. P. E. Pieris

29. On a Collection of the Transfers of the Wings of

Ceylon Butterflies prepared by Mr. C. C. Gilbert of

Ratnapura. E. E. Green :

30. On a Stridulating Reduviid Bug. ‘E. E. Green

31. Dragon Flies capturing Butterflies. E. E. Green .

32. _ “‘ Herpestes vitticollis,’’ the stripe- “necked Mungoose.

H. F. Fernando ..

33. Note on ‘“‘ Orthotomus Sutorius ’ "the Indian

Tailor Bird. H.F.Fernando ..

34, RKhipidura albifrontata—white-browed Fantail Fly-

catcher. H. F. Fernando :

35. Distribution of Snakes in Ceylon. A. li Abercromby

36. How Snakes Swallow. A. F. Abercromby

37. Whipsnakes. A. F. Abercromby .

38. Dipsas forstenii. A. F, Abercromby

39. Kabaragoya raiding Crow’s Nest. C. Drieberg

40, Donations and Loan Collections for the Colombo

Museum. Gerard A. Joseph

285

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INDEX TO

)

VOLUME VIII.

————

SUBJECT INDEX.

Ahas Lena, 295, 296

Alpheids, 32, 35, 36, 37, 40

Ambalangoda, 53

Ambatalenpahala, 297

Amphylla (bronze), 159

Andagala, 295

Anemones (sea), 32, 40

Anguluwa, 246, 247

Animals (Ceylon)—Notes on, 133-136

Ani-verlundun Paar, 198

An-keliya, 177

Anklets, 172

Ants associated with micropterous fly,

Anuradhapura, 154

Anuradhapura—snakes in, 305

Appar Swami, 160, 161

Archeological Guide,

Museum, 153-194

Arecanut Cutters, 184

Armlets, 172

Arms, 163-165

Arrack, 174}

Arrack Still, 174

Arumugam—mathematical boy, 291

Atu Kanda, 295

Avisawella—snakes in, 305

Avurudu Sittuwa, 186

Colombo

Babblers, 95, 96

Badulla—snakes in, 305

Balangoda—snakes in, 305

Bali Ceremonies, 172

Bandara, Irugal, 295

Randara, Widiye, 295

Bangles, 179

Barbets, 56, 104, 105

Basnayaka, 297

Bat (carnivorous), 287

Bats, 67

Batticaloa Fishes, 62—64

Battle axes, 176

Beads, 180

Béche-de-mer, 31

Beckti, 249

Bee-eaters, 106

Bee-eater, 57

Beetle (luminous), 286

Bell (Kayman’s gate), 68

Bells, 172

Berundaya, 168

Betel chewing appliances, 183, 184

Bhareen pearl, 203

Bintenna—flag of, 167

Birds (Colombo), 94-115

Birds (migrant), 66

Bittern (chestnut), 115

Boats, 173

Bodhisatva Maittreya, 160

Bogawantalawa—snakes in, 305

Book covers (ivory), 165

Book-lice, 71

Bows, 163

Boxes (wooden), 175

Brahminy Lizard, 141

Bronze (ancient), Polonnaruwa, 69

Bronze Cauldron, 162

Bronze Gallery, 159-162

Bronzes, 159-162

Buddhas, 160

———— ivory, 166

Buddhist Priest—model of, 175

Bug (stridulating reduvid), 299

Bulbul, 114

Bulbuls, 58, 96, 114

Bummediya, 171

Butterflies, 136

Butterflies (Ceylon)—transfer of wings,

298

Butterflies—migratory flights of, 288

Cachalot, 52

Callianassids, 32, 37, 40

Candelabrum (bronze), 159

Cannon balls (stone), 165

Cannon (Portuguese), 162

Canoe, 173

Cauldron, bronze, 162

Cave (at Urumutta), 142

Cave Inscriptions, 295

Cecidomyies, 25-30

Cecidomyies de Ceylan, 25

Ceylon Asiatic Society’s Library, 154

Ceylon Company of Pearl Fishers, 205

Ceylon Natural History—pioneers, 76—

Ceylon Natural History Society, 73-75,

140, 141, 149-152

Ceylon Natural History Society—sug-

gestions for Members, 285-288

Chandeswara, 161 \

Charms, 175, 185, 186

Chatelaines (Dutch) 179

Chekku, 173

Chilaw, 54

China, 188

Ching-Ho, 126

Chironomides, 1—24

Chonka game, 176, 177

Chunam boxes, 183

Clocks (water), 178

Clypeastroids, 39, 40

Cobra, bite of, 118

Cobra stones, 156

Coconut palm—products of, 168, 173

Coconut scraper, 176

Coins, 175

Coins (rare), 145

Coir yarn, 174

Colombo Birds, 94-115

(viii

Colombo Harbour—marine organisms

in, 68-69

Colombo, migrant birds in, 66

Colombo—snakes in, 305

Combs (ivory), 166

Coppersmith, 57

Copra, 174

Coral beads, 180

Corals, 32, 198

Cormorant, 61

Coronchiya, 181

Cotta, stone carvings, 188

Coucal, 57

Crake, 66, 111

Crow (black), 303

Crows, 95

Crows nest raided by Kabaragoya, 307

Crustacea (at Madampitiya), 152

Crustaceans, 32

Cup (drinking) of ivory, 166

Cup marked rock, 289

Curious tree, 140

Curlew, 60

Cymbals, 172

Dabchick, 114 :

Dagaba—meaning of, 157

Daggers, 164

Darter, 61

Dat-kapana-gal, 178

Davul Bere, 172

Demala Bere, 171

Demons, 171, 172, 185-7

Deraniyagala, 170

De Saram loan collection, 167

Devil Ceremonies, 171, 172, 173, 185-7

Dewanagalla, 163

Dharma chakra, 155

Dharmapala, King, 170

Dhatu Sena, 154

Dhoney, 173

Dikoya—snake in, 305

Dimbula—snakes in, 305

Divers (fishery), 31

Diving at pearl fisheries, 201

Diving operations (Tamblegam), 45

Dodan-keliya, 177

Domestic appliances, 175, 176, 177

Donations, Colombo Museum, 307, 308

Dondra head, 158

Dondra pillar, 158

Dondra slab, 158

Door frame (ivory), 165

Door frame (Kandyan), 163

Dove, 110, 115

Dove (bronze-winged), 59

Dragon flies capturing butterflies, 299

Drift bottles, 208

Drinking vessels, 175

Dromiids, 40

Drongos, 58, 97

Drum (ivory), 166

Drums, 171

Ducatoons, 183

Ducats, 183

Dugong and mermaid, 203

Dutch gold medal, 146, 147

Dutch medals, 296-298

Dutch Pearl Fisheries, 203

)

Eagles, 56

Ear ornaments, 180

Earpicks (ivory), 166

Earring (gold) from Halloluwa, 180

Eaves tiles, 169

Echinoids, 33, 37, 39

Egrets, 61, 114

Ehunugalla slab, 159

Elephant Pass, 249

Elephant Pass—snake in, 305

Elephant Stylobate, 141, 194

Etagala, 295

Ethnological Guide, Colombo Museum,

153-194

Eyefly—breeding place of, 288

Falconet, 287

Fanams, 182

Fan handles (ivory), 166

Fantail flycatcher, 302

Firearms, 164—5

Fireflies, 288

Fish and crustacea at Madampitiya,

152

Fish, eggs of—hatched by male in the

mouth, 247

Fishery appliances, 173

Fishes, 62—64

Fishes (fresh water),

250

Fishes—remarkable ones (Ceylon), 294

Fishing rights—pearl banks, 204

Fish (singing), 150

Flags (Sinhalese), 163, 167, 168

Flasks (medicine), 166

Flints, 142

Flutes (ivory), 166

Fly (blood sucking), new species, 90,

Flycatchers, 58, 66, 99

Flycatcher—white-browed fantail, 302-

304

Foraminifera, 39

Four korales—fiag of, 167

Fowls (spur), 70

Fresh-water fishes of Ceylon, 243-250

Frigate bird, 113

Ceylon, 243-

Gajanayaka, 297

Gaja-sinha, 155

Galle trilingual stone, 122-132

Games, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179

Gampola stone pillar, 188

Ganesha, 16]

Gastropods, 36, 39

Gejji, 172

Gini-hora, 294

Giri Devi, 171

Globe fish, 203

Gneiss pillar, 163

Goshawk (Indian), 55

Gourami, 248, 249

“Grasshopper ”’ gun, 164

-| Gray mullet, 248

Grebe (Indian), 114

Guardian Deities, 156

Guide, Colombo Museum—Archeo-

logical and Ethnological, 153-194

( ix)

Hematozoon, 134 Kongollewa pillar, 159

Handahanpata, 186 Koppu, 180

Hanguranketa moonstone, 194 Kotagama Tamil slab, 159

Hansaputtuwa, 168, 179 Kotale (bronze), 159

Harrier (Montagu’s), 110, 115 Kottus—pearl oyster fisheries, 199 *

Hatara korale—flag of, 167 Krises, 164

Hat korale—flag of, 167 Krishna, 161

Hawk, 110 Kudagama, 289

Hedgehog in Ceylon, 286 Kukul korale, 170

Henakanda, 178 Kumbukgama, 163

Herons, 61, 114 Kuruminiyagala, 295

Hikanala, 141 . Kurunegala, animal shaped rocks, 295

Holothurians, 30—40 ————-— cave inscriptions, 295

Horana—snakes in, 305 oo snakes in, 305

Horanewa, 172

Hornbill, 57 Lacquer work (Maldivian), 169

Horns (ivory), 166 Lamps, 187

Horoscopes, 175, 185, 186, 187 Lanarolle, Count de, 166

Lapwing, 60, 111

Ibn Batuta, 182 Larins, 182

Illagolla—snake in, 305 Larks, 59, 102

Indian Roller, 105 Lascarin guards, 298

Ingots, 183 Leech—food of, 288

Inhabitants, Ceylon-types, 168 Lepidoptera, 67

Inscribed stones, 157-159 Leyla, 247

Tron and steel (Sinhalese), 147—148 Lion of Polonnaruwa, 155

Ivories, 165-167 Lion race, 167

Lizard (Brahminy), 141

Jackal—food of, 70 Lizards, 134-136

Jafina fishes, 62-64 Loan collections—Colombo Museum,

Jafina—snakes in, 305 307, 308

Javelins, 163 * Loku Mugatiya, 299

Jayawardhana kotte, 68 Loola, 243-245

Jelly fish—sting of, 202 guarding spawn, 244

Jetawanarama, 157 . Lotus pillars, 156

Jewel cases (ivory), 167 Lunuganwehera, 300

Jewellery, 175, 179, 180, 181

Jungle Fowl, 59 Madras Langur, 300

Magic, 171, 172, 173, 185, 186, 187

Kabaragoya, 65, 66 Mahakalattewa pillar, 158

Kabaragoya raiding crows nest, 307 Maha Mudaliyar, 297, 298

Kadaipota, 43 Mahaseer, 247

Kakamunai, 43 Maha Wasala, 297

Kakkaimunai, 233 Makara torana, 168

Kalpitiya, 296 , Malecoha, 57

Kalutara—snakes in, 305 Maldivian exhibits, 168—9

Kandyan chief—model of, 175 Mali, 67

Kandyan door frame, 163 Maligatenna, 170

Kandy, flag of, 167 Maligawatte stone carvings, 188

Kandy reservoir for Gourami, 249 Mal-keliya, 177

Kandy—snake in, 305 Maneala game, 290

Kapalturai, 43, 229, 232, 235 . Mango—ceremonial, 185

Karawala, 141 Manikka-Vachaka Swami, 161

Karshapana, 181 Mannar, 52

Kasyapa, King, 154 Marine organisms (Colombo Harbour),

Kataragam Deviyo, 160, 161 68-69

Katti, 176 Massas, 182

Kattumarams, 173 Matale—flag of, 168

Kayman’s gate bell, 68 Matale—snakes in, 305

Kettles, 175, 184, 185 Matara—snake in, 305

Kindura, 168 | Medagoda pillar, 155

Kingfishers, 57, 106, 107 | Medal, Dutch, gold, 146, 147

Kinniyai villages, 225 | Medamahanuwara, 165

Kirinda—snakes in, 305 | Mermaid—origin of, 203

Kirindi-oya, 300 | Mice, short tailed, 287

Kites, 56, 109 Micropterous fly associated with ants,

Kitul-mal-telma, 178 lee sited;

Kodawa, 249 | Migrant birds (Colombo), 66

Kodituwakku, 164 Mihintale, 157

Koel (Indian), 108 | Mimetic spider, 92-93

b 6(1)13

Minivet, 98

Minneriya—snakes in, 305

Moda, 246, 249, 250

Mollusea, 32

Menkeys, 300

Moonstones, 156

Moorish jewellery, 180

Mortar, 176

Mortars (ivory), 166

Mother-of-pearl, 200

Mount Lavinia, 54

Muda Konda Pola, 296

Mudaliyar and wife—model of, 175

Mudu Konda Pola, 295

Mullaittivu—snakes in, 305

Mungoose (ruddy), 300

stripe-necked, 299

Munia (spotted), 100, 115

Museum (Colombo) Library, 153

Musical instruments, 171, 172,

Myna, 99

Mynah, 59

Nachchikkuda, 42, 43, 223, 225, 228,

232, 234, 235

Naga-gal, 156

Natagane range, 295

Nataraja, 161, 162

National symbol (Ceylon), 167

Natural History (Ceylon)—pioneers of,

294

Natural History Society

73-75, 140, 141, 149-152

Navandanno (Kandyan) 165

Negombo—snakes in, 305

Nellore, 296

Nightjar, 57

-—— (common Indian), 108

Nisanka Malla, King, 155

Noctuids, 67

Nudibranch, 39

Nuwara Eliya—snakes in, 305

Nuwarakalawiya—flag of, 167

(Ceylon),

Ola manuscripts, 190-193

Olinda game, 176, 177, 290

Ophiuroids, 33, 35, 36, 37, 40

Oriole, 58

Oriole (Indian Black-headed), 98

Ornithological notes, 55—61

Osprey, 56

Owls, 109

Oyster (window pane), 41-51, 151

Padda boat, 173

Palamput, 43

Palmyra palm—products of, 168, 175

Pancanga Lita, 186

Panduwasnuwara, 169

Parakrama Bahu, 156

Parrakeet, 56, 109

Partridge (Gray), 59

Parumaka Pusa, 296

Parvati, 160, 161

Pata tahaduwa, 181

Pattini, goddess, 177

Pearl banks—fishing rights, 204

— scientific work on, 205—

222

Pearl (black), £5,000, 197

)

Pear! divers, 199

Pearl diver’s coir basket, 173

————— sinking stone, 173

Pearl Fishers Co. (Ceylon), 205

Pearl Fishery—drift bottles, 208

Pear! oyster, 30

beds—formation of, 198

cultching, 211, 212

fisheries, 195-204

—-——— —— life of, 198

Pearl oysters—over fishing, 204, 211

transplanting of, 210,

211, 212

Pearl production, 212, 213

Pelenda, 170, 295

Peneids, 32

Peradeniya, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 12, 13,

14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22

Peregrine or Shahin (Indian), 56

Pe-tetiya, 178

Petigammana pillar, 158

Petrels, 61

Peyaddaimunai, 43

Pheasant (water), 59

Phoride associated with Ants, 85

Pioneers of Ceylon Natural History,

76-84

Pipits, 58, 66, 102

Placuna placenta, 41—51

Plankton, 30

Plaques (ivory), 166

Ploiariola polita, 71

Plovers, 55, 60, 66, 112

Polgahawela—snakes in, 305

Pol-keliya, 177

| Polokarai-aru, 234

Polokarai-aru Motuaram, 43

Polonnaruwa, 154

Polonnaruwa bronzes, 69, 159-162

Polychete worms, 35, 40

| Polyzoa, 133

Poonac, 174

| Portugal—Coat of Arms, 162

Portuguese Cannon, 162

Pottery, ancient and modern, 168-171

Powder horns, 165

| Psocid (web-spinning), 71-72

Puttalam—snakes in, 305

| Quail, 110

-— (bustard), 59

Raft (river), 173

Rahas Nuwara, 295, 296

Rainbow trout, 250

Rangalla—snakes in, 305

Ratnapura—snakes in, 305

Ratna Yantra, 186

Rays and pearl oysters, 201

Reels (cotton) of ivory, 166

Rix-dollars, 183

Robins, 58, 100

Rollar (Indian), 57, 105

Ruddy mungoose, 300

Ruwanweli Dagaba, 157, 158

Sabaragamuwa, flag of, 168

Sak Gedi, 172

Salamba, 172

Salmon, 248

Sanchi, 167

Sandalwood stone, 176

Sandpipers, 55, 60, 112

Sangha Raja, 166

Sanni Yaka, 171

Scent sprays (ivory), 166

Seed pearls, 199

Sembian-aar, 234

Sembianar Vilangu, 43

Motuaram, 43

Senkadagala, 296

Sequins, 183

Seven korales—fiag of, 167

Seven sisters, 95

Shahin, 56

Shama, 58

Shark-fishing, 169

Shield (buffalo hide), 165

Shrikes, 59, 66, 97, 98

Sigiriya, 154

Sigiriya Frescoes, 189, 190

Sigiriya—snakes in, 305

Singing fish, 150

Sinhalese (iron and steel), 147-148

— toy, 147

Sinna Vellaikalmunai, 43

Sipunculids, 33, 35, 40

Siva Kami, 160, 161, 162

Sivali Yantra, 186

Sividi, 166

Skanda, 187

Smith caste, 165

Snake-bird, 61

Snake-bite, treatment of, 120-121

Snakes—how they swallow, 305-306

Snakes in Ceylon—distribution

304-305

Snakes, venom of, 116-121

Snakes—vibration of tails, 67

Snipe, 113

Solar dynastry (Ceylon), 167

Sparrows, 100, 101

Spatangoids, 34, 35

Spears, 163

Spectacle cases of ivory, 166

Spermaceti, 53

Sphingids, 67

Spider (mimetic), 92-93

Spittoons, 184 ee |

Sponges, 30, 32-40, 133

Spoon racks, 176

Spur fowls, 70

Steel, 147-148

Steel implements, 184

Stints, 55, 60

Stomatopods, 32

Stone antiquities in grounds, 193,

194

Stone gallery—Colombo Museum, 154-

157

of,

Stuivers, 182

Stylus, 164

Sumana, 187

Sun birds, 103

Sundara Murti Swami, 161

Suniyan-kepima, 171

Suriya (the Sun god), 161

Svastika, 160

Swallows, 58, 66, 98, 101

Swifts, 57, 107, 108

)

Swords, 164

Syringes (ivory), 166

Tailor-bird (Indian), 97, 300-302

Talagoya, 65, 70

Talaimanaar, 52

Tali, 180

Tamankaduwa—flag of, 167

Tamblegam, 223

Tamblegam fisheries, 226

Tamblegam lake—survey of, 41-51

Tamil jewellery, 180

Tammettan, 172

Tapeworm in pearl oyster, 212

Tebuwana, 307

Teredo, 68

Termites (Ceylon), 277-284

Terns, 61, 113

Threadworm (parasitic) in butterfly,

139

Three korales—flag of, 168

Thrips, 71

Thrushes, 58

Tickell’s Flower-pecker

Tiru-gnana Sambandha Svami, 160

Tiru-Navukarasu, 160, 161

Tissamaharama, 303

——_—_____-— slab, 158

—-- snake in, 305

Titmouse, 95

Tobacco boxes, 175, 184

Toddy, 174

Todu, 180

Toluwela Buddha, 193

Tortoise (pond), 134

Toy (Sinhalese), 147

Tree (curious), 140

Trepang fishery, 31

Trilingual stone (Galle), 122-132, 159

Trincomalee fisheries, 30-40 j

— fishes, 62-64

——-——— Harbour—biology of, 30—

Trincomalee—snakes in, 305

Tropic birds (white), 114

Tun korale—flag of, 168

Turbellarians, 40

Turnstone, 111

Udapalata, flag of, 167

Udekkiya, 171

Udugama—snakes in, 305

Udunuwara Dissavoni—flag of, 168

| Urumutta, 142

Uva—flag of, 167

Veddahs, models of, 175, 184

Velapatkade, 186

Velliya, 178

Vidane, 297

Vidiye Bandara, King, 170

Vipers (Pit), 67

Vishnu, 187

Voles, 287

Votive tablets, 187

Was Dandu, 172

| Wadduwa—snakes in, 305

| Wagtails, 55, 58, 66, 101

Warbler, 97

( oxi)

Water clocks, 178

Water hen (white-breasted), 111

Weaver bird (common), 115

Weligatta, 303

Wellassa—flag of, 167

Whales, 52-54

Great Indian Fin Whale,

53, 54

Sperm, 52, 54

Whipsnakes, 306, 307

White-eye (common), 96

Wind instruments, 172

Window pane oyster—close season, 237

= eaten by fish,

224, 225

fishery, 41-51

growth of, 231—

234

in the Colombo

Lake, 151

investigations,

223, 242

Window pane oyster—pearl production,

rainfall, effect of,

237

spawning period,

236, 237

transplanting of,

234, 236

Wirawila, 303

Wolvendahl Church, 297

Woodpecker, 56, 115

Yak Bere, 172

Yakdessa, 295

Yala—snake in, 305

Yantra, 175, 186, 187

Yantra-gala, 156

Yapahu window, 155

‘© Yoda-weda,” 290

Zostera, 63

NAME INDEX.

Abercromby,. A. F., 67, 304-307

Abesinge, N. D., 297

Annandale, Dr. N., 71, 85, 136

Armstrong, F. Brooke, 83

Arumugam, Mathematical boy, 291

Backhouse, E., 122, 126, 127, 130

Barnes, Sir Edward, 202

Beddard, 272

Beling, H. P., 188

Bell, H. C. P., 128, 129, 141, 156, 158,

193

Bennett, J. W., 294

Bingham, 137

Bligh, 8., 81

Boake, Rev. B., 82

Bobeau, Dr. G., 116-121

Boulenger, 134

Brodie, A. O., 294

Brown, Peter, 77

Brues, 85

Brunetti, 85, 90

Brutus, 203

Buchanan, 243

Cesar, 203

Casie Chitty, Simon, 79

Cave, Walter A., 94

Chalmers, Dr., 68

Champion, Major, 78

Chapman, Dr., 137

Clifford, Sir Hugh, 149

Codrington, H. W., 165

Collett, Oliver, 83

Coomaraswamy, A. 1G 45!)

Crawford, M. 8., 294

Davy, John, 78

Davy, Sir Humphrey, 78

Day, Dr., 243, 247

De Hoedt, 52

Denham, E. B., 188

De Niceville, 137

De Vos, F. H., 298

Dissanayaka, D. D. W., 146

Dittmars, 67

Donnan, Capt., 197, 215

Drieberg, C., 140, 307

Edwards, F. W., 65

Edwards, George, 294

Emerson, 243

Enderlein, Dr. G., 72

Faviell, N. B., 142, 144

Fayrer, 67

Fletcher, 65, 67, 68

Ferguson, D., 124

Ferguson, Wm., 80

Fernando, Eric, 302

Fernando, H. F., 52-54, 70, 300-304

Fernando, N. §., 129

Ferrers, Earl, 295

Fowler, G. M., 248

Frederick, Cesar, 203

Fryer, J. C. F., 71

Fryer, Sir John, id

Gadow, 67

Gardner, Dr. George, 78

Gilbert, C. C., 298

Giles, Dr. H. A., 122, 127

Goonetilleke, L. B., 70

Gravely, F. H., 90, 93

Green, E. E., 65, 68, 71-72, 76-84,

89, 90, 134, 136-139, 150, 277,

285-288, 294, 298, 299

Green, Staniforth, $1

Gregory, Sir William, 81

Gunasekara, Mudaliyar A. Mendis,

141

Gunther, 67

Hadfield, Sir Robert, 147, 148

Haly, A., 52, 82

Harding, W. A., 134

Harowitz, Dr., 125, 129

Hartley, C., 144, 145

Hawvell, E.B., 159

Heath, J. M., 148

Henry, George M., 42, 55-61, 62-64,

70, 223, 224, 302

Herdman, Professor, 30, 31, 197, 205,

206, 207, 208, 209, 210, 211, 212,

214, 215, 216

Hodson, 224, 226

Holdsworth, E. W., 82

Holmgren, Dr. N., 277-284

Hornell, 42, 43, 44, 45, 206, 210, 211,

212, 214, 216, 218, 232, 233

Houldsworth, 205

Jameson, Dr., 210, 211, 213, 221, 222

Jerdon, 243, 302

Jordon, 122

Joseph, G. A., 122, 140, 141, 142, 300,

307, 308, 309

Jowitt, John F., 84

Kelaart, Dr., 30, 45, 79, 140, 205

Kieffer, Dr. J. J., 1-24, 25-29

Kipling, Lockwood, 141, 142

Kirkham, Capt., 207, 208, 209, 214,

215, 216, 217, 218

Knox, Robert, 77, 294

Kristna Sastri, 128

Kyle, John, 163

Layard, Edgar L., 79

Layard, Sir Charles Peter, 79

Legge, Capt., J. A., 68, 195-204, 215

Legge, Capt., W. V., 81

Lewis, F., 142, 144, 289-291, 292, 293,

294 ‘

Lewis, J. P., 294-295

Lewke, Chieftain, 167

Lindstroom, Lieut., 143, 144

Loew, 85

Loten, Gideon, 77, 295

Mac Dougall, Major, A. J., 71, 84

Mack, E. L., 150, 151

Mackwood, F. M., 84, 139

Mahmud, 203

Manders, Col., N., 84, 136, 137

Meaden, Mrs., 188 .

Michaelsen, 251, 252, 254, 256, 257,

272

Modder, F. H., 295

Moon, Alexander, 78

Moore, F., 137

Muller, Dr., 158

Murray, A., 189

Neitner, J., 80

Nevill, Hugh, 81

Ondaatje, W. C., 82

Panditeratne, P. P. W., 297

Parker, H., 290

Pearson, Joseph, 30-40, 41-51, 65, 68,

69, 116, 141, 150, 151, 205-222,

223-242, 248, 304

)

Perera, Arthur A., 147

Penerse Eee) Wis) oes

Pertwee, A. H., 243-250

Philip IL. of Spain, 167

Phillips, G. B., 69

Pieris, P. H., 68, 142, 145, 147, 159,

188, 295-298.

Pole, John, 299

Pompadour, Madame, 295

Price, F. H., 163

Raja Jaiput, 203

Raja Sinha IT., King, 166

Reeves, Colonel Gordon, 247

Rhys Davids, 183

Robertson, Miss Muriel, 134

Sarasin, Drs., 83

Sanderson, Colonel, 247

Saunders, Sir F. R., 159

Schreuder, Governor, 147

Schreuder, Hon. Jan, 297

Servilia, 203

Shah of Persia, 203

Shirley, Captain, 295

Smith, Vincent, 159

Southwell, 207, 208, 209, 210, 211,

212, 213, 214, 215, 216, 217, 218,

220, 221

Stephenson, J., 251-276

Steuart, George, 197

Steuart, James, 197

Steventon, H., 70

Swinhoe, 138

Symons, C. T., 73-75

Templeton, Dr., 78

Tennekon Disawa, 297

Tennent , Sir Emerson, 79, 294 «

Theel, 31

Thomas, 245, 246

Thwaites, Dr. G. H. K., 80

Tiffany, 197

Tinnecon, Modliaar, 296

Tomalin, H. F., 122

Trimen, Dr. Henry, 82, 294

Twynam, Sir W. C., 175

Vander Chiys, 183

Van Geyzel, C. T.,188

Van Gollenesse, Hon. J. V. Styn, 146,

297

Walker, Colonel Warren, 294

Wall, Geo., 80

Wallace, 69

Ward, Major C. H., 71

Wickwar, O., 92

Willey, Dr., 42, 43, 45, 65, 82, 135,

141, 225, 226, 229, 231, 232, 233,

249, 260

Willis, Dr. J. C., 82

Yatawara, T. B., 188

Yerbury, Major, 65, 83

Young lo, Emperor, 159

6(1)13

(eave?)

LATIN INDEX.

Aberia gardneri, 78

Ablabes calamaira, 304

Abrus precatorius, 177

Acanthella carteri, 33, 35, 36, 38

Acanthurus matoides, 63

Accipiter virgatus, 110

Acridotheres melanosternus, 59, 99

Acrotrema gardneri, 78

figialitis alexandrina, 112

dubia, 112

———— jerdoni, 60

Aigithina tiphia, 96

Anigmaticus, 86

AMnigmatistes, 86

Alabesmyia, 8

Alaudide, 59, 102

Alcedinidz, 57, 106

Alcedo ispida, 106, 107

Alcippe nigrifrons, 58

Allophyllus cobbe, 137

Alpheus audoyini, 33, 35, 40

-— bis-incisus, 35, 37, 40

——--— bucephalus, 34

--— minus, 37

Alseonax latirostris, 99

Amaurornis pheenicurus, 111

Amblyapistus macracanthus, 63

—_____— tenianotus, 63

Amphiprion sebce, 64

Anax, 299 °

Anchistus, 33

Ancistrodon hypnale, 304

Anthus richardi, 102

-— rufulus, 102

Apogon auritus, 62

Appia’ paulina, 299

-— sangiensis, 62

Arachnechthra asiatica, 103

lotenia, 103

—____—_—_——_ zeylonica, 103

Archipsochus, 72,

—————- textor, 72

Ardates, 137

Ardea purpurea, 61

Ardeide, 61, 114

Ardeola grayi, 61, 114

Ardetta cinnamomea, 115

Arius, 246 :

Arius falearius, 246

Artamide, 59

Artamus fuscus, 59, 98

Asionide, 109

Aspidura brachyorrhos, 304

——— copii, 304

drummondhayi, 304

guentheri, 304

trachyprocta, 304

Astropecten Zebra, 37, 38

Astur badius, 55

Attidee, 92

Aulophorus, 254

Aulophorus palustris, 252, 255-257,

260

Aulospongus tubulatus, 36

Aviculide, 195

Axinella, 34, 39

Balenoptera indica, 53

Balistes, 212

| Barbus chrysopoma, 249

—--—— filamentosus, 249

—--—— innominatus, 249

—--—— mahecola, 249

—--—— tor, 247, 249

Batrachus grunniens, 63

Belone choram, 62

Bezzia, 8

—--—— indecora, 8

Brachypodide, 58

Brachypternus ceylonus, 56

Branchellion, 134

Bubulcus coromandus, 114

Bucerotidz, 57

Buchanga atra, 58

Bungarus, 141

Bungarus ceruleus, 304

Bungarus ceylonicus, 304

Bugula, 36 ;

Butorides javanica, 61

Callophis trimaculatus, 304

Calotermes (glyptotermes) ceylonicus,

277, 278, 279, 280

Calotermes (glyptotermus) dilatatus,

277, 278, 280

Calotermes (neotermes) militaris, 277,

278

Calotes nigrilabris, 135

versicolor, 135

Campophaga sykesi, 98

Camptocladius, 24

Canis aureus, 70

Capitonide, 56, 104

Capparis moonil, 78

Caprimulgide, 57, 108

Caprimulgus asiaticus, 57, 108

Caranx, 61

-— jarra, 63

Cardiocladius, 23

——___—_—— ceylanicus, 22

Cardiocladius (thalassomyia), 22

Catochrysops, 137

—_—__—_—_—— _lithargyria, 136

strabo, 136

Centropus rufipennis, 57

Cerastus vipera, 118

Ceratopogon, I.

Cerberus rhynchops, 304

Cerithium, 40

Ceryle rudis, 57

Ceryle varia, 106, 107

Chalcophaps Indica, 59

Chanos salmoneus, 248

Charadriide, 60, 111

Charadrius fulvus, 60, 112

Chatcessus nasus, 62

Chettusia gregaria, 111, 112

Chilinus trilobatus, 64

Chironomides I.

Chironomus, I., 10, 260

gloriosus, 13

Chloropsis jerdoni, 114

Cheetodon auriga, 62 —

vagabundus, 62

Chonocephalus, 85, 86

Chrysodiplosis squamatipes, 28

Chrysopelea ornata, 304

Chrysophrys berda, 63

Cingala, 137

Circus eruginosus, 114

—-—— cineraceus, 110

Cisticola cursitans, 97

Citrina, 137

Clinodiplosis ceylanicus, 26

Clupea fimbriata, 62

kanagurta, 62

Cocos nucifera, 173

Ccenoptychus pulchellus, 92

Coluber helena, 304 —

Columbide, 59, 110

Conchodytes meleagrine, 33, 35

Conosia irrorata, 65

Cophotis ceylanica, 135

Coprodiplosis (?) inconspicuus, 29

Copsychus saularis, 58, 100

Coraciade, 105

Coracias indica, 57, 105

Coraciidce, 57

Corvide, 95

Corvus macrorhynchus, 95, 303

splendens, 95

Corydalla rufula, 58

Corynoneura, 23

Corythroichthys conspicillatus, 64

Crateropodide, 95

Crateropodine, 95

Crateropus striatus, 95

Cricotopus, 23

Croton tiglium, 280

Cuculidz, 57, 108

Cucumaria imbricata, 37

Culex, 71

Culicoides, 5

- bilobatus, 6

— ceylonicus, 5

Culicoidine, 1

Cyanops flavifrons, 104, 105

Cylindrophis maculatus, 304

Cypselide, 57, 107

Cypselus affinis, 107, 108

———— batassiensis, 57

Dactylocladius, 21

—— ceylanicus, 21

Danais chrysippus, 139

Dendrophis bifrenalis, 304

-——_——— caudolineolatus, 304

pictus, 304

Dero, 254

zeylanica, 252-255, 260

Dibezzia, 6

ceylanica, 6

Diceide, 104

Diczum erythrorhynchus, 104

Dichogaster affinis, 252, 273

Dicruride, 58, 97

Dicrurus leucopygialis, 97

Diplocladius, 23

Dipsadomorphus, trigonatus, 67

Dipsas, 307

barnesii, 304

ceylonensis, 304

(

SV)

Dipsas forstenii, 304, 307

Dissemurus paradiseus, 58

Djarong, 64

Dorsalis, 249

Dorylus, 85

Drawida annandalei, 251, 261, 262

Dromia, 37

Drona, 137

Dryophis mycterizans, 304

—_— pulverulentus, 304

Echis carinata, 304

Elops saurus, 62

Embiide, 71

Engraulis hamiltonii, 62

Epidosis ceylanicus, 29

Equula edentula, 63

Erinaceus micropus, 286

Eriocera albonotata, 65

-- erystalloptera, 65

—--—-— ctenophoroides, 65

-- fusca, 65

humberti, 65

—--——_ gentellata, 65

ed tuberculifera, 65

Erythrurus, 67

Etroplus suratensis, 64, 248

Eudynamis honorata, 108, 109

Euryenemus, 24

Euspongia officinalis, 35

Eutermes escherichi, 283

‘| ____-___ lacustris, 277, 282, 283

——_—— longicornis, 277, 283

Excalfactoria chinensis, 110

Falconide, 55, 56, 109

Falco peregrinator, 56

Fistularia, 63

Fistularia serrata, 63

Forcipomyia, |

longicalear, 4

—-——__——— megerle, 4

prohelea calearata, 1, 2

(prohelea) noctivaga, 1, 3

—-— ornaticrus, |

.____—__— tetraclada, 1,

- theobrome, 1,

——___—__— semipilosus, 5

Fregata ariel, 113

Fregatide, 113

Fringillide, 101

Gastrotokeus biaculeatus, 64

Geranomyia fletcheri, 65

Gerres, 63

filamentosus, 62

poeti, 62

Gallinago ceelestis, 113

Gallus lafayettii, 59

Ginglymostoma concolar, 212

Glareola orientalis, 60

Glareolidce, 60

Glyphidodon cochinensis, 64

Gobius criniger, 63

cyanomos, 63

Gonatodes kandianus, 135

Goniothalamus gardneri, 78

Gonodactylus glabrous, 33, 40

Gouride, 59

("xvi 9

Hematozoon, 134

Hemogregarina nicorie, 134

Halcyon smyrnensis, 57, 107

Haliastur indus, 56, 109

Haliztus leucogaster, 56

Halimeda, 33,35, 36, 37, 38, 39

Hallomyia, 25

—_—_—_— lris, 25

Haplocercus ceylonensis, 304

Hecabe, 137

Hecabeoides, 137

Helicops schistosus, 304

Herodias alba, 61

— intermedia, 61

Herpestes smithi, 300

-—— vitticollis, 299

Hesperodrilus, 259

———— albus, 259

pellucidus, 259

—___—_—_--— — zeylanicus, 257, 259

Himantopus candidus, 60

Hippocampus, 64

Hippospongia clathrata, 35

Hirundinide, 58, 101

Hirundo-hyperythra, 101

Hirundo rustica, 58, 66, 101

Hodotermes, 277

Holacanthus xanthurus, 62

Holocentrum caudimaculatum, 63

Holothuria atra, 31, 36

——_——— marmorata, 31, 33, 34, 35,

36, 37, 39, 40

nigra, 38

scabra, sil 33, 34, 35, 38, 39

ae eoenolidon hybr ida, 113

Hydrophasianus Chirurgus, 60

Hydrophobus gracilis, 304

—_———_—— nympha, 304

Hymenoptera, 71

Hypsirhina enhydris, 304

Isocladius, 23

Lsoplastus, 8

Ixos luteolus, 58

Labeo calbasu, 249

Lachesis gramineus, 67

— mutus, 67

— trigonocephalus, 67

Lampito mauritii, 262

Laniide, 97 °

Lanius cristatus, 97

Laride, 61, 113

Lates calcarifer, 246, 249, 250

Lepidodactylus ceylonensis, 134

—————crepuscularis, 135

Lepidoptera, 71

Lestodiplosis ceylanicus, 28

Lestremia ceylanica, 29

Lethrinus, 63

—— miniatus, 63

— ramak, 63

Libnotes peeciloptera, 65

Libythea, 137

Limnodrilus, 260

Limnodrilus socialis, 252, 255, 260

Limonidromus indicus, 58

Lithargyria, 137

Lobepelta ocellifera, 89

Lobivanellus indicus, 60

Lobopelta, 85, 92

Lutjanus bohar, 62

———— fulvus, 62

marginatus, 62

— quinquelinearis, 62

Lycodon aulicus, 67, 141, 304

--— carinatus, 304

striatus, 304

Mabuia carinata, 141

Macropteryx coronata, 107, 108

Madrepora scandens, 34

Malacocercus striatus, 58

Mastacembelus, 247

Megaderma, 287

lyra, 67, 68

Megadrili, 251

Megalema zeylanica, 56

Megalopastas nigra, 33, 35, 36, 38, 40

Meganephridia, 263

Megascolex, 251

annandalei, 263

bifoveatus, 266

curtus, 267, 268

pattipolensis, 265

——_—_—— quintus, 268

sextus, 270

Meropidee, 57, 106

Merops philippinus, 106

—-——- viridis, 57, 106

Metapeneus mogiensis, 34, 37, 39

Metriocnemus, 23, 24

Microcerotermes bugnioni, 277, 283,

284

—_—_—_—— greeni, 277, 284

Microdrili, 251

Microhierax fringillarius, 287

Micronephridia, 263

Micropternus gularis, 115

Milvus govinda, 56

Mirafra affinis, 102

Molpastes hemorrhous, 96

Monacanthus cheerocephalus, 64

Montacillide, 58

Moonia heterophylla, 78

Motacilla borealis, 101

Motacillide, 101

Mugil ceur, 63

Munia malacea, 115

—--— oryzivora, 100

Murral, 245

Muscicapide, 58, 99

Mutilla, 92, 93

- humbertiana, 93

subintrans, 93

Mutillide, 92, 93

Nacaduba, 137

-— ardates, 137

Naia tripudians, 304

Nectariniide, 103

Neuroptera, 71

Nicoria trijuga, 134

Noreia, 137

Numenius lineatus, 60

Oceanites oceanicus (?), 61

Odontognathus, 92

Odontotermes ceylonicus, 277, 280, 281

————— horni, 277, 280

277, 281,

obscuriceps,

282

(xvi)

(Ciceticus templetonii, 78

(cophylla, 92

CEidicnemide, 60

(idicnemus scolopax, 60

Gigialitis curonica, 60

Oligocheta (Ceylon, &c,) 251-276

Oligodon ellioti, 304

Oligodon subgriseus, 304

Oligodon sublineatus, 304

templetonii, 304

Ophideres fullonica, 67

Ophiocephalus, 244, 245, 247

—-——— striatus, 243, 244, 245

Orbitolites, 39

Oriolidze, 58

Oriolus melanocephalus, 58, 98

Orthocladius, 1, 21, 24

Orthotomus sutorius, 97, 300-302

Ortygornis Pondiceriana, 59

Osphromenus olfax, 248, 249

Ostracion cornutus, 64

Ozobranchus shipleyi, 134

Paleornis eupatrius, 56, 109

torquatus, 109

Pandion halizetus, 56

Papilio polytes, 299

Parapeneus stylifera (?), 3

Parridz, 60

Parus atriceps, 95

Passer domesticus, 101

Pectinatella burmanica, 133

Pegasus natans, 63

Pelargopsis gurial, 57

Pelecanidex, 61

Pellorneum fuscicapillum, 58

Pelopia, 8

annulatipes, S

Pelopiine pallidipes, 8, 9

———. (fanypinez), 8

Pelor didactylum, 63

Peneus indicus, 32

— monodon, 36

semisuleatus, 35

Periclimenes, 35

————————- spinigerus, 37

Pericrocotus peregrinus, 98

Periopthalmus, 40

schlosseri, 63

Petroscirtes, 63

——_—_——_- lienardi, 63

- variabilis, 63

Petrosia similis, 34

Pheethon flavirostris, 114.

Phethonide, 114

Phakellia donnani, 36, 40

Phalacrocorax pygmeus, 61

Phasianide, 59, 110

Pheretima barbadensis, 272, 273 °

———— hawayana, 251, 252, 271-273

Phoride, 85

Phyllobothroides, 213

Phyllobothroides hutsoni, 212, 213

————_—_—_—_—— kerkhami, 212, 213

Physeter macrocephalus, 52, 54

Physorhynchus linnei, 299

- tuberculatus, 299

Picide, 56

Pictus, 62

Pinna, 33, 35, 41

Pithecolobium saman, 307

Pitta brachyura, 104

Pitta (Indian), 104

Pittide, 104

Placuna, 223, 224, 225, 228

placenta, 41-51

Platycephalus tuberculatus, 63

Platyphora, 86

Plocamia manaarensis, 34

Ploceidz, 100

Ploceus baya, 115

Plotosus arab, 62

Plotus melanogaster, 61

Plumatella, 133

javanica, 133

= joni oR, USE

Plutodiplosis, 27

——.——— magnifieus, 27

Podicipedidz, 114

Podicipes albipennis, 114

Podostomacez, 82

Polioztus ichthyzetus, 56

Polyodontophis subpunctatus, 304

Polyzoa, 133

Pomatorhinus melanurus, 96

Poreellus, 249

Procellariidz, 61

Prohelea, 1

Psectrocladius, 24

Pseudorhombus arsius, 64

Pseudoscarus bataviensis, 64

--——— dussumieri, 64

Psittacide, 109

Psoecide, 71

Psyllomyia, 85, 86

————— testacea, 85

Pterocera, 36, 39

Pyecnonotus hemorrhus, 58

—- luteolus, 96

Pyrrhulauda grisea, 59, 102

Python molurus, 304

Rallide, 111

Rallina superciliaris, 111

Rama, 137

Ramcia inepta, 71

Rasbora daniconius, 249

Rhacophorus fergusonii, 80

Rhinolophus affinis, 68

Rhinophis blythii, 304

oxyrrhinchus, 304

———— planiceps, 304

punctatus, 304

Rhipidura albifrontata, 302-304

Rhizostomid medusa, 36

Rhopalocladius, 23

Rhynchomicropteron, 86

- puliciforme, 86,

Rotundalis, 137

Sacecobranchus, 247

Sari, 137

Saron gibberosus, 35, 36, 39, 40

Saxicolide, 58

Scolopacide, 60

Scolopsis bimaculatus, 62

Scopelodromus, 22

Scops bakkamoena, 109

Seutellaris, 7

Semnopithecus priamus, 300

Serranus fasciatus, 62

(_ *xvilig)

Serranus pantherinus, 62

--— undulosus, 212

Setifer, 62

Siluride, 246, 247

Silybura melanogaster, 304

Sima, 92

Simotes arnensis, 304

Simulata, 137

Simulium rufithorax, 91

striatum, 90

Siphonochalina, 35, 38

Sonneratia acida, 78

Spilomutilla, 93

Spilomutilla eltola, 93

Spongilla carteri, 133

Spongilla proliferens, 133

Sterna Anglica, 61

bereii, 61, 113

media, 61, 113

Stethopathide, 85

Stethopathus, 86

Stichopus chloronotus, 33, 35, 36, 38

Stilobezzia, 7

festiva, 7

—————— inermipes, 7, 8

Strepsilasinterpres, 111

Strychnos nux vomica, 140

Sturnide, 59

Styringomyia celyonica, 65

Sylviidee, 97

Synalpheus minus, 36, 39

—_——__— neomeris, 38

Synapta striata, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 39

Syngnathus spicifer, 64

Syrnium indrani, 109

Tachornis batassiensis, 107, 108

Teeniura melanospilos, 212

Tanypine, 8

Tanytarsus, 18, 23

ceylanicus, 18, 20

lobatus, 18

poecilus, 18, 21

prasiogaster, 18, 20

—__—__— transversalis, 18, 19

Tendipedide, 1

Tendipedine chironomine, 9

Tendipes, 1, 10

——_ —— albiforceps, 10, 15

allothrix, 10, 15_

ceylanicus, 10, 15

chlorogaster, 10, 16

elatus, 10, 12

——_—— fuscitarsis, 10, 17

gloriosus, 10,14 ~

——- heptatomus, 10, 17 |

———— hexatomus, 10, 18

———— nigromarginatus, 17

—_—— perichlorus, 10, 16

—_——\— pretiosus, 10, 11

— sumptuosus, 10, 12

———w— superbus, 10, 13

variicornis, 10, 18

Tephrodornis pondicerianus, 98

Terias, 137

hecabe, 137, 138, 139

silhetana, 137, 138, 139

— suava, 138

Termes estherze, 277, 280

——_— peradeniye, 280

taprobanes, 280

Termitoxenia, 86

Terpsiphone paradisi, 58, 99

Tersiphone paradisi, 295

Testudo, 244

Tetradrachmum trimaculatum, 64

Tetraonide, 59

Tetrarhynchus unionifactor, 212, 213

Tetrodon, 225

Tetrodon herdmani, 212, 213

hispidus, 64

immaculatus, 64

stellatus, 212

——— unimaculatus, 212

Teucholabis cyanea, 65

Teuthis java, 63

oramin, 63

vermiculata, 63

Thalassomyia, 22, 23

Thamnobia fulicata, 58, 100

Therapon quadrilineatus, 62

Thereiceryx zeylonicus, 104, 105

Thermalis, 134

Thienemannia, 24

Thrypticomyia longivena, 65

——_____———- saltens, 65

Timaliide, 58

Tinamide, 59

Tipulide, 65

Tockus gingalensis, 57

Torpedo marmorata, 62

Totanus hypoleucus, 112

Trentepohlia pennipes, 65

——————- trentepohlii, 65

Triacanthus brevirostris, 64

Trichocladius, 23

Trimeresurus trigonocephalus, 304

Tringa minuta, 60

Tringoides hypoleucus, 60

Tropidichthys margaritatus, 64

Tropidonotus asperrimus, 304

ceylonensis, 304

plumbicolor, 304

stolatus, 304 ©

Trygon uarnak, 62

- walga, 212

Tubificide, 260

| Turnix taigoor, 59

| Turtur suratensis, 59, 110

braminus, 304

Typhlops

-= mirus, 304

Uniformis, 137

Upeneus macronema, 62

Uroloncha punctulata, 100

Uropeltis grandis, 304

Varanus bengalensis, 65, 70

-- salvator, 65

Variolosus, 62

Venata, 137

| Vipera russellii, 304

Wandolleckia, 86

| Xantholema heacephala, 2

heematocephala, 104, 105

rubricapilla, 2, 105

Zamenis fasciolatus, 304

-- mucosus, 304

Zanclostomus viridirostris, 57

Zosterops palpebrosa, 96

penile, Ziel AN TO

NOUVEAUX CHIRONOMIDES (TENDIPEDIDAE) DE CEYLAN.

(Avec 9 figures dans le texte.)

Par J. J. Krerrer, Doct. phil. nat. (Bitsch).

Toutes les espéces qui sont décrites dans ce travail proviennent de

Vile de Ceylan et sont conservées 4 Indian Museum de Calcutta.

Elles m’ont été envoyées en communication par Monsieur N. Annan-

dale. On remarquera que, dans Vile de Ceylan comme dans les

Indes, le groupe Orthocladius est faiblement représenté; nous

n’avons que deux espéces 4 y rapporter pour Ceylan, tandis qu’il y

en a vingt pour le groupe T'endipes (Chironomus). En Europe c’est

Vinverse qui a lieu.

I.—CULICOIDIN 4.

1.—Genus Forcipomyia, Megerlé in Meigen 1818, Walker 1856

(Ceratopogon, Meigen 1818, non Meigen 1803).

1. Métatarse postérieur plus court que Varticle suivant. .Subg.

Prohelea, n. subg.

— Métatarse postérieur plus long que larticle suivant. .Subg.

Forcipomyia, Meg.

1.—Subgenus PROHELEA, n. subg.

(Ceratopogon, Meigen 1818, non Meigen 1803 ; Helea, Speiser 1910,

non Meigen 1800).

1. Partie dorsale des tibias avec des écailles dressées et pétiolées. .

1. F. (P.) ornaticrus, n. sp.

— Tibias sans écailles. .2.

2. Ailes assombries, avec un point blanc et cing grandes taches

blanchatres..2. F.(P.) tetraclada, n. sp.

— Ailes sans tache, mesonotum a pubescence jaune et assez

dense. .3.

3. Patte avec des poils dressés, épars et 3-4 fois aussi longs que

son épaisseur. .4.

— Pattes sans longs poils dressés..3. . (P.) calcarata, n. sp.

4, Ailes avec une petite tache blanche située un peu en arriére de

Vextrémité du cubitus..4. F'. (P.) noctivaga, n. sp.

— Ailes sans tache blanche. .5. /. (P.) theobromae, n. sp.

(1) ForclpoMyIA (PROHELEA) ORNATICRUS, Nn. Sp.

¢ Brun noir; balanciers blancs, front, face, scape, dessous du

thorax, hanches, pattes et lamelles anales jaunatres, le reste du

B 6(19)11

Dy. oe SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

thorax jaune brunatre ou brun noir, pleures toujours plus claires,

flagellum brunatre. Yeux largement confluents au vertex, bouche

allongée, subcylindrique, sugoir proéminent sous forme de fine

pointe. Article 2° des palpes long et élargi, les trois autres courts.

Articles 2-9 des antennes coniques, de moitié plus longs que gros,

a verticille dense et plus long que l’article, 10-13 plus minces, 10-14

cylindriques, deux fois aussi longs que gros, faiblement poilus.

Thorax trés convexe, pas plus long que haut, lisse, brillant, 4 poils

jaunatres et épars. Scutellum bordé de soies longues et assez denses.

Ailes densément poilues, sombres, avec une tache blanc jaunatre

couvrant l’extrémité du radius et du cubitus, une bande enfumée

longe le bord depuis l’extrémité du cubitus jusqu’au dernier quart

alaire, cubitus soudé au radius dans sa moitié proximale, aboutissant

au bord & peine avant le milieu de l’aile, radius aboutissant au bord

vis a vis du milieu du cubitus, discoidale bifurquée bien avant la

transversale, ses deux rameaux également distants de la pointe

alaire, bifurcation de la posticale située a peine distalement de

lextrémité du cubitus. Pattes parsemées de poils plus longs que

leur grosseur et dressés, tous les tibias ont en outre, sur la partie

dorsale, des écailles pétiolées, spatuliformes, noires, & peine plus

courtes que la grosseur du tibia ; fémurs et tibias deux fois aussi

gros que les tarses, métatarse de toutes les pattes plus court que le 2¢

article, aux tarses postérieurs le 2¢ article est de moitié plus long que

le métatarse, quatre fois aussi long que gros, 3-5 graduellement

raccourcis, le 5° deux fois aussi long que gros, a peine plus court que

le 4°, crochets arqués fortement, gréles, aussi longs que la pelote.

Abdomen déprimé, ayant sa plus grande largeur au milieu, a poils

épars. Corps trapu. ‘Taille: 1,8 mm.—Peradeniya, 9. VIII. 1910

et 11. VIII. 1910.

(2) Forcrpomy1a (PROHELEA) TETRACLADA, N. Sp.

2 Brun noir ; dessousdu thorax et abdomen bruns, balanciers

blanes, pattes jaune blanchatre, extrémité des fémurs, base des

tibias et anneau avant l’extrémité des tibias noirs, tarses noirs avec

Vextrémité des articles jaune ; parfois le thorax et abdomen sont

brun roux, le dessous toujours plus clair. Antennes a articles 3-9

subglobuleux ou un peu transversaux, 10-14 cylindriques et guére

plus longs que gros, sauf le 14¢. Mesonotum mat, subglabre.

Scutellum bordé de longs poils pales. Ailes enfumées avec un point

blanc 4 l’extrémité du cubitus et 5 grandes taches blanchatres, dont

Pune au quart distal, touchant le bord antérieur, les 4 autres au

bord postérieur, l’une entre les deux rameaux de la discoidale,

autre entre la discoidale et la posticale, la 3° entre les deux rameaux

de la posticale, la 4° entre le rameau proximal de la posticale et le

lobe alaire qui demeure assombri ; ces taches ne sont séparées lune

de l’autre que par les 4 stries brunes qui longent les 4 nervures

aboutissant au bord postérieur ; les poils sont blancs sur les taches,

assombris sur le reste de la surface alaire ; cubitus soudé au radius,

aboutissant au milieu de l’aile, bifurcation de la discoidale située sous

la transversale ou proximalement, bifurcation de la posticale vis 4

vis de l’extrémité du cubitus, le rameau distal deux fois aussi long

que le proximal. Fémurs et tibias un peu grossis, a poils épars,

dressés, deux fois aussi longs que la grosseur des pattes, éperon velu,

tarses sans longs poils, métatarse postérieur a peine plus court que

le 2¢ article, le 5¢ deux fois aussi long que gros, a peine plus court que

le 4°, empodium égal aux crochets. Abdomen déprimé, 23 fois

NOUVEAUX CHIRONOMIDES (TENDIPEDIDAE) DE CEYLAN. 3

aussi long que large, d’égale largeur, mat, trés faiblement pubescent,

avec quelques longs poils sur les cotés des deux derniers segments.

Taille : 1, 5 mm.—Peradeniya, 23. V. 1910.

(3) ForctpoMy1A (PROHELEA) CALCARATA, Nn. sp.

2 Brun noir, mat; balanciers blancs, pleures, hanches et pattes

jaune clair, tiers distal des fémurs postérieurs et base des tibias

postérieurs bruns. Articles antennaires 2-9 globuleux, les 5 derniers

allongés, cylindriques, chacun 2-3 fois aussi long que le 9°. Meso-

notum avec une pubescence jaune et assez dense. Ailes densément

poilues, assombries, cubitus et radius juxtaposés et noirs, le radius

dépassant 4 peine la moitié du cubitus, qui dépasse un peu le milieu

de l’aile, la fourche intercalée est indiquée par un vestige, bifurcation

de la discoidale distante proximalement de la transversale, qui est

_ oblique, bifurcation de la posticale située vis a vis de l’extrémité du

radius. Tibia antérieur avec un peigne et un éperon lisse, glabre et

aussi long que la grosseur du tibia, tibia postérieur avec un double

peigne, fémurs et tibias assez gros, métatarse antérieur égalant

presque la moitié du 2¢ article, tous deux avec des spinules ventrales,

assez denses, aussi longues que la grosseur des articles, 3° article

égal au 1¢", 4 un peu plus court que le 3°, trois fois aussi long que

gros, 5° deux fois aussi long que gros, empodium égal aux crochets.

Abdomen allongé, déprimé, sublinéaire, faiblement pubescent, sans

longs poils. Taille : 1, 8 mm.—Peradeniya, 2. VI. 1910.

(4) ForcreoMyIA (PROHELEA) NOCTIVAGA, N. sp.

? Noir ; sternum et ventre brunatres, hanches et pattes jaunatres,

balanciers blancs, antennes brunatres. Articles antennaires 3-9

subglobuleux, un peu transversaux, 10-14 subcylindriques, a

peine plus longs que gros. Mesonotum densément pubescent de

jaune. Ailes assombries, surtout le long du bord jusqu’au tiers

distal, avec une tache blanche et petite, située 4 l’extrémité du

cubitus, lequel atteint le milieu de l’aile, radius juxtaposé au cubitus,

bifurcation de la discoidale distante proximalement de Ja transver-

sale, bifurcation de la posticale 4 peine distante distalement de

Vextrémité du cubitus. Pattes avec des poils dressés, épars et

longs ; métatarse postérieur plus court que le 2° article, 5° article

égal au 4°, pas plus long que gros, empodium égal aux crochets.

Abdomen déprimé, un peu plus large au milieu qu’aux deux extré-

mités. Taille: 1 mm.—Peradeniya, 19. IX. 1910, capturé la nuit

a la lumiere.

(5) ForcrrpoMy1A (PROHELEA) THEOBROMAE, DN. sp.

Fag. tf.

6? Brun noir; balanciers blanc sale ou noiratres, pattes brunes,

hanches, extrémité distale des fémurs, des tibias et des articles

tarsaux jaundtres. Bouche allongée ; palpes composés de 4 articles,

dont le 2¢ est élargi et le plus long. Panache brun noir, composé de

verticilles dont les soies se touchent & leur base et atteignent le

milieu du 14¢ article, les articles 2-10 des antennes du male sub-

globuleux, avec deux appendices sétiformes et hyalins, 11° égal aux

4 précédents réunis, globuleux 4 sa base qui est munie d’un long

verticille, 12° et 13° cylindriques, chacun égal a la moitié du 11°,

renflé en calote a la base, qui est munie d’un verticiHe, le 14° un peu

plus long que le 13°, terminé par unstylet. Chez la femelle, les articles

4 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

2e*et 9° sont subglobuleux, 4-9 subconiques et 4 peine plus longs

que gros, 2-9 avec un verticille de soies un peu distantes a leur base

et presque deux fois aussi longues que l’article, au-dessus du verti-

cille, se trouve de chaque cété, un appendice linéaire, hyalin, obtus,

\ peine incurvé et un peu plus court que le verticille; articles 10-14

subcylindriques, un peu plus longs que les précédents, sans verticille

et sans appendices, le dernier un peu plus long que le 13°, terminé

par un stylet (Fig. 1).

Fic. 1.—Forcipomyia (Prohelea) theobromae, n. sp.—Six derniers articles des

antennes de la femelle.

Mesonotum avec une pubescence jaune et assez dense. Ailes

assombries, densément poilues, sans tache blanche, radius juxtaposé

au cubitus dont il atteint presque l’extrémité, cubitus aboutissant

un peu avant le milieu de Vaile, bifurcation de la discoidale distante

proximalement de la transversale, bifurcation de la posticale située

sous l’extrémité du cubitus, rameau distal pas deux fois aussi long

que le proximal. Pattes grosses, avec des poils dressés, 3-4 fois

aussi longs que la grosseur des pattes, 2° article du tarse postérieur

de moitié plus long que le 1°", 3° égal au 1¢", 4¢a peine plus long que

le 5°, qui est presque deux fois aussi long que gros, empodium

égalant les crochets qui sont fortement arqués. Abdomen deux fois

aussi long que large, sublinéaire. Taille: 1, 5 mm.—Peradeniya,

6. VI. 1910, 7 6 et 7 2 obtenus de larves vivant dans les fruits

décomposés du Cacaotier (Theobroma cacao, L.).

2.—Subgenus Forcrpomyia, Megerle.

1. Ailes densément poilues..1. F. longicalcar, n. sp.

— Ailes glabres, tiers distal et bord postérieur faiblement poilus. .

2. F. semipilosus, n. sp.

(1) ForcrrPOMYIA LONGICALCAR, 0. sp.

Fig. 2.

? Brun noir, sternum et ventre roux, balanciers sombres, hanches

et pattes jaune clair, antennes brun sombre. Face renflée comme

d’ordinaire, 2° article des palpes élargi; bouche longue. Articles

antennaires 2-9 subglobuleux, a verticille deux fois aussi long que

Particle, 10-14 subcylindriques, chacun presque deux fois aussi long

que gros. Mesonotum avec une pubescence dense et grisatre.

Ailes (Fig. 2) hyalines, densément poilues, intervalle des poils ponctué,

NOUVEAUX CHIRONOMIDES (TENDIPEDIDAE) DE CEYLAN. 5

cubitus aboutissant au bord au milieu de l’aile, radius aboutissant

vis & vis du milieu du cubitus, paraissant soudé au cubitus étant vu

& la loupe, presque juxtaposé au cubitus et uni 4 lui avant son

extrémité étant vu au microscope, transversale oblique, discoidale

bifurquée sous la transversale, posticale bifurquée vis 4 vis de lextré-

mité distale du cubitus. Partie dorsale des pattes 4 poils dressés et

Sm eee ee OO

Fria. 2.—Forcipomyia longicalcar, n. sp.—Aile,

trés longs, tibias postérieurs avec un peigne et un éperon qui atteint

le milieu du métatarse, métatarse postérieur un peu plus long que le

2¢ article, le 4° de moitié plus long que gros, 5° pas plus long que gros

et dépourvu de longs poils, crochets en demi-cercle, un peu plus

longs que ’empodium. Abdomen déprimé, un peu plus large au

milieu. Taille: 1 mm.—Peradeniya, 20. V. 1910.

(2) ForCIPOMYIA SEMIPILOSUS, n. sp.

? Téte et scape jaunes, flagellum brun, thorax et hanches roux,

balanciers blancs, abdomen noir. Corps subglabre. Yeux con-

fluents, face renflée, bouche longue, 2° article des palpes long mais

non élargi. Articles antennaires 2-9 globuleux, leur verticille égal

a Varticle, 10-14 allongés, chacun 3-4 fois aussi long que le 9°.

Mesonotum glabre, lisse et brillant. Ailes hyalines, glabres, faible-

ment poilues au tiers distal et le long du bord postérieur, cubitus

paralléle au bord, atteignant presque le quart distal de laile, sa

partie distale quatre fois aussi longue que sa partie proximale,

cellule radiale distale trois fois aussi longue que la proximale, radius

trés rapproché du cubitus, presque paralléle 4 lui, sa 1° partie égale

a la transversale, double de la 2°, transversale un peu oblique,

bifurcation de la discoidale 4 peine distante distalement de la

transversale, bifurcation de la posticale située vis a vis de l’extré-

mité du radius. Pattes sans longs poils, les poils pas plus longs que

la grosseur des pattes, tibias posterieurs a double peigne, le métatarse

postérieur égalant les trois articles suivants réunis, le 4° a peine plus

long que gros, 5° presque deux fois aussi long que le 4°, empodium

égalant les crochets. Abdomen déprimé, ellipsoidal, égal au reste

du corps. Taille : 1, 8 mm.—Peradeniya, 4, VII. 1910.

2.—Genus Culicoides, Latr.

1. Ailes enfumées avec 2 taches noires et de nombreuses taches

blanches..1. C. ceylanicus, n. sp.

— Ailes hyalines, avec une minime tache blanche sur la transver-

sale et & Vextrémité distale du cubitus..2. C. bilobatus, n. sp.

(1) CULICOIDES CEYLANICUS, n. sp.

¢ Brun noir; balanciers blancs, abdomen brun roux, pattes

blanchatres, fémurs postérieurs sauf la base, un large anneau avant

le milieu des tibias postérieurs et l’ extréme bout distal du tibia brun

noir. Articles du flagellum subglobuleux, un peu transversaux, les

6 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

derniers guére plus longs. Mesonotum subglabre. Ailes enfumées, a

soies microscopiques ; une tache noire, sur le bord antérieur, englobe

le radius et le cubitus ; une tache noiratre, sur le bord anteérieur, est

plus rapprochée du cubitus que de la pointe alaire ; les autres taches

sont blanches, uve va transversalement du bord antérieur jusqu’

au dela de la nervure transversale, une autre transversale borde

distalement la tache voiratre, les autres taches sont circulaires et

encore plus petites, l’une est située au bord antérieur entre la tache

noire et la tache noiratre, une autre entre la tache noiratre et la

nervure discoidale, deux entre les rameaux de la discoidale, vis & vis

de la tache noiratre, une entre les rameaux de la posticale, deux

entre l’extrémité du pétiole de la posticale et la discoidale, une sous

Vextrémité de ce pétiole, 4 4 6 taches trés petites sont alignées sur le

bord inférieur ; radius et cubitus juxtaposés, aboutissant un peu

distalement du milieu de l’aile, transversale oblique, longue, un peu

plus courte que le radius, bifurcation de la discoidale située sous la

transversale ou un peu distalement d’elle, bifurcation de la posticale

a peine distante proximalement de l’extrémité du cubitus. Pattes

sans longs poils, métatarse postérieur égalant les trois articles

suivants réunis, muni de spinules ventrales denses, 4° article pas plus

long que gros, 5 égal au 3¢, deux fois aussi long que gros, empodium

nul, crochets avec des soies basales. Abdomen ellipsoidal, presque

glabre. Taille: 0, 8 mm.—Peradeniya, 25, VI. 1910.

(2) CULICOIDES BILOBATUS, n. sp.

6 Noir; pattes brunatres. Yeux séparés au vertex et glabres,

bouche longus, terminée en pointe, élargie de chaque coté, prés de

Pextrémité, en un lobe triangulaire ; 2¢ article des palpes non élargi,

aussi long que le 3° et le 4° réunis. Panache brun noir, articles

antennaires 2-11 globuleux, les trois derniers cylindriques, chacun

2-3 fois aussi long que le 9°, le 2° ayant, outre le verticille, deux soies

aussi longues que l’article, 3-11 avec un seul appendice subuliforme,

étalé et un peu plus long que larticle. Ailes hyalines, avec des

soles microscopiques, une minime tache blanche couvre la nervure

transversale, une autre est située & Vembouchure du cubitus;

radius et cubitus a peine séparés, subégaux, dépassant distalement

le milieu de Vaile, transversale trés oblique, bifurcation de la

posticale distante proximalement de la transversale, bifurcation de

la posticale située vis a vis de l’embouchure du cubitus, la fourche

intercalée est assez bien marquée. Pattes minces, tibias sans

éperon mais avec un double peigne, aussi longs que le tarse, méta-

tarse égalant les trois articles suivants réunis, 4° article deux fois

aussi long que gros, 5¢ de moitié plus long que le 4° et beaucoup plus

mince, crochets avec des soies basales, empodium nul. Abdomen

eee et presque linéaire. Taille: 1 mm.—Peradeniya, 14.

3.—Genus Dibezzia.

DIBEZZIA CEYLANICA, N. sp.

? Noir brillant et subglabre ; antennes sauf l’extrémité qui est

assombrie, face, un large anneau avant l’extrémité des fémurs et

moitié distale des tibias roux, les deux premiers articles tarsaux

blanc jaunatre, balanciers blanc séle. Yeux séparés au vertex par

une ligne, face proéminente en bosse, bouche longue et pointue.

Article 2° des palpes non épaissi, long et cylindrique. Article 2¢ des

antennes un peu plus long que le 3°, 3-9 subcylindriques, & peine

NOUVEAUX CHIRONOMIDES (TENDIPEDIDAE) DE CEYLAN. 7

renflés au milieu, chacun 3-4 fois aussi long que gros, 10-14 cylin-

driques, chacun presque trois fois aussi long que le 9°, tous les

articles du flagellum ont des soies éparses, non en verticille, 3-4 fois

aussi longues que la grosseur des articles. Mesonotum densément

pointillé, avec une pointe a peine distincte, située au milieu du bord

antérieur. Ailes hyalines, radius égalant le quart du cubitus, qui

est rapproché du bord et paralléle 4 lui, son extrémité proche de la

pointe alaire, aussi rapprochée que le rameau inférieur de la discoi:

dale, bifurcation de la discoidale distante proximalement de la

transversale, qui est perpendiculaire, posticale bifurquée vis 4 vis

de la transversale, rameau inférieur de l’anale oblitéré. Fémurs

cylindriques et inermes, les pattes antérieures sont plus courtes que

les autres, mais leur fémur est encore plus long que la hauteur du

thorax, tibia antérieur égal au tarse, métatarse un peu plus court

que les quatre articles suivants réunis, 4° article pas plus long que

gros, 5° égalant les deux précédents réunis, avec 4-5 paires de

spinules noires et obtuses ; aux pattes intermédiaires le tibia et le

tarse sont conformés comme aux antérieures ; tibia postérieur plus

long que le tarse, avec un peigne double, métatarse plus long que les

quatre articles suivants réunis, 2° article double du 3°, 4° un peu

plus court que le 3°, trois fois aussi long que gros, 5° un peu plus

court que les deux précédents réunis, avec 4-5 paires de spinules

noires ; crochets tarsaux des pattes antérieures égaux, simples,

égalant les deux tiers de Varticle; aux tarses intermédiaires et

postérieurs, les crochets sont inégaux et bifides, le grand crochet

égale les deux tiers de l’article et est 3-4 fois aussi long que son lobe

inférieur, le petit crochet ne dépasse guére le quart du grand, et est

deux fois aussi long que son lobe basal. Pétiole de abdomen

brillant, eylindrique, 2-3 fois aussi long que gros, égalant les cing

articles suivants, ceux-ci deux fois plus larges que le pétiole, faible-

ment convexes dorsalement, plus fortement ventralement, a peine

incurvés, sans longs poils. Taille: 3, 5 mm.—Peradeniya, 9. VIIT.

1910.

4.—Genus Stilobezzia, Kieff.

1. Article 5¢ des 4 tarses antérieurs armé, 4 sa base, d’une paire

de 2 fortes spinules noires..1. WS. festiva, Kieff. var, Scutellaris,

A. Var.

— Article 5¢ des tarses inerme..2. S. inermipes, n. sp.

(1) StTimoBEzzIA FESTIVA, Kieff. VAR. SCUTELLARIS, n. var.

¢ Thorax brun roux, scutellum et abdomen verts, les tergites ont

un point noir au milieu et un de chaque coté, front, face, antennes,

hanches et pattes jaune clair, balanciers noirs a tige rousse, un trait

sur le dessous des fémurs postérieurs, extréme bout distal de tous

les fémurs et de tous les tibias brun ou noir. Bouche pointue et

longue, yeux confluents, article 2° des palpes long mais non élargi.

Article 2° des antennes presque double du 3°, 3-9 subcylindriques,

2-3 fois aussi longs que gros, 4 poils disposés sans ordre et égalant

Particle, 10-14 4 poils plus denses, chaque article 2—3 fois aussi long

que le 9°. Thorax glabre, brillant, un peu plus long que haut ;

scutellum avec six soies noires. Ailes hyalines, avec deux petites

taches brunes, dont l’une couvre la nervure transversale, Pautre va

de l’extrémité du cubitus jusque prés de la discoidale ; le reste

_comme chez le type. Pattes comme chez le type ; le grand crochet

tarsal est simple, le petit a une dent basale, Taille: 1, 8 mm,—

Peradeniya, 24. V. 1910.

8 SPOLIA ZEYLANIOA.

(2) STILOBEZZIA INERMIPES, 0. sp.

? Brun ; tige des balaneciers, hanches et pattes testacées, sauf

lextréme bout des tibias et des quatre premiers articles tarsaux,

palpes noirs, bord postérieur des tergites blanchatre. Yeux séparés

au vertex par une ligne, bouche longue et pointue, 2¢ article des

palpes non grossi. Articles antennaires 2-5 subcylindriques, deux

fois aussi longs que gros, 6-9 plus minces et graduellement allongés,

le 9° trois & quatre fois aussi long que gros, 10° plus long que le 9°

mais plus court que le 11°, les cinq derniers plus fortement allongés

et filiformes. Mesonotum glabre et brillant. Ailes blanchatres,

avec de petites taches brunes, dont l’une couvre la transversale,

Varéole et Vextrémité du radius, lautre est située sur l’extrémité

renflée du cubitus, une tache transversale touche le bord antérieur

et se trouve entre le cubitus et la pointe alaire, les autres sont poncti-

formes, peu distinctes et sont situées 4 ’extrémité de chaque rameau

de la diseoidale et du rameau distal de la posticale; pétiole de la

discoidale pas plus long que la nervurs transversale qui est perpendi--

culaire et un peu plus longue que le bout distal du radius ; bifurcation

de la posticale distante proximalement de la transversale. Pattes

et, crochets tarsaux comme chez festiva sauf que le 5¢ article tarsal

de toutes les pattes est dépourvu de spinules. Abdomen sublinéaire,

plan dessus et dessous. Taille : 2 mm.—Peradeniya, 2. VI. 1910.

5.—Genus Bezzia.

BEZZIA INDECORA, N. Sp.

6 Noir ; base des fémurs et les deux bouts des tibias brundatres,

tarses blanchatres, balanciers noiratres. Articles antennaires 2-9

globuleux ou un peu transversaux, pubescents, sans longs poils,

10-14 subcylindriques, chacun deux fois le 9°. Thorax mat,

subglabre ; scutellum avec quelques soies. Ailes hyalines, cubitus

24 fois aussi long que le radius, atteignant le tiers distal de Vaile,

bifurcation de la discoidale oblitérée, bifurcation de la posticale vis

a vis de l’extrémité du radius. Pattes subglabres, les antérieures

un peu plus courtes que les autres, fémurs antérieurs avec 2 spinules

dans leur moitié distale, tibia postérieur égalant les deux premiers

articles tarsaux réunis, trois premiers articles tarsaux avec 2 rangées

de soies bulbeuses sur le dessous, Je métatarse égalant les 4 articles

suivants réunis, 4¢ article tronqué obliquement au bout, guére plus

long que gros, 5° égal aux deux précédents réunis, crochets de toutes

les pattes simples, égaux et petits. Abdomen cylindrique, beau-

coup plus mince que le thorax. Taille: 1, 2 mm.—Peradeniya, 14.

V. 1910.

IJ.—PELOPIINAL (Tanypinae).

Genus Pelopia, Meigen 1800.

Synonymes: Janypus, Meigen 1803; Jsoplastus, Skuse 1889;

Ablabesmyia, Johannsen 1905.

1. Pattes blanches, annelées de noir..1. P. annulatipes, n. sp.

— Pattes blanchatres, non annelées..2. P. pallidipes, n. sp.

(1) PELOPIA ANNULATIPES, n. sp.

? Rouge ; antennes, sauf le dernier article qui est brun noir,

halanciers et pattes blanc de lait, extrémité des fémurs avec un.

NOUVEAUX CHIRONOMIDES (TENDIPEDIDAE) DE CEYLAN. 9

mince anneau brunatre, tibias noirs a l’extrémité et avec deux

anneaux noirs, dont ’un prés de Ja base, autre au milieu, métatarse

ayec un anneau au milieu et ’extrémité noirs, articles tarsaux 2 et 3

noirs 4 l’extrémité, 4° et 5° brun noir ; mesonotum cendré, avec

trois bandes longitudinales brunes, dont la médiane est raccourcie

en arriére, les latérales en avant. Articles du flagellum subglo-

buleux, verticilles 3-4 fois aussi longs que la grosseur des articles,

appendices subuliformes hyalins, atteignant le milieu de l’article

suivant, article terminal aussi long que les trois précédents réunis

et deux fois aussi gros, terminé par un stylet, son verticille est

remplacé par une seule longue soie. Ailes densément poilues,

blanches, avec trois ou quatre taches noires et de nombreuses taches

enfumées ; une tache noire est transversale et s’étend de la base du

cubitus, englobant les deux nervures transversales, jusque dans la

bifurcation de la posticale, une seconde est a l’extrémité du radius

une troisiéme, presque ponctiforme, 4 Vextrémité du cubitus, en

outre les deux nervures transversales situées a la base alaire sont

bordées de noir ; le tiers distal de la posticale et la moitié distale des

deux rameaux de la posticale sont bordés d’une teinte enfumée, une

bande oblique et enfumée relie entre elles ces trois nervures a l’en-

droit ot commence leur bordure enfumée; une grande tache

irréguliére est située sur le lobe anal ; en outre une teinte légérement

enfumée longe tout le bord postérieur de Vaile. Cubitus presque

double du radius, son extrémité trois fois plus éloignée de la pointe

alaire que la discoidale, seconde transversale 4 peine distante proxi-

malement de la 1¢, aboutissant 4 la base arquée du rameau supérieur

de la posticale. Tibia antérieur un peu plus long que le métatarse,

articles 4 et 5 subégaux, 3-4 fois aussi longs que gros. Taille: 1, 2

mm.—Peradeniya, 17. V. 1910.

(2) PELOPIA PALLIDIPES, n. sp.

2 Roux clair, antennes et balanciers plus clairs, dernier article

antennaire brun noir, pattes blanchatres, extrémité des fémurs

brunatre, mesonotum blanchatre, avee trois bandes rousses, dont

la médiane est raccourcie en arriére, les latérales en avant. An-

tennes de 12 articles, les articles du flagellum sont globuleux, le

dernier en massue comme chez l’espéce précédente. Ailes densé-

ment velues, blanches, extrémité distale enfumée, une large bande

transversale enfumée va de l’extrémité du radius jusqu’a l’extrémité

du rameau inférieur de la posticale, un espace enfumé entre la

posticale et le bord inférieur, depuis la base alaire jusqu’au milieu

de la tige de la posticale ; cubitus double du radius, fortement

arqué, touchant presque le bord, aboutissant aussi pres de la pointe

alaire que la discoidale, transversale bordée de noir, aboutissant a la

seconde transversale, qui est reliée & la base arquée du rameau

supérieur de la posticale. Abdomen faiblement comprimé, a peine

plus long que le reste du corps. Taille: 2 mm.—Peradeniya, 29. V.

1910.

III.—TENDIPEDIN & (Chironominae).

A.—Groupe TENDIPES.

Extrémité des tibias intermédiaires et postérieurs avec un anneau

noir, crénelé distalement et incomplet ; métatarse antérieur ordi-

nairement plus long que le tibia ; pince du mile ayant ordinairement

¢ 6(19)11

10 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

quatre appendices internes. Toutes les espéces décrites ici ont les

pulvilles—courts et le cubitus non dépassé par la costale.

1.—Genus Tendipes, Meigen 1800 (Chironomus, Meigen 1803).

Ailes & surface glabre et & base ressortant sous forme de lobe.

1. Ailes tachetées. .2.

— Ailes hyalines, sans tache. .7.

2. Ailes noires ou brun noir avec des taches blanches, pattes

annelées’; 5¢ article antennaire avec un col chez la femelle..1. 7’.

pretiosus, N. Sp.

— Ailes enfumées avec des taches blanches ou bien ailes blanches

avee des taches enfumées ou noires, 5° article antennaire sans col. .3

3. Ailes avec trois taches noires et quatre taches enfumées ou

bien ailes enfumées, avec des taches noires et blanches..2. 7.

sumptuosus, nN. Sp.

— Ailes n’ayant que des taches qui sont toutes de méme couleur

4. Ailes enfumées avec cing grandes taches blanches..3. 7.

elatus, n. sp.

— Ailes blanches avec six a neuf taches enfumées ou noires. .5.

5. Ailes & 6 taches noires..5. 7’. gloriosus, n. sp.

— Ailes 4 8 ou 9 taches enfumées . .6.

6. Métatarse antérieur deux fois aussi long que le tibia..4. 7.

superbus, 1. sp.

— Métatarse antérieur d’un tiers plus long que le tibia..6. 7.

ceylanicus, Kieff.

7. Noir brillant, métatarse antérieur blanc pur, 3-6 premiers

articles des quatre autres tarses blanc sale..7. T'. albtforceps, Kieff.

— Coloration autre ..8

8. Abdomen vert au moins en partie. .9.

— Abdomen sans couleur verte. .11.

9 Nervure transversale noire ; abdomen brun noir avec un étroit

bord postérieur des segments vert. 9. 7’. perichlorus, n. sp.

— Nervure transversale pale ; abdomen vert en entier ou jaune

avec un large bord antérieur et postérieur et les cotés verts. . 10.

10. Article 5° du tarse antérieur 8-10 fois aussi long que gros,

mesonotum avec une bande noire unique, abdomen jaune, et vert

.8. TT. allothrix, n. sp.

— Article 5¢ du tarse antérieur 3-4 fois aussi long que gros,

mesonotum a trois bandes ferrugmeuses, abdomen vert en entier

10. 1’. chlorogaster, n. sp.

11. Bandes du mesonotum ferrugineuses et bordées de noir. . 11.

T'. mgromarginatus, Kieff.

— Bandes du mesonotum autrement colorées. .12.

12. Antennes de la femelle de 7 articles, mesonotum avec 3

bandes noires, 5° article des tarses antérieurs 8-10 fois aussi long

que gros..13. T'. heptatomus, n. sp.

— Autennes de 6 articles chez la femelle. .13

13. Mesonotum avec deux bandes noires..14. 7. hexatomus,

n. sp.

— Mesonotum sans bande ou A trois bandes. . 14.

14. Antennes blanches avec les nodosités noires ou brun noir,

corps brun noir, mesonotum sans bande..15. 1’. varsicornts, n. sp.

— Antennes sauf les deux premiers articles brunes, corps jaune,

mesonotum avec trois bandes noires..12, 7’. fuscitarsis, n. sp.

NOUVEAUX CHIRONOMIDES (TENDIPEDIDAE) DE CEYLAN. 11

(1) TENDIPES PRETIOSUS, n. sp.

Fig. 3.

62 Noir mat; flagellum jaunatre ou brundatre, panache gris,

balanciers blanchatres, pattes annelées de blanc jaundtre, tous les

fémurs avec deux petits anneaux situés l’un avant le milieu et l’autre

avant l’extrémité ; tibias antérieurs avec un petit anneau avant

VPextrémité ; tibias intermédiaires avec deux anneaux, dont lun,

trés petit, est situé prés de la base, l'autre, égal a la moitié du tibia,

atteint presque le bout distal ; tibias postérieurs avec deux petits

anneaux, dont l’un est trés prés de la base, lautre un peu au-

dessus du milieu ; tarses blancs, extréme bout distal du métatarse

et, aux pattes antérieures, le tiers distal du 2° article et la moitié

distale des trois suivants noirs, aux pattes intermédiaires et pos-

térieures les articles 4 et 5 et au métatarse postérieur, encore un

anneau pres de la base sont noirs ; les 4 premiers tergites du male ont

une tache médiane, elliptique d’un blane pruineux. Bouche un peu

plus courte que la téte, yeux arqués, séparés de leur largeur au

Fic. 3.—Tendipes pretiosus, n. sp.—Pince.

vertex ; palpes longs, composés de quatre articles. Antennes de la

femelle de six articles, dont le 2° est subcylindrique, deux fois aussi

long que gros et a deux verticilles, 3-5 grossis au milieu, terminés

par un col plus court qu’eux, avec un verticille 3-4 fois aussi long

que leur grosseur, 6° article subfusiforme, de moitié plus long que

le 5°, terminé par trois longues soies. Antennes du male de 14

articles, 2-13 aussi longs que gros et avec deux verticilles, 2¢ et 3°

a verticille unique, 2-4 un peu grossis, 14° de moitié plus long que

2-13 réunis. Ailes noires ou brun noir, avec des taches blanches,

dont une grande et circulaire occupe la pointe alaire et est traversée

par un trait brun qui borde la disco?dale, elle a pour limites l’extré-

mité du cubitus et du rameau supérieur de la posticale ; une mince

bande noire, transversale et sinueuse sépare cette tache distale de

deux grandes taches transversales, dont l’une est située au bord

antérieur, autre au bord postérieur ; deux petites taches circulaires

et séparées seulement par le cubitus, sont situées prés de la nervure

transversale, l’une entre le bord et le cubitus, l'autre entre le cubitus

et la discoidale ; vis & vis d’elles, au bord postérieur, se trouve une

grande tache formée par la réunion de trois petites et englobant la

moitié distale du rameau inférieur de la posticale, en s’étendant du

bord postérieur de Vaile jusqu’au rameau supérieur de la posticale ;

parfois le bord antérieur de l’aile offre encore une tache ponctiforme

entre l’extrémité du radius et la tache circulaire ; le tiers proximal de

12 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Vaile est blanc et offre deux petites taches d’un brun noir, dont

lune, transversale, va du bord inférieur jusque prés de la tige de la

posticale, l’autre, circulaire et plus petite, est située vis a vis de la

précédente, entre la tige de la posticale et celle de la discoidale ;

transversale oblique, 2° nervure longitudinale bien plus rapprochée

de Vextrémité du cubitus que du radius, aussi prés de la pointe

alaire que le rameau supérieur de la posticale, cubitus droit, éloigné

du bord, aboutissant prés de la pointe alaire mais moins prés que

la discoidale, bifurcation de la posticale distale de la transversale.

Pattes pubescentes, les postérieures avec des poils deux fois aussi

longs que l’épaisseur des pattes, fémurs et tibias élargis, métatarse

antérieur de la femelle de moitié plus long que le tibia, 4° article

double du 5°, qui est 5-6 fois aussi long que gros, empodium filiforme,

& longs poils, égal aux crochets, pulvilles trés petits, plus courts que

le tiers des crochets. Abdomen de la femelle a poils aussi longs

que le tiers de la largeur des tergites ; pince du male (Fig. 3) noire,

lamelle avec une pointe arquée et plus longue qu'elle, article terminal

de la pince presque d’égale largeur, tronqué un peu obliquement

4 Vextrémité, avec des poils épars dans sa moitié basale et 5 soies

peu longues, alignées & Vextrémité, les appendices intermédiaires

manquent, les internes sont courts, glabres, arqués et subfiliformes

dans leur moitié distale. Taille: 2, 5-3 mm.—Peradeniya, 21 V.,

2 Vi, 41: Vi. 1910,

(2) TENDIPES SUMPTUOSUS, 0. sp.

? Brun roux ; mesonotum avec trois bandes plus sombres, balan-

ciers blanchatres, scape, palpes, hanches et pattes blanc brunatre,

fémurs brun clair, avec un large anneau jaunatre avant leur extré-

mité (tarses antérieurs brisés). Palpes longs, de 4 articles. An-

tennes brisées. Mesonotum glabre et luisant. Ailes blanches, avec

trois taches noires et quatre taches enfumées ; une tache noire et

carrée est située au milieu du cubitus et atteint la discoidale, la

2° tache noire est située dans la bifurcation de la posticale, la 3¢,

plus grande, va du milieu de la tige de la posticale jusqu’au bord

postérieur ; sur le bord postérieur se trouvent les taches enfumées

et irrisées, dont l'une entre la discoidale et le rameau supérieur de

la posticale, autre entre les deux rameaux de la posticale, la 3¢

relie l’extrémité du rameau inférieur de la posticale au lobe alaire, la

4¢, éloignée du bord, se trouve entre la bifurcation de la posticale

et la discoidale ; 2e longitudinale indistincte, cubitus non arqué,

un peu plus rapproché de la pointe alaire que la discoidale, presque

deux fois aussi longue que le radius, bifurcation de la posticale un

peu distale de la transversale, ses deux rameaux & peine arqués,

transversale oblique. Fémurs et tibias un peu élargis, a poils courts,

fémur antérieur de moitié plus long que le tibia, empodium filiforme,

pulvilles égalant la moitié des crochets, tarse postérieur d’un quart

plus long que le tibia. Abdomen de moitié plus long que le reste

du corps. Taille: 2 mm.—Peradeniya, 2 VI. 1910.

(3) TENDIPES ELATUS, Nn. sp.

? Brun noir; antennes et tarses blanchatres, fémurs et tibias

brun clair, balanciers brun noir, mesonotum brun jaunatre, avec

trois bandes d’un brun noir, dont la médiane est raccourcie en arriére ,

les latérales en avant. Antennes de 6 articles, dont le 2¢ est

cylindrique et un peu plus long que le 3¢, 3-5 ellipsoidaux, le 3° et_

le 4e avec un col court, verticilles quatre fois aussi longs que la

NOUVEAUX CHIRONOMIDES (TENDIPEDIDAE) DE CEYLAN. 13

grosseur des articles, 6¢ article mince, cylindrique, égal aux articles

4 et 5réunis. Mesonotum luisant et glabre. Ailes enfumées, avec

quatre grandes taches blanches prés du bord postérieur qu’elles

natteignent pas, lune entre le cubitus et la discoidale, la 2¢ entre

la discoidale et le rameau supérieur de la posticale, la 3° entre les

deux rameaux de la posticale, la 4° sous le tiers distal de la tige de la

posticale, une 5° tache se trouve entre la discoidale et le tiers distal

de la posticale ; nervures jaunes, auxililaire atteignant presque le

milieu du radius, 2° longitudinale 4 ou 5 fois plus rapprochée du

radius que du cubitus, celui-ci presque double du radius et un peu

plus proche de la pointe alaire que la discoidale, transversale

oblique, bifurcation de la posticale faiblement distale de la transver-

sale, les deux rameaux déviant peu de la direction de la tige.

Fémurs et :ibias élargis, fémur antérieur de moitié plus long que

le tibia, tarses manquent, tibia postérieur avec quelques soies

dorsales 3-4 fois aussi longues que son épaisseur, tarse postérieur

de plus de moitié plus long que le tibia, 5° article 3-4 fois aussi

long que gros. Abdomen comprime, égal au reste du corps.

Taille : 2 mm.—Peradeniya, 2. VI. 1910.

(4) TENDIPES SUPERBUS, Ni. sp.

Fig. 4.

6? Brun noir ; antennes sauf le scape, balanciers, hanches et pattes

testacés, aux tarses antérieurs les articles 4 et 5 et la base des

articles 2 et 3 sont noirs ; mesonotum avec une trace de trois bandes

pruineuses, Yeux arqués, glabres, distants de leur largeur au

vertex. Palpes de 4 articles, le 1°" article court, inséré & un pro-

longement imitant un article, les suivants, surtout le 4¢, longs et

cylindriques. Antennes de 12 articles chez le male, panache gris,

articles 2-11 & peine transversaux, 12¢ égal aux dix précédents

tom rad

He ee

— a

= —_ —_

= =

Fic. 4.—Tendipes superbus, n. sp.—Moitié de la pince.

réunis. Antennes de la femelle de 6 articles conformés en tout

comme chez C. gloriosus, sauf que Varticle terminal porte seulement

une longue soie, qui est presque double de l’article. Mesonotum

mat chez le male, brillant chez la femelle, avec des poils longs et

gris, qui forment des rangées longitudinales. Ailes blanches avec

huit taches enfumées et irrisées, trois taches sont situées entre le

cubitus et la discoidale, la proximale 4 V’origine du cubitus, la

médiane, subtriangulaire, vers le milieu du cubitus et la distale

;

14 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

prés de la pointe alaire ; quatre autres taches sont situées sur le

bord postérieur, l'une sous l’extrémité de la discoidale, la 2° et la 3¢

sous l’extrémité de chacun des deux rameaux de la posticale, la 4° va

du bord postérieur jusqu’au milieu de la tige de la posticale ; ’espace

compris entre la discoidale et le rameau supérieur de la posticale est

plus ou moins enfumé ; bord postérieur avec de longs cils blanes,

nervures jaunes, l’auxiliaire dépasse la transversale, cubitus un peu

plus de moitié plus long que le radius, un peu plus rapproché de la

pointe alaire que le rameau supérieur de la posticale, 2¢ longitudinale

soudée au radius, transversale petite et oblique, distante proximale-

ment de la bifurcation de la posticale, dont les deux rameaux

dévient peu de la direction de la tige. Poils des quatre pattes pos-

térieures 2-3 fois aussi longs que la grosseur des pattes, pattes anté-

rieures sans longs poils, leur fémur de moitié plus long que le tibia,

métatarse deux fois aussi long que le tibia, 4° article presque double

du 5°, qui est 5-6 fois aussi long que gros, empodium filiforme, un

peu plus court que les crochets ; pulvilles n’atteignant pas la moitié

des crochets, les 4 tibias postérieurs avec un éperon et un anneau

crénelé noirs. Pince (Fig. 4) 4 lamelle terminée par un prolonge-

ment linéaire et plus court qu'elle, article terminal plus long que le

basal, glabre, pointu, en lame de couteau, ayant dans sa moitié

distale 7-8 longues soies dressées ; grands appendices plus longs que

les articles basaux, leur extrémité & longs poils recourbés ; petits

appendices atteignant l’extrémité des articles basaux, conformés

comme les grands, pubescents, et avec 4 soies distales au coté

interne. Abdomen de la femelle pas plus long que le reste du corps,

un peu comprimé et faiblement arqué. Taille : 1-2, 5 mm.—Pera

deniya, capturé la nuit, 4 la lumiére, 14. V., 17. V., 25. V., 29. V.

et 2. VI. 1910.

(5) TENDIPES GLORIOSUS, n. sp.

? Brun roux ; antennes, balanciers et pattes blanchatres, fémurs

un peu plus sombres. Antennes de 6 articles, dont le 2¢ est sub-

cylindrique, et plus de deux fois aussi long que gros, 3¢ et 4° en

ellipse et terminés par un col égalant presque leur moitié, 5° ellip-

soidal et sans col, 6¢ subcylindrique, aussi long que le 4¢ et le 5°

réunis, appendices subuliformes situés 4 deux sur les articles 2-5 et

dépassant peu la base de l'article suivant, au 6¢ article ils sont

nombreux, au nombre de 5 ou 6 paires ; * verticilles 4 deux au second

article, le basal plus court, les articles 3-5 ont un verticille unique,

qui est 3-4 fois aussi long que l’article, le 6° porte 4 son extrémité

quatre soies aussi longues que lui. Ailes blanches, longuement ciliées,

a six taches d’un brun noir et bien limitées, irrisées et subcircu-

laires, & savoir, deux entre le cubitus et la discoidale, l’une située a

Porigine du cubitus, l’autre aprés le deuxiéme tiers ; les quatre autres

se trouvent prés du bord postérieur, l’une sous la discoidale, l’autre

sous le rameau supérieur de la posticale, la 3¢ dans la bifurcation de

la posticale, la 4° entre la tige et le rameau inférieur de la posticale ;

parfois encore une sur le bord, prés du lobe. Cubitus d’un tiers plus

long que le radius, arqué faiblement, & peine plus distant de la

pointe alaire que la discoidale, bifurcation de la posticale distante

_ * A cause de ce grand nombre d’appendices subuliformes et de sa conforma-

tion particuliére et allongée, l’article terminal des antennes des Chironomines

est a considérer comme le résultat d’une série d’articles connés ; de cette fagon

on s’expliquerait pourquoi la femelle n’a que six ou sept articles aux antennes,

tandis que le male en a douze ou quatorze,

NOUVEAUX CHIRONOMIDES (TENDIPEDIDAE) DE CEYLAN. 15

de latransversale Poils des quatre pattes postérieures 2 4 3 fois aussi

longs que la grosseur des pattes, aux pattes antérieures le fémur est

d’un tiers plus long que le tibia, le métatarse de deux tiers plus long

que le tibia, l’anneau crénelé des quatre tibias postérieurs noir.

Taille : 1 mm.—Peradeniya, capturé la nuit, a la lumiére ; 20.V. 1910.

(6) TENDIPES CEYLANICUS, Kieff.

Colombo. (Records of the Indian Museum, 1911, vol. VI.,

p. 136.)

(7) TENDIPES ALBIFORCEPS, Kieff.

? Peradeniya, capturé 4 la lumiére, la nuit, 17. V. 1910; cette

espece n’était signalée que pour Calcutta (Memoirs of the Indian

Museum, 1910, vol. IT., p. 231).

(8) TENDIPES ALLOTHRIX, Nn. sp.

Fig. 5.

? Jaune blanchatre, glabre et brillant; palpes, flagellum, aux

pattes antérieures l’extrémité du fémur, le tibia et le tarse brun noir,

aux pattes postérieures l’extrémité du fémur, du tibia et les deux ou

trois derniers articles tarsaux obscurcis, mesonotum avec une bande

noire, brillante, unique, large, tronquée en arriére, ot elle atteint le

milieu, balanciers blancs, abdomen jaune, large bord antérieur et

postérieur sur les tergites et les sternites, ainsi que les cotés vert

clair. Palpes longs et gréles. Antennes (Fig. 5) de 6 articles, dont

le 2¢ est un peu rétréci au milieu et plus de deux fois aussi long que

Fic. 5.—Tendipes allothrix, n. sp.—Trois derniers articles antennaires.

gros, avec un col égalant la moitié de sa longueur, 3-5 ellipsoidaux ou

presque fusiformes, le 3¢ a col aussi long que lui, les deux suivants a

col plus long qu’eux, 6° mince, subfusiforme, de moitié plus long que

Vavant-dernier ; 2-5 avec deux appendices subuliformes atteignant

le milieu de l’article suivant, le 6° avec 8-12 appendices subulitormes

et deux soies distales aussi longues que lui, verticille des articles 2-5

trés long, 3-4 fois aussi long que l'article, aux articles 3 et 4 deux

soies du verticille sont trés courtes et n’ont que le 1/5 ou le 1/6 de

la longueur des quatre autres ; le 2° a encore, comme d’ordinaire, un

16 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

verticille basal plus court que le distal. Ailes subhyalines, ciliées,

nervures antérieures jaune brunatre, auxiliaire atteignant le milieu

du radius, 2° longitudinale juxtaposée au radius, cubitus un peu

arqué, atteignant presque la pointe alaire, dont il est plus

rapproché que la discoidale, transversale oblique, distante un peu

proximalement de la bifurcation de la posticale dont les deux

rameaux sont peu divergents. Pattes 4 poils guére plus longs que

leur grosseur, fémur antérieur de moitié plus long que le tibia,

métatarse 24 fois aussi long que le tibia, 4¢ article 24 fois aussi long

que le 5°, qui est 8-10 fois aussi long que gros. Abdomen sub-

cylindrique, de moitié plus long que le reste du corps. Taille : 2, 8

mm.—Peradeniya, 25. V. 1910, capturé la nuit, a la lumiére.

(9) TENDIPES PERICHLORUS, n. sp.

? Jaune blanchatre ; article terminal des antennes, palpes et, aux

quatre pattes postérieures, l’extréme bout distal du tibia et des

articles tarsaux 1-4 et le 5¢ article tarsal brun noir, mesonotum &

trois bandes ferrugineuses mates, dont l’intermédiaire est raccourcie

en arriére, les latérales en avant, balanciers blanchatres, abdomen

brun noir, étroit bord postérieur des segments vert. Palpes longs

et gréles. Antennes de six articles, dont le 2° est subcylindrique, au

moins deux fois aussi long que gros, avec deux verticilles de soies,

deux appendices hyalins, et un col un peu plus long que gros ;

articles 3-5 en ellipsoide, avec un verticille 4—5 fois aussi long que

leur grosseur, deux appendices hyalins atteignant le milieu de

Varticle suivant et un col aussi long qu’eux, 6¢ article subcylindrique,

graduellement aminci en stylet 4 l’extrémité, d’un tiers plus long

que le 5¢ article, avec de nombreux appendices hyalins, sans longs

poils. Ailes hyalines, transversale noire et oblique, nervures

antérieures jaunes, auxiliaire atteignant le tiers proximal du radius,

celui-ci atteint presque les deux tiers du cubitus, qui est arqué,

proche du bord, aboutissant aussi prés de la pointe alaire que la

discoidale, 2© nervure non distincte du radius, bifurcation de la

posticale considéralement éloignée distalement de la transversale,

les deux rameaux déviant peu de la direction de la tige, cils blancha-

tres. Fémur antérieur d’un quart plus long que le tibia, tarses

antérieurs brisés, pattes pubescentes, 5¢ article des tarses postérieurs

trois fois aussi long que gros, de moitié plus court que le 4°, pulvilles

larges, un peu plus courts que les crochets. Abdomen subcylin-

drique, presque deux fois aussi long que le reste du corps, a pubes-

cence blanchatre et assez longue. Taille: 3 mm.—Peradeniya,

17. V. 1910.

(10) TENDIPES CHLOROGASTER, Nn. sp.

