CONTENTS OF VOLUME IX.

Part XXXIII.—JuneE, 1913.

j PAGE

Green, H. E.—

On some Aberrations of Ceylon Butterflies Me 1

Green, E. E.—

Catalogue of Isoptera (Termites) recorded from Ceylon .. i!

Bobeau, Dr. G.—

On the minute structure of the poison gland of the Cobra . 16

Wait, W. E.—

Notes on the Eggs, Nests, and Breeding Seasons of some

Ceylon Birds af At he 21

Mackwood, F. M.—

Some Notes on Butterflies and their Distribution ar 36

Notes— '

1. Some Pioneers of Natural History in Ceylon.

J. P. Lewis ah: ao 41

2. Fight between Snake and Mungoose. J. P. Lewis .. 43

3. A Lunar Rainbow at Sea, &c. Gregory Stapleton 44

4, A “Thunderbolt”? near Colombo. Dr. Joseph

Pearson 45

5. Noteon the occurrence of Molanitis i ismene (Cramer)

at Sea. J. R. Henderson : 45

6. A Note on the occurrence of “ Parus atriceps ”’ (the

Grey-back Titmouse) in Colombo. C.T. Symons 46

Proceedings of the Ceylon Natural History Society ur 48

Part XXXIV.—OcToBER, 1913.

Pearson, Dr. J.—

Notes on the Holothurioidea of the Indian Ocean: I.—The

Genus Holothuria aM P i 49

John, Oscar—

Notes on some Termites from Ceylon .. bd AROS

Hartley, C.—

The Stone Implements of Ceylon = AS SF

Southwell, T.—

Remarks on Dr. Pearson’s Review of the Scientific Work

done on the Ceylon Pearl Banks from 1902 to 1912 .. 124

6(10)14

Henry, G. M.—

Window- eet Oyster Investigations, January and sae

1913 . xe at

Notes—

7. Further Note on the Cup-marked Rock at Kuda-

gama. Frederick Lewis :

8. A Predatory Red Ant. G. M. Henry .-

9. “Bloodsucker’’ Lizards eating small Birds. W.

Ormiston

10. Length of Life of Butterflies in the perfect stage.

W. Ormiston ..

11. Some Notes on the Breeding Habits of some Ceylon

Snakes and Reptiles. A. F. Abercromby

12. How a Crocodile feeds. A. F. Abercromby

Proceedings of the Ceylon Natural History Society

Part XXXV.—MarcH, 1914.

Bugnion, Dr. E.—

L’Imago de l’Eutermes lacustris de Ceylan

Bugnion, Dr. E.—

EKutermes hantane de Ceylan

Pearson, Dr. J.—

Proposed re-classification of the Genera Miilleria and

Holothuria

Pearson, Dr. J.—

Notes on the Holothurioidea of the Indian Ocean:

II.—The Sub-genera Argiodia and Actinopyga

Sewell, Captain R. B. S.—

Notes on the Surface Copepoda of the Gulf of Mannar

Reviews—

(a) Ceylon Stone Implements. C. Hartley oe

(6) Poisonous Snakes of India and Ceylon. A. F.

Abercromby ate a

Notes—

13. List of Birds found at and around Hakgala Gardens,

Nuwara Eliya. James J. Nock

Proceedings of the Ceylon Natural History Society

PAGE _

134

141

142

143 »

143

144

147

148

149

155

163

173

191

265

268

271

274

INDEX TO VOLUME IX.

SUBJECT INDEX.

Africa, east coast of, 94

Alanturai Paar, 132, 192, 259

Aldabra, 53

Ambalangoda, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 14, 15

Ambalantota, 31

Amboina, 56, 229, 242

Amboyna, 41

American Museum, 92

Anaivilundan Paar, 253

Andaman Islands, 197

Ant (Red), predatory, 142-143

Anuradhapura, 11, 14, 29, 39, 147

Apples, 42

Aripu Paar East, 254

Asparagus, 42

Australia, 93

Australian Museum, 92

Avissawella, 8, 9

Babbler (Ceylonese Scimitar), 273

Babbler (Rufous), 272

Balangoda, 9, 119

Banda, 41

Bandarawela, 121, 122

Barbet (Brown-headed), 274

Barbet (Crimson-breasted), 274

Barbets, 27, 32

Barbet (Yellow-fronted), 272

Bar reef, 261

Batticaloa-Hambantota, 39

Bee-eater (Blue-tailed), 273

Bee-eater (Chestnut-headed), 273

Bee-eater (Green), 30, 34

Belgium, 122

Bengal, Bay of, 197

Bird-nesting in Ceylon, 33 -

Birds (Ceylon), eggs, nests, and breeding

seasons, 21-35

Birds in Hakgala and Nuwara Eliya,

271-274

Bittern (Black), 22

Blackbird (Ceylonese), 273

Blackbird (Ward’s Pied), 272

Black Bittern, 22

Bloodsucker Lizard, 143

Blue-breasted Quail, 23

Blue Coot, 30

Bombay, 12

Bone needle, 119

Bronze-wing Pigeon, 34

Brown-capped Quaker Thrush, 24

Bulbul, 32

Bulbul (Black), 272

Bulbul (Bush), 33

Bulbul (Madras), 29, 273

Bulbul’s nest, 34

Bulbul (Yellow-eared), 272

Burma, 40, 236, 245

Burma, Butterflies of, 37

Burma—coast of, 205

Bush Bulbul, 33

Hager rtilos (Ceylon), some aberrations

of, 1-6

Butterflies, distribution of, 36—40

Butterflies, Indian and Ceylon, 39

Butterflies, Indian, list of, 38

Butterflies, length of life, 143

Butterflies of India, Burma,

Ceylon, 37

Butterflies peculiar to Ceylon, 38

Butterflies, South India, 38

and

Caribbean Sea, 187

Cestodes, 127

Ceylon, 12

Ceylon Butterflies, 37

Ceylon Company of Pearl Fishers, 130

Ceylon Jungle Fowl, 272

Ceylon Pearl Banks, 88, 236

Ceylon Quaker Thrush, 25, 34

Ceylon Stone Implements, 265-268

Challai Paar, 132, 256

Challenger Expedition, 88, 90

Challenger Publication, 130

Chert, 119

Chert chips, 120

Cheval Paar, 127

Chilaw, 5, 261

Chittagong, 245

Cinnamon Thrush, 32, 33

Clamorous Reed-warbler, 30, 31

Cloves, 42

Cobra, poison gland of, 16—20

Coleoptera, 108

Colombo, 10, 38

Colombo District, 39

Colombo Museum, 88, 267

Colotis, 38

Coot (Blue), 30

Coot (Purple), 31

Copepoda (surface, in Gulf of Mannar),

191

Cormorants, 31

Coueal (Common), 271

Crake, Eastern Baillon’s, 23, 34

Crocodiles, 146, 147, 148

Crow (Jungle), 272

Crow Pheasant, 34

Crows, 29

Crystal, 119

Did-he-do-it, 30

Diyatalawa, 2, 9, 10, 14, 122

Dolosbage, 122

Donnan’s Muttuvaratu Paar, 260

Dove (Bronze-winged), 271

Dove (Spotted), 274

Drift Bottle Experiment, 129-133

Dublin Museum, 66, 177

Var)

Durban, 174 Jafina, 8, 9, 10, 38, 41, 70, 120

Durban Museum, 175 Jaggerboom Bank, 257

Dutch Bay Spit, 261 Java, 41

Dutch Moderagam, 217, 222 Jokenpiddi Paar, 222, 223, 261

Dutch Moderagam Paar, 132, 192, 257 | Jungle Wren-warbler, 29

Eagle (Ceylonese Serpent), 274 Kadugannawa, 14

Eastern Baillon’s Crake, 23, 34 Kaju-nut, 15

Eastern Province, 39 Kalutara, 8, 15

East Indies, 93 Kandy, 2, 4, 9, 10, 38, 39

Egg Collectors—Birds, Ceylon, 21 Karaitivu Shoal, North End, 259

Eggs—Quail, 24 Karaitivu Paars, 132, 192, 193, 217, 258

England, 122 Karkopanni Paar, 261

Kolithic Age, 118 Kar Nicobar, 199

Katuwana, 24

Flakes (trimmed), 119 Kegalla, 8

Flower Pecker (Tickell’s), 272 Kendewa, 35

Fly-catcher (Ceylonese Blue), 274. Kilakarai, 222, 223, 244, 245, 248, 253

Fly-catcher, eggs of, 34 Kingfisher, 30, 33

Fly-catcher (Grey-headed), 272 Kingfisher (Little Indian), 271

Fly-catcher (Paradise), 26 Jirindo (Northern Province), 5

Forskaal, 85 Kodaipota, 134, 136

Fowl (Ceylon Jungle), 272 Kokobe, 147

France, 122 Kondachi Paar, 256

Frankfurt Museum, 56, 62 Koopay Paar, 253

Korrinjavat, 134

Galle, 12, 14, 105, 150, 179 Koslanda, 10

Gampola, 122 Kotmale, 9

Geneva Museum, 56, 61 Kraits, 269

Genip, 42 Krusadai, 222

Giant Bamboo, 15 Krusadai Paar, 261

Golden Oriole, 29, 33 Kudagama, cup-marked Rock at, 141-

Green Bee-eater, 30, 34 142

Green-billed Malkoha, 34 Kudrimalai Paar, 257

Green Pigeon, 26, 34 Kurunegala, 13, 102, 103

Grey-back Titmouse (in Colombo), 46

Laceadives, 198

Hakgala Birds, 271-274 Lancashire, 122

Haldummulla, 4 Lapwing (Red-wattled), 33

Haldummulla-Wellawaya, 39 Lark (Madras Bush), 273

Hamadryad, 269 Larks, 30, 34

Hambantota, 5, 9, 10, 11, 39 Leeches, 42

Hambantota-Batticaloa, 39 Lepidoptera, some aberrations of, 2

Hamilton’s Muttuvaratu Paar, 260 Lihiniya, 34

Hantane, 9, 14, 110, 149, 154, 155 Lindula, 9

Haputale, 9, 24 List of Indian Butterflies, 38

Hatton, 122 ’ Loquats, 42

Hawk (Jungle Sparrow), 271 Lunar Rainbow at Sea, 44-45 |

Henaratgoda, 9, 15

Heron (Pond), 22 Madeira, 177

Heronries, 27 Madras Bulbul, 29

Herons, 30, 31

Magdalenian, 266

Hill Mynah, 34

Magpie Robin, 29

Holothuria, 163-190 Maha Iluppallama, 11, 13, 103

Hoopee (South Indian), 274 Malay Archipelago, 228

Horton Plains, 120, 122 Maldives, 61, 66, 82, 83, 84, 85, 93, 198

House Sparrow (Common), 273 Malkoha (Green-billed), 34

Manal-ar, 136

India, 6, 40, 122 Mangosteen, 42

India, butterflies of, 37 Mannar, Gulf of, 191, 205

Indian Butterflies, list of, 38 Marichchukkaddi Bay, 132, 257

Indian Museum, 89 Maskeliya, 2, 117, 121

Indian Ocean (Holothurioidea), notes | Matale, 9, 122

on, 49-101 Medagama, 35

Indian Roller, 272 Melicocea, 42

Indian Tailor-bird, 35 Mergui Archipelago, 197

Indo-Pacific, 187 Meteorite, 45

Insect-feeders, 32 Mid-Cheval Paar, 256

Isoptera, Ceylon, 7-15 Mid-East Cheval Paar, 255

Co val

Mid-West Cheval Paar, 255

Mihintale, 120

Mihintale—Naga Pokuna, 120

Minivet (Orange), 273

Minneriya, 22

Minots Microtome, 17

Moderagam Paar, 257

Moor-hen, 30, 31

Moor-hen (White-breasted), 31

Moths, 36

Mount Pedro, 3

Miilleria, 163-172

Mungoose, 43

Munia, 34

Munia (Black-bellied), 271

Munia (Hill), 271

Munich, 176

Muttikallam, 137

Muttuvaratu Paar, 260

Mynah, 33

Mynah (Hill), 34

Myriapods, 109

Nachchikuda Bay, 135, 136

Nadalaikula Paar, 261

Nadukudda Paar, 253

Naga Pokuna, 120

Nalanda, 9

Natural History (Ceylon)—Pioneers,

41-43

Natural History Society, Ceylon, 48,

148, 274

Natural History Society (Ceylon)—

proceedings of meetings, 48, 148, 274

Navakkaduwa Paar, 261

Nawalapitiya, 1, 122

Neolithic, 123

Neolithic Age, 118

Neolithic savage, 121

Neolithie type, 125

New Stone Age, 118

Nidification (Ceylon Birds), 21—35

Night-jar (Kelaart’s), 271

Night-jars, 30

Nitre Cave, 38

North-Central Cheval Paar, 256

North Cheval Paar, 254

North-East Cheval Paar, 254

Northern Province, 39

North-West Cheval Paar, 256

Nuthatch (Indian Blue), 273

Nutmegs, 42

Nuwara Eliya, 3, 38, 39

Nuwara Eliya Birds, 271-274

Old Dutch Jaggerboom Bank, 257

Old Stone Age, 118

Orange-breasted Green Pigeon, 25

Orinthologists (Ceylon), 21

Oriole (Golden), 29, 33

Paleolithic Age, 118, 120

Paleoliths, 267

Pandarella, 34

Paradise Fly-catcher, 26

Pasdun Korale, 27

Passara, 14.

Pataiaddimunai, 134

Patination, 118

)

Pattipola, 122

Paumben, 236, 248, 253

Peaches, 42

Pearl Banks (Ceylon), 88

ie Banks, Scientific work on, 124—

Pearl Fisheries Report in time of Dutch

and British, 41

Pearl Production, 127

Pedru, 38

Peradeniya, 2, 6, 8, 9, 10, 13, 14, 15, 31,

103, 109, 111, 112, 149, 150

Periya Kalmunai, 135

Periya Paar, 239, 254

Periya Paar Kariya, 126, 254

Persian Gulf, 229, 242

Pheasant (Tank), 23

Philippine Islands, 88, 89

Philippines, 229

Pigeon (Bronze-wing), 34

Pigeon (Green), 26

Pigeon (Indian Rock), 271

Pigeon (Orange-breasted Green), 25

Pigeons (Green), 34

Pigmies, 121, 122, 123

Pimento, 42

Pipits, 30, 34

Pitless Vipers, 269

Pit Vipers, 269

Placuna, 139

Poisonous Snakes of India and Ceylon,

268

Pond Heron, 22

Porphyrio poliocephalus, 30

Purple Coot, 31

Puttalam, 39

Quail, 25, 33

Quail (Blue-breasted), 23

Quaker Thrushes, 34

Quartz, 119

Rail (Ruddy), 23

Rainbow (Lunar) at Sea, 44-45

Rakwana, 39

Ramboda, 9

Rangoon, 245

Ranna, 31

Ratnapura, 7, 8, 9, 14, 27, 30

Ratnapura District, 39

Rattota, 9

Red Ant (predatory), 142, 143

Red Sea, 174, 176, 177, 179, 180

Red-wattled Lapwing, 33

Reed-warbler (Clamorous), 30, 31

Reptiles, breeding habits of, 144-147

Robin (Magpie), 29

Robin (White-winged Black), 273

Roller (Indian), 272

Ruanwella, 9

Ruddy Rail, 23

Russia, 102

Sallaimunai, 134

Samoa, 85

Sapota, 42

Sawi Bay, 199

Sembian-ar, 137

Seychelles, 66, 91, 174, 177, 178

( viii)

Shoal Buoy, 128

Shrike (Brown), 272

Shrike (Little Pied), 272

Siboga collection, 228

Silavatturai Paar, 256

Sinna Palamput-ar, 137

Slumper, 36

Snake and Mungoose, fight between, 43

Snakes (Ceylon), breeding habits of,

144-147

Snakes (poisonous)

Ceylon, 268

Snipe (Common), 272

South Cheval Paar, 255

South-East Cheval Paar, 255

South-West Cheval Paar, 255

Sparrow (Common House), 273

Sparrow’s Egg, 34

Splitter, 36

Spur Fowl (Ceylon), 272

Stone Age (New), 118

Stone Age (Old), 118, 121, 122

Stone Implements (Ceylon), 117-123

St. Petersburg, 102

Sub-Crag Age, 118

Sun-bird (Ceylon), 271

Sun-bird (Purple), 271

Swallow, 34

Swallow (Bungalow), 272

Swallow-shrike (Wood), 34

Swamp-nesters, 30

Swift, 34

Swiftlet (Indian Edible-nest), 271

of India and

Tailor-bird, Indian, 35, 273

Talagoya, 146

Talaivillu Paar, 261

Talgaswella, 150

Tallaivillu Point, 132

Tamblegam, 134

Tamblegam District, rainfall in, 140

Tangalla, 26, 28, 30, 31, 39

Tank Pheasant, 23

Tardenoisian Implements, 121

Tasmania, 267

Teal (Whistling), 31

Tenasserim Coast, 228, 233

Termites, 149-162

Termites, Ceylon, 7—15

Ternate, 56

Thrush (Brown-capped Quaker), 24

Thrush (Buft-breasted), 273

—— eae

Thrush (Ceylon Quaker), 25, 34

Thrush (Cinnamon), 32, 33

Thrush (Spotted Ground), 272

Thunderbolt (near Colombo), 45

Tickell’s Flower Pecker, 272

Tissa Tank, 39

Titmouse (Grey-backed), 273

Tokyo, 72

Topawewa, 22

Trepang, 51

Trincomalee, 4, 9, 10, 13, 14, 39, 55, 60,

Trincomalee Harbour, 60

Trogon (Ceylon), 272

Tuticorin, 133

Udagama, 8

Udakiriwila, 31

Ukuwella, 8

Vankalai Paar, 254

Vavuniya, 44

Vienna Museum, 109

Waders, 27, 30

Wagtail (Grey-and-yellow), 273

Walawe, 31

Wampees, 42

Warbler (Ashy Wren), 273

Warbler (Common Grass), 271

Warbler (Green Willow), 273

Water-birds, 27

Water-rails, 23

Wellawaya, 5

Wellawaya-Haldummulla, 39

West Cheval Paar, 256

Whistling Teal, 31

White Ants, 149-162

White-breasted Moor-hen, 31

White-eye (Ceylonese), 274

White-eye (Common), 274

Window-pane Oyster investigations,

134-140

Wood-chat (Indian), 272

Woodpecker (Red), 271

Woodpeckers, 27, 32, 33

Wood-shrike, 33

Wood Swallow-shrike, 34

Wren-warbler (Jungle), 29

Yatiyantota, 8, 9

NAME

Abercromby, A. F., 147, 148, 270

Adams, Herbert J., 9

Anderson, Dr. John, 95

Augustin, E., 75, 76, 95

Baird, W., 226

Bamford, A. J., 140

Bedford, F. P., 66, 67, 69, 71, 73,

TONTSA SON S2aisGs Goutal Ti.

183, 185, 187

Bell, F. J., 56, 65, 67, 69, 72, 73, 78, 86,

87, 95, 181, 185

Bennett, 41

Bingham, Colonel C. T., 1, 2, 37

Black, Miss Sheila, 1, 5

Blainville, 85

Bligh, 21, 24

Bobeau, Dr. G., 16

Boeck, 204.

Boisd, 5

Brady, 200, 204, 215, 216, 233, 238, 248

Brandt, J. F., 65, 67, 71, 73, 74, 80, 87,

95, 100, 170, 173, 174, 181, 182, 187

Brown, Rudmose, 49

Bugnion, Dr. E., 7, 8, 9, 14, 15, 110,

111, 112, 113, 149, 155

Burnand, Jacob, 41

Butler, 5

Carl, 205, 242, 250

Cave, W. H., 46

Chamisso and Eysenhardt, 81

Clark, H. L., 62, 67, 80, 96

Cleve, 192, 193, 196, 197, 200, 201, 202,

203, 204 205. 208, 209, 210, 213, 214,

215, 216, 220, 221, 222, 223, 224, 226,

227, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232, 233, 234;

236, 238, 240, 241, 248, 250

Cordiner, 42

Cramer, 5

Crossland, Cyril, 50, 51, 81, 179

Cramer, &

Cribb, Captain, 126

Dahl, 204, 205, 250

Dana, 193, 200, 203, 213, 214, 216, 220,

227, 228, 230, 231, 232, 237, 239, 240,

241

Denham, Mr., 43

Desneux, 7, 8, 9, 11

Doflein, 7, 115

Donnan, Captain, 128

Druce, H., 38

Drury, 4

74,

182,

Emery, Carl, 16

Hseherichs re Ke, 7.) U2, 13.15, 106;

107, 109, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 149

Evans, Captain W. H., 38, 40

Kysenhardt and Chamisso, 81

Ferguson, William, 44

Wisher, W. K., 67, 71, 73, 74, 76, 77, 78

80, 81, 86, 96, 174, 177, 185, 187

Fletcher, Bainbrigge, 11, 12

Foote, Bruce, 267

Forskaal, 171

Fraser, J. G., 25

Froggatt, 8

Frver, J. C, F., 53

INDEX

Gaimard and Quoy, 71, 85, 98, 169,

174, 181, 185, 189

Gardiner, Prof, ‘Stanley, 49, 61, 66, 82,

84, 91, 93, 95, 177, 179, 184, 187

Gatty, Rev. R. ae 122, 123

Giesbrecht, 192, 193, 196, 197, 198, 200,

201, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 209, 210,

213, 214, 215, 220, 221, 222, 226, 227,

228, 229, 232, 233, 234, 237, 238, 239,

240, 241, 248, a 250, 251

Gilbert, Cacy

Green, BE. meee dy ZU ca telO2 109s

110, 112, 116, 117, 150

Grube, 85

Guerin, 4

Haacke, W., 71, 74, 87, 96, 170, 178, 187

Hagen, 7, 9, ll, 14

Hagenbeck, J., 145

Hannyngton, F. (of Madras), 3

Harper, Mrs., 268

Hartley, C., 117, 268

Haviland, 7, 8, 13, 14

Heer, 14

Henderson, J. R., 46

Henry, G. M., 134, 139, 143

Herbst, 2

Herdmann, Professor, 49, 56, 126, 130,

179

Herouard, 78, 86, 93, 94, 96

Herrick, 224

Hindl, E., 52

Hine-Haycock, 35

Hodson, T. A., 135

Holmgren, Dr., 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13,

14, 15, 103, 109, 110, 149, 155

Horn, W., 7

Hornell, 124, 126. 130, 131, 132

Hume, 21, 24, 25, 34

Hutchinson, Captain, 37

Ishikawa, Professor C., 63

Jager, G. F., 67, 69, 71, 74, 76, 85, 87,

89, 96, 99, 100, 101, 169, 170, 171,

174, 182, 183, 188

Johanssen, 2

John, Oscar, 102, 116, 149, 150

Johnston, Sir Alexander, 41

Jonville, Joseph, 41

Kemp, 8. W., 191, 248

Kerkham, Captain, 125, 133

Koehler, R., 55, 56, 57, 61, 67, 69, 71,

73, 74, 78, 86, 96, 188

| Koehler, R., & Vaney, C., 57, 58, 62, 63,

64, 65, 67, 73, 74, 78, 80, 82, 86, 87,

89, 96, 181, 182, 185

Konig, 7, 11, 14

Koningsberger, 69, 73, 80, 86, 87, 96

Kroyer, 220

Lampert, K., 55, 56, 57, 61, 62, 65, 66,

67, 69, 71, 73, 74, 78, 80, 82, 84, 86,

87, 89, 92, 93, 94, 96, 174, 177, 181,

182, 183, 185, 188

Lathy, P. J., 2

Launoy, 19

| Layard, E. L., 37

6(10)14

(

)

Legge, Captain, 21, 23, 24, 25, 27, 32, ) Scott, T., 226, 251

128, 129, 133

Lesseur, 81

Lesson, R. P., 69, 71, 97, 100, 171

Lewis, Frederick, 142

Lewis, J. P., 41-44

Linn, 5, 6, 9, 169, 171

Londonderry, Lord, 41

Lubbock, 216

Ludw, 94

Ludwig, H., 56, 57, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65,

66, 67, 69, 71, 73, 74, 76, 78, 80, 82,

83, 84, 86, 87, 88, 92, 93, 94, 97, 100,

170, 174, 178, 181, 183, 185, 188

Macdowall, Major-General Hay, 41, 42

Macdowall, John, 42

Mackwood, F. M., 36

Maclure, Mrs., 268

Maitland, Governor Sir Thomas, 41

Manders, Major, 37

Marshall and Niceville, 37

MeVicecar, 21

Mitsukuri, Professor, 72, 92

Moore, 1, 2, 37, 38

Mowbray, G. B. de, 1, 2

Muller, Fr., 13

Niceville, 37, 39

Niceville and Marshall, 37

Nock, James J., 274

North, Governor, 41

Oates, 24

Ormiston, W., 1, 4, 5, 39, 143

Parker, H., 21, 24, 118, 141, 142

Pearson, Dr. J., 16, 45, 49, 57, 67, 71,

73, 74, 78, 86, 87, 89, 91, 92, 93, 97,

98, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130,

131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 139, 163, 169,

173, 174, 179, 181, 182, 183, 185, 188,

191, 217

Pearson, Dr.—Scientifie Work on Pearl

Banks, 124-133

Pesta, 192, 193, 197, 205, 209, 215, 221,

227, 229, 231, 232, 233, 234, 240, 241,

242, 251

Petchs ih Os) Migs hs

Philippi, 215

Pole, John, 1, 4, 5, 39, 117, 118, 121)

265, 266, 267

Pourtales, 67

Quoy and Gaimard, 71, 85, 98, 169,

174, 181, 185, 189

Reepens, Dr. V. Buttel, 116

Robson, Mrs., 3

Roxburgh, Dr., 42

Sarasin, Doctors, 88, 121, 265, 266

Sarasin, Dr. Fritz, 117, 118

Sarasin, Dr. Paul, 117, 118

Sars, 217, 251

Saunder, F. G., 1, 3

Schmeil, 205, 251

Scott, A., 192, 193, 196, 197, 198, 199,

200, 201, 202, 203, 204, 208, 209, 210,

214, 215, 216, 217, 220, 221, 222, 223,

224, 226, 227, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232,

233, 234, 237, 238, 239, 240, 241, 248,

251

Selenka, H., 62, 63, 65,67, 69, 71, 73,

74, 76, 78, 85, 87, 98, 99, 100, 169,

170, 173, 174, 176, 177, 178, 180, 181,

182, 183, 185, 186, 187, 188

seligmann, Dr., 118

Semper, C., 56, 57, 61, 62, 63, 65, 67, 69,

73, 76, 78, 80, 84, 85, 86, 87, 93, 94,

98, 99, 100, 101, 170, 174, 182, 183,

189

Sewell, Captain R. B. Seymour, 191,

192, 193, 196, 197, 200, 202, 203, 205,

206, 208, 209, 210, 211, 214, 215, 216,

217, 221, 222, 227, 228, 229, 230, 231,

232, 233, 234, 236, 238, 239, 240, 241,

245, 246, 248, 252

Silvestri, 8, 11, 13

Simpson, Mr., 49

Sluiter, C. Ph., 56, 57, 61, 63, 65, 66, 69,

71,73, 74, 77, 78, 80, 82, 83, 86, 87,

94, 98, 174, 181, 182, 183, 185, 189

Southwell, T., 124, 191

Stapleton, Gregory, 44

Still, John, 25

Swinhoe, Colonel, 38

Symons, C. T., 47, 119

Templeton, Dr., 37

Tennent, Sir Emerson, 37

Theel, Hj., 56, 57, 58, 61, 62, 63, 65, 67,

69) 772,073. 14,116, 175 18, 80s.

86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 98, 100,

101, 170, 173, 174, 176, 177, 181, 182,

183, 185, 189

Thompson, 193, 196, 197, 200, 202, 203,

204, 210, 213, 214, 215, 216, 220, 226,

227, 228, 230, 231, 233, 239, 240, 241,

252

Thompson & Scott, 192, 193, 196, 197,

200, 202, 203, 204, 208, 209, 210, 214,

215, 216, 221, 222, 223, 224, 226, 227,

228, 229, 230, 231, 232, 233, 234, 236,

237, 238, 239, 240, 241, 248, 249,

252

Thurston, E., 67, 98

Thwaites, Dr., 37

Tollinger, 226, 252

Uzel, Dr., 15, 109

Valentia, Viscount, 41

Van Anglebeek, Governor, 42

Vaney, C., 57, 182, 188, 189

Vaney, C., & Koehler, R., 57, 58, 62, 63,

64, 65, 67, 73, 74, 78, 80, 82, 86, 877;

89, 96, 181, 182, 185

Voeltzkow, 67, 78, 98

Wade Dalton, Captain, 37

Wait, W. E., 21

Walker, 10

Wall, Major F., 146, 268, 269, 270

Wasmann, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14

Whitelegge, 67, 73, 78, 98, 183, 189

Wilson, 3

Wolfenden, 192, 193, 196, 197, 198,

200, 201, 202, 203, 204, 205, 208, 209,

210, 211, 214, 215, 216, 217, 221, 222,

223, 226, 227, 228, 229: 230; 231, 232,

233, 234, 237, 238, 239, 240, 241, 248,

252

LATIN

Acanthopneuste nitidus, 273

Acartia, 240, 244, 245, 246

Acartia amboinensis, 191

Acartia bispinosa, 242

Acartia centrura, 240

Acartia crythrea, 242, 244

Acartia danz, 240

Acartia erythrea, 241, 242, 243

Acartia negligens, 241

Aeartia pietschmani, 242

Acartia southwelli, 191, 244

Acartia spinicauda, 241

Acartia tortaniformis, 245, 246, 247

Acartiella, 245

Acartiella kempi, 191

Accipiter virgatus, 271

Acrocalanus, 205, 206, 209

Acrocalanus gardineri, 211

Acrocalanus gibber, 210, 211

Acrocalanus inermis, 212

Acrocalanus longicornis, 194, 196, 209

Acrocalanus monachus, 210

Acrocalanus pediger, 205, 210, 211

Acrocalanus similis, 191, 211, 213

Acrocephalus stentorious, 31

Actinopyga, 164, 166, 167, 168, 169,

170, 171, 173, 174, 179

Actinopyga agassizi, 169, 173, 180, 186,

187

Actinopyga echinites, 169, 174, 180,

183, 184

Actinopyga formosa, 169

Actinopyga lecanora, 169, 174, 182,

183

Actinopyga maculata, 174

Actinopyga mauritiania, 169, 174, 179,

180, 185, 186, 187

Actinopyga miliaris, 169, 174, 181, 182,

183, 184

Actinopyga nobilis, 174

Actinopyga obesa, 169

Actinopyga serratidens, 174, 179, 180,

184, 186

Acutangulus, 108

Aegithina tiphia, 33

Alcedo ispida, 34, 271

Amadina malacea, 271

Amaurornis fuscus, 23

Amaurornis pheenicurus, 31

Anacardium, 8, 15

Ancistrodon hypnale, 144

Andamana, 2

Anoplotermes, 13, 103

Anoplotermes cyclops, 13, 103, 104, 108

Anoplotermes reconditus, 103

Arachnechthra asiatica, 271

Arachnechthra ceylanicus, 271

Ardeide, 27

Ardeola grayi, 22

Arenicola, 81

Argiodia, 164, 166, 167, 168, 170, 173,

174

Argiodia excellens, 170

Argiodia flavo-castanea, 170, 173, 176,

178

INDEX.

Argiodia hadra, 176

Argiodia maculata, 170, 173, 174, 177

Argiodia parvula, 170, 173, 177, 187

Argynnis hyperbius, 2, 3, 6

Argynnis hyperbius (gynander), 6

Argynnis niphe, 3

Arhinotermes, 9

Arhinotermes flavus, 9

Artamus fuseus, 34.

Assmuthi, 12

Atella ceylonica, 38

Augustin, 74

Béche-de-mer, 69

Biformis, 14 F

Bohadschia, 51, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168,

169, 171

Bohadschia argus, 56, 170

Bohadschia graffei, 167, 170

Bohadschia marmorata, 170, 179

Bohadschia paradoxa, 170

Bohadschia vitiensis, 165, 166, 170

Brachypternus erythronotus, 271

Burmanica, 233, 234

Calanidee, 192

Calanopia, 231

Calanopia aurivillii, 231, 232

Calanopia elliptica, 231

Calanopia minor, 232

Calanopia thompsoni, 232

Calanus, 192

Calanus caroli, 192, 198, 200

Calanus darwini, 197

Calanus minor, 192, 199

Calanus pauper, 193

Calanus tenuicornis, 193

Calocalanus, 213

Calocalanus pavo, 193, 213, 214

Calocalanus plumulosus, 213

Calotermes, 7

Calotermes domesticus, 8

Calotermes (glyptotermes) ceylonicus, 8

Calotermes (glyptotermes) dilatatus, 8

Calotermes greeni, 8

Calotermes militaris, 7

Camponotus, 108

Candacia, 191, 228

Candacia ethiopica, 228, 229

Candacia bradyi, 229, 230

Candacia catula, 229

Candacia discaudata, 230

Candacia pachydactyla, 230

Candacia truncata, 230, 231

Candacia tuberculata, 229

Candaciidz, 228

Canthocalanus, 193

Canthocalanus pauper, 193, 194

Caprimulgus indicus, 271

Capritermes, 12, 155

Capritermes ceylonicus, 13

Capritermes incola, 13, 103

Capritermes longicornis, 13

Capritermes speciosus, 13

Catopsilia crocale, 143

’

Centropages, 220, 223

Centropages alcocki, 224

Centropages arabicus, 221

Centropages dorsispinatus, 222

Centropages elongatus, 222

Centropages furcatus, 220, 221

Centropages orsinii, 221

Centropages tenuiremis 221, 222

Centropages trispinosus, 191, 223

Centropagidee, 220

Centropus sinensis, 34, 271

Chalcophaps indica, 34, 271

Chrysophyllum, 42

Cisticola cursitans, 271

Clausocalanus, 214

Clausocalanus arcuicornis, 214

Clinteria imperialis, 112

Collocalia fuciphaga, 271

Colotis (teracolus) etrida, 5

Colubride, 16

Columba intermedia, 271

Convulsionarius, 11

Copepoda, 191

Copsychus saularis, 29

Coptotermes, 9, 108

Coptotermes ceylonicus, 9

Coracias indica, 272

Corvus macrorhynchus, 272

Crateropus rufescens, 272

Cremastogaster, 104, 108

Culicicarpa ceylonensis, 272

Cyanops flavifrons, 272

Cylindrophis maculatus, 146

Cystipus, 51, 170

Danais exprompta, 39

Delias eucharis, 4

Demoleus, 5

Dendrocalamus giganteus, 15, 109

Dendrocygna javanica, 31

Dendrophis pictus, 146

Diczeum erythrorhynchus, 272

Dipsas forstenii, 145

Discophora lepida, 38

Dryophis mycterizans, 144

Dryophis pulverulentus, 144

Dupetor flavicollis, 22

Echis carinata, 44, 269

Elymnias singhala, 38

Eleocarpus, 15

Eucalanus, 200

Eucalanus attenuatus, 200, 202

Eucalanus crassus, 202, 203

Hucalanus monachus, 202

Eucalanus mucronatus, 191, 201

Eucalanus subcrassus, 203

Eucalanus subtenuis, 200

Eucheta, 215

Eucheta concinna, 216

Eucheta indica, 215

EKuchzeta marina, 215, 216

Eucheta scolecithrix, 191

Eucheta wolfendeni, 216

Euchirella bella, 193

EKulabes religiosa, 34

Eupeela core, 39

Kurytermes, 12

Hurytermes assmuthi, 12

(

)

Eurytermes ceylonicus, 12, 14, 109

Eutermes, 13, 14, 15, 107, 108, 109, 110,

153, 154, 161, 162

Eutermes biformis, 14

Eutermes escherichi, 15, 103, 107, 108,

109, 155

Eutermes greeni, 110

Eutermes hantane, 14, 109, 149, 151,

Ws }ay Masel

Eutermes horni, 155

Eutermes inanis, 14 —

Eutermes lacustris, 15, 110, 149, 150,

152, 154, 157

Eutermes longicornis, 15, 109, 155

Eutermes monoceros, 14, 112, 150, 161

Eutermes oculatus, 15, 109, 116, 155

Kutermes perparvus, 15

Eutermes rubidus, 14, 104, 105, 106,

107

Kutermes singaporiensis, 152

Kutermes singhalais, 157

Exealfactoria chinensis, 23, 24

Fistularia, 171°

‘| Fistularia impatiens, 85

Fistularia maculata, 81

Gallensis, 233

Gallinago ceelestis, 272

Gallinula chloropus, 30, 31

Galloperdix bicalcarata, 272

Gallus lafayettii, 272

Garcinia, 42

Geocichla spiloptera, 272

Geocichla wardi, 272

Glyptotermes, 8

Halodeima, 164, 165, 166, 168, 170

Halodeima atra, 171, 179

Halodeima difficilis, 178

Halodeima monacaria, 171

Halpe egena, 39

Hamitermes, 13

Hamitermes ceylonicus, 13

Hamitermes quadriceps, 13, 103

Harpactes fasciatus, 272

Helicops schistosus, 145

Hemipus picatus, 272

Hesperide, 36, 37, 38

Heterarthandria, 220

Heterocera, 36

Hevea, 15

Hirundo javanica, 272

Holothuria, 163-190

Holothuria aculeata, 52, 54, 94

Holothuria albida, 69

Holothuria albiventer, 51, 93, 94, 101

Holothuria amboinensis, 67, 68, 69

Holothuria arenicola, 80

Holothuria argus, 50, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59,

60, 62, 76, 99

Holothuria atra, 50, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70,

71, 100, 164

Holothuria botellus, 85

Holothuria bowensis, 79, 94

Holothuria brandtii, 54

Holothuria cadelli, 87

Holothuria cinerascens, 50, 65, 66, 67,

100

(Gi xilt) )

Holothuria clemens, 57, 58

Holothuria curiosa, 75, 76, 80

Holothuria depressa, 74, 76

Holothuria discrepans, 50, 84, 100

Holothuria dofleinii, 74, 76

Holothuria dubia, 182

Holothuria edulis, 50, 66, 67, 69, 100

Holothuria erinaceus, 62

Holothuria fasciola, 71

Holothuria flammea, 71

Holothuria floridana, 67

Holothuria fulva, 85

Holothuria fusco-cinerea, 50, 69, 74, 76,

100

Holothuria fusco-punctata, 71

Holothuria fusco-rubra, 50, 77, 80, 100

Holothuria gallensis, 87

Holothuria glaberrima, 50, 62, 64, 65,

Holothuria graffei, 50, 61, 99

Holothuria hamata, 50, 51, 99

Holothuria impatiens, 50, 85, 86, 101,

163, 164

Holothuria insignis, 78

Holothuria koellikeri, 57, 58

Holothuria kurti, 91

Holothuria lagena, 74

Holothuria lineolata, 181

Holothuria lubrica, 50, 62, 63, 64, 65,

66, 67, 99

Holothuria macleari, 72

Holothuria maculata, 50, 80, 81, 82,

100, 174, 176

Holothuria maculosa, 50, 53, 99

Holothuria mammiculata, 74

Holothuria marmorata, 50, 54, 57, 58,

59, 60, 99, 163, 164, 169

Holothuria martensii, 51, 92, 93, 94, 95,

101

Holothuria mauritiana, 185

Holothuria (microthele) affinis, 67

Holothuria miliaris, 181

Holothuria modesta, 94

Holothuria moebii, 63

Holothuria monacaria, 50, 71, 72, 100

Holothuria ocellata, 51, 89, 90, 91, 92,

93, 94, 95, 101

Holothuria pardalis, 50,

Holothuria parva, 62

Holothuria peregrina, 78

Holothuria pervicax, 74, 76

Holothuria pulchella, 65

Holothuria pulla, 69

Holothuria rugosa, 50, 82, 100

Holothuria scabra, 51, 72, 87, 101

Holothuria scabra (tigris), 72

Holothuria signata, 69

Holothuria similis, 57, 58

Holothuria spinifera, 51, 52, 53, 88, 90,

. 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 101

Holothuria subdivita, 78

Holothuria tenuissima, 58

Holothuria tigris, 87

Holothuria triremis, 82, 83

Holothuria nalensis, 54

Holothuria utrimquestigmosa, 55

Holothuria vagabunda, 50, 73, 74, 100

Holothuria vitiensis, 50, 57, 58, 59, 60,

Holothuria willeyi, 66, 67

77, 78, 100

Holothurioidea (Indian ocean), notes

on, 49-101

Horni, 9, 10, 11, 14

Hydrophasianus chirurgus, 23

Hyperbius, 3

Hypsipetes ganeesa, 272

Traota, 39

Ixias marianne, 5, 6

Kelaartia pencillata, 272

Labidocera, 232, 233

Labidocera acuta, 232, 233

Labidocera detruncata, 235, 236

Labidocera kréyer, 200, 233

Labidocera minuta, 234

Labidocera pavo, 191, 234

Labidocera pectinata, 236

Labidocera similis, 236

Labidodemas lencospilus, 71

Lacustris, 110

Lanius cristatus, 272

Larvivora brunnea, 272

Lepidoptera, 36

Lepidoptera indica, 38

Lepismid#, 109

Leucotermes, 8

Leucotermes ceylonicus, 8

Leucotermes lucifugus, 153

Limbata, 5

Lineolata, 181, 182

Longicornis, 109

Lucicutia, 228

Lucicutia flavicornis, 228

Lucicutiide, 228

Lycenide, 36, 37, 38, 39

Maculata, 81

Mandata, 1

Manops krameri, 239

Mecynocera, 204

Mecynocera clausi, 204

Meda, 1

Melanitis ismene (Cramer) at sea, 45,

Melittophagus swinhoii, 273

Merops philippensis, 273

Merops viridis, 30, 34

Merula kinnisi, 273

Mesotermitide, 8

Mesothuria murrayi, 82

Metacalanus, 228

Metacalanus aurivillii, 228

Metatermitide, 9

Microcerotermes, 11

Microcerotermes bugnioni, 11

Microtermes, 11

Microtermes cylindriceps, 12

Microtermes globicola, 11

Microtermes greeni, 12

Microtermes macronotus, 11

Microthele, 170, 174, 182

Miliaris, 182

Mirafra affinis, 273

Molpastes hemorrhous, 29, 273

Monoceros, 107, 114, 115

Monops armatus, 238

Monops regalis, 239

( ‘xiv )

Motacilla melanope, 273

Miilleria, 163-172

Miilleria echinites, 183

Miilleria flavo-castanea, 176

Miilleria hadra, 174

Miilleria lecanora, 182

Miilleria lineolata, 181

Miulleria maculata, 163, 164, 174

Milleria mauritiana, 185

Miilleria miliaris, 163, 164, 181

Miilleria nobilis, 174

Milleria parvula, 177

Miilleria plebeja, 181

Miulleria varians, 180, 185

Munia kelaartii, 271

Myealesis, 143

Mycalesis mandata, 6

Mycalesis (orsotricena) meda, |

Myealesis rama, 39

Naia bungarus, 269

Naia tripudians, 16, 269

Nemeobide, 36

Neptis varmona, 2, 6

Notoscolex termiticola, 109

Nymphalide, 36, 37

Obscuriceps, 108, 109

Oculatus, 109

Cicophyllia smaragdina, 142

Oreocincla imbricata, 273

Oriolus melanocephalus, 29

Orthogonius, 108

Orthotomus sutoruis, 35, 273

Osmotreron bicincta, 25

Osmotreron pompadora, 26

Papilio demoleus, 5, 6

Papilio hector, 5, 6

Papilionide, 36, 37

Papilio polytes, 6

Paracalanus, 204, 205, 206

Paracalanus aculeatus, 193, 204, 205,

211

Paracalanus clevei, 205

Paracalanus parvus, 204, 206, 208

Paracalanus serratipes, 206, 208

Parus atriceps, 46, 47, 273

Passer domesticus, 273

Pedipalpi, 108

Peizocalanus, 206

Pellorneum fuscicapillum, 24, 34

Peradeniye, 10

Pericrocrotus flammeus, 273

Phrynichus, 109

Phyllobothroides hutsoni, 127

Phyllobothroides kerkhami, 127, 128

Pieride, 36, 37

Placuna, 124, 131

Plumulosus, 193, 196

Polytes, 6

Pomatorhinus melanurus, 273

Pontella, 236

Pontella dane, 236, 237

Pontella fera, 237

Pontella investigatoris, 236, 237

Pontella securifer, 238

Pontella spinipes, 238

Pontellide, 231

Pontellina, 240

Pontellina plumata, 240

Pontellopsis, 238

Pontellopsis armata, 238

Pontellopsis herdmani, 238

Pontellopsis krameri, 239

Pontellopsis macronyx, 238

Pontellopsis perspicax, 239

Pontellopsis regalis, 239

Porphyrio poliocephalus, 31

Porzana pusilla, 23, 24, 34

Pratincola caprata, 273

Prinia socialis, 273

Prinia sylvatica, 29

Protermitid, 7

Pseudocalanide, 214

Pseudodiaptomus, 224

Pseudodiaptomus aurivillii, 224

Pseudodiaptomus serricaudatus, 226

Pygme, 62

Pyrameis indica, 6

Rapala melampus, 39

Redemanni, 9, 10, 103, 104, 105, 108

Rhinealanus, 203

Rhincalanus cornutus, 203

Rhincalanus gigas, 203, 204

Rhinealanus nasutus, 204

Rhopalocera, 36

Rhopodytes viridirotris, 34

Romulus, 6

Rubidus, 14

Sapium sebiferum, 271

Sarcogrammus indicus, 30

Satyrine, 38

Scolecithricide, 216

Scolecithricella, 191, 217

Scolecithricella pearsoni, 191, 217

Scolecithrix, 216

Scolecithrix danze, 216, 217

Sitta frontalis, 273

Spilornis spilogaster, 274

Sporadipus, 51, 169, 170

Sporadipus (acolpos) maculata, 80

Sporadipus (colpochirota) ualensis, 54

Sporadipus impatiens, 85

Sporadipus maculatus, 81

Stichius, 6

Stichopus flammeus, 71

Stichopus (gymnochirota) cinerascens,

Stichopus (gymnochirota) leucospilota,

Stichopus gyrifer, 71

Stichopus leucospilota, 74

Stoparola sordida, 274

Stylifera, 233, 234

Synapta maculata, 81

Talicada nyseus, 4, 6

Taprobanes, 10

Temora, 226

Temora discaudata, 226, 227

Temora stylifera, 227

Temora turbinata, 227

Temoride, 226

Tephrodornis pondicerianus, 33

Teracolus limbatus, 6

Termes, 9, 153

(

Termes ceylonicus, 9

Termes brunneus, 11

Termes dirus, 103

Termes escherichi, 10

Termes esthere, 11

Termes fatalis, 11

Termes horni, 9, 102, 103, 153

Termes obscuriceps, 10, 12, 13, 15, 103,

104, 105, 107, 108, 112, 115

Termes preliminaris, 10

Termes redemanni, 10, 103, 104, 105,

108, 115

Termes taprobanes, 10

Termites (Ceylon), 102-116

Termitogeton, 9

Termitogeton umbilicatus, 9, 149

Terpsiphone paradisi, 26

Testudo elegans, 146

Tetrarhynchus herdmani, 127, 128

Tetrarhynchus unionifactor, 127, 128

Thereiceryx zeylanicus, 274

Thymiosicya, 165, 166, 167, 168, 171

Thymiosicya impatiens, 171

Thymiosicya scabra, 179

Thymiosicy spinifera, 171

Thyone impatiens, 85

Timoleon, 39

Tortanus, 246, 248

)

Trepang, 170

Trepang endulis, 69

Trepang impatiens, 85

Trimeresurus trigonocephalus, 144

Tropidonotus asperrimus, 146

Tropidonotus ceylonensis, 145

Tropidonotus piscator, 146

Tropidonotus stolatus, 144, 146

Turtursuratensis, 274

Undinula, 192, 196

Undinula caroli, 192, 194, 198, 199

Undinula darwini, 192, 197, 198, 199

200

Undinula vulgaris, 193, 195, 196, 198

Upupa indica, 274

| Vanessa (pyrameis) indica, 2

| Varanus bengalensis, 146

| Venogen’s granules, 19

| Vipera russellii, 144, 269

| Viperine, 269

| Viper (pit), 44

| Xantholema hematocephala, 274

Zamenis mucosus, 145

Tortanus forcipatus, 191, 248, 250, 249 Zosterops ceylonensis, 274

Tortanus gracilis, 248, 249, 250

| Zosterops palpebrosa, 274

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

-ON SOME ABERRATIONS OF CEYLON BUTTERFLIES.

By E. Ernest Green, F.E.S., F.ZS.,

Entomologist to the Government of Ceylon.

(With two Plates.)

Riess aberrations here described have (with the exception

of Nos. 1 and 11) been deposited in the collection of the

Colombo Museum. I take this opportunity of thanking

Miss Black and Messrs. Ormiston, de Mowbray, and Saunder |

for their generous donations, and Mr. John Pole for the loan

of his specimens.

ita Mycalesis (Orsotriena) meda, Fabr., race mandata,

Moore. 6

Pil fe. 8:

Captured at Nawalapitiya by Mr. J. Pole.

The underside lacks the usual sharply-defined white band.

Its position is indicated only by a paler brown line on the

fore wing and a diffused whitish band on the hind wing. In

this character it approaches the dry season form of the typical

Indian race (meda) in which—according to Bingham—the

transverse white band on the underside is sometimes obsoles-

cent. The Ceylon race (mandata) differs from meda “in the

white discal band on the underside, being very much broader

and proportionately more attenuate apically.”

(In coll. John Pole.)

B 3 6(2)13

2 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

2. Neptis varmona, Moore. 6

Pl. I., fig. 4.

Taken at Kandy, January, 1911.

Differs from type in the reduction (almost to obsolescence )

of the subterminal series of spots on the fore wing; in the

diffused character of the sub-basal white band on the hind

wing, and the shifting of the post-discal series of spots to

a subterminal position. This arrangement results in an

unusually broad black area between the sub-basal and the

post-discal bands which gives a very distinct character to the

insect. In these characters it apparently approaches the race

andamana of Moore, as described by Bingham (Faun. B. L.,

‘* Butterflies, ’’ Vol. I., p. 325).

On the underside the ground colour is darker than usual,

owing to a general blackish suffusion, and all the spots have

diffused instead of sharply defined borders.

(Colombo Museum, Reg. No. 2,554.)

3. Vanessa (Pyrameis) indica, Herbst. 2

Pl Lee ties 1

Two precisely similar aberrations of this form were bred

from a batch of larve sent down from Diyatalawa (4,367 ft.)

to Peradeniya (1,562 ft.), where they pupated in the warmer

climate. Of the four successful emergences, two individuals

were normal and two aberrant. The latter have been de-

scribed in a previous number of this Journal (Vol. VII., Part

XXVIII., p. 215), but without any figure. A very similar

aberration has been described and figured in a Paper by

Mr. P. J. Lathy, “ On some Aberrations of Lepidoptera from

- the Collection of Herbert J. Adams ”’ (Trans. Ent. Soc., London,

1904, p. 65).

(Colombo Museum, Reg. No. 2,559.)

4, 5.—Argynnis hyperbius, Johanssen 6 and &.

Pl hos. Oo.

These two specimens, evidently members of the same brood,

were caught byMr. G. B. de Mowbray on an estate in the

Maskeliya district in January, 1905, They were taken on

the same spot but on separate occasions, within four days

of each other. They are distinguished by a suppression of

ABERRATIONS OF CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 3

certain spots and a marked crowding together of those on the

discal area of both wings. The differences from normal may

be particularized as follows :—

Fore wing.—The basal transverse streak is missing from

the cell. The two innermost spots in interspace 1—normally

widely separated—are here brought into close apposition

in the male, and united into a/single elongate spot in the

female. The spots of the discal series are shifted inwards to

the extreme base of the several interspaces, the spot on inter-

space 2 (of the female) being completely suppressed. The

broad transverse streaks at the apex of the cell are more or

less confluent and (with those of the discal series) form a

crowded central patch of black spots.

Hind wing—There is a similar but less strongly marked

crowding of the discal and cell spots, and the discal spot on

interspace | is missing in both sexes.

(Colombo Museum, Reg. Nos. 1,610 and 1,611.)

6. Argynnis hyperbius.

PI. \.fig. 6.

This interesting gynandromorph was caught by Mr. F. G.

Saunder at Nuwara Eliya (date uncertain), and presented to

the Museum. The left wings are those of a typical male, and

the right wings of a typical female hyperbius. The external

genital organs are of the male type.

(Colombo Museum, Reg. No. 2,635.)

Mr. F. Hannyngton, of Madras, gives me the following

references to similar freaks of this species :—

‘¢ Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist.,”’ Vol. VIIL., p. 152. This

example is said to have been a male (as regards genitalia), but

to have had a wing pattern of the female type on one side.

*« Journ. As. Soc., Bengal,” Vol. LXIII., p. 9. Figures a

bilateral Argynnis niphe (— hyperbius), with male genitalia.

Bred by Mrs. Robson. These two references apparently

refer to the same individual.

Mr. Hannyngton also mentions that a Mr. Wilson, late of

Ceylon, took a gynandromorph of this species on Mount

Pedro (Nuwara Eliya) some years ago.

4 SPOLIA ZEYLANIOCA.

7. Talicada nyseus, Guerin. 6

Pl. 1.5 fiom:

Differs from normal in the presence of a conspicuous sub-

quadrate white patch on the inner area of the hind wing

(upper side), just within the black area, occupying mter-

spaces 1, 2, and 3. The underside appears to be quite

normal.

(Colombo Museum, Reg. No. 2,771.)

Three separate examples of this aberration have been taken

by Mr. W. Ormiston at Haldummulla : the first (which is the

subject of the figure) in January, 1902, the other two in 1912.

It is probably an hereditary aberration.

Mr. Ormiston informs me that, in one of his speci-

mens, the white spot on the hind wing is greatly enlarged,

forming a large lunate patch extending almost across the

wing.

8. Talicada nyseus, Guerin. ? ¥

Pi; iy, fig./3.

This particular specimen was taken by Mr. John Pole at

Trincomalee. I have seen similar examples from the Kandy

District. The aberration consists in the replacement of the

red area (on both upper and under side of hind wing) by a

pale buff tint. The specimen appears to be a female, but the

body is so coated with fungus that it is difficult to make out

the form of the genitalia.

(Colombo Museum, Reg. No. 660.)

9. Delias eucharis, Drury. *

Mr. Ormiston has sent me two female examples of this

species, in which the usual white areas of the upperside of

both wings are strongly suffused with sulphur-yellow. The

yellow areas on the underside are rather more intense than in

the typical form. In one example (No. 2,782) there is a

general infuscation of the upper surface of the fore wing.

Both of these specimens were taken in the Haldummulla

district.

(Colombo Museum, Reg. Nos. 2,777 and 2,782.)

ABERRATIONS OF CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 5

10. Ixias marianne, Cramer. 6

Pl. A; ag. 9.

A more or less melanistic form : the orange area on apical

half of fore wing dull and brownish ; the white area of both

wings grayish. On the underside of the fore wing the whole

of the cell and median area are deeply suffused with brown.

Underside of hind wing normal.

Taken at Kirinda, Northern Province, March, 1899, by

Mr. W. Ormiston.

(Colombo Museum, Reg. No. 2,772.)

11. Colotis (TLeracolus) etrida, Boisd, race limbata,

Butler, ¢

Pl il, tig, 10.

This aberration, taken by Mr. John Pole at Hambantota

in August, 1895, may be described as an albinism, the usual

orange patch being replaced by chalky white intermixed with

a few orange scales which give a very faint pink tinge to the

apical area. The pattern of the underside is normal.

(In coll. John Pole.)

12. Papilio hector, Linn. ?

BLE igs 1,

This interesting aberration was captured, on the wing, by

Miss Sheila Black at Chilaw, in March, 1912.

The fore wing is quite normal. On the hind wing, the

usual conspicuous crimson spots have been completely

suppressed. There are greenish blue reflections on the

internervular spaces on the hind wing. The usual red

pattern is present on the body.

(Colombo Museum, Reg. No. 2,773.)

13. Papilio demoleus, Linn. 6

Pie Eeeetio. 12:

This striking aberration of demoleus was taken by Mr. W.

Ormiston near Wellawaya in November, 1906.

On the upper side of the fore wing there is a complete sup-

pression of the usual submarginal series of yellow spots. The

discal spot on interspace 6 is enlarged and extended inwards

as far as the cell, and the greater part of the cell is occupied

by a large yellow patch. On the hind wing the usual spots

6 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

are all present, though those of the submarginal series are

small and infuscated, and there is a general infuscation of the

area beyond the median band. On the underside, with the

exception of the extensive patch in the cell and the enlarged

spot in interspace 6, there is not such a marked difference from

the normal. There is, however, a distinct—though slight—

infuscation of the outer area of both wings.

(Colombo Museum, Reg. No. 2,008.)

14. Papilio polytes, Linn. *

Ea ae: 13.

A female of the polytes form, caught at Peradeniya, attracted:

attention—while on the wing—by the unusual extent of the

white markings on the fore wing. Upon close examination

it is found that the difference from the normal is principally

one of intensity of markings. The usual paler fuligmous

area on the outer half of the wing gives place to a creamy

white ground colour upon which the black internervular

streaks are greatly reduced in depth. This difference is still

more marked on the underside of the wing. As a result, the

fore wing assumes somewhat the pattern of that of the

romulus form of female, though the pale transverse bands are

more diffused. The hind wing is comparatively normal. The

usual white spot at apex of cell is absent on the upper side,

but present—in a very reduced form—on the underside. The

discal spots are considerably enlarged. This condition of the

hind wing has been made the character of a race stichiws in

India.

(Colombo Museum, Reg. No. 2,756.)