? Thorax brun roux, abdomen vert, antennes, mesonotum et

scutellum blanchatres, mesonotum avec trois bandes ferrugineuses,

dont la médiane est raccourcie en arriére, les latérales en avant,

pattes jaune clair, aux antérieures le tibia et le tarse sont brun noir.

Palpes longs. Antennes de six articles, 3-5 guére plus longs que

gros, sans col, a verticille 3-4 fois aussi ‘long que leur épaisseur, 6°

article cylindrique, deux fois aussi long que le 5°, sans longues soies.

Mesonotum brillant et glabre. Ailes hyalines, finement ponctuées et

longuement ciliées, auxiliaire et 2¢ nervure non distinctes, cubitus

un peu plus de deux fois aussi long que le radius, deux fois plus

distant de la pointe alaire que la disco! idale, qui aboutit presque a la

pointe, transversale oblique, bifurcation de la posticale distale de la

NOUVEAUX CHIRONOMIDES (TENDIPEDIDAE) DE CEYLAN. 17

transversale, les deux rameaux déviant peu de la direction de la tige.

Pattes pubescentes, fémur antérieur d’un tiers plus long que le tibia,

métatarse presque double du tibia, second article égal a la moitié du

premier, guére plus long que le 3°, 5° n’atteignant pas la moitié du

4°, 3-4 fois aussi long que gros. Taille: 1, 5 mm.—Peradeniya, 17.

V. 1910.

(11) TENDIPES NIGROMARGINATUS, Kieff.

Cing exemplaires femelles capturés 4 la lampe, la nuit, & Pera-

deniya, 14. V., 17. V. et 17. VI. 1910 ; mesonotum jaune entre les

bandes ; pulvilles égalant la moitié des crochets, empodium filiforme,

aussi long que les crochets. Cette espéce était connue pour Orissa ;

elle se trouve encore 4 Kuching, Sarawak, Borneo.

(12) TENDIPES FUSCITARSIS, Kieff.

Cette espéce, connue déja pour la Birmanie, a été capturée aussi

dans Vile de Ceylan, 4 Peradeniya, le 2. VI. 1910. L’unique ex-

emplaire différe du type par les tibias intermédiaires et postérieurs

qui ne sont pas noirs au bout, tarses peu obscurcis (les antérieurs

manquent), le dessous du métatarse postérieur porte des crochets

hyalins et alignés, ce qui est aussi le cas pour nigromarginatus et

probablement la régle dans les Tendipédines, car je les ai observés

aussi pour le groupe Orthocladius ; les articles tarsaux suivants sont

dépourvus de ces crochets.

(13) TENDIPES HEPTATOMUS, N. Sp.

? Brun noir, y compris les palpes et les antennes ; toutes les

hanches, trochanters antérieurs, pattes intermédiaires et postérieures

sauf Vextrémité des tibias et les deux ou trois derniers articles

tarsaux testacés, balanciers blanchatres, mesonotum roussatre et

pruineux, avec trois larges bandes noires, dont la médiane est

raccourcie en arriére, les latérales en avant, tergites tachetés de

brun roux. Antennes de 7 articles, articles 2-6 avec un verticille

de soies et deux appendices subuliformes hyalins, ces derniers

n’atteignent pas le milieu de l’article suivant, les soies sont 4-5 fois

aussi longues que la grosseur des articles, la forme des articles est

presque ellipsoidale, le 2° non prolongé en col, le 3° a peine prolongé

en col, les trois suivants avec un col dépassant la moitié de leur

longueur, 7¢ article subcylindrique, obliquement tronqué a l’extré-

mité, trois fois aussi long que le 6°, avec de nombreux appendices

subuliformes, sans longues soies. Ailes hyalines, nervures an-

térieures jaune brunatre, auxiliaire indistincte, radius atteignant

presque les deux tiers du cubitus, 2°nervure aussi bien marquée que

le radius, dont elle est trés rapprochée, cubitus un peu arqué, trés

proche du bord, aboutissant presque aussi prés de la pointe alaire que

la discoidale, transversale oblique, bifurcation de la posticale distale

de la transversale, les deux rameaux déviant peu de la direction de la

tige. Pattes trés faiblement pubescentes, sans longs poils, métatarse

antérieur au moins deux fois aussi long que le tibia, un peu plus long

que le 2¢ article, 3¢ et 4¢ subégaux, 5¢ un peu plus court que la moitié

du 4¢, 8-10 fois aussi long que gros. Abdomen presque deux fois

aussi long que le reste du corps, 4 peine pubescent. Taille: 5,

5 mm —Peradeniya, cing exemplaires capturés le 2. VI. 1910.

D 6(19)1]

18 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

(14) TENDIPES HEXATOMUS, N. sp.

? Téte, palpes, antennes et thorax brun roux, mesonotum glabre

et brillant, ayant dans sa moitié postérieure, de chaque coté, une

bande noire, scutellum et balanciers blanchatres, l’extrémité de ces

derniers assombrie, pattes jaunes, abdomen brun noir. Antennes

de 6 articles, 2-5 avec un long verticille de soies et deux appendices

subuliformes, ceux-ci aussi longs que l’article, les soies du 5° article

atteignent l’extrémité de larticle terminal, articles 3° et 4° ellip-

soidaux, avee un col un peu plus long qu’eux, le 5° ellipsoidal, 4

col plus court que lui, 6° article aussi long que les deux précédents

réunis. Ailes hyalines, nervures antérieures jaunes, radius conné

a la 2° nervure, atteignant au moins les deux tiers du cubitus, qui

est plus rapproché de la pointe alaire que la discoidale, transversale

oblique, bifurcation de la posticale un peu distale de la tranversale.

Pattes sans longs poils, femurs antérieurs au moins de moitié plus

longs que les tibias (tarses brisés). Abdomen comprimé, aminci en

avant, un peu plus long que le reste du corps, ayant sa plus grande

hauteur au milieu, & peine pubescent, Taille: 2, 5 mm.—Pera-

deniya, 2. VI. 1910.

(15) TTENDIPES VARIICORNIS, nN. sp.

? Brun sombre ; balanciers, hanches et pattes blancs, antennes

blanches avec les nodosités brun noir. Palpes longs. Antennes de

6 articles, verticilles 3-4 fois aussi longs que la grosseur des articles,

second article subcylindrique, & col court, 3° et 4¢ un peu plus longs

que gros, avec un col aussi long qu’eux, 5° article ellipso‘dal et sans

col, 6€ mince et cylindrique, égalant les deux précédents réunis, avec

3 ou 4 soies distales un peu plus courtes que lui. Ailes hyalines,

longuement ciliées, radius égalant la moitié du cubitus, 2° nervure

non distincte, cubitus arqué, aboutissant presque a la pointe alaire,

dont il est plus rapproché que la discoidale, transversale oblique, un

peu proximale de la bifurcation de la posticale. Pattes sans longs

poils, fémurs antérieurs de moitié plus longs que les tibias, métatarse

antérieur presque double du tibia, de moitié plus long que le 2° article,

4° plus de deux fois aussi long que le 5°, qui est 3 a 4 fois aussi long

que gros. Abdomen comprimé, d’égale hauteur partout, pubescent,

un peu plus long que le reste du crops. Taille: 1, 5 mm.—Pera-

deniya, 22. V. 1910.

2.—Genus Tanytarsus, Van der Wulp.

Ailes 4 surface poilue, généralement sans lobe basal.

1. Ailes avec un lobe basal..1. 7. lobatus, n. sp.

— Ailes sans lobe, graduellement amincies basalement. . 2.

2. Ailes avec une nervure transversale..2. 7’. transversalis, n. sp.

— Ailes sans nervure transversale, ou plutot, la transversale

continue la direction du cubitus. .3.

3. Abdomen vert..3. 7’. prasiogaster, n. sp.

— Abdomen brun noir. .4.

4, Ailes 4 surface densément poilue..4. 7’. ceylanicus, n. sp.

— Ailes 4 surface parsemée de rares poils..5. 7’. poecilus, n. sp.

(1) TANYTARSUS LOBATUS, n. sp.

? Thorax et antennes roux brun, mesonotum plus clair, avec trois

bandes mates un peu plus sombres, dont Ja médiane est raccourcie

NOUVEAUX CHIRONOMIDES (TENDIPEDIDAE) DE CEYLAN. 19

en arriére, les latérales en avant, pattes faiblement brunatres,

balanciers blanchatres avec l’extrémité assombrie, abdomen brun

noir. Antennes de 6 articles, 2¢ article subcylindrique, avec deux

verticilles de soies et deux appendices subuliformes hyalins, articles

3-5 deux fois aussi longs que gros, sans col, mais graduellement

amincis distalement, comme le 2¢, avec un verticille de soies 4-5 fois

aussi longues que l’épaisseur de l’article et deux appendices subuli-

formes atteignant le milieu de l'article suivant, 6° article mince, de

moitié plus long que le 5°, ayant outre les appendices subuliformes,

deux soies distales aussi longues que lui. Ailes a poils denses et

noiratres, avec un lobe basal et une transversale oblique, cubitus

touchant presque le bord auquel il est paralléle, de moitié plus long

que le radius, 2° nervure non visible, bifurcation de la posticale a

peine distale de la transversale, les deux rameaux déviant peu de la

direction de la tige. Tibia antérieur égal aux deux tiers du femur ;

tarse brisé. Taille: 2, 8 mm.—Peradeniya, 2. VI. 1910.

(2) TANYTARSUS TRANSVERSALIS, 0. sp.

Fig. 6.

62 Blane roussitre, mesonotum avec trois bandes plus sombres,

dont la médiane est raccourcie en arriére, les latérales en avant,

pattes et balanciers blanchatres, antennes brunes chez le male,

blanchatres chez la femelle. Antennes du male de 14 articles,

panache d’un gris sombre ; articles 2-13 aussi longs que gros, le 14°

un peu plus court que les 12 articles précédents réunis ; antennes

de la femelle de 6 articles (Fig. 6) dont le 2° est subcylindrique,

graduellement aminci distalement, deux fois aussi long que gros,

avec deux verticilles de soies et deux appendices subuliformes, 3°

Fic. 6.—Tanytarsus transversalis, n. sp.—Derniers articles de Pantenne.

et 4° articles aussi longs que le 2°, un peu épaissi au milieu, avec un

verticille de soies 4—5 fois aussi longues que l’épaisseur de I article

et deux appendices subuliformes n’atteignant pas le milieu de

article suivant, 5° article presque globuleux, un peu plus long que

gros, non aminci 4 l’extrémité, 6° mince, subcylindrique, aussi long

que les deux précédents réunis, avec trois soies terminales aussi

longues que lui. Ailes non lobées, densément poilues, transversale

oblique et assez longue, cubitus rapproché du bord auquel il est

paralléle, aboutissant assez loin de la pointe alaire, bifurcation de la

20 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

posticale distale de la transversale. Pattes sans longs poils, tibia

antérieur guére plus court que le fémur, métatarse de moitié plus

long que le tibia. Thorax fortement prolongé au-dessus de la téte.

Taille : 0, 8-1, 2 mm.—Peradeniya, 2. VI. et 23. VI. 1910.

(3) TANYTARSUS PRASIOGASTER, Nn. sp.

62 Antennes brunes chez le male, blanchatres chez la femelle ;

thorax roux, balanciers et pattes blancs, abdomen vert ; chez le male,

le tiers postérieur et un étroit bord postérieur des segments anteé-

rieurs sont brun noir. Antennes du male de 13 articles, & panache

noiratre, articles 2-12 plus longs que gros, 14° a peine plus long

que les 11 précédents réunis. Antennes de la femelle de 6 articles

dépourvus de col. Mesonotum brillant. Ailes hyalines, presque

glabres, sauf ’extrémité qui est densément poilue (6%), sans lobe

basal et sans transversale, cubitus presque double du radius, droit,

aboutissant assez loin de la pointe alaire, bifurcation de la posticale

distale de la base du cubitus. Pattes sans longs poils, femur

antérieur double du tibia, métatarse presque double du_ tibia.

Abdomen du male long et gréle, pince a ,lamelle graduellement

amincie en un pétiole plus court qu’elle, article terminal plus long

que le basal, convexe dorsalement, ayant sa plus grande épaisseur

au milieu, tiers distal avec 5-6 soies au coté interne, appendices

poilus dépassant un peu les articles basaux, appendices glabres

petits et minces. Taille : 2 mm.—Peradeniya, 30. V. 1910.

(4) TANYTARSUS CEYLANICUS, Nn. sp.

Big. fe

? Roux jaune, sans bande au mesonotum, antennes, pattes et

balanciers blanchatres. Yeux arqués, distants de leur largeur au

vertex. Antennes de 5 articles (Fig. 7), dont le 2° est sub-

cylindrique, faiblement aminci distalement, avec deux verticilles

de soies et deux appendices subuliformes, articles 3 et 4 allongés, un

poe

Fic. 7.—Tanytarsus ceylanicus, n. sp.—Deux derniers articles antennaires.

—

peu grossis au milieu, amincis graduellement 4 l’extrémité, avec un

verticille de soies 4—5 fois aussi longues que la grosseur de l’article et

deux appendices subuliformes n’atteignant pas le milieu de I’ article

suivant, 5° article formé par une partie basale subfusiforme, ayant

un verticille et deux appendices subuliformes, et par une partio

NOUVEAUX CHIRONOMIDES (TENDIPEDIDAE) DE CEYLAN. 21

distale de moitié plus longue, plus mince, subcylindrique et sans

appendice subuliforme. Ailes densément poilues, hyalines, sans

lobe et sans transversale, cubitus arqué, proche du bord auquel il

est paralléle, de deux tiers plus long que le radius, assez éloigné de

la pointe alaire mais moins que la posticale, discoidale aboutissant a

la pointe, bifurcation de la posticale distale de la base du cubitus,

les deux rameaux déviant peu de la direction de la tige. Thorax

fortement prolongé au-dessus de la téte, a poils blanchatres. Pattes

sans longs poils, fémur antérieur plus de deux fois aussi long que le

tibia, métatarse trois fois aussi long que le tibia, 24 fois aussi long

que le 2¢ article, 4° presque double du 5¢ qui est 8-10 fois aussi long

que gros, empodium trés petit, égal au quart des crochets. Abdo-

men un peu plus long que le reste du corps, faiblement arqué.

Taille : 1-1, 5 mm.—Peradeniya, 17. V. et 19. V. 1910.

(5) TANYTARSUS POECILUS, Nh. sp.

? Brun; abdomen roux brun, plus clair dessous, balanciers et

pattes blanchatres, antennes blanc brunatre. Antennes de 6

articles, 3-5 en ellipse allongé, aminci au bout, verticilles et

appendices subuliformes comme chez le précédeni, 6° article

graduellement aminci en pointe, plus de deux fois aussi long que le

5¢, ayant avant le milieu deux soies aussi longues que lui et une autre

a Vextrémité. Ailes hyalines, a pilosité trés éparse, un peu plus

dense a l’extrémité, base alaire non lobée, transversale nulle,

cubitus arqué, a peine deux fois aussi long que le radius, plus éloigné

de la pointe alaire que la discoidale, bifurcation de la posticale

distale de la base du cubitus. Fémur antérieur deux fois aussi long

que le tibia, tarse brisé. Abdomen un peu plus long que le reste du

corps. Taille: 1 mm.—Peradeniya, 13. V. 1910.

B.—Groupe ORTHOCLADIUS.

Tibias postérieurs avec un peigne A leur extrémité distale, les

tibias antérieurs et intermédiaires sans peigne et sans anneau

crénelé ; métatarse antérieur toujours plus court que le tibia.

Pince du male généralement sans autres appendices qu’un lobe

de l’article basal, ou sans appendice.

1.—Genus Daetylocladius, Kieft.

DACTYLOCLADIUS CEYLANICUS, n. sp.

Fig. 8.

6 Brun noir et mat, balanciers et pattes brun clair. Palpes

assez longs. Antennes de 14 articles, 2 4 10 transversaux, 11° et 12°

aussi longs ou un peu plus longs que gros, 14¢ de moitié plus long que

les 12 précédents. Ailes hyalines, cubitus droit, presque double

du radius, 4 peine plus rapproché de la pointe alaire que le rameau

supérieur de la posticale, non dépassé par la costale, transversale

oblique et trés courte, bifurcation de la posticale distale de la

transversale. Pattes sans longs poils, cils du tibia et du tarse des

quatre pattes postérieures deux a trois fois aussi longs que leur

grosseur, tibia antérieur égalant le fémur, de moitié plus long que

le métatarse, 2° article un peu plus court que le 1°", 3° presque double

du 4°, 5° un peu plus court que le 4°, trois 4 quatre fois aussi long

que gros, extrémité distale du fémur postérieur avec la dent ventrale

glabre et hyaline, comme d’ordinaire, outre le peigne ordinaire, le

22 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

tibia postérieur a deux éperons bruns, dont le plus grand est denteleé,

empodium filiforme, avec quelques longs poils sur le dessous, un

peu plus court que les crochets, pulvilles nuls. Abdomen gréle ;

pince (Fig. 8) a article basal sans appendice, article terminal sub-

glabre, 4 pubescence peu distincte, égal 4 la moitié de la longueur de

Particle basal, graduellement et faiblement grossi de la base au

sommet. Taille: 2, 5 mm.—Peradeniya, 14. VII. 1910.

2.—Cardiocladius, gen. nov. (Vhalassomyia, Johanns. non Schin.).

Ce genre différe de Orthocladius par la conformation du 4° article

tarsal qui est court et subcordiforme, découpé a Vextrémité; ce

caractére le rapproche de Thalassomyia, Schin., qui différe par la

présence d’un empodium, par les ailes a ponctuation microsco-

pique, et dont Scopelodromus, Chevr., mest quwun synonyme.

Le type du nouveau genre est.

Fie. 8.—Dactylocladius ceylanicus, n. sp.—Moitié de la pince.

Fic. 9.—Cardiocladius ceylanicus, n. sp.—Flagellum de l’antenne.

CARDIOCLADIUS CEYLANICUS, N. sp.~

Fig 9.

? Brun noir; scape et pronotum jaunatres, thorax brun roux,

sauf le sternum, mesonotum pruineux, blanchatre en avant, a trois.

larges bandes noires et mates, dont la médiane est raccourcie en

arriére, les latérales en avant, metanotum noir, blanciers blane

jaunatre, trochanters roux. Yeux largement séparés au vertex, 4

peine arqués, palpes plus longs que les antennes, composes de quatre

articles. Antennes (Fig. 9) de 7 articles, 2-6 cylindriques, au

moins de moitié plus longs que gros, serrés, avec un verticille de six

poils pas plus longs que l’article et deux appendices subuliformes

atteignant 4 peine la moitié de la longueur d’un article, 7° article

NOUVEAUX CHIRONOMIDES (TENDIPEDIDAE) DE CEYLAN. 23

graduellement aminci distalement, un peu plus long que les trois

articles précédents réunis, sans longues soies, 4 appendices subuli-

formes nombreux. Pronotum bilobé. Ailes hyalines, glabres, non

ponctuées ; radius et cubitus 4 soies longues et espacées, base alaire

rectangulaire, nervures antérieures jaunes, cubitus non dépassé par

la costale, deux fois aussi long que le radius, presque aussi distant

de la pointe alaire que le rameau supérieur de la posticale, 2° nervure

non distincte, transversale perpendiculaire, bifurcation de la

posticale située sous la transversale, les deux rameaux déviant peu

de la direction de la tige. Tibia postérieur ayant, outre Je peigne

ordinaire, un long éperon, dont les deux tiers antérieurs sont élargis

et dentelés, tibia antérieur d’un tiers plus long que le métatarse ; le

4¢ article tarsal de toutes les pattes est subcordiforme, prolongé ventrale-

ment a l’extrémité, 4 peine plus long que gros, tandis que le 3° est

cylindrique et 4—5 fois aussi long que gros, le 5° mince, graduellement

grossi distalement, de moitié plus long que le 4°; crochets simples,

empodium et pulvilles nuls; pattes presque glabres. Abdomen

- trés comprimé, mat, presque glabre, aussi long que le reste du corps.

Taille : 2, 5 mm.—Peradeniya, 2. VI. 1910.

REMARQuE.—Ce nouveau genre trouvera place dans le Groupe

Orthocladius d’aprés le tableau suivant :

1. Nervure costale ne dépassant pas le radius qui est épaissi,

surtout a lextrémité et n’atteint pas le milieu de Vaile ; cubitus

faiblement marqué comme les nervures suivantes, sortant du radius

et aboutissant prés de la pointe alaire ; discoidale non bifurquée,

sa partie proximale semble former la base du cubitus, comme dans les

genres Tanytarsus et Metriocnemus. .Corynoneura, Winn.

—Nervure costale atteignant ou dépassant lextrémité du

cubitus, qui est aussi fortement marqué que le radius. .2.

2. Article 4¢ de tous les tarses cordiforme et beaucoup plus court

que le 3¢ ou le 5¢...3.

— Article 4° de tous les tarses cylindrique, comme les autres, et

ordinairement plus long que le 5°. . 4.

3. Ailes nues, tarses sans pulvilles ni empodium. .Cardiocladius,

n.g.

— Ailes avec une ponctuation microscopique, tarses avec un

empodium filiforme, pulvilles huls. Thalassomyia, Schin. (Scope-

lodromus, Chevr).

4. Ailes glabres. .5.

— Ailes velues. .13.

5. Yeux densement velus. .6.

— Yeux glabres. .10.

6. Tarses sans pulvilles, avec un empodium filiforme. .7.

— Tarses avec deux larges pulvilles et un empodium filiforme. .8.

7. Palpes de 4 articles, pince ayant de chaque cdté un article

terminal unique. .T'richocladius, Kieff.

— Palpes de 3 articles, pince avec deux articles terminaux de

chaque cété. . Diplocladius, Kieff.

8. Palpes de 4 articles. .9.

— Palpes de 3 articles. ./socladius, Kieft.

9. Article terminal des antennes du mile en massue, pas plus

long que les trois articles précédents réunis, pattes non annelées ;

femelle inconnue. . Rhopalocladius, Kieft.

— Article terminal des antennes du male non en massue, aussi

long ou plus long que tous les“précédents réunis, pattes ordinaire-

ment annelées de noir ou de blanc. .Cricotopus, V. d. Wulp.

24 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

10. Pulvilles bien developpés et larges. .Psectrocladius, Kieff.

— Pulvilles nuls..11.

11. Rameau postérieur de la posticale brisé en angle ou sinueux

en S, empodium filiforme..Camptocladius, V. d. Wulp.

— Rameau postérieur de la posticale droit ou trés faiblement

arqué. .12.

12. Empodium nul. .Orthocladius, V. d. Wulp.

— Empodium filiforme, 4 poils bifurqués ou trifurqués. . Dactylo-

cladius, Kieft.

13. ‘* Thorax s’avancant en pointe conique par dessus la téte,

pattes grosses, tibias postérieurs élargis et densément velus ” (Ce

genre m’est inconnu)..Hurycnemus, V. d. Wulp.

— Thorax en capuchon et faiblement proéminent au dessus de la

téte, pattes gréles, tibias postérieurs non élargis. .14.

14. Yeux glabres, crochets tarsaux simples, empodium filiforme,

ailes non lobées a la base, antennes du male conformées comme

d’ordinaire. . Metriocnemus, V. d. Wulp.

— Yeux densément velus, crochets tarsaux bifides, empodium

filiforme, antennes du male conformées comme chez les femelles mais

de 12 articles, celles de la femelle de 6 articles. . Thienemannia, Kieff.

CECIDOMYIES DE CEYLAN DECRITES,

CECIDOMYIES DE CEYLAN DECRITES.

Par J. J. Kierrer, Doct. phil. nat. (Bitsch).

(Avec trois figures dans le texte.)

L’Indian Museum de Calcutta renferme environ une trentaine de

Cécidomyies recueillies dans Vile de Ceylan. Ces insectes se rap-

portent a huit espéces nouvelles, dont deux deviennent le type

d’ un genre nouveau. Le présent travail, qui en donne la descrip-

tion, formera donc la premiere Contribution 4 la connaissance des

Cécidomyies de Vile de Ceylan. II est regrettable qu’ aucune de ces

espéces n’aient été obtenue d’éclosion et que leur genre de vie

demeure inconnu.

Hallomyia, g. un.

Ce genre, que je dédie 4 Monsieur le Major Hall, se rapproche du

groupe des Diplosariae, par l’oviducte de la feme lle, qui est muni de

deux lamelles paralleles et allongées, mais en différe par le nombre

des articles antennaires qui est de 2 + 13. Bouche longue et

pointue, atteignant les deux tiers de la hauteur de la téte (Fig. 1).

Palpes de 4 articles. Bord antérieur de l’aile sans écailles, cubitus

aboutissant en arriére de la pointe alaire. Crochets tarsaux bifides,

empodium court, pulvilles nuls, premier article tarsal court, le

second a peu prés égal au tibia.

HALLOMYIA IRIS, sp. n.

Figs. 1 et 2.

& Roux jaune, deux premiers articles antennaires jaundatres,

flagellum brun noir, balanciers blanchatres, pattes brun sombre.

Bouche trois fois aussi longue que large a la base ; yeux largement

confluents au vertex ; occiput avec de longs poils dressés. Articles

Fic. 1.—Hallomyia iris, g. et sp. n.—Téte vue de devant.

Fie. 2.—Hallomyia iris, g. et sp. n.—Trois derniers articles antennaires.

du flagellum (Fig. 2) cylindriques, deux fois aussi longs que gros, a

col transversal et presque nul, verticilles de poils peu réguliers, trés

courts, plus courts que la longueur des articles, filets arqués con-

formés comme chez Perrisia ; dernier article avec un prolongement

E ; 6(19)11

26 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA

en forme de stylet pubescent, cylindrique et égalant le tiers de la

longueur de Varticle. Thorax mat, mesonotum & peu prés glabre,

avec deux rangées de poils pales. Ailes poilues, paraissant faible-

ment bleudtres étant vues par transparence, avec des taches jauna-

tres et arrondies ; vue d’un certain coté, la surface parait grise et les

taches d’un bleu violacé intense et irrisé ; |’une de ces taches englobe

le rameau inférieur de la nervure posticale ; une seconde est située

entre la bifurcation de la posticale et le cubitus ; une troisiéme se

trouve pres de Vextrémité alaire, entre le cubitus et le rameau

supérieur de la posticale ; en outre le lobe anal, et une fine bordure

le long du radius, du cubitus et du rameau supérieur de la posticale

sont de cette méme couleur irrisée ; bord antérieur longuement poilu,

interrompu a sa jonction avec le cubitus, qui est arqué, transversale

bien marquée, oblique, située un peu distalement du milieu du

radius, rameau supérieur de la posticale fortement relevé et arqué a

sa base, l’inférieur presque perpendiculaire a la tige. Pattes gréles,

couvertes de poils appliqués et presque en forme d’écaille, crochets

greles, le rameau inférieur d’un tiers plus court que le supérieur,

empodium un peu plus court que la moitié des crochets. Oviducte

non proéminent, lamelles deux fois aussi longues que larges, parse-

mées de soies. Taille: 1, 5 mm.—Peradeniya, le 17 mai (5 exem-

plaires).

CLINODIPLOSIS CEYLANICUS, S. p.

Fig. 3.

¢ Roux fauve uniforme, flagellum brun noir, mesonotum avec

trois bandes brunes et presque confluentes, séparées par deux

rangées de poils blanchatres. Yeux largement confluents au

vertex. Palpes de quatre articles courts. Antennes de 2 + 12

articles, le premier article du flagellum est soudé au 2°, plus long

que lui et faiblement rétréci au milieu, avec un col guére plus long

Fie. 3.—Clinodiplosis ceylanicus, sp. n.—Deux derniers articles antennaires.

que gros, les articles suivants sont cylindriques, presque trois fois

aussi longs que gros, avec un col atteignant le tiers de leur longueur,

d’abord 14, puis 2 et 23 fois aussi long que gros, Al’article terminal le

col est remplacé par un appendice imitant un petit article en ovale

pointue et muni d’un verticille de poils (Fig. 3); les articles du

flagellum ont deux verticilles peu réguliers formés par des poils

CECIDOMYIES DE CEYLAN DECRITES. 27

aussi longs qu’un article, le reste de leur surface porte des poils plus

courts et disposés sans ordre ; les deux verticilles de filets arqués

forment chacun seulement un filament annuliforme et sinueux, ils

sont reliés l’un a l’autre par deux ou trois filaments longitudinaux et

sinueux. Ailes 4 cubitus arqué, aboutissant en arricre de la pointe

alaire, costale interrompue a cet endroit ; transversale bien marquee,

oblique, située un peu distalement du milieu du radius ; rameau

supérieur de la posticale trés pale, relevé fortement a sa base,

Vinférieur perpendiculaire a la tige ; bord antérieur de Vaile poilu

Pattes poilues, crochets simples, un peu plus longs que Vempodium.

Oviducte peu proéminent, pas plus long que gros, lamelles paral-

léles, arrondies & l’extrémité, trois fois aussi longues que larges et

parsemées de soies. Cette espéce est trés voisine de Clinodiplosis

graminicola, chez laquelle les deux rameaux de la posticale sont

obliques dés leur origine. Taille: 3 mm.—Peradeniya (nombreux

exemplaires).

Plutodiplosis, g. n.

Antennes du male comme chez Bremia. Ailes tachetées, cubitus

aboutissant a la pointe alaire. Pattes couvertes d’écailles denses,

premier article tarsal court, crochets simples, un peu plus longs que

VPempodium, puivilles nuls.

PLUTODIPLOSIS MAGNIFICUS, sp. n.

é Noir mat, avee des poils longs, dressés et d’un brun noir ;

antennes blanches, les deux premiers articles et la nodosité inférieure

des articles du flagellum dun noir brillant ; balanciers d’un jaune

d’or ; un large anneau situé un peu au-dessus du milieu des fémurs

postérieurs, dont il occupe environ un tiers, tous les genoux, un

anneau prés de la base des quatre tibias antérieurs, les deux tibias

postérieurs sauf le quart proximal, le 2¢ article tarsal des quatre

pattes antérieures sauf la base et un anneau un peu aprés leur milieu,

2¢ article des tarses postérieurs sauf la base, et a toutes les pattes, les

articles tarsaux 3 et 4 sauf leur base, d’un beaujaune d’or et couverts

d’écaillesde méme couleur. Articles du flagellum composés de deux

nodosités, dont Vinférieure est globuleuse et la supérieure ovoidale,

chacune est surmontée d’un col qui, aux premiers articles, est au

moins aussi long que la nodosité et, aux articles suivants, plus long

quelle ; chacune des deux nodosités est ornée d’un verticille de soies

et d’un verticille de filets arqués et hyalins ; au coté interne, ces

deux verticilles ont deux trés longues soies et deux trés longs filets

arqués qui sont étalés a angle droit et 2-3 fois aussi longs que les

soies ou filets du c6té externe, lesquels sont dressés et non étalés,

et atteignent le milieu de la nodosité suivante, entre les soies ou

filets arqués internes et externes, les soies ou filets sont trés courts ;

la nodosité ovoidale a en outre, 4 sa base, un verticille composé de

filets arqués, réguliers, courts, ne dépassant pas l’extrémité de la

nodosité. Ailes jaunes et couvertes de poils jaunes, avec sept taches

noires couvertes de poils noirs ; la plus grande de ces taches a comme

limite proximale la nervure transversale, comme limite supérieure le

cubitus et atteint presque le bord inférieur de l’aile, 4 son extrémité

distale, vis 4 vis de l’extrémité du radius, elle dépasse le cubitus et

atteint le bord antérieur ; une 2¢ tache, trés rapprochée de la grande,

est perpendiculaire au pli alaire et va de 1a au bord inférieur de I’ aile

en traversant la bifurcation de la posticale ; une 3° tache, transver-

sale, est située entre l’extrémité du radius et celle du cubitus et va

28 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

du bord antérieur au cubitus ; une 4° est située a lextrémité de la

cellule cubitale qu’elle ne dépasse pas ; deux autres se trouvent au

bord postérieur, Pune, trés petite, entre le cubitus et le rameau

supérieur de la posticale, ’autre & Vextrémité du rameau supérieur

de la posticale ; la 7° tache, un peu plus grande que la précédente, se

trouve entre le cubitus et le milieu du rameau supérieur de la

posticale ; bord antérieur de l’aile d’un jaune d’or, avec de longs poils

jaunes et dressés, et trois taches noires correspondant a trois taches

du disque, cubitus presque droit et aboutissant a la pointe alaire,

transversale distante proximalement du milieu du radius, rameau

supérieur de la posticale fortement relevé & sa_ base, Vinférieur

perpendiculaire a la tige. Hcailles des pattes presque linéaires,

briévement pétiolées, pointues a Vextrémité, striées longitudinale-

ment. Pince a articles terminaux longs, trés minces et presque

filiformes. Taille: 1, 8 mm.—Peradeniya.

CHRYSODIPLOSIS SQUAMATIPES, sp. n.

é Fauve ; mesonotum brun sombre et mat. Palpes assez longs.

Flagellum brisé. Ailes densément velues et longuement ciliées,

bord antérieur dépourvu de poils, mais couvert d’écailles noires,

denses et appliquées jusqu’a sa jonction avec le cubitus, ot il est

interrompu ; cubitus un peu arqué, aboutissant a peine en arriére de

la pointe alaire ; rameau antérieur de la posticale subdroit, con-

tinuant presque la direction de la tige, l’inférieur presque perpendi-

culaire a la tige ; transversale aboutissant au milieu du radius.

Mesonotum, avec deux rangées de poils clairs, lesquelles se touchent

enarricre. Fémursfauves, avec quelques longs poils dressés ; tibias,

et tarses dépourvus de poils, couverts d’écailles noires, appliquées,

denses, striées, briévement pétiolées, arrondies a lextrémité ;

premier article tarsal court, crochets tarsaux assez gros, subdroits

dans les deux tiers proximaux, arqués au tiers distal, simples, a

peines plus longs que l’empodium. Abdomen a poils noiratres et

longs. Taille: 1, 5 mm.—Peradeniya, le 20 mai 1910. Chez le

type de ce genre, qui habite les iles Séchelles, les crochets sont deux

fois aussi longs que ’empodium.

LESTODIPLOSIS CEYLANICUS, sp. n.

? D’un roux de chair ; flagellum brun, pattes brunatres, base de

abdomen avec une tache transparente noiratre. Antennes de

2-+ 12 articles, les articles du flagellum deux fois aussi longs que gros,

rétrécis faiblement au milieu, a verticilles de poils étalés et un peu

irréguliers, col au moins aussi long que l'article. Ailes subhyalines,

avec des taches violacées et irrisées, dont une grande est située sur la

bifurcation de la posticale et s’arréte un peu avant la discoidale, une

autre pres de la pointe alaire, entre la discoidale et le rameau

supérieur de la posticale, deux entre le cubitus et le bord antérieur,

dont la proximale est située vis-a-vis de la bifureation de la posticale,

en outre un trait le long du lobe alaire et le long des deux rameaux de

la posticale ; costale jaune, avee trois taches noires correspondant

aux taches du disque, interrompue & sa jonction avec le cubitus,

celui-ci presque droit et aboutissant 4 la pointe alaire, rameau

supérieur de la posticale relevé 4 sa base, fortement arqué sur toute

son étendue, rameau inférieur oblique. Pattes a longs poils, surtout

les postérieures dont les poils sont 3 44 fois aussi longs que la grosseur

des pattes. Taille : 1, 5 mm.—Peradeniya, le 26 mai, 1910.

CECIDOMYIES DE CEYLAN DEOCRITES. 29

CoPpRODIPLOSIS (?) INCONSPICUUS, sp. n.

? Roux jaune ; flagellum brun, pattes pales. Articles du flagel-

lum cylindriques, deux fois aussi longs que gros, a col aussi long que

Varticle, verticilles de poils couvrant tout l’article, verticilles de

filets arqués conformés comme chez les males, mais beaucoup plus

courts, un filet arqué n’atteignant que le tiers de la longueur du col ;

12¢ article avec un stylet pubescent, mince, égalant la moitié de la

longueur de l’article. Ailes longuement poilues, cubitus arqué,

aboutissant en arriére de la pointe alaire, les deux rameaux de la

posticale obliques. Pattes poilues, crochets petits, simples, sans

empodium distinct. Oviducte non proéminent, lamelles allongées,

un peu courbées en arc paren bas. Taille: 1, 2 mm.—Peradeniya,

en mai (5 exemplaires).

KPIDOSIS CEYLANICUS, sp. n.

? Roux jaune; flagellum brun noir. Antennes composées de 2 -+

11 articles, pas plus longues que la téte et le thorax réunis, premier

‘ article du flagellum plus de deux fois aussi long que gros, non soudé

au 2°, qui est deux fois aussi long que gros, les suivants de moitié

plus longs que gros, sans col distinct, le dernier presque cénique ;

verticilles de poils courts, guére plus longs que l'article, verticilles de

filaments conformés comme chez Perrisia. Ailes longuement poilues

et longuement ciliées, cubitus bifurqué proximalement, les deux

rameaux également écartés, linférieur un peu sinueux, atteignant la

base de la posticale, le supérieur court, atteignant le radius, partie

distale du cubitus trés arquée, aboutissant en arriére de la pointe

alaire, les deux rameaux de la posticale obliques, le supérieur deux

fois aussi long que Jlinférieur. Pattes poilues, crochets tarsaux

gréles, simples, sans empodium distinct. Abdomen conique, aussi

gros que le thorax, de moitié plus long que le reste du corps, sans

longs poils ; segment anal petit, avec deux lamelles trés petites.

Taille : 2 mm.—Peradeniya.

LESTREMIA CEYLANICA, sp. nN.

¢ Jaune rougeatre ; flagellum brun noir. Antennes de 2 + 9

articles, les articles du flagellum sans col, cylindriques, de moitié

plus longs que gros, le dernier un peu aminci distalement ; verticilles

de poils peu distincts, pas plus longs que l’ article. Ailes hyalines,

poilues, cubitus rapproché du bord, dépassant notablement le

milieu de Vaile, mais n’atteignant pas les deux tiers, 4 a 5 fois plus

long que la partie distale du radius ; la discoidale sort de la base

de la posticale, est peu marquée sauf la partie proximale qui est

aussi grosse que le cubitus, tige de la fourche sinueuse, bifurcation

également distante de l’extrémité du radius et de Vextrémité du

cubitus, ses deux rameaux peu divergents, formant une cellule 4

fois aussi longue que large ; transversale courte et oblique ; base du

cubitus presque ponctiforme, posticale simple, faiblement marquée, a

peu prés droite ; anale arquée fortement, aussi grosse que le cubitus.

Pattes peu longues, tibia postérieur deux fois aussi long que les

deux premiers articles tarsaux, 4° article de tous les tarses non grosst,

un peu plus court que le 5°. Abdomen faiblement poilu ; lamelles

bi-articulées, 2¢ article subcirculaire ou en ovale courte. Taille:

1, 5 mm. —Oeuf blanc, allongé, subcylindrique.—Peradeniya,

capturé la nuit, a la lumiére, le 13 mai, 1910.

30 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

BIOLOGICAL SURVEY OF TRINCOMALEE HARBOUR.

By JosepH PEARSON.

(With four Charts.)

TN January, 1911, I paid a visit to Trincomalee, where I spent

-* some ten days in surveying the inner harbour with dredges and

by means of divers. This work appeared to me necessary, seeing

that so many suggestions have been made in recent years regarding

the establishment of pearl oyster, sponge, and mother-of-pearl oyster

fisheries at Trincomalee.

The harbour is admirably protected from both monsoons

and possesses a rich fauna, but neither the pearl oyster nor the

commercial sponge thrives. In 1857 Kelaart planted pearl oysters

in the bay, but conditions do not appear to have been favourable.

Herdman, in 1902, obtained several young oysters and under-sized

adults. He noted the low salinity of the water and the small amount

of plankton, and concluded that, ‘‘ while experiments might be

carried on at Trincomalee when impossible elsewhere because of

weather, the conditions of water and food are probably not so favour-

able as in the Gulf of Mannar, and would probably not lead to such

active growth and shell (including pearl) formation.” During my

visit I obtained very few pearl oysters, even in those parts of the

harbour where conditions are most favourable, and where, therefore,

one would naturally expect to find them. All the collected evidence

appears to point to the fact that the conditions in Trincomalee

harbour are unfavourable to the pearl oyster. On the pearl banks

the oyster thrives best in depths between 5 and 8 fathoms, and

a hard bottom is essential. The area in Trincomalee harbour in

which both these conditions are fulfilled is very small. At the

north-east end of the harbour there is a considerable area within

the 5-fathom line having a hard bottom. This area is probably

too shallow for the successful cultivation of adult oysters, but it is

conceivable that an oyster nursery might meet with some success.

But the idea of having a nursery so far from the pearl banks does not

seem to be practicable, as oyster transplantation of any magnitude

would probably be attended by great mortality.

Professor Herdman suggested the possibility of a future sponge

fishery at Trincomalee. The commercial sponge is at present a rare

member of the fauna of the harbour, and its present distribution

very limited. Out of about sixty stations at which dredgings were

taken in January the commercial sponge was only present at one or

BIOLOGICAL SURVEY OF TRINCOMALEE HARBOUR. ok

two, and in the locality where Herdman found the sponge in

abundance in 1902 I obtained one specimen.

The trepang, or béche-de-mer, is extremely abundant throughout

the bay. In five minutes a small dredge brought up forty-

eight specimens of Holothuria marmorata at Station 12. This

species is the most abundant trepang. Most of the specimens

obtained were about 9 inches long and 4 inches broad. Other

species well represented are Holothuria atra and Holothuria scabra.

In September, 1911, I saw large numbers of Holothuria atra on the

eastern shore of the Ostenberg peninsula. AHolothuria scabra is

interesting, because of its colour variation in different parts of the

coast. Inthe Trincomalee and Galle specimens the dorsum is black,

with well-defined transverse yellow stripes, and the ventral surface

is yellow, with numerous gray mottlings. In the Jaffna specimens

the back is gray in colour, and the yellow stripes are generally absent.

The ventral surface is yellow, and does not possess the gray patches.

The Jaffna variety resembles very closely specimens which I have

examined from East Africa, and the “Challenger” specimens

described by Théel; upon a superficial examination the two forms

appear to be distinct species.

From time to time the trepang fishery at Trincomalee has

given rise to a minor industry of no mean importance. In 1902

Herdman witnessed trepang diving operations at Trincomalee. He

states that the divers obtained 75 cents per hundred for them.

During my January visit I made inquiries, and learned to my

surprise that the trepang fishery was no longer carried on. This

cannot be due to scarcity of material.

The trepang at Trincomalee are obtained by diving in all

depths up to 8 fathoms. This method differs from that practised

at Jaffna, where the trepang (Holothuria scabra) occurs in the

shallow water, which for miles does not exceed a depth of 1 or

2 fathoms. There the bottom is clearly visible from the boat,

and when a trepang is seen, it is speared by means of a two-pronged

fork attached to a long pole. This method cannot be practised

at Trincomalee owing to the greater depths, and hence diving is

resorted to.

The Trincomalee divers are much more efficient than those

at Tamblegam. The latter do not care to dive at a greater depth

than 3 fathoms, and never stay under water more than 8 seconds

when working at a depth of | or 2 fathoms. The Trincomalee

divers work in couples as a safeguard against sharks, and they will

go to a depth of 8 fathoms without the aid of weights, which the

divers in the Gulf of Mannar always use. I have known them to

remain under water for a minute, although the average time is only

about half that.

_ All my work at Trincomalee, with the exception of two shore

collecting trips, was conducted from an unseaworthy old pilot boat

oe SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

manned by a crew of six, one of whom filled the most necessary office

of baler. The boat, however, was roomy, and in consequence was

much more adapted to dredging work than the ordinary canoe.

Since the investigations were conducted by means of divers

and with the dredge, the material collected did not include fishes

and other rapidly moving animals. The fishes will be worked out

in connection with a general survey of the marine and fresh-water

fishes of Ceylon, which I hope to commence in a few months.

Generally speaking, the bottom fauna of the harbour is

richest in sponges, corals, and Holothurians. The shore collecting

is at present poor in the inner harbour, although it is exceedingly

rich in the rock pools on the seaward side of the Ostenberg peninsula.

Mollusca and sea anemones are extremely rare. The sponge fauna

is surprisingly rich and varied. The specimens collected by me

have not yet been worked out, but I have obtained about thirty

species. The commercial sponge is rare. With the exception of

Alpheids, which were extracted from the sponge masses, the crusta-

ceans obtained were small in number, and consisted mainly of

Callianassids and Stomatopods, which also frequent the cavities of

sponges. Crustaceans are, however, a common feature of the fauna,

although very few were caught in the dredge. In the shallow water

at the north end of the harbour Peneids are very abundant,

especially Peneus indicus.

Four charts of Trincomalee harbour are appended—

(1) Giving the positions of the fifty-nine stations at which

dredging and diving operations were conducted.

(2) Giving the depths and nature of the bottom in various parts

of the harbour.

(3) Giving the present distribution of the Holothurians

(trepang). It will be seen from this that the trepang is

more abundant in the northern half of the harbour, and

that it is almost completely limited to that part of the

harbour inside the 8-fathom line.

(4) Giving the distribution of sponges of allspecies. Practically

no commercial sponges are present, but otherwise the

sponge fauna is exceedingly rich and varied, and they

occur within the 8-fathom line, on much the same

ground as that occupied by the trepang.

I give below an account of the results of the dredging. Many

of the specimens still await identification, but sufficient information

is available regarding depth, nature of bottom, and general fauna

to guide the biologist in questions relating to the possibilities of

Trincomalee harbour in connection with the various schemes to

which reference has been made above.

January 17, 1911.

Station J.—Three-quarter mile west of Little Powder Islands.

About 300 yards from shore, half a mile from smallpox hospital.

BIOLOGICAL SURVEY OF TRINCOMALEE HARBOUR. 33

Depth, 3 fathoms. Bottom, sand and lot of Halimeda.

One Holothuria marmorata. Many Synapta striata living in

sponges. Few Callianassids. Few Gonodactylus glabreus. Few

Alpheus audowini living in sponges. Many sponges of different

colours (Megalopastas nigra, Acanthella carteri, &c.). Few crabs

and starfishes. Sipunculids in sponges.

Station 2.—Half a mile west of Little Powder Islands.

Depth, 4 fathoms. Bottom, sand and little Halimeda.

Few Synapta striata living in sponges. One specimen of Meta-

peneus monoceros. Many sponges (similar to Station 1). Few crabs.

Station 3.—250 yards east of Station 2.

Depth, 5 fathoms. Bottom, sand and few stones.

The dredge caught almost immediately in the sand. From a

rowing boat it is sufficient to stop the boat if the dredge dip into the

soft sand.

Several Holothuria scabra. Several Holothuria marmorata. Few

sponges.

Station 4.—Quarter mile north-west of Little Powder Islands,

Depth, 5 fathoms. Bottom, sand.

Several Holothuria marmorata. One Stichopus chloronotus. Many

sponges of various colours (similar to those at Station 1). Few crabs,

Station 5.—500 yards north-north-west of York Island.

Depth, 6 fathoms. Bottom, sand and coral.

Few Holothuria marmorata and sponges. Several Echinoids,

among which one is deserving of special mention. It was as large

as an orange, and was dark brown in colour, with the exception of

the spines, which were lighter in colour, and varied from dark brown

at the base of each to white at the tip. The test was remarkably

soft. The spines were said to be poisonous by the boatmen.

Living amongst the spines were two small shrimps, which afforded

an excellent example of colour protection. They were brown in

colour, with a white stripe along the rostrum and down the middle

of the back. The legs were also white. So far as I have determined

from a hasty inspection, the shrimps belong to the genus Anchistus.

January 18, 1911.

Station 6.—Opposite Admiralty House, 200 yards from shore and -

half a mile north-east of York Island.

Depth, 3 fathoms. Bottom, sand.

Large green sponge full of small Ophiuroids and Sipunculids.

Numerous light violet sponges. Two specimens of Conchodytes

meleagrine from Pinna. Some coral.

Station 7.—Half a mile west of York Island.

Depth, 6 furlongs. Bottom, sand.

Holothuria scabra. Stichopus chloronotus with living crab and a

Fierasfer taken from cloaca. Large quantity of a weed-like sponge,

F 6(19)11

84 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA,

dichotamously branched, black in colour,-having small bunches of

spicules projecting from the surface. Probably an Aawinella. Other

sponges as in Station 6.

Station 8.—Quarter mile north-east of York Island.

Depth, 3 fathoms. Bottom, sand.

Branched sponge, probably Plocamia manaarensis. Dichotamous

weed-like sponge (Aainella).

Station 9.—Opposite Dockyard, 200 yards from shore, half way

between York Island and Ostenberg Point.

Depth, 8 fathoms. Bottom, mud and sand.

One Holothuria scabra.

Station 10.—South end of Dockyard, 200 yards north-east of

Ostenberg Point.

Depth, 12 fathoms. Bottom, rock and sand.

Nothing.

Station 11.—In a line between the Naval Hospital and the south

end of York Islands, half way across the channel.

Depth, 5 fathoms. Bottom, sand.

Nothing.

Station 12.—500 yards north-east of Station 6.

Depth, 3 fathoms. Bottom, sand.

Forty-eight large specimens of Holothuria marmorata. Purplish-

gray Sponge in abundance. Yellow sponge.

Stations 13°and 14.—Starting half way between York Island and

Powder Rocks and steering for Powder Rocks.

Depth, 5 to 8 fathoms. Bottom, sand and coralline.

Nothing.

January 19, 1911.

Station 15.—Nicholson’s Cove, half way down the bay.

Depth, 6 fathoms. Bottom, small stones and sand.

Madrepora scandens. Corals and sponges in abundance. A

blue branched sponge (Petrosia similis) very abundant, attached

to stones. One commercial sponge.

Station 16.—Nicholson’s Cove. Nearer the head of the bay than

Station 15. .

Depth, 2 fathoms. Bottom, sand.

Few broken shells. Few Spatangoids. Metapeneus mogiensis.

Alpheus bucephalus. Small specimen of Holothuria marmorata.

Station 17.—Quarter mile south-east of Powder Islands.

Depth, 2 fathoms. Bottom, sand.

Large number of Holothuria marmorata.

Station 18.—Quarter mile south-west of Station 17.

Depth, 3 fathoms. Bottom, sand and stones.

Several Holothuria marmorata. One Holothuria scabra. Yellow

sponge, containing Synapta striata,

BIOLOGICAL SURVEY OF TRINCOMALEE HARBOUR. 35

Station 19.—500 yards east-north-east of Powder Rocks.

Depth, 5 fathoms. Bottom, sand and stones.

- Holothuria marmorata. Holothuria scabra. Stichopus chloronotus.

Yellow sponge, containing Synapta striata. Numerous sponges,

including Megalopastas nigra, Acanthella carter, and Siphonochalina

sponges.

Station 20.—Quarter mile north of Powder Rocks.

Depth, 5 fathoms. Bottom, sand and stones.

Large number of Holothuria marmorata. Numerous extremely

young specimens of Synapta striata. Blue Ophiuroids.

January 20, 1911.

Station 21.—Yard Cove, 300 yards north of Plantain Point.

Depth, 24 fathoms. Bottom, sand and stones. .

Dredge full of sand. Yellow sponge, containing Synapta striata.

One Spatangoid.

Station 22.—Yard Cove, 500 yards north-north-east of Plantain

Point.

Depth, 24 fathoms. Bottom, sand and lot of Halimeda.

Two Holothuria marmorata. Coral containing several shrimps,

including Periclimenes. Black sponge (Megalopastas nigra),

containing numerous Alpheids (Alpheus bis-incisus). Saron gib-

berosus. Conchodytes meleagrine from Pinna. Commercial sponge

(Huspongia officinalis). Several other sponges. Yellow sponge,

containing Sipunculids.

Station 23.—In narrow part of Yard Cove, about three-quarter

mile north of Plantain Point.

Depth, 24 fathoms. Bottom, sand.

One Stichopus chloronotus. Several Holothuria marmorata. Two

large Echinoids. Several small fishes. Large number of sponges,

including Megalopastas nigra, Hippospongia clathrata, and others.

Synapta striata in yellow sponge. Sipunculids, Ophiuroids, and

Polychete worms in sponges.

Station 24.—Central channel of Yard Cove, 250 yards south-west

of Station 23.

Depth, 2} fathoms. Bottom, sand.

Several Holothuria marmorata. One Holothuria scabra. One

large Peneus semisulcatus. Many sponges containing Synapta

striata, Ophiuroids, Sipunculids, and Polychztes.

Station 25.—300 yards north-west of Plantain Point, in central

channel of Yard Cove.

Depth, 5 fathoms. Bottom, sand.

Several Holothuria marmorata. Alpheus audouini and Sipunculids

in sponge masses, Generally speaking, the southern half of Yard

36 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Cove has rock and stones covered with sponges and Halimeda near

the shore, and sand with abundance of sponges and Holothurians in

the channel.

Station 26.—Cod Bay, 300 yards north of Middle Point.

Depth, 4 fathoms. Bottom, sand and stones.

Numerous Holothuria marmorata. Numerous sponges, including

Acanthella carteri, Megalopastas nigra, Phakellia donnani, &c. ‘Two

large prawns, Peneus monodon. Synapta striata and various worms

in yellow sponge.

Station 27.—Centre of Cod Bay, half a mile north-north-west of

Middle Point.

Depth, 6 fathoms. Bottom, mud and sand.

Several Holothuria marmorata.

Station 28.—Cod Bay, 200 yards south-east of Mangrove Islands.

Depth, 4 fathoms. Bottom, mud and sand.

Several Holothuria marmorata. Small crab with two large lateral

spines on carapace; large yellow sponge, containing worms, Alpheids,

and Ophiuroids. .

Station 29.—Cod Bay, 200 yards south-west of Mangrove Islands.

Depth, 3 fathoms. Bottom, mud and sand.

Several Holothuria marmorata. Several small Gastropods

(Pterocera). General. The fauna of Cod Bay is similar to that of

Yard Cove. In both localities there are great numbers of trepang.

January 21, 1911.

Station 30.—500 yards north-west of Powder Rocks.

Depth, 6 fathoms. Bottom, sand and stones. :

Holothuria atra. Megalopastas niger, containing several crabs

(Dromia). Few star fishes (Astropecten zebra).

Station 31.—In a line between Plantain Point and Powder Rocks,

half a mile from the latter. ;

Depth, 8 fathoms. Bottom, sand.

The dredge ploughed immediately into soft sand and anchored

the boat. Nothing.

Station 32.—Nearly half a mile east-south-east of Plantain Point.

Depth, 7 fathoms. Bottom, sand.

Holothuria marmorata. Holothuria atra. Stichopus chloronotus.

Numerous young Synapta striata in sponge masses. Large Rhizo-

stlomid medusa. Various sponges, including Acanthella carteri,

Aulospongus tubulatus, &c. Green colony of Bugula (?). Saron

gibberosus. Synalpheus minus in large quantities in cavities of

sponges.

January 23, 1911.

Station 33.—1,000 yards south-south-west of Powder Rocks.

Depth, 11 fathoms. Bottom, rock at beginning and sand further

south.

BIOLOGICAL SURVEY OF TRINCOMALEE HARBOUR. 37

At this and the next two stations the soft sand made dredging

a very difficult operation. The dredge anchored the boat several

times, and when brought up was full of sand. Hence representative

hauls at Stations 33, 34, and 35 were not obtained. At Station 33

only a few small crabs and broken shells.

Stations 34 and 35.—Continuing the line of Station 33 and dredging

towards Small Sober Island.

Depth, 13 to 18 fathoms. Bottom, sand.

At both stations the dredge stuck in the sand and nothing was

obtained.

Station 36.—Along north end of Sober Island, near shore.

Depth, 8 to 10 fathoms. Bottom, rock, stones, and sand.

Many Kchinoids of a deep peacock blue colour. Several Astro-

pecten zebra. Holothuria marmorata. Many sponges, containing

Alpheids (Alpheus minus, Alpheus bis-incisus), Synapta striata,

Dromia, worms, brittle stars, and Callianassids. Metapeneus

mogvensis. One specimen of a solitary coral. Many broken shells

and Halimeda.

Station 37.—Malay Cove, nearly halt a mile south-west of Round

Point.

Depth, 7 fathoms. Bottom, gravel and stones.

One Holothuria marmorata. One Cucumaria imbricata. One

Parapeneus stylifera (%). Several Astropecten zebra.

Station 38.—Malay Cove, half a mile south of Round Point, near

the shore of Sober Island.

Depth, 5 fathoms. Bottom, gravel and stones.

Numerous sponges and Halimeda. Alpheids, worms, and brittle

star fishes mixed with the sponges. Many blue Echinoids. Holo-

thuria marmorata. This haul is very similar to the one at Station 36.

Station 39.—Centre of Malay Cove, 600 yards west of Station 38.

Depth, 4 fathoms. Bottom, sand.

Very similar to Stations 36 and 38, but no blue Echinoids present.

Large Ophiuroids and several compound Ascidians. Numerous

Synapta striata in the sponges.

Station 40.—In Orlando Cove, between the north-east side of

Sober Island and Small Sober Island.

Depth, 7 fathoms. Bottom, sand.

Many shrimps (Periclimenes spinigerus), on a large dark purple

sponge. This sponge was peculiar in having a sticky jam-like

secretion, which stained the hands.

Station 41.—Off south-east side of Small Sober Island, about 300

yards from shore. ;

Depth, 9 fathoms. Bottom, sand and gravel.

Many sponges, including black, purple, and brick-red. Alpheus

bis-incisus in crevices of yellow sponge. Several corals. Many

Sipunculids and Polychetes from interior of the sponge.

38 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. ;

Station 42.—Off south end of Small Sober Island, opposite channel

between Sober Island and Small Sober Island.

Depth, 9 fathoms. Bottom, rock and stones.

Stichopus chloronotus. Several sandy Ascidians. Two sponges.

Station 43.—300 yards south-west of Station 42, off south end of

Sober Island.

Depth, 9 fathoms. Bottom, stones.

Several blue Echinoids, similar to those obtained at Station 36.

Several sponges, including dark purple sponge found at Station 41.

A dark green sponge and a yellow sponge containing Alpheids and

worms.

January 24, 1911.

Station 44.—300 yards south-east of Plantain Point.

Depth, 7 fathoms. Bottom, sand.

Stichopus chloronotus. Holothuria scabra. Synapta striata in

yellow sponge. Many sponges, including Megalopastas mgra,

Stphonochalina, Acanthella carteri, &c. Synalpheus neomeris from

sponges.

Station 45.—Across the mouth of China Bay, half a mile south-

south-west of Plantain Point.

Depth, 10 fathoms. Bottom, sand.

Several Holothuria scabra, some of which differ from the ordinary

striped form found in Trincomalee and resemble the kind found at

Jafina. Astropecten zebra. A brick-red sponge.

Station 46.—China Bay, nearly half a mile north-west of Round

Point.

Depth, 9 fathoms. Bottom, sand.

The dredge came up full of sand, and contained a few crabs and

empty bivalves.

Station 47.—China Bay, about 600 yards west-north-west of

Round Point, 200 yards from the shore opposite Mount Challenger.

Depth, 7 fathoms. Bottom, sand.

One Holothuria nigra. A few young specimens of Astropecten

zebra.

Station 48.—China Bay, 200 yards north of Round Point.

Depth, 6 fathoms. Bottom, sand, stones, and coralline.

Masses of a dichotamous coral-coloured alga. Coral of various

species. Many sponges of various colours: Synapta striata in

yellow sponge. Few crabs.

Between this Station and Station 47 there is a coral reef with

masses of coral and sponges. Numerous “‘coral fishes” were seen.

Station 49.—China Bay, nearly one mile north-west of Round

Point. Similar distance south-west of Plantain Point.

Depth; 6 fathoms. Bottom, hard sand and Halimeda.

Nothing but Halimeda and a large mottled orange sponge.

BIOLOGICAL SURVEY OF TRINCOMALEE HARBOUR. 39

Station 50.—China Bay, nearly one mile almost due east of

Plantain Point. .

Depth, 5 fathoms. Bottom, hard sand and Halimeda.

Two Holothuria marmorata. Yellow sponges with Synapta striata.

Acanthella carteri and Plocamia manadrensis and other sponges.

White Nudibranch with purple spots. Small Gastropod (Pterocera).

Halimeda.

Station 51.—China Bay, quarter mile south-west of Middle Point.

Depth, 4 fathoms. Bottom, sand and stones.

Petrosia similis, a blue sponge. Several small crabs. Little

Halimeda.

Station 52.—Opposite entrance to Yard Cove, 600 yards west of

Plantain Point.

Depth, 7 fathoms. Bottom, sand.

Four Holothuria marmorata. A few common sponges.

Station 53.—600 yards west-south-west of Powder Rocks.

Depth, 8 fathoms. Bottom, sand and gravel.

Several flat Clypeastroids about 14 inch across. Few Holothuria

marmorata. Few Holothuria scabra. Metapeneus mogiensis. Syn-

apta striala in sponge masses. Various common sponges.

Station 54.—Half a mile north-east of Round Point.

Depth, 10 fathoms. Bottom, sand and gravel.

Nothing but pieces of a Virgularia-like Alcyonarian.

Station 55.—500 yards east of Round Point.

Depth, 14 fathoms. Bottom, soft mud.

Nothing in dredge.

January 29, 1911. 7

Station 56.—Clappenberg Bay, south end of French Pass in mid-

channel.

Depth, 10 fathoms. Bottom, sand.

Many blue Echinoids. Holothuria marmorata. Saron gibberosus.

Sponges containing Synalpheus minus. Red dichotamous seaweed.

Halimeda. Several small shrimps (Periclimenes ?). Large circular

Foraminifera (Orbitolites). Black dichotamously branched sponge

(Axinella ?). Several small Clypeastroids.: Sandy Ascidians.

Crabs, shells, &e.

Station 57.—Middle of French Pass.

Depth, 5 fathoms. Bottom, sand.

Few sponges and shells. Metapeneus mogiensis. Few Clype-

astroids. :

Station 58.—South end of French Pass.

Depth, 7 fathoms. Bottom, sand.

Three Holothuria marmorata. A few sponges.

40 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Station 59.—Clappenberg Bay, half a mile west-north-west of

Clappenberg Point. .

Depth, 8 fathoms. Bottom, sand.

Several Holothuria marmorata. One small Clypeastroid. Many

sponges, including Megalopastas nigra. Phakellia donnani, &ce.

Gonodactylus glabrous.

Shore collections were made on two occasions, once on the

shore of Powder Islands and once near Admiralty House. In both

places the conditions are much the same, and the shore consisted

mainly of muddy sand, on which were scattered boulders of various

sizes. On the whole, the shore fauna was very poor, and contrasted

strongly with the rich and varied fauna found in the rock pools on

the other side of the Ostenberg peninsula. The latter locality is

probably one of the best places in the Island for shore collecting.

At the two stations in Trincomalee harbour the predominant

features were the masses of black sponges encrusting the stones and

containing numerous Alpheids and Callianassids, Dromiids, Sipun-

culids, Ophiuroids, and Polychzete worms. So far as I can determine,

the sponge is Megalopastas nigra. This sponge appears to have two

predominant forms, the commonest being massive and rounded, and

the other being digitate. The Alpheids all proved to be Alpheus

audouint and Alpheus bis-incisus. A few specimens of Saron

gibberosus were also obtained. Several large Turbellarians were

obtained under stones. There was a complete absence of Anemones.

Shore crabs and land crabs were also found, as well as Periopthalmus.

A few rock oysters were found, and large numbers of a small

Gastropod (? Cerithium).

EXPLANATION OF THE CHARTS.

(Scale of all the Maps is 1 Nautical Mile = 2 Inches.)

Chart 1.—Map of Trincomalee harbour, giving position of the stations

referred to in the present report.

Chart 2.—Map of Trincomalee harbour, giving depths and bottom

deposits.

Chart 3.—Map of Trincomalee harbour, giving the distribution of

trepang.

Chart 4.—Map of Trincomalee harbour, giving the distribution of

sponges of all species.

Meddle Pt

French Pass

26 21

Plantain Pt

a8 32. ope ee

g 4

7 CorpenboB

POSITION OF SFATIONS.

“TRINCOMALIE H2%

The numbers refer to the

dredge hauls.

Elephant i2

SG.

acacia

‘

TS =small stones

+sand

= mud

S.G= Sand sgravel

H= hard sand

ST= stones

S.C = Sand geralhrie

RS.= rock sand

See.er”

sande large stones ™

S7= gravel & stones

S.H,=San@eHalimeda $28

S.ST= Sands stones

C.S.=coral sand

M.S.=mud ¢ sand

H.S7

yer

AND

BOTTOM DEPOSITS

The numbers ni

MAP OF

SHOWING DEPTHS

fathoms

to the depths wi

eRe

20.

DEPTHS AND BOTTOM DEPOSITS,

15,

DISTRIBUTION OF TREPANG.

TRINCOMALIE H®

‘Showing distribution of Trefan&

(Bk che-de-Mer), by dots. The densily is

dueated by the masses of dots.

8Fathom line shown thus -----

MAP OF

TRINCOMALIE H®

Showing disl€ribution of Sponges

(cll shectes) by dols. The density is

indtcalad by the masses of dots,

SFathom line shown thus ~---~-

mS = OS a tN

“sce eet?

DISTRIBUTION OF SPONGES.

SURVEY OF LAKE TAMBLEGAM, SEPTEMBER, 1911,*

By JosrrH Parson.

(With seven Charts.)

djs TAMBLEGAM covers an area of about seven square

miles, and is connected with the large outer bay of Trincomalee

by a narrow channel some hundreds of yards across. The specific

gravity of the water varies considerably with the season of the year,

owing to the number of rivers flowing into the lake. In September,

after months of dry weather, the specific gravity is about the same

as in the open sea. The floor of the lake consists of a level stretch

of soft gray mud brought down by the rivers, and over the greater

part of the lake the depth does not exceed one fathom. It is upon .

these mud beds that the windowpane oyster (Placuna placenta) finds 4

its natural habitat. “

The main conditions under which this molluse lives may be ‘

summarized as follows: (1) High temperature of the water owing

to the shallowness. This high temperature is varied by inrushes

of cold river water during the wet season. (2) Soft, slimy mud, re

upon which the oyster rests by means of its lower convex valve.

According to Hornell, the shell sometimes is implanted in the mud

in a vertical position, like a Pinna. The divers say that the young t

oysters rest on the top of the mud, while the adult oysters become '

almost imbedded in the mud. (3) The water is never clear, and

always contains a lot of mud in suspension. This is particularly ;

the case from May to January, when the rough sea churns up the x

soft mud. From October to December this is aggravated by an

inrush of fresh water carrying a large amount of mud in suspension.

This latter period is probably the most critical time of the year.

* The chief literature dealing with Lake Tamblegam is as follows :—

1857.—Kelaart. Report on the Tamblegam Pearl Oysters, 8vo., 6 pp.

Trincomalee.

1906.—Hornell. Report on the Placuna placenta Pearl Fishery of Lake

Tampalakamam. ‘‘ Ceylon Marine Biological Reports,”

q Part II., No. 2, Colombo.

1907.—Willey. Report on the Windowpane Oysters in the Backwaters of

the Eastern Province. Spolia Zeylanica, Vol. V., Part

XVII.

1908.———-— Placuna Fishery. Inspection of March, 1908. Spolia ”

Zeylanica, Vol. V., Part XIX, .

1908.—-——-— Ceylon Administration Reports (Marine Biology). .

1909.———-— Ceylon Administration Reports (Marine Biology).

Ce) 6(19)11

Pao tig”

42 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

The divers say that a great inrush of fresh water kills the oysters.

It is impossible to say at present what truth there is in this state-

ment, since the inrush of fresh water synchronizes with the presence

of an abnormal amount of mud and gritty sand in suspension.

The windowpane oyster fishery formerly gave employment to a

large number of divers, and added an annual sum of about Rs. 5,000

to the revenue of the Island. Since 1890, however, there has been no

successful fishery, and the divers of Kiniyai and Tamblegam have

had to look elsewhere for a means of living. The object of the recent

work of Willey and Hornell has been to discover the reason of this

decline and, if possible, to suggest remedies. Their work, therefore,

has consisted of investigating the bionomics and life-history of

Placuna ; and the survey of Lake Tamblegam, which I have just

completed, bears on these points.

~ The main object of the scientific work at Lake Tamblegam is to

restore the windowpane oyster fishery to its former prosperous con-

dition. As a starting point in such an investigation, it is necessary

to determine the distribution, rate of growth, period of maturity, and

frequency of spawning of Placuna placenta. At present we are in

ignorance of all these points, with the exception of the distribution.

Even our knowledge of this highly important item has rested mainly

on the statements of the local fishermen and divers. It is only too

true that they know exactly where oysters are to be found, but that

information is not definite enough for purposes of exact record. A

systematic survey of the lake should be made every year, as the

information thus gained is of the utmost value in the solution of all

the other problems. No such survey appears to have been made

hitherto. Hornell’s survey of 1905 consisted of a series of irregular

lines of divings at various places in the lake, which, though of value,

were not detailed enough. My visit to Tamblegam in September,

1911, was for the purpose of making a thorough survey of the lake.

Two canoes were employed, one in charge of Mr. George Henry, my

Assistant, and the other occupied by myself. <A series of parallel

lines of divings were made, which were sufficiently numerous to

ensure that no large area of the lake escaped examination. In all

161 stations were examined, and at each station two divers made at

least a dozen descents. The results of these operations are appended,

and a series of charts compiled from those results are given, showing

amongst other things the depth, nature of bottom, distribution of

living oysters, and distribution of dead oysters.

Placuna placenta can live best on soft mud, in depths varying from

? fathom to about 1? fathom. From this information the potential

area of the lake has been determined, 7.e., the area upon which the

oysters can grow. ‘This potential area is more than half the area of

the lake, and includes practically the whole of the central part of

the lake, together with a small patch near the head of Nachchikuda

and scattered patches in the south-western corner, The large central

SURVEY OF LAKE TAMBLEGAM. 43

portion is bounded by lines drawn between Sinna Vellaikalmunai and

Kodaipota on the east, and between Peyaddaimunai and Kakamunai

on the west.

Hornell’s Palamput bed should be farther west, in order to coin-

cide with the potential area of that part of the bay as determined

from my observations in September, 1911. The position of Kapal-

turai bed as defined by Hornell should be about half a mile farther

south than what he has indicated, and it appears to be joined to

the so-called Kakamunai bed of Hornell. This latter bed is made

up of the following beds referred to in Willey’s Administration

Report (Marine Biology), 1909 :—

(1) Sembianar Motuaram, off the mouth of the Sembian-aar.

(2) Kakamunai, north-west of Kakamunai Point.

(3) Polokarai-aru Motuaram, between (1) and (2).

(4) Sembianar Vilangu, an offshore bed lying to the north of

(2) and (3).

This division of the beds is recognized by the fishermen and

divers, but so far as I can determine from the results of my survey

there is practically one large bed covering the whole of the central

part of the lake, which is especially productive in the southern

portion of this area.

At present the northern half of this area (see Charts 5 and 6) is

barren, and contains nothing but dead shells, which in some parts

are very abundant. In the southern half there is a fairly large bed

of young oysters, about 33 inches in the greatest diameter. The

age of these oysters is uncertain, but it is probable that they are at

least twelve months old. It is interesting to note that in January,

1911, practically no oysters were reported from this area. Eight

months later the divers reported the presence of a flourishing bed

of young oysters. It is possible that these oysters were present in

January as extremely small spat, which escaped the notice of the

divers. I questioned both the Government watcher and the divers

about this, and they were all confident that the oysters were not

present during the January inspection. One is absolutely dependent

upon the reports of the divers, as dredging in the soft mud would

be quite impossible, and consequently there is no way of discovering

errors.

I propose to return to Tamblegam in January, 1912, in order to

transplant some of these young oysters to other parts of the lake

which are barren at present. This new bed of young oysters will not

be sufficient to justify a fishery in two years or so, but they will

prove of the greatest value for the purposes of a transplantation

experiment. I propose to enclose small areas of about 300 square

yards upon the following beds :—Palamput, Kakamunai, Sembianar

Vilangu, Nachchikuda, and Kapalturai. Young oysters will be

planted in these areas, and it will then be possible to keep the oysters

44 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

under close and accurate observation, and spawning centres will be

established in all parts of the lake.

he following is an indication of the main lines which future work

at Lake Tamblegam should follow.

Distribution.—Yearly systematic inspections, similar to the one

described in this report, should be made; and based upon the

results of these mspections charts showing distribution of living

oysters and dead shells should be drawn up. For purposes of

comparison such charts would be extremely useful.

Age.—By having these regular annual surveys much information

about the condition of the beds might be obtained. Thus a fall of

spat could be detected and the subsequent development of the bed

of oysters determined. From these records it would be an easy

matter to compute the age of the oysters on any particular bed.

Rate of Growth.—By taking measurements of oysters recorded at

the various stations it would be possible with successive inspections

to determine the average rate of growth. After a sufficient number

of observations had been made it will be possible to correlate age

and size. This knowledge would be of great practical value.

Age of Maturity.—This could be determined by an examination of

the reproductive organs, and correlating this with the age and size

of the oyster.

Spawning Period.—The evidence with regard to this should be

derived from three sources :—-

(1) Frequent examinations, to determine the ripeness of the

gonads.

(2) Frequent tow nettings, to find out the period of the year

when the Placuna larve occur in the plankton.

(3) Determining the probable date of spatfalls.

In addition to the above, some protection of the oysters against

the unreasonable rapacity of man must be ensured. This is parti-

cularly important in the case of adult oysters with ripe gonads. In

an ordinary case the problem would be a comparatively simple one,

and would merely require a knowledge of the spawning period of the

oyster, and protection could be afforded by establishing a close

season during that period, and also by the formation of a few reserve

areas. In the case of the windowpane oyster at, Tamblegam,

however, the stress of weather from May to January practically

makes diving during those months prohibitive, and fishing is neces-

sarily confined to the first five months of the year. Hence there is a

natural close season extending over more than half the year, so that

Hornell’s recommendation that the fishing season should be limited

to the period between January 15 and May 15 is perfectly sound,

although made without any knowledge of the spawning period of

the oyster, but merely on the local conditions of weather. Even

should it be shown upon further investigation that spawning takes

SURVEY OF LAKE TAMBLEGAM. 45

place during the fishing season no changes need be made, except to

provide small reserves upon each bed.

It is very important that reserves should be laid down, upon

which diving should not be allowed even in the season. These

reserves need not be large, but they would be of great value as

spawning centres after the main beds have been depleted. This is

the only way of protecting the beds from being ruthlessly over-fished.

Further knowledge is required regarding the age and rate of growth.

of Placuna. Hornell agreed with Kelaart that the largest oysters,

measuring 7 inches by 6 inches, are about three years old, and do not

live to agreaterage. On the other hand, Willey was of the opinion,

after three years’ work, that the mature pearl-bearing oyster is from

three to six yearsold. Willey recognized seven stages, as follows :—

Spat, the first sedentary stage, with a major diameter varying from

3 inch to 2 inches; placunet, from 2 to 3 inches; yearling, from

3 to 44 inches ; adolescent, up to 54 inches ; first adult, up to 65

inches, about three years old ; second and third adult, up to 7 or 8

inches.

Hornell recommended a size limit of 5} inches in the shortest

diameter. Willey has pointed out the difficulty of proposing a size

limit, since most of the superficial growth takes place in the first

two years, after which the growth is mainly concerned with the

thickening of the shell. It is much more satisfactory to know the

age of a bed of oysters, which can be ascertained by making frequent

systematic inspections in the manner I have indicated. Willey has

shown that the mature oysters in the lake are probably all of the

same age. If this be the case, it is much safer to determine the age

of the bed of oysters, and to prohibit its being fished until the proper

time. In this way the need of a size limit is obviated. Willey

suggested that the number of oysters obtained at a fishery should

be limited, in order to prevent over-fishing. There appear to be

difficulties in the way of such a proposal, and a much more

satisfactory plan appears to be the establishment of reserves.

The diving at Tamblegam is done by Moormen. After witnessing

the diving operations on the pearl banks or in Trincomalee harbour,

one is not impressed by the attainments of the Tamblegam diver.

They do not care to dive in more than 3 fathoms, and they can

only stay down for about eight seconds, even when diving in a depth

of 1 fathom. They do not, of course, use any rope or stone. They

simply turn a somersault in the water, and the last one sees of them

as they disappear is their feet. Owing to the abundance of soft mud

the water is never clear enough to see the bottom, even when the

depth is less than afathom. In rough weather the water contains a

large amount of mud in suspension, which renders the work of the

divers very difficult, and they are reduced to feeling for the oysters.

Whenever diving operations are in progress, the boat is anchored by

a long pole being plunged into the mud from the bow of the boat.

46 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

This is a ready and effective method of anchoring the boat, even in

the roughest weather. In those parts of the lake where sharks are

supposed to abound, the boatmen scare away these dreaded creatures

during diving operations by knocking a paddle against the side of

the boat. The boats used are ordinary dugouts, which do not have

outriggers. The type of paddle used is used in various parts of

Ceylon, and consists of a long pole, to which is attached a circular

piece of wood, which acts as the blade. No rowlocks are present,

and the oar is attached to the side of the boat by means of a rough

hemp rope.

The following are the results of the diving operations from

September 4 to 8, 1911, giving the depths, nature of bottom, and

the presence or absence of Placuna ‘—

Station 1—} fathom. Black mud. Nothing.

Station 2.—3 fathom. Black mud and weed. Dead Placuna*

shell (5 x 5 approx.).

Station 3.—2 fathom. Brown mud and weed. One dead cockle.

Several dead Placune (5 x 5).

Station 4.—2% fathom. Brown mud and weed. Several small

dead Gasteropods. One living Placuna (44 x 34). No pearls.

Station 5.—3 fathom. Black mud. Nothing.

Station 6.—1 fathom. Black mud and weed. Nothing.

Station 7,—13 fathom. Black mud and weed. One dead shell

(5 <x 5approx.). One living Placuna (24 x 24). No pearls.

Station 8.—1 fathom. Mud and weed. Nothing.

Station 9—% fathom. Mud. Dead Placune scanty.

Station 10.—3 fathom. Mud. Nothing.

Station 11,—? fathom. Mud. Nothing.

Station 12.—} fathom. Mud and sand. Nothing.

Station 15.—} fathom. Sand. Nothing.

Station 14 ( = Hornell’s Station 14a). — 1} fathom. Mud.

Nothing. .

Station 15 ( = Hornell’s Station 17).— 14 fathom. Mud.

Nothing.

Station 16 ( = Hornell’s Station 16).— 14 fathom. Mud.

Nothing.

Station 17.—1} fathom. Sand. Nothing.

Station 18 ( = Hornell’s Station 18a). — 1} fathom. Sand and

mud. Nothing.

Station 19.—1} fathom. Sand and mud. Nothing.

Station 20.—1? fathom. Mud and shell débris. Dead Placune

very plentiful (44 x 44).

Station 21 ( = Hornell’s Station 18b).—2 fathoms. Brown mud

with shell fragments. Nothing.

* Norr.—‘‘ Dead Placune’’ means empty shells. The sizes of the shells

are given in inches,

SURVEY OF LAKE TAMBLEGAM. 47

Station 22.—2 fathoms. Brown mud and shell fragments. Dead

Placune (44 X 43).

Station 23 (= Hornell’s Station 13a).—2 fathoms. Brown mud

with fine shell fragments. Red Alcyonarian.

Station 24 (= Hornell’s Station 12).—2 fathoms. Black mud.

Red Aleyonarian. Dead Placuna (44 x 44).

Station 25.—24 fathoms. Black mud. Red Alcyonarian. Dead

Placune, several (5 x 5).

Station 26.—14 fathom. Black mud. Dead Placune, several,

broken (5 X_ 5).

Station 27.—? fathom. Dead Placune very abundant.

Station 28. — 4 fathom. Sand, shell débris, Caulerpa, sp.

Nothing.

Station 29.—? fathom. Sand, shell débris. Nothing.

Station 30.—3 fathom. Mud and weed. Nothing.

Station 51.—1} fathom. Weed. Dead Placune very plentiful

(5 X 5).

Station 32.—l1} fathom. Black mud. Dead Placune very

plentiful (6 x 5).

Station 33.—? fathom. Black mud and weed. Dead Placune

very plentiful (5 x 5).

Station 34— fathom. Black mud and weed. Dead Placune

plentiful (5 x 5).

Station 55.—} fathom. Black mud. Dead Placwna (5 x 5).

Station 36.—% fathom. Mud. Dead Placune.

Station 37.—3 fathom. Mud. Dead Placune (several, full

grown).

Station 38 —11 fathom. Mud. Nothing.

Station 39.—% fathom. Mud and weed. Nothing.

Station 40.—3 fathom. Mud and weed. Nothing.

Station 41.—} fathom. Mud and weed. Nothing.

Station 42.—1} fathom. Mud and weed. Nothing.

Station 45.—1 fathom. Sand and broken shells. Nothing.

Station 44.—1 fathom. Mud. Six dead Placune (4 x 33 to

2x 12).

Station 45.—} fathom. Mud, Five dead Placune (5 x 4 to

3} X 3).

Station 46.—14 fathom. Mud. Red Alcyonarian. Four dead

Placune (5$ x 5).

Station 47 (= Hornell’s Station 11).—1 fathom. Sand and mud

Dead Placuna (44 X 44).

Station 48 —1 fathom. Sand and mud. Placune scanty.

Station 49—1 fathom. Sand and mud. Dead Placune very

plentiful.

Station 50.—1 fathom. Soft mud. Dead Placune very plentiful

(53 X 43 to 12 X 1).

Station 51,—2 fathoms. Hard mud. Two dead Placune.

48 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Station 52 (= Hornell’s Station 18c).—2 fathoms. Hard mud.

Nothing.

Station 53.—2 fathoms. Mud. Nothing. :

Station 54—2 fathoms. Brown mud with shell fragments,

Nothing.

Station 55.—2 fathoms. Brown mud. Nothing.

Station 56.—2 fathoms. Brown mud. Nothing.

Station 57.—21 fathoms. Brown mud and shell débris. Dead

Placuna scanty (44 x 44 approx.).

Station 58—2 fathoms. Black mud. Dead Placune fairly

plentiful.

Station 59.—2 fathoms. Living Placune plentiful (43 x 43 to

34 X 33).

Station 60.—l fathom. Living Placune very plentiful (4 43).

Station 61—1 fathom. Living Placune very plentiful (4 41),

Station 62.—1 fathom. Living Placune plentiful (44

Station 63.—1} fathom. Living Placune plentiful (4 x

Station 64.— fathom. Mud and weed. Nothing.

Station 65.—3 fathom. Black mud and weed. Nothing.

Station 66.—? fathom. Mud and weed. Nothing.

Station 67.—% fathom. Black mud, weed, and small Gasteropods.

One dead Placuna.

Station 68.—1 fathom. Black mud and weed. Nothing.

Station 69.—? fathom. Mud and weed. Nothing.

Station 70.—} fathom. Gray mud and weed. Nothing.

Station 71.—4 fathom. Weed. One living Placuna (53 x 54).

Station 72.—} fathom. Gray mud and weed. Nothing.

Station 73.—4t fathom. Black mud, one small Gasteropod.

Nothing. -

Station 74.—4 fathom. Black mud and weed. One living

Placuna (53 x 53).

Station 75.—4 fathom. Gray mud and weed. Nothing.

Station 76.—} fathom. Black mud and weed. Nothing.

Station 77.—} fathom. Weed. Nothing.

Station 78.—3 fathom. Black mud and thick weed. Nothing.

Station 79.—3 fathom. Weed. - One dead Placuna.

Station 80.—%t fathom. Mud and much weed. Nothing.

Station S1.—3 fathom. Mud and weed. Nothing.

Station 82.—4 fathom. Mud and weed. Nothing.

Station 83.—} fathom. Mud and weed. Old broken Placuna

shells,

Station 84.—}+ fathom. Mud and weed. Nothing.

Station 85.—4 fathom. Mud and weed. Five living Placune

(6 x 5} to 53 x 5). (a) One small pearl; (6) nothing; (c) two

parasites ; (d) two large hinge pearls ; (e) nothing.

Station 86.—i fathom. Black mud and weed. Nothing.

Station 87.—4 fathom. Black mud. Dead Placune.

41),

4).

SURVEY OF LAKE TAMBLEGAM. 49

~ Station 88.—%3 fathom. Mud. Several small living Placune

(3 x 3).

Station 89.—? fathom. Mud and sand. Small living Placune

abundant. A W big dead Placune.

Station 90.—? fathom. Mud and sand. A few small living

Placune.

Station 91.—1 fathom. Mud. Small living Placune abundant

(4 x 4).

Station 92.—l fathom. Mud. Living Placune plentiful (4 x 4).

Dead Placuna (7 x 6).

Station 93. — 1} fathom. Mud. Living Placune abundant

(3 X 3).

Station 94.—134 fathom. Mud. Several living Placune (4 x 4).

Many large dead Placune.

Station 95.—1} fathom. Mud. Two dead Placune (5 x 5 to

Bee 2). :

Station 96.—l34 fathom. Mud. Nothing.

Station 97.—li fathom. Mud. Nothing.

Station 98.—2i fathoms. Hard sand and mud. Nothing.

Station 99.—? fathom. Mud. Nothing.

Station 100.—13 fathom. Muddy sand and weed. Nothing.

Station 101.—1} fathom. Fine muddy sand. Nothing.

Station 102.—1 fathom. Hard sand and weed. Nothing.

Station 103.—2 fathoms. Black mud with shell débris. Dead

Placune plentiful.

Station 104.—2 fathoms. Black mud. Living Placune fairly

plentiful (4 x 4). Many dead Placune.

Station 105.—\1 fathom. Black mud. Livi ing Placune plentiful

(4 xX 4 approx.).

Station 106.—14 fathom. Black mud. Living Placune very

plentiful (4 x 4 approx.).

Station 107.—14 fathom. Black mud. Living Placune very

plentiful (4 x 4 approx.).

Station 108.—1 fathom. Fine black muddy sand. Nothing.

Station 109.—3 fathom. Fine black sand and weed. Nothing.

Station 110.—1 fathom. Soft mud. Living Placune plentiful

(4 x 4) .

Station 111.—% fathom. Soft mud. One living Placune (6 x 6).

No pearls or parasites.

Station 112.1 fathom. Soft mud and weed. Nothing.

Station 113. —2% fathom. Soft mud. Few small living

Placune.

Station 114.—3 fathom. Hard mud. Nothing.

Station 115.—1 fathom. Soft mud. Very few living Placune

(4.x 33).

Station 116.—11 fathom. Soft mud. Small living Placune

(4 x 32 to 34 x 3).

“a 639)11

Station 117. — 1 fathom.

(42 x 4to 4 x 4).

Station 118.—1 fathom.

Station 119.—1 fathom.

Station 120.—1 fathom.

Station 121.—1 fathom.

Station 122.—1 fathom.

Station 123.—1 fathom.

Station 124.—1 fathom.

Station 125.—1 fathom.

Station 126.—1} fathom.

Station 127.—2 fathoms.

Station 128.—1 fathom.

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Soft mud. Many living Placune

Hard mud. One dead Placwna (14 x 14).

Hard mud. Nothing.

Hard sand and mud. Nothing.

Hard sand, mud, and weed. Nothing.

Hard sand and weed. Nothing.

Sand and mud. Nothing.

Sand. Nothing.

Muddy sand. Nothing.

Sand. Nothing.

Brown muddy sand and weed. Nothing.

Fine black sand. Nothing.

Station 129.—4 fathom. Black mud and weed. Nothing.

Station 130. — 1 fathom. Fine black muddy sand. Living

Placune plentiful.

Station 131.—4 fathom. Hard mud and weed. Nothing.

Station 132.—4 fathom. Hard mud and weed. Nothing.

Station 133.—}? fathom. Hard mud and sand. Nothing.

Station 134.—? fathom. Hard mud and sand. Nothing.

Station 135.—1 fathom. Hard sand and mud. Nothing.

Station 156.—14 fathom.

Station 137.—14 fathom.

Station 138.—14 fathom.

Station 159.—1} fathom.

Station 140.—14 fathom.

Station 141.—1 fathom.

Placune (5% x 53).

Station 142.—1 fathom.

Station 143.—1 fathom.

Old dead Placune.

Station 144.,—4 fathom.

Old dead Placune.

Station 145.—1 fathom.

Placuna.

Station 146.—% fathom.

Sand. Nothing.

Mud and sand. Nothing.

Mud and shell débris. Few old dead

Mud and sand. One broken shell.

Mud. Several medusz near bottom.

Mud. Several medusze near bottom.

Black mud and weed. One old dead

Mud. Few Placune.

Station 147.—l fathom. Black mud. Onesmallwhelk. Nothing.

Station 148.—14 fathom. Black mud and shell débris. Nothing.

Station 149. — 2 fathoms. Black mud. One dead Placuna

(54 x 5).

Station 150.—3 fathoms.

Nothing.

Station 151.—3 fathoms.

débris. Nothing.

Station 152.—3 fathoms.

Nothing.

Station 153.—2 fathoms.

Soft black mud with shell débris.

Soft black mud with minute shell

Muddy sand with Placuna shell débris.

Mud. Nothing.

MAP OF LAKE TAMBLEGAM, GIVING THE ‘* POTENTIAL ARBA,”

Chart 6.

MAP OF LAKE TAMBLEGAM, GIVING DISTRIBUTION OF DEAD Placune.

MAP OF LAKE TAMBLEGAM, GIVING DISTRIBUTION OF LiIvING Placune.

MAP OF LAKE TAMBLEGAM, GIVIN( THE NATURE OF BOTTOM.

A — mud. D — mud and shell débris.

B = mud and sand. E = sand.

C = mud and weed. F = sand and shell débris.

FATHOMS,

MAP OF LAKE TAMBIEGAM, GIVING DEPTHS IN

Chart 2.

mg ty 38

6S?

MAP OF LAKE TAMBLEGAM, WITH Lis!

OF STATIONS,

a as ce Vie Kalu Mune” ; Kuda

Perya Velac Kalu Munac

Malat

SYS Co PWD. Bungalow.

LAKE TAMBLEGAM

i é Showing Placuma Beds in May,1905. (After Hornell.) :

e i} * sant Sinna

= cana |G Pa’ ee:

SURVEY OF LAKE TAMBLEGAM., 51

Station 154.—1} fathom. Sand and mud. Nothing.

Station 155.—1} fathom. Sand, mud, and weed. Nothing.

Station 156.—2 fathoms. Mud. Nothing.

Station 157.—2 fathoms. Hard sand. Nothing.

Station 158.—4 fathom. Mud. Nothing.

Station 159.—4 fathom. Mud. Nothing.

Station 160.—i fathom. Sand. Nothing.

Station 161.—34 fathom. Mud. Nothing.

EXPLANATION OF THE CHARTS.

[Scale of all the Maps is 1 Nautical Mile = 1? Inch.]

Map of Lake Tamblegam, showing principal beds (after Hornell).

Map of Lake 'Tamblegam. giving the stations referred to in present

report.

Map of Lake Tamblegam, giving the depths in fathoms.

Map of Lake Tamblegam, giving the nature of the bottom.

Map of Lake Tamblegam, giving the distribution of living oysters.

Map of Lake Tamblegam, giving the distribution of dead shells.

Map of Lake Tamblegam, giving the joint distribution of living

oysters and dead shells, thus indicating roughly the ‘‘ potential area.”

52 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

WHALES WASHED ASHORE ON THE COAST OF

CEYLON FROM i889 TO 19190.

By H. F. Fernanpo,

Taxidermist, Colombo Museum.

LARGE Sperm Whale, or cachalot (Physeter macrocephalus), was

washed ashore on the north-west coast of Mannar, midway

between Talaimannar and Mannar, in September, 1889. Mr. Haly,

the then Director, having received a wire from the late Mr. de

Hoedt, Head Clerk of the Kachcheri there, despatched me with a

collector to secure as much of the skeleton as possible. I arrived at

the spot accompanied by the headman of the district, and found the

huge carcase in a highly decomposed state. It must have been dead .

probably a fortnight or more, and the carcase had drifted to the

northern part of the Island.

I found the right side of the head and the right fin partly buried

in the beach. The left paddle was much damaged, probably by

some fishes, and the tail part was floating. The lower part of the

right side of the skull had been cut away, and the crest attached to

the right maxilla was entirely detached from the supraoccipital

crest. It is impossible to account for this except on the supposition

-that the whale received a blow from some large vessel. Another less

probable explanation is that it received its death at the hands of

harpooners. The lower jaws were missing, and it is probable that

they dropped into the sea whilst the carcase was drifting.

This was my first experience of this sort of work, and the task was

a most difficult and trying one, but I tried my best to secure as much

as possible of the skeleton. The coolies who were brought by the

headman were a daring lot of men, and were a great help to me.

Although provided with hatchets and katties, they were given a

most difficult task, as they found much difficulty in cutting through

the masses of skin and blubber. The hatchets brought into requi-

sition rebounded without making any impression, and the waves

broke over the carcase, so that the men had to cease work for the

day. I then devised the following method of cutting away the

flesh. I obtained a few large shark hooks, each one being attached

to a long stick. A small opening was made in the skin.and a hook

was fixed into it. This hook was held tight by two men, whilst

another went on chopping the skin. In this way all the men were

engaged, and huge pieces of skin-and blubber were separated. It

took a gang of twenty men nearly three weeks to clean the bones.

The bones were exposed in the sun for a week, and the heat was so

severe that melted marrow issued from the bones, and the stench

WHALES WASHED ASHORE ON THE COAST OF CEYLON. 53

was unbearable. The north-east wind carried the smell for a long

distance, and the lumps of flesh that had been cut off drifted for a

distance of nearly 10 miles and were cast ashore along the coast.

The skeleton was brought in a Jaffna sailing boat to Negombo,

and thence by canal to Colombo lake, where it was loaded into a

troliy cart and brought to the Colombo Museum. A cadjan shed

was temporarily erected for the reception of the bones.

The skull, minus the lower jaw, has now been placed in the

Mammalian Gallery.

I have taken a photograph showing a side view of the skull of this

specimen. (Fig. 1.)

In appearance the Sperm Whale is ungainly and ugly in the extreme,

this being chiefly due to the great height and abrupt truncation of

the enormous muzzle. , Inside the dome-shaped part of the skull is

a huge cavity, which is not the brain cavity as one might suppose,

and which is filled in the living animal with the substance known as

spermaceti. The brain cavity of this beast is surprisingly small.

The lower jaw is very long and slender, its two branches being

united in the middle line for about half their total length.; the teeth

are implanted in the lower jaw in a long groove, partially divided into

sockets by incomplete bony partitions. These teeth are of large

size, and when unworn are pointed and recurved at their tips.

They are composed solely of ivory, and the pulp cavity at their

base remains open for a long period, although generally more or

less completely closed in adult life.

The Sperm Whale is essentially an inhabitant of the open seas.

The distribution of the species extends over all the warmer oceans,

but does not include the Polar seas. It is in the habit of travelling

immense distances, and specimens have been killed in the Atlantic

bearing in their bodies spears that had been fixed there during a

sojourn in the Pacific. Formerly this whale was much hunted in

the Bay of Bengal and around Ceylon, but it is now comparatively

rare in these regions, while its numbers have been greatly diminished

in its favourite haunts in the South Pacific. :

In September, 1894, another large whale was washed ashore at

Ambalangoda, on the south-west coast, about 50 miles south of

Colombo. This specimen was an adult of the Great Indian Fin

Whale (Balenoptera indica). As soon as the information was

received I was despatched to the spot to secure the skeleton. This

monster was also in a decomposed state, and was being lifted by

the waves against the rocks. This proved to be a work of great

difficulty and of some danger, in consequence of the roughness of

the sea and the presence of enormous sharks which swarmed around

the carcase, and in consequence the men were afraid to take the risk.

The first thing I did was to secure the whalebone and the paddles,

but unfortunately I found the right paddle, which was lying

underneath, a little damaged, but the left one was quite perfect. I

54 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

brought into requisition my first experience in cutting the masses of

skin and blubber. At first the men found it very difficult to cut,

but gradually they overcame the difficulty as the sea became calmer.

I am glad to say that I was fortunate in securing the whole skeleton

complete, including even the small rudiments of the hind leg.

The bones were conveyed by double bullock carts to Colombo,

and were stored in the cadjan shed side by side with the Mannar

whale.

Directly the new Director (Dr. Pearson) assumed duties here in

September, 1910, he decided to have this skeleton mounted, and

steps were taken todoso. The mounting of this skeleton has proved

to be the biggest job undertaken at the Museum.

The preliminary work, which was done in the taxidermist’s work-

shop, was carried out in the face of great difficulties owing to the

limited amount of room. (Figure 2 shows a portion of the whale

skeleton during the course of its preparation in the workroom.)

The skeleton of this whale, which measures about 65 feet in

total length, is now suspended from the ceiling of the Mammalian

Gallery. (Hig. 3.) Thus, after lying unmounted for seventeen

years, it now ranks as one of the finest exhibits in the Museum.

In July, 1904, another carcase of a Sperm Whale (Physeter macro-

cephalus) was washed ashore at the village of Aturuwella, about

4 miles from Bentota, on the south-west coast. The skull and a

few vertebre had already been dragged out of the reach of the tide,

and the rest of the body was in a high state of putrefaction.

Another whale of the same species was washed ashore near the

Mount Lavinia Hotel in November, 1904. Dr. Willey and myself

visited both these places, and found that the specimens were not in

a fit state for the Museum.

In August, 1910, a Great Indian Fin Whale was stranded at

Chilaw, on the west coast of Ceylon, drifted thither after the animal

had apparently met with death at the hands of harpooners, as marks

on the body seemed to indicate. The carcase was found near the

mouth of the Deduru-oya in a highly decomposed state. Rough

measurement gave the length-as 66 feet, and a girth of 32 feet in

the thickest part. The two bones of the lower jaw were found on

the shore. They measured 19 feet length in each. The skeleton not

being perfect, and as there was already one perfect skeleton in the

Museum, it was decided not to secure this one.

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ORNITHOLOGICAL NOTES. 55

ORNITHOLOGICAL NOTES.

By G. M. Henry,

Draughtsman and Laboratory Assistant, Colombo Museum.

HESE notes are intended to be a record of distribution, habits,

and remarkable occurrences noted during a seven weeks’

trip which I made in my capacity of Assistant to Dr. Pearson

during the months of August and September, 1911. A short resumé

of the trip may not be out of place here, as it will serve to explain

some of my notes in regard to breeding, &c.

We left Colombo on August 16, travelling by the ss. Lady

McCallum to Batticaloa. After a fortnight’s stay, during which

I had the opportunity of visiting Kaddukkamunai tank, 9 miles

from Batticaloa, we again took steamer to Trincomalee, from

whence we went to Niroddumunai to inspect the Placwna beds of

Tamblegam lake. A week was spent here, and we returned to

Trincomalee for the purpose of investigating the marine fauna, &c.

After another week at Trincomalee, we again embarked for Kanke-

santurai and took train for Jaffna, where we spent another fortnight,

returning to Colombo on October 2.

The outstanding characteristic of the birds shot was the dis-

reputable condition of the plumage preceding moult. Very few of

the specimens were in good plumage. It is probable that had the

trip been made a couple of months later, this list would have been a

considerably longer one. We were just too early to catch the stream

of migrants, chiefly waders, which come over from India in numbers

on the turn of the south-west monsoon. These migrants were just

beginning to arrive when we left Jaffna, in the shape of numbers

‘of Ringed Plover, Sandpipers of sorts, and Little Stints, also Wag-

tails. It will be seen that the notes are of a meagre nature, but this

was unavoidable, as we were not long enough in any one place to

correctly ascertain the precise distribution of species, and in spite

of this I trust that they will not be altogether valueless or without

interest.

Order ACCIPITRES.

Sub-order FaLconss,

Family Falconide.

Sub-Family Accipitrine.

Astur badius (the Indian Goshawk).—One of these birds was shot

at Niroddumunai, and another was shot about a mile down the

Sambore river. Both were in immature plumage.

56 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA,

Sub-family Aquiline.

Halietus leucogaster (the White-bellied Sea Eagle).—This species

is common at Batticaloa. Specimens were also seen at Niroddu-

munai and Trincomalee (Fort Frederick),

Polioctus ichthyetus (the Bar-tailed Fish Eagle)—A specimen

of this bird was shot at Kaddukkamunai (Batticaloa), and another

at a small pond near Kottiar, which it was guarding in company

with its mate.

Haliastur indus (the Brahminy Kite).—Very common every-

where. A pair flew out to the steamer on anchoring in Batticaloa

roads, and gave a very pretty exhibition of clever flight in seizing

offal thrown overboard.

Milvus govinda (the Pariah Kite)—Very common at Jaffna, but

more shy and wary than the former species.

Sub-family Falconine.

Falco peregrinator (the Indian Peregrine or Shahin).—One of these

fine birds was observed at Fort Frederick. It was evidently making

its abode amongst the cliffs and rocks which guard the seaward face

of the promontory, and we had a good view of it whilst we were

rowing round the Saamy rock on a dredging expedition.

Sub-order PANDIONES. ~

Pandion halietus (the Osprey).—A hawk was observed at

Kadukkamunai which had all the appearance of an osprey, but it

would not permit a near-enough approach to make certain by

shooting it.

Order PSITTACI.

Family Psittacide.

Sub-family Paleornine.

Paleornis ewpatrius (the Alexandrine Parrakeet).—Large flocks

of these birds were seen at Batticaloa. They flew in a south-easterly

direction every evening, apparently coming from the head of the

lagoon, and roosted in the palms of the more cultivated areas.

Order PICARIA.

Family Picide.

Sub-family Gecinine.

Brachypternus ceylonus (the Common Red Woodpecker). —

Several woodpeckers of this species were seen at Kottiar, and one

was shot.

Family Capitonide.

Sub-family Megalemine.

Megalema zeylanica (the Brown-headed Barbet).—Common at

Tamblegam.

ORNITHOLOGICAL NOTES. ire

Xantholema rubricapilla (the Ceylon Coppersmith). — Very

common at Batticaloa in the neighbourhood of the resthouse.

Xantholema hemacephala (the Red-breasted Coppersmith).—

One was shot at Kadukkamunai.

Family Cuculide.

Sub-family Phoenicophaine.

Zanclostomus viridirostris (the Green-billed Malcoha).—A specimen

was shot at Kalmunai (Jaffna). It is common about Trincomalee.

Centropus rufipennis (the Common Coucal).—Common at Tamble-

gam, Jaffna, and Kayts.

Family Bucerotide.

Tockus gingalensis (the Ceylon Hornbill)—Seen at Tamblegam.

Family Coraciide.

Sub-family Coraciine.

Coracias indica (the Indian Roller).—This species was seen at

Tamblegam in the jungle, and at Jaffna in paddy fields.

Family Alcedinide.

Sub-family Alcedinine.

Ceryle rudis (the Pied Kingfisher)—Very common at Batticaloa

and Jaffna.

Alcedo bengalensis (the Little Indian Kingfisher)—Common at

Batticaloa, Trincomalee, Kottiar, and Tamblegam.

Sub-family Haleyonine.

Pelargopsis gurial (the Stork-billed Kingfisher)—Fairly common

at Batticaloa. Noticed at Kottiar and Tamblegam.

Halcyon smyrnensis (the White-breasted Kingfisher)—Common at

Batticaloa and Kadukkamunai.

Family Meropide.

Meron: viridis (the Common Indian Bee-eater)—Very common

everywhere. All the specimens noticed were in very ‘‘ dowdy ”

plumage. These birds are especially numerous on the Trincomalee-

Anuradhapura road. Numbers were seen during a walk to Kanniya

from Trincomalee.

Family Cypselide.

Cypselus batassiensis (the Palm Swift)—Very common every-

where, but most so at Batticaloa and Jafina.

Family Caprimulqide.

Sub-family Caprimulgine.

Caprimulgus asiaticus (the Common Indian Nightjar).—A pair

were shot at dusk in a field 2 miles out of Trincomalee on the

Anuradhapura road. They were sitting together on a bare patch of

ground, and were killed with a single cartridge.

I 6(19)11

58 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Order PASSERES.

Family Oriolide.

Oriolus melanocephalus (the Black-headed Oriole)—Common at

Tamblegam. A single immature bird was seen at Batticaloa.

Family Dicruride.

Buchanga atra (the Black Drongo)—Common at Jaffna.

Dissemurus paradiseus (the Racket-tailed Drongo).—A specimen

was obtained on the road to Anuradhapura, about 5 miles from

Trincomalee.

Family Muscicapide.

Terpsiphone paradist (the Paradise Flycatcher).—Several were

seen at Kottiar, all in chestnut plumage.

Family Savicolide. —

Copsychus saularis (the Magpie Robin).—Common everywhere.

Cittocincla macrura (the Long-tailed Robin or Shama).—Common

in the jungle round Trincomalee and Tamblegam.

Thamnobia fulicata (the Black Robin)—Common at Batticaloa

and Trincomalee. At Batticaloa a nest contaiming two fledglings

was found in a hole in the side of a rugged and decomposed block of

cabook which lay on the bank of the Fort moat. In the dried-up

state of the vegetation and the consequent scarcity of insect life it

was difficult to understand how the parents could find food for their

young.

Family Brachypodide.

Sub-family Pycnonotine.

Ixos luteolus (the White-eyebrowed Bulbul) —Common everywhere.

Pycnonotus hemorrhous (the Madras Bulbul) —Common every-

where. =

Family Timaliide.

Sub-family Timaline.

Malacocercus striatus (the Common Babbler).—Very common

everywhere.

Alcippe nigrifrons (the Quaker Thrush)—Common at Batticaloa

and in the jungles round Trincomalee.

Pellorneum fuscicapillum (the Black-capped Quaker Thrush).—

Observed at Tamblegam.

Family Hirundinide.

Hirundo rustica (the Common Swallow).—Was seen at Kayts, and

two were shot at Jaffna.

Family Montacillide.

Limonidromus indicus (the Black-breasted Wagtail)—A pair

were seen at Kayts.

Corydalla rufula (the Common Pipit)—Common everywhere,

ORNITHOLOGICAL NOTES, 59

Family Alaudide.

Pyrrhulauda grisea (the Indian Finch Lark).—Very common at

Jafina, and also observed at Trincomalee. A specimen was shot at

Kalmunai (Jafina).

Family Artamde.

Artamus fuscus (the Ashy Swallow Shrike)—Very common at

Kaddukkamunai and Kottiar. Several were shot.

Family Sturnide.

Acridotheres melanosternus (the Common Mynah).—Very common

at Batticaloa. They were evidently nesting, as several were noticed

emerging from holes in trees.

Order COLUMB4.

Family Columbide.

Turtur suratensis—Common at Kaddukkamunai, Kottiar, and

Tamblegam.

Family Gouride.

Chalcophaps indica (the Bronze-winged Dove).—Very common at

Tamblegam and the jungles round Trincomalee.

Order GALLINAH.

Family Phasianide.

Gallus lafayettii (the Ceylon Jungle Fowl).—Common at Tamble-

gam. Two hens were observed at the turn-off to Kanniya, on the

Trincomalee-Anuradhapura road, cackling most vigorously in the

jungle. I succeeded in approaching within a few yards of them, but

was not able to locate them exactly until they discovered my

presence and dashed off. It almost seemed as though they had each

laid an egg in nests within a couple of yards’ radius and were pro-

claiming the fact in the usual way, but a rapid search failed to reveal

any sign of a nest, and the cackling may have been due to alarm

by a snake, or some such cause.

Family Tetraonide.

Ortygornis pondiceriana (the Gray Partridge) —A pair of these

birds were observed at Kalmunai (Jaffna). They flew out of a clump

of cacti near the seabeach, and one (a male) was shot.

Family Tinamide.

Turnix taigoor (the Bustard Quail).—A female specimen was shot

in some low scrub near the sea at Kayts.

60 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Order GRALL.

Family Scolopacide.

Tringoides hypoleucus (the Common Sandpiper).—Several were

shot at Batticaloa, where they were evidently just arriving from

India on their migration south. One was wounded far out over the

water, into which it fell. It promptly commenced swimming away

from the shore against a moderate breeze at quite an appreciable

speed. I gave it up as a lost bird and began to walk away, but as

soon as I had gone a short distance I noticed that it was swimming

back to land. It walked ashore, and I captured it.

Tringa minuta (the Little Stint)—A specimen was shot at Kadduk-

kamunai, and several were obtained at Jaffna, where they were

common, flying in small flocks. After they had been shot at once

or twice they became very wary, and would not permit one to

approach within gunshot.

Numenius lineatus (the Eastern Curlew).—Very common at

Jaffna, where the shallow sandbanks and mud flats of the lagoon |

form a fine hunting ground for them and many other waders.

Family Parride.

Hydrophasianus chirurgus (the Water Pheasant).—Very common

on Kaddukkamunai tank.

Family Charadriide.

Sub-family Himantopodine.

Himantopus candidus (the Stilt Plover)—Several of these birds

were seen at Kaddukkamunai tank.

Sub-family Charadriine.

Charadrius fulvus (the Asiatic Golden Plover).—Seen in small

flocks at Jaffna.

Aigialitis curonica (the Lesser Ringed Plover). — Common at

Jaffna and Kayts. Several specimens were obtained.

Aigialitis jerdom (Jerdon’s Ringed Plover).—Very common at

Jaffna and Kayts. Several specimens were shot.

Sub-family Vanelline.

Lobivanellus indicus (the Red-wattled Lapwing). —_Very common

at Kaddukkamunai and Kottiar. A few were seen on the green at

Batticaloa,

Family @dicnemide.

Sub-family Gedicnemine.

Edicnemus scolopax (the Stone Plover).—A single specimen of

this species was seen at Kottiar.

Family Glareolide.

Glareola orientalis (the Eastern Swallow Plover).—A specimen of

this species was shot at Kaddukkamunai. It was a female in a state

of moult.

ORNITHOLOGICAL NOTES. 61

Order GAVI.

Family Laride.

Sub-family Sternine.

Sterna media (the Lesser-crested Tern).—Three of these birds

were shot at Trincomalee. The stomachs of two of them were

distended with fish of the genus Caranx up to 3 or 4 inches in

length. Anumber of cestodes were found in the gut of one of them.

On the voyage to Batticaloa, between the Great and Little Basses,

we passed a number of these birds (or possibly the larger species,

Sterna bergii). I noticed one of them settle on the water for a few

moments and rest, notwithstanding the comparative choppiness of

the sea.

Sterna anglica (the Gull-billed Tern).—Two of these birds were

shot at Jaffna. One was in winter plumage, and the other was in

semi-breeding plumage, having the black crown and nuchal crest.

Family Procellariide.

Oceanites oceanicus (?).—A number of Storm Petrels were observed

while on the voyage to Batticaloa. They were black in colour, with

a white band round the base of the tail. I had a good look at them

with a telescope. They flew about astern of the ship, flitting close

to the water and disappearing over the wave crests.

Order HERODIONES.

Family Ardeide.

Ardea purpurea (the Purple Heron).—Several were seen at Batti-

caloa and Kaddukkamunai.

Herodias alba (the Large White Egret)—Common at Batticaloa

and Kaddukkamunai.

Herodias intermedia (the Lesser White Egret). — Common at

Batticaloa and Tamblegam. Large colonies of this and the two

preceding species live in the mangrove swamps on the western and

south sides of Buffalo Island (Batticaloa), and also on other islands

in the lagoon.

Ardeola grayi (the Pond Heron).—Very common everywhere.

Butorides javanica (the Little Green Heron).—Common at Batti-

caloa and Jafina. A specimen in beautiful plumage was shot at

Jafina.

Order STEGANOPODES.

Family Pelecanide.

Phalacrocorax pygmeus (the Little Cormorant)—Very common

at Batticaloa. One specimen was shot. Its stomach contained

several small gobies and a number of prawns.

Plotus melanogaster (the Darter or Snakebird)—Very common on

Kaddukkamunai tank. When disturbed they fly high in the air.

and look just like some mythical winged snake.

62 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

FISHES OF BATTICALOA, TRINCOMALEE, AND JAFFNA.

By. Grorce M. Henry,

Draughtsman and Laboratory Assistant, Colombo Museum.

HE following fishes were collected at Batticaloa, Trincomalee,

and Jafina during a trip in August and September, 1911 :—

Trygon uarnak.—A specimen of this ray was obtained at Tamble-

gam and another at Kayts.

Torpedo marmorata.—A young specimen was captured in a rock

pool at Trincomalee, and three mature specimens were obtained

at Jafina.

Plotosus arab.—Several specimens were taken at Jaffna.

Clupea kanagurta.—Specimens were obtained at Batticaloa.

Clupea fimbriata.—Obtained at Batticaloa.

Chatessus nasus.—Common at Batticaloa.

Engraulis hamiltonit.—Obtained at Batticaloa.

Elops saurus.—One specimen was obtained at Batticaloa. This

and the foregoing Clupeoid fishes were taken by the fishermen in the

more saline water near the mouth of the lagoon. They appear to

hold an important place among the food fishes of Batticaloa.

Belone choram.—A specimen was obtained at Kayts.

Serranus pantherinus.—A specimen was obtained from fishermen,

who had caught it near the mouth of the lagoon.

Serranus fasciatus, var. variolosus.—One specimen was taken at

Jafina.

Lutjanus marginatus.—Obtained at Batticaloa.

Lutjanus bohar.—Obtained at Trincomalee.

Lutjanus fulvus.—Obtained at Trincomalee.

Lutjanus quinquelinearis.—Obtained at Trincomalee.

Apogon auritus.—Common in the Jafina lagoon.

Apogon sangiensis.—A single specimen was taken in the Jaffna

lagoon.

Therapon quadrilineatus.—Dredged in the Jafina lagoon.

Scolopsis bimaculatus.—Obtained at Trincomalee.

Gerres filamentosus.—Common in the Batticaloa lagoon.

Gerres poeti.—Common at Batticaloa. —

Chetodon vagabundus, var. pictus.—One specimen was obtained

at Batticaloa and another at Trincomalee.

Chetodon auriga, var. setifer.—Obtained at Trincomalee.

Holacanthus xanthurus.—Obtained at Batticaloa.

Upeneus macronema.—Obtained at Trincomalee.

FISHES OF BATTICALOA, TRINCOMALEE, AND JAFFNA,. 63

Lethrinus miniatus.—Obtained at Trincomalee.

Lethrinus ramak.—Obtained at Jaffna.

Lethrinus, sp. — Taken at Jaffna. Too young for satisfactory

identification.

Chrysophrys berda.—A single specimen was obtained from fisher-

men at Batticaloa.

Amblyapistus macracanthus.—One specimen was taken in the

dredge at Trincomalee.

Amblyapistus tenianotus.—A specimen was captured at Jaffna.

Pelor didactylum.—One specimen was dredged at Jaffna.

Teuthis java.—Very common at Batticaloa. Found at Jaffna.

Teuthis vermiculata.—Common at Batticaloa.

Teuthis oramin. — Common at Batticaloa and Jaffna. These

Teuthide are among the chief food fishes at Batticaloa. Numbers

are caught by means of ingenious wicker traps, the bait being a

green flocculent seaweed, on which these fish feed. Various nets

are also used to capture them.

Holocentrum caudimaculatum. — A specimen was obtained at

Kayts. :

Acanthurus matoides.—Found at Batticaloa.

Caranx jarra.—Obtained at Batticaloa.

Equula edentula.—Very common at Batticaloa. This species is

captured in large numbers along with Gerres, spp., and other small

silvery fish. A specimen which was taken at night was highly

luminous in the region of the stomach and gills. This fact is pro-

bably accounted for by the fish having eaten luminous plankton

organisms.

Batrachus grunniens.—A pair were dredged in Jafina lagoon.

Platycephalus tuberculatus.—Common at Jafina.

Pegasus natans.—A specimen of this species was captured at

- Jaffna. Day does not record this species from Indian waters.

Gobius criniger.—Obtained at Jafina.

Gobius cyanomos.—Taken at Jaffna.

Periopthalmus schlosseri.—Common at Batticaloa.

Petroscirtes variabilis.—Very common at Jaffna.

Petroscirtes lienardi.—Found at Jaffna. These Petroscirtes live

amongst the large-leafed Zostera, which grows abundantly in the

lagoon.

Mugil eur.—Common at Batticaloa near the mouth of the lagoon.

Fistularia serrata.—A specimen of this species was captured in a

rock pool at Trincomalee. The peculiarity about it was that it had

been seen by a party some evenings before its capture, when it was

brilliantly luminous. The rock pool was quite closed against the

sea, and depended for its water supply on occasional extra-heavy

. waves, so that there appears to be no doubt that Fistularia has the

power of luminosity. The fish changedits colour repeatedly whilst

being chased about, becoming either light greenish gray or dark

64 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

gray with distinct brown bands. It was quite a small specimen,

being about 9 inches long.

Amphiprion sebe.—A specimen of this fish was taken in the sea

off Kalmunai, Jafina.

Tetradrachmum trimaculatum.—Obtained at Trincomalee.

Glyphidodon cochinensis.—A fish was taken at Jaffna answering

perfectly to Day’s description of this species, except in the colour,

which in our formalin specimen is yellowish gray and not purplish

black.

Chilinus trilobatus.—A specimen was obtained at Trincomalee.

Pseudoscarus dussumiert.—Common at Trincomalee.

Pseudoscarus bataviensis.—Obtained at Trincomalee. |

Etroplus suratensis.—Obtained at Batticaloa. Common at Jaffna.

Pseudorhombus arsius.—Taken at Jafina.

Gastrotokeus biaculeatus.—Very common at Jaffna. Many of the

males taken were ovigerous, and the eggs were in various stages of

development, some being about to hatch.

Corythroichthys conspicillatus. — Common at Jafina. Several

ovigerous males were taken.

Syngnathus spicifer.—Several specimens were obtained at Jafina.

They appear to belong to the variety Djarong, Bleek.

Hippocampus, spp.—Several seahorses were captured at Jafina.

They apparently belong to two species.

Triacanthus brevirostris.—Common at Batticaloa. One or two

were obtained at Jafina.

Monacanthus cherocephalus.—Very common at Jafina.

Ostracion cornutus.—Young specimens about an inch long were

very common at Jaffna. At this early stage the body is almost

as broad and deep as it is long. The tail appears to be used for

steering purposes only, propulsion being effected by means of the

dorsal and pectoral fins.

Tetrodon hispidus.—The young of this species, from 2 to 3 inches

long, were common in Jafina lagoon.

Tetrodon immaculatus.—Young common in Jafina lagoon.

Tropidichthys margaritatus. — A specimen of this species was

captured in a rock pool at Trincomalee referred to in the note on

Fistularia serrata on page 63.

as —_ a

NOTES. 65

NOTES.

1. Tipulide from Ceylon.—In the ‘‘ Annals and Magazine of

Natural History ” for July,* Mr. F. W. Edwards has a small paper on

the above group. The insects described in this paper belong to the

three following collections :—

(1) Mr. E. E. Green’s collection made between 1888 and 1897.

(2) Lieut.-Col. J. W. Yerbury’s collection made in 1890-92.

- (3) Mr. T. Bainbrigge Fletcher’s collection made in 1907-8. ,

Sixteen species are described, of which eight are new :—

Thrypticomyia saltens, Dol. Madulsima.

Thrypticomyia longivena, sp.n. Dondra.

Geranomyia fletcheri, sp.n. Madulsima.

Libnotes peciloptera, O.-S. Pundalu-oya.

Teucholabis cyanea, sp.n. Madulsima, Bentota.

Styringomyia ceylonica, sp.n. Weligama.

Trentepohlia trentepohlii, Wied. Galle, Weligama, Tamblegam.

Trentepohlia pennipes, O.-S. Trincomalee, Pundalu-oya.

Conosia irrorata, Wied. Dondra, Galle, Bentota.

Eriocera crystalloptera, O.-S. Madulsima, Pundalu-oya, Haputale.

Eriocera humberti, O.-S. Pundalu-oya.

Eriocera ctenophoroides, sp.n. Kandy, Kottawa, Pelmadulla.

Eriocera albonotata, Lw. Kandy, Passara, Pelmadulla, Trinco-

malee, Pundalu-oya, Diyatalawa. —

Eriocera scutellata, sp.n. Pundalu-oya.

Eriocera tuberculifera, sp.n. Pundalu-oya.

Eriocera fusca, sp.n. Pundalu-oya.

[Ep.]

2. Note on the Arboreal Habits of the Kabaragoya (‘‘ Varanus

salvator ’’) and the Talagoya (‘‘V.bengalensis” ).—In Spolia Zeylanica,

Vol. VI., Part XXI., March, 1909, p. 49, Dr. Willey has a note

to the effect that “ old talagoyas (V. bengalensis) and young kabara-

goyas(V.salvator) ascend trees only under exceptional circumstances.”

In the Notes of Vol. VI., Part XXIII., December, 1909, p. 131,

Mr. KE. E. Green records a case where a fairly large specimen of V.

salvator was seen to run up a jak tree, and was captured at a height of

20 feet from the ground. This might also appear to be a case of

exceptional circumstances. But a visit to Bentota lagoon by two

friends and myself on July 2, 1911, appears to show that the full-

grown kabaragoya isin the habit of basking on the branches of trees

* F. W. Edwards: ‘‘ Onsome Tipulide (Limoniine) from Ceylon in the

British Museum Collection, with Descriptions of Eight New Species.’’—Ann.

Mag. Nat. Hist. (8), Vol. VIII., No. 43, July, 1911, pp. 58-67

K | 6(19)11

66 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA,

overhanging water, and also that these animals are particularly

tame when they are in the water. As we paddled in a canoe round

the shores of the lagoon on the west side we were able to approach

within 6 or 8 feet of several fair-sized specimens, which were

resting on partially submerged stumps in the shallow water. They

remained in most cases quite motionless, but keeping their eyes

fixed on us as we passed or stopped to examine them. One large

specimen was seen to be resting (possibly asleep) lengthwise along

the branch of a tree overhanging the water, at a height of 10 or

12 feet. We tried to disturb it and see it move along the branch,

but it was some time before we succeeded. With regard to talagoyas,

there have been for some years in the Government Training College

compound in Colombo several specimens, which I have observed

from time to time during the last two years. When I first noticed

them there were three, one large and two smaller. All these I have

seen searching the trunks of trees (especially the ‘‘ mére de cacao’)

to a height of 12 or 14 feet, and they probably went higher.

When occasionally chased by the dogs, they moved rapidly along

the ground with a very “‘ waddling ”’ gait and escaped up the nearest

tree or into a drain. Cc. T. SYMONS.

3. Note on Arrival of Migrant Birds in Colombo.—It may be of

interest to those who are observers of bird life in Ceylon to have a

list of observations of the first appearances in Colombo of migrant

birds for a number of years. No pretence is made of stating that

this list is in any way standard. It is probable that the birds arrived

several days before they were observed by us, and it is very possible

that other observers will be able to supply more accurate dates.

But as we believe no list has yet been published, it seemed advisable

to make a start and stimulate others to make any corrections

necessary. As will be seen, the list is by no means complete ; where

no date is inserted no observation was made, sometimes owing

to the absence of the observers from the Island :—

Name of Bird. 1906. |1907. |1908. |1909. | 1910. i911. Remarks.

Common Swallow

(H. rustica) . «| 16/11] 25/10] 25/10) 9/10) 6/10, 8/10) On Golf Links

Brown Flycatcher ..| —| — | — | — {11/10,16/10) In| Cinnamon

Gardens

Wagtail .. . -| 12/10} 10/10) 12/10 14/10, 9/10 30/9 | On Golf Links

Asiatic Golden Plover) — | — | — | —|] 8/10 3/9 | On Racecourse

Brown Shrike --| — | 9/10) -— — | 23/10 8/10 _

Richard’s Pipit .-| — |19/10) —} — | — | [6/2] —

Banded Crake heh = | LS a ere =

It would be of considerable interest to have lists from other parts

of the Island. CG. T. SYMONS.

W. A. CAVE.

NOTES. } 67

4. Vubration of the Tails of Snakes—In a recent Note (Spolia

Zeylanica, Vol. VII., Part XXVIII., p. 207) Mr. Abercromby calls

attention to the habit of vibrating the tail indulged in by Lachesis

trigonocephalus. In this it is not alone, and the action has often

been noticed in the case of L. gramineus ; amongst recent authors,

I think that Gadow calls attention to it in his book on ‘‘ Mexico,”

though the volume is not available here to verify the impression.

Gunther (Rept. Brit. India, p. 384) also notes that “they ar

frequently not perceived until they prepare to dart, vibrating

the tail and uttering a faint hissing sound.” In this connection

it is of interest to observe that the snakes of this genus usually

have the tail modified in some special way, either brightly

coloured or peculiarly shaped. JL. gramineus, indeed, derives one of

its synonyms (erythrurus) from the colour of its tail, the specimen

figured by Fayrer (Thanat. Brit. India, Pl. XIV.) belonging to this

form, whilst in the case of the American L. mutus the tail terminates —

in a long, thin spine, which, as Dittmars (Rept. of the World, p. 339)

notes, suggests an ancestral relationship to the rattlesnakes.

It is however a fact, as Mr. Abercromby remarks, that other

snakes, in nowise related to the Pit Vipers, share this peculiarity

of vibrating the tail. Quite lately my mali brought in a specimen

of Dipsadomorphus trigonatus which he had caught whilst clipping a

hedge—a favourite haunt of this species ; when placed on a bush

in a Vivarium, the snake struck out valiantly at anything that

approached, at the same time vibrating its tail rapidly against a

flat leaf and producing quite a sharp rattling noise. A few months

ago I noticed the same thing in a specimen of Lycodon aulicus in

one of my cages; when annoyed and on the defensive it repeatedly

quivered its tail very rapidly, so as to produce a distinct rattling

against the floor of its cage.

T. BAINBRIGGE FLETCHER.

5. On ‘* Megaderma lyra.” —Mr. Green’s colony of Megaderma lyra

(see Spolia Zeylanica, Vol. VII., Part XXVIII., p. 216) is possibly

an abnormally blood-thirsty one. Last year I had frequent

opportunities of observing this bat, as the bungalow in which I was

living had several empty rooms, and the bats used to fly in through

the open windows and suspend themselves from punkahs, &c., to

eat their prey. It is noteworthy that each bat has what is presum-

ably its own favourite perch, to which it brings all its larger prey

to eat. Inspection of the remains after the bats had been feeding

showed that their food had been almost entirely large Lepidoptera—

mostly Sphingids and large Noctuids, amongst which Ophideres

fullonica appeared a great favourite; I saw no remains whatever of

any Vertebrates. The bats were quite bold, and often flew around

the lamps in the verandah catching moths in the air or from off the

68 SPOLIA ZEYLANIOA.

ceiling. I may add that I caught a good number of the bats and

definitely identified them as Megaderma lyra; like Mr. Green’s

specimens, they were all swarming with small winged flies, some of

which were sent to Europe for identification, but I have heard

nothing further of them. Very similar, if not identical, winged flies

were found by me on bats caught at Galle, but these latter bats

were, I think, Rhinolophus affinis.

T. BAINBRIGGE FLETCHER.

6. The Bell at Kayman’s Gate—On a recent visit to Jayawardhana

Kotte, the Cotta of to-day, I was informed that the bell at Kayman’s

Gate in the Pettah was removed from the site of the Portuguese

Church close to where had once stood the palace of Dharmapala.

A few mornings back I examined the bell in question, and from

- where I was in the street an inscription was visible. A ladder was

obtained from the Municipal Office, and a Fiscal’s peon, boldly

daring, scaled the spiked enclosure and climbed as far as he could

with the help of the shaky ladder up the side of the belfry. From

the disjointed letters which he deciphered from his precarious position

I make out the legend, which is in two lines, to be as follows :—

AVE GRATIA PLENA DOMINUS

TECUM BENEDICTA TU INMULIERS

My informant then was correct. The bell is a Portuguese one,

and I hope some enthusiast of the Dutch Reformed Church of

Wolvendahl, whose property I understand the bell now is, will

examine it with care to ascertain if it bears any date.

P. E. PIERIS.

7. The Growth of Marine Organisms in Colombo Harbour.—In a

letter which I received in September, 1911, from Capt. J. A. Legge,

Master Attendant, Colombo, the following interesting communica-

tion was made :—‘ When Dr. Chalmers was appointed to investigate

the sanitary conditions of Colombo, he made a study of the harbour,

and found that whilst the Teredo worm destroyed timber in most of

the harbour area, it hardly touched the timber on the passenger

jetty or south shore of the harbour. This he attributed to the want

of scour or circulation of drainage matter at the south end of the

harbour resulting in the destruction of marine life. The pilot

launches, tugs, and other vessels of every department used to require

cleaning about twice a year only. After the new arm of the Break-

water had been extended an appreciable distance, and particularly

early this year, it was noticed that the current running out of the

harbour at the south entrance had increased markedly in force, so

much so that it used to sweep the divers off their work and make

their work much more difficult. Synchronizing with this the har-

bour has become cleaner and cleaner-during the last two years, and

the marine growth on the craft lying off my boat-house has been’

NOTES. 69

excessive. As much grows now in six weeks as grew in six months

four years ago. The passenger jetty is no longer a Buide, as the

timbering has largely been replaced by ferro-concrete.”’

Along with Captain Legge I examined a pilot launch, which hind

been hauled up for cleaning on the Master Attendant’s slip. The

hull was thickly encrusted with countless numbers of barnacles and

huge masses of white calcareous tubes containing Polychete worms.

I understand that this fouling represented a growth of about two

months. . [Ep.]

8. Composition of Ancient Bronze from Polonnaruwa. —I give

below the result of an analysis of a fragment of a bronze begging-

bowl, which was given to me for the purpose by the Director of the

Colombo Museum early in 1911. The bowl was unearthed at Polon-

naruwa some years ago, and is supposed to belong to the twelfth

century. The analysis was made in conjunction with Mr. Wallace,

Instructor in Analysis at the University of Pennsylvania.

Owing to the metal on the bow! being very thin, much corroded,

and covered with a scale of oxide and carbonate copper, it was

difficult to get a sample for trial entirely free from this coating. So

that if the analysis does not foot up to 100, it is probably due to the

oxygen and carbon and in the coating not being estimated. The

result we have obtained is as follows :-—

Per Cent.

Copper 9. 4, ae 4p 77° 46

Tin nee ae ae 19°63

Lead = PA we “19

Cobalt Be ee ie °43

Traces of Iron and Zinc.

UT OF

One would have looked for almost pure copper in a bow! which had

to be hammered up from a sheet, which must be soft and yielding,

not hard and brittle. Possibly this bowl was cast, a matter difficult

to tell owing to the thinness of the metal and the deeply corroded

surfaces. The amount of tin is rather larger than usual. Ten per

cent. is the usual amount required to make a true bronze and give

hardness to the metal. The large percentage of tin may be owing to

the fact that that metal could be obtained in India more easily than

in some countries like Egypt, where it was more sparingly used. Tin

was doubtless used in this alloy to give hardness and to resist the wear

and tear. The presence of cobalt is rather unusual, and may be

due to its presence in the copper ore from which the bronze was

made. The comparison of analyses of different bronzes of ancient

races, used for making tools, ornaments, arms, and utensils, indicates

to some extent their knowledge of alloys, and my investigations have

this end in view. An analysis of bronze from Anuradhapura_or

from any other ancient site in 1. Ceylon would be very interesting if a

specimen could be obtained. ~“@&~- BRINTON PHILLIPS,

70 SPOLIA ZEYLANIOA.

9. Notes on the Food of the Jackal (‘‘ Canis aureus’) and that of

the Talagoya (‘‘Varanus bengalensis”’).—During the inspection of

Lake Tamblegam in August last a jackal was shot in the jungle on

the shore of the lake, about 2 miles from Niroddymunai, along the

Trincomalee road. Its stomach was distended with what turned

out to be a huge mass of winged termites. This mass was taken,

at first, to be a quantity of weed, and was deposited in the compound

as such, but on examining it when dry it was seen to be nothing but

termites. There had been a lot of rain two or three days previously,

and numbers of termites were to be seen flying about in consequence.

A specimen of Varanus bengalensis was captured and opened. Its

stomach contained a large quantity of scorpion-spiders, termites,

and a single black scorpion of rather small dimensions. There were

a number of nematodes in the gut. G. M. HENRY.

10. Spur Fowls breeding in Captivity.—There appears to have

been a little surprise among a few persons who are interested in

keeping birds that I should have been able to keep a pair of

spur fowls in captivity for over three years, and further, that they

should breed in captivity. Some letters appeared in the ‘‘ Ceylon

Independent ” about this, and I think the circumstances are of

sufficient interest to be put on record in Spolia Zeylanica.

The birds were given to me by Mr. L. B. Goonatilleke of Wattala

over three years ago (since the letters appeared in the papers I

have seen Mr. Goonatilleke, and he tells me it is more than four

years ago). As I had no exact dates I put three years, knowing

I had had them over that time. The hen bird has laid three eggs

in all—the first egg I took no notice of ; the second egg I put under

a bantam fowl to hatch, and this was killed by the hen when partly

out of the shell; the third egg was laid about seven or eight days

before the hen sat. This was hatched out, and the chicken lived

five days, when it unfortunately got into a tin of water and was

drowned. The birds have been caged up in a place 4 feet by 2

feet on sandy ground. I have never once cleaned them out, and I

attribute this in some measure to the birds getting their natural

food from under the garden weeds, mixed up as they are with mixed

canary seed and paddy. I think the whole place must be alive with

small insects. H. STEVENTON.

Note.—I have made inquiries and find that no one seems to know

of any instances of spur fowls breeding in captivity. Mr. Fernando,

the Museum Taxidermist, says: ‘‘ We had a pair of these birds in the

Museum aviary for over two and a half years, and they were very

tame. I have seen the pair courting, and very likely eggs would

have been laid had it not been that a rusty spotted cat got in and

killed the hen bird and three teal. The male bird died a few days

later.’ This particular rusty spotted cat now helps to adorn. i

Mammalian Gallery of the Museum !—[Ep.] -

NOTES. 71

ll. Note on the Habitat of ‘‘ Ramcia inepta,” Annandale.—When

I found the larve last year which have been described by

Dr. Annandale as Ramcia inepta,* they were in the marsh, always

associated with a red flocculent matter made up of vegetable débris,

a few diatoms, and a closterium in large numbers. The larve were

sluggish compared to those of Culex, but when they did move they

moved with a quick jerking motion. The pupe were markedly

sluggish, and stayed at the surface of the water, and were to all

appearances dead. From the numbers I found on the first occasion

I should think the fly is not rare. I regret I did not at that time

collect more material, but not being an entomologist I was not

aware that the larve, though they struck me as unlike anything

I knew, were unusual. A. J. MacDOUGALL.

12. Note on a Web-spinning Psocid—Web- or silk-spinning by

larval insects is of very common occurrence, and is employed by

representatives of at least five of the nine main orders of insects.

The cocoons of Lepidoptera and Hymenoptera are instances in point.

But the power of producing silken webs is extremely rare amongst

adult winged insects, and appears to be confined to certain species

of the lower and more archaic families of the order Neuroptera.

The Embide, for instance, are provided with spinning organs on

the front feet, and construct silken galleries in moss and under

stones. Another family in which this phenomenon occurs is

the Psocide—minute soft-bodied (often apterous) insects, certain

species of which are known as ‘‘ book-lice.” Some species of

Psocide construct silken coverings for their eggs, others live in

colonies beneath a more or less elaborate web, which might easily be

mistaken for the work of a spider. The accompanying photograph

(for which I am indebted to Major C. H. Ward) represents part of an

orange tree in the Royal Botanic Gardens, every branch of which

has been profusely covered with a fine and intricate web of this

nature. The character of the web is strongly suggestive of a snare,

but I have been unable to find any proof of this in the form of

captured insects upon which the Psocids might be feeding. It is

more probably constructed for protection, though it does not appéar

to be completely effective for this purpose, as I have found the webs

frequented by a small predatory Hemipteron (Ploiariola polita),

which appears to be preying upon the Psocids.t

Mr. J. C. F. Fryer has been studying the habits of this insect, and

finds that the silk is produced by individuals of all stages of growth.

* N. Annandale: ‘* A New Genus of Short-beaked Gnats from Ceylon.” —

Spolia Zeylanica, Vol. VII., Part XX VIIL., p. 187.

In addition to the Reduviid, the Psocus insects are attacked and preyed

upon by the orange-red larve of a species of Thrips.

72 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

The orifice of the gland is apparently connected with the mouth

parts, the filament being emitted from the mouth and carried: back

between the legs of the insect. There seems to be little or no method

in their work. The insects wander about, leaving a trail of silk

behind them. No definite galleries or runs are constructed, the

web being apparently a shapeless tangle of fine threads, in the inter-

stices of which the insects move about. In the daytime they are

usually found resting upon the surface of the bark (beneath the web),

Web-spinning Psocid (Archipsochus sp.).

Upper figure—Winged female x 26.

Lower figure—Micropterous female x 26.

where they probably feed upon minute alge and moulds. Both fully

winged and micropterus forms of the adult female occur. In the

accompanying illustration the upper figure shows the macropterous

and the lower one the micropterous form. .

Dr. Gunther Enderlein has recently published a description of

an Kast African species of Archipsocus (A. textor) which has very

similar habits. From his figure of the wing-venation it is probable

that our Ceylonese insect is a representative of the same genus.

KE. ERNEST GREEN. |

Web of a Psocid on an Orange tree.

CEYLON NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 73

THE CEYLON NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

By C. T. Symons, B.A. (Oxon.), F.R.GS.

a a country like Ceylon, where the prosperity of the inhabitants

depends, not so much upon manufactures, as usually under-

stood, but upon the natural products of the land in the way of

vegetable produce and minerals, and where practically every person

is brought closely in contact with striking natural objects and

phenomena, the need for the study of Natural History is setf-evident.

This statement is meant to apply to the ordinary individual, and does

not in any way refer to the organized staff of experts, which must

naturally be attached to any properly-conducted industry which

depends upon natural products. It is most probable that every one

has at some time or other in his life come across some natural object

or phenomenon which has puzzled him, and made him wish to

know the why and the wherefore of the occurrence. Perhaps he

has noticed the coming of some unusual bird into his compound,

and would like to know why and whence it has come; perhaps

he has been struck by the peculiar growth of plants in some particular

district, or the occurrence of certain mineral deposits in certain

definite places, and would like to trace them elsewhere or know

why they occur in that particular way; perhaps he has been

amazed at the extraordinary numbers of butterflies in particular

spots, or at their concerted movements in hundreds and thousands

in particular directions at certain times of the year, and would like

to trace out the reason of the phenomenon. These and many other

- instances will probably have occurred to every reader. Nature

appears to be always throwing questions in our way, and to be

tempting us to find answers to them. Such answers for the

individual must be gained in one of two ways. The one alternative

is solitary study with the help of books, which, so far as Ceylon

natural objects are concerned, are few and far between, and further-

more expensive. This method pre-supposes a very strong mind in

the observer, who will persevere, in spite of the inevitable difficulties

in the way of individual effort. The second alternative is the

concerted working of those who have been trained to know, or of

those who have been experienced, with those who are anxious to

know, so that the accumulated knowledge of the few may be

available for the many, and the observations of the many may add

to the general stock of knowledge.

It is with this latter aim in view that the Ceylon Natural History

Society has been inaugurated. Its headquarters are at the Colombo

Museum. Its rules state that it has as its object the promotion of

L 6(2)12

74 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

the study of Natural History, more especially in the branches of

Botany, Zoology, and Geology, and the accumulation of such

observations as will lead to a more complete knowledge of the

Natural History of the Island. Those who were instrumental in

convening the inaugural meeting were of opinion that there was a

real need for such a society in Ceylon, and that it would bring

together a large number of individuals who were interested in the

subject, and who had made valuable observations in their own

fields, but who were perhaps diffident about approaching on the

subject those whom they regarded as experts, and of bringing them

in touch with those who were only too ready to give the results

of their training and experience. The isolated individual is always

at a disadvantage, more especially in such a subject as Natural

History, where accumulated data are of such great value, and

where an ounce of personal advice is worth a ton of information

from such books as are available, or comprehensible to the untrained

observer ; and further the trained expert, who gives his life’s work to

the study, is also at a disadvantage, because he realizes the necessity

for many observations and much work, more than can possibly be

accomplished by the few.

In the past, the organized study of Natural History in Ceylon has

been necessarily carried on by those who were definitely appointed

by Government for special work, or by those who were sufficiently

keen to surmount the initial difficulties of individual work. In the

history of the subject it is undoubtedly true that much of the best

work has been done by the amateur, who has had his interest aroused

by some natural phenomenon and has been thus led on to the

definite study of some branch of Natural History. But in many

cases where the individual has not become pre-eminent, or where he

has not been in touch with the other workers in the same branch,

his observations have been lost to the world at large. In some

cases the observer may be sufficiently aroused to write to the daily

papers on the subject of some observation; but no permanent

record is thereby made in scientific literature, and most probably

the results of the work are lost, so far as future workers are concerned.

The Ceylon Natural History Society will provide an instrument

whereby such an occurrence is unlikely. Although at the outset it is

not the intention of the Society to publish its own periodical, members

will be able to lay their observations before the rest of the members of

the Society, and, further, will be encouraged to record their work in

the pages of Spolia Zeylanica, at present the only local publication

dealing with the subject. As soon as the Society is in a position to

do so, it will produce its own periodical, which it is hoped will take

its place amongst the recognized literature of the subject.

At such an early stage any Society must be in the position of an

infant, and must not attempt anything which is liable to impair its

strength in the future. But, with such encouragement as the

CEYLON NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 75

Society has had by the acceptance of the position of Patron by

His Excellency Sir Henry McCallum, and of President by Sir Hugh

Clifford, and by the readiness with which the experts have come

forward with offers of service, it is only reasonable to expect that

the period of infancy will be a very short one so far as actual power

is concerned. There are most probably a very large number of

persons who, if they are not actually active in the study of Natural

History, are ready to join and to have their interest aroused.

There is also a large number of persons who hesitate because of the

usual expense involved in joining any Society, and because they feel

that, though keen, they have no expert knowledge. These may be

relieved to know that the subscription to the Society has been

fixed at a very low figure, which will hold good until a magazine is

published, or even after then, if sufficient funds are available, and

which will enable all who are interested to join, and, further, to

know that it is one of the objects of the Society to publish, as soon

as possible, a series of booklets dealing with natural objects in a

simple way such as will enable the beginner to gain a grasp of the

subject and to identify his specimens.

Membership is open to anyone who is interested in the study of

Natural History. A communication addressed to the Honorary

Secretaries will procure further information on the subject, if

necessary. In Ceylon there must be a very large number of persons

who are qualified for admission, and the work which can be done.

by the Society will largely depend upon the number, and also the

activity, of its members.

It is proposed to hold meetings at convenient intervals in Colombo

or in some other suitable centre, at which members will be able to

make communications or exhibit specimens, and at which lectures

will be given by members from time to time. These meetings will

enable workers in particular branches of Natural History to get in

touch individually with others who are working in the same branches.

Nature lies around us in this Island in some of its most pleasant

aspects, and must impress itself even upon the most unobservant.

With the seashore, the low-lying land around the coast, the central

range of uplands, the jungle of various types, and the drier districts

in the north, we have in Ceylon plenty of variety in a small compass,

plenty to keep the worker busy wherever he may be. And the

more general diffusion of the knowledge of Natural History must

lead to a sounder outlook on life, and indirectly to the greater

prosperity of the Island.

76 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

THE PIONEERS OF CEYLON NATURAL HISTORY.*

By E. Ernest GREEN.

T this first meeting since the inauguration of our Society, it

would seem appropriate to give a short account of the

progress of Natural History, in connection with Ceylon, since the

European occupation of the Island, and of the persons who have

done most to further our knowledge of the subject.

In the earlier days, when scientific literature was neither so

abundant nor so far reaching as it now is, all knowledge of the Natural

History of the country had, perforce, to be gained entirely at first

hand. At the present day, although a vast amount of original

work still remains to be done, we have the very great advantage of

solid stepping-stones laid down by former workers, and it should

be the aim of this Society to add further landmarks for the benefit

of future students.

In the present Paper I propose to review very briefly some of

those workers and their work, as far as possible, in chronological

order. I am conscious that there must be many omissions in my

roll of names ; but it has been impossible, in the short time available

for the preparation of this account, to make an exhaustive search

amongst the old records, which alone can supply the necessary

information. It is not my intention to refer to the writings of

scientists who have never been resident in or even visited Ceylon,

useful and important though they are. I shall confine my remarks

as much as possible to the work of those lovers of nature who, in

the midst of other and widely different occupations, have found

pleasure in studying the natural objects that have surrounded them.

It has always been a matter of wonder to me that such a large

percentage of the inhabitants of this country—or even of the world—

can go through life without any interest in or desire for a more

intimate knowledge of the teeming life around them. Up till quite

recent times a Naturalist was regarded as somewhat of a freak, and

was too generally represented as an amiable lunatic without any

business capacity. Even the most trivial observation often proves,

ultimately, to have a bearing, the importance of which was not

recognized at the time.

* A Paper read at the First General Meeting of the Ceylon Natural History

Society, March 26, 1912.

PIONEERS OF CEYLON NATURAL HISTORY. 77

Sir Emerson Tennent, in the introduction to his ‘‘ Natural

History of Ceylon,” remarks that, “‘ with the exception of Kelaart,

Layard, Knox, and Davy, the subject of Natural History was (at

‘that time) almost untouched in works relating to the Colony. Of

these names, the earliest is that of Robert Knox, who was captured

by the Singalese in 1657 and held a prisoner by the King of Kandy

for twenty years before effecting his escape.’ He published the

well known narrative of his adventures in 1681, and devotes three

chapters of his book to a consideration of “‘ their Roots, Plants,

Herbs, Flowers; of their Beasts, Tame and Wild Insects; and

of their Birds, Fish, Serpents.” His observations, though aiming

at no scientific value, are extremely interesting, and many of the

species that come under his notice are easily recognizable at the

present day. When dealing with the animals, Knox includes some

close observations of the appearance and habits of the bees and

ants, curiously interpolated between his account of the larger

mammals and the monkeys and carnivora. He describes the bird

that we recognize as the “‘ Paradise Flycatcher,” with its streaming

tail feathers, and he notices the difference in colour between the

two sexes. After reviewing the various serpents, he gives a fearsome

description of “‘a Spider called Democulo, very long, black, and

hairy, speckled and glistering. Its body is as big as a man’s fist,

with feet proportionable. These are very poisonous, and they

keep in hollow trees and holes. Men bitten with them will not die,

but the pain will for some time put them out of their senses.”

Some ten years later, Sir John Fryer, when on an embassy to

Persia, travelled in India and the neighbouring Islands, apparently

visiting Ceylon, which was then in the hands of the Dutch. On his

return to England, in 1682, he published a description of his travels.

Sir John appears to have devoted much attention to the Natural

History of the countries which he visited, and his book contains

descriptions and figures of many animals and plants that had

attracted his attention. I have not seen the work in question, and

am uncertain to what extent Ceylon figures in his account; but

his name is worthy of record as that of the first British naturalist

to set foot in Ceylon.

An interval of about thirty years occurs before we find another

name connected with the Natural History of this country. Legge,

in the introduction to his well-known book on our birds, mentions

that “* during the latter half of the eighteenth century Gideon Loten

was nominated Governor of Ceylon by the Dutch, and, happening

to be a great lover of birds, collected and employed people to

procure specimens of species which attracted his notice ; and from

his labours we first learn something of the peculiar birds of the

Island. He had drawings prepared of many species, which he lent

to an English naturalist named Peter Brown, who published in

7h ose SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

London, in 1776, a quarto work styled ‘ [llustrations of Zoology.’ ”

Legge remarks that “‘some of the drawings are fairly accurate ;

but others are grotesque and unnatural, showing the poor state of

perfection to which the illustration of books had up to that time

been brought.”

We now come to the time of the British occupation. In 1817

Alexander Moon was appointed Superintendent of the Botanic

Gardens, then situated at Kalutara. Six years later, after the

conquest of the Kandyan kingdom, the gardens were removed to

their present site at Peradeniya. ‘There had been other Superin-

tendents before him, but Moon appears to have been the first of

them to leave any written work behind him. He published a

‘“* Catalogue of Indigenous and Exotic Plants of Ceylon,’ in the

year 1824, which must have been of great assistance to the local

botanists of the period. Such names as Moonia heterophylla and

Capparis moonii, in our list of Ceylon Flora, are indications of his

reputation as a botanist.

John Davy, mentioned by Tennent as one of the few students of

Ceylon Natural History before his day, was contemporary with Moon,

He paid special attention to Reptilia and described several species

of snakes. He also published a note on the “‘ Analysis of the Snake

Stone.’ Tennent notes that ‘‘ Dr. Davy, brother to the illustrious

Sir Humphrey Davy, published in 1821 his ‘ Account of the Interior

of Ceylon and its Inhabitants,’ which contains the earliest notice of

the Natural History of the Island, and especially of its Ophidian

Reptiles.”

Dr. George Gardner, who was Superintendent of the Peradeniya

Gardens from 1844 to 1849, besides publishing various contributions

to the Flora, paid some attention to Geology, and is responsible for

a ‘‘ Sketch of the Geology of Ceylon.” Tennent acknowledges his

assistance in his ‘‘ Account of the Botany of the Island.” Acrotrema

gardneri, Goniothalamus gardneri, Aberia gardneri, and many other

Ceylon plants retain his name. Dr. Gardner also published a

memoir on the Coffee Bug.

Of Dr. Templeton, who was contemporary with Gardner, I find

several records in Tennent’s volumes. It appears that, at a meeting

of the Entomological Society, in 1842, Dr. Templeton introduced

thin slices of the rhizomes of Sonneratia acida, as a substitute for

cork, for lining butterfly boxes. Again, in 1844, Dr. Templeton

forwarded to the Zoological Society a description accompanied by

drawings of the Wanderoo of the western maritime districts.

A rare moth (cetlicus templetonii) testifies to his interest in

entomology.

To this same period belongs Major Champion, who published

some ‘‘ Remarks on the Flora of Ceylon” in the Ceylon Almanac

for 1844.

PIONEERS OF CEYLON NATURAL HISTORY. 719

A few years later, I find in the Journal of the Asiatic Society for

1849 ‘‘ An Outline of the Tamil System of Natural History,” by

Simon Casie Chitty. This is a gratifying record of early interest in

such subjects by the native community.

The period from 1850 to 1880 shows a sudden and marked increase

of local interest in Natural History. Such well-known names as

Kelaart, Layard, Tennent, Thwaites, Ferguson, Wall, and Nietner,

appear upon the scene.

Dr. Kelaart, according to Legge, was “a native of Ceylon, who

went out from England in 1849 as Staff Surgeon to the Forces.

He appears to have interested himself in all branches of Natural

History, and must be regarded as in the front rank of Ceylon

Naturalists. In 1849 he published ‘ Notes on the Geology of Ceylon,’

and 1852 saw the appearance of his ‘ Prodromus Faunz Zeylanice,’

the earliest attempt at a systematic arrangement of the fauna of the

country. We find him publishing * Descriptions of New Reptiles ’

in 1855, and a ‘ Report upon the Pearl Oyster ’ three years later—

a report which is considered, by competent authorities, to contain a

theory of pearl formation which was very near the truth. Kelaart

was more particularly interested in marine biology, and the volumes

of the Journal of the Asiatic Society contain numerous contributions

on this subject from his pen.’ It is interesting to note that Sir

Willian Twynam, till now resident in Jaffna, was contemporary

with Kelaart, and visited the Pearl Banks with him in 1857. .

Edgar L. Layard, of the Ceylon Civil Service, was a born naturalist.

Tennent drew much of his information—for his ‘‘ Natural History of

Ceylon ’’—from this source, as witnessed by the constant recurrence

of Layard’s name in that work. He published numerous Papers in

the Journal of the Ceylon Asiatic Society, between the years 1849

and 1857, and in the “ Annals and Magazine of Natural History ”

for 1852 and 1853. His influence must have been considerable in

popularizing an interest in Natural History amongst his contem-

poraries in Ceylon. One of his earliest Papers was ‘‘ On the

Formation of a Collection of Lepidoptera in Ceylon,” which supplied

useful hints to beginners and describes methods of collecting and

rearing caterpillars and of setting and preserving the adult insects.

His relative and contemporary in the same service—the first Sir

Charles Peter Layard—was a conchologist of some repute. He

made an extensive collection of Ceylon shells which was consulted

by various writers on Conchology.

The name of Sir Emerson Tennent is too well known to require

much comment. His volumes on Ceylon (published in 1859) and

on the “* Natural History of Ceylon ” (1851) were standard works of

the time, and now have a classical reputation. Tennent himself

was not a systematic zoologist, and relied upon specialists for the

systematic part of his work; but he must have been an acute

80 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

observer of nature, and his book has the merit of bringing together,

in a convenient form, all that was then known of the animal life of

the country.

Dr. G. H. K. Thwaites, F.R.S., before assuming the reins of the

Royal Botanic Gardens in 1850, was already famous in the scientific

world by his discovery of the true nature of the minute aquatic

organisms known as Diatoms. The old microscope with which he

carried out his classical researches is still preserved at Peradeniya.

He directed the Botanic Gardens for a period of thirty years,

retiring in 1880, after which he resided in Kandy for two years

before his death. He made extensive collections of plants, which

now form the mass of the rich herbarium at Peradeniya. His

‘* Rnumeratio, Plantarum Zeylaniz ’’ was compiled for the use of

scientific botanists ; but the writing of a popular Flora of Ceylon,

which he had in view, was prevented by the onerous duties of his

Directorship. In addition to his labours in the botanical world,

Dr. Thwaites was an entomologist of some standing. Under his

supervision a series of beautiful coloured drawings of the caterpillars,

of a large number of local butterflies and moths, was prepared.

These drawings, together with Thwaites’s own collection of Lepi-

doptera, were utilized in Moore’s fine monograph of the Lepidoptera

of Ceylon—a work which is unfortunately too costly to be generally

available.

Amongst Ceylon naturalists of the last generation, the name of

William Ferguson can never be forgotten. His sympathy and ever-

ready assistance were at the disposal of every budding naturalist or

earnest inquirer. He had a very complete knowledge of the botany

of the Island and supplied Tennent with copious communications on

the subject. He was more particularly interested in Ferns and

Selaginellas, and also studied the grasses of the country. But his

interest in Natural History was by no means confined to plant life.

Indeed, it would be difficult to mention any branch in which he was

not interested. He gathered together much information about the

reptiles of Ceylon and published several papers on the subject.

One of our tree frogs (Rhacophorus ferguson) bears his name. He

also made notes on the structure and habits of Fireflies and Glow-

worms, which, however, were never published and—owing to the

unfortunate loss of his collections of these insects—cannot now be

utilized.

George Wall was another well-known personality of the same

period. He was an enthusiastic collector and student of ferns, and

has left us “‘ A Catalogue of the Ferns Indigenous to Ceylon ” (1873)

and a “‘ Check List of Ceylon Ferns ” (1879).

Any entomologist who may carry his researches into other

branches than that of Lepidoptera will be familiar with the name of

J. Neitner, He was a prominent planter in the coffee days, and was

PIONEERS OF CEYLON NATURAL HISTORY. Sl

the author of a booklet on the “‘ Enemies of the Coffee Tree,’

published at the Times of Ceylon office in 1861. His more serious

Papers appeared in continental publications ; but he contributed

‘* Descriptions of New Ceylon Coleoptera ”’ to the Journals of both

the Bengal and Ceylon branches of the Asiatic Society.

Capt. W. V. Legge’s “‘ History of the Birds of Ceylon ”’ is perhaps

the most complete monograph of any order of animals connected

with the Island. Published in 1880, it remains practically complete

at the present day. Not half a dozen species of birds have been

added to Legge’s list since the date of its publication ; but much

still remains to be done in the study of their habits, nidification, and

distribution. In the pages of his work, the author acknowledges

the assistance of many local observers, amongst which the names of

Nevill, Bligh, Parker, MacVicar, Forbes Lawrie, Wickham, Holden,

Cobbold, and Wade-Dalton are prominent. To show how useful

such assistance may be, I will quote Legge’s own words, where, in

speaking of his book, he says: “‘ In conclusion, I am constrained

to remark that had others among my subscribers corresponded as

vigorously with me, during the progress of the work, as Messrs.

Bligh, Parker, and MacVicar, much more local information would

have been contained in it.”’

S. Bligh, mentioned by Legge, published some “ Notes on Rare

Birds,” in 1874, in the Journal of the Ceylon Asiatic Society. His

name has been attached to “ Bligh’s Whistling Thrush’ (Myio-

phonus blight). .

There is‘another name in Legge’s list of contributors that deserves

more special mention. Hugh Nevill, a Member of the Ceylon Civil

Service from 1869 to 1897, was a most versatile naturalist and

ethnologist, and possessed a fund of information in every branch of

those subjects. He was equally at home in the Botany and the

Zoology of the Island, but paid most attention to Conchology, upon

which subject he contributed many Papers to the Journal of the

Asiatic Society. To provide an outlet for his various studies, he

founded the ‘“‘ Taprobanian: A Dravidian Journal of Oriental

Studies in and around Ceylon, its Natural History, Archeology,

Philology, History, &c.,” of which he was both editor and almost

sole contributor. Started in 1885, this Journal ran through three

volumes and ceased to exist in 1887.

Sir William Gregory deserves recognition as the founder of the

Museum in which we meet to-night. He showed great interest in

the advancement of a knowledge of Natural History, and was

instrumental in the production of Moore’s ‘‘ Lepidoptera of

Ceylon.”

Staniforth Green, a part contemporary and close friend of Ferguson,

Wall, and Nietner, was locally renowned for his skill in mounting

minute insects and other objects for the microscope. He was a

M 6(2)12

82 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

patient and careful observer, and a valued correspondent of Prof.

Westwood, the famous entomologist.

A search through the Journals of the Ceylon Asiatic Society of the

period reveals several other local contributors. Thus, the Rev. B.

Boake is responsible for Papers “On the Air-breathing Fish of

Ceylon” and “On the Crocodiles of Ceylon” (1865-6). W. C.

Ondaatje writes ‘“‘On the Poisonous Properties of Callotropis ”’

(1865), and contributes Papers on Corals and Zoophytes. E. W.

Holdsworth publishes a report on the Pearl Oyster Banks in 1867,

and contributed a Paper on Ceylon Birds to the Zoological Society

in 1872.

The remaining period—from 1880 to the present day—has

produced numerous students and lovers of Natural History, many

of whom, happily, still remain with us; but others have retired or

joined the great majority. Of the latter, Dr. Henry Trimen, F.R.S.,

was as distinguished for his loveable nature as, for his scientific

knowledge. While Director of the Botanical Gardens at Peradeniya

from 1880 to 1896, he brought out the first four volumes of his

‘““ Handbook of the Flora of Ceylon,” and left notes for the concluding

volume which were put into form—after his death—by the late Sir

Joseph Hooker. His able successor, Dr. J. C. Willis, did good

service to Ceylon botany by his critical studies on the Podostomacee,

of which he published a memoir in the “ Annals of the Royal Botanic

Gardens, Peradeniya.”

When referring to the establishment of the Colombo Museum,

mention should have been made of its first Director, Amyrald Haly,

who occupied that position for approximately a quarter of a century

—from 1877 to 1901, during which he amassed the enormous

collections which still form the bulk of the contents of the museum.

When one remembers that he had to start with an empty building

and—single handed—to furnish it appropriately in every depart-

ment, the magnitude of his task appears prodigious. He invented

a method of preserving fish for exhibition, by which their natural

colours are retained. The success of this method can be seen in the

fish gallery of our Museum at the present day.

It may be taken as an axiom that one of the principal duties of

the Director of a Natural History Museum is to advance and

popularize the study of Natural History. Haly’s successor in this

office—Dr. Arthur Willey, F.R.S.—did much to achieve this object

by the foundation of the Journal Spolia Zeylanica which aims

at the collection and record of all observations of local interest

appropriate to our subject. As the editor remarks, in the preface

to the first volume : “‘ In a progressive Colony like Ceylon, where

the aspect of the country is undergoing rapid change, records of

apparently trivial observations often acquire a cumulative im-

portance in the course of years, and it should be considered an

PIONEERS OF CEYLON NATURAL HISTORY. 83

advantage to have the means of rendering permanent and available

for future reference, notes on the habits of creatures which become

more shy and difficult to procure as time goes on and the new order

of things replaces the old.” But Dr. Willey’s claim for inclusion

amongst the pioneers of Ceylon Natural History does not rest

solely upon his connection with Spolia Zeylanica. Though by

training a marine biologist, he rapidly acquired a working know-

ledge of all the branches of zoology in the Island, and so was in a

position to give valuable assistance to specialists in various groups of

animal life.

Of his worthy successor I must say nothing, as I fear to outrage

his modesty ; but his action in initiating this Society is a pleasing

foretaste of the assistance that we may confidently expect from him.

Any account of the Pioneers of Ceylon Natural History would be

incomplete without mention of Oliver Collett, a planter whose

abounding love of nature, coupled with a genial personality, could

not fail to excite, amongst others, a reflected interest in the studies

that were so dear to him. His knowledge of the land shells of

Ceylon was unique, and he was recognized as an authority on the

subject far beyond the boundaries of our Island. The fine collection

that he amassed between the years of 1890 and 1901 is now lodged

in the Colombo Museum. His death, in the prime of life, was a

real loss to science, and it is a matter for regret that no one in

Ceylon has arisen to carry on and complete his work. Collett

published many Papers in the Journals of the Malacological and

Royal Microscopial Societies.

Another planter, of similar tastes, was F. Brooke Armstrong,

who was resident in Ceylon between 1880 and 1893. He added

several new species to the list of our Ceylon moths ; but was more

specially attracted to the study of bird life. Spending all his spare

time in the jungle, he acquired an intimate knowledge of the habits

of the rarer and more retiring birds. Not only did he know all

their notes, but displayed extraordinary skill in imitating them.

He provided material and copious notes for Murray’s book on the

Birds of Ceylon.

Major (now Colonel) Yerbury, R.A., while stationed at Trincomalee

some time in the eighteen-eighties, studied the entomology of the

Kast Coast of the Island, paying special attention to the Diptera, or

two-winged flies, and added much to our knowledge of this generally

neglected order of insects.

Though not strictly residents of Ceylon, the Drs. Sarasin made a

prolonged visit to the Island in 1883, and conducted an exhaustive

study of the development of the curious eel-like animal [cthyophis

glutinosa, thereby solving its systematic position amongst the

Batrachia. On their return to Europe they published, in 1886,

some magnificently illustrated memoirs entitled ‘* Scientific

84. SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Researches in Ceylon,” dealing with this animal and with the

biology of various marine organisms.

Amongst those who have left Ceylon more recently must be

mentioned John F. Jowitt, an enthusiastic botanist and specialist on

grasses ; Col. N. Manders, R.A.M.C., whose studies on the butterflies

of Ceylon have been of the greatest assistance to other workers on

the subject; and Major A. J. Maedougall, of the same service,

whose labours were more particularly devoted to the life history of

mosquitoes.

Though I have purposely avoided reference to the useful work of

the many students of Natural History who are still with us, I cannot

refrain from mentioning the name of one who, by reason of his long

residence in this Island, can justly claim to rank as a pioneer. I

believe that our Vice-Chairman, Mr. F. M. Maekwood (he is not

with us to-night, so I can speak freely), is one of the oldest residents

of Ceylon. He is certainly the doyen of our present-day collectors,

and I can personally testify to his unremitting readiness to assist

and encourage his fellow-workers in every way.

It is this spirit—of mutual help and encouragement—that we

hope to see adopted by every member of our new Society. Let us

try to remember that there is no room for petty jealousies in our

work ; that discoveries made by one should be at the service of all

and welcomed by ail; and that we should work, not for personal

agerandizement, but for the advancement of knowledge.

MICROPTEROUS FLY- 85

DESCRIPTION OF A MICROPTEROUS FLY OF THE FAMILY

PHORIDZE ASSOCIATED WITH ANTS.

By N. ANNANDALE, D.Sc., Indian Museum.

N August, 1911, Mr. E. E. Green found at Peradeniya,

associated with predaceous ants of the genus Lobopelta, a

minute micropterous insect, which he recognized as belonging

to the Dipterous family Phoride. He has been kind enough to

entrust me with its description in Spolia Zeylanica.

The Phoridse* are a family as yet little known so far as the

Oriental forms are concerned, but Bruest has described several

species from India, and others will shortly be described by Brunetti,

probably in the ‘‘ Records of the Indian Museum.” Although the

majority of the species are provided with ample wings and lead an

active life, as a rule feeding on rotting animal and vegetable matter,

a considerable number have the wings degenerate or altogether

absent. Some of these forms feed on carrion or the slime of snails,

while others live as parasites or guests in the nests of ants or termites.

The apterous and micropterous forms are very unlike ordinary flies

in appearance, rather resembling fleas or minute cockroaches.

Certain genera, indeed, have been separated off from the Phoridz

by Wandolleck,t who regards them as a distinct family (Stetho-

pathidze) related to the fleas. In the case of one of these genera,

however, namely Chonocephalus, Becker§ has associated a winged

and not very remarkable male with a wingless and otherwise

degenerate female, while in several other genera only the female

is known.

In general appearance Mr. Green’s specimen resembles a female

of Chonocephalus, a species of which (only the male) has been found

in the Bombay Presidency, and is described by Brues; but in

structure it is more closely allied to Psyllomyia, an African genus, of

which the only known species (P. testacea) was described by Loew||

many years ago, and has not apparently been re-discovered. It

was taken in the nest of ants belonging to the genus Dorylus.

It seems probable that the micropterous and apterous species of

Phoride will utimately be found to fall naturally into several

* See Brues in Genera Insectorum : Diptera, Fam. Phoride, fase. 44 (1906).

7 Ann. Nat. Mus. Hungarici, III., p. 539 (1905).

t Zool. Jahrb. (Syst. Abth.), XI., p. 412 (1898).

§ “‘ Die Phoriden,” Abh. hk. k. zool.-bot. Gesch. Wien, p. 86 (1901).

|| Wien ent. Monatschr., I., p. 54, plate I., figs. 22-25 (1857).

86 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA,

sub-families or groups of genera, when sufficient material has been

examined for a proper consideration of their taxonomy. Psyllomyia

and the new genus which it is necessary to found for Mr. Green’s

species, would probably form one such group ; Stethopathus, Wandol-

leckia, and Chonocephalus a second; Platyphora, Aenigmaticus

(probably the female of Platyphora), and Anigmatistes* a third,

while other genera (e.g., T'ermitoxenia) appear to stand by themselves.

Most of these genera are, however, known only from females, and

from very few specimens at that, and it is possible that the dis-

covery of males would in several cases completely upset a classifi-

cation based solely on degenerate females, among which the

phenomenon of convergence has possibly been manifested. It is

even possible that the males of some of these genera are already

known under other generic names. The new genus here described

must, therefore, be regarded as a provisional one, until the corre-

sponding male has been discovered, Mr. Green’s specimen, its

type, being clearly a female.

RHYNCHOMICROPTERON, gen. nov.

° Minute Phorids with degenerate, almost linear wings, degene-

rate eyes, no ocelli, an elongate elbowed proboscis, a swollen

abdomen, of which all the segments are transverse and nearly all the

integument soft, three large forwardly directed bristles on each side

of the head and none on any part of the thorax.

3 unknown.

The new genus appears, so far as can be judged from Loew’s

description and figures, to differ from Psyllomyia chiefly in the

following points :—

(1) The abdomen is soft.

(2) The wings are much narrower.

(3) The legs are entirely covered with hairs.

(4) There are no cheetze on the thorax.

(5) The cheeks bear no downwardly directed bristles.

The two genera agree in the general form of the proboscis,

although in Rhynchomicropteron the bend is further from the base

than in Psyllomyia ; but it is not possible with the material at my

disposal to investigate the minute structure of this organ.

R. PULICIFORME, sp. nov.

? The habit is stout but moderately compressed, the insect having

a certain external resemblance to a flea. The head, thorax, and

legs are deep brown, the abdomen white tinged with brown, the

antennze and palpi yellow; all the larger bristles are black ; the

length is about 1 mm.

* This genus is not described in the Genera Insectorwm ; see Shelford in the

Journ. Linn. Soc. (Zool.), XXX., p. 150, plate XXII. (1908).

MICROPTEROUS FLY. 87

Head.—The head is large and broad, depressed as a whole, but

with both the dorsal and the ventral surfaces convex ; no lateral

surface can be distinguished. As viewed from above, the outline

is rounded in front and truncated posteriorly, the sides being

nearly straight. The anterior third, as seen from the side, is

deeply concave, and is occupied by the antenna, the third joint of

which is of great relative size and spherical in form, entirely con-

cealing the first and second joints ; near its apex it bears a very

long and slender minutely pilose arista. The lower margin of the

antennal cavity forms a sharp ridge which is produced forwards.

just in front of the eye into a triangular projection. The eye is

small and appears to be pigmented very little if at all more deeply

than the surrounding integument; it consists of about twelve

facettes, which are by no means prominent, and is situated laterally

but below the margin of the head, beg narrowly oval in outline

and horizontal in position. The palpi are large and conspicuous,

somewhat irregularly club-shaped in form and armed with four

large bristles on the inner margin and at the tip, being also sparsely

clothed with minute recumbent hairs. The proboscis is very long

and slender, and, except at the base, has a cylindrical form through-

out its length. It is divided into three unequal regions: (1) A

short flat triangular region lying on the ventral surface of the head

between the palpi ; (2) a proximal cylindrical portion which is the

longest, running parallel to the base of the sternum nearly as far as

the coxe of the intermediate legs : it is separated from the third

region by a distinct band. The third region (3) pomts downwards

and backwards between the legs. There are a few minute and

apparently soft hairs at the tip, but only very small and ill-developed

fleshy expansions ; no trace of any organ that could be used for

stabbing or cutting is apparent.

The whole of the dorsal surface of the head is covered sparsely

with minute recumbent hairs, all of which point backwards. There

are about twelve small forwardly directed bristles on each side of

the ventral surface below and behind the eye. On each side of the

head there are three much larger bristles, all of which are directed

forwards. One is situated just in front of the eye, another outside

each palpus, and the third near the posterior end of the ventral

surface of the head beside the proboscis. The direction of the two

latter is somewhat oblique.

The integument of the head is minutely and regularly punctured,

>but that of the proboscis is smooth.

Thorax.—As seen from above, the pronotum, which conceals the

other segments, is longer than the head, but distinctly transverse.

It is divided longitudinally by a deep mid-dorsal groove, and near

the anterior border on each side there is a small circular pit. A

comparatively large chitinous plate on the dorsal surface of the

abdomen, narrowly separated from the posterior margin of the

88 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

pronotum, represents the scutellum. It is broadly triangular in

form, except that the apex is rounded, and has a smooth surface

sparsely covered with minute recumbent hairs. Similar hairs

occur on the dorsal surface of the thorax proper, the integument of

which is sculptured in the same manner as that of the head. In

lateral view the thorax is distinctly divided into three segments ;

the metathorax extends backwards for some distance on the sides —

of the abdomen, forming an acute triangle with the two long sides

somewhat curved ; the bases of the posterior legs are situated at

about one-third of the length of the whole insect, if the measurement

is taken from in front backwards.

Wings.—The wings, although very narrow, are distinctly spindle-

shaped and acutely pointed. They lie parallel to the sides of the

body with the tips pointing obliquely downwards and reaching a

point some little distance behind the level of the third coxe. No

veins are apparent, but there are three distinct rows of minute

bristles running along the surface. The halteres are almost

cylindrical ; they are situated on the lateral surface of the meta-

thorax.

Legs.—The legs are short and stout. In all the femora are dilated,

but only compressed to a moderate extent ; they are longer as well

as much broader than the tibiz, the latter being cylindrical and

much shorter than the tarsi, the first joint of which is the longest ;

the tarsi are longer than either the tibiz or the femora. The coxe

of the first pair of legs are almost as long as the femora, which they

resemble in form ; those of the intermediate and posterior legs are

short, but they are rendered conspicuous in the case of the inter-

mediate pair by bearing a bunch of stout but almost recumbent

black bristles on the anterior face. Similar, but much shorter,

bristles also occur on the posterior coxze. The whole of the surface

of the limbs is clothed with short recumbent hairs, and the inter-

mediate and posterior tibiee bear several short bristles disposed in

a semicircle at the tip; the posterior tibiz also bear in the same

position a single stout bristle or spur. There are two slender,

strongly curved, smooth-edged claws on each foot; the pulvillus

consists of a slender longitudinal process bearing a number of

elongate downwardly-directed branch-like projections, and the

empodium is bristle-like.

Abdomen.—The abdomen is considerably swollen, but tapers

towards the tip and is much longer than broad or deep ; its segmen-

tation is obscure. The whole of the integument (with the exception

of the scutellum) is soft, almost colourless and naked. The external

genitalia form a short projecting tube, the dorsal surface of which is

divided into two short lobes bearing long curved bristles ; similar

bristles also project from the ventral part of the tube.

Habitat —Peradeniya, Kandy District, Ceylon ; altitude about

1,500 ft. ‘

Spol. Zeyl. Vol.VIIL. Part XXX

G x27.

Simulium striatum, Brumetea.

A. Chowdhary,del. itn alae ae

MICROPTEROUS FLY. 89

Type.—Mr. Green has generously presented the type specimen to

the Indian Museum, in which a large proportion of the type

specimens of the Indian and Ceylon species of Diptera are now

preserved.

Biology.— Unfortunately it is possible to say very little about the

biology of R. puliciforme. Mr. Green found the only known

individual of the species running in and out of a foraging-party of

the common predaceous ant Lobepelta ocellifera in his garden at

Peradeniya. The point at which he took it was over a hundred

yards distant from the nest, whence the ants had emerged. It

would be interesting to know the functions of the long elbowed

proboscis of this species and of its ally the African Psyllomyia

testacea. It does not appear to be adapted either for piercing solid

bodies, or for licking or sucking nourishment from their surface, and

the tip is devoid of sensory structures to an unusual extent.

Possibly it may prove useful in the transmission of liquid food from

the mouths of the ants to that of their guest, but this is, of course,

no more than a conjecture, for we know nothing of the social

relations that may exist between the two insects.

Plate I., Figs 1 to 3.

RHYNCHOMICROPTERON PULICIFORME, gen. et sp. nov.

Fig. 1.—Lateral view of the whole insect, x about 22.

Fig. 2.—Head and proboscis in profile, more highly magnified.

Fig. 3.—Oblique lateral view of the head.

a. = third joint of the antenna; ar. — arista;

proboscis ; pa. = palpus; h. = halter; w. = wing:

és == Gye pai

s. = scutellum.

90 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

A NEW SPECIES OF BLOOD-SUCKING FLY (SIMULIUM)

FROM CEYLON.

By E. BRUNETTI.

\ O species of Simuliwm appears to have been recorded from

Ceylon, so I have pleasure in offering a description of one

recently taken there by Mr. E. E. Green and Mr. F. H. Gravely.

Simulium striatum, sp. nov.

@ Ceylon. Long. 2 mm.

Head.—Frons shining leaden gray, with a few pale hairs, face of

similar colour. Back of head light gray, with sparse short pale hairs.

Antenne blackish, with light gray pubescence, the basal segments

distinctly yellowish for some little distance, the whole antennz

appearing in certain lights tinged with reddish-yellow. Proboscis

shining reddish-yellow, with large oval gray hairy labella placed

at the base. Palpi long, slender, blackish, the first joint not much

thickened.

Thorax.—Dorsum ash-gray, with scattered short bright yellow

hairs, and three moderately narrow black stripes beginning just

behind the anterior margin, but not continued to the posterior one.

Viewed from a low angle in front the dorsum appears blackish,

with four ash-gray stripes, of which the two outer ones are emarginate

in the middle on their outer edges. Sides of thorax blackish-gray,

with ash-gray reflections on the pleure.

Abdomen.—Dull black (apparently denuded of pubescence).

Legs.—Coxe and femora yellowish or brownish-yellow, the latter

more or less brown towards the tips, especially the posterior legs.

Fore tibiz dark brown, posterior tibize pale yellowish on basal half,

brownish or dark brown on apical half, the proportions being

variable. Fore tarsi black, the metatarsus, second and third joints

large ; middle tarsi brownish-yellow at the base, the joints very

narrowly black tipped, the last two or three joints wholly black ;

no undue dilatation of any of the joints. Hind metatarsus con-

siderably incrassated, pale whitish-yellow, with black tip ; the next

‘joint pale, narrowly black tipped ; the remainder black ; the joints,

except the apical one, dilated.

Wings.—Colourless, venation normal ; halteres lemon-yellow.

BLOOD-SUCKING FLY (SIMULIUM). 9]

Described from five specimens taken by Mr. E. KE. Green and Mr.

Gravely at Peradeniya, Ceylon, VII., 1911 (type), XII., 10 and

2, VI., 10 (alt. 1,500-1,600 ft.).

Type in Indian Museum.

N.B.—In one specimen the frons is of equal width throughout,

in the others of triangular form, broad at the verte, and narrowing

gradually to just above the antenne. This is the case with the

other species previously described by me, and it may be a question

of shrinkage, the eyes in most females being much sunken in dried

specimens. The striped thorax will distinguish this species at once

from all other Oriental ones. The thoracic stripes are by no means

as distinct as shown in the figure.

It may be opportune to mention here that in my description of

Simulium rufithoraz* an error has crept in. It is said there that

the last joint of the palpi is the largest. It should be the first joint.

See Plate following Dr. Annandale’s Paper.

Figs. 4-6.—Simulium striatum, sp. nov.

Fig. 4.—Lateral view of the fly from the left side, « 16.

Fig. 5.—Thorax and scutellum from above, x 27.

Fig. 6.—Outline of wing, x 27.

N.B.—In my ‘‘ Notes on Ceylon Diptera” (Spol. Zeyl., Vol. VI.,

p. 170), referring to Pycnosoma flavipes Mcg., I stated it caused an

outbreak of smallpox. This was a lapsus for cholera,

* Rec. Ind. Mus., [V., 282.

92 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

ON A REMARKABLE MIMETIC SPIDER.

By E. E. GREEN.

(With one Plate.)

NSTANCHS of protective mimicry are by no means confined to

the true (7.e., hexapod) insects. We find the same phenomenon

strongly developed amongst spiders. There is, in Ceylon, a well-

marked group of hunting spiders (Altide) that have acquired an

extraordinary resemblance to ants. This is not merely a general

resemblance, but the form and colour pattern of each spider can be

closely matched by particular species of ants. At first sight it might

be supposed that the mimicry was of an aggressive nature, and that

such spiders would habitually prey upon the ants, utilizing their

resemblance to approach the insects without alarming them. But

such is not the case ; and it is improbable that the closest superficial

similarity would deceive an ant which recognizes its friends and

foes by some other sense than that of sight. Though these spiders

may catch and eat an occasional ant, it is probable that the chief

value of the resemblance is of a protective nature. The particular

ants that are the subjects of the imitation are all of species that

have either formidable jaws and an aggressive habit (e.g., @/cophylla),

or species that are armed with a powerful sting, such as Odonto-

gnathus, Lobopelta, Sima, &c. One of these soft-bodied Attid spiders

would stand a poor chance in a contest with ants of the species

which they most resemble.

But the object of this Note is to draw attention to a different kind

of spider (though also one of the Attide) which bears the most

remarkable likeness, not to an ant, but to the apterous forms of

wasps of the family Mutillide.

The accompanying plate shows this similarity very clearly. The

spider (Figs. 5 and 6) is Cenoptychus pulchellus of Simon, who has

already recorded its resemblance to a Mutilla. This resemblance is

so real that I was completely deceived by the first example that I

found. Believing it to be a Mutilla—an insect whose painful sting

I have personally experienced—I picked: it up very carefully with a

pair of forceps. It was only after it had been subjected to the

killing bottle that I recognized its true character. Mr. Oswin

Wickwar tells me that he was similarly deceived by a specimen of

the same spider that he found at Anuradhapura, together with a

number of the Mutillids. He writes: “I caught one spider

thinking it to be a Mutillid, as it ran over the ground just like one.”

Spolia Zeylanica Vol. Vil, Fart XXX.

Fig.1 Mutilla humbertiana 6x 17/2 Fig. 2 Spilomutilla eltola 6x3

Fig. 3 Spilomutilla eltola 2x3 Fig. 4 Mutilla subintrans QOx3

Fig.5 Coenoptichus pulchellus 6x3 Fig.6 C&noptichus pulchellus 2x 3

MIMETIC SPIDER. 93

Mr. F. H. Gravely, of the Indian Museum, tells me that he has

found similar spiders associating with Mutillas in Calcutta.

The two sexes of the spider are differently coloured ; the male

(Fig. 5) having conspicuous white spots on the abdomen, while the

female (Fig. 6) is spotted and banded with golden yellow. Both of

these colour patterns occur commonly amongst Ceylon Mutillide.

Figures 2 and 3 represent the two sexes of Spilomutilla eltola,

Cam., and present very good models for the male spider, while

Fig. 4 (Mutilla subintrans, Rad. and Sich.) is an equally good model

for the female.

It must not, however, be supposed that these spiders mimic any

particular species of Mutilla. Such close resemblance is unnecessary.

For protective purposes it is sufficient that the animal should bear

a general likeness to insects of the genus Mutilla, just as many

harmless flies have a general resemblance to wasps.

The males of the Mutillide usually bear little or no resemblance

to their respective females. With a few exceptions, they are

winged, have a very different colour scheme, and are much larger

and more poweriul. They may often be seen carrying their small

mates about with them on the wing, and are said to fly with them

from flower to flower ; but I have not personally observed this last

part of the programme. Spilomutilla is an exception, both sexes

of this species being apterous.

It can hardly be supposed that the mutilloid appearance of the

spider can be so complete as to deceive the Mutilla itself. Be that

as it may, it is a fact that a male Mutilla (Fig. 1, M. humbertiana,

Sauss.) was recently taken oy the wing, and—when the capture was

examined—the net was found to contain an apparently uninjured

specimen of this spider, in addition to the male Mutilla, The

presumption is that the wasp was carrying it off, but whether as

food, or in mistaken identity, must remain open to conjecture.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE.

(From coloured drawings by Mr. G. Henry.)

Fig. 1.—Mutilla humbertiana, male, x 1.

Fig. 2.—Spilomutilla eltola, male, X 3.

Fig. 3.—Spilomutilla eltola, female, x 3.

Fig. 4.—Mutilla subintrans, female, x 3.

Fig. 5.—Cenoptychus pulchellus, male, x 3.

Fig. 6.—Cenoptychus pulchellus, female, x 3.

Erratum.

On the accompanying plate Canoptichus should be Caenoptychus.

94 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

THE BIRDS OF COLOMBO.

By Wauter A. Cave.

(With five Plates.)

HE following list is intended for those who have only a slight

knowledge of the study of birds, to enable them to identify

a species without having to refer to scientific works on the subject.

The list is by no means complete, but it has been compiled with

the idea of encouraging others to make similar lists of birds in their

districts. The writer will welcome notes from any one who can

record the occurrence of birds in Colombo other than those listed.

The scientific nomenclature and arrangement of the Fuana of

British India Series (Birds) have been followed, but in the case of

the familiar names, I have sometimes adopted those used by

Blandford and Oates, and at others those used by Legge, whichever

I considered would be the most helpful to a beginner in identifying

the bird. The numbers given in brackets in front of each species

refer to the number of the species in Blandford’s volume of Birds in

the Fauna of British India.

No attempt has been made to describe the plumage accurately or

in detail, for a description of the bifd as it appears to a casual

observer is, to my mind, more useful in a list of this kind. Only

two references have been given, Blandford and Oates and Legge,

These two works contain ample references for the scientific ornitho-

logist, and furthermore they will give the beginner all the details

he may require.

The term “ Resident ”’ is used to indicate that the bird is resident

in Ceylon. In some cases there is a local migration of resident

birds, and such have been mentioned. There is, however, much

work still needed on the movements of some species at certain

times of the year. For instance, it may be noted that Bee-eaters,

Orioles, and Richard’s Pipits are more frequently seen in February

and March in Colombo than at any other time of the year. ?

The daily migration of crows is a well-known feature. It is

noticeable that during the last three or four years large numbers

have taken to roosting in the trees in York street and the clump of

trees surrounding the fountain by the Racquet Court. In the latter

vicinity the air is black with crows, in the evening, struggling and

quarrelling to secure their places for the night. The trees in the

Fort offer innumerable coigns of advantage from which the crows

BIRDS OF COLOMBO. 95

descend during the day to secure any garbage thrown out from

boutiques, &c. ; in fact, so large is the crow community becoming

that it is already a positive nuisance.

With very few exceptions, I have personally observed all the

birds mentioned in the list. My thanks are due to Dr. Pearson,

F.L.8S., the Director of the Colombo Museum, for the use of

specimens from which the accompanying illustrations have been

reproduced.

Family CORVIDA.

Sub-family Corvin 2.

(4) Corvus macrorhyneus (the Black Crow). Resident.

Oates, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), I., p. 17 ; Legge, Birds of Ceylon,

p. 346.

Plumage entirely black. More frequently seen on the outskirts.

(7) Corvus splendens (the Common Gray-necked Crow). Resident.

Oates, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), I., p. 20; Legge, Birds of

Ceylon, p. 349.

Smaller than the foregoing species, and the commonest bird of

Colombo. It can be distinguished from the larger bird by its gray

neck and size.

Sub-family Parinz.

(31) Parus atriceps (the Gray-backed Titmouse). Resident.

Oates, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), I., p. 46 ; Legge, Birds of Ceylon,

p. 557.

The occurrence of this bird in Colombo is rare, but it has recently

been reported. It is a familiar bird in the hills, particularly in

Nuwara Eliya, where its similarity to the English Tom-tit lends

additional effect to the home-like appearance of our sanitorium.

The plumage above is bluish ashy and darker beneath, the white

cheeks being conspicuous against the black of the head.

Family CRATEROPODIDA.

Sub-family CRATEROPODIN&.

(112) Crateropus striatus (the Seven Sisters, or Common Babbler).

Resident.

Oates, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), I., p. 112; Legge, Birds of

Ceylon, p. 494.

The parties of seven sisters seen at the sides of all the roads in

Colombo are amongst the commonest of our feathered denizens.

The plumage generally is a dowdy brownish hue, round the eye

“ dirty fleshy white,” and “ legs sickly yellow.’

96 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

(119) Pomatorhinus melanurus (the Ceylonese Scimitar Babbler).

Resident.

Oates, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), I., p. 118; Legge, Birds of

Ceylon, p. 501.

Legge records having procured a specimen at Borella. I am

inclined to think this bird, which is peculiar to the Island, has been

driven inland ; I have never seen it, or heard its note, which is so

characteristic in Colombo or the neighbourhood. The plumage

above is dark brown; conspicuous white streak over the eye; under

parts white ; bill yellow, 1-23 in. in length and curved.

Sub-family Srpmnz.

(226) Zosterops palpebrosa (the Common White-eye). Resident.

Oates, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), I., p. 214; Legge, Birds of

Ceylon, p. 582.

The occurrence of this bird in Colombo is not as common as its

name seems to indicate. It frequents gardens, and moves about in

parties of six or more. It is a small dark-green bird, lighter under-

neath, with a conspicuous circle of white feathers round the eye.

Sub-family LiotrRicHin 2.

(243) Akgithina tiphia (the Common Bush Bulbul, or [ora).

Resident.

Oates, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), I., p. 230; Legge, Birds of

Ceylon, p. 490.

This elegant little bird is frequently seen in the gardens of Colombo.

Its brilliant plumage and clear flute-like note, chee-too, must be

familiar to residents. The plumage above, including the wings, is

black, a white band across the wing, and under surface yellow. The

female is dark green above.

Sub-family BracHypopInz.

(278) Molpastes hemorrhous (the Madras Red-vented Bulbul).

Resident.

Oates, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), I., p. 268; Legge, Birds of

Ceylon, p. 482.

The familiar Bulbul, with its smoky-brown plumage, its black

head surmounted by a tuft of feathers, and the bright red patch

under the tail, is probably as well known as any bird we have. Its

appearance in the compound, with its sprightly manners and cheerful

series of notes, is always a source of pleasure to an observer.

(305) Pyenonotus luteolus (the White eye-browed Bulbul). Resident.

Oates, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), I., p. 290; Legge, Birds of

Ceylon, p. 475.

Owing to its partiality for thick bushy trees this bird is not

frequently seen, but for all that it is quite as common as the fore-

going species. The series of notes is uttered more precipitately

BIRDS OF COLOMBO. 97

than the Madras Bulbul. The plumage aboye is “ olivaceous

brown,” with a conspicuous white stripe over the eye, and lighter

brown under the body.

Family DICRURIDA.

(331) Diecrurus leucopygialis (the White-bellied Drongo). Resi-

dent.

Oates, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), I., p. 316; Legge, Birds of

Ceylon, p. 392.

The “ King Crow ” of Colombo is so called because it is the only

bird that will fearlessly attack the crow. It is distinguished by its

steel blue colouring and racquet-shaped tail. It is an insect feeder,

and its sallies from its perching branch into the open are performed

with wonderful grace and agility. It has a variety of pleasing notes.

Family SYLVIIDA.

(374) Orthotomus sutorius (the Indian Tailor-bird). Resident.

Oates, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), I., p. 366: Legge, Birds of

Ceylon, p. 517.

Very common. Its note “ to-whit to-whit”’ or “ te-wicke te-

wicke ” may be heard at all times of the day. Builds a nest by

sewing together one or two leaves with cotton thread and lining it

with fibre and cotton. Incidentally it may be mentioned that the

Tailor-bird is found from the sea-coast ‘to the summit of Pidurutala-

gala (8,200 feet). Top of head is rufous, upper plumage olive-green,

under parts whitish, tail long. The dark patches on either side of

the neck are conspicuous when the bird utters its familiar note.

(881) Cisticola cursitans (the Common Grass Warbler). Resident,

Oates, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), I., p. 874; Legge, Birds of

Ceylon, p. 531.

Found in nearly all grass fields. Its note is a sharp “‘ chick-chick,”’

and when uttered is often difficult to locate when the bird is on the

wing. There are other Warblers in Colombo, which I have been

unable to identify. It is very difficult to distinguish the differences

between the different kinds of this species, as they are so much

alike, even when one handles specimens. The study of the Warblers

still requires a lot more work, for our knowledge of them is by no

means complete.

Family LANIIDA.

Sub-family LANtIN az.

(481) Lanius cristatus (the Brown Shrike). Migrant.

Oates, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), I., p. 468; Legge, Birds of

Ceylon, p. 377.

One of the earliest migrants, arriving at the end of September.

Distinguished by its harsh rattling scream. The black eye-stripe is

very conspicuous.

0 6(2)12

98 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

(488) Tephrodornis pondicerianus (the Common Wood Shrike).

Resident.

Oates, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), I., p. 475; Legge, Birds of

Ceylon, p. 372.

Above slaty-gray, blackish stripe through eye, supercilium white,

rump white, tail black, breast pale ashy, under parts white.

(500) Pericrocotus peregrinus, Linn. (the Little Minivet). Resi-

dent.

Oates, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), I., p. 487; Legge, Birds of

Ceylon, p. 366.

I have on several occasions seen this bird in Colombo, but its

occurrence is rare. It is one of our most brilliantly coloured birds,

the plumage of the male being black, scarlet, and orange, contrasting

with that of the four or five sombrely clad females which generally

accompany him. These latter are without the scarlet. I observed

it in March and November in Colombo, and am inclined to think it

is a local migrant.

(508) Campophaga sykesi (the Black-headed Cuckoo Shrike).

Oates, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), I., p. 493; Legge, Birds of

Ceylon, p. 369.

Bill, legs and feet, head, tail and wings black. Upper surface

slate-gray. Breast pale gray, below white. Females have the head

gray, some white on the rump, and the breast white, barred.

(512) Artamus fuseus (the Ashy Wood Swallow, or Swallow

Shrike). Resident.

Oates, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), I., p. 498; Legge, Birds of

Ceylon, p. 666.

Resident in the outskirts all the year round. During the last two

years I have seen it on the Ridgeway golf links in large numbers.

General colouration gray or ashy, and the tail short and square.

Spends most of its time on the wing catching insects, in company

with swallows and swifts.

(521) Oriolus melanocephalus (the Indian Black-headed Oriole).

Resident.

Oates, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), I., p. 506; Legge, Birds of

Seylon, p. 357.

The occurrence of this bird in Colombo is somewhat rare, but it

is widely distributed throughout the low-country and _ hills, and,

according to Legge, ascends to Nuwara Eliya. Plumage “ shining

jet-black and rich yellow.” Known as the “ Mango-bird ” from the

resemblance of its colour to the yellow variety of the fruit. A pair

of these birds was reported from the Cinnamon Gardens last

February.

BIRDS OF COLOMBO. 99

(550) Acridotheres melanosternus (the Common Ceylon Myna).

Resident.

Oates, Fuana Br. Ind. (Birds), I., p. 538; Legge, Birds of

Ceylon, p. 670.

Peculiar to Ceylon. Found on the outskirts of Colombo, and very

common in the low-country. Takes the place of A. tristis, the

common Myna of India, and only varies slightly from it in coloura-

tion. The Ceylon species is too well known as a cage bird to need

description.

Family MUSCICAPIDA.

(588) Alseonax latirostris (the Brown Fly-catcher). Migrant.

Oates, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), II., p. 35; Legge, Birds of

Ceylon, p. 415.

An early migrant, arriving at the beginning of October. A small

insignificant brown bird, with a ring of white feathers round the eye

which are scarcely perceptible, but tend to make the eyes conspic-

uous. One came on board a steamer I was on, about 250 miles

due west of Colombo, in January, 1907.

(598) Terpsiphone paradisi (the Paradise Fly-catcher). Partial

migrant.

Oates, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), Il., p. 45; Legge, Birds of

Ceylon, p. 404.

As far as my observations go, this bird is not common in Colombo,

but whenever seen it is bound to attract attention by the elegance

of its plumage. During its life the male undergoes three changes,

but in each stage the black head and tuft of feathers are retained.

This tuft and the size of the bird in the short-tailed stage remind one

of a Bulbul.

Female and Young Male.

The whole head black, throat brown, plumage above chestnut,

below whitish. This plumage is retained by the female for life.

Second Year (Male).

Plumage as above! but the feathers of the tail grow to a foot or

more in length.

; Third Year.

Plumage as above, but under parts pure white, throat black.

Fourth Year.

Plumage, except the head which is black, entirely white, including

the elongated feathers of the tail, which vary from 13 in. to 17 in. in

length. This white plumage after this age is permanently retained.

The first time I saw a bird in this stage it flew a short distance from

one tree to another and I scarcely had time to recognize it, but it

seemed as though it were carrying a long piece of white thread.

The Sinhalese name, Redi hora (Cotton Thief), by which this

100 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

bird is known to the natives, occurred to me, and following up the

bird I had no difficulty in identifying it as the Paradise Fly-catcher.

When in the full chestnut plumage with the long tail feathers it is

called by the Sinhalese Ginni hora (Fire Thief).

Sub-family RuTiIctLLin 2.

(662) Thamnobia fulicata (the Black Robin). Resident.

Oates, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), II., p. 115; Legge, Birds of

Ceylon, p. 440.

This familiar black robin inhabits almost every garden. The

plumage of the male is glossy black, with some white in the wings

and a chestnut patch under the tail. The female is a brownish

black. Frequently seen together, when the difference in sexes can

easily be distinguished.

(663) Copsychus saularis (the Magpie Robin). Resident.

Oates, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), Il., p. 116; Legge, Birds of

Ceylon, p. 433.

This robin is the ‘‘ black and white bird ” which is found in nearly

every compound. The name * Magpie ”’ is descriptive enough for

identification. The female has the breast dark gray, which in the

male is black. It is our best songster, and during March it pours

forth a volume of beautiful notes in the early mornings and late in

the evenings.

Family PLOCEIDAL.

Sub-family VipvuIné. |

(735) Uroloneha punctulata (the Spotted Munia). Resident.

Oates, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), II., p. 189; Legge, Birds of

Ceylon, p. 656.

A common cage bird. Found in the Cimmamon Gardens and more

outlying parts. General appearance dull chocolate colour, chest

white, spotted with dark brown.

Munia oryzivora (the Java Sparrow). Partial migrant.

Oates, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), II., p. 182; Legge, Birds of

Ceylon, p. 646.

This familiar cage bird is not admitted to the Natural History of

either India or Ceylon, because the specimens seen in a mild state

are descended from imported stock. I have frequently seen flocks

of as many as twenty Java Sparrows at a time on the Galle Face,

feeding on the grass. My records show that they were observed in

August and February. The plumage above is a “ delicate dove-

gray’ (Legge), conspicuous white cheeks ; head, chin, and throat

black ; under surface gray ; breast ‘‘ isabelline red”’; bill red.

BIRDS OF COLOMBO. 101

Family FRINGILLIDA.

Sub-family FRINGILLIN 4.

(776) Passer domesticus (the Common House Sparrow). Resi-

dent.

Oates, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), II., p. 236; Legge, Birds of

Ceylon, p. 600.

Family HIRUNDINIDA.

(813) Hirundo rustica (the Swallow). Migrant.

Oates, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), Il., p. 277; Legge, Birds of

Ceylon, p. 587.

This familiar bird is a migrant, arriving at the end of September,

and later on is found in large numbers over open spaces, such as

the Galle Face, racecourse, golf links, &e. Many people have been

surprised to hear that the English Swallow occurs in Ceylon.

(825) Hirundo hyperythra (the Ceylon Swallow).

Oates, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), II., p. 284; Legge, Birds of

Ceylon, p. 592.

Peculiar to the Island. I think a partial migrant, for I have only

noticed it at certain times. Very much like the common Swallow,

except that there is a large amount of chestnut on the under parts

and rump. Its flight is feeble, and thus makes identification an

easy matter.

Family MOTACILLIDA.

(833) Motacilla borealis (the Gray-headed Wagtail). Migrant.

Oates, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), IT., p. 294; Legge, Birds of

Ceylon, p. 617. -

This familiar winter visitor arrives at the beginning of October,

and within a fortnight large numbers are to be seen on the Galle

Face and other open spaces. The variety of plumage in which this

bird appears at first is often bewildering. Some birds could easily

be mistaken for common Pipits, whereas the yellow breast is

prominent in others. It is, however, not easy to mistake a Wagtail,

and although the plumage may vary to such an extent as to suggest

the possibility of there being two or more different kinds of birds,

I believe all the Wagtails seen in Colombo belong to this species.

I have heard residents remark, in March, that when the small yellow

birds appear it is a true sign that the hot weather has set in. They

little suspect these birds have been here during the cool season, and

that they don their yellow waistcoats preparatory to their departure

in April. I have recorded an albino of this species (Spolia Zeylanica ,

Vol, V1., Part XXIV., p. 173).

102 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

(845) Anthus richardi (Richard’s Pipit). Migrant.

Oates, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), II., p. 307; Legge, Birds of

Ceylon, p. 621.

A migrant, but I have never seen it before the month of February.

It is suggested that it does not stop in Colombo on its migration

south, but halts here for a month or so on the return journey. This

fine Pipit is by no means common. I have only seen a few

specimens each season, in February, March, and April. It can be

readily recognized from the following species by its size. Its note

is deeper than A. rufulus.

(847) Anthus rufulus (the Common Pipit). Resident.

Oates, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), II., p. 308; Legge, Birds of

Ceylon, p. 625.

Oates says: “‘ An exact miniature of A. richardi, from which this

species differs in nothing but size.” This Pipit is one of the com-

monest birds of Colombo, being found all the year round, and at

all times of the day, on open stretches of grass.

Family ALAUDIDA.

(872) Mirafra affinis (the Madras Bush Lark). Resident.

Oates, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), I., p. 335; Legge, Birds of

Ceylon, p. 634.

This Lark is almost as common as the foregoing Pipit, with which

it consorts on all open grass Jands. It is remarkably like the

common Pipit ; in fact, so much so that it is extremely difficult to

distinguish one from the other. There are three points by which

it can be recognized, but it is necessary to know both birds very well

before these differences can be appreciated :—

(1) It generally sings whilst soaring.

(2) It frequently perches on branches, whereas I have never seen

the common Pipit do so.

(3) The beak is larger and “‘ leavier ’’ than the Pipit’s.

Furthermore, the hinder part of the tarsus is scutellated, whereas

in the Pipit it is smooth, but this point, of course, cannot be recog-

nized unless a specimen is handled. The easiest way to recognize

these birds is by observing their habits.