Explanation of Figures.

Plate I. | Plate II.

Fig. 1. Pyrameis indica. | 8. Mycalesis mandata.

2. Talicada nyseus. 9. Ixias marianne.

3. Do. 10. Teracolus limbatus.

4. Neptis varmona. | 11. Papilio hector.

5. Argynnis hyperbius,é | 12. Papilio demoleus.

6. Do. (gynander). 13. Papilio polytes.

ye Do.

Spolia Zeylanica, Vol. 1X., Part XX XTTI. Plate I.

CATALOGUE OF ISOPTERA. 7

CATALOGUE OF ISOPTERA (TERMITES) RECORDED

FROM CEYLON.

By E. Ernest GREEN, F.E.S., F.Z.S.

N the following annotated list of the Termites of Ceylon,

the data must not be taken as complete. It is issued, in

its imperfection, as a spur to further study. The localities

mentioned are such as have been recorded in the works of the

several authors who have written on the subject, or as have

come under the observation of the compiler of the catalogue.

Comparatively little attention has been given to this interesting

Order of insects in Ceylon, and collections have been gathered

in a few localities only. With more general study it will

certainly be found that the range and habitat of the several

species is more extended than has here been noted. The

present catalogue contains the names of forty-four separate

species. Some of these will probably disappear as synonyms ;

but their place will be more than taken by additional species

that will surely be discovered. Most of our knowledge of the

habits of the Termites of Ceylon is due to the researches of

W. Horn, Doflein, Bugnion, and Escherich (especially the two

last), who have visited the Island at various times. Konig,

Hagen, Haviland, Wasmann, Desneux, and Holmgren have

written on the subject, working on material supplied by the

actual collectors.

Fam. PRoTERMITIDz, Holmgren.

Gen. Calotermes, Hagen.

C. militaris, Desneux.

*“ Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg.,”’ XLVIII., p. 146 (1904).

In stems of living tea bushes. Throughout the tea districts

of the Central Province. Collected also in the Ratnapura

District.

8 SPOLIA ZEYLANIOA.

C. greeni, Desneux.

“« Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg.,”’ LI., p. 3 (1907).

In stems of living tea bushes. Also in stems of Anacardiwm

and other trees. Occurs more commonly at lower elevations.

Ambalangoda ; Kalutara ; Yatiyantota ; Jaffna. Taken also

at Peradeniya.

C. domesticus, Haviland.

** Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond.,” XXVI., p. 374 (1898).

In window and door frames of buildings, in furniture,

shelves of almirahs, &c. The presence of this species is

indicated by small heaps of egg-like pellets of excreta which

collect below the articles that contain the termites. Occa-

sionally the insects emerge from the wood and are found

congregated in masses in the open. Peradeniya.

Sub-Gen. Glyptotermes, Froggatt.

C. (G.) ceylonicus, Holmgren.

‘““ Termitenleben auf Ceylon,” p. 189 (1911).

In decaying logs and branches. Recorded only from

Peradeniya.

C. (G.) dilatatus, Bugnion.

“Mem. Soc. Zool. Fr.,’’ X XIIT., p. 187 (1910).

In stems of living tea bushes and other trees. Recorded

only from the low-country. Avisawella ; Kegalla ; Ratnapura ;

Udagama; Ambalangoda.

Fam. Mrsotermitip, Holmgren.

Gen. Leucotermes, Silvestri.

L. ceylonicus, Holmgren.

“ Termitenleben auf Ceylon,” p. 190 (1911).

A troublesome domestic pest, destructive to woodwork,

packing cases, &c., in outhouses. Taken also in a dead

Grevillea stump. Peradeniya ; Ukuwella.

CATALOGUE OF ISOPTERA. 9

Gen. Coptotermes, Wasmann.

C. ceylonicus, Holmgren.

‘** Termitenleben auf Ceylon,” p. 192 (1911).

Occurs commonly under decaying logs of wood ; also about

buildings, where it is destructive to deal packing cases. Has

been recorded as damaging books, in damp situations, the

wood of tea chests, and window frames in a tea factory.

Peradeniya ; Matale ; Lindula ; Nalanda ; Trincomalee ;

Rattota ; Ratnapura ; Henaratgoda ; Ambalangoda ; Jaffna.

Gen. Arhinotermes, Wasmann.

A. flavus, Bugnion.

** Mem. Soc. Zool. Fr.,”’ X XIIT., p. 117 (1910).

Discovered by Dr. Bugnion in stems of “ Mangrove.”

Ambalangoda.

Gen. Termitogeton, Desneux.

T. umbilicatus, Hagen.

** Zool. Bot. Ver. Wien,” p. 472 (1858).

A rare jungle species. Hantane (Kandy District), 3,000 ft.;

Ramboda, 4,000 ft.

Fam. MretraTerMitTip2, Holmgren.

Gen. Termes, Linn.

T. horni, Wasmann.

* Zool: Jahrb.,”” XVII., Pt. I., p. 111 (1902).

A comparatively large species. Common in decaying trees

and in soil treated with cattle manure. Nests in the soil,

without conspicuous mounds. Widely distributed. Kandy ;

Peradeniya ; Kotmale ; Haputale ; Diyatalawa ; Ruanwella ;

Avisawella ; Ambalangoda ; Hambantota.

T. ceylonicus, Wasmann.

“ Zool. Jahrb.,”” XVII., Pt. I., p. 113 (1902).

Intermediate in size between horni and redemanni. Nests

in the ground, without superstructure. Attacks roots of

diseased or dying plants and trees. Peradeniya ; Yatiyan-

tota ; Ratnapura ; Balangoda.

c 6(2)13

10 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

T. redemanni, Wasmann.

“ Wien. Ené. Zeit.,”’ XII., Pt. 7, p. 239 (1893).

The commonest of the mound-building species in Ceylon.

Widely distributed. Kandy; Colombo; Ambalangoda ;

Trincomalee ; Hambantota ; Jaffna ; and probably throughout

the Island.

T. obscuriceps, Wasmann.

“ Zool. Jahrb.,” XVII., Pt. L., p. 113 (1902).

Another common mound-building species. The mounds

indistinguishable from those of redemanni, but the insects

easily recognizable by their dark brown heads. Apparently

not so widely distributed as the previous species. Recorded

from Peradeniya and Diyatalawa.

T. escherichi, Holmgren.

“ Termitenleben auf Ceylon,” p. 195 (1911).

A small species, occurring in dead tree stems and under

decayed logs. Peradeniya.

T. preliminaris, Holmgren.

“ Termitenleben auf Ceylon,” p. 196 (1911).

While describing this as a new species, from winged adults

caught “‘ around a lamp at the Peradeniya resthouse,”’ Dr.

Holmgren suggests that it may possibly be referable to some

other species of which the adults are as yet unknown.

T. taprobanes, Walker.

“* Cat. Neur. Brit. Mus.,” p. 522 (1853).

(Syn. peradeniye, Holmer. “ Termitenleb. Ceyl.,’” p. 197.)

This species has hitherto been unrecognized by recent

workers. Dr. Holmgren has now identified specimens from

Peradeniya and Koslanda as referable to this species, but

suggests that it is equivalent to horni. He also relegates his

peradeniye (described from winged adults only) to taprobanes.

CATALOGUE OF ISOPTERA. 11

T. fatalis, Konig.

“ Schrift. d. Berlin Naturf.,’ IV., p. 1 (1779).

Holmgren gives Ceylon as a locality for this species, probably

on the authority of Hagen ; but he doubts its generic position.

It is said to be the common mound-building termite of Tanjore,

and its occurrence in Ceylon is doubtful.

T. brunneus, Hagen.

“* Linn. Ent.,”’ XII., p. 133 (? date).

Soldiers said to be intermediate in size between horni and

ceylonicus. Precise locality uncertain.

T’. esthere, Desneux.

“ Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg.,”’ LI., p. 5 (1907).

A very large species with soldiers of two or more sizes.

Larger soldier with an enormous head and powerful jaws.

Hambantota.

(Bainbrigge Fletcher is of opinion that this name will have

to give place to convulsionarius of Konig. “ Schrift. Berl.

Naturf.,” IV., Pt. I., p. 24 (1779) ).

Gen. Microtermes, Wasmann.

M. globicola, Wasmann.

“ Zool. Jahrb.,’’ XVII., Pt. I., p. 116 (1902).

A very small species, constructing chambers and small

spherical combs in the walls of mound-building termites.

Precise locality undetermined.

M. macronotus, Holmgren.

“ Termitenstudien,” III., p. 43 (1912).

Recorded, without description, from Ceylon.

Gen. Microcerotermes, Silvestri.

M. bugnioni, Holmgren.

“ Termitenleben auf Ceylon,” p. 203 (1911).

A minute species, found under logs of wood, in hollow stems

of coconut palms, &c. Ambalangoda ; Maha Illuppallama

(Anuradhapura District).

12 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

M. greeni, Holmgren.

“ Spolia Zeylanica,” VIII., Pt. XXXII, p. 284 (1913).

Distinguished, by Dr. Holmgren, by the smaller size of the

soldier.

M. cylindriceps, Wasmann.

“ Zool. Jabrb.,”” XVII., Pt. 1., p. 121 (1902).

Holmgren (in Escherich’s “ Termitenleben auf Ceylon,”’

pp. 208, 204) records this species from Galle, “‘ in decayed

pieces of stem.”

Gen. Hurytermes, Wasmann.

E. assmuthi, Wasmann.

“ Zool. Jahrb.,” XVII., Pt. I., p. 124 (1902).

Recorded from the collection of Dr. Escherich as ‘“ in

association with T'ermes obscuriceps ; and in earthen galleries

under a stone, in the jungle.””’ My own acquaintance with the

species consists of the discovery of a small procession (contain-

ing winged adults and workers) travelling—quite exposed—

across a bare compound. ‘They were emerging from one hole

and entering another at a distance of about five yards.

E. ceylonicus, Holmgren.

“ Termitenstudien,” III., p. 83 (1912).

Noted as a new species, but without description. Bain-

brigge Fletcher (in litt.) suggests that, as Holmgren records

assmuthi from Bombay only, it is probable that he has sepa-

rated the Sinhalese species as distinct.

Gen. Capritermes, Wasmann.

Species of Capritermes may be recognized by the long

twisted asymmetrical mandibles of the soldiers. The abdomen

of the workers is elongated and packed with dark material.

They are usually found in association with mound-building

termites ; but also occur, independently, under stones and

rocks. The differentiation of the species is difficult, and it is

uncertain how many occur in Ceylon.

CATALOGUE OF ISOPTERA. 13

C. ceylonicus, Holmgren.

‘* Termitenleben auf Ceylon,” p. 204 (1911).

Determined, by Dr. Holmgren, from specimens collected

by Dr. Escherich in nests of T'ermes obscuriceps at Peradeniya.

C.. incola, Wasmann.

* Wien. Ent. Zeit.,” XII.,. Pt. 7, p. 242 (1893).

In nests of Termes obscuriceps. Peradeniya ; Kurunegala ;

Ambalangoda.

; C.. longicornis, Wasmann.

* Zool. Jabrb.,” XVII., Pt. I., pp. 126-128 (1902).

Dr. Holmgren doubts if this is specifically distinct from

incola.

C. speciosus, Haviland.

“ Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond.,” XXVI., p. 413 (1898).

Doubtfully recorded from Trincomalee.

Gen. Hamitermes, Silvestri.

H. quadriceps, Wasmann.

* Zool. Jahrb.,” XVII., Pt. I., p. 123 (1902).

Under stones. Ambalangoda ; Peradeniya.

H. ceylonicus, Holmgren.

“ Termitenstudien,”’ IIT., p. 91 (1912).

This is at present a ‘‘ nomen nudum.” The name will

probably replace H. quadriceps for the Ceylon species.

Gen. Anoplotermes, Fr. Muller.

A. cyclops, Wasmann.

“ Zool. Jahrb.,” XVII., Pt. I., p. 161 (1902).

Under stones and logs of wood. Peradeniya; Maha

Tluppallama.

Anoplotermes is distinguished by the absence of the soldier

caste. The workers might readily be mistaken for those of

Eutermes, of which Dr. Holmgren considers this genus to be

an. off-shoot.

14 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Gen. Hutermes, Heer.

The soldiers of Hutermes are readily distinguishable from

those of all other genera by the presence of a long tubular

frontal process on the head.

£. monoceros, Konig.

** Schrift Berl. Nat.,’’ IV., 17, p. 25.

The common black termite of Ceylon. It constructs its -

nests in hollow stems and branches of trees, guarding the

entrances by pendent masses of black material (composed of

the excreta of the insects). Long processions of the termites,

sometimes extending for several hundred yards, may often

be seen crossing the roads. Found throughout the Island,

up to about 2,000 ft.

EL. inanis, Haviland.

‘** Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond.,” XXVI., p. 425 (1898).

Recorded by Dr. Bugnion, from Ambalangoda.

H. rubidus, Hagen.

‘Linn. Ent.,”’ XIV., p. 117 (1860).

A widely distributed species. Found under stones, and

forming small piles of fine earth on the surface of the soil.

Peradeniya ; Anuradhapura ; Ambalangoda ; Diyatalawa.

E. biformis, Wasmann.

** Zool. Jahrb.,”’ XVII., Pt. I., p. 133 (1902).

Possibly a variety of rubidus. Galle; Ambalangoda. Both

rubidus and biformis have soldiers of two sizes.

£. ceylonicus, Holmgren.

“ Termitenleben auf Ceylon,” p. 197 (1911).

(? = inanis var. horni, Wasmann.)

Nests in decayed wood. Constructs galleries (of earthy

or ligneous materials) extending up the trunks of trees. A

widely distributed species. Peradeniya; Kadugannawa ;

Ratnapura ; Trincomalee ; Passara ; Diyatalawa.

E. hantane, Holmgren.

“ Termitenleben auf Ceylon,” p. 198 (1911).

A rare species ; recorded from the Hantana range only.

CATALOGUE OF ISOPTERA. 15

E. escherichi, Holmgren.

“Termitenleben auf Ceylon,” p. 199 (1911).

Collected by Dr. Escherich in a nest of Termes obscuriceps.

Peradeniya.

E. oculatus, Holmgren.

“ Termitenleben auf Ceylon,” p. 200 (1911).

Described from winged adults only. Peradeniya. Possibly

the winged stage of H. escherichi.

E. perparvus, Holmgren.

“ Termitenleben auf Ceylon,” p. 201 (1911).

Also described from winged adults only, collected by

Dr. Uzel at Peradeniya and Henaratgoda.

E. longicornis, Holmgren.

““ Spolia Zeylanica,’’ VIII., Pt. XX XII., p. 283 (1913).

On stems of “‘ Giant Bamboo ” (Dendrocalamus giganteus) ;

also in a nest of Termes obscuriceps. Peradeniya.

E. lacustris, Bugnion.

“ Compt. Rend. Sci. Soc. Biol.” (Fr.), LX XITI., p. 1091 (1912).

In stems of “ Kaju-nut ” (Anacardium), Hevea, and Elxo-

carpus. Ambalangoda ; Kalutara.

Distinguished from all the other local species of Hutermes

by the dark brown heads of the soldiers.

16 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

ON THE MINUTE STRUCTURE OF THE POISON-GLAND

OF THE COBRA (NAIA TRIPUDIANS).

By Dr. G. BoBEav.

Prepr. d’ Histologie 4 la Faculté de Médicine de Paris.

(With two Plates.)

MONG all the works on the fine histology of the

poison-gland, there are few (except Emery’s*) giving a

description, both general and detailed, of the gland of the

venomous Colubride. It may be of interest, therefore, to

record my investigations into the structure of the poison-

gland of Naia tripudians by means of modern histological

methods.

I have myself collected many of the poison-glands during

my recent travels in Ceylon and British India. Several were

given me by Dr. J. Pearson, Director of the Colombo Museum,

to whom I again offer my sincere thanks.

I will first describe briefly the methods employed ; then the

microscopical anatomy by means of interpretations from

whole sections ; thirdly, I will give a detailed description of

the glandular cells with their cell-workings ; and finally, I will

discuss the physiological significance of each component

part of the poison-gland.

I.—Technique.

The glands which I examined were removed immediately

after the snakes had been killed. The killing was done by

suddenly cutting the neck which left the tissues in a definite

physiological state. Some of the snakes had been starved ;

others had eaten two, four, six, or more days before ; some

had bitten (into a cambric) ; others in a state of fury had not

bitten at all.. I was therefore able to obtain all the grades of

the cellular and glandular secretions.

* Emery, Carl. Ueber den feineren Bau der Giftdriise der Naja haje.

(Arch. f. Mikr. Anat. Bd. 11., 1875, s. 561-568. Taf. XXXIII.

POISON-GLAND OF THE COBRA. 17

Immediately after the glands had been removed they were

divided into fragments and placed in the following fixing

solutions :—

Bouin’s liquid (picro-acetic, formalin).

Champy’s liquid (bi-iodide of mercury, formalin).

Regaud’s liquid (bi-chromate de potasse, formalin).

Benda’s liquid (acide osmique—acide chromique).

Some glands were fixed whole in formalin, in order to

study the microscopical anatomy in its entirety. After fixa-

tion the fragments were immersed in paraffin and cut into

sections of 1/200 mm. or 1/400 mm. in thickness by Minot’s

microtome. To stain the sections I utilized the following :—

Hematein-eosin.

Heidenhain’s ironized hematoxylin.

Prenant’s eosin, vert lumiére, ironized hematoxylin.

Safranin, green.

Benda’s krystallviolet.

Il.— Microscopical Anatomy.

If a complete section of the whole length of the poison-gland

and its excretory duct be examined under low power one

immediately observes that two kinds of substances can be

distinguished, one a connective and peripheral substance, the

other, and most important, a glandular and central substance.

There are, therefore, in a poison-gland two things—first the

fibrous capsule, and within the fibrous capsule that most

interesting part, viz., the part where the poison is formed.

The complete longitudinal section of the poison-gland is

bottle-shaped (fig. 1), the neck part of which becomes the

excretory duct. The fibrous capsule is thickest in the broad

part of the gland and becomes thinner as the gland narrows.

Hete and there we see that the capsule forms a connective

network, in which are found sections of blood-vessels, lymph-

vessels, and nerves. The fibrous structure and the lymphatic

spaces are particularly noteworthy.

The central portion, which we have seen to be alone

glandular, is divided into two quite different regions. First,

there is the bulky part occupying the body of the bottle

which is, properly speaking, the poison gland. Secondly,

D 6(2)138

18 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

there is the other part which is situated in the neck of the

bottle, but is only a mass of mucous glands.

That part in which the poison is produced appears to be

composed of a considerable number of partitions which support

the glandular cells. These partitions are relatively rectilineal

and radiate on a sort of axial pivot, cutting the gland into

elongated lobes which are also irregularly triangular. The

interior of these lobes is filled by the poison which turns red if

the section is stained with eosin, intense black if placed in

ironized hematoxylin. These lobes, more or less regular, do

not reachasfar asthe capsule. Between these and the capsule

there are other lobes, smaller, more irregular, and compressed ;

these are continuous with the principal lobes. Their structure

is identical and consist of a cavity containing the poisonous

secretion and lined with the glandular epithelium. Summing

up, we see that the poison-gland, properly speaking, consists

of partitions lined with glandular cells and poison-lakes. The

latter are the product of the former, and although in the

section itself, the poison-lakes occupy by far the greatest

space, the fundamental part is the glandular epithelium.

The anterior mucous part is composed of “ acini,” which

‘are continuous with the excretory duct itself, or first with

a kind of “ reservoir’ which communicates with the duct.

This duct is formed of several parallel conduits situated in

connective tissue.

Ill —Aistology.

I give below a description of the glandular epithelium and

of the manner in which the poison is elaborated.

If a section of a poison-gland stained by ironized hema-

toxylin be examined under a medium power one sees around

the poison-lakes, coloured black, the glandular epithelium in

which three parts are recognizable (fig. 2). Adjacent to the

poison-lakes there is a stratum finely granulated and black as

ink. Next thereis a more lightly-coloured region, and finally,

a layer more deeply coloured, which betrays the existence of

the nuclei. As the glandular lobes are adjacent to each other

we find the epithelia almost in contact at their bases and

separated only by a very fine connective band. Thus, for

example, between two patches of black we find six small

POISON-GLAND OF THE COBRA. 19

bands, three of them belong to one lobe, and the three others

to a second lobe. The granulated bands farthest off are

adjacent to their respective poison lakes.

Tf the cells of the glandular epithelium be examined in

their normal state of secretion under high power the following

structure may be determined.

The cells of the glandular epithelium (fig. 3) are regularly

prismatic (they are, therefore, in longitudinal sections rectan-

gular). They are about 30 v. in height and contain near the

base a deeply stained nucleus from 7 to 8 vu. in width.

The cytoplasm is particularly interesting to examine in

sections fixed with Regaud’s liquid, for one can then see the

mitochondrial substance. This substance is considered to-day

as the most active portion of all the cytoplasm, for it plays the

chief part in the elaboration of the products of the secretion.

In the cells shown in fig. 3 several zones may be recognized

in the cytoplasm : (1) at the base of some cells below the nucleus

a quantity of very fine granulations (mitochondriz) can be

seen, and in others small filaments (chondriocontes) ; (2) at

the sides of the nucleus the masses of granulations seem to

continue into a kind of chain of beads (chondriomites) which

generally run along the lateral walls of the cell ; (3) above the.

nucleus a cytoplasmatic¢ space is found free from granulations ;

(4) at the free end of the cell are granules far more voluminous

than the mitochondriz (their breadth can reach to 2 or 3 ).

These are what Launoy* calls “ Venogen’s granules.” In

other cells one sees alongside the granules, plainly coloured

by the ironized hematoxylin, small spaces, the same size as

the granules, from which the stained contents have disappeared.

It seems, therefore, obvious on examining these sections that

the mitochondrial substance, which is in direct relation with

the secretion of the granules, plays in their fabrication a role at

least as important as that which Launoy ascribes to the nucleus.

The granules we have seen are situated at the free extremity of

the cell, in contact with the cavity of the gland. Gradually

they unite with each other and then finally escape, and together

* Launoy, L., Contribution a l’étude des phenoménes nucliéaires

de la secretion (Cellules & venin—Cellules & enzyme). Ann. des Se.

Nat. T. 18 (Zool.), 1903.

20 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

with similar granules elaborated by all the other cells constitute

that provision of poison which forms into poison-lakes.

IV —Physiology.

The poison, secreted in the deepest part of the gland, is a

very dense and syrupy liquid which, if it is deadly poisonous,

would be extremely difficult to inject into a person by the

agency of the poison-fang. It is, therefore, indispensable, at

the moment of biting, that the poison should be diluted so as

to render it more fluid, and consequently more injectable.

This task is relegated to the mucous gland situated around the

excretory duct. The mucous secretion when poured into the

canal liquefies the poison situated in the forepart of the

poison-gland (properly speaking). The latter is replaced by

the poison of the lakes which is used for the later biting. The

powerful muscle which surrounds the gland mechanically aids

in the propelling of the diluted poison, which thus passes into

the wound made by the poison-fang.

To sum up, we see that the poison is present in two distinct

phases :—

(1) It is produced as a secretion of the glandular cells and

is retained in the reservoirs as a syrupy liquid.

(2) When the poison is to be utilized a liquefaction of this

syrupy substance is effected so that it flows more easily from

the gland and penetrates more easily into the bite.

It is, in one word, a physiological device by which a snake

is enabled to keep in a small space a large quantity of poison

necessary both for its defence and for its alimentation.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Plate IfJ., Fig. 1.—Section of the whole length of poison

gland. x 30.

(Fixation: Bi-iodide of mercury and formalin stained with

Hematoxylin-eosin. )

Plate IV., Fig. 2.—Section of parts of four poison lakes with

their glandular epithelium. x 100. (Stamed with Ironized-

hematoxylin.)

Fig. 3.—Five glandular cells showmg the elaboration of

poison by cytoplasmic and mitochondrial substances. » 1,100.

(Fixation: Regaud’s liquid.)

a — duet. é = poison granules.

b = poison lake. f = mitochondrial substance.

c = glandular epithelium. g = nucleus.

d = fibrous capsule. h = connective tissue.

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA, Vol. IX, No. 33. Plate 11.

Mucous |

Part

Duct.

Poison-_lake

Cc,

Glandular-

epithelium

Poison

Part

es d.

Fibrous

capsula

Magnified 30 times.

Fig 1. Section of the whole length of poison gland showing the

microscopical anatomy. — x 30.

Fixation: Bi-iodide of Mercury and Formalins.

Coloration: Hematoxylin-Eosin.

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA, Vol. IX, No. 33.

Oe nn

: oe eae 8 e/pitiajo joie) ale Glandular-

Rememensr : Uren neg ae epithelium

ook alba

a Poison-lake

ri} DANAE en!

pigs kiee Weise eS

Magnified 100 times.

Fig 2. Section from 4 poison-lakes with their glandular epithelium.

x 100,

on Poison

“)? granula

4 Mitochondrial

“VY substance

g. Nucleus

if § Connective

*? tissue

Magnified 400 times,

5 Glandular-cells showing the elaboration of poison by cyto-

Fig 3

x 400.

plasmic and mitochondrial substance.

Fixation: Regaud’s liquid.

Plate

IV.

BREEDING SEASONS OF CEYLON BIRDS. 21

NOTES ON THE EGGS, NESTS, AND BREEDING SEASONS

OF SOME CEYLON BIRDS.

By W. E. Warr, M.A.*

T the last meeting of our Society, Mr. Green gave us a

most suggestive Paper indicating the lines on which we

should work, with some hints of the many problems which

awaited solution in all the branches of our fauna, even in those

in which most research had been accomplished.

This evening, I wish to follow up Mr. Green’s suggestion as

regards one particular subject by giving some notes based on

my collection of birds’ eggs. They will only serve to show

how much remains to be done before our knowledge of the

nesting and breeding of birds in Ceylon can be said even to

approach completion.

Thirty years ago Legge, in his magnificent volume on the

“ Birds of Ceylon,’’ worked out the occurrence and distribution

of our Avifauna so thoroughly that not more than a dozen

new species have been added since his time ; and most of these

additions are mere chance visitors. Legge, however, himself

admits in his introduction how incomplete was his knowledge

concerning the nidification of many of the species. Again

and again, in his description of resident species, he states that

the nest and eggs had not yet been discovered in the Island.

In his day, among our Ceylon Ornithologists, there were

several keen egg-collectors to whom he often refers. I may

mention the names of Mr. MeVicar of the Survey Department,

Mr. Bligh of Haputale, and Mr. Parker, late of the Irrigation

Department. The last-named wrote a Paper giving an account

of many Ceylon eggs in one of the parts of ‘‘ Stray Feathers.”

He corresponded with Hume and Legge, and I believe he has

a magnificent collection of Ceylon eggs. I can only hope that

when he has finished his book on Ceylonese folk-lore he will

give us a volume on Ceylon Oology. It is badly needed, as

since Legge’s time practically nothing on the subject has

appeared in print easily accessible to readers in the Island.

* Read before the Ceylon Natural History Society, December 17, 1912.

22 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

I have no doubt that there are keen egg-collectors now, but

one hears little of them or of their discoveries. If they will

send their notes to “‘ Spolia Zeylanica ”’ or to this Society there

is no reason why our information on Ceylon nests and eggs

should not be as full and complete as the material collected

by Hume in his “‘ Nests and Eggs of Indian Birds,” to which

material Ceylon has contributed far less than its proper share.

There are a number of birds—some of them peculiar to the ~

Island—which are known or suspected to be resident species,

but of whose nidification in Ceylon we have no satisfactory

account. Let me give a few mstances within my own ex-

perience. In his description of the Black Bittern (Dupetor

flavicollis), one of the rarest of the family, Legge states that

he had come across the bird during the south-west monsoon

at Minneriya in the North-Central Province, and suspected

that it bred in the Island. I do not think that the bird is as

rare in Ceylon as is generally supposed. I have met with it

at least a dozen times while wading round the edges of some

of the larger village tanks in the North-Central Province ; and

this year I was fortunate enough to find it breeding.

In April I was prowling round the edge of Topawewa, when

I flushed a specimen out of a low thorn tree which stood in the

shallow water, and found the nest placed in the branches

about 5 feet above the surface of the tank. Like most

herons’ nests it was a shallow saucer of twigs, and measured

about 10 inches in diameter. There were two fresh eggs, of a

pale sea green, without a trace of the blue tinge which charac-

terizes freshly taken eggs of the Pond Heron (Ardeola grayi).

The delicacy of the colour soon died away after the eggs had

been blown. In shape they are almost oval, there being little

difference between the small and large ends. They measure

1°54 x 1°17 and 1°50 x 1:16 inches respectively. A fort-

night later, early in May, about 15 miles south-west of

Anuradhapura, [ was again wading on the edge of a jungle

tank when I came round a bush and surprised another

Black Bittern busy on a nearly-finished nest. This nest was

of very much the same description as the former, but it had

in it a spray of nearly fresh green leaves, and was only about

2 feet above the water.

a wes

BREEDING SEASONS OF CEYLON BIRDS. 23

Again I am pretty certain that several of the rarer water-

rails will eventually be found nesting in Ceylon. Legge

mentions the fact that two eggs said to belong to the Ruddy

Rail (Amaurornis fuscus) had been taken near Chilaw. He

was, however, rather dubious about the find. There are

several unidentified eggs in the Museum collection which

undoubtedly belong to some species of rail, and I rather think

that I have a clutch of the eggs of Prozana pusilla—the

Eastern Baillon’s Crake—in my own collection. Unfortu-

nately they were brought to me by a young villager in the

North-Central Province, and I did not see the bird myself.

I had asked the lad to try and get me some eggs of the

Tank Pheasant (Hydrophasianus chirurgus), a bird which lays

four unspotted, bronze-coloured, peg-top shaped eggs,

generally on the floating leaves of the water-lily. Next

morning he turned up with seven eggs. They were consider-

ably smaller than those of the Tank Pheasant: the ground

colour was a rather glossy olive-brown, and they were fairly

plentifully sprinkled with dark brown specks. TI at first

thought they were the eggs of the Blue-breasted Quail (Hxcal-

factoria chinensis), and questioned the boy about the finding

of the nest. He assured me that he had taken the eggs from a -

small nest floating on the water some distance from the shore.

I went to the tank with him next morning and he showed me a

small nest attached to the floating stems of a water-grass. It

was a pad of grass leaves, about 5 inches in diameter and

2 inches thick, for all the world like the pad of straw which

coolies sometimes put on their heads when carrying loads.

The upper surface was slightly hollowed and lined with the

fine rootlets of some water-plant. There were seven little

depressions in the soft lming showing where the seven eggs

brought to me undoubtedly had lain. The spot was about

thirty yards from the shore, and the water nearly knee-deep.

The tank had been at that level for several weeks, and the

eggs were nearly fresh, so that the nest could not have been

built when the ground was dry, to be floated up as the water

rose. No Quail in its senses would have chosen such a situa-

tion, and, besides, the Blue-breasted Quail does not generally

lay seven eggs but five or six.

24 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

When I got back to Colombo I compared the eggs with the

Quail’s eggs in my possession. They are distinctly glossier

than the eggs of Excalfactoria chinens’s, slightly larger and

not so stumpy or pointed at the small end. The average of

their measurements was about 1:07 « °88 of aninch. Hunt-

ing through “ Legge > and Hume’s “ Nests and Eggs” for a

solution of the conundrum, I found that they may possibly

be those of Porzana pusilla, but I shall have to wait until I

can find another nest myself, or authenticate these eggs at the

British Museum, before I can be certain of the find.

To take a third example. There is little definitely known

about the nidification of one of the commonest of the species

peculiar to Ceylon, the Brown-capped Quaker Thrush (Pellor-

neum fuscicapillum). One may hear him any day in the

jungles of the North-Central Province singing away like a

street boy, whistling up and down the scale out of tune, and if

you watch closely you may see him hopping about on the

eround among the undergrowth—a little olive-brown fellow

with a chocolate-brown cap and a _ lighter-brown under

plumage.

He belongs to a genus of which there are seven Indian species.

Oates, i the “ Fauna of British India,” remarks of the genus

that ‘‘ their nests are domed and built on the ground with one

doubtful exception.” That exception is our little Ceylon

representative. Legge records that Mr. Bligh found the nest

at Haputale. ‘“ It was placed in a bramble about 3 feet

from the ground, and was cup-shaped, loosely constructed of

moss and leaves : it contained three young.”’ Later on, in the

appendix, he states that Mr. Parker had sent him an egg which

is illustrated in the plate at the end of the volume. Unfortu-

nately he gives no description of the nest or of the situation

in which it was found, and the illustration of the egg is not

very satisfactory. It is represented as of a whitey-brown

eround colour, with red-brown spots which form a cap at the

larger end, and some purple spots.

Soon after I started collecting, a cooly brought me two eggs

somewhat answering to this description, which he said he had

found in a nest on the ground under a bush. This was at

Katuwana in the Southern Province in March, 1907. <A year

BREEDING SEASONS OF CEYLON BIRDS. 25

later Mr. John Still brought me two precisely similar eggs,

which he and Mr. J. G. Fraser had discovered while going

through the forest in the North-Central Province. The nest

lay at the foot of a tree ; it was cup-shaped, composed of grass

and dry leaves, and measured about 4 inches across. They

described the bird, which they saw fly off the nest, as stout,

of a dark brown colour, and somewhat resembling a Quail.

There are two more eggs of the same sort among the unidenti-

fied specimens in the Museum collection. I hope that they

may eventually be identified as the eggs of our Ceylon Quaker

Thrush.

The examples I have just given are but three out of many

species, of whose nidification we require information, and any

collector may at any time come across a coveted find. But

apart from new finds, there are always fresh facts and little—

perhaps local—peculiarities to be noted about birds whose

nesting habits are already recorded.

Osmoireron bicincta—the Orange-breasted Green Pigeon—

is one of our two common green pigeons, and may be found

in flocks in many parts of the Island. It is equally common

in many Indian districts. Legge records little or nothing

about its nidification, and the notes on the subject in Hume’s

‘* Nests and Eggs ” are not very full. I have found its nest

half-a-dozen times in the North-Central Province. The usual

breeding season is in April and May, but this year I took a

nest in August with two fresh eggs. It is a mere apology of a

structure : half-a-dozen twigs just sufficiently meshed together

to keep the two eggs from falling through. The eggs are of

the usual pigeon type, pure white, and almost perfectly oval,

with a moderate gloss. The average size is 1:07 x -88 of an

inch.

There are, however, several constant and noteworthy

features about all the nests which I have come across. The

birds, when in flocks, generally frequent the tops of trees, but

the nest has invariably been placed about 6 feet from the

ground in a thorny small-leaved bush or tree ; it has always

been by the side of a path or roads, but never near any habi-

tation, and I have always found the beautiful orange and

lilac-breasted male sitting on the eggs. I think the nest often

E 6(2)13

26 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

escapes detection as the bird sits so close that one has almost

to bundle it off the eggs, while the tints of the upper plumage

harmonize with the colours, in light and shade, of the foliage.

Our other Green Pigeon (Osmotreron pompadora) also nests in

the North-Central Province. The nest and eggs are precisely

similar to those of the last-mentioned species, and could not

be told apart, but I have found it building as much as 20 feet

up in a tree, and it seems to prefer trees or bushes on the edge

of the jungle round tanks.

Another common bird with well-marked breeding pecu-

liarities is the beautiful Paradise Fly-catcher (Terpsiphone

paradisi). As many of you know, the long-tailed male

gradually changes its plumage, the most striking change being

that, broadly speaking, the chestnut of the upper plumage

and tail turns to pure white. The change is fully completed

in the fourth year. Now the young birds breed freely in the

North-Central Province, and I have also taken their nests in

the Tangalla district. But the males in their third and fourth

year would appear to migrate. They are never very common,

and I have only once seen a black and white male in the

North-Central Province during the south-west monsoon.

The nest is a little thin walled cup, about 23 inches in

diameter and 13 inch deep, built of grass and fibres, unlined

inside, and bound round on the outside with cobweb and

sometimes small cocoons. I have nearly always found

it placed from 6 to 12 feet from the ground, on a down-

ward hanging branch, where a small twig shoots upward to

form, more or less, of a fork. The nest is placed in the angle,

but is mainly built up from its base on the larger branch. I

do not think that I have ever seen a nest in the outer branches.

The bird seems to prefer a spot well in the shade, close to the

trunk, and as often as not it chooses a leafless branch. The

eggs are generally three in number, of a pinky white ground-

colour, with reddish brown spots chiefly at the larger end.

The average size is ‘78 by °57 of an inch, :

So far I have shown how an egg collector may add to our

knowledge of the nidification of individual species ; but when

one has collected data for a number of species in any one

district, one may begin to speculate on a wider and most

BREEDING SEASONS OF CEYLON BIRDS, 2]

fascinating problem, namely, the breeding seasons of the

various species in different parts of the Island. Now in

Ceylon we have no real summer or winter, and given favour-

able climatic conditions one may find birds breeding in any

month of the year.

In his introduction to ““ The Birds of Ceylon,’’ Legge gives

the main breeding seasons as follows :—“ The majority of

Ceylon birds breed during the first half of, the year, the exact

times varying according to locality and climate. In the

Western Province the height of the breeding season is, as in

India, during the rains of April, May, and June. At this

time the jungles teem with insect life, and all forest birds are

busy rearing their young. In very moist districts, such as

Ratnapura and the Pasdun korale, eggs may be found in

August and even September. Among early breeders in the

Western Province may be cited the Barbets and Woodpeckers.

On the eastern side of the Island many birds commence to

breed in November and December, while the heavy rains are

falling ; but the season continues, nevertheless, throughout

the first three or four months of the year, and many birds

may be found nesting as on the western side in May and June.

In the hills, and more particularly in the upper ranges, where

the nights are cold and frosty in January and February, the

nesting season commences at the end of March or beginning of

April, and continues until June and July, corresponding in

this respect with the breeding-time in temperate climates. In

the north of Ceylon, the larger Waders (Ardeidx) and the

water-birds that breed with them, commence to nest in

November ; but on the south-east coast, the season is later,

the heronries not being resorted to as a rule, I think before

January.”

Within these broad generalizations, my own experience

shows that there are a surprising number of variations.

Some birds habitually build earlier than others, some birds

seem to go on nesting indiscriminately for several months ;

and again in some places I have found that certain species

have two well-marked nesting times, between which their

eggs are not usually to be found. To work out the problem

fully we require detailed observations carried out over a

28 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

number of years and in every part of the Island. Incidentally,

I may mention that the collecting of such material will

probably bring out some very interesting facts on the internal

migration of certain species from one part of the Island to the

other.

As it will be a long time before the full materials can ever

be collected, I am going to be rash enough to give you this

evening some tentative speculations on the causes which

govern the continuance or the variation of the breeding

seasons of different species in the same district. These

speculations are based on my own collection of eggs, and on

my rather fragmentary observations.

I may state at the outset that my collection consists of about

80 species, the majority of which have been taken in the

North-Central Province and the Tangalla district of the

Southern Province. Accordingly, my remarks must be taken

as applying only to these two districts, or at all events, only

to the dry low-country zone to which both belong. The

rainfall and climatic conditions of the two areas present no

marked differences, and I should say that over 90 per cent.

of the species of birds inhabiting the one region are to be found

in the other.

As I said above we have no real seasonal changes in Ceylon,

and the birds breed whenever the climatic conditions are most

favourable. At breeding-time birds must have an ample food

supply, and what I may term a suitable environment for their

nests ; the meaning of the latter phrase will appear more fully

as I go along.

Now, any climatic conditions which will give birds these two

requirements will induce them to breed in greater or less

numbers, and, broadly speaking, these conditions are fulfilled

during, or soon after, any period of rain, but the conditions

vary for different classes of birds.

In both Tangalla and the North-Central Province the rainy

season begins at the change of the south-west to the north-east

monsoon, and the rains extend roughly from October to

Christmas. There are, more or less, frequent showers from

Christmas onwards till the burst of the south-west monsoon,

but February, March, and April are often dry, and are

BREEDING SEASONS OF CEYLON BIRDS. 29

the hottest months of the year. In a normal year very little

rain falls during the south-west monsoon, and the country

gradually becomes dry and parched.

Now let us see how this rainfall affects the breeding season

of the different classes of birds. We will first take the birds

which build nests in trees or bushes. Many of them begin to

breed as soon as the rains have well begun, and the foliage has

become green and thick enough to give them plenty of cover

for their nests ; and as they are in no danger of being swamped

out they do not mind building in the middle of a wet spell.

They will go on breeding intermittent!y as long as favourable

weather continues. The approach of dry weather curtails

their nesting ; but if enough rain falls at any unusual time,

they will start again. For instance, in 1909 I took the eggs

of such birds as the Golden Oriole (Oriolus melanocephalus),

the Madras Bulbul (Molpastes hemorrhous), the Jungle

Wren-warbler (Prinia sylvatica), and the Magpie Robin

(Copsychus saularis) in the North-Central Province in

February. I was up there again at the end of April and

the beginning of May, when the country was still fairly fresh,

and found all these species and many others still laying eggs.

In November of the same year, they were again breeding. In |

April, 1911, I found the drought had already set in and

discovered very few eggs. In that year there was a general

drought all over the Island, and I got very few eggs anywhere.

In May, of this year, the tanks in the North-Central Province

were still full, and the country green ; birds were breeding

plentifully. Again, last August I struck a small patch of

villages about 20 miles north-east of Anuradhapura where some

local thunder-storms had freshened up the district, and I

discovered the eggs or nestlings of no less than 20 species.

Of course, there are many exceptions which require further

explanation. For instance, why do the Crows not breed till

June ? Butas a broad rule, in the dry zone of the low-country

birds which build among branches will nest at any time

provided that there has been sufficient rainfall to revive the

vegetation and bring out their food supply.

The ground nesters do not begin to breed nearly so early.

They have to wait until the heavy rains are over, until the

30 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

ground is dry enough for their purpose, and until the weather

has become so settled that there is little fear of their bemg

swamped out bya heavy pour. The Night-jars nest from April

on to August. The Larks and Pipits for the most part wait

until the paddy is reaped, and the water has run off the paddy

fields, which are their favourite nesting grounds. The Green

Bee-eater (Merops viridis) is another good instance. This

bird excavates a long tunnel like a Kingfisher’s burrow, but

instead of choosing a perpendicular bank, it will run its shaft

into the least little rise either on suitable bare grassy land or

by the side of the road. The tunnel often slopes downwards,

and if the bird did not wait till well on in the dry weather, it

would often run the risk of being flooded out by a heavy

thunder shower.

But the most interesting bird from the point of view of my

theory is the common Did-he-do-it (Sarcogrammus indicus).

Its favourite breeding ground in the North-Central Province

is the belt of bare grassy land round every village tank. As

soon as the water begins to recede from the rim of jungle which

marks spill level the birds will start breeding, generally

choosing little bits of rismg ground for a nesting site. As

long as there is any water in the tank they have an ample

feeding-ground, and as the water gradually shrinks in the

tank-bed they obtain an unlimited choice of little depressions

and hoof marks in the sun-dried mud in which to lay their

eggs. And so you may find the eggs any month from April

to September, for during the whole of that time the birds have

a good food supply and a suitable nesting environment.

Lastly, let us take the waders and swamp-nesters, which

are found in numbers on the tanks of the North-Central Pro-

vince and on the lagoons of the Tangalla district. The Heron

family generally nest in trees, and as we might expect they are

early breeders, choosing a time when their feeding areas—the

swamps and tanks—are at their fullest. Birds which build

close to the water’s edge in reeds or grass have to wait until

the rains are over, and there is no danger of the water rising

and flooding their nests. For instance, in the Tangalla

district, the Blue Coot (Porphyrio poliocephalus) ,the Moor-hen

(Gallinula chloropus), and the Clamorous Reed-warbler

BREEDING SEASONS OF CEYLON BIRDS. 31

(Acrocephalus stentorious) nest in March, when the weather

has become settled.

Some aquatic birds, such as the Whistling Teal (Dendrocygna

javanica), and the White-breasted Moor-hen (Amaurornis

phaenicurus) build either in trees, or in the long grass and

rushes of swamps. In the North-Central Province the Teal

breed mostly in the hollow forks of the large kumbuk trees

which grow round every village tank, and they nest soon after

Christmas. I once found a nest in the long grass near a

swamp in the Tangalla district. That was in the month of

July, very late in the season. On the other hand, I have

generally found the White-breasted Moor-hen (Amaurornis

phenicurus) breeding from May to August and constructing a

weed-nest among the rushes ; but I once found the bird breed-

ing in November soon after the rains had begun. On that

occasion the nest was a huge saucer-shaped affair of twigs

placed in a bush several feet above the spill level of the tank.

So it would seem that birds which nest either in trees or

among rushes will begin to breed early on in the season if they

choose trees, but if they nest in a swamp they wait until it is

safe for them to do so.

Birds too will suit their breeding seasons to modifications

such as those caused by irrigation schemes. The lagoons |

between Ranna and Ambalantota used to be mere salt pans.

Now they receive all the tail-water from several thousand

acres of paddy land irrigated by the Udakiriwila and Walawe

schemes. These paddy fields come right down to the edge of

the lagoons, which are now almost fresh water swamps. There

are two harvests of paddy in the year, roughly in March and

July. As the paddy ripens, the food supply, both of insects

and grain, is very abundant, and the swamps are fairly full

of the tail-water. So it is not surprising to find that many

birds, which normally have only one brood here, nest regularly

twice in the year. I can always discover the eggs of the

Purple Coot (Porphyrio poliocephalus), the Moor-hen (Gallinula

chloropus), and of the Clamorous Reed-warbler (Acrocephalus

stentorius) both in March and July. In the heronries on the

lagoons the Herons and Cormorants also breed twice a year,

but a little earlier.

32 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

As regards birds which nest in holes in trees, I have not as

yet very much to offer in the way of conjecture. Legge, in the

passage which I quoted above, stated that both Barbets and

Woodpeckers were early breeders in the Western Province,

but that is not my experience in the North-Central Province.

There the Barbets, which are fruit-eaters, breed early and

appear to have several broods in the season. The Wood-

peckers, insect-feeders, breed fairly late, and appear to have

only one brood. Quite possibly the food supply of the

Woodpeckers becomes abundant only late in the season.

Personally, I know practically nothing about the breeding

season in the wet zone and up-country, and I should very

much like to know whether there too the different species breed

at different times of the year, and whether the differences can

be traced to the same causes which I have endeavoured to

explain as influencing the nesting seasons in those parts of the

Island with which I am more familiar.

We want notes and observations taken in all parts of Ceylon,

and in the hope of inducing some more naturalists to take up

this branch of ornithology I should like to conclude my Paper

with some hints on the finding of nests and the collection of

eggs.

Often when I have been showing my eggs people have

remarked ‘“‘ But where do you find them ?” “‘ I used to collect

eggs when I was a boy, and I have been in the jungle a good

bit, but I seldom come across any nests.”

I think there is something in what they say. Out here,

birds have many more enemies to guard against than at home,

and the nesting area available is so much larger that nests are

not so easily spotted.

Instead of the obvious hedge-row and the comparatively

limited copse or wood, there is limitless jungle. However,

one gradually learns how and where to look, and the process

of learning is a splendid training for the powers of observation.

Nearly all birds give their nests away by their behaviour ;

and one learns to watch for the signs by which they do this.

A good many sitting birds wait until one is quite close, and

then start off in such a flurried way that they betray them-

selves. If a Bulbul or Cinnamon Thrush bolts out of a bush

BREEDING SEASONS OF CEYLON BIRDS. 33

as you walk up, or a Quail explodes from right under your feet,

you may very probably find that there is a nest. In the same

way look for a nest-hole if a Mynah or Woodpecker suddenly

flies away from half way up a bare tree trunk ; and if you see a

Golden Oriole dart out from the end of a low-hanging branch,

examine the spot carefully.

Thave twice got the eggs of the little Wood-shrike (T'ephro-

* dornis pondicerianus) from noting how the bird flew away from

the upper surface of a horizontal bough. The nest is a shallow

saucer, glued on to the surface of the bough, and so felted with

cobweb and lichen that, from the ground, it appears a mere

roughness of the bark ; and unless the bird showed you the

place you would scarcely ever be able to see that there was a

nest there.

Some birds get very restless—hopping about the branches

and twittering while anyone is close to the nest.

On the other hand, the Red-wattled Lapwing, which is

usually such a shrieking nuisance, gets off her eggs without a

sound at fifteen or twenty yards range and hurries off in a

most amusingly quiet and furtive manner.

Again, follow up any bird you see flying off with a long

straw, a twig, or feather in its mouth ; or if you see a small.

bird fly out in a fury and drive away a larger intruder watch

carefully the branch to which it returns. I found my first

nest of the Bush Bulbul (Aegithina tiphia) in this way. The

little cock-bird darted from a thin branch and fairly hustled

out of the neighbourhood a Cinnamon Thrush which was

casually wandering by.

After finding one or two nests of a species, one soon gets to

know the likely localities in which to look, and as nesting lore

is gradually acquired far less time is spent in poking around

aimlessly.

But before taking up bird-nesting in Ceylon one should

have a working acquaintance with, at any rate, the commoner

birds of the field and jungle, for this reason—that one must,

wherever possible, identify beyond doubt the bird to which

the nest belongs. Many of our Ceylon eggs are, by them-

selves, indistinguishable from the eggs of other species. For

example, one might easily confuse those of the little Kingfisher

F 6(2)13

34 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

(Alcedo ispida), with those of the Green Bee-eater (Merops

viridis). The eggs of our two Green Pigeons cannot be told

apart, and I should be very sorry to have to name correctly

any egg of our half-dozen species of Munia, unless I had seen

the bird and the situation of the nest.

Eggs named and brought by villagers should be accepted

with the greatest caution. There are specific native names

for most of the birds, but as often as not they are incorrectly

used. I have heard the term Lihiniya applied to the Hill

Mynah (Hulabes religiosa), the Wood Swallow-shrike (Arta-

mus fuscus), and to various species of Swift and Swallow ; while

Pandarella has stood equally well for Larks, Pipits, and Quaker-

thrushes. They will also put a Sparrow’s egg in a Bulbul’s

nest and gravely swear they have brought the nest and eggs

of a Fly-catcher.

When unknown eggs are brought by villagers a book like

Hume’s ‘‘ Nests and Eggs ”’ is of great value in provisionally

identifying the specimens, but you should not be satisfied

with the correctness of such an identification until you have

verified it by discovering similar eggs yourself and seeing the

bird off the nest. A villager in the North-Central Province

once brought me two white eggs, which he stoutly maintained

were those of the Bronze-wing Pigeon (Chalcophaps indica).

He described the nest as having consisted of a few twigs

placed not very high up in the branches of a tree. The eggs

were certainly white, but they were of a chalky texture and

resembled miniature specimens of the egg of the Crow Pheasant

(Centropus sinensis). I had my suspicions, but it was not till

three years later that, in November last, I flushed a Green-

billed Malkoha (Rhopodytes viridirostris) off a slight nest of

sticks placed in the branch of an Euphorbia tree, and found

a chalky white egg, the exact counterpart of the two eggs

brought to me by the villager. As I told you at the beginning

of my Paper, I am still waiting to verify what I take to be the

eggs of the Ceylon Quaker Thrush (Pellorneum fuscicapillum)

and of the Eastern Baillon’s Crake (Porzana pusilla).

Lastly, always keep a record of the date and locality of any

nests found, and mark your eggs so that they can at any time

be referred to the record. My own eggs are always marked,

BREEDING SEASONS OF CEYLON BIRDS. 35

close to the hole by which they were blown, by a number and

a letter. The number denotes the species and the letter

corresponds to a lettered entry on the page of my loose leaf

catalogue allotted to that species. Thus, my eggs of the

Indian Tailor-bird (Orthotomus sutorius) are marked ‘ 14.”

Specimens marked A14 were taken in June, 1907, in the

Medagama pattu, Province of Uva, and those marked:.C 14

at Kendewa in the North-Central Province in May, 1911.

Without such a record a collection of eggs loses most of its

scientific value, and if unmarked eggs once get mixed they are

soon confused past all sorting. Iam afraid that this has been

the fate of a fine collection of eggs which used to belong to

Mr. Hine-Haycock, and which is now in the Museum. I

believe that there is no trustworthy record of where or when

many of the eggs were obtained. They were collected from

many sources, and some specimens labelled as belonging to

very rare species are in reality common varieties masquerading

as the eggs of more valuable birds. Furthermore, beyond all

doubt the labels have been transposed in many cases, and, as

there are no marks to identify the eggs, what would have been

an exceedingly interesting addition to the Museum collection,

has become, to a certain extent, a confused lot of Oological

specimens.

36 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

SOME NOTES ON BUTTERFLIES AND THEIR

DISTRIBUTION.

By F. M. Mackwoop.*

CCASIONALLY I am asked to name an amateur’s

collection, and when I set aside some as moths, the

question is put : What is the difference between a moth and a

butterfly ? These two form the group of insects known as

‘““ Lepidoptera,” divided as Rhopalocera and Heterocera.

Rhopalocera (butterflies) means club horned, viz., that the

end of the antenne is club-shaped. Heterocera (moths)

various horned or antenne of various shapes. Moths have a

thicker body, at its junction with the thorax of same diameter ;

that of the butterfly is slender and wasp-shaped.

They vary in habits. The butterfly is a day-flier and at

rest folds its wings vertically over its body. Moths fly after

sunset and expand their wings horizontally when resting.

The origin of the word butterfly is unknown. Derived

apparently from an Anglo-Saxon root, it is thought to have

been given to a species of yellowish colour.

Soon after beginning to collect, the need of works of reference

will be felt by the student, so that the captures can be classified

and named ; later on, most collectors will want to know how

the insects of their locality and country compare with neigh-

bouring ones.

Rhopalocera (butterflies) are divided imto six groups or

families, viz., Nymphalide, Nemeobidx , Papilionide, Pieride

Lycenide, and Hesperide. The first named is the largest

croup ; all of them have sub-families.

In entomology, as with all other branches of natural history,

there are two sets of writers, the one a species-maker or

‘* splitter’ giving specific rank for every variation often

inconstant. The other, known as a ‘‘slumper,” grouping as

many as possible under one name.

* Read before the Ceylon Natural History Society, February 28, 1913.

BUTTERFLIES AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION. 37

The Ceylon works of reference available to a student are :—

1. “ Sir Emerson Tennant’s Ceylon,” published in 1859.

_ The list of butterflies therein given numbers 172 species,

mostly from the collections of Dr. Templeton and Mr. E. L.

Layard. The list is now of little use, many of the species not

being traceable, and others being purely Indian. Itis, however,

of interest in that it records 69 Nymphalide, 17 Papilionide,

and 27 Pieride, against 69, 15, and 28 respectively existing

at present.

2. In 1880-81 the first volume of Moore’s “‘ Lepidoptera of

Ceylon ” was issued, followed at intervals by the second and

third. In this 250 species are described, and the larger

number figured. Mr. Moore was a splitter, and 40 of his 250

species can be eliminated ; the materials for Mr. Moore’s work

were furnished by Dr. Thwaites, Capt. Wade Dalton, Capt.

Hutchison, Mr. E. E. Green, and myself. The three volumes

are expensive.

3. In 1889 an up-to-date and compact “ list of the butter-

flies of Ceylon” was issued by Mr. de Niceville and Major

Manders, R.A.M.C. The notes to the various species are very

serviceable. 228 species are enumerated ; 5 or 6 of these are

now regarded as varieties only, and a few more species, since

discovered or then overlooked, must be added.

Indian works of reference, including Ceylon, are :—

1. “ The Butterflies of India, Burma, and Ceylon,” by

Marshall and de Niceville, Vol. I., appeared in 1882. Vols. II.

‘and III. at intervals later. I think this the most interesting

of any of the Indian reference works from its wealth of notes.

Unfortunately through Mr. de Niceville’s death, the much

wanted Vol. [V. was never issued : it would have dealt with the

Hesperide, the most difficult family of the Lepidoptera to

describe.

2. In 1905 the Government of India through the British

Museum, under the title of ‘“‘ The Fauna of British India

including Ceylon and Burma,’ issued the first volume , and in

1897 the second volume. The editor was Col. C. T. Bingham,

who, unfortunately , died before finishing the third volume,

which would have completed the Lycenide and dealt with

the Hesperidez. As an author, Col. Bingham was a slumper—

38 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

perhaps too much so in several instances. The remaining

volumes to complete the Fauna of British India are bemg

edited by Mr. H. Druce, and we hope may be issued soon.

3. In 1890 Moore issued his Vol. I. of ‘‘ Lepidoptera

Indica,” a magnificent and costly work, in which every species

is figured. Mr. Moore died before the work was finished,

which I believe is being completed by Col. Swinhoe.

4. A very useful ‘“‘ List of Indian Butterflies,” published

by the Bombay Natural History Society in 1912, Parts II.

and III., edited by Capt. W. H. Evans, R. E., range of

locality is given, as well as every race or sub-species, with

numerous serviceable notes. The two Papers can be separately

bought ; bound together they form a handy volume invaluable

for reference.

Having finished with the works of reference, 1 now come

to the Ceylon butterflies themselves. These are put at 226 to

228 species. The great majority of these are also found in

South India, 42 of the number are peculiar to Ceylon as being

distinct species or sub-species, but very doubtfully so; a

slumper would reject half ; personally I think 30 species only

are distinctly Ceylonese and these include nearly all the rarities.

In distribution, the foot hills up to 3,000 feet show the

largest variety ; at 4,000 feet upward 7 species appear; in the

dry zone and never above 500 feet elevation about 20 species

are found, including all the “Colotis” group, popularly known

as “orange tips,’ and several Lycwenide and Hesperide. In

the bamboo jungles of the Southern and Sabaragamuwa

Provinces and in lesser degree in the Western Province are to

be found the scarce Satyrine and Discophora lepida, about 30

species are found everywhere from Colombo to Jaffna or

Nuwara Eliya, even at the top of Pedru. One butterfly

discovered a few years ago in the Nitre Cave country, and

named “ Atella ceylonica,” has a very restricted range ; so far

it is found only in a valley about six miles by three, varying in

elevation 1,000 to 2,500 feet.