A minute description of A. rufulus and M. affints would convey

little at first ; it is sufficient to say they ® are the common brown birds

seen on all grass lands.

(879) Pyrrhulauda grisea (the Black-bellied Finch Lark). Resident.

Oates, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), IL., p. 341; Legge, Birds of

Ceylon, p. 637.

Mr. Symons and J found a flock of about a dozen on the racecourse,

which we believe is the first record of this bird in Colombo.

BIRDS OF COLOMBO. 103

Family NECTARINIIDA.

Sub-family NECTARINTIIN®.

The Sun Birds.

(894) Arachnechthra lotenia (Loten’s Sun Bird). Resident.

Oates, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), II., p. 358; Legge, Birds of

Ceylon, p. 563.

The largest of the three Sun Birds found in Colombo. It is

named after Loten, a Governor of Ceylon, who first recorded it.

(895) Arachnechthra asiatica (the Purple Sun Bird). Resident.

Oates, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), II., p. 359; Legge, Birds of

Ceylon, p. 566.

In general appearance similar to Loten’s, but smaller. Commoner

than the foregoing species.

During the non-breeding season, November and December, both

the foregoing species assume the plumage of the female, except for

a dark metallic stripe down the fore-neck. At this period specimens

are frequently seen in a mixture of the breeding and non-breeding

plumage.

The plumage of the females is roughly as follows :—

A. lotenia —Above, olive-brown ; wings, darker brown.

A. asiatica.—Above, mouse-gray ; wings, black.

The tail in both species is black, and the under parts yellow.

(901) Arachnechthra zeylonica (the Ceylonese Sun Bird). Resi-

dent.

Oates, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), H., p. 364; Legge, Birds of

Ceylon, p. 569.

Same size as A. asiatica, and much the same in appearance,

except that the breast and lower parts are yellow. It is the com-

monest of the three in Colombo. The female has similar colouring

to the first two Sun Birds mentioned. It is difficult to give a short

description of these beautiful birds without going into details of

their wonderful metallic plumage. I will, therefore, endeavour to

give a key which may help in identification :—

Upper plumage uniformly of one colour ; lower

plumage dark coloured; length 5°5 in. ;

bis? in. A: a .. A. lotenia 6

Upper and lower plumage as above ; length 4°5

in. ; bill *8 in. ve . A. asiatica 6

Upper plumage, including chin and throat, uni-

formly one colour ; breast and under parts

bright yellow ; length 4:5in. ; bill -8in. .. A. zeylonica ¢

104 SPOLIA ZEYLANIOA.

Family DICHIDA.

(919) Diczeum erythrorhynchus (Tickell’s Flower-pecker). Resident.

Oates, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), I., p. 381; Legge, Birds of

Ceylon, p. 574.

The smallest bird we have in Ceylon. Frequents the tops of tall

trees, and, in spite of being a common bird, is apt to be passed over

on account of its inconspicuous plumage. The colour generally is

ashy-olive, paler underneath.

Family PITTIDA.

(933) Pitta brachyura (the Indian Pitta). Migrant.

Oates, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), II., p. 393; Legge, Birds of

Ceylon, p. 687.

A migrant, arriving in October. Owing to its partiality for thick

bushes, is not often seen. It is by no means common in Colombo.

I have only two records. It is known as the ‘“‘ Painted Thrush,”

from the variety of brilliant colours in its plumage, or the ‘ Six

o'clock Bird,” from its peculiar note.

Family CAPITONIDA.

(1008) Thereiceryx zeylonicus (the Brown-headed Barbet).

Xesident.

Blandford, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), ITT., p. 86 ; Legge, Birds of

Ceylon, p. 208, plate X.

One of the commonest birds of the low-country. Its cry, com-

mencing with a low gurgle and ending with notes which resemble

“ kottoruwa-kottoruwa ”’ (which, by the way, is its Sinhalese name),

is familiar to everyone. Occasionally seen in well-wooded gardens

in Colombo, but on the outskirts of the town its note can be heard

at any time of the day.

(1015) Cyanops flavifrons (the Yellow-fronted Barbet). Resident.

Blandford, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), III., p. 94 ; Legge, Birds of

Ceylon, p. 212, plate X. £

Peculiar to Ceylon. It is reported from Colombo,

(1019) Xantholema heematocephala (the Crimson-breasted Barbet,

or Coppersmith). Resident.

Blandford, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), II., p. 98 ; Legge, Birds of

Ceylon, p. 218.

This bird is reported from Colombo, but so far I have not observed

it. Ihave thought at times that I have heard its note, wonk-wonk-

wonk, which sounds like blows on a hollow.vessel, but am inclined

to believe I have mistaken it for the following bird, which, although

BIRDS OF COLOMBO. 105

it utters its note, a decided wok-wok-wok, in a more rapid series, it

does at times repeat it slowly like the Coppersmith. I have noticed

that the voice, if I may apply the term, of the Coppersmith

sometimes ‘‘ cracks’ on a note, when a harsh sound is produced.

This never occurs with the next species.

X. hematolephala, according to Legge, is confined to the drier

parts of the Island, chiefly on “ the lower portions of the Kandyan

country towards the east.” It does not appear to come further

west than Peradeniya. |

(1021) Xantholema rubricapilla (the Little Ceylon Barbet).

Resident.

Blandford, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), III., p. 100; Legge, Birds

of Ceylon, p. 215, plate XT.

This Little Barbet is peculiar to Ceylon, and abundant in Colombo.

It frequents tall leafy trees, and, on account of its green plumage, is

not often seen. Although its note, wok-wok-wok, is very distinct, it

does not assist one in tracing the bird, for it has a habit of turning

its head from side to side, and it is difficult to decide from which

direction the sound really comes.

Key to the Barbets.

General plumage uniformly green.

A.—Length, 8:5 in. and over.

(a) Head, neck, and breast brown, yellow

patch round edge .. .. T. zeylonicus.

(b) Cheeks blue, yellow patch on forehead C. flavifrons.

B.—Length more than 6 in.

(a) Top of head black ; cheeks yellow, red

patch on forehead ; broad red band

below the yellow breast; plumage

below whitish, feathers with broad

dark green centres, giving a mottled

appearance or .. X. hemato-

cephala,

(b) Top of head bluish-green ; cheeks blue,

red patch on forehead ; crimson spot

on the yellow breast ; plumage below

uniformly green... .. X.rubricapilla.

Family CORACIADZ.

(1022) Coracias indica (the Indian Roller). Resident.

Blandford, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), I1I., p. 103 ; Legge, Birds

of Ceylon, p. 281.

I have only once seen this bird in Colombo. It is usually confined

to the drier parts of the Island. Plumage generally is a mixture of

P 6(2)12

106 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

bright, dark, and light blue, brownish on the back, and vinous

beneath. It reminds one of a large Kingfisher at first sight, with a

large amount of vinaceous brown.

Family MEROPIDA.

(1026) Merops viridis (the Green Bee-eater). Resident.

Blandford, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), III., p. 110; Legge, Birds

of Ceylon, p. 309.

Found usually in the drier parts of Ceylon. I have, however, seen

this species in Colombo.

(1027) Merops philippinus (the Blue-tailed Bee-eater). Migrant.

Blandford, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), IIJ., p. 111; Legge, Birds

of Ceylon, p. 306.

This handsome Bee-eater, which is larger than the foregoing

species, is a migrant, arriving in Colombo in October, leaving it

almost at once, and returning in February, when it can frequently

be seen. It spends most of its time on the wing, much like a Swallow ;

its graceful flight and the elongated centre tail feathers proclaim

its identity at once. Its note is not unlike that of the Golden

Plover.

Key to the Bee-eaters.

Plumage uniformly green, length about 9°5 in. ;

black band across throat edged yellowish-

green ; centre tail feathers elongated .. M. viridis.

Plumage generally “ brownish-green,’ length

about 12 in. ; black eye-stripe ; centre tail

feathers elongated 23 in. beyond others .. M. philippinus.

Family ALCEDINIDA.

(1033) Ceryle varia (the Pied Kingfisher). Resident.

Blandford, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), IIT., p. 119; Legge, Birds

of Ceylon, p. 288.

This beautiful Kingfisher is frequently met with on the outskirts

of Colombo, fishing over the swamps. It has a habit of hovering

like a hawk, and dropping like a stone to seize its prey. The plumage,

as its name implies, is black and white.

(1035) Alcedo ispida (the Little Indian Kingfisher). Resident.

Blandford, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), III., p. 122 ; Legge, Birds

of Ceylon, p. 292.

Common on the swamps on the outskirts. Differs only in a few

details from the Kingfisher which livens the streams in England.

The beauty of its plumage surpasses that of the following species,

and it can be identified at once by its small size.

‘

BIRDS OF COLOMBO. 107

(1044) Haleyon smyrnensis (the White-breasted Kingfisher).

Resident.

Blandford, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), III., p. 132 ; Legge, Birds

of Ceylon, p. 298.

One of the commonest birds of Colombo, being found in almost

every garden. Its harsh scream as it wings its way through the air,

contrasted with the plaintive note it utters when perched on a

branch, must be familiar to every resident.

Key to the Kingfishers.

Plumage entirely pied, black and white .. C. varia.

Plumage generally bright blue; chin, throat,

eye-stripe white ; under plumage “ orange

rufous)” ... oe .. A. wspida.

Plumage generally bright “‘ torquoise blue” ;

breast white ; head and lower parts below

breast rich “‘ chestnut-brown ”’ .. H. smyrnensis.

Family CY PSELIDA.

Sub-family CypsELin 2.

(1073) Cypselus affinis (the Common Indian Swift). Resident.

Blandford, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), III., p. 168 ; Legge, Birds

of Ceylon, p. 319.

Fairly common. May be distinguished from other Swifts by its

vigorous flight, the conspicuous white rump in contrast to its black

plumage, and its short square tail. The white rump can be distin-

guished even when looking up at the bird, for the white patch

extends to the sides of the rump.

(1075) Tachornis batassiensis (the Palm Swift). Resident.

Blandford, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), II1., p. 170; Legge, Birds

of Ceylon, p. 322.

Much more common than the foregoing species. Thissmall Swift

is found all over the low-country and on the lower hills. The general

colour of the plumage is smoky-brown ; the tail is deeply forked, but

this can only be noticed when the bird opens it whilst on the wing.

The flight, though fluttering, is fast, and its note, which can

frequently be heard, “‘ is likened by Blyth to the sound titéeya ”

(Legge). Frequently seen flying about at dusk after insects.

(1086) Macropteryx coronata (the Indian Crested Swift). Resident.

Blandford, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), IIT., p. 180; Legge, Birds

of Ceylon, p. 328.

The largest Swift seen in Colombo. Its crest is scarcely, if ever,

raised when on the wing, but conspicuous when perched. ‘The

plumage above is “ bluish ashy,” grayish underneath, paling into the

white of the under tail-coverts. The tail is long and deeply forked.

108 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

In the following key I give the length of each bird, to assist the

beginner in identifying each species :—

Plumage entirely black, rump and sides of rump

white ; tail short and square ; length about

5 to 52 in. be . .C. affinis.

~ Plumage smoky brown, tail long and deeply

forked ; length about 5 in. . 1’. batassiensis.

Plumage above “ bluish ashy,” gray below, white

under tail-coverts ; tail long, attenuated,

and deeply forked; crested ; length about

Oyaint 15 ff . -M. coronata.

Notrr.—I have on one or two occasions seen another Swift in

Colombo, which I have been unable to identify. It is entirely

blackish-brown, has a very vigorous flight, and is not at all unlike

C. apus (the European Swift) in size. This species so far has only

been recorded in the north of India, and one specimen was shot in

the Andaman Islands. It was in November that I saw the bird

mentioned.

Family CAPRIMULGIDA.

(1091) Caprimulgus asiaticus (the Common Indian Nightjar).

Resident.

Blandford, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), III., p. 186; Legge, Birds

of Ceylon, p. 343.

Common about open spaces in Colombo. The plumage is beauti-

fully mottled, but the bird can more readily be noticed by its note.

I do not think ornithologists have emphasized how remarkable this

note really is. Jerdon says: ‘‘ Its usual note is like the sound of a

stone scudding over the ice.” Legge reiterates this, and adds:

“This peculiar note has given rise to its name ‘Ice-bird’; and not

unappropriate it is, too, notwithstanding that the idea does not

assimilate well with a temperature of 84° Fahr.!” However

extraordinary the resemblance may be, to my mind the most remark-

able thing is that not only is the scudding of the stone exactly true,

but one can even hear the ring of the ice. I have frequently pointed

this out on hearing the note, and all agree that the ring of the ice is.

most faithfully reproduced.

Family CUCULID.

Sub-family PH@NICOPHAIN &.

(1120) Eudynamis honorata (the Indian Koel). Resident.

Blandford, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), IITI., p. 228; Legge, Birds

of Ceylon, p. 251.

Common during certain months of the year. Most frequently

heard at the commencement of the hot weather, the monotony of

ite oft-repeated note, ku-il ku-il, having earned for it the title of

BIRDS OF COLOMBO. 109

the ‘‘ Brain-fever Bird.”” The male is jet black all over, and the

female spotted brown and white. Frequents thick leafy trees and

is not often seen. The male bird is not unlike a crow, but can be

distinguished from it by its feeble flight, smaller size, and longer tail.

The Koel is a parasitic cuckoo, and lays its eggs in the nests of crows.

Family PSITTACID.

(1188) Palzornis torquatus (the Rose-ringed Parrakeet). Resident.

Blandford, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), I1I., p. 250; Legge, Birds

of Ceylon, p. 171.

Frequently seen in small flocks of three, six, or even more. Their

flight is very rapid, and they easily attract attention by the frequent

utterance of their screaming note, both on the wing and when

perching. The plumage is bright green, a collar of pale red on the

neck with black edge at the sides. A common cage pet. A larger

Parrakeet with red patches on the wings is frequently caged too, but

I have not seen this species (Palwornis ewpairius, the Alexandrine

Parrakeet) in its wild state in Colombo.

The Tamil name of P. torquatus is “ Killi,”’ which resembles the

note it utters.

Family ASIONIDA.

Sub-family AsIoNnINz.

(1160) Syrnium indrani (the Brown Wood Owl). Resident.

Blandford, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), TI., p. 275; Legge, Birds

of Ceylon, p. 155, plate V. |

This fine Owl is reported from Colombo, and its weird and horrible

cries, which has earned for it the name of Devil-bird, have been

heard at night. A specimen was caught in a Fort store last

February. Mr. F. Lewis gives a good account of the cry of this

Owl in The Ibis, Vol. IV., No. 15, 1898.

Sub-family BuBoNInz&.

(1178) Seops bakkameena (Forster’s Scops Owl). Resident.

Blandford, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), IL1., p. 297; Legge, Birds

of Ceylon, p. 135.

This little Owl can be heard every night on the roads of Colombo,

and its hoot from a tree in the compound must be familiar to every

one.

Family FALCONIDA.

Sub-family FALCONIN &.

(1228) Haliastur indus (the Brahminy Kite). Resident.

Blandford, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), IIi., p. 372 ; Legge, Birds

of Ceylon, p. 76.

This bird seems to have only come to Colombo within the last

thirty years, for Legge remarks that he has never observed it here.

110 SPOLIA ZEYLANIGA.

It is frequently seen in the harbour feeding on garbage from the

ships, and is common in most parts of the Island on the coast. The

plumage of the adult bird is maroon-red, except the head, neck, and

breast, which are white. Young birds are totally different, lacking

the maroon and white, and being mottled, more or less, all over.

Legge’s note on the way this bird devours its food whilst on the

wing is very interesting. I have frequently seen it performing the

operation.

(1234) Cireus cineraceus (Montagu’s Harrier). Migrant.

Blandford, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), I1I., p. 383 ; Legge, Birds

of Ceylon, p. 12.

Only one specimen, which was caught in Colombo in October,

has come under my notice. It is a migrant, and comes over at the

beginning of the cool season.

(1248) Accipiter virgatus (the Besra, or Jungle Sparrow Hawk).

Resident.

Blandford, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), III., p. 404; Legge, Birds

of Ceylon, p. 26.

Reported by Mr. Symons.

I have seen several other species of hawks in Colombo, but so far

have been unable to identify them.

Family COLUMBIDA,.

Sub-family CoLUMBIN 2.

(1307) Turtur suratensis (the Spotted Dove). Resident.

Blandford, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), [V., p. 43 ; Legge, Birds of

Ceylon, p. 705.

Seen occasionally on the outskirts of Colombo, but abundant

throughout the low-country. The head is gray, a band of black

feathers with white spots round hind neck. Above brown, the

white tips of the tail feathers conspicuous when on the wing. Under

parts vinous. A common cage bird.

Family PHASIANIDA.

(1854) Exealfactoria chinensis (the Blue-breasted or Chinese

Quail). Resident. ;

Blandford, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), IV., p. 112; Legge, Birds

of Ceylon, p. 755.

With the disappearance of the grass fields in Colombo, this Quail

is not so frequently met with as it used to be. They are, however,

still to be found, and I have put them up in the evenings near the

racecourse.

BIRDS OF COLOMBO. 111

Family RALLID.

(1895) Rallina superciliaris (the Banded Crake). Migrant.

Blandford, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), [V., p. 167; Legge, Birds

of Ceylon, p. 772.

A migrant arriving in October, when numbers are caught in

Colombo in an exhausted state. It appears to stay only a few days,

and then goes up to the hills. On their arrival they are frequently

found in compounds and even in bungalows, where they are easily

caught. The head and neck are chestnut, the remainder of the

plumage olive-green, except the breast and under parts, which are

spotted or banded black and white. They thrive well in captivity.

(1401) Amaurornis pheenicurus (the White-breasted Water Hen).

Resident.

Blandford, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), IV., p. 173; Legge, Birds

of Ceylon, p. 786.

Frequents Colombo lake, but I think its numbers are dwindling,

owing to encroachment on the shores. Head, neck, and breast

white, upper parts slaty-gray and olive-green. Rump brown,

under parts chestnut. It is a very noisy bird. The extraordinary

notes it produces are unequalled by any other wader. KE. H. Aitken

(known as E. H. A., author of ‘‘ Tribes on my Frontier,” “‘ Behind

the Bungalow,” &c.) says: “ Anything more unearthly proceeding

from the throat of a bird I never heard. It began with loud harsh

roars, which might have been elicited from a bear by roasting it

slowly over a large fire, then suddenly changed to a clear note,

_repeated like the coo of a dove.”

Family CHARADRIIDA.

Sub-family CHARADRIIN#,

(1430) Strepsilas interpres (the Turnstone).

Blandford, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), IV., p. 223; Legge, Birds

of Ceylon, p. 900.

I have only met with this bird once on the Galle Face sands, in

October.

(1437) Chettusia gregaria (the Sociable Lapwing). Migrant.

Blandford, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), IV., p. 231; Legge, Birds

of Ceylon, p. 959.

I observed this bird for the first time during the cool season of

1906-7, when a flock of seven took up their quarters on the race-

course. Since then I have only seen a solitary example at the same

place in January of last year. The flock of seven were extraordinarily

tame, allowing even equestrians to come up close to them before

taking flight. This typical Plover can readily be distinguished by

the large amount of white in the wings, which is very conspicuous

when the bird flies.

112 SPOLIA ZEYLANIGCA.

(1439) Charadrius fulvus (the Eastern Golden Plover). Migrant.

Blandford, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), IV., p. 234; Legge, Birds

of Ceylon, p. 934.

This Plover is, strictly speaking, a migrant, and arrives earlier

than any of the other birds which come to us for the winter.

I have seen them as early as September 3 in Colombo. The

plumage of these particular birds was then changing from the

breeding to the winter dress, the under parts being blotched black

and white. Frequently seen in large flocks on the racecourse, in

company with the two following Plovers.

(1446) Afgialitis alexandrina (the Kentish Plover). Migrant.

Blandford, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), IV., p. 240; Legge, Birds

of Ceylon, p. 947.

(1447) A&gialitis dubia (the Little Ringed Plover). Migrant.

Blandford, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), IV., p. 241; Legge, Birds

of Ceylon, p. 952.

Key to the Plovers.

(a) Plumage above generally stone-gray ; breast

black; wings black, with broad white

patch ;} under parts black. Length about

124i joe i .. C. gregaria.

(6) Plumage above generally blackish-brown

with golden yellow markings; breast and

under parts white, with dark centres to

feathers. Length about 9 in. to 10in. .. C. fulvus.

ring round neck; no black or brown band

across breast. Length about 6 in. .. 4. alexandrina.

(d) Plumage above generally brownish; white

ring round neck; black or brown band

across breast. Length about 6 in. .. Ay. dubia.

Sub-family ToTaniInz.

(1460) Totanus hypoleucus (the Common Sandpiper). Resident.

Blandford, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), IV., p. 260; Legge, Birds

of Ceylon, p. 867.

Common on the seashore and borders of the lake. Its shrill

piping note and peculiar flight close to the surface of the water,

‘holding its wings bent like a bow,” proclaim its identity. When

it settles it wags the hinder part of its body like a Wagtail. The

plumage above is grayish-brown and the under parts a very pale

gray, almost white.

BIRDS OF COLOMBO. 113

Sub-family SCOLOPACINA.

(1484) Gallinago ccelestis (the Common Snipe). Migrant.

Blandford, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), IV., p. 286; Legge, Birds

of Ceylon, pp. 821, 1218.

The familiar snipe of sportsmen takes its place in this list, as it

undoubtedly was formerly found in good numbers in the swampy

lands round Colombo, and has within the last month or so been

reported from the Ladies’ golf links. I have heard of it being put

up in the grounds of the new Royal College and the racecourse.

Family LARIDA.

Sub-family STERNINZ.

(1496) Hydrochelidon hybrida (the Black-bellied Marsh Tern).

Resident.

Blandford, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), IV., p. 307 ; Legge, Birds

of Ceylon, p. 996.

The commonest bird seen on the lake, and abundant on the

inland waters round the coast, and on the big tanks. The top of

the head is black; upper plumage dark gray ; underneath white ;

abdomen “ gray-black.” In breeding plumage, the under parts

from breast downwards are very dark.

(1501) Sterna media (the Smaller-crested Tern). Resident.

Blandford, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), IV., p. 313; Legge, Birds

of Ceylon, p. 1030. |

Common in the harbour and on the coast. Top of head black ;

upper plumage dark gray; under parts white; legs and feet

black; bill orange red. Length about 15 in.

(1502) Sterna bergii (the Large-crested Tern). Resident.

Blandford, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), IV., p. 314; Legge, Birds

of Ceylon, p. 1026.

Plumage the same as the foregoing species, except that there is

a white spot on forehead ; bill “ musky yellow tinged with green.”

Length 20 in.

Family FREGATIDA.

(1525) Fregata ariel (the Lesser Frigate Bird).

Blandford, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), IV., p. 338; Legge, Birds

of Ceylon, p. 1203.

I have on several occasions seen this bird over the Galle Face.

Its powerful flight forms a subject about which much has been

written. I have noticed it flying about casually at a fair height,

and in a moment or so, with a very few strokes of its wings, it has

gone away quite out of sight. When descending it has a curious

way of folding its wings, it seemed to me, over its head, and swooping

down. ;

Q 6(2)12

114 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Nicholl (Ibis, Oct., 1906, p. 692) says he saw the larger species

‘close one wing and plunge downwards.”

The plumage above is black, and below dark brown. Immature

birds are lighter underneath, with chest and abdomen white. Tail

long and deeply forked.

Family PHAETHONID&.

(1534) Pheethon flavirostris (the White Tropic Bird).

Blandford, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), [V.; Legge, Birds of Ceylon,

p. 1172:

A rare visitor to the coasts of Ceylon.

Family ARDEIDA.

(1562) Bubuleus coromandus (the Cattle Egret). Resident.

Blandford, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), IV., p. 389; Legge, Binds

of Ceylon, p. 1147.

Seen occasionally in the swamps on the outskirts of Colombo.

(1565) Ardeola grayi (the Pond Heron). Resident.

Blandford, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), [V., p. 393; Legge, Birds

of Ceylon, p. 1150.

Thé most familiar bird on any piece of water in or near Colombo.

In flight the large white wings are most conspicuous, but when once

it settles it tucks them away so that they are not seen, and as the

plumage generally resembles the greenish-yellowish grass of the

swamps, the bird to all intents and purposes disappears from sight.

Family PODICIPEDIDA.

(1617) Podicipes albipennis (the Little Indian Grebe, or Dabchick).

Resident.

Blandford, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), IV., p. 475 ; Legge, Birds

of Ceylon, p. 1059. .

Except for a very slight difference in colour this bird is the same

as the familiar Dabchick found on the ponds in England. It

frequents the Colombo lake in large numbers at certain times of

the year, and a small colony can generally be seen on the water off

the Fort railway station.

The following is a list of common birds seen round Colombo,

which scarcely, if ever, come within the confines of the city :—

(252) Chloropsis jerdoni (the Green Bulbul). Resident.

Blandford, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), I., p. 288 ; Legge, Birds of

Ceylon, p. 485.

Plated:

THE WHITE-BELLIED DRONGO

OR KING CROW.

(Dicrurus leucopygialis ).

THE MADRAS RED-VENTED BULBUL.

(Molpastes hovmorrhous ).

THE ASHY WOOD-SWALLOW

THE BROWN SHRIKE. OR SWALLOW SHRIKE.

(Lanius cristatus ). ( Artamus fuscus ).

Plate Jl.

THE PARADISE EY CARGHIER:

(Terpstplione paradist )

LOTEN'’S SUN-BIRD LOTEN’S SUN-BIRD.

Female Male

(Arachnechthra lotenta ). ( Arachnechthra lotenta }.

Plate ihe

TWlalley IPHVEIDY 1CUNKGH ETS MER

Eo UND VANES eA: (Cervle varia).

(Pitta brachyura).

THe EMGhEE INDIAN KINGEISHER THE WHITE-BREASTED KINGFISHER

( d/cedo tspida ). ( Halcyon simyrnensts ).

Plate LV.

THE BANDED CRAKE.

( Rallina superciliaris ).

FORSTER'S SCOPS OWL.

(Scops bakkamana ).

THE BRAHMINY KITE.

(Haliastur indus).

Plate V.

Tle EASTERN GOLDEN PEOVER:

(Charadrius fulvus ).

THE SOCIABLE LAPWING.

(Chetlusia gregaria ).

THES WeARGE “CRESTED ERIN:

(Sterna bergir).

BIRDS OF COLOMBO.

(720) Ploceus baya (the Common Weaver Bird). Resident.

_ Blandford, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), I., p. 175 ; Legge, Birds of

Ceylon, p. 641.

(725) Munia malacea (the Black-headed Munia). Resident.

Blandford, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), II., p. 182; Legge, Birds

of Ceylon, p. 652.

(985) Micropternus gularis (Madras Rufous Woodpecker). Resident.

Blandford, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), III., p. 57 ; Legge, Birds of

Ceylon, p. 200.

(1237) Circus zruginosus (the Marsh Harrier). Migrant.

Blandford, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), III., p. 387 ; Legge, Birds

_ of Ceylon, p. 5.

(1291) Chaleophaps indica (the Bronze-wing Dove). Resident.

Blandford, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), IV., p. 26 ; Legge, Birds of

Ceylon, p. 714.

(14573) Ardetta cinnamomea (the Chestnut Bittern). Resident.

Blandford, Fauna Br. Ind. (Birds), IV., p. 402 ; Legge, Birds of

Ceylon, p. 1162.

Plate I.

(i.) Molpastes hemorrhous (the Madras Red-vented Bulbul).

(ii.) Dicrurus leucopygialis (the White-bellied Drongo).

(iii.) Lantus cristatus (the Brown Shrike).

(iv.) Artamus fuscus (the Ashy Wood Swallow, or Swallow Shrike).

Plate Il.

(i.) Terpsiphone paradisi (the Paradise Fly-catcher).

(ii.) Arachnechthra lotenia (Loten’s Sun Bird). 6

(iii.) Arachnechthra lotenia (Loten’s Sun Bird). ¥

Plate III.

(i.) Pitta brachyura (the Indian Pitta).

(ii.) Ceryle varia (the Pied Kingfisher).

iii.) Alcedo ispida (the Little Indian Kingfisher).

(iv.) Halcyon smyrnensis (the White-breasted Kingfisher).

Plate IV.

(i.) Scops bakkamena (Forster’s Scops Owl).

(ii.) Rallina superciliaris (the Banded Crake).

(iil.) Haliastur indus (the Brahminy Kite).

! Plate V.

(i.) Chettusia gregaria (the Sociable Lapwing).

| (ii.) Charadrius fulvus (the Eastern Golden Plover).

' (ili.) Sterna bergii (the Large-crested Tern).

116 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

THE VENOM OF SNAKES.

By Dr. G. BoBrau,

Preparateur in Histology to the Faculty of Medicine, Paris.

HIS article makes no pretence of containing anything new

concerning venoms and their physiological action. It is

merely a general review of the knowledge acquired on the subject

up to the present day. Later on I intend to give the histological

results obtained by me from the material (poison glands and

organs of animals bitten by snakes) that I brought back from

my recent travels in Ceylon and India. I here take the opportunity

of offering my best thanks to Dr. J. Pearson, Director of the

Colombo Museum, for his kind reception.

Setting apart for future studies the anatomical and histological

structure of the poison gland, I will briefly indicate the physical and

physiological characters of venoms. Afterwards I will examine the

symptoms which result from the bites of venomous serpents

( Viperide and Colubridze), and indicate what lesions they determine

in the principal organs. Lastly, I will consider the question of the

treatment of snake bites.

Physical Characters and Physvological Properties of Venoms.

It is possible to obtain fresh venom either by compressing the

poison glands dissected from a freshly-killed serpent, or by inciting

a living snake, which is securely fixed, to eject the contents of its

glands into a vessel placed under the poison fangs.

The liquid obtained in this way is of oily consistency ; its colour

is light yellow and its taste is very bitter. When rapidly dried, it

concretes into glittering lamellz of a colour varying between gold-

yellow and light brown. In this state it may be preserved for

some time, provided it is sheltered from light and moisture.

When wanted for physiological experiments, dry venom has to

be dissolved in about four times its weight of normal saline solution.

In fact, the dry residuum is from 20 to 38 per cent. (Calmette).

Its abundance is proportionate to the period which has elapsed

since the animal had last partaken of food or had used its poison-

fangs. The approximate quantity of liquid venom that can be

gathered (for the two glands) is as follows :—A large sized cobra

(1°60 métre) gives about 1°10 gramme; a Russell’s viper, 1°80

métre long, furnished 1°40 gramme.

VENOM OF SNAKES. 117

I give here Calmette’s table concerning the toxicity of dry

venom :—

One gramme of dry cobra’s venom kills approximately *—

1,250 kilogrammes of dog.

1,430 do. rat.

2,000 do. rabbit.

2,500 do. guineapig.

8,333 do. mouse.

10,000 do. man (or 165 persons of about 10 stones

each).

20,000 do. horse.

Although cold has no action on the toxic properties of liquid

venoms, heat coagulates and modifies their chemical composition.

The action is different on liquids obtained from Colubride from

those obtained from Viperide. According to Calmette, in the first

case (Colubridz) venoms retain their toxicity with temperature of

about 100° C.; this toxicity is completely destroyed at 120° C. only.

In the second case (Viperidz) toxicity disappears between 65° C.

and 85°C. Therefore it is not possible to give a general rule as to

the resistance of venoms against heat, especially as there are large

differences in this resistance between closely related species of the

same genus.

Venom presents most of the chemical reactions which characterize

proteic matter, viz., precipitation by absolute alcohol ; reaction of

biuret ; xantho-proteic reaction ; precipitation by picric acid, with

disappearance of the precipitate by heating, &c.

Such, in brief, are some of the most important physical and

chemical properties of venom. Concerning the physiological

properties, I will indicate only their two chief functions. It must

be borne in mind that if venoms are an offensive and defensive

secretion, they are also an indispensable secretion for the digestion

of aliments. In fact, the non-venomous snakes (Tropidonotus natrix)

possess parotid and supra-labial glands which secrete venomous

saliva (works of Leydig, Reichel, Blanchard, Physalix, Bertrand,

&c.), but they are deprived of the special channelled teeth which

enable venomous snakes to inoculate their poison.

Symptoms resulting from the biting of Venomous Snakes.

Calmette has proved that all venoms contain at the same time a

neurotoxin and a hemorragin, but in various proportions. That in

Colubridz and Hydrophide, neurotoxin predominates, whereas with

Viperidze there is predominance of hemorragin. Therefore, in case

* The toxicity of venom varies a great deal according to the physiological

state of the animal ; it is much greater (about ten times) after the moulting or

after a long fast.

118 SPOLIA ZEYLANIGCA.

of a cobra bite, the local symptoms will be little marked, but some

signs of intoxication of the bulb will rapidly appear. On the

contrary, in the case of a bite from a Russell’s viper, the local

symptoms, extremely intense, will predominate at first.

Having had the unfortunate experience of being bitten twice by

snakes—in 1904 by a cobra (Colubridz), in 1910 by a Cerastus

vipera (Viperidz)—it may be of interest if I give an account of my

personal observations.

(1) Bite of Cobra.—On June 10, 1904, at 1 p.m., I was bitten on

the right thumb by a cobra, 1°20 metre in length, which I was

preparing to dissect in the belief that the animal was dead. Nine

days betore I had emptied its poison glands, and since that time

it had completely fasted. At first the pain was very slight. At 1-15

there was a sensation of numbness in the whole right arm, in spite

of the ligatures made immediately after the bite at the base of the

thumb and in the middle of the forearm. At 1°35 I attempted to

make an injection of 20 ec. Calmette’s serum into my side, but a

slight fainting fit in the middle of the operation stopped me. Upon

reviving, I finished the injection, and, in spite of my extreme

weariness, I prepared a second syringe of 10 cc. of Calmette’s serum.

At 2.30 by struggling against an insurmountable sleepiness, I made

the second injection. It was more difficult to perform than the

first, because of the numbness of my right arm. A second fainting

fit followed the injection. At 5 p.m., feeling increased weariness

and experiencing some nausea, I again injected 20 cc. of serum.

The operation was long and laborious and provoked another fainting

fit, this time of much longer duration. But soon after I felt much

better ; the sensation of violent thirst had diminished and the

sleepiness was not so overpowering; I could stand up and walk

about without tottering. During the night I was not much troubled,

except by a peculiar and distinct sensation of torpor which remained

during my sleep. On awakening there was a slight dizziness, but

not bad enough to prevent my walking about. On the following

day my condition gradually assumed normality ; there were no

secondary effects produced locally by the venomous fangs. How-

ever, the albuminuria (1 -20 gramme the first day) observed from

the date of the bite gradually decreased during the following forty

days. I impute the rapidity of the phenomenon of intoxication

to a direct penetration of the venom into a small vein.

(2) Bite of Cerastus vipera—On October 6, 1910, at 3 P.M., a

viper 30 cm. in length, escaped from my hands just as I had collected

its venom. In trying to secure the animal on the table, I pressed

it against my side, and I was bitten on the front part of the left

thigh, a hand’s breadth above the knee. I experienced an immediate

sensation of lancinating pain along the lower limb. I quickly made

a tight ligature at the top of the thigh, and squeezing the wound as

hard as possible, I applied a 1/60th solution of hypochlorite of lime.

VENOM OF SNAKES, 119

Since the snake had just ejected most of its venom, and fearing

anaphylactia on account of previous injections of Calmette’s serum,

I did not use serotherapy. At 5 P.M. the pain became unbearable ;

the whole limb was swollen and cedematous, with a sensation as

though it were in imminent danger of bursting ; the inguinal ganglia

began to ache and were sensitive to the touch. I renewed the

hypochlorite dressing every ten minutes. At 7 P.M. a few steps

that I was obliged to make increased the suffering. In the evening

at 9.30 my temperature was 98° F. The following morning at

8 a.m.,97°7° F. During the night I had slight delirium. Walking

was impossible for two days, because of the ganglionic swelling.

The urine contained traces of albumin for eight days. Then

everything was restored to natural condition, except that for a

fortnight after the inguinal ganglia were still slightly painful.

We will now describe the lesions traced in the principal organs

during the autopsy of men and animals killed by snake-bite.

When autopsy is performed on an individual killed by the bite

of a cobra or a Russell’s viper, provided in the latter case that

death ensues slowly, the blood remains fluid. In case of rapid

death due to the bite of Russell’s viper, the blood is coagulated.

This fact is due to the presence in venoms of numerous substances

(such as proteolytic and hemolytic substances) to which Flexuer

and Noguchi have especially drawn notice.

The liver of the subject is very much congested ; it is friable; and

the knife mangles it rather than cuts it. The microscope shows

that many cells are undergoing fatty degeneration.

The kidney is affected with hyperhemia and is full of interstitial

hemorragic centres. The necrosed cells of the tubuli contorti leave

their basal membrane and obstruct the canal.

The lungs display numerous small congestions ; it is noticeable

also that the pulmonary vesicles appear to have contracted.

The nervous centres seem affected with hyperhemia, but their

microscopic aspect does not permit one to infer that there are

important lesions. The histological examination shows the dis-

appearance or modification of the corpuscles of Nissl and the opacity

of the nucleus.

The Anti-venomous Serotherapy is entirely due to the researches

of Calmette. To obtain his serum, which must be only considered

as curative (and never as preventive, because of the anaphylactic

accidents that would follow), Calmette injected into a horse

progressively increasing doses of venom. He commences by

injecting infinitesimal doses of venom whose toxicity has been

destroyed by heating. The serum of the animal may be used when

the latter can withstand an injection of 2 grammes of cobra’s dry

venom (that is, 80 times as great as what would ordinarily kill a

horse). It takes on an average sixteen months to obtain this

result.

120 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

The serum obtained in this way possesses a curative power

against the venom of the same kind of snake which served to inject

the horse.

But the Viperidz and the Colubride having venoms whose

physiological actions differ, the serum must, to be efficient in all

cases, be obtained from a horse which has received injections of both

kinds of venoms. This is why Calmette has obtained a polyvalent

serum which is at the same time antineurotoxic (Colubride) and

anti-hemorragic (Viperide).

An anti-ophidian serum is specific only against the kind of snake

which supplied the venom for inoculation, and these kinds vary

obviously according to the country. For this reason curative

serums are now prepared in different countries against the local

species. Thus in India, at the Central Research Institute of

Kasauli, a polyvalent serum is obtained by inoculation of a mixture

of cobra and Russell’s viper venom. At Sad-Paulo (Brazil) three

sorts of serum are prepared: two are specific (anti-crotalian and

anti-bothropian) ; the third variety is polyvalent.

The description of the proceedings used in the various institutes

of anti-venomous serotherapy would extend beyond the limits of

this rapid and general review. I will consequently not discuss this

question, nor describe the manner of collecting the serum and of

computing its anti-toxic powers.

What to do in a case of Snake-bite.

(1) The first thing to do is to stop as quickly as possible the

return circulation in the wounded limb, by establishing at its base

a very tight ligature (with the help of braces, or a handkerchief, or

a string, if nothing more suitable is at hand).

(2) Press out the greatest part of the venom, either by applying

cupping-glasses on an incision as deep as that of the poison fangs,

or by simply sucking the wound in urgent cases. This latter

operation is dangerous for the operator, if the latter suffers from

buccal ulcerations, but in any case immediately after each suction

it is necessary to rinse out one’s mouth with water as soon as the

exhausted liquid has been ejected from the mouth.

(3) Neutralize the venom in the wound. Several proceedings

have been recommended, but the following have given the best

results :—

(a) Solution of 1/50 or 1/100 of permanganate of potash, or

packing the wound with crystals of permanganate. When

the solution of permanganate is employed the liquid must

be syringed into the tissues surrounding the bite; a

dressing soaked in the same solution is then applied on the

latter. This dressing has to be renewed every hour.

VENOM OF SNAKES. 121

(b) Solution of 1/60th hypochlorite of lime. The technique is

thesame. A few injections around the wound—afterwards

dress as in case (a).

1/100 of gold chloride. These have the disadvantage of

being caustic, and may sometimes give rise to ulcers.

(4) Make an injection of anti-ophidian serum. The right dose

varies with the serum employed. With Calmette’s serum it is

necessary to inject at the outset at least 40 cc. (and not 10 or 20,

as the author advises). The general technique remains the same.

A sterilized syringe (of 20 cc. capacity) is filled asepticly with the

serum chosen and the liquid is injected into the sub-cutaneous

cellular tissue in the side of the patient. It is naturally indis-

pensable (as for every hypodermic injection) to wash carefully with

alcohol the skin of the region where the puncture has to be made.

The place is then touched with a plug of aseptic padding dipped in

tincture of iodine. When all the liquid has penetrated, the needle

is pulled out with a jerk and a small piece of sterilized padding is

applied and kept in place with collodion.

(5) Remove the ligature. Give warm tea or coffee, and prevent

the sensation of cold by wrapping up the patient in warm blankets.

122 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

THE GALLE TRILINGUAL STONE.

By Epwarp W. PERERA,

Barrister-at-law, Middle Temple ; Advocate, Ceylon.

(With two Plates.)

CARVED stone, inscribed in Chinese, Persian, and Tamil,

was discovered by Mr. H. F. Tomalin, Provincial Engineer,

Southern Province, early in 1911, near the turn of Cripps road,

within the Town of Galle.* The tablet was used as a cover stone of

a culvert with the inscribed face downwards. The history of the

‘‘ find”’ is given in a note by Mr. G. A. Joseph, Honorary Secretary,

Ceylon Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, in the Journal of the

Society for 1911. With commendable care, Mr. Tomalin had the

tablet safely removed. It has proved to be a unique historical find,

with an interest more than purely local. Dr. H. A. Giles, Professor

of Chinese at Cambridge, thus speaks of it :—

‘“‘ The day of doubt in regard to the general accuracy of Chinese

annals has gone by ; were it otherwise, a recent (1911) discovery in

Ceylon would tend to dispel suspicion on one point. A tablet has

just been unearthed at Galle, bearing an inscription in Arabic (%),

Chinese, and Tamil. The Arabic (?) is beyond decipherment, but

enough is left of the Chinese to show that the tablet was erected in

1409 to commemorate a visit by the Chinese eunuch Chéng-Ho,

who passed several times backwards and forwards over that route.

In 1411 the same eunuch was sent as envoy to Japan and narrowly

escaped with his life.” +

Several experts were consulted in regard to the decipherment of

the trilingual inscription, which was greatly defaced. The Tamil

and Persian portions were found to be quite indistinct, but a complete

translation of the Chinese inscription, which baffled more than one

scholar, was ultimately secured through the courtesy of Mr. Jordan,

the British Ambassador at Pekin. Mr. Backhouse of Pekin furnished

a translation of the Chinese, which is given in Appendix I.

Mr. Backhouse’s note contains a few errors, due to his insufficient

acquaintance with Ceylon history.t Kandy was not founded in

* It is significant that, according to the Chinese authorities quoted by

Tennent (ed. 4, Vol. I., p. 614), Galle (Lo-le) was the port at which Chinese

vessels anchored.

+ H. A. Giles, ‘‘ The Civilization of China.’? Home University Library of

Modern Knowledge, p. 200.

{ See, however, Appendix VIII., which came to hand after this Paper was

written.

GALLE TRILINGUAL STONE. 123

the fifteenth century, and the reference in the Chinese chronicles

is clearly to the older capital Jayawardhanapura (modern Kotte),

on the sea-board, the seat of Government from circa 1391-1565.

The Sinhalese annals relating to this period are very scanty, and the

true account of the Chinese missions and the events which ultimately

led to the capture and deportation of the Sinhalese monarch by

the Chinese can only be gathered by a careful comparison of the

Chinese histories with the Sinhalese historical fragments. For this

a complete translation of all the passages in the Chinese chronicles

referring to Ceylon is necessary. From the references Tennent gives

in the passages quoted in Appendix LX. and Appendix X., it is

clear that the Chinese historians refer to the transaction recorded

in the stone.

From the above it would appear that the tablet commemorates

the second visit of Chéng-Ho to Ceylon, referred to in the Chinese

texts. Probably it was engraved in China by the order of the

Great Ming Emperor Yung-Lo, and transported with gifts for the

Sacred Tooth of Buddha then deposited at Kotte. It would seem

that an attempt made by Cheng-Ho to seize for his master the

most venerated relic of the Buddhist world culminated in the

struggle in which the Sinhalese monarch fell a victim to Chinese

strategy. But, as previously noted, nothing definite can be arrived

at till the Chinese chronicles are carefully analysed in the light

of Ceylon history. Perhaps the Ceylon Government, which has

displayed a practical interest in the discovery by securing the

tablet for the Museum, getting it photographed, and having a proper

translation made, will take steps to obtain this information.

The Saddharmaratnakara, a Buddhist work, contains the only

contemporary allusion to the event yet discovered in the Sinhalese

books :—

“ From that time forward religious harmony prevailed among

the priesthood up to the 15th year of Bhuvaneka Bahu V. Up

to the fourth year of Bhuvaneka Bahu there was fulfilled 1,929

years after the death of our Sage (1382 a.p.). Thereafter there was

the own son of Alakeswara Prabhuraja, Kumara Alakeswara, his*

father’s nephew Vira Alakeswara, the latter’s younger brother Vira

Bahu Epana, his son Vijaya Epa, his younger brother Tunayesa,

whose father’s elder brother Vira Alakeswara, having been defeated

by his younger brother Vira Bahu Epa, fled the country. There-

after he returned and reigned twelve years.

“* Afterwards, in consequence of the sins of a former birth, he fell into

a snare of the Chinese and went away ; thereupon Parakrama Bahu

Epa, the grandson of Lanka Senevirat, who had been previously

mentioned, ascended the throne in the month of Poson in the year

of Buddha 1958 and 1722nd year from the establishment of the

* “ His ”’ refers throughout to the name immediately preceding.

124 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

religion in the Island (1415 A.p.), after the demise of the said

seven.’ —Saddharmaratnakara, Colombo Museum, MS. C 12, p.

@ao, MS. V., p. 2s.

The Rajavaliya, or ‘‘A historical narrative of Sinhalese kings,”

though later, contains a more circumstantial account :—

“ During the reign of king Vijaya Bahu, Dosraja, king of Great

China, landed in Lanka, with an immense army ; and under pretext

of bringing presents and curiosities, craftily carried away king

Vijaya Bahu, who fell into his hands, foolishly thinking that he also

brought presents as other foreign princes had done in the time of

king Parakrama Bahu. His (Vijaya Bahu’s) four younger brothers

were killed. Taking many captives, Dosraja returned to Great

China.

* k * * * * * *

‘< Here it must be observed that it was in the 1958 of the illustrious

Buddhist era (1415 A.p.), on Thursday, the seventh day of the

bright half of the month Wesak, and under the asterism Phusa,

that king Vijaya Bahu was taken captive. Whereupon his queen

Sunetra Devi left the city, and went to Visidagama, taking his son

with her.’”—The Rajavaliya (Gunasekara), p. 67.

De Couto, the Portuguese historian of the East Indies (1543-1616),

who based his narrative on ancient Sinhalese chronicles (probably a

variant of the Rajavaliya, now lost), also refers to the event. I quote

from Mr. Donald Ferguson’s translation and append his valuable

notes :—

“ And as the Chins continued to carry on trade with this island,

and are wicked (as we have said), there put in there an armada of

theirs, when Dambadine Pandar* was king, whom we have mentioned

above ; and those of the country not being afraid of them, the day

that they intended to embark they captured the king, and sacked

his city ; and carrying off from it great treasures they departed for

China, and presented the captive king to theirs. The latter was

very angry at the treachery that his vassals had practised on a king

who had received them into his country ; and he forthwith com-

manded them under pain of death to take him back again to his

kingdom, for which purpose he ordered an armada to be got ready

in which he embarked him with every honour.” }—Journal R.A.S.,

C.B., Vol. XX., No. 60, pp. 66, 67.

* This statement proves that the copy of the Rajavaliya in the possession of

the Sinhalese princes who supplied Couto with his information, had the usual

hiatus, after the reign of Parakrama Bahu II. (see Rajavaliya, p. 66). In

reality the reigning king was Vira Bahu, or Vijaya Bahu VI. ( 71391-1412),

and he it was whom the Chinese General Ching Ho in 1410 carried off captive

to China (see Bell’s Report on Kegalla District, 91-3 ; Sylvani Lévi in Journal

Asiatique, 430, 440).—D. F.

} It is noteworthy that this statement regarding the remission of Vijaya Bahu,

which finds no place in the Rajavaliya, is confirmed by the Chinese historians

(see Tennent, Vol. L pp 416, 624).—-D. F.

GALLE TRILINGUAL STONE. 125

All the available evidence points to the conclusion that the Tamil

and Persian inscriptions are merely translations of the Chinese :

the enumeration of the gifts sent by the Chinese Emperor evidently

misled Dr. Harowitz in concluding that a mercantile transaction

was described in the imperfect Persian inscription. The only

translation of the Tamil available, that made by a Galle student,

would confirm this view.

For a detailed consideration of the Chinese invasion of Ceylon in

the fifteenth century vide Bell’s Report of the Kegalla District

(Ceylon Archeological Survey), pp. 91-93; and my Papers Alakes-

wara, Appendices A and B (Journal R.A.S., C.B., Vol. XVIII.,

No. 55, p. 281); and Sri Parakrama Bahu VI. (Journal R.AS.,

C.B., Vol. XXII., No. 63, p. 2).

A summary of the correspondence relating to the decipherment

of the tablet is subjoined.

|Nore.—Although satisfactory readings of the Tamil and Persian

inscriptions have not yet been obtained, it is thought advisable to

publish the opinion of the various experts obtained up to the

present. Epigraphists are invited to assist in deciphering the Tamil

and Persian.—KEd. |

Appendix I.

Translation of the Chinese Inscription.

His Majesty the Emperor of the Great Ming dynasty has despatched

the eunuchs Ching-Ho, Wang Ch’ing-Lien, and others to set forth his

utterance before Buddha, the World Honoured One, as follows :

‘““ Deeply do we reverence you, Merciful and Honoured One, whose

bright perfection is wide-embracing, and whose way of virtue passes

all understanding, whose law enters into all human relations, and the

years of whose great Kalpa (period) are like the sand of the river in

number, you whose controlling influence ennobles and converts, whose

kindness quickens, and whose strength discerns, whose mysterious

efficacy is beyond compare !

«* Whereas Ceylon’s mountainous isle lies in the south of the ocean,

and its Buddhist temples are sanctuaries of your gospel, where your

miraculous responsive power imbues and enlightens. Of late, We have

despatched missions to announce our mandates to foreign nations, and

during their journey over the ocean they have been favoured with the

blessing of your beneficent protection. They escaped disaster or mis-

fortune, and journeyed in safety to and fro. In everlasting recognition

of your supreme virtue, We, therefore, bestow offerings in recompense,

and do now reverently present before Buddha, the Honoured One,

oblations of gold and silver, gold embroidered jewelled banners of

variegated silk, incense burners, and flower vases, silks of many colours

in lining and exterior, lamps and candles with other gifts, in order to

manifest the high honour of our worship. Do you, Lord Buddha,

bestow on them your regard ! ”’

126 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

List of Alms bestowed at the Shrine of the Buddhist Temple

in the Mountain of Ceylon as offerings.

1,000 pieces of gold: 5,000 pieces of silver: 50 rolls of embroidered

silk in many colours: 50 rolls of silk taffeta, in many colours: 4 pairs of

jewelled banners, gold embroidered, and of variegated silk: 2 pairs of

the same picked in red: one pair of the same in yellow: one pair in

black : 5 antique brass incense burners : 5 pairs of antique brass flower

vases picked in gold on lacquer, with gold stands: 5 pairs of yellow brass

candlesticks picked in gold on lacquer, with gold stands: 5 yellow brass

lamps picked in gold on lacquer with gold stands: 5 incense vessels

in vermilion red, lacquered gold picked on lacquer, with gold stands :

6 pairs of golden lotus flowers : 2,500 catties of scented oil: 10 pairs of

wax candles: 10 sticks of fragrant incense.

The date being the seventh year of Yung-Lo (1410 a.p.) marked

Chi ch’ou in the sixty years’ cycle, on the Chia Hsu day of the sixty

days cycle in the second moon, being the Ist day of the month.

A reverent oblation.

EDMUND BACKHOUSE.

Pekin, March 31, 1911.

Appendix II.

A Note on Ching-Ho.

The eunuch Ching-Ho was one of the greatest figures in the great

reign of Yung Lo. He attracted the attention of that monarch, when

prince of Yen, by his knowledge of strategy, and was his chief assistant

in the long campaign he successfully carried out against his nephew, the

second emperor of the Ming dynasty and grandson of Chu Yuan-chang,

its founder. It is needless to recapitulate the events of that four years’

war, with which the reader will be familiar: marching from Pekin

southwards the prince of Yen won city after city from the imperialists,

and entered Nanking in 1403. The young Emperor Hui Ti fled into

Yunnan and thence to Burma ; and the first of the expeditions which

Ching-Ho undertook to a foreign country was to ascertain, if possible,

his whereabouts. In 1405 he went as far as Tongking, Siam, and Java,

from all of which countries tribute was received and the accession of

Yung Lo duly acknowledged. i

Encouraged by his success, his master sent him with a larger fleet in

the year 1407 to visit more remote lands: he collected tribute in Borneo,

Sumatra, Straits Settlements, visited Assam and Chittagong, and

cruised down the Bay of Bengal to Ceylon, where the King of Kandy

is recorded as having recognized the Emperor Yung Lo as his suzerain.

A Cingalese envoy returned with him to China and was received at

court. This is the visit referred to in the inscription now translated.

Apparently he followed it up by a second journey to Sumatra in 1411.

The year after his return to Pekin (7.e. 1415) he went on a fourth

mission and opened up trade with all the countries and islands in the

southern archipelago. After a second stay at Kandy, where he so-

journed in the well-known Buddhist temple near the lake, he went on

to Calicut, Socotra, Aden, entered the straits of Babel-Mandeb and

appears to have gone up the Red Sea as far as Suakim. The Sultan

(?) of Yemen sent representatives to forward tribute to Yung Lo, and

the ruler of Aden hospitably received his mission, which lingered there

several weeks. ;

GALLE TRILINGUAL STONE. 127

His life was spent in journeys abroad, and after the death of Yung

Lo, that Emperor’s grandson Hsuan Tsung (reign title Hsuan Te)

despatched him on yet another excursion, in the course of which he

passed up the Persian Gulf and received tribute from the rulers of

Bunder Abbas, Bushire, and what we may perhaps identify as Koweyt.

In all he opened trade relations with forty-three States. He died at an

extreme old age about 1444, during the troublous reign of Ying Tsung,

EDMUND BAcKHOUSE.

Pekin, March 31, 1911.

Appendix III.

Translation of the Tamil Inscription.

Mr. F. H. de Vos of Galle was able to procure an imperfect translation

of the Tamil inscription from a ‘‘ Young Tamil Schoolmaster of Galle.”

This is given below :—

Year [very indistinct]........ RECat yarns t tic. « This island ........

COMGUCLOLS see). 31s. therefore ........ WIS och a, a0h 3) 3 < to the enemy

Sa efetecanens this rough messengers ........ China ........ up to this

BU TO(e ey CeO SQMG AM ced ar aye te demanding in all this land ........

peacock feathers [?]........ firstlyeteys es. these conditions ........

Pribwte. i... sto 6 the Turks who conquered yesterday ........ des-

cription of the tribute ........ beautifully. ...... fifty different kinds

Gaile 5, 3" siatas PeCALISe sj 5n76:2 i MOeIVEN . 4... . SALety meee

COM ga eicunens ten lamps (brass) .........

* * * * * *

Appendix IV.

Copy of Letter from Professor Giles to Director, Colombo Museum.

Selwyn Gardens,

Cambridge, March 2, 1911.

Str,—In reply to your letter No. 49 of February 7, the Chinese

inscription is mostly obliterated, but enough remains for me to tell you

roughly that the tablet bears date the seventh year of the Emperor

Yung Lo of the Ming dynasty = 1409 a.p. The name of Buddha

occurs more than once ; also such items as five copper censers, five

golden boxes for incense, and five receptacles for perfumed oil.

Tn 1405 the eunuch Chéng-Ho was sent to Ceylon to acquire a tooth

of Buddha ; and Chinese history tells us that, after a fight, he succeeded

in carrying off the relic. This tablet is probably connected in some

way with that event.

H. A. Gigs.

128 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Appendix V.

The Archeological Commissioner wrote to M. R. Ry. H. Krishna

Sastri Avargal, the Assistant Archeological Superintendent for Epi-

graphy, Southern India, asking for assistance, and the followign two

letters were received :—

From M. R. Ry. H. Krisuna Sastri AVARGAL, B.A., Assistant

Archeological Superintendent for Epigraphy, Southern Circle,

to H. C. P. Betz, Esq., Archeological Commissioner

for Ceylon.

Office of the Assistant Archzological Superinterident

for Epigraphy, Ootacamund,

Camp Chickbakapur,

No. 57. February 6, 1911.

Sir,—WirH reference to your letter No. 58 dated January 30, 1911,

I have the honour to inform you that the impressions of the trilingual

inscription from Galle are not so perfect as I would desire them to be.

I can only gather from a rough examination that the Tamil record

deals with a mercantile transaction. 1 shall, however, find time to study

them more closely after I return to headquarters about the middle of

March. The results of my study will be communicated to you about

the end of that month.

I suggest that the Arabic inscription may be sent for examination to

Dr. J. Horovitz, Ph.D., of Aligarh, who is the Editor of Epigraphia

Moslemica.

H. Kristna Sastrt.

From M. R. Ry. H. Krisrna Sastri AvaRGAL, B.A., Assistant

Archeological Superintendent for Epigraphy, Southern Circle,

to H. C. P. Benn, Esq., Archzeological Commissioner

for Ceylon, Anuradhapura.

Office of the Assistant Archeological Superintendent

for Epigraphy, Ootacamund.

No. 146. March 20, 1911.

Srr,—In continuation of my letter No. 57 of the 6th instant, I have

the honour to enclose my very tentative transcript of the Tamil portion

of the trilingual record from Galle. The letters in this are so small and

smashed that it is often difficult to distinguish ka and cha, na and ta,

&ec., which look so much alike in Tamil. I have not on this account

attempted to send you a practically meaningless translation. It,

however, appears to me from certain phrases underlined on the trans-

cript that the inscription deals with a mercantile transaction in which

the weavers and other merchants (often bearing the honorifics nayanars

and Settis) agreed among themselves, or with the ruling authorities, to

levy some specified taxes amounting to about 2,500 (pon ?) on articles

such as gold, silver, silk, tulukki, sandal, beeswax, thread, &c. The

purpose for which this tax was levied is not clear from the inscription,

whether it was for the benefit of a temple, the guild, or the royal treasury.

The ink impressions and the photograph of the trilingual record have

been forwarded to Dr. Horovitz, Ph.D., the editor of the Epigraphia

Moslemica, Aligarh, for decipherment of the Arabic portion thereof and

their direct despatch to you after (they are) done with, with his text

and translation.

H. Kristna SASTRI.

GALLE TRILINGUAL STONE. 129

Appendix VI.

Copy of Letter from Dr. J. Horovitz, Epigraphist for Moslem Inscriptions

in India, to the Archeological Commissioner, Ceylon.

From Dr. J. Horovirz, Epigraphist for Moslem Inscriptions in India,

to H. C. P. Betx, Esq., Archzological Commissioner, Ceylon.

Aligarh, June 20, 1911,

Inscribed Slab, Galle.

Srr,— I src to enclose herewith a transcript of the Persian text of

the trilingual inscription—very incomplete I am afraid—impressions

and photograph of which were sent to me by the Assistant Archzological

Superintendent for Epigraphy in Southern Circle. I am sorry to say

that I have been able to make out a word here and there only, and am

not in a position even to say what the inscription refers to. This much

only is clear: that in the beginning one Adilshoh is mentioned, and also

that the language of the inscription is Persian. It seems to be some

legal document referring to some territory, the boundaries of which

perhaps are given ; possibly it refers to a wagf made with regard to that

territory, or its sale.

I beg to return under separate cover the impressions and photograph.

J. Horovitz.

Appendix VII.

Note obtained through Mr. N. S. Fernando of Colombo.

A portion of the Tamil inscription is indistinct, but it is evident that

the tablet was erected to commemorate the visit of a Chinese mission,

which, voyaging vid Hai-nan, reached Ceylon about the seventh year

of the Emperor Yung Lo, 7.e., in 1410 a.p. :

Out of veneration for Buddha, the members of the mission made

offerings to various temples, and caused a list thereof to be engraved on

the tablet by way of recording their visit to Buddha land.

The offerings were as follows :—

1,000 gold coins.*

5,000 silver coins. *

10 pieces assorted silk.

50 pieces assorted pongee.

4 pairs gold embroidered silk banners (2 pairs red, 1 yellow,

1 blue).

5 brass incense burners.

5 pairs flower vases (inlaid gold).

5 pairs candlesticks (inlaid gold).

5 gold lacquered incense boxes.

6 pairs golden lotus flowers.

2,500 catties aromatic oil (sandal wood).

10 pairs votive candles.

10 sticks incense.

* More probable mace weights of gold and silver, and not coins.

Ss 6(2)12

130 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Appendix VIII.

Part of Letter from Mr. Edmund Backhouse of Pekin to the Director,

Colombo Museum (February 23, 1912).

In regard to my notes on the visit of the Chinese eunuch to Ceylon,

I understand that the temple at which the Chinese record speaks of

their having lodged, and having been hospitably treated by the bonzes,

cannot have been the famous shrine at Kandy, as in my ignorance

I had supposed, owing to the fact that the artificial lake was not then in

existence. The Chinese text speaks of the envoys residing at a temple

close to a body of water and surrounded by hills: this seemed to me

to answer the description of Kandy, and I therefore hazarded the

conjecture that this was the place referred to. It is evident that one

must seek elsewhere for the site : possibly there may be some old shrine

near Galle answering to the Chinese description ? * —

EpmMuND BACKHOUSE.

Appendix IX.+

The beginning of the fifteenth century was, however, signalized by an

occurrence, the details of which throw light over the internal condition

of the Island, at a period regarding which the native historians are

more than usually obscure. At this time the glory of Buddhism had

declined, and the political ascendency of the Tamils had enabled the

Brahmans to taint the national worship by an infusion of Hindu

observances. The Se-yih-ke foo-choo, or “* Description of Western

Countries,’ says that in 1405 a.p., the reigning king, A-lee-koo-

nae-wurh (Wijaya Bahu VI.), a native of Sollee, and “‘an adherent of

the heterodox faith, so far from honouring Buddha, tyrannized over

his followers.”? He maltreated strangers resorting to the Island, and

plundered their vessels, “‘so that the envoys from other lands, in

passing to and fro, were much annoyed by him.”

In that year a mission from China, sent with incense and offerings

to the shrine of the Tooth, was insulted and waylaid, and with difficulty

effected an escape from Ceylon. According to the Ming-she, or History

of the Ming Dynasty, ‘“‘ the Emperor Ching-tsoo, indignant at this

outrage on his people, and apprehensive lest the influence of China in

other countries besides Ceylon had declined during the reign of his

predecessors, sent Ching-Ho, a soldier of distinction, with a fleet of

sixty-two ships and a large military escort, on an expedition to visit the

western kingdoms, furnished with proper credentials and rich presents

of silk and gold. Ching-Ho touched at Cochin-China, Sumatra, Java,

Cambodia, Siam, and other places, ‘‘ proclaiming at each the

Imperial edict, and conferring Imperial gifts.” If any of the princes

refused submission, they were subdued by force; and the expedition

returned to China in 1407 a.p., accompanied by envoys from the several

nations, who came to pay court to the Emperor.

In the following year Ching-Ho, having been despatched on a similar

mission to Ceylon, the king, A-lee-ko-nae-wah, decoyed his party into

* Probably this temple was at one of the older capitals, Gampola or Kotte.

The former stands on the banks of the Mahaveli-ganga, and is ‘‘ surrounded

by hills.”’ :

t+ Tennent’s ‘‘ Ceylon,” ed. 4, Vol. I., pp. 622-625.

GALLE TRILINGUAL STONE. 131

the interior, threw up stockades with a view to their capture, in the

hope of a ransom, and ordered soldiers to the coast to plunder the

Chinese junks. But Ching-Ho, by a dexterous movement, avoided the

attack, and invested the capital, made a prisoner of the king, succeeded

in conveying him on board his fleet, and carried him captive to China,

together with his queen, his children, his officers of state, and his atten-

dants. He brought away with him spoils, which were long afterwards

exhibited in the Tsinghae monastery at Nankin, and one of the com-

mentaries on the S7z-yu-ke of Hiouen Thseng states that amongst the

articles carried away was the sacred tooth of Buddha. “ In the sixth

month of the year 1411,” says the author of the Ming-she, “ the

prisoners were presented at court. 'The Chinese ministers pressed for

their execution, but the Emperor, in pity for their ignorance, set them

at liberty, but commanded them to select a virtuous man from the same

family to occupy the throne. All the captives declared in favour of

Seay-pa-nae-na, whereupon an envoy was sent with a seal to invest him

with the royal dignity, as a vassal of the empire,”’ and in that capacity

he was restored to Ceylon, the former king being at the same time sent

back to the Island. It would be difficult to identify the names in this

story with the kings of the period, were it not stated in another chronicle,

the Woo-heo-peen, or Record of the Ming Dynasty, that Seay-pa-nae-na

was afterwards named Pu-la-ko-ma Ba-zae La-cha, in which it is not

difficult to recognize “‘ Sri Prakrama Bahu Raja,” the sixth of hisname,

who transferred the seat of Government from Gampola to Cotta, and

reigned from 1410-1462 a.p.

For fifty years after this untoward event the subjection of Ceylon to

China appears to have been humbly and periodically acknowledged ;

tribute was punctually paid to the Emperor, and on two occasions, in

1416 a.p. and 1421 a.p., the kings of Ceylon were the bearers of it in

person. In 1430 a.p., at a period of intestine commotion, “‘Ching-Ho

issued a proclamation for the pacification of Ceylon,” and, at asomewhat

later period, edicts were promulgated by the Emperor of China for the

Government of the Island. In 1459 a.p., however, the series of

humiliations appears to have come abruptly to a close ; for, “in that

year,’ says the Ming-she, “* the King of Ceylon for the last time sent an

envoy with tribute, and after that none ever came again.”

Appendix X.*

It was during this period that an event occurred, which is obscurely

alluded to in some of the Sinhalese chronicles, but is recorded with such

minute details in several of the Chinese historical works, as to afford a

reliable illustration of the condition of the Island and its monarchy in

the fifteenth century. Prior to that time the community of religion

between Ceylon and China, and the eagerness of the latter country to

extend its commerce, led to the establishment of an intercourse which

has been elsewhere described ; missions were constantly despatched

charged with an interchange of courtesies between their sovereigns ;

theologians and officers of State arrived in Ceylon empowered to collect

information regarding the doctrines of Buddha ; and envoys were sent

in return bearing royal donations of relics and sacred books. The

Sinhalese monarchs, overawed by the magnitude of the Imperial power,

were inuced to avow towards China a sense of dependency approaching

ry =

* Tennent’s ‘* Ceylon,” ed. 4, Vol. I., pp. 416, 417.

132 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

to homage ; and the gifts which they offered are all recorded in the

Chinese annals as so many “‘ payments of tribute.” At length, in the

year 1405 a.p.,* during the reign of the Emperor Yung-Lo of the Ming

dynasty, a celebrated Chinese commander, Chingo-Ho, having visited

Ceylon as the bearer of incense and offerings, to be deposited at the

shrine of Buddha, was waylaid, together with his followers, by the

Sinhalese king, Wijayo Bahu VI., and with difficulty effected an escape

to his ships. To revenge this treacherous affront Ching-Ho was des-

patched a few years afterwards with a considerable fleet and a formid-

able military force, which the king (whom the Chinese historian calls

A-lee-ko-nae-wih) prepared to resist ; but by a vigorous effort Ho and

his followers succeeded in seizing the capital, and bore off the sovereign,

together with his family, as prisoners to China. He presented them to

the Emperor, who, out of compassion, ordered them to be sent back

to their country on the condition that “‘ the wisest of the family should

be chosen king.” “‘ Seay-pa-nea-na ”’ was accordingly elected, and this

choice being confirmed, he was sent to his native country, duly provided

with a seal of investiture, as a vassal of the empire, under the style of

Sri Prakrama Bahu VI., and from that period till the reign of Teen-

shun, 1434-1448 a.p., Ceylon continued to pay an annual tribute to

China.

Illustrations.

Plate 1.—Photograph of the stone bearing the trilingual inscription.

Plate 2.—Copy of the Chinese inscription made by Mr. Edward

Backhouse, Pekin.

* The narrative in the text is extracted from the Ta-tsing-yi-tung, a

‘* Topographical Account of the Manchoo Empire,” written in the seventeenth

century, to a copy of which, in the British Museum, my attention was

directed by the erudite Chinese scholar, Mr. Meadows, author of ‘‘ The

Chinese and their Rebellions.” The story of this Chinese expedition to Ceylon

will also be found in the Se-yih-ke-foo-choo, ‘‘ A Description of Western

Countries,”’ 1450 a.p. ; the Woo heo-pecu, ‘* A Record of the Ming Dynasty,”

1522 a.p., b. LVIII., p. 3, and in the Ming-she, ‘* A History of the Ming

Dynasty,” 1739 a.p., CCCXXVI., p. 2. For a further account of this event

see Part V. of this work, Chapter III.

SPOLIA ZEHYLANICA.,

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NOTES. 133

NOTES.

13. Stray Notes on Ceylon Animals.—The following notes were

made during and subsequent to a holiday trip in Ceylon in October,

1911. Disconnected and trivial as they are, they may perhaps be

useful if only as indicating points in the habits and distribution of

certain animals that would repay further investigation.

(1) Freshwater Sponges and Polyzoa.

In my volume on the Freshwater Sponges, Hydroids, and Polyzoa,

in the“ Fauna of British India,” I pointed out how little was known

of these animals so far as Ceylon was concerned,* and I hoped that

a personal investigation of some of the lakes and tanks of the Island

would enable me to add to our knowledge of these groups. In this,

however, I was to a large extent disappointed, partly perhaps

because my visit was not made at a favourable season, but also

partly, | have no doubt, because freshwater sponges and polyzoa

are much scarcer in Ceylon than in some districts of India. The only

sponge obtained was Spongilla cartert, which was found growing in

the Kandy lake on a masonry dam. The only freshwater polyzoon

that I saw was an immature colony of Plumaiella, probably P.

javanica, Kreepelin, which was attached to the lower surface of a

stone in a small stream above Peradeniya, atan altitude of about

1,700 feet. A careful search round the edge of the lake at Nuwara

Eliya (alt. ca. 6,000 feet) was absolutely unproductive, and the

profuse growth of a slimy dark green alga which covered every stone

and every twig rendered it improbable that either sponge or poly-

zoon could live. Mr. 8S. W. Kemp’s recent investigation of lakes at

altitudes of from 3,500 to 6,500 feet in the Western Himalayas

proves that several species of these groups grow luxuriantly in them,

so that the question of altitudes does not enter the case. Neither

at Colombo, nor at Anuradhapura, nor in the hill-country did I find

either sponge gemmules or polyzoon statoblasts floating free on the

surface of the water. There were no gemmules in the specimen of

S. cartert I obtained at Kandy in October.

* The list of records for Ceylon stands as follows :—

FRESHWATER SPONGES. | FRESHWATER POLYZOA,

Spongilla proliferens. | Plumaitella (?) javanica.

carter. | “* princeps.”

| Pectinatella burmanica.

134 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

(2) A Leech Parasitic on the Hard-Shelled Pond-Tortoise of

Ceylon (Nicoria* triyjuga subsp. thermalis).

In the course of her work on the blood-parasites of Ceylon reptiles

Miss Muriel Robertson discovered on the soft parts of pond-tortoises

a peculiar little leech which she at first assigned to the genus Branchel-

lion (‘‘ Spolia Zeylanica,” Vol. V., p. 178, 1908). Mr. W. A. Harding,

however, later described it under the name Ozobranchus shipleyt

(Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc., XV., p. 233, 1909), and it is by this

name that it is referred to in Miss Robertson’s fuller paper in Vol. LV.

of the Quart. Journ. Micro. Sci., in which she gives some interesting

information about the habits both of the parasite and of its host, as

well as a detailed description of the Hematozoon (Hamogregarina

nicorie), apparently conveyed by the leech from tortoise to tortoise.

So far as is known, the leech is only found on the one form of tortoise,

the blood of which it sucks ; it was very abundant on that form in

the lake at Kandy in October, 1911. In life the anterior part of the

leech is narrow and pointed, the single pair of minute black eyes

being easily detected near the extremity of the body. The posterior

part, which is distinctly broader, bears the tufted lateral gills that

are a characteristic feature of the genus. The whole animal is

translucent and appears at first sight to be colourless, except for a

dark brownish tinge due to blood contained in the alimentary canal.

Examination with a pocket-lens shows, however, that, in spite of

the translucency of the tissues, the dorsal surface is of a dull yellow

delicately veined, especially at the sides of the body, with dark

green. ‘The posterior sucker, which is very large and maintains an

extremely tight grip, is minutely speckled with the same shade ; the

gills are quite colourless and almost transparent. Miss Robertson

states that the gills are kept in constant motion. This was not the

case with individuals which were attempting to escape from a tube

of clear water in which they had been placed after being removed

from the leech. Al that I could observe, apart from the movements

of the body as a whole, was an occasional faint trembling of the gills

in nowise rhythmical or concerted.

(3) A Rare Ceylon Lizard (Lepidodactylus ceylonensis).

This lizard is recorded in the ‘‘ Fauna ”’ and the British Museum

“ Catalogue ” only from Gampola, which is situated in the hill-

country not very far from Kandy (alt. 1,600-1,700 feet). A

specimen was taken by Mr. Green and myself at Peradeniya. L.

ceylonensis is not, however, peculiar to Ceylon, for the Indian

Museum possesses specimens from Lower Burma; Mr. Boulenger

records it from Java, Engano Island, and Pegu ( Am. Mus.

Genova, XIII. (XX XIII.), p. 316), and it also occurs in the Malay

* Siebenrock, in his recent revision of the Chelonia (Zool. Jahrb., 1909,

Supplement), calls this genus Geoemyda, on grounds that are technically correct.

NOTES. 135

Peninsula. It is very closely related to L. crepuscularis from New

Caledonia. At first sight I mistook the living lizard for Gonatodes

kandianus, to which it bears a close superficial resemblance ; but the

tail is prehensile and the pupil vertical, and there is considerable

difference in the structure of the feet. I am not aware that the

prehensile character of the tail has hitherto been noticed in this

species.

(4) Eggs and Young of the Lizard Calotes nigrilabris.

Calotes nigrilabris is a large green lizard with conspicuous black

markings on the side of the head and on the throat. It is only

found in the mountains of Ceylon at considerable altitudes, and is

common in the neighbourhood of Nuwara Eliya. Dr. Willey* in

his note on the viviparity of another lizard (Cophotis ceylanica)

common in the same district rather implies that Calotes nigrilabris

is oviparous, but no particulars appear to have been published about

its eggs, which differ considerably from those of the common and

widely distributed Calotes versicolor of the plains and lower hill-

slopes of India and Ceylon.

On October 14 I found near Pattipola (alt. 6,000 feet) a clutch of

four eggs, three of which survived the vicissitudes of a journey to

Calcutta and finally produced (on November | and 2) young lizards

agreeing in all essential characters with adult specimens of Calotes

nigrilabris. Two were sacrificed, in order that they might become

specimens. The four eggs lay in a small depression in sandy

soil beside a footpath leading, at the spot, through open country.

They had probably been covered with earth which had been washed

away by heavy rain, and were still partly embedded, without exhi-

biting any definite arrangement. In shape they differed from the

eges of C. versicolor in being proportionately much broader and in

having a regularly oval, instead of an almost spindle-shaped , outline.

The shell, although probably it contained a certain amount of cal-

careous matter, was tough, leathery, and flexible, and the external

surface was ornamented by an almost microscopic network of fine

furrows. The eggs varied slightly in size ; one of them measures

(in spirit) 17 < 11 mm.

One of the eggs was opened the same day and found to contain a

well advanced embryo already complete in all its parts, but enclosed

in the usual embryonic membranes, which were exceedingly trans-

parent, and still with a large yolk-sack attached. The yolk-sack

was twisted over the back of the embryo, to which it formed a

kind of cloak. The forelegs were bent up in front of the face in such

a way that the claws projected towards the shell of the egg. A

faint pigmentation was already apparent in the skin of the embryo,

and the position of the pineal body was marked by a conspicuous

black spot on the surface of the head.

* « Spolia Zeylanica,” Vol. IIIL., p. 235 (1906).

136 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

The other three eggs reached Calcutta safely, and on the evening

of November 1, I noticed that one of them had burst and that its

sides had collapsed owing to an escape of liquid. No movement was,

however, apparent in the egg, which was found to be in exactly the

same condition two hours later. It was then removed for closer

examination and the handling it received forced the young lizard’s

head out of the aperture. It seemed to be impossible, however, for

it to get any further, and the mouth was opened as if it were suffo-

cating. I therefore slit the egg shell down one side with a pair of

scissors. Much to my surprise the young lizard thereupon leapt

out of its shell and began running and jumping about so vigorously

in my hand that I had some difficulty in preventing it from escaping

altogether.

The remaining two eggs were found to be, early the next morning,

in the same condition as that just described, and one of them was

killed and preserved intact. The young lizard escaped from the

other by its own efforts about midday.

The method by which the egg-shell had been ruptured was easily

seen on an examination of the egg that had been preserved. The

aperture had been produced by several oblique parallel slits on each

side, which had evidently been brought about by the action of the

claws of the fore limbs. They had torn a roughly triangular flap

in the egg-shell near the anterior end.

The young lizards measured nearly 33 inches in total length on

hatching. They differed from the adult of the species in their

relatively larger heads, and in the total absence of the dark markings

on the side of the head and on the throat. Their dorsal surface was

erass-green, varying in intensity from time to time and sometimes

becoming much darker ; the ventral surface and the sides of the

head were much paler green and less changeable ; there was a dark

streak running from over the eye to over the ear. Food in the shape

of small moths and grasshoppers was taken regularly from the day

of hatching, and great activity was fully maintained until the end of

November, notwithstanding the fact that the weather was becoming

cool.

N. ANNANDALE.

14. Notes on Ceylon Butterflies —Col. N. Manders, who did much

useful work in the study of our butterflies during his residence in

Ceylon, has been frequenting the British Museum (Natural History)

for the same purpose, since his arrivalin England. A letter recently

received from him contains several particulars of interest to us.

Catochrysops lithargyria, Moore.—This very distinctly marked

insect was included by Bingham (Fauna B. I., “ Butterflies,’

Vol. II., pp. 411, 412) amongst the varietal forms of C. strabo. But

Swinhoe, who is completing the “ Lepidoptera Indica ” commenced

NOTES. 137

by the late F. Moore, now admits it to specific rank. He describes

the female of lithargyria as having the same colouring as the male,

but with a broadish black border. Local collectors do not appear

to have met with the female of this species. Hven the male is a

scarce insect in Ceylon. It is difficult to understand how the species

could ever be confused with strabo. Apart from its characteristic

colour, the heavy and very distinct markings of the under side

separate it completely from every other species of Catochrysops.

Nacaduba ardates, Moore.—This smallest of the Nacaduba group

was originally described by Moore, presumably from Indian exam-

ples, in P. Z. 8., 1874, p. 574. He subsequently recorded the same

species from Ceylon. We have either two forms or two closely-

related species in Ceylon, one with, and the other without, tails on

the hind wings. De Niceville and Manders, in their “ List of the

Butterflies of Ceylon,” unite both these forms under the name

noreia of Felder. Bingham (loc. cit., pp. 391, 393) describes both

ardates and norera, and credits Ceylon with the two species. I

understand from Col. Manders that Swinhoe now refers the tailed

form to nora (also of Felder), and the tailless one to noreia. Apart

from the presence or absence of this tiny appendage, the two forms

are practically indistinguishable. They frequent the same loca-

lities and are on the wing at the same time. The larva of the tailed

form has been bred by Mr. J. C. F. Fryer, from the flowers of

Allophyllus cobbe. Manders submitted examples of both forms to

Dr. Chapman for a critical study of the genitalia, but the results of

the examination were purely negative, no appreciable difference

being observable. .

Terias—The number and names of the species of this genus

occurring in Ceylon have always been a matter of dispute. Moore,

in his “ Lepidoptera of Ceylon,’ enumerates nine species, viz.,

hacabe, simulata, hecabeoides, citrina, rotundalis, uniformis, drona,

cingala, and rama. These fall easily into two groups, which we may

call the “‘ hecabeoid’”’ group (containing the first six names), and

the “‘ drona’”’ group (containing the other three). De Niceville and

Manders reduced this number to five, namely, libythea (= drona, of

Moore), venata. (= cingala and rama, of Moore), hecabe (= Simulata,

hecabeoides, and citrina, of Moore), silhetana (= rotundalis and

uniformis, of Moore), and sari. Bingham credits Ceylon with four

species only, omitting si/hetana from our list, but it is evident, from

his description and figures, that he has included under the name

hecabe several varieties of stlhetana, as it is recognized in Ceylon. It

is probable that typical sarz does not occur in this Island ; but

whether the local form that we know by that name is distinct from

hecabe or not, can be proved only by breeding. Personally, I am

inclined to believe that we have only two species of the hecabeoid

group here, which I recognize—for the present—as hecabe and

silhetana, whatever their correct names may be. They are both

uk 6(2)11

138 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA,.

very variable insects, and the presence or absence of one or more

spots in the basal half of the discoidal cell (on under side) is a charac-

ter of no specific value. There is, however, one constant character

by which they may be distinguished. In the so-called hecabe, the

black border of the fore wing involves that portion of the inner

margin, while, in our silhetana, a thin yellow line is continued along

the inner margin, below the black border, towards the outer angle.

In the males of st/hetana, the black border is often very narrow and

without any appreciable expansion at its lower end. I have never

observed this restricted border in any of the forms of our hecabe.

A chocolate patch—of varying dimensions—may occur at or near

the apex on the under surface of the fore wing in females of both

species.

In the hecabeoid group we find two distinct types of larve :

one gregarious, with a black head, which produces what we—in

Ceylon—regard as silhetana ; the other non-gregarious, with a green

head, from which results our supposed hecabe.

The nomenclature of these species is still in great confusion, and

every fresh authority maintains a different opinion to that of the last.

Piepers, in his “ Rhopalocera of Java,’ describes the larva of

hecabe as having a black head. According to the same author, the

larvee of sari are gregarious, but have green heads. Moreover, he

does not recognize silhetana as distinct from hecabe ; but his hecabe

is probably not the same as ours. The British Museum authorities

again assert that hecabe does not occur in India or Ceylon, but is

confined to the Chinese region. They recognize our Ceylon insect as

T. suava. Col. Manders remarks of the typical examples of hecabe

and suava displayed in the British Museum collection: “ If the

labels were removed, I would defy any one to differentiate between

them.” Swinhoe, I understand, is describing all the innumerable

forms of hecabe as distinct species. These many conflicting opinions

do not tend to make matters clearer for us. Who is to be the final

authority ?

E. ERNEST GREEN.

Supplementary Note-—When preparing the drawings shown on

the accompanying plate, illustrating the colour pattern in different

forms of Terias silhetana and hecabe, I noticed two other distin-

guishing characters which appear to be constant for the two species

(as represented in Ceylon). — .

In silhetana the outer margin is distinctly crenulate, while in

hecabe the same margin is practically entire. By this character

alone I have been able to separate—with certainty—the two species

by examination with transmitted light without removing them from

their paper envelopes.

In hecabe the black border is continued along the costal margin,

gradually thinning out before reaching the base of the wing. In

Fak eae Dh ee

Sd reg Ow

. A

FRONT WINGS OF TERIAS:

Figs. 1-5, silhetana ; Figs. 6-10, hecabe.

NOTES. 139

silhetana the black border ends almost abruptly on the costa,

leaving the costal area of the remainder of the wing pale.

With regard to what I consider the principal distinguishing

- character, namely, the termination of the lower extremity of the

black border of the fore wing, the difference will be appreciated

more clearly by examination of the accompanying figures. There

is, normally, a strongly marked inward extension of the black border

below vein 2, its inner edge dipping sharply down to the inner

margin. In hecabe this edge meets the inner margin either squarely

(figs. 9, 10), or turns inwards along the margin towards the base of

the wing (figs. 6 to 8). There may be, and very frequently is, a

small yellow point projecting into the black, simulating the condi-

tion characteristic of silhetana, but this incursion of yellow is always

above the actual margin, and is followed by a distinct though slender

tongue of black running inwards along the extreme margin. In

silhetana (figs. 1 to 5), on the other hand, the lower extremity of the

black border invariably turns outwards, and is subtended by a

distinct marginal extension of the yellow area. This is independent

of the cilia of the inner margin, which are always yellow, in both

species. This character may seem trivial, but is constant in long

series of bred specimens that I have examined. It may be unappre-

ciable to the naked eyé, but is readily distinguishable with a lens,

and—in any case of doubt—may be corroborated by the other

characters mentioned above. The distinguishing characters may

be indicated, synoptically, as follows :—

Terias hecabe.—Outer margin of fore wing entire. Marginal

area of costa distinctly black. Lower extremity of

black border not subtended by yellow.

Terias silhetana.—Outer margin of fore wing distinctly crenu-

late. Marginal area of costa yellow. Lower extremity

of black border partially subtended by yellow.

E. ERNEST GREEN.

15. Large Parasitic Thread-worm in a Butterfly—tIn January,

1912, I received from Mr. F. M. Mackwood a specimen of Danais

chrysippus, from which a thread-worm had emerged after Mr. Mack-

wood had prepared the butterfly for exhibition. The worm was

5} inches (130 mm.) long and -6 mm. in thickness. As the worm was

in a shrivelling up condition when I received it, I could not identify

it with any certainty. It has the appearance of an ordinary

nematode worm, but larval nematodes and larval gordiids, which

differ very little in appearance from the adult nematode, are also

found parasitic in insects.

jED.]

140 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

16. A Curious Tree —About 23 miles from Maho railway station,

along the road leading to Buttala and Nikaweratiya, stands a tree—

about a hundred yards from the roadside—bearing on its trunk

what appears to be the figure of a human being, thought to be a ~

woman. Looking at it from the roadside it suggests an image carved

in stone. The tree, which is a Strychnos nux vomica (common

enough in the locality), is near a tank known by the village name

ot Attawarali. One is naturally led to think that the figure was

carved on the tree trunk, but a close inspection makes it clear that

the outline of the human form is the result of an irregular develop-

ment of bark which has produced a sort of embossed surface. At

close quarters the semblance disappears, and is only brought into

relief by a distant view. As a peculiarity the tree is well known to

the people about the place, and is said to be an old landmark.

Strange to say there is no legend associated with the tree, though

there is one connected with a stone image in the same neighbourhood

which is said to represent a petrified woman.

I inspected the tree on the 3rd instant.

C. DRIEBERG.

17. The Ceylon Natural History Society —In connection with the

founding of the Ceylon Natural History Society one is reminded of

the fact that no Ceylonese except Dr. Kelaart* of the Army has ever

seriously taken up the study of Natural History in any way. This

lack of study by the people of the country is partly responsible

for the most vague and incorrect statements which are accepted and

repeated. If nothing else, this formation of a Ceylon Natural

History Society will tend to first-hand observation and accurate

statement of fact. Animals figure largely in sacred and legendary

lore in Ceylon, and there is a literary harvest in this connection for

anybody to write about; though such a compilation may have “‘ no

root in actual life,” it would help the present and the future by

explaining many things un-understandable except when considered

with Ceylon mythology and folklore.

* Kelaart, E.F., M.D., F.L.S., F.G.S., author of Notes on the Geology of

Ceylon: Laterite Formation; Fluviatile Deposit of Nuwara Eliya—in Journal,

R.A.S. (C.B.), 1850, p. 87. List of Mammalia of Ceylon Observed or Collected,

ditto, p. 201. Description of New Species and Varieties of Mammals found in

Ceylon, ditto, p. 207. Prodromus Faun Zeylanice, being contributions to the

Zoology of Ceylon, Vol. I., 8vo., Colombo, 1852. Catalogue of Ceylon Birds

by (and Edgar Layard), in Journal, R.A.S. (C.B.), 1853, pp. 54and 57. Notes

of Cultivation of Cotton in Ceylon, in Ceylon Calendar for 1854, appendix.

Report on the Pearl Oyster, in Ceylon Calendar, 1858, appendix. Description

of New or Little-known Species of Reptiles found in Ceylon, in Journal, R.A.S.

(C.B.), 1855, p.102. Ceylon Ornithology, ditto, p. 143. Ditto of Nudibranchi-

ate Mollusca and Zoophytes, ditto, 1856-58, p. 84. Contributions to Marine

Zoology, being Descriptions of Ceylon Nudibranchiaite Molluscs,Sea Anemones,

and Entozoa, Vol. I., 8vo., Colombo, 1859.—G.A.J.

NOTES. 141

The Brahminy Lizard (Mabwia carmata) is alleged to have

poisonous properties. There is a strong local belief in regard to this,

and deaths of persons from the bite or scratch of this lizard have

been registered in the Vital Statistics of Ceylon. The learned

A. Mendis Gunasekara, Mudaliyar, made mention of a girl thirteen

years old in the Galle District, whose death was caused ** by poison

caused by a ‘hikanala’ (Brahminy Lizard) licking’one of her toes.”

“It is stated in Sinhalese medical works dealing with snakes

and their poisons that hikanalas are often hatched from the eggs of

cobras, polongas, and mapilas, all highly venomous snakes.” As

pointed out by Dr. Willey in Spolia Zeylanica, equivocal genera-

tion is impossible in the animal kingdom. Tamil and Hindu writers

on snake poison also point out that the bite, scratch, or a touch of

the saliva of the Brahminy Lizard is highly poisonous.

The Brahminy Lizard in reality is harmless, though it is believed

both here and in South India to inflict a poisonous bite.

The name “ karawala” is indiscriminately applied both to

harmless snakes such as Lycodon aulicus and also to the poisonous

snakes belonging to the genus Bungarus. Dr. Willey recorded a

case of a woman having been bitten by the harmless Lycodon

aulicus who died from fright, in the belief that she had been bitten

by a poisonous ‘‘ karawala.”

In India Lockwood. Kipling mentions that even in the country a

fly-catcher, a sparrow, and a shrike are all spoken of as ‘* chiriyas,”’

birds merely. He attributes this lack of observation to be peculiar

to Orientals. Science teaching and special societies and institutions

taking up branches of study like the Ceylon Natural History Society

can help to dispel much ignorance that exists.

GERARD A. JOSEPH.

18. The Elephant Stylobate in the Colombo Museum.—An ele-

phant stylobate was dug up late in 1894 in a private land , a mile from

the town of Anuradhapura, close to the Anuradhapura-Kurunegala

road, by the Archzological Commissioner. The parts of the struc-

ture were kept together loosely in the grounds of the office of the

Archeological Commissioner at Anuradhapura. With other

“ finds’ handed over by the Archeological Commissioner to the

Colombo Museum was the elephant stylobate, which Dr. Pearson,

the Director, has had erected on the lawn near the library. An

illustration is given here of the structure as it now stands. It is

20 feet square and 4 feet high. When new it must have been a very

striking object, and even now it arrests attention, and is a fine

specimen of work of the days of the Sinhalese monarchy. Mr. Bell

says that along with the stylobate were found two pieces of Buddhist

railing, which he thinks belong to the top and went round as a wall.

These pieces he has promised to send to the Museum to be placed on

142 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

the top of the stylobate. Most of the platforms in the great Bud-

dhist dagobas in Ceylon have elephants in high relief or standing out

as if supporting the platform. The elephant plays an important

part in Indian and Ceylon history. The use of elephants in war

dates from early times. The Mahawansa mentions the king at

Anuradhapura in the fifth century possessing a white elephant—a

rare, lucky, and sacred thing toown. In India, in the earliest myths,

the elephant was said to take the place of thunder and lightning,

and is one of the steeds of Indra. The elephant in ancient Hindu

history is mentioned as supporting the four corners of the earth—

the elephant supports the world. The elephant’s place at the base

is a post of honour, but he is sometimes shown with uplifted trunk

in sacrificial vases, of which a splendid old specimen in bronze is

shown in the Colombo Museum, being a loan exhibit belonging to

Mr. P. E. Pieris, M.A., C.C.S.

There are many legends about the elephant in Ceylon, but in

Buddhism the elephant takes the place of the dove in the annuncia-

tion of Maya Devi (mother of Buddha), of the coming of the Bodhisat.

She lies asleep, and the elephant appears to her as depicted in many

sculptures at Amravati and Southern India. Another legend is that

Devamitta, the envious schismatic, was sent to meet and murder

Buddha and took a frenzied elephant to do the work, but when the

creature beheld Buddha it stood still and worshipped. There is

a later story of an elephant’s body being hurled an immense

distance by the Lord Buddha.

* Mr. Lockwood Kipling observes that the elephant is the only

animal on the Buddhist sculptures “‘ carved with true knowledge

and unvarying truth of action.”

It is conjectured that on the top of the elephant stylobate was

placed a shrine or canopy with an image of Buddha.

GERARD A. JOSEPH.

19. Flints, &c., froma Cave at Urumutta.—Copy of letter received

by the Director, Colombo Museum, from Mr. Frederick Lewis of the

Land Settlement Office :—

Sir,—I nave the honour to forward by hand the following :—

(1) A parcel of stones that I venture to believe are arrowheads

of a very ancient period.

(2) Some fragments of pottery.

(3) Some bones, possibly of a“ mouse deer.”’

(4) A clay mould, that I take to be for the purpose of moulding

coins.

This last was given to me by my friend Mr. N. B. Faviell of the

Survey Department, who found it in the bed of the Menikganga.

The “‘ finds ’ 1, 2, and 3 come from a cave situated in the village

of Urumutta in the Gangaboda pattu of the Matara District, and it

‘WOUSOW OFWOTOD ‘ALVAOTALS LNVHda 1a

ae ES |

AS ey

NOTES. 143

may be of interest to describe the nature of the same, and the

ground where the fragments were obtained.

I received information that there was a cave in a precipitous mass

of rocks below the trigonometrical station at Urumutta, and that

there was an inscription on the rock itself. I accordingly visited the

spot with Lieut. Lindstroom, and after some very difficult climbing

we at length reached the mouth of the cave itself. It is situated

among a mass of rocks both above and below it, and faces the

south.

In section, taken vertically, itis shaped like the letter F. The wall,

or back of the F, is nearly vertical for 20 feet, and the “ roof ”’ is

nearly horizontal, projecting about 14 feet.

The cave may be said to form two parts, one to the east and the

other to the west, divided by a fallen mass of stone. The western

section had an inscription in the old characters such as I have found

at Nuwaragalla and elsewhere. It is cut into the wall of the “ F”

about 18 feet from the ground. I copied it, but owing to my not

having a ladder to get close to the lettering, I defer sending the

copy to you till I am more satisfied than I am at present with the

figure, as I took it. One or two of the letters appear in my copy to

be incomplete.

My attention was next drawn to the floor of the cave, which, in

consideration of the enormously rough and broken character of its

surroundings, appeared to me to be artificially flat. I found on

sweeping away a mass of fallen leaves that had been blown in from

some trees immediately above and round the cave’s mouth, that

the floor appeared to be of mud. On scraping the surface (in the

eastern section) with a twig, I discovered the quartz fragments, that

I venture to believe are arrowheads. Nearly side by side with these

I found the pottery, and less than a yard away were the bones.

I would draw special attention to the fragment I have marked

“A,” which you will observe is enormously hard, and shows a

coppery tinge when scraped witha knife. Itis, moreover, very light

in weight. It was lying among the fragments of quartz.

I venture to believe the quartz objects are paleolithic, and I draw

my deductions from the fact that they are of a stone not found

within miles of this cave. Secondly, they indicate in outline a

generally definite arrowhead shape. They bear traces of being

chipped into shape, and particularly in one instance, where the

natural line of fracture is opposed to the edge formed.

All the objects—* arrowheads,” pottery, and bone—were dug

up within an area less than a yard square, and within a few inches of

the surface of the “‘ floor.” :

Among the “ arrowheads’ I found the small nodular piece of

red material, which may or may not have been a colouring pigment,

for by damping it it will make a dull red mark on paper.

The pottery is, I think, unquestionable.

144 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

The point is its antiquity. I may here state that the cave has

the reputation of being haunted. It is in forest, and nowhere within

a reasonable distance of a road or path that would lead one to

suppose that travellers came there and cooked food by the way and

left their broken utensils behind. The nature of the country and

the situation of the spot completely hides the cave, while it requires

considerable agility to climb into its mouth. Lastly, it is a good

long way from water, so is not likely to be a place for a growing

population to settle upon.

I leave it to experts to say if the stone objects are or are not

paleolithic, or if they are or are not of value as pointing to an age

when stone implements were made here. The fact that the cave

has an inscription may or may not be coupled with the incident of

the stone and bone fragments, and it may be open to question

whether the inscription is of an earlier date than the pottery and

other remains, or the contrary.

I venture to express no opinion till the “ find” as a whole is

submitted to experts.

The clay dise found by Mr. Faviell also requires elucidation, but

appears to be a mould, and corresponds to the size of one of the

coins figured as marked with a Swastika in Mr. Parker’s “ Ancient

Ceylon.” Its locality, moreover, must not be lost sight of.

I am much indebted to Lieut. Lindstroom for assisting me in

finding this cave, and for helping me in copying the inscription,

which, though still imperfect, would have been more so but for his

aid.

I shall be much obliged to you if you will kindly favour me with

your opinion as to the scientific value or otherwise of the “‘ finds,”

and if they are worthy of a place in the Colombo Museum.

FREDERICK LEWIS.

The flints were submitted to Mr. C. anes of the Royal College,

who reported as follows :—

‘““T have carefully examined the quartz fragments. Knowing

nothing of the circumstances under which they were collected, I

should say that the bulk of them were casual fragments of bad

material unsuitable for making implements, and showing no signs

of human work. Among them are a small proportion of splinters

which look as if they had been chipped off and thrown away. Ihave

selected and numbered eight pieces, of which I judge as follows :—

1. Crystal, chip, probably human.

2. Quartz, do.

3. Crystal, do.

4. Crystal, do.

5. Crystal, do. (shows old waterworm crust).

Fig, 1.

THREE RARE COINS,

NOTES. 145

6. Crystal, chip, or conceivably fragment of a blade or spall.

7. Quartz, almost certainly a worked flake. The rounded

end seems to show abrasion by use, possibly a scraper.

8. Quartz, conceivably a rough arrowhead, more probably

a chip.

At a later date Mr. Hartley wrote :—

Since I wrote my opinion there is nothing to alter. The description

given by Mr. Lewis makes almost certain that many of the chips of

white and clear quartz are of human manufacture.

[Ep.]

20. Three Rare Coins.—The coins figured here are from my

cabinet, and I am sending you this note in the hope that some one

with more knowledge than I can pretend to will be able to identify

them. The plates give the correct size.

Bicol.

This thick silver coin, weighing 8°03 grammes, was brought to

me when | was District Judge at Ratnapura, by a silversmith to

whom it had been given by a villager to be converted into jewellery.

It was said to have been found in the Bintenna. Both sides of the

coin are slightly concave. ‘The figure on the reverse is a snake, and

the coin appears to be Oriental.

Fig. 2.

This coin is roughly circular, of silver, and weighs 3°52 grammes.

On the obverse appears a head of Dionysos facing left, with long

pointed beard, the long hair being done in three rolls, and with

what seems a wreath of ivy on the head. The reverse is worn, and

bears no trace of an inscription. The coin seems to me to be of the

Naxos issue, and if so would date back to about 500 B.c. There are

certain wavy lines on the reversé, which may represent the vine

leaves and bunch of grapes which are usually found on such coins.

This specimen was purchased by me in Colombo from a shop where

it is said to have been sold by a villager.

Fig. 3.

This is a beautiful silver medallion of Hadrianus (117-138 a.p.),

and weighs 3°44 grammes. The obverse shows the laureate bust

of the emperor facing right, with the legend Imp CAESAR TRAJAN

HADRIANUS AUG. On the reverse appears the legend HILAR P R P M

TR P COs 11, and a female figure standing. There is no specimen

of this in the Museum collection. I believe mine was purchased

in Colombo.