The best and longest worked centre is Kandy, with a radius

of ten to twelve miles. Ihave records of 178 species captured

—one species, “ Hlymnias singhala,’ used to be confined to

this area, but is now extending elsewhere.

BUTTERFLIES AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION. 39

Colombo district, before tea and rubber had taken the place

of jungle and chena in the outlying portions, used to give a

fair number of species, and I have records of 138 species,

nothing remarkable as to rarity. Danais exprompta and

Euploa core, then restricted as to area, are now more widely

diffused. Occasionally, a fair number of TIraota timoleon

var. niceviller are obtained.

The Puttalam district and around Hambantota has been

well worked by Mr. Pole, and Haldummulla-Wellawaya

country by Mr. Ormiston, who has obtained numerous

interesting species and varieties from the locality.

Mr. C. C. Gilbert, resident in Ratnapura District, has in

about two years, and that within a limited area, achieved such

success that probably as a centre, even for numbers, it will

take precedence of Kandy.

As to quality, it has already done so, for out of about 167

species netted, there are many rarities. In all probability

20 more species may be obtamed. In various paris of the

Province Mycalesis rama, Rapala melampus and Halpe egena

have been found.

The vicinities of-Nuwara Eliya, Anuradhapura, and Trin-

comalee have been fairly well worked , but most of the Northern

and Eastern Provinces, the Batticaloa-Hambantota, country

inland, and the Ratnapura-Rakwana-Tangalla country have

scarcely been touched, these, formerly almost inaccessible,

can now be reached by motor car.

Butterflies, whilst fairly numerous in Ceylon, are rarely

abundant except of the common species, or during the migra-

tory flights. When one goes out for any particular kind, he

may be considered lucky to get half-a-dozen good representa-

tives. Occasionally great multitudes are met with. In

December, 1911, at Anuradhapura, on the herbage on the

margins of Tissa Tank, for two or three days in succession,

there were literally hundreds of thousands, mostly of large

and showy common species, a good sprinkling of others, and

here and there a scarcer form ; it would have been easy to

catch twenty or thirty specimens at each sweep of the net.

Compared with Indian butterflies, I think ours, as a whole,

are a more sombre lot, even in the ‘‘ Lycenide,’”’ the ever

40 SPOLIA ZEYLANIOA.

popular “ blues,” we show relative poverty of colour, but

in number of species, considermg our area, we compare

favourably.

In Evans’ list for India and Burma, with an area of 1 900,000

square miles, there are recorded 1,048 species and 423 sub-

species or races, against Ceylon 226 species and 3 sub-species

for 20,000 square miles. South India, eight or nine times our

area, Shows only about one-third more species in its favour.

In conclusion, I would point out that it would be a mistake

to think there is such uniformity amongst butterflies, that once

the requisite number of males and females have been pinned

into the cabinet and labelled, they are done with ; it is not so ;

in large numbers of species there are numerous varieties,

frequent aberrations, some of them of extraordinary character ;

then there are species with dimorphic and polymorphic females,

and numerous others which show considerable difference

between their wet and dry season forms. A good deal of work

has yet to be done in breeding larvze to solve the position of

some butterflies as to specific rank or variety ; altogether it

will be years before the Ceylon collector and student of Ceylon

butterflies can say “ Finished,” which, however, I must say

as regards these notes.

NOTES. 41

NOTES.

—_—

1. Some Pioneers of Natural History in Ceylon.—tI should

not have omitted the name of Jacob Burnand, an “ Opper-

coopman,” or, to give this title its English equivalent, a

“Senior Merchant” in the Dutch East India Company’s

service, whose name was, in Bennett's time, “ deservedly

remembered ” in Ceylon, “‘ for he was distinguished both by

his zeal for the welfare of the Island through the introduction

of the culture of valuable exotics from the Malay Peninsula

and the Dutch Islands of Java, Banda, and Amboyna, and by

his botanical acquirements.” (Ceylon and its Capabilities,

p. 218.) A Swiss by birth, he arrived in Ceylon in 1778 ; was

Chief of the Batticaloa District, and subsequently Desawa of

Jafina, and died on March 3, 1816, at Colombo. He wrote

for Governor Sir Thomas Maitland in 1809, a memoir on the

“ Ancient and Modern State of the Island of Ceylon and its

Agriculture, &c.,” which Sir Alexander Johnston thought

so highly of that he made a translation of it for Lord

Londonderry, then Secretary of State for the Colonies. The

translation is published in the Monthly Interary Register,

Vols. III. and IV. (1895-6).

I think, too, that of the British period, Joseph Jonville

and Major-General Hay Macdowall deserve some notice.

Jonville was the first Superintendent of the Botanical Garden

started by Governor North, first at Peliagoda or “‘ Ortafoula,”’

and later, owing to Jonville’s condemnation of the first

site, at Slave Island (“‘ Kew”). Of him Viscount Valentia

remarked :—“ Mr. Jonville, a Frenchman, is possessed of

considerable talents, and very great knowledge of several

branches of natural history.’ (Voyages and Travels, p. 316.)

In April, 1801, he wrote a “‘ Report on the Pearl Fisheries in

the time of the Dutch and of the British.” He arrived at the

end of 1798, or beginning of 1799, but left within four or five

years, having held, besides his first appointment, those of

G 6(2)13

42 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

‘* Chief of the Cmnamon Plantations,’ Surveyor-General, and

“Commissioner Extraordinary of Government in the Province

of Seven Korales.”

Of General Macdowall it may be said that he was more

successful as a botanist or gardener than a soldier. Cordiner

states that, ““ by the friendly care and persevering attention

of Dr. Roxburgh, Superintendent of the Company’s botanical

garden at Calcutta, General Macdowall was enabled to make a

valuable collection of exotics, which he left in his garden at

Colombo in February, 1804,” when he left Ceylon. ‘ During

his residence at Colombo, he was in the habit of receiving

boxes of trees and shrubs by almost every ship : and one acre

and a half of ground was completely filled with them, ranged

at proper distances.”’ Cordiner mentions among these the

following plants, “‘ not one ” of which “ had ever been brought

into the Island previous to the General’s arrival ”’:—

Peaches, grafted and trained on espaliers, which in May,

1805, “ promised an abundant crop.”

Apples, which “ thrive remarkably well on espaliers,”’ but

had not yet borne fruit.

Loquats, lechées; and wampees, all “‘ China trees.”

Melicocca or genip of the West Indies, which “ thrives

remarkably well.”

Mangosteen or garcinia, nutmeg, clove, pimento, sapota,

or achras, star apple or chrysophyllum, all “ growing in high

health and vigour.”

Asparagus, which “ succeeded remarkably well.”

The General anticipated the aims of the Agricultural Society,

for he likewise “‘ took pains to set’”’ the natives “‘ an example

of gardening,’ and on his departure left directions with his

nephew, John Macdowall of the Civil Service, with regard to

the numerous exotic plants in his garden, “ to give a few of

each sort to every person who promised to nourish them.”

Tt had been ‘‘ his wish and design to have introduced a large _

quantity of the spice plants, such as nutmegs and cloves, but

the scheme did not obtain the approbation of Government.”

Yes, General Macdowall, introducer of the mangosteen,

deserves to be included among the pioneers of natural history

of the Island.

NOTES. 43

His house, it may be mentioned, was at Grand Pass— “ a

country seat built by the late Dutch Governor van Anglebeek.”’

Are any of the trees planted by him or any of their descendants

still to be found on its site ? (Cordiner, Vol. I., pp. 386, 46.)

Quisisana, Walton by Clevedon, ; J. P. LEWIS.

February 5, 1913.

2. Fight between Snake and Mungoose.—At dinner in the

evening I was witness of an exciting fight between a small but

venomous snake which fell from the roof, and Mr. Denham’s

tame mungoose which fortunately happened to be in the

house. The fight lasted half an hour, the mungoose circling

round the snake, which, sitting up in a sort of figure of eight

coil, made repeated darts at the mungoose, but only succeeded

in striking the coconut matting each time, lashing its tail

from side to side. The mungoose kept moving its head

quickly from side to side; a sort of feint apparently to avoid

the snake’s blows, and as it circled round the snake, the latter

moved its head round so as never to take its eye off the

mungoose, or let the mungoose get at itfrom behind. Atthe

end of 10 minutes or so, the mungoose got in under the snake’s

guard and caught it by the back ofthe neck, but it did not, as

it easily might have done, kill it. Apparently from sheer love

of the fight it wanted to have some more rounds, for it dropped

the snake which immediately tried to get away. 'The mungoose

followed it, but was very careful not to catch it by the tail.

All through during the actual fight it treated the snake with

great respect, from which circumstance, and from the “ spade”

shape of the snake’s head, I concluded that it was a poisonous

one. :

The second and third rounds were simply a repetition of the

first, and ended in the same sort of by-play in the intervals.

The snake seemed exhausted and could only just come up to

time, the mungoose was always quite fresh. Finally, the

mungoose seized the snake for the third or fourth time by the

back of the neck, and, deciding to end the matter, gave it two

or three vigorous shakes, as a terrier shakes a rat. This

44 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

treatment soon killed it. This small quadruped then pro-

ceeded to eat the snake as if it was a carrot, crunching it up

bit by bit and ending with the tail which, sticking straight

out of the mungoose’s mouth, slowly and gradually disappeared.

Not a particle of the snake was left, and the mungoose meta-

phorically, if not actually, smacked its lips.

I noticed that when the snake was not coiled, the mungoose

thrust its nose right up to the snake’s mouth as if it werea

member of the Ceylon Natural History Society and was very

much interested in studying the conformation of its fangs.

But as soon as the snake was coiled it took care to keep out

of reach.

[From my description of the snake, Mr. Wiliam Ferguson,

of the Irrigation Department, told me two or three days later

at Vavuniya that it was probably a pit viper, “ Echis carwnata,”

which is very poisonous, if not deadly. |

Marichchukaddi,

November 27, 1904. J. P. LEWIS.

3. A Lunar Rainbow ai Sea, &c.—This evening there was

a very beautiful lunar rainbow. Its span was about 60° and

the greatest height of the arch about 12° above the horizon.

The moon at the time was shining clearly in a patch of cloud-

less sky surrounded by rain clouds. It bore E. by N. and the

rainbow W. by 8. The western sky was full of rain showers

and there was a slight rain falling at the time. Three colours

were plainly visible in the bow: (1) on top a red-yellow, red

being most prominent, (2) middle, orange-yellow, (3) bottom,

a pale blue. The whole space below the bow and enclosed by

it appeared to be slightly illuminated and the sky above was

black. The bow remained plainly visible from 6.20 to 6.35,

when it disappeared amid flashes of lightning. It was the

best lunar rainbow I have seen.

From the reports of the lightkeepers at both the Great and

Little Basses it appears that, generally speaking, the rain

which has been falling in Ceylon so abundantly during the

last weeks has seldom reached the lighthouses. They see it

NOTES. 45

constantly falling over the mainland but only get slight

drizzles. That was the case this evening. It rained heavily

over the land.

GREGORY STAPLETON.

ss. “ Ceylon,” off Little Basses Lighthouse,

November 24, 1912.

4. A“ Thunderbolt ” near Colombo.—On April 3, 1912,

I went to Jaffna from Colombo by the ss. “ Lady McCallum.”

Soon after leaving Colombo we ran into a severe thunder-

storm at about 5 p.m. During the course of the storm a severe

crash was heard and at the same moment I saw, less than half

a mile away, a vivid red flash pass downwards into the water

followed by a hissing sound and a splash. Immediately

afterwards a column of steam arose to a height of about

20 feet. I attribute this phenomenon to the presence of

a meteorite. Whether the crash I heard was due to thunder

or to the approach of the “ thunderbolt ” I am not able to say.

The red flash, which was in marked contrast to the bluish-

white lightning flashes, was evidently caused by the descent of

an incandescent body. This would account for the hissing

noise as the body plunged into the water and for the column

of steam which was seen immediately afterwards.

Colombo Museum, JOSEPH PEARSON.

February 25, 1913.

5. Note on the Occurrence of Melanitis ismene (Cramer) at

Sea.—On October 24 last, a-specimen of this butterfly was

captured on board the ss. ‘‘ Oxfordshire,” of the Bibby Line,

while crossing the Arabian sea, on her maiden voyage to

Colombo, the ship at the time being over 600 miles from

Minikoi. The butterfly, which was still active at the time of

capture, belonged to the so-called wet-season form of Melan-

itis ismene. As gentle head winds had been encountered for

some time before, it seems probable that the specimen had been

46 SPOLIA ZEYLANIGA.

carried from the Indian or Ceylon coast, but as Melanitis

ismene also occurs in Africa, the possibility that it came on

board when the ship was passing Cape Guardafui, or the

Island of Socotra, must also be considered. It seems tolerably

certain, however, that if the butterfly hailed from Africa it

would have been seen several days earlier, and the facts,

therefore, seem to justify the assumption that it had an

Asiatic origin.

December 18, 1912. J. R. HENDERSON.

6. A Note on the Occurrence of “* Parus atriceps ” (the Grey

back Titmouse in Colombo).—In Mr. W. A. Cave’s Paper on

the “ Birds of Colombo,” he included, I understand upon my

statements, the above bird, Parus atriceps in his list, and the

inclusion led to a certain amount of criticism. So that I

consider it expedient to put on record the fact that this bird,

though rare in Colombo, certainly does occur there. As I

write now, in my office near the Medical College, I can hear a

pair of them making a great fuss outside the window, not

thirty yards from my chair.

The bird is perfectly familiar to me from my observation

of it at intervals for the last four years in Nuwara Eliya. I

have observed it there at all seasons of the year and have

found its nest. So far as Colombo is concerned, I first noticed

the bird in June, 1911, in the Government Training College

compound. At that time I saw the bird for several minutes

and watched it on the grass through by field glasses. I never

saw it again in the same place, and in fact I never saw the bird

again in Colombo until this year, although I fancied that I

heard its call note several times.

On January 18, 1913, at this place, the Government

Analyst’s Laboratory, near the Medical College, I heard a

call note, very familiar in Nuwara Eliya, but strange for

Colombo. On looking out of the window I saw a specimen of

Parus atriceps searching for grubs on a papaw tree within

three yards of the place where I was standing. I went out and

watched the bird for a few minutes, after which it flew away

NOTES. 47

across the Medical College. I did not notice it here again

until February 8. Since that date, I have seen it every day,

and now for a few days I have noticed a pair of them, and

they appear to be about to build a nest. Within ten yards of my

office, a building is in course of construction, and, of course,

bamboo poles are used for scaffolding. This scaffolding has

been up for several months and is not at present in use, as the

main structure is finished. Here Parus atriceps has an excel-

lent opportunity of securing a ready-made nesting hole. I

have seen the pair working at the end of one particular pole,

carrying bits into it, and now I am anxiously awaiting the

end of the story. The sparrows may evict them, or the

scaffolding may be taken down ; but I have already told the

workmen to let me know before they remove it. I hope to be

able to exhibit the nest itself to the Society. So far the recent

records rest upon my own authority, and that may be doubted.

But another observer, in the person of Mr. O. S. Wickwar,

tells me that he has also seen a pair of these birds in Colombo

within the last few months. So I am relieved of the necessity

of bearing the whole responsibility myself.

Colombo, February 23, 1913. C2 SY MONS:

48 SPOLIA ZEYLANIOA.

THE CEYLON NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

Fourth General Meeting.

THE Fourth General Meeting of the Society was held in the

Colombo Museum, on Tuesday, December 17, 1912, at 5.30 P.M.,

when Rev. P. T. Cash presided, in the absence of the President.

Mr. W. E. Wait read a Paper on “ The Eggs and Nesting Habits

of Ceylon Birds.’’*

Mr. Frederick Lewis read a Paper on “The Vegetation of the

Hali-ela Tank.” The subject of the Paper referred to the vege-

tation which sprang up after the bursting of the tank. The tank

had previously been full of water for 40 years, and the Paper

dealt with the types of plants which arose from the bottom of

the tank after this period of inundation.

Dr. Oliver R. Pereira read a short Paper‘on ‘‘The Devil Bird,”

identifying the bird with the Mountain Hawk-Eagle. An

interesting discussion arcse, in which it was maintained that

the Devil Bird was an owl, namely, the Brown Wood-Owl.

Dr. Pearson read two notes by Mr. W. Ormiston on ‘“‘ Blood-

sucker Lizards eating small Birds,” and “‘ The Length of Life of

Butterflies.”

Several interesting exhibits were made of eggs, &c., in connec-

tion with the Papers read.

Frrst ANNIVERSARY MEETING.

The First Anniversary Meeting (Fifth General Meeting) of the

Society was held in the Colombo Museum, on Friday, February

28, at 5.30 P.m., with Mr. F. M. Mackwood, the President, in the

Chair.

The Secretary read the progress report for the year 1912, which

was adopted. ;

The following officers were elected for the ensuing year :—

President.—F. M. Mackwood.

Vice-Presidents.—V. A. Julius, Sir 8. D. Bandaranaike; D.

Andreas Nell.

Council.—R. N. Lyne, T. Petch, W. E. Wait, O. S. Wickwar.

Joint Secretaries and Treasurers.—Dr. Joseph Pearson, and

W. A. Cave.

The President read a Paper on “ The Distribution of Ceylon

Butterflies.” +

Mr. Gilpin Brown read a Paper on “ Some First Principles of

Microscopy,” in which he dealt with certain fundamental aspects

of the science of microscopy.

The President exhibited several interesting series of butterflies

in connection with his Paper.

* Printed in full on p. 21 of the present number of ‘* Spolia Zeylanica.””

+ Printed in full on p. 36 of the present issue of «* Spolia Zeylanica.”’ .

HOLOTHURIOIDEA OF THE INDIAN OCEAN, 49

NOTES ON THE HOLOTHURIOIDEA OF THE

INDIAN OCEAN.

By JoserH PEARSON.

(With ten Plates.)

1.—THE GENUS HOLOTHURIA.

rT HE following notes on the littoral Holothurioidea of the

Indian Ocean have been brought together during the

preparation of amonograph on the subject. Zoogeographically

the Indian Ocean cannot be separated from the tropical

portion of the Pacific, since with few exceptions the species of

littoral Holothurians of this region have a wide distribution

extending from the east coast of Africa to the eastern portion

of the Pacific. The majority of the Holothurians of Ceylon,

for instance, occur throughout the tropical waters of the

Indo-Pacific region, and are found on the east coast of Africa

from Suez to the Cape of Good Hope, the coast of Asia from

the northern end of the Red Sea to the islands of Japan,

the East Indies, the north coast of Australia, the Pacific

Islands, and in some cases the western coast of South America.

On the grounds of not having sufficient material from the

Pacific Ocean, and also in order to confine the work within

reasonable limits, it has been decided to include only those

Holothurians found in the waters which lie between latitudes

30° N. and 30° S. and longitudes 30° E. and 130° E.

The proposed monograph will be based upon collections

examined and described by the present writer during the past

few years. I refer to the collections made by Professor

Herdman, F.R.S., in Ceylon, by Messrs. Simpson and

Rudmose Brown in the Mergui Archipelago, by Mr. Simpson in

Portuguese East Africa, and to the collection of Holothurians

in the Colombo Museum. To these have been added the

Holothurians sent by Professor Stanley Gardiner, F.R.S.,

H 6(5)13

50 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

from the Maldives and the Seychelles, a collection from the

Red Sea sent by Mr. Cyril Crossland, Marine Biologist to

the Sudan Government, and the collections made by the

Federal Investigation ship ‘‘ Endeavour” and the R. I. M.S.

“ Investigator ’’ (other than those already described by MM.

Koehler and Vaney). Through the kindness of the authorities

concerned I have also been able to examine a very large and

varied collection of Holothurians from the following Museums :

the Indian Museum, Calcutta; the Australian Museum,

Sydney ; the South African Museum, Cape Town ; the Durban

Museum, Natal ; the National Museum of Ireland, Dublin ;

the United States National Museum, Washington, D.C.; the

Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard, Cambridge,

Mass.; Zoologisches Institut, Kgl. Bayerische Universitat,

Munich ; Naturhistorisches Museum der Senckenbergischen

Naturforschenden Gesellschaft, Frankfiirt ; Museum d’ Histoire

Naturelle, Geneva. An interesting collection has also been

received from the Science College, Imperial University, Tokyo.

The following species are described in the present Paper :—

Holothuria hamata, n. sp.

Holothuria maculosa, n. sp.

Holothuria marmorata (Jager).

Holothuria argus (Jager).

Holothuria vitiensis, Semper.

Holothuria graffei, Semper.

Holothuria glaberrima, Selenka.

Holothuria lubrica, Selenka.

Holothuria cinerascens (Brandt).

Holothuria atra, Jager.

Holothuria edulis, Lesson.

Holothuria monacaria (Lesson).

Holothuria vagabunda, Selenka.

Holothuria fusco-cinerea, Jager.

Holothuria fusco-rubra, Théel.

Holothuria pardalis, Selenka.

Holothuria maculata (Brandt).

Holothuria rugosa, Ludwig.

Holothuria discrepans, Semper.

Holothuria impatiens (Forskaal).

HOLOTHURIOIDEA OF THE INDIAN OCEAN. 51

Holothuria scabra, Jager.

Holothuria spinifera, Théel.

Holothuria ocellata, Jager.

Holothuria martensii, Semper.

Holothuria albiventer, Semper.

Genus HOLOTHURIA. Linn. 1758.

Bohadschia, Jager 1833.

Trepang, Jager 1833 (partum).

Sporadipus, Brandt 1835.

Cystipus, Haacke 1880.

Usually 20 peltate tentacles, exceptionally more or less.

Ambulacral appendages pedicels alone, papillz alone or with

both (pedicels on the trivium and papille on the bivium).

Ambulacral appendages generally scattered, very rarely dis-

posed inrows. Asa rule the trivium is not clearly separated

from the bivium. The anus is devoid of calcareous teeth.

There is a single bundle of genital tubes on the left side of the

dorsal mesentery. Tentacular ampullze present. The cal-

careous ring without posterior prolongations and without long

retractor muscles, stone canals often numerous ; respiratory -

trees well developed, the left branch being intimately connected

with a rete mirabile. Cuvierian organs often present.

HOLOTHURIA HAMATA, 0. sp.

(Plate V.; Plate VI., fig. 2.)

Two examples from Suez Bay, 5-9 fathoms, dredged by

Mr. Cyril Crossland.

One of the specimens was narcotized in alcoholic sea water

before preservation, and has retained more or less the propor-

tions of the living animal. It is 225 mm. long and 54 mm.

broad. The other specimen was put immediately with strong

spirit and is greatly contracted.

External Characters.—After several years’ immersion in

strong spirit the animals have lost all colour, and are of a

uniform yellowish-brown, slightly darker on the bivium than

on the trivium. I have the advantage of some manuscript

52 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

notes of the species made by Mr. E. Hindle some years ago,

when the spirit had evidently not extracted all the colour.

He wrote as follows :—‘‘ Each dorsal papilla is light brown,

surrounding this is a band of ght gray, and finally there is

an outer band of brown spots, marking off the light gray

band from the brown background of the dorsal surface.

This arrangement of bands of colour varies slightly, but every

papilla on the dorsal surface shades off into a light gray,

which is marked by a few brown spots. The ventral surface

is light gray faintly marked by a few small light brown spots.”

Ambulacral appendages papille only, which are to some

extent non-retractile. Those on the bivium are somewhat

irregularly scattered, but nevertheless show an arrangement

into four rows. Along each side of the body are 20 large

claw-like outgrowths, which give the body a characteristic

appearance. These processes increase in length towards the

middle of the body, where they are 20 mm. in length. On

the ventral surface there are two rows of broad papille, about

30 in each row.

There are 20 dark brown tentacles surrounded by papille.

Internal Anatomy.—There is one Polian vesicle on the

ventral side and one stone canal on the right side of the

dorsal mesentery. As in Holothuria spinifera and the related

species, the stone canal is very large. Of the two respiratory

trees the right is the longer, but the left more bulky. There

are no Cuvierlan organs.

Spicules.—Both the specimens examined by me have been

preserved for some years, and the spicules show signs of disin-

tegration. The spicules are very closely packed and consist of

tables and buttons. The tables have usually a very irregular

and indefinite shape, probably due to their having been partly

dissolved. The most perfect form has a disc 100 y. in diameter,

having a large central hole and about ten peripheral holes, and

the tower is surmounted by numerous blunt spines reminding

one very mttch of the tables of H. aculeata. The most common

type, however, has fewer holes and the edge of the disc is

spinous. The tower has four upright and one transverse

beam. The buttons are knobbed and are extremely irregular

in shape. They have an average length of 40 u.

HOLOTHURIOIDEA OF THE INDIAN OCEAN. 53

Remarks.—This form has affinities with H. spinifera and

the related species. Nevertheless the large claw-like out-

growths on the sides of the body make the identification of

this form easy. But the two specimens under examination

are very different in external appearance, owing to the fact

that one specimen has undergone great contraction.

HOLOTHURIA MACULOSA, 0. sp.

(Plate VI., fig. 3.)

One specimen from Aldabra, near Ile d’Esprit, collected by

Mr. J.C. F. Fryer. 75 mm. long.

External Characters.—The specimen is evidently very much

contracted owing to its preservation in spirit. Hence the body

has a wrinkled appearance, and the ambulacral appendages

are in a contracted condition. The ambulacral appendages

consist of papille only, which are irregularly scattered over

the whole body and show no arrangement with rows. The

colour of the trivium is chocolate-brown with a yellowish-

white circle 2 mm. in diameter around each papilla, thus

producing a distinctly mottled appearance. The white patches.

seem to coalesce towards the posterior end of the body.

The same contrast of colours is presented on the bivium,

except that the brown is of a much darker shade, and is

present along the middle of the back as a series of irregular

patches which appear to be disposed in pairs. About five

pairs of such markings are discernible, the smallest being

about 8 mm. in diameter. In the same way the white does

not confine itself to the papille, but in many places, especially

towards the posterior end, there are large patches of white.

Thus the bivium is not so regular in its markings as the trivium.

There are five groups of papille around theanus. The tentacles

are not present. The integument is very hard to the touch.

Internal Structure——The calcareous ring is fairly large and

the radials are massive. There is one long Polian vesicle and

one small stone canal on the right side of the dorsal mesentery.

The left respiratory tree is shorter, but more voluminous, than

the right. Cuvierian organs are present.

54 SPOLIA ZEYLANIOA.

Spicules.—These consist of tables and buttons. ‘The tables

are somewhat irregular, the disc has a diameter of 66 u., and

the edge of the disc is uneven, and sometimes spiny. The

disc is perforated by a varying number of holes up to twenty-

four. There is no large central hole. The tower is very

short and irregular, and in many instances there appears to

be only an irregular spiny mass on the disc in place of a tower.

Sometimes a short tower can be seen surmounted by a number

of spines. The buttons are knobbed and irregular and have

a length of about 45 y,. The typical number of holes is six,

but there is great variation in this respect, as also in the

irregularities of the surface. The papille are supported -by

tables and buttons similar to those in the general integument,

and in addition there are perforated “cups” 20 y, in length,

and elongated rods 75 uy. in length, with perforations at the

' centre and the extremities. The papille have rudimentary

terminal plates.

Remarks.—This species is evidently allied to Holothuria

aculeata, Semper, both as regards its external appearance to

some extent and also its internal structure. The tables, how-

ever, differ from those described by Semper. Semper describes

his species as being uniformly yellowish-white on the trivium

and darker on the bivium, the latter being irregularly

streaked with dark brown; and this description agrees very

closely with the colour of the specimen under examination.

HOLOTHURIA MARMORATA (Jager).

(Plate VII., fig. 4.)

Bohadschia marmorata, Jager 1833 (14).*

Sporadipus (Colpochirota) ualenensis, Brandt 1835 (8).

Holothuria ualensis, Selenka 1867 (37) ; Semper 1868 (38).

Holothuria brandtii, Selenka 1867 (37).

Holothuria marmorata, Semper 1868 (38) ; Ludwig 1881 (25),

1882 (26), 1888 (30); Lampert 1885 (19); Théel 1886

(42) ; Slinter 1887 (39), 1901 (41); Bell 1887 (5);

Pearson 1903 (33), 1910 (34).

* The numbers in brackets refer to the literature at the end of the

Paper.

HOLOTHURIOIDEA OF THE INDIAN OCEAN. 55

Holothuria utrimquestigmosa, Haacke 1880 (12).

Several specimens, Trincomalee, Ceylon. Average length

150 mm. X 70 mm.

External Characters —A massive species with a fairly thick

body wall. It is almost cylindrical in shape, slightly flattened

dorso-ventrally, and the two extremities are bluntly rounded.

The mouth is ventral and the anus is terminal or slightly

dorsal. The colour of the body is auburn-brown, and here and

there on the bivium and the sides of the body are irregularly

marked deep violet-coloured patches. The ambulacral append-

ages are surrounded by small dark patches. The trivium is

but little lighter in colour than the bivium. The ambulacral

appendages are true pedicels, those on the trivium being

slightly larger than the rest. The pedicels are irregularly

scattered and very numerous. The anus is more or less

pentagonal and is guarded by five groups of papillze. There

are twenty light-coloured tentacles.

Internal Structure.—The calcareous ring is massive, but in

the specimens I have examined I do not find that, as Théel

states, the calcareous ring is larger than that of H. argus.

On the contrary, I find that the latter species has a slightly

larger calcareous ring. I am in agreement with Théel in

finding a single large Polian vesicle and one stone canal.

Lampert has recorded four, five, to seven Polian vesicles, and

Koehler (15) has made a point of this difference of evidence,

but it is well known that the number of Polian vesicles is a

variable character. The right respiratory tree is larger than

the left, and the Cuvierian organs arise from the base of the

left respiratory tree.

Spicules.—These consist of a superficial layer of numerous

small branched “ rosettes ” 15 yin diameter. The species is

characterized by also having small globular spicules 18 v. in

diameter in the deeper layers of the dermis. The pedicles are

supported by ordinary rosettes and small H-shaped spicules

26 ». in length.

Distribution.—Shallow water of the tropical zone of the

Indo-Pacific region. My own observations show that this

species has a peculiarly localized distribution in Ceylon. In

Trincomalee it is exceptionally abundant, and I have brought

56 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA

up as many as fifty specimens after five minutes’ dredging

from a small boat. On the western side of the Island it is

apparently very rare, as [ have not found a single specimen

during a two-months’ trawling and dredging expedition in

the shallow-water region to the north of Colombo. Professor

Herdman obtained only a single specimen during his visit in

1902.

HOLOTHURIA ARGUS (Jager).

(Plate VII., fig. 5.)

Bohadschia argus, Jager 1833 (14) ; Bell 1889 (7).

Holothuria argus, Semper 1868 (38); Ludwig 1882 (26) ;

Lampert 1885 (19), 1889 (20); Théel 1886 (42) ;

Bell 1887 (6) ; Koehler 1895 (15) ; Sluiter 1901 (41).

One specimen from Ternate (Frankftirt Museum), 140 x

65 mm.

One specimen from Amboina (Geneva Museum), 295 x

70 mm.

External Characters—Colour, yellowish-brown below and

slightly darker above. The upper surface is characterized by

the presence of numerous well-defined circles varying in

diameter from 1 to 12 mm. In some cases several of these

areas are joined up together, thus forming an irregular patch.

The centre of each circle is occupied by a pedicel, the base of

which is coloured dark brown ; towards the circumference the

integument gradually changes from yellow to dark brown ;

outside the circumference there is a light yellow area which

gradually merges into the brown colour of the general

integument. In addition to the pedicel in the centre of the

circle, there are other ambulacral appendages irregularly

arranged within the circle as well as on the general surface of

the body.

The ambulacral appendages consist of pedicels. Those on

the trivium have much better developed terminal discs. The

pedicels are irregularly scattered and are extremely numerous,

especially onthe trivium. Some of the ambulacral appendages

on the bivium are devoid of sucking discs and terminal

plates.

HOLOTHURIOIDEA OF THE INDIAN OGEAN. (57

The mouth is ventral and is surrounded by 20 tentacles.

The anus is slightly dorsal. It is five-rayed, and surrounded

by five groups of papille.

Internal Structure.—Internally this species resembles H.

marmorata. The form of the calcareous ring is similar in both

species. ‘There is a single Polian vesicle and one stone canal.

The right respiratory tree, which extends to the anterior end

of the body, is larger than the left. The Cuvierian organs are

not present in the specimen under examination, although they

have been recorded from this species.

Spicules.—The deposits in the superficial integument are

hardly to be distinguished from those of H. marmorata. 'The

deposits in the deeper layers are, however, wanting in H. argus.

The pedicels are supported by two kinds of spicules. First

large rods generally perforated at both ends and 200 v. in

length. There are also smaller irregular rods, often H-shaped,

about 40 y, in length.

General Distribution.—Similar to that of H. marmorata.

The latter species, however, is more abundant than H. argus,

HOLOTHURIA VITIENSIS, Semper.

(Plate VII., fig. 6.)

Holothuria vitiensis—Semper 1868 (38); Lampert 1885

(19) ; Théel 1886 (42) ; Sluiter 1901 (41).

Holothuria tenuissima.cSemper 1868 (88); Ludwig 1882

(26) ; Lampert 1885 (19) ; Théel -1886 (42) ; Sluiter

1887 (39), 1901 (41); Pearson 1903 (33); Koehler &

Vaney 1908 (17).

Holothuria similis —Semper 1868 (38) ; Lampert 1885 (19) ;

Théel 1886 (42).

Holothuria koellikeriSemper 1868 (38); Lampert 1885

(19) ; Théel 1886 (42) ; Ludwig 1887 (28).

Holothuria clemens.—Ludwig 1875 (23) ; Lampert 1885 (19) ;

Théel 1886 (42),

I 6/5) 13

58 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

There appears to be no doubt that the five forms described

under the five different specific names given above should

really be included under the same name. This has previously

been suggested by Théel (42), Koehler & Vaney (17), and

the present writer (33), although Koehler & Vaney united

only the four species vitiensis, tenuissima, koellikeri, and

clemens under the name H. tenuissima. Since, however,

H, vitiensis was first described, that name takes precedence of

tenuissima. I have added the fifth species, similis, which

does not appear to differ from the other four, except according

to Semper (38) in the possession of true papille all over the

body. This form has not been re-discovered since Semper

first described it. Seeing that so many mistakes have been

made in differentiating true pedicels and papillze, and since

the appendages of marmorata, argus, and vitensis show every

gradation between true pedicels and undoubted papille,

one is justified in regarding similis as being identical with

Hf. vitensis.

There are three specimens in the present collections. One

specimen was obtained by me recently on the Ceylon Pearl

Banks, and I am therefore able to supply a description of the

living animal.

External Characters—The ambulacral appendages are

pedicels, scattered amongst which are what appear to be true

papille. In the living animal the colour of the bivium is

light brown with numerous minute dark brown spots, which,

when closely examined, prove to be brown rings around the

bases of the pedicels. In addition there are about a dozen

larger spots of a darker hue very irregularly disposed along

each side of the bivium. These spots are, however, quite

different from the circles of H. argus. The trivium is white,

and the pedicels show up faintly owing to their being of a

slightly darker colour. Along each side of the body some of

the pedicels of the bivium are surrounded by yellow rings.

The contrast between the bivium and trivium is well marked,

not only on account of the differences of colour, but also

owing to the presence of a slight longitudinal ridge along each

side of the body. After the specimen was placed in spirit

Pectin: we

HOLOTHURIOIDEA OF THE INDIAN OCEAN, 59

this ridge was not clearly seen, but the colour differences

between the two surfaces were accentuated, the bivium turning

a chocolate-brown and the trivium a light yellow. Other

spirit specimens examined by me, however, are light yellow

all over the body, the pedicels being marked out by a light

brown ring around the base of each. The bivium is well

arched, and the trivium is flattened. The body-wall is

extremely thin, and owing to the absence of pigment on the

trivium the internal organs can be faintly seen. The anterior

end of the body is rounded, but the posterior portion tapers

considerably. The mouth is ventral and is surrounded by

twenty light yellow tentacles, and the buccal ridge bears

numerous small papille. The anus is thrown on to the dorsal

surface and appears round in the preserved specimen. In the

living animal the pulsating anus is alternately pentagonal and

rounded. There are five groups of papille guarding the anus.

The pedicels are irregularly scattered, and the sucking discs

are apparently not well developed, since the living animal does

not appear to use them much.

Internal Structure.—The calcareous ring is similar to those

of the two previous species. A single Polian vesicle and one

stone canal are present. The right respiratory tree is larger -

than the left, and Cuvierian organs are present.

Spicules.—The spicules in the general integument agree with

those of the two previous species. As in H. argus, there are

no deposits in the deeper layers of the dermis. The pedicels

are strengthened by irregular rods and H-shaped spicules similar

in size and shape to those of H. argus, but the larger rods

described in the latter species are not present in H. vitiensis.

General Distribution.—This species has a similar distribution

to that of H. marmorata.

Remarks.—Undoubtedly the three species H. marmorata,

H. argus, and H. vitiensis are closely allied, and it is only with

some difficulty that I am able to discover any differences of

sufficient value to justify the separation of the three forms.

The colour differences are fairly clear if their constancy can be

proved. I can vouch for the constancy of the colour of

60 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

H. marmorata found at Trincomalee, as I have examined

hundreds of living specimens. The presence of a local race

would, however, account for the constancy of this colour in the

comparatively small area of Trincomalee Harbour. I cannot

vouch for the constancy of the colour of the other two species,

but I have not discovered any form having markings inter-

mediate between the characteristic “‘ circles ’’ of H. argus and

the irregular markings of H. vitiensis, nor has any other

observer. An examination of the internal organs does not

help much. It is true that I have found slight differences

between the apparently similar calcareous rings of the three

species, but I am quite prepared to find these differences break

down upon an examination of a larger series. At first sight

the spicules of the three forms are indistinguishable, but

H. marmorata possesses calcareous grains in the deeper

integument which are absent from the other two. This, then,

clearly separates H. marmorata from H. argus and H. vitiensis.

Sluiter (39) finds very little difference between the two latter

species, except the thicker skin of H. argus. But apart from

colour differences the pedicels show a difference in regard to

the supporting spicules, H. argus having large supporting rods

which are not present in H. vitiensis.

I give below a short key to distinguish the three species :—

A.—Small spherical spicules in the hypodermis.

Ae ce Manabe i Reacting a a ae ... H. marmorata.

B.—Spicules absent from the hypodermis—

(a) Dorsal surface conspicuously marked with |

circular patches. Spicules of pedicels, long

bars with perforated ends 200 vu. long, and

smaller irregular often H-shaped spicules

40 v. long.

(b) Dorsal surface not possessing numerous circles.

Spicules of pedicels consisting of rods 75 y, long

and irregular H-shaped spicules 40 y. long.

926 ip PE YS ne Fee oes HA. vitiensis

HOLOTHURIOIDEA OF THE INDIAN OCEAN. ol

HOLOTHURIA GRAFFEI, Semper.

(Plate: VIITI., fig. 7.)

Holothuria graffei, Semper 1868 (38) ; Ludwig 1882 (26) ;

Lampert 1885 (19) ; Théel 1886 (42) ; Koehler 1896

(16) ; Sluiter 1901 (41).

Two specimens from Amboina (Geneva Museum), 180mm. x

40 mm., 200 mm. X 45 mm. One specimen from Maldives

(Gardiner), 140 mm. X 50 min.

External Characters—TVhe ground colour is brown with

numerous small dark spots scattered over the body. There

are also some irregular dark brown patches on the bivium,

chiefly around the papillze. The ambulacral appendages

consist of papillz on the bivium and larger pedicels on the

trivium. The pedicels are very large and are arranged in

three well-defined rows, the middle row being broader than

the two lateral ones and being about five or six pedicels thick

in the middle of the body, but narrowing towards each end.

The lateral rows are three pedicels thick at the middle of body

and two towards each end. Near the anus the pedicels seem

to give place to small papillae which terminate near the edge

of the anus. Anteriorly the pedicels stop at a distance of 20

mm. from the mouth. Near the anus the papillee of the back

appear to form two distinct rows, but very soon each row

subdivides into three, so that along the greater part of the

bivium there are about six irregular rows of papille. The

mouth is surrounded by a rim of papillae. There are 25

tentacles.

Internal Structure.—The calcareous ring is very large and is

similar to that of H. argus and the related species. In the

specimen dissected by me there were two Polian vesicles and

a dozen stone canals, six on each side of the dorsal mesentery.

The species appear to show considerable variation in regard

to the number of stone canals and Polian vesicles. Cuvierian

organs are present.

Spicules—These consist of two kinds of bodies. First,

there are numerous irregular fenestrated plates, and there are

also irregular bodies which have been compared by previous

62 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

writers to imperfectly developed tables. They generally

consist of two or three stout rods, sometimes trident-shaped,

at other times like the tower of a typical Holothurian table.

The speculations of previous writers as to the homology of

these bodies with vestigial tables have little substantial support.

Remarks.—Iin the peculiar formation of the calcareous ring

as well as in the general nature of the deposits this species

shows relationship with H. argus and the allied species, from

which, however, it differs in the abnormal number of its

tentacles and in the arrangement of the ventral pedicels

General Distribution.—Indo-Pacific region.

HOLOTHURIA GLABERRIMA, Selenka.

(Plate VIIL., fig. 8.)

Holothuria glaberrima, Selenka 1867 (37) ; Semper 1868 (38) ;

Lampert 1885 (19), 1896 (21); Théel 1886 (42);

Ludwig 1887 (28);. Clark 1901 (9); Koehler &

Vaney 1908 (17).

Holothuria erinaceus, Semper 1868 (38) ; Lampert 1885 (19) ;

Théel 1886 (42).

Holothuria erinaceus, var. pygmea, Semper 1868 (38) ;

Lampert 1885 (19).

One specimen from Ternate (Frankfurt Museum).

Lampert (21) and Koehler & Vaney (17) have discussed the

relationship of these forms and have thrown doubt upon

Lampert’s earlier opinion, with which Ludwig (31) agreed,

that Holothuria lubrica, Holothuria glaberrima, Holothuria

errnaceus, Holothuria erinaceus var. pygmxa, and Holothuria

parva are identical. Although all these forms are undoubtedly

related, I propose following Lampert and Koehler & Vaney in

retaining Holothuria lubrica and Holothuria parva as distinct

species, while including the remaining three under the name

glaberrima.

External Characters—The colour of the bivium is dark

brown and the trivium is a lighter colour. There are twenty

dark brown tentacles. On the bivium there are thinly-

scattered papille of a small size and on the trivium there are

HOLOTHURIOIDEA OF THE INDIAN OCEAN. 63

more numerous pedicels which are irregularly disposed. The

anus is surrounded by a ring of papille.

Internal Structure—Selenka speaks of the calcareous ring

as being large, but in the specimen I have examined it is very

small in comparison with most Holothurians. The allied

form Holothuria lubrica has a large calcareous ring. There is

a single Polian vesicle 4 mm. long and a large stone canal

arising from the right side of the dorsal mesentery. This

stone canal is over three times as long as the Polian vesicle.

Cuvierian organs are present.

Spicules.—These consist of flattened plates, which in their

complete state have a solid longitudinal axis bordered by

numerous small holes. The holes along the course of the

longitudinal axis frequently break down and produce perhaps

the commonest type of spicules, which is a long rod having

swollen ends which are perforated. All stages between these

two extremes are seen. The spicules vary from 56 y, to 84 y,

in length, with a mean length of 66 wu.

General Distribution.—This form has a world-wide distribu-

tion in tropical and sub-tropical waters, and is found in the

Pacific, Indian, and Atlantic Oceans.

HOLOTHURIA LUBRICA, Selenkar

(Plate VIIL., fig. 9.)

Holothuria lubrica, Selenka 1867 (37) ; Semper 1868 (38) ;

Ludwig 1882 (26), 1887 (28), 1898 (31), 1899 (32) ;

Lampert 1885 (19), 1896 (21); Théel 1886 (42) ;-

Sluiter 1901 (41) ; Koehler & Vaney 1908 (17).

I have one specimen, collected by Professor C. Ishikawa on

Japanese waters. This is labelled Holothuria lubrica var.

moebii, but it differs in no way from Holothuria lubrica and

does not possess the essential characters of Holothuria moebii.

External Characters.—The spirit specimen measures 50 mm.

in length and 20 mm. in breadth, but it is much contracted

and wrinkled. It is with difficulty that the ambulacral

appendages, consisting of pedicels below and papille above,

64 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

ean be made out. The specimen is dark brown on the bivium

and a lighter shade on the trivium.

Internal Structure—Koehler & Vaney state that the

calcareous ring is similar to that of Holothuria glaberrima.

So far as the shape is concerned this is true, but the calcareous

ring of Holothuria lubrica is much larger and more massive

than that of the other species. There is a single Polian

vesicle 12 mm. long and numerous stone canals, about eight

on each side of the dorsal mesentery, having a mean length of

about 5 mm. ‘The specimen under examination has ejected

its viscera, so that I cannot say whether Cuvierian organs are

present or not. Ludwig is the only writer who records the

presence of Cuvierian organs. :

Spicules— These consist of spinous rods varying in length

from 112 y. to 148 yu, and having a mean length of 127 y.

The rods are often curved, and have fine spines along their

length. The extremities are spinous and often perforated.

reneral Distribution.—Indo-Pacific region.

My examination of Holothuria glaberrima and the above

species shows differences of three kinds :—(1) The large size of

the calcareous ring of lwbrica and the small size of that of

glaberrima ; (2) the presence of numerous small stone canals

on both sides of the dorsal mesentery in H. lubrica and the

presence of only one extremely large stone canal in H.

-glaberrima ; (3) the nature of the spicules as described above.

Whether the first of these differences is constant, I cannot

say. Selenka, however, states that the calcareous ring of

H. glaberrima is large, whereas I find it very small. Koehler

-& Vaney also speak of the calcareous rings of the two species

as being identical. In my specimens they are similar in

shape but not in size.

The difference in the number and size of the stone canals

may not appear to be a very important one, since it is well

known that these organs are very variable ; but it is doubtful

whether the variability is so great as shown by the specimens

I have examined. Most of the records of the two species

lend support to my emphasis of this difference. Nevertheless

Ludwig (31) describes a specimen which had spicules like

HOLOTHURIOIDEA OF THE INDIAN OCEAN. 65

H. glaberrima in which there were four stone canals, and

another specimen which had spicules like H. lubrica but had

only one long stone canal. These results are quite contrary

to my observations.

Similarly there appears to be much variation in the size of

the spicules of H. glaberrima and H. lubrica, and also according

to Ludwig in regard to the shape of the deposits. In the >

specimens examined by me the spicules do not show inter-

mediate stages linking up the two species. With regard to

the size of the spicules my specimens of H. glaberrima show a

length variation from 56 vu to 84 ¥, with a mean length of

66 uv. The spicules of H. lubrica vary from 112 v. to 148 p,

with a mean length of 127 ».; that is to say, the spicules of

the latter species are nearly twice as long as those of the

former.

In Selenka’s original description (37) he gave the length of

the spicules of H. glaberrima as 50 y.and of H. lubrica as 60 wv.

Lampert (21) gave the size of the spicules of the former species

as 105 v. and of the latter as 70 4, exactly the reverse of what

I find. Hence the size of the spicules in the two species varies

to a very large degree.

It is seen, then, that all three points of difference between

the two species are dependent upon characters which have

been shown to be inconstant, and it is possible that Ludwig’s

opinion that the two forms really belong to the same species

may be eventually borne out when a sufficiently long series of

specimens has been brought together for examination. In the

meantime I follow Lampert and Koehler & Vaney in separating

the two species.

HOLOTHURIA CINERASCENS (Brandt).

(Plate IX., fig. 10.)

Stichopus (Gymnochirota) cinerascens, Brandt 1835 (8).

Holothuria pulchella, Selenka 1867 (37) ; Semper 1868 (38) ;

)

}

Haacke 1860 (12); Ludwig 1881 (25), 1883 (27):

Théel 1886 (42) ; Sluiter 1887 (39) ; Bell 1887 (6).

)

K 6(5)13

66 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Holothuria cinerascens, Lampert 1885 (19); Ludwig 1887

(28), 1897 (32) ; Sluiter 1901 (41) ; Bedford 1902 (3).

Holothuria willeyi, Bedford 1902 (3). .

Several specimens from the Maldives (Gardiner), Seychelles

(Dublin Museum), and Ceylon (various localities).

Katernal Appearance.—Reddish-brown colour, lighter below

and with some irregular dark patches above. The trivium is

clearly separated from the bivium by reason of the disposition

of the ambulacral appendages. Those on the trivium are

pedicels which are closely arranged. There is sometimes a

very narrow bare area in the mid-ventral line which separates

the pedicles into two groups. The papillz on the bivium are

few in number and smaller in size than the pedicels, and are

irregularly scattered. ‘There are twenty large yellow tentacles.

Internal Structure.---The calcareous ring is large, the radial

pieces being very well formed. In the specimens I have

dissected there are two large Polian vesicles, one on the

central radius of the trivium and one on the left radius of the

bivium. ‘There is a single stone canal on the right side of the

dorsal mesentery. In this species both the Polian vesicles

and stone canals vary in number to a considerable degree.

The right respiratory tree extends to the anterior end of the

body, but is very delicate. The left respiratory tree is much

shorter, but more massive. Cuvierian organs are not present

in the specimen examined by me, but they have been recorded

in this species.

Spicules.—The deposits consist of small tables and spiny

rods. The tables are intermediate between those of H. atra

and H. edulis, but smaller. Sometimes the disc consists of a

simple ring as in H. edulis, but in the more perfect condition

it is more like that of H. atra. The diameter of the disc is

36 uv. The height of the table is about 40 vu, and it has a

spiny top similar to that seen in H. atra. The spiny rods are

similar to those of H. lubrica. They are slightly curved and

are covered with very minute spines, which are larger at the

two extremities. The rods are about 100 u in length and

16 v. in width.

General Distribution.—Indo-Pacific region.

HOLOTHURIOIDEA OF THE INDIAN OCEAN. 67

Remarks.—It would appear that this form is related to

Holothuria atra and Holothuria edulis on the one hand and to

Holothuria lubrica on the other. I cannot see any important

differences between the above species and Holothuria willeyi,

Bedford. In some specimens from Ceylon which I have

examined the spicules vary from the type as Bedford’s

specimens did, but this variation appears to accompany the

breaking up of the spicules. I consider Bedford’s species

properly belongs to H. cinerascens.

HOLOTHURIA ATRA, Jager.

(Plate IX., fig. 11.)

Holothuria atra.—Jager 1833 (14); Selenka 1867 (37) ;

Semper 1868 (38) ; Ludwig 1881 (25), 1882 (26), 1887

(28) (29), 1899 (32) ; Lampert 1885 (19), 1896 (21) ;

Théel 1886 (42) ; Bell 1887 (6), 1889 (7) ; Thurston

1890 (43) ; Koehler 1895 (15) ; Whitelegge 1897 (45),

1903 (46) ; Bedford 1898 (2), 1899 (3); Clark 1901

(9), 1902 (10) ; Voeltzkow 1902 (44), Pearson 1903

(33), 1910 (34) ; Fisher 1907 (11) ; Koehler & Vaney

1908 (17).

Holothuria amboinensis.—J ager 1833 (14) ; Semper 1868 (38) ;

Lampert 1885 (19).

Holothuria (Microthele) affinis —Brandt 1835 (8).

Holothuria floridana, Pourtalés 1851 ; Selenka 1867 (37) ;

Ludwig 1881 (25).

Holothuria atra var. amboinensis.—Théel 1886 (42) ; Bedford

1898 (2), 1899 (3).

Numerous specimens from every collection which I have

examined. This is a very common species in the shallow

waters of the Indo-Pacific.

In living specimens I have examined from the Ceylon Pearl

Banks the colour was black or very dark brown or reddish-

brown. The pedicels have white sucking discs, and the

papille have white tips. The columns of the pedicels and

papille are always black. Twenty dark brown or dark green

tentacles.

68 SSPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

There are small scattered papille on the bivium and more

numerous and larger pedicels on"the trivium, so that the two

surfaces are clearly distinguished. In the ‘living condition

the back often appears almost smooth owing to the insigni-

ficant size of the papille. This species may attain a length of

350 mm., but it generally contracts to half its length when

preserved.

Internal Structure—The calcareous ring is of the usual

aspidochirote type and is not very large. This form is

interesting, because the number of Polian vesicles and stone

canals varies in different individuals, the number generally

being much higher than in most Holothurians. I have

counted from one to five Polian vesicles and up to twenty-seven

stone canals. The circum-cesophageal ring is some distance

behind the calcareous ring. The right respiratory tree

extends up to the calcareous ring, but is very delicate ; the

left respiratory tree is shorter, but much more bulky. I have

examined a great number of living specimens but have never

seen any Cuvierian organs. The collected evidence goes to

show that these organs are absent in the above species. In

one specimen a small crab was found in the cesophagus at the

level of the calcareous ring. Whether it had been taken in

with the sand which passes through the alimentary canal, or

whether it was living commensally, J cannot say.

Spicules.—The deposits of this well-known form consist of

tables and somewhat irregular perforated plates. The tables

are almost square in plan view and are 50 vy. in diameter and

60 v. high, and generally consist of four large central holes

with a small hole at each of the four corners. Occasionally,

however, there may be an almost complete ring of small holes,

and the edge of the disc may be spinous. The tower consists

of four uprights joined by a transverse beam, and having four

sets of well-developed spines on the summit. The perforated

plates vary in shape and are not more than 25 y, in diameter.

Remarks.—The two forms of H. atra which Théel and

Bedford regarded as distinct differ in respect of the spicules

and colour. The one form, H. atra var. amboinensis, is black

and has spines on the edges of the tables. The other, H. atra,

is black but may have the papille and tube feet with whitish

HOLOTHURIOIDEA OF THE INDIAN OCEAN. 69

ends, and the edges of tables are not usually spinous. Théel,

however, has pointed out that H. atra sometimes has a spiny

dise, and Bedford has shown that amboinensis may have no

spines on the disc. The colour differences are apparently not

constant, so that the distinctions between the two forms do

not appear to be well defined.

Hf. pulla, Selenka, resembles H. atra in general appearance

and in deposits, calcareous ring, and in the large number of the

stone canals. But it has Cuvierian organs according to

Théel, and it is this character alone which separates it from

H. atra.

Distribution.—A_ shallow-water species, generally found

within the 10-fathoms line and often between tide-marks.

Principally Indo-Pacific, where it appears to be universally

distributed between latitude 25° N. and 25° S. Also found in

few places in West Indian area of Atlantic.

HoLoTHuRIA EDULIS, Lesson.

(Plate IX., fig. 12.)

Holothuria edulis, Lesson 1830 (22); Semper 1868 (38) ;

Ludwig 1882 (26), 1887 (29), 1888 (30), 1899 (32); —

Lampert 1885 (19); Théel 1886 (42) ; Sluiter 1901

(41) ; Koehler 1896 (15) ; Bedford 1899 (2) ; Konings-

berger 1904 (18).

Trepang edulis, Jiiger 1833 (14).

Holothuria fusco-cinerea, Selenka 1867 (37), (non Jager).

Holothuria signata, Ludwig 1875 (23) ; Lampert 1885 (19), —

1895 (21) ; Théel 1886 (42).

? Holothuria albida, Bell 1887. (5).

Numerous specimens from the various collections under

examination. This is a very common Indo-Pacific littoral

form, which is used as beche-de-mer.

External Characters —I1 have been able to examine large

numbers of living specimens from Ceylon, and they always

have a very characteristic appearance. The ground colour of

the skin is a bright rose-pink, which may be disguised by

70 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

varying degrees of black pigment. The black is very well

marked on the bivium, where it varies from a grayish colour

to an intense black, which at each side is gradually replaced

by pink. The trivium is nearly always devoid of black.

When preserved in spirit this species loses its pink colour and

generally appears black above and gray below. There are pedi-

cels on the trivium and papille on the bivium. The tube feet

are readily distinguished, as each one is generally surrounded

by a narrow black ring and has a white sucking disc. An

arrangement into three rows is sometimes discernible. The

papillz are small and not very numerous. They are generally

of the same colour as the general integument, so that they

are not easily seen. ‘There are twenty pinkish-white tentacles

surrounded by a rim of small black papille. The anus is

round and the diaphragm is black.

The living animal is long and narrow and may measure up

to 400 mm. in length and 50 mm. in width. Spirit specimens

are much shorter than this.

Internal Structure —Internally this species differs but little

from Holothuria atra. In both species the calcareous ring is

similar, the Polian vesicles and stone canals are numerous and

variable, and there are no Cuvierian organs present. The

number of Polian vesicles varies from one to three, and the

stone canals vary in number from 20 to 40, being disposed on

each’ side of the dorsal mesentery. The circum-cesophageal

ring is about 20 mm. behind the calcareous ring. Both right

and left branches of the respiratory tree are large and of

equal size.

Spicules.—These are similar to those of Holothuria atra,

except that the disc of the tables is represented only by

a ring.

Distribution.—Littoral waters of the Indo-Pacific region.

Remarks.—This species is undoubtedly related to Holothuria

atra, but differs from the latter in the colour of the body and

in the nature of the calcareous tables. I have had the

opportunity of examining large numbers of this species on the

Ceylon Pearl Banks, and have always found the pink colour

to predominate over the black. At Trincomalee and Jafina,

HOLOTHURIOIDEA OF THE INDIAN OCEAN. 71

on the other hand, the pink colour was confined to a narrow

strip on the middle of the trivium. The sides were gray and

the middle of the bivium was black. Nevertheless there was

no difficulty in distinguishing these dark-coloured specimens

from Holothuria atra. On no occasion have I found any

variation in the nature of the tables in the skin. I consider

this species a good one, showing small but constant

variations from H. atra.

HOLOTHURIA MONACARIA (Lesson).

(Plate X., fig. 13.)

Psolus monacaria, Lesson 1830 (22) ; Jager 1833 (14).

Holothuria flammea, Quoy & Gaimard 1833 (36).

Holothuria fusco-punctata, Quoy & Gaimard 1833 (36).

Holothuria fasciola, Quoy & Gaimard 1833 (36).

Stichopus flammeus, Brandt 1835 (8).

Stichopus gyrifer, Selenka 1867 (37).

Labidodemas leucospilus, Haacke 1880 (12).

Holothuria monacaria, Lampert 1885 (19), 1889 (20), 1896

(21) ; Théel 1886 (42) ; Sluiter 1887 (39), 1901 (41) ;.

Ludwig 1887 (29), 1888 (30), 1899 (32) ; Koehler 1895

(15), (16) ; Bedford 1898 (2), 1899 (3) ; Pearson 1903

(33), 1910 (34) ; Fisher 1907 (11).

This species is well represented in the various collections

under examination.

External Characters.—A well-marked form. There are

papillz on the bivium and pedicels on the trivium. The

ground colour on the back is auburn, that on the trivium

brown. The pedicels and papille are canary-yellow, and each

one is surrounded by a light circular patch. Sometimes these

light areas join up longitudinally so as to give a longitudinally

striped appearance. The pedicels are slightly more crowded

than the papille. Generally the pedicels are arranged in

three double rows, but in some living. specimens I have

examined there was no such arrangement. The papille are

arranged in about six more or less regular rows running along

72 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

the bivium. There are twenty light yellow tentacles. Around

the base of the flattened head of each tentacle there is a row

of small black spots. The mouth is surrounded by a ring of

small papille, and there are five small groups of papille

around the anus.

Internal Anatomy.—The internal organs call for no special

mention. The calcareous ring is very small and the inter-

radial pieces in particular are extremely delicate. There are

one or two Polian vesicles and a single stone canal.

Spicules.— These consist of tables and buttons in the general

integument. The tables have a base 65 uw in diameter

perforated by a large central hole and about ten or a dozen

small peripheral holes. The tower is 60 » high and has one

cross beam, and is surrounded by about eight irregular teeth.

The buttons are 65 y, long and are smooth, and have three

pairs of holes. There are irregular rods in the papille and

fenestrated plates in the pedicels.

General Distribution.—A common form in the shallow waters

of the tropical Indo-Pacific region.

So far as one can gather from Bell’s scanty description and

from the figures of the spicules given by him, Holothuria

macleari would appear to be the same as H. monacaria, as

Théel has suggested. Bell does not give the colour of his

species, but his description of the arrangement of the pedicels

and papille and the presence of white rings around them,

together with the appearance of the deposits, would serve

equally well as a description of H. monacaria. Further, he

shows that the buttons are smooth, so that if reproduced

correctly they cannot resemble those of H. scabra (tigris), as

he suggests, since the latter species has knobbed buttons.

This mistake is probably due to the incorrectness of Selenka’s

figure of the buttons of H. scabra.

I have before me a single specimen from the collection of

the late Professor Mitsukuri of Tokyo, labelled H. macleari, but

T have not the slightest hesitation in assigning this specimen

to H. monacaria, both on account of the external appearance

and general characters; and also because of the nature of the

deposits. ;

HOLOTHURIOIDEA OF THE INDIAN OCEAN. te

HOLOTHURIA VAGABUNDA, Selenka.

(Plate X., fig. 14.)

Stichopus (Gymnochirota) leucospilota, Brandt 1835 (8).

Holothuria vagabunda, Selenka 1867 (37) ; Semper 1868 (38) ;

Ludwig 1875 (23), 1882 (26), 1883 (27), 1887 (29),

1888 (30), 1881 (25), 1899 (32) ; Lampert 1885 (19) ;

Théel 1886 (42) ; Bell 1889 (7) ; Koehler 1895 (15),

(16) ; Whitelegge 1896 (45) ; Bedford 1898 (2), 1902

(3) ; Sluiter 1901 (41) ; Pearson 1903 (33), 1910 (34) ;

Koningsberger 1904 (18) ; Fisher 1907 (11) ; Koehler

& Vaney 1908 (17).

Numerous specimens from most of the collections under

examination.

A very common littoral species of the Indo-Pacific littoral

waters.

External Characters —The body is dark brown, the ambu-

lacral appendages black tipped with white, and the tentacles

are greenish-brown or dark brown. Ambulacral appendages

are papillz on the bivium and pedicels on the trivium. Some

of the earlier writers state that true pedicels only are present

on the bivium. The dorsal appendages, although elongated, —

have no sucking discs, and may therefore be regarded as

papille. The long fine papille are numerous and can be

extended to a length of 7mm. They are tipped with white

and show no arrangement with rows. Owing to their length

they give the living specimen a somewhat ragged appearance.

The pedicels of the trivium are still more numerous, but show

no arrangement into rows. They are terminated by white

sucking discs. Twenty tentacles are present, surrounded by a

rim of black papillae. The anus is round. Living specimens

may measure up to 380 mm. in length and 65 mm. in width.

Internal Structure —The calcareous ring is normal. Usually

there is one Polian vesicle and one stone canal present. The

respiratory trees are well developed. Cuvierian organs are

present, and in the living specimen have a purplish colour.

Deposits consist of tables and buttons. The tables have a

disc 50 y in diameter. In young specimens the disc is

L 6(5)13

74 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

perforated by ten or a dozen holes, but in older specimens

there are generally only four peripheral holes. The tower is

35 v. high and consists of four uprights connected by one

cross beam, and is terminated by a ring bearing eight or ten

spines. The buttons are 50 y, in length and have three pairs

of holes. There are also perforated plates in pedicels and

irregular spinous or perforated supporting rods in the papille.

General Distribution.—A common Indo-Pacific form.

Remarks.—Although this species should, strictly speaking, be

named leucospilota, the name vagabunda is in such universal

use, that the demands of priority should be waived. ‘This has

evidently been the view of every writer since Ludwig showed

in 1875 that Stichopus leucospilota, Brandt, is identical with

Holothuria vagabunda, Selenka. At any rate no one has used the

rightful name, and I see no reason to adopt a different course. .

In 1886 Théel suggested that H. vagabunda and H. lagena

were identical, and in 1895 Koehler (16), after an examination

of specimens from different localities, proposed to unite the

two, but in 1908 Koehler & Vaney did not give H. lagena

as a synonym of the species, so that one is led to conclude that

Koehler did not maintain his earlier view. I have had no

opportunity of examining a specimen agreeing with H.

lagena, so that I am unable to throw any light upon the

question.

HOLOTHURIA FUSCO-CINEREA, Jager.

(Plate -X.; fig: 15.)

Holothuria fusco-cinerea, Jager 1833 (14) ; Lampert 1885 (19);

Théel 1886 (42); Ludwig 1882 (26), 1887 (29);

Sluiter 1887 (39).

Holothuria pervicax, Selenka 1867 (37); Ludwig 1897 (32) ;

Sluiter 1901 (41) ; Fisher 1907 (11).

Holothuria depressa, Ludwig 1875 (23) ; Lampert 1895 (21).

Holothuria mammiculata, Haacke 1880 (12).

Holothuria fusco-cinerea var. pervicax, Bedford 1898 (2).

Holothuria dofleinii, Augustin 1908 (1) ; Pearson 1910 (34).

There are about twenty specimens in the collections under

examination,

HOLOTHURIOIDEA OF THE INDIAN OCEAN. 75

Haternal Characters —There is a distinct separation of the

bivium from the trivium, the latter bearing pedicels only,

and the former papillz. The general ground colour of the

spirit specimens is grayish-yellow. The pedicels, which do

not show any arrangement into rows, are brown-coloured with

yellow sucking discs. Each pedicel is surrounded by a white

ring. On the bivium the papille are situated on the summits

of warts of various sizes, the largest being arranged in two

rather irregular rows near the middle of the back. There are

about six in each row, and each of these is surrounded by

a broad bluish-black area, which joins with the dark area

around the corresponding papille of the other row to form a

transverse band. There are about six of these bands. In

some cases the dark area in question is separated from the

papilla by a light ring, as described by Augustin (1). The

smaller papillze are arranged irregularly, although there is a

slight suggestion of an arrangement into rows, especially near

the junction of the bivium and trivium. Most of these small

papillz are dark-coloured and are surrounded by a light ring.

The tentacles were not seen in any of the specimens.

Internal Structure-—The caleareous ring is typical of the

genus. There is a single stone canal on the right side of the

dorsal mesentery, and there is a single Polian vesicle. The

left respiratory tree is larger than the right, and Cuvierian

organs arise from the base of the left respiratory tree. In the

specimens examined the gonads were well developed and

extended to the posterior end of the body.

“Spicules.—The calcareous deposits consist of tables and

buttons. ‘The tables have a disc 40 y. in diameter, generally

consisting of four larger central holes and alternating with

these four smaller peripheral holes. The spire is generally

imperfectly formed and has no definite shape. It may consist

of three or four uprights which do not join at their summit, or

there may be two irregular uprights diverging towards the

summit, where they are connected by an irregular cross beam.

These tables are hardly to be distinguished from those of H.

curiosa. The buttons consist of a central axis, from which are

given off from three to six irregular outgrowths at each side,

and are about 20 » in length. They remind one strongly of

76 SPOLIA ZEYLANIGA.

the buttons of a typical Holothurian, in which the outer walls

bounding the holes of the buttons have been broken down.

Nevertheless the perfect button is very rarely found in this

species. These buttons differ from those of H. curiosa.

General Distribution. — The Indo-Pacific region. Not very

common.

Remarks.—The specimens which I have under examination

differ in no respect from those described by me in 1910 (34),

and which I identified as H. dofleinw, Augustin. On further

examination I believe that this species is identical with

H. fusco-cinerea, Jager,and H. pervicax, Selenka. I consider

that Augustin’s grounds for not including his specimens under

H. fusco-cinerea are insufficient. The two reasons for his

not doing so are the presence of white rings around the

papille in his specimens and the character of the buttons.

With regard to the first of these, I have before me sufficient

material to state that the colour of the rings around the

papillz varies to a considerable degree. As for the spicules I

cannot see any difference of sufficient importance to justify

Augustin’s new species.

There is no doubt that Semper’s Holothuria fusco-cinerea

is identical with H. curiosa, Ludwig, and not with Jiger’s

species, although H. fusco-cinerea, Jager, and H. curiosa,

Ludwig, are undoubtedly closely related. But I do not agree

with Bedford and Théel that H. curiosa should be included

in H. fusco-cinerea, Jager, since the colour markings and the

buttons are different in the two forms. Ludwig (23) describes

his H. depressa as having a grayish-brown colour and three or

four transverse brownish marks ; on the trivium the pedicels

were numerous, and on the bivium the papilla were sparsely

scattered and situated upon wart-like elevations, the tips of

which had a dark colour. The pedicels of the trivium were

each surrounded by a light ring.

Selenka’s (37) short diagnosis and Fisher’s (11) exhaustive

description of Holothuria pervicax agree with the account of

H. fusco-cinerea which I have given above.

I cannot agree with Bedford that H.argusis allied to thisform.

In external appearance, in the nature of the spicules and cal-

careous ring, that species differs greatly from H. fusco-cinerea

HOLOTHURIOIDEA OF THE INDIAN OCEAN. tg

HoLOTHURIA FUSCO-RUBRA, Théel.

(Plate XI., fig. 16.)

Holothuria fusco-rubra, Théel 1886 (42); Sluiter 1901 (41);

Fisher 1907 (11).

A few specimens are found in the collections under exami-

nation.

External Characters.—Body is robust, and is covered with

numerous well-formed pedicels on the trivium and _ less

numerous papillz on the bivium. There are five groups of

papille around the anus. There are twenty tentacles. The

body is purplish-brown in alcohol. This colour is seen in the

sections of the integument which it is customary to prepare

for the microscopical examination of the spicules.

Internal Structure—In the specimen examined by me the

calcareous ring is slightly different from that figured by Théel.

There are two Polian vesicles and a single stone canal. The

left respiratory tree is more bulky than the right, but does

not extend so far forward. Théel and Fisher stated that the

species possesses Cuvierian organs, but they are not present

in the specimen under examination.

Spicules——These consist of tables and buttons. The disc

tables vary in size according to the state of their development.

The largest tables are 55 y.in diameter, and have four central

holes and a ring of smaller peripheral holes. The edge of the

disc is spiny. The tables are reduced or absent. Frequently

the disc is reduced and possesses no peripheral holes, and then

has the appearance of the reduced dise of H. pardalis. The

buttons are irregular. In their most regular form they have

three pairs of holes and are about 65y.long. Frequently some

of the holes are missing, and these asymmetrical forms are

the commonest. The pedicels are supported by long irregular

buttons having several pairs of holes. The papillz are sup-

ported by irregular branched rods.

Distribution.—Indo-Pacific. Not very common.

78 7 SPOLIA ZEYLANIGCA.

HoOLOTHURIA PARDALIS, Selenka.

(Plate XI., fig. 17.)

Holothuria pardalis, Selenka 1867 (37) ; Semper 1868 (38) ;

Ludwig 1880 (24), 1882 (26), 1883 (27), 1887 (28),

(29), 1888 (31), 1899 (32) ; Bell 1884 (4) ; Lampert

1885 (19), 1889 (20), 1895 (21); Théel 1886 (42);

Sluiter 1887 (39), 1901 (41); Herouard 1893 (18) ;

Koehler 1895 (15), (16); Whitelegge 1817 (45) ;

Bedford 1898 (2) ; Voeltzkow 1902 (44) ; Fisher 1905

(11) ; Koehler & Vaney 1908 (17).

Holothurva subdivita, Selenka 1867 (37) ; Semper 1868 (38) ;

Lampert 1885 (19) ; Théel 1886 (42).

Holothuria insignis, Ludwig 1875 (23), 1883 (27) ; Lampert

1885 (19) ; Théel 1886 (42).

Holothuria lineata, Ludwig 1875 (23), 1880 (24), 1882 (26),

1883 (27) ; Bell 1884 (4) ; Lampert 1885 (19) ; Théel

1886 (42) ; Pearson 1910 (84).

Holothuria peregrina, Ludwig 1875 (23); Bell 1884 (4) ;

Lampert 1885 (19) ; Théel 1886 (42).

Holothuria pardalis var. insignis, Sluiter 1890 (40) ; Bedford

1899 (3).

This is a very widely spread species, and well represented in

the various collections I have had the opportunity of examining.

Owing to this species being subject to considerable variation,

both in colour and in the form of the spicules, much confusion

has arisen with regard to its identity, and consequently the

synonymy is somewhat intricate.

External Appearance.—The colour is yellowish-brown above

and lighter below. Along the bivium there are frequently

from five to ten pairs of dark brown patches, which give the

species a characteristic appearance. Occasionally, however,

these patches are wanting. The ambulacral appendages

appear to be all true pedicels, which are not arranged in rows.

Those on the trivium are more abundant than those on the

bivium and are slightly larger. There is a circle of small

papillz around the anus. There are twenty small tentacles.

Jisher (11) says the number is variable.

HOLOTHURIOIDEA OF THE INDIAN OCEAN. 79

Internal Structure.—The calcareous ring is very small and

presents no points of interest. There are one or two long, fine,

Polian vesicles. The stone canal is evidently very small, as I

have been unable to determine its presence in several specimens.

Other observers have noted the presence of one or two stone

canals. The left respiratory tree is more bulky than the

right, but not so long. There are no Cuvierian organs.

Spicules—These consist of tables and buttons. The tables

when fully developed have a disc 60 v. in diameter, consisting

of a central hole apparently divided into four when seen from

below, owing to the presence of the four beams of the tower.

There are also about eight smaller peripheral holes. The

edge of the disc is slightly irregular, as though suggesting the

presence of still another circle of holes in perfect condition,

although in some specimens the edge is quite smooth, as in

H. bowensis. When seen in side view the edge of the disc

turns up slightly. The tower is generally short, and consists

of four uprights connected by asingle cross beam. Occasionally

a fairly tall tower is seen. The top of the tower is square and

bears a few blunt spines. The type of table described above

is, however, rarely seen in the adult. ‘The common form has a

disc with an irregular edge, in which the outer circle of holes

has broken down, leaving either only four holes, one at each ~

corner, or no peripheral holes, or even no holes at all. In such

tables the tower is frequently reduced and may be absent

altogether. The buttons are very irregular. Typically they

are smooth buttons with three orfour pairs of holes. Often,

however, some of the holes are missing, and thus the charac-

teristically asymmetrical appearance is produced. Often the

buttons are slightly twisted when seen in side view.

The buttons are usually arranged in groups or circles, but

in many of the specimens I have examined this arrangement

is not very clear, due probably to the contraction of the integu-

ment. The pedicels are supported by robust curved rods, which

are perforated at eachend. There appear to be two distinct

types of spicules, as Fisher (11) states. In some specimens the

tables are large and well developed, and the buttons frequently

have four holes. In the majority of specimens, however, the

tables are reduced and the buttons are very irregular,

80 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Distribution —A very common form in the Indo-Pacific

tropical and sub-tropical littoral waters.

Remarks.—This species is related to H. fusco-rubra and

H. curiosa.

HOLOTHURIA MACULATA (Brandt).

(Plate XI., fig. 18.)

Sporadipus (Acolpos) maculata, Brandt 1835 (8).

Holothuria arenicola, Semper 1868 (38) ; Théel 1886 (42) ;

Sluiter 1887 (39) ; Fisher 1907 (11).

Holothuria maculata, Ludwig 1881 (25), 1883 (27), 1887

(28), 1888 (30), 1897 (32) ; Lampert.1885 (19), 1895

(21) ; Bedford 1898 (2), 1899 (8) ; Sluiter 1901 (41) ;

Clark 1902 (10) ; Koningsberger 1904 (18) ; Koehler

& Vaney 1908 (17).

There are numerous specimens of this species in the

collections under examination. :

External Characters —The ground colour of the body is

yellowish-white or pinkish-white ; on the trivium there are a

few scattered small brown spots. On the bivium there are

two rows of dark brown patches, varying from six to fifteen

in each row in different specimens. Occasionally these

markings are absent altogether. There are twenty small

tentacles. The ambulacral appendages are similar all over

the body,.and are apparently true pedicels, as they have well-

developed sucking discs. These appendages are irregularly

scattered, and appear to be equally abundant on the trivium

and bivium. The anus is pentagonal and is surrounded by

five groups of papille.

Internal Structure —The calcareous ring is well developed.

There is generally a single small Polian vesicle and small

stone canal present. Jn a specimen examined by Théel there

were two Polian vesicles and a bundle of three stone canals on

the right side of the dorsal mesentery. No Cuvierian organs

are present in any of the specimens examined by me, but

their presence has been recorded by previous writers. The

HOLOTHURIOIDEA OF THE INDIAN OCEAN. 81

respiratory trees are well developed, that on the right side

being longer than the left, but not so large.

Spicules.—In the general integument there are tables and

smooth buttons. The tables have a disc 60 vu in diameter,

which has four large central holes and a varying number of

peripheral holes. The tower is of the ordinary type and is

surrounded by numerous spines, and is 42 u high. The

buttons have three pairs of holes and are 50 v. long. They

are extremely thick. The supporting rods of the pedicels are

curved rods 100 ». in length, and have perforated enlargements

at each end and in the middle.

Distribution.—Tropical waters of the Indo-Pacific region.

Remarks.—Fisher (11) has pointed out that the name

maculata, which is generally given to this species, must give

place to arenicola, since the former name was given to a species

of the same genus by Chamisso & Eysenhardt in 1821. But

this species, which was first named Holothuria maculata in 1821,

and later on Fistularia maculata in 1834, is now known as

Synapta maculata. The species under discussion, on the

other hand, was first described in 1835 under the name

Sporadipus maculatus, a designation which is not invalidated

by any of the synonyms of Synapta maculata. Holothuria

maculata was first given its present name by Ludwig (25) in

1881, when the Synaptid was no longer. placed in the genus

Holothuria.

Nevertheless a species described by Lesseur in 1824 had

already been named H. maculata, a name which strictly should

still stand. Since, however, Lesseur’s description is too

imperfect for purposes of identification, and since, moreover,

the name maculata has been given to the species under

discussion by most authors of recent years, the name has

become established, and I do not propose to use Semper’s

synonym arenicola in place of the now almost universally

accepted name maculata.

Five specimens of this species collected by Mr. Cyril Cross-

land at Suez, differ somewhat from the recognized form. The

two rows of dark patches are absent from the bivium, but at

each extremity there is a well-defined area in which the ground

colour is black and the appendages are light yellow. The

M 6(5)13

82 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

general colour is auburn; and the appendages appear to

be more numerous and larger than in typical specimens.

Internally they show no points of interest. The deposits differ

slightly from typical forms in that the disc of the table is

frequently much reduced and the holes of the buttons are

extremely small.

Holothuria maculata burrows in the sand between tide-marks,

Hontoruurta RuUGOSA, Ludwig.

(Plate XII., fig. 19.)

Holothuria rugosa, Ludwig 1875 (28), 1882 (26) ; Lampert

1885 (19); Théel 1886 (42); Bedford 1898 (2);

Koehler & Vaney 1908 (7).

? Holothuria triremis, Sluiter 1901 (41).

One specimen, obtained by Mr. J. Stanley Gardiner in the

Maldives.

External Characters —Length 85 mm., breadth 20 mm.

The colour in spirit is yellowish-brown. There are papille

on the bivium and true pedicels on the trivium. In the

specimen examined by me all the papillee are closely retracted,

but the pedicels are still half expanded. The pedicels are

arranged in three distinct rows on the trivium. The central

row is clearly double, and the lateral rows are single, although

in some parts, probably owing to contraction, the lateral rows

are zig-zag and thus appear double. A close inspection with

a lens shows that the papille are arranged in six irregular

rows on the bivium, but with the naked eye very few papille

can be seen.

Internal Structure.—The calcareous ring agrees with Ludwig’s

drawings of the species, and it also resembles that of Mesothuria

murray, Théel, a resemblance which is also seen in the case

of the spicules. But Mesothuria murray. differs in many

respects from the above species, and is undoubtedly not

identical with it. The tentacles are absent in the specimen

from the Maldives, as are also the principal internal

organs,

St el

HOLOTHURIOIDEA OF THE INDIAN OCEAN. 83

Spicules.—The deposits consist of tables and buttons. The

tables consist of a disc 90 Y in diameter consisting of a

central hole and a dozen or more peripheral holes. In the

most complete form the tables bear long spines on the edge of

the disc. There is a well-developed tower having a height of

65 u., and consisting generally of four uprights which converge

towards the summit of the tower, and which are joined

together by a cross-piece. These supports bear spines about

half-way up. The top of the tower bears a number of long

spines, some of them 50 y. in length, which radiate outwards

from the centre. Many of the tables show signs of disintegra-

tion. Frequently the spines on the outside of the disc and

on the top of the tower are either absent or very much reduced,

and sometimes the disc is so much reduced that instead of a

circle of holes there is merely a serrated border.

In the Maldives specimen the buttons are extremely scarce,

and are apparently only present in and about the pedicels

and papillze, but in a specimen from the Indian Museum the

buttons are evenly scattered. It is possible that the buttons,

which are extremely delicate, have been dissolved out of the

Maldives specimen through the action of formalin, since most

of the tables are much reduced. The buttons are irregular,

and generally have four or more pairs of holes, but the buttons -

are frequently asymmetrical in regard to the number of

holes.

Remarks.—So far as I can judge from the descriptions it

would appear that H. triremis, Sluiter (46), is identical with

Ludwig’s species, although there are some differences in the

two accounts. The Maldives specimen appears to link up

Ludwig’s and Sluiter’s specimens. Ludwig’s single specimen

was light yellow, and had twenty yellow tentacles. The

body was marked by five radial ridges and by several transverse

wrinkles, probably due to ante-mortem contractions. The

trivium bore numerous pedicels and the bivium less numerous

papillze. Sluiter’s specimens were reddish-brown colour and

had twenty brownish-voilet tentacles. The pedicels were

arranged in three distinct double rows on the trivium, and the

numerous papillz stood on conical warts and were irregularly

arranged. It is with regard to the spicules that the two

84 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

species show great similarity, and they agree in the main

with the description I have given above.

Sluiter’s figure of the tables differs from Ludwig’s, in that

the supports of the spire are parallel. In Ludwig’s they

converge as they approach the summit, and there are some-

times six supports. Ludwig’s specimen had the buttons

aggregated around the pedicels and papillze. In Sluiter’s

they appear to be evenly distributed.

In the specimen which I have before me the external charac-

ters agree more with Sluiter’s species, since the tube feet are

arranged in three distinct rows, but it resembles Ludwig’s

specimen in the form of the calcareous ring and the deposits.

General Distribution.—An uncommon form, confined to the

Indo-Pacific littoral regions.

HOLOTHURIA DISCREPANS, Semper.

(Plate XII., fig. 20.)

Holothuria discrepans, Semper 1868 (38); Lampert 1885 (19) ;

Théel 1886 (42).

One specimen, obtained by Professor J. Stanley Gardiner

in the Maldives. The specimen is very small, being only

20 mm. long. The only other specimens known are two

described by Semper (38) from Samoa.

External Characters —The colour of the small spirit specimen

is yellow below. On the bivium there are a few yellow circles

around the papillz and there are several narrow bluish-black

transverse bands across the bivium. The trivium bears

yellow pedicels which are arranged in three distinct rows, the

two outer rows being double and the central row having four

sets of pedicels. Semper does not describe the arrangement

of the tube-feet. It is possible that in this species, as in many

others, the tube-feet are arranged in rows in the young

specimens only. There are a few papille irregularly scattered

over the bivium. According to Semper there are thirty

tentacles. Owing to the minute size of the specimen under

examination I cannot confirm this,

~—

HOLOTHURIOIDEA OF THE INDIAN OCEAN. 85

Internal Structure.—The calcareous ring is of the usual type.

I am unable to detect the Polian vesicle and stone canal, but

Semper describes the presence of the Polian vesicle and one

stone canal. Cuvierian organs are present.

Spicules—These consist of tables in the general integument,

and according to Semper smooth buttons with three pairs of

holes around the base of the ambulacral appendages. There

are also elongated perforated plates supporting the appendages.

The tables measure 44 vu across the disc. The disc has

typically a large cross-shaped hole in the centre, four parts

of which reach the periphery, and alternating with these are

four smaller holes. The disc is subject to variation in regard

to this. When the tower is complete, which is rare, it is

surmounted by a square top which bears several spines, the

four largest being placed one at each corner. The tower is

low, being only about 25 v. in height, and seems to have a

variable number of supports. The perforated supporting rods

of pedicels are 80 v. or more in length. They are very broad

in the middle and bulge slightly at each end.

Distribution.—Samoa and Maldives. Only three specimens

of this species are known. The first two were described from

Samoa in 1868, and the other specimen was not obtained until ~

thirty years later from the Maldives. Considering the great

distance between these two localities it is surprising that no

specimens have been recorded from intermediate stations

during a period of thirty years.

HoLOTHURIA IMPATIENS (Forskaal).

(Plate XIIL., fig. 21.)

Fistularia impatiens, Forskaal 1775.

Trepang impatiens, Jager 1833 (14).

Holothuria fulva, Quoy & Gaimard 1833 (36).

. Thyone impatiens, Blainville 1834.

Sporadipus impatiens, Grube 1840.

Holothuria botellus, Selenka 1867 (37) ; Semper 1868 (38).

86 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Holothuria impatiens, Semper 1868 (38) ; Ludwig 1875 (23),

1887 (29), 1888 (30), 1899 (32) ; Lampert 1885 (19),

1889 (20), 1896 (21) ; Théel 1886 (42) ; Bell 1887 (6),

1889 (7) ; Sluiter 1887 (39), 1910 (41) ; Herouard 1893

(13) ; Koehler 1895 (15) ; Bedford 1899 (3) ; Konings-

berger 1904 (18); Fisher 1907 (11); Koehler &

Vaney 1908 (17) ; Pearson 1910 (34) (35).

External Appearance-——The body is covered with papille

only, no true pedicels being present. These are situated upon

conical eminences, which give a characteristically papillated

appearance to the body. The papillz are irregularly disposed,

and appear to be equally abundant upon the bivium and

trivium. The colour of the body is brown, punctated with

numerous minute dark brown spots. Some of the dorsal

papille are dark brown, others a light brown. There is often

a series of purplish-brown transverse stripes across the back,

those in front being regular, but becoming more irregular

towards the posterior end of the body. Thus the back of the

animal presents a variegated appearance. The body when

extended is very long in proportion to its width, and in a

living example measured by me the length was 275 mm. and

the width 25 mm. There are 20 light yellow tentacles, and

the anus is surrounded by a rim of small papille.

Internal Structure.—The internal structure calls for no

special remarks. The Cuvierian organs are double, and

extremely large. The left respiratory tree extends to the

anterior end of the body, but is extremely slender ; the right

respiratory tree, on the other hand, is short but massive.

Spicules.—The calcareous deposits consist of tables and

smooth buttons. The tables are characteristic, and consist of

a fairly square base, consisting of nine almost equal holes

forming rows of three. The base has a diameter of 90 ». The

tables are 75 y. high and generally have one cross-beam, but

there may exceptionally be two. The tower is surmounted

by about 20 spines. The buttons are 75 y. in length and have

six holes. ;

General Distribution.—This is a common form in the tropical:

and sub-tropical waters of the Indo-Pacific region. It has

also been recorded from Florida.

HOLOTHURIOIDEA OF THE INDIAN OCEAN. 87

HOLOTHURIA SCABRA, Jager.

(Plate XIII., fig. 22.)

Holothuria scabra, Jager 1833 (14); Brandt 1835 (8) ;

Semper 1868 (38) ; Haacke 1880 (12) ; Ludwig 1882

(26), 1883 (27) ; Lampert 1885 (19) ; Théel 1886 (42) ;

Sluiter 1901 (41) ; Koningsberger 1904 (18) ; Koehler

& Vaney 1908 (17) ; Pearson 1910 (34), 1910 (35).

Holothuria tigris, Selenka 1867 (37).

Holothuria cadelli, Bell 1887 (5).

Holothuria gallensis, Pearson 1903 (33).

There are numerous specimens in the collections under

examination.

External Characters —The body is comparatively short and

stout.. The two ends are flattened. The body is covered

with minute papille, which are irregularly scattered and are

more abundant on the trivium than on the bivium. This

species probably shows greater colour-variation than any

other Holothurian. The bivium may be black, black with a

few yellowish-white streaks, or black with broad transverse -

white bands. The black may vary in intensity, and is

frequently replaced by gray. The trivium is of a light yellow

colour, so that there is a marked distinction between the two

surfaces. On the yellow ground may be seen numerous small

gray patches, which mark the position of the papillae. Each

papilla is grayish in colour and surrounded by a gray circle.

In the extreme cases the gray patches join together to form

an irregular mass, broken up by lighter markings. There are

twenty tentacles.

Internal Structure.—The calcareous ring is normal. The

Polian vesicles varyinnumber. In one freshly-killed specimen,

225 mm. long, there were three Polian vesicles. The first was

40 mm. long and arose in the left inter-radius of the trivium.

The second was 15 mm. long and arose on the left radius of the

bivium. The third was 110 mm. long and arose near the

dorsal mesentery. The single stone canal is small and

88 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

sometimes difficult to find. In the specimen referred to above

the stone canal was situated close to the third Polian vesicle.

The left respiratory tree is larger than the right, but does not

extend so far forward as the latter. No Cuvierian organs are

present.

Spicules—The spicules consist of tables and knobbed

buttons. The tables are 72 ». in diameter, and have a large

central hole and several smaller peripheral holes. The margin

of the disc is smooth. The tower is 50 v high and is robust.

Its four uprights are connected by one tier of cross-beams,

and the top is surmounted by numerous spines.

The buttons have three pairs of holes and are 50 y. long.

HOLOTHURIA SPINIFERA, Théel.

(Plate XIII., fig. 23.)

Holothuria spinifera, Théel 1886 (42) ; Ludwig 1887 (29).

Only two specimens of this species have been recorded

hitherto, the type of the species which was obtained by the

‘‘ Challenger,” near the Philippine Islands, and one specimen

obtained by the Drs. Sarasin on the East Coast of Ceylon.

The Colombo Museum possesses three more specimens, two of

which were obtained from the Ceylon Pearl Banks by the

present writer, and another without a label. One specimen

measured when in an expanded condition was 350 mm. long

and 65 mm. broad.

External Characters.—The body is yellowish-white on the

trivium, with the exception of a light brown streak which runs

longitudinally along the medium line. The dorsal surface is

light brown, darker in the middle, and becoming lighter at

each side. Some of the dorsal papille are also dark brown in

colour. The ambulacral appendages are papille only. They

are scattered irregularly over the body, those on the dorsal

surface being bigger and more conical. Along each side of the

body at the junction of the bivium and trivium there is a row

of papille slightly larger than those on the back. ‘The bivium

HOLOTHURIOIDEA OF THE INDIAN OCEAN. 89

is well arched and the trivium is flattened. There are five

groups of papillae around the anus. There are twenty light

yellow tentacles. The tentacles are surrounded by a rim of

small papille.

Internal Structure.—The calcareous ring presents no features

of importance. There is a single Polian vesicle 25 mm. long

when contracted. The single stone canal is situated on the

right side of the dorsal mesentery. As Théel has pointed out,

it is of extraordinary length, being 35 mm. long in the

specimen of which the measurements are given above. The

right respiratory tree is larger than the left. In the specimens

examined by me there are no Cuvierian organs.

Deposits.—These agree generally with Théel’s description.

They consist of tables and knobbed buttons in the general

integument. The disc of the table is rounded and has a

diameter of 90 », and is perforated irregularly by a number

of small holes. Sometimes there is a central hole surrounded

by a number of peripheral holes. The under surface of the

dise is not always smooth, but is sometimes complicated by

the presence of irregular cross-connections. The tower is

60 u. in height, and has one cross-piece, and is surmounted by

a large number of spines.

' The buttons are 40 ». long and have three pairs of holes; |

and often show irregularities.

In the papillae there are tables Bak very high towers

(300 v. high) ending in a single blunt spine, and also irregular

perforated plates. The high towers make the identification of

this species clear.

General Distribution —Philippines, Ceylon.

HOLOTHURIA OCELLATA, Jager.

(Plate XIV., flg. 24.)

Holothuria ocellata, Jager 1833 (14); Lampert 1885 (19) ;

Théel 1886 (42); Koehler & Vaney 1908 (17);

Pearson 1910 (35).

One specimen from the Indian Museum, length 120 mm.,

breadth 55 mm.

N 6(5)13

90 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

External Appearance.—The spirit specimen has a yellowish-

white ground colour. Numerous small brown spots are

scattered over the integument, but they are too small to

detect without the aid of a hand lens, except in the middle of

the trivium and irregularly on the bivium, where they are

much more crowded and produce brown markings. Most of

the papille on the bivium are of a chocolate-brown colour,

thus standing well out upon the lighter background. I cannot

see the double circular ring around the papille which Théel

described. The ambulacral appendages consist of papille

only, which, as in Holothuria spinifera, remain extended to a

considerable extent in the preserved specimen. The papille

are slightly smaller and more numerous on the trivium. The

largest papillee are found along each side of the body, as in

Holothuria spinifera.

Internal Structure—The calcareous ring is well formed and

the radial pieces are massive. I have found only one Polian

vesicle. Théel records seven from the “ Challenger ’”’ specimen,

but this difference is not of importance. It is interesting to

note that the stone canal is very similar to that of H. spinifera,

both in its position and large size. Both branches of the

respiratory tree extend to the anterior end of the body, but

the left branch is the larger. Cuvierian organs are present.

Spicules—These consist of tables and knobbed buttons.

The discs of the table differ slightly from Théel’s drawings, in’

that they often have more holes and the edge of the disc

is more irregular. The disc has a diameter of 100 v, and

generally contains a large central hole surrounded by smaller

holes, but occasionally the disc is irregularly perforated and

contains numerous small holes instead of the single central

hole. The buttons are 65 y» long and have three pairs of

holes. In the papillee there are a few tables of the usual type,

and a large number of massive rods perforated at each end,

and having a flattened perforated centre.

General Distribution.—Indian Ocean.

Remarks.—This species is undoubtedly related to 4H.

spinifera. The external differences are not very great, the

colouring of H. ocellata being generally more decided than

that of H. spinifera. The disposition of the papille is the

HOLOTHURIOIDEA OF THE INDIAN OCEAN. 91

same in both species, but the large lateral papille of 4.

ocellata are larger than those of H. spinifera. The spicules of

both species belong to the same general type. There is

evidently much variation in the tables of the two species,

and the tables of the Ceylon specimens of H. spinifera agree

almost as well with Théel’s drawings of ocellata as with those

of spinifera. The latter, however, differs from the former in

having tables bearing large spine-like towers in the papille.

Also the buttons of ocellata are larger than those of spinifera.

Internally there does not appear to be much difference. The

calcareous ring presents some small points of difference, but

both species agree in having an extremely large stone canal.

There are two small Holothurians from the Seychelles sent

by Professor Stanley Gardiner, the largest being only 40 mm.

in length. These two specimens agree very closely with H.

ocellata in external appearance, in the form of the calcareous

ring, and in the curious large stone canal. The tentacles and

the greater part of the alimentary canal are absent from both

specimens. Nevertheless they differ considerably in the

nature of the spicules, and I have had some difficulty in

deciding upon the identity of the two specimens. The

spicules consist of tables and buttons. The tables are of two

sizes, smaller tables not unlike those of a typical H. ocellata, -

forming a superficial larger, and longer tables, apparently

situated at a lower level. These larger tables generally havé

a complete circular disc, but often it is incomplete, and forms

a cross-shaped base to the table as in H. kurti (see Pearson, 33).

The discs of the smaller tables have a diameter of 100 v., and

are pierced by twenty or more holes and have an undulating

margin. The larger tables are not very common. The disc

has a diameter of about 250 » and contains a very large

number of holes. Both kinds of tables have towers similar

to those found in the typical deposits of H. ocellata. The

buttons are delicate and have about seven pairs of holes.

Many of the buttons are apparently knobbed. Although the

spicules are somewhat similar to those of H. kurti, I am

confident that this form does not belong to that species. The

discs and towers of the tables of H. kurti are much more

robust than those of the specimens under examination.

92 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

J am inclined to believe that the specimens are young

forms of H. ocellata, and the differences in the spicules are

probably due to the fact that as the animal grows older the

spicules become smaller owing to disintegration. This has

been observed in other species by Mitsukuri and the present

writer.

HOLOTHURIA MARTENSII, Semper.

(Plate XIV., fig. 25.)

Holothuria martensii, Semper 1868 (38) ; Ludwig 1882 (26) ;

Lampert 1885 (19) ; Théel 1886 (42) ; Pearson 1910

(34).

A few specimens from the Australian and American

Museums.

External Characters.—The preserved specimens I have been

able to examine have exactly the same appearance as Holo-

thuria spinifera, but as I have only examined living specimens

of the latter and not of the former, I cannot say whether the

resemblance is as close during life. The colour of a specimen

preserved in spirit is a uniform yellowish-white both above

and below. The body is covered with papille, which are

larger along each side of the body than elsewhere.

Internal Structure.—Internally the resemblance with Holo-

thuria spinifera is maintained. The calcareous ring is similar

in shape and size. There is a single long Polian vesicle and a

very large stone canal similar to that already described in

H. spinifera and H. ocellata, the only difference being that the

free end is pear-shaped as in the specimen described by Théel.

Both Semper and Lampert have described the presence of

two Polian vesicles and one extremely small stone canal. In

specimens examined by me the stone canal is large in every

case, and there is only one Polian vesicle. On these points I

am in agreement with Théel. It would seem as though Semper

and Lampert had mistaken the stone canal for a Polian

vesicle, to which it offers a distinct resemblance. Such being

the case it is difficult to know what structure they have

interpreted as “‘ der Steinkanal ausserst klein.”” The right

HOLOTHURIOIDEA OF THE INDIAN OCEAN. 93

branch of the respiratory tree is larger than the left. There

are Cuvierian organs present, in which character this species

agrees with Holothuria ocellata. Cuvierian organs have not

yet been recorded in Holothuria spinifera.

Spicules.—These consist of massive tables and knobbed

buttons. The buttons are the same as those of the other two

related species, but the tables are different. The tables are

characterized by having extremely high towers, each consisting

of four uprights and about eight cross-pieces. The tower is

surmounted by numerous teeth. Height of tower 125 w.

The disc of the tower is perforated irregularly by about

twenty or more holes and has a diameter of 120 vu. The

supporting rods in the papille are similar to those in Holothuria

ocellata. Holothuria martensii differs, therefore, from H.

ocellata and H. spinifera in the nature of the tables, in the

general integument, and from the latter species in having no

tables bearing large spines in the papille.

General Distribution.—Kast Indies, Ceylon, and Australia.

HOLOTHURIA ALBIVENTER, Semper.

(Plate XIV., fig. 26.)

Holothuria albiventer, Semper 1868 (38) ; Lampert 1885 (19),

1895 (21); Théel 1886 (42); Hérouard 1893 (13) ;

Ludwig 1899 (29) ; Sluiter 1901 (41) ; Pearson 1910

(34).

Several specimens, collected by Professor Stanley Gardiner

in the Maldives.

External Characters.—The ambulacral appendages consist of

papille only, those on the dorsal side being small and numerous,

those on the ventral side being larger and less closely arranged.

In the spirit specimens at my disposal the bivium is clearly

marked from the trivium, not only by the disposition of the

papillz mentioned above, but also by the difference in colour.

The general colour is grayish-brown, but the trivium is

lighter, especially on the papillae. In Semper’s description

of the living animal he gives the colour as follows :—Bivium,

94. SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

ereenish-brown with irregular light patches and an indefinite

dark patch. The lower surface, dark gray with numerous

white patches. Papille, on the bivium gray, those on the

trivium white.

Internal Structure—As in the three previous species the

stone canal is exceptionally large, and arises from the right

side of the dorsal mesentery. ‘There is a single Polian vesicle.

The stone canal is similar to that of the three previous forms.

Cuvierian organs are evidently not present in this species,

since they are not mentioned by previous writers, and there

are none present in the specimens under examination.

Spicules—These are very characteristic, and consist of

tables and knobbed buttons in the general integument. The

knobbed buttons have the usual three pairs of holes and are

40 pin length. The tables are peculiar in that the tower is

supported by numerous uprights. The base of the tower is

perforated irregularly and is 90 y. in diameter. The height

of the tower is 85 », and the top is surmounted by numerous

spines.

General Distribution.—Indian Ocean, particularly common

along the east coast of Africa.

Remarks.—Heérouard (13) expressed the opinion that H.

aculeata, Semper, together with H. bowensis, Ludw., and H.

modesta, Ludw., should be included in H. albiventer, Semper.

Ludwig, Lampert, and Sluiter have rightly shown that

H. albiventer difters from all these species in the form of its

massive tables. Since the four species described above—

namely, Holothuria spinifera, Holothuria ocellata, Holothuria

martenswi, and Holothuria albiventer—show such close relation-

ship in many respects I append a key to the four species :—

Common characters.—Ambulacral appendages papille only,

which are situated upon non-contractile eminences. Extremely

large stone canal arising from the right side of the dorsal

mesentery.

(1) Tables in general integument having more than four

upright supports. Papillz along both sides of body

not larger than rest.

sh Avia Ses, oo, EU en RS Leh A _.. H. albiventer.

——

_— Sa ee a a we?

ee a

ee ee ee

HOLOTHURIOIDEA OF THE INDIAN OCEAN. 95

(2) Tables having only four upright supports. Papillee

along sides of body larger than rest.

(A) Tables in papillae having large spine-like

superstructure.

Rr a REAM ie ie Raa big epee FH. spinifera.

(B) Absence of large spine-like towers in papille.

(a) Tables in general integument short and

having only one transverse bar.

id Cold asthe ee oat ae H. ocellata.

(6) Tables in general integument high and

having four or more transverse bars.

Creat, Sacer atte pares H. martensii.

LITERATURE.

Augustin, H.—1908, “‘ Uber Japanische Seewalzen.”’

Abhand. d. Math-Phys. Klasse der K.

Bay. Akad. d. Wiss., II. Suppl. Bd.,

1. Abhand. .

Bedford, F. P.—1898, ‘‘ Holothurians collected by Mr. J.

Stanley Gardiner at Funafuti and Rotu-

ma.’ Proc. Zool. Soc., 1898.

1899, Holothurians in Willey’s Results,

Part IT.

Bell, F. J.—1884, Zoological collections of H.M.S.

* Alert.”” Echinodermata.

1887, ‘‘ Echinodermata from the Andaman

Is.” Proce. Zool. Soc., 1887.

1887, “The Echinoderm fauna of the

Island of Ceylon.” Sci. Trans. Royal

Dublin Soce., Vol. IIT. (ser. 2).

————— 1889, * On the Holothurians of the Mergui

Archipelago, collected by Dr. John Ander-

son.” Journ. Linn. Soc. (Zoology), Vol.

XXII.

Brandt, J. F.—1835, ‘‘ Podromus descriptions animalium

ab. H. Mertensio observatorium.” Fasc.

I. Petropoli, 1835.

10.

11.

16.

Gis

18.

19:

20.

21.

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Clark, H. L.—1901, ‘‘The Echinoderms of Porto-

Rico.”” Bull. U. S. Fish Comm. for

1900, II.

1902, ‘‘ Echinodermata. Papers from the

Hopkins Galapagos Exp. 1898-99, XII.”

Proc. Wash. Acad., IV.

Fisher, W. K.—1907, ‘“‘The Holothurians of the

Hawaian Is.?’ ° Proc. U. 8. Nat: Mus.,

Vol. XX XIT.

Haacke, W.—1880, Holothurien, in Beitrage zur Meeres-

fauna der Inseln Mauritius und der

Seychellen, &c.

Hérouard, E.—1893, ‘‘ Holothuries de la Mer Rouge.”

Arch. de Zool. exper. et gen. 3 ser. T. 1.

Jager, G. F.—1833, ‘“‘ De Holothuriis.”” Diss. inaug.

Turici.

Koehler, R.—1895, ‘‘ Echinodermes de la Baie d’Am-

boine.”’? Rev. Suisse de Zool. t. III.

1895-96.

-1895, “Catalogue raisonné des Echino-

dermes recueillis par M, Korotnev aux

Iles de la Sonde.’’ Mem. de la Soc. Zool.

de France, T.; VIII.

Koehler, R., & Vaney, C.—1908, ‘‘ Littoral Holothuri-

oidea collected by the ‘ Investigator,’

Calcutta.”’

Koningsberger,—1904, “ Tripang en Tripangvisscherij in

Nederlandsch-Indie.”’ Med. plantenuin

Java, LX XI.

Lampert, K.—1885, Reisen im Archipel der Philippinen.

Bd. 4, Th. 3, ‘‘ Die Seewalzen.”’

1889, “‘ Die wahrend der Expedition der

Gazelle gesammelten Holothurien.”’ Zool.

Jahrb. Bd. IV.

1895, ‘‘ Die von Dr. Stuhlmann in der

Jahren 1888 und 1889 an der ostkuste

Afrikas gesammelten Holothurien.”

Mitt. aus dem Naturh. Mus. Hamburg.

XIIT., 1895-96.

‘—<)

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

33.

HOLOTHURIOIDEA OF THE INDIAN OCEAN, 97

Lesson, R. P.—1830, “Centurie Zoologique ou choix

d’animaux rares, nouveaux ou impar-

faitement connus.’’ Paris.

Ludwig, H.—1875, “ Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Holo-

thurien.’’ Arb. aus dem Zool.-Zoot.-Inst,

Wurz. Bd. II., 1875.

—1880, Echinodermata in Kossmann’s Reise

nach dem Rothen Meere, V., 1880.

——1881, Revision der Mertens-Brandt’schen

Holothurien.”’ Zeit. f, Wiss. Zool. Bd.

XXXV., 1881.

1882, ‘‘ List of the Holothurians in the

collection of the Leyden Museum.”’ Notes

from the Leyden Museum, Vol. IV.

—_———-— ——1883, ‘‘ Verzeichniss der Holothurien des

Kieler Museums.” 22 Bericht d. ober-

hess. Ges. f. Natur-u. Heilekunde. Giessen,

1883.

1887, “‘ Die von G. Chierchia auf der Fahrt

der Kgl. Ital. Corvette. ‘ Vettor Pisani.’

gesammelten Holothurien.”” Zool. Jahr.

(Abth. f. Syst.), Bd. IT.

ee ——1887, ‘‘ Drei Mittheilungen uber alter und

neue Holothurien arten.” Sitz. der Kgl.

Preuss. Ak. d. Wiss., Berlin.

———__-——_——— 1888, “‘ Die von Dr. J. Brock im Indischen

Archipel gesammelten MHolothurien,”

Zool. Jahrb. (Abth. f. Syst.), Bd. IT.

1898, “ Die Holothurien der Sammlung

Plate.” Zool. Jahr. Suppl., Bd. IV.

——_—-———-—]1899, ‘‘ Echinodermen des Sansibargebie-

tes.’ Abh. Senckenberg. Ges. XXI.,

1897-99.

Pearson, J.—1903, ‘‘ Holothurioidea”” in Herdman’s

Report on the. Ceylon Pearl Oyster

Fisheries, Vol. I., Supplementary Report,

No. V.

6(5)13

34.

35.

36.

37.

38.

39.

40.

4].

43.

44.

45.

46,

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Pearson, J.—1910, Holothurioidea of Kerimba Archi-

pelago, Portuguese East Africa, collected

by J. J.Simpson. Proc. Zool. Soc., 1910.

1910, Holothurioidea of Mergui Archi-

pelago, Lower Burma, collected by J. J.

Simpson and R. N. Rudmose-Brown.

Proc. Zool. Soc., 1910.

Quoy et Gaimard.—1833, Voyage de |’ Astrolabe, Zoologie.

fel Woe LArise Loas,

Selenka, E.—1867, “‘ Beitrage zur Anatomie und Syste-

matik der Holothurien.” Zeit. f. wiss.

Zool., Vol. XVIII.

Semper, C.—1868, Reisen im Archipel der Philippinen,

Bd. 1, Th. 2, “ Holothurien.”’

Sluiter, O. Ph.—1887, ‘“‘ Holothurien des Java-Meeres.”’

Nat. Tijd. v. Nederlandisch-Indie, Vol.

XLVIT.

=== 1890, “ Echinoderm Fauna des Java-

Meeres Nat. Tijd. v. Nederland-Indie.”’

Vol. XLIX.

—-————— 1901, ‘“‘ Die MHolothurien der Siboga

Expedition.” Siboga-Expeditie, XLIV.,

Leiden.

Théel, Hj.—1886, “ Report on the Holothurioidea, Part

II,” Report on the Scientific Results of

the Voyage of H.M.S. “ Challenger,” Vol.

XIV., Part XX XIX.

Thurston, H.—1890, ‘“‘ Notes on the Pearl and Chank

Fisheries and Marine Fauna of the Gulf of

Mannar.”’ Madras, 1890.

Voeltzkow.—1902, ‘‘ Die von Aldabra bis jetzt bekannte

Flora und Fauna.’ Abh. Senckenb. Ges.

XXVI.

W hitelegge.—1897, “‘ Echinodermata of Funafuti.’’ Mem.

Austr. Mus., ITI., Pt. IT.

————__—_-—1903, ‘‘ Notes on the Zoology of Paonopa

or Ocean Is. and Naru or Pleasant Is.,

Gilbert Group. Echinoderms.”’ Rec. Austr

Mus., V.

ell

HOLOTHURIOIDEA OF THE INDIAN OCEAN, 99

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Plate V.

Holothuria hamata, n. sp., from the dorsal side. x 1.

Plate VI.

Holothuria hamata, n. sp.

Fig. 2a.—View of table from below. x 600.

Fig. 2b.—Side view of table. x 600.

Figs. 2c, 2d.—Knobbed buttons. x 600.

Fig. 2e.—Calcareous ring. x 43.

Holothuria maculosa, n. sp.

Fig. 3a.—View of table from below. x 500.

Fig. 3b.—Side view of table. 500.

Fig. 3c.—View of table from above. 300.

Fig. 3d.—Knobbed button. x 500.

Fig. 3e.—Spicules in neighbourhood of papilla. 500.

Fig. 3f.—Perforated rods from the papilla. x 500.

Fig. 3g.—Calcareous ring. x 4.

Plate VII.

Holothuria marmorata (Jager).

Figs. 4a, 4b, 4c.—Typical spicules. » 1,000.

Fig. 4d.—Spicules from the deeper hypodermis. 1,000.

Fig. 4e.—Calcareous ring. X 2.

Holothuria argus (Jager).

Figs. 5a, 5b.—Supporting rods from pedicels. 400.

Fig. 5c.—H-shaped spicule from pedicel. 500.

Figs. 5d, 5e, 5f, 5g.—Typical spicules. x 1,000.

Fig. 5h.—Caleareous ring. x 2.

Holothuria vitiensis, Semper.

Fig. 6a.—H-shaped spicule from pedicel. x 500.

Figs. 6b, 6c.—Supporting rods from pedicels. 500.

Figs. 6d, 6e, 6f.—Typical spicules. x 1,000.

Fig. 6g.—Calcareous ring. x 2.

Plate VIII.

Holothuria graffer, Semper.

Figs. 7a, 7b, 7c.—Spicules. | x 1,000.

Fig. 7d.—Spicule. x 750.

Fig. 7e.—Caleareous ring. x 2.

Holothuria glaberrima, Selenka.

Figs. 8a, 8b, 8c.—Spicules. 600.

Fig. 8d.—Calcareous ring. x 8.

Holothuria lubrica, Selenka.

Fig. 9a.—Caleareous ring. 9.

Figs. 9b, 9c, 9d.—Spicules. x 450.

100 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Plate IX.

Holothuria cinerascens (Brandt).

Figs. 10a, 106, 10c.—Various views of tables. x 500.

Fig. 10d.—Calcareous ring. 4.

Fig. 10e.—Rod-shaped spicule. x 400.

Holothuria atra, Jager.

Figs. lla, 116, 11c.—Various views of tables. x 650.

Fig. 11d.—Calcareous ring. x 3.

Fig. 1le.—Perforated plate. x 650.

Holothuria edulis, Lesson.

Figs. 12a, 12b.—Tables. x 650.

Fig 12c.—Perforated plate. x 650.

Fig. 12d.—Caleareous ring. x 6.

Plate X. .

Holothuria monacaria (Lesson).

Figs. 13a, 13b.—Tables. x 750.

Fig. 13c.—Button. x 750.

Fig. 13d.—Caleareous ring. x 7.

Holothuria vagabunda, Selenka.

Figs. 14a, 14b.—Tables. x 1,000.

Fig. 14c.—Button. x 750.

Fig. 14d.—Calcareous rmg. x 6.

Holothuria fusco-cinerea, Jager.

Fig. 15a.—Caleareous ring. x 5.

Fig. 15b.—Table. x 750.

Figs. 15c, 15d, 15e.—Buttons. x 750.

Plate XI.

Holothuria fusco-rubra, Théel.

Fig. 16a.—Table. » 1,000.

Figs. 16b, 16c, 16d.—Buttons. x 1,000.

Fig. 16e.—Calcareous ring. x 6.

Holothuria pardalis, Selenka.

Figs. 17a, 17b.—Tables. x 500.

Figs. 17c, 17d, 17e.—Buttons. x

Fig. 17f.—Calcareous ring. x 7.

Holothuria maculata (Brandt).

Figs. 18a, 18b, 18c.—Tables. » 400.

Fig. 18d.—Button. x 400.

Fig. 18e.—Calcareous ring. x 3}.

Plate XII.

Holothuria rugosa, Ludwig.

Figs. 19a, 19b, 19c.—Tables. x 550.

Figs. 19d, 19e, 19f.—Buttons. x 550.

Fig. 199.—Calcareous ring. x 6.

Holothuria discrepans, Semper.

Figs. 20a, 20b.—Tables. x 900.

Fig. 20c.—Button. x 900.

Fig. 20d.—Caleareous ring. x 12.

500.

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Spolia Zeylanica, Vol. 1X., Part XXXIV. Plate X.

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Fie. 13.—H. MonaAcarta. Fie. 14.—H. vaGABUNDA. Fig. 15.—H. rusco-cinEREA.

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J.P. & G. H. del,

Fic. 16.—H. FUSCO-RUBRA. Fic. 17.—H. Parpatis, Fic. 18.—H. mMacunata.

Spolia Zeylanica, Vol. IX., Part XXXIV. Plate XTT.

Sere

peewee Fee coterie

a yak tiie

See ee

SH ioral Broce

19e

Y (

Tal

een

Soete

J.P. & G. H. del.

Fie. 19.—H. rugosa. Fig. 20.—H. DISCREPANS.

‘Plate XITT.

Spolia Zeylanica, Vol. [X., Part XXXIV.

J.P. & G. H. del.

23.—H. SPINIFERA.

Fic.

Fig. 22.—H. scaBRa.

Fig, 21.—H. IMPATIENS.

Plate XIV.

Spolia Zeylanica, Vol. [X., Part XXXIV.

25e

aS]

Ne)

J.P. d& G. H. del.

Fig. 26.—H. ALBIVENTESR.

Fic. 25.—H. MARTENSII.

Fic. 24.—H. ocELbata.

bi ss Tai] Ay ay

AV LS ple ,

7 UPd piteie

HOLOTHURLOIDEA OF THE INDIAN OCEAN.

Plate XIII.