Pp. EK. PIERIS.

U 6(2)12

146 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

21. A Dutch Gold Medal.—The accompanying illustration shows

the reverse of the medal, the obverse of which bears the following

inscription :—

DOOR DEN WEL EDELE

GROOT AGTBARE HEER JULIUS

VALENTYN STYN VAN

GOLLENESSE, RAAD ORDINARIS

VAN NEDERLANTS INDIA

GOUVERNEUR EN DIRECTEUR VAN

T EYLANT CYLON MET DEN RESORTE

VAN DIEN WERD BY DESEN GEHONOREERT

EN VERGUNT AAN DON DIOGO WIDJE

SINGA DISANAIKE MODLIAAR VAN

MATURE, CORAAL DER MORUAC KORLE

JAAG EN SAAYMEESTER MITSGADERS

MAHAVIBADDA VIDAAN VAN

GIRWAYS VOOR SYN BETHOONDE

MANHASTE IVER EN TROUWE

DIENSTEN AAN DE COMP:

IN DEN MALLEBAARSE

OORLOG ALS ANDERS GEGEVEN

IN HET CASTEEL COLOMBO

DEN, 1: JUNY 1749—

The extreme length of this handsome gold medal is eight inches,

and its extreme width would be five and a quarter but for the loss

of one of the ornamental bosses on the side. The large boss on the

top, which supports the ring with its beautiful flower-buds in filigree

work, is bent to a side owing to careless handling.

In view of the illustration a minute description of the workman-

ship of the medal is unnecessary.

The translation of the inscription is as follows :—With this was

honoured, by the Honourable Julius Valentyn Styn van Gollenesse,

Ordinary Councillor of Netherlands India, Governor and Director

of the Island of Ceylon and the Dependencies thereof, and the same

was presented to Don Diogo Wijesinha Dissanayaka, Mudaliyar of

Matara, Korala of the Morawak korale, Master of the Hunt and of

the Sowing, and also Maha Wibadda Vidane of the Giruwas, for his

valiant zeal and faithful service towards the Honourable Company

in the Malabar war, as at other times. Given at the Castle of

Colombo, Ist June, 1749. ,

Van Gollenesse assumed duties as Governor on May 11, 1743,

and left for Batavia on March 6, 1751, on being appointed Director-

General of the Dutch East Indies. I have no information regarding

the Malabar war referred to in the medal, but another medal was

given to the same Mudaliyar on April 10, 1747, also for distinguished

awe

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NOTES, 147

service in the Malabar war. It was very rarely indeed that Sinhalese

soldiers were employed by the Dutch in service outside the Island.

The grantee was a member of a distinguished family in the

south. Dissanayake Moetjaer of Dondure (Mohottiyar of Devun-

dara) is mentioned in the Thombo of the Heerlykheyt (Manor) of

Dondure as living about the year 1630, and when Galle was captured

from the Portuguese in 1640 Dissanaike Mudaliyar resided within

the Fort as the chief representative of King Raja Sinha the Second.

In 1752 another member of the family, Don Pauloe, was living in

banishment in Tuticorin, while strangely enough his nephew, Don

Simon Mudaliyar, was seven years later given a gold medal by

Governor Schreuder for his eminent services to the Dutch.

To-day the mention of Sinhalese in connection with military

service raises a smile ; indeed, there is a rumour that the application

of a Sinhalese for military employment during the Boer war was

referred to the Superintendent of the Lunatic Asylum for report.

It is, therefore, of interest to note the will of Don Simon, dated

December 2, 1764, when he was about to accompany Governor van

Kek on his disastrous Kandyan expedition, in command of the Galle

and Matara Lascarins. From this will we learn that he was a

Christian and residing at Hittetiya at the time, and that he had three

sons, all minors; to the eldest he bequeathed his best silver

mounted sword ; to the second a similar sword and belt, which he

was wearing for the war; and to the youngest a gold chain which

he had received from the King of Kandy.

P. E. PIERIS.

22. A Sinhalese Toy —There is a toy in Ceylon corresponding

to the “ bullroarer,’’ used by boys to keep the cattle away from the

paddy fields. It is made of a thin oblong piece of wood or bamboo,

attached to a stick by a string or a kitul fibre and swung rapidly

round ; its humming sound is said to resemble a cheetah’s growl.

The toy is called “ helibambara’’ (w;7@Q@@&), and the piece of

bamboo “ kotipetta ”’ (oz»SassI~), koti = cheetah, and petta =

thin piece of wood. ARTHUR A. PERERA.

23. Sinhalese Iron and Sieel.*—The use of iron—and included

in this term is steel produced by the fusion or cementation process—

dates back to a very early period in the world’s history.

In a paper read before the Royal Society, Sir Robert Hadfield

has described some specimens of ancient iron obtained from the

buried cities of Ceylon. These include a steel chisel of the fifth

century, an ancient nail, probably of the same date, and a bill-hook.

* Reprinted from The Tames of November 28, 191}.

148 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

The exhaustive examination made of these specimens by the author

suggested that a comparatively high degree of metallurgical know-

ledge must have prevailed more than a thousand years ago, and the

research was claimed to have yielded knowledge not previously

available on the subject of iron and steel specimens of ancient origin.

The collection of these ancient tools and instruments in the Colombo

Museum was the most complete of the kind in the world. The

investigation made suggested that the specimens represented

wrought iron rather than steel. The percentage of carbon was

generally low, but the edge of the chisel was shown to have been

cemented or carbonized—a fact which suggested that a knowledge

of hardening the cutting edge of tools was possessed by ancient

workers in metals. It would seem that the crucible process of steel

manufacture has long been known and practised in the East.

A consideration of the origin of these specimens of ancient iron

led to the conclusion that the methods of making steel practised

in Ceylon probably reached that island from India at a very early

date, and there was strong evidence that the iron age preceded that

of bronze. Mr. J. M. Heath, in papers contributed to the Royal

Asiatic Society in 1837 and 1839, had expressed the opinion that the

tools with which the Egyptians covered their obelisks and temples

with hieroglyphics were made of Indian steel. There was no evidence

he claimed, that any of the nations of antiquity besides the Hindus

were acquainted with the art of making steel, and the claims of

India to a discovery which had exercised more influence upon the

arts conducing to civilization and the manufacturing industries than

any within the whole range of human invention was altogether.

unquestioned.

The Huntsman process of steel manufacture was probably, Sir

Robert Hadfield stated, only a development, although an indepen-

dent development, of methods long employed in India. The

manufacture of crucible cast steel in Ceylon was now almost an

_ extinct industry, a fact due to the operation of economic laws, as

steel can now be imported more cheaply from Europe than it can

be manufactured locally. One of the most notable ancient speci-

mens of iron was, of course, the famous pillar of Delhi, which was

a solid shaft of wrought iron welded together, and represented work

carried out at least 1,600 years ago. The Dhar iron monument,

42 feet in length, probably belonged to the year 321 a.p., and, owing

to its greater mass, was an even more remarkable tribute to the skill

of forgotten eraftsmen in metals.

CEYLON NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 149

THE CEYLON NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

First Business Meeting.*

HE first business meeting of the newly-formed Ceylon Natural

History Society was held in the Colombo Museum Library

at 9 p.m. on Tuesday, March 26, 1912. The Hon. Sir Hugh Clifford,

K.C.M.G., Colonial Secretary, presided, and there was a good attendance

of members and visitors.

THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

After the Minutes of the Inaugural Meeting had been read, the

President addressed the Society as follows :—

Ladies and Gentlemen: The agenda tells me that the next item on

the programme this evening is an address from the President. At the

invitation of the Committee I very gratefully accepted the post of

President of this Society, though I ventured to point out to them that

the many calls upon my time, and the peculiar nature of my own

individual studies, somewhat precluded me from examining as closely

into insect life as might be appropriate for the President of a Natural

History Society. I suggested the name of another officer senior to

myself, but was informed that on the whole, I had better continue,

at any rate, for the moment. So I trust that the members of this

Society—which has just been inaugurated so successfully, mainly

through the efforts and the initiative of Dr. Pearson—will pardon

any shortcomings on the part of its present President. And I can

only assure you that I will always do my best to serve the Society to

the utmost of my ability. The Society which has just been formed is,

to some extent, a new institution in this Colony. But this morning

I had my attention drawn to the prospectus of a Society which was

established on December 11, 1820. I noticed that the opening para-

graph of the prospectus said that “‘ to a country nearly unprovided

with manufactures and dependent almost entirely upon its natural

productions the investigation of its Natural History must be of the

highest importance ’—a sentiment which, I feel sure, every member

of this Society will endorse. Yet, though I tried to carry further my

investigations into the history of that Society, its records proved

quite elusive. It seems to have carried on a number of literary and

anthropological discussions and to have left Natural History severely

alone, in spite of the bright promise contained in the first words of its

prospectus. I feel sure this Society—considering the short time that

has elapsed since its inauguration, and considering the comparatively

slight amount of advertismg which it at present is receiving—has

obtained a degree of encouragement. The numbers read out to you

by the Secretary are of a most encouraging character. Already we

have 107 members of this Society, and my earnest hope is that all

persons whose occupations take them into the wilder parts of the

country will hasten to join the Society and will assist it by contributing

notes of interest to the publications of the Society. It has been said

that the proper study of mankind is man. We all study mankind with

sympathy in our own persons and with a certain amount, frequently,

* This account is taken partly from the newspaper reports of the meeting.

150 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

of eriticism and disapproval in our neighbours, and we carry later

these studies all through our lives, consciously or unconsciously. But

I do not think Pope’s line need trouble this Society, because, if the

proper study of mankind is man, unquestionably that is not an

exclusive sentence ; and the study of the natural life around us must

always appeal very strongly to the intelligence of all. I recently heard

a discussion between a lady and a medical man of great repute, who

assured the lady on her arrival in Ceylon that this was one of the

most interesting Colonies that the British Empire contained, and the

lady said she felt quite sure that that was so. And all of us who

know and admire the Island will agree with her. But the doctor I am

speaking about added that there was a greater variety of tropical

diseases in this Island than in any other place of its size in the

world. And some measure of the lack of enthusiasm which his

words called forth from the lady was noticed by him. Now, we all

know that disease is very largely the result of organisms of various

kinds ; and we know that numerous insects in this Colony and out

of it carry disease in an extraordinary manner, and have the imperti-

nence to inoculate us with the disease from time to time. That

branch of study is rapidly becoming more and widely appreciated, not

only by scientific men, but by the general public. But this Society,

I take it, will probably leave pathological questions of that sort more

or less alone, and will devote itself to the perhaps less utilitarian but

more attractive form of study of Natural History, and especially of

the beautiful insects, butterflies, birds, and animals, which abound

throughout the Island. And it is because the Government of this

Colony employs a very large number of people in all sorts of places—

Civil Servants living at distant outstations, Irrigation Officers, Public

Works Officers, and members of all the big departments scattered

throughout the Colony—that I very much hope that all the services

which I have the honour to represent will very quickly and promptly

support this Society, and do their best to carry out the work of it and

to perpetuate its existence. The great danger in a Society of this kind

is that it begins with a good deal of interest and enthusiasm, which is

apt all too soon to cool off and become apathetic. I trust that the

members of this Society—every one of them—will do their best, as far

as it lies with them, to prevent that being the record of the newly-

formed Society. We all owe a debt of gratitude to Dr. Pearson for

having started the Society in our midst, and I look forward to the

time when the study of Natural History will spread widely throughout

the Colony, and in the years to come people will look back with grati-

tude upon the efforts of Dr. Pearson who started the Society for which

we are all met this evening to wish success and long life.

Pioneers of Natural History in Ceylon.

Mr. E. E. Green then read a Paper on ‘‘The Pioneers of Natural

History in Ceylon.’ *

The Singing Fish of Batticaloa.

Dr. Joseph Pearson said he had one or two notes to which he wished

to call the attention of members.

He had a letter the other day from Mr. E. L. Mack, the Private

Secretary to Mr. Justice Middleton, who reported that while on a recent

visit to Batticaloa he noticed that certain fishes when taken out of

the water produced precisely the same notes as made by the “‘ singing

fish.” Mr. Mack followed up his observations and kept some of the

fishes in a bucket of water. No sounds were heard when the fish were

kept in water, but musical notes were emitted when the animals

* Printed in full on p. 76 of the present number 6f Spolia Zeylanica.— Ep.

CEYLON NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 151

were removed from the water. It was Mr. Mack’s conviction that he

had discovered the singing fish. As Dr. Pearson had spent some days

in the Batticaloa District in August of last year he was able to criticise

Mr. Mack’s conclusions. The speaker then went on to describe the

conditions of the Batticaloa lake, which was a shallow backwater

stretching for many miles to the south of Batticaloa town. The

famous singing fish was only heard in a comparatively small area of the

lake, between the fort and the entrance to the lake, and the sounds

were only heard at night, most favourably at full moon. Sir Emerson

Tennent’s theory that the sounds were produced by the molluse

Cerithium—a theory which is based upon the traditions of the fisher-

men—does not appear to offer a satisfactory explanation. Dr. Pearson

was convinced, after investigating the question, that the sound was

produced by some animal in the water, and not, for example, by

frogs on the banks of the lake. That animal may be either a fish

or a crustacean. It is well known that both fishes and crustaceans

can produce sounds. Since Mr. Mack’s observations showed: that

the fish he wrote about only made a noise when removed from the

water, the problem does not appear to be any nearer solution. The

fact is that many fish when removed from the water make musical

sounds. This may be due to the bubbles of air mixed with the water

making a gurgling sound as the air and water are drawn through the

gill chamber. Dr. Pearson had noticed this not only in Batticaloa

but also in various places along the coast. The fact that the singing

fish is only heard in a few scattered localities—Batticaloa, Kayts, and

Puttalam—and that in each of these localities the distribution of the

sounds is extremely limited, rather disproves the suggestion that the

singing fish is a true fish (using the term zoologically), since fishes are

generally active swimmers. It is probable that a comparatively

sedentary animal, such as a crab, may give rise to the sounds which

have made Batticaloa so famous. At any rate for the present the

problem, may be regarded as unsolved.

The CHarrMan : Might I ask you how many noises the fish produced ?

Was the sound like sawing ?

Dr. PEARSON: Quite different sounds.

The CHarRMAN: Any cadence ; or was it a creaking sound ?

Dr. PEARSON: Quite irregular. It seemed as if each one had its

own note. You have about half a dozen sounds going on at once.

Sometimes it was like the croaking of a frog. and sometimes there was

a deep note like that of a cello. But none of them were musical.

Window Pane Oysters in the Colombo Lake.

Dr. Pearson stated that he had recently received a consignment of

shells from Mr. Bakewell, the Assistant Construction Engineer of

Railways, who, during operations in the Colombo lake between Captain’s

gardens and the Royal College, discovered the shells embedded in the

mud five feet below the bed of the lake. The shells proved to be of

three kinds—Placuna placenta (the window pane oyster), Arca sp., and

Tapes rotundata. Since the first discovery Mr. Bakewell has reported

the presence of similar shells in other parts of the lake. When Dr.

Pearson first received the shells it occurred to him that this was evidence

in favour of supposing that at one time the lake was connected with

the sea, leaving aside the former connection of the lake with the sea

by means of the old Dutch canal. If such connection had existed,

the conditions would have been an ideal habitat for the window pane

oyster. An examination of the shells, however, proved that, so far

as Placuna was concerned, the evidence did not give much strength

to such a theory, since the edges of all these shells proved to have

been artificially trimmed. It is probable that the shells had been

thrown into the lake many years ago.

tay SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Crustacea and Fish in the Sewage Tanks at Madampitiya.

Dr. Pearson also submitted a note on the presence of aquatic animals

in the tanks of the treatment works at Madampitiya. Healthy fish

were found in the septic tanks where the sewage material was under-

going treatment. It was not possible for the fish to have entered

with the sewage matter, since the latter had to pass through a series

of clashing blades which made it impossible for any large body to pass

through intact. The only explanation appeared to be that fish eggs

were able to pass through and that certain species found the conditions

of the septic tanks favourable. Crustacea belonging to the genera

Palemon and Caridina were found in the effluent tanks after the

sewage water had been passed through finely divided sprinklers and

had flowed through the filter beds. The river is about 100 feet below

where the Crustacea were found, and as the ascent is extremely steep

it does not appear likely that the shrimps made their way up from

the river.

The CHATrRMAN proposed a vote of thanks to Mr. GREEN and

Dr. PEARSON.

Mr. V. A. Junius proposed, and Dr. ANDREAS NELL seconded, a vote

of thanks to the CHAIRMAN.

cit

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TO THE COLLECTIONS

THE COLOMBO MUSEUM,

Em LON,

PART I.

ARCHAOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY,

Illustrated.

COLOMBO :

H. C. COTTLE, GOVERNMENT PRINTER, CEYLON.

1912.

CONTENTS.

Preface

Introduction ..

Room A (Stone Gallery)

Room B (Bronze Gallery)

Room C (Central Hall)

Room D

Room E

Staircase

Ola Manuscripts in the Library

Stones in the Museum Grounds

PREFACE.

THE first Guide to the Colombo Museum for the use of visitors

was compiled by Mr. Amyrald Haly in 1886; a second abridged

edition of it was printed in 1895; and Dr. Arthur Willey, F.R.S.,

issued an enlarged third edition, containing illustrations, in 1905.

The present account corresponds to a fourth edition, but the

addition of a new wing and the rapid growth of the collections in

the last seven years have made it impossible to adequately describe

the collections in the limits of a small handbook. It has been

thought advisable therefore to issue two separate guide books, one

dealing with the archeological and ethnological exhibits on the

ground floor, and another describing the natural history collections

and the geological exhibits which occupy the upper floor of the

Museum. The present guide is concerned with the former, and. it

is hoped to issue the second part, dealing with the natural history

galleries, in the course of a few months.

The present Guide is more profusely illustrated than the third

edition. Most of the blocks are new, and have been made from

photographs taken by Dr. Andreas Nell.

As a necessary preliminary to the production of this Guide the

entire collections have been re-arranged. It is hoped that with the

advent of the west wing the overcrowding, which is inevitable at

present, will be obviated.

The production of this Guide has been rendered possible by the

generous co-operation of the following gentlemen : Mr. Pau Pieris,

M.A., LL.M., C.C.S., who has contributed articles on ivories, arms,

Maldivian exhibits, jewellery, coins, betel boxes, and domestic

appliances; Mr. ARTHUR DE Sttva, who made himself responsible °

for the collections of charms, masks, and the instruments used in

ceremonies ; Mr. A. M. GunaseKara, Mudaliyar, who has written

on the ola manuscripts ; Mr. E. W. Perera, who has described

the Sinhalese banners; Mr. Gurarp A. JosEPH, Secretary and

Librarian of the Museum, who has written on archeological stone

remains, bronzes, economic products of the coconut and palmyra

palms, ancient and modern pottery, fishing appliances, games,

and some of the domestic appliances ; and Dr. ANDREAS NELL, to

whom I am indebted for a large series of photographs from which the

illustrations of this Guide have been selected.

; JOSEPH PEARSON,

November, 1912. Director.

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GUIDE TO THE COLOMBO MUSEUM. 153

A GUIDE TO THE ARCHAOLOGICAL AND

ETHNOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS.

INTRODUCTION.

WirH the exception of articles from the Maldive Islands, the

scope of the collections of the Colombo Museum has been wisely

limited so as to deal only with things which are connected with

Ceylon. The exhibits on the ground floor are: illustrative of the

customs, arts, and handicrafts of the inhabitants of the Island, and

in this historical review place has been given not only to examples

of Sinhalese and Tamil art and ethnology, but also to objects in

which we may trace the influence of the Portuguese, Dutch, and

English periods of occupation.

The Colombo Museum is the national museum of the country,

and its position as such is fully appreciated, as may be gathered from

the fact that about two hundred thousand natives visit the insti-

tution during the course’of the year. If the Museum is primarily a

storehouse of national treasures, it has none the less played an

important part as an educative institution.

The collections described in the present Guide occupy the ground

floor of the Museum. The archeological and ethnological exhibits

are confined to the main block, while on the ground floor of the new

east wing are found the Museum Offices and Library.

The Library has a double origin , and two distinct portions are still

recognized. First, there is the Museum Library proper, which at

present contains about twelve thousand volumes, and which in its

present form dates from the foundation of the Museum. The

nucleus of the small library then brought together was formed by

the Government Oriental Library, which was founded in 1870,

during the administration of Sir Hercules Robinson, for the purpose

of rescuing the ancient literature of Ceylon. In addition to a

valuable collection of ola manuscripts the Museum Library contains

a representative collection of books dealing with the various phases

of the history of the Island and its inhabitants. It is particularly

rich in zoological monographs and journals and works on natural

history.

43-12 ( 22as)

P54. SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

The Library of the Ceylon Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society,

which dates as far back as 1845, is also housedin the Museum. This

valuable collection, consisting of about eight thousand volumes,

forms a useful supplement to the Museum Library. Just as the

latter has specialized to some extent on zoological works, so the

Asiatic Society Library has very appropriately concerned. itself more

with archeology, ethnology, and history.

The combined collections thus provide a representative, though

small, reference library, of which full advantage is taken by members

of the Ceylon Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society im the case of

the Society’s Library, and by approved readers in the case of the

Museum Library.

The main entrance of the Museum opens into the Central Hall,

the contents of which will be described later. In the meantime

we turn to the left, and reach the Stone Gallery either by way of the

verandah or through the Bronze Gallery.

THE STONE GALLERY (Room A).

The Stone Gallery occupies the extreme western portion of the

ground floor, and contains many fine examples of ancient Sinhalese

stonework obtained chiefly from Anuradhapura (437 B.c.-769 A.D.),

Polonnaruwa (769 4.pD.-1319 A.D.), and Sigiriya (479 A.D.).

Long before the dawn of civilization in Britain the Sinhalese had

stately palaces and cities. Anuradhapura, the greatest and most

ancient of the cities of Ceylon, was the capital of the Island 400

years B.C.

Polonnaruwa (modern name, Topavewa) was made the capital

after Anuradhapura. ‘‘ At the present day it is said to be by far the

most remarkable assemblage of ruins in Ceylon, not alone from the

number and dimensions, but from the architectural superiority of

its buildings.”” Polonnaruwa was plundered* by those insatiable

marauders, the Malabars, several times, until finally abandoned in

1204 a.p. e

Sigiriya, which is considered to be one of the most remarkable

fortresses in the world, rises from the plain with perpendicular sides

to an estimated height of 500 feet. It was built in 477 a.p. by King

Kasyappa, the Parricide, who, after dethroning his father, Dhatu

Sena, stripped him naked, loaded him with chains, and caused him

to be builtina wall. The Parricide, oppressed with the fear that this

unnatural crime would be avenged, and haunted by its remembrance,

sought security by constructing this ‘“‘ rock of refuge and making it

the capital of his kingdom.”

The exhibits in this room are chiefly carved out of gneiss, and

some of them are entirely of crystalline limestone. Among the more

notable archeological treasures are the Stone Lion from Polonnaruwa,

the Yapahuwa Stone Window, the Medagoda Stone Pillar behind

the lion, the Lotus Stem Capital and Pillars, the cast of the gigantic

statue of Parakrama Bahu the Great of Polonnaruwa, the mystic

square stone called a Yogi Stone or Yantragala, Naga or Cobra

Stones portraying the seven-headed cobra in high relief, friezes and

capitals from the ruined cities, statues of Buddha, a cast of a

Processional Moonstone, and Lotus Moonstones.

GUIDE TO THE COLOMBO MUSEUM. 155

The Stone Lion, called the Lion of Polonnaruwa, formed part of

the great lion-throne, and stood in the Council or Audience Hall of

the King at Polonnaruwa, whence it was removed to the Colombo

Museum thirty years ago. From the base of the forefoot to the

crown of the head the lion stands six feet. This relic of the past is

specially interesting and a valuable historical monument. There isa

Sinhalese inscription on each side near the base giving the date and

purport of the monument. Upon it was placed the throne of King

Nissanka Malla, a Chakrawarti or Emperor of Kalinga lineage, who

was the Lankeswara or Overlord of Lanka (Ceylon) in 1187-1196 a.p.

There is a fracture on the head, said to have been perpetrated by

burglars expecting to find hidden treasure within. The inscription

_ on the left side of the lion is terminated by the figure of a fish, a

symbol of good omen. (See Plate I.)

Behind the great stone lion is the Medagoda Pillar, which formerly

stood in the Pattini Dewale at Medagoda, six miles from Ruanwella,

in the Province of Sabaragamuwa. (See Plate IT.)

“ The pillar rises octagonally from the back of a broad-faced

couchant lion of conventional type, with frilled mane and raised tail ;

the shaft slides gradually into the rectangular by a semi-expanded

calyx moulding. Half way up relief is given by a bordered fillet

two inches in breadth, slightly projecting, carved with a single

flower pattern repeated round the pillar. From the fillet depend

on each a pearl-bead string (muktdé-déma). A few inches above

this band stand out from alternate faces full-blown lotus knops,

five inches in circumference, with ornamentation resembling much

the ‘ Tudor flower’ upon the intervening sides. Where the pillar

becomes square there are further loops of pearls, three on each

side separated by single vertical strings. A lower capital of ogee

moulding, separated by narrow horizontal fillets, and finished with

ovolos and a rectangular band, is surmounted by a four-faced

makara and alow abacus. From the centre of the roundlet moulding

on all four sides drops the garlanded chakra symbol noticeable on

the sculptures of Bharhut.’’*

Facing the south window at the front end of the Gallery is a

perforated carved slab, 4 ft. 8 in. high, 2 ft. 10 in. wide, and 7 in.

deep, known as the Yapahu Window, from Yapahu or Yapahuwa,

a village in the North-Western Province, about twenty miles north

of Kurunegala. It consists of a single block of gneiss cut into the

semblance of a frame, which surrounds a composite hieroglyph

consisting of forty-five circles in five vertical rows joined together

in a moniliform pattern, each circle containing an emblematic figure

repeated on both sides of the stone. The matrix of the slab between

the carved portions was removed by the artist who designed and

executed this unique triumph of stone tracery. In the thirteenth

and fourteenth centuries there was a royal palace at Yapahu, and

the hall of the palace was lighted by two of these tracery windows

of exquisite workmanship. . (See Plate II.)

The human figures in the lowest circles represent grotesque

manikins, above these are nautch girls, then animals, some of which

are provided with a trunk and appear to represent the fabulous

gaja-sinha or elephant-lion. The star-shaped radiating emblems

are the dharma chakra symbols, the wheel or circle of the laws and

teaching of Buddha. The birds in the top row are the hansa or

* Archeological Survey of Ceylon: Report on Kegalla District, 1892, p. 58.

156 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

sacred birds, usually represented by geese, sometimes by conven-

tional representations of birds. A

Near the stone window placed on the floorisa Yantra-gala. When

such stones were first discovered they were the subject of much

speculation, and by some were called Yogi or Meditation Stones. It

was supposed that priests gazed at them until they fell into a deep

state of meditation. It is probable that this suggestion is incorrect,

and that such stones did not serve as kasinas for ascetic meditation,

but were essentially used as talismans against demoniac influence.

They are intended to rout the demons of disease, danger, and death.

These partitioned stones are closely connected with the innate

dread. of “‘ the powers of evil,’ and faith in the efficacy of propi-

tiating them by mystical rites. These stones were laid down within

shrines, below the floor, and were covered with a slab upon which ~

rested the dsanaya, or pedestal, of the image or other object of

worship. These square “ mystic stones’? with twenty-five parti-

tions have been found at vihares and other ruins in Anuradhapura

and elsewhere.

Against the West Wall is a cast of the gigantic statue said to be

that of Parakrama Bahu the Great at Polonnaruwa. Some believe

this colossal figure to be a Tamil saint. This is said to be proved

by the absence of jewellery, the simple dress, and the matted locks.

There is no reason to suppose that Parakrama Bahu ever became

a monk. The original figure stands overlooking the great Topavewa

tank at Polonnaruwa. If the figure does not represent the Great

Parakrama it must have been done during his time (twelfth century).

It is considered a very noble work. Very simply clad, the great sage

stands easily, as it were against the rock of which the figure is still

a part, reading from a palm-leaf manuscript.

It is not possible to describe the many exhibits in the Stone Gallery,

but, besides those already mentioned, the visitor’s attention is

invited to the cast of a Processional Moonstone from Anuradhapura

below the south window, the lotus-stem Capitals and Pillars, the

figure of the Goddess Kali, the Guard Stones (janitors), and the

Naga or Cobra Stones. “‘ Moonstones”’ are found at the base of

the steps at the entrance to temples. They are generally of beautiful

design and execution, and are characteristic of Sinhalese Buddhist

architecture. In the cast in the Stone Gallery there is a central

lotus flower surrounded by concentric processions of hansas and

other animals. The animals shown on “‘ moonstones ”’ are represen-

tative of the four points of the compass. Mr. H. C. P. Bell has

inferred that these moonstones are equivalent of the old formula of

dedication to the priests of the four quarters.

“The lotus is to Oriental art all that the rose was to mediaeval

Knglish art.” The illustrations of the lotus pillars will draw

attention to the beautiful specimens exhibited. (See Plates III.

and IV.)

The Guardian Deities (or dwarpal) are always in high relief and

generally have grotesque supporters at the feet. These janitors

are erected on each side of the steps at the entrance of Buddhist

buildings. (See Plate IV.)

Several Naga-gal (cobra stones) will be seen in thisroom. They

are supposed to have been guards, whose function it was to prevent

the approach of evil spirits. (See Plate IV.)

In order more especially to draw attention to the age of some of

the exhibits not here gone into in detail, the pillar from Thuparama

4 GUIDE TO THE COLOMBO MUSEUM. 157/

Dagaba should be mentioned, and the friezes from Ruwanweli

Dagaba. Perhaps it would be necessary to the visitor to the Island

to explain what adagaba really is—specimens of which in gold, glass,

bronze, crystal, and silver are found in the Museum. They are relic

shrines, and in many cases in the old capitals are gigantic masses

of solid brickwork built in the form of a half-egg or a bell, and

crowned with a sort of spire, called a tee, which symbolizes the

honorific umbrella. In these huge piles a secret chamber or chambers

were constructed wherein offerings were deposited, and in the older

dagabas some worshipful fragments of Buddha or one of his saints

were enshrined. Round these dagabas are to be found many tall

monoliths of stone or granite beautifully carved, which in some

cases must have supported a roof or a building. The platforms on

which the dagabas rise are paved with stone slabs, and have small

buildings on the platform with beautiful ornamental stone work.

(See Plate V.)

Jetawanarama, from where some stone karanduwas or relic

- boxes are exhibited in the Gallery, was built by Maha Sen about

275 A.D.—was originally 316 and is now 249 feet high—the summit

being 600 feet above sea level. The diameter is 360 feet, and Sir

Emerson Tennent estimated the contents of the whole at twenty

millions of cubic feet. He says :—

“ Even with the facilities which modern invention supplies for

economizing labour, the building of such a mass would at present

occupy 500 bricklayers from six to seven years, and would involve

an expenditure of at least a million sterling. The materials are

sufficient to raise 8,000 houses each with 20 feet frontage, and these

would form thirty streets, half a mile in length. They would con-

struct a town the size of Ipswich or Coventry ; they would line an

ordinary railway tunnel 20 miles long, or form a wall 1 foot thick

and 10 feet high reaching from London to Edinburgh.”

There are several exhibits from Mihintale. The different incarna-

tions of Kali, such as the Durga, Maha Mari, and Kaw Mari, come

from Mihintale. Eight miles from Anuradhapura the sacred moun-

tain of Mihintale rises from the plain ; it “‘ is undoubtedly the most

ancient scene of mountain worship in Ceylon.” (See Plate V.)

The specimens in the Stone Gallery are sufficient in themselves to

convey to the mind the fallen greatness of the Sinhalese, but taken

together with the ancient ruined cities and their marvellous buildings

the stupendous grandeur of the ancient capitals, during the palmy

days of militant Buddhism, can well be understood.

WEST VERANDAH (Room A).

Opening out of the Stone Gallery on the extreme western side is

the West Verandah, in which a number of inscribed stones will be

found. The work of collecting and collating the numerous ancient

inscriptions scattered over the Island was properly organized during

the Governorship of Sir William Gregory, when Dr. P. Goldschmidt

was appointed Archeological Commissioner to the Government of

Ceylon in 1874. His reports were published as Sessional Papers

from 1875 until his death in 1877. Dr. Goldschmidt was followed

by Dr. Edward Miiller, who compiled a valuable manual on“ Ancient

Inscriptions in Ceylon” (London, 1883), illustrated by a separate

quarto book of plates. Dr. Miiller left Ceylon in 1881, and was

158 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA. :

succeeded, after an interval, as Archeological Commissioner by

Mr. H. C. P. Bell, C.C.8S., under whose direction the work of

excavation, discovery, and transcription has been continued from

1890 to the present time.

The great slabs to be found here are of interest on account of their

antiquity and the characters employed. One propped up lengthwise

on the ground is the oldest inscription that has been discovered at

Anuradhapura, from the Ruwanweli Dagaba.* It relates to the

restoration of certain temples during the reign of King Gaja Bahu

(113-125 a.D.).

An upright slab, known as the Tissamaharama Slab, from Tissa-

maharama, near Hambantota, in the Southern Province. It is

almost completely preserved, and according to Dr. Miiller “is the

finest specimen we have of an inscription of the fourth century A.D.” F

Adjoining this slab is a narrow flattened stone with an inscription

on both faces. The inscription is headed on the obverse side by a

symbol of the sun and on the reverse by a crescent representing the

moon, the sun and moon being the usual royal signs. It is a grant:

of land to a temple, and concludes (on the reverse side) with a life-

size figure of a crowin sunk relief. This is the Petigammana Pillar,

found half buried in a garden within a few miles of Gampola.t (See

Plate VI.)

Many of these inscribed pillars dating from the tenth century bear,

at the top, engravings of the sun and moon as symbols of royalty

[Rhys Davids] or eternity, and, at the bottom, the dog and crow as

symbols of instability [Miller] or meanness ; any one violating the

property of the priesthood renders himself liable to the penalty

of being re-born in the low condition of one of these animals

[Goldschmidt]. The translation of the Petigammana inscription,

according to Mr. Bell, ends with the usual curse: “‘ Any one who

disputes this [grant will be born] a crow.”

In the middle of the outer side of the verandah there is a large

slab, the Dondra Slab,§ recording the grant of land to the Temple

of Vishnu at Dondra Head in the fourteenth century. This slab

and the Dondra Pillar|| at the front outer corner of the verandah

are of particular interest on account of their association with Dondra

Head, near Matara, in the Southern Province, the most southerly

point of Ceylon. “‘ Like Cape Comorin on the Continent of India,”

says Professor Rhys Davids (Indian Antiquary, I., 1872, p. 329),

‘“ Dondra Head has always been a place of pilgrimage, and seems

to have derived its sanctity from its being the extreme southerly

point of land, where the known and firm earth ceases, and man looks

out upon the ocean—the ever-moving, the impassable, the infinite.”

Opposite to the Dondra Slab is the Mahakalattewa Pillar, from

the bund of a tank of that name six miles from Anuradhapura on

the road to Galkulam. It is remarkable for its perfect preservation,

not a single letter missing ; the inscription is on all four sides.{]

Occasionally other symbols besides those mentioned above are

engraved upon the pillars, such as a cobra or a priest’s fan. The

* Miller’s Inscriptions, No. 5, p. 27, and Plate 5.

+ Miller’s Inseriptions, No. 67, p. 43, and Plate 67.

{ H. C. P. Bell, Report on the Kegalla District, 1892, p. 79, with Plate.

§ Miiller’s Inscriptions, No. 163, p. 71. First translated by Rhys Davids,

Journ. Ceylon R. Asiat. Soc., vol. V., 1870-1871, p. 25.

| Miiller’s Inseriptions, No. 159, p. 69. Rhys Davids, loc. cit., 1872, p. 57.

*| Miiller’s Inscriptions, No. 110, p. 55, with Plates 110 A-110 D,

GUIDE TO THE COLOMBO MUSEUM. 159

latter occurs, for example, on the Kongollewa Pillar* (placed near

to the Dondra Slab).

Another slab in a corner of the verandah bearing a short Sinhalese

inscription, with representations of the sun (an orb) and moon (a

crescent), is called the Ehunugalla Slab ;+ it records a benefaction

to a monastery.

The Kotagama Tamil Slab must be mentioned. It is of “‘dressed

stone,” with a Tamil inscription of the fifteenth century, from the

Kotagama Vihare. Mr. Bell, who discovered the inscription,

mentions the singularity of discovering a Tamil inscription in the

heart of a Sinhalese district.

In this verandah will also be found the oldest‘ foreign ”’ inscription

found in Ceylon. It is an inscribed stone in Chinese, Tamil, and

Arabic, dated 1409 4.p., in the reign of Emperor Young Lo of the

Ming Dynasty, found at Cripps road, Galle, 1911.

THE BRONZE GALLERY (Room B).

Opening out from the Stone Gallery is the Bronze Gallery, which

should next engage the visitor’s attention.

The bronzes in this room, which were excavated by the Archzo-

logical Survey of Ceylon at Polonnaruwa and elsewhere, have been

much admired by connoisseurs and experts, and some of them have

been figured and described by such leading authorities on Indian

art as EK. B. Havell, Vincent Smith, and Dr. A. K. Coomaraswamy.

Most noteworthy is the collection of Hindu bronzes from Polon-

naruwa, which closely resemble in workmanship and design the

numerous bronzes which are scattered throughout Southern India.

Whether the Polonnaruwa bronzes were made by Indian workmen

in Ceylon or were imported from India is not clear. Indubitably

they belong strictly speaking to Indian art, and they have little in

common with contemporary Sinhalese art. This collection, which

is one of the best of its kind, has attracted experts from all parts of

the world. In regard to these bronze figures two features must be

recognized and considered if one is to properly appreciate them,

namely, “‘ the fine sense of nervous pose and the persistent idealism.”

Case 1.

This case contains, besides a heterogeneous collection of bronze

stands, finials, basins, bowls, &c., a large bronze kotale, or

drinking goblet, with the spout fashioned after the manner of an

elephant’s head and trunk, which calls for special notice. This

goblet, which was obtained from Ratnapura, has been lent by

Mr. P. E. Pieris, C.C.S. A three-branched candelabrum from

Munnessaram, presented by the late Sir F. R. Saunders, and a

handsome bronze amphylla from Anuradhapura, are also note-

worthy. (See Plate VII.)

* Miuller’s Inscriptions, No. 112, p. 55. Kongollewa lies about two miles

north of Madawachchi, in the North-Central Province.

+ H.C. P. Bell, Report on the Kegalla District, 1892, p. 76, with figure on

Plate facing p. 72.

160 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Cases 2 and 3.

These cases contain figures of Siva-Kami or Parvati, Consort of

Siva. (See Plate XIIT.)

Case 4.

Here are displayed bronze spoons, round bronze dishes, bronze

lions, bronze bangles, ornaments, “‘ Hindu emblems,” the Svastika

a symbol of pre-Buddhist origin and worldwide distribution. A

richly embossed heavy bronze panel from Anuradhapura is also

shown in this case, and at the bottom a six-headed image of Katara-

gam Deviyo standing under a makara and on a peacock from a

Devale.

Case 5.

A collection of Buddhas in bronze, copper, brass, gold, and other

metals. There are eight thin gold images of Buddha, filled with

clay, from Panduwasnuwara, a gold figure from Tissamaharama,

and gold and crystal dagabas from Anuradhapura. There are also

bronze Buddhas on thrones backed by an arch called the makara

torana. On the top of the case there is a large bronze sedent

Buddha of unique design in the attitude of teaching, holding a

flower (2) in the left hand. This was discovered twelve miles from

Badulla along the new road to Batticaloa, and was presented by

Mr. G. F. K. Horsfall in 1876. (See Plate VIII.)

There is a fine recumbent Buddha in the middle of the case, from

Nilgama, in the Matale District. It represents the attitude of

Buddha’s Maha Pari Nirvana on his last death, after innumerable

previous deaths in previous births: the entire cessation of re-births

with the extinction of all the elements of bodily existence.

Case 6.

This case contains among other things bronze tripods from

Polonnaruwa, bronze homunculi, a figure of Siva-Kami or Parvati

on the top shelf, and a figure of Tiru-Navukarasu or Appar Swami

(circa 500 A.D.), apostle and psalmist of the religion of Siva, on the

second shelf. (See Plate XI.)

On the same shelf there is a bronze of Bodhisatva Maittreya (the

loving one) in the attitude of a teacher. It is said to be one of the

best bronzes in the collection. As it comes from Anuradhapura it

represents a much earlier period than the Polonnaruwa bronzes.

The treatment of the drapery is full of grace. The expression of the

face is severe and exalted. This figure belongs to a type called by

modern Sinhalese craftsmen tri-vanka, “‘ three bent,” the head,

trunk, and lower limbs having a different inclination. The pose of

such figures reminds us of the “‘ sway” characteristic of so many

medieval Kuropean ivory Madonnas. The weight of the body is

thrown on the right leg, the left hip being raised. In this case will

also be found a figure of Tiru-gnana Sambandha Svami (cerca

500 A.D.), apostle and psalmist of the religion of Siva. His psalms

are in daily use in the temples. He is said to have been called to

be an apostle while still a child (at Stickali, in Tanjore District) and

to have died a child. Hence he is represented as a child, nude,

save for anklets and a child’s waist-string of beads, and having a

child’s tuft of hair on the front of the head. He holds in his hands

the golden cymbals which he received from Siva and with which he

went about singing Siva’s praise. (See Plate X1.)

GUIDE TO THE COLOMBO MUSEUM. 161

Case 7.

This case contains bronze finial stands, ancient bronze boxes, a

contemplation box, bells, stirrups (one with rectangular base),

cymbals, cobras (some seven-headed), bronze lamp stands, pounder

and pestle. A temple bell 114 inches high is seen, having the figure

of a bull in relief, from the Siva Dewale. (See Plate IX.)

Case 8.

Contains a figure of Parvati, Consort of Siva, in the manifestation

called Vira-Sakti, from Siva Dewale No. 1, Polonnaruwa.

Case 9.

This figure represents Chandeswara, an apotheosized devotee of

Siva. He is holding a garland of flowers. On the base there is an

inscription in a dialect which is said to be composed of mixed

Grantha and Sinhalese. The inference drawn from what can be

made of the inscription and from the attitude of the figure is that it

represents a Lord Chief or King.

Case 10.

Here is a miscellaneous collection of bronze lamp covers, mcense

vessels, bracket lamps, sacred geese used as tops of lamps, orna-

ments, finials, &. (See Plates IX. and XXIII_)

Case 11.

This case contains bronzes of Ganesha, Krishna, Kataragam

Deviyo, guardian gods, horses, crabs, elephants, tortoises, shells,

fishes, oxen, lions, bronze of Siva ; Kami or Parvati, Consort of Siva ;

Siva standing with his Consort Parvati and embracing her (alinga),

surrounded by a halo. On the bottom shelf will be seen a bronze

bull from Polonnaruwa, a favourite charger of Siva in his manifes-

tation of Risha-bharuda or Pasu-palis—the bull representing the

human soul (pasw), of which he is lord (pat).

A noteworthy and uncommon type is Suriya, the Sun-god, with

a halo round the head and a lotus bud in either hand. Tiru-na-

Vukkarasa Swami or Appar Swami is shown in this case in a different

form to the one in Case 6. He is here shown with shaven head,

clad only in a breech-clout ; the end of the grass-cutter has been

broken off. (See Plate XI.)

Case 12.

Several figures are shown here, such as guardian gods from

Anuradhapura, demi-gods from Polonnaruwa, a small Nataraja and

goddess Parvati from Polonnaruway; a seated goddess from Polon-

naruwa, and two images of Sundara Murti Swami (czrca 700 4.D.),

apostle and psalmist of the religion of Siva. He was a native of

Tiruvarur, near Negapatam, in the Madras Presidency, called to be

an apostle on his wedding day, hence dressed in the clothes and

ornaments of a bridegroom. A figure of Manikka—Vachaka Swami,

the greatest of Siva’s apostles and psalmists, about 100 a.p.—is also

in the case. He was prime minister of the Pandyan King of

Madura in the Madras Presidency before he was called to be an

apostle. He holdsin his handa palm-leaf manuscript of his psalms.

(See Plate XII.)

43-12 Ga)

162 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Case 18.

This case contains a bronze finial from the top of a dagaba at

Polonnaruwa. Near this case is a large bronze cauldron from

Anuradhapura, which was possibly used for dyeing priests’ robes.

Case 14.

This case contains two figures of Siva as Nataraja. Both bronzes

are without the halo, and one of them without the whirling braids.

There is also a figure of a Devi or goddess standing, from Polon-

naruwa. Another figure of Siva is seen seated at ease (sukhasana),

with his Consort Parvati or Siva-Kami. On Siva’s crown are the

sun, moon, and the Ganges. In one of his hands he holds a deer,

in another a battle-axe ; in other respects the ornaments are as in

Case 15. Parvati holds a lotus bud in her hand. Both figures are

seated upon the lotus throne or padmasana. Next is a figure of

Siva in one of his dances called Sandyanirtta. Under the case is a

copper patra or begging bow] from Polonnaruwa, excavated by the

Archeological Survey in 1908. (See Plates XIV. and XV.)

Case 15.

This figure, which is perhaps the most noteworthy bronze in the

collection, is of Siva as Nataraja, the lord of the universe. The

whole figure symbolizes the activity of the lord in the universe, his

five acts—Creation, Preservation, Destruction, Embodiment, and

Release. ‘* Our lord,” says a Tamil text, “‘ is the Dancer who, like

the heat latent in firewood, diffuses his power in mind and matter

and makes them dance in their turn ’”’—a poet’s intuitive perception

of an idea of the nature of matter not far removed from the concep-

tions of modern science. Of concrete symbols, the drum in one

right hand signifies creative sound, the vibratory movement

initiating evolution ; the flame in one left hand symbolizes the

converse, activity, destruction, involution. The hand upraised says

to the worshipper, “ Fear not,” and the other points to his foot, the

refuge of the soul. The right foot tramples on a demon, representing °

the cosmic illusion of empirical reality. The Ganges, in the form

of a mermaid, and the crescent moon are set in his streaming hair.

One cobra wreathes itself about his arm, another is twisted in his

locks. Upon his brow blazes the third eye of spiritual wisdom.

(See Plate X.)

SOUTH VERANDAH (Room B).

A heavy large Portuguese cannon in copper, with the Portuguese

coat-of-arms on it, will be found here. It was dredged by the

‘““ Merak”’ in 1888. This cannon most probably belonged to the

Portuguese warship commanded by Francisco Perera, which was

wrecked in the Colombo harbour:in 1613.

Almost opposite will be found a stone slab bearing the royal

arms of Portugal, found at Menikkadawara in the Kegalla District.

In this verandah will also be found a pillar and inscription (dated

1550) which were unearthed at the Chartered Bank premises in

Colombo, in 1906. The pillar is elaborately carved, the design

being peculiar and unlike those hitherto found in the Island. It

seems Dravidian in style, and somewhat like the lion pillar

GUIDE TO THE COLOMBO MUSEUM. 163

from Berendi Kovil (Sitawaka) figured in the Archeological Com-

missioner’s Report on the Kegalla District, 1890-1893.

Near this pillar is exhibited a polished pillar of Ceylon gneiss

from the Mahara quarries, employed in the construction of the

Colombo Breakwater, presented by Mr. John Kyle.

NORTH VERANDAH (Room B).

Here will be found some Dutch and Portuguese tombstones—all

labelled with text and translations. A couple of carved Maldivian

tombstones in coralline limestone are also kept in this verandah, .

and also capitals, guardstones, and other stone carvings from

Anuradhapura and elsewhere. There is a fine old carved Kandyan

door frame from Kumbukgama, presented by Mr. F. H. Price, and

also another ancient carved wooden door from Dewanagala in the

Kegalla District. The solid wings of this door and the left jamb

of its frame were found anrong the lumber underneath the vihare.

There are ten plain panels enclosed by framework in high relief carved

in a foliage scroll. The carving of the jamb is described as follows :

‘“* Between an outer beading and inner splayed edge of lotus petals

runs a long narrow panel with gracefully intertwined double scroll

of creeper, separating four figures all different from each other. A

space half moulded, half panelled, in flower design, intervenes

between it and the base panel, in which is placed beside a tree an

elephant with head and right forefoot raised and curled trunk.’’*

(See Plate XVI.)

| CENTRAL HALL (Room ).

The Central Hall, by which the visitor enters the Museum,

contains four cases of arms near the entrance and two cases ivories.

In the far right hand corner is a case containing a miscellaneous set

of things lent by Mr. Leslie de Saram. Suspended from the roof

are specimens of old Sinhalese flags.

Arms (Cases 17, 18, 19, and 20).

When the first Portuguese ships arrived off Colombo in 1505, it

is very probable that firearms, though known to a limited extent in

the Indian continent, were not in use among the Sinhalese. Their

arms were similar to those of most of the Indian races, and consisted

of short swords, spears and javelins, bows and arrows, and clubs.

The spears are well represented in the Museum, and are either hung

on the walls or occupy stands in the Central Hall. The heads are

as a rule richly inlaid with gold, silver, or copper, and the shafts

elaborately lacquered. The short javelins were especially used for

fighting with amidst forests and mountains, for the warfare of the

Sinhalese was largely guerilla. Their bows were six feet in length,

and were made of dunwmadala, and were, like the spear shafts,

heavily lacquered. The bow strings were manufactured locally from

the tough fibre of the niyanda (Sanseviera zeylanica), and the arrows

of arecanut wood, frequently without any metal head. But it was

* H.C, P. Bell, Report on the Kegalla District, 1892, p. 49,

164 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

in the sword and the spear that the artistic instinct of the smith

developed itself. A dagger has always been a part of the everyday

dress of the Sinhalese, and to-day every villager carries his knife at

his waist. The collection in Case 17 shows some of these of the

most elaborate description. The handles are of ivory, horn, crystal.

or bronze, and the style of decoration followed resolves itself into

three or four broad classes. In the better specimens more than

one-half of the blade is covered with exquisite metal work, whether

silver or bronze inlaid with silver; the scabbards are usually of

wood and sometimes of horn, and as in the case of the blade they

are also adorned with silver work. Some of the scabbards are

fitted with the steel silver-mounted stylus which was used for

-inscribing on the palm leaves which served the Sinhalese instead

of paper; these daggers were used by the officials whose duty

necessitated the frequent entering of records. (See Plates XVII.

and XLI.)

The swords are chiefly distinguished by the shortness of the

blades and by the smallness of the handles. Those worn by the

higher military officers were invariably covered with a profusion of

gold and silver ornament, in which seven lion heads are prominent.

With the development of firearms the sword fell more and more

into disuse, and is to-day represented by the highly ornamental but

utterly unpractical weapon which is worn with Sinhalese uniform.

The visitor should notice in Case 17 the tortoiseshell scabbard

richly carved which used to be worn in mourning. Two ancient

straight swords at the bottom of Case 17, with long inscriptions, are

among the most interesting objects of this collection. It will be

noted that inlaid in brass on some of the blades are certain figures,

whether of animals like the lion, horse, and dog, or conventional

designs of flowers, &c. These are remnants of the Sinhalese system

of heraldry, and served to differentiate between the various castes

which used the weapons. A variety of Indian and Malay swords,

daggers, and krises are shown in Cases 18 and 19. The Moorish

thrust dagger in Case 19 should be particularly noted ; this is the

device which is still used by these Indo-Arabs in branding cattle.

(See Plate XVIT.)

The weapons which were introduced into the country by the

Kuropeans can be easily distinguished by their appearance. The

Portuguese sword shown in Case 19, which was found at the site of

the ancient capital of Cotta, where for sixty years Portuguese

influence made itself felt, bears an interesting inscription.* The

weapons of the Dutch East India Company, which invariably bear

the Company’s mark we with the date, are collected in Case 18.

Their blades were greatly in demand among the Sinhalese, and their

swords-sticks or kala bonde were fashionable amongst the noblemen

of the Sinhalese Court towards the end of the seventeenth century.

The Portuguese writers again and again express their admiration

of the skill of the Sinhalese in the manufacture of firearms. As

usual the best of these were heavily ornamented with silver, and a

beautiful specimen of such a gun may be seen in Case 20. A large

number of small cannon or kodi tuwakku—foot-muskets, as the

Portuguese called them, or ‘‘ grasshoppers,’ according to the Dutch

i F : F ;

* «< No me embaines sin honor. No me saines sin razon,’

GUIDE TO THE COLOMBO MUSEUM. 165

—were used by the Sinhalese in their wars. These were very

similar to the cannon manufactured by the Filippinos a few years

back during their wars with the United States. These guns could

be carried by two men, and were most efficacious in guerilla war.

A handsome brass-mounted specimen is seen on the floor of the

Central Hall. The powder horns in Case 20 should also be noted.

They are of ivory or horn, and among the prettiest are some formed

from the coconut shell. (See Plate XVII.)

One specimen of a Sinhalese shield of buffalo hide appears in

Case 20. It is interesting to note that a white shield was one of the

Sinhalese insignia of royalty, and that it was adopted as such by

the Portuguese Captains-General, as representing their king.

Some specimens of stone “‘ cannon-balls ” will be seen on a stand

at the foot of the stairs. These come from Medamahanuwara, the

city of refuge which the Sinhalese kings maintained during their

wars with the Portuguese during the first half of the seventeenth

century. It is however doubtful if the Sinhalese possessed guns of

sufficient calibre to discharge such projectiles, and it is much more

probable that they were used with one of the species of catapults

which were known in the Hast.

Ivories (Cases 16 and 21).

Whether the Court of Solomon was supplied with its ivory from

Ceylon or not, this country has from the earliest dawn of history

been renowned for the quality of its ivory, gems, and pearls ; and

out of the exhibits to be seen at the Museum, the instinct of the

Sinhalese workman for what is beautiful is probably best shown in

the ivory carving. The smith caste has always been a favoured

one with the Sinhalese kings ; among its nine classes were allotted

works so different as the hewing of stones, the lacquering of spear

handles, the carving of ivory, and the making of ornaments of gold.

Several colonies of these people were imported from time to time

from South India, bringing over with them the traditions of their

own country. An elaborate organization of their caste existed

round the Sinhalese Court till the extinction of the Kandyan

Kingdom, and valuable information on the subject can be obtained

from an article by Mr. H. W. Codrington, C.C.S., on the Kandyan

Navandanno, in the 21st volume of the Journal of the Ceylon Branch

of the Royal Asiatic Society.

Ivory and gems entered largely into the decoration of temples

and palaces, the king’s throne in the earliest times being wrought

of ivory. Plaques of ivory were used to cover the wooden doorposts

of sacred edifices, and specimens of these may be seen at the Museum,

the depth of their carving, the elegance of the design, and the

finish of the work making them particularly striking. The fragment

of an ivory door frame carved out of a slab 14 inch in thickness,

which is shown in the illustration, is a specimen of the finest kind

of Sinhalese work. These panels not only display the conventional

designs of leaf and flower, but elaborate figures of deities and

heraldic devices like the elephant and the two-headed eagle. The

two carved panels from the Treasury of the last king, which occupy

the central place in the case on the left, though lacking in the vigour

of the oldest specimens, are of special interest from their historical

associations. (See Plate XVIII.)

Akin to these panels are the ivory book covers which were used

to protect the palm-leaf books of the Sinhalese. A long string

166 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

secured to a jewelled button and passed through a perforation in

the leaves is employed to hold the book together.

The large ivory fan handles are among the most treasured

possessions of the Buddhist priests, with whom a fan held in front

of their faces is an essential portion of the priestly costume at all

religious functions. An ivory fan was the insignia of the Sangha

Raja, or Buddhist Pope, under the Sinhalese kings. The effective

decoration of these handles by conventional designs in dots and

circles of red and black is specially noteworthy. The design is

incised on the object to be decorated, and the hollows filled in with

colouring matter. The intertwined parrot heads shown in the

illustration comes from the Balangoda District, and is probably a

fragment from the back of a chair. Above this exhibit is another

fragment of particularly excellent carving, though the use of the

article is unknown. A variety of small cases, &c., turned on the

lathe occupies the lower shelf. These were used as jewel cases, pill

boxes, &c., and are alldecorated with inlaid lac. Among them may

be noticed the medicinal staff of King Raja Sinha II., which consists

of a series of pill boxes screwed together in the form of a staff.

Kach compartment would be filled with a separate variety of medical

preparation, and the warmth of the hand was considered to attract

the virtues of these drugs within the system of the person who carried

the staff. This rare curiosity was presented by the King to the

French Count de Lanarolle, who was detained at his Court for

many years, till he finally married and settled down among the

Sinhalese, and has been lent to the Museum by one of his

descendants.

As might be expected, ivory was largely utilized for making

images of the Buddha, and several specimens of these, together

with models of figures in various costumes, are shown in the case

on the right. It will be noted that, as often done by the Greeks

in the case of their marbles, the Sinhalese artist frequently coloured

the background of his ivory for the purpose of throwing the delicate

carving into prominent relief. ‘Traces of this colouring can be seen

in the most ancient plaques already referred to. The large collection

of ivory combs display some fine specimens of art. These combs

are carved on both faces, and the attention of the visitor is specially

drawn to the delicacy of the workmanship in the one with the large

lotus flower in the centre ; some of the perforated work and the

reproduction of conventional designs are worthy of careful study.

The earpicks are done with the same taste and minute care as the

combs. An effective specimen of decoration in red lacquer is shown

in the large shuttle, which was the insignia of the head of the weavers

under the Sinhalese kings. (See Plate XIX.)

Among the greatest curiosities in Sinhalese ivory work rank the

scent sprays or sividi. The manufacture of these was confined to a

few families, and the knowledge is now almost extinct. The material

is prepared in such a fashion that the ivory is compressible, and by

a little pressure of the fingers will eject its liquid contents. The

ivory drum on the lower shelf comes from the musical establishment

of the last king of Kandy ; by its side are various ivory flutes and

horns such as are still in use in temples.

Among the other articles of domestic utility in ivory are drinking

cups, medicine flasks, mortars, cotton reels, spectacle cases and

frames, syringes, &c. The early Portuguese fully appreciated the

beauty of Sinhalese work, and the high officials employed considerable

GUIDE TO THE COLOMBO MUSEUM. 167

numbers of silversmiths in preparing such work for them. It is

recorded that a crucifix sent from Ceylon to the Archbishop of Goa in

the sixteenth century was considered such a work of beauty that it

was forwarded by that Prelate to Philip IT. of Spain, to be preserved

among the royal treasures. One specimen of Portuguese carving

is shown in the Museum, representing, characteristically enough,

Adam and Eve under an apple tree. The Dutch influence is shown

in a series of jewel and betel boxes in Case 16.

De Saram Loan Collection (Case 22).*

This case contains various articles of beauty and value, including

bronzes which probably came from the ancient temple of Mantota.

This collection contains two ivory boxes of unusual beauty, one

being book-shaped and the other being noteworthy on account of

its fine perforated work. These boxes, as well as practically all those

in Case 16, are probably of Indian workmanship. As arule Sinhalese

work is on solid planks of ivory, while the Indian is veneered on

sandalwood or some other white wood. The hinges and nails

employed in Indian boxes are generally of inferior metal. (See

Plate XXVIII.)

Sinhalese Flags.

From the most remote times the Sinhalese had their standards

and badges. The lions on the gateway at Sanchi (circa 320 B.c.)

have been identified as the national symbol of Ceylon. Suspended

from the roof of the Central Hall may be seen copies of the royal

standard of Kandy and the flags of the different Provinces belonging

to the ancient Kingdom of Kandy. Although the dimensions and

the colouring of the originals are not shown in the copies hanging

in the Gallery, they represent fairly accurately the symbols on the

old flags, and have been worked by Sinhalese in red and white in

the spirit of the old designs. The flag of Kandy represents the old

Sinhalese banner of a red lion holding a sword, with a ray of the sun

or gold finial issuing from the four corners. It is symbolical of the

lion (senha) race and the Solar dynasty of Ceylon. The others are

flags of Provinces. (See Plate XX.)

The flag of the Seven Korales (Hat Korale) represents ‘a lion.

The flag of Udapalata, a red lotus on a white field within a border,

with the usual Sinhalese design of stars to fill in a vacant space.

The flag of Bintenna displays a red parrot, and the flag of Nuwara-

kalawiya the mythical elephant-lion (gaja sinha) in red within a

border, with the star decoration. The flag of Uva bears a red swan

(hansa) and the flag of Tamankaduwa a red bear (valaha), while on

the banners of Wellassa and Walapane appear respectively a red

leopard (kotiya) and a red peacock. 'The banner of the Four Korales

(Hatara Korale) led the van in war, and at the annual Buddhist

procession, the Dalada Perahera, at Kandy it bore the sacred and

royal symbols of the sun and moon. A representation of the

standard of the Four Korales, beautifully worked, which the

unfortunate chieftain Lewke bore against the British in 1803, is

given in Bell’s Report of the Kegalla District, page 126 (Ceylon

* In Ceylon there are numerous private collections of interesting antiques,

the value of which would be largely increased by their display in their proper

surroundings in the Museum. It is to be hoped that Mr. de Saram’s example

in lending the best specimens in his collection to the Museum will find numerous

imitators.

168 SPOLIA ZEYLANIGA.

Archeological Survey). The flag of the Three Korales (‘Tun Korale)

contains the double-headed eagle (bherundaya). A plain white

field within a red border is the banner of Matale. The flag of

Sabaragamuwa represents a net, shown by intersecting red lines on

a gold field within a blue border. Tradition says that one of

the Kandyan monarchs, through persistent rebellions in that

Province, declared that he would not trust the people of Sabara-

gamuwa out of his sight, and gave them the “ net ” flag so that he

might see through them, even with the covering of a banner. The

older ensign appears to be a plain yellow silk banner, on which the

net is shown in the flag in the Museum. Besides the flags already

mentioned, there is a copy of a flag said to be of the Udunuwara

Dissavoni. It has a floral border and a large central figure blowing

a trumpet, human forebody upon a bird’s hindquarters (kindura),

painted equally on both sides.

The drawings on the ceiling covering the tog of the staircase must

not be taken for flags. These are Kandyan ceiling drawings done

by Kandyan workmen. Among other drawings there is the hansa-

puttuwa. The hansa is the ‘‘ sacred goose,” which is regarded as

beautiful and auspicious. In Sinhalese as in Hindu decorative art

the hansa is seen frequently. The double or more swans with

entwined necks is the typical Sinhalese (Kandyan) form of the hansa.

The other drawings are merely decorative drawings. The one with

the monster on the top with the figures supporting it is the makara

lorana. The makara is supposed to be a fabulous amphibious

monster, usually taken to be the shark or crocodile, but depicted

in the signs of the zodiac with the head and forelegs of an antelope

and the body and tail of a fish. In the middle of the makara is

the Maitriya Buddha.

ROOM D.

The visitor next comes to Room D, which opens off the east side

of the Central Hall.

Here are found two cases displaying samples of Maldivian arts

and handicrafts ; two cases of models of boats, fishing appliances,

and houses ; two cases of masks, musical instruments, and other

articles associated with various ceremonies ; one case of modern

pottery ; and one case of ancient pottery and other remains:

disinterred at Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa. There is also a

small case in the centre of the room containing painted clay models

illustrative of the different types of inhabitants of the Colony and

their distinctive kinds of dress.

In the North Verandah are shown some of the economic products

of the coconut and palmyra palms. In the South Verandah are

various stone remains.

Maldivian Exhibits (Cases.25 and 82).

The Maldive Islands are situated 380 miles west of Ceylon, and

form a dependency of the Government of this-Island. The archi-

pelago consists of several hundreds of islands grouped together in

clusters, called atolls ; they are of coral formation, and produce

excellent coconuts, the fibre of which has been for centuries largely

utilized as cordage for the shipping in the Indian waters. The

country is governed by a Sultan, who sends a yearly Embassy, with

GUIDE TO THE COLOMBO MUSEUM. 169

his tribute of cowries, ambergris, mats, &c., to the Ceylon Govern-

ment. The people appear to have a considerable amount of Arab

blood in their veins, and the produce of the coconut, dried fish, and

tortoiseshell are important articles of export. The models of the

various ships in use are of great interest as preserving the outline of

the vessels in which no doubt the earliest Arab navigators crossed

the Indian seas ; the sails of some of these vessels are made of

coconut leaves, and the flaming star shown on the others is the

device of the Sultan. The fishing ladles are ingeniously constructed

from the spathe of the coconut flower. Shark-fishing is an important

industry, the animals being captured by means of large iron

hooks. The chief interest in the exhibit centres round the beautiful

specimens of Maldivian lacquer work ; this is superior in finish to

anything of the kind produced in Ceylon, and easily rivals the

famous golden lacquer of Pagan. Among the best specimens are

the lace stand, flower holder, and plate box as shown in the illustra-

tion. The curious high wooden sandal with a metal nail to pass

between the first two toes is to be found in use in Ceylon ; the shell

spoons and the various games should also be noted, as well as the

specimens of the costumes of the inhabitants. A considerable

portion of the articles on view has been presented by the Sultan

Ibrahim Noorudin Iskander. (See Plates XXI. and XXII.)

Ancient Pottery and Earthenware (Case 26).

The case containing ancient earthenware contains chiefly ‘ finds ’’

of the Archeological Survey of Ceylon—Anuradhapura 437 B.c. to

769 a.p., Polonnaruwa 769-1319 a.p., and Sigiriya 479 a.p. There

are some ancient eaves tiles from Panduwasnuwara. Eaves or

hanging tiles are used on dewala and vihare roofs to fringe the

eaves. These tiles have a plain flat upper portion which passes

under the last row of tiles at the edge of the roof. The visible down-

hanging portions, which frequently have the shape of conventional-

ized bo-leaves, give an artistic finish to the roof. Animal figures

are embossed on the outer (and sometimes in the inner) surface of

43-12 C 5m)

170 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

the hanging tile, and frequently the lion (sinha) and the goose (hansa)

are shown particularly. Attention is drawn to the bo-leaf shape,

heraldic lion, lotus blossoms, and palmettes, and the Kandyan eaves

tile from Pelenda, Kukul Korale, with face, from the palace of

King Vidiye Bandara, father of King Dharmapala, and also the

base of a clay lamp with elephants in relief. At the Dalada

Maligawa and the Old Palace at Kandy tiles are let into the wall,

with lions or geese, and painted, with very good effect as wall

decoration.

There is in this case a fragment of a beautiful ornamental brick

from Sigiriya. The other noteworthy things in the case are the old

tile and ornamental clay top (“ota) of a Maligawa, found at Maliga-

tenna in Deraniyagala, said to come from the site of the palace built

by King Rajasinha I. in Sitawaka, 1581-1592.

Pottery and Sinhalese Earthenware (Case 27).

This case has some excellent examples of painted pottery of much

excellence, as well as some grotesque pottery. Sinhalese potters

are found all over the country, but often in greater numbers in places

where there is a good supply of suitable clay. In the days of the

Sinhalese Monarchy, at the Court one of the household departments

was that of the potters. Potters held land on service tenures often

directly from the king. The potter is generally found at work in

the verandah of his house, and sometimes in a separate shed. Dr.

A. K. Coomaraswamy thus describes the potters’ appliances and the

process of working :—

“The potter’s appliances are, as may be supposed, simple enough.

His wheel (poruwa) is a circular board about 24 ft. in diameter

mounted on a stone pivot which fits into a large stone socket

embedded in the ground, the horizontal surface of the wheel itself

standing not more than six inches above the ground. The wheel is

turned by a boy who squats on the ground opposite the potter and

keeps it going with his hands. A lump of clay is dumped on the

wheel, enough for half a dozen or more pots, and they are moulded

one by one under the potter’s hands, cut off, and set aside to dry.

To finish off the rims, a strip of wet cotton is used ; with this the

potter smooths off the edges as the wheel turns, and pressing through

it with his nail he makes the little mouldings at the top. As removed

from the wheel the pots are bottomless, and have to dry for a few

hours or a day or two before they can be finished ; when they are

ready the potter takes a smooth stone in his left hand and a sort of

wooden bat (walantalana lella) in his right hand, and holding the

stone inside the vessel he beats and pats its sides till finally they

meet across the bottom ; the vessel is rabbed smooth with the bat.

- Occasionally the surface is polished by rubbing with a smooth seed.

Any ornament required is now added and the pot is ready for the

fire. Firing is done in a low kiln with stone sides and a dome

covering of wet clay and sticks. The kiln is square in plan, and has

three or four openings along one side for the insertion of fuel, and

on the other sides smaller openings for the escape of air. Long

sticks are used for fuel, pushed through the openings by degrees

as they burnaway. ‘The kiln is usually protected from the weather

by a rough shed.”

Some fine examples of painted Kandy pottery are exhibited.

These are painted with oil colours after the pots are fired. The

GUIDE TO THE COLOMBO MUSEUM. ial

only colours properly used in painting pottery are red, yellow,

white, and black—the ordinary pigments of the Kandyan painter.

Some plain, well-made clay pots are also shown in this case. (See

Plate XXIV.)

Demons and Devil Ceremonies (Cases 28 and 29).

The beliefs regarding the existence of evil and low spirits, and

their various characters, are many and elaborate. The yaksa

and preia are believed to cause many diseases, and are exorcised

in various ways.

Among those to whom disease is attributed the Sanni Yaka takes

eighteen forms, and to him are attributed eighteen forms of diseases.

He is sometimes represented in a large mask with eighteen different

figures, and more often by eighteen different masks. (See Plate

XXV.)

For each yaksa there is a different ceremony for its propitiation,

which includes offerings of food, dances, music, lights, &c. In

Case 29 are shown the masks representing the attitudes of various

demons and a large Sanni Yaka. ‘This case also contains the dress

of a devil dancer and various types of head-dresses used in devil

dancing. (See Plates XXVI. and XXVII.)

There is a general ceremony for warding off evil influences known

as Sunityan-kepima (the severing of bindings). The decorations

for this ceremony and the dance connected therewith are very

elaborate. A throne room is built in the shape of aiamagala, the

eight-sided figure, with green leaves, flowers, and plantain stalks,

lit with hundreds of torches dipped in oil. In front of this are placed

seven floral steps. The patient is made to wear a crown, anklets,

armlets, bracelets, belts, &c., made of stems of tender creepers.

The ceremony: is concluded by the cutting down of all decorations,

and lime fruit and various other fruits, after the repetition of

invocations, charms, verses, and songs. The performers dress

themselves in ornamental vari-coloured hats, bodices, and skirts.

(See Plate X XVII.)

Giri Devi is a she-demon who is propitiated also in a dance. Her

ornaments are represented in an elaborate dress, part of which is

shown in Case 28. The story of Giri Devi is that she was a handsome

young princess, who, through shame of an intrigue with her own

brother, committed suicide, and afterwards was converted into a

demoness through the power of the King of Demons.

’ Musical Instruments, &c. (Case 28).

In Case 28 the following instruments used in magical ceremonies

are displayed :—

Drums.

Udekkiya—A small drum used for keeping time to dancers ;

specially used in ceremonies connected with temples of devas.

Bummediya.—A drum made of an earthenware spherical pot with

two openings, one smaller than the other. The top opening is

covered, with the prepared skin of a lizard (Water Monitor). This

is used in ceremonies connected with the reaping of crops, &c.

Demala Bere—A Tamil drum is made of a large hollowed piece

of wood tapering at the two ends. Both ends are covered with

prepared skin, and one of the skins is coated with a cement. The

172 SPOLIA ZEYLANIOA.

skin is kept stretched by an arrangement of strings drawn with

double loops arranged on the drum cylinder. This drum is used for

keeping time for songs connected with ceremonies of devas.

Yak Bere——A drum used in devil ceremonies. This is a loud-

toned drum, for beating with the fingers and palms of both hands.

It consists of a long cylindrical regular-shaped hollowed wood,

covered at both ends with prepared skins, which are tightened and

arranged by looped strings running across the cylinder from side to

side.

The Davul Bere contains a larger sized cylinder, arranged similarly

to the Yak Bere, but is played with a stick and the palms and

fingers.

Tammetian.—A double drum, both facing the player and attached

together ina line. It is played with two bent sticks.

Wind Instruments.

Sak Gedi (chank shell) —This is prepared of shell. When blown

from one end it produces a loud sound. It is used in Hindu

temples and in processions and ceremonies connected with devas.

Was Dandu.—A whistle made of a piece of bamboo ; when played

it emits a long and shrill note of call. It is used in demon cere-

monies.

Horanewa.—A long flute-shaped wind instrument.

Bells, Anklets, &c.

The hand-bell is used in ceremonies connected with temples of

devas.

Cymbals are used in connection with some of the demon cere-

monies.

Gejji.—Small jingles, a number of which are strung together and

tied round the ankles of a dancer,

Armlets.—Hollowed armlets with sounding pebbles; worn on the

arm and wrist.

Anklets.—Sounding rings worn on the ankles.

Salamba.—Oblong sounding rings worn on the thumbs. (See

Plate XXVIT.)

Bali Ceremonies.

There are numerous coloured pictures representing various images

used in different bali ceremonies. These pictures are above some of

the cases in Rooms D and E, and also on the walls of the North

Verandah of Room D.

Bali ceremonies are concerned in the invocation of the powers of

planetary gods. Various clay images are mounted on frames and

are coloured and decorated. Each one is intended for a special

purpose, and its details are elaborately described. Offerings of

food, flowers, lights, &c., are made hefore the figure, accompanied

by incantations, songs, and dancing.

Case 380.

This case contains models of Low-country huts, a paddy barn,

Jaffna bungalow, rattan bridge, of a gateway and gate in Jaffna

District, brick kiln with bricks, tiles, moulds, and accessories,

child’s cot, palanquin, a well at Jaffna,'and a bed used in the

Jaffna District.

NN la a

GUIDE TO THE COLOMBO MUSEUM. 173

There is also a model of a chekku (native oil mill) shown. This

is used by the natives for extracting coconut oil from copra (the

dried kernel of the coconut). It is a simple and inexpensive method,

and althuugh not so effective as the steam machinery introduced by

Europeans for the same purpose, it has held its ground against

steam crushes and hydraulic presses, and notwithstanding the

erection of large steam oil mills, the chekku or bullock mill still

continues to exist in Ceylon.

Boats and Fishery Appliances (Case 31).

The objects under this head are not well represented for want of

room. Among boats will be found the “ dhoney ” (a native sailing

craft), ‘“kattumarams,’”’ a Negombo canal “padda’”’ boat, out-

rigger boat, passenger boats, a double canoe, a river raft, and a

model of a boat used in the pearl fisheries, with crew and divers.

On a side of the pearl fishery boat model will be found a diver’s

sinking stone and pearl diver’s coir basket, which were used in the

1904 fishery.

Among the boats the ‘‘ kattumarams ”’ are the rudest and most

primitive of any description of craft. They are extremely safe, and

cannot be sunk when turned by the breakers. The dhoney with

ballam is the craft which performs the coast carrying trade of the

Island, and is built on the south coast. The square-rigged country

craft are built in the small ports of the north. They vary in size

from twenty to seventy tons burthen; the square-rigged vessels

are owned by Moormen chiefly and the dhonies by Sinhalese, who

work in shares with the crew. The owner receives one-third of the

vessel’s earnings, the remaining two-thirds being divided between

tindal or commander and crew, the former’s share being twice that

of each of the others. Hight to fifteen men compose the crew of a

dhoney. A considerable coasting trade during the fine weather of

the north-east monsoon is done in these crafts. They carry coral

from the northern districts of the Island to the south-west coast of

India, returning with Indian commodities. The rigging is made of

country-made coir rope, their sails of home-grown, home-spun

cotton, their hulls of a light but durable wood, the planks and keel

containing no metal nails, everything being held together by means

of wooden pegs and coir yarn.

Various fishing appliances are shown, but this collection is not a

representative one.

Case 338.

This case, which stands in the centre of the room, contains small

painted models of the various types of inhabitants of the Island.

NORTH VERANDAH (Room D).

Products of the Coconut Palm (Case 23).

The coconut palm is the most valuable of the trees of the Island

of Ceylon. Case 23 is assigned to the products of the “ King of

Palms” (Cocos nucifera). The uses of the coconut are endless

174 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

and enter into every part of the daily life of the Sinhalese, as food,

drink, light, fuel, household utensils, and building materials. It

is an article of foreign commerce, the chief source of Sinhalese

wealth, and an important field of industry in the Island. The

coconut flourishes best in the wetter coast regions. Almost every

Sinhalese hut has a few of these palms near it, and many very large

coconut estates are cultivated by wealthy Ceylonese. The fruit,

when green, supplies food and drink ; when ripe it yields oil. The

juice of the unopened flower gives toddy and arrack. Arrack is a

delicate, wholesome spirit obtained by double distillation from the

sap of the coconut. The fibrous husk of the fruit when woven

makes ropes, nets, and matting. The nut shell forms drinking

vessels, spoons, &c. The plaited leaves serve as plates and dishes

and as thatch for the hut. The dried frond of the palm is twisted

into a bundle and used asa torch. These torches, known as chulu

light, are often employed for the purposes of illumination on festival

occasions and ordinarily used by villagers at night to light their way.

The midribs of the leaflets are tied into bundles and make very

good brooms for sweeping ; the large leaf stalks as garden fences.

The trunk of the tree sawn up is employed for every possible purpose,

from knife handles to doorposts and rafters. The fruits while young

contain a pint or more of a sweet watery fluid, which affords a most

refreshing drink. As the nut ripens the water decreases and the

kernel hardens. The nuts are gathered at about ten months old.

Their kernels are eaten raw, in curries, and in other ways. The

kernel when used in cookery is grated very fine by an instrument

called a coconut scraper (to be seen in Case 34), after which milk is

squeezed out of it. When dried the coconut is known as copra.

From this oil is extracted, and the residue is used as poultry and

cattle food, known as “ poonac,” which is considered a valuable

fattening food. The oil is used for lighting, but its great use in

Kurope is for soap making. It also forms a hair dressing, and is

used for the manufacture of candles. There is also a large industry

in desiccated coconut in connection with confectionery. The outer

husk of thé coconut contains a large number of large stout fibres

running lengthwise. The husks removed from the nuts are thrown

into water to soak and rot, and then by beating out the soft tissues

from the fibres coir yarn is obtained. There are large mills where

special machinery is used for preparing coir fibre, which is exported

from the Island.

At the bottom of the case will be seen a model of an arrack still.

Arrack is obtained by “ preparing the flowers ’’—a process which

consists of beating once a day with a short but heavy wooden

instrument the long spathe or sheath in which the immature flowers

of the coconut are enfolded. Such treatment under an experienced

hand has the effect in about seven days of reducing the whole flower

to a pulp without breaking the sheath or envelope in which it is

contained, and when this result has been obtained, and the pointed

end of the spathe cut off, the juice produced by this bruising of the

flowers will trickle out slowly into a small earthen pot which is

fastened to the end; the juice which falls is sweet toddy, which

ferments and becomes arrack. Every morning and evening when

the toddy-drawer collects his toddy he must again cut off a thin

slice from the open end of the inflorescence, which by exposure to

the atmosphere would rapidly dry up or heal and so obstruct the

passage of the juice. “

elie a ed

GUIDE TO THE COLOMBO MUSEUM. 175

Products of the Palmyra Palm (Case 24).

The model of the palmyra palm and other articles in Case 24 were

presented by Sir W. C. Twynam, K.C.M.G. The palmyra is another

invaluable palm and a most beautiful one. It grows in great

profusion in the north of Ceylon and especially in the Peninsula of

Jaffna. The timber is used chiefly for rafters of houses, as its strength

and durability and the quality of resisting the attack of white ants

eminently fit it for this purpose. To the inhabitants of the northern

provinces this invaluable tree ranks the same in importance as the

coconut palm to the natives of the south. Its fruits yield them

food and oil ; its juice palm wine and sugar ; its stem is the chief

material of their buildings ; and its leaves, besides serving as roofs

to their dwellings and fences to their farms, supply them with

matting and baskets, with head-dresses and fans, and serve as a

substitute for paper for their deeds and writings, and for the sacred

books which contain the traditions of their faith. It has been

said with truth that a native of Jaffna, if he be contented with

ordinary doors and mud walls, may build an entire house (as he

wants neither nails nor ironwork), with walls, roof, and covering,

from the palmyra palm. From this same tree he may draw his

wine, make his oil, kindle his fire, carry his water, store his food,

cook his repast, and sweeten it, if he pleases ; in fact, live from day

to day dependent on his palmyra alone. Multitudes so live, and it

may be safely asserted that this tree alone furnishes one-fourth the

means of sustenance for the population of the northern provinces.

So multifarious are the uses of the palmyra and its products to

the natives of the countries favoured by its growth that the Hindus

dedicated it to Ganesa, and celebrate it as the “ Kalpa tree,” or

“Tree of life,” of their paradise. They say that there are “ eight

hundred and one ”’ uses to which the tree is applied. .

In the model of a palmyra tree will be noticed the toddy climber.

He climbs by the assistance of a loop of flexible jungle vine, suffi-

ciently wide to admit both his ankles and leave a space between

them, thus enabling him to grasp the trunk of the tree with his feet

and support himself as he ascends.

SOUTH VERANDAH (Room D),

Here will be found several carved figures in stone from Polon-

naruwa.

ROOM E.

This room contains a miscellaneous series of exhibits ranging from

domestic appliances to charms and horoscopes. As we enter from

Room D the wall cases on each side (Cases 34 and 35) are devoted

mainly to domestic appliances, games, and wooden boxes. The

two large central cases (46 and 47) display brass tobacco boxes,

kettles, and drinking vessels; the ritualistic accessories of the

temple ; and the horoscope and yantra which play such an important

part in the superstitions of the villager. The table cases contain

jewellery and coins, and the four smaller wall cases are given up to

betel boxes and life-sized models of the Veddas, Buddhist Priest,

Kandyan Chief, Mudaliyar, and his Wife. This medley is un-

avoidable owing to lack of room, and the visitor is warned not to

176 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

omit examining some of the things which have been delegated

through insufficient space to the lower part of the two central cases.

Most noteworthy is the collection of ancient Sinhalese iron imple-

ments lying in the base of Case 46. Typical examples of these,

however, are also shown in Case 44.

Domestie Appliances (Case 34).

The domestic economy of a Sinhalese household is well illustrated

by the contents of Cases 34 and 35. In Case 34 it will be noted how

the artistic feeling of the people manifests itself in the simplest

article of household use. Note, for instance, the labour expended

in adorning the wooden mortar, which is found in every household

to-day. The block of granite on which the villager’s curry stuffs

are ground is prepared with like care. His katti or large knife,

prepared from excellent steel of local manufacture, is richly carved

or inlaid with precious metals. An elaborate design appears in the

rattan basket in which his food is carried, while the mould into

which his jaggery (the sugar of the palm tree) is run is as well

carved as a piece of drawing-room furniture. The spoons used in

every Sinhalese kitchen are invariably made from the coconut shell,

with long wooden handles ; and, hidden by the dingy smoke of

his kitchen fire, the Sinhalese man hangs an exquisitely formed rack

to contain the spoons. The villager draws his water from his shallow

well with another spoon—often a dream of beauty in outline and

general design. The coconut, the essential ingredient of his curry,

has to be scraped on a small serrated circular scraper of steel, secured.

to a wooden body on which the person sits. (See Plate X XIX.)

The beautiful moulds shown in Plate XXX. are used in the

preparation of dainties of rice flour: a small ball of the dough is

laid on the selected design and pressed flat with the thumb; it is

rolled up lightly and dropped into the boiling oil. It is another

characteristic of the Sinhalese that a thing is made beautiful for the

delight in its beauty, and not for purposes of ostentation ; for

example, notice the elaborate treatment of the under-surface of the

circular stone on which sandalwood used to be ground for the

ceremonial of some temple. One incident of the dangers of forest

life is illustrated by the short battle axes, which are carried by the

villagers while travelling through forests as a means of protection

from the dreaded bears. (See Plates XXIX. and XXX.)

Games and Domestie Appliances (Case 35).

The left half of Case 35 contains games and some domestic

appliances. The sports and games of the Sinhalese consist of (1)

religious games, (2) outdoor sports, (3) games of skill, and (4)

games of chance. With a few exceptions the games and sports of

the Sinhalese appear to have been borrowed, from India, and some

from the Portuguese, Dutch, and English. The games serve as a

sort of index of the character of the people—they “ reflect the tame

and undemonstrative nature of the national temperament.” The

Sinhalese by nature takes no delight in outdoor sports, although he

has very successfully adopted most of the English outdoor sports.

At the top of the case there are chonka or olinda boards, some of

which are beautifully carved. Chonka may be called the national

GUIDE TO THE COLOMBO MUSEUM. Lit

game of the Sinhalese ; but the game is of peculiar distribution, and.

has “ served for ages to divert the inhabitants of nearly half of the

inhabited area of the Globe.”

It obtained the name which it bears in the interior of Ceylon

from the small red seeds of the olinda creeper (Abrus precatorius)

which are used for playing it. Olinda or any other suitable seeds or

shells are placed in two depressions at the ends, and the players

have to make the circuit of the board from pit to pit along the

sides without occupying the same hole at one time. The player

who gets the seeds home first wins. The game is undoubtedly of

wide distribution. The game is said to have had its original home

in Central Africa, but it appears to be found wherever Arabian

influence is felt. The wide diffusion of the game may be due to its

having been carried by returning pilgrims to the various parts of the

Muhammadan world. :

Special attention is directed to two chonka boards, one with three

birds in high relief and one, similar to boards in the British Museum,

in the shape of a fish, consisting of two halves joined by hinges.

It is surprising to find that almost every country where the game

is known has its special mode of playing it, an additional proof

of its antiquity. Ceylon is no exception to this rule, and among the

Sinhalese there are no less than five different methods, four of which

are found in the interior among the Kandyans, and one on the

western coast. (See Plate XX XI.)

The games are especially played at the season of the New Year,

with which they appear to have some connection. At that season

olinda boards that have never seen the light during the previous

twelve months are invariably brought out of their hiding place on

some dark dust-covered and smoke-begrimed shelf, and hour after

hour is devoted to the game for several nights in succession. It is

almost a monopoly of the women. ‘The boards are then put away

carefully, and often are not used again for another year, though

there is no feeling of any prohibition against playing it at other

times, and occasional games are sometimes indulged in.

There are four religious games played by the Sinhalese, namely,

An-keliya, ‘‘ the horn-pulling game ;”’ Dodan-keliya, “the orange

(striking) game;” Pol-keliya, “the coconut (breaking) game;”’

and Mal-keliya, “ the flower game.” All these games are intimately

connected with the worship of Pattini, the goddess of chastity and

controller of epidemics. .

An-keliya is customary only at the time when a district is threat-

ened with infectious disease, especially smallpox. Pattini is also

considered an incarnation of the goddess Durga, the wife of Siva.

An-keliya, or the “ pulling of horns,” is the idea of the merry-

thought of European superstition developed on a gigantic scale. The

game, though seldom witnessed now, was formerly the one great

national game of the Sinhalese, and was performed in many places

on a scale of great magnificence and in the presence of thousands

of spectators. As mentioned before, it is purely a religious game

sacred to the goddess Pattini, and is usually performed on the

occasion of some epidemic ascribed, to her interference.

Usually, on a propitious day chosen by an astrologer, a large body

of people accompanied by a kapurala, or devil-priest, repair to the

foot of a selected tree surrounded by open ground, and there, at the

distance of a few yards from the tree, a narrow hole about six feet

long and four or five feet deep is dug, in which a substantial coconut

43-12 Gy Gane)

178 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

stump, called henakanda is loosely inserted, with the root end

upwards. The toughest jungle creepers are looped round the

lower part of the sheltering tree, and a loop of them is placed round

the stump ; to these are tied ropes that have been attached to the

an-molas, which are placed between the tree and the stump.

Other strong ropes of considerable length are fastened to the upper

part of the henakanda, and these are now pulled by the united

force of the villagers, or in some places only by the section of them

who form the party of Palanga, until one of the horns gives way.

Membership of these two sides is hereditary, and so strong is the

party feeling or jealousy between them that those of one side

usually avoid marriage with the members of the families belonging

to the other side, and in fact never have much intercourse or friendly

relations with them. In places where the udupila men alone do

the pulling, the yat#pila men stand as on-lookers under the tree.

For managing the whole ceremony each party elects a temporary

leader.

At the beginning of the ceremony the two bars—the an-mola—

and the ropes to be attached to the horns are first dedicated to the

goddess.

After a trial pulling at the respective ropes by the two parties, the

yatipila rope is tied to the loops round the tree, and the udupila

rope to the henakanda, which is inclined towards the tree for the

purpose. Where it is the custom of the yatipila men to join in the

final pulling, both parties then unite in tugging at ropes attached to

the top of the henakanda, or passed though a hole in it, and fastened

to the udupila log, until one horn is broken.

The leaders then examine the horns and ascertain whether the

yatipila or udupila one has given way. ‘The victorious horn is

removed, wrapped in white cloth, and carried under a white canopy

round the henakanda in a procession, accompanied by the music,

and is again placed in the dewala, or the temporary shed erected

for it.*

The other things in the same half of this case are domestic articles

used formerly, and in some cases used at the present time. Of

the former, special attention is directed to the water clocks. The

Sinhalese water clock is a clepsydra, consisting of a copper bowl,

of larger and smaller sizes, with a small pinhole in the bottom, and

with or without silver datum marks let in at the sides. The

bowl is set floating in a clay water chatty, the water gradually

entering through the pinhole aperture until a datum level is reached,

and, eventually the bowl sinks. In the larger of the clocks shown

with graduations the water reaches the level of the highest datum

mark in exactly forty-eight minutes. The Sinhalese hour or peya

consists of twenty-four minutes, and the day and night are divided

into thirty peyas each. The water clock is called pe-tetrya.

The other articles consist of opium and mat weavers’ knives,

comb-making implements, velliya for weighing gold with, ivory rod

in wooden case, a wooden club called kitul-mal-telma for beating

the flower of the kitul to make the toddy run out, jewellers’ mould,

bronze moulds used by silversmiths, jewellers’ scales with pagoda

weights and touchstone, dat-kapana-gal (fine grained sandstone for

grinding down the teeth), articles used in the preparation of

native medicines, and cattle branding and castrating implements.

* For further information about these games see Parker’s ‘* Ancient Ceylon,”

GUIDE TO THE COLOMBO MUSEUM. 179

Special attention is directed to the stool beautifully carved with

the hansa-puttuwa—the double-headed goose pattern. The hansa

is the well known sacred goose of Hinduism. The.name stands

also for beautiful gait ; it is regarded as beautiful and auspicious.

In Sinhalese as wellas in Hindu decorative art the hansa-puttuwa is

seen everywhere.

In the right half of this case is seen a variety of wooden boxes.

Many of the boxes are very finely carved, and others are handsomely

bound in silver. Perhaps the two most noteworthy specimens are

at the bottom of the case. Oneis a Kandyan pot-pettiya (book box)

with copper fittings, and the other is a rattaran-pettiya (a box for

stormg valuables) with a finely carved makara torana. (See

Plate XX XI.)

Case 36.

Life-size models of a Low-country Chief or Mudaliyar, and of a

Sinhalese bride of the eighteenth century.

A collection of Dutch chatelaines and other Dutch silverware, as

well as some Kandyan silver waist chains and a series of Tamil

anklets, toe-rings, and other ornaments for decorating the feet.

Case 38.

life-size models of a Kandyan Chief or Ratemahatmaya, and a

Buddhist Priest with begging-bowl.

Jewellery (Cases 39, 40, and 41).

Case 39 and half of Case 40 are devoted to Sinhalese jewellery,

The other half of Case 40 displays samples of jewellery of the Jaffna

Tamils. Case 41 contains the handsome jewellery of the Chetties.

With the Indian races, jewellery forms not only an important but

even a necessary portion of the costume of the female, and very

often of the male as well. A glance at the copies of the Sigiriya

frescoes on either side of the main staircase reveals the fact that in

the fifth century of the Christian era the upper portion of the

female was as a rule only covered with jewels, and this continued

to be very largely the practice in India as well as in Ceylon till the

arrival of the Portuguese. These frescoes prove that not only were

the jewels massive and numerous, but that they were at the same

time beautiful in design, and artistic in conception. The large

stones with which the jewels are mounted are specially noticeable.

Till the arrival of Europeans the jewellery of Ceylon cannot be

differentiated from that of India ; to-day, however, the Kuropean

influence is almost exclusively shown in the articles which are

exposed for sale in the Colombo shops. The collection of the Museum

displays a varied assortment, some of the exhibits dating from

pre-Christian times. (See Plate XX XII.)

Case 39.

The gold bangles which have been unearthed at Anuradhapura

are among the earliest. These are made in the Indian fashion, of

very pure gold beaten thin, and the interior space filled with a

preparation of wax, just as is done to-day. The more modern

bracelets include some artistic specimens set with ivory and crystal,

180 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA,

some of the latter being cut out of a single piece. An earring of

gold found at Halloluwa is among the most beautiful in the collec-

tion ; the gems with which this had been originally set—white and

purple and green in colour—have fortunately been preserved, and

give us a clear idea of the best style of medizval jewellery ; but

it is impossible to characterize the work as Sinhalese. These heavy

earrings were worn, not only by women, but also by the men, as

may be seen from the plaster cast of the statue of Parakrama Bahu

the Great in the Stone Gallery. The custom among men fell into

disuse towards the end of the seventeenth century.

The variety of ear ornaments still in use among the Sinhalese in the

inland districts is very great, the ear being bored at half a dozen

different points to receive the various articles. The large bamboo-

shaped todu, of filigree or jewelled, serve to enlarge the perforated

lobe of the ear. Koppu are thrust through the cartilage, and some

charming specimens of these set with rubies and pearls are shown in

the collection. But the details of the ear ornaments are essentially

Tamil. The same remark applies to the richly chased armlets.

The large rings, usually worn by chiefs on the middle finger of the left

hand, appear to be a peculiarity of the Sinhalese ; they are in some

cases over 23 inches across. The smaller ones are either of silver or

copper gilt, and do not display much artistic merit. In necklaces,

which were worn both by men and women, the silversmith had to

exert himself to economize the precious metal ; the Museum collec-

tion of these is not extensive. The large coral beads should be

noted ; these have been popular with the Sinhalese since the time

of their early introduction by Arab traders.

Case 40.

The purely Tamil ornaments are well represented in Case 40. The

queue-shaped headdress, which is attached to the knot of hair and

hangs down the back till it terminates in three black tassels fitted

into golden cups, is an excellent specimen of Tamil work. The

necklaces set with cabochon rubies, usually imported from India,

are also in use among the Sinhalese ; though not the belts of silver,

a handsome specimen of which appears in the same case. The

Jaffna silversmith is well spoken of for the beauty of his filigree

work, but the art is purely South-Indian.

The massive anklets and other silver foot ornaments are as a rule

worn by Moorish women. As all through the world, these rejoice in

the weight of metal which they carry about their person, as can be

well judged from the gold neck ornament described as a tali in

Case 41.

Before leaving the purely Oriental jewellery the visitor’s attention

is also drawn to the photograph on the side of Case 45 of a chain

belonging to the Sinhalese king in the middle of the eighteenth

century, and which is now preserved at the shrine of the Sacred

Tooth at Kandy. Sixty-four ornaments and the crown were

necessary items of royal attire. The Sinhalese loved colour and

abhorred glitter. His rubies and his sapphires were always cut

cabochon and set on coloured wax so as to secure evenness. Strange

tales have been preserved by the European and Chinese writers of the

GUIDE TO THE COLOMBO MUSEUM. 181

fifteenth and sixteenth centuries regarding the amazing size of the

jewels possessed by the Sinhalese kings. The Ceylon stones and the

Ceylon pearls have been always considered superior to others in

point of lustre.

A brief word may be said with regard to the jewellery produced

under European influence, which is entirely distinctive from the

purely Eastern type which has so far been described. A curiously

distorted taste which prevailed among the ladies of the Iberian

Peninsula in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries has left its

mark on the heavy and inartistic silver work mounted with tourma-

lines, of which there is a large collection on view. Size and quantity

was in estimation among them, rather than beauty or rarity ; the

figure of the low-country Sinhalese woman in Case 36 shows the effect

of Portuguese influence till the middle of the nineteenth century.

The jet ornaments were employed exclusively for mourning purposes,

and fashionable ladies attending a funeral would have two joints of

every finger covered with these rings, as they pressed a dainty

handkerchief to their streaming eyes. Under Dutch influence a

good deal of very beautiful diamond jewellery was made in the

country, though there are no specimens of it in the Museum. The

Coronchiya—a name derived direct from the Portuguese—is still

used in crowning a bride—a custom also prevalent in various parts

of Europe, and which has been largely adopted among those classes

of the Sinhalese who came most under European influence.

The visitor should notice the golden pata tahaduwa which is in

Case 39. Under the Sinhalese kings high officials were invested by

securing this band round the forehead with a silken ribbon, an

honorific name being at the same time conferred upon the recipient.

Coins (Case 42).

The collection shown in the Museum can be divided into two

classes, the first consisting of coins struck in the country itself by

native or foreign Governments, and the second of those which were

introduced by foreign traders. To the first class belong those struck

by the Sinhalese, Portuguese, Dutch, and English ; to the second

the Roman, and a large variety of Indian coins. (See Plate

XX XIII.)

The oldest of the series are represented by the Karshapana, which

go back to a period considerably anterior to the birth of the Buddha.

They are oblong, square, and circular in shape, without any legend,

and distinguished by punch marks of various Buddhist symbols.

These appear to have been current in the Island till about the

eleventh century of the Christian era, but it is not possible to say

definitely whether they were struck in the Island or imported from

India, or both.* These coins are chiefly of silver.

After the commencement of the Christian era an improved issue

of these coins seems to have been made in copper, of a circular shape

and about 14 in. across. These coins are extremely rare, and also

display no legend, the two faces being fully occupied by various

symbols, among which the swastika, the elephant, and the trisula

are prominent. Contemporaneously with these there appears to

_ * For further information see a paper on ‘‘ Notes ona find of Eldlings made

in Anuradhapura,” by John Still, Journal, R, A. S., 1907, Vol. XIX.,

p. 191.

182 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

have been in circulation the copper coinage of Imperial Rome. The

effigies of no less than twenty-two of the Emperors have been

identified in the specimens which from time to time have been found

in thiscountry. The most modern of these coins is that of Honorius

(395-433 4.D.). The Portuguese historians have recorded the fact

that similar coins were discovered/as long ago as 1574, and compara-

tively recently one find in the neighbourhood of Kandy: yielded no

less than 1,500 oboli. It is interesting to note that these coins

appear to have been locally imitated, and the imitation can be easily

distinguished from the genuine article by the fact of the head being

turned in the wrong direction.*

The sea-borne trade of Ceylon for the first thousand years of

the Christian era, though very extensive—Ibn Batuta, the Moor

traveller, saw one hundred of the Sinhalese king’s trading ships

riding at anchor at one time off the Coromandel coast so late as

1344—-was almost entirely one of barter. But the local demand

for some convenient medium of exchange necessitated the existence

of a currency, and this was satisfied by the issue of massas by the

Sinhalese kings in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Compared

with the Ceylon mintage of the Dutch towards the end of the

eighteenth century, these show a considerable degree of finish,

though the conception of the human figure is of the crudest. On

the obverse appears the standing figure of the king, a conical hat

on his head, a sceptre in his right hand and a lotus in his left ; two

lines represent the drapery wrapped round his waist. On the

reverse is the same figure seated, with the legend in the Nagara

character, in which Sanskrit was usually written. This coin, which

served as the type for several Indian issues, is still found in astonish-

ing profusion, as well as the half and quarter massas, with gold and

silver issues of the same type. They were struck by Parakrama

Bahu (1153-1186 a.p.), Wijaya Bahu (1186-1187), Nissanka Malla

(1187-1196), Chodaganga Deva (1196-1197), Queen Raja Lilavati

(1197-1200), Sahasa Malla (1200-1202), Dharmasoka Deva (1208-

1209), and Bhuvaneka Bahu (1296). Of these, the rarest are the

coins of Chodaganga Deva and Nissanka Malla and the lion coins of

Parakrama Bahu.

At the time of the arrival of the Portuguese the massas formed

the ordinary currency, along with gold fanams of low value and silver

larins shaped likea fish hook and probably introduced from Persia.

All these were in ordinary use till the end of the eighteenth century.