Holothuria impatiens (Forskaal).

Figs. 21a, 21b.—Tables. x 400.

Fig. 21c.—Button. x 400.

Fig. 21d.—Caleareous ring. x 4

Holothuria scabra, Jager.

Figs. 22a, 22b, 22c.—Tables. x 400.

Fig. 22d.—Button. x 400.

Fig. 22e.—Calcareous ring. X 3.

Holothuria spinifera, Théel.

Figs. 23a, 23b.—Tables. x 300.

Fig. 23c.—Table in papilla. x 225.

Fig. 23d.—Button. x 300.

Fig. 23e.—Calcareous ring. x 4.

nie

Plate XIV.

Holothuria ocellata, Jager.

Figs. 24a, 246.—Tables. x 450.

Fig. 24c.—Knobbed button. x 450.

Fig. 24d.—Perforated rod from papilla. x 225.

Fig. 24e.—Calcareous ring. x 3}.

Holothuria martensii, Semper.

Figs. 25a, 25b.—Tables. x 450.

Fig. 25c.—Knobbed button. x 450.

Fig. 25d.—Perforated rod from papilla. x 125.

Fig. 25e.—Caleareous ring. x 3}.

Holothuria albiventer, Semper.

Figs. 26a, 26b.—Tables. x 325.

Fig. 26c.—Knobbed button. x 325.

Fig. 26d.—Calcareous ring. x 4,

LOL

102 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

NOTES ON SOME TERMITES FROM CEYLON,

By Oscar Jonny,

St. Petersburg, Russia.

URING the months of November and December of last

year (1912) I collected termites in Ceylon, chiefly at

Peradeniya, and had occasion to make some observations on

the habits of certain species.

Much work upon the termite fauna of Ceylon has been

accomplished, but more still remains to be done. I[ hope,

therefore, that the publication of my notes, though incomplete

and fragmentary, may be of some use to future workers.

Before proceeding, I beg to express my warmest thanks to

Mr. E. E. Green, whose kind help and directions, based on a

vast knowledge of the Ceylon fauna, were quite invaluable

to me.

TERMES HORNI, Wasm.

When returning, on December 12, from a stroll to the lake

of Kurunegala—it had just begun to grow dark—my attention

was attracted by a large number of bats flying along a short

thoroughfare. The cause of this gathering of bats became

evident when I saw a cloud of large-winged termites rising

from under a hedge bordering the road. Unfortunately it was

already too dark to determine the exact point of exit of the

termites ; but all the grass over a rather large space of ground

seemed to be alive with a vast number of them, crawling up

from some openings in the earth and flapping their wings to

start for flight. This produced a distinctly audible, I may

even say a rather loud, noise. Trying to find out the places

from which the termites emerged, I struck some matches,

but by their feeble light, which moreover was almost imme-

diately extinguished by the wind, all I could see was that in

two places, about a yard or so apart, large crowds of workers

NOTES ON TERMITES FROM CEYLON. 1038

and soldiers were congregated. But it seemed to me that the

winged individuals were emerging not only from these two

places, but also between and beyond them. In those gather-

’ ings the worker caste seemed to be far predominant; as I

found about a dozen soldiers only amongst a large number

that I swept into a tin, whereas the number of workers

exceeded two hundred.

The next morning I examined the place, but could find no

signs of the presence of 7’. horni, except some shed wings.

Neither could I discover the openings from which they had

made their exit the night before, nor did I find any traces of

them or of their nest in the neighbourhood.

I have thought it worth while to describe this exodus of

T. horni, incomplete as my observations are, because this

phenomenon has been observed very seldom, and all we have

to go upon is Mr. Petch’s account of three such events observed

by him in relation to 7, obscuriceps and T'. redemanni.,

ANOPLOTERMES CyCLOPS, Wasm.

Our knowledge of this species is very incomplete. All we

know is that, in common with the other species of the genus, .

it is distinguished by the absence of the soldier caste, and that

it is to be found under stones and logs of wood. Habitat,

Peradeniya and Maha Iluppallama.

T have found this species on four occasions : once at Kurune-

gala, under a stone (December 12, 1912), and three times at

Peradeniya, once (December 16, 1912) in a mound of Termes

redemanni, which An. cyclops shared with the host and

Capritermes incola. 'The next day I found another colony,

also in a nest of redemanni ; and on the fourth occasion

(December 18, 1912) I found it ina mound of Termes obscuriceps,

inhabited, moreover, by Hamitermes quadriceps and HLutermes

escherichit. There is nothing unusual in the occurrence of

Anoplotermes in the mounds of other species. Such an

association has been already recorded by Holmgren in the

case of the South American species An. reconditus, which

-occurs in the nests of Termes dirus.

104. SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

These colonies of An. cyclops were dispersed over the whole

mound, inhabiting small flat chambers, which were crowded

with workers, larvee, and nymphs.

Twice I succeeded in capturing the queens. In one instance

I took a queen in a mound of redemanni ; but I found as many

as five queens and one king in a single obscuriceps mound.

As the queen cell is in no way distinguished, either by its

structure or its position, it is just by chance that one finds

them. I found them concealed in ordinary tunnels, not

crowded together, but at some distance apart. When

opening the mound it is very easy to cut away a piece contain-

ing the queen or queens ; and they can be easily damaged,

as was the case with one of those taken by me. I cannot,

therefore, be certain whether there were any more queens or

kings in these colonies. ‘The queens did not differ very much

from the winged adults. Some of them had the abdomen

slightly inflated, so that the intersegmental membrane was

somewhat extended ; others had just the appearance of the

winged form—after it has shed its wings.

When captured, the workers always lifted up their abdomens

after the manner of ants—Cremastogaster for instance—so that

the anal part came right above the head, excreting at the

same time a drop from the anal opening. This drop consists

of a thick liquid of a brownish-gray colour, and is composed

of minute vegetable and mineral particles agglutinated by

some secretion. When excreting this drop—which, by the

way, is not viscid and leaves no stain on the skin—the worker

of An. cyclops does not empty the whole of the contents of

the gut. When a worker is immersed in water or alcohol

this material is evacuated in the form of a minute sausage

from 6 to 7 mm. in length and of a diameter of about 0°5 mm.

In water it loses its original shape in the course of a few-

minutes, becoming a small heap of earthy matter; whereas

in alcohol it retains its original appearance and becomes hard

and brittle.

EUTERMES RUBIDUS, Hag.

I had an opportunity of watching this species rather

frequently, as there was a nest right in front of the entrance of

the resthouse at Peradeniya. Every morning little piles of

NOTES ON TERMITES FROM CEYLON. 105

earth were to be seen on the road, showing the work done

overnight by Hut. rubidus. I noticed that one of these heaps

was, as a rule, larger and higher than the others. They

consisted of loosely piled earth, with, usually, a small opening

on the top. Inside, they were pierced by a tunnel, which in

some cases was branched. Once, on the last day of my stay

at Peradeniya, I noticed a rather large pile, about three inches

high, on one of the footpaths in the Botanical Gardens.

This pile was conical, rounded at the top, without any hole,

and cemented much more firmly than any other pile seen by

me. It was not unlike one of the cones that may be observed

in the early stages of the mounds of 7. obscuriceps and

redemannt. When opened, it was found to be crowded with

workers of Hut. rubidus. A yard or so from this heap I found

another one thrown up on the turf.

Escherich’s observations on this species are here trans-

lated in extenso :—‘‘ The nest of Hutermes rubidus is under-

ground, with several openings on the surface of the earth,

often surrounded by small craters of earth. In the vicinity of

Galle I found a nest of which the openings and the surrounding

space were covered by flat, brittle, earthy crusts. When I

destroyed one of these weak structures, soldiers were imme-

diately seen to emerge, both large and small ones, Hutermes .

rubidus having two forms of soldiers which differ considerably

in shape and size; the large soldiers keeping more in the

background. After the first alarm had quieted down the

repairs were hastily undertaken, the soldiers ........ forming

a dense chain round the broken place. It is remarkable that,

with few exceptions, only the small soldiers were engaged in

this work, whereas the large ones had mostly retired. Was

this a mere chance, or is there a differentiation of work in the

two forms of soldiers? I was unable to decide this point,

owing to insufficient material for observation, although the

latter eventuality does not seem to me to be unlikely.

“The building was effected in a very simple manner:

between the soldiers, occasional workers came forward, holding

in their mandibles small crumbs of earth, which were deposited

at the edge of the building and then slightly pressed on.

There was none of the abundant proctodzal or stomodzal

P 6(5)13

106 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

cement ordinarily employed by termites when building their

nests, only a simple compilation of earthy particles with, very

possibly, a slight admixture of saliva. This simple mode of

construction accounts for the loose composition and the

brittleness of these superstructures. This observation is of -

interest, in that it reveals a new method of building, and shows

us that termites are by no means bound to one scheme, but

that they are able to apply different (simple or complicated)

methods, according to the purpose or requisite durability of

the structure.’’*

I have quoted Escherich at full length, because his observa-

tions are fully corroborated by my own. I may add that I

have observed Hut. rubidus commencing their night’s work at

about 6 P.m., when both forms of soldiers emerged from the

opening on the surface of the road and were followed by

workers, each carrying a morsel of earthy material. This

latter was placed without any further cementation on the

ground at a short distance from the opening. But not at all

the openings was such material brought up, nor was the

amount of work equal at all the openings. After dark, about

two hours later, straight open galleries of from 1 to 14 inch

in length were built at some of the openings, whereas at others

only a small and very low crater had been formed. I counted

nine openings in all from which the termites came forth, and

overground traffic—by soldiers as well as workers—was

established between some of them.

The most interesting part of the observation was that from

one of the holes where no building was going on at all, a vast

crowd of workers, guarded by soldiers, had emerged and was

feeding on the leaves of some flat-growing plants, sitting more

or less motionless on the leaves. Some of the workers were

seen to carry home comparatively large pieces of bark.

Disturbed, as I believe, by the strong light of my acetylene

lantern (though the soldiers and workers of Hut. rubidus are

blind, it is more than: probable that they have some sensation

of light), a movement soon occurred among the termites, and

they began hurfiedly to leave their pasture and to retreat

* K. Escherich. Termitenleben auf Ceylon, 1910, pp. 133, 134.

NOTES ON TERMITES FROM CEYLON, 107

into the opening of their tunnel. The next night, at about

9 p.M., they were again to be found on the leaves; but, on

being illuminated, beat a retreat as on the previous night.

They were again feeding at the same place half an hour later,

thickly covering the leaves and stems of the plants. In the

morning the foraging party had disappeared and the opening

from which they had emerged the night before was closed, but

no heap of earth was left on the surface. At the other openings

larger or smaller heaps had been built, and the termites were

at work upon these until about 8 a.m. This open foraging

of Hut. rubidus is very remarkable, as Hutermes—with the

exception of the monoceros group, which is, at least biologically,

entirely separated from the rest—are never found in the open,

but in logs, stumps, and other decaying wood, to which they

lead their tunnels.

Unfortunately, it was impossible to dig open their nests, as

Eut. rubidus selects places where they are under the protec-

tion of Road Committees or other authorities, which would

look somewhat askance at anyone who might attempt to

undermine the roads in search of the nests—a yet unrecorded

form of adaptation !

EUTERMES ESCHERICHI, Holmer.

Only quite recently (in 1910) this species was discovered

by Escherich in a nest of Termes obscwriceps. He found a

numerous colony (workers and solders) not far from the

central part of the mound, in a separate sponge-like nest built

of earth. He further states that in the same mound one of

the upper comb-cavities was filled by a black carton nest, the

carton being mostly cemented to the walls of the cell, which

was covered with a dark “‘wall-paper.”’ No inmates could be

found, either in the cell or in the proper nest. “As the

Eutermes are chiefly carton manufacturers,’ continues

Escherich, in his account, “‘ and as I never found such a nest

in any other mound, and finally I never again came across that

Eutermes, I consider it not improbable that this species was

the builder of the carton nest, and—perhaps chased from it—

settled down in another part of the mound, where, for lack of

108 ‘ SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

the necessary raw material, it now built a similar edifice of

earth.”

On December 18 I opened a mound of 7’. obscuriceps in the

Experiment Station grounds (where Escherich found his £.

escherichi). Near the surface of the earth I found a tunnel,

from which emerged a large number of soldiers of this species.

Following up the tunnel, workers and a few winged individuals

could be found. The tunnel led to a small by-nest inhabited

by workers and soldiers. On the opposite side of the mound

I found another nest, which was much larger in size than the

first, 2.e., of the size of a man’s fist. This nest contained

workers, soldiers, and larve of different stages ; but neither

nymphs nor queen could be found. A third nest, of about

the same size as the first, 7.e., of the size of a hen’s egg, was

close by, and, finally, I found a fourth small by-nest at some

distance from the others. All of these nests were built of

earthy material and contained cells of the usual Hutermes

pattern. Strangely enough, one of the upper cavities

of the mound contained, as in Escherich’s case, a strange

derelict structure, but this one was made of earth, and

differed considerably in pattern from Hutermes buildings,

suggesting rather, in structure, the characteristic work of

Coptotermes.

It might be of interest to dwell a little longer on this strange

obscuriceps nest, as it contained a considerable number of

different inhabitants, and others may have been overlooked.

This mound was situated at the foot of a coconut palm, side

by side with a mound of 7’. redemanni. The latter was opened

on the previous day and the king and queen were taken.

The close vicinity of the two nests had caused a certain fusion

of both, as some of the cavities of the obscuriceps mound were

occupied by redemanni, which had built their combs there.

Here and there, near the surface, small cavities were occupied

by Anoplotermes cyclops, and deeper in the mound five queens

and one king of this species were found. Hamuitermes quadri-

ceps also occurred here and there in small cells. Of other

insects I can mention several colonies of species of Camponotus

and Cremastogaster, an immature Gryllid, larvze of Orthogonius

aculangulus and of several other Coleoptera. Of Pedipalpi, a

NOTES ON TERMITES FROM CEYLON. 109

very large specimen of Phrynichus was taken, some Myriapods,

Notoscolex termiticola and another very large earthworm, and

some Lepismide.

EUTERMES ocuLatTas, Holmegr., 1911.

(= Eutermes longicornis, Holmgren, 1912.)

In Dr. Escherich’s book entitled ‘“Termitenleben auf

Ceylon,” Dr. Holmgren described thisspecies from winged

examples only, captured by Dr. Uzel at Peradeniya, suggesting

that they possibly belonged to either H. hantanz or E£.

eschericht. Some time later he received from Mr. E. E. Green

a number of soldiers and workers of an undescribed species

of Hutermes, which he described as EH. longicornis.

On November 16 last I found, in a mound of Termes

obscuriceps, a colony of longicornis, consisting of soldiers,

workers, and winged adults. Comparing these last with the

descriptions, I found them to be identical with oculatus of

Holmgren. Therefore the name of longicornis must be

dismissed as a synonym of the former.

The adult of this species is very conspicuous, and easily

recognizable by its fontanelle of a pure white, bordered by a |

yellowish ring. The head is shorter than broad, with very

prominent eyes. The antennze are comparatively long,

2:6 mm., whereas in LZ. ceylonicus they measure only 1:7 mm.,

though both species are of about the same size and have

15-jointed antenne. (In ceylonicus, the antennz of the male

have 14 joints only.) The “ nasutus ”’ soldier is recognizable

from those of allied species by the length of its frontal tube,

which is equal to that of the rest of the head, and very slender.

This species has been recorded from Peradeniya only.

The type-material was taken by Dr. Uzel (in coll Vienna

Mus.) on November 15, 1901. I myself captured a number

of winged specimens at the lights of the resthouse on November

15 and 29, 1912, and the above-mentioned colony was found

on the 16th of the same month.

The types of longicornis were found by Mr. E. E. Green on

the stem of a Giant Bamboo (Dendrocalamus giganteus).

110 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

EUTERMES LACUSTRIS, Bugnion, 1912.

(= Hutermes greent, Holmgren, 1912).

On an excursion to the top of Hantana (a mountain of about

4,000 feet elevation, situated near Peradeniya) I discovered,

in the jungle at the summit, a large tree up the stem of which

a gallery was running. An inspection of the gallery proved

_ that it emerged from the soil, ran about half-way round the

base of the stem, forming there two enlargements, and then

ran directly upwards. When opened, a number of termites—

partly workers and partly soldiers—emerged from this gallery.

The latter surprised me by the very conspicuous dark colour

of their heads, a character known in but a single species of

Eutermes from Ceylon, viz., lacustris. But this species had

been described by Dr. Bugnion from the low-country, and

Dr. Holmgren had received specimens from Mr. E. E. Green

which were also collected in the low-country. ‘These are the

only records about this species. A comparison with the

description and the types of Dr. Bugnion and of Dr. Holmgren

proved it to be identical with lacustris. This identification

was subsequently corroborated by Dr. Bugnion himself. Dr.

Holmgren, ignorant of Dr. Bugnion’s publication (June, 1912),

had believed the species to be a new one and included it in

his “‘ Termitenstudien,’ Vol. III., under the name of Hut.

greenv.

Some time later I ascended Hantana again, with the object

of further investigating this interesting species and, if possible,

of finding the nest. In this I was successful, as I first found

another gallery on a tree some twenty yards distant from the

first, and not very far from it the nest perched on a Ficus tree.

It was rather large and built between two forking branches,

some twenty-five feet up, with a gallery leading to the ground.

My coolies were able to lower the nest and to transport it

safely to the laboratory, with the loss only of the natural

cover, which was exceedingly brittle. The dimensions of the

nest were as follows :—Circumference 76 inches ; long diameter

26, short diameter 20, and height 16inches. It was constructed

in the usual Hutermes style, 7.e., the whole consisting of a

system of numberless small cavities made of some woody

——— ss ee

NOTES ON TERMITES FROM CEYLON. lll

material and encased in a very thin outer cover to protect the

nest from rain and the intrusion of ants and other predatory |

insects. A median section showed three more or less con-

centric portions. The outer area consisted of small cells, the

inner of elongated cells of a much larger size, and the central

portion was composed of much stronger wood-like material

of a lighter colour, and containing the queen’s cell and other

large cells with eggs and young larve. This central portion

was not placed in the exact geometrical centre of the nest,

but considerably below the middle. This nest contained all

castes, including winged adults, which were till now unknown.

Dr. Bugnion has undertaken to give a description and draw-

ings of them. After opening the nest, one-half was fixed in a

tree near the laboratory, where, for some time, I was able to

observe the habits of the insects.

Disregardful of daylight or even sunshine they were to be

seen ascending and descending the trunk of the tree, on several

_ tracks, and here and there appeared the beginning of a tunnel.

But after a day or two only one track was used, the others

being abandoned. These tracks were chiefly used by workers,

but among them appeared sometimes nymphs and winged

individuals. Workers now and then were seen to carry young

larvee, holding them with their mandibles. The soldiers were .

mostly posted in small groups on each side of the track and

near the beginnings of galleries. The workers were not very

eager at their work, and only a few carried small particles of

building material. They deposited their tiny bricks in gaps

or other suitable places, giving them the proper position by

trying to place them first one way then another, finally fixing

them by pressing them with a sideway movement of the head,

after which I sometimes saw them turn round to place a drop

of proctodceal secretion on the place.

Two weeks later, after my return to Peradeniya, I found the

nest in much the same condition. The galleries were still

incomplete and the nest had the appearance of being deserted.

An inspection, however, showed that it was crowded with

inhabitants. Possibly the position in which the nest had

been placed was not a convenient one, and the loss of the

queen may have upset the regular functions of the inhabitants.

112 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

The further fate of this nest is unknown to me, as I left Pera-

deniya soon afterwards. [It was subsequently blown down

and demolished in a gale of wind.—E. E. G.]

EKUTERMES MONOCEROS, Koenig.

The open “‘ out-of-door ”’ life of this species makes it more

accessible to observation than any other termite inhabiting

Ceylon, and as it is rather common, we find recorded several

accounts of its habits. Of recent authors Dr. Bugnion and

Dr. Escherich dwell at some length on the habits of this

interesting insect ; and I am informed by Mr. Petch that he is

about to publish a Paper recounting his experiences with

E. monoceros. Of these, Dr. Bugnion’s observations relate

more to laboratory experiments. With regard to Dr. Esche-

rich’s account, I have not found it corroborated, in certain

particulars, by my own observations. I will therefore give

a short sketch of what I have been able to observe on the

habits of this species.

As I have said, Hut. monoceros is rather common, so that I

frequently had opportunities of watching them on their

expeditions and when foraging. I have also opened four of

their nests. (In one of them I found two specimens of a

Cetoniid beetle—Clinteria amperialis, Payscull—the identi-

fication of which I owe to Mr. E. E. Green. Each was found

in a separate cocoon, in which they lay motionless in a state

of ‘“‘diapause.”” This occurrence of Clint. imperialis in a

termite’s nest has not, to my knowledge, been previously

recorded.)

Before proceeding I must mention that, in one instance, I

have seen a nest built, not as usual above ground in the hollow

of a tree, but underground in the chimney of a mound of

Termes obscuriceps, surrounding the base of a tree. This

proved to be not a by-nest, as is sometimes found to be the

case, but a regular main nest, containing a full-sized queen,

together with eggs and young larve. It appears, therefore,

that EB. monoceros does not construct its nests in hollow trees

alone, but wherever it may find a cavity suited to its purpose.

NOTES ON TERMITES FROM CEYLON. 113

Dr. Bugnion, for instance, records a nest built in a corner

under the roof of his laboratory, and Mr. Petch has observed

the building of another nest under a glass bell-jar covering a

decayed stump of wood in the verandah of his office.

Foraging is not undertaken every night. There are intervals

of inactivity, though sometimes expeditions may be sent out

for several consecutive nights. The inmates of one nest, that

used to cross the road leading to the laboratories at Peradeniya,

were not to be seen for about a week, when they re-appeared.

On this occasion I could see how they made their way to the

tree upon which they used to feed. The old track had been

obliterated by road sweepers and heavy rain when I observed

the termites starting for their old feeding grounds one

afternoon at 6 o’clock. The front party went forward rather

uncertainly, advancing very slowly and evidently recon-

noitering. Some of them went a long way down the road,

which led them far from the tree; but by the following

morning they had found the short cut from one tree to the

other, by more or less the same path they had used before.

The exit of the foraging party from the nest begins usually

between 5 and 6 P.M., and in the morning one can see a large

trail returning to the nest, most of the workers carrying in

their mandibles a morsel several times larger than their own -

heads, while others are still at work foraging. I have watched

them through a Zeiss binocular microscope and could plainly

see how they detached the lichens from the bark. I have

also seen them gathering alge from bricks on the road. I

have never observed one of the gatherers pass over its harvest

to another individual which carried it to the nest, as stated by

Escherich ; nor have I seen a soldier fed by a worker. Once

I saw two workers, neither of which had any morsel in its

mandibles, touching each other with their mouth-parts.

Another time the same procedure was gone through by a

worker and a soldier, but apparently no feeding was done.

Anyhow, these two cases out of thousands cannot be the rule,

and I do not think that any feeding takes place during foraging.

But I have observed, on several occasions, the following scene.

A worker with a large bundle in its mouth was standing amidst

the crowd when several other workers came up to it and tore

Q 6(5)13

114 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

off pieces of its morsel and went away with their booty, without

any signs of protestation on the part of the robbed one. I

was not able to discover the meaning of this action, but I do

not think that it can be called feeding. Moreover, there was

plenty of food around, and every worker could have fed

plentifully without robbing his fellow. Nor can this be

regarded as a division of labour, as suggested by Escherich,

viz., the parts of gatherer and carrier, for only very small

pieces were removed by the intruders, the rest being trans-

ported to the nest by the gatherer itself.

I have never seen workers deserting and encouraging others

to do so by those rapid and abrupt movements which Dr.

Escherich calls ‘‘ zitterstosse.’’ The latter, of course, I have

seen many times, but I could never discover their meaning.

Dr. Escherich and others believe them to be some kind of

signal, warning or otherwise, but what then can be the

explanation of the fact that these “ zitterstosse ’ are executed

so often when there is no one near to receive the message ?

There can be no doubt about it, that the delicate sensitive

organs of the termites would acquaint them with the fact that

no other termite was within reach. Or is this to be regarded

merely as a reflex movement induced by some unknown

cause ? But then it could not be a signal, or it would

naturally produce some effect .upon the other individuals,

and would run along the line, or it would affect at least the

individual to which the signal was conveyed. All I could see

was that the latter sometimes replied in the same way, and

then went along without altering its course; but still more

often it paid no attention to this supposed signal, pursuing its

course and trying to get out of the way of the “ signaller.”

Dr. Escherich further states that workers of monoceros are in

the habit of dismembering and devouring their dead comrades.

I have repeated his experiment by killing some of them, with

the following result. When a termite happened to discover

its dead comrade, it went back to return with several others.

They surrounded the corpse and soon afterwards went away.

NOTES ON TERMITES FROM CEYLON. 115

But this was not always the case. Sometimes, when one came

upon a corpse, it simply went out of its way, never to return,

and it even seemed to me—in one or two cases—that this

place was afterwards avoided by the marching column, but

this might be a mere coincidence. Once I saw the dead body

lifted and carried off by a worker, just as others carry their

morsels of lichen. Another time a few workers tried to lift

up their dead comrade, but as it had stuck to the bark they

were unable to move, and soon left it. But I have never seen

a dead termite torn up, limb by limb, and devoured. The

return of the foraging parties is not always finished in the

early morning. I have seen them marching homewards until

after 12.30 P.M.

Once my coolies brought me a nest of monoceros in a hollow

tree stem, which they opened and searched for the queen,

without finding her. Some two hours later I observed that

the queen had emerged from beneath the débris of the nest

and had hidden herself under a box. When this was lifted

she began to move, and crawled up the vertical post of the

house for a foot orso. In this she was supported, as it seemed,

by the workers who surrounded her, especially at the posterior

extremity, as if they were pushing her up. She could move

horizontally, at a comparatively rapid pace, without any

assistance.

Galleries on Roads.

Though galleries ramifying like roots in different directions

from a central point are frequently seen on the surface of roads

and have been figured both by Doflein and Kscherich, there is

no record of the species of termites that construct these

galleries, or what purpose they serve. Strangely enough,

Escherich says that he has never been able to find any termites

in these galleries. During a few days’ observation I found in

no less than fifteen cases workers (and occasionally soldiers) of

T’. obscuriceps, and on two other occasions of 7’: redemanni.

As a rule, only a few individuals were to be found in the

galleries during the morning, and they were almost deserted

116 SPOLIA ZEYLANIOCA.

after noon. But after about 5 p.m. and towards sunset the

termites seemed to gather in the galleries, which I have then

found to be crowded with both workers and soldiers. When

the galleries were broken up some of the insects wandered

about aimlessly, but most of them tried to escape into the

openings leading underground.”

As to the purpose of these galleries, Hscherich suggests that

they originate by the rummaging of the termites in search of

fungi or their spores—an opinion that is shared by Mr. HE. E.

Green, and which seems credible enough. Perhaps the

galleries are constructed also during the search for decaying

wood or stumps of trees, where these species are always found

feeding. With regard to the brittleness of the galleries, I find

that they are not always constructed so ephemerally as

Escherich states, especially when dead branches have come in

the way of the termites. Such branches are then usually

covered with a strong crust of earthy matter and eaten up

from the inside.

I have not touched the systematic part of my results, in

this Paper, except in the case of Hutermes oculatus ; but I hope,

on my return from my present trip, to work out my further

results. This, naturally, can only be done in a laboratory,

with all the necessary apparatus, collections, and literature.

* When writing the above I had not seen a paper of Dr. V. Buttel

Reepens (Entomol. Mitteilungen I., I. IV., 1912, N.4, p. 103), wherein

he states that he has found both species—Z. obscuriceps and T.

redemanni—in the galleries.—Oscar JOHN.

STONE IMPLEMENTS OF CEYLON. TAY

THE STONE IMPLEMENTS OF CEYLON.*

By C. Hartiey, M.A. (Cantab.).

HE study of prehistoric implements in Ceylon is of

recent date compared with that in most European

countries, but still is older than many people suppose. The

earliest inquiry into the subject was due, as far as I am aware,

to Messrs. J. Pole of Maskeliya and E. E. Green, who has

so recently left the Island. Mr. Pole especially, with more

abundant opportunities for collection than Mr. Green, and

perhaps possessing greater interest in the subject, has for

some twenty-five years, and in spite of much incredulity and

discouragement, continued steadily accumulating specimens,

mostly from his own district, but partly aiso from more

distant quarters. He now owns a very large and representa-

tive collectior, including several of the most interesting stones

which [ have seen in this country.f

On more than one occasion Mr. Pole sent specimens from -

Ceylon to be examined by experts in India and, I believe, in

London ; but in each case with negative results. It was only

in 1907 that his contentions were completely verified by the

discoveries of two distinguished Swiss archeologists, Dr. Paul

‘and Dr. Fritz Sarasin, who visited the Island in that year,

and in the limited time at their disposal established once and

for all the existence of abundant traces of a Stone Age. A full

account of their researches is contained in the volume which

they published in 1908, ‘‘ Die Steinzeit auf Ceylon,” describing

the excavation of caves and the search for surface specimens

on the hills of Uva. Many of the best specimens figured in

their book are taken from the collection of Mr. Pole.

* Read before the Ceylon Natural History Society, May 30, 1913.

+ News of Mr. Pole’s death in England reached Ceylon in July of this

year.

118 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

A few references to the Stone Age are to be found in

Mr. Parker’s “ Ancient Ceylon” and in Dr. Seligmann’s ‘“‘ The

Veddas ”’ ; while Mr. Pole has a volume in the press which is

shortly to appear. But the book by the Doctors Sarasin is

so far the most complete, and in fact the only serious attempt

to deal with the subject.

After a careful study of the work, although I may differ on

individual points from the authors, I am filled with admiration

for the thoroughness of their methods, the breadth of their

views, and the ingenuity with which they apply their knowledge

of modern savage races to the conditions of prehistoric life.

As regards one very important particular I will refer to their

book later.

To come now to my subject. Everyone is aware that the

Stone Age has been roughly but conveniently separated into

two main divisions, the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age and the

Neolithic or New Stone Age. There are others, with which we

are not at present concerned in Ceylon. A few years ago it

was universally believed that the Neolithic Age extended at

most some 20,000 years and the Paleolithic Age perhaps

80,000 years into the past. It is now thought by some

eminent authorities that we should multiply the former by

five and the latter by ten, and even so leave room for an

Kolithic and a Sub-Crag Age reaching back possibly to the

million. Implements of the Palzeolithic Age are generally to

be distinguished from those of the Neolithic Age not only in

design, but also by their massiveness, their rudeness, and by

the complete absence of grinding and polishing. In the case

of flint, which unfortunately is not found in Ceylon, but which

constitutes by far the greatest bulk of stone implements in

the world, they are also distinguished by ‘the greater wear of

their surfaces, due to age and exposure, and by “ patination,”

or the discoloration of their exterior, due to the action of acids,

or of violent alternations of heat and cold, by processes which

have not yet been explained.

STONE IMPLEMENTS OF CEYLON. 119

In Ceylon, as I said, we have no flint, and the ancient

inhabitants were reduced to making use of quartz, crystal,

and chert, all of which are found commonly over great part

of the Island, but which were almost totally neglected in

lands where flint is abundant. Chert in fact was used in

parts of Europe where flint was scarce; but it is rougher in

texture, and breaks with a less clean and sharp edge than

flint. Quartz, though breaking with an extremely sharp edge,

is brittle, and difficult to work on account of its crystalline

formation. Last year I submitted specimens of Ceylon chert

and crystal to a professional flint-worker of Brandon in

Suffolk; and he found that chert was harder than flint, but

flaked fairly well, while with crystal he could do nothing at all.

It is not therefore to be wondered at that Ceylon implements

are in general ruder and less skilfully worked than similar

specimens in flint. As for grinding and polishing, no specimen

has yet been discovered here which shows any sign of the

process. Flint, we know, was polished with sand or sandstone ;

quartz is one of the hardest of rocks, and could hardly be

ground by anything but corundum or precious stones. Hence

all implements in Ceylon must be judged solely by their size, -

design, and chipping ; and comparing the workmanship with

that of European specimens, it is plain that the immense

majority which have been found so far are Neolithic, and

probably of no very remote date. They comprise scrapers,

round and hollow (the commonest of implements everywhere),

trimmed flakes for knife-blades, sharp points for boring,

hammer stones, and very rare arrow-heads, mostly of simple

triangular shape, one of which found by Mr. C. T. Symons is

notched, a design rare in Europe, but exceedingly common in

America. One bone needle or borer was recovered by me

from a cave near Balangoda. Chisels or planes are also

fairly plentiful, but nothing resembling an axe has yet been

found—an extraordinary omission, when one considers how

obvious the design is, and how common in the rest of the

world, The great majority of these implements are of quartz,

120 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

chert specimens being extremely rare by comparison ; but it

is aremarkable fact that considerable numbers of chert chips,

cores, and fragments are found in almost all places where

implements occur ; and it remains a problem what they did

with the quantities of chert which they undoubtedly handled.

Before proceeding further, I should say a word about the

places in which these Neolithic remains are found. They are

invariably on hill tops, and at all altitudes from sea-level to

the Horton Plains. Of course they can only be seen where

the land has been cleared, as on cultivated estates or on

grassy hills which have lost their top soil by weathering, as

in Uva. But I have no doubt that spade-work would bring

them to light almost everywhere. I have found them close

to the Naga Pokuna of Mihintaie, and amid sand just dredged

from the sea-bottom at Jaffna. The bright, clear chips

stand out vividly against the crumbling earth of the hills,

and often in such numbers as almost to hide it.

At very rare intervals one picks up among these brand-new

chips stones of another type, fragments of chert worn and

weathered, but still retaining indubitable traces of man’s

handiwork. It is not so much in size or in style of work

that they vary from the usual rather shapeless fragments that

one finds scattered broadcast over the patanas, but in colour

and texture of the material. They are heavily patinated,

which in itself is regarded as a proof of antiquity; they are

generally light in colour, and their surface is spongy and

porous, differmg markedly from the close, compact grain

of newly-fractured chert. These I believe to be rare survivals

of the Paleolithic Age ; but as they are found at present only

on the surface, it would be rash to assume it without further

proof. Before we can be sure of their identity, it will be

necessary to discover them deep below the modern surface in

gravel-beds, possibly in association with the remains of

extinct animals. Such a find has of course never been made

in Ceylon; but I do not despair of some really valuable

discovery being made, if we can interest gem-seekers in the

eval

STONE IMPLEMENTS OF CEYLON, 121

subject, or if some one living in the neighbourhood of gem-pits

devotes a little time occasionally to raking over the spoil-

heaps. J have in my collection no implement which can be

certified as Paleolithic, but I show one or two to-night which

raise a strong presumption in their favour, and Mr. Pole has

a few surface specimens from Maskeliya which remind one

very strongly of relics of the Old Stone Age. I would call your

attention particularly to one fragment of chert on the table,

found by me lately on the surface at Bandarawela. In

comparatively recent times this stone has been chipped,

probably by a Neolithic savage, who required flakes for some

smalltool. This recent chipping is yellow and highly lustrous,

which alone is a sign of a respectable antiquity. But the

original mass, where untouched, is of a deep chocolate-brown,

and shows marks of workmanship bolder and incalculably

more ancient than the former. The ridges left by the old

chipping are so worn as to have quite lost their sharpness ;

and I have no hesitation in saying that if found in an admit-

tedly Paleolithic neighbourhood in Europe, this stone would

be accepted without any question. Much however remains

to be done in Ceylon before any certainty can be attained.

Our greatest want. is the’ exploration of gravel-beds, which

seem to me surprisingly rare in our land.

Before I bring this Paper to an end, I must give a short

account of my recent discovery of the rare and mysterious

class of implements known as Pigmies, which brings me back

once more to the valuable work of the Doctors Sarasin. On

page 30 of “‘ Die Steinzeit auf Ceylon ” they write as follows :——-

“More seldom there occur also small knives of this fine sort,

fashioned obliquely, such as are illustrated in figures 89, 96,

and 104, with the edge turned downward, of which especially

the first attracted our attention because the thickened, bow-

shaped back is formed by carefully-applied minute chipping,

a secondary work which we recognize in a very similar form

on the fine blades and points of the so-called (Pigmy or)

Tardénoisian implements, certainly a tedious work on so

R 6(5)13

122 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

brittle a material as crystal. In any case this obliquely

fashioned knife is unique in our collection, whereas on the

other hand, as is well known, the whole class of Pigmies is

composed of such microliths made of flint.”” They thus leave

the question in doubt, but the three illustrations referred to

show unmistakable Pigmy specimens. In the past two years

I myself picked up a few puzzling implements in Ceylon,

which I finally sent to the Rev. R. A. Gatty, who is one of the _

chief English authorities on the subject, for his opinion. He

replied at once that there was no doubt whatever, as to their

identity, and begged me to go on searching. _By the beginning

of this year I had accumulated about a dozen specimens from

Diyatalawa, Pattipola, Dolosbage, Hatton, Gampola, and

Nawalapitiya ; which shows that they are at any rate widely

distributed. They have since been discovered on the Horton

Plains and at Matale. In March and April of this year I

thoroughly explored the neighbourhood of Bandarawela, where

I found them in enormous quantities. I have collected over

3,600, partly from the surface, partly by digging. It was only

on four hills that they occurred in numbers ; but one or two

were to be found by careful search on other hill-tops where

chips were plentifully scattered.

I cannot go deeply into the study of Pigmies to-day, but I

may. say briefly that they are the enigma and the mystery of

the Stone Age. They have been found only in quite a few

places, four or five of which are in England, a few in caves of

France and Belgium, and one in India in a cave of the Vindhya

Hills. Except in Ceylon they are, I believe, always made of

_ flint. They are found in caves or on low sandy hills, always,

Tam told, on the western slope; and in one case, in Lancashire,

they have been unearthed under ten feet of peat, implying a

very considerable antiquity. _Archeologists are still in doubt

whether they belong to the Old or the New Stone Age ; and

they are almost equally in doubt as to the purpose for which

they served. Where they occur they are found in thousands,

and in almost identical shapes and sizes. The commonest

STONE IMPLEMENTS OF CEYLON. 123

form in Ceylon is called the lunate or moon-shaped ; but there

are others, of which you will find specimens here to-day. One

shape well known in India appears to be missing in Ceylon.

On the othe: hand, some of the lunates found by me seem to

be very much larger-and thicker than any which I have heard

of elsewhere. More than this I do not feel inclined at present

to say. I intend sending specimens to Mr. Gatty and to the

British Museum, and hope to have their opinions in a few

months. I wish, however, to call your attention to the

extreme beauty and delicacy of many of the implements,

and to make one suggestion in that connection. . As I said

before, there is great uncertainty as to the uses to which they

were put. Some think they were surgical and tattooing

lancets ; others that they were fish hooks ; others that they

were the implements of some domestic manufacture, such as

weaving or wool-carding ; others that they were the barbs of

harpoons, spears, and arrows. It is quite possible that they

were all these and more. But another very important point

remains to be settled: Were the people who made these

exquisite Pigmies the same people who made the clumsy

scrapers and blades of Neolithic type ? Our first impulse is

to say that such a thing is impossible ; but consideration may

lead us to change our view. There are great gaps in the Neo-

lithic armoury. After years of search I have not yet found

al axe, a Saw, or a spear-head, and very few arrow-heads. It is

however inconceivable that savages could have dispensed

with spears and arrows in large quantities; and admitting

this, one is at a loss to understand why they are not found in

the same numbers as in other lands. I grant that we are

still only at the threshold of discovery, and I do not overlook

the possibility that the implements now wanting may yet be

found ; but I believe that some day it will be agreed, if not

proved, that the same people made both kinds of implements

continuously, and that the smaller and finer Pigmies were

used in numberléss ways to supply the deficiencies of the

coarser and ruder Neolithic tools.

124 SPOLIA ZEYLANIGA.

REMARKS ON DR. PEARSON’S REVIEW OF THE

SCIENTIFIC WORK DONE ON THE CEYLON

PEARL BANKS FROM 1902 TO 1912.

By T. SouTHWELL, A.R.C.S. (Lond.), F.Z.S., F.L.S.

Deputy Director of Fisheries, Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa ; late

Scientific Adviser and Inspector of Pearl Banks to the

Ceylon Company of Pearl Fishers.

HE January issue of Spolia Zeylanica (Vol. VIIL.,

4+ Part XXXII.) contained a review of the scientific work on

the Ceylon pearl banks from 1902 to 1912, by Dr. J. Pearson.

Certain features of this review call for attention, and will be

dealt with as briefly as possible in the following Paper.

Dr. Pearson states that he was prompted to write his review

because of certain misunderstandings which undoubtedly

exist, and with a view to determining how far the scientific

investigations have progressed towards the attainment of

their chief object. Unfortunately, certain features of the

work appear not to have been fully comprehended by the

writer of the review, and consequently the review in question,

which is in reality a critique, unnecessarily complicates the

whole question. The reveiw is of value, however, as setting

forth the opinions of a scientist of considerable standing. It

would have been of still greater value had the writer’s opinions

been formed after, instead of before, some practical experience

on the banks had been acquired. We make no special

emphasis on this point, however, but as bearing on the question

it is interesting to note that with reference to the establish-

ment of a close season for the window-pane oyster, Dr. Pearson

first stated (Spolia Zeylanica, Vol. VII., Part X XIX.) that

he agreed with Hornell that a close season for that oyster

should be established from May to January, but after some

practical experience on the banks in question, which have

rendered it likely that these oysters spawn during January

and February, Dr. Pearson is now of opinion that fishing on

the Placuna beds should be restricted to the months of March,

ae =

>t alll

REMARKS. ON DR. PEARSON’S REVIEW. 125

April, and May. With reference to the pearl banks, there is

every reason to anticipate that Dr. Pearson’s experience

thereon will result in some modification of his present opinions,

and, whatever these opinions may ultimately be, they will

then be of greater value. As far as my own work is concerned,

I am prepared to let it stand as itis. It was never intended to

be complete, and only future years can bring to light its value

or otherwise. The severe criticisms to which my reports have

been subjected have resulted in new ideas and explanations

having been advanced in order to explain away the results

acquired during five years. The criticisms have, however,

only extended the field of possible explanations, and have left

me the more convinced that the results already obtained first

require to be understood before they can‘ either be extended

or supplanted. As in the present Paper I have nothing to

add to my published reports, I propose replying under the

headings adopted in Dr. Pearson’s Paper seriatim.

Brief Résumé of Scientific Work.

Dr. Pearson remarks that the results of the work of Captain

Kerkham and myself “‘ are naturally of a somewhat meagre

nature.” At the same time he complains of the scarcity of

information as to what took place during the earlier part of

our work. Further, where we give full and careful accounts ©

of our work, as in the case of currents, the results are not

accepted by him, and it is stated that these results are not

convincing, and that more work is needed on this important

point. The latter part of this remark is gratuitous. We

repeatedly made this statement in our own reports. Whether

the information referred to is available or not, Dr. Pearson

commences his investigation of the questions connected with

the pearl banks with a fund of published information which no

other worker has ever possessed. Under such circumstances

his complaint is hardly logical. Moreover, all information

available which he may require can be had for the mere asking.

The period regarding which no published reports are obtainable

synchronized with a period of barrenness, and the importance

of information regarding this period is dwelt on by Dr. Pear-

son. The barren years still persist, and the opportunity is

thus present for the necessary data being collected now.

126 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Herdman’s Summary and Recommendations.

~.A complaint is again made that published information

regarding the gut contents of fishes is not available, as such

information would have been of interest in comparing the

fish fauna of the banks during fishery years and non-fishery

years. All available information could again have been had

for the asking. We showed that a bed of 400,000,000 spat

had been destroyed on the Periya Paar Kariya during 1908.

The opportunity is still present for determining the conditions

during barren years. If all the information which Dr. Pearson

appears to require had been available, there would have been

but little work left for him to do on the pearl banks. With

reference to transplanting, Dr. Pearson states that it has not

been carried on in a proper manner. As far as I know, only

one opportunity for transplanting occurred. That was during -

December, 1907, when spat, estimated at between nine and

ten millions, was transplanted from the Periya Paar to the

Cheval Paar by Capt. Cribb during Mr. Hornell’s managership.

If these operations had been successful, the oysters would

have been fished in due course. Dr. Pearson states that no

subsequent report indicates whether the experiment was a

success or a failure. He is in error in stating that I trans-

planted 9,000,000 spat. No spat was ever transplanted by

me, nor did I anywhere state that I had done so. After

Hornell’s retirement I made an attempt to discover the reason

why the transplanting operations had failed. My remarks

will be found in the Ceylon Marine Biological Reports, and

these remarks refer to the oysters transplanted by Hornell.

The only deposit of spat which occurred during my period

of office was that found on the Periya Paar Kariya, and this

deposit was annihilated by voracious fish, an account of which

will be found in Part IV., Ceylon Marine Biological Reports.

It is idle for Dr. Pearson to remark that subsequent to Herd-

man’s reports there is little evidence to show that efforts were

made to seriously guard against the alleged evils of overfishing

and overcrowding. A serious attempt was made to trans-

plant on the only occasion which presented, when, as we have

seen, between nine and ten millions spat were transplanted,

The operations occupied six weeks and cost probably weli over

REMARKS ON DR. PEARSON’S REVIEW. A yer ¢

£1,000. With regard to overfishing there is not the slightest

doubt that this took place during the Company’s régime, as

indeed it has done at every fishery, but if Dr. Pearson’s

interpretation of our current work is correct, this could not

have mattered, since any spat liberated by oysters which

might have been left for breeding purposes would have been

earried away, a conclusion with which I entirely disagree.

Pearl Production.

I made the first attempt to ascertain the exact nature of

the parasites contained in the globular cysts found scattered

about in the tissues of the oyster, by the only method possible,

viz., by feeding experiments. Various fish were fed on oysters

containing the cysts. The fish were first treated with castor

oil and male fern extract in order to get rid, if possible, of any

parasites already present in their intestines. A test examina-

tion of. a dosed ray indicated that the purgative had been

fairly. effective.. After the other fish had been feeding on

oysters for several weeks, they were killed and carefully

examined. Large numbers of Tetrarhynchus wnionifactor

(the pearl-inducing worm) were found. Other cestodes were

also found, viz., Tetrarhynchus herdmani, Phyllobothroides

hutsoni,, and Phyllobothroides kerkhami. In my _ reports

(Ceylon Marine Biological Reports, PartsTV. and V.) I pointed -

out that the experiment was not absolutely conclusive, but

that there was every réason to believe that 7’. wnionifactor

was the adult of the pearl-inducing worm, and that other

species found as a result of the feeding experiments were

parasites already present in the intestines of the fish when the

experiment was begun, and which the purgative had failed

to dislodge. The strength of the evidence lay in the fact that

T. unionifactor was obtained on both occasions, and that in: all

other rays examined from the open sea, and which had not been

fed on oysters, no specimens of this species had been obtained,

although TJetrarhynchus herdmani, Phyllobothroides hutsont,

and Phyllobothroides kerkhami were common. The circum-

stantial evidence is as strong as it could well be. Hvery

feeding experiment is always open to the objection that unless

the animal to be fed on larval cestodes is actually killed and

examined, any critic can say that the adult parasite was already

128 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

present when the operations began. Dr. Pearson states that

it would appear that all the species of cestodes, obtained as a

result of the feeding experiment, were derived from the oyster.

In that case he admits the entire efficacy of the purgative.

Commenting on my statement that I believed it probable

that these cestodes (7.e., those other than the pearl-inducing

worm) were present when the fish were placed in the nursery,

and that the purgative employed failed to dislodge them, Dr.

Pearson states that if that was the case the value of the

experiment is entirely annulled. According to him, therefore,

the experiments are useless, and they also prove that four

species of larval cestodes inhabit the tissues of the oyster !

To advance the theory that all the adult cestodes obtained

from the fish were derived from the oyster, is to brush aside

the obvious explanation, backed by all available evidence, and

to substitute a less probable theory whose only support is its

ingenuity. If the larva of all these four species of cestodes

occur in the oyster, why was it that during one year only

T. herdmani was obtained, whilst the next year P. hutsoni

and P. kerkhami were obtained, 7’. wnionifactor being present

in both cases ?

Currents.

We stated that during our period of office we found no

evidence to support the conclusion that oysters were occasion-

ally silted over by sand. We gave this as being our actual

experience during the five years we held office. Dr. Pearson

states that our conclusions can hardly be regarded as con-

vincing. The mere expression of an opinion cannot alter the

actual experience we had. The extract from Captain Legge’s

report, which Dr. Pearson quotes as being opposed to our

results, is of no consequence. According to this report,

places on which Captain Legge dived during March of a certain

year were then level rock with a coating of three inches of

sand. During November these spots were covered with

a foot of sand. There is not the faintest possibility of the

spots on which Captain Legge dived in March being exactly the

same as those dived on in November. Again, it is stated that,

as the tanks sukmerged by Captain Donnan (covering perhaps

eight square yards of the ocean floor) on the Shoal Buoy

te lS i ae A el ne eS 4

+ AC aoe te. 2 eee

‘ae.

REMARKS ON DR. PEARSON’S REVIEW. 129

position could not be found during a certain November, they

had therefore been silted over. Enormously larger areas than

that occupied by these tanks have repeatedly been missed.

Exceedingly skilful navigation combined with a large percentage

of luck is required in order to locate an area eight yards square

situated ten miles out at sea. The obvious explanation is that

the tanks were missed, and there is not the slightest proof

or probability that the tanks were actually silted over.

The acceptance of this evidence by Dr. Pearson is curiously

at variance with the critical attitude adopted by him in the

rest of his Paper. During the six successive November in-

spections which I attended, these tanks were found on every

occasion except one. In the latter case the weather was so

bad that inspection work was impossible, and consequently

the search for the tanks could not be carried out thoroughly.

The time occupied in locating these tanks has varied in my

experience from three hours to two weeks. But when located

they were never found to be covered with sand, even though

the maximum silting effects of the south-west monsoon would

then be apparent. The counter-effects of the north-east

monsoon referred to by Captain Legge could at that time of

the year have produced no change, as that monsoon had

hardly commenced.

We stated in our report that large “ pot-holes”’ occur on

certain parts of the pearl banks. If sand drifts about, why

are these pot-holes never filled up ? We never assumed that

the danger to oysters, caused by a bottom current, lies merely

in the fact that oysters will be swept away. The danger of

drifting sand was very fully recognized ; but any movement

of the bottom water which would produce silting sufficient to

cover and destroy a bed of oysters, say a half-mile square,

must be very great, and our experience showed conclusively

that during the period of our observations no such silting has

taken place. Our results were entirely negative, and we could

have wished them otherwise, for then the solution of certain

obscure problems would have been obvious enough.

Drift Bottle Experiment.

Dr. Pearson has, unfortunately, failed to understand the

results we obtained, and consequently his remarks on this

s 6(5)13

130 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

subject are difficult to co-ordinate. Drift bottle experiments

were first commenced by Hornell on Herdman’s recommenda-

tion. These bottles were all liberated in unsuitable localities,

and frequently during transitory stages of the monsoon. The

results were therefore of little or no value. The fullest details

of all these drift bottle operations are contained in a ledger

handed over to the Ceylon Government by the Ceylon Com-

pany of Pearl Fishers during 1912. This ledger should be

accessible to Dr. Pearson. We found that during the south-

west monsoon there was an oceanic current running from west

to east in the vicinity of Ceylon. An account of the origin of

this current will be found in the ‘“ Challenger ”’ publication—

The Science of the Sea—and a chart is given on pages 60 and 61.

When we published our results we were unaware that this

current had ever been noticed before. During weak south-

west monsoons this current does not touch Ceylon, but runs to

the south and west. Under these conditions there is a surface

drift on the banks caused entirely by the wind, and this

drift runs to the north, both on the Ceylon and Indian sides.

This explains the difficulty quoted by Dr. Pearson on page

216, paragraph (b), although he himself explains his own

difficulty on the same page. The same explanation was given

in our report (Part VI., page 236).

Dr. Pearson states that (i.) we have not fully discussed the

causes which produced these currents ; (ii.) that we have not

realized that the drift experiments do not assist us to discri-

minate between oceanic current and ordinary surface drift ;

and (iii.) that in a weak south-west monsoon the northerly

current flowing along the Ceylon and Indian sides of the Gulf

of Mannar is probably only a surface drift.

With reference to (i.), our Paper showed that we had to deal

with the inter-action of two phenomena : (a) an oceanic current

and (b) asurface drift, caused entirely by the wind. A discussion

of (6) was given by us indetail. Atthe time we wrote the origin

of the oceanic current was unknown to us. That, however,

in no way affected the results. It isnot necessary to know the

origin of wind before ascertaining that it blows, and that it

blowsin acertain direction. But, as before stated, the origin of

this oceanic current is dealt with in other publications. In

—s

REMARKS ON DR. PEARSON’S REVIEW. 131

large measure it is produced by the spin of the earth on

its axis.

With reference to (ii.), it would be strange if, after five and a

half years of intermittent work out at sea, ably assisted by a

Lieutenant in the Royal Naval Reserve, we both failed to

realize the difference between an oceanic current and a surface

drift. It is true that at any given time, and at any given

place, it is well-nigh impossible to state whether an obvious

- surface movement is due to an oceanic current, or whether

it is merely surface drift caused by the wind. Circumstantial

evidence would afford very valuable clues. In the time at our

disposal it was utterly impossible to attempt the differentiation

by means of water analyses. We shall wait with interest to see

what progress is achieved in this line during the next ten years.

With reference to (iii.), we have already pointed out in this

Paper, and in our Report (Part VI., page 235), that during a

weak south-west monsoon no currents are present on the

plateau which was under lease, and that the northerly set is

entirely a surface drift produced by the prevailing wind.

Bearing of Drift Bottle Experiment.

Dr. Pearson’s statement on page 218, that we have failed

to realize that during the north-east monsoon spat may be

carried from the Ceylon banks to the Tuticorin banks, is:

dependent on the supposition that oysters spawn in December

to February.

With reference to the spatting maximum, which is supposed

to take place during the north-east monsoon, Dr. Pearson’s

conclusions are based on a short statement to this effect made

by Hornell. The phenomenon has never been noticed by any

other worker in the whole history of the pearl banks. As

the results obtained by Hornell are so often stated by Dr. Pear-

son to be in error, it is curious that this remark of Hornell’s

should have been given such undue prominence. As it has

yet to be established that there are two spawning maxima,

there is little point in discussing improbabilities. If two

spawning maxima really exist, this molluse will differ remark-

ably from Placuna and from most other molluscs, both in

Indian and home waters, whose habits are known. Over 300

samples of plankton, collected over four years, during the

132 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

months of November, December, January, and February,

from the Challai, Alanturai, Dutch Moderagam, and Karativu

Paars, have been carefully examined by Captain Sewell, B.A.,

I.M.S., Surgeon Naturalist to the Marine Survey of India and

Professor of Biology in the Medical College, Calcutta. The

pearl banks have not been entirely barren during the whole of

the time over which the collections were made. Yet no trace

of oyster larvee has been found in these plankton collections.

A few such larve have been noted in two plankton catches -

from Marichchukkaddi Bay. Such larve have undoubtedly

come from the inshore bed of oysters on the Kondatchi Paar.

The oysters on this and other inshore beds spawn irregularly

(Ceylon Marine Biological Reports, Part V., page 202). The

Kondatchi Paar lies about eight miles north of Marichchukaddi

Bay, and as the wind was north during the time when the

plankton was collected (north-east monsoon) the occurrence of

a few oyster larvee in the catches from Marichchukkaddi Bay

is readily understood. It is possible that such a circumstance

may account for the phenomenon observed by Hornell.

Dr. Pearson is only partly correct in stating that we

established the presence of a current during the north-east

monsoon, which, sweeping the Ceylon banks, was capable of

carrying pearl oyster larve from the Ceylon to the Indian

side. We stated that during the north-east monsoon an

oceanic current ran up the west coast of Ceylon as far as

Tallaivillu Point, and from thence took a westerly course.

North of this point the surface currents (drifts) vary even

during the day with the direction of the wind by which they

are controlled, and to which they entirely owe their existence

(Ceylon Marine Biological Reports, Part VI., page 232).

It frequently happens that bottles liberated on the pearl

banks during the north-east monsoon are blown south and

become involved in the current running west. Our results

showed that 16°76 per cent. of bottles liberated on the pearl

banks during this monsoon were recovered from Southern

India. In other words, 83°24 per cent. of bottles were lost.

Spat, if present, would take a similar course. The great

bulk of it would be lost. It will be noted, however, that even

if spat is liberated during the north-east monsoon the chances

—

REMARKS ON DR. PEARSON’S REVIEW. 133

of its reaching the Tuticorin banks are remote, especially

since the route which such spat would have to take is a very

long one. In all probability they would develop a shell, and

sink long before they reached the Tuticorin beds.

Remarks.

The inspections of 1908, 1909, 1910, and part of that

conducted during 1911 represent the operations over which

Ihad charge. During the whole of this period the banks were

barren. The role of critic is proverbially an easy one. It is

not unlikely that many of the problems connected with the

pearl banks (which ought to have been settled long ago) will

still await solution a couple of decades hence.

Dr. Pearson clearly recognizes the nature of the work ahead.

It is repeatedly stated that certain problems we—and others—

have attempted to elucidate will require re-investigation.

There are few scientific problems to which this remark does

not apply. Our continued interest in the Ceylon pearl

fisheries leads us to hope that the progress during the next four

years will be greater than we found it possible to achieve in

the same period. If we have succeeded in furthering the

elucidation of the problems involved, in removing some from

the realm of mere speculation, and in initiating lines of work

and research, the development and expansion of which will at -

some future time result in a solution of some of the present

difficulties, our work will not have been wholly in vain.

In conclusion, I would call attention to the following extra-

ordinary statement on page 198 of the last issue of Spolia,

where, in Captain Legge’s Paper, it is stated that: “‘ True

pearls ...... are found in the intestines of the oyster, and,

when they reach such a size as to cause great discomfort to

the oyster, the oyster either dies, or, as I have observed,

forces the pearl towards the opening between its valves.”

Another surprising statement is found in the same article

on page 204 of the same issue, where we are informed that

“it is not true, as has been stated, that our blank years

are due to over-fishing.”” Finally, the quotation ascribed to

Captain Kerkham on the same page of the same issue is from

my own pen, and will be found on page iv. of Part VI., Ceylon

Marine Biological Reports.

134 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

WINDOW-PANE OYSTER INVESTIGATIONS,

JANUARY AND MAY, 1918.

By G. M. Henry.

(With two Plates.)

N January last I went to Lake Tamblegam, primarily to

obtain the larval stages of Placuna placenta, which is

supposed to spawn in the latter part of December or in

January. In addition to this I had arranged to make a

survey of the whole lake, to see how the large beds of one-year

old oysters which were discovered by Dr. Pearson in May,

1912, were thriving, and to take a series of measurements

which would throw further light on the growth-rate. When

I arrived at Tamblegam I found that the district was in a

state of flood owing to the abnormally heavy rains. On

January 12 a sample of plankton was taken by means of a

tow-net over the principal part of the bed from Kodaipota to

Sallaimunai, but the catch consisted entirely of freshwater

organisms and contained no Placuna larve. The water tasted

quite fresh, and was full of light-brown sediment brought down

by the flooded rivers. Under such conditions it was useless

to expect to find larve, and in consequence attention was

subsequently directed to inspecting the existing beds. A

preliminary line of nine dives was taken from Kodaipota to

Sallaimunai, and the oysters were found to be in a moribund

state. Few were actually dead, but nearly all were dying,

their valves tightly closed, mantle and foot fully extended.

Very little contraction could be induced by touching the

mantle or other sensitive parts. When actually dead the

valves gape and the pale appearance of all the organs clearly

indicates death.

The three following days were spent in inspecting and

tow-netting with the same result—oysters rapidly dying

everywhere, except in the portion of the lake between Patai-

addimunai and Korrinjavat, where. only a few were dead,

SS ee

>. a

WINDOW-PANE OYSTER INVESTIGATIONS. 135

the majority being quite normal and healthy-looking. As

was to be expected, no Placuna larvee were discovered in the

plankton. The gonads of most of the oysters were large and

swollen, but of a sickly grayish-yellow colour instead of the

rich orange of the normal ripe gonad. A microscope examina-

tion failed to reveal either ova or spermatozoa, although

numerous gonads were examined.

On the 16th, 17th, 18th, and 19th inspection work was

rendered impossible owing to the continuously heavy rain.

On the 20th Nachchikuda Bay was inspected. There is a

small bed of oysters at the head of this bay which do not grow

so rapidly as those in other parts of the lake, but they appear

to be much hardier. None of these oysters were dead.

On the 21st the south-west corner of the lake was inspected.

All the oysters were dead and putrefying, and occasionally

one saw the bodies of oysters floating on the surface in a high

state of decomposition.

On the 22nd the inspection was completed by a line of dives

taken from 600 yards south of Periya Kalmunai to the mouth

of the Polokarai-ar; but no oysters were found except at

the last station, where the oysters were abundant but all dead.

Whenever possible, tow-nettings were taken throughout the

inspection, but no Placuna larve were discovered. The usual |

planktonic organisms were not present, and mosquito larve

and small water beetles formed the only captures.

A further inspection was commenced on May 19. The

Government canoe was kindly placed at my disposal by Mr. T.

A. Hodson, the Assistant Government Agent at Trincomalee,

and I was assisted by a peon using one of the local boats.

Dives were made at 110 stations. In his Report on the

Window-Pane Oyster Investigations, 1912, Dr. Pearson divided

the oyster-bearing portions of the lake into twenty-two areas,

which are lettered from A to W, and I have retained these areas

in the present report. A description of the conditions

regarding the oysters in each area in May, 1913, follows.

Wherever possible, ten oysters were measured at each

station.

Area A.—Second-year oysters were found in the northern

extremity of Nachchikuda Bay. They averaged 4°627 x

136 SPOLIA ZEYLANIGA.

4:983 inches. A single young oyster measuring 1°125 x 1°25

inch was taken about 200 yards south of the nursery.

Area B.—The oysters in this area are confined to the

southern part near Kodaipota. They are all young, and

average 1°912 x 2°125 inches.

Area C'.—Oysters are scarce in this area and are only found

in the south-west half, the remainder apparently being

unsuitable for Placuna. The average size was 1:784 x

2-095 inches, against an average of 1:59 « 1:69 inch in May,

1912.

Area D.—Young oysters were found at only one station in

this area, at its southern corner. They averaged 1:787 x

2°25 inches.

Area E.—This area contains part of the only remnant of the

large bed of oysters which was present last year and which

was decimated by the rains in January. These oysters and

those in the north end of Nachchikuda are the only survivors.

There are apparently no young oysters mixed with these

second-year oysters, and I have noticed that new broods of

oysters do not seem to settle among one- or two-year-olds, to

any great extent, although the limits of their respective beds

may overlap a little. The average size of the second-year

oysters in the area is 5°202 x 5:°482 inches, and they were

abundant.

Area F.—Last year’s oysters were found at two stations in

this area also, at one of which, 200 yards south-east of the

estuary of the Manal-ar, they were very abundant. Their

average size for the area was 5°231 x 5:°537 inches. At

another station young oysters were found with an average

size of 1:555 x 1:65 inch, but they were scarce.

Area G.—Second-year oysters were found abundantly at

two stations in this area, and young oysters averaging 1°949

2:2 inches at two other stations. In May, 1912, the oysters

in this area averaged 2:16 x 2°32 inches, and were probably

of the same age as the present young ones.

Area H,—This area is almost entirely covered with young

oysters averaging 1:936 x 2:209inches. They are, however,

eo 8 oy

WINDOW-PANE OYSTER INVESTIGATIONS, 1a

not very abundant. The average size of oysters in this area

in May, 1912, was 2°20 x 2°39 inches.

Area J.—Oysters were found at only one station in this

area, just opposite the mouth of the Sembian-ar. They were

not very abundant and averaged 1°55 « 1:7inch. This area

last year was one of the most prolific, the oysters being almost

piled on top of one another and averaging 1:96 « 2°15 inches.

Area K hasthree oyster-bearing stations, at which oysters

were fairly abundant, especially in the northern half of the

area. ‘They averaged 1:816 x 1:987 inch, as against 2°57 x

2°79 inches last May.

Area [L.—This area is well stocked with oysters having an

average size of 1°304 x 1°45 inch, which does not compare

very favourably with the average for May, 1912, of 2°14 x

2°28 inches. They are not so abundant as last year.

Area M.—Young oysters were found close to the shore along

dhe entire boundary of the area, despite the fact that the

water in this part is very shallow and covers a sandbank

(Muttikallam). At one station 300 yards south-east of

Sallaimunai mark they were abundant. The average size for

the area was 1-664 x 1:774 inch, as against 2°55 x 2°85 inches

in May, 1912. Probably most of the oysters will die off

shortly, owing to the undoubtedly unsuitable conditions.

Area O.—This area has young oysters in abundance almost

all over its surface. Their average size is 1:814 x 2-032

inches.

Area P.—Oysters abundant in the southern half, but

practically absent from the northern half of this area. They

compare unfavourably in size with the oysters in this area in

May, 1912, averaging only 1°591 x 1:°737, against 2°46 x

2:27 inches last year. .

Area Q.—Oysters were taken at only one station in this

area, their average size being 1°383 > 1:°516 inch. They

were fairly abundant.

Area R.—This area is covered with oysters with the excep-

tion of the south corner, where the Sinna Palamput-ar opens

Totus 6(5)13

138 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

into the lake. The oysters average 1°778 x 1:946 inch,

against 2°04 x 2°16 inches in May, 1912. They are very

abundant on the whole.

Area S is completely covered with oysters of very good

average size, and very abundant. They average 2:094 x

2°354 inches. In May, 1912, only one specimen measuring

2°87 x 3°25 inches was taken in this area.

Area T is another well-stocked and satisfactory area, the

oysters being both abundant and of good average size. They

average 2°012 x 2°274 inches.

Area U.—Oysters abundant in the south-east portion of the

area, but scanty further north. They average 2:08 x 2°391

inches.

Area V.—Oysters abundant and having an average size of

1°87 x 2:162 inches.

Area W.—These three last areas were quite barren of oysters

last year and the year before, and this lack of oysters was pug.

down to the extreme softness and thickness of the mud which

forms the bottom of these areas, but apparently this is no

preventative of oysters in their young stages at least. The

average size for this area was 1*766 2°075 inches.

It will be seen that the deposit of oysters this year, while

more extensive and evenly distributed than last year or the

year before, consists of smaller oysters on the whole. Also

one does not find the densely packed patches which were

evident last year. One would naturally expect as a result

of this better distribution, a corresponding increase of size

compared with last year’s oysters, but this is not so. It is

possible that the present bed of oysters was spawned later in

the year than the 1912 bed, and this seems the most probable

explanation, because the rains (which almost certainly prevent

spawning while they last) continued much later this year than

they did in 1912.

In addition to the work of inspecting, a series of water-

samples was taken in various parts of the lake for the purpose

of determining the salinity and its bearing on the questions of

distribution and growth-rate, but the samples have not yet

been tested. :

ee ee a ee

~~ '?

WINDOW-PANE OYSTER INVESTIGATIONS. 139

A sketch map is annexed showing the distributions of 1912 -

oysters by horizontal lines, and that of this year’s oysters by

vertical lines. It also indicates the areas mentioned in this

Paper. A diagram is also given which compares the sizes of

first-year oysters in May, 1912, with first-year oysters in May,

1913, the measurements of the short diameter being given.

Note by J. Pearson.

Mr. Henry’s report of January and May inspections shows

once more how critical is the rainy season of the north-east

monsoon. In January, 1912, a fairly large bed of oysters was

practically wiped out as the result of the heavy rains in the

previous November and December. In the inspection of May,

1912, a very large bed of young oysters was discovered.

These have also been destroyed by the excessive rains of

January, 1913. As a rule January is a dry month. The

oysters had evidently survived the November and December

rains, and it is unfortunate that the rains in January were so

abnormally heavy. It may be presumed that oysters which

survive the first rainy season are not so much affected by the

second, and if the large bed of oysters could only have

survived, a lucrative fishery would have resulted in two or

three years’ time.

It seems highly probable that Placuna spawns when only

twelve months old, and the evidence collected during the

last two years renders this almost certain. Although we have

not yet been able to discover the larve in the plankton, we

can be certain that spawning does not take place until after

the rains. If the larve were liberated before or during the

rains they would be killed. For the last two years we have

had large spat-falls after exceptionally wet seasons. We are

thus forced to the conclusion that spawning follows the rains.

In fact it is probable that the low salinity of the water stimulates

the reproductive organs. Mr. Henry shows that the young

oysters found this year are smaller than those recorded last

year.. This is probably due to the fact that the rains were

140 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

later this season than last, and that in consequence the spawn-

ing period was later. Spawning may be said to take place

three or four weeks after the cessation of the rains.

Through the kindness of Mr. A. J. Bamford of the Colombo

Observatory I am able to give some rainfall statistics of the

Tamblegam district. The exceptionally heavy rains of

January, 1913, will be noted.

Rainfall in the Tamblegam District.

November.

1910. 1911. 1912.

Inches. Days. Inches. Days. Inches. Days.

Trincomalee 5b OL O29) Our 2 97a Persp seep lic 20a eaten eee

Kanthalai Deal OSI: eee 4 Orel CBG Pe UG ae PIS) mec hte!

Allai Tank P23 2b 2.6 NOE 428 70.6 Ua: will eet PD 23 2 eee

Minneriya 2 20328) We 0s S188 7s: 2oimee LSS 2a eee

Topawewa oe O98 s Nevew 2 Sa 20743 oer Llane LO Ome O

Vakaneri USL GPS bos AAS LSS fos eed i SAG Ae ee

December.

1910. 1911. 1912.

Inches. Days. Inches. Days. Inches. Days.

Trincomalee ee DOS a LG ee DA Cee oS ack Om meine

Kanthalai SEE OTL ile DZ ROB G22 th AOS OR seme

Allai Tank ebb OL Pye Tks 228 SOM) wr, 0 lacs a8 O10 men enema

Minneriya Bites cyto H lege aan Eerie sy Lye MEP AIL = aise OPO AG” 7)E

Topawewa se 28509 Bur 24, DiNOO se scudO. ce O28 Seer e weal

Vakaneri Fate! iy {0 emma ko Wiemmeg sar: Os ies eaten ay Ate KOCILTPO IY 6 a. 22

January.

1911. 1912. 1913.

Inches. Days. Inches. Days. Inches. Days.

‘Trincomalee sno 84 Ba. 5 bOle SOR GL) O24 Bio Ce see

Kanthalai wee i Sd eee Oe AO 200 2 29:69 ... 25

Allai Tank i, PRO td Leet tet GO.Nor. 2 9) Bale urod sO 2 ume aim ee

Minneriya Re ye TAO ho tend AER ae aS Aled s Po bOO AN Cialy a. 280

Topawewa se) dl SOOM ae eee — 4. 35. O2oOe 9 24

Vakaneri ie 1 IGM aeemealal nets peasy 2: 6 43°71 29

February.

1911. 1912, 1913.

Inches. Days. Inches. Days. Inches. Days.

Trincomalee eee Oe? 3} 56) WOU See OR oe tS

Kanthalai ees 00 OR 0-00 Om IEE SA 8!

Allai Tank oe O45 2a oO O00 Ol T40K. Sae He

Minneriya pon W745 Paso (UROL Ors S600 Team ed

Topawewa bia WOK Om: -— coe any pak Src ifs Yciog Lt

Vakaneri anal AB 5. 0°05 Ve: 6508.5 veel

(‘USATS JoJoUVIp WAOYY) “ET6T ‘AvP pure ‘Zz T6L ‘Avypy ‘soyshCO aeo- {SIL JO uostvdu0g

Piseveecls a ING IN =O Se Or vet. (0) Wee i UP oh eee eGo

i | Ih ii il

€/b) KOL] oor

S/lb/ Koyy —

“TAX 99YM1I “AIXXX 207 “NT OA ‘DoruniiaZz piu0ds waugoul

NOTES. 14]

NOTES.

7. Further Note on the Cup-marked Rock at Kudagama.—

With reference to my note on a Cup-marked Rock found at

Kudagama in the North-Central Province (Spolia, Vol. VIII.,

Part XXXII., p. 289), I placed myself in communication with

Mr. H. Parker in order to ascertain his views on my theory as

to their origin. His remarks I annex, as they are very

interesting.

I certainly have not tried the experiment which he suggests,

but I venture to suppose that with such shallow holes, placed

as they were on a very large mass ofstone, that the heat

raised, while sufficient to melt fragments of ironstone, could

hardly penetrate deep enough to melt the surrounding rock.

If one of these “‘ cups ’’ occupied a solitary piece of stone, and

that was bodily placed in a furnace, I anticipate the result

would be as Mr. Parker suggests, but in this case we are

dealing with a very large table of solid rock, on the surface of

‘ which are a number of pockets from 24 to 10 inches deep.

As regards the pointed shape of the hole, I venture to_

think that this can be accounted for by the amount of acuteness

in the apex of what I call the “ drilling stone.”’ I moreover

think that it was with the object of securing a tapered mould

that these were made, so as ultimately to obtain a cone-shaped

bit of metal to be fashioned into awedge. If the outline was

circular only, or campanulate, it would be necessary to expend

much labour and trouble to reduce the mass into a wedge-like

form.

On the other hand, if the theory that these holes were used

as crucibles is untenable, we are forced to ask why they should

be arranged in such peculiar order. They adopt no pattern,

and are not deep enough to allow us to suppose that they were

sockets for a superimposed structure.

If the holes were cut to form a large “‘ game board ’’—some

prehistoric billiard table in fact—one is met by a difficulty in

explaining the variety of depths, and also the difficulty that

142 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Mr. Parker finds in accounting for pointed holes, quite apart

from the fact that the surface of the rock on which these

particular holes are cut, while being tolerably flat, is scarcely

smooth enough for pebbles, to have been “ played” from

hole to hole. Moreover, there is the fact facing us that this

same stone had pieces wedged out of it for building purposes,

and the wedge marks are still to be seen side by side with the

cup marks.

In one of Mr. Parker’s sketches, in his work ‘‘ Ancient

Ceylon,” the slope of a rock having these cup marks appears to

be of so high an angle as to negative still further the theory

that they were constructed for some game.

I venture to submit these remarks with a view to directing

further investigation, as it still is by no means clear what these

cup holes were for.

[Note by Mr. Parker.—I am afraid that your explanation of

them will not account for them. Have you ever tried to get up

the heat required for smelting iron in one of the holes? I feel sure

that it would be impossible. Also the heat that would melt

ironstone would also melt the other stone in which the holes are

cut. In the insides of the holes I examined I found no sign of the

use of heat in them. Most of them were well polished, or at any

rate, well smoothed over. Any explanation ought also to account .

for the pointed holes. I believe the holes were first cut with

chisels, and then completed and perfected by turning something

round in them for a long time—but whether this was before their

employment for the purpose for which they were made, or in

consequence of their employment, I do not know. I fancy it was

owing to their long use, however, that they became worn so

smooth inside, and of such perfect shape.—W. H. Parker. |

FREDERICK LEWIS.

Colombo, April, 1913.

8. A Predatory Red Ant.—Last May I noticed a large

butterfly fluttering vigorously on the ground evidently in the

grip of something, so I ran out to see what it was. A single

red ant (Hcophyllia smaragdina) had seized it by one of its

antennz, and was holding on grimly, despite the butterfly’s

frantic struggles, which must have been almost sufficient to

drag the ant’s body and legs asunder. I popped them both

into a cyanide bottle, in which they soon died, the ant still

ee eS

yee ee

NOTES. 143

gripping the antenna tenaciously. The butterfly proved to be

a specimen of Catopsilia crocale, and the edges of its wings

were badly frayed with beating against the earth. I did not

notice any other ants in the vicinity, but doubtless they would

soon have rallied to their comrade’s assistance froma neigh-

bouring mango tree which was thickly stocked with them.

Colombo Museum, GEORGE M. HENRY.

July 10, 1913.

9. ‘* Bloodsucker’’ Lizards eating small Birds.*—In April

last a pair of sunbirds built their nest at the end of a whippy

branch of the Japanese Hibiscus in my garden.

One morning on entering the garden I noticed a bloodsucker

lizard on the path trying to swallow something unusually

large. Close inspection showed it to be a newly-fledged young

bird. I made him drop it and found he had eaten the head.

I then noticed the sunbird’s nest on the ground, containing

another young bird, the weight of the lizard having evidently

brought it to the ground. I tied it up as well as I could in its

original place, and the hen-bird at once began feeding the

surviving young one. Half an hour later I saw, what I believe

to be, the same lizard crawling out along the twig to the nest ;

so [ killed it.

Haldummulla, _ W. ORMISTON.

November 8, 1912.

10. Length of Life of Butterflies in the perfect stage.*—In

breeding experiments with certain species of Mycalesis I have

noticed that all the females I put into cages to lay eggs seem

to live for about six weeks. They usually take two or three

weeks before starting to lay, but, once started, they apparently

lay one or two eggs per diem till they die. I fancy they must

lay much more freely in a wild state.

Haldummulla, W. ORMISTON.

November 8, 1912.

* Read before the Ceylon Natural History Society, December 17,

1912.

144 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

11. Some Notes on the Breeding Habits of some Ceylon

Snakes and Reptiles —The snakes that breed most frequently

in captivity are naturally those that take to it most kindly,

such as T'vopidonotus stolatus. The numerous specimens of

this snake, which I have kept during the last two years, have

produced a very large quantity of eggs, each snake usually

‘averaging about fifteen in number. None of my cobras have

ever laid eggs, probably on account of their excitable disposi-

tion, and the fact that their cage is considerably smaller in

proportion to their size than that of T'ropidonotus stolatus.

The laying period of T'ropidonotus stolatus is very variable, and

extends from the end of April to the middle of September,

while the cobra breeds from May onwards.

The python has often been known to breed in captivity, but

although [ kept a collection of fourteen adult specimens loose

in a room for over a year, no eggs were obtained, though one

of the snakes, fifteen feet in length, was originally caught in

a hole, in May, with twenty-eight eggs, that were on the

point of hatching.

Of the ovoviviparous snakes T'rimeresurus trigonocephalus

(the ‘‘ green polonga ”’) lays about December, and Ancistrodon

hypnale in September.

The genus Bryophis contains both oviparous and ovovivi-

parous snakes, but of the Ceylon varieties, Bryophis mycterizans

is ovoviviparous ; only on one occasion has one of my specimens

of this species bred, when three young were produced, all dead.

Bryophis pulverulentus being an uncommon snake, I have

been unable to discover whether it is oviparous or not.

A Vipera russellii (tic polonga) kept in Colombo, in the

course of a week gave birth to 28 young in captivity, all of

which died except one, and that and the parent died soon after,

probably on account of the snake injuring itself in its struggles

when caught, as even then the foetuses must have been in an

advanced stage of development. ‘The young “ tics ”’ were of a

very dark colour, almost black, the leaf pattern being marked

in white lines, which, however, becomes very indistinct as the

snake grows larger, when the pattern has a broad dark edging.

These young snakes were about 7 in. in length, with the poison

apparatus fully developed.

NOTES. 145

The head of the female tic polonga is smaller and less

distinct from the neck than that of the male, and the tail is

naturally shorter.

On April 26, a Helicops schistosus that had been impregnated

in captivity laid thirteen eggs, and remained in a very swollen

condition until May 13, the lower portion of the body being

swollen with eggs to an extraordinary extent. Two hardened

lumps had appeared through the skin on each side of the anal

scale at the beginning of May, and on the 13th the snake died.

Dissection revealed the presence of nineteen eggs in the ovaries,

and that two of the eggs had burst through the skin, on each

side of and above the anal. As faras I could discover this

was due tothe snake being unable to shed its slough, which

had thickened over the anal and prevented the extrusion of

the eggs. These two batches, thirty-two eggs in all, constitute

a record so far as my personal experience of snakes is concerned,

though the python, according to Mr. Hagenbeck, may lay as

many as one hundred eggs, the incubation lasting two and a-half

months.

Two eggs of T'ropidonotus ceylonensis which I found lying in

the open outside a hole, were peculiarly shaped, rather like a

curved sausage. The eggs were 13 in. long and nearly } in.

broad, a large size for so small a snake, which averages 18 in.

in length. The exposure of the eggs to the sun had probably

killed the young, as they were found fully developed but quite

dead inside ; another dead one which had just hatched out

was also found.

In the young snakes the yellow collar markings were absent,

but the yellow borders to the black vertebral blotches were

very distinct. The snakes were 6} in. in length.

Dipsas forstenii has been impregnated and laid numerous

egos in captivity in the months of August and September,

and Zaminis mucosus in May, July, and September, though as

such a nervous snake as the latter will only breed in a large

enclosure, I keep mine loose in a room with the pythons. It

is a remarkable example of the “ anti-reptilian ’’ appetites of

the pythons, that I have never known one to swallow a

ratsnake.

U , > 6(5)13

146 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Lylindrophis maculatus is ovoviviparous, and in April I

found three well-developed foetuses inside a dead specimen.

Tropidonotus asperrimus lays from May to August; the

almost identical species 7’. piscator is said to incubate its

eggs, and lay in one clutch containing as many as forty, but

as none of my 7’. asperrymus have ever laid, I have had no

opportunity of observing this habit.

According to Major Wall the Dendrophis pictus is ovovivi-

parous.

The period between the impregnation of the female snake

and the hatching of the eggs is between four and five months—

the hatching usually occupying a month or six weeks.

The eggs are usually laid in a hole where decaying vegetation

gives off warmth and moisture, and, contrary to common

belief, are well protected from the sun, which would soon

shrivel up the eggs through their soft skin. ‘The young snake

cuts two cross slits in the envelope with a sharp-edged tooth

attached to the preemaxillary (in the front of the mouth between

the upper jaws). A young T'ropidonotus stolatus, which I saw

hatched, withdrew its head after first seeing daylight, and

remained in the egg for about two hours, though it kept

looking out at intervals. Young snakes are quite active

directly after birth, and retain for some time a distinct slit in

the abdomen, covered only by a thin skin, but the ventral

shields soon close over it.

To pass on to a few other reptiles. A “talagoya’”’ (Varanus

bengalensis) caught a week ago has laid (June) seven soft-

shelled eggs, of oval shape, while a Testudo elegans, in the

middle of April, laid four hard-shelled eggs, kicking each egg

out of the way with its hind legs as it laid it, to prevent it

being broken by the others. The eggs resembled fowls’ eggs,

but were rounder in form and slightly smaller.

The crocodile lays its eggs in a hole in moist sand at the edge

of the water, or in a deep hole in a bank, large enough to

contain itself. When the vicinity of the “tank ”’ it frequents

is much disturbed by human beings, it will often travel far to

rock holes and lay its eggs there. The hatching period is

very irregular, and varies from July to September, and the

eggs are laid with a hard shell, which gradually softens to a

s. -

“* pees ~ 1 >

a eh, *?, oie. _—

NOTES. 147

leathery consistency. At Kokobe, in the Anuradhapura

District, I came across a batch of crocodile’s eggs at hatching

time, in a sand hole by ariver. Some of the young crocodiles

had already escaped, and had entered the water with the

egg-shells still attached to them by the navel cord, though the

water soon released them. Others were still coiled round in

their eggs, or lying half in and half out. On being disturbed

they ran about with much activity, uttering low whines, and

protesting with angry hisses. The parent was floating in the

water not far off, but did not show much anxiety on account

of her offspring, and even those young that had escaped into

the water did not approach her.

Altogether I obtained about 24 of these young crocodiles,

but they all died off within four months—probably the meat

and fish diet I gave was indigestible for such young ones,

and they no doubt required as food such small animal life as

they would have found in their native jungle stream.

A. F. ABERCROMBY.

Anuradhapura, June, 1913.

12. How a Crocodile feeds.—The crocodile usually seizes its

food with a lateral snap, and raising its head out of the water

with the snout pointing straight upwards, snaps and shakes the

morsel until it succeeds in jerking it into its throat. Should

any portion (for instance the claw of a bird) catch in the side

of its mouth, it either shoves it in with its hind leg or breaks

it off with violent slaps of the tail. If the food is too large

and the reptile in danger of choking, it returns the food to its

mouth by a muscular contraction of its throat, and will then

bite and shake it about until a piece is torn off. The teeth of

the crocodile are only used for tearing its food, which it never

really masticates. In the case of live animals, the crocodile will

hold its prey under the water until drowned. The crocodile’s

nostrils are at the tip of the snout, and while its prey is being

drowned the nasal passage comes into close connection with

the trachea, and thus the crocodile is able to breathe without

swallowing any water.

148 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

After the prey is dead the crocodile tears off the flesh by

catching hold of it with its teeth and giving violent jerks of

the body. Sometimes, however, it prefers to leave the meat

until putrified.

A. F. ABERCROMBY.

Anuradhapura, May 27, 1913.

THE CEYLON NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

Sixth General Meeting.

Tue Sixth General Meeting of the Society was held in the

Colombo Museum on Friday, May 30, 19138. Dr. Andreas Nell

presided in the absence of the President.

Mr. C. Hartley read a Paper on “‘ Stone Implements of Ceylon.’’*

Dr. Pearson gave an account of some of the faunistic results

of the recent inspection of the Ceylon Pearl Banks. Numerous

specimens were exhibited.

* Published in full on page 117 of the present number of “ Spolia

Zeylanica.”’

L7IMAGO DE L’EUTERMES LACUSTRIS DE CEYLAN. 149

LIMAGO DE L’EUTERMES LACUSTRIS DE CEYLAN,

Par E. Buenton.

(Avec deux planches. )

je décrit ’année derniére dans la Revue suisse de Zoologie

le soldat, V’ouvrier, la nymphe, la reine et le roi de

) Lutermes lacustris, mais n’ai rien pu dire de l’imago, ne la

connaissant pas encore & cette époque.

Cette lacune a dés lors été comblée, grace & une heureuse

trouvaille de Mr. Oscar John de St. Pétersbourg.

Mr. John a, au cours d’une excursion 4 Hantana, rencontré

un nid d’£. lacustris qui renfermait, entre autres, des imagos

en trés grand nombre. Le méme observateur ayant bien

voulu me céder quelquesuns de ces insectes, je me trouve

actuellement en mesure de les décrire.

Hantana est une chaine de collines qui s’étend an sud de

Peradeniya sur une longueur de plusieurs milles et s’éléve

& une altitude de 3,000 pieds. Les sommets sont rocailleux,

formés de grosses pierres superposées. De grandes herbes

qui masquent des fentes traitresses rendent ‘eur accés assez

pénible. En dessous des sommets, sur les flancs de la mon-

tagne, se trouvent des bouquets de jungle qui abritent

d’intéressants Termites. C’est 14 que le Prof. Escherich a

découvert en 1909 l Hutermes hantanae (décrit par Holmgren),

C’est 1& que j’ai trouvé moi-méme dans un trone pourri imbibé

WVhumidité une belle colonie de T'ermitogeton umbilicatus, Hag.*

Le nid VE. lacustris observé par Mr. John était un magni-

figue nid de carton de bois, brun foncé, réguli¢érement arrondi

& la surface, placé dans la fourche d’un arbre a 30 pieds

environ au dessus du sol. (Photographie ci-jointe.)

Ses dimensions étaient : pourtour 76 cm., longueur 26, largeur

20, hauteur 16. A Vintérieur se voyaient de nombreuses

* Cette curieuse espéce a été observée dés lors dans la jungle de

Kotua (low-country) a 8 milles au nord de Galle et en plus grand

nombre (5 colonies) sur la colline couverte de jungle qui se trouve au

dessus Hatton (4,500 pieds).

x 6(10)13

150 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

anfractuosités pareilles aux cavités d’une éponge. Un cordon

brunatre (tunnel) montant le long de l’arbre a la surface de

l’écorce, servait au va-et-vient des Termites.

Ayant fait “ cueillir” la termitiére par deux coolies, Mr.

John eut la satisfaction de la rapporter intacte & Peradeniya

et de pouvoir & loisir étudier ses habitants. C’était en

décembre 1912. Le nid placé dans la fourche d’un arbre prés

du laboratoire entomologique a été quelque temps aprés

malheureusement détruit par un orage. Ce dernier renseigne-

ment m’a été donné par Mr. E. Green.

L’observation de Mr. John est, comme on voit, instructive

a divers égards. Elle montre que lH. lacustris peut, dans

certaines circonstances, faire un nid de carton ligneux suspen-

du 4 l’air libre ;* elle prouve au surplus que ladite espéce

n’habite pas exclusivement le low country et ne se trouve pas

nécessairement au bord des lacs, mais peut occasionnellement

se rencontrer sur les collines.f

Descrip'ion.—Longueur 74 & 8 mm., avec les ailes 143 a 16,

ailes 12 4 134, abdomen 4 a 5.

Téte d’un brun foncé assez brillant (presque noire), avec le

clypeus, les piéces buccales et les antennes d’un brun jaunatre.

Thorax et tergites abdominaux brun sépia avec une pubes-

cence jaune, courte et serrée. Dessous du corps plus clair.

Part'es membraneuses de abdomen blanchatres, garnies de

* Certains Termites qui vivent habituellement dans un arbre creux

et se bornent a protéger leur demeure au moyen d’un opercule de carton

de bois, peuvent, lorsyue l’arbre n’offre pas de cavité convenable,

construire de toutes pieces un nid de carton appendu & l’extérieur.

J’ai publié moi-méme une observation de ce genre relative a l’E.

monoceros (le Termite noir de Ceylan, observations nouvelles. Bull.

Soe. Vaud. Se. Nat., Vol. 47, 1911, p. 423)—Les nids de carton appen-

dus 4 Vextérieur des arbres, exceptionnels pour les EH. monoceros et

lacustris sont, comme on sait, la demeure ordinaire de certains Eutermes

d’Afrique, de Madagascar, de Bornéo et du Brésil.

+ J’ai observé moi-méme durant mon séjour a Talgaswella (février

1913) un nid d’Hutermes lacustris semblable & celui quia été capturé

par Mr. John. Ce nid fait de carton de bois brun foneé mesurait

45 em. de longueur, sur 20 de largeur et 16 de hauteur. II n’était

pas attaché 4 un arbre, mais reposait sur le sol au pied d’un albizia.

La surface était couverte d’une lame brune assez dure; on voyait

& Vintérieur de nombreuses cavités séparées par des cloisons. J’y

trouvai, outre les ouvriers et les soldats, un grand nombre de nymphes,

mais aucune imago compléte. La reine et le roi n’ont pas été observés.

Talgaswella est un estate du Jow-country situé a 30 milles environ

au nord de Galle.

ae ee

L’IMAGO DE L’EUTERMES LACUSTRIS DE CEYLAN. I51

poils serrés, ailes légérement enfumées, avec le bord antérieur

d’un jaune assez vif. Pattes jaundtres, rembrunies au bout

des cuisses et & la base des tibias.

Téte en ovale allongé, légérement aplatie entre les yeux.

Yeux gros, arrondis. celles rapprochée des yeux, trés con-

vexcs. Fontanelle oblongue, élargie d’arriére en avant, son

bord antérieur concave, formant (au niveau de la suture) un v

trés ouvert.

Antennes de 15 articles, brunatres, rembrunies vers la base,

avec les aiticulations jaune paille : 3 + 4 ensemble un peu plus

longs que 2 ; 3 un peu plus court et plus étroit que 2; 4 plus

gros que 3 ; 3 un peu plus étroit que 4; les suivants graduelle-

ment un peu plus longs.

Clypeus 24 fois plus large que long, convexe, avec un sillon

médian. Proclypeus membraneux, transparent; son bord

antérieur en forme de v renversé largement ouvert.

Labre en forme de pelle, rétréci & la base, puis légérement

élargi vers le milieu; sa face dorsale garnie de quelques

poils.

Mandibule gauche (Fig. 3), outre la dent apicale, avec une

2me dent acérée prolongée par un tranchant un peu convexe,

une 3™e dent plus petite placée au bout postérieur de ce

tranchant, une 4™¢ dent, forte, triangulaire,* séparée de la

3me par une petite incisure, prolongée jusqu’ & la base par

un bord sinueux.

Mandibule droite, ontre la dent apicale, avec une 2™¢ dent

de méme force, une 3™¢ dent large, obtuse, & bord sinueux

séparée de la précédente par une incisure en v, une échancrure

plus large (en demi-lune), enfin une apophyse basale, dont le

bord presque droit, proéminent en dedans, offre une douzaine

de crénelures. Menton 14 fois plus long que large, rétréci

@arriére en avant; son bord postérieur légérement arrondi.

Appareil maxillo-labial bien développé; peigne du lacinia

formé d’une douzaine de cils. Langue en forme de poire,

élargie en avant.

Pronotum non relevé en avant, un peu plus étroit que la

téte au niveau des yeux, d’un tiers plus large que long,

*La 4™° dent qui caractérise Ja mandibule gauche se retrouve, plus

développée, chez #. hantanae.

Isp SPOLIA ZEYLANIGA.

rétréci d’avant en arriére; ses angles antérieurs arrondis, le

bord postérieur largement arrondi, sans échancrure.

Eeailles alaires d’un brun foneé, les antérieures plus grandes

que les postérieures.

Nervure costale d’un jaune doré, rembruni 4 la base ;

radius jaune, bordé postérieurement d’un léger liseré noiratre ;

médiane gréle; atténuée (parfois bifurquée) vers l’apex, éloi-

enée du radius, rapprochée de la médiane, avec 3 ou 4 bran-

ches latérales fines traversant obliquement le vaste champ

radio-médian ; cubitus grele, atténue vers l’apex, avec 11

branches, dont les 7 premiéres épaissies, de couleur brunatre.

Les bords des ailes sauf dans le tiers interne, garnis de petits

poils; quelques poils clairsemés a la surface. Observée au

microscope, l’aile entiére se montre couverte de rugosités

ponctiformes trés serrées.* L/aile postérieure, trés semblable

a lantérieure, différe seulement en ceci que la médiane, au

lieu de s’insérer au bord de l’écaille, se détache du radius en

dehors de celle-ci.

Pattes assez velues ; une épine plus forte (interne) au bout

du tibia ; 3™e article du tarse proéminent en dessous du 4™e-

Les pattes postérieures n’atteignent pas tout a fait le bout

du corps.

Disposition des sternites abdominaua chez le male

et la femelle.

Liimago de VE. lacustris, par le fait que le sternites se

détachent en brun foncé sur un fond blanchatre, montre

plus nettement que d’autres espéces les caractéres externes

qui différencient les deux sexes.

Tandis que la face dorsale de abdomen (formée de 10

tergites) est identique chez le ¢ et la ¥, la face ventrale est au

contraire trés différente.

Male (Fig. 5).—Face ventrale de abdomen composée de

neuf sternites : 1 (placé en arriére des hanches postérieures)

un peu plus petit que 2; 2,3, 4, 5et 64 peu prés identiques ;

7 (dans le sens antéro-postérieur) deux fois plus court que 6 ;

8 entier, plus court et plus étroit que 7 ; 9 (terminal) divisé en

* L’aile de lH. singaporiensis parait d’aprés la description de Havi-

land semblable & celle de l’#. lacustris, avec cette différence que chez

E. singaporiensis, le cubitus donne 8 branches au lieu de 11.

LIMAGO DE L’EUTERMES LACUSTRIS DE CEYLAN. 153

deux plaques triangulaires. Papilles piliféres placées des

deux cdtés de 9.

Femelle (Fig. 4)—Jace ventrale de ’abdomen composée

de huit sternites : 1 placé comme chez le 6, un peu plus petit

que 2 ; 2, 3, 4 et 5 a peu prés identiques ; 6 (dans le sens

antéro-postérieur) beaucoup plus leng que les précédents,

formant une grande plaque & bord_postérieur arrondi; 7 com-

posé de quatre petites piéces tr'angulaires les deux de droite

assez ccartées des deux de gauche ; 8 (terminal) divisé en

deux plaques triangulaires, semblab'e au 9°dumale. Papilles

piliféres placées des deux cdtés de 8.

Les iraits distinctifs des sternites abdcminaux des

imagos 6 et ? ont été indiqués par J. Feytaud pour Leuco-

termes lucifugus (Arch. d’anat. micr. Paris, juin, 1912). Je

les ai étudiés moi-méme chez Termes Horni (Rev. suisse de

Zoologie, Genéve, 1913).

Précédemment déja Haviland a signalé chez divers T'ermes

et Hutermes (imagos), la plaque de dimensions plus grandes

qui s’observe chez la 2 au coté ventral. La forme de cette

plaque est pour plusieurs espéces soigneusement indiquée

(Journ. Linn. Soc., London, Vol. 26, 1898).

Je faut remarquer toutefois que, dans les descriptions de

cet auteur, la grande plaque, an lieu d’étre désignée sous le

nom de 6™¢ sternite, est appelée “‘ ventral plate of the 7 th.

abdominal segment.”

Haviland admet, semble-t-il, que les Se ventrales des

Termites répondent aux plaques dorsales tandis ae en

réalité une telle concordance n’existe pas.

Mes figures 4 et 5, exactement dessinées & la chambre claire

d’aprés des préparatious au baume, montrent a la base de

Vabdomen une partie membraneuse qui, chez les Termites

actuels parait rattachée an métathorax, mais qui chez les

formes ancestrales, répondait vraisemblablement au tergite 1.

Cette région, désignée dans les figures par la lettre o, est en

grande partie cachée sous la 3™¢ paire de hanches et sous

les expansions ‘atérales qui en dépendent. La discordance

qui d’observe dans le nombre des sternites et des tergites

sexplique par le fait que, chez les Termites actuels, aucun

sternite ne se développe a ce niveau.

154 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Quant aux traits distinctifs qui caractérisent l’abdomen

du 6 et de la ¥, on peut, suivant ma maniére de voir, admettre

les propositions suivantes :

(1) Le sternite terminal du 6 (divisé en deux piéces triangu-

laires) correspond au sternite terminal de la &.

(2) Le sternite 7 de la ¥ (divisé en quatre piéces) répond

au sternite 8 du 6, resté indivis.

(3) Le sternite 6 de la ¥ (grande plaque) répond & deux

sternites du 6, savoir aux sternites 6 et 7, soudés en un seul.

Le but des dispositions observées chez la ¥ (formation de la

grande plaque) parait étre de donner aux oviductes et au

vagin un point d’appui plus solide, lorsque l’abdomen se

contracte pour faire progresser les ceufs & l’intérieur.

EXPLICATIONS DES FIGURES.

Planche XXII.

Nid d’Hutermes lacustris observé & Hantana. D’aprés une

photographie de Mr. O. John.

Planche XXIII.

Hutermes lacustris.

Fig. 1.—L’imago, apres la chute des ailes. x 16.

Fig. 2.—L’aile antérieure. x 16.

Fig. 3.—Tete de limago, coté ventral. x 40. On a, pour

montrer plus distinctement les mandibules, enlevé l’appareil

maxillo-labial.

Fig. 4.—Imago %, face ventrale d’aprés une préparation au

baume. xX 21.

I-X Série des tergites.

1 25a. eee série des sternites.

a2, a3 ailerons des hanches 2 et 3.

g Orifice génital.

o Partie (membraneuse) de l’abdomen correspondant au 1°

tergite, rattachée secondairement au métathorax.

Fig. 5.—-Imago 6, partie de la face ventrale d’aprés une pre-

paration au baume, X 21. Chiffres et lettres comme dans fig. 4.

“ae

Spolia Zeylanica, Vol. 1X., Part XX XV. Plate XXII.

Nid d’Eutermes lacustris observé 4 Hantana. D’aprés une

photographie de Mr. O. John.

Plate XXIII,

pee]

L’'Imaco pE L’ EUTERMES LACUSTRIS.

EUTERWES HANTANAE DE GEYLAN. 155

EUTERMES HANTANAE DE CEYLAN.

Par E. Buenton,

(Avec deux planches.)

AL Ree MERE par Escherich sur les collines de Hantana,

lHutermes hantanae est une espéce bien caractérisée,

décrite par Holmgren, propre parait-il &4 up-country. Ayant

retrouvé cet Hutermes & Hantana (altitude 2,800 pieds) j’aieu

la bonne chance de capturer une imago dans le nid lui-méme.

Observés & l'état frais, ces Termites (ouvriers) se distinguent

des autres espéces a téte jaune en ce que l’abdomen a une

couleur gris cendré rappelant quelque peu les Capritermes.

L’E. Hornt Wasm, si commun dans lup-country, a un soldat

a téte rousse (ferrugineuse) avec le bec de méme couleur.

L’E. Escherichi de Peradeniya (long. 24-3 mm.), a comme

VE. hantanae \a téte jaune et la corne rembrunie, mais les

antennes sont plus longues et la téte est resserrée en arriére

de celles-ci.

L’E. longicornis (long. 2°75 mm.) a la téte jaune brun et la

corne rembrunie, mais les antennes sont formées de 13 articles

et la téte n’offre par de constriction.

Le but du présent article est de faire connaitre l’imago

jusqu’ici inédite.* J’ajoute, puisque l'occasion se présente,

quelques détails relatifs & l’ouvrier et au soldat.

Imago (fig. let 2), d’aprés un exemplaire unique. Longueur

54 mm, avec les ailes 12, envergure 22, téte 11.

Téte brun foncé, assez velue, avec des yeux noirs fortement

bombés. Le reste du corps d’un brun plus clair mat, avec une

pubescence jaune ; ailes brunatres ; le clypeus, le proclypeus,

les piéces buccales (pro parte), les antennes et les pattes de

couleur jaunatre.

Téte ovoide, yeux ronds, proéminents, relativement assez

gros. Ocelles, de forme allongée, éloignés des yeux d’une

distance égale a leur largeur. Fontanelle grande formant

* L’imago décrite par Holmgren sous le nom d’#. oculatus se

rapporte probablement a LH. longicornis (Voy. Escherich. Termiten

leben auf Ceylon. Jena, 1911], p. 300),

156 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

un tache claire en ovale allongé. Clypeus convexe, 2} fois

plus large que long, avec un sillon médian. Proclypeus

membraneux, de moitié plus court que le clypeus. Labre en

forme de pelle, rétréci 41a base, élargi vers le milieu (semblable

acelui de l’ouvrier) ; sa face dorsale garnie de quelques poils.

Antennes de 15 articles : 3 + 4 ensemble a peine plus longs

que 2; 3 un peu plus court et plus étroit que 4; 5 un peu plus

petit que 4, de méme grosseur que 3; !es suivants un peu plus

gros, ovoides.

Mandibule gauche, outre la grosse dent apicale, avec une

2me dent presque aussi forte prolongée par un tranchant

droit; ce dernier s’arréte 4 une petite dent (8™¢); aprés celle-

ci une petite incisure, puis une 4™¢ dent trés forte en forme

de lancette, une échancrure large, enfin une 5™e dent obtuse,

limitant en dedans l’échancrure d’insertion de l’adducteur.

Mandibule droite, outre la grosse dent apicale, avec une

2me dent triangulaire presque aussi forte, une 3™¢ dent plus

petite séparée de la précédente par une échancrure, enfin une

apophyse basale mousse, proéminente, 4 contours sinueux.

La denture de la mandibule gauche, trés caractéristique, se

retrouve identique chez louvrier.*

Appareil maxillo-labial et palpes bien développés, de la

forme ordinaire.

Pronotum un peu plus étroit que la téte au niveau des yeux,

transverse, d’un tiers au moins plus large que long, légérement

trapézoide (sa plus grande largeur un peu en avant du

milieu), son bord antérieur droit, non relevé au dessus de la

téte, ses angles antérieurs arrondis, le bord postérieur

avec une petite échancrure, les bords latéraux faiblement

courbés.

Keailles alaires d’un brun foncé, hérissées de quelques poils,

les postérieures un peu plus petites que les antérieures. Ailes

légérement enfumées. Nervure costale d’un brun jaun-

tre, plus faible vers le bout. Radius, 4 partir du milieu,

avec un bande sous-jacente de couleur jaundtre. Médiane

* L’imago, semblable 4 l’ouvrier par la structure des mandibules,

différe cependant de ce dernier par la longueur des antennes (15 articles

au lieu de 13) et par la forme trés différente de l’abdomen et du thorax.

C’est vraisemblablement pour donner 4 la téte un point d’apnui

plus solide que le bord du pronotum se reléve chez Pouvrier.

EUTERMES HANTANAE DE CEYLAN. 157

gréle, atténuée vers Vapex, trois fois plus distante du radius

que du cubitus au milieu de Vaile, privée de branches anté-

rieures, avec trois rameaux postérieurs qui remplacent chez

cette espéce les branches fournies d’ordinaire par le bout

du cubitus. Cette disposition, trés caractéristique, suffit

& distinguer limago de lH. hantanae de celle des autres

Eutermes Singhalais. Cubitus raccourci, donnant seulement

6-7 branches. Son extrémité, infléchie en arriéve, rejoint le

bord postérieur un peu en dehors du milieu.

Bord de Vaile garni de petits poils plus nombreux vers

Vapex. Quelques poils clairsemés & la surface.

Observée au microscope, l’aile entiére montre des rugosités

ponctiformes assez serrées.

L’aile antérieure différe de la postérieure en ce que la nervure

médiane se détache de Vécaille, tandis que dans l’aile pos-

térieure la médiane se détache du radius (un peu en dehors

de l’écaille). Le cubitus de l’aile postérieure est relativement

un peu plus court.

Pattes assez velues. Une épine plus forte (interne) au

bout de chacun des tibias.

Abdomen (chez mon exemplaire) court et étroit, a bords

paralléles. Papilles sétiféres de grandeur ordinaire. Les

pattes moyennes atteignent le bout du corps, les postérieures.

le dépassent de beaucoup.

Ouvrier (Fig. 3 et 4) —Longueur 441 mm.

Blanchatre avec les articulations et les dents des mandibules,

les baguettes des adducteurs et les dents des maxilles d’un

brun plus ou moins foncé.

Intestin. d’un gris brunatre, visible par transparence a

Pintérieur de abdomen.

Téte presque glabre, corps hérissé de poils rigides plus

nombreux vers le bout.

Téte un peu rétrécie d’avant en arriére, presque penta-

gonale (Holmgren), avec la plus grande largeur en avant des

antennes.

Sutures céphaliques non visibles (difference marquée

d’avec EL. lacustris qui a une suture en T de couleur cla re

nettement dessinée).

4 6(10)13

158 SPOLIA ZEYLANIGA.

Clypeus fortement convexe, 24 fois plus large que long,

avec un sillon médian. Les insertions musculaires formant &

la face profonde (sur les préparations au baume) deux dessins

étoilés.

Proclypeus membraneux, de moit.é plus court que le

clypeus.

Labre en forme de pelle, rétréci & la base puis légérement

dilaté en arriére du milieu. Deux lignes de rugosités poncti-

formes visibles par transparence comme chez les Termites

en général.

Antennes aussi longues que la téte avec les mandibules,

formées de 13 articles : 3 un peu plus court que 2, 4 de méme

longueur et, ainsi que les suivants, un peu plus épais que 3.

Mandibule gauche, outre la grosse dent apicale, avec une

2me dent un peu moins forte prolongée par un tranchant droit,

une 3™e dent trés petite au bout postérieur de ce tranchant,

une échancrure en v, une 4™e dent trés forte en forme de

lancette (semblable & celle de Vimago), puis une 5™e dent

obtuse, limitant en dedans Véchancrure d insertion de la

baguette. Mandibule droite, outre la grosse dent apicale,

avec une 2™e dent moins forte, une 3™¢ dent trés petite,

séparée de la précédente par une inciture en v, une échancrure

plus large, enfin une apophyse basale fortement proémin-

ente, 4 contours sinueux. Echancrures maxillaires petites,

reportées en avant. Menton quadrangulaire, mobile (non

soude).

L’appareil maxillo-labial offre la disposition habituelle.

Pronotum petit, de moitié plus étroit que la téte, d’un tiers

plus large que long, rétréci d’avant en arriére, son bord anté-

rieur fortement relevé derriére la téte, non échancré. Meso-

notum plus large que le pronotum, ses bords plus arrondis ;

metanotum plus large que le mesonotum ; son bord postérieur

relevé de maniére 4 s’adapter au 1€T segment abdominal.

Pattes transparentes, hérissées de poils courts. Deux

épines plus fortes (internes) au bout de chacun des tibias.

Tibias renflés dans leur partie moyenne, amincis aux deux

bouts. Une coche bien marquée au premier quart. Bord

ventral du 3™e¢ article tarsien prolongé en dessous, comme

chez les Hutermes en général.

EUTERMES HANTANAE DE CEYLAN. 159

Abdomen ovoide, fortement renflé; les papilles sétiféres

bien développées. L’abdomen, de structure membraneuse,

ne se décompose pas en tergites et en sternites nettement

visibles.

Observés au microscope, les parties latérales (transparentes)

de abdomen montrent des rugosités trés fines, disposées en

séries longitudinales nombreuses et serrées. Le thorax et

Vabdomen de louvrier sont en somme plus semblables a

ceux du soldat qu’ & ceux de l’imago.

Larves d’ouvriers.—Plusieurs larves blanches, longues de

14 & 2 mm. montraient distinctement tous les caractéres de

Youvrier (absence de corne frontale, mandibules dentées,

etc.) Les antennes étaient, chez la plupart, composées de 12

articles.

L’exemplaire dessiné fig. 5 montre par transparence les

trois ganglions thoraciques relativement trés gros, rapprochés

les uns des autres et d’une maniére plus vagu: les six ganglions

abdominaux. Le bout de labdomen porte deux styles

médians et deux cerque. latéraux & proport'on plus développés

que chez l’adulte.

Soldat (Fig. 6-11)—Longueur 3}4mm. Téte avec la corne

1°8; corne seule 0°75; largeur de la téte 0:98.* Téte jaune

paille, avec les bords latéraux et le bec rembrunis. Corps

blanchatre, garni de poils rigides. Pattes transparentes

hérissées de poils courts. Les intestins vus par transparence

4 ’intérieur de l’abdomen forment une masse noiratre parti-

ellement masquée (comme déchiquetée) par les masses blanches

du corps graisseux.

La téte, vue d’en haut, est réguliérement arrondie puis

prolongée en forme de cone du cété du bec. La corne, d’un

tiers environ plus courte que la téte, est droite, cylindrique,

avec Vextrémité conique, garnie de quelques pols. Une

légére dilatation se montre & droite et & gauche au—dessus

des insertions des deux antennes.

Vue de profil, la téte offre une ligne fronto-nasale légérement

relevée en arriére de la base du bec, puis un peu déprimée en

avant du front. Le front lui-méme, un peu convexe, ne se

* Ces mesures out été prises a V’aide de I oculaire micrométrique.

160 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

trouve pas dans le plan de la ligne fronto-nasale, mais parait

légérement relevé au dessus de celle-ci. L’ampoule glandulaire

est située dans la partie supérieure et postérieure de la téte.

Observée par transparence (sur une préparation an baume),

elle montre un arriére-fond de forme ovoide appendu en dessous

du segment supérieur. L’appareil entier est entouré d’une

épaisse couche de muscles circulaires et longitudinaux dont

les fibres se croisent & angles droits. Le canal excréteur

légérement dilaté a l’origine (partie contractile) offre ensuite

un calibre régulier, 4 peu prés cylindrique, et une direction

rectiligne jusqu’ au bout du bec. Observée a un fort gros-

sissement, sa paroi offre une fine striation dans le sens de la

longueur.

N.B.—Les sujets tués dans l’alcool, le chloroforme, etc.

montrent leur ampoule a I’état cont-acté. Observée avant

Vexpulsion du contenu, celle-ci offrirait des dimensions bien

plus grandes.

Antennes gréles et allongées (longueur 1°5 mm), formées de

12 articles : 3 de moitié plus long que 2; 4 pluscourt que 3, un

peu plus long que 2.

Le labre, difficile & voir, se montre sur la téte observée de

profil comme une saillie convexe et sur la téte vue d’en haut

(fig. 8), comme une proéminence & contour arrondi dépassant

la base du bec des deux cétés.

Le tentorium (fig. 9 et 10) est une lame quadrangulaire

prolongée par quatre piliers. I] y a deux piliers postérieurs

courts fixés au bord antérieur de la lame basilaire et deux

piliers antérieurs longs aboutissant en dedans de Vanneau

qui soutient l’antenne. L/orifice laisse comme toujours passer

Voesophage et les connectifs nerveux. Le ganglion sous-

oesophagien, de forme ovale. est placé entre le tentorium et

le menton. Les muscles abducteur et adducteur de Pantenne

s’insérent sur la face dorsale du tentorium.

Les échancrures maxillaires, relativement assez grandes,

offrent un petit tubercule sur lequel s’articule le cardo de la

maxille,

EUTERMES HANTANAE DE CEYLAN. 161

Les mandibules (fig. 9 et 10), bien différentes de celles de

VE. monoceros,* sont représentées par deux piéces & peu prés

triangulaires venant, dans la position fermée, en contact par

leur sommet. Ce dernier, formé d’ une chitine épaissie, est

tronqué obliquement. L’articulation de la mandibule (fig. 9)

correspondant & l’articulation mandibulaire ventrale des

Termites en général, se trouve sur le bord de l’échancrure

maxillaire un peu en arriére du cadre de ’antenne. Le muscle

adducteur, relativement trés faible, est & peine plus épais que

Vabducteur.

Le menton (fig. 11), plus large que long 4 la base, rétréci

dans sa partie antérieure, s’articule sur deux baguettes chiti-

neuses qui renforcent les bords latéraux du trou occipital.

(Ces baguettes s’observent également chez les autres Hutermes.)

Les maxilles sont petites, la 2™¢ dent du lacinia a peine

visible, le peigne formé de 6 a 7 cils, le galea relativement

un peu plus grand.

Il y a, comme chez les Termites en général deux glosses et

deux paraglosses, insérés sur le bord antérieur de la ligule et

deux palpes labiaux composés de trois articles.

La langue (hypopharynx) petite, en forme de poire allongée,

est comme toujours fixée & la face dorsale de la ligule.

Les contours de la cavité buccale peuvent étre distingués

sur la figure 7 (vue de profil) ainsi que ceux du pharynx et de

Voesophage. Thorax petit, ensellé. Bord antérieur du pro-

notum relevé derriére la téte, non échancré. Bord postérieur

du metathorax relevé de facon &@ s’adapter au 1¢™ segment

abdominal. .

Abdomen renflé, ovoide, de structure membraneuse (tergites

et sternites indistincts).

Pattes gréles et allongées. Tibias élargis dans leur partie

moyenne, rétrécis vers les bouts. Une coche bien marquée a

* Les Eutermes de Ceylan (soldats) peuvent, suivant la forme des

mandibules, étre répartis en 3 groupes :—

(1) Mandibules formées d’une lame aplatie, tranchante, prolongée en

avant par une épine (#. monoceros Koen., lacustris Bug., Eschericht

Holm., ceylonicus Holm., Hornt Wasm.

(2) Forme intermédiaire avec une épine courte insérée obliquement

(Z. longicornis Holm.).

(3) Mandibules plus ou moins triangulaires dépourvues d’épine

(E. rubidus Hav. grand et petit soldat, hantanae Holm., Kotuae Bug.).

162 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

la jonction du quart supérieur et des ? inférieurs. Deux

épines plus fortes (internes) au bout de chaque tibia. Bord

inférieur du 3™e article tarsien, comme chez les Hutermes en

général, fortement prolongé.

EXPLICATION DES FIGURES.

Planche XXIV.