In 1697 a larin would purchase about 300 coconuts, so that its

purchasing power at the time was equivalent to that of a sovereign

to-day.

The Portuguese struck a few coins during the first half of the

seventeenth century, and their mint is said to have been within the

Fort of Galle. These coins are distinguished by the letters C.—L?,

standing for Ceylao, but the majority of the coins in use under them

were imported from Goa and Malacca. ‘Their issues were found in

gold, silver, copper, and lead.

The Portuguese Settlements on the coast were occupied by the

Dutch in 1646-1656 ; the earliest of their coins is the Batavian

copper half-stuiver of 1644. Except for an issue of thick copper

stuivers, and its fractions stamped ‘‘ ST’”’ within a wreath, the early

* See Mr. Still’s article on Roman Coins, Journal, R. A. S., 1907, Vol. XIX.,

p. 161.

GUIDE TO THE COLOMBO MUSEUM. 183

currency of the Dutch was minted in Europe. They consist of a

few gold ducats, ducatoons, half-ducatoons, ten-, six-, two-, and

one-stuiver pieces in silver, and duits and half-duitsin copper. These

last show on the obverse the monogram “ V.O.C.” (Vereenighte Oost

Indische Compagnie—United East India Company), and on the

reverse the arms of the State by which they were issued, namely,

Holland, Zealand, Finland, Gelderland, Utrecht, &c. A series

of coarsely executed two-stuiver and one-stuiver copper pieces and

a few leaden duits were issued locally, the handiwork of the native

smiths ; the metal was greatly debased, and the currency in a state

of confusion. A paper currency of six denominations, the highest

being ten rix-dollars, was issued in 1796, in which year the Dutch

Settlements were ceded to the British.

Perhaps the most curious of their coins was the heavy ingot,

weighing 913-75 grains, and stamped at either end, which is shown in

the illustration. The local issue usually bears the initial letter of the

place of issue, viz., Colombo, Galle, Trincomalee, and Jaffna.

The first issue of the English coins, which was in silver and copper,

was a slight improvement on the thick Dutch coins, and showed an

elephant on the obverse and the legend “‘ Ceylon Government ”

with the value on the reverse. Fresh types on the European

model were issued in 1802 and 1815, both issues being struck in

England ; a silver fanam, % inch in diameter, was issued in 1820

and a silver rix-dollar in 1821.

The present currency consists of the silver rupee and its decimal

fractions, the cent being in copper and the five-cent piece in nickel.

There is a paper currency, of which the highest denomination is

Rs. 1,000. The sovereign is also legal currency at Rs. 15.

Among the foreign coins found in the country are the Chinese,

and, as might be expected, a vast variety of Indian issues. Among

the rarest are those bearing the fish device of the Pandiyans,

the tiger of the Cholians, the lion of the Cheras, or the bull of the

Setu Pathis of Ramnad. The beautiful Venetian sequins are still

met with, but as they are in great demand among silversmiths for

the high quality of the gold, their number is rapidly decreasing.

Along with the coins are exhibited some oblong copper plaques of

great antiquity, showing the figure of a man (see Plate XX XIIT_).

Their use is still a matter of conjecture.

For further information on Ceylon coins see Professor Rhys

Davids in the Numismata Orientalia, Van der Chiys de Munten van

der Nederlandsche Indie, and Descripeao Geral e Historica das

Moedas Cunhadas, por A. C., Teixeira de Aragao.

Case 43.

Man in all ages and in all countries has ever craved for a stimulant

or a sedative, and with the Sinhalese the stimulant took the form of

the leaf of the betel vine ; this is chewed with a few slices of the

arecanut and alittle lime. Case 43 contains an exhibit of the various

articles used in connection with this dainty. Perhaps the most

striking of these are the large bags of handsome embroidery, almost

a lost art among the Sinhalese, which used to be carried filled with

the leaf and slung over the back of an attendant when on long

journeys. Then follow the metal chunam boxes for holding the

lime, varying in size from the copper box ten inches across to the

184 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

silver trifle half an inch wide. Some of them are works of consider-

able beauty, showing great skill and taste in their ornamentation

of silver and bronze, and in their variety of shape and outline.

Attached to them in every case by a short chain is an ornamental

metal rod, flattened at the end, and which is used for extracting the

lime. Below are the‘nut slicers of steel, inlaid with silver or brass

and of every variety of fanciful shapes. Even toothless old age is

not debarred from the joys of this stimulant, and every old man

carries at his waist a small mortar with an ivory-handled pestle to

assist in the mastication of the hard nut. The first act of courtesy

to be shown to a villager at a Sinhalese house is to place before him

the betel leaf, neatly arranged with the other necessary ingredients

on a stand of lacquered wood or metal. (See Plate XXXIV.)

Case 44.

In this small table case are shown a few ancient Sinhalese iron

implements obtained from the buried cities of Ceylon. Most of

these implements are shown at the bottom of Case 46. Sir Robert

Hadfield, who has investigated these instruments, is of the opinion

that the Sinhalese must have possessed a comparatively high degree

of metallurgical knowledge more than a thousand years ago, and he

has stated that this collection of ancient tools and instruments is the

most complete of its kind in the world.

Case 45.

A man and woman of the Veddas, the aboriginal hunting caste or

hill tribe of Ceylon. The bark-cloth bag hanging against the side

of the case is made from the bark of the upas tree, Antiaris toxicaria,

called riti in.Sinhalese, metavil in Tamil, belonging to the same

natural order (Urticacex) as the breadfruit and jakfruit trees.

The Veddas used to be an interesting race of forest haunting

nomads, but they are rapidly falling victims to civilization, exchang-

ing their ancient skill as bowmen and woodmen for a more sordid

if less precarious existence dwindling towards extinction.

They are chiefly to be found in the Province of Uva, but it is

-possible to tramp through the Province from top to bottom without

seeing a sign of a Vedda. Occasionally persons are paraded as

Veddas, but when seen away from their natural environment the

effect must be pitiful rather than picturesque.

Case 46.

This case is mainly devoted to brassware. On top are spittoons

and kettles. Inside are drinking vessels and other domestic

utensils of various kinds. In the table cases there is a fine collection

of Dutch and Kandyan tobacco boxes, articles of native dress, and

embroidered and painted cloths. There is also a small collection of

articles made from tortoiseshell. In the base of the case is a set of

elephant bells and a large series of ancient implements, the best of

which are represented in Case 44.

Spittoons formed an important portion of the domestic economy

of the betel-chewing Sinhalese. They vary in size from the tall

brass article four feet in height, which is used by the rich man as he

lies in his bed, to the tiny silver vessel, a few inches high, which is

GUIDE TO THE COLOMBO MUSEUM. 185

depicted on the table of the Council Chamber of the Dutch Governor

at the reception of the Sinhalese Ambassadors in 1772. It is

interesting to note that among the articles plundered from the

Sinhalese palace at Cotta in 1551 by the Portuguese Viceroy Don,

are enumerated spittoons of gold. The large kettles which are placed

by the side of these on the show case are chiefly in use at gatherings

of Buddhist priests. A brass pot ranks amidst the most cherished

possessions of the Tamil inhabitants. According to Oriental custom,

the Sinhalese used to take their food seated on the ground on a

mat, the plate of food being, in the case of the wealthy, placed on

an ornamental brass stand a foot in height. Water is the sole

drink of the Buddhist, and according to custom this was drunk by

pouring the water into the mouth without allowing the vessel to

come into contact with the lips. A large variety of brass pots,

chiefly of modern Kandyan workmanship, are shown in Case 46.

Most of the tobacco boxes have been made from Dutch designs,

and some of them have been actually manufactured in Holland,

whence they were brought during the Dutch administration. The

Kandyan tobacco boxes are copied from the Dutch boxes, but the

ornamental design is generally pure Kandyan. (See Plates XXXV.,

XXXVI., and XX XVII.)

Case 47.

The upper part of the case contains a variety of articles used in

Buddhist religious ceremonies, such as temple oil vessels, ceremonial

goblets, begging bowls. A beautiful ceremonial mango is worthy

of special mention. This mango is made of pale alloy crowned by

a mounting of yellow brass, bedecked with crystals, and terminated

by a high knob carrying a hook. On each side there is a figure of

a mythical bird called garuda, and below these an incised bo-leaf

design. The mango ends in a lotus flower with a crystal centre.

It is hollow, and contains loose pellets which rattle when carried

about. Along the lower concave border there is a cleft, as in the

pattint bangles and anklets, through which the pellets can be seen.

This mango is said to have come from the Seven Korales, where it

was carried in procession at the Pattini dewalas.

The table cases are mainly devoted to the accessories of ancient

superstitious and magic teremonies, charms, and horoscopes.

Magic ceremonies, including astrology and divination, charms

and amulets, and the propitiation of devas, evil spirits, and

planetary gods were common at one time among the Sinhalese.

The Sinhalese, it appears, acquired a knowledge of some of the

primitive ceremonies from the aboriginal inhabitants of the Island,

and cultivated magic as a branch of study, supplementing the original

forms with those derived from the people of the neighbouring

countries. Sinhalese magic in time developed a distinctive character.

The forms of ceremonies derived from various sources appear to

have been kept fairly distinct. Buddhism distinctly discouraged

the practice of magic, but at times, when the religious ideals of

the people had deteriorated, magic ceremonies became popular.

Charms and ceremonies are performed for various purposes, such as

(a) for curing diseases, (b) warding off disease and ill-luck, (c)

promoting health and success, (d) counteracting evil influence

directed by others, (e) causing evil to others, (f) foretelling events,

and generally for the purpose of divination.

43~12 elie 2

186 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Pancanga Lita (Chart of Heavens).—This gives the position of

the planets and certain of the stars on each day of the year. It is

consulted by people before undertaking any serious work, such as

sowing, planting, and agricultural operations, starting on journeys,

building houses, commencing studies, &c. The charts were

calculated and written on ola leaves. Since the introduction of

printing these are printed.

Avurudu Sittuwa (Memoranda on New Year Ceremonies).—The

New Year is observed with much ceremony; a special chart is

calculated, giving the time of the commencement of the New Year

and various hours for bathing, cooking, receiving visitors, travell-

ing, transacting business, for religious ceremonies, viewing the

moon, &c. Among other things the chart details the prospects of

the ensuing twelve months in the affairs of the Island and the

world in general. These memoranda, too, were inscribed in ola

leaves. The ola is now displaced by the printed sheet.

Velapatkade (the piece of leaf with the chronicle of time).—This

is a record of the time of the birth of a person, with a few particulars

as to the prospects of the sun, moon, and planets at the time of birth.

Handahanpata (the recorded leaf).—This practically is the

horoscope, which records the time of birth and the position of planets

at the time of birth and the details as to their various aspects. The .

horoscope is usually inscribed carefully on a prepared leaf of the

talipot palm. It is neatly written, with ornamental diagrams giving

the disposition of the planets.

Yanira are usually diagrams, figures, and letters drawn on sheets

of metal, leaf, or paper, used for various purposes of magic. A

yantra after it is drawn is charmed with an appropriate invocation

repeated many times. This process is known as jivama, or the giving

of animation, power, or life to the object to serve the purpose for

which it isintended. Each yantra has its own diagram and symbols

and its own appropriate maniara. (See Plate XX XVIII.)

The yantra may be inscribed on metal, palm leaf, or paper, and

these may be enclosed in a yantra case, which is attached to the waist

or wrist. When a yantra is intended to produce evil influences it is

necessarily charmed in private, but when it is for a good influence

or curative purpose the repetition of the charm or jivama is done

openly, and is frequently attended with some ceremony.

Sivali Yantra is an adaptation of an incident in Buddhist lore for

the purpose of magic ceremonies, and this yantra is supposed to bring

prosperity and luck to the person possessing it.

Ratana Yantra.—The Ra'‘ana Sutta of the Sutia Pitaka is in great

repute among the Sinhalese Buddhists as one the repetition of which

brings them protection from evil. <A yantra is made by inscribing

this on metal leaf or paper with suitable ornamentation.

A second series of yantra are those containing the figures of

Brahma, Vishnu, Siva Kali, Indra, Visvakarma, Laksmi, Mahikanta,

&c., with appropriate letters and charms. Yantra with the figures

of Kali and with those of a large number of yaksa are also met

with in the ola-leaf yantra books. A very numerous series of

yantra are those dealing with the figures and symbols of the

planetary gods. There are other yantras which contain only

geometrical figures.

Amulets are made from a variety of materials, and are worn as a

protection from evil influences, and for warding off disease, and also

as a protection from wild animals, evil spirits, &c.

GUIDE TO THE COLOMBO MUSEUM. 187

The following are shown in the middle section of the east side of

Case 47 :—

Leopard claws, made into a pendant, usually worn around the

neck as a protection against evil spirits. (See Plate XX XVIII.)

Wild-boar tusk.—The wild boar is supposed to be an abode of

evil spirits. The tusk is worn as a charm against evil spirits.

Rings made in the shape of snakes are worn as a protection from

the evil eye.

Dedications.—Various forms of votive offerings are made at the

temples of gods (devala). The offerings of food, clothes, banners,

lights, and lamps are quite common. Gold and silver chains and

ornaments are offered on special occasions. ‘There is also a class of

offerings made to redeem vows, either when starting on agricultural

or industrial pursuits or for curing diseases: ploughs, knives, hoes,

and grain stacks made of silver are promised and offered if success

results. Models in silver of houses, carpenters’ tools, boats, are also

met with. Images, and models of eyes, ears, nose, arms, legs, feet,

fingers, toes, &c., made of silver are offered in redeeming vows, which

are usually made when a person suffers from any illness of body or

any part of the body.

There are also offerings made of ornaments appertaining to the

different devas in special thank-offerings, such as armlets, bracelets,

swords, tridents, anklets, &c. Each deva has his own set of

ornaments.

Paitint worship is found both in the Kandyan districts and the

Low-country of Ceylon, and also in the Tamil districts. The

ornaments devoted to the goddess are the anklet, the mango fruit,

and the silk shawl.

Vishnu is believed to be the special guardian deva of Ceylon, and

many offerings and vows are made to this deva; the temples and

images dedicated to Vishnu are held in esteem. The principal

temple for Vishnu worship was at Devundara (Dondra Head). The

ornaments of Vishnu deva consist of vari-coloured garments and

the five weapons pancayudha : the chank, the wheel, the sword, the

dagger, and the chatra.

Skanda.—The temple of Skanda Deva is situated in Kataragama,

which is a place of pilgrimage. He is described as possessing six

heads and twelve arms, and his ornaments and weapons are as

follows: (1) golden sword, (2) golden bow, (3) arrow, (4) short

axe, (5) shield, (6) hook, (7) wheel, (8) lance, (9) trident, (10) serpent,

(11) banner, with the figure of a cock, (12) pearl umbrella.

Sumana.—tThe deva of Samanala (Adam’s Peak) is believed to be

the special guardian of Sabaragamuwa. His ornaments consist of

a white elephant and a golden bow and arrow.

In the left hand part of Case 47 (east side) the following votive

offerings are shown :—

Clay votive tablets, model of bo tree, silver images, coils of silver

wire representing the height of the persons on whose behalf they were

offered, and an outrigger canoe.

Lamps.

A fine collection of hanging lamps is seen suspended from the

ceiling of Room E, and several standard lamps are found on the

top of Case 47.

188 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Prior to the introduction of petroleum, oils extracted from the

coconut and some other wild products of the country formed the

sole illuminant in use among the Sinhalese. Their lamps were

almost exclusively made of brass, and could either be suspended or

placed on a stand ; both these kinds are well represented. It is of

interest to note that in the case of the hanging lamps the container

is placed above the level of the wick, the oil trickling down through

a small opening which communicates with the latter. That these

lamps have been largely influenced in their design by the Arabs and

Portuguese seems apparent. For instance, the dove shown in the

illustration is such as one would expect to find in a Christian church ;

several hundred Portuguese prisoners were employed as artisans

under the Sinhalese kings at the beginning of the seventeenth

century.

The tall standards are usually employed in temples, and frequently

bear the device of the god to which they are dedicated, e.g., the

peacock. These lamps consist of two tiers of wicks with a receptacle

at the bottom for any oil which might overflow ; some are made

adjustable by a simple screw device, and others can be suspended

by means of a massive and ornamental chain, crowned with a small

canopy. Some of these lamps are of considerable beauty, the wick

holders resting upon well-wrought branches. Among the lamps are

shown specimens of the kind used in the ceremonial of the Hindu

temple. These are meant to contain a large number of wicks in

shallow receptacles, and the whole, when lit, is waved before the

sacred image and the oil poured on the ground. (See Plates

XXXIX.and XL.)

EAST VERANDAH (Room E).

The stone carvings here were excavated from Maligawatta, Cotta.

Kotte Jayawardhanapura was built circa 1356-71, and became the

seat of Government 1391-1581.

There is also a stone carved pillar (1410-15 a.p.) from the king’s

palace at Gampola, presented by Mr, T. B. Yatawara, Ratemahat-

maya of Udapalata.

ST AIRC ASE.

On the landing of the main staircase in the Central Hall there are

two cases containing china. Most of the contents of these cases

have been lent by Mrs. Meaden, Mr. E. B. Denham, C.C.S.,_

Mr. Paul Pieris, C.C.S., Mr. H. P. Beling, and Dr. C. T. van Geyzel.

No porcelain of any value has been made in Ceylon. During the

Dutch period vast quantities of Chinese porcelain were introduced.

At present the valuable pieces that still remain in the country are

mainly of Chinese manufacture. Since the British occupation many

of the best kinds of English china have been introduced. In order

to make this collection as educative as possible it has been thought

advisable to display specimens of all the well known kinds of china

and porcelain, even though they have no historic connection with

Ceylon.

A painted Hindu cloth is shown at the head of the main staircase.

GUIDE TO THE COLOMBO MUSEUM. 189

Sigiriya Frescoes.

On the walls flanking the main staircase will be found copies

of the celebrated frescoes discovered in a cave or pocket of the

ancient rock fortress of Sigiriya near Dambulla. Sigiriya, the

lion rock, rises abruptly from the plains of the North-Central

Province to a height of about four hundred feet, with an area of

little more than an acre at the summit. It is said to have been

fortified by the Sinhalese parricide King Kasyapa, who ascended

the throne 475 A.p., and fled to the rock after having immured his

father King Dhatu Sen, whose capital was Anuradhapura. Kasyapa

made Sigiriya his capital, and took refuge there for eighteen years.

On the western face of the rock chambers have been scooped

out, and in one of these, 160 feet from the ground, protected

from sun and rain, frescoes were painted upon stucco plastered

upon the smooth surface, and still remain in an excellent state

of preservation. The ancient approaches to the summit and to

the chambers having fallen into decay, the rock once more became

nearly inaccessible and, according to local tradition, the haunt of

yakku or demons. It was however tackled by more than one ad-

venturous climber during the latter half of last century, and in June,

1889, Mr. A. Murray, of the Public Works Department, succeeded in

reaching the pocket containing the frescoes, and in making the

tracings of them, which he coloured as nearly as possible like the

originals. He has left it upon record that the work of copying took

him from sunrise to sunset every day for a week, lying at full length

on his back. A Buddhist priest who visited the chamber gave it as

his opinion that the pictures must be the portraits of some of King

Kasyapa’s queens. The portraits are arranged singly and in couples,

the latter representing a maid offering the sacred lotus on a tray to

her mistress.

190 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

During the last fifteen years excavations have been carried on at

Sigiriya under the direction of the Archeological Commissioner,

and fresh copies of the frescoes have been made under his super-

vision in oil colours, and these are now exhibited in the Museum

alongside the copies referred to above. °

LIBRARY.

Ola Manuscripts.

The art of writing was known to the Sinhalese as early as 543 B.c.,

when, according to the Mahavansa, their ancient historical work,

they colonized Ceylon and became known by the name “ Sinhala ; ”

for, it is stated in that chronicle that their first king, Vijaya (543-

505 B.c.), sent a letter to his father Sinhabahu, who was reigning

at Sinhapura in Lata (Larike of Ptolemy, a country comprising

Kandesh and a part of Gujarat), requesting him that he would send

his brother Sumitta to succeed him in his kingdom. The material

upon which this letter was written was probably an ola (Tamil, olaz,

“ palm-leaf’’), ¢.e., leaf of the palmyra (Sinhalese, tal) or talipot

(Sinhalese, tala), which existed in Ceylon from the earliest times,

and the use of the ola for writing on was very probably introduced

to Ceylon by Vijaya and his men.

The olas used by the Tamils are prepared from the dried young

leaves of the palmyra tree, which abounds in the northern part of

Ceylon, and are narrower and less durable than talipot leaves.

Palmyra leaves are never used by the Sinhalese for books of any

importance. :

The olas used by the Sinhalese are the leaves of the talipot tree,

which grows abundantly in the up-country, whence the supply

required for the low-country is obtained. This was probably the

material employed when the text and commentaries of the Buddhist

scriptures were committed to writing in 81 B.c. at Aluvihare, in

Matale, Ceylon, and it was also probably the material used by the

Venerable Mahinda when he wrote his commentaries on the T'ripi-

taka in Sinhalese (807-258 B.c.), and by Buddhaghosa Thera when

he translated them into Pali (410-432 a.p.).

These olas are prepared from the tender leaves by boiling them

in water, and afterwards drying them slowly in the sun and shade.

Before boiling, the central ribs of the leaves are removed, separating

each leat into two strips, and these strips are made up into rolls.

When sufficiently boiled, the strips are unfolded and put in the sun

for a day or two, then exposed to dew for a night, then rolled up

again and kept for some time, after which they are re-opened,

washed, and dried again in the sun. These operations are repeated

until they attain the standard thickness and quality, when they are

rolled up and kept in a dry place, such as a loft over a fireplace.

These prepared leaves, called puskola (lit. “blank leaves’”’), are

sold at about a rupee a hundred. Before they are utilized for books

they are polished by drawing them backwards and forwards over a

clean smooth trunk of the arecanut tree, or valla tree (Gyrinops

valla), which is specially prepared for the purpose, the leaves being

damped during the operation. ‘Two such trunks, one over the other,

GUIDE TO THE COLOMBO MUSEUM. 191

are also used when it is desired to have both sides of the leaves

polished at the same time. The leaves are finally dried in the sun

and cut to pieces of required lengths. These pieces, called pat-iru

(lit. “leaves sections”’), are each provided with two equidistant

round holes, one towards each end, and after pressing them together

by means of two side boards provided with corresponding holes and

passing an iron nail or a piece of stick through each set of holes,

they are trimmed to bring them to equal size, and their sides are

then slightly singed with a red hot iron to remove fibres and coarse-

ness, and besmeared with a dye to remove the charred appearance.

This block of leaves, called puhu-potgediya (lit. <* blank book block”’),

is kept in a dry place, and leaves are taken from it by the copyist

as he requires them.

The leaves are written upon with an iron style* (16 inches long),

called ulkatuva (lit. “pointed instrument’”’), or panhinda (lit.

“leaf needle ’’), the writing pot being made of good steel. The

student of Sinhalese, who is taught to write almost at the com-

mencement of his studies, writes first on a sand board, then on

palmyra leaves, then on dried ripe talipot leaves called karakola,

and lastly on prepared talipot leaves (puskola). In copying a book

a set of sixteen leaves, called pat-kattuva (lit. ““ collection of leaves ’’),

which is the number of leaves a clever copyist is able to write in a

day, is held by the left hand of the copyist, the leaves being loosely

strung by the two sets of holes, and letters are cut or scratched upon

the surface of the leaf with the style held with the thumb, fore finger,

middle finger, and ring finger of the right hand (somewhat in the

fashion of holding a pen), and supported by a nick cut at the tip of

the left hand thumb nail to keep the style in position. The set of

leaves is moved to the left by means of the thumb of the left hand

as the writer proceeds. An English writer has remarked: “Singha-

lese writing is very neat and small, and it is wonderful to see what

straight lines are produced by writers who have no support for the

strip except their own left hand.” Copyists are paid at the rate of

about fifteen cents a leaf, twenty inches long, with seven or eight

lines to a page.

The writing is blackened with a pigment composed of resin oil

and powdered charcoal of gedumba wood (Trema orientalis), or burnt

rags, the pages being afterwards well cleaned with rice bran and

a piece of cloth. The book is then protected on the two sides by

painted boards, of the size of the pages, provided with holes corre-

sponding with those of the pages, and a long thread, generally of

different colours, is passed through the set of holes on the left hand

side of the leaves and the board and tightly wound round, the end of

the thread on the side of the beginning of the book being attached

to a button (called kasiya), generally made of metal. It is then

wrapped in one or two large handkerchiefs or pieces of good cloth

and kept in a box or almirah.

The consecutive order, as well as the number of each leaf, is

indicated by a consonant written on the left hand margin of the first

page of the leaf. When all the consonants combined with vowels

have been used in their consecutive order, they are repeated with a

Sinhalese figure affixed to them, indicating the number of times the

same consonant has been used.

* Styles are made of other metals also, and some are highly ornamental

and set with gems. (See Plate XLI.)

192 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Marks of punctuation are very few, and kundali ( 4m ), the

principal of them, is used generally at the end of a paragraph, and

at the commencement and close of a quotation or a stanza. The

words are not separated.

For the most important books, such as the text and commentaries

of the Buddhist scriptures, and other voluminous religious works,

leaves of the largest dimensions are used, the longest used being

generally two feet three inches and the broadest three inches ; nine

or ten lines are generally written on a page. Shorter and narrower

leaves are employed for scientific and poetical works, and the

small pieces which are not suitable for books are utilized for writing

short notes and letters.

A book written on well-prepared talipot olas will last more than

a thousand years. The age of the oldest books now extant in Ceylon

is about 500 years, absence of older manuscripts being due to the

destruction which the Sinhalese literature has suffered from time to

time. The oldest manuscript found in India is one on talipot leaves

(with the writing in ink), and is dated in 1132 a.p.

The Sinhalese ola manuscripts are some of the best in the world,

and rank next to Burmese manuscripts (which are also on talipot

leaves) in point of durability. The following observation has been

made by Dr. A. C. Burnell :—

“The meanness which is so characteristic of S. India displays

itself conspicuously in the MSS. written there. It is very seldom

that the least attempt is made (except in Malabar) to trim the leaves

and to provide proper covers for them. In Ceylon, Burma, and

Indo-China, on the other hand, the palm-leaf MSS. are always

beautifully written, and are often real works of art. In 8. India,

MSS. are hung up in the kitchen chimney ; in the Ceylon monasteries

I observed that each one of importance is preserved carefully in a

box made for the purpose and to fit the MS.”

All the manuscripts of this library, with a few exceptions, are

written on talipot olas, the exceptions being a few palmyra ola books,

such as the Hilekammitiya (a register of paddy fields in Uva, 123

leaves) and the Dutch, Sinhalese, and Tamil Vocabulary (words of

each language being written in its own characters, 83 leaves); one

paper manuscript of the Diyasevul Sandesaya (“‘ Water cocks’

message,” a Sinhalese poem), and a copy of the Satipatthana (a

discourse of Buddha) on twenty-four copper leaves with wooden

side boards covered with brass.

™% Most of the manuscripts are in Sinhalese characters and are

locally made ; the largest portion of the rest, consisting of books of

the Tripitaka, the Milinda Panha (questions on Buddhism of King

Milinda—identified with Menander—and replies thereto by Naga-

sena Thera), and the Mahavansa and Dipavansa (two histories of

Ceylon composed in Ceylon), the Mahavansa Tika (a commentary

on the Mahavansa, also composed in Ceylon),* and a few other

religious works, are in Burmese characters ; the remainder, consisting

of the Mahavansa and the Mahavansa Tika, presented by Her late

Majesty Queen Victoria’s Consul at Bankok, and the Mangalat-

thattha Dipani (a commentary on Mangala Sutia, a discourse of

Buddha), are in Cambodian characters.

* All these, which are with gilt edges, were presented by His late Majesty

the King of Burma. '

ee ae

GUIDE TO THE COLOMBO MUSEUM. 193

There are a few Tamil ola manuscripts recently presented to the

Library. No attempt to collect Tamil manuscripts has been made,

as the Tamil language belongs to Southern India, and all the import-

ant works in that language are those composed there.

The manuscripts locally made consist of works in the Sinhalese,

Pali, and Sanskrit languages. Those in Pali relate mostly to

Buddhism and grammar, and predominate the rest in bulk owing to

the Buddhist text, the commentaries (Atthakathas) thereon, and the

scholia (Tikas) on the Atthakathas.

The Atthakathas (Sinhalese, atuva) are the voluminous translations

made by Buddhaghosa Thera, the Indian Buddhist monk (410-432

A.D.), from the Sinhalese commentaries by Mahinda Maha Thera

(307-258 B.c.), who introduced Buddhism to Ceylon, and the Tikas

are works subsequently composed by erudite monks of Ceylon,

India, and Burma. Of grammatical works, some were composed

in India and Burma.

The Sinhalese works consist of prose translations of religious works

in Pali, a few historical prose works, all of which are based on the

Mahavansa and Dipavansa, and poems, most of which embody

Jataka stories.

The works in Sanskrit, the least in number, are mostly on medicine,

astrology, grammar, and other scientific subjects, and are generally

provided with Sinhalese paraphrases, as most of the Pali works are.

They are books mostly composed in India. The larger number of

books of the series of ancient Sinhalese readers, including the

Amarakosha (composed in India), are in Sanskrit and with Sinhalese

paraphrases.

The authors of these works were mostly Buddhist monks, who

were generally teachers of the laymen, both in religion and letters.

The Sinhalese kings, who were generally proficient in Sinhalese,

Pali, and Sanskrit, as well as in the sixty-four Oriental arts and

sciences, were also authors of several important works.

The most voluminous work in Pali is the Jatakatthakatha (t.e., the

commentary on the Jatakas), and in Sinhalese its translation,

commonly known as the Jatakapota.

MUSEUM COMPOUND.

Stone Antiquities,

Owing to lack of room in the Stone Gallery, several stone anti-

quities have been temporarily housed in a palm-thatched shed at

the back of the Museum. Chief among these is the large sedent

Toluwela Buddha from Nuwarawewa tank at Anuradhapura.

Writing about this fine specimen, Mr. H. C. P. Bell, the Archzological

Commissioner of Ceylon, says :—

“This Buddha is admittedly the finest yet brought to light at

Anuradhapura. In mere size it yields to the seated Buddha of the

outer circle, which measures 7 feet 6 inches in height by 7 feet across

the knees. But in other respects it surpasses all three statues near

the Jetawanarama. The wonderful sharpness and depth of the

features, the softness of expression, the symmetry and repose of the

43-12 (0%

194 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

body, give the image a tout ensemble which contrasts markedly

with the stolid “ figure-head ”’ appearance so characteristic of these

Buddhas in stone. The eyelids, under-lips, and ears are carved

with a life-like reality not reached in the case of the other Buddhas

already known. The nose is chipped, but so slightly as to be

practically unnoticeable from the front. The fingers are somewhat

worn, and there are a few cracks. A peculiarity of the head is a

rectangular block, 10 inches by 43 inches, at the back. One would

be tempted to dub this a konde, or hair-knot, but for the curly hair,

close cut as usual. Possibly it may have connected the statue with

the back wall. The sirespota, not improbably of gold, is, as might

be expected, missing. (See Plate XLII.)

In front of the Buddha is a unique floral moonstone from Hangu-

ranketa of admirable design, embossed with wreaths, festoons, and

garlands, and a pair of fabulous creatures (makaras) at the sides,

and a pair of two-fold representatives of the sripatula or sacred

footprints of Buddha near the base. This moonstone is unique, and

differs from the conventional type found in the ancient cities of

Ceylon.

There is also a collection of stones from Anuradhapura near the

Buddha shed.

On the lawn near the Library is seen a square-based. stylobate,

each side of which is ornamented by several elephant heads. This

handsome structure was discovered near Anuradhapura by the

Archeological Commissioner in 1894. It was erected in the grounds

of the office of the Archeological Commissioner in Anuradhapura,

and in 1911 transferred to the Colombo Museum. Originally a

Buddhist rail probably surmounted the four sides of the base. It is

not known what rested on the top. (See Plate XLIIT.)

pees:

‘(Vv Wwoow)

VMOUVNNOTOd

TO NOIT—‘I aLvid

PLATE II,—MEDAGODA PILLAR (STONE GALLERY).

‘(Vv WOOU) MOGNIM aANOLS OHVdy & ‘(¥ WoOu) AVIA saror— ‘nt HLV Ta

(AF as wa we wee!

‘(HNOLS VWUdOO) WIVD-VOYN

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PLATE VI. — PETIGAMMANA PILLAR (ROOM A,

WEST VERANDAH).

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PLATE IX.—MISCELLANEOUS BRONZES (ci SI

PLATE X.—SIVA AS NATA-RAJA (CASE 15).

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TO SHUNOLL

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PLATE XIII.— TWO FIGURES OF PARVATI, CONSORT OF SIVA (CASES 2 AND 3).

PLATE

SAV —— Svea:

NATA-RAJA (CASE 14).

(FT aswo) ILVAYYd LYOSNOOD SIH HELIA VAIS—‘AX ULV Id

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PLATE XVII.—SWORDS, DAGG

’

— CARVED IVORIES (CASE 16)

PLATE XVIII.

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PLATE XIX.—IVORY COMBS AND PANELS (CASE 21).

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EXAMPLES OF NATIVE POTTERY (CASE 27).

XXIV

PLATE

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PLATE XXVIJ. HEAD DRESS, MASKS, AND ORNAMENTS WORN IN NATIVE DANCES

(GASES 28 AND 29).

ed a LO ee ae beet

PLATE XXVIII.—SILVER SCENT SPRINKLER AND CUP (CASE 42); CARVED IVORY BOX

(CASE 22); AND VARIOUS ARTICLES USED IN DEMON CEREMONIES (CASE 28),

PLATE XXIX.—SPOONS AND SPOON RACKS, COCONUT SCRAPER, AND

RATTAN BASKET (CASE 34).

(#E USVO) SGTOOW LVANWIEAMS — ‘XXX GLVTa

PLATE XXXI.— CHONKA BOARD, JAGGERY MOULD, AND CARVED

BOXES AND STOOL (CASE 35),

PLATE XXXII, —SINHALESE, TAMIL, AND MOORISH ORNAMENTS (ROOM E).

PLATE XXXIII.—COINS (CASE 42),

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PLATE XXXVI.— BRASS BOXES AND POTS (CASE 46).

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PLATE XXXVII.— BRASS RICE STANDS AND SPITTOON ; BRONZE

CEREMONIAL MANGO (ROOM BE).

CHARMS (CASE 47).

XXXVIIT.

PLATE

PLATE XXXIX.— HANGING LAMP (ROOM E),

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PLATE

XL.

LAMPS (ROOM BE).

7).

DAGGER, STYLUS, AND SHEATH (CASE

’

AND CASE

XLI. OLA STYLI

PLATE

PLATE XLII. — TOLUWELA BUDDHA (MUSEUM COMPOUND).

*(aND0aWOD WOUSOK) ALVHOTALS INVHda 1a — ‘IIITX BLYVId

PLATE XLIV.— CARVED LOTUS FLOWER SLAB (MUSEUM COMPOUND).

CEYLON PEARL OYSTER FISHERIES. 195

THE CEYLON PEARL OYSTER FISHERIES.*

By Captain Joun A. Leaae, F.R.G.S., A.R.I.N.A.,

Master Attendant and Joint Police Magistrate, Colombo,

and Inspector of the Ceylon Pearl Banks.

HE paper which I am about to read you to-night is on the very

interesting subject of the Pearl Oyster Fisheries of this Island,

a subject that, besides a scientific interest, has a sporting and a

romantic interest as well.

To begin with, the Ceylon pearl oyster is not an oyster at all, but

a member of the family Aviculide ; it is not confined to the waters

of Ceylon, but is found in both the Persian Gulf and the seas of

Japan, and in both places it is fished with profit.

I am neither competent, nor do I desire to talk highly, scienti-

fically, or use the classic names of the shellfish about which we

are talking to-night, but I will just explain the difference, as I

understand it, between the edible oyster and the pearl oyster. The

edible oyster adheres to rock or stone by means of a natural hard

cement, whilst the pearl oyster attaches itself by means of a green

string-like substance and is easily detached ; this substance is called.

its byssus, and as a matter of fact it would be impossible to fish up

any quantity of edible oysters by the methods in vogue at a Ceylon

pearl fishery. If any of you desire to confirm this you have only to

walk to the end of the South-west Breakwater, of course in the

north-east monsoon, if you do not desire to get wet, when you will

see the edible oyster in large numbers adhering to the structure.

Tradition has it that King Solomon obtained some of his pearls

from our fishing grounds, whilst Phoenicians are credited with

adventuring as far as Ceylon to obtain its pearls; this, anyone who

has seen the traces left by them on the Cornish moors in their search

for copper and their lines of defences and fortified camps, all of

pre-Roman period, can well believe would not have been beyond

their adventurous disposition. Again, the pearls Cleopatra dissolved

and drank are credited with a Ceylonese origin.

Tradition has it that in the times of the Tamil power in Ceylon the

fisheries were of frequent occurrence ; and it is stated that they were

watched over, to prevent robbery by the divers, by a Tamil princess,

who was carried to the end of the Karaittivu Point and there

enthroned to remain until the fishery was over.

* A Paper read before the Ceylon Natural History Society on Wednesday,

October 9, 1912.

2D 6(7)12

196 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

The Karaittivu Point ends in a long sandspit now nearly all

submerged, but in those days doubtless it was high and dry, in

which case it ran right up to the largest of our present-day pearl

banks and lends somewhat to the support of the tale of our princess’s

business capacity and her doubts as to the honesty of the divers she

employed.

We now come to the Portuguese control of the pearl banks, but

they left little record, if any, of their fisheries ; they seem to have

fished more banks than we are able to now, and it is reported they

held a fishery off Mount Lavinia.

Apropos of the Portuguese fishery off Mount hear the following

is an experience of my own when searching for pearl oysters.

In March, 1905, some fishermen dredging for prawns off Mount

Lavinia brought up two oysters, in one of which was a pearl ; this

was sold for Rs. 10, but finding that the purchaser had disposed of

the pearl almost at once for Rs. 60, the fisherman complained to the

Government Agent, Mr. Fowler. He gave the oyster shells and

the story to the Principal Collector of Customs, Mr. Jackson, who

told me. I took a launch and diving apparatus one morning and

proceeded to the spot, as near as the fisher headman could indicate

it ; I then proceeded to descend, but in a short time I found I was

getting no air. I found also that I could not reach the life line to

signal to be pulled up, and I had ascertained before descending that

the depth was over 75 feet. Well, I reached the bottom, and was

just able to make out that it was all soft sand and no oysters to be

seen, when I made a great gasp for breath, and the whole of my chest

frame seemed to cave right in. I felt furiously angry, and rather

like taking gas at the dentist’s, and then I became unconscious. I

recovered consciousness on being pulled to the surface, and on

examining the air pump—which, by the way, was twenty-three years

old—we found that after a certain depth, when the pressure

increased beyond a certain amount, the air instead of going down

the rubber air pipe escaped into the atmosphere through the valves

of the pump; that was a narrow but not such a very unpleasant

squeak as it sounds.

Following the Portuguese we have the Dutch, who left many of

their terms, specially in the valuation of the samples taken to

ascertain if a fishery would prove lucrative.

After the Dutch we come to our own domination of Ceylon and

its pearl fisheries. In the British time, the Master Attendant of

Colombo has been until 1903, and is now again, the Inspector of the

Pearl Banks, whilst the Government Agent of the Northern Province

was the Superintendent of Pearl Fisheries.

Until recent years a good deal of mystery was purposely allowed

to enshroud the pearl banks practically ; no beacons or marks were

erected on the shore, and the difficulties of locating any banks were

increased wherever possible, whether to prevent poaching or not

CEYLON PEARL OYSTER FISHERIES. 197

I am unable to say; but it certainly added to the romance of the

work, and the public were undoubtedly disposed to regard the

advent of a pearl fishery much as we regard the Derby sweep. It,

however, always brings a rich harvest to the poor but hardworking

inhabitants of the Northern Province.

In the early part of the last century fisheries appear to have been

few and far between, one interval being as long as, I think, thirty-

seven years. James Steuart, Master Attendant of Colombo and

Inspector of Pearl Banks, and a brother of George Steuart, the

founder of the Colombo firm of that name, gives us the first coherent

accounts of the pearl banks and fisheries, and published a handbook

upon them ; but as in those days they were dependent on the wind

entirely, and no steam vessels at first were available, you will readily

understand that the annual inspections, if they were annuai in those

days, were long and arduous, and certainly entailed the loss of many

-a good bed of oysters.

One of the early British Governors built himself a residence on a

convenient site, both to enable him to be present.at the fisheries and

to act as a beacon. This was called the Doric, after its style of

architecture, but it has been long since condemned as unsafe by

the Public Works Department and more or less demolished, only

enough being left to act as a beacon, and a very good one it makes.

During the time of my predecessor, Captain Donnan, who was

connected with the pearl banks for some forty-three years, there

were periodical fisheries at varying intervals, but I can only find

record of one pearl of very great value. This was a black pearl,

which I believe was bought by Tiffany of New York for a sum of

£5,000, but I am not quite sure of the figure.

I came out here at the time Professor Herdman had been imported

to investigate the whole subject of the Ceylon pearl oyster. During

his investigations he discovered many new species of marine life,

one of which he did me the honour to name after me. It is a

repulsive looking creature, like a cross between a nightmare and a

lobster, and in such ways are our names handed down to posterity !

During that year’s investigations we had the services of a Euro-

pean diver from the Colombo Harbour Works, and T seized the

opportunity to personally descend in his dress and examine the sea

bottom for myself ; in fact, on one occasion I walked for four hours

on the bottom with the boat drifting over the surface above me, and

covered four miles in a more or less straight line.

The sensation in a diving dress is not unpleasant when you get

over the feeling of helplessness and nervousness ; whilst up on the

pearl banks on a sunny day, where the water is always at that season

of the year beautifully clear, the effects on the bottom are very

beautiful. The weeds wave with a gentle languorous motion ; every-

thing is coloured a soft greenish hue; the fish show little, if any,

fear of you, more, in fact, curiosity than fear.

198 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

The potential paars, or oyster beds, are formed by an amalgam

of coarse granite sand and old oyster shells cemented together with

coral lime ; on these paars there is little, if any, movement of sand,

and were it not for the fish that prey upon them the oysters would

thrive. Immediately I walked off the paar I was upon very loose

sand, in waves like giant furrows in a ploughed field ; whilst for quite

two feet high above the ground there was sand in suspension. Here

oysters are covered up, buried, and destroyed immediately.

The coral is, as may be expected, varied and very beautiful ;

some are lovely white branches of the most delicate tracery ; other

coral I have seen with what looks like the tiniest small blue flower

of a particularly beautiful deep blue ; but, alas, with the death of

this coral the colour fades away to white ; then there is a rocky spot

called by the Tamils Ani-verlundun Paar, or elephant’s ear rock.

Here the coral is enormously large, and shaped like an elephant’s ear,

or a large leaf, or, even better, the paper holder that a bouquet of

flowers is contained in; these pieces of coral growth are frequently

two or three feet a¢ross, and are very hard and difficult to break

off the rock, to which they are attached anyhow, without injuring

the delicate knife-like edge of the leaf. Tradition has it that this

coral is the result of an elephant falling down on this spot.

The life of a Ceylon pearl oyster is not more than eight years, and

from about its third year it seems to be more productive both in

numbers and size of pearls. Asa matter of fact, very few three-year

old oysters contain pearls, or anyhow only pearls of minute size ;

whilst if a bed of oysters could be fished just as they were dying off

with old age, the pearls obtained would be many and large. The

oyster attains its largest size in circumference in its third or fourth

year, due principally to its having a soft rough edge. This wears

off very soon, whilst the oyster thickens in a marked degree and also

increases in weight. True pearls, which are the result of a disease,

and not due to the admission of foreign matter into the shell—though

this does cause a form of misshapen pearl of no particular value—are

formed in the intestines of the oyster, and when they reach such a

size as to cause great discomfort to the oyster, the oyster either

dies or, as I have observed, forces the pearl towards the opening

between its valves, where the pearl is retained by an absolutely

transparent substance or skin, and they have the appearance of

being loose ; but this is not so, as it is by no means easy to extract

them with a match. I have a theory that, if the pearl continues to

grow in this position, it eventually prevents the oyster from closing,

and thus renders him an easy prey to his enemies, in which case

either the oyster dies or expels the pearl into the sea. In either

case the largest pearls would be lost. Very large pearls are rarely

found on these Ceylon banks. A dead pearl is a curious thing to

see ; it loses its weight and becomes a dull brown. I saw one of a

very large size.

CEYLON PEARL OYSTER FISHERIES. 195

In the year 1902 I obtained two pearls out of a common mussel

attached to a buoy in this harbour, and it is curious that I have

never found any mussels since here. These pearls were of a very

delicate slatey blue colour and were of considerable size ; one was

without a flaw and perfectly round, and the other, which was the

larger, had a considerable flaw on its surface.

When a fishery is established, and the divers, &c., have arrived,

they are divided into two parties and fish on alternate days. They

are allotted one-third of their catch in payment, whilst Government

auctions the remainder the same evening.

The oysters are then placed in private kottus, or enclosures, by

their purchasers and allowed to rot for eight to ten days by merely

placing them in a receptacle (generally a canoe, which is covered

over to shade it from the rays of the sun and the light, but enables

the flies to obtain free access), after which the contents are washed

with a copious supply of clean water, and the shells, stones, and

byssus, &c., picked out. The residue is then spread on a clean cloth

to dry, during which operation it is carefully scrutinized and picked

over again and again many times. I always used a length of

black calico, on which pearls are much more easily distinguished

than in the older method with a white cloth, and I also used a

galvanized iron bath for the rotting process in preference to a

wooden canoe. I tried brass tea sifters of various meshes, but

found the old white muslin method the best and cheapest for sifting

and straining.

The apparatus used for classing, &c., the pearls is a series of

brass cullenders, about the size of tobacco ash trays, which are

called baskets. They have holes in the bottom of each, each hole

being of equal size in its own basket, thus making various meshed

sieves ; the sieve with the largest-sized holes has twenty holes only,

whilst that with the smallest holes has several hundreds ; there are

generally ten or twelve of these sieves or baskets.

Pearls, as you know, vary in size from the almost indistinguishable

minute seed pearl to the size of a large pea, and sometimes larger.

The result of this is that whilst the larger pearls are all found in the

course of sifting, the tiniest seed pearls are left in large numbers in

the sand near the oyster-washing places, and for months after a

fishery is over and the camp abandoned to desolation and jungle,

men and women—mostly women—are met with searching the sands

for these minute treasures ; and that they find these infinitesimal

pearls cannot be doubted, as I doubt such patient perseverance

without some adequate reward.

Seed pearls, namely, these minute specimens, are largely used by

Indian princes, pounded up to powder to form the chunam for their

betel-chewing, whilst, as the ladies present all know, what pretty

embroidery and cluster necklaces they make.

200 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Before a fishery is settled upon, the Inspector has in the previous

November to lift a sample of about 20,000 oysters, extract the

pearls in the manner I have explained, and have them valued. This

is done by native Moormen jewellers, by secret hand-clasps under

a cloth. After sifting and weighing the pearls through these brass

sieves and on delicate scales, the value is fixed on the old Portuguese

or Dutch coinage, and, finally, when the amount is estimated in the

current coin of the realm, it is determined whether a fishery will pay.

As a matter of fact, the valuation come to is in very little

relationship to the market value of the sample.

The examination and inspection of the pearl banks is carried out

by native divers under the superintendence of the Inspector of Pearl

Banks, who also checks and verifies the native divers’ reports as

to the nature of the bottom, number of oysters present, &c., and

sometimes inspects himself in the diving dress. :

The inspection boats, six-oared whalers, start from the windward

side of the area to be inspected and work across the wind east and

west, between the buoys, which a reference to the accompanying

chart* will show, are laid down north and south, east and west, in

such a manner as to direct the boats on their east and west course

and prevent their getting out of position. Each coxswain is provided

with a chart, on which the result of each dive is recorded with the

soundings, the signs shown on the chart being used to represent the

nature of the bottom, &c.

The smaller charts, known as “ coxswain charts,” are filled in

by each coxswain as each dive is made, and they are transferred by

the Inspector to the larger chart.

The Ceylon oyster is different from the Australian or Burma

varieties, which are very large, and have beautiful nacre or mother-of-

pearl, which is most valuable, and for which they are fished quite

apart from the finding of pearls, whilst the Ceylon pearl oyster has

little mother-of-pearl, and what it has is of small value commercially.

It is only possible to fish the Ceylon oyster from early in March

until late in April.

All the facts collected during recent years serve to show that a

spatfall on the Ceylon banks is dependent upon exotic larvee which

have been carried over. from the Tuticorin side of the Gulf of

Mannar. In a continuously strong monsoon such as we have been

favoured with this year, but particularly during the months of July

and August, a drift current of sufficient power and velocity may

carry the pelagic larvee, which float for about six days, from the

Tuticorin banks to the banks on our side of the Gulf. In a weak

monsoon, however, the larvze never reach the Ceylon banks, since

they are carried northwards and may be deposited on the other

side of the Paumben Pass.

* Not reproduced.

———————— CU eT

CEYLON PEARL OYSTER FISHERIES. 201

As regards predatory fish, the large ray or skate would seem

among the worst. At the inspection in November, 1902, I decided

that a certain bed was quite the gem of those to be fished in March,

1903 ; the oysters were larger and older than any others I had

inspected, and were very plentiful ; however, as I was passing over

this spot on my way back at the end of the inspection, I observed a

very large shoal of rays in the vicinity. In the following March, ~

about the second week of the fishery, I moved to this my pet bed of

oysters, only, however, to be told by the divers that there were no

living oysters there. I at once descended in the diving dress and

found the bottom of the sea strewn with empty oyster shells, each

valve turned nacre upwards and shining, giving a very curious effect,

whilst each shell or valve was broken obviously by external pressure

into three pieces. This could only have been done by the powerful

jaws and teeth of the ray.

The method employed by the native diver is this. At a fishery

each boat contains ten divers, who work five at a time, and each

pair has one attendant, called a manduck (as he does not enter the

water it seems a misnomer to describe him as ‘‘ man duck ’’); he also

rows or sails the boat. In addition there is a tindal, a representative

of the owner of the boat, and a peon or individual representing

Government interests.

Each boat has five stone sinkers, sometimes rather shapely,

having a hole at the upper end, to which the rope is attached; a

second rope is attached to a small circular frame or hoop, which has

a coir netting across it. This is called the basket. The local basket

is shallow, but that of the Arab divers of the Persian Gulf has a small

circumference but a deep net.

When the divers are ready, they get over the side, place one foot

on the stone, which is held clear of the side of the boat by two poles

fastened at right angles over the side of the boat and a third pole

lashed to each end of them parallel to the boat. Grasping the rope

to which the stone is fastened, and hitching the loop of the rope

attached to the basket over his arm, the diver, closing his nostrils

with his free hand, takes a deep breath, and slightly raising himself to

add impetus to his descent, gives the signal to the manduck to let go

the rope fastened to the stone, and down he goes. The instant he

reaches the bottom he lets go the stone, which is hauled up prepara-

tory to the next descent, whilst the diver swimming on the bottom

with his eyes open grasps all the oysters within reach in the limited

time at his disposal. I do not think I have seen anything more

graceful than when I was on the bottom of the sea in the diving

dress I watched these men at work. They seem to float much as

a person is drawn in an imaginary picture as flying; their backs

gracefully arched and their heels above their heads, whilst their

generally long hair waves gracefully behind them supported by the

water. Occasionally men either from avarice or over-estimation of

202 SPOLIA ZEYLANIGA.

their strength collapse at the bottom and are brought up dead.

There were several such cases in March, 1903, which, as I was the

only European on the banks, I had to deal with as best I could with

the ‘‘ Shipmaster’s Medical Guide ” as my authority for the action

to be taken.

One day a man came to me with a fearful sting from a jellyfish.

He was in great pain, and the whole of the left side of his body was

discoloured where the fish had stung him. I seized a bottle of castor

oil, the only thing I could think of, and painted the spot with a copious

covering of oil, and much was my pleasure when not only did it

instantly relieve him, but he was even able to go on with his work.

Arab divers use a sort of horn clip with which to close their nostrils

when under water, but the local and Indian diver holds his nostrils

with his hand only until such time as he reaches the sea bottom.

I have timed many native divers, and the average time that a

Tamil remains below is between fifty and sixty seconds, whilst an

Arab remains under water between eighty and ninety seconds.

The diver signals to his attendant when he wishes to ascend, and

is partially pulled up with his basket and rises partially by his own

initiative. Diving bells were imported for the pearl fishery by Sir

Edward Barnes in 1825, but neither they or a European diver in a

diving dress can compete with the naked native.

The first fishery that we have any record of is I believe that of

1661, but no record of what the fishery brought in is to be found.

A fishery in 1808 appears to have resulted in £90,000, and one in

1804 in £75,000.

A table that I looked up in Steuart’s book gives the amount of

oysters fished in one boat in seven consecutive days as : the first day

25,000 oysters, second 23,000, third 55,000, fourth 10,500, fifth

19,000, sixth 20,500, and the seventh 25,200.

Of course, there was a certain amount of theft and rascality at the

washing. To get the pearls, one favoured method was for one man,

when he found a valuable pearl, to secrete it, whilst another man in

the know would secrete an inferior pearl ; when the first man would

inform against the second, who would be beaten, whilst in the

commotion the other man would safely secure the good pearl.

The pearl oyster apparently selects, if he has any power of

selection, the most suitable banks off the mouths of rivers. For

this predilection there may be several causes, but I personally am

inclined to the view that the oyster has no control over his move-

ments in his buoyancy stage, and just drifts as the current wills ; in

this stage there is probably an enormous loss of young oysters. The

more fortunate survivors at the period when they lose their buoy-

ancy are in the vicinity of suitable banks, and in any case those that

sink on sand, or where there is no food, perish ; now it is usual for

a bank to form from principally flood materials off the mouths of

rivers, and here oysters settle free of sand and other dangers, whilst

vpn ©

eave fans

CEYLON PEARL OYSTER FISHERIES. 203

their food is or may be supplied by the outflow of the river bringing

it to them. Anyhow, if this, the food theory, is incorrect, there is

no doubt that oysters, both edible and pearl-bearing, do congregate

off the mouths of fresh water rivers round the coast of this Island.

Fish are not, according to my experience, plentiful on the pearl

banks, and an indication of this is the small number of fishermen ;

sharks are rare there, whilst on the south and east coast of Ceylon

they exist in great numbers. I remember being becalmed in a

sailing ship about twenty-five years ago, and seeing and catching

them by the score for one whole twenty-four hours in the lower part

of the Bay of Bengal; there was one ancient gentleman, however,

who swam lazily up to our stern and spent the four hours, from

midnight to 4 a.m., sucking in the bait of succulent fat salt pork

and just letting it slide out of his mouth whenever I endeavoured

to hook him. The supposed origin of the seaman’s mermaid is a

rare form of marine mammal occasionally seen on the pearl banks,

called the dugong. Looking at the specimen mounted in this

building, it is difficult to believe that the romantic old sailor,

however long he had been at sea without coming in contact with

the opposite sex, could ever insult them by mistaking the dugong

for a charmer of the fair sex, no, not even for a suffragette.

We all know how marine artists have idealized into the loveliest of

women the mermaid. Like the whale, these fish suckle their young

at the breast, where their food glands are situated, and perhaps this

is the origin of the mermaid myth. Another fish, also seen on the

pearl banks, is the globe fish. It is a big-headed slow-swimming

fish, which, when disturbed, blows itself out into a globe covered with

spikes, and at the same time becomes quite helpless.

It is said that a Venetian visited the pearl banks between 1563

and 1588, named Cesar Frederick, but nothing is known of his

objects or their results. The Dutch, during the whole of their

occupation of Ceylon, only had four good fisheries, namely, in the

year 1732; in 1747, when they made £21,400; in 1748, when they

made £38,580; and in 1749, when they made £68,000. This in a

period of 140 years does not seem very good. There is a record

in the Royal Asiatic Society’s Journal, No. 456, LII., of a fishery at

Trincomalee of Ceylon pearl oysters in the year 1750.

The pearl necklace captured from Raja Jaipat by Mahmud in the

year 1001 a.D. was valued at £100,000, but whether of Ceylon origin

I cannot say, though it is quite likely to have been.

Servilia, the mother of Brutus, received a pearl from Cesar worth

£50,000, and Cleopatra’s earrings were valued at £161,000.

The most perfeet pearl ever discovered was bought in the year

1633 by the Shah of Persia for about £10,266 from an Arab, who

brought it from Catifa, a fishery opposite Bhareen in the Persian Gulf.

Another Bhareen pear! of 12 carats weight belonged to the Prince

of Muscat, who was offered 40,000 crowns, equal to £10,000, for it.

QE 6(7)12

204 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Bhareen pearls are credited with being the finest pearls in the world.

The earliest mention of a pearl fishery in Ceylon is found in the

Rajavali chronicle, 306 B.c., as being near Colombo, and being

destroyed by an inundation of the sea.

Mention of the Ceylon pearl fisheries occurs in Pliny, and of the

Tuticorin fisheries in the ““ Vishnu Purana.’”

During the Dutch occupation the best fisheries took place off

Chilaw, but there is no actual record of any fisheries during the

Portuguese occupation. The Dutch made about £200,000 from

their fisheries in 140 years.

Albyrouni, who lived in the eleventh century, mentions that in

his times the Ceylon pear] fisheries suddenly became exhausted.

T will just quote the final paragraph of a report by Captain Kerk-

ham, the Superintendent to the defunct Ceylon Company of Pearl

Fishers, who says that it is highly desirable that all the rocky areas

north of Colombo should be annually inspected, as it would appear

from the immense quantities of oyster shell found in these places

that beds of oysters have occurred, matured, and died of old age

without even being discovered or fished.

The question has been raised in recent years as to our claim to the sole

right of fishing the Ceylon pearl banks, seeing that they are outside

the three-mile limit, but this has been satisfactorily settled, and as a

matter of fact the three-mile limit is in itself obsolete, as it referred in

the past to that area within the range of the guns then in use in shore

batteries, for it may be said what you can defend is yours. Nowadays

a fourteen-mile limit would not be excessive with modern artillery.

In all stages of the pearl oyster wastage is enormous ; when young

they crowd together and only the fittest survive, and by the time

they become fishable they are scattered about over fairly large

areas in bunches of twos and threes.

By the present methods of fishing it is impossible so to deplete

the banks as to leave no oysters for breeding purposes ; quite a

quarter of the stock is left on the banks by the divers ; so it is not

true, as has been frequently stated, that our blank years are due

to overfishing ; and some other reason must be found, and that is,

I think, that oysters when spawned on our banks are all carried

away by the current and probably lost, whilst we benefit for the

same reason from the Tuticorin oyster banks.

The pearl oysters apparently are continuously present on the

Persian Gulf and Somali beds, and fishing is always in progress there.

That oysters cannot be cultivated on our banks seems pretty

certain, as the currents that bring us the Tuticorin spat carry away

the local spawn into deep or unsuitable places, where it is lost, and

nothing that science can do will ever guarantee annual fisheries or

prevent this.

Our banks are too circumscribed, and the currents too constant,

to allow of locally-produced spat setting on the parental oyster beds.

CEYLON PEARL BANKS. 205

A REVIEW OF THE SCIENTIFIC WORK ON THE

CEYLON PEARL BANKS FROM 1902 TO 1912.

By JosepH PEARSON,

Government Marine Biologist.

: PAGE | PAGE

1. Introduction y. 206° |) Sones Currents: -.- fe SOE

2. Resumé of Scientific Work 206 | 6. Drift-bottle Experiments 216

3. Herdman’s Summary and | 7. Bearing of the Drift-

Recommendations .. 209 | bottle Experiments .. 217

4. Pearl Production .. 212 | 8. Summary ofthe Position 219

INTRODUCTION.

HE intermittent nature of the pearl fisheries in the Gulf of

Mannar is well known. Cycles of barren years occur irregu-

larly, but none the less consistently. This lack of continuity is

unfortunate, and at the same time remarkable—unfortunate, in that

the value of the pearl banks as an important source of revenue to the

Colony is somewhat discounted ; and remarkable, since it presents

to the economic scientist points of supreme interest. Although the

spasmodic nature of the pearl fisheries must have caused serious

misgivings in the past, no organized attempt appears to have been

made to discover a cause and a remedy until the year 1902. With

the advent of Professor Herdman, who brought to the problem an

unrivalled experience of marine biological science, the fortunes of

the pearl banks may be said to have entered upon a new phase, and

one has no hesitation in affirming that the last decade has proved

the most eventful in the history of the Ceylon pearl fisheries. In

addition to the fact that the methods of biological science were

introduced into the enterprise for the first time* the period in question

was rendered noteworthy by the formation of a Syndicate in 1906

to take over from Government the control of the pearl banks for

a term of twenty years. The Ceylon Company of Pearl Fishers

commenced its career under the most happy auspices, and as the

result of two successful fisheries in the first years placed itself in an

extremely sound condition. After the fishery of 1907, however, the

yield of pearl oysters failed, and since that date the banks have been

in a condition of absolute barrenness. The result was that after an

* It must not be forgotten, however, that scientific operations were con.

ducted on a small scale by Dr. Kelaart in the fifties and by Mr. Houldsworth

in the sixties.

206 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA,

eventful career extending over six years the Company found its

affairs to be in such a hopeless condition that in 1912 it asked

Government to terminate the lease. This has now been done, and

the fishing rights on the pearl banks have reverted to the Ceylon

Government.

In view of the somewhat sensational history of the Syndicate, and

of the inevitable publicity which has been given to Ceylon pearl

fisheries in recent years, it is not surprising to find that the economic

Marine Biologist has loomed rather large in the reports of the

Company. The result has been that both the expectations and the

possibilities of the scientific work have been grossly misunderstood.

Thus, the commonly accepted notion appears to be that marine

biology as applied to the pearl banks must stand or fall upon the

result of the last ten years’ work, and many are satisfied that

the failure of the Pearl Fishery Company to make the enterprise a

financial success is directly consequent upon the failure of economic

science to offer a solution of the main problem.

One does not feel inclined to accept the conclusions of those who

are sceptical of the ultimate success of the work of applied science,

and who talk vaguely about ‘‘leaving Mother Nature to her own

devices.”’ The principle involved is of universal application, and

the answer does not rest upon a few years’ work on one particular

problem, but is closely concerned with all the activities of the human

race in so far as they affect the products of Nature. Man’s enterprise

has long since shown the fallacy of leaving Nature to her own devices,

whether it be in agriculture or pisciculture.

Certain it is that the main point of the problem which science set

out to solve on the Ceylon pearl banks has baffled all inquiry, and

it may appear at first sight that the history of the last ten years

spells failure of scientific methods. The writer has been prompted

to write this paper because of certain misunderstandings which

undoubtedly exist, and in order to present a summary of the biological

position, with a view of determining how far the scientific investiga-

tions have progressed towards the attainment of their chief object.

Further than that one cannot go, for it would be idle at the

present juncture to profess that any ripe judgment can yet be given

on the merits of economic marine biology as applied to the problems

of the Ceylon pearl oyster.

BrIEF RESUME OF THE SCIENTIFIC WoRK.

After a period of eleven years, during which there had been no

fishery, Professor Herdman was invited to institute an inquiry and

to present a report. In consequence he spent the early part of the

year 1902 in Ceylon, and in company with his assistant, Mr. Hornell,

made a thorough examination of the conditions of the pearl banks.

On Professor Herdman’s return to England, Mr. Hornell was left in

charge of the investigations. The researches were thus continued

Yt "

CEYLON PEARL BANKS. 207

until 1905, and the results are to be found in the five volumes

published by the Royal Society. The commencement of these.

operations happened to coincide with the appearance of large deposits

of spat on the banks, so that from the beginning of their work

Herdman and Hornell had material at hand, and they were able to

follow the oyster through all the later stages of its development.

Every branch of the investigations was prosecuted with great vigour,

and the researches of these four years were very fruitful.

In addition to the arduous duties of inspections and the distrac-

tions of the two largest fisheries on record, the two main lines of

inquiry may be said to have been, first, the examination of the pearl

oyster from every point of view, including structure, life-history, and

bionomics. In Volume V. of his reports, Herdman summarizes the

work done and makes a series of recommendations. These will be

discussed later. The second important piece of work was concerned

with pearl formation and the pearl-inducing parasite.

A second phase was entered upon in 1906, when the Ceylon

Company of Pear] Fishers obtained a lease of the beds. Mr. Hornell’s

Services were retained for both the biological and surveying work,

and Professor Herdman was appointed scientific adviser to the

Company.

There is no published record of any scientific work done during the

years 1906 and 1907. Doubtless the two fisheries which took place in

these years occupied all the time of Mr. Hornell in his double role,

but the Company were not perhaps serving their own interests best

. by practising economy at the expense of the scientific investigations,

upon the result of which, as recent events have shown, they believed

so much to depend. The biological position was sufficiently difficult

to demand the whole time and energy of the Marine Biologist,

without saddling him with navigating and surveying work, which

ought properly to have been assigned to a man of proved nautical

experience, which Mr. Hornell admittedly was not. When he left

the services of the Company in 1908, this defect was remedied by

two appointments being made in respect of the duties previously

performed by Mr. Hornell alone. Mr. Southwell, who had been

Hornell’s assistant, was placed in charge of the biological work, and

Captain Kerkham was made responsible for the navigations and

surveying.

The reports of the Company show that the Chairman and Directors

pinned their faith upon the anticipated results of the scientific

investigations. Therefore, it is surprising to find that since the

fortunes of the Company were fegarded as being so dependent upon

the scientific efforts, no results of the scientific operation on the

Company’s banks were published for nearly four years. The first

scientific report which dealt with the operations on the banks under

lease did not appear till May, 1910. Possibly during this blank

period the Directors received reports upon the progress of operations

208 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

from their experts, but scientists who are interested in the problem

are in absolute ignorance of what transpired during that period,

except for scattered references in Southwell’s reports. In attacking

a series of problems such as the Ceylon pear! fisheries present, it is

absolutely essential that the large mass of data collected should be

put on record, irrespective of whether they may appear to have any

bearing upon the main problem at the time. For this reason it

is regrettable that information concerning the scientific operations

conducted during the first part of the Company’s tenure should not

be available for those who will now be called upon to continue the

work, and there is not much consolation to be gained from Mr. South-

well’s statement that the investigations recorded in the Ceylon

Marine Biological Reports “represent a mere fraction of the work

done by the Company.’ There is another cause for regret, in

that these blank years synchronized with the time when the banks

became barren. It would be interesting to know what occurred

during this critical period. Did the Company realize what would

probably happen, and did they take all possible precautions ?

Were breeding reserves established in the fishery of 1907, and were

any oysters that were left over carefully preserved? On these points

no information is forthcoming. Professor Herdman emphasized

the danger of overfishing. Did the Company accept this view ?

We are anxious to know what relation, if any, exists between the

practice of overfishing and the periodic failure of the pear! fishery.

To the solution of this problem the years 1906-1908 offer no

contribution.

The results of the Southwell-Kerkham régime are naturally of a

somewhat meagre nature, since these gentlemen were in the unfortu-

nate position of having to take charge of the operations during a

period when the banks were barren. The most noteworthy results

of their term of office were Southwell’s work on the pearl-inducing

worm, the current investigations prosecuted by Southwell and

Kerkham by means of drift bottles, the compilation of a new chart

of the banks, and the inauguration of a new system of inspection

by Kerkham. ‘The researches on the pearl-inducing worm and the

current investigations will be referred to later. Not the least

important of the benefits which accrue to Government are the new

method of inspection and the chart of the banks, for which Captain

Kerkham is responsible. A discussion of these achievements is

beyond the scope of the present paper, but since a very important

part of the annual survey is dependent upon an efficient system of

inspection, and none the less upon’a reliable chart of the banks,

Captain Kerkham’s work in these matters cannot be dismissed

without a word of appreciation.

Those whose lot it will be to continue the scientific work com-

menced ten years ago are under heavy obligations to Professor

Herdman and the other biologists who have hitherto been concerned

CEYLON PEARL BANKS.* 209

with the work. But although the ten years’ work has made the task

much lighter, the main problem is still unsolved, as the present

barren conditions of the banks only too plainly testifies. Moreover,

the combined results of the ten years’ operations are not convincing

enough to induce the writer to agree with Mr. Southwell that,

‘‘oiven a spatfall, only thorough inspection, care, and normal

foresight in isolating breeding stocks, &c., are required to make

the banks perennially productive.” Mr. Southwell is too optimistic

when he thinks the future presents such an easy task, and he is

perhaps too sanguine when he records his belief that a spatfall is

almost certain to take place at an early date.

HERDMAN’S SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS.

Herdman considered that the principal causes of mortality were

(1) silting sand, (2) predaceous fish, (3) overcrowding, (4) over-

fishing, (5) various other causes, such as disease and attacks of

invertebrates.

Amongst other things, he recommended transplanting, cultching

of sandy areas, the institution of drift-bottle experiments.

It is instructive to determine how far the various practices

advocated by Herdman have been seriously tested.

The question of silting sand on the banks is discussed elsewhere.

If this danger is a real one, it would appear difficult to overcome,

except by transplanting the oysters from places where large sandy

stretches predominate. Southwell and Kerkham have not fully:

appreciated Herdman’s point in regard to the dangers of silting sand.

They have written a great deal to show that the movement of the

bottom water is vertical and not horizontal, but one is not convinced

that this vertical movement, if admitted, may not give rise to

silting. So long as silting takes place, from whatsoever cause, the

precautions suggested by Herdman must be practised.

There appears to be universal agreement that predatory fish are

an important source of danger, but our knowledge on this subject

is not a little vague since the published information is extremely

meagre. It would have been helpful if exact records had been kept

of the thousands of trawling operations which have been conducted

throughout the course of the ten years’ inquiry. One may be

forgiven for emphasizing once more the importance of a detailed and

systematic collection of data in the course of a big investigation

extending over many years, such as the one under discussion. It

is by such methods that results of permanent value may best be

attained. In regard to the natural enemies of the oyster, the

problem would have been a much simpler one for future workers if

detailed records of the gut-contents of fishes had been available. It

would also have been of interest to have had a comparison of the fish

fauna of the banks during fishery years and non-fishery years, to have

determined whether the fish which feed on oysters disappear when the

210 * SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

oyster beds are rendered barren, or whether they merely change their

diet. ‘The scattered evidence on these points, which one discovers

only after much trouble in the published reports, is insufficient and

unconvincing. Doubtless Messrs. Hornell and Southwell obtained

an intimate knowledge of such details, but if they had put it on

record they would have saved their successors much trouble, and

the “‘ legacy’? which the Ceylon Company of Pearl Fishers left to

Government would have been incomparably richer.

Mr. Southwell repeatedly states that the collection of data

regarding predatory fish has been carried on extensively and persis-

tently. He says further: “‘Almost every fish caught has been

carefully examined in order to determine the nature of the stomach

contents, and in this way thousands of fish ........ have been

repeatedly under observation.”* Why was this information not

published ? It may make uninteresting reading, but it is the sort

of information to which future workers on the subject should have

the means of access. It is not sufficient to discuss the question in

a brief summary such as Mr. Southwell contributes in the Ceylon

Marine Biological Reports (Part IV., page 175).

There is no ground for Dr. Jameson’s supposition that Professor

Herdman and his successors have refrained from a campaign of

extermination of these predatory fishes on the ground that they play

an important part-in the life cycle of the supposed pearl-inducing

parasite. As a point of academic interest, Herdman has drawn

attention to the fact that though an excess of predaceous fish would

destroy the oysters, the other extreme would be equally disastrous

from the point of pearl production. But as a matter of practice no

mercy has been shown to those fish which have proved inimical to

the oysters. It is true that no active measures have been taken to

reduce the numbers of predatory fishes, but the reason of this is not

to be found in any desire to protect the fish because of their probable

importance in pearl production, but in the peculiar local conditions.

Apart from the trawling operations of the “Violet,’’ which do not

extend over more than three months of the year, there is practically

no fishing pursued on the banks. The pearl banks happen to lie off

one of the most thinly populated parts of the Ceylon coast, and in

consequence there is practically no fishing industry of any import-

ance. If, for example, the banks had happened to lie off the coast

between Colombo and Galle, where sea fishing is practised extensively ,

it would have been an easy matter to keep down the numbers of

predatory fish. In such a case, however, a rigid system of police

supervision would have to be enforced in order to prevent poaching

of pearls.

The danger of overcrowding is one which has been fully recognized,

and the obvious remedy is to transplant some of the oysters to new

ground. ‘Transplanting has not yet been carried out in a thorough

* Ceylon Marine Biological Reports,’ Part IV., p. 177.

Bi Obst eo

CEYLON PEARL BANKS. 211

manner. As Jameson has pointed out. Hornell transplanted a

batch of 10,000,000 oysters, but no subsequent report indicates

whether the experiment was a success or failure. Southwell also

transplanted 9,000,000 oysters, but they all died in the following year,

One has every reason to believe that transplantation operations,

if carried out on a sufficiently large scale, will prove an important

factor in the improvement of the banks, and in consequence it

will be of interest to follow the results of future transplantation

experiments.

Transplanting is not only necessary to relieve overcrowding, but

also in cases where a spatfall takes place on unsuitable ground.

For example, Periya Paar frequently receives large deposits of spat

which rarely reach maturity. In such a case, whenever a spatfall

occurs, the young oysters should be dredged up and deposited on

more suitable ground.

It is questionable whether the dangers of overfishing are so serious

as would appear at first sight. Professor Herdman strongly empha-

sized the evils of overfishing in his reports, but it is significant that

in his final recommendations no mention is made of any provision

against overfishing. It is probable that the pearl oyster matures

at least two years before it is “ fishable,” and so far as one can

determine it does not live long after the fishable age. It has been

suggested that overfishing may be prevented by marking off certain

““ spawning reserves ”’ during a fishery. This will ensure that a few

compact beds of oysters are left at the conclusion of fishing opera-

tions. But since these oysters have already been spawning for at

least two years, and since so far as one can determine their fertility

wanes after they reach a‘* fishable ” age, the advantage of establish-

ing these reserves is probably overrated.* At any rate, so long

as other beds of young oysters are known to be on the banks

there appears to be no need for establishing breeding areas on any

particular paar. If this be so, it would seem that the only time when

the establishment of breeding reserves would be necessary would. be

when whole banks showed signs of approaching barrenness. But

as a matter of practice it would be unwise in the immediate future

not to take every conceivable precaution, and it would be regrettable

not to test the value of the breeding reserves as a means of arriving

at some solution of the main problem, namely, the recurrence of

barren years. So far as I am aware, no such measures have yet

been taken.t

Both Herdman and Hornell were strongly of opinion that cultching

should be carried out, but so far as one is able to judge, Southwell’s

criticism of this suggestion is a sound one. If Southwell’s figures

* Since so little is known of the spawning periods and the life-history of the

oyster, such a conclusion as this may have to be modified as our knowledge of

the subject increases.

+ It is pointed out later that the breeding reserves will be valueless if

spawn produced is carried off the banks.

2 6(7)12

212 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

be accepted, extensive cultching in the pearl banks is not a feasible

scheme, and in the later years the Ceylon Company of Pear! Fishers,

who were bound under their agreement to deposit at least 500 tons

of cultch each year, were able to induce Government to forego that

stipulation.

The work subsequent to Herdman’s reports gives very little

evidence that his recommendations have been carried out seriously:

With the exception of cultching, which appears to be impracticable

on a large scale, there is little evidence to show that efforts were

made to seriously guard against the alleged evils of overfishing and

overcrowding. We have yet to learn the importance of these two

factors in regard to the problems which are awaiting solution.

PEARL PRODUCTION.

In addition to their investigations upon the main problem,

Messrs. Herdman, Hornell, and Southwell have considerably

extended oux knowledge of the supposed pearl-inducing parasite.

Herdman and Hornell determined the Ceylon pearl to be formed

around the larva of a tapeworm, TJ'etrarhynchus unionifactor.

Herdman was of opinion that three hosts are probably concerned

in the life-history of the parasite, namely, the pearl oyster, a large

ray, and Balistes. While Southwell agreed as to the nature of the

parasite, he did not believe that three hosts were concerned ; and

he made two series of experiments, with the object of showing that

the life-cycle of the tapeworm could be completed within the pear!

oyster and ray without the intervention of a bony fish. This con-

viction apparently was not shaken when the experiments produced

only negative results.

A small area of the sea bottom was enclosed by expanding metal

and stocked with oysters. In the 1909 experiment some 36,000

oysters were deposited in the enclosure, and four fish, after being

treated with male fern extract and castor oil, were introduced, viz.,

Tetrodon unimaculatus, Tetrodon stellatus, Ginglymostoma concolor ,

and Teniura melanospilos.

At the end of twenty-eight days the fish were killed, and an

examination of the gut-contents revealed the absence of any adult

cestodes from the two species of Tetrodon. In Ging. concolor there

were 51 7’. unionifactor and 48 Tetr. herdmani, and in Tenviura

melanospilos there were 150 T'etr. herdmani.

In 1910 a second experiment was tried. 12,000 oysters were

placed in the enclosure, together with the following fish :—Serranus

undulosus, Ginglymostoma concolor, and T'rygon walga. In about

seven weeks’ time the fish were killed, and only Ginglymostoma

concolor proved to have any adult cestodes. Three species were

represented : 38 specimens of 17’. unionifactor, 140 specimens of

Phyllobothroides hutsoni, and 9 specimens of Phyllobothroides

kerkhami.

CEYLON PEARL BANKS. 213

Since these experiments were made, with the object of proving

that a bony fish did not enter into the life-cycle of the pearl-inducing

parasite, but that only the pearl oyster and a ray were concerned,

two conditions were necessary :—

(1) That the alimentary canal of each fish should have been

quite free from cestodes at the beginning of the experi-

ment. Southwell attempted to arrive at this condition

of things by treating the fishes with extract of male fern

and castor oil.

(2) That the fishes and oysters should have been absolutely

isolated from other organisms, such as bony fishes.

Southwell believed this had been achieved by sur-

rounding the enclosure with expanding metal having

a four-inch mesh.

With regard to the first condition, the only test made to prove

the efficacy of the purgative used—namely, by killing a fish three

days after treatment and examining the intestinal contents—

revealed the presence of a fewcestodes. Furthermore, in explaining

the presence of the large number of specimens of Phyllobothroides in

his second experiment, Southwell says, “‘ it would seem probable

that these cestodes were present when the fish were placed in the

enclosure.” If this possibility be admitted, the value of the whole

experiment is nullified.

The second condition was not strictly observed. Southwell admits

this, and says, “‘ the food supply consisted entirely of oysters, save

possibly such small fish as were able to pass through the expanded

metal.’ After seeing the nursery in question, the writer was of

the opinion that the enclosure was not proof against the inroads of

other fishes.

Mr. Southwell admits the unsatisfactory results of the experiments,

but still adheres to his view that there are only two hosts, a view

which may probably prove correct.

The conclusion that one is forced to is that further investigations

are required before the question of pearl production may said to be

satisfactorily solved.* If Southwell’s experiments are reliable, it

would appear that the pearl oyster has larvee of at least four kinds

of tapeworms, viz., Tetrarhynchus unionifactor, Tetr. herdmanz,

Phyllobothroides hutsoni, and Phyllobothroides kerkhami. This is not

inconceivable, but, if true, it would raise the interesting question,

if the cestode origin of pearis be accepted, of the formation of pearls

from the larve of all these different cestodes, and not only from

Telr, unionifactor.

* Dr. Jameson’s Paper on pearl production had not been received when this

was written. Dr. Jamesou’s examination of a large number of pearls failed to

detect the presence of a larval tapeworm in the nucleus, and on these grounds

he rejects Herdman’s theory. The Paper produces only negative evidence,

and Dr, Jameson is not in a position to offer an alternative explanation. The

whole question will need re-investigating.

214 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

CURRENTS.

According to Herdman and Hornell, the surroundings of the

oysters are influenced in some degree by the presence of bottom

currents, and they were of opinion that one of the causes of mortality

among young oysters was the silting of sand over the oysters through

the agency of these bottom currents. In fact, they regarded the

shifting sand as a more serious cause of disaster than even the

depredations of voracious fish.

In their discussion of the bottom currents, Southwell and Kerk-

ham assumed that the danger of a bottom current to a bed of oysters

is that the oysters will be swept away, and apparently on those

grounds they appear to ignore the more probable explanation

suggested by Herdman, that any movement of the bottom layers of

water is dangerous, in that the sand becomes silted and buries the

oysters.

Southwell and Kerkham contend that there is no longitudinal

motion of the bottom layers of water, and base their conclusions upon

three series of observations. Experiments were made with a piece

of apparatus which was too faulty to be treated seriously, and they

themselves admit that the results of these experiments were “ of too

erude a nature to count for anything.’ Their second ground for

adopting this view was based upon the scanty information obtained

from the divers. But the main reason for their opinion is founded

upon the observation made by Captain Kerkham himself on the

numerous occasions when he descended in diving dress. It is

significant, however, that none of these descents were made in the

height of the south-west monsoon, when the banks are swept by

strong winds and the water is in a continual state of disturbance.*

Whether even in the roughest weather the water six fathoms below

the surface is affected in any considerable degree by the action of

the wind is a doubtful point, but that some serious disturbance of

the bottom layers does take place during the south-west monsoon is

actually admitted by Southwell and Kerkham when they state that

‘at such a time (late in October, before the south-west monsoon has

subsided) the bottom layer of water is turbid. The cause of this

turbidity has been microscopically examined, and has been repeatedly

proved to be due to the disintegrated remains of seaweed and

caulerpas. The turbidity renders it almost impossible for divers

to see, but it subsides as the north-east monsoon begins.”’ They

admit, moreover, that the sandy bottom becomes ridged during the

south-west monsoon. This ridging is caused, they assert, by the

action of surface agitation, which is transmitted as a vertical and not

as a horizontal movement. 'This evidence may quite well be claimed

by Herdman as support for his case. It seems clear that any move-

ment, be it horizontal or vertical, which can produce well-defined

Drees (Re ing 1s paneeiblc during ie south-west monsoon owing to bad

weather, but this is the period of the year when silfing will take place, if ever

CEYLON PEARL BANKS. 215

ridges of sand may possibly be sufficient to cause silting, and it is

still more likely that the movement of water, which is sufficient to

disintegrate seaweed growing on the bottom to such an extent as to

make it difficult for the divers to see, is quite enough to disturb the

sand and produce silting.

It is obvious then that Southwell’s and Kerkham’s opinion that

there are no bottom currents, even if true, does not dispose of

Herdman’s suggestion that silting of sand takes place to such an

extent as to be an important cause of mortality. So long as there is

movement in the bottom layers of water, whether caused by a

definite current or by the transmission of the surface waves, it is

probable that silting takes place.

In support of this view, I am able to publish, through the kindness

of Captain J. A. Legge, Master Attendant, Colombo, an extract

from his report to Government in December, 1903, in his capacity

as Inspector of Pearl Banks :—

‘“* From November 19 until my return [ used a diving dress and air

pump and dived personally daily...... What impressed me most

was that the spots I dived on last March, which were then level rock,

with a coating of 3 or 4 inches of sand, had now as much as a

foot of sand in places. All over the sand was in fairly deep ridges.

not so deep as the ridges off the paar proper, but quite distinct from

the appearance of the sea bottom last March. Now this was not

the case on the South-east Cheval, and the impression I have formed.

from this is that the shoal running up from the Karativu Islands

arrests the sand and shelters this part of the Cheval and also the North

and South Modragam Paars. One of my reasons for this impression

is that after a protracted search for the old tanks sunk by Captain

Donnan in four fathoms on the extreme north end of this shoal

I was quite unsuccessful, though these tanks are seen from quite a

little way off by their shadow on the surface of the water when

the water is clear, and I have never experienced clearer water than

when I made this search last month. I am informed that Captain

Donnan on only one occasion found these tanks in November, and

I was unsuccessful last year. The soundings on or about the

position of these tanks showed a shallowing of the water. 1 have,

therefore, come to the conclusion that the south-west monsoon

washes up the sand and covers these tanks, and the north-east

scours them clear again of sand. If this opinion is confirmed, it

will explain the absence of sand ridging on the South-east Cheval,

and the marked ridging and increase in quantity of sand on the

parts of the Cheval not sheltered by this shoal.’

The information collected by Southwell and Kerkham regarding

currents is interesting, since much of it was obtained from personal

observation in the diving dress, hut these conclusions can hardly be

regarded as convincing. More work is needed on this important

point.

216 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA,

DRiIFtT-BOTTLE EXPERIMENTS.

Southwell and Kerkham have rendered valuable service by

their drift-bottle experiments. Previous workers had realized the

possible importance of oceanic currents in relation to the dispersal

of the pelagic stages of the oyster, and Herdman recommended the

use of drift bottles in order to extend our knowledge of the currents

in the neighbourhood of the Gulf of Mannar. I believe I am right

in saying that Hornell first started the drift-bottle experiments,

but the results have never been published. Hence the result of

Southwell’s and Kerkham’s drift-bottle experiments in the Gulf of

Mannar are the first which have been published, and they disclose

an interesting state of affairs.

In the north-east monsoon an oceanic current makes a northward

sweep up the west coast of Ceylon, becomes deflected at Tallaivillu

Point, and from westwards towards Cape Comorin. Hence this

current does not reach the pearl banks. On the banks there is a

steady wind from the north which sets up a surface drift, which when

the monsoon is strongest, from November to January, is sufficient to

carry floating objects from the pearl banks as far as the westward

oceanic current flowing towards Cape Comorin.

The drift experiments have revealed two phases during the south-

west monsoon : (4) When the monsoon is strong the water at the

head of the Gulf becomes piled up, and an easterly oceanic current

striking Cape Comorin is partly deflected across the mouth of the

Gulf of Mannar; when it reaches Tallaivillu Point the current takes

a southerly course. The stronger the monsoon the higher up the

Gulf is this current forced, and may reach as far as north as the

Tuticorin banks, whence it is deflected eastwards over the Ceylon

pear! banks.

(6) When the monsoon is weak quite a different state of affairs

exists, though the real significance of the conditions during this

phase is not rendered quite clear by Southwell and Kerkham.

They say that “‘ during a weak or moderate monsoon this current

never penetrates the Gulf at all.”

In view of this statement, it is difficult to explain the northerly

flow along the Indian side of the Gulf of Mannar, which they show

in chart B, and to which they refer in the text as finding an outlet

through the Paumben Channel.

Two alternative explanations of the conditions prevailing in a

weak south-west monsoon suggest themselves to the writer. The

first is, that the oceanic current, after striking Cape Comorin, is not

deflected eastwards across the mouth of the Gulf, but owing to the

lightness of the wind is able to take a much more southerly course,

and thus may miss the Ceylon coast altogether, or only strike it at

the southern extremity. In such a case a large triangular area lying

to the north of this current is unaffected by it. In this area a light

surface drift is set up by the south-westerly wind—a drift which is

CEYLON PEARL BANKS. Al?

recognizable on the Tuticorin banks and on the Ceylon banks, and

which finds an exit through the Paumben Channel. Such a surface

drift would be sufficient to produce the results which the drift

experiments have shown.

The second explanation is, that when the current strikes Cape

Comorin a small portion of it is deflected up the Indian side of the

Gulf. If the main stream strikes the Ceylon coast near Colombo

it will flow southwards, but a small portion may be deflected

northwards into the Gulf of Mannar.

Messrs. Southwell and Kerkham have very properly confined

themselves to the results of their drift-bottle experiments, but in so

doing they have not fully discussed the causes which produced those

results. For instance, they speak constantly of “‘ currents,’ and

have evidently not realized that the drift experiments do not assist

them in discriminating between oceanic currents and the ordinary

surface drift caused by the wind, except in cases where the current

and wind are in opposition. In a weak south-west monsoon, for

instance, they speak of the northerly currents flowing along the

Ceylon and Indian sides of the Gulf of Mannar. It is just as likely

that at that phase of the monsoon the Gulf is only affected by surface

drift. Drift-bottle experiments, however, cannot discriminate

between the one and the other, and before we have any right to

speak of oceanic currents affecting the surface waters of the Gulf

of Mannar, we must supplement the very valuable results obtained

from Southwell’s and Kerkham’s drift-bottle experiments by the.

chemical examination of a large series of water samples from the

area under discussion. Only by this means will it be possible to

solve the current questions in the Gulf of Mannar.

BEARING OF DRIFT-BOTTLE EXPERIMENTS.

The bearing which these drift-bottle experiments have upon the

main question is probably a very intimate one. In the Gulf of

Mannar there are two series of pearl banks: those on the Indian side

at Tuticorin, and those on the Ceylon side ; the two are separated

by a distance of nearly one hundred miles and by a considerable

depth of water. It is highly probable that aftera series of barren

years, as we are passing through at present, the Ceylon banks are

replenished through the agency of the Tuticorin beds.

As we have already seen, during a very strong south-west monsoon

the oceanic current sweeps up as faras the Tuticorin beds, and then

takes an eastward course as far as the pearl banks. One of the

spawning maxima coincides with the early part of the south-west

monsoon, so that it is possible that the floating larvze liberated on

the Tuticorin banks may be carried over to the Ceylon side if they

happen to be in the way of the oceanic current. According to

Hornell the pelagic stage lasts at least five days. Southwell and

Kerkham have shown how in the case of 2 strong monsoon the

218 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

larve from Tuticorin may be carried over to the Ceylon pearl bank

in six days.

If the monsoon be weak the larvee are carried up northwards, and

may even pass through the Paumben Channel.

According to Southwell and Kerkham, then, if the spawning

period synchronizes with a strong south-west monsoon, a spatfall

may take place on the Ceylon’ pearl banks.

But there is another point of equal interest which Southwell and

Kerkham do not appear to have realized. This is dependent upon

Hornell’s statement that there are two spawning maxima in the

year, namely, June to August and December to February.*

If the current work done by Southwell and Kerkham may be

relied upon, and if there are two spawning maxima, it follows that

not only may the Ceylon pearl banks be repleted in the manner

described above, but the Tuticorin banks in their turn receive

exotic spat from the Ceylon banks during the spawning period at the

end of the year. One has only to look at Kerkham’s and Southwell’s

chart Cf in order to see that if the oysters on the Ceylon pearl banks

spawn in December the pelagic larve may be carried over to Tuticorin.

In other words, we have a reciprocal arrangement of the highest

importance between the two pearl banks.

Tf Southwell and Kerkham had only realized the possibility of a

December spawning maximum, they would not have penned the

following :—

“Tt follows from the nature of the currents that the Tuticorin

banks receive no exotic spat, for as far as we are aware no oyster

beds exist around Cape Comorin. Moreover, their own resources

are being continually drained, and it is not to be wondered at that

they are unprofitable.”

It is true that if there were only the July spawning maximum any

exotic spat deposited in the Tuticorin beds must needs have come

from some place around Cape Comorin, but the presence of another

spawning season in December renders it possible for Ceylon spat to

be deposited on the Tuticorin beds.

The continual drainage of the resources of the Tuticorin beds

referred to by Southwell and Kerkham would soon render the beds

barren if no exotic spat were received. These fresh supplies

probably come from the Ceylon bed, and we must seek another

reason for the comparative failure of the Tuticorin beds as a

pearling centre.

The information which may be obtained from the current investi-

gations cannot be fully utilized so long as our knowledge of the

life-history and spawning habits of the pearl oyster is so imperfect,

and it is therefore imperative that these problems should be attacked

* Southwell only recognizes the first of these.

+ Ceylon Marine Biological Reports Part VI., 1911.

CEYLON PEARL BANKS. 219

anew when next the opportunity presents itself. The question of

the currents is one of more than academic interest, and it is not

improbable that when our knowledge of both the currents of the

Gulf of Mannar and the life-history of the pearl oyster is more com-

plete than at present, the way will be cleared for the elucidation of

some of the problems which have hitherto baffled inquiry. It may

be claimed that the knowledge gained by these current investiga-

tions has no practical value. It is true that man cannot attempt to

control the numerous factors which together effect a spatfall. A

lull in the monsoon, a slackening of the current, or any one of a

hundred other causes may be sufficient to prevent the larve reaching

favourable ground. But there is another aspect of the current

investigations which would appear to hold out some promise, and it

is an aspect which hitherto does not appear to have been considered

very seriously.

In view of the proposals which have been put forward from time

to time to establish breeding reserves, it is necessary to make an

intensive investigation of the comparatively small area of the banks

in order to determine the nature of the currents and surface drift.

To establish breeding reserves will be futile, unless we know that

spawning will be followed by a spatfall on the banks themselves.

The only object of the breeding reserves is to maintain the produc-

tivity of the banks, hence this object fails if owing to currents or

surface drift the pelagic larve are carried off the banks.

Jf drift-bottle experiments show that the drift over the banks

during, say, the July spawning maximum is very slight, then there

would be reason to hope that any larve liberated on the banks

would not be carried away, and this would prove of great value

on subsequent efforts to maintain the productivity of the beds.

I have already hinted that in the December spawning maximum

spawn from the Ceylon pearl banks may be carried over to Tuticorin,

but this would not be the case in the July maximum.

Altogether the question of breeding reserves raises many points of

great interest, and before we can be convinced of success in this

matter, we must first of all know more about spawning periods of the

pearl oyster, the duration of the larve stage, and the disposition of

the tides, currents, and surface drift on the banks.

SUMMARY OF THE POSITION.

The present position of the question appears to show that so long

as the banks are barren the part played by man must be a passive

one. He is entirely dependent upon Nature for the re-population of

the banks, and so far as one can see nothing can be done to hasten

a spatfall in such circumstances. Dr. Jameson’s suggested importa-

tion of a ‘“‘ few thousands of young spat ”’ presents many difficulties.

For the experiment to be of any value many millions of young spat

would have to be imported. The cost and trouble of transport from

26 6(7)12

220 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

the Persian Gulf, and the large mortality which would be inevitable,

probably renders such a scheme impracticable.

Even after the spatfall has taken place, the young oysters are to a

great extent at the mercy of the elements and predatory fish. All

that the Marine Biologist can do is to “ thin out’ the beds which

are overcrowded, and to transplant the spat from unfavourable

ground to the paars where good attachment is assured and where the

probable dangers of silting may be minimised.

Admitting that predatory fish are one of the chief sources of

danger to the beds, it is difficult to know how their depredations

may be best arrested. Either vigorous and continued warfare must

be waged against these enemies of the pearl oyster, or the pearl oyster

itself must be protected. The difficulties in the way of the first of

these propositions have already been dealt with. ‘To prosecute a

sufficient vigorous and effective campaign against these predaceous

fish over an area of many hundreds of square miles does not appear

to be practicable in the special circumstances of the case.

The other alternative presents even greater difficulties than the

first. Nevertheless Mr. Southwell made provision for an experiment

of this nature, and following his suggestion the Company purchased

at a cost of £3,500 sufficient wire netting to cover one-sixth of a

square mile. It was proposed to lay this wire netting over a bed

of spat, and thus protect the oysters at the most critical period of

their life from the ravages of the natural enemies. Unfortunately

Mr. Southwell was not able to test the value of this experiment as

no spatfall occurred. The wire netting is now the property of

Government, and the experiment devised by Mr. Southwell will be

carried out when the first spatfall occurs. But it is quite obvious,

as Mr. Southwell himself pointed out, that the cost of such a means

of protection is prohibitive, and the objection which Mr. Southwell

himself made in regard to Herdman’s cultching proposals may be

made with equal force to the wire-netting experiment.

In view of these difficulties, it is fortunate that when a spatfall

does take place it is usually so abundant that, on suitable ground,

a sufficient number of oysters survive for the requirements of a

fishery. On Periya Paar it is true that an excessive mortality of the

spat occurs, but this is probably not due so much to the attacks of

fishes as to other obscure causes. Since Periya Paar is so unsuitable,

the difficulties may be partly averted by extensive transplantation

as soon as a spatfall on this paar is discovered. For the reasons

which have already been stated, it is difficult to say whether the

establishment of breeding reserves is necessary, but as the question

involved is of too vital an importance to be dismissed by a mere

expression of personal opinion, the value of such reserves will be

tested when next the opportunity presents itself.

For obvious reasons the question of artificial hatching of the

Ceylon pearl oyster has not yet been seriously considered. Artificial

CEYLON PEARL BANKS. 221

hatching of marine organisms is fraught with so many difficulties,

which would be intensified in a tropical climate, and the ultimate

advantage of successful hatching is so problematic that one would

hesitate at this stage in the operations to advocate such a course.

It would seem that the small experimental tanks which the Company

erected at Marichchukkaddi have been taken too seriously. For

the purpose for which they were built they are of little value, but it

is hoped that in future they will prove useful in following out the

problems of the life-history of the pearl oyster.

In addition to the inherent difficulties of this problem—admittedly

one of the most formidable within the whole range of Marine

Biological Science—two additional factors were introduced, which

placed those concerned in a most unenviable position. First, the

pearl bank became exhausted when the scientific work had only

been in operation five years. It is not difficult to realize the irony

of the position thus created, both for the scientist, to whom the

presence of oysters was necessary for the prosecution of the investiga-

tions, and for the shareholder, whose visions of yearly fisheries were

so soon falsified. Mr. Southwell’s position was an unfortunate

one, as his tenure of office represented a succession of barren years.

Thus it follows, that though it is undoubtedly true that there has

been a relatively small advance in our knowledge of the pearl oyster

during the last five years, this is due, not so much to “ an insuffi-

ciency of ‘ directive’ business control of the scientific side of the

enterprise,’ as Dr. Jameson would have it, but to a much simpler

reason, namely, that there have been no pearl oysters on the

banks.

There was a second factor which, in the writer’s opinion,

has probably added to the difficulties of the situation, and has

certainly rendered the position of the scientific expert a somewhat

anomalous one.

This was the exploitation of the pearl banks by a commercial

syndicate in the early days of the scientific investigation. This state-

ment of an opinion may be liable to misconception. The Directors

of the Ceylon Company of Pearl, Fishers took a very liberal, view

of the scientific investigations, the prosecution of which they were

bound to continue according to the terms of their agreement, and

their attitude towards their scientific staff was distinctly sympathetic

and deserving of the highest praise. The fault did not lie here, but

in the fact that the shareholders, who apparently knew little or

nothing of the problems at issue, put extraordinary faith in the

scientific work and expected that science with the wave of the

magician’s wand would be able to produce a plentiful supply of

oysters where hitherto there had been barrenness. It is regrettable

that the scientific work, and the results which were expected from it,

were given such undue prominence in the affairs of the Syndicate,

and were open to so much misinterpretation.

222 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

It is not surprising, therefore, to find that when the affairs of the

Company became so critical, the misfortunes which were gathering

fast were directly attributed to the failure of the scientific work.

The non-expert may be pardoned for taking this most amazing

view of the situation when Dr. Lyster Jameson, himself a biologist

and a competent authority on pearl-fishing matters, discusses

what he terms the “ failure of the biological work on Ceylon pearl

fisheries.”* Both the title and the context of this Paper reveals

Dr. Jameson’s opinion that the scientific work has proved a failure,

although certain passages in his Paper show that, unlike his fellow-

shareholders, he does not believe that this “ failure ”’ is responsible

for the misfortune which attended the Company’s enterprises. On

page 15 of his Paper, in discussing the terms of agreement between

Government and the Company, he says “‘ the Company was pledged

to payin annual expenses on the minimum scale more than twice,

and on the maximum scale about three times, the probable average

return,’ and further on he continues: “‘ Applied Biology had a

colossal task placed before it to make up this difference, and in

addition to pay dividends on a capital of £165,000.’ In concluding

his Paper, he writes as follows: “‘ Let me say here that I do not

think any scientific man who has seriously studied the pearl and

mother-of-pearl fisheries question from an economic standpoint

could dare to hope that a Company which started loaded with the

heavy obligations which the Ceylon Company of Pearl Fishers

accepted could within a few years have been made with a paying

concern by biological science.”

The Company were perfectly aware of the risk they ran in taking

the lease, and it is astonishing that men of acute business acumen

should have taken such a sanguine view of scientific operations

which had only been in progress four years as to convince themselves

that the intermittent fisheries, which had characterized the banks for

thousands of years, should give place so soon to yearly fisheries.