Fig. 1.—L’imago. ~X 13.

Fig. 2.—Téte et pronotum deVimago. x 31.

Fig. 3.—L’ouvrier vu de cété. X 23.

Fig. 4.—Téte de lVouvrier, préparation au baume. xX ° 43.

L’appareil maxillo-labial & été enlevé afin de rendre les dents des

mandibules plus apparentes.

Fig. 5.—ULarve d’ouvrier longue de 1°8. xX 37. Les antennes

ont 12 articles. On voit par transparence la chaine des ganglions

ventraux.

Planche XX V.

Fig. 6.—Le soldat vu de cété. X 31. On distingue par trans-

parence les six ganglions abdominaux.

Fig. 7.—Téte et thorax du soldat vus de cété. X 49. On voit

par transparence l’ampoule glandulaire et le canal exeréteur.

Le pharynx et loesophage qui étaient remplis de débris de bois

(d’un noir opaque) ont pu, grace a cette circonstance, étré exact-

tement dessinés.

Fig. 8.—Téte du soldat, vue d’en haut, avec Pampoule glandu-

laire et le canal exeréteur. x 49. Les saillies qui se voient des

deux codtés de la base du ‘bec, en dedans des maxilles, reponse

aux deux bords du labre.

Fig. 9.—Téte du soldat avec les mandibules rapprochées. x 49.

a cadre articulaire de l’antenne, e échancrure maxillaire avec

Varticulation du cardo, / insertion du labre, m mandibule, m son

articulation, o trou occipital, ¢ tentorium.

Fig. 10.—Téte du soldat. x 49. Mandibules écartées une de

Vautre (luxées) au moyen des aiguilles.

Fig. 11.—Téte du soldat. x 49. L’appareil maxillo-labial

préparé et remis en place.

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Spolia Zeylanica, Vol. 1X., Part XXXV. r Plate XXIV.

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EUTERMES HANTANAE.

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RE-CLASSIFICATION OF MULLERIA AND HOLOTHURIA. 163

PROPOSED RE-CLASSIFICATION OF THE GENERA

MULLERIA AND HOLOTHURIA.

By JOSEPH PEARSON.

(With one Plate.)

HE suggestions embodied in the present paper are the

result of a careful examination of a large number of

species of the genera Mulleria and Holothuria. These two

genera are separated from each other by a single character,

namely, the presence of anal teeth in the former and the

absence of these structures in the latter. The only point in

favour of this basis of classification is that it is convenient

and simple. But taxonomic distinctions must necessarily

be made in accordance with relationship, and there is good

reason for believing that the accepted classification based

upon the presence or absence of anal teeth gives no true

conception of the affinities of this group. For example, the

relationship between Miilleria miliaris and Holothuria mar-

morata is much closer than that between the latter species

and Holothuria impatiens ‘or than that between WMiilleria

miliaris and Miilleria maculata.

The affinities of the various species of the group are rendered

much clearer by a systematic examination of the calcareous

ring. This structure has never before received the attention

it undoubtedly deserves, and one finds it dismissed with such

statements as “‘ typically Aspidochirote ” or ‘‘ without poste-

rior prolongations.” As a result of such a careful compara-

tive study not only of the calcareous ring, but also of the

other organs of the body, I have been impressed with the

need for a more scientific classification than the one at pre-

sent in vogue.

I propose to unite the genera Mnlleria and Holothurta under

the latter name, and to divide the genus into five sub-genera.

164 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

The genus Holothuria, as it is at present understood, will

be composed of three sub-genera—(1) Bohadschia, to which

such a form as Holothuria marmorata belongs ; (2) Halodeima,

which will include Holothuria atra and its allies; and (3)

Thymiosicya, of which Holothuria impatiens may be regarded

as the type. The genus Miilleria will be divided into two

sub-genera—(1) Actinopyga, including such forms as Miilleria

miliaris ; and (2) Argiodia, to which Milleria maculata and

its allies belong.

Diagrammatically the proposed changes may be represented

as follows :—

Sub-genera :—

( Bohadschia ,

Genus Holothuria 2 Haloderma | Genus Holothuria

l Thymiosicya ' ein Us ie

Sethe Actinopyga | ;

Genus Mijllersa { Argiodia J

There are only four characters of any taxonomic value in

the genus. These are (1) the arrangement of the ambulacral

appendages ; (2) the nature of the spicules ; (3) the presence

or absence of anal teeth; and (4) the structure of the calcareous

ring. The number and arrangement of the tentacles, Polian

vesicles, and stone canals are variable characters even within

the limits of a single species. This is also true of the

Cuvierian organs. |

AMBULACRAL APPENDAGES.

The ambulacral appendages show considerable variation

within the genus both as regards the kinds of appendages and

also their distribution.

It is difficult to say whether any members of the genus are

supplied with true pedicels only, although many authors have

described such species, and Ludwig gives this character in his

diagnosis of the genus Holothuria. Most workers at the

group have not examined living specimens of the forms they

RE-CLASSIFICATION OF MULLERIA AND HOLOTHURIA. 165

have described, and in many cases it is absolutely impossible to

distinguish a true pedicel from a papilla, except in a living

specimen. Many so-called pedicels have the appearance

of a true pedicel, but they are not used by the animal as

anchoring or locomotory organs. The distinction is easily

seen in the living form, and I do not remember having seen a

living Holothurian in which the dorsal appendages to any

great extent had the power of attaching themselves to a

foreign surtace. The sub-genus Bohadschia is said by many

authors to have true pedicels all overthe body. After examin-

ing a living specimen of Bohadschia vitiensis I said: “The

pedicels are irregularly scattered, and the sucking discs are

apparently not well developed, since the animal does not appear

to use them much.’’*

In many forms true pedicels are present on the trivium, and

the bivium is covered with papillz which may have a cylindri-

cal shape and a well-developed sucking disc, or may be conical

and may be devoid of sucking discs. In many cases true

pedicels may be scattered among the dorsal papille.

Again, some species have no true pedicels, and these forms

are more highly specialized than those which have pedicels

on the trivium.

The absence or presence of pedicels appears a reliable

means of separating the two sub-genera Halodeema and Thy-

MIOSICYM.

NATURE OF THE SPICULES.

The spicules in the genus may consist in'the simplest forms

of dichotomously branched “ rosettes.” It is easy to conceive

how these may give rise first to perforated plates and later to

“buttons” and ‘‘ tables.” Those forms possessing tables and

buttons may be regarded as more highly specialized than

those in which the spicules are in the form of ‘“ dichotomous

rods”’ and “ rosettes.”

* Spolia Zeylanica, Vol. IX., Part XXXIV., p. 59.

Z 6(10)13

166 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

CALCAREOUS RING.

The primitive aspidochirote calcareous ring was composed

of ten simple pieces (five radials and five inter-radials) without

anterior or posterior prolongations (Pl. XXVI., fig. 1). The

radial longitudinal muscles were attached to the radial pieces,

and in consequence these were notched anteriorly for the

insertion of the muscles, and because of this the radial pieces

were larger and stronger than the inter-radials (Pl. XXVI.,

fig. 2). The tentacular ampulle arose near the anterior end of

the calcareous ring, and in consequence the anterior end of the

ring became scooped out at twenty places (ampullary notches)

corresponding to the twenty tentacles (Pl. XXVI., fig. 3).

Such a type is seen in the sub-genera Actinopyga and Bohadschia

(Pl. XXVL., figs. 4 and 5). In Bohadschia vitiensis the inter-

radials do not project so far forward as the radials. This

difference gradually becomes emphasized, and at the same time

the ampullary notches become less and less marked, until in the

sub-genera Argiodia, Halodeima, and Thymiosicya the ampul-

lary notches are rarely clearly marked, and there is a marked

difference between the radials and inter-radials in respect of

the amount of anterior prolongation. Coupled with this we

find that the anterior projections of the radials and inter-

radials are clearly separated by a deep indentation (Pl. XXVLI.,

figs. 6, 7, and 8).

ANAL TEETH.

The presence of anal teeth is not a primitive character,

although the anus of the primitive Holothurian was probably

pentagonal.* I am inclined to think that the appearance of

the anus in Bohadschia is more primitive than the conditions

in Halodeima and Thymiosicya. In the latter ’sub-genera the

anus is generally rounded, and the papille are not grouped

around it in any definite manner. In Bohadschia the anus is

surrounded by five groups of papilla, which give the anus a

* That is to say, in the contracted condition. In Bohadschia vitiensis

the pulsating anus is alternately rounded and pentagonal during the

conditions of diastole and systole, respectively.

RE-CLASSIFICATION OF MULLERIA AND HOLOTHURIA. 167

five-rayed appearance in the contracted condition. It is not

difficult to understand how these groups of papillz may be

converted first into eminences very richly provided with

spicules, and later into five calcareous masses. The presence

of anal teeth in Actinopyga and Argiodia does not necessarily

point to a close relationship between the two sub-genera, and

it is possible that in the group under discussion, as in some of

the Dendrochirotz, these structures have little or no phyletic

significance, and may have arisen independently in the two

sub-genera.

AFFINITIES OF THE FIVE SUB-GENERA.

Taking these four characters and applying them to the five

eub-genera, we find that with regard to the ambulacral

appendages Actinopyga is the most primitive, since, with few

exceptions, the pedicels are arranged in three rows on the

trivium. In Bohadschia, which in other respects shows close

affinities with Actinopyga, the pedicels are scattered over the

trivium, with the notable exception of Bohadschia graffet.

The species of the sub-genus Bohadschia are described by

many as having pedicels all over the body. If such be the

case, this would strengthen the claim of Bohadschia to be

considered the most primitive member of the genus. J’hymio-

sicya, with its complete lack of true pedicels, may be regarded

as the most highly specialized.

The evidence of the spicules points to Baba and

Bohadschia being the most primitive sub-genera, and also

indicates their close relationship. The same conclusion is

forced upon one by a comparative study of the calcareous

ring.

I have already pointed out how the pentagonal anus of

Bohadschia may be more primitive than the condition of

things seen in the other sub-genera, and that the anal teeth of

Actinopyga and Argiodia may be readily derived from the

condition of things found in Bohadschia.

The weight of evidence goes to show that Bohadschia and

Actinopyga are more closely related to each other than to the

163 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

other three sub-genera, and that Bohadschia is the more

primitive form. The genera Argiodia, Halodeima, and

Thymiosicya are united on the common ground of similarity

of spicules and calcareous ring.

I show the relationship of the sub-genera in the following

diagram :—

Thymiosicya

Argiodia

Halodeima

Actinopys@

Bohadschia

/ Ancestral

{| Aspidochirote

I give below the diagnoses of the genus and the sub-genera.

xenus HOLOTHURIA. Linn.

(= Miilleria, Jager 1833 + Holothuria, Linn. 1758.)

Usually twenty peltate tentacles, exceptionally more or less.

Ambulacral appendages, pedicels alone, papille alone, or with

both. A single bundle of genital tubes on the left side of the

dorsal mesentery. Calcareous ring without posterior pro-

longations or long retractor muscles. Cuvierian organs often

present. Anal teeth sometimes present.

RE-CLASSIFICATION OF MULLERIA AND HOLOTHURIA. 169

Sub-genus Actinopy@a.* Bronn.

(= Actinopyga, Bronn, 1860, partim ; Wiilleria,

Jager, 1833, partim.)

Generally twenty tentacles, but occasionally more. Ambu-

lacral appendages, papillz on the bivium and pedicels on the

trivium, the former being scattered and the latter being usually

arranged in three more or less distinct rows. Anal teeth

present. Calcareous ring has well-marked bevelled ampullary

notches, and the anterior border has no deep indentations

between the radials and inter-radials. The radials extend

almost as far forward as the inter-radials. Spicules small,

generally taking the form of dichotomously branched. rods or

spinous rods, or both. Tables and “‘ buttons” never present.

Eight species :—

Actinopyga agassizi (Selenka), Actinopyga echinites (diger),

Actinopyga formosa (Selenka), Actinopyga lecanora

(Jager), Actinopyga mauritiania (Quoy &

Gaimard), Actinopyga miliaris (Quoy & Gaimard),

Actinopyga obesa (Selenka), Actinopyga serratidens,

(Pearson).

Sub-genus Bonapscuis.}+ Jager.

(= Bohadschia, Jager, 1833; Holothuria, Linn.

partim ; Sporadipus, Brandt, 1835, partim.)

Twenty tentacles. Ambulacral appendages, pedicels, and

papille. The trivium bears pedicels only, which are generally

scattered, but which may be arranged in three rows. The

bivium may bear either papillz only, or papillze mixed with

pedicels (? or pedicels only). Anus surrounded by five groups

of papilla and in the contracted condition generally pentagonal

in shape. Anal teeth absent. The calcareous ring closely

* This sub-genus is almost identical with Bronn’s genus Actinopyga.

I therefore retain this name.

{ The sub-genus which I now establish for H. marmorata and the

related forms is practically identical with Jager’s Bohadschia. I there-

fore propose re-establishing this name, which has long been discarded.

170 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

resembles that found in Actinopyga. Spicules in general similar

to those of Actinopyga.

Five species :—

Bohadschia marmorata (Jager), Bohadschia argus (Jager),

Bohadschia vitiensis (Semper), Bohadschia paradoxa

(Selenka), Bohadschia graffei (Semper).

Sub-genus ARaiop1A.* Sub-gen. nov.

(= Miilleria, Jager, 1833, partim ; Microthele,

Brandt, 1835, partim.) —

Twenty tentacles. Ambulacral appendages, papille on

the bivium and pedicels on the trivium ; no arrangement into

rows discernible. Anal teeth present. Calcareous ring

having no well-marked ampullary notches. The anterior

border deeply concave between the radials and inter-radials.

Spicules well-developed and consist of tables and buttons.

Four species :—

Argiodia maculata (Selenka), Argiodia parvula (Selenka),

Argiodia excellens (Ludwig), Argiodia flavo-castanea

(Théel).

Sub-genus HALODEMA.{ Sub-gen. nov.

(= Holothuria, Linn. partim ; Microthele, Brandt, 1835,

partim ; Sporadipus, Brandt, 1835, partim ;

Trepang, Jager, 1833, partin ;

Cystipus, Haacke, 1880.)

Generally twenty tentacles, occasionally more or less.

Ambulacral appendages, papillee on the bivium and pedicels

on the trivium. Generally no arrangement into rows discern-

ible. Anal teeth absent. Calcareous ring having no ampul-

lary notches. The anterior border deeply concave between

the radials and inter-radials. Spicules rarely perforated,

plates only, or tables only. Se tables and perforated

plates or buttons.

7 t6d0Uc = With white teeth.

+ adc = the sea; Seitua = monster.

RE-CLASSIFICATION OF MULLERIA AND HOLOTHURIA. 171

This sub-genus contains a large number of species, of which

Halodeima atra (Jager) and Halodeima monacaria (Lesson) are

representative.

Sub-genus THymtiosicya.* Sub-gen. nov. |

(= Holothuria, Linn. partim ; Fistularia, Forskaal,

1775 ; Trepang, Jager, 1833, partim.)

Twenty tentacles. Ambulacral appendages, papillz only,

which are often situated on wart-like eminences. Anal teeth

absent. Calcareous ring similar to that of Halodeima.

Spicules, tables, and buttons.

This sub-genus contains a large number of species, of which

Thymiosicya impatiens (Forskaal) and Thymiosicya spinifera

(Théel) may be said to be typical examples.

The following is a brief key to the sub-genera :—

A.—Calcareous ring with well-marked bevelled ampullary

notches. The anterior border of the calcareous

ring does not show the usual clear separation of

radials from inter-radials. The inter-radials

extend almost as far forward as the radials.

Spicules small, and taking the form of dichoto-

mously branched rods, or spinous rods, or both.

(a) With anal teeth.

BA aid crate a he Ae late ntee Actinopyga.

Bah. 8 A RM eRe tig <M a Bohadschia.

B.—Calcareous ring without well-marked ampullary

notches, and the anterior border is not bevelled.

The anterior border of the calcareous ring deeply

indented between the radials and inter-radials.

The radials generally extending much further

forward than the inter-radials. Spicules rarely

consist of perforated plates, generally consist of

tables and buttons.

* @uytoy = a wart ; otxug = cucumber.

172 SPOLIA ZEYLANIGA.

(a) With anal teeth.

Me ats hood TR Argiodia.

(b) Without anal teeth.

(a) Pedicelsontrivium. Papillon bivium.

5 de MEIER ole Solis SME Halodeima.

(8) True pedicels absent. Papillee scattered

all over the body. Generally on

eminences.

siete Reni: ss yeahs Thymiosicya,

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXVI.

Fig. 1.—Simplest form of calcareous ring consisting of five radials

and five inter-radials. 7.7. = inter-radial ; 7. = radial.

Fig. 2.—Simple form having an anterior notch in each radial,

for the insertion of the radial muscle.

Fig. 3.—Simple form bearing ampullary notches: two complete

notches and two half notches for each radial, and two half notches

for each inter-radial. a. n. = ampullary notch.

Fig. 4.—Caleareous ring of Actinopyga miliaris (Quoy &

Gaimard).

Fig. 5.—Caleareous ring of Bohadschia vitiensis (Semper).

Fig. 6.—Caleareous ring of Argiodia maculata (Brandt).

Fig. 7.—Caleareous ring of Thymiosicya hamata (Pearson).

Fig. §.—Caleareous ring of Halodeima vagabunda (Selenka).

Spolia Zeylanica, Vol. 1X., Part XX XV. Pla XXVI.

J. PS del,

HOLOTHURIOIDEA OF THE INDIAN OCEAN. ibeiiey

NOTES ON THE HOLOTHURIOIDEA OF THE

INDIAN OCEAN.

By JosEpH PARSON.

(With three Plates.)

II.—THE SUB-GENERA ARGIODIA AND

ACTINOPYGA.

N a Paper published in this Journal* I have given reasons

for combining the genera Milleria and Holothuria under

the latter name, and I divided the old genus Miilleria into two

sub-genera, for which I proposed the names Argiodia and

Actinopyga.

The material upon which the following notes are based is

taken from the collections referred to in a previous Paper in

this Journal.} Of the four known species of the sub-genus

Argiodia, three have been recorded from the Indian Ocean,

and all from the Indo-Pacific region. Argiodia flavo-castanea

and Azgiodia parvula have also been recorded from the

Atlantic.

Of the eight species of Actinopyga, six have been recorded

from the Indian Ocean, and seven from the Indo-Pacific

region. Only one species, Act. agassizi, has not been found

outside the Atlantic.

The species dealt with in the present Paper are as follows :—

Sub-genus ArGiop1A. Pearson.

Argiodia maculata (Brandt).

Argiodia flavo-castanea (‘Théel).

Argiodia parvula (Selenka).

* Pearson : “‘ Proposed Re-classification of the genera Miilleria and

Holothuria.”—Spolia Zeylanica, Vol. [X., Part XXXV., pp. 163-172,

{ Pearson : “* Notes on the Holothurioidea of the Indian Ocean,

I.—The genus Holothuria.”—Spolia Zeylanica, Vol. IX., Part

XXXIV., pp. 49-101, Plates V._XIV.

oe 6(10)13

174 SPOLIA ZEYLANIOA.

Sub-genus Actinopyea. Bronn.

Actinopyga serratidens, Pearson.

Actinopyga miliaris (Quoy & Gaimard).

Actinopyga lecanora (Jager).

Actinopyga echinites (Jager).

Actinopyga mauritiana (Quoy & Gaimard).

Genus HOLOTHURIA.

Sub-genus Argiodia,* Pearson.

ARGIODIA MACULATA (Brandt).

(Pl. X XVII. and Pl. XXVIIL., fig. 92.)

Holothuria maculata (sub-genus Microthele), Brandt 1835 (4).

Milleria nobilis, Selenka 1867 (22) ; Semper 1868 (23) ;

Théel 1886 (26).

Miilleria maculata, Ludwig 1881 (13), 1899 (17) ; Lampert

1885 (10) ; Sluiter 1901 (25).

Actinopyga maculata, Bedford 1899 (2).

Actinopyga nobilis, Fisher 1907 (5).

Milleria hadra, Selenka 1867 (22); Lampert 1885 (10);

Théel 1886 (26).

There are several specimens of this species at my disposal,

chiefly from Ceylon, Seychelles, Red Sea, and Durban.

External Appearance.—This species is somewhat variable

in colour. Generally it has an equal amount of black and

light yellow, the two colours being arranged in irregular

patches so as to give the animal a variegated appearance.

Along each side of the body these blotches of light yellow and

black alternate, and sometimes produce a striped appearance.

Again, the animal may have a mottled appearance due to

numerous small dark brown spots on a light yellow ground.

The only specimen recorded from Ceylon was obtained by me

during an inspection of the Pearl Banks ir April, 1913, and it

* For definition see Pearson, Spolia Zeylaniea, Vol, IX., Part

RRXV., pod

HOLOTHURIOIDEA OF THE INDIAN OCEAN. 175

has a uniform brown colour. Some specimens from Durban

Museum have a similar colour.

The illustrations and descriptions of this species found in

the literature of the subject do not emphasize sufficiently the

appearance of the animal. This is undoubtedly due to the

fact that most, if not all, previous descriptions have been

made from preserved material. Undoubtedly the most

characteristic feature of this species is the series of prominent

lateral protuberances and the small dorsal wart-like out-

growths, and in all the preserved material at my disposal I

have been able to make these out only with the greatest

difficulty. In some specimens they appear to be entirely

absent. Whether there is any considerable amount of

variation in this respect I cannot say. In the only living

specimen I have been able tc examine the lateral prominences

are well developed, as shown in Pl. XXVI. After this

particular specimen was preserved-the elevations were only

impertectly seen, and the small dorsal tubercles disappeared

altogether *

A living specimen taken on the Ceylon pearl banks measured

350 mm. long and 150 mm. in greatest breadth. There were

five large protuberances on each side of the body at the junction

of the bivium and trivium. These elevations stood out about

16 mm. beyond the general contour of the body. On each

radius of the bivium was a row of smaller tubercles, about a

dozen in each row. The ambulacral appendages consisted

of small papille irregularly scattered on the bivium and

larger and more numerous pedicels on the trivium. In some

specimens, obviously due to contraction, there is a clear

distinction between the trivium and the rest of the body, as

the ventral surface forms a distinct sole. The colour during

life was uniform auburn-brown on the bivium and a slightly

lighter colour below.

* Since writing the above I have obtained another specimen of this

species from the Ceylon pearl banks. It had the typical yellow and

black blotches referred to above, and the lateral projections were not

wellmarked. Itis probable, therefore, that the well-defined projections

shown in PI]. X XVII. arenot typical of the species. The figure is retamed

as it was drawn from life, and it may be regarded as an unusual example

of the species, both as regards colour and the size of the lateral

projections.

176 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

This species has from eighteen to twenty tentacles and five

small anal teeth. Opposite each tooth is a group of papillee.

The ambulacral appendages all have well-developed sucking

discs, but it is highly probable that the ventral appendages

alone are used in locomotion.

Internal Structure-—The calcareous ring is well developed.

The radial pieces have three anterior indentations alternating

with four blunt processes. The inter-radials possess a single

anterior tooth. The posterior part of each radial piece is

separated from the anterior part by a well-defined curved

suture.

There is generally one stone canal attached to the right side

of the dorsal mesentery and one large Polian vesicle.

Spicules.—The calcareous deposits consist of tables and

peculiar hollow fenestrated bodies. The tables are compara-

tively scarce, and are masked to a great extent by the large

numbers of fenestrated bodies that lie in the deeper layers of

the perisome. The tables are 66 yin diameter and 50 y, high.

The hollow spicules are 80 y, long.

Remarks.—According to Selenka the only difference

between this species and Argiodia hadra (Selenka) is in the

nature of the calcareous ring. In the latter form the antero-

posterior axis of the radials and inter-radials is much longer

in proportion than in Argiodia maculata. I am inclined to

think that Argiodia hadra, apparently described by Selenka

from a single specimen, should be included in the species

maculata.

General Distribution.—Indo-Pacific region.

ARGIODIA FLAVO-CASTANEA (Théel).

(PL XXVIM:, figs)

Miilleria flavo-castanea, Théel 1886 (26).

One specimen from Munich, found in the Red Sea.

External Characters —The specimen under examination is

much larger than Théel’s specimen and is different in colour,

but otherwise agrees with Théel’s description. It is 280 mm,

HOLOTHURIOIDEA OF THE INDIAN OCEAN. zea

long in the contracted condition, and is light yellow in colour.

The pedicels on the trivium are crowded together and form a

kind of sole, as described by Théel. The dorsal papillz are

not so numerous or so large. There are slight elevations at

each side of the body, which may be due to the contraction

of the specimen, or they may be similar projections to those

described in Argiodia maculata. There are twenty tentacles.

Internal Structure—The calcareous ring is similar to that

of Argiodia maculata. There is one large Polian vesicle, but

no stone canal can be seen. Théel records the presence of a

single stone canal. There are no Cuvierian organs present,

although they were present in Théel’s type specimen.

Spicules.—These consist of tables and knobbed buttons.

The tables are 55 y, in diameter and about the same height. The

buttons, which are about 80 u long, have four or five pairs of

holes, and in the centre bear three or four knobs.

General Distribution Madeira, Red Sea. A rare form, with

a curious distribution.

Remarks.—Only in one respect does this species differ from

A. maculata, and that is in the nature of the buttons. Apart

from this character the two species appear to be identical.

IT cannot admit with Théel and Bedford the possibility of this

species being identical with A. parvula, as the buttons are

different, and the calcareous rings of the two species are

dissimilar.

ARGIODIA PARVULA (Selenka).

(Pl. XXVITI., fig. 4.)

Milleria parvula, Selenka 1867 (22) ; Lampert 1885 (10) ;

Théel 1886 (26).

Actinopyga parvula, Bedford 1898 (1) ; Fisher 1907 (5).

There are several specimens from Prof. Gardiner’s Maldive

collection and one specimen from the Dublin Museum obtained

from the Seychelles.

External Characters—This appears to be a very small

species, and I cannot find any record of a specimen over 50 mm.

in length. The largest specimen I have examined is only

178 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

40 mm., and several of them are only 25 mm. Thus, this

species is very different from other species of the genus, the

members of which are usually characterized by a large size.

The small size of the specimens makes it difficult to determine

the characters. The colour is generally dark brown, but the

Seychelles specimen is light yellow. The ventral pedicels

are crowded and are of comparatively large size. The dorsal

papille are apparently much smaller and less numerous. There

are twenty tentacles, and the anus is surrounded by five

minute teeth.

Internal Structure—The calcareous ring agrees with

Fisher’s figure more than with Selenka’s. The two anterior

lateral notches of the radial pieces figured by Selenka are not

present in any of the specimens I have examined. The small

size of the specimens has not permitted the stone canal and

Polian vesicles to be clearly made out. Selenka describes

one of each, and Fisher makes out two Polian vesicles and

one stone canal. Cuvierian organs are present, according

to Fisher.

Spicules.—These consist of tables and smooth buttons, and

closely resemble the deposits of Halodeima difficilis, and prob

ably explain why Haacke (according to Ludwig) mistook some

specimens of the latter species for the species under discussion.

The tables are pierced with about eight peripheral holes,

which alternate with an equal number of smaller holes. The

base is 70 y, in diameter, and the tower, which bears a spinous

top, is about 55 uinheight. The buttons are oval and smooth,

and are irregularly pierced by about three pairs of holes.

These buttons are about 85 uv. in length.

Remarks —This species is distinguished from Argiodia

jlavo-castanea by (a) its size ; (b) the shape of the calcareous

ring, although this character is apparently variable ; and (c)

the nature of the buttons. So far as our small knowledge of

the two forms goes, there is no reason to believe they are

identical, as Théel and Bedford have suggested.

General Distribution —The distribution of this species is

interesting, and includes Florida, Seychelles, Maldives,

Hawai, and Funafuti.

HOLOTHURIOIDEA OF THE INDIAN OCEAN, 179

Sub-genus Actinopyga,* Bronn.

ACTINOPYGA SERRATIDENS. Pearson.

(PLEX XTX | fig 5.)

Actinopyga serratidens, Pearson 1903 (18).

This species was named and described by the present writer

in 1903 from a single specimen obtained by Professor Herdman

from Galle, Ceylon. Since then it has not been recorded.

Amongst the Holothurians collected by Mr. Crossland at

Suakim in the Red Sea, and sent to me by Prof. Stanley

Gardiner, are several specimens of this species. During a two

months’ inspection cruise on the Ceylon pearl banks early

in 1913, I found this species extraordinarily abundant. With

the exception of Halodeima atra, which appears to be the

predominant Holothurian along the Ceylon coast, and Bohad-

schia marmorata and Thymiosicya scabra, which are abundant

though limited in their distribution, I consider the above

species the commonest form in the littoral waters of Ceylon.

It is also one of the largest Holothurians I have seen, and

frequently attains a size of 400 mm.

External Appearance.—Without exception the Ceylon

specimens are uniformly black, with a faint suggestion. of

dark brown. All the Red Sea specimens, except one, on the

other hand, are black above and yellowish-white below, and

at first sight resemble Actinopyga mauritiana. The single

exception is similar to the Ceylon specimens in colour.

Out of more than one hundred specimens from Ceylon waters,

all from the pearl banks, I have not seen one which has any

trace of light colour about it, with the exception of the pedicels,

which are sometimes white. The ambulacral appendages con-

sist of numerous pedicels evenly distributed over the trivium,

and small papille scattered over the bivium and less abundant

than the pedicels. There are twenty dark brown tentacles.

The anal teeth are large and yellow and irregular in shape,

pro tucene the serrated appearance referred to in my cae

* For definition see Pearson, Spolia cence: Vol IX. , Part XXXV.,

p- 169,

180 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

description of the species. This is not the only species of

Miilleria that has irregularly formed teeth. I have found that

in most species, particularly in A. echinites, individuals may

occasionally have serrated teeth. The only specimen of

A. agassizi that I have examined has teeth very similar to

those of A. serratidens, but I cannot say whether this is a

regular character. In A. serratidens all the specimens I have

had occasion to examine have irregular teeth.

The ventral pedicels are not arranged in series, but are

evenly scattered over the trivium. Frequently they are

white. The papille are invariably black, and are scattered

over the bivium without definite arrangement: They are

smaller and less numerous than the pedicels. There are

twenty dark brown tentacles.

Internal Structure —The calcareous ring is similar to that

in most species of the sub-genus. There is one Polian, vesicle.

In the type specimen described by me in 1903 there were

eight stone canals. In most of the Ceylon specimens recently

examined, the stone canal was single and was attached to the

right side of the dorsal mesentery.

In a few cases I have observed from sixty to a hundred

small bodies evenly distributed on both sides of the dorsal

mesentery on a level with the Polian vesicle. These bodies

are extremely small, and the short stalk ends in a white

globular head *6 mm. in diameter. These problematic

bodies are similar in position and appearance to those described

by Selenka (22) in Actinopyga mauritiana (Miilleria varians).

No other points in the internal structure call for special

comment, the respiratory trees and the Cuvierian organs

being typical.

Spicules—The spicules in the Ceylon specimens are similar

to those described by me from the type species. Usually,

owing to the dark pigment, the spicules are hard to see. In

the specimens from the Red Sea the spicules are much more

abundant, particularly in the ventral perisome, where, owing

to the absence of pigment and to their being very closely

packed, their presence is very readily detected.

General Distribution.—Ceylon, Red Sea, Maldives.

HOLOTHURIOIDEA OF THE INDIAN OCEAN. 181

ACTINOPYGA MILIARIS (Quoy & Gaimard).

(Pl. XXIX., fig. 6.)

Holothuria miliaris, Quoy & Gaimard 1833.

Holothuria lineolata, Quoy & Gaimard 1833 (21).

Milleria miliaris, Brandt 1835 (4); Selenka 1867 (22) ;

Ludwig 1882 (14), 1887 (15), 1888 (16), 1899 (17) ;

Lampert 1885 (10) ; Théel 1886 (26) ; Bell 1887 (3) ;

Sluiter 1901 (25); Koehler & Vaney 1908 (9) ;

Pearson 1910 (19).

Mijlleria lineolata, Brandt 1835 (4).

Milleria plebeja, Selenka 1867 (22).

External Characters —This species attains a size of about

200 mm. It is generally coloured a uniform dark brown.

Rarely is the ventral surface lighter than the dorsal. There

are twenty tentacles.

Internal Structure——Internally there appears to be no

difference from the arrangement seen in Actinopyga lecanora.

In vne specimen examined there were two well-developed

Polian vesicles and one stone canal. The calcareous ring is

of the usual type seen in this genus.

Spicules—These consist of numerous minute “‘ rosettes, ”’

which are dichotomously branched, and which are about 32 y,

in length.

Remarks.—Selenka examined Quoy & Gaimard’s original

specimens in Paris, and we have to accept his assurance that

Holothuria miliaris, Q. & G., Holothuria lineolata, Q. & G., and

Miilleria plebeja, Selenka, are all identical. It is fortunate

that Quoy & Gaimard’s specimens were preserved, since

the original descriptions were insufficient for the purposes of

identification. This to some degree may be said to apply to

Selenka’s description of Miilleria plebeja. Why Selenka and

subsequent writers did not retain the name lineolata is not

quite clear, since it appears before miliaris in the original

description and therefore takes precedence. The name

2B 6(10)13

182 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

lineolata, though correct, has not been used ‘since 1835, and,

therefore, on the grounds of convenience, I propose retaining

the name miliaris. With reference to the relationship

between Actinopyga miliaris and Actinopyga lecanora, see my

remarks under the latter species.

General Distribution —Indian Ocean, East Indies.

ACTINOPYGA LECANORA (Jager).

(Pl. XXIX., fig. 9.)

Miilleria lecanora, Jager 1833 (7); Selenka 1867 (22) ;

Semper 1868 (23); Ludwig 1881 (13), 1882 (14),

1887 (15); Lampert 1885 (10); Théel 1886 (26) ;

Sluiter 1887 (24), 1901 (25); Vaney 1905 (27) ;

Koehler & Vaney 1908 (9) ; Pearson 1910 (19).

Holothuria dubia (sub-genus Microthele), Brandt 1835 (4).

Actinopyga lecanora, Bedford 1899 (2).

External Characters—This species attains a length of

upwards of 200 mm. It is chocolate-brown above with light

yellow mottlings and is light yellow below. There is a light

area around the anus. The dorsal papille are scattered, and

are smaller than the ventral pedicels. The latter show a

distinct arrangement into three broad rows, although there

are pedicels scattered on the interambulacra. There are

twenty dark tentacles.

Internal Structure—The calcareous ring is similar in

general appearance to the common type of the sub-genus.

There is a single Polian vesicle and a single stone canal on the

right side of the dorsal mesentery.

Spicules—These are similar to the deposits of Actinopyga

miliaris in both shape and size, but differ in being arranged

in groups.

Remarks.—There appears to be very little difference

between this species and Actinopyga miliaris. The only two

points of difference are in the colour and the deposits. A.

miliaris has a uniformly-coloured body, generally a dark

HOLOTHURIOIDEA OF THE TNDIAN OCEAN. 183

brown. A. lecanora, onthe other hand, is lighter on the trivium

and has a light patch around the anus. The spicules of both

forms are exactly alike, but in A. lecanora they are stated by

most writers to be arranged in little groups. I have not had

access to a large series of these two species, so that I am not

in a position to give an opinion on the value of these two

distinguishing characters. Perhaps the most striking 1s the

light circular area around the anus, and this would appear

to be constant. In a Japanese specimen ofA. lecanora I

have been unable to satisfy myself that there is any distinct

arrangement of the spicules into groups. Any investigator

_who has the opportunity of examining a large series of these

two forms would do well to go into the question of colour and

spicular differences.

General Distribution.—Indo-Pacific.

ACTINOPYGA ECHINITES (Jager).

(Pl. XXIX., fig. 7.)

Miilleria echinites, Jager 1833 (7); Selenka 1867 (22) ;

Semper 1868 (23); Ludwig 1882 (14), 1887 (15),

1899 (17); Lampert 1885 (10), 1895 (12); Théel

1886 (26) ; Whitelegge 1897 (28), 1903 (29) ; Sluiter

1901 (25) ; Pearson 1910 (20). j

Actinopyga echinites, Bedford 1898 (1).

A fairly common form in the Indo-Pacific region. It Is

well represented in most of the collections at my disposal.

External Characters —A large robust form frequently attain-

ing a size of over 250 mm., though generally less than this in

preserved specimens. The body is much stouter in the

middle than in most Holothurians, and the greatest width may

be nearly half the total length. The body is slightly curved

and becomes narrower ateach end. The mouth is ventral and

is surrounded by a distinct rim formed of papilla. The anus

is slightly dorsal and is surrounded by five teeth, which often

have an irregular surface. There are twenty dark brown

184 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

tentacles. In the living specimen the bivium is generally

slightly wrinkled, and these grooves are much more accentuated .

in spirit specimens.

The ambulacral appendages are pedicels on the trivium and

papille on the bivium. The. pedicels are arranged in three

broad rows with a few on the interambulacra.

The papille on the bivium are fairly large and are evenly

scattered. Théel’s statement that there are true pedicels on

the bivium dees not appear to be correct, since in the living

specimen none of the dorsal appendages have the suctorial

qualities of true pedicels. In no case have I found that the

dorsal appendages have the qualities of true pedicels, although

they may have a sucking disc strengthened by a perforated

plate.

Internal Structure —The calcareous ring is similar to that of

Act. miliaris, but is slightly variable. Usually there is a single

large stone canal attached to the right side of the dorsal

mesentery, and there is one large Polian vesicle.

Spicules—These consist of richly branched rods having a

length of 80 » and smaller dichotomously branched rosettes

similar to those of Act. miliaris, except that the branching is

richer. These are about 30 y,in length. There are also larger

irregular rods in the pedicels and papille having a length of

130 y.

Remarks.—This species is undoubtedly related to Act.

miliaris, but the deposits are always larger and more richly

branched. A specimen from Prof. Stanley Gardiner’s

collection has given me some trouble owing to the nature of

the spicules. The specimen is full-sized and is light yellow

in colour, and has all the characters associated with Act.

echinites, except the anal teeth, which are large and serrated

like those of Act. serratidens. The spicules are abundant,

but different from those of any known species. I have come

to the conclusion that it is a specimen of Act. echinites in which

the spicules have been partly dissolved, probably ie to the

action of formalin.

General Distribution.—Indo-Pacific.

‘To a

HOLOTHURIOIDEA OF THE INDIAN OCEAN. 185

ACTINOPYGA MAURITIANA (Quoy & Gaimard).

(Pl. XXIX., fig. 8.)

Holothuria mauritiana, Quoy & Gaimard 1833 (21).

Milleria mauritiana, Selenka 1868; Ludwig 1882 (14),

1887 (15), 1888 (16), 1899 (17); Lampert 1885 (10),

1889 (11) ; Théel 1886 (26) ; Sluiter 1887 (24), 1901

(25) ; Koehler & Vaney 1908 (9) ; Pearson 1910 (29).

Miilleria varians, Selenka 1867 (22).

Actinopyga mauritiana, Bell 1887 (3); Bedford 1898 (1),

1899 (2) ; Pearson 1903 (18) ; Fisher 1907 (5).

This species is represented in most of the collections under

examination. It is universally distributed throughout the.

Indo-Pacific, and is perhaps the commonest species of Act-

mopyga.

External Appearance—tThis species is subject to much

variation in colour. The commonest type is coloured

chocolate-brown on the bivium and yellowish-white on the

trivium, the two being distinctly separated, so that the white

trivium forms a kind of sole. Sometimes the papille in the

bivium are surrounded by yellowish-white rings. Occasionally

these rings coalesce to form irregular patches. In several

specimens I have examined there is no clear separation of

colour of the lighter trivium from the darker bivium, the

transition from the one to the other being gradual. In a few

instances there is very little brown on the bivium owing to

the yellow rings around the papille being extremely numerous.

In fact, every stage of colour is represented between the two

extremes, on the one hand the form in which the limits of the

brown bivium and yellowish-white trivium are very clearly

defined, and on the other the form in which brown is mottled

on a yellow ground, both on the dorsal and ventral surfaces.

There are usually twenty-five tentacles present. The five anal

teeth are smooth and are of medium size. This species grows

to a length of over 400 mm.

The ambulacral appendages consist of papille: on the bivium

and true pedicels on the trivium. The latter are more closely

186 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

arranged than the former and are evenly scattered over the

ventral surface without showing, as a rule, any disposition into

rows. In a young specimen about 100 mm. long, however,

I have discerned three rows of tube feet, each row being about

eight pedicels wide.

Internal Structure —The calcareous ring differs but little

from the usual type seen in this genus. The radials have

three anterior concavities, the middle one being shallower

than the two lateral ones. The inter-radial piece has a single

anterior tooth.

This species has a variable number of stone canals. In

various specimens I have counted from six to twenty, equally

disposed on both sides of the dorsal mesentery. The stone

canals generally have a twisted stalk and a swollen end, and

sometimes they are branched. Selenka (22) in his account

mentions the presence of a“* knopfformig ”’ stone canal and then

proceeds to mention the presence of “‘ eine anzahl von kleinen

mit elliptischen kérpern, prall gefiillten Blaschen.” Whether

these bodies are really stone canals as their position in his

figure would suggest, and whether they are similar to the

bodies described by me from Actinopyga serratidens, I cannot

say. The number of Polian vesicles is also variable. In the

specimen with twenty stone canals there were three long

narrow Polian vesicles 30 mm. long in the contracted condition.

Frequently only one vesicle is present.

Spicules—The deposits are very characteristic, and are of

two distinct kinds. Those on the bivium are either small

dichotomously branching “ rosettes” 50% long, or longer

spinous rods 80 in length. The deposits of the ventral

surface consist entirely of oval grains 22 v. in diameter.

General Remarks.—There appears to be some reason for

Théel’s suggestion that Actinopyga agassizi is probably a

variety of the above species. The two, however, differ with

regard to the spicules of the bivium. In A. agassizi they

consist of small X-shaped bodies, which are not so numerous

as the characteristic spiny rods of A. mauritiana. The cal-

careous rings are similar, and in both cases there are about

twenty-five tentacles. Ina specimen of A. agassizi examined

by me, the body had a uniform colour of chocolate-brown with

HOLOTHURIOIDEA OF THE INDIAN OCEAN. 187

one or two small yellow patches on the dorsal surface. The

pedicels were light yellow in colour and were scattered all over

the trivium, though much more numerous in the radii. So far

as I can ascertain A. mauritiana is solely confined to the Indo-

Pacific, while A. agassizi has been found in the Atlantic, but

never in the Pacific. There are, however, many instances of

Pacific forms being found in the Caribbean Sea, Argiodia

purvula being a case in point. <Actinopyga mauritiana is very

constant with regard to its spicules, and I have never examined

a specimen in which the dorsal spicules resembled those of

A. agassizi figured by Selenka. The single specimen of

A. agassizi examined by me agrees with Selenka’s description

in this respect. There would appear to be a constant difference

in the spicules of the two forms. It will be more convenient

and reasonable to regard them as distinct, though undoubtedly

closely related.

General Distribution.—Indo-Pacific.

LITERATURE.

1. Bedford, F. P—1898, “‘ Holothurians collected by Mr. J.

Stanley Gardiner at Funafuti and Rotu-

ma.” Proc. Zool. Soc., 1898.

2. ———————_1899, Holothurians in Willey’s Basulte

Part II.

3. ————————_1887, ‘“‘ The Echinoderm fauna of the

Island of Ceylon.” Sci. Trans. Royal

Dublin Soc., Vol. IIT. (ser. 2).

4. Brandt, J. F.—1835, “ Podromus descriptions animalium

ab. H. Mertensio observatorium.” Fasc.

I. Petropoli, 1835.

5. Fisher, W. K.—1907, “ The MHolothurians of the

Hawaian Is.’’ Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus.,

Vol. XXXII.

6. Haacke, W.—1880, Holothurien, in Beitrage zur Meeres-

fauna der Inseln Mauritius und der

Seychellen, &c.

188 | SPOLIA ZEYLANIOA.

7. Jager, G. F.—1833, “‘ De Holothuriis,” Diss. inaug.

Turici.

8. Koehler, R.—1895, ‘‘ Echinodermes de la Baie d’Ambo

nie.”’ Rev. Suisse de Zool., t. IIT., 1895-96.

9. Koehler, R., & Vaney, C—1908, ‘“ Littoral Holothuri-

oidea collected by the ‘ Investigator,

Calcutta.”

10. Lampert, K.—1885, Reisen im Archipel. der Philippinen.

Bd. 4, th. 3, “‘ Die Seewalzen.”’

11. —————_———_1889, “‘ Die wahrend der Expedition der

Gazelle gesammelten Holothurien.” Zool.

Jahrb., bd. IV. .

12. 1895, ‘‘ Die von Dr. Stuhlmann in der |

Jahren 1888 und 1889 an der ostkuste

Afrikas gesammelten Holothurien.”

Mitt. aus dem Naturh. Mus. Hamburg.

XITI., 1895-96.

13. Ludwig, H.—1881, Revision der Mertens-Brandt’schen

Holothurien.” Zeit. f. Wiss. Zool., bd.

XXXV., 1881.

14, —————--——_1882, ‘“‘ List of the Holothurians in the

collection of the Leyden Museum.” Notes

from the Leyden Museum, Vol. IV.

15. ———_—-——1887, “‘ Drei Mittheilungen tiber alte und |

neue Holothurien arten.”’ Sitz. der Kgl. .

Preuss. Ak. d. Wiss., Berlin.

16. ——————-—1888, “‘ Die von Dr. J. Brock im Indischen

Archipel. gesanimelten Holothurien,”

Zoo. Jahrb. (Abth. f. Syst.), bd. ITT.

17, ——————_-—1899, “‘ Echinodermen des Sansibargebie-

: tes.’ Abh. Senckenberg. Ges. XXL,

1897-99.

18. Pearson, J.--1903, ‘“‘ Holothurioidea’’ in Herdman’s

Report on the Ceylon Pearl Oyster

Fisheries, Vol. I., Supplementary Report.

No. V.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24,

25.

26. .

27.

28.

29.

HOLOTHURIOIDEA OF THE INDIAN OCEAN. 189

Pearson, J.—1910, Holothurioidea of Kerimba Archi-

pelago, Portuguese Kast Africa, collected

by J. J. Simpson. Proce. Zool. Soc.,

1910.

—1910, Holothurioidea of Mergui Archi-

pelago, Lower Burma, collected by J. J.

Simpson and R. N. Rudmose-Brown,

Proc. Zool. Soc., 1910.

Quoy et Gaimard.—1833, Voyage de !’ Astrolabe, Zoologie.

T.EV.; Paris, 1833:

Selenka, H.—1867, “‘ Beitrige zur Anatomie und Syste-

matik der Holothurien.” Zeit. f. wiss.

Zool., Vol. XVIII.

Semper, C.—1868, Reisen im Archipel der Philippimen,

bd. 1, th. 2, “* Holothurien.”’

Sluiter, C. Ph.—1887, “‘ Holothurien des Java-Meeres.”’

Nat. Tijd. v. Nederlandisch-Indie, Vol.

XLVII.

——_—-———1901, “ Die MHolothurien der Siboga

Expedition.” Siboga-Expeditie, XLIV.,

Leiden.

Théel, H).—1886, “ Report on the Holothurioidea,”’ Part

II. Report on the Scientific Results of

the Voyage of H.M.S. “ Challenger,” Vol.

XIV., Part XX XIX.

Vaney.—1905, ‘‘ Holothuries recueilles sur la Céte

Francaise des Somalis.” Bull. Mus.

d’Hist. Nat., t. XI., 1905.

W hitelegge.—1897, ‘‘ Echinodermata of Funafuti.”” Mem.

Austr. Mus., TII., Pt. IT.

—_——--——-—]1903, “* Notes on the Zoology of Paonopa

or Ocean Is. and Naru or Pleasant Is.,

Gilbert Group. Echinoderms.” Rec. Austr.

Mus., V.

c 6(10)18

190 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Plate XXVIII.

Argiodia maculata (Brandt).—View from the dorsalsurface. x

(Drawn from life.)

Plate XXVIII.

Argiodia maculata (Brandt).

Fig. 2a.—View of table from below. x 650.

Fig. 2b.—Hollow fenestrated buttons. x 475.

Fig. 2c.—Side view of table. x 650.

Fig. 2d.—Caleareous ring. x 24.

Argiodia flavo-castanea (Théel).

Fig. 3a.—Knobbed button. x 500.

Fig. 3b.—View of table from below. xX 550.

Fig. 3c.—Side view of table. x 550.

Fig. 3d.—Calcareous ring. x 1}.

Argiodia parvula (Selenka).

Fig. 4a.—View of table from below. x 570.

Fig. 4b.—Side view of table. x 570.

Fig. 4c._—Button. x 520.

Fig. 4d.—Calcareous ring. x 4.

Plate XXIX.

Actinopyga serratidens, Pearson.

Fig. 5a.—Calcareous ring. x 23.

Fig. 5b.—“‘ Bone-shaped ”’ spicules. x 750.

Fig. 5¢—Commonest type of spicules. x 750.

Actinopyga miliaris (Quoy & Gaimard).

me gp, ¢ Spicules. x 625,

Fig. 6c.—Calcareous ring. x3.

Actinopyga echinites (Jager).

Fig. 7a.—Caleareous ring. X 1}.

— ibe } Spicules from the general integument. x 475.

Fig. 7d,—Spicules from pedicels. X 385.

Actinopyga mauritiana (Quoy & Gaimard).

Fig. 8a.—Spinous rod from dorsal integument. X 650.

Fig. 8b.—Rod from ventral integument. x 680.

Fig. 8¢c.—‘ Rosette > from dorsal integument. 570.

Fig. 8d.—‘‘ Grains ” from the ventral integument. xX 500.

Fig. 8e.—Calcareous ring. X 1}.

Actinopyga lecanora (Jager).

Fig. 9.—Calcareous ring. X23.

Sow

2°

Spolia Zeylanica, Vol. 1X., Part XX XV. Plate XX ViT.

G. H. del.

ARGIODIA MACULATA,

Spolia Zeylanica, Vol. 1X., Part XX XV. Plate XXVIII,

Piero a: Pe

ree IG

COS LRNS

ie IeB hak

Fie. 2.—ARGIODIA MACULATA, Fic. 3.—ARGIODIA FLAVO-CASTANEA, Fia. 4.--ARGIODIA PARVULA,

Spolia Zeylanica, Vol. 1X., Part XX XV. Plate XXIX.

J.P. del,

Fie. 5.—Acrinopyca SERRATIDENS.

Fie. 6.—ActTInoPpyGa MILIARIS.

Fic. 7.—ACTINOPYGA ECHINITES,

Fig. 8.—ACTINOPYGA MAURITIANA,

Fie. 9.—AcTINOPYGA LECANORA.

SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE GULF OF MANNAR. 191

NOTES ON THE SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE

GULF OF MANNAR.

By Captain R. B. Srymour SEwett, B.A., I.M.S.

Surgeon-Naturalist to the Marine Survey of India and Honorary

Assistant Superintendent, Zoological and Anthropological

Section, Indian Museum, Calcutta.

(With five Plates and one Map.)

HE collections on which the following notes are based are -

two in number. ‘The first of these is a very extensive

one from the Ceylon pearl banks and neighbouring waters.

This collection was made by Mr. T. Southwell during the

years 1906-09, when he was Scientific Adviser to the Ceylon

Pearl Fishery Syndicate, and comprises 326 samples ; at the

time when the Syndicate ceased its operations, this collection

was handed over to Dr. J. Pearson, the Director of the

Colombo Museum, and I have to thank him for entrusting it

to me for examination. The second collection was made by

Mr. S. W. Kemp, of the Indian Museum, during the month of

February, 1913, at Paumben and Kilakarai on the south

coast of India. The collections proved to be exceedingly rich,

containing in all 87 species and varieties, of which five are

new to science, namely, Acrocalanus similis, Scolecithricella

pearsoni, Centropages trispinosus, Acartia southwelli, Acartiella

kempi, gen. nov. ; and in addition I am able to record the

occurrence of the following hitherto unknown forms :—

Eucalanus mucronatus, 3; Labidocera pavo, 3; Acartia

amboinensis, 2 ; Tortanus forcipatus, 3.

In the accompanying table I have given a complete list of

the various species and varieties, and have indicated by +

the various localities in which they were present. For the

most part the species are widely distributed, but it is of

interest to note that the species of the genera Hucheta,

Scolecithrix, Scolecithricella, and Candacia appear to be very

largely confined to the region of the pearl banks lying to the

west of Karativu island, between it and the overialls, including

192 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Dutch Moderagam, Karativu, and Alanturai paars, all of

which localities proved to be exceedingly rich as regards the

Copepod fauna.

The positions of the various localities in which collections

were made are shown on the chart, but in the case of many

of the paars they are approximate only.

Family, CALANIDA.

Genus Calanus, Leach.

CALANUS MINOR (Claus.).

* Calanus minor, Giesbrecht, 1888, p. 331.

— Giesbrecht, 1891, p. 282.

Cleve, 1901, p. 5.

— A. Scott, 1902, p. 422.

Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 241.

—_—_—____—— Wolfenden, 1905, p. 995.

? Calanus caroli (2), Wolfenden, 1905, p. 994.

Calanus minor, Cleve, 1905, p. 186.

A. Scott, 1909, p. 7.

———— Sewell, 1912, p. 354.

Undinula caroli (2), Sewell, 1912, p. 356.

Calanus minor, Pesta, 1913, p. 30.

This species is comparatively rare on the pearl banks, and

is absent altogether in the majority of tow-nettings. Most

of the specimens obtained were females. Wolfenden (1905)

obtained a female calanid, of which he gives neither a full

description nor any figures, from the Maldive and Laccadive

Archipelagoes : he believed this form to be the hitherto-

unknown female of Undinula (Calanus) carol, Giesbrecht.

I obtained what appeared to be similar examples from the

Burma coast, but a subsequent examination showed that they

were in reality examples of Calanus minor, and, as I have —

pointed out below (p. 199), there seems to be some reason

for believing that Undinula caroli is merely a variety of

Undinula darwini, Giesbrecht (3).

* In the majority of cases the list of references only includes those

that refer to the occurrence of the species in Indian waters.

SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE GULF OF MANNAR. 193

CALANUS TENUICORNIS, Dana.

Calanus tenwicornis, Cleve, 1904, p. 186.

- A. Scott, 1909, p. 8.

This species was represented by a single female taken near

Karativu Paar. Its occurrence is of some interest, as it is

the first occasion on which it has been recorded from Indian

coastal waters.

Genus Canthocalanus, A. Scott.

CANTHOCALANUS PAUPER (Giesbrecht).

Calanus pauper, Thompson, 1899, p. 275.

—_—_—_—_—_—— Cleve, 1901, p. 5.

A. Scott, 1902, p. 400.

—______-___—. Cleve, 1903, p. 357.

—— Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 241.

—_+—___—_— Wolfenden, 1905, p. 995.

Canthocalanus pauper, A. Scott, 1909, p. 9.

Calanus pauper, Pesta, 1912, p. 43.

Canthocalanus pauper, Sewell, 1912, pp. 315 and 355.

Calanus pauper, Pesta, 1913, p. 30.

CANTHOCALANUS PAUPER, var. PLUMULOSUS, Wolfenden.

Canthocalanus pauper, var. plumulosus, Sewell, 1912,

p. 355.

This species was universally distributed over the pearl

banks and neighbouring waters, occurring at times in large

numbers. Wolfenden (loc. cit., p. 994, 1905) has called

attention to a curious modification of the furcal setze which

is occasionally met with in Undinula vulgaris, Paracalanus

aculeatus, Calocalanus pavo, and Huchirella bella var. indica.

This modification consists of “ a more or less dichotomous

194 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

branching, repeated in the sub-branches, the whole forming a

sort of brush,” and he has proposed that examples showing

this character should be considered as a variety under the

name “ plumulosus.” I have previously (loc. cit., pp. 355,

357, and 359) recorded a similar modification in Canthocalanus

pauper, Undinula caroli, and Acrocalanus longicornis.

Numerous specimens, both of the above species and of

Undinula vulgaris, showed this peculiarity, and a study of

these examples has caused me to alter my opinion. I am

inclined to regard this branching of the setee merely as an

abnormality and not a true variety. In the tables below I

have given the results obtained from an examination of the

furcal sete of a series of individuals of these two species, in

which this peculiarity was present to a greater or less degree ;

in all cases the seta showing the modification is indicated by +.

Canthocalanus pauper.

No. and

Sex. Left Furca. Right Furca.

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16 9 + + 4. . te sche) (er a

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199 + +o. + + . |<

20 @ ~ t+ + : : ,

Number of

times each

seta sO) LOM AL velG a3 Dy le lio ee: 1

affected

SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE GULF OF MANNAR. 195

Sex. Left Furca.

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PO ng OD

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SESS a* >

Sostpades

Fara ss°

_—S ll O'"naU

From the above it is evident that there is little or no

regularity in the disposition of the plumose sete in any

particular individual, in some cases only a single hair showing

this change, in others all ten doing so; it is quite exceptional

to find any attempt at symmetry in the arrangement.

Tt will

be noticed that in the number of individuals affected, the

proportion of females is larger than that of males, but a

196 SPOLIA ZEYLANIOA.

difference such as this might easily be accounted for by the

greater preponderance of females in the catch.

With regard to the total number of hairs affected and their

relative position, it is quite clear that on the whole far more

setze are abnormal in the female than in the male, and, further,

the sete most frequently affected are those that possess the

greatest length, 7.e., numbers 2, 3, and 4.

I have on one occasion found a similar “ plumose ” seta

arising from the tip of a damaged antenna in an example of

Acrocalanus longicornis. In this case the antenna had

obviously been damaged on some previous occasion, the

terminal segments being broken off ; subsequently the stump

had healed, and from the scar this seta had arisen.