If the Chairman of the Company had placed the blame for the

unenviable outcome of their schemes at the doors of those business

men who negotiated the lease and accepted such heavy responsi-

bilities, instead of ascribing the failure to the scientific experts, whose

greatest misfortune was that they had to conduct their operations

in connection with a heavily burdened commercial enterprise, he

would have placed the matter in a more reasonable light.

* Journal of Economie Biology, Volume VII., Part I., February, 1912.

WINDOW-PANE OYSTER. 223

REPORT ON THE WINDOW-PANE OYSTER

INVESTIGATIONS, 1912.

By JosepH PEARSON,

Government Marine Biologist.

(With nine Plates.)

: PAGE PAGE

1. Introduction .. 223 | 5. Spawning Period we 2a

2. Division into Areas, and 6. Establishment of a Close

Results of the Year’s Season .. .« 237

Work .. .. 2277. Effect of Excessive Rainfall.. 237

3. Rate of Growth .. 231 | 8. Pearl Production mo PBT

4, Transplanting .. 234 | Appendices ~.. : O88

INTRODUCTION.

“i Bae progress of my preliminary investigations at Tamblegam

during 1911 was published in Spolia Zeylanica, Volume

VIII., Part XXIX. Two inspections were made last year—a short

visit in January, which revealed the presence of a few 2- or 3-year

old oysters; and one in the following September, when a bed of

young oysters was discovered. This bed was not sufficiently large

to hold out any hopes of a fishery, and my design was to keep these

oysters as a breeding reserve for future fisheries. In my report on the

survey, I expressed the belief that these oysters had been deposited

subsequent to the January inspection, since no small oysters had

been found early in the year.

In January, 1912, Mr. G. M. Henry, who has assisted me through-

out the course of these investigations, visited Tamblegam in order

to make an inspection and to erect an oyster enclosure in Nachchik-

kuda. He discovered that most of the oysters which were present

in the previous September had died. This may be directly attributed

to the excessive rainfall which took place in the concluding months

of 1911. On Plate 3 a comparison is given of the distribution of the

oysters before and after the rains of 1911, which will convey some

idea of the havoc which was wrought. A sufficient number of

oysters, however, were left to enable measurements to be taken in

order to follow up the work on the growth-rate of Placuna, which

was commenced in the previous September. In May, 1912, I made

a further inspection, and then discovered a large bed of young

oysters extending over an area of nearly three square miles and

consisting of over fifty million individuals. A spatfall had evidently

taken place since the January inspection, and this occurrence agreed

994 SPOLIA ZEYLANIGCA,

with my conclusions regarding the age of the oysters discovered in

the previous September. It was also found that the oysters trans-

planted to the Nachchikkuda enclosure in January had all been eaten

by fish. Another visit was made in June, mainly for the purpose of

making transplantations from the southern part of the main bed,

where the oysters were extraordinarily abundant. A brief survey

of the progress of the beds was then made, and the enclosure at

Nachchikkuda was again stocked with oysters after it had been

strengthened. The work in June was rendered difficult owing to

the strong winds and rough seas. In September ten days were

occupied in making a thorough survey of the lake. The oysters

proved to be thriving, and were present in large numbers. Once

more the Nachchikkuda enclosure had been raided by fish and every

oyster had beeneaten. Transplantations from the southern portion

of the main bed were effected and seven hundred oysters were placed

on the Kapalturai bed, and a similar number in Nachchikkuda,

outside the enclosure.

The survey of September, 1912, was made in great detail and with

much thoroughness. Two boats were requisitioned—the one in

which the writer worked was kindly lent by Mr. Hodson, the

Assistant Government Agent at Trincomalee, and the other in

charge of Mr. Henry was a hired canoe. Both boats were ordinary

dugouts, without outriggers. The weather was favourable on the

whole. ‘The series of divings were made along parallel lines running

5. 60° W., and in all 217 stations were investigated. At each station

two divers worked for not more than 5 minutes, and made about

ten descents each. It was found very difficult to take satisfactory

bearings owing to the low coast line, and in consequence a series

of landmarks are being erected at various points along the shore.

These are as follows :—Coconut tree trunks to carry a white flag at

Kodaipota, Kakkaimunai, mouth of the Tamblegam-aar, Peyaddi-

munai, Sallaimunai, Pataiaddimunai near Kumladdimaddam ; a

cairn of whitewashed stones at Sinna Vellai Kalmunai; whitewashed

rocks at Periya Vellai Kalmunai, Maulankarai, and Semmalai.

Generally speaking, it may be said that the oysters on the beds

are healthy, and given normal conditions a fishery in three “years

should be assured.

It is hoped that in a short time all the main points regarding the

bionomics of Placuna will be made clear. The result of 2 years’

systematic work by the present writer, together with the previous

information which had been obtained, have enabled us to solve

many problems which have a direct bearing on the question of the

improvement of the fishery.

It is admitted that there are now three main difficulties which

stand in the way of the present attempt to improve the window-

pane oyster fishery at Tamblegam. I refer to the danger due to an

inflow of an excessive amount of fresh water; to the ravages of

WINDOW-PANE OYSTER. 225

predaceous fish ; and to the illicit diving and poaching practised

by the Kinniyai villagers.

The first of these dangers is a serious one. Itis unfortunate that

the part of the oyster bed which is richest in oysters lies off the

mouths of the Sembian-aar and the Polokarai-aru, and hence is most

affected by inrushes of fresh water. Transplantation would appear

to be the only remedy for this very serious danger. It is never-

theless a fact that the oysters are more abundant in the southern

half of the main bed, which is close to the rivers, than in the northern

half, which is more remote from the mouths of the rivers. One

reason of this is undoubtedly because the soft ooze upon which the

oysters flourish best is carried down by the rivers, and is therefore

more abundant opposite the mouth of the rivers. It is also certain

than Placuna flourishes best in water of low density. The actual

relation between the distribution of the oyster and the salinity of the

water has not yet been determined. It is proposed to carry out this

work for the first time in the January inspection.

If the transplantation experiments show that the oysters thrive

best on the soft mud off the mouths of the rivers, as is highly

probable, then we are presented with the paradox of the rivers

proving both beneficial and harmful. To determine the resultant

of these opposing factors will offer a nice problem to the marine

biologist.

The ravages of predaceous fish are indisputable, and it is probable,

as pointed out by Dr. Willey, that the young oysters are particularly

in danger from this source. I have recently had this fact brought

home to me very plainly. In January of this year an enclosure was

made in Nachchikkuda and oysters were transplanted from area H.

In May these had all disappeared, and broken shells gave unmis-

takable signs of fish having been the depredators. The enclosure

was surrounded by wire netting supported by strong stakes and

railway rails, and the fish had buried under the netting and thus

gained entrance. In June the enclosure was further strengthened

by the addition of numerous upright stakes about 3 inches

apart, and the enclosure was again stocked. In the September

examination nothing but broken shells were found in the enclosure,

and the nature of the bites showed that a T'etrodon had probably

been the culprit.

These experiments, although they failed in their main point,

proved indisputably how important a factor predatory fish are in the

bionomics of the window-pane oyster.

The question of poaching is one which demands serious considera-

tion. The Moormen of the Kinniyai district are born thieves and

marauders. They have a not unnatural desire to investigate the

wealth of oysters which lies so conveniently near. The presence of

the two watchers but feebly reminds the Kinniyai villager of those

remote and shadowy things—law and order—and perhaps add just

226 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

the necessary spice to their poaching expeditions. If these villagers

could be induced to believe that they stand to gain most by allowing |

the oyster to remain on the beds until they are in full bearing, a

great improvement in the state of affairs would immediately result.

T am in full agreement with Dr. Willey in regarding the revenue

which accrues from the Tamblegam fisheries as of purely secondary

importance. The Tamblegam window-pane oyster fishery should

be looked upon primarily as a local industry worthy of encourage-

ment. If, asthe result of the investigations now being carried on at

Tamblegam, the fishery can be brought back to its former prosperous

condition, Government will be justified in incurring the small

expenditure which the work annually entails. The present oyster

bed comprises about three square miles. If only one oyster per

square yard is present, the bed contains about ten million oysters.

The actual number present must be nearly fifty millions. If half

this number survive the two-fold dangers of weather and predatory

fish, the fishery should produce a sum of Rs. 150,000, computing the

oysters at the very low rate of Rs.6 per thousand. Half this amount

goes to the divers and boatmen. It may be readily seen then, that

when the oysters have successfully withstood the stress of weather

and have survived the inroads of predatory fish, it is of the utmost

importance that some real protection against poaching should be

afforded. It may be said that no fishery at Tamblegam has ever

produced so large a return as Rs. 150,000. This is undoubtedly due

to the continual thefts. The writer had an interview with Mr. Hodson,

the Assistant Government Agent at Trincomalee, who has shown

much practical sympathy with the investigations at Tamblegam.

He was obliged to confess the impracticability of providing adequate

protection for the oyster beds. If that be so, the scientific work can

only have a partial success, and the consequence will be that instead

of the fishery in 2 or 3 years’ time being valued at Rs. 150,000,

it will not be worth a quarter of that amount. Since the Kinniyai

divers get half share of the proceeds, one would think they would not

be so foolish and shortsighted as to dive for immature oysters, as

they have been in the custom of doing, when by allowing the oysters

to remain until rich in pearls a valuable harvest could be reaped.

Added to this, there is a certain amount of resentment against the

claim by Government of exclusive rights of oyster-fishing in Tamble-

gam. The difficulties of the position are admittedly great, and

to protect Lake Tamblegam from the raids of poachers would

require a staff of watchers five times. as efficient as the two men

employed at present. There are several hundreds of men living in

the shores of Tamblegam who are experienced divers, and it may be

taken for granted that two watchers, however zealous they may be,

are insufficient for the purposes of supervision.

There has not been a successful fishery since 1890, but it is hard

to believe that this is altogether due to ‘an absence of sufficient

WINDOW-PANE OYSTER. Cyd |

oysters on the beds for over 20 years. It is much more likely that

poaching has been so extensively and continuously practised, both

upon young oysters and pearl-bearing oysters, that the actual results

of the meagre fisheries which have taken place have given a highly

erroneous idea of the potential value of the beds.

DIvIsIon INTO AREAS, AND RESULTS OF YEAR’S WorRK.

It has been found convenient for the purposes of the work to

divide into twenty-two parts that portion of Lake Tamblegam which

contains the pearl beds. These parts are lettered Ato W. With the

exception of the southern boundary of A and the eastern boundary

of B, these areas are separated from each other by two series of lines

running at right angles to each other. One series of lines are set

W. 60° N., and the other at 8. 60° W. (see Plate 2). j

There are five lines running W. 60° N., starting from the south-

western end of the lake. These have the following position, which

may be followed on the chart shown on Plate 2 :—

(1) A line running E. 60° S. from Peyaddimunai (not Hornell’s

Peyaddimunai, which is incorrectly placed). This

meets the opposite shore at the Sinna Palamput-aar (not

Hornell’s river of that name; he has interchanged the

Sinnaand Periya Palamput rivers), and separates areas

U, V, and W from R, S, and T.

(2) A line taken on the shore 350 yards N. E. of the Periya

Palamput-aar and running E. 60° S., separating areas

R, S, and T from O, P, and Q.

(3) A line running W. 60° N. from Kakkaimunai, separating

areas O, P, and Q from K, L, M, and N. '

(4) Aline running W. 60° N. from the mouth of the Polokarai-°

aru, separating areas K, L, M, and N from F, G, H.

and J.

(5) A line running W. 60° N. from Kodaipota (Hornell’s Kanna-

munai), separating areas F, G, H, and J from B, C, D,

and EH.

There are three lines running S. 60° W. as follows :-—

(1) Aline running S. 60° W. from Periya Vellai Kalmunai,

separating areas B, J, K, Q, R, and W from C, H, L,

Pas. ane V.

(2) Aline running S. 60° W. from Sinna Vellai Kalmunai,

separating areas C, H, L, P, 8, and V from D, G, M, O,

T, and U.

(3) A linerunning 8. 60° W. from Korrinjavat, separating areas

D,G, M, O, T, and U from BH, F, and N.

Area B is bounded on the eastern side by a line running due S. from

Periya Vellai Kalmunai, and area A is bounded on the southern side

by a line running due E. from the same point.

248 6(7)12

228 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

As will be seen from the chart on Plate 2, the four areas,

B, C, D, E, on the north side of the main bed contain but few

oysters. There are also barren patches on the north-western side of

the main bed (sections M and W), and in the south-western corner

(sections U, V, and W).

The depth and nature of the bottom in the various sections may

be made out clearly from the charts published by me in Spola

Zeylanica, Volume VIII., Part X XIX.

During the examination of the oysters in January, May, June,

and September of this year a large number of measurements have

been taken, which are given in the Appendices and are shown by

means of curves on Plates 4 to 9.

Area A, Nachchikkuda.—This bed was only surveyed in September,

1912. Dived at 22 stations, but oysters found only in the four most

northerly stations. Altogether 44 oysters were examined, having

an average size of 3:36 x 3:70 inches. These oysters have the

smallest average size in the whole lake.

The enclosure erected in Nachchikkuda in January last has been

twice stocked with oysters, which have been eaten by predatory —

fish. In September, 1912, 500 oysters from area J were placed

in this area, just south of the enclosure.

Previous writers have regarded the position of Nachchikkuda as

highly favourable for oyster cultivation, lying as it does at a con-

siderable distance from any of the rivers opening into Lake Tamble-

gam. The only point in its favour, to my mind, is the fact that there

is not the same chance of extermination in the event of very heavy

rains, but apart from this very important point, the evidence tends ~

to show that the oysters are usually more abundant at the mouths

of rivers. The evidence of the last two years shows that the

Nachchikkuda bed is inferior to the main bed.

Area B.—Comprising the whole width of the lake between Periya

Vellai Kalmunai and: Kodaipota, it is characterized by the presence

of a sandspit which stretches half-way across from Periatmunai.

This area is evidently unsuitable for oysters, mainly because of the

presence of too much sand.

Area C.—The north-eastern half of this area does not appear to be

potentially suitable for Placuna, as no oysters have been found here

during the last two years. The south-eastern half marks the begin-

ning of the main central bed, and there are a fair number of this

year’s oysters present. In May, 9 specimens had an average size of

1°59 x 1°69 inches, anextremely low average. In June no records

were taken, but in September 20 specimens showed an average size

of 3°89 x 4:11 inches, which is slightly less than the average for the

whole bed. Since the oysters present in this area form the fringe

of the main bed, it is not surprising that they are rather small.

Area D.—No oysters have been found in this area during the

last two years,

WINDOW-PANE OYSTER. 229

Area E.—The northerly part of this area contains the upper end

of the Kapalturai bed. In the hurried inspections of May and June

this area was not examined, but the September inspection revealed

the presence of numerous well-grown oysters, 8 specimens of which

had an average size of 4°39 xX 4°87 inches.

Area F.—This contains the southerly portion of the Kapalturai

bed, and here again the oysters were well grown, and 16 specimens

had an average size of 4°59 xX 4°65 inches in the September

inspection.

Area G.—In this area the Kapalturai bed is connected with the

north-western portion of the main bed. Here the oysters are

abundant, but have proved throughout the year rather below the

average size of the whole area.

In May, 17 specimens had an average size of 2°16 xX 2°32 inches.

In June, 1 specimen measured 3°25 x 3°5 inches, andin September

61 oysters showed an average of 3°85 X 4°11 inches.

Area H.—This area contains a large supply of oysters, which in the

early part of the year were above the average size, but which are now

slightly below the average size. In this area there are some of last

year’s oysters, the remnants of the bed which was destroyed by the

rains of 1911.

In May, 45 specimens showed an average of 2°20 x 2°39 inches.

In June, 2 oysters measured had an average of 3°12 x 3:25 inches, and

the September average of 100 specimens was 3°78 x 3°99 inches.

Area J.—This area receives the water from the Sembian-aar and

the Polokarai-aru, and it may be looked upon as a point of danger in

the lake, as in the event of excessive floods these oysters will pro-

bably be the first to succumb. Nevertheless the young oysters are

exceedingly abundant in thisarea. In May, 4 specimens showed an

average of 1:96 x 2°15 inches. In June, 237 specimens averaged

2°90 x 3°21 inches, and in September 52 specimens had an average

size of 3°96 4°28 inches. So that in spite of the proximity tc

the rivers the young oysters in this area are of good average size.

500 oysters were taken from here in June, 1912, and deposited

in area T. 1,307 oysters were transplanted from this area -in

September to Kapalturai and Nachchikkuda, and 130 specimens were

transplanted to Nachchikkuda in June, but were all eaten by fish.

Area K.—This corresponds very closely to the area J. The

oysters are very abundant, but very unequal in size. Dr. Willey’s

statement that the oysters in this area are dwarfed is partly borne

out by the results of this year’s work, but the low average rate of

growth is probably due to overcrowding, and not to the inherent

nature of the locality.

In May, 7 specimens measured 2°57 XxX 2°79 inches, and in

September 123 specimens averaged 3°74 x 4:02 inches.

Area L.—Here, although not so thickly disposed as in J and K,

the oysters are abundant and are of average size.

230 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA,

In May, 8 oysters had an average size of 2°14 x 2°28inches. In

June, 2 specimens had an average of 3°25 X 3°38 inches, and in

September 54 specimens averaged 3°73 xX 4°02 inches.

Area M.—There are very few oysters here owing to the presence

of shoal water covering the Muttikallam.

The May measurements gave an average of 2°55 x 2°85 inches

for 5 oysters. In June, 1 oyster measured 3°5 < 3:75 inches, and

the September average for 27 specimens was 3°91 x 4°19 inches.

Area N.—An inshore area with no oysters.

Area O.—The oysters in this area are fairly abundant, and are

above the average size. Many of them, however, are rather under-

sized, and have reddish-brown stains on the shells.

This area was examined in September only, when 136 oysters had

an average size of 4°04 xX 4°41 inches.

Area P.—Oysters fairly abundant and well above the average size.

In May, 19 specimens averaged 2:27 X 2°46 inches. In June, 9

specimens measured 3°24 X 3°60 inches, and in September 115

specimens averaged 4°12 x 4°66 inches. |

Area Q.—Oysters only present on the line bounding areas P and

Q, and these have been included in area P. The main part of the

area contains a weed which is evidently harmful to the oyster, as

no Placune were found.

Area &.—Contains few oysters, but all of good size. The oysters

in this area have greatly increased in growth since the first inspection

in May, when they were only of average size. Now they are well

above the average.

In May, 3 specimens averaged 2°04 x 2:16 inches, and in June,

1 oyster measured 3°5 xX 4 inches. The September average, 4°43

x 4°94 inches, for 52 specimens, was very high.

Area S.—Few oysters of very large size are present in this area.

In May, 1 specimen measured 2:87 X 3°25 inches, and in June

a single specimen measured 3°50 x 4 inches. In September the

average of 12 specimens was very high, viz., 4°52 x 5:08 inches.

Area T'—Areas R, 8, and T resemble each other in having

extremely large oysters, which however are not very abundant.

500 oysters were placed here in June from area J.

In September the oysters in area T had an average size of 4°38

x 4°87 inches for 13 specimens.

Areas U, V, and W.—No oysters.

The nearer-we approach to the south-western shore of the lake

the deposit of mud increases in thickness. This is doubtless due to

the large deposition of mud, which is brought down by the various

rivers which open into this part. In this portion of the lake the

tide is evidently not very strong. Hence the mud does not get

sufficiently scattered, but forms a thick deposit opposite the mouths

of the rivers. This will account for the absence of oysters in areas

U, V, and W.

WINDOW-PANE OYSTER. 231

RaTE OF GROWTH.

The investigations of the last 12 months have enabled us to

ascertain the rate of growth in the earlier stages of the oyster.

Measurements of large series of oysters have been made at every

inspection, and by taking the average of a sufficiently large series

the approximate rate of growth has been determined.

This investigation has demonstrated the extraordinarily rapid

superficial growth of the oyster in the first year. In the September

inspection many oysters were found having a measurement of over

5 inches in the short diameter, although the average for the whole

lake was slightly less than 4 inches.

Hornell’s recommendation of a size limit of 54 inches in short

diameter for fishable oysters is shown to be unsound, as they attain

this size at the age of 2 years, and so far as my experience goes no

2-year old oysters are pearl-bearers. In fact, it will be impossible

to impose a size limit, as superficial growth is no criterion of pearl

production. For the first 18 months the increase in size is

mainly superficial. After that the increase is mainly in thickness.

The only reliable method is to know the age of the oysters on the bed

by having determined the date of the spatfall. After that it will be

merely a matter of calculation to determine, when they will be ready

for fishing.

In Appendix 3 a table is given showing the measurements from

which I have determined the growth-rate, and on Plate 5 a curve of

the growth-rate is given. In compiling the table and curve I was

not able to use measurements from the same series of oysters. The

first three sets of measurements are taken from the same batches

of oysters—those which were deposited this year. The fourth, fifth,

and sixth sets of measurements belong to the series of oysters which

appeared in 1911. The measurements were taken this year. The

last three measurements are compiled from Dr. Willey’s report of

the 1908 inspection.

Appendix 3 and Plate 5 show quite clearly what we should have

expected, namely, that the rate of increase of growth is highest in

the younger stages, and that it gradually becomes less as the oyster

grows older.

In Appendix 4 and Plate 4 I have tried to show the rate of

growth of first-year oysters for each area of the bed during 1912.

Unfortunately these figures do not help us much in determining

which are the best parts of the bed, but so far as they go they lend

support to Dr. Willey’s statement that the oysters on the Kakkai-

munai bed (area K) are dwarfed. At any rate, their rate of

increase was less than one-third of that in area C.

It is interesting to compare the relative abundance of the oysters

with the growth-rate. This is shown in Appendix 4, and it is seen

that with the exception of areas J, S, and M, and to a smaller extent

area G, a large growth ratio is found where the oysters are scarce, and

232 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

a small growth ratio where they are abundant. That overcrowding

is harmful is what one would expect, and the results tabulated in

Appendix 4 support this view. If we place the areas in order of rate

of increase—(1) (beginning at the largest rate of increase and finishing

with the smallest) and compare this with the areas placed in order

with regard to the density of the oysters on the beds (2) (commencing

with the areas of low density and finishing with those of high

density)—we see there is much similarity of order, and that the

areas C, R P, L, H, and K support the rule that the more thickly

the oysters are disposed the less quickly do they grow. The two

statements show as follows :— *

(1) C, R, J, P, G, L, H, S, M, K, growth-rate.

(2): C, R, 8S, M, By L, H, G; J, K, density.

With the information now collected it is possible to correct some

of the conclusions regarding the age of oysters which were made by

Dr. Willey in the earlier stages of the investigation, and in other

places to determine the age of the oysters where this was not possible

previously. ;

In his report of the inspection of March, 1908, Dr. Willey gives

a series of measurements, which I will reproduce. To these I have

added my computation of the ages of the oysters (placed in italics).

Table I.—Nachchikkuda.

May, 1905 (Hornell) —‘ Very young individuals,” size 1? to 2

inches.

These were about 2 months old.

June, 1907.—44 specimens. Average 147 x 159 mm. (5°88 X

6°36 inches).

These were about 28 months old.

October, 1907.—66 specimens. Average 156 x 168mm. (6°16

x 6°72 inches).

These were about 32 months old.

March, 1908.—24 specimens averaged about 162 x 171 mm.

(6°48 x 6°84 inches).

These were about 37 months old.

Table I11.—Kapalturar.

May, 1905.—The oysters had an average size of 2°92 x 3°33

inches. Hornell believed these to be 3 months older than those

at Nachchikkuda of the same date. Willey states that ‘“‘they may

be estimated at not less than 1 year old.”

We have every reason to believe that spawning takes place early in the

year. Whether there would be a difference of 3 months between the

* In (1) the areas which show the highest growth-rate are placed first, and

so on, in order of growth rate ; in (2) the areas are arranged so that those with

a low density of oysters are placed first.

WINDOW-PANE OYSTER. 233

earliest and latest spawnings is impossible to say. My opinion is that

there would not be such a difference, and I believe these Kapalturai

oysters to be only slightly older than those of Nachchikkuda, namely,

about 3 months. The locality has much to do with the size of the oysters,

and the last 2 years’ work has shown that Kapalturai oysters are

healthier and larger than those from Nachchikkuda.

June, 1907.—Average of 16 specimens 6:1 < 6°6 inches. Willey

computes their age at 3 years.

I believe they would be about 28 months, that is, in their third year.

October, 1907.—Average of 15 oysters, 153 X 169 mm. (6°12

x 6°76 inches). Willey considers them about 34 years old.

My calculation would place them at 32 months, or about 24 years.

March, 1908.—Average of 22 oysters, 165 « 181 mm. (6°60 x 7°24

inches).

These would be 37 months.

Table ITI. —Kakkaimunat.

May, 1905 (Hornell).—T wo samples, one estimated by Hornell at

14 year old gave average size of 102 « 111°4 mm. (4°08 x 4:45

inches); the other estimated at 132 year old gave an average of

114:96 x 125:2 mm. (4°59 x 5 inches).

There may be a difference of a month or so in the ages of these two

batches. The smaller ones are about 15 months old.

June, 1907.—Average of 12 specimens 111 x 119°3 mm. (4°44

x 4°76 inches). J cannot agree with Dr. Willey’s conclusion that

these belong to the same generation as Hornell’s 1905 oysters. If

stunted growth is characteristic of the Kakkaimunai oysters, the

influences at work are not sufficiently powerful to keep half-grown oysters

at the same size for 2 years, between their fifteenth and thirty-ninth

months. I believe that these oysters were deposited early in 1906, that

is 1 year younger than Hornell’s oysters.

October, 1907.—60 oysters, having an average size of 123°87 x

133°25 mm. (4°95 x 5:33 inches).

These were undoubtedly oysters of the second year, about 20 months

old ; that is to say, they were probably the same batch of oysters that

were measured in June.

79 oysters were measured, the smallest being 92°75 x 106°25 mm.

(3:71 x 4°25 inches), and the largest 146°9 « 159°4 mm. (5°87 x

6:37 inches).

These 79 samples evidently contain oysters of three different years.

The smallest ones are undoubtedly 8 months old, and the largest are

probably 32 months old. We would gather from this that the majority

of them would be second-year oysters, about 20 months old, deposited in

1906.

March, 1908.—Average of 16 “topotypes,’’ 122-1 x 129°2 mm.

(4:88 x 5°61 inches). These appear to be second-year oysters, about

14 months old, and belong therefore to a 1907 brood.

234 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Average of 16 oysters, which were transplanted to Nachchikkuda

in October, 1907, 180°1 x 141°8 mm. (5°20 x 5°67 inches).

These are evidently oysters deposited in 1906, about 26 months old.

Table IV.—Sembian-aar.

May, 1905 (Hornell)—Numerous oysters. Average size 142°25

<x 155 mm. (5°69 x 6°20 inches). Hornell states that these are

‘* probably over 2 years old.”

In my opinion they are about 27 months old.

June, 1907.—Average of 12 oysters, 142°5 « 150°5 mm. (5:70

< 6:02 inches). Willey believed that these were the same brood

examined by Hornell in 1905, and that growth was suspended for over

2 years. This is difficult to believe, especially as the same batch of

oysters showed an increase in growth 4 months later, and a further

increase 9 months later. In fact, the oysters measured in June

and October, 1907, and March, 1908, appear to me to be slightly

undersized oysters of the 1905 brood, and are hence 2 years younger

than those measured by Hornell in 1905.

In June, 1907, they were probably 28 months old.

October, 1907.—Average of 20 oysters, 149 x 154 mm. (5°76 x

6:16 inches).

These are the same batch as those examined in June, and are probably

32 months old.

March, 1908.—Average of 20 oysters, 154:75 x 166°4 mm.

(6:19 x 6°65 inches).

Probably 37 months old. :

Table V.—Polokarai-aru.

October, 1907.—Average of 18 oysters, 149°6 x 154:7 mm. (5:98

x 6°18 inches).

These are some of 1905 brood, and are about 32 months old.

TRANSPLANTING.

Transplantation experiments have been in progress for some time.

In the 1911 inspections full-grown pearl-bearing oysters were found

in Nachchikkuda, which were the remnants of the oysters trans-

planted by Dr. Willey. His experience led him to believe that

transplantation was not successful in the case of oysters a few months

old. But this is the period when transplantation is most necessary.

IT have found 3-months and 6-months oysters in great profusion

near the shore along the southern boundary of the main bed. So

abundant were they in May of this year that the divers were able

to bring up about twenty or more in a few seconds at a station a

few hundred yards west of Kodaipota. In areas K and J the oysters

were overcrowded during the May inspectién, and to a less extent

in September. Owing to the rapid growth of the young oysters

there must be a great mortality through .overcrowding in the first

WINDOW-PANE OYSTER. 235

few months, and if the oysters during this period will bear trans-

planting much good may be done. But transplantation at Tamble-

gam is a slow method, since dredging is rendered impossible by

reason of the soft ooze. Diving must be resorted to, and I compute

that one diver cannot bring up more than 500 oysters per hour under

favourable conditions. In September, 1912, four divers brought

up about 1,400 oysters in less than two hours. The total expense

of transplanting is about Rs. 2°50 per thousand. Owing to the

expense and slowness of the method it would seem that transplan-

tation of large quantities with the object of improving an impending

fishery is not feasible. For example, the areas J and K must have

contained several million young oysters in May, 1912. It would

have taken twenty divers one month to transplant one million of

these to a new bed. Nevertheless, if transplanting on a large scale

prove impracticable, it must not be forgotten that comparatively

small numbers may be transplanted with advantage with the object

of making breeding reserves.

The transplantation experiments which have been made during

1912 have in two cases ended in failure, and the result of the third

have still to be determined.

The first transplantation was made in January, 1912, when 110

oysters were moved from area H to Nachchikkuda and placed in ani

enclosure ; unfortunately the enclosure, which was made of wire

netting supported by railway rails, was not proof against the inroads

of fish, as all the oysters had disappeared in May, and broken shells

only too plainly indicated the manner of the extermination.

In June* the enclosure was strengthened, and 102 oysters from

areas H and J were placed in it, but these again had disappeared by

September. It is now proposed to surround the enclosure with a

fish tat, such as is used in fish kraals in various parts of the Island.

This will be erected in January next. In the meantime, in September,

about 1,400 oysters were taken from section K; half were placed

in area F on the Kapalturai bed and the other half in Nachchik-

kuda. These transplanted oysters have been measured, and their

average size is similar to that of the whole area. The Kapalturai

bed at the present time contains the healthiest oysters in the lake,

and the Nachchikkuda oysters are the smallest, and only have an

average of 3°36 x 3°70 inches, compared with 3°94 x 4°30 inches,

which is the average size for the whole lake. Hence this transplan-

tation experiment is of more than ordinary interest. We shall be

able to determine whether 8-months oysters are too young for

transplantation, if they are not wiped out by predatory fish, and

we shall also be able to compare the effect of transplanting normal

oysters to a particularly good locality and to Nachchikkuda, where

the conditions at present prove to be unsatisfactory.

' * In addition to this, 500 oysters were taken from area J in June and

placed in area T. These are still living.

21 6(7)12

236 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

SPAWNING PERIOD.

Although direct information regarding the spawning period of

the window-pane oyster has not yet been obtained, all the evidence

points to its occurring between January and March. This much is

certain, and it is hoped that in the early months of 1913 confirmation

of this point will present itself. In the chart on Plate 5, which

shows the rate of growth, I have assumed that the spatfall takes

place in February. The exact date may be expected to show some

variations in different years, according to the weather and other

influences. Large 2-year oysters were found to have ripe gonads

in January. Very few 2-year oysters were present in the lake

in January of this year, and yet a very large spatfall took place

some time between January and May. It is just possible that

oysters are sexually mature at the age of 12 months. If this

be so the large spatfall of this year could be accounted for by the

presence of a considerable number of 12-months oysters on the

beds at the time when spawning must have taken place. After the.

1911 oysters had been decimated by the rains, there was still a

sufficient number left to repopulate the bed if these oysters were

ripe. It is proposed to examine all these points in January

next. The floating larve have not yet been found in the surface

water.

In September the first-year oysters had small pale-yellow gonads,

and were in an extremely immature condition. The second-year

oysters had much larger gonads of an orange colour. It is almost

certain that these will spawn in January or February next.

It may be stated confidently that Placuna spawns only at one

period of the year, namely, in January or February. Willey

expressed the opinion more than once that all the oysters existing on

the bed at the same time were of the same age, and that fisheries could

not follow one another year after year as the oysters of different ages

came into full bearing. It may be true, as a matter of practice, that

after a fishery in any particular year insufficient oysters are left for

a fishery the following year, but this, I take it, is not due to the

absence of oysters of different generations, but to the reckless

methods of fishing, by which a bed is depopulated during one

fishing, irrespective of age. The fact is, that oysters of different

ages do occur at the same time on the beds. This is proved con-

clusively by the investigations of 1911 and 1912. The practical

difficulty still remains how to preserve the non-bearing oysters

during a fishery. Oysters of different ages will be lying side by side,

and as we have seen a size limit is of little value. Nevertheless,

experienced divers can tell at a glance the different ages of the

oysters. In the event of oysters of two ages being present together

on the beds during a fishery, it would be necessary to instruct the

divers to return all the younger oysters to the water. Supervision

WINDOW-PANE OYSTER. 237

of all the boats coming ashore would be necessary, and in the event

of young oysters occurring in the ‘“‘catch,” the boatmen concerned

would be required to return the oysters to the water.

ESTABLISHMENT OF A CLOSE SEASON.

On further consideration of the question of a close season I feel

obliged to modify the opinion I expressed in Spolia Zeylanica

Volume VIII., Part XXIX. I then agreed with Mr. Hornell that

without knowing the spawning period of the oyster the local condi-

tions at Tamblegam rendered it easy to establish an effective close

season from May to January, since during these months the water

is too rough for successful diving. Weather conditions render diving

possible only from January to May, but if January or february

prove to be the spawning months, as I believe likely, it wil! be

unwise to allow fishing until spawning has actually taken place. J,

therefore, think that the window-pane oyster fishery should only be

prosecuted from March 1 to the end of May in any one year. This

period of 3 months gives ample time to complete the fishery.

EFFECT OF EXCESSIVE RAINFALL.

As Dr. Willey has pointed out, the rainfall plays a very important

part in the bionomics of the window-pane oysters. I have expressed

the view elsewhere in this report, that though too much fresh water

is harmful a certain proportion mixed with the sea water is necessary.

The rain has a further use in carrying down the mud, which when

deposited in Lake Tamblegam forms a suitable habitat for the

window-pane oyster. The continuity of my observations on the

window-pane oyster were rather abruptly interrupted at the end of

1911, when, as the result of the abnormal rains, the greater portion

of a young bed of oysters was wiped out. Chart 3 shows the

comparison between this bed before and after the rains, and in

Appendix 2, through the kindness of Mr. A. J. Bamford of the

Colombo Observatory, I am able to give the rainfall in various parts

of the Tamblegam district for the months of October, November,

and December.

PEARL PRODUCTION.

During the last two years the oysters present on the beds have

been too young for pearl production. In consequence little progress

has been made with the question of the best age for fishing the

oysters for pearls. This branch of the work will be steadily pro-

secuted as the oysters get older. At present it may be said that

oysters in the first and second years do not bear pearls of any size

and in any quantity. From the results of previous work it would

seem that oysters of less than three years do not contain many

pearls. The fourth year appears to be the critical time.

ZEYLANICA.

SPOLIA

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WINDOW PANE OYSTER.

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240 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Appendix 4.—-Growth-rate of First-year Oysters in various parts of

the Beds during 1912.

(The areas are given in order of rate of increase. In some areas

measurements were taken in September only, and in these

no rate of growth can be given.)

Size of Hinge Rate of Relative Abund-

Rate of Increase

Area. Diameter in an TRS Increase in ance of Oysters

: May. ‘ September. (Approximate).

C 1:59 inches .. Not measured .. 1°44 .. Very scarce

R 2°04 inches .. a7fil -. L-17 .. Very. scarce

J 1°96 inches -. 48 .. 1°02 .. Very abundant

P - 2027 meches ~. - "42 Sie ‘86 .. Scarce

} peal 6G amches) “50 ae ‘77 .. Abundant

L . 2°14 inches .. "51 ne ‘74 .. Abundant

H e220 NICHES as ts 4) ate ‘71 .. Abundant

5 S Apts wales 3 “32 ae "57 .. Very scarce

M . 2°55 inches .. “37 50 "53. .. Very scarce

K . 2:57 inches .. Not measured .. ‘45 .. Very abundant

Whole Area 2°22 inches .. "32 os, ‘77... Fairly abundant

Appendix 5.--Measurements of First-year Oysters, May, 1912.

(See also Plate 6.)

Size (Hinge Size (Hinge

ea s No. S. ; ee ee _No. of

Inches. specimens. Inches. Specimens.

1 2 23 5

ra : | 23 20

Is 3 228 11

Ss 7 2} 10

13 10 | 27 ri

Lj 4 | 3 3

Ls 8 | AG

2 16 Total oysters .. 122

24 10 | ase

24 8

Appendix 6.—-Measurements of First-year Oysters, June, 1912.

(See alse Plate 7.)

Size (Hinge = | Size (Hinge

Diameter). s No. of | Diameter). S Novels

Inches. ae | Inches. BP ;

21 4 33 ae 15

23 4 3% oa 25

24 19 33 a 4

2 8 24 33 ae 10

2+ 33 3% 2

24 SL 4 6

3 44 ——

3¢ 24 Total oysters .. 287

34 42 : —

WINDOW-PANE OYSTER. 241

Appendix 7.—Measurements of First-year Old Oysters,

September, 1912.

(See also Plate 8.)

Size (Hinge | Size (Hinge

en g Nowe! MN eee cnay __ No: of

Inches. Specunens, | Tnches. Specimens.

24 2 | 4.3 ns 52

28 3 | 43 ate 75

23 3 48 23

27 1 | 43 21

3 18 4z 10

34 20 5 9

34 33 54 1

32 37 54 —

34 64 52 —

38 57 53 z

33 82 58 2

3% 51 ——

4 140 Total oysters .. 864

44,42 71 ——

t 89

Appendix 8._-Measurements of Second-year Oysters, January, 1912.

(See also Plate 9.)

Size (Hinge Size (Hinge

Diameter). 2 No.of Diameter). j No. of

Tach Specimens. Techea! Specimens,

4 4 5 4

44 2 5g 2

ve 2 | 54 l

43 24 | 54 1

43 2 | ==

43 8 | ‘Total specimens. . 63

4¢ 6 | ——

Appendix 9.--Measurements of Second-year Oysters, June, 1912.

\ (See also Plate 9.)

Size (Hinge Size (Hinge

. No. of <n 5 No. of

Diameter). Eee Diameter). ae

Haches. Specimens, Teles, Specimens,

4.4 3 5} 3

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43 3 52 --

48 4 54 2

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43 7 Total specimens. . 56

a 12 aa

242

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.,

Appendix 10.-- Measurements of Second-year Oysters, September, 1912.

(See also Plate 9.)

Size (Hinge Nose | Size (Hinge Nio isk

ee). S ecimens PACTS = ecimens.

Inches. ps x Inches. =P

41 ae 1 5} +

43 = 53 4

44 3 54 1

43 3 58 1

43 4 +=

4 5 Total specimens. . 45

5 14 ae

54 5

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Placuna shells showing evidence of having been bitten by fishes

Map of Lake Tamblegam, showing the distribution of oysters in

September, 1912, and also the division of the lake into areas.

Seale 14 inch to 1 mile.

Map of Lake Tamblegam, showing the distribution of the 1911

oysters before the rains.

Map of Lake Tamblegam, showing the distribution of the 1911

oysters after the rains. Scale % inch to 1 mile.

Comparison of the sizes of 1912 oysters in each area for May,

June, and September, 1912.

Curve showing rate of growth of Placuna during 3 years.

Curve showing sizes of 1912 oysters in May, 1912.

Curve showing sizes of 1912 oysters in June, 1912.

Curve showing sizes of 1912 oysters in September, 1912.

Three curves showing sizes of 1911 oysters in January, June, and

September, 1912.

PLATE I,— Placuna shells after having been bitten by fishes.

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Pirate III, —A: Map of Lake Tamblegam showing distribution of the 1911 Oysters before the rains.

B: Distribution of 1911 Oysters after the rains. (Scale ~ inch to | mile.)

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FRESH-WATER FISHES OF CEYLON. 243

NOTES ON THE FRESH-WATER FISHES OF CEYLON,*

By A. H. PERTWEE.

———____ -——

HE following notes, dealing with some of the better known

varieties of our fresh-water fishes, do not claim to be either

strictly original or of a highly scientific nature; rather I shall

endeavour, by calling attention to certain interesting features of

fish life, to stimulate and foster an interest in what is, to my mind,

one of the most absorbing branches of Natural Science.

It is a curious and regrettable fact that while other branches of

Nature Study have been exploited to a large and increasing extent,

very little progress—in this country at all events—has been made

in that branch devoted to the life-history of our fishes.

In histories of the past century we find the names of scientific

giants like Dr. Day, Emerson, Jerdon, Buchanan, and others who

devoted many years of strenuous work to the study of fish life, but,

alas, the results of their labour remain buried in volumes seldom

consulted, except for purpose of reference by the small band of

disciples who are trying to carry on the good work they began.

As I have already said, the study of fish life is a most fascinating

one, and to those members of this Society who have not yet identified

themselves with any particular subject, I very strongly commend

the study of our fresh-water fish. Here, almost at your doors, you

will find revealed some of the most wonderful of Nature’s mysteries,

some of the greatest of the Creator’s works, and it is a most astonish-

ing thing that such apathy as now exists regarding this subject

should continue.

One of the objects of this Paper is to destroy that apathy.

The first specimen to which I desire to call your attention is

Ophiocephalus striatus. Those of you who have already made his

acquaintance at table will doubtless recognize him as the loola (once

described as “‘cotton wool stuffed with pins’’), and those who have

met him at the end of a line will know him for the low-down rascal

he is. Yet, apart from epicurean or sporting considerations, there

are few fish whose domestic life is so full of interest. The majority

of fish deposit their eggs, varying in number from a few hundreds

to many thousands, according to species and conditions, and in

localities suitable for incubation by natural heat, and, so far as

* Read before the Ceylon Natural History Society on Friday, June 7, 1912,

2K 6(7)12

244 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

they are concerned, the matter ends there. Not so the loola, which

appear to have a highly developed sense of parental duty, and not

only remain in the vicinity of their ova until the fry appear, but

will fight with extraordinary ferocity any intruder approaching

T once watched a pair of loola, each about a foot long and probably

two or three years of age, guarding a spawn cast in one of the

Anuradhapura tanks. The feeble movements of the female fish

and the usual tameness of both in quite shallow water surprised

me considerably at first, until I saw moving toward them a large

fresh-water tortoise, evidently intent on a meal of fish roe. Pisci-

cultural students know, and doubtless most fish share our know-

ledge, that of all enemies to fish culture the water tortoise (7'estudo)

is one of the most deadly. Should any other fish approach the

loola nest, two well-armed, widespread jaws, backed by ferocious

jealousy and dauntless courage, will promptly “‘attend to his case,”

and lucky the intruder that gets away alive. But what of this

armour-clad robber, protected from helm to heel, who deliberately

waddles up to the precious spawn, and in three minutes devours

what might in a few months have been several hundredweight

of fish. The parents are utterly and entirely helpless. On this

particular occasion, however, the enemy received a rude shock

in the shape of a rifle bullet, which put an abrupt period to his

depredations, and incidentally no doubt frightened the parents out

of their wits. But so strongly attached are the loola to their ova

and fry, that in a very few minutes both were back again,

watching with evident satisfaction the dying kicks of the would-be

robber. I am unable to say if they eventually saw their labour

through to a satisfactory issue, but one cannot help hoping that

they did so.

There are nine Indian species of ophiocephalus, all of which are

remarkable for the fact that they exhibit a strong parental affection

for their offspring. As I have already mentioned, they stoutly

resist any marauder that may approach their spawn, but this is not

by any means the sum of their care. For several days after spawn-

ing they remain on guard, until the warmth of the sun and the

mysterious processes of Nature convert the mass of jelly-like spawn

into myriads of fry, each one thin as a pin and shorter than a grain

of rice.

In human families twins are (I understand) considered rather an

alarming eventuality, while triplets are a matter calculated to make

both parents do a lot of hard thinking, but even quadruplets are

a mere nothing compared with a healthy loola family, which may

easily run to five thousand or more. Nothing daunted, however,

Mr. and Mrs. Loola, far from deserting their helpless family, as more

aristocratic fish are apt todo, now become more assiduous than ever,

and proceed to round up and swim off with their interesting progeny

FRESH-WATER FISHES OF CEYLON. 245

in search of suitable feeding ground. Just exactly how long this

happy state of things lasts seems to depend on various circumstances,

and very little is definitely known on that point. What we do know

however—and I sorrowfully record so sad an end to so happy a

beginning—is that as soon as the fry get big enough to be worth

eating both parents proceed to make a hearty meal on those members

of the family who have not developed sufficient sense to get under

adequate cover.

Before we part with our cannibal friend, I wish to call your

attention to another peculiarity of his, namely, that of breathing

the air, much as human beings breathe. According to Thomas,

this is the way of it: “‘ The murral (or loola) lives a long time |

without water, and the reason for this is that, unlike most fish

which breathe only the oxygen contained in solution in the water,

the Ophiocephalide inhale the atmospheric air direct. They may

be seen coming up to the surface continually, exhaling a bubble

and taking in a mouthful of fresh air, and they have an air cavity

for the storage of fresh air. If confined in a globe or other vessel,

with a net stretched across a little below the surface of the water,

so as to prevent them breathing the atmospheric air direct, they

will die from not being able to oxygenate their blood, however fully

supplied with oxygen the water may be. Being thus able to breathe

our air, and being commonly dependent on it, they do not suffer

like other fish on being transferred to it. Indeed, they travel on

land of their own accord, and one allowed to jump out of your can

or tub will soon be seen to wriggle a considerable distance on land,

and to keep it up long after any of the carps would be dead.”

The foregoing references to loola spawn suggest a brief word or

two on the important subject of reproduction generally, and more

particularly with regard to the peculiar conditions existing in this

country. You will all be aware that in most countries legislation

has been brought to bear on this subject, and, very properly, strin-

gent laws have been enacted for the protection of fish during their

breeding season. In England coarse fish enjoy a close season from

March 15 to June 15 or 30, and trout from October 2 to February

1, while in certain districts the dates are varied slightly to meet

peculiar local conditions.

In Ceylon, however, little or nothing has been done in this

direction, and although official inquiries into an alleged depletion

of our fresh-water fish supply are now in progress, it seems likely to

be some years before we arrive at anything adequate in the shape of

protection. ,

To the uninitiated this would appear to be an excellent oppor-

tunity to cast another stone at an apathetic Government, but the

results of many years of close observation has taught us that there

is hardly a month in the year in which one or more varieties of our

fresh-water fishes are not propagating their species, and that several

246 SPOLIA ZEYLANIGA.

varieties are known to produce as many as three or four families in

the course of twelve months—in other words, breeding all the year

round. The difficulty therefore would appear to lie, not so much

in when to restrict fishing, as to ascertain the period that will afford

the greatest protection to the greatest variety of valuable fish,

recognizing that in any case a certain amount of sacrifice has to be

faced. We now know that, unfortunately, another difficulty has to

be overcome in the fact that certain fish vary their time of spawning

from year to year, and so upset all ordinary calculations. From

my notes I find that the moda (Lates calcarifer) in Negombo lagoon

were spawning freely in December and January, 1909, and that out

of eighteen specimens I examined at Christmas fourteen were full of

ova. This year, however (at the same place), I found no indication

of spawn in January, and was informed by reliable fishermen that

no fry had been observed for several months. In March (last) I

caught two specimens there, and examined them with several others,

all of which had the appearance of having recently spawned, and

were in the worst possible condition. But my own opinion in this

matter of protection is that, to be of any real value, protection will

have to come rather from greater restriction in the use of small-

meshed nets than from prohibition during any set season. The

abolition of nets capable of taking fry, and the suppression of river

kraals, combined with the bi-annual floods most of our rivers are

subject to during the two monsoons, would, I believe, do more in

the way of protection than a three months close season. This,

however, is a matter which, as I have already said, is now

receiving the attention of Government, and to those who care to

look further into what has already been done, I commend a perusal

of the Administrative Reports dealing with the subject. I may

add, however, that in some parts of the Southern Province river

kraals have been officially recognized as an unnecessary evil

and abolished accordingly.

Before leaving the subject of reproduction, I should like to make

brief reference to a well known fresh-water fish common throughout

the East, and found in practically every river, tank, and pond in

Ceylon. I refer to Arius falcarius or the anguluwa, to give its

Sinhalese name. A more repulsive-looking creature it would be

difficult to imagine, but nevertheless he has several redeeming

features, not the least of which is that he is uncommonly good to

eat if freshly caught. But Arius, in common with one or two

other varieties of the Siluride family, has a more important claim

on our attention than the flavour of his flesh, for he has developed

the extraordinary habit, not only of hatching his family in his

mouth, but of permitting his offspring to take shelter therein when

pursued by enemies.

Thomas, the distinguished Indian Civilian, who devoted many

years to the study of fresh-water fish, says, referring to the Siluroids

FRESH-WATER FISHES OF CEYLON, 247

generally : ““ Some bring forth their young alive, who flee for

refuge into their mouths. Some of them I have observed hatch

their ova in their mouth, and keep them there even after being

hatched. Dr. Day and I examined over 500 of these fish in company

on. one occasion, besides the observations we had each made sepa-

rately. The conclusions we came to were, that the female seemingly

holds the eggs (which are about half an inch in diameter) in her two

large cup-like ventral fins, whence they are taken by the male, who

thenceforward keeps them in his mouth, never eating, till they are

hatched.” It has been suggested that the Sueur idea is not

quite so new as we thought it.

The anguluwa, in common with Mastacembelus, Ophiocephalus,

and (I think) Saccobranchus, are included in a group of fish peculiar

for the fact that they are able to hibernate through lengthy periods

in sun-dried clay, which peculiarity extends also to the eggs of

these species.

In India, where it frequently happens that protracted drought

results in dried-up rivers and tanks, it is a common experience to

find, after a few hours’ rain, practically every little pond and

wayside pool teeming with tiny fish, though the nearest water prior

to the rain was miles distant. This phenomena, perhaps naturally,

has given rise to a widespread belief, which, by the way, is not

confined to natives of the country, that a beneficent Providence

occasionally showers down fish to replenish barren water, but the

believer usually fails to explain the absence of any fish whatever in

that portion of the downpour which may be caught in buckets or

other receptacles.

The mention of small tanks and restricted areas of water suggests

another point of interest to students of fish life, namely, the effect

of confined space on the fish themselves. This curious effect is very

marked in the case of Barbus tor, the famous sporting fish, better

known as Mahaseer or Leyla.

Colonel Gordon Reeves, who has probably had a more extensive

acquaintance with this fish in Ceylon than any other recent observer,

mentions a specimen caught in the Mahaweli-ganga which weighed

234 lb., and, so far as I know, this constitutes the record weight for

this country.. Now, in the large Indian waterways, like the Ganges

and Jumna, 23 or 24 lb. would be considered a comparatively small

Mahaseer, and numerous specimens have been caught which weighed

well over 100 lb., my own bags having included several verging on

60 lb. In the Bangalore Museum there used to be, and no doubt

still is, the head of a specimen caught by Colonel Sanderson, the

authenticated weight of which was 150 lb., and the same authority

speaks of others weighing from 200 to 250 lb.

Nor is this curious effect confined to the members of the carp

family, as may readily be seen by comparing other varieties common

to Ceylon with specimens of the same from the adjoining continent.

248 SPOLIA ZBYLANICA.

And speaking of India, I should like, in passing, to point out that

there are no fresh-water fishes found in Ceylon which do not occur

in Southern India, which fact would seem to furnish further evidence

in support of the theory that in remote ages this Island was part

of the adjacent peninsula. There are, of course, other ways. of

accounting for the coincidence, but a land connection intersected

by a river (or perhaps several rivers) appears to me the most probable

explanation.

In a small country like Ceylon, entirely surrounded by the ocean

and traversed by numerous large rivers, it is quite natural that

marine and estuarial fish comprise a very large proportion of the

total annual catch, and although my remarks are supposed to deal

exclusively with fresh-water fish, it is of interest to note that under

certain conditions the scaly inhabitants of our estuaries readily

accommodate themselves to fresh or slightly brackish water, and

vice versd. The gray mullet and Chanos salmoneus are notorious for

this adaptability, and Htroplus suratensis provides another instance.

There are numerous lagoons all round our coasts, such as Kalutara

and Negombo (to mention only two out of many), divided by quite

a narrow sand strip from the sea, in which the water is fresh, or

practically so, and yet they contain several species of fish usually

found only in the sea, or at any rate in salt water. Moreover, these

fish have lived and reproduced their kind there for many years,

and apparently suffer no inconvenience. The salmon in European

waters has been quoted as a similar instance of adaptability, but

as a matter of fact this fish only returns to fresh water for a specific

purpose, namely, to deposit its eggs and hatch the young, so the

cases are not analagous.

In conclusion, I wish to draw your attention for a few minutes to

a fish which I imagine very few of you have ever seen before, either

alive or dead. I refer to Osphromenus olfax, the gourami of the Far

East, to acclimatize which in Ceylon several attempts have been

made during the past twenty years. As stated in a recent number

of Spolia Zeylanica Mr. G. M. Fowler, C.C.S., procured a number

of these fish some dozen years ago and distributed them amongst

certain tanks, the localities of which, unfortunately, have not been

preserved. A few weeks ago, however, I was fortunate enough to

discover six of them in an ornamental piece of water, and a photo-

graph of one secured therefrom, with the help of Dr. Pearson and

his staff, is now displayed on the screen. This timely find has

established beyond doubt that the gowrami will live in Ceylon, but

it also makes evident the fact that they will not necessarily reproduce

themselves. So far as I am able to judge, all six of the specimens

in question belong to the same batch and are of the same age—

roughly, twelve years—but as none of them are over 8 or 9

lb. in weight, they cannot be said to have thriven in their present

surroundings. On the other hand, it has to be conceded that they

FRESH-WATER FISHES OF CEYLON. 949

have been kept in unnatural surroundings, that is to say, in a cement

tank, the water in which is shallow, hot, and entirely devoid of all

vegetation, and as gourami are almost, if not entirely, herbivorous

in their habits, it cannot be said they have had much encouragement

to produce and rear families. As an instance of the importance

attaching to ample aqueous vegetation where these fishes are

concerned, I may say that two young specimens were turned into

a small tank (well supplied with water lilies and grasses) by Dr.

Willey as recently as two and a half years ago, and although the

space is very restricted, they have at least quadrupled in weight

during that time. That they have not produced young may easily

be explained by the fact that they are probably of the same sex.

Now that we know gourami will thrive in Ceylon, no doubt a more

ambitious attempt will be made to introduce them into our rivers

and tanks, and if this is done a most important step will have been

taken in the direction of improving and supplementing our somewhat

meagre fresh-water fish supply. I have already called attention

elsewhere* to the suitability of Kandy reservoir for purpose of

further experiment with gouramz, and take this opportunity of again

pressing the claims of that ideal locality as a breeding ground and

nursery for Osphromenus olfax.

But to return to the great family of the carps, numerous represen-

tatives of which are to be found in our inland waters.

Barbus tor we have already noticed, and although this fine fish

cannot vie with his Indian brother in point of size, he is none the

less far and away the best fresh-water fish—from the sportsman’s

point of view—we have. Near relations of his found in most of our

fresh-water streams, and taking them in order of importance, are :

Barbus chrysopoma, Cirrhina cirrhosa, Barbus filamentosus, B.

mahecola, Labeo calbasu, Barbus tnnominatus, dorsalis, porcellus

and Rasbora daniconius ; all of them edible, and most of them of

great economic value.

The moda (Lates calcarifer), of which I spoke just now as being an

erratic breeder, is one of those curious fish that would appear to be

equally at home in either salt or fresh water, and is a most valuable

though somewhat neglected food fish.

In Bengal, where it is known as Beckti, the moda stands in very

high repute, not only amongst the people of the country, but with

Europeans also, and commands about the highest price of any fish

in the market. In appearance the flesh is firm, white, and com-

paratively free of bones, while if not too old the flavour is distinctly

delicate. _In the north of Ceylon, and more particularly at Elephant

Pass, this fish (known there by its Tamil name of kodawa) is

extraordinarily plentiful at certain times of the year—generally

in November and December—and annually attracts a number of

* Spolia Zeylanica, Vol, VII., Part XXVIII.

250 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

European sportsmen, some of whom have written glowing accounts

of the great bags to be made. I regret I cannot speak of it at first

hand, but I am sufficiently well acquainted with Lates calcarifer to

recommend the pursuit of him to any one desiring to get rid of

superfluous fishing tackle.

It has been suggested to me that since the rainbow trout has now

done his duty in the shape of perpetuating his species in Ceylon,

and seems likely to continue doing so, he should be considered one

of our fresh-water fish, and that any lecture or paper on this subject

that ignored him would be incomplete. Well, I am very sorry if

this is so, but in any case I have omitted quite a large number

of other important species, so our lively little friends at Nuwara

Eliya and the Hortons need not take offence ;' they are not the only

uninvited guests. :

_ Possibly at some future date the benevolent Council of this

Society will invite me again to discourse on the subject of Ceylon

fresh-water fishes, and then the speckled beauties shall have half an

hour all to themselves.

OLIGOCH ETA. 251

ON A COLLECTION OF OLIGOCHATA, MAINLY

FROM CEYLON.

By Major J. StrpHEnson, D.Sc., I.M.S.,

Professor of Biology, Government College, Lahore.

(With two Plates.)

PAGE PAGE

Introduction .. ool. Megascolex annandalei, sp. nov. 263

Dero zeylanica, sp. nov. oe Megascolex pattipolensis sp.nov. 265

Aulophorus palustris, Mchlsn... 255 Megascolex bifoveatus, sp.nov. 266

Hesperodrilus zeylanicus, sp. nov. 957 M egascolex curtus , sp. nov. fan CAGNY/

Limnodrilus socialis, Stephenson 260 | Megascolex quintus, sp.nov. .. 268

Drawida annandalei, sp. nov... 261 Megascolex sextus, sp.nov. .. 270

Lampito mauritii, Kinb., var., Pheretima hawayana (Rosa) .. 271

zeylanica, var. nov. .. 262 Dichogaster affinis (Mchlsn.) .. 273

INTRODUCTION.

N November of last year (1911) I received from Dr. Annandale

of the Indian Museum, Calcutta, an interesting collection of

Oligocheeta made by him in Ceylon during the preceding month, with

one tube, containing the single specimen of Drawida annandalei, from

Tanjore in South India. The species belong to both of the large

subdivisions of the Order, the Microdrili and Megadrili; a peculiarity

about the habitat of the specimens is that they were all taken either

in water or in rotten wood ; none of them, therefore, are ‘‘ earth-

worms ”’ in the literal sense of the word.

In 1909 Michaelsen (8) wrote, at the beginning of acommunication

describing a new Megascolex from Ceylon: “ As the earthworm

fauna of Ceylon belongs to the best known of the tropics, I was

surprised at seeing that these worms represented a new species.

This circumstance gives a new indication of the richness of the

Oligochzet fauna of Ceylon, and of our being far from a complete

knowledge of the latter.”

The same facts are more forcibly exemplified by the results of

the examination of the present collection. Fourteen species were

represented (excluding one specimen which was unidentifiable) in

the six tubes; of the fourteen, nine are new, while another is

sufficiently distinct to rank as a new variety. One tube was a

miniature museum in itself; besides an example of Pheretima

hawayana, it contained, represented mostly by single specimens,

six species of Megascolex, all new. A partial explanation of the

extremely large proportion of new species is perhaps to be found in

the peculiar habitat from which they were drawn.

2a 6(7)12

252 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA,.

Of the four species which are already known, we are acquainted

with one (Aulophorus palustris) only through a short diagnosis

previously published by Michaelsen. Another (Limnodrilus socialis) ,

first described a short time ago by myself, is interesting as being one

of the very few Tubificids known to occur in the Indian region. The

remaining two (Pheretima hawayana and Dichogaster affinis) have

been known for some time.

The type specimens of the new species are to be kept in the Indian

Museum, duplicates being sent to Colombo where possible.

I wish here to express my thanks to the authorities of the Natural

History Museum, South Kensington, for very kindly affording me

all possible facilities in the use of their library during the writing of

this Paper.

DERO ZEYLANICA, sp. nov.

(Plate I., Figs. 1-4.)

Four specimens, one incomplete ; in the same tube as Limnodrilus

socialis and Aulophorus palustris. Hill country, Kandy, Ceylon,

1,600 feet.

The length of a complete single animal was 7°5 mm. ; none of the

specimens were preparing for asexual division ; when this occurs the

length of the chains would probably be greater. Breadth, maximum

°35mm. Segments 43-60.. Prostomium short, rounded. There are

no eyes.

The posterior end of the animal is expanded, and in the preserved

specimens this expansion may either have the form of an approxi-

mately circular sucker-like disc, facing upwards, with a definite

margin, or of a deep and narrow cup, opening dorsally, and com-

pressed from side to side ; the latter was the case in the specimen

chosen for sectioning (figs. 1-3). A number of ridges can be indis-

tinctly seen on the inside of the cup, or on the face of the disc ;

some of these are more distinct than others, and in the case where

the posterior end of the animal is flattened they radiate towards the

periphery of the disc.

A series of transverse sections is necessary in order fully to

elucidate the structure of this region; the following description

begins anteriorly, from a point in front of the opening out of the

intestine into the branchial fossa or branchial funnel, and proceeds

posteriorly to the hinder end of the animal.

In the specimen taken for sectioning, the whole posterior end of

the animal appears to have been laterally compressed. The first

peculiarity to be mentioned is the occurrence, dorsal to the end

of the intestine, of a pocket, or forward diverticulum from the

branchial fossa ; at the anterior blind end of this pocket a pair of

gills originate, which further back lie free within the cavity of the

diverticulum (fig. 1).

Proceeding backward, the diverticulum and gut shortly unite, and

we may now speak of the cavity as the branchial fossa, The first

OLIGOCH ETA. 253

pair of gills, already mentioned, here fuse along one of their sides

with the dorsal wall of the fossa, and thus constitute longitudinal

ridges of the wall. Here also another gill arises, ventral to the

first pair, from the lateral wall of the funnel; its fellow however

springs (in this particular specimen at least) from the right gill of

the first pair. These two, constituting the second pair, lie at first

free in the cavity of the fossa; but on proceeding backwards they

soon fuse with its walls, and appear, like the first pair, as ridges

(fig. 2).

The third pair of gills now appear ; in these, unlike the first two

pairs, the anterior ends, which are first encountered, are free. The

branchial chamber now opens out dorsally ; the first pair of gills

appear in a transverse section as projections just within the margin ;

the second pair are similar, and more ventrally situated ; che third

pair are free in the cavity at a still lower level.

The first pair of gills now flatten out and disappear ; the third

pair fuse with the wall of the funnel; and a fourth pair appear

ventrally, at first free within the cavity (fig. 3), but soon fusing

with the wall of the funnel. A section of the funnel therefore now

shows three projections of the wall on each side, corresponding to

three ridges.

The second pair of gills now flatten out and disappear ; the third

does the same ; and lastly the fourth also. All have disappeared

some little distance in front of the posterior end of the funnel.

The free gills and gill ridges are ciliated ; they are covered in part

by a characteristic pyriform epithelium (fig. 3); the diameter of

the gills, or of the ridges, is from 50 to 70 u.

The relative lengths of the several portions of the branchial fossa

may be estimated from the number of sections which go to each.

The sections being of a thickness of 8 v., it is found that the anteriorly

‘pointing diverticulum dorsal to the end of the gut is 40 y in length ;

from the mouth of the diverticulum (which coincides with the end

_ of the gut) to where the branchial fossa opens out dorsally is 96 uv;

and from this point to the posterior end of the animalis 272y. The

whole length of the fossa is therefore less than half a millimetre.

The dorsal sete begin in segment VI., and are of two kinds,

eapillary and needle setze. In the anterior segments there are three

capillary and three needle setz per bundle, arranged in pairs of one

of each kind ; further back the bundles consist of two capillary and

two needle sete ; and behind this again of a single pair only. The

capillary sete vary in length from 240 to 320 u.; thus they do not

exceed the diameter of the body. The needle sete (fig. 4) are

nearly straight, with however a slight sickle-shaped curve ; the

point is bifid, but the forking is so fine as to be only just visible with

the ordinary high power of the microscope. Their length varies

considerably, from 82 to 102 u. The very slight nodulus is distal

to the middle of the shaft.

254 SPOLIA ZEYLANIGA.

The ventral sete of segments II.—-V., differ somewhat from the

rest. The shaft is only very slightly curved in the usual S-shape ;

the distal prong of the forked end is nearly twice as long as the

proximal ; the prongs are about equal in thickness at their base, or

the proximal is perhaps a little thinner; the angle between the

prongs is narrower than in the setz of the posterior bundles. The

nodulus is either exactly at or slightly proximal to the middle of the

shaft. In length they are from 123 to 128 y. The number per

bundle is four or five.

In the segments from the sixth onwards, the distal prong is

slightly longer than the proximal, and only one-half or two-thirds as

thick at its base ; the nodulus is either slightly or very markedly

distal to the middle of the shaft (distal : proximal : : 41 : 46 or 41 : 57).

In length they are from 87 to 98 ».. Towards the anterior end of the

animal there are four, or occasionally five, sete per bundle ; further

back the number sinks to three, and then to two.

The alimentary canal shows but little differentiation throughout

its extent. The pharynx is ciliated; its floor is lined by long

columnar cells, while the cells which form its roof are. shorter ;

sections show a pair of small recesses dorsolaterally in this region.

There are no definite septal glands ; but a few large deeply staining

gland cells occur in connection with the alimentary tract in segments

IiI., [V., and V. Chloragogen cells begin in segment VI. There is

no stomach.

The dorsal vessel, covered with chloragogen cells, courses along the

ventral side of the intestine, a little to the right of the middle line.

The ventral vessel is situated in a corresponding position on the left.

The cerebral ganglion is widely indented in front, but is not

indented behind.

Sexual organs were not present, nor was asexual reproduction in

progress in any of the specimens.

The present form would seem to be one of the best marked species

of the genus, and the characters of the posterior end appear to be .

quite distinctive. It is of course true, as has been pointed out by

Michaelsen (6), that the gill-bearing hinder end of species of Dero

(including Aulophorus) is liable to vary considerably according to

whether it has or has not been completely developed after the

process of fission ; and Bousfield (4) had previously drawn attention

to the great differences which exist between the conditions of

contraction and full expansion.

In the present case however the distinctive features of the hinder

end are due to a characteristic difference of type ; and it is impos-

sible to refer the peculiarities of the species to difference in degree

of development or to differences of contraction or expansion. The

chief peculiarities are, that for the greater part of their extent the -

gills are long ridges only ; and that while in the case of the posterior

gills the ridges dissociate themselves from the wall of the fossa so as

OLIGOCH ATA. 255

to end freely within the latter, these freely ending processes are

anterior, and directed forwards within the fossa, instead of pointing

backwards as in other species.

AULOPHORUS PALUSTRIS, Mchlsn,

(Plate I., Fig. 5.)

Several specimens, in the same tube as Limnodrilus socialis and

Dero zeylanica. Hill country, Kandy, Ceylon, 1,600 feet.

The length varied from 3 to 4:5 mm.; but these were all single

animals, no chains of two or more being met with ; it appeared

however that chains of two animals had existed in the material,

but had broken asunder at the budding zone. Breadth, maximum

‘3 mm. Segments, maximum 52; several of 35 segments; the

anterior of two zooids which had broken apart at the budding zone

showed 22 segments.

The prostomium is short and rounded ; the anterior end of the

animal is gently swollen, and is thickest at the level of segment IV. ;

the thinnest part of the animal is at segments VI.—VIL., so that this

region has somewhat the appearance of a neck. There are no eyes.

The hinder end of the animal bears the gills and palps. The

palps are a pair of long slender projections from the posterior lip of

the branchial funnel ; in length they appear to be about equal to the

longest gills ; in breadth they taper gently from a diameter of 60 u.

at their base to 16 vy at their tip; the tip is not expanded ; their

cavity is not, as is that of the gills, crossed by strands or stellate

cells. The gills are inserted within the margin of the funnel, which

has a complete dorsal lip. There are four pairs of gills, each gill

being a sausage- or finger-shaped process, of the same diameter

throughout. In breadth they are about 60 y.; the length varies,

the longest being about :4 mm. ; the most dorsally placed are the

shortest, about ‘08 mm., and arise furthest forward, within the

dorsal (anterior) lip of the branchial funnel. The cavity of each

gill is crossed by numerous very regularly arranged strands or

partitions, which give it a segmented appearance, as if it were made

up of a series of separate chambers ; a nucleus is easily visible in

the middle of each strand. The same appearance is seen in sections

of a gill cut longitudinally ; in transverse sections however the

partition appears as a large single stellate cell.

The dorsal sete begin on segment V.; each bundle consists

regularly of one capillary and one needle seta. The capillary seta

does not exceed the diameter of the body in length ; the needle seta

is about 51-55 y. long, sickle-shaped, forked at the free extremity,

with a slight nodulus at the junction of the curved with the straight

portion of the shaft (fig. 5a).

The ventral sete of segments I1.-IV. (fig. 5b) differ somewhat

from those behind; they are four or five per bundle, 76-84 y in

length, with the usual double curve and forked extremity ; the

256 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

distal prong of the fork is twice as long as the proximal, but only

two-thirds as broad at its base ; the nodulus is markedly proximal

to the middle of the length of the shaft (proximal : distal : : 34 : 50

or 34: 42). Behind segment V. the ventral setz (fig. 5c) are four

per bundle, except posteriorly, where bundles of three and then of

two setz occur; the prongs of the fork are equal in length, the

distal prong however is only half as thick as the proximal ; the

nodulus is markedly distal to the middle of the shaft (proximal :

distal : : 40 : 28 or 42 : 26). In length they are shorter than the

setae of the most anterior segments (68 y.) ; the proximal curve of the

shaft is ample, and better marked than in the anterior set ; but I

could not discover any considerable difference in thickness between

the two groups.

The buccal cavity is tubular, and extends through segments I. and

Il.; the pharynz, in segments III.-IV., is lined by elongated

columnar ciliated epithelium, the cells being specially long in the

dorsal wall ; the musculature of the pharynx is weak, and there is

nothing to suggest that the pharynx is protrusible, or that it can act

as a sucker, as in A. tonkinensis (9, 10). Septal glands are present

in segments IV. and V., situated laterally and dorsolaterally on the

alimentary canal; they are attached to the front faces of septa 4/5

and 5/6, and consist of aggregates of large ovoid or pyriform cells ;

a few such cells are also seen in segment VI. The wsophagus extends

through segments V.—VIIJ., when the tube dilates to become the

intestine ; there is thus no stomach. Chloragogen cells begin in

segment VI.

The dorsal vessel has a ventro-lateral position to the left of the

middle line throughout the greater part of its extent. It becomes

lateral in segment VII., and dorsal in VI., according to the evidence

of sections. The lateral commissures could not be made out.

In asexual reproduction n == 22 (three instances). None of the

specimens showed any trace of sexual organs.

In 1905 Michaelsen (7) published the following provisional diag

nosis of a species of Aulophorus collected by Stuhlmann in 1888 in

Zanzibar, reserving all description of the animal till later: “ Lange

etwa 9 mm., Dicke max. ‘3 mm., Segmentzahl etwa 50. Dorsale

Borstenbiindel am 5 Segment beginnend, mit Haarborsten und

gabelspitzigen Hakenborsten. Kiemennapf mit 4 (57?) Paar finger-

formigen Kiemen. Palpen schlank, am Hinter- (Unter-) Rande

entspringend.”’

No further account has however appeared ; and it must therefore

remain somewhat doubtful whether my identification of the present

species with it is correct. The agreement is fairly close ; I do not

regard the difference in length as of great importance. I might add

that I saw no reason, from an examination of the limited number of

specimens at my disposal, to suppose that more than four pairs of

gills were ever present ; and that I am in some doubt as to how far

OLIGOCH ETA, 257

the term “‘ Hakenborsten,”’ which Michaelsen applies to the shorter

dorsal setz of A. palustris, can be used for those of the present form.

The definition of a ‘‘ Hakenborste ”’ is “‘ eine verhaltnismassig kurze

ype e: S-formig gebogene Borste......,” (Michaelsen, 5) ; and it is

evident that the dorsal setz of the present form are not, as are the

ventral sete (to which the term*‘ Hakenborsten ”’ is properly applied),

curved like the letter S. The dorsal setze of the form here described

are more properly termed needle-setz, since “eine Nadelborste

entsteht aus der Hakenborste, wenn diese ihre S-f6rmige Kriimmung

aufgiebt’’ (ib. id.). The point is of some importance, as owing to

the degree of variability in the development and possibly in the

number of the gills in this and the allied genus Dero, the setze may

probably be found to afford a more reliable means of discrimination

of the several species (cf. Michaelsen, 6).

HESPERODRILUS ZEYLANICUS, sp. nov.

(Plate I., Fig. 6.)

A single specimen, found crawling on the under surface of a stone

aken from a streamlet running down the bank of the lake in very

marshy ground, Nuwara Eliya, Ceylon, 6,000 feet.

The specimen was curled up, and damaged (nearly severed) at one

place near the posterior end ; many of the dorsal setz had also been

broken off. The length was estimated at 8 mm. ; breadth, maximum

‘6mm. ; segments 34 with a small undifferentiated region posteriorly.

Prostomiuwm short, bluntly conical; the length from tip of pros-

tomium to mouth is about equal to the length of a body-segment.

Clittellum 1/5 XII.—XITIT. = 11/5.

The dorsal sete begin in segment III., and are all capillary ; they

vary in thickness, some being much stouter than others ; this

difference exists in many cases between the setz of the same bundle.

The largest number in a bundle was five ; four were counted not

infrequently. In length, the longest (‘58 mm.) are about equal to

the diameter of the body.

The ventral sete are as a rule two per bundle ; of the two, one is

a simple hook, while the other is forked at its free end (fig. 6) ;

both have the usual double curve. The forked setz are 118-123 uv.

long ; the prong on the outside of the curve is much the smaller,

being only about half as long, and one-third as thick at its base, as

the other; the nodulus is slight, and is markedly distal to the

middle of the shaft (distal : proximal : : 45 : 73 or 47 : 76) ; the shaft

is stout—6°3 vy. broad—considerably stouter than that of the singly

pointed sete.

The singly pointed setz are about the same length as the forked

sete ; the curves of the shaft are slightly less pronounced ; there is

no nodulus ; and the shaft, though varying in thickness in different

bundles, is considerably thinner (e.g., 3°4u) than that of the doubly

pointed sete,

258 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

As stated, the rule is that a ventral bundle is constituted by one

seta of each kind ; in segment VII., however, and again in XIV.,

there were two such pairs on each side. In segment XII., on which

are situated the openings of the male ducts, there are no ventral

sete.

With regard to the alimentary canal, the following features may

be briefly noted. The epithelium of the buccal cavity is flat, as is

also that of the floor of the pharynx ; the roof of the pharynx is

lined by columnar, richly ciliated cells. The pharynx passes into

the cesophagus without any sharp line of demarcation, and this

latter becomes the intestine in segment VIII. There is no stomach.

A number of large, deeply staining cells are attached to both sides

of septa 4/5, 5/6, 6/7, and there are a few also on 7/8.

The cerebral ganglion is very intimately attached to the roof of the

pharynx. The ventral nerve cord is closely united with the ventral

body-wall, which in transverse sections shows a median ventral

groove externally, corresponding to the line of the nerve cord ;

there are three giant fibres dorsally in the cord, the middle one

being the largest.

The testes are in segment XI.; sperm morule were found in

segments X. and XI., dorsal to the alimentary canal, and not:

enclosed in sperm-sacs. The sperm funnels are situated on the

anterior face of septum 11/12 ; the vas deferens is seen ventral to the

intestine in XIT. ; as is explained below, I did not follow it through-

out its course ; it appears however finally as a thin tube, 12-15 v. in

diameter, running forwards from the level of septum 13/14 and

arching dorsally to join the proximal (upper) end of the atrium.

This latter is a conspicuous glandular-looking mass, vertically

elongated, situated in the anterior part of segment XTIT. ; it narrows

towards its lower end and is prolonged obliquely forwards to the

male aperture on segment XII.

The spermathece are ovoid sacs, 80 x 70 y and 120 x 95 yu. res-

pectively, situated dorsally, one in segment XIV., the other in XVI.

The first, in XIV., was provided with a long narrow duct, 20 v.

in diameter, leading directly ventralwards. The second, in XVI.

(slightly the larger of the two), possessed a duct which, wider at

first than in the previous case, narrowed gradually and led first

downwards, and then forwards ventral to the intestine in segment

XV., to open externally behind the ventral sete of XIV., in or near

the intersegmental furrow 14/15.

I very much regret that owing to an unfortunate accident my

series of sections of this unique specimen was so damaged as to be of

little use in working out its anatomy. Fortunately the worm was of

small size, and consequently was transparent enough to allow of a

more or less complete account of its anatomy being written from

observations made while it was in cedar oil, before embedding.

The chief points of interest which have escaped me are the nephridia,

OLIGOCH ETA. 259

the female organs, and a portion of the course of the vas deferens.

The location of the various organs was definitely determined in the

entire specimen, and I was able to confirm this in the sections ; the

characters of the spermathecz and their ducts, and the fact of the

entry of the vas deferens into the proximal end of the atrium, were

also made out by both methods.

Of the four species of Hesperodrilus recorded by Beddard (1, 2)

from South America (where alone, so far, the genus has been found),

two (H. albus and H. pellucidus) showed the same form of “ cephali-

zation ’’ which occurs commonly among the Naidide, that is, the

dorsal setze began at a level posterior to the beginning of the ventral

setz. The present species shows the same peculiarity, the dorsal

sete beginning in the third, the ventral as usual in the second

segment. It is immediately distinguished, however, from both

H. albus and H. pellucidus by the much shorter prostomium and the

ventral position of the spermathecal apertures.

The present species displays, in addition, a number of other

peculiarities, which, though striking, have possibly not the same

morphological value. Thus the atrium is in segment XIII. instead

of XII., and the spermathecal apertures in the posterior part

of XIV. instead of in XIII. ; in other words, while in the genus

Hesperodrilus as a whole the genital organs are displaced one

segment backwards as compared with most Tubificide, in the

present specimen the posterior half of the genital organs show a

backward displacement of two segments.

Among the specimens of H. albus examined by Beddard was one

which showed the genital organs in the usual Tubificid position, 2.e.,

displaced one segment forwards as compared with the rest of the

genus. Since therefore the position of the genital organs is variable

in at least one species of Hesperodrilus, it may be so in the present

case also, and it is possible that the peculiar disposition here recorded

is merely an individual variation.

My failure to detect the female apparatus may have been due to

the fact that the specimen was only in an early stage of sexual

development ; and the absence of sperm-sacs may perhaps also be

due to the same cause. It is however unlikely that the entry of

the vas deferens into the proximal portion (instead of the distal,

as in other species of Hesperodrilus) of the atrium can be similarly

explained.

The following diagnosis, I believe, omits all doubtful points, of

both the kinds exemplified above :—

Hesperodrilus zeylanicus, sp. nov. Length 8 mm., breadth

‘6 mm., segments 34; prostomium about the length of an ordinary

body-segment ; clitellum 1/5 XII—XIII. = 1 1/5. Dorsal setze

begin in III., up to 5 per bundle, capilliform, longest equal to

diameter of body. Ventral setz in pairs of one forked and one

singly pointed seta ; one, or occasionally two, such pairs on each

2M 6(7)12

260 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

side in each segment (except I. and XII.) ; the singly pointed seta

thinner than the forked one, and without nodulus ; the outer prong

of the forked seta much smaller than the inner, the nodulus markedly

distal. Vas deferens enters atrium at the proximal end of the latter.

Spermathece ovoid, with long narrow ducts ; spermathecal aper-

tures ventral

Ceylon (Nuwara Eliya).

LIMNODRILUS SOCTALIS, Stephenson.

This worm occurs twice in the present collection, both batches

of specimens having been taken at Kandy (hill country, 1,600 feet).

In one case Dr. Annandale notes that “these worms were ‘very

numerous in the mud at the bottom of a pool of very dirty water in

a disused tunnel frequented by bats.’ The other tube contained

also the specimens of Dero zeylanica and Aulophorus palustris

(v. ant.) ; these “‘ were taken in the mud left in a small depression

in the bed of a bathing-pool formed by the overflow of the Kandy

lake. The pool had just been emptied in order that it might be

cleaned, and the worms must originally have been in 5 or 6 feet of

water.”

The rarity of Tubificide throughout the whole of the Indian

region (only three species having been so far recorded), and the

striking similarity in behaviour, has caused me to suspect that this

species may be that referred to by Willey in his recent book on

“ Convergence in Evolutien’’ (13). Writing of the similarity in

appearance and habits between the larve of Chironomus and the

Tubificide, he says of the latter (with special reference to an

unnamed species of Limnodrilus from Ceylon) :—‘‘ They keep the

head and fore-body buried in the mud, whilst the hinder portion of

the body, through which respiration is effected, is kept constantly

waving as near the surface of the shallow water as possible. When

alarmed, an entire colony will instantly withdraw out of sight into

the mud as with one consent ...... Limnodrilus, as observed by

me in Ceylon, forms dense aggregates of individuals surrounded by

mud, but does not form definite tubes which can be isolated from

the clumps.”

The above has such a striking resemblance to my original

description of the habits of the worm as observed at Lahore (11),

that, with these specimens, also from Ceylon, before one, it is

difficult to believe that the species are not the same.

This worm is apparently widely distributed in the East ; I have

received specimens from Calcutta also. When in Kashmir last

summer I saw, in a pool at Baramula, a colony of what I believe to

have been this species; though, as I had of set purpose omitted

to take any apparatus with me, this remains for the present a

conjecture only.

OLIGOCH ETA. 261

DRAWIDA ANNANDALETI, sp. nov.

(Plate I., Fig. 7.)

A single specimen.

Tanjore, South India ; from the river Caveri, in the mud below

the water ; October, 1911.

EXTERNAL CHARACTERS.—Length 35 mm. ; width, max. 1:75 mm. ;

Colour olive. Segments 137.

Prostomium prolobous.

Clitellum 2/3 X.—2/3 XIII. = approximately 3 1/3, but not well

marked.

Male and female pores, and spermathecal apertures, not seen

externally.

A genital area is present on segments X.and XI. This is a slightly

darker oval patch, with its longer diameter transverse, along the

line of furrow 10/11; the patch lies between the ventral sete of X.

and those of XI. ; within it, a smaller oval area is marked out by a

slight ridge, as shown in the figure (fig. 7).

The setz are closely paired. The interval aa is less than be ; and

dd is equal to about half the circumference.

InrerNaL ANaTtomy.—Septa 5/6-8/9 are much thickened.

The pharynx exhibits a dorsal pouch, which, according to the

evidence of sections, opens into the pharynx by a narrow longi-

tudinal slit, while expanding laterally in the pharyngeal wall above

this. Three gizzards are present in segments XII., XIII., and XIV.

Hearts are present in segments VI.-IX. ;

Male Organs—The large testicular vesicles are suspended by

septum 9/10, and project forwards into TX. and backwards into X.

The funnel is a part of the wall of the sac, the mouth of the funnel

being but little dilated, and situated at about the level of the

septum (9/10). From this the vas deferens proceeds ; this is a coiled

tube, situated in segments IX. and X., penetrating the prostatic

cells to open into the inner (proximal) end of the atrium. The

atrium of the one side is a tube, vertically placed in segment X.,

lined with high columnar epithelium, outside which is a muscular

layer ; outside the muscular layer again is a thick covering of

prostatic gland cells ; the whole organ (atrium + prostatic invest-

ment) is somewhat longer in the vertical direction than it is thick ;

it occupies the segment from the dorsal body-wall above to the

ventral below ; ventrally the lumen penetrates the body-wall to

open at the male aperture in furrow 10/11, in the line of the ventral

sete. There is no copulatory pouch.

On the other side of the body the atrium with its glandular

investment is pressed down, in the sections, against the ventral

body-wall, in such a way that the vas deferens enters it anteriorly.

Female Organs.—The ovary is in segment XI., as is also the

funnel ; the female aperture is in furrow 11/12. The large ovisacs

262 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

extend backwards through several segments from septum 11/12, as

far as segment XVI. ; they are dilated in their posterior portions.

The spermathece are in segment VIII.; they are comparatively

small spherical sacs, with a much-coiled duct in the same segment.

This duct comes forwards into VII., where it joins the posterior

face of the muscular spermathecal atrium near its base. This

muscular sac is of moderate size ; narrowing at its base, it becomes

a tube which runs for a short distance in a lateral direction to open

externally in furrow 7/8.

Remarks.—This species is on the whole not unlike D. ramnadana;

Mchlsn. (9), from which however it is distinguished by two important

features : (1) the presence of a characteristic copulatory area; (2) the

fact that the vas deferens enters the prostatic mass at the proximal

(inner) end of the latter, not at its basal front, in the thickness of

the body-wall.

LAMPITO MAURITH, Kinb., var. ZEYLANICA, var. nov.

Two specimens, one not fully mature.

In rotten wood, in the hotel compound, Anuradhapura (low

country), Ceylon. October, 1911. Ina tube along with a specimen

of Dichogaster affinis.

EXTERNAL CHARACTERS.—Length 4 inches ; breadth 3 1/2 mm.

Colour gray. Segments 147.

Prostomium prolobous. ;

First dorsal pore in intersegmental furrow 12/138.

The clitellum extends over segments XIV._XVII. = 4; it does

not obliterate the limits of the segments ; sete are present on the

clitellar segments.

The male apertures are situated in large round sucker-like depres-

sions, with raised and swollen margins, on segment XVIII. The

interval between the apertures is equal to 1/4 of the circumference ;

there are no sete in this interval.

The female aperture is not very conspicuous, median, on the

anterior part of segment XIV.

I failed to see the spermathecal apertures ; and there are no other

genital marks of any kind.

The setx are in a chain, which is interrupted both ventrally and

dorsally. Ventrally aa — 3 1/2 ab (in front of the clitellum = 8 ab) ;

and dorsally zz = 2-21/2 yz. There isno regular difference between

the setal intervals in different parts of the chain; no sete are

specially enlarged. The numbers of setz are as follows :—36/VL.,

ca. 45/1 X., 33/X1X., 33/XXV., and 34 in the middle of the body.

InrerRNAL ANATOMY.—Septa 6/7 and 7/8 are somewhat thickened,

8/9-12/13 much thickened, and 13/14 again somewhat thickened.

The gizzard is in segment VI. There are yellow bulgings of

the esophagus in XI. and XII., but no calciferous glands. The

OLIGOCH ETA. 263

intestine begins in XV., and there are no diverticula (as far back as

segment XXXIV. at least).

The last heart is in segment XIII.

There is one pair of meganephridia per segment behind the male

apertures, as well as micronephridia.

Male Organs.—The testes and seminal funnels, the latter white and

glancing, are free in segments X. and XI. The vesicule seminales

are paired, and much cut up into small lobules, in segments IX. and

XII. The prostates are comparatively small, the prostatic duct

thick and S-shaped. Separate from the prostate, and close to the

terminal portion of its duct, is a small gland attached by a short

stalk to the inner surface of the body-wall ; it is of the same opaque

whiteness and the same texture as the prostate ; on the one side this

accessory gland was situated some little distance anterior, on the

other side posterior, to the end of the prostatic duct. The penial

sete are *83 mm. in length, 22-27 ». in breadth, curved, and then

very slightly recurved again, distally ; the free end appears bifid,

the two limbs resembling the limbs of a horseshoe; above the free

end are a number of prominent spines, arranged in irregular circles

round the distal portion of the shaft, with which they make an

acute angle.

Female Organs.—The ovaries and ovarian funnels are in XIII. The

spermathece open in the furrows 6/7, 7/8, and 8/9; there are

thus three pairs. The ampulla of each is bent on itself; when

straightened it is fusiform, narrowing distally to the external

aperture, without separate duct. From its base arise one or two

minute club-shaped diverticula, from 1/8. to 1/4 as long as the

ampulla ; on the left side, only the posterior of the three spermathece

had two diverticula ; on the right side, the two hinder spermathece

had two diverticula, the anterior only one.

Remarks.—The features wherein the present form appears to

differ from the typical form, as described, for example, in Michael-

sen’s “‘ Oligocheta”’ in the Tierreich, are the following :—The

head is prolobous ; the chain of sete is very distinctly interrupted,

both dorsally and ventrally (aa = 3 1/2 ab) ; no sete are noticeably

enlarged ; the setal intervals ab, bc, cd, &c., do not undergo a

regular diminution dorsalwards ; the first dorsal pore is in 12/13.

Less important, perhaps, are the small size of the prostates, the

smaller penial set, the variability of the spermathecal diverticula ;

the large round papille, on which, in the typical form, the male

pores are situated, are here represented by sucker-like areas with a

prominent circular rim.

MEGASCOLEX ANNANDALEI, sp. nov.

One sexually mature specimen.

Pattipola, Ceylon, hill country, 6,000 feet. In rotten wood of

dead tree stumps and logs in jungle.

264 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

EXTERNAL CHaRAcTERS.—Length 2 1/2 inches ; breadth, maximum

3mm. ; segments 120. Colour pale olive.

Prostomium small, prolobous. First dorsal pore in furrow 9/10 ;

dorsal pores extremely distinct in some regions.

Clitellum not distinct, apparently XIV.-XVI. = 38.

Male pores on XVIII., on papille, in a common slightly elevated

transversely extended glandular area ; the pores in line of sete 6,

separated by an interval equal to 1/5 circumference.

Copulatory areas as single ventral oval patches on segments XI.,

XII., and XV.; the one on XV. encroaching slightly on XIV. ;

the outlines of the other two flattened where they touch, along the

furrow 11/12. The area on XI. was not precisely in the middle of

the ventral surface, being displaced a little to the right.

Sete in each segment numerous. A definitely limited mid-ventral

tract is without sete, as also a more indefinite mid-dorsal tract.

The lines of setze a and 6 are distinct and regular on each side ; but |

the rest of the setze are much less regularly arranged. The lines of

the ventralmost setz (a and 6) converge inwards a little about the

region of the male aperture, which is in line 6. The sete are small

and difficult to count ; the number per segment varies considerably,

but is roughly 24-32 in the anterior part of the body. In the

anterior part of the body ab = 2/7 aa, more posteriorly = 1/3 aa.

INTERNAL AnatomMy.—The gizzard is in VI.; in XV. the @so-

phagus appears as a rounded white mass; in XIX. the intestine

begins.

The nephridial system is micronephridial. There is a large tuft

of nephridial tubes on each side of the alimentary canal at the

anterior end of the gizzard, a smaller one behind this on septum 6/7,

and another on 7/8.

The first definite septwm is 6 ee which is very thin ; septum 7/8 is

somewhat thickened.

The male funnels are one pair in X. and one pair in XI.; the

seminal vesicles are in XI. and XII., and the lobular prostates, of .

moderate size, in XVIII.

The spermathece are one pair only, lying in segment IX. and

opening at the level of furrow 8/9. The spermathecal sac is of an

elongated ovoid shape, the duct being very short. A long tubular

diverticulum springs from the base of the spermatheca; it is

between three and four times as long as the spermathecal sac itself ;

this diverticulum may be somewhat coiled, and may extend for

some distance across the middle line. |

The genital sete have a length of 4/5 mm., and a breadth of 24 uw.

They are gently curved, the terminal portion being armed with

small triangular teeth, distributed all round the cireumference and

not arranged in rows; the distal end tapers somewhat, and the

extreme point is recurved and flattened.

OLIGOCH ETA. 265

MEGASCOLEX PATTIPOLENSIS, sp. nov.

(Plate IL., Fig. 8.)

A single specimen. From the same locality as the last.

EXTERNAL CHARACTERS.—Length 2 inches ; breadth 2 1/2 mm.;

segments 129.

Prostomium prolobous, with in addition a pair of small grooves,

leading backwards from the hinder limit of the prostomium through

1/3 of segment (combination of pro- and epilobous characters).

First dorsal pore in intersegmental furrow 5/6.

Clitellum absent (or not yet developed).

Male apertures on papille, in segment XVIII., in line of sete 6;

interval between male apertures = 1/8 circumference ; the papille

of the two sides connected by a narrow transverse ridge (fig. 8), °

Female aperture not observed.

Spermathecal apertures not very conspicuous, in furrow 8/9, in

line of setze b.

Genital papille (fig. 8) on segment XIX., transversely oval, their

centre in line of sete 6; while abutting on furrow 18/19 they do

not occupy the whole length of the segment antero-posteriorly ; in a

transverse direction they extend from about the line of sete a to an

equal distance on the other side of 6. Another pair of small, trans-

versely elongated papille is situated in furrow 17/18, in front of

and bordering on the anterior edge of the papilla of the male aperture

on each side.

The setz2 are sometimes difficult to see. Ventrally the setal ring

is broken in each segment ; aa = 2 ab (segment XVII.) or 2 1/2 ab

(XX. and further back) ; ab = 6c, bc is slightly greater than cd;

cd = de approximately ; but though a and 6 are in regular longitu-

dinal lines throughout the body, c, d, and e are placed somewhat

irregularly posteriorly.

Dorsally to e are a few (e.g., in the middle of the body, 4) more

set, irregularly placed. Anteriorly zz — about 3 yz on the average ;

in segment XITI. zz — 2 yz., at the junction of middle and posterior

thirds of the body = 1 1/2 yz., and at the posterior end zz = yz.

Thus the line z is irregular.

Number of setze: 20/XIII.; in middle of body 20; at junction

of middle.and posterior thirds 24 (12 on each side) or 25 (12 and 13

on each side respectively).

InTERNAL ANnatTomMy.—Septum 6/7 is (?) slightly thickened:

septa 7/8 and 8/9 are moderately, 9/10 and 10/11 considerably

strengthened.

There is a large gizzard in segment VI. Calciferous glands are

present in XV. and XVI., appearing as lateral swellings on the

cesophagus, which narrows again in XVII., and dilates to form the

intestine in XVIII. There are no intestinal diverticula (at least as

far back as XL.) A typhlosole is present.

The last heart is in segment XIII.

266 SPOLIA ZEYLANIOCA.

Numbers of small separate micronephridia are present.

The male funnels are free, in segments X. and XI. The vesiculze

seminales, in XI. and XII., are lobulated masses surrounding the

alimentary canal. The prostates are of moderate size, simple

rounded masses, not lobulated, with stout white ducts ; the whole

resembling a mushroom. No penial sete observed.

The spermathece are one pair, opening between VIII. and IX. ;

spindle-shaped, with a short thick duct, and a finger-shaped diverti-

culum as long as the ampulla, attached to the duct at the base of the

ampulla.

MEGASCOLEX BIFOVEATUS, sp. nov.

(Plate II., Fig. 9.)

Two specimens. From the same locality as the last.

EXTERNAL CHARACTERS.—The specimen examined was incomplete

at its hinder end ; in length it measured 1 2/3 inch ; breadth, max.

3 mm., but narrower in front of the clitellum; the anterior end

(first few segments) tapering. Colour light gray, with a pinkish

tinge on dorsal surface anteriorly. Segments > 85 (after dissecting the

incomplete specimen I unfortunately, on subsequently meeting with

a complete specimen, omitted to count the segments of the latter).

Prostomium epilobous 3 /5-3 /4.

First dorsal pore in intersegmental furrow 5/6.

Clitellum embracing segments XIV.—XVI. = 3; setz present as

regular rings on clitellar segments.

Male apertures on segment XVIII. as small pits, surrounded by

small oval areas which however are not elevated. The apertures are

1/7 of the circumference apart, approximately in the line of seta d ;

but no sete are present in the interval between the apertures.

Female aperture indistinct, apparently mid-ventral on segment

XIV.

Spermathecal apertures in furrows 7/8 and 8/9. .

Genital marks are present as a pair of conspicuous oval pits, with

the long axis transversely placed in furrow 19/20, the centre of each

situated slightly internal to the line of the male apertures.

The sete form a ring in each segment, which is almost closed both

dorsally and ventrally. Dorsally the interval is irregular ; zz = 2 yz

approximately. Ventrally aa — 2 ab regularly. The setz on the

ventral side are placed somewhat closer together, in the anterior

part of the body at least, than on the dorsal side. Number of setz

39/V., 40/ITX., ca. 41/XIX., 42/X XVIII.

InternaL AnaTtomy.—The first distinguishable septum is 5/6;

6/7-8/9 are somewhat thickened, 9/10-13/14 considerably so, 14/15

and 15/16 moderately.

The gizzard, situated in segment VII., is not large nor very hard.

There are no calciferous glands. The intestine begins in XV.

The last heart is in segment XIII.

Very numerous small micronephridia are present in each segment.

OLIGOCHA:TA. 267

Male Organs.—Testes were not distinguished. The male funnels

are free in segments X. and XI. Vesicule seminales are situated

in XI. and XII., paired, of large size, much lobulated, the lobules

forming grape-like masses. The prostates are of moderate size,

occupying segments XVIII., XIX., and XX.; they are also much

lobulated ; the duct is straight and stout, arising from the gland in

XVIII.

The ovaries, in segment XIII., are comparatively large, and fan-

shaped, folded longitudinally. The female funnels are small.

The spermathece are two pairs, opening in furrows 7/8 and 8/9 ;

the ampulla of each is circular, flattened between the gizzard and

the body-wall ; the duct is short and fairly thick ; a small diverti-

culum, of an elongated ovoid shape, and one-quarter as long as the

ampulla, arises from the duct.

On opening the ampulla, the upper end of the duct is seen to be

invaginated into the cavity of the ampulla.

The genital sete (fig. 9) are -72—-75 mm. long, and 14-16 pv. thick.

They are almost straight, except at the distal end, which is curved

to form the quadrant of acircle. The distal end (except the extreme

point) is ornamented with finely sculptured dots, which are arranged

in four circles one above the other.

MEGASCOLEX CURTUS, sp. nov

(Plate IT., Fig. 10.)

A single specimen, incomplete at its posterior end. From the

same locality as the preceding.

EXTERNAL CHaractrers.—Length of the fragment 1 1/2 inch;

breadth 3 mm. ; colour light gray ; segments present 90.

Prostomium epilobous 1/3.

First dorsal pore in intersegmenta! furrow 13/14.

The clitellum embraces segments XIV.—XVII., — 4; it extends

all round the circumference, but is less well marked ventrally in

XVII. Setz are present on the clitellar segments.

The male apertures are on small papille on segment XVIII., in the

line of sete 6, 1/7 of the circumference apart. The surrounding

and intervening parts of the body-wall are thickened, wrinkled, with

irregular depressions just anterior and internal to the male apertures,

and an elevation in the mid-ventral line.

The female aperture was not distinguishable.

The spermathecal apertures are one pair, in furrow 8/9, apparently

between the lines of sete b and c ; but these apertures were very

inconspicuous.

Genital papille are present as two median ventral large flat oval

elevations. Of these, one is situated on segment XX., occupying

the whole length of the segment and encroaching forwards on XIX.

as far as the middle of this segment ; transversely it extends from

the line of setze a@ on one side to the same line on the other side

2x 6(7)12

268 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

(the lines of the setze converge inwards somewhat at this region).

The other papilla is slightly larger than the first ; it is situated on

segment XII., encroaching however on the neighbouring segments

(for about half the length of XIII. and one-third the length of XT.) ;

it has a very faint circular elevation at its centre; transversely it

extends from a point between the setal lines a and 6 on one side to a

corresponding point on the other side.

The setal rings are broken both dorsally and ventrally. Dorsally

zz —= 2 yz in the anterior, — 4 yz in the posterior part of the body ;

ventrally aa = 3 ab in front of clitellum, — 4 ab nearly behind

clitellum. In front of the clitellum all the setz are arranged in

regular longitudinal lines, in 6 pairs on each side, or 24 sete per

segment ; ab < bc; cd =ab. Inthe hinder part of the specimen the

setz were frequently difficult of observation ; while a and b, y and z,

were throughout arranged in definite longitudinal lines, the more

laterally placed setze appeared to be more irregularly distributed ;

the number of setz per segment was, at least approximately, the

same (24). The setze of segments II —VII. were moderately enlarged.

InteRNAL Anatomy. Septa 8/9-10/11 are moderately thickened.

The gizzard is in segment VI. There are no intestinal ceca (as far

back as segment XL).

The nephridial system consists of micronephridia.

The male funnels are free, in segments X. and XI.

The vesicule seminales, in XI. and XII., are much lobulated, and

extend unbroken across the middle line dorsally. The prostates are

small and compact, the duct thin and straight.

The spermathece lie in segment IX., with their apertures in

furrow 8/9. The ampulla has an inverted pyriform shape ; the

duct is moderately thick, and nearly as long as the ampulla. The

diverticulum is very long, and extends inwards as far as the middle

line ; it is bent on itself at the junction of its inner and middle

thirds, the inner third thus lying alongside the rest ; the diverticulum

is of equal thickness throughout, being about as wide as the duct ;

its length, when straightened, is about three times that of ampulla

and duct together (fig. 10).

Genital set are present, in length 7°25 mm., in breadth 022 mm.

The distal extremity is slightly broadened and flattened, and tapers

to a blunt point. The last -6—-7 mm. of its length is ornamented

with small triangular teeth, irregularly distributed all round the

circumference of the shaft.

MEGASCOLEX QUINTUS, sp. nov.

(Plate II., Figs. 11 and 12.)

A single specimen. From the same locality as the last.

EXTERNAL CHARACTERS.—Length 2 1/2 inches ; breadth 21/2 mm.

colour light gray ; segments 139. The specimen was contracted at

the clitellar region.

OLIGOCHA'TA, 269

Prostomium epilobous 1/2.

First dorsal pore in intersegmental furrow 6/7.

Clitellum not developed.

Male apertures on segment XVIII., in line of sete b, 1/6 of the

circumference apart, on very small inconspicuous whitish papille.

The male apertures are included in a slightly raised genital field

(fig. 11), of somewhat oval shape, which embraces the ventral

portions of segment XVIII., half of XVII., and two-thirds of XIX.

Also situated in the genital field are a pair of flat circular areas, each

with a dark dot in the middle, occupying the anterior part of XVIII.

and encroaching on XVII. ; these areas are thus situated between

and in front of the male apertures. The intersegmental furrow

17/18 is obliterated ventrally.

The spermathecal apertures are very inconspicuous, one pair, in

furrow 8/9, just external to the line of setz b.

The setz form a ring, interrupted both dorsally and ventrally.

Ventrally, aa = 3 ab nearly ; dorsally, zz is quite an irregular

interval. The more ventrally situated setz (ab, cd, ef) form aseries of

regular longitudinal lines. Behind the clitellum, ab = be — ie hy

—de— ef)’

the differences are slight only. Seta e is about at the lateral

line of the body; dorsal to f are two or occasionally three more

setze on each side, irregularly placed; thus there are usually 16 sete

per segment. In front of the clitellum the setz are fewer, 6 only

on each side. The setz of segments I].—VI. are enlarged, especially

aandb. Numbers of sete: 12/V.,12/IX., 12/XIIT., and 16 behind

the clitellum.

INTERNAL ANAaTOMY.—Septum 7/8 is moderately thickened, septa

8/9-13 /14 considerably, 14/15-17/18 again moderately.

The gizzard is in segment VI. Calciferous glands are present in

XV. and XVI. as considerable dilatations of the cesophagus, very

vascular, with a lamellated structure internally. The intestine begins

in XVIII. No intestinal diverticula were seen.

The last heart is in segment XIII.

The excretory system consists of micronephridia.

Testes and male funnels are free in segments X. and XI. ‘Fhe

vesicule seminales, paired, in XI. and XII. are racemose in form.

The prostates are small, confined to segment XVIII. ; the duct is

thick, and straight except for a bend at its inner (proximal) end.

No penial setz were discovered.

Ovaries were present in segment XIII., but the ovarian funnels

were not seen.

The spermathece lie in segment IX., and open in furrow 8/9.

The ampulla is elongated, and somewhat dilated proximally ;

there is no distinctly marked-off duct. The diverticulum is finger

like, and joins the base of the ampulla. On the left side (fig. 12)

270 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

the ampulla was bent on itself, and the diverticulum was about 2/5

as long as the ampulla: on the right side the ampulla was smaller

and straight, and the diverticulum was almost as long as the

ampulla.

MEGASCOLEX SEXTUS, sp. nov.

(Plate II., Figs. 13 and 14.)

A single specimen. From the same locality as the last.

EXTERNAL CHARACTERS.—Length 4 inches; breadth 2 mm. ;

colour brown dorsally, with transverse segmentally repeated whitish

markings along the lines of the sete, light gray ventrally, the

anterior end darker. Segments 114.

Prostomium epilobous 2/3 limited posteriorly however by a faint

transverse marking between the hinder ends of the longitudinal

grooves. The first segment is cleft in the middle line ventrally.

The first dorsal pore is situated in segment V., near the interseg-

mental furrow 5/6: and all the dorsal pores in the anterior part of

the body are in front of the furrows.

The clitellum extends from 1/2 XIV.—XVI.—2 1/2; the body is

slightly swollen here, but otherwise there is no notable change in the

character of the skin ; the setz are quite obvious on all the clitellar

segments.

The male apertures ave on papille on segment XVITI., 1/4 of the

circumference apart from each other ; no setz occur in the interval

between the apertures.

The spermathecal apertures ave in the furrows 6/7 and 7/8, and are

nearly half the circumference apart.

There are two pairs of genital papille. One pair, in furrow 17/18,

are small whitish elevations, slightly internal to the line of the male

apertures. The others, in furrow 9/10, are a pair of conspicuous

oval papille, their long axis transversely placed, with eye-like

markings in the centre ; they are situated internal to the line of

the spermathecal apertures, a little more than 1/5 of the circum-

ference apart.

The setx# are disposed in rings, which dorsally are almost closed ;

ventrally aa — 2 ab posteriorly, or in front of the clitellum often =

21/2ab. The sete are at approximately the same distance apart at

all parts of the chain. Number of sete: ca. 36/V., ca. 40/IX.,

36/XV., 50/XTX., and posteriorly 50.

InterNaL ANnatomy.—Septa 9/10-13/14 are slightly thickened.

The gizzard is in segment VII. The intestine begins in XIV.

The last heart is in XIII. The excretory system consists of micro-

nephridia.

The testes and seminal funnels are in segments X. and XI., enclosed

in testicular sacs which are connected dorsally over the cesophagus

im each segment. The funnels are large, brilliantly glancing, and

iridescent.

OLIGOCH ATA, 271

The vesicule. seminales are paired, in segments XI. and XILI.,

comparatively small in size, not lobulated. The prostates are

lobulated, and occupy four segments, XVIII.—XX1J.; the duct is

stout, originates in XIX., and runs obliquely forwards to open in

XVIII.

The ovaries are large, and are situated, with the ovarian funnels,

in segment XIII.

The spermathece (fig. 13) are two pairs, in segments VII. and VIII.,

opening in the furrows 6/7 and 7/8. The ampulla is somewhat

flattened, irregularly circular and sac-like ; the duct is very broad,

and nearly as long as the ampulla, from which it is not sharply

marked off. The diverticulum is very small, club-shaped, and

arises from the junction of ampulla and duct.

The genital sete (fig. 14) are in length -94 mm., in breadth 16-18 u..

The distal end is curved through about the quadrant of a circle, is

tapering and pointed, and is ornamented by a single circle of minute

sculpturings at the commencement of the terminal curve.

PHERETIMA HAWAYANA, (Rosa).

For reasons to be subsequently assigned, I give an account of

some of the anatomical features of the single specimen of this species

in the present collection. It was found, along with the six species

of Megascolex, in the rotten wood of dead tree stumps and logs in

the jungle, at Pattipola (hill country), Ceylon, 6,000 feet. ;

EXTERNAL CHARACTERS.—Length 2 inches ; breadth 2 1/2 mm.

Colour yellowish brown. Segments 91.

Prostomium epilobous 1/2.

First dorsal pore in intersegmental furrow 10/11.

The clitellum comprises segments XIV.—XVI. = 3; it is annular

in form, and has a few small sete ventrally on segment XVI. only.

The male apertures are on segment XVIII., widely separated, and

not elevated. There are twelve setz intervening between the

apertures ; these setze however do not approach very near to the

inner margins of the apertures themselves.

The female aperture is presumably situated in a small, mid-ventral,

somewhat transversely extended depression on segment XIV.

The spermathecal apertures were invisible from the exterior.

Genital markings were present in the form of a number of spots to

the inner side of the male apertures. These were of a dark colour,

and were, I think, somewhat depressed, certainly not elevated.

There were four such spots on the left, and two on the right side, in

a transverse line shghtly behind the level of the male apertures, and

therefore behind the level of the sete. A minute darkish spot was

also visible ventrolaterally on the left side of segment VIII., just

in front of furrow 8/9.

272 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA,

The sete form a ring in each segment, which behind the clitellum

is almost closed dorsally (zz = 2 yz or less) ; in the first few segments

of the body, zz is a wide interval, and yz is also much wider than

posteriorly. Ventrally the ring is quite, or almost, closed ; if not

quite closed, the line of setze a, and the interval aa, is irregular. As

far back as segment IX., the sete on the ventral surface are arranged

at very irregular, and in some segments very wide, intervals. The

ventral sete of segments III.—IX. are enlarged ; those of X. are

quite small.

InteRNAL Anatomy.—The lower margin of the intestinal diverta-

cula has a crenated appearance.

The prostates are large, occupying six segments ; the duct forms

a single loop. On the right side there were four accessory glands ;

and on the left side two only, somewhat larger than those of the

right ; there is thus no direct relation to the number of dark spots

seen externally, the numbers for each side, four and two, being

reversed.

The spermathece open between segments 5/6, 6/7, and 7/8;

there are thus three pairs. The ampulla is circular in shape, and

flattened ; the duct is narrow, and nearly as long as the ampulla ;

the diverticulum, in most cases directed inwards towards the

middle line, is narrow, nearly as long as ampulla and duct together,

and dilated at its inner extremity.

Remarks.—In a recent Paper on some earthworms from Yunnan

and the Shan States (12), I have described some specimens of P.

hawayana which very much resemble the above. The interest

lies in the fact that they are in some respects intermediate

between the typical form of P. hawayana and the sub-species

barbadensis.

These two forms were previously described as separate species,

and are so considered by Michaelsen in the Tierreich (5). Beddard

however (3, p. 645) considered that they should be united ; and

this Michaelsen (9, p. 187) accepts, with however the following

proviso : “I am not yet quite convinced that this view 1s correct.

Till now I have not seen a specimen—and I have examined many—

which aroused any doubt as to whether it should be placed in the

typical form or in the sub-species.”’

We may take as a basis of comparison (i.) the diagnosis of P.

hawayana and P. barbadensis in the Tierreich, and (ii.) the follow-

ing passage from Michaelsen’s Paper just referred to :— In the

generally more robust typical form with stronger sete in the anterior

part of the body the papille near the male pores are always united

at each side, occupying an oblong oval area medial from the male

pores and mostly somewhat oblique. In the sub-species barbadensis,

the papillze near the male pores are scattered, partly very near the

male pores, partly near the median ventral line.”’

OLIGOCHETA, 273

In the present specimen we find no papille, but darkish spots

(= “ Fleckchen” of P. hawayana, in Tierreich) ; which however

were not confluent but separate (— barbadensis), and near and on

the inner side of the male aperture (= hawayana). The sete of the

anterior segments were strengthened (= hawayana) ; the setal

chains were not quite closed (— hawayana), but on the other hand

the dorsal interval was the more marked (the contrary is character-

istic of P. hawayana, cf. Tierreich). The clitellum occupied the

whole of three segments (— barbadensis); the intestinal ceca

showed a series of secondary diverticula, and the prostatic duct was

curved (= hawayana).

Most of the characters of the present, specimen were found also in

the examples from the Shan States. The present specimen from

Ceylon differs from them however in having a few clitellar setee, in

the fact that the setal rings are not quite closed, and in having

circular rather than ovoid, spermathecal ampulle.,

DICHOGASTER AFFINTS, (Mchlsn.).

A single specimen, in a tube along with the Lampito previously

described. In rotten wood in the hotel compound, Anuradhapura

(low country), Ceylon.

This species is already known from Ceylon ; I subjoin a few notes

on the single specimen submitted to me, since it shows a few

peculiarities, mostly however in all probability of an individual

nature only.

Length 30 mm. ; breadth, max. 1°5 mm. ; segments 125. Colour

brownish red (due to contents of gut), with white specks (nephridia)

behind the clitellum. The chief of the peculiarities referred to

above was in the segmentation ; the two pairs of prostatic pores

were on segments XVI. and XVIII., instead of XVII. and XIX.,

and internally also the organs, from the pharynx backwards, were

one segment in front of their normal position.

The clitellum was incomplete ventrally, and extended from XIII.

to 1/2 XX. — 71/2. The body-wall was elsewhere very thin, and

the red woody material could be plainly seen filling out the gut in.

its whole extent behind the clitellum.

The nephridia were very conspicuous externally, appearing as

three white spots on each side in each segment behind the clitellum ;

in some of the anterior segments there were four such spots. They

were of an opaque flocculent appearance, each in linear series with

the corresponding organ in preceding and succeeding segments, the

whole of them thus being arranged for the most part in regular

longitudinal lines along the body. They become much smaller

towards the posterior end, and in the middle and posterior thirds

of the body the dorsal row is somewhat widely separated from the

other more ventrally situated rows.

274 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

The prostatic pores, as mentioned above, are on segments XVI.

and XVIII.; those of the same side are connected by an almost

straight longitudinal groove, and the two apertures and connecting

groove of each side have raised margins. Since the ridges bordering

the grooves on their inner side approach each other closely in the

mid-ventral line, the appearance of the whole is that of a raised

square with rounded corners.

The genital “ papillx’’ do not appear to be raised. Each is a

small inconspicuous circular area, mid-ventrally situated in the

course of furrows 7/8 and 8/9, with a smaller circular marking in its

centre. There was a similar very small area between and behind

the posterior prostatic apertures mid-ventrally in furrow 18/19.

The sete had the normal relations for the species. The length

of the ordinary sete was 115-125, in shape they were of the

‘“ Enchyireus type,’ with a hooked proximal and almost straight,

tapering, and pointed distal end.

The anterior portion of the animal was sectioned longitudinally ;

the woody material in the intestine and gizzards proved very

damaging to these parts of the sections, so that unfortunately the

spermathece, in the region of the gizzards, were almost unrecog-

nizable. The following points may be briefly noted.

Septum 7/8 was moderately thickened, septa 8/9-10/11 consider-

ably, 11/12 and 12/13 moderately ; allowing for the difference in

the numbering of the segments, this is practically the condition

given in the diagnosis of the species by Michaelsen (5). There was

a well-marked typhlosole. The first dorsal pore was in the furrow 4/5

(this would correspond to 5/6 in a normal specimen).

The nephridia presented a curious appearance in sections. They

were mainly composed of circular aggregates, up to 22 ». in diameter,

of small white spherical non-staining granules ; and it is presumably

to this material that the opaque white appearance of the nephridia

in the entire animal was due. Nuclei and strands of tissue were

present between the granular aggregations ; substituting these white

erains for oil, the appearance of a nephridium in section was not

unlike that of a group of fat cells. .

The seminal funnels, vesicule seminales, male apertures, prostates,

gizzards, spermathecal apertures, and calciferous glands agreed in

structure and position (making the necessary allowance) with what

has been previously described for the species.

REFERENCES TO LITERATURE.

1. Beddard, F. E.—Preliminary Notice of South American Tubific-

idee collected by Dr. Michaelsen, including the

description of a branchiate form. Ann. Nat.

Hist., XTII., 1894.

— ———— Naiden, Tubificiden und Terricolen. Ergebn.

Hamburger Magalhensischen Sammelreise

I., No. 2, Hamburg, 1896.

OLIGOCH UTA, 275

3. Beddard, F. E.—A Revision of the Earthworms of the Genus

Amynias (Pericheta). P. Zool. Soc., Lond.,

1900.

4. Bousfield, E.C.—The Natural History of the Genus Dero. J. Linn,

Soe. (Zool.), XX., 1890.

5. Michaelsen, W.—Oligocheta, in Das Tierreich. Berlin, 1900.

—————— Hamburgische Elb-Untersuchung, IV., Oligo-

cheten. Hamburg, 1903.

7. —————-— Die Oligochaten Deutsch Ost—Afrikas. Zeit. f.

wiss. Zool. Bd. LXXXITI., 1905.

8. —————— On a New Megascolex from Ceylon. Spolia

Zeylanica, Vol. VI., 1909.

9. ———__-___——_ The Oligocheta of India, Nepaul, Ceylon,

Burma, and the Andaman Islands. Mem.

Ind. Mus., Calcutta, Vol. I., No. 3, 1909.

10. Stephenson, J—On some Aquatic Oligocheta in the Collection

of the Indian Museum. Ree. Ind. Mus.,

Calcutta, Vol. VI., Pt. 4, 1911.

11, ————_—-— On Branchiura sowerbyi, Beddard, and on anew

species of Limnodrilus with distinctive charac-

ters. Trans. Roy. Soc., Edin., Vol. XLVIII.,

1912.

12. —————— Contributions to the Fauna of Yunnan, Part

VIII., Earthworms. Rec. Ind. Mus., Cal-—

Cuties Viol. Ville. Et d.lom2:

13. Willey, A.—Convergence in Evolution. London, 1911.

DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES.

Plate I.

Fig. 1.—Dero zeylanica; transverse section through posterior end,

cutting both intestine and dorsal diverticulum of branchial fossa,

the latter containing the first pair of gills; x 155, Abbe’s drawing

apparatus.

Fig. 2.—The same ; transverse section at a more posterior level ;

intestine has opened into the branchial fossa, which is still closed

dorsally ; the first and second pairs of gills as ridges on the walls of

the fossa; X 155, Abbe’s drawing apparatus.

Fig. 3.—The same, more posteriorly still; the branchial fossa has

opened out dorsally; the first pair of gills has disappeared; the

second, third, and fourth pairs are seen; X 155, Abbe’s drawing

apparatus.

Br. f., branchial fossa; d. d., dorsal diverticulum of fossa; g1—g‘4,

first to fourth pairs of gills ; int., intestine ; marg., margin of fossa ;

sp. c., nerve cord ; x., pear-shaped epithelial cells of gills.

Fig. 4.—Dorsal needle-seta of Dero zeylanica.

Fig. 5.—Setz of Aulophorus palustris ; a, dorsal needle ; 6, ventral

seta of segments II.-IV. ; c, ventral seta of segments behind IV. (b and

¢ more highly magnified than a).

20 6(7)12

276

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA,

Fig. 6.—Ventral sete of Hesperodrilus zeylanicus ; the distal end of

the single-pointed seta is uppermost ; x 600.

Fig.

. 11. —Genital area of Megascolex quintus.

7.—Genital area of Drawida annandalet.

Plate II.

8.—Genital area of Megascolex pattipolensis.

9.—Distal end of genital seta of Megascolex bifoveatus.

10.—Distal end of genital seta of Megascolex curtus.

. 12.—Spermatheca of Megascolex quintus.

o. 13.—Spermatheeca of Megascolex seaxtus.

g. 14.—Distal end of genital seta of Megascolex sextus.

Spolia Zeylanica. Vol VIII. Pt.s& Plate 1,

J.S.del. EB Wilson,Cambridge.

1-4. Dero zeylanica. 5. Aulophorus palustris.

6.Hesperodrilus zeylanicus. 7 Drawida annandalei.

Spolia Zeylanica: Vol. VII.Pt. 36 Plateez:

J.S.del. E .Wilson ,Gambridge.

6. Megascolex pattipolensis. 9.Megascolex bifoveatus.

10 Megascolex curtus. 1112. Megascolex quintus.

15 & 14. Megascolex sextus.

TERMITES. Q77

ON SOME TERMITES COLLECTED BY MR. GREEN

IN CEYLON.*

By Dr. Nits Hotmeren, Stockholm.

HAVE, on several occasions, received termites for determination

from Mr. E. E. Green, of Peradeniya.

These very valuable collections contained several new species in

addition to others that were already well known, but of which our

knowledge has been amplified by the discovery of hitherto unknown

castes.

Hereunder I will deal with the following species and castes that

are new to Ceylon or to Science :—

Calotermes (Neotermes) militaris, Desn. Lmago.

Calotermes (Glyptotermes) dilatatus, Bung. Imago.

Calotermes (Glyptotermes) ceylonicus, Holmgr. Imago and soldier.

Termes esthere, Desn. New to Ceylon.

Odontotermes horni, Wasm. Imago.

Odontotermes ceylonicus, Wasm. Imago.

Odontotermes obscuriceps, Wasm. Imago.

Eutermes lacustris, Bugn. Soldier and worker.

Eutermes longicornis, n. sp. Soldier and worker.

Microcerotermes bugnioni, Holmgr. Imago.

Microcerotermes greent, n. sp. Soldier and worker.

CALOTERMES (NEOTERMES) MILITARIS, Desneux.

Imago :—Reddish brown, with lighter coloured antenne, pleure,

coxe, femora, and abdominal sternites. Tibize and tarsi reddish

brown. Wings (rust coloured) yellow brown, smooth, sparsely

covered with hair.

Head broadly oval, thick when looked at from the side, moder-

ately arched, with somewhat impressed forehead. Compound eyes

rather small, ocelli small, almost touching the eyes. Basal portion

of clypeus very short, of the same colour as the forehead, quite flat.

Apical portion of clypeus trapezoidal, white. Upper lip somewhat

broader than long. Mandible armed as in Hodotermes. Antenne

with eighteen or nineteen joints. In the case of those with

eighteen, the second, third, and fourth are of equal length. When

there are nineteen joints, second and third are equal and the fourth

shorter. .

Pronotum much broader than the head ; anterior border strongly

concave, distinctly shorter than the hinder border. Posterior

angles more strongly rounded than the anterior angles. Mesonotum

* Translated from the German.

278 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

and metanotum straight behind, hardly rounded. Basal pads

(‘‘ Schuppen”’) of the fore wings very large, with rather convex

costal margin and bowed hinder margin; ribs prominent. Wing

membrane thickly covered with minute prominences. Subcosta

and radius of fore wing fairly well developed. Radius-sector with

from six to seven branches to the front edge of the wing ; the first

branch proceeding from the inner third of the wing. Mediana free

from the base of the wing, with from six to eight radius-sector

connections, often with a backwardly directed branch at the

extremity. Interspace between the mediana and the cubitus

reticulated. The five to seven inner branches of the cubitus well

defined ; the remainder (ten to twelve*) weaker.

The mediana of the hind wing extends almost from the base of

the radius-sector.

All the tibize with three apical teeth ; the middle tibiz with one

or two additional lateral teeth. Onychium small.

Length, with wings, 17 mm.

Length, without wings, 10 to 12 mm.

Length of head, 2:5 to 2°7 mm.

Breadth of head, 2 mm.

Width of pronotum, 3 mm.

Locality, Peradeniya. (Coll. Green, No. 2,452.)

CALOTERMES (GLYPTOTERMES) DILATATUS, Bugn.

(nec Calotermes ceylonicus, Holmgr.)

Imago (apterous form) :—Brownish yellow ; head and pronotum

somewhat darker ; lower parts whitish yellow. Hair very scanty.

Head broadly oval, somewhat longer than broad. Head sutures

hardly visible. Compound eyes rather small, slightly protuberant.

Ocelli almost touching the eyes. Mandibular condyle large. Basal

portion of clypeus short. Upper lip small, strongly bent. Antenne

?-jointed, third joint somewhat smaller than second and as long as

fourth.

Pronotum with somewhat widely rounded fore-angles, and with

unindented anterior margin. Mesonotum and metanotum obscurely

excavate.

Length, without wings, 6 mm.

Length of head, 1-44 mm.

Width of head, 1-26 mm.

Width of pronotum, 1-07 mm.

Length of pronotum, 0°59 mm.

Locality, Peradeniya.

Remarks.—The imago described as Calotermes ceylonicus, Holmgren

(Escherich, ‘‘ Termitenleben auf Ceylon”), does not belong to

C’. dilatatus, Bugnion, as I once supposed (Zool. Anz., 1911).

* There are about eleven principal branches to the cubitus, but these are

much subdivided, especially on the distal part of the wing.

TERMITES. 279

CALOTERMES (GLYPTOTERMES) CEYLONICUS, Holmer.

Calotermes ceylonicus, Holmgren (Escherich, ‘‘ Termitenleben auf

Ceylon ”’).

Imago :—Yellowish brown to brown. Below, straw-yellow. Wings

hyaline with brown veins. Pronotum with a T-shaped yellow mark.

Hair very scanty.

Head quadrate-oval, longer than broad, very thick, sloping

somewhat towards the forehead. Sagittal suture very distinct.

Compound eyes small, somewhat protuberant. Ocelli of medium

size, almost touching the eyes, placed somewhat awry. Basal

portion of clypeus very short; upper lip small, sharply bent.

Antenne 13-jointed, third about as long as second and a trifle longer

than the fourth. Pronotum rather smaller than the head, with

acutely rounded angles in front (“‘ Vorderecken beinahe spitzwinkelig

abgerundet ”’). Metanotum somewhat rounded behind. Wing

membrane verrucose (“‘ hockerig”’). Subcosta of the fore wing

rudimentary. Radius short. Cubitus very feebly defined, with

from ten to twelve branches :—

Smaller Form. Larger Form.

Length, with wings Me 8°5 mm. ae a

Length, without wings a 4°7 mm. 2. | OmnmM:

Length of fore wing ie 7°3 mm. a

Length of head as 1:33mm. .. 1°48 mm.

Width of head ve 1°15 mm. 2. . 1+ 26 mmm

Width of pronotum ‘ 0:96.mm..., ... 7 L718 mom

Length of pronotum ie 0:52 mm... 0-7 mum

Soldier :—Head yellowish red, brown towards the front ; man-

dible brown at base ; body straw-yellow. Hair very scanty.

Head approximately cylindrical, much longer than _ broad.

Forehead sharply receding, medially impressed, bilobed, rounded

at the sides. Basal portion of clypeus short. Upper lip reaching

beyond the middle of the closed mandibles, longer than broad.

Mandible very short and broad, strongly toothed. Antenne

12-jointed, short ; third joint very short.

Pronotum smaller than the head, half-moon shaped ; anterior

margin concave, posterior margin slightly excavated in the middle.

Abdomen somewhat extended.

Length of body, 6:5 to 7 mm.

Head, with mandibles, 3°22 mm.

Head, without mandibles, 2°55 mm.

Width of head, 1°52 mm.

Width of pronotum, 1°39 mm.

Length of pronotum, 0°63 mm.

The collection contains many larve and nymphs.

Locality, Peradeniya.

280 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Remarks.—The imagines of C. ceylonicus and dilatatus are very

similar to each other, but may be distinguished by the following

characters :—

(1) Pronotum with almost rectangular slightly rounded angles

in front. Sagittal suture of head very well defined ; darker.—C.

ceylonicus, Holmer.

(2) Pronotum with broadly rounded angles in front. Sagittal

suture of head ill-defined ; paler.—C. dilatatus, Bugn.

TERMES ESTHER, Desn.

Soldiers and workers present.

Locality, Hambantota (A. J. MacDougall).

Remarks.—This species is now recorded from Ceylon for the first

time. Desneux described it from the Bijapur District (Bombay

Presidency).

ODONTOTERMES HORNI, Wasm.

Syn. Termes peradenitye, Holmgren. ‘‘ Termitenleben auf Ceylon,”

K. Escherich, p. 197.

Syn. (?) Termes taprobanes, Hag. According to Ceylon examples

of Hagen, Wasmann.

The imago of this species, which is common at Peradeniya, has

been ‘hitherto unknown. Mr. Green has now obtained imagines.

They are identical with specimens from the collections of the Vienna

Hot-Museum, which I have described as 7’. peradeniye.

Probably 7. taprobanes, from Ceylon, is also identical with

O. horni.

Locality, Peradeniya ; Koslanda. In branches of Croton tiglium.

- ODONTOTERMES CEYLONICUS, Wasm.

Imago :—Head bright castaneous: area surrounding the fontan-

elle, anterior angles of the ‘‘ transverse band,” basal’ portion of

clypeus, antennz, and mouth parts reddish yellow. Pronotum of the

same colour as the head, with a T-shaped mark, shoulder spots, and

two posterior spots yellow. Front part of the meso- and metanotum

paler than the hinder parts. Wings brownish. Abdomen brown

above, rusty yellow below. Legs rusty yellow.

Hair rather dense, yellowish.

Head large, broadly oval. Fontanelle small, elevated. Com-

pound eyes of medium size, decidedly prominent. Ocelli large,

distant from the eyes by about their greater diameter. ‘‘ Transverse

band” medially excavated, narrow, uneven. Basal portion of

clypeus large, rather shorter than half its own width, ‘strongly

swollen, convex behind, straight in front. Antenne 19-jointed,

second longer than third, fourth somewhat longer than third but

shorter than second.

TERMITES. 281

Pronotum wide, with broadly rounded anterior angles, lateral

margins converging strongly behind, posterior margin slightly

excavated in the middle. _Mesonotum more broadly excised behind

than the metanotum. Wing membrane minutely punctate, sparsely

hairy at the extremity, with a yellow subcostal streak. Radius-

sector with some short backwardly directed branches. Mediana

extending from the cubitus, with one, two, four, or six apical

branches, and often with some slender branches united to the

radius-sector. Cubitus with about sixteen branches, of which about

the seven innermost are thickened. Cerci present in the male.

Length, with wings, 27 mm.

Length, without wings, 12 to 13 mm.

Length of fore wing, 12°5 mm.

Length of head, 2:7 mm.

Width of head, 2°59 mm.

Length of pronotum, 1:29 mm.

Breadth of pronotum, 2°52 mm.

Locality, Peradeniya.

Remarks.—O. ceylonicus is readily distinguishable from other

Ceylon species by the extensive yellow area surrounding the

fontanelle.

ODONTOTERMES OBSCURICEPS, Wasm.

Imago :—Head dark castaneous. Fontanelle, two spots, and

the anterior angles of the front margin of the “‘ transverse band ”

rusty yellow. Basal portion of clypeus brownish. Antenne

brownish ; mouth parts rusty yellow. A T-shaped mark and two

shoulder spots on the pronotum yellow. Fore parts of the meso-

and metanotum paler than the hind parts. Dorsal surface of

abdomen brown ; ventral surface, especially in the middle, much

paler. Tibize brownish. Wings yellowish brown, with brown

veins. A yellow subcostal line is present.

Hair “‘ fairly plentiful.’ The head partly with short hairs and

partly with longer bristles.

Head broadly oval, narrowed in front. Area surrounding the

fontanelle strongly impressed. Fontanelle small, punctiform, with

a small longitudinal elevation in front of it. Compound eyes

of medium size, decidedly prominent. Ocelli fairly large, with a

raised inner edge : distant from the eyes by about their longer

diameter. Basal portion of clypeus large, distended, rather shorter

than half its width, convex behind, straight in front. Antenne

19-jointed ; third shorter than second ; fourth rather longer than

third, but shorter than second ; fifth as long as third.

Pronotum moderately broad, with broadly rounded fore-angles ; a

slight median notch in front, widely excavated behind. Mesonotum

more broadly notched than the metanotum. Wings moderately

broad : membrane, finely punctate, sparsely hairy towards the tip.

Radius-sector sometimes with a “hind rib”; also with short

282 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

backwardly directed branches. Mediana, even before the middle,

divided into about eight branches. Cubitus with from twelve to

sixteen branches, of which about the seven innermost are thicker

than the others.

Length, with wings, 26 to 27 mm.

Length, without wings, 10 to 12 mm.

Length of fore wing, 22, 23, or 24 mm.

Length of head, 24 mm.

Width of head, 2°22 mm.

Length of pronotum, 1:04 mm.

Width of pronotum, 2°07 mm.

Locality, Peradeniya.

Remarks.—It is curious that in the literature dealing with

Termites a complete description of Odontotermes obscuriceps, Wasm..,

appears to be wanting, in spite of the fact that this is one of the

commonest of Ceylon species.

EKUTERMES LACUSTRIS,* Bugn.

Soldier :—Head dark brown; antenne, thoracic plates, and

abdominal tergites paler brown; legs and abdominal sternites

straw yellow.

Head with only a few scattered setz. Abdominal tergites

minutely hairy, with a feebly developed row of sete behind.

Sternites with longer hair and sete.

Head (without the process) seen from above circular ; profile

of forehead almost completely straight, or almost imperceptibly

concave. Process conical, of medium length. Antenne 13-jointed ;

second as long as third ; fourth smallest.

Pronotum short, with short strongly elevated anterior lobes ;

entire. Mesonotum somewhat narrower than the metanotum, the

latter slightly excavated behind. Fourth joint of tarsus produced

in the form of a spine.

Length of body, 3 to 3°5 mm.

Length of head, 1:63 mm.

Width of head, 1:05 mm.

Worker :—Head brown, body tergites slightly brown ; sutures of

head, anterior edge of the “‘ transverse band,”’ clypeus, sides of head

and the remaining parts of the body whitish straw-coloured. Head

with only scanty short hair. Abdominal tergites with fine short

hair and a feebly developed row of setze behind. Head approxi-

mately quadrate, with strongly rounded angles, longer than broad.

Sutures of head very distinct, moderately wide. Clypeus with a

* This was originally described by Dr. Holmgren as a new species,

Eutermes greeni ; but, since the submittal of his manuscript, a description of

the same species has been published by Dr. Bugnion, under the name of

Eutermes lacustris. Dr. Bugnion’s name, therefore, takes precedence. The

correction has been authorized by Dr. Holmgren.—E, E, G.

TERMITES. 283

short base, which scarcely touches the mandibular condyles. Mandi-

bular condyles rather large. Apex of clypeus hyaline. Upper lip

rather small, broader than long. Antennae 14-jointed ; second

slightly longer than third ; fourth smallest. Pronotum strongly

convex ; anterior lobes as long as the hinder part, very slightly

excavated (or entire).

Length of body, 4 mm. Width of head, 1°03 mm.

Length of head, 1-3 mm. Width of pronotum, 0°61 mm.

Locality, Peradeniya.

EUTERMES LONGICORNIS , D.Sp.

Soldier :—Head brownish yellow, frontal process more decidedly

brown ; antenne rusty yellow; abdominal tergites brown; body, in

other respects, yellowish white. Smooth, with a few sete on the

hinder margins of the abdominal tergites. Head pear-shaped, not

constricted (“ eingeschniirt ’’). Frontal process slender, about as

long as the rest of the head. Profile of forehead coneave, the frontal

process and the crown of the head not lying in the same plane.

Antenne long, 13-jointed ; third at least twice as long as second

and distinctly longer than fourth. Pronotum saddle-shaped, not

excavated in front.

Length of body, 2°75 mm.

Length of head, 1°66 mm.

Length of frontal process, 0°74 mm.

Width of head, 0°92 mm.

Width of pronotum, 0°44 mm.

Worker :—Head light brown, with white sutures and fontanelle.

Basal portion of clypeus and anterior border of ‘‘ transverse band ”

yellowish. Tergites brown: remainder of body yellowish white.

Head with a few setz. Hair, in other respects, as in the soldiers.

Head broadly oval. Sutures clearly defined. Fontanelle trian-

gular, situated in the sagittal suture. Base of clypeus short, rather

narrow, somewhat arched. Antenne rather long, slender, 15-jointed ;

third joint as long as second and fourth together; fifth as long as

fourth ; other joints gradually increasing in length. Pronotum

saddle-shaped, not excavated in front.

Length of body, 4°25mm. | Width of head, 1:29 mm.

Length of head, 1°63 mm. | Width of pronotum, 0:67 mm.

Locality, Peradeniya, on stem of “‘ Giant Bamboo.”

Remarks.—Nearest to Hutermes escherichi of Ceylon.

MICROCEROTERMES BUGNIONI, Holmgren.

Imago :—Dark brown, lighter beneath. Clypeus, antennz, mouth

parts and legs rusty yellow ; wings dark. Hair short and fine.

Head oval, longer than broad, approximately parallel-sided,

thick. Compound eyes small and prominent. Ocelli rather small

but not punctiform ; scarcely less distant from the eyes than their

2P 6(7)12

284 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

diameter. Fontanelle imperceptible, but actually present. Basal

portion of the clypeus large, almost triangular behind, straight in

front, somewhat distended. Antenne 14-jointed, third very small.

Pronotum small, straight in front, anterior corners angularly

rounded, lateral margin strongly convergent; posterior margin

relatively short, obscurely excavated in the middle. Mesonotum

distinct. Metanotum very slightly excised. Front wing-pads

distinctly longer than the hinder ones, but not reaching the base of

same. The mediana of the fore wing arises free from the pad, and

runs nearer to the cubitus than to the radius-sector. Mediana

simple or furcate, or with two or three branches. Cubitus with

eight or nine branches, of which most are furcate. Six or seven

stout inner nervures. The mediana of hind wing starts from the

radius-sector.

Length, with wings, 7°5 mm. | Width of head, 0°84 mm.

Length, without wings,4mm. | Length of pronotum, 0°43 mm.

Length of head, 0°91 mm. | Width of pronotum, 0°65 mm.

Locality, Ambalangoda.

MICROCEROTERMES GREENT, N. sp.

Soldier :—Head yellowish brown ; body straw-yellow, whitish ;

head very sparsely hairy.

Head elongated, parallel-sided. Forehead somewhat truncated,

‘‘ rinderformig ’’-shaped, impressed. Basal portion of clypeus

distinctly convex behind, with straight anterior border. Upper lip

roundly pentagonal. Fontanelle small. Transverse sutures distinct.

Mandible decidedly concave externally at the base. Mandibles

relatively short, with very distinctly serrate teeth, the tips falcate.

Antenne 13-jointed ; second as long as third and fourth together ; third

very short. Pronotum small, saddle-shaped, not excised in front.

Length of body, 4°20 to 4°25 mm.

Length of head, with mandibles, 1-85 mm.

Length of head, without mandibles, 1-37 mm.

Width of head, 0°81 mm.

Width of pronotum, 0°52 mm.

Worker (two forms):—Head yellow; body yellowish white.

Hair scanty. Head broadly oval. Fontanelle not visible. Basal

portion of clypeus large, arched in front, fleshy, rather longer

than half its breadth, distinctly convex behind, straight in front.

Antennz 13-jointed ; second as long as third and fourth together ;

third very short. Pronotum saddle-shaped, not excised in front.

Small Form. Large Form.

Length of body i. 2°5 mm. ns 3 mm.

Length of head A UAT 60501 bel ha 0°81 mm.

Width of head bv 07:67 mam Wie 0:7 mm.

Width of pronotum .... 0°44mm._.., 0-48 mm.

Locality, Ambalangoda,

CEYLON NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 285

SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR MEMBERS OF THE

CEYLON NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.*

By E. Ernest Green, F.ES., F.ZS.,

Government Entomologist.

( UR Natural History Society, which was inaugurated just eight

months ago, now numbers 157 members.

This is our third meeting, and we have already listened to several

interesting Papers on various subjects. We look forward to many

other meetings; but the object at which such a Society as ours

should aim is not merely to meet at stated intervals and listen

to the reading of Papers by a small number of our members. The

actual meetings are the least important part of the programme.

The life of the Society depends upon the endeavours of each

individual member to add (if only a few grains) to the general

stock of knowledge. The source of such knowledge is to be looked

for, not at the meetings—though fresh ideas and inspiration may

possibly be gathered on those occasions—but in the intelligent

observation of Nature day by day. i

Let no one, even the veriest beginner, be alarmed or discouraged

by this dictum, or imagine that no valuable discoveries can be made

without special training ; nor must it be supposed that little remains

to be discovered. Far from such being the case, endless problems,

in every branch of Natural History, in Ceylon, await solution.

Speaking as an entomologist, I can confidently affirm that little

is known about the life-histories and habits of our Ceylon insects.

As soon as we get outside one or two conspicuous families—such as

the butterflies and moths—it is probable that not one-tenth of the

existing number of species has even been recognized, much less

determined or classified, and our ignorance of their habits is dis-

couragingly profound. Even amongst the butterflies, which have

been collected assiduously ever since the British occupation of the

Island, new species are still occasionally brought to light, and of

many well-known species the early stages are yet unknown. The

blank spots in our knowledge of the moths are still more numerous ;

and when we come to the other groups of insects, we seem to have

scarcely touched the fringe of the subject.

* Read before the Ceylon Natural History Society on Wednesday, October

9, 1912,

286 SPOLIA ZBEYLANICA.

To show you what interesting facts may turn up unexpectedly,

I may mention that, only a few months ago, one of my valued

up-country correspondents sent me a very common beetle, and asked

me if I knew that it was luminous in the dark. He had captured a

specimen, one night, believing it to be an ordinary firefly, and was

surprised to find that it was of quite a different form. Although I

had been acquainted with this beetle—which is quite a common

one—tor many years, and had handled and examined many speci-

mens of it, [ was quite unaware of its phosphorescent properties.

Systematic entomologists in Europe were apparently equally ignorant

of the fact. Even when my attention had been drawn to the matter,

I was unable, for some time, to corroborate the observation. I

captured specimen after specimen and examined them in a dark

room, without any result, except that my faith in my friend’s

accuracy began to wane. But I continued my investigations, and

was rewarded one night in observing a very distinct phosphorescence

emanating from a specimen captured on that afternoon. Moreover,

I was still further interested to find that the light did not proceed

only from the hinder extremity of the body, as is the case in common

fireflies and glowworms, but was emitted from a definite series of

points distributed along each side of the beetle. In fact, the insect

displayed what looked like a row of illuminated portholes on each

side of it. It would seem that this beetle is only occasionally

luminous, though the conditions that govern its display are still

obscure.

I have since discovered another beetle, hitherto unsuspected of

producing light, that exhibits a similar series of phosphorescent

points upon different parts of its body. The inference to be drawn.

from these interesting discoveries is that every unusual occurrence,

or what appears to be unusual to the observer, should be duly

reported and investigated. It may be already known ; it may lead

to nothing. On the other hand, it may be a clue to some discovery

of considerable scientific importance.

There must be countless unsuspected facts to reward the careful

observer. There are many problems and undecided questions that

any of you may be the means of solving. Let me mention a few.

Have we an indigenous hedgehog in Ceylon ? I fully believe that

we have. There are five species recorded from the Indian continent,

one of which—Hrinaceus micropus—is common in the plains of

Southern India ; but not a single species has been recorded from

Ceylon. Yet I have been assured by competent observers that they

have seen true hedgehogs in Ceylon. I have had a most cireum-

stantial account from one man of how they were found in shallow

burrows or runs beneath bushes, with the débris of insects upon

which they had been feeding strewn round the entrance to their

retreats. He had found them, more particularly, in the Eastern

Province. I would appeal to our outstation members to settle this

CHYLON NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 287

disputed question by submitting a living example of the animal,

with full particulars of the circumstances of its capture.

Similarly, while the continent of India produces nine distinct

species of “‘ short-tailed field mice,’ or voles, not a single species

is credited to Ceylon. As I pointed out in a recent number of

Spolia Zeylanica, | am confident that we have at least one species

of vole in the Island. I have myself seen what I believe. to be

one of these animals on the Horton Plains, and other competent

observers have assured me that they have seen mice answering

to this description. Not realizing the interest attaching to this

matter, they have not troubled to capture and examine the animals.

Who will acquire the credit of sending to the Colombo Museum the

first specimen of a true Ceylon vole ?

For those who are interested in bird life, | would draw attention

to the probable occurrence of an unsuspected bird in the hilly parts

of Ceylon. I refer to one of the smallest of the hawk tribe, a

faleonet, three species of which are found in India. ‘The first

suggestion of the presence of such a bird came to me through a

planter in Hewaheta, who described to me how he had seen two

blackbirds fighting, and how one of them had killed the other and

had flown away with it. I had, later, the good fortune to witness

a similar occurrence myself. In this case the victim was a common

“ bulbul.”” I was attracted by its cries of distress, and came upon

the scene just in time to see it disappearing over the trees in the

clutches of a tiny dark-coloured hawk that looked no bigger than

itself. Naturally, I had no gun with me, and so was unable to verify

my observation. If our falconet is identical with one of the Indian

species, it will probably prove to be Microhierax fringillarius, the

smallest of the three, which ranges through the southern portion of

Tenasserim, Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo, and Java. This

species is said to feed more exclusively upon birds.

There is in Ceylon a carnivorous bat, the Megaderma (of which

we have two species). When I say * carnivorous,’ I mean that it

is not content with the insect fare of ordinary bats, but has a craving

for real meat. Such animals as mice, small birds, lizards, and

frogs are amongst its victims, and their remains can often be seen

in the verandahs of our bungalows, below the spot where one of

these bats has hung itself up to consume its prey. I have watched

Megaderma flying low over the grass, in the dusk, evidently search-

ing for lizards and frogs ; but it is difficult to understand how they

effect the capture of the small birds that, to judge by their remains,

form such a large part of the diet of this bloodthirsty vampire.

Such birds usually roost in the depths of a bush, where—it might

be thought—they would be well out of the reach of a bat, which

requires open spaces for the employment of its wings. Does it

scent out its sleeping prey, creep into the bush, and pounce upon

it there ?

288 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA,

Who can tell us what is the normal food of the common land

leech ? Only a few of the myriads of these little pests can ever

have the opportunity of tasting warm blood.

The actual destination of the periodical migratory flights of

butterflies that are so conspicuous at certain seasons in Ceylon has

never been properly worked out, and the object of this movement

can only be guessed at. The solution of this problem would require

an army of observers, stationed along the route of the migration.

What is the food of the common firefly ? It has been suggested

that they take no nourishment after attaining the adult winged

stage. But if that is really the case, why are they provided with

well-formed mouth-parts and jaws of a distinctly carnivorous type ?

In other insects, such as certain moths, that are known to take

no food in the perfect state, the mouth-parts are rudimentary or

completely atrophied. We know that the larve of fireflies and

glowworms are carnivorous, subsisting upon slugs, snails, worms,

and soft-bodied insects. But the firefly, in captivity, refuses such

food. ‘They may sometimes be seen congregated in thousands upon

the foliage of some tree, but I have equally failed to tempt them

with leaves or fruit, as might be expected from the structure of

their mouths.

My endeavours to discover the breeding place of that unmitigated

nuisance, the “* eyefly,”’ have, so far, been unavailing. I have been

assured that they must breed in fruit, as they can frequently be

seen swarming upon overripe plantains. But this assertion is due -

to anerror of observation. The tiny flies that so constantly frequent

such situations belong to quite a different family and species, whose

life-history is well known to entomologists.

I could put endless other problems before you, but I have already

said enough to show you that the possibilities of useful discovery

that lie within your reach are by no means limited. We cannot

have too many careful observers. There are so many problems to

be solved, and so few to solve them.

ihe tea tees

pt, pnd

; ese. *

*) aid

Cup-marked rock found at Kudagama, in the Kende korale, North-Central Province :—

Fig. 1.—Plan of the rock. ;

Fig. 2,—Section across one of the cups.

NOTES. 289

NOTES. ‘

24. Note on a Cup-marked Rock found at Kudagama, in the Kende

Korale, North-Central Province-—While inspecting the village of

Kudagama during August of this year, I noticed a large mass of

slab rock situated in the close vicinity of a tank. Below the tank

bund was an abandoned “‘gangoda,’’ where scattered about were

the fragments of stone door frames. On the inner side of the tank

bund was a well-carved three-headed cobra stone in a good state of

preservation.

The carving was bold in outline, as well as graceful in pattern,

the folds and convolutions being specially well cut.

On examining the slab first mentioned, I found that a large frag-

ment had been wedged out, evidently for the purpose of supplying

pillars. The wedge marks are quite distinct, and arranged along the

line of natural fracture. A little to the north-west of this line of

wedge marks I noticed what appeared to be a circular hollow in the

stone, filled with dirty water. I next explored the rock and found

another slight depression, also full of water, which on being swept

out disclosed a cup-shaped hole, while another had been completely

split across in the removal of the stone by wedging. A little further:

examination of the rock showed altogether twenty-one of these

cup-like drill holes, the sizes of which ranged from 2 inches to

10 inches in depth by 5 inches to 6} inches in width from “‘lip”’

to“ lip.” The rough sketch attached is copied from an eye-survey

of the rock itself, from which it will be observed that there is no

particular order as to the distribution of the cup holes, except that

holes 13, 14, and 15 form a row nearly at right angles to the row 15,

16, and 17, but as the distances are so close—generally less than

18 inches—it is difficult to suppose that these holes were drilled for

the purpose of letting in posts for a building, as the rest of the marks

are quite without any order of arrangement, but they all agreed in

sectional outline, though variable in depth.

The holes themselves are invariably circular in shape a few inches

below the “‘lip,’ and concave at the bottom. They could be

produced by spinning on its axis a stone of torpedo shape, this

_ serving as a drill, the motion being imparted, by a rubbing action of

the hands, just as one might spin a ruler while keeping it erect

at the same time. The “drill” stone was doubtless aided in its

action by the addition of water, and possibly percussion at the

start.

The question now arises as to the object or purpose of those cups

as it appears impossible to believe that they were of use for building

290 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

upon, and certainly they could not have been for levering out the

stone to be used later as pillars, as neither the depth, nor shape of

the holes, would admit of sufficient “purchase” for the action of

levers inserted into them.

On page 588 of “‘ Ancient Ceylon,’ Mr. H. Parker gives some

sketches of “‘Olinda (Mancala) boards,” and a photo print on page

591 of the Mancala Holes at the third Pyramid at Gizeh, but it will

be observed that these are in a distinct order of arrangement, leaving

little room for doubt, in the latter illustration, that they were for a

game. :

Earlier in the same work Mr. Parker devotes a chapter to Ancient

Rock Cup-marks, with an excellent plate of sections of these holes,

in addition to full details as to sizes and localities of these singular

objects, but he does not appear to find a satisfactory explanation of

their object and purpose.

I noticed, in nearly all cases, the surface of the rock, where the

holes I am describing are cut, is slightly more “weathered ” away

than the rest of the slab, and I am inclined to believe that in this is

the explanation of the purpose of these cups. I would suggest that

they were crucibles, for making or tempering the iron wedges used

for splitting off fragments of stone for pillars and the like.

The metal, possibly in a crude state, was first placed in the“ cup,”

and firewood heaped above it and lighted till the flames raised the

stone and its enclosed iron fragments to a sufficient heat to render

the metal of suitable temper for its ultimate purpose.

The fact that side by side with these cup holes are the wedge

marks, showing where a block of stone had been removed, is in itsel

highly suggestive, and more so when coupled with fact that the

greater number of cup marks are situated within a more “crumbled ”

area of rock, the ‘‘crumbling’’ being explained on the theory of

fire action.

The shape and smoothness of the holes can be easily explained

on the hypothesis of their being formed by spinning an acute-shaped

stone on its longitudinal axis, adding water as the drilling stone

continued to cut its way into the softer material. This also

obviously explains the reason for the holes being invariably tapered

and rounded at the bottom.

My rough sketch shows the general plan of the slab rock only as

far as where it is cup-marked, but I might mention that to the south

the rock slopes down at a gradual inclination, and then becomes

covered with a thin crust of soil. (See Plate.)

The scanty population in the neighbourhood are Sinhalese, but

they are quite unable to give any explanation for these marks, and

dismiss the subject by saying that it is a‘‘ Yoda-weda.”’ I might

add that my cleaning out and measuring each hole caused some

amused astonishment.

NOTES. 291

In submitting these notes | venture to offer my theory for

criticism as to the origin or purpose of these cup holes ; that appear,

so far, not to have been thoroughly investigated in connection with

stone quarries of ancient times.

September, 1912. FREDERICK LEWIS.

Appendix.—Measurements of Cup Holes.

No. Depth. Width. | No. Depth. Width. ie: Depth. Width.

Tn. Tn. In. Tn. | In. In.

1 Sy abouts) 8 A xleeb | 1b 3s GF x. GF

2 42 x 6 9 6° x 6 TEN ie Game kre

3 STA DS) LO) 10 4 NSD | 17 (Saree

+b Sa ERO. 1} 6 6 Tah ytd eco

5 2k x 5 12 Si) EO UBT Sion ye? <no

6 23 x «5 13 10e 367 Ee ia Se bi

7 5 a0 VAC Tay x G6

* Split across showing complete section.

25. The Mathematical Boy, Arumugam.—This remarkable boy

was born at Sirivilliputturu, a village not far from Madura. His

parents were very poor, and belong to the Weaver caste. At the age

of eight his father died, and the boy was left in great poverty. He

had absolutely no form of education, and to the present moment

appears to be uncomfortable in the clothes that have been given

to him.

At about the age of eight or nine he went to the temple of Supera-

muniam Swamy, in the village of Tiruparankundan near Madura,

probably to beg. There was a festival on at the time, which lasted

to about 1 o’clock in the morning. When the festival was over he

fell asleep, and while sleeping he dreamed that a “‘ Pandaran ” came

and touched his tongue with his finger. This awoke him, but

finding nobody he went to sleep again till 9 o’clock in the morning.

When he awoke he felt that he had received some form of enlighten-

ment, as up to that moment he could hardly count up to 10. Find-

ing some people disputing over a calculation, he gave the result that

they had failed to solve. This appears to have been the point at

which his previous state of mental power deviated from the present.

Up to then his intelligence, as regards calculating power, appears,

if anything, to have been below the average. He admits that when

entrusted with a few coppers to buy petty articles of food for his

mother, he brought the things and whatever change was given to him

without being able to estimate what the requisite change should be.

From this time onwards the power of calculation appears to have

become spontaneous, so much so that he is unable to explain his

process of solving problems except by a method something akin to

a ratio.

2Q 6(7)12

292 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

J asked him if he could or did form a mental picture of a sum or

group of figures, but his answer was a decided negative. I next

tried him by putting down on paper the figures 275/1846, but the

moment I attempted to hand the paper to him he turned away his

face as if it was something he did not wish to see or look at. On the

other hand, when asked to multiply 873 by 873 he gave the answer

in an instant, just as one might say six times six is thirty-six ; no

mental effort appeared to follow.

He appeared to be quite ignorant of the ratio of the circumference

of a circle to its diameter ; so to illustrate this that I gave him a

practical example by passing the edge of a handkerchief across the

mouth of a tumbler, and then applying the same to the circum-

ference. This appeared to him to be a remarkable thing.

On being asked if he ever looked at the stars, and did they not

convey the idea of an immense multitude, he could not say that they

did. They were only specks andnothing else. On testing him as

to anything regarding the direction of places, I put the question,

could he tell the road by which he came to my house ; his reply was

that he would have to inquire, yet the distance was under one-third

of a mile by a street that has only two “bends ”’ in it.

On being asked the age of a child in minutes that was eleven years

old his reply was given instantly, 5,781,600 being the product of 365

x11x1,440. Thisexample obviously disclosed the fact that to him

a year was equal to 365 units, and that multiplied by 11 times

24x60 must give the required answer, regardless of leap years, or

the fraction over that the year has in minutes and seconds, he being

ignorant of any such conditions.

Asked what he understood by cube root, he could only say that

he divided a thing into itself by three, but he could not say how or

why. He explained that 3 must be the cube of 27. When asked to

multiply four figures by four figures he seemed to be hugely amused,

and almost roared with laughing while giving his result.

In the matter of time, how long ago a thing took place, he appeared

to be quite uncertain, and I feel confident that in his mind an actual

interval of time or years conveys no particular impression.

When considering a problem, he appears to think intently on

the actual figures given, but the process that follows seems to be

mechanical.

To test this, lasked him to divide a certain figure by another, the

actual figures being to divide 47,526,421 by 13. In a moment

he said 7 remains over. I stopped him and asked him to explain

how he knew what remained before giving the first part of the

answer.

He explained that the figures would make certain groups, but

the ultimate group would not divide without a remainder. These

groups would make together 3,655,878, with an indivisible quantity

of 7 still left. But he was entirely unable to explain how he could

NOTES. 293

retain the sum of each group in his brain and add it to the next ~

till the groups were exhausted. Here, however, is a clue to the

mental process that flashes with such truly astounding rapidity

through the boy’s brain, and it clearly shows that there is no thought

reading, or, as I understand it, no hypnotic action.

To test the theory of his retention of the figures as set, I purposely

challenged his answer, restating the same with an intentionally

altered figure. His reply was to instantly correct me by restating

the figures as I first quoted them, adding that with those figures he

could give no other result !

After giving him 7/22 as the ratio (nearly) of the circumference of

a circle to its diameter, I ae ue problem. A railway

line is 70 miles long, and one of @&¥e wheels of an engine that runs

along this line is 10 feet in diameter. How many revolutions would

that wheel make in doing the Beane ? His answer was given

almost in a moment, and was 11,760 if the whee! was 10 feet wide and

29,400 times if the wheel was 4 feet wide. I leave the reader to

work out the exact sum and see how long he takes.

In point of height the lad is rather above the average for a person

sixteen years of age, which is what he states his age to be. He has

an additional little finger on each hand, and an extra toe on each

foot, besides being knock-kneed. His face is that of an ordinary

Tamil boy, with no particular development of the skull so far as I

could detect without careful measurement. His, lips are thick,

protruding, with rather fat cheeks. The nose is small, much de-

pressed between the eyes, and somewhat Simian. The chin is small,

rather pointed, andsomewhatretreating. His voice is variable, and

much changed by any excitement as would follow in an argument

over a solution given, but in this respect he is in no way abnormal.

He appears to be childlike, and while I was questioning him he would

play with one of the gentlemen who accompanied him, much as a

kitten would play on being tickled.

His movements impressed me with the idea that he was highly

nervous, and equally that he was completely oblivious of his own

abnormality.

He would laugh without provocation, and when answering a

question involving long figures he would appear to be extra-

ordinarily amused.

Beyond this, and a sort of indifference to anything other than

calculation, his whole manner was that of a completely illiterate

child.

He stated, on being questioned if among any of his relations were

there any who could read or write, that only one, who had married

a female of his family, could read ; so that I failed to find a trace

from his own statements—and I see no reason to doubt them—of

anything that might be brought to bear on the question from the

standpoint of hereditary gift.

294 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

It remains to be seen, if any attempt is made to educate this

youth, will it improve or diminish his extraordinary powers, or if

they will vanish as suddenly as he states they came.

September 8, 1912. FREDERICK LEWIS.

26. Proneers of Natural History in Ceylon.—To Mr. E. E. Green’s

account of ‘“‘ The Pioneers of Ceylon Natural History ’’ might be

added some notice of Colonel and Mrs. George Warren Walker who

were in the Island in the twenties, and are “‘ famous in the annals

of Ceylon botany.’’* Sir Emerson Tennent says: ““ Amongst the

collections of Ceylon plants deposited in the Hookerian Herbarium

are those made by General and Mrs. Walker. Some admirable

letters of Mrs. Walker are printed in Hooker’s ‘ Companion to the

Botanical Magazine.’ They include an excellent account of the

vegetation of Ceylon.”

Also we should certainly add J. W. Bennett, F.L.S., some time

of the Civil Service, whose book, ‘‘ Ceylon and its Capabilities,”

contains a good deal on the natural history of the Island, and who

wrote besides books on ‘‘ A Selection of the Most Remarkable

Fishes found on the Coast of Ceylon,”’ and on “‘ The Fruits of Ceylon,”

published in 1830 and 1842 respectively. On the subject of the

fishes of Ceylon he was decidedly the pioneer, though his book

“never proceeded beyond the description of about thirty indivi-

duals.”’+ It was accompanied by fine plates depicting the species

described.

Several other Ceylon Civilians have given their attention to its

natural history. The late Mr. M.S. Crawford sent many specimens

of Ceylon plants, with their Tamil names attached, to Dr. Trimen,

thus enabling him, as he has duly acknowledged, to identify them

by their scientific names, and he compiled lists of the jungle products

used as food in the Mannar District, and of the flora (with notes) of

Mannar Island, originally intended for a projected “‘ Manual” of

that district. These lists he had printed privately, and they were

ultimately published in the “‘ Ceylon Forester,’’ Vol. II., pp. 141-4.

Mr. A. O. Brodie and his papers in the R. A. 8. (C. B.) Journal might

also be mentioned.

Some of the birds of Ceylon described by Knox attracted attention

as long ago as 1760. There is in my possession a coloured drawing

with the following description written below it :—‘‘ A Bird from the

Island of Ceylon drawn from Nature of the size of Life by George

Edwards, April 4, 1760 ...... See Knox’s Hist. of Ceylon in the

Kast Indies,’ London, 1681, page 27.’’ The sketch represents a

Paradise Fly-catcher with chestnut plumage and long chestnut tail

feathers—the gini-hora of the Sinhalese.

* « Ceylon in 1837-1846,” by A. M. Ferguson, C.M.G., p. 48. Vol. L.,

p. 84, note, + Ibid, p. 205.

NOTES. 295

George Edwards was a well-known naturalist and Fellow of the

Royal Society, born 1694, died 1773, the author of *‘ A Natural His-

tory of Uncommon Birds and of some Rare and Undescribed Animals. ’

He did about 900 sketches for it, and drew his birds from life. He

had travelled in Europe, but never out of it, so that the specimen of

Tersiphone paradisi of which he made this sketch must have been

one imported into Europe from Ceylon. I suggest that its importer

was Jan Gideon Loten, the retired Dutch Governor of Ceylon

(1752-7), who on leaving Ceylon seems to have lived for a time in

England, where, in 1765, at Banstead in Surrey, he married an

English woman as his second wife. He was“ a great lover of birds,”

and “‘collected and employed people to procure specimens of species

which attracted his notice.” If it was not Loten, it was probably

the notorious Earl Ferrers, who, “‘ when he was Captain Shirley,

had contributed a number of birds captured by him and intended

for Madame Pompadour’s collection.” (See ‘“‘ Notes and Queries ”’

11s. lv., pp. 150, 190).

Whether Edwards’ book contains sketches of other Ceylon birds

I am not at present able to say, but the next member of the Ceylon

Natural History Society who happens to visit the British Museum

would have an opportunity of ascertaining.

Walton-by-Clevedon, J. P. LEWIS.

Somerset, August 5, 1912.

27. Cave Inscription at Kurunegala.—How amazingly accurate

is Sinhalese tradition! In 1890 Mr. F. H. Modder, in a Paper on

‘““The Animal-shaped Rocks of Kurunegala” (R. A. S., XI.), had

_ recorded the fact that according to the popular belief the beauti-

fully situated cave of Ahas Lena was formed by Pusba Dewa,

nephew of King Devanam Piyatissa.

Six miles from where the precious Tooth Relic had lain enshrined

by the massive base of Eta Gala, where it sinks to rise again in

Kuruminiya Gala, on the left hand ‘of the traveller j journeying from

Kurunegala to Puttalam, commence the forest-clad heights of the

Natagane range. Parallel with it runs a second range, which,

beginning with the sinuous outline of the Anda Gala, reaches its

highest point in the pallid austerity of the Yakdessa crag, from

where the hapless Kuweni had invoked the curse of heaven on

her faithless lover. A sudden depression in the Natagane range,

running north and south, separates it from the Atu Kanda; and

buried within this cleft lies a deeper hollow of a few acres in extent,

the site of Mudu Konda Pola, the Rahas Nuwara of the deified Irugal

Bandara. A massive ring of stone encircles the great hollow ; large

caves on ithe side, rising 30 and 40 feet from the ground level,

afford a dry and secure retreat in times of peril ; and here in 1555 the

gallant Widiye Bandara, driven from Pelenda ; and repelled from

296 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Senkadagala, took shelter with his kinsman the ruling chief. Here

he played his last desperate card when he murdered his host and

tried to seize the power, but had once again to flee before the united

armies of the south, through Kalpitiya to Nellore, there to meet his

destiny.

The approach to the Rahas Nuwara is through a tunnel formed

by an enormous boulder resting against the main rock. The inner

side of this is grooved above and contains a cave, while the top

of the rock is a strong fortlet, from which a handful of men could

block the passage of an army. It must have been through this

tunnel that the Portuguese made their dash in 1598, when they

surprised and killed the Mudaliyar in charge and committed the

place to the flames.

Above the grooving of the cave runs an inscription. With some

trouble a rough ladder was constructed, and from there my clerk,

Mr. Moonemala, laboriously traced the writing, which runs as

follows :—

LL OTL AL JTHAKLAAdDA SALA

“ The cave of Parumaka Pusa, for the priests of the four quarters,

present and not present ”’ is the translation of the learned Simon de

Silva Mudaliyar. Dewa is merely an honorific; surely Pusa of

Muda Konda Pola is the same as Pusba of Ahas Lena a few miles

away ?

The inscription is not copied to scale.

Kurunegala, June 24, 1912. P. KE. PIERIS.

28. Some Dutch Medals : Plate 1—Obverse of medal contains

the inscription, the translation of which is as follows :—This medal

was, in the year 1724, in the month of November, given by Joannes

Hertenberg, Governor and Director of the Island of Ceylon, as a

token of love and favour, on behalf of the Company, to Don Joan

Sinnewiratne Wijeje Wickreeme Tinnecon Modliaar, Gaisenaike,

Master of the Hunt and of the Sowing at Mature, and Superin-

tendent of Cattoene, Oedebocke, Kireme, the Girrewais, and

Baigams, to incite him more and more in his present good zeal in

the prosecution of the elephant hunt and rice culture and also

coffee cultivation.

Plate [I.—Reverse of the same medal shows within a shield the

usual type of armed vessel, while below are the Hortenberg arms.

Arms.—A fess—charged with three trefoils slipped and two

bendlets alternately, between a stag tripping in chief and three hills

in base.

Crest.—A stag’s head, as in the army.

NOTES. 297

The illustration shows the full size of the medal. The grantee

was a grandson of the great Tennekon Disawa, described by Knox

as one of Raja Sinha II.’s “ greatest and most valiant Generals.

and that had been notably successful against the Dutch.” The

Gajanayaka was the head of the Elephant Department, and under

the Sinhalese Kings ranked amongst the three highest household .

officers. The Dutch word translated Superintendent was the

equivalent of the Sinhalese Vidane. A Vidane was in charge of

each of the royal villages, and till lately there was such a Vidane

over Ambatalenpahala near Colombo. The reference to coffee

culture at such an early date is of interest.

Plate I1I.—Obverse.—The inscription reads thus in English :—By

me, Julius Valentyn Stein van Gollenesse, Chief Councillor and

Director-General of the Dutch Indies, and departing Governor and

Director of the Island of Ceylon: having, as justice requires, con-

sidered the good and faithful services in various capacities to the

Hon’ble Company during our eight years’ presence in this Island,

of Philip Philipsz Widjejecoon Panditeratne, Maha Modliaar and

Chief Interpreter of Our Gate, so are we moved to confirm and

secure among his descendants by this medal our good disposition

towards him. Given in the Fort of Colombo, 5th March, 1751.

The reverse is not illustrated here. It also bears the customary

vessel. The full size of the medal from the top of the ring to

the end of the lowest knob is 53? inches. The grantor was the

Governor who built the Wolvendahl church. The grantee was

born in 1686, and represents about the only prominent Sinhalese

family which adopted a Dutch surname. The Maha Mudaliyar is

always the Chief Interpreter of the Governor, this being the Euro-

pean development of the Sinhalese office of Basnayaka. “ Tolk

onzer porta ’’ is a curious adaptation from the Portuguese. To the

Sinhalese the King was the Maha Wasala, for great personages were

spoken of after their residences. Wasala also meant Gate, Port.

porta ; and the palace officers, or Fidalgos da casa, became with the

Dutch Officers of the Porta ; Cf. the Sublime Porte. Also note the

reference to descendants in the inscription.

Plate IV —Obverse—Inscription :—This is given to the Modliaar

of the Galle Guard, Nicolaas Dias Abesinge Ameresekere, by the

Hon. Jan Schreuder, Extraordinary Councillor of the Dutch Indies,

Governor and Director of the Island of Ceylon, with its dependencies,

as a token of honour in that he, not only in the present revolution

in. the country, above all others of his nation, has so far acquitted

himself honourably as befits a faithful and honourable servant, but

also that he and his ancestors have given us proofs of their fidelity.

Given in the Fort of Colombo on the 24th January, 1768.

Plate V.—A finely engraved vessel with apparently the spirits of

the air speeding the voyage.

298 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

The full length of this handsome medal is 5} inches. The

grantee was born May 8, 1719, was appointed Maha Mudaliyar

March 8, 1785, and died on May 10, 1794. There were two Guards

of Lascarins under the Dutch Government, commanded by the

Maha Mudaliyar in Colombo and the Guard Mudaliyar at Galle.

They still survive in the Lascarin Guards of the Colombo Maha

Mudaliyar and the Galle Atapattu Mudaliyar. The Maha Muda-

liyar’s coffin was carried to the grave by sixteen Dutch sergeants,

escorted by forty-eight soldiers and the Lascarins of the Guard

and Attapattu.

Notice the extraordinary variation in the form of the letters in

the three medals. The oldest has the most modern looking, and

vice versa.

‘The translations of the inscriptions are by Mr. F. H. de Vos., and

the heraldic reading by Mr. R. G. Anthonisz.

Kurunegala, September 23, 1912. P. E. PIERIS. |

29. Ona Collection of Transfers of the Wings of Ceylon Butterflies,

prepared by Mr. C. C. Gilbert of Ratnapura.*—The transfers shown

have been made by pressing the wings of butterflies between two

surfaces of gummed paper. On separating the paper an impression

of both upper and under surface of the wing adheres to the gummed

surface, while the wing membrane can be removed, devoid of scales.

The impressions are then carefully cut out and gummed on to cards.

While this method is not quite an ideal one for a serious collection

of butterflies, it has certain advantages, and might be employed in

conjunction with a collection of specimens mounted in the more

usual manner.

Amongst the advantages are economy, compactness, and port-

ability. The expense of store boxes and entomological pins is

avoided. A large number of specimens can be kept in a small space,

and can be carried about or submitted by post without danger of

injury. The transfers are permanent, and are not subject to the

attacks of insects. They are in a handy form for reference, and the

cards upon which they are mounted afford space for useful data and

notes. A complete named collection, mounted in this manner,

could be circulated by post to collectors in any part of the Island,

to assist them in the determination of their specimens.

I should be sorry to see unique or rare specimens treated in this

manner, but it affords a useful and economic means of studying

our butterflies for such persons as are not in a position to undertake

the more elaborate method of forming a collection.

Peradeniya, June, 1912. E. ERNEST GREEN.

* Read before the Ceylon Natural History Society on June 7, 1912.

Plate TI.

i, us on. 3

; . ih abate 3704. taut

i: PARI role er Ltr

iy an

EY Saverncir cn bhiecbear

‘ Ks (eT ere EYE Cis Age San, reget.

Lorrie )

‘i tah Th =D

Bie pay 0g Ct ya re

C; cle Opfeiglly~ over Eien Gide

Al one pat te Jyrch 1G en dpa ere: E 4

= Z yrwtet virLe, Lege Vilt2. Len

‘ tliphagts Veewe, igs ta NNeZ, sap

HECCUAY, » lem the Y ‘< Gz oo Se a4 y a

Atinceren. Peat

he a ii fh

Plate II.

~wn

Siti hpea we FR Serena

0 een aon

Plate III.

oa. STEIN, AN GouLENe sce Rs

a” 2: Addel en direc r gener; Xe

Fikes erlandsch In tha tha. Oh.

Fgaarede Gouverneur en directerir ¥

an het ivonie feat Beeeyk .

et aie

' Phivir P. OON

‘ oan DITE fone maha modliaar §

34 ¢n,Corste oon, Onzer-forta., ma es

ma 3 gere pocsdn Cite¥ten aan ,.d Comp:

a> Zo x5 n wy daar, coor”

fm gat warden Onze wee. -

ee yd t e? hem Wogrd id

n gedenk pen nen i ne

\ nazaten te” Geve st Aes en 0

BRS VéerZzZeKerer: -

Segoven inhet Castec?

& Colombo

Den S Maarts1$

“a?

we shit hone ==

a ote) =

ae a pe cayet meme le Te

a ren ne

NOTES. 299

30. On a Stridulating Redwiid Bug.—On picking up a living

specimen of the large apterous reduviid bug—Physorhynchus

linnei—a distinct stridulation was noticeable. A closer examina-

tion showed that the sound was produced by friction between the

tip of the short stout rostrum and a deep groove running between

the bases of the anterior legs. The groove is demarked by a strongly

raised margin, and contains a narrow, elongate, transversely striate

plate (see figure). This structure is common to both sexes, and

occurs also in the allied species Physorhynchus tuberculatus.

Peradeniya, August, 1912. E. ERNEST GREEN.

31. Dragon Flies capturing Butterflies —The following notes are

extracted from a letter received from Mr. John Pole, whose observa-

tions on insect life are always valuable, and, in this case, are of

particular importance, as throwing light upon the vexed question

of the enemies of butterflies. He writes, under date April 22 :—

“ There seemed to be a migratory flight of the white butterfly, Appias

paulina, at 1.30 to-day. Whilst watching this from the bungalow,

I observed wings floating to the grass, and wishing to ascertain

particulars, went outside to watch. The sky was clouded over

temporarily, and a crowd of the butterflies were seeking shelter in

an orange tree from an anticipated shower of rain. Two large

dragon flies hawking over the grass attracted my attention, and I

had barely attributed the floating wings to them before one of them

caught a white butterfly and, nipping off its wings, made off with

it. Icalled to a friend who was staying with me to come and watch

the sport. He had barely come on the scene when the other dragon

fly caught a male Papilio polytes and danced about whilst devouring

it. It came so near us that my friend knocked it down with: his hat

and picked it up together with one wing of the butterfly that it had

been devouring.”

The dragon fly in question is a large Libellulid, possibly a species

of Anax, measuring 54 inches across the expanded wings.

Peradeniya, August, 1912. E. ERNEST GREEN.

32. ‘< Herpestes vitticollis,” the Stripe-necked Mungoose. Sinha-

lese, ‘‘ Loku Mugatiya.”—This is the largest species of mungoose

found in India and Ceylon, and its colour varies from grizzled dusky

iron gray to rich unspeckled ferruginous or chestnut red, the red

colour frequently confined to the hinder part of the body and tail,

the head always iron gray above, a black band down each side of

the neck from behind the ear to the shoulder, and tail rufous black

at the tip.

2k 6(7)12

’

300 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

During the Acting Directorship of Mr. Gerard A. Joseph, I was

sent by him on a collecting expedition to the southern part of the

Island in July, 1910, and on that trip, when in the boundary of the

Southern and Uva Provinces, I left the camp very early one morning

accompanied by a tracker, and proceeded to the Kirindi-oya, about

two miles from Lunuganwehera. Whilst traversing the river beds,

during then the driest season of the year (only a little water being

found here and there under the roots of the kumbuk trees), I came

across several monkeys (Semnopithecus priamus), the Madras

Langur; and whilst walking about two miles further on, I espied at

a distance of 600 yards two large-sized mungoose near the water

edge by a huge kumbuk tree, but as soon as they saw me they

disappeared into the jungle. I visited the spot where I first saw them

and found a quantity of dead putrid fish, some floating in the water.

Feeling that the fish must have been the attraction that brought the

mungoose to the spot, I watched there under cover of a bush, and

after an hour or two I saw a large-sized mungoose approach the

water-hole. Keeping very quiet till the animal came within about

100 yards from me I fired and secured the specimen. In all my

various jungle travels in Ceylon, extending over twenty-seven years,

I had never before come across this rare species of mungoose, so

I was naturally very pleased. The specimen was a full-grown male.

The next morning I re-visited the same spot where good luck had

rewarded me the day before, and kept watch in the same bush,

and was so fortunate that within half an hour another of the same

species, which at first I took for the ruddy mungoose, appeared on

the scene, which shared the same fate as the previous one. This

too happened to be a male, somewhat smaller than the first one,

but with better fur. I paid several other visits to the spot, and

kept silent watch in the hope of securing a female to complete

the collection, but all my efforts were of no avail. I, however, got

specimens of the ruddy mungoose (Herpestes smitht) in the vicinity

and a few birds. I hope to be able in July next to go to the same

place, and trust fortune will again smile on me, and that I shall be

able to complete the collection in the Museum by getting a female

of the very rare Herpestes vitticollis.

The specimens of this expedition, the two male stripe-necked

mungoose and the ruddy mungoose, have been mounted by me in

a group, and they adorn the Mammalian Gallery. I hope that the

group may be added to and made more attractive by the addition

of a female or two of this rare species later on.

Colombo Museum, May 2, 1912. H. F. FERNANDO.

33. Note on ‘‘ Orthotomus sutorius” (the Indian Tailor Bird).—

This interesting little bird is essentially a creature that appears to

have no choice of situation, frequenting gardens, cultivated districts,

and open country, as well as thick jungle’ and the depths of the

NOTES. 301

forest, flitting and hopping about among the shrubs and plants

looking for insects. Abundant though they be, the tailor bird is

unknown to quite a number of people ; this is due to the fact that

he is not arrayed in gay plumage and is very small, so fails to attract

the eye. His feathers are of sober hue, but he makes up with

vivacity what he lacks in brilliance of plumage.

The tailor bird is ubiquitous in Ceylon,. inhabiting the whole

Island, without regard to the nature of the locality, from the sea

coast to the highest part of the upper hills. It is widely distributed

through the low-country, being quite as common in the north and

east as it is in the south. In the Kandy District and throughout

the Central Province and about Nuwara Eliya it is not common.

In India this little bird is a permanent resident throughout the

Empire, ascending the Himalayas and other hill ranges up to 4,000

feet of elevation. It is rather rare in Sind and portions of the

Punjab, but it appears to be found in all parts of those Provinces.

In Burma its range ceases at Mergui, and extends into Siam and

China, but not to so great an altitude as in Ceylon.

During the greater part of the year the male and female are alike

in outward appearance—the female differs but slightly from the

male, merely having the rufous on the head paler. The upper

plumage is greenish, with a dash of gold or chestnut on the head.

This last is set off by a neat black colour, visible only when the neck

is stretched. The lower parts of the bird are dull white, and are

thus lighter in colour than the back and wings.

The male, during the breeding season, is a bird of very restlods

habit, and when watched at that period quickly disappears into the

nearest thick foliage, and is most persistent in giving forth his sharp

* twike, twike,’’ and the muscular action consequent on the display

of these vocal powers exposes the naked black skin at the side of the

throat, giving the appearance of a dark stripe at this part. The

two middle feathers of the cock bird grow to a greater length than

the others, and project 2 inches beyond them as sharp bristles.

The breeding season in the west and south of the Island lasts from

about February to November, during which period probably more

than one brood is reared. In the Central Province it commences

somewhat later, and in the north it is during the cool or north-east

monsoon.

The tailor bird is interesting chiefly on account of the nest it

constructs, which is one of the most wonderful things in Nature.

The nursery in which the young tailors are born is composed of one

or more leaves, which are sewn together by the parents. The bird’s

beak is its needle. If the fruit of the silk cotton tree be ripe the

tailor bird extracts cotton from this and spins into thread with

beak and feet. The method of nest-building varies with the kind of

leaf. If it be a large one the sides are drawn together and stitched

to keep them in situ ; if no large-leafed plants are available in the

302 SPOLIA ZBYLANICA.

selected site the bird has to content itself with smaller leaves, and

it sews two or more of these together. The nest, which is thus a

kind of purse or pocket, is well lined with bits of cotton, thread, coir

fibre, wool, and small roots. As soon as the nursery is ready, three,

four, or five diminutive eggs are laid in it. The tailor bird, like

several other species, lays more than one type of eggs. In some

cases there are three varieties: those with a white background with

red blotches, those whose surface is white and but faintly speckled

with red, and those which have a bluish background blotched

with red.

The tailor bird nest and three young ones mounted for exhibition

were found by Mr. G. M. Henry, the Laboratory Assistant, in one of

the canna beds at the Museum grounds, and the other tailor birds

were presented by Master Eric Fernando.

Colombo Museum, September, 1912. H. F. FERNANDO.

34. ‘* Rhipidura albifrontata”’ (White-browed Fantail Flycatcher).

—The “ Fantail” is chiefly an inhabitant of the dry jungle region

between the Haputale mountains and the south-east coast, the

eastern portion of the low-country as far as the delta of the Mahaweli-

ganga, and the Province of Uva. In the first-named tract of country

it is more common than elsewhere, frequenting the jungle on the

borders of tanks. In Uva it is found chiefly on tree-dotted patanas ;

and in the Eastern Province, coconut topes in the vicinity of villages.

It is rare to the west of Tangalla and Hambantota Districts.

Jerdon says: “ It is found all over India except lower Bengal,

extending to the foot of the Himalayas. It is most common in

Malabar and Deccan, and it is not rare in the North-west Provinces

and in Sind.”

This showy little bird is one of the most interesting of our

flycatchers ; it frequents little groves of trees or those standing

on patanas and cultivated ground, jungle on the borders of tanks,

and open grassy glades.

It is a fearless species, and when not ee for breeding is usually

of solitary habit. At this time its manners are most amusing ; for

the male, in his endeavour to attract the attention of his consort,

displays a nature much akin to that of the peacock. He will some-

times alight on a tree close to a bystander, and proceed with a

measured little pace, with an outspreading movement of its wings,

combined with an expanding and contracting of its long tail.

Elegance marks every moment of the fantail flycatcher. It runs

swiftly among the branches, and every now and then makes a pretty

bow and spreads its tail, then suddenly it will make a little sally in

the air, and return with easy sweep to the place whence it started.

In grace of movement a fantail flycatcher is nearly equal to a

wagtail.

NOTES. 303

It is very active in catching its prey, and does not fly far after it,

but snaps it up with a sudden dart. This flycatcher breeds in Ceylon

during the early part of the year, from January to May.

In March, 1911, during a collecting tour in the Southern Province,

and while I was camping in a village called Weligatta, about seven

miles from Hambantota, I came across the nest of this bird, placed

on a forked branch of a leafless thorny tree at a height of about 7

feet from the ground. The nest was composed of fine grass and plant

stalks coated with cobwebs, and the inside lined with a few feathers ;

and in this elegantly-shaped, shallow, cup-like nursery were found

one cream-coloured egg spotted with grayish brown. On my return

from the collecting tour in Wirawila and Tissamaharama, after a

fortnight, I paid a visit to the nest, and found two newly-hatched

young ones. It must have taken ten to twelve days for incubation.

When the young hatched out they are of course ugly, large-mouthed

creatures, innocent of a single feather. At first they are very weak,

and seem to have scarcely strength enough to raise their heads

to receive the insects brought by their parents. Their growth is

however exceedingly rapid. After three days, when I saw them

again, they were fully twice the size they were when first hatched

out. They keep their fond parents very busy seeking food for them.

This consists entirely of minute insects, many of which are picked

off the trunks and branches of trees, some are taken off the ground,

while others are caught on the wing.

By the sixth day the young birds had grown so big that there was

no room for them to lie side by side in the nest. By this time the

tail and great wing feathers had grown rapidly, and their conduct

in the nest was unlike that of any other young birds I have seen.

The moment a parent arrived, up into the air go their gaping mouths.

While seeking for food the parents never go far from the nest. They

keep a most jealous guard over their precious nursery, and most

necessary is it that they should do so for fear of crows and hawks,

as they are exceedingly fond of eating young birds, and are always

on the lookout for nests. I was watching on the sixth day, and saw

the pair of fantails performing their nursery duties, when a black

crow (Corvus macrorhynchus) alighted near the next tree. Both

fantail flyeatchers immediately attacked it. Their method of

attack was to make a series of dashes at the back and tail of the

crow, pecking at it each time they approached. The crow did not

appear to mind this treatment very much, and as my sole intention

was to secure the nest and young, and fearing I might loose such a

nice group for the Museum I scared the crow away. But after a

little while they calmed down and resumed their search for food.

I thought I would see what they would do to me if I attempted to

take their young ones. Accordingly, when both the parents were

near by, I moved up to the tree and stretched my hand towards the

nest and secured both the young ones. The flyeatchers made no

304 -SPOLIA ZEYLANICA,

attempt to attack me. They are naturally afraid of so large a

creature as a human being. While I was removing the young ones

to the camp the parent birds followed me for a short distance.

After I had killed and mounted the young ones I went in the after-

noon and cut the branch with the nest, and I then found both the

fantail flycatchers perched on the same branch near the nest and

shot them both, and thus secured the nest, young, and parent birds,

which are now mounted as near as possible to the natural surround-

ings for exhibition in the Bird Gallery of the Museum.

Solombo Museum, September, 1912. H. F. FERNANDO.

35. Distribution of Snakes in Ceylon.—Some months ago

Dr. Pearson, the Director of the Colombo Museum, asked me to

prepare a Paper on the distribution of snakes in Ceylon. As this

means a considerable amount of work and time, I am sending a

short preliminary note on the subject derived from my own observa-

tions only. In consequence the lists must not be taken to be by any

means complete.

Anuradhapura, July 10, 1912. A. F. ABERCROMBY.

Snakes found in Ceylon.

No. Snake. No. Snake.

1 Typhlops mirus. 29 Zamenis mucosus,

2 Do. braminus. 30 Do. fasciolatus.

5 Python molurus. 31 Coluber helena.

4 Cylindrophis maculatus. 32 Dendrophis pictus.

5 Uropeltis grandis. 33 Do. bifrenalis.

6 Khinophis oxyrrhinchus. 34 Do. caudolineolatus.

il Do. punctatus. 35 Tropidonotus ceylonensis.

8 Do. planiceps. 36 Do. plumbicolor.

9 Do. blythii 37 Do. asperrimus.

10 Silybura melanogaster. 38 Do. stolatus.

il Aspidura brachyorrhos. 39 Helicops schistosus.

12 Do. copii. 40 Dipsas barnesii.

13 Do. guentheri. 4] Do. ceylonensis.

14 Do. trachyprocta. 42 Do. forstenii.

15 Do. drummondhayi. 43 Dryophis mycterizans.

16 Haplocercus ceylonensis. 44 Do. pulverulentus.

17 Lyeodon aulicus. 45 Chrysopelea ornata.

18 Do. _ striatus. 46 Cerberus rhynchops.

19 Do. carinatus. 47 UHypsirhina enhydris.

20 Hydrophobus nympha 48 Callophis trimaculatus.

21 Do. gracilis. 49 Bungarus ceylonicus.

22 Polyodontophis subpunctatus. 50 Do. czxruleus.

23 Ablabes calamaria. 51 Naia tripudians.

24 Simotes arnensis. 52 Vipera russellii.

25 Oligodon templetonii. 53 Hchis carinata.

26 Do. sublineatus. 54 Ancistrodon hypnale.

27 Do. subgriseus. 55 ‘Trimeresurus trigonocephalus.

28 ‘Do. ellioti. | :

NOTES, 305

List of Localities of various Ceylon Snakes.

A= Very common ; B= Rather rare ; c = Very rare.

Place. Snake Nos.

Colombo (about) 17, 29a, 31, 33, 37, 38, 43, 49c, 52, 54B, 55, 1, 22.

Kandy 17, 29a, 31, 38, 41, 44, 43a, 49, 52, 51a, 55, 9, 7c, 39.

Badulla 38a, 37, 36, 41, 49, 52, 27, 42, 26, 3, 11, 17, 23, 51, 54a,

29a, 31, “434, EG, &:

Matale 32, 33, 374, 38, 39a, 414, 43a, 448, 480, 51a, 31a, 1,

3B, Tia, 14, 17a, 19, 52a, 548, 29a, 25B, 26a, 224°

24, 55a, 30.

Anuradhapura 2, 3A, 39, 51, 29a, 55B, 54a, 43a, 33, 440, 52, 17a, 20c,

255 350, 360, 374, 38a, 400, 41, 42, 4, "25, 26.

Kurunegala 43a, 37A, 36, 38a, 334, 27B, 51, 44, 29a, 17, 28B, 52,

26, 35, 54.

Polgahawela 45c, 29a, 51, 43, 41, 17, 2, 52, 32, 37, 38.

Negombo 42, 51, 17, 52, 54, 29a, 33, 37, 38, 13, 26.

Trincomalee 52a, 51, 29a, 48c, 37, 3.

Jaffna (Province) ..

Rangalla (Knuckles)

530, 47, 50c, 51, 52, 33, 29, 19, 20, 30, 50c.

12, 26, 29a, 43, 37, 518, 33, 52B, 55, 49c, 398, 38z, 7.

Ratnapura 3, 44c, 51, 52, 55, 17, 37, 29, 25, 26.

Nuwara Eliya 29, 9.

Balangoda 44, 40, 34c, 17, 37, 3, 12, 35, 36, 39, 49.

Avisawella 12) 5 O25 55, 17, 33:

Sigiriya Dom2oy 4 oh ao Le om

Minneriya 17, 54, 29a, 51, 43, 33, 37, 3.

Horana 44, 41, 42, 37, 29a, 51, 52.

Tissamaharama 48c.

Kirinda 29, 51.

Yala 3.

Udugama 34c, 25, 35.

Wadduwa 44,

Elephant Pass 33.

Kalutara 42, 29a, 51, 52, 41, 22.

Puttalam W729"

Matara 5.

Mullaittivu 6. Dae

Bogawantalawa 14, 32, 41, 40c, 54a, 29.

Illagolla 34c.

Dimbula 49,

Dikoya 12.

36. How Snakes swallow.—One of the most striking points about

the snake is its astonishing swallowing capacity, though when the

structure of a snake’s jaws and body is taken into consideration

this is not so extraordinary as it at first seems.

In a snake each mandible, or lower jawbone, is not directly

hinged on to the skull, but articulates with a second bone, the

quadrate, which in its turn is jointed on to the supratemporal,

another bone, which is loosely attached at one end to the skull.

The two lower jawbones are connected with each other in front

merely by muscles and ligaments, which are extremely elastic, as

is the skin between the two bones. Such, indeed, is the elasticity

of a snake’s interstitial skin, that when a fourteen-foot python is

swallowing anything large the scales will be divided from each other

by nearly a quarter of an inch. The upper jawbones of the snake

306 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA,

can also be moved in addition to the palatines—two parallel bones

lying along the palate, and usually bearing teeth; and each of the

four jawbones is capable of independent action.

The food of the snake, if furred or feathered, is swallowed head

first, and is drawn into the mouth by the alternate protrusion and

retraction of each of the upper and lower jawbones, which are

armed with short needie-like teeth curving backwards. The move-

ments of the lower jawbones occur after the upper jaw has been

pushed as far forward as possible over the food. If the animal to

be eaten is small, it is drawn into the mouth; if it is large, the

snake draws his mouth over it, though the action, in each case, is

the same.

When once the food is in the mouth, the palatine teeth come into

play and assist in pushing the food into the gullet. When a snake

has anything at all large in its mouth, and is in danger of choking,

it will ease its breathing by protruding the end of the windpipe

beyond the lower lip, which it is enabled to do by the elasticity of

the skin at the base of the former. When once the food is in the

gullet, the snake proceeds to draw its body over it, gripping it with

the muscles of the throat, and curving its body so as to get a

purchase against it. In other words, the snake draws itself over its

food until its stomach reaches it, the process being much faciliated

by the oily condition of the gullet. As the ribs of the snake are

only loosely attached to the vertebrze, and the undersurface merely

composed of shields of thick skin, and is innocent of breast bone,

the body is capable of much expansion.

Snakes, particularly pythons, will sometimes saliver their prey,

apparently to assist digestion, but this is not invariably the case,

and I have never seen a snake saliver a reptile, though it will often

tongue one it has killed to discover the size, whether it is palatable,

and whereabouts the head is.

After swallowing, a snake usually gapes several times, moves

about a bit, and then coils up and goes to sleep.

Anuradhapura, May 4, 1912. A. F. ABERCROMBY.

37. Whipsnakes.—This morning I found one of my green ‘‘whip-

snakes’ (Dryophis mycterizans), about 44 feet long, in the act of

swallowing a smaller whipsnake. I do not think it was a case of

deliberate cannibalism, as I have always kept these snakes together

and never known of them swallowing each other before. Probably,

in this case, they had both seized the same frog, and the smaller

snake had refused to leave go and got swallowed with the frog.

At any rate, the snake that was being swallowed appeared to be

dead, and only moved its tail occasionally, which I supposed to be

merely muscular action after death, and I allowed the larger snake

to go on swallowing. When the head reached the stomach, there was

NOTES. 307

still about 2 feet of body and tail remaining out of the swallower’s

mouth, so that the latter was compelled to disgorge the snake it had

swallowed, which reappeared alive and apparently none the worse

from its involuntary visit to the “‘ internal regions.”

Anuradhapura, July 10, 1912. A. F. ABERCROMBY,

38. Ihave been watching with some interest a male and a female

Dipsas forsteniz, which I have in a large cage. At night the male

begins coiling in and out of the coils of the female, trying to wind

its tail round that of the female, apparently with the purpose of

copulating, but whenever the female feels the tail approach her own

she lashes her tail quickly out of the way and buries it as much as

possible inside her coils, and the male has to continue winding and

twisting about her for a long time before he can get hold of her tail

again. Ihave watched this going on for an hour and a half without

any result.

There is another male Dipsas in the cage, and whenever it

approaches the female the other male darts at it in a savage way, as

though trying to butt it with its head, but never tries to bite. This

threatening behaviour seems quite sufficient to drive away the other

snake,

Anuradhapura, July 10, 1912. A. F. ABERCROMBY.

39. Kabaragoya raiding Crow's Nest—While walking over the

bridge near Tebuwana resthouse, in the Kalutara District, on July

17, I found a couple of crows cawing loudly in a great state of

excitement, and on seeking for the cause I discovered a kabaragoya

(Varanus salvator) of respectable size on the topmost branches of a

tall ingasamam tree (Pithecolobium saman) raiding a nest in a most

leisurely manner by feasting upon the eggs.

The surprising part of the proceeding was the dexterous manner

in which the creature was able to balance itself on the tiny branches

of the tree, and its agility in climbing to such a height.

Colombo, July 29, 1912. C. DRIEBERG.

40. Donations and Loan Collections for the Colombo Museum.—It

is well known that private collections disappear altogether within

three generations, and it is often owing to this that valuable dona-

tions are made by private persons to Museums in Europe and

28 6(7)12

308 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

America. In Ceylon the people have not yet realized that it is best

for one’s children and for the community to preserve and pass on in

perpetuity valuable material possessions of educational or historical

value. Collections or articles of educative interest which have

been brought together for their beauty, their history, or their

illumination of life and customs can best be preserved in a Museum.

Not to go very far back, one has only to ask what has become of

the valuable and interesting things possessed by one’s great-grand-

parents. Antique furniture, utensils, and other property, old books

and prints of Ceylon, in the possession of families or collected by

enthusiasts, get dispersed sooner or later, and nobody benefits by ~

them. Many art treasures of Ceylon find a place in Museums abroad,

or form private collections in Europe, and many are daily being

removed from. the Island. These articles possess stronger interest

and value when shown in Ceylon, and form part of the records of the

Island. It is the duty of one whose life has been centred in the

collecting of anything, and to which he has given his time, his

strength, and his means, to take steps to ensure such collections not

being dispersed, and this can only be done by preserving them in

a public institution like a Museum, where they will be seen by

posterity and be available for inspection, study, and reference. Many

articles which are now considered trifles will be of great value here-

after, as illustrating the mode of life or history of those that passed

away. Customs change with rapidity, and this is especially so in

Ceylon, and if old articles are not kept together all evidence of

customs disappear, and are difficult to understand without actual

illustrations.

In the Colombo Museum there is an enlarged picture of the grand

audience granted by Governor Falk in 1772 to the Ambassadors

from the Kandyan Court, taken from the original in the Rijks

Museum at Amsterdam. In the picture the Maha Mudaliyar is

seen carrying a hat like an Admiral’s, which several put down to

the imagination of the artist, but such a hat, called a jagalat

toppiya, is to be seen in the Colombo Museum. This hat was fortu-

nately presented many years ago by the family of Rajapakse, Chief

Mudaliyar of the Mahabadda, 1701 a.p., to the Museum. It must

be a source of pride to that family to see the hat suitably labelled

and preserved, and forming part of the historical collections of the

Island. If this hat had not come to the Museum, doubtless it would

have been lost or destroyed ere this ; at all events it would never

have been kept in the present excellent state of preservation.

Articles kept in a Museum, besides being of value to one’s children

and the public, prevent loss, breaking up of collections, and ensures

the continuance of association of the name of the original owner or

collector with the article or articles. Private collection$ in Ceylon,

however carefully preserved, for several reasons get dissipated by

the heirs of the person who owned or gathered them, the chief reason

NOTES. 309

being that the same interest in the pursuit of collecting seldom

manifests itself in succeeding generations of the same family.

Isolated specimens of historical and ethnographical interest in the

possession of people are not of much value by themselves, but brought

together in a collection in the Museum they become of great value.

When got together and properly arranged, such collections are of

the greatest interest, but taken individually they often appear

commonplace. The Colombo Museum, thanks to the exertions of

the present Director, will shortly issue Bulletins and Memoirs, in

which historical and ethnographical specimens and articles of vertu

will be figured and described. ‘This will afford a splendid opportu-

nity to those possessing treasures to donate or loan them, that they

may be dealt with by specialists and made known. People in Ceylon

do not yet understand that the public Museum is after all the logical

custodian of all things of historical, scientific, and artistic value.

GERARD A. JOSEPH.

Colombo Museum, August, 1912.

310 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

THE CEYLON NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

Second General Meeting.

HE Second General Meeting of the Society was held on Friday, June

7, 1912, at 9 P.mM., in the Colombo Museum. In the unavoidable

absence of the President, Dr. Andreas Nell was voted to the Chair.

Mr. A. H. Pertwee read a Paper on “‘ The Fresh-water Fishes of

Ceylon.”’*

In the absence of Mr. E. E. Green, Dr. J. Pearson read a Note on

‘A Remarkable Mimetic Spider,’’t and also a Note on a collection of

butterfly transfers made by Mr. Gilbert of Ratnapura.t

Dr. J. Pearson also exhibited a set of Naturalists’ collecting apparatus

sent by Messrs. Lawrence & Mayo of Madras.

Third General Meeting.

The Third General Meeting of the Society was held on Wednesday.

October 9, 1912, at 5.30 p.m., when Mr. A. H. Pertwee presided.

The following resolution, proposed by Mr. F. M. Mackwood and seconded

_ by Mr. Julius, was carried: “‘ That the members of the Ceylon Natural

History Society congratulate Sir Hugh Clifford, K.C.M.G., upon his

appointment as Governor of the Gold Coast, and desire to place on record

their appreciation of his services as the first President of the Society.”

Mr. F. M. Mackwood was unanimously elected President of the

Society in succession to Sir Hugh Clifford, K.C.M.G.

Capt. J. A. Legge read a Paper on “‘ The Ceylon Pearl Banks.”’§

Mr. E. E. Green read a Paper on “‘ Some Suggestions for Members of

the Ceylon Natural History Society.”*||

Mr. John Hagenbeck read a Paper on “‘ Ostrich Farming in Ceylon.”

He gave the history of the bird, and where the different species could be

found. For a long time he had the idea of having an ostrich farm in

Ceylon, but was afraid that the climate would not be favourable. Since

then, however, it had been proved beyond question that the climate

was favourable to the laying of eggs in Ceylon. ~ In the absence of the

real incubators, he was trying fowl incubators for the hatching of the

eggs which had already come. He had received several letters from

Africa promising help. Whether the undertaking could be made a

paying concern and a successful one, only time could tell. But so far

everything seemed to point to success. An ostrich hen took twenty-four

days to hatch an egg. An ostrich laid from 80 to 100 eggs per annum,

and in six weeks 9 eggs. Two specimens of ostrich eggs laid in Bombay

were produced for inspection.

An interesting discussion followed Mr. Hagenbeck’s remarks.

Two Notes by Mr. H. F. Fernando on “ Nest, Young, and Parent

Bird of the Indian Tailor Bird,” and The White-browed Fantail Fly-

catcher.”’§] Specimens of these were shown.

* Printed in full on p. 243 of the present number of Spolia Zeylanica.

+ Printed in full in Spolia-Zeylanica, Vol. VIIL., Part XXX., p. 92.

{ Printed as a Note on p. 298 of the present number of Spolia Zeylanica.

§ Printed in full on p. 195 of the present number of Spolia Zeylanica.

|| Printed in full on p. 285 of the present number of Spolia Zeylanica.

{| Printed in full as Notes on pp. 300 and 302 of the present number of Spolia

Zeylanica. d