I am of the opinion that this plumose modification is an

abnormality produced by injury to, and subsequent re-

generation of, the seta, and, further, the prevalence of this

change in spermatophore-bearing females of Undinula vulgaris

would tend to show that the injury is frequently caused during

the act of deposition of the spermatophore by the male.

Genus Undinula, Scott.

UNDINULA VULGARIS (Dana).

(Pl. XVILI., figs. 1 and 2.)

Calanus vulgaris, Giesbrecht, 1896, p. 318.

-—_—_—_—_—__——— Thompson, 1899, p. 275.

—____—_—— Cleve, 1901, p. 5.

—_—_—_—_—_— A, Scott, 1902, p. 400.

—__—_—_—_——— Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 357.

Cleve, 1903, p. 357.

—_— Cleve, 1904, p. 186.

Wolfenden, 1905, p. 994.

Undinula vulgaris, A. Scott, 1909, p. 16.

Sewell, 1912, pp. 315 and 356.

Calanus vulgaris var. plumulosus, Wolfenden, 1905, p. 994.

Pl. XCVL., figs. 21, 22.

UOndinula vulgaris var. plumulosus, Sewell, 1912, p. 356.

SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE GULF OF MANNAR. 197

This species was widely distributed throughout the regions

investigated. Numerous examples were obtained showing

the modified tail setae as described by Wolfenden (vide ante,

p- 193), but, as I have already pointed out, I do not consider

this condition to be a true variation.

Several examples were obtained which show the double

spine on the left side of the posterior thoracic margin. This

modification was first described by Giesbrecht (1893, Pl. VILI.,

fig. 28). I have since obtained specimens from the east side

of the Bay of Bengal, in the neighbourhood of the Andaman

Islands and Mergui Archipelago, in which this condition is

even more pronounced. In these specimens the left side of

the thoracic margin is considerably swollen, and forms a

stout prominence projecting outwards and backwards, and

bears two stout spmes—the dorsal projecting backwards and

somewhat upwards, and the ventral pointing vertically

downwards and being considerably swollen at its base.

We thus have three forms, which appear to be quite distinct

from one another, for I have up to the present failed to

discover any intermediate forms.

UNDINULA DARWINI (Lubbock).

Calanus darwini, Thompson, 1899, p. 275.

—__—__——— Cleve, 1901, p. 5.

——_—_—_—— A. Scott, 1902, p. 400.

—— = hompson é& scott; 1903;%p; 241:

Cleve, 1903) pada.

—__—_—_——— Cleve, 1904, p. 185.

= aa ea WY Oluenden, 1o0b, pi 994

Undinula darwini, A. Scott, 1909, p. 17.

——_—__—_—_——— Sewell, 1912, p. 356.

———_— — — — Pesta, 1913; p: 30, ig: 13.

This species was much less common in the Ceylon collections

than the preceding, though it is of frequent occurrence in

other parts of the Indian Ocean. According to Giesbrecht

(1893, Pl. VII., fig. 29), both first and second abdominal

segments are furnished with a row of sharp spines on the

2D 6(10)13

198 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

posterior margin, and the posterior thoracic margin on the

left side is produced backwards in a rectangular projection ;

but a study of numerous examples from various localities in

the Indian Ocean and Bay of Bengal has shown that these

characters are subject to very considerable variation. As

regards the spinulation of the abdominal segments, many

specimens possessed spines only on one of the segments, while

in some cases spines were absent altogether. Again, in

numerous examples the posterior thoracic margin formed

almost a uniform curve, with a very slight rounded projection

towards the ventral side ; in other cases this prominence was.

more marked and formed a somewhat triangular prominence,

while in a few cases the typical projection was present.

In this species, as in U. vulgaris, it would appear that there

are three forms of the posterior thoracic margin, which are

quite distinct from one another, and a close examination of a

large number of specimens has failed to show any correlated

change.

UNDINULA DARWINI, var. CAROLI (Giesbrecht).

Calanus caroli, Giesbrecht, 1888, p. 331.

Giesbrecht, 1893, p. 91. Pl. VIIL., fig. 36.

3, Wolfenden, 1905, p. 994. Pl. XCVII.,

fig. 41.

Undinula caroli, A. Scott, 1909, p. 18.

This form was first described by Giesbrecht (loc. cit., 1888),

who considered that it was a distinct species. Wolfenden

(loc. cit., 1905) obtained examples from the Maldive and

Laccadive Archipelagoes, and associated with these were

several females, which he considered to be the hitherto-

unknown female. According to his brief description these

forms were distinguished from the female Undinula darwini

by the absence of teeth on the distal portion of the margin of

exopod 3 in the second and third pairs of swimming feet, and

by the presence of a few fine spines on the first basal of the

first pair. The absence of the marginal teeth separates these

females from the present form, in which these teeth invariably

occur exactly as in U. darwini, and the fine spines on the

first basal of the first leg is a character that. I have found

—

SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE GULF OF MANNAR. 199

present in Calanus minor, As I have previously mentioned

(vide ante, p. 192), I consider that these forms are in all

probability examples of Calanus minor.

As A. Scott (loc. cit.) has pointed out, the form known as

U. caroli 3 is easily recognizable from U. durwint $ by its

constantly smaller size and by the structure ot the fifth pair

of legs.

In a tow-netting taken at “ Investigator ” Station No. 470

(Sawi Bay, Kar Nicobar, December 7, 1912), large numbers

of both forms were present, associated with numerous examples

of Undinula darwint 2; a comparative study of the two

forms of male has given the following interesting results.

The proportional. lengths of the abdominal and furcal

segments in the two forms are—

Undinula darwini: 45: 41: 32: 27: 25: 23.

Undinula caroi: 45: 41: 31: 27: 24: 22.

The proportional lengths of the antennal joints are as

follows :—* ;

Segments : 1-9) 355. 6. 17. 8-95 102 1. 125 13) 145° 15.

U. darwint .. 121 82 26 27 40 26 31 38 46 46 49

U. caroi =... +118 79 24 26 39 28 30 37 45 45 50

Segments : 16. 17. 18. 19. 20: 21. 22. 23. 24. 25.

U. darwint .. 49 51 53 57 46 46 51 51 46 18

U. carola .. 50 51 58 56 47 47 53 53 50 19

The structure of the first four pairs of swimming legs is

exactly. similar in the two forms, not only as regards the

spinulation, but also in the proportional lengths of the various

segments ; thus the proportional lengths of the segments and

end spine in the third leg of the two forms are as follows :—

U. darwint. U. carol.

First Basal he UPR! Risse 17°9

Second Basal = Se ote 8°3

Exopod 1 .. Ret LRZON 2 fi-0

Exopod 2 .. : a Lae Oe 14°5

Exopod 3 .. si re ik! eae 30°0

End spine Be Isobar 18-3

Totallength .. 100-0 100-0

* Tn all cases the total length of the antenna has been taken = 1,000.

In this way it is found that comparison between specimens of unequal

size is greatly facilitated.

200 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

As a result of a careful study, it appears that the sole

appreciable difference between these forms lies in the structure

of the fifth pair of legs. The question then arises, Are we

justified in considering these forms to be distinct “ species ”’ ?

Examples of variation in the structure of the sexual appen-

dayes have been described in other species, e.g., Labidocera

kroyert (Brady) ; and the similarity of the two forms is so

close, even to the lengths of the antennal segments and the

proportions of the swimming feet, that I submit we could only

get such a close resemblance in individuals of the same species,

and J believe that the form described by Giesbrecht under the

name Calanus caroli is merely a variation of the male of

Undinula darwins.

Genus Eucalanus, Dana.

EUCALANUS ATTENUATUS (Dana).

Eucalanus attenuatus, Thompson, 1899, p. 276.

~~ Cleve, 1901, p. 6.

. Cleve, 1908, p. 362.

= Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 242.

-—— ——- Wolfenden, 1903-06, p. 996.

——- Cleve, 1904, p. 189.

Sewell, 1912, p. 357.

A few examples occurred in the collection from the pearl

banks.

EUCALANUS SUBTENUIS, Giesbrecht.

Kucalanus subtenuis, Cleve, 1901, p. 7.

—__________—— §cott, 1902, p. 401.

Cleve, 1903, p. 363.

Se hompson i ScOb otey pee

—_______—_ —___-— Wolfenden, 1903-06, p. 996.

Cleve, 1904, p. 190.

—--——— Seott, 1909, p. 21.

, ——______—__——_ Sewell, 1912, p. 358.

This species was on the whole well represented in the collec-

tions.

SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE GULF OF MANNAR. 201

EUCALANUS MUCRONATUS, Giesbrecht.

Eucalanus mucronatus, Cleve, 1901, p. 7.

-Cleve, 1903, p. 362.

- Cleve, 1904, p. 189.

ee - Wolfenden, 1905, p. 996.

—__—— Scott, 1909, p. 20.

Several examples of this species were obtained, although it

was by no means common. Hitherto only the female form

has been known, but in a tow-netting from Dutch Moderagam

Paar, associated with several females was a single male

specimen, that shows the following characters :—

$. Total length, 3°3 mm.

The proportions of the cephalothorax and abdomen are as

7:1. The head and first thoracic segments are fused, but

the fourth and fifth thoracic segments are separate. The

anterior extremity of the head region is produced in a spike,

as in the female.

The abdomen consists of four segments, of which the second

and third are slightly longer than the first, and the anal

segment is quite short. The furcal setze are asymmetrical,

the second seta on the left side being much longer and stouter

than the others.

The first antenne are long, over-reaching the tip of the

furcal rami by the last five or six segments. The proportional

lengths of the various segments are as follows, and for

purposes of comparison [ give the lengths of the segments

in the female :—

Segments: 1-2. 3. 4. Dos Omit | O—Seee lOve Pho lae ) Los

Oe a 23 2b 25) 2b 2Zhe29. “S034 34 39h 43

Gg. .. 6969 24 24 24 24 26 52 38 38 48 52

Segments: 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22, 23. 24, 25.

Q. .. 45 49 49 49 53 53 49 49 41 41 29 41

gd. ..' 52 53 52 52 48 48 41 AL Bie ate) Oa Bs:

In the main the proportions of the joints are very much the

same, the principal differences being the fusion of segments 1

and 2 in the female, and the short 22nd segment in the male.

202 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

The second antenna, mouth parts, and the first four pairs of

swimming legs are similar to those of the female.

The fifth swimming legs are of interest, in that both are

present, thus resembling the condition found in FL. attenuatus

(Dana) and #. elongatus. The left leg is the longer, and

when folded back reaches to the extreme tip of the furcal

rami; the right leg is somewhat stouter, and the terminal

segment bears a stout seta.

An immature male was also obtained in the same locality.

In this individual the abdomen consists of three segments

only, the third not yet having undergone division. Both legs

of the fifth pair were present, but were equal in size.

EUCALANUS PILEATUS, Giesbrecht.

Eucalanus pileatus, Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 242.

-— Cleve, 1904, p. 189.

——_—_ — Wolfenden, 1905, p. 996.

A. Scott, 1909, p. 21.

- Sewell, 1912, p. 357.

Only a few examples of this species were obtained.

EUCALANUS MONACHUS, Giesbrecht.

Eucalanus monachus, Cleve, 1901, p. 6.

= oe Cleve, 1903, p. 362.

Thompson & Seott; 1903, p: 242.

—- Cleve, 1904, p. 189.

ee = WVoltenden, LOUa; pmwo0:

es _ A Scott, 1909, p20.

Sewell, 1912, p. 357.

This species was fairly well represented in the collections.

EUCALANUS CRASSUS, Giesbrecht.

Eucalanus crassus, Cleve, 1901, p. 6.

Scott, 1902, p. 401.

— Cleve, 1903, p. 362.

SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE GULF OF MANNAR. 203

Eucalanus crassus, Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 242.

——-—_——-— Uleve, 1904, n. 189)

= ee W Olfenden, 1905,:p. 996;

Se eas OCOtb, 1909. pa 1G)

—— -——— Newell, 1912, p. 357.

Numerous examples were obtained.

EUCALANUS SUBCRASSUS, Giesbrecht.

Eucalanus subcrassus, Giesbrecht, 1888, p. 334.

as Giesbrecht, 1891, p. 282.

gta rie aaa eee lesbrecht; 1896; p. 317.

ee IE LIB gs ee

— = Thompson & Scott, 1903, p: 242.

e a Cleve, 1904, p. 190.

= ——-—- Wolfenden, 1905, p. 996.

-———_— ——— Scott, 1909, p. 21.

Sewell, 1912, p. 358.

Sh Pesta, 1912, p. 44, fig. 3.

s==— - Pesta, 1913, p. 31.

Examples of this species were common ; it appears to be

widely distributed throughout the Indian Ocean and its

offshoots.

Genus Rhincalanus, Dana.

RHINCALANUS GIGAs, Dana.

Rhinealanus cornutus, Thompson, 1899, p. 276.

Cleve, 1901, p. 8.

——— —- A. Scott, 1902, p. 402.

—— Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 242.

Cleve, 1903, p. 368.

Cleve, 1904, p. 196.

= - Wolfenden, 1905, p. 996.

kee : —- A. Scott, 1909, p. 23.

= =~ Sewell, 1912, p. 358:

Although widely distributed in Indian waters, this species

is by no means common in surface collections. A few examples

were obtained on the pear] banks.

904 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

RHINCALANUS GIGAS, Brady.

(?) Rhincalanus gigas, Thompson, 1899, p. 276.

Rhincalanus nasutus, A. Scott, 1902, p. 401.

2 Cleve, 1903, p. 368.

— Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 242.

—-—~ — Cleve, 1904, p. 196.

ee Wolfenden, 1905, p. 996.

ee gigas, A. Scott, 1909, p. 24.

There is some doubt whether Rhincalanus gigas, Brady, and

Rhincalanus nasutus, Giesbrecht, are synonymous. The

differences that distinguish them are, apart from size, which

per se cannot be regarded as a specific character, of a trivial

character, and [ am inclined to agree with Scott (loc. cit.,

1909) that they are merely forms of one species. Several

examples of the form corresponding to fk. nasutus were

obtained on the pearl banks.

Genus Mecynocera, Thompson.

MECYNOCERA CLAUSI, Thompson.

Mecynocera clausi, A. Scott, 1902, p. 422.

— — Cleve, 1903, p. 364.

Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 242.

— — A. Scott, 1909, p. 25.

Although by no means common, several examples were

obtained, all of which proved to be females.

Genus Paracalanus, Boeck.

PARACALANUS ACULEATUS, Giesbrecht.

Paracalanus aculeatus, Giesbrecht, 1888, p. 333.

— Giesbrecht, 1891, p. 282.

-—___-—_-+_——-_ Giesbrecht, 1893, p. 164. Pl. 1X.,

figs. 20, 26, 30.

Paracalanus parvus, 'T. Scott, 1894, p. 26. Pl. I., figs. 9-14.

Paracalanus aculeatus, Dahl, 1894, p. 12.

SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE GULF OF MANNAR. 205

Paracalanus aculeatus, Giesbrecht, 1896, p. 318.

Giesbrecht & Schmeil, 1898, p. 24.

—_—____--————_ Cleve, 1901, pp. Sand 47. Pl. VI.,

figs. 1-10.

Acrocalanus pediger (3 only), Cleve, 1901, p. 35. Pl. L,

figs. 15-20.

Paracalanus aculeatus, A. Scott, 1902, pp. 402 and 423.

Cleve, 1903, p. 366.

Cleve, 1904, p. 194.

———_—_——_—————— Wolfenden, 1905, p. 998. PI.

XOVL., figs. 12-15.

——_—__—_—__—______———_ Sars, 1905, p. 2.

Paracalanus clever, Carl, 1907, p. 7.

Paracalanus aculeatus, A. Scott, 1909, p. 26.

Pesta, 1912, p. 44, fig. 4.

Sewell, 1912, pp. 326 and 358.

Pesta, 1913, p. 31.

As the above synonymy sufficiently indicates, considerable

confusion has arisen as regards this species, which was first

described by Giesbrecht in 1888 from the female only.

The first record that I can find in the literature of the

occurrence of male examples is that by Dahl (1894), but gives

no description or figures. Cleve (1901) in the account of his

investigations on the Malayan Plankton describes a male

form, but from his description it is quite obvious that the

specimens before him were immature, and had not adopted

the final sexual characters. In the same paper, however, he

has described a new species of Acrocalanus under the name

A. pediger. In his description he gives a detailed account of

the structure of both male and female forms, and his conclu-

sion, that they are specifically the same, appears to have been

accepted. To Carl (1907) belongs the credit of being the first

to recognize that the two. sexes described by Cleve do not

belong to one another, that whereas the so-called female

(vide infra, p. 211) belongs to the genus Acrocalanus, the

male is undoubtedly a Paracalanus ; he, therefore, separates

this latter sex and proposes for it the name Paracalanus clevei.

During my investigations on the Copepoda of the coast of

Burma and on the present collections from the Gulf of Mannar,

25 6(10)13

206 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

I have met with numerous examples of this male form, and a

study of its structure has convinced me that it is the true male

of P. aculeatus.

I give below a description of these individuals :—

3S. Total length, 1:2 mm.

The abdomen and cephalothorax have the relative pro-

portions 1: 2°6. The head and first thoracic segments are

fused, as are also the fourth and fifth thoracic segments,

though in the latter region traces of the original line of division

are distinctly visible ; the posterior thoracic margin is rounded.

The abdomen consists of five segments, having, with the

furca, the following proportional lengths :-—

13:2927 22202790) 17: 12;

The furcal rami are symmetrical, and the proportions of

lensth to breadth are 12: 9.

The First Antenna.—As in the case of the adult male of

P. parvus, so here also we find that the basal segments of the

antenna become fused together into three joints—the first

and second, the third to the sixth, and the seventh and eighth

segments respectively being fused. The proportional lengths

of the joints are as follows :-—

Segments: 1-2. 3-6. 7-8. 9 10. 11, 12. 18. 14. 165.

117 157 68 20 26 28 31 40 40 40

Segments: 16: 17. 18. 19. 20. 21,. 2% 23: 24. 25,

A3 543 0 46° 746546) 46) 437949) 3400 Si

The antenna when folded back only reaches to the end of the

abdomen.

Second Antenna.—This appendage exactly resembles those

of the sexually mature males of P. parvus (vide Giesbrecht,

1893, Pl. TX., fig. 23) and P. serratipes (vide Sewell, 1912,

Pl. XV., fig. 7). As I have already pointed out, the nipple-

like termination of the exopodite is a sexual character

developed in adult males in the three genera Paracalanus,

Acrocalanus, and Peizocalanus (loc. cit., 1912, p. 336).

The mouth parts are similar to those of other adult males

of the same venus.

SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE GULF OF MANNAR. 207

The First Pair of Legs.—Basal | bears a single seta on its

inner border, and is devoid of any spines either on its surfaces

or the external margin.

Basal 2 bears the usual S-shaped seta on its distal inner

border, and is likewise devoid of spines.

Exopod 1 bears a single inner seta and has no marginal

spine.

Exopod 2 has a single inner seta and bears a short transverse

row of needle-like spines on the outer margin.

Exopod 3 has four inner sete : the usual two marginal

spines are present, and in addition there is a row of three or

four teeth on the proximal part of the outer border. The

end spine is long and slender, being nearly as long as the whole

exopodite.

The endopodite is two-jointed, and reaches to the level of

the joint between exopuds 2 and 3.

The Second Par of Legs—Basal | bears a single inner seta

and no spines.

Basal 2 has no spines or sete.

Exopod | has a well-developed marginal spine, and bears in

addition a transverse row of sharp spinules on its outer and

posterior aspect. ‘There is a single inner seta.

Exopod 2 bears a marginal spine, and in addition has a row

of six curved claw-like spinules on its outer margin, and three

triangular spines on its anterior surface. A single seta is

present on the inner margin. :

Exopod 3 bears two marginal spines and a row of spinules

on that part of the outer margin proximal to the first spine.

Five sete arise from the inner border, The terminal spine is

a trifle longer than the last segment, in the proportions 9 : 8.

Endopod 1 is small, and the outer border ends in a short

spine. A single seta is present.

Endopod 2 bears an oblique curved row of spinules, usually

five or six in number on the posterior surface, and a longi-

tudinal row of four or five needle-like spinules on the outer

border, which also terminates in a small spinous process. A

corona of small spinules is situated on the anterior aspect near

the distal margin. A pair of sete are present on the inner

border.

208 SPOLIA ZEYLANIOA.

Endopod 3 bears seven seta, and a few spinules are present

posteriorly.

The Third and Fourth Pairs of Legs are very similar to the

second pair, but the terminal spine on the fourth exopodite

is shorter than the segment preceding it.

The Fifth Pair of Legs —These, as in all adult males in this

genus, are asymmetrical : the left leg consists of a somewhat

swollen basal portion and a terminal part composed of four

segments. There is an obvious hinge between the basal and

terminal portions, and the proportions of the segments are

20:15:15: 15:12. The last segment ends in two

unequal spinous processes, and the penultimate segment bears

a single spine at its distal external angle. The right leg is

composed of a basal and two free segments. It is much

shorter than the left, and ends in two unequal spines.

PARACALANUS PARVUS (Claus.).

Paracalanus parvus, Cleve, 1901, p. 8.

—_—________--—---— A. Scott, 1902, pp. 402 and 423.

—--—_______—- Cleve, 1903, p. 367.

—_—__---_—_—_——— Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 243.

--— Cleve, 1904, p. 194.

—_—_--—___——_ var. indicus, Wolfenden, 1905, p. 998.

Pl. XCVL., figs. 7-11 and 16.

-- A. Scott, 1909, p. 27.

—__—_——--— Sewell, 1912, p. 358.

Numerous examples were obtained in the various localities,

and its distribution in Indian waters appears to be almost

universal. J agree with Scott (oc. cit., 1909) that the minute

differences noted by Wolfenden between specimens taken in

the North Atlantic Ocean and those from Indian seas are not

of sufficient importance to justify the separation of the latter

as a special variety.

PARACALANUS SERRATIPES, Sewell.

Paracalanus serratipes, Sewell, 1912, p. 3382. Pl. XV

figs. 6-10.

SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE) GULF OF MANNAR. 209

This species was first obtained from the Burmese coast ;

a few examples occurred in the collections from the pearl

banks, which undoubtedly belong to the same species ; they

however, differ slightly from the Burmese specimens in that

the terminal segment of the first antenna is somewhat longer

in proportion to the preceding segments, but in all other

respects these examples agree with the type specimens.

Genus Acrocalanus, Giesbrecht.

ACROCALANUS LONGICORNIS, Giesbrecht.

Acrocalanus longicornis, Giesbrecht, 1888, p. 332 ; Gies-

brecht, 1891, p. 282.

os Cleve, 1901, p. 5.

ee hampsdreds neous OUsy Pp. ater

SS WWolienaen.) 1 0005. pa L000:

git, LEE i

Sewell, 1912, p. 358.

Pesta, 1913, p. 13, fig. 14.

Examples of this species were fairly plentiful ; it appears

to have a wide distribution in Indian seas.

ACROCALANUS GRACILIS, Giesbrecht.

Acrocalanus gracilis, Giesbrecht, 1896, p. 318.

——_____--——_———__ Cleve, 1901, p. 4.

—————_—— Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 243.

—______---___—— Cleve, 1903, p. 356.

--———. Cleve, 1904, p. 184.

———---—- Wolfenden, 1905, p. 1003.

——______--___—_—. Scott, 1909, p. 29.

- —_—___—— Sewell, 1912, p. 359.

This species was by no means common in the collections

all the examples obtained were females.

210 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

ACROCALANUS MONACHUS, Giesbrecht.

Acrocalanus monachus, Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 243.

--—__________——. Cleve, 1903, p. 356.

—--—————_———. Wolfenden, 1905, p. 1002.

——--——_—__-—_—_——- A. Scott, 1909, p. 30.

—--—_—_—___—___—_—_- Sewell, 1912, p. 359.

A few specimens were obtained.

ACROCALANUS GIBBER, Giesbrecht.

Acrocalanus gibber, Giesbrecht, 1888, p. 332.

ee Giesbrecht, 1891, p. 282.

—--—_—_———_ Giesbrecht, 1896, p. 318.

—_—_—---————_—— Thompson, 1899, p. 276.

——_—__---———-- Cleve, 1901, pp. 4 and 36. Pl. IL.,

figs. 1-16.

Acrocalanus pediger (f° part), Cleve, 1901, pp. 5 and 33.

Pl. L., figs. 1-14.

Acrocalanus gibber, A. Scott, 1902, pp. 402 and 423.

Acrocalanus gibber, Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 243.

Acrocalanus pediger, Cleve, 1903, p. 356.

Acrocalanus gibber, Cleve, 1904, p. 184.

rs Wolfenden, 1905, p. 1003.

———_—_—_ A. Scott, 1909, p. 29.

—_—___---__-—_—_- Sewell, 1912, pp. 315 and 359.

Considerable confusion appears to have arisen with regard

to this species. The original description was based on female

examples only, and this form is easily recognized by the shape

of the body and the partial separation of the first thoracic

segment from the head region. Cleve (loc. cit., 1901) described

a form from the Malay Archipelago which he considered to be

the adult male ; these examples, though closely resembling

the female as regards the armature of the swimming legs, yet

differ considerably in the shape and structure of the cephalo-

thorax. In the same paper he described a form which he

named A. pediger, but as 1, have already pointed out (vide

SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE GULF OF MANNAR. ZY

ante, pp. 205, 206), the male of this so-called Acrocalanus is in

reality the male Paracalanus aculeatus. The supposed female

is undoubtedly an Acrocalanus, but is an immature male ;

the presence of a fifth leg on the left side and the segmentation

of the abdomen are sufficient to indicate the sex, and the form

apparently corresponds to the male Acrocalanus gibber. In

the Ceylon collections numerous examples of this immature

male were present, and in almost every case were associated

with both immature and mature females of the above species.

ACROCALANUS GARDINERI, Wolfenden.

Acrocalanus gardineri, Wolfenden, 1905, p. 1004. PI.

XCVIL., figs. 5, 10, 14-21.

Sewell, 1912, p. 359.

The above name was given by Wolfenden to certain adult

males that he found in Professor Stanley Gardiner’s collections

from the Maldive and Laccadive Archipelagoes. In the

present collections are several examples that agree very fairly

well with Wolfenden’s description and figures. These males

are usually associated with females that appear to belong to

the species A. gracilis, and I am inclined to regard A. gardineri

and A. gracilis as synonymous, but, at the present time, the

data at my disposal is not sufficient to warrant a definite

pronouncement on this point.

ACROCALANUS SIMILIS, sp. nov.

(Pl. XVIL., figs. 3-5.)

Several examples, both male and female, of a species of

Acrocalanus were obtained at several stations in the Gulf of

Mannar. At first sight I took these specimens to be examples

of A. inermis, a species that was described by me (loc. cit., 1912,

p. 334, Pl. XVI., figs. 1-9) from the coast of Burma, but a

closer examination revealed the fact that, although the

resemblance between these two forms is very close, yet they

differ in several characters, and I consider that the present

examples are in all probability a new species, for which I

propose the above name.

212 SPOLIA ZEYLANIOA.

2. Total length, 0°75--0°80 mm.

The proportions of cephalothorax and abdomen are as 3:

The head and first thoracic segment are fused together, as also

in adult specimens are thoracic segments 4 and 5, though in

immature forms the line of separation between the latter can

readily be made out. 'The posterior thoracic margin is rounded

and is devoid of spines. The rostrum is bifid, and is long and

slender.

The abdomen consists of four segments, having with the

furcal rami the following proportions: 17: 10: 10: 15: 13.

The first segment shows a prominent genital swelling on the

ventral aspect.

The first antenna when folded back reaches to the end of

the furcal rami, the first and second segments are fused, and

the line of separation between segments 8 and 9 is not com-

plete, being only present on the posterior aspect.

The antennal joints have the following proportions :—

Segments): 1-2..0°6. 420 95. 96. foe 8. 0) TOMS. ove dias

120 32 32 36 36 29 26 28 28 29 34 38

Segments: 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22, 28, 24. 25.

36 36 40 40 44 44 44 48 44 52 44 60

The mouth parts closely resemble those of A. inermis, but

the mandible is slizhtly different : the arrangement of the

teeth is the same, but the separate first tooth has a longer and

somewhat narrower basal portion. ‘The swimming legs in

these two species are very similar: in both cases the external

margin of the exopodites is devoid of any spines, but in the .

present form there are no spines on the posterior aspect of

exopod 2 in the second to fourth pairs.

3. Total length, 0:8 mm,

The proportional lengths of cephalothorax and abdomen

are 2°25: 1. The abdomen consists of five segments, having

with the furcal rami the proportional lengths 10: 20: 15: 15:

13.312:

—=- -—

SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE GULF OF MANNAR. ies

First Antenna.—As in other members of this genus, the

basal segments are fused together to form two large joints.

The proportional lengths of the various joints are as follows :—

Segments: 1-6.-:7-S) 9. 10... 11. 12: 18, 342. 15; 16:

ISGuaiomee see 29 829 oGn tot Oo Og

Segments: 17. 18, 19, 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25.

39 41 44 44 48 48 48 44 29

Second Antenna.—As in other members of the genus, in

adult males the last joint of the exopodite is devoid of sets,

and forms a nipple-like projection.

The first to fourth pairs of swimming feet are the same as

in the female ; the fifth leg on the left side is present, and

consists of a somewhat swollen basal segment and four free

joints : the terminal joint bears two unequal sete, and the

penultimate joint has a short spine at its distal external angle.

It is obvious that this species is very closely related to

A. inermis, from the Burma coast, but it differs from it in the

following characters :—

(1) The total length is somewhat smaller.

(2) The terminal segment of the first antenna in the

female is somewhat longer, and there are no

transverse rows of spinules on segments 1-6. _

(3) There are no spinules on the posterior thoracic margin.

(4) There are no spines on the posterior aspect of exopod 2

of any of the swimming legs.

(5) The rostrum is long and slender.

It is possible that these differences may be merely due to

altered environment, but for the present I prefer to consider

the above a new species, and I have therefore given it the

name A. similis.

Genus Calccalanus, Giesbrecht.

CALOCALANTS PAVO (Dana).

Calocalanus parvo, Gieskrecht, 1896, p. 317.

---_—_—__———. Thompson, 1899, p. 277.

—_______---——. Cleve, 1901], p. 5.

Qn 6(10)13

214

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Calocalanus pavo, Scott, 1902, pp. 402 and 423.

Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 243.

—-——---—___— Cleve, 1903, p. 357.

—--—__—__—_—_—. Cleve, 1904, p. 186.

—_—_---___—— Wolfenden, 1905, p. 999.

——---__—_——- Scott, 1909, p. 30.

——_-.-—______—- Sewell, 1912, p. 359.

This species is widely distributed throughout Indian waters.

Several examples were obtained on the pearl banks.

CALOCALANUS PLUMULOSUS (Claus.).

Calocalanus plumulosus, A. Scott, 1902, pp. 403 and 423.

—__--________—___— Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 243.

—_—_---—______—____-——. Wolfenden, 1905, p. 999.

—_— A Scott, 1909, pai.

—___________— Sewell, 1912, p. 360.

A few examples were obtained from Dutch Moderagam

Paar.

Family PSEUDOCALANIDA.

Genus Glausocalanus, Giesbrecht.

CLAUSOCALANUS ARCUICORNIS (Dana),

Clausocalanus arcuicornis, Thompson, 1899, p. 277.

——____---_-__—_— Cleve, 1901, p. 5.

—_—_____--——_____——- Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 248.

—_---___________-—. Cleve, 1903, p. 359.

——---_________—_ Cleve, 1904, p. 188.

——_--—_______—_——. Wolfenden, 1905, p. 999.

—_—---_______-__ A. Scott, 1909, p. 32.

——_---—_____—__—__——-_ Sewell, 1912, p. 360.

Several] examples were obtained on the pearl banks,

SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE GULF OF MANNAR. 215

CLAUSOCALANUS FuURCATUS (Brady).

Claus.calanus furcatus, Giesbrecht, 1896, p. 317.

~- Cleve, 1901, p. 5.

——_—_—_—_—_—____—_——.. A. Scott, 1902, pp. 403, 423.

—___—_—____—— Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 244.

————_—_-—__+_—_—_—_——. Cleve, 1903, p. 360.

—_—_—--.--—____—_— Cleve, 1904, p. 188.

—________—_——— Wolfenden, 1905, p. 999.

— A. Scott, 1909, p. 32.

Examples of this species were comparatively common ;

both it and the precediny species DE to have a qace

distribution in Indian waters.

Genus Eucheta, Philippi.

KUCH2ETA MARINA (Prestandrea).

Eucheta marina, Thompson, 1899, p. 278.

Cleve, 1901, p. 7.

—_—_____-__—_- A. Scott, 1902, p. 403.

—_——________—— Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 244.

—______—__—_— Cleve, 1903, p. 363.

— Cleve, 1904, p. 190.

—_—___—_—-———— Wolfenden, 1905, p. 1007. PI. C., figs.

19 and 20 (8).

Eucheta indica, Wolfenden, 1905, p. 1008. PI. C., figs.

12-16 (9).

Eucheta marina, A. Scott, 1909, p. 67. Pl. XIX,

figs. 9-20.

= Sewell, 1912, p. 360.

Pesta, 1912, p. 45.

—_—________—_—_- Pesta, 1913, p. 32.

Several examples of this species, belonging to both sexes,

were obtained on the pear! banks.

216 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

EUCHZETA CONCINNA, Dana.

Euchexta concinna, Cleve, 1901, p. 7.

——--——_—_—_——— Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 244.

—____-__—_--—— Cleve, 1908, p. 368.

—_______--———— Wolfenden, 1905, p. 1008. Pics

; figs. 1-6.

——---_____—— A, Scott, 1909, p. 65. Pl. XIX.., figs.

21-27.

——__--_____——_ Sewell, 1912, p. 360.

This species was by far the most common example of the

genus present in the Ceylon collection.

EUCHZTA WOLFENDENI, Scott.

Eucheta marina, Wolfenden, 1905, p. 1007. Pl. C., figs. 7,

S Octo 7s AS:

Euchexta wolfendeni, A. Scott, 1909, p. 68. Pl. XVII.,

figs. 1-12.

Two examples of this species were obtained from Karativu

Paar and Dutch Moderagam Paar, respectively.

This species apparently has a wide distribution in Indian

waters, for I have recently obtained specimens from tow-

nettings taken off the Andaman Islands, and from the Ganjam

coast.

Family SCOLECITHRICIDA.

Genus Scolecithrix, G. Brady.

SCOLECITHRIX DAN#& (Lubbock).

Scolecithrix danz, Thompson, 1899, p. 279.

os — Cleve, 1901, p. 9.

—_—----_——_ — A. Scott, 1902, p. 403.

- --——---— Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 245.

——___.----_--——. Cleve, 1903, p. 568.

SS Cleve, 100 por

ee ee ee ee ee ee

SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE GULF OF MANNAR. PAINT

Scolecithrix danx, Wolfenden, 1905, p. 1009.

A. Scott, 1909, p. 88.

--__—— Sewell, 1912; p. 360.

This species was comparatively rare in the collection,

Genus Scolecithricella, Sars.

SCOLECITURICELLA PEARSONI, sp. nov.

(Pl. XVII, figs. 6, 7, and Pl. XVIIL., figs. 1-4).

A single male and several females of a species of Scoleci-

thricella were obtained at Dutch Moderagam and Karativu

Paars. The examples appear to. belong to a hitherto unde-

scribed species, and I have given it the above name after

Dr. J. Pearson, the Director of the Colombo Museum, who

kindly entrusted the present collection from the Ceylon pearl

banks to my care for the purpose of examination.

The characters of the above species are as follows :-—

9. Total length, 1°0 mm.

The proportions of cephalothorax and abdomen are 3°5: 1.

The cephalothorax is robust, and is uniformly rounded

dorsally. The head and first thoracic segment are fused

together, as also are thoracic segments 4 and 5. The rostrum

consists of two stout spinous processes. The abdomen has

four segments, showing with the furcal rami the following

relative proportional lengths :—6:3:3:1: 2.

The first antenna is short and reaches, when folded back, to

the posterior end of the thorax : it consists of twenty joints

having the following proportional lengths :—

Segments: 1-2. 3. 4 5 6 7 810. 11, 12-18. 14,

L022. 2st 2p 28. 23 5S. .23 btw 29

Segments: 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22, 23, 24-95,

43 47 47 51. 51 51 58 66.89 105

The first and second, eighth to tenth, and twelfth and

thirteenth segments are respectively fused together, and so

are the twenty-fourth and twenty-fifth.

218 7 - SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

The second antenna and mouth parts are similar to those

of other members of the yenus.

The First Pair of Legs.——The first basal joint bears no

external spine or internal seta; the external margin bears a

series of fine curved spinules, diminishing in size proximally;

the second basal joint bears no marginal spine, but carries a

single seta on its inner distal angle.

The exopodite consists of three segments : exopod 1 bears

no marginal spine; exopod 2 has a single spine, as usual;

exopod 3 in most cases bears a single spine on the external

margin at its distal extremity, but in two of the specimens

examined (a é and a 2) there was a second spine present at the

junction of the middle and distal thirds. The end spine is

long and slender, and is equal in length to the preceding two

segments. The endopodite consists of a single segment having

a well-marked rounded swelling on the external border, and

across the base of this swelling is a transverse row of needle-

like spines.

The Second Pair of Legs.—The first basal bears a single seta

internally, and is finely serrated on the proximal two-thirds

of the outer margin. The second basal is produced at both

the internal and external distal angles in a triangular spinous

process.

The exopodite consists of three segments: exopod | bears .

a single seta internally, and externally is armed with a long

spine that reaches as far as the base of the spine on the

succeeding segment ; exopod 2 bears a single internal seta, and

the external spine extends well beyond the base of the

proximal spine on exopod 3. On the posterior aspect are two

rows of small spinules, one row extends vertically down the

centre of the segment and the second runs horizontally along

the distal margin ; exopod 3 bears four setz on its internal

margin, and externally is armed with three teeth of more or

less equal size. On its posterior aspect, this segment carries

three curved rows of spinules. Terminally, the end spine is

broad and somewhat curved, having a finely-serrated outer

margin.

The endopodite is two-jointed: endopod 1 bears a single

inner seta, and externally is produced at its distal extremity

* . ae

ss ase ee ee ee ee ees

SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE GULF OF MANNAR. 219

in a sharp spinous projection; exopod 2 bears five sete and

terminates in a small apical spinous process, while on its

posterior aspect it carries a series of sharp needle-like spines.

The Third Pair of Legs—Basal 1 bears a single internal

seta, and is finely serrated on its external margin ; basal 2 has

a spine-like projection on both inner and outer ends of the

distal margin. Both exopodite and endopodite consist of

three segments : exopod | has a single external spine and one

internal seta ; exopod 2 is similarly provided ; exopod 3 bears

three external spines ; all the marginal spines are of equal

size. In addition, certain of these segments are armed with

rows of spinules ; the second basal segment carries a series of

small spines on the triangular projection of its distal margin,

behind the base of exopod 1 ; exopod 2 bears a transverse row

of spines parallel to its posterior distal margin, and exopod 3

bears two rows of spines, one distally alony the transverse

border and one shaped like 7 about the middle of its length,

both on the posterior aspect.

Endopod 1 bears a single internal seta, and terminates

externally in a sharp spine-like process ; exopod 2 is similarly

provided, and in addition is armed with long needle-like spines

on its posterior aspect. Endopod 3 bears five sete, and is

armed with spines like the preceding segment.

The fourth pair of legs are similar to the third pair, but are

armed with a transverse row of spines of the first basal

segment, and the marginal serration on this segment is

absent.

The fifth pair of legs have the form characteristic of the

genus. The single segment bears three spines ; the outer is

extremely small and arises from the external margin; the

second arises distally and is somewhat longer ; the third spine

is large and projects inwards from the inner margin ; it is

finely serrated on its internal border.

$. The total length, 7-0 mm.

The proportional lengths of cephalothorax and abdomen

are 3:1. The abdomen consists of four segments having, with

the fureal rami, the following proportions : 15 : 25: 20 : 22: 10.

220 SPOLIA ZEYLANIGA.

The first antenna consists of eighteen joints, having the

following relative lengths :—

Segments : he 2. 33 4, 5. 6. ile 8-14. 15.

64 32 29° 2527925). 25 2b 5132.32

Segmenta: (16, 17." //18.> 49) 2008 21. 22. 23. 24-25.

50 64 68 68 TI 75 43 86 8696

The eighth to the fourteenth segments inclusive appear to

have fused to form a single joint.

The second antenna, mouth-parts, and swimming legs are

the same as those of the female.

The Fifth Pair of Legs —Each leg has a stout basal segment

and a short one-jointed endopodite ; the right exopodite con-

sists of three segments ; exopod 2 bears a row of small spines

on the distal part of its inner margin ; exopod 3 is somewhat

claw-shaped, terminating in a sharp point and having a

swollen base. The proportional lengths of the basal joint and

exopods are 24 : 22: 16:8; the relative length of the endopod

is 8.

The left leg has the basal joint produced in a somewhat

swollen rounded projection distally. The exopod is two-

jointed, each joint being of nearly equal length : the terminal

joint is tapered, ending in a sharp point. The endopod is

short and spine-like.

Tribe HETERARTHANDRIA.

Family CENTROPAGID/L.

Genus Centropages, Kroyer.

CENTROPAGES FURCATUS (Dana).

Centropages furcatus, Giesbrecht, 1889, Sem. 1, p. 811.

- Giesbrecht, 1891, p. 282.

— Giesbrecht, 1893.

Giesbrecht, 1896, p. 317.

Thompson, 1899, p. 279.

Cleve, 1901, p. 5.

A. Scott, 1902, pp. 403 and 423.

ee ep aa

SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE GULF OF MANNAR. 221

Centragages furcatus, Cleve, 1903, p. 359.

—__——— Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 246.

Cleve, 1904, p. 187.

Wolfenden, 1905, p. 1016.

A. Scott, 1909, p. 113.

Pesta, 1912, p. 46, fig. 5.

Sewell, 1912, pp. 315 and 360.

Pesta, 1913, p. 32.

This species is widely distributed throughout Indian waters,

and numerous examples were obtained from the pearl banks.

CENTROPAGES ORSINI, Giesbrecht.

Centropages orsinii, Giesbrecht, 1889, Sem. 1, p. 811.

Giesbrecht, 1891, p. 282.

Giesbrecht, 1893.

Giesbrecht, 1896, p. 317.

Cleve, 1901, p. 5.

A. Scott, 1902, pp. 404 and 423.

Cleve, 1903, p. 359.

Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 247.

Wolfenden, 1905, p. 1015. PI.

XCVIIE; fies “1, 4085-110 12 3s

and 5, 13 Q.

A. Scott, 1909, p. 115.

Pesta, 1912, p. 46, fig. 6.

Sewell, 1912, pp. 315 and 362.

- Pesta, 1913, p. 32.

Examples of this species were of common occurrence, and

were widely distributed throughout the areas under investi-

gation.

CENTROPAGES TENUIREMIS, Thompson & Scott.

Centropages tenuiremis, Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 247.

Pl. I., figs. 14-18.

Centropages arabicus, Cleve, 1903, p. 371. PI. XVI

figs. 1-9, and Pl. XVIL., fig. 1.

2a 6(10)13

222 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Centropages tenuiremis, Sewell, 1912, p. 363. Pl. XXIV.,

figs. 6-7.

This species has now been reported from the Arabian Sea, .

the coastal waters of Ceylon, and the coast of Burma. It was

present in several of the tow-nettings from the pearl banks,

but never in any considerable numbers.

CENTROPAGES DORSISPINATUS, Thompson & Scott.

Centropages dorsispinatus, Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 247.

Pl. I., figs. 19-25.

Centropages notoceras, Cleve, 1903, pp. 359 and 378.

Pl. XVII., figs. 2-10, and

eel, XV Geos

Sewell, 1912, p. 360.

Several examples of this species were taken in a tow-netting

at Kilakarai at the head of the Gulf of Mannar. As I have

already pointed out (loc. cit.), the descriptions given by

Thompson & Scott and Cleve differ in several details ; the

present specimens agree exactly with those from the Persian

Gulf and from Burma.

CENTROPAGES ELONGATUS, Giesbrecht.

Centropages elongatus, Giesbrecht, 1896, pp. 317, 322.

Pl. V., figs. 3-6.

A. Scott, 1902, p. 404. PI. I., figs.

13, 14.

—_—________—— Cleve, 1903, p. 359.

—______—_——— Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 246.

Wolfenden, 1905, p. 1014. PI.

XCVIIL., figs. 2, 3, 9, 10, 14.

A. Scott, 1909, p. 113.

This species is comparatively rare in the present collections.

A few examples of both sexes were obtained at Dutch Modera-

gam, Krusadai, and Jokenpiddi Paars.

SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE GULF OF MANNAR. 223

CENTROPAGES GRACILIS (Dana).

Centropages gracilis, Cleve, 1901, p.%5.

--—_—_——— Cleve, 1903, p. 359.

——_-___-_———— Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 247.

———_————— Wolfenden, 1905," p. 1013, Pi:

XCOVIII., fig. 7.

—_-——_-_+———_ A. Scott, 1909, p. 114.

A single example of a mature female was obtained at

Jokenpiddi Paar.

CENTROPAGES TRISPINOSUS, sp. nov.

(Pl. XVIII., figs. 5-8.)

A single example, a female, of apparently a new species of

Centropages, was taken in a tow-netting at Kilakarai. The

single specimen obtained presents several characteristic

features in which it differs from all previously described speci-

mens, and I have therefore given it the above name.

2 Total length, 1:4 mm.

The proportional lengths of cephalothorax and abdomen

are 3:1. The head and first thoracic segment are quite

separate, as also are thoracic segments four and five. The

dorsum is uniformly rounded. The posterior thoracic margin is

rounded, and is armed with three short spines situated rather

towards the ventral side. The rostrum consists of two slender

processes. The abdomen possesses three segments having,

with the furcal rami, the proportional lengths 4 : 3 : 2: 2.

The genital segment is somewhat barrel-shaped, and has a

rounded swelling on the dorsal apect.

The first antenna, when folded back, reaches to the end of

the abdomen. The number and relative lengths of the basal

segments are not easily determined; apparently several

segments are fused together to form the second joint, and.

the eighth and ninth are also partially fused, and the

twenty-fourth and twenty-fifth segments completely so.

224 SPOLIA ZEYLANIOA.

The proportional lengths of the various joints are as

follows :—

Segments: 1. 24. 5. 6 7 89. 10. 11. 12 18

43 43 14 17 28 37 23 26 37 63

Segments: 14: 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 28, 24-25.

68 68 77 86 88 77 51 46 31 34 43

The Fifth Pair of Legs.—Both rami are three-jointed.

Exopod 1 bears a marginal spine, but has no internal seta ;

exopod 2, in addition to the single external marginal spine,

bears the usual spine on its inner border. This spine is long

and has a somewhat swollen base ; it tapers gradually to a fine

point and bears no teeth on its surface. Exopod 3 has two

marginal spines and a finely serrated end-spine.

The endopodite reaches to the level of the joint between

exopods 2 and 3. Endopod 1 presents a well-marked rounded

swelling at its distal external angle.

The remaining appendages appear to be very similar to

those of Centropages alcocki (Sewell, 1912, p. 338, Pl. XVIL.,

figs. 1-7), but the serrations on the terminal spines of the

swimming feet are not so coarse and are less widely separated.

Genus Pseudodiaptomus, Herrick.

PSEUDODIAPTOMUS AURIVILLII, Cleve.

Pseudodiaptomus aurivillit, Cleve, 1901, p. 48. Pl. VI.,

figs. 11-22, and Pl. VIL.,

figs. 1, 2.

—__-___-_______— Thompson & Scott, 1903, p.

248. PI. I1., figs. 24-26.

—__-___-_______— A. Scott, 1909, p. 116.

—__-_____-________——_ Sewell, 1912, p. 363.

Numerous examples of both sexes were obtained in the

present collections. The male was first obtained by Thompson

and Scott, but as they give no description of its structure I

give below a brief account of some of the more salient features.

SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE GULF OF MANNAR. 225

3. Total length, 1:1 mm.

Proportional lengths of cephalothorax and abdomen 2: 1.

The head and first thoracic segment are fused completely

and thoracic segment 4 and 5 partially so; the postero-lateral

border of the fifth segment is, as in the female, armed with

a large backwardly projecting spine. The rounded anterior

** forehead ”’ terminates ventrally in a bifid rostrum composed

of long fleshy processes.

The abdomen consists of five segments having, with the

furea, the following relative proportions :—16 : 25: 24:24:11:

21. Segments 2 to 4 inclusive are armed round their posterior

borders with a series of triangular spines.

The first antenna on the right side is modified to form a

grasping organ ; it is composed of twenty joints, having the

following relative proportional lengths :—

Segments: 1. 2. 3. 4, Bee Va ce 8. 9: 10:

95 52 24 14 14 19 14 14 24 28

Segments: 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19-20. 21-23.

a4. 24 98 66.5% 62) 435 118s P14. 165

The knee-joint is situated between segments 18 and 19, and

the “‘ Endabschnitt ” consists of two joints only, segments

19 and 20 and 21 to 23 being respectively fused together.

Segment 10 bears a long spine-like seta, and segments 12 to 16

are all armed with needle-like spines; the seventeenth segment

bears a lamellar process on its anterior aspect ; both segments

of the knee-joint are armed with lamellar plates, that on the

proximal segment being armed with needle-like teeth, while

that on the distal is unarmed.

The Second Antenna—The two rami are of nearly equal

length ; the last joint of the exopodite is swollen and nipple-

shaped. The endopodite is of the usual type.

The Second Mazilliped—Basal 1 is three-fifths as long as

broad ; it bears four setz on its anterior border and carries a

single stout spine-like seta distally ; basal 2 is beset with fine

hairs proximally, and about the middle of its length bears

three stout sete; it is about twice as long as broad. The

terminal portion of the appendage consists of the usual five

segments.

226 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

The First Pair of Swimming Legs.—Basal 1 bears an internal

seta, andis armed with a few spines on its anterior aspect near

the base ; basal 2 bears a corona of spines distally on its outer

and anterior surfaces. The rami are in exact agreement with

Cleve’s original description (loc. cit., 1901).

The remaining swimming legs are similar to those of the

female, and the fifth pair of legs correspond exactly with the

description given by Thompson and Scott.

PSEUDODIAPTOMUS SERRICAUDATUS (T. Scott).

Pseudodiaptomus serricaudatus, A. Scott, 1902, p. 404.

PITS fig. 6:

ee — Clove, 1903, 02568.

ee eS Lom pson er ecGbn, 1 ous

p- 248.

Cleve, 1904, p. 196.

Tollinger, 1911, p. 177.

Examples of this species were of common occurrence

throughout the area under investigation.

Family TEMORIDAL.

Genus Temora, W. Baird.

TEMORA DISCAUDATA, Giesbrecht.

Temora discaudata, Giesbrecht, 1889, Sem. 1, p. 814.

aie Giesbrecht, 1891, p. 282.

- Giesbrecht, 1896, p. 317.

- Thompson, 1899, p. 280.

—___---_____—— Cleve, 1901, p. 9.

- A. Scott, 1902, pp. 405 and 428.

Cleve, 1903, p. 369.

- Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 248.

- Cleve, 1904, p. 198.

-—— Wolfenden, 1905, p. 1023.

a ————s eee

a —S se

SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE GULF OF MANNAR. pei

Temora discaudata, A. Scott, 1909, p. 118.

——_-__—_—_————. Pesta, 1912, p. 47, fig. 7.

—-——_—__—_———- Sewell, 1912, p. 365. Pl. XXII.,

: figs. 8, 9.

Numerous examples of this species were obtained ; as the

above list of references shows, it is widely distributed through-

out Indian waters.

TEMORA STYLIFERA (Dana).

Temora stylifera, Thompson, 1899, p. 280.

Cleve, 1901, p. 9.

SEE ae Coup, 1002) pe 404.

Cleve, 1903, p. 369.

-—-— Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 249.

-— Cleve, 1904, p. 198.

eet WV ONENOON LOU a= pl O2c.

——---_—— Sewell, 1912, p. 366.

The above species also appears to be widely distributed

throughout Indian waters ; it was common in the present

collections.

TEMORA TURBINATA (Dana).

Temora turbinata, Giesbrecht, 1889, Sem. 1, p. 814.

== lesprecht, 80 l'on. 282:

= psprecht S96; p. 318.

——_-—————— Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 249.

—_—_——— Scott, 1909, p. 118.

Se esta, L9L2 pe 48) fie 8:

Se ell Re Sa Gli

es a UCT Se

This species also was common in the collections, and appears

to be widely distributed in these waters.

228 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Family LUCICUTIID.

Genus Lucicutia, Giesbrecht.

LUCICUTIA FLAVICORNIS (Claus.).

Leuckartia flavicornis, Cleve, 1901, p. 7.

Lucicutia flavicornis, A. Scott, 1902, p. 405.

—_—_____—————— Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 249.

Cleve, 1903, p. 364.

Cleve, 1904, p. 192.

Wolfenden, 1905, p. 1012.

A Scott, 1909, p. 125.

Sewell, 1912, p. 366.

A few examples only were obtained.

Genus Metacalanus, Cleve.

METACALANUS AURIVILLII, Cleve.

Metacalanus aurwillii, Cleve, 1901, pp. 7, 43. PL. IV.,

figs. 16-25, and Pl. V., figs. 1-6.

—_—_____---—————— Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 248.

Pl. I1., figs. 18-20.

—_____---____—_——_ A. Scott, 1909, p. 146.

Numerous examples of this species were obtained. It has

now been reported from the Malay Archipelago and Ceylon,

and I have myself found it in the Plankton of the Tenasserim

coast. It was also of frequent occurrence in the “ Siboga ”

collection, and is probably widely distributed throughout the

Indian seas. Owing to its small size, however, it is very liable

to be overlooked.

Family CANDACIIDAi.

Genus Candacia, Dana.

CANDACIA XTHIOPICA (Dana).

Candacia xthiopica, Thompson, 1899, p. 281.

-——_—_—— Scott, 1902, p. 405.

SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE GULF OF MANNAR. 229

Candacia xthiopica, Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 250.

= = Gleve, 1903, p. 358.

—____--_—_———— Scott, 1909, p. 151.

Sewell, 1912, p. 366.

Only a few examples were obtained in the present collections.

CANDACIA CATULA (Giesbrecht).

Candacia catula, Giesbrecht, 1896, p. 317.

——_____—_— Cleve, 1901, p. 5.

Scott, 1902, p. 405.

Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 250.

Cleve, 1903, p. 358.

Cleve, 1904, p. 186.

Wolfenden, 1905, p. 1012.

Scott, 1909, p. 152.

Sewell, 1912, p. 367.

This species appears to be widely distributed throughout

Indian waters. It was by no means common on the pearl

banks, but several examples of both sexes were obtained.

CANDACIA BRADYI, A. Scott.

Candacia bradyi, Scott, 1902, p.406. PI. L., figs. 9-12 (8).

-___——_—— Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 250.

Candacia tuberculata, Wolfenden, 1905, p. 1013.

Candacia bradyi (3 part), Carl, 1907, p.9. PI.I., figs. 11

and 14 and PL ROVE. , figs. 40-44 (3).

Scott, 1909, p. 156. Pl. XLVII., figs.

1-9 (6).

___________. Pesta, 1912, p: 49, fig. 9'(9).

—_—_—__—_—_—— Sewell, 1912, p. 366. PI. XXIII., figs.

6 and 7 ( ).

This species appears to have a fairly wide distribution —

throughout Indian waters. Its occurrence has now been

reported from localities ranging from the Persian Gulf to

Amboina and the Phillippines.

2H 6(10)13

230 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

CANDACIA DISCAUDATA, Scott.

Candacia bradyi (° part), Carl, 1907, p. 9. Pl. L., figs.

8-10, 12-13.

Candacia discaudata, Scott, 1909, p. 157. Pl. XLVIL.,

figs. 10-20.

Sewell, 1912, p. 367.

The first to describe this species was Dr. J. Carl ; he, however,

only had the female sex before him, and he made the mistake

of associating his examples with Candacia bradyi, Scott, of

which at that time only the male was known. Scott, who does

not appear to have been acquainted with Carl’s Paper, re-

described the species from the Siboga collection under the above

name.

Several examples of both sexes were obtained from the

pearl banks, so the known distribution of this form is extended

considerably to the westward.

CANDACIA PACHYDACTYLA, Dana.

Candace pachydactyla, Cleve, 1901, p. 5.

Candacia pachydactyla, Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 251.

—__________—————_ Cleve, 19038, p. 358.

Cleve, 1904, p. 187.

Wolfenden, 1905, p. 1013.

Scott, 1909, p. 153.

Sewell, 1912, p. 368.

Although this species appears to be widely distributed

throughout Indian waters, it was of rare occurrence in the

present collection.

CANDACIA TRUNCATA, Dana.

Candacia truncata, Thompson,»1899, p. 282.

Scott, 1902, p. 405.

Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 250.

Cleve, 1903, p. 358,

SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE GULF OF MANNAR. 231

Candacia truncata, Cleve, 1904, p. 187.

Wolfenden, 1905, p. 1013.

Scott, 1909, p. 155.

Sewell, 1912, p. 368.

This species also appears to have a wide distribution, but

only a single specimen was found in the collection.

Family PONTELLID&.

Genus Calanopia, Dana.

CALANOPIA ELLIPTICA (Dana).

Calanopia elliptica, Giesbrecht, 1896, pp. 317, 325. PI. V.,

figs. 7-9.

——-—_-————— Thompson, 1899, p. 282.

Cleve, 1901, p. 5.

————-_—_———_ A. Scott, 1902, pp. 406 and 423.

Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 251.

—_—_—_--——_—_—_— Cleve, 1903, p. 356.

—_——_--—————. Wolfenden, 1905, p. 1023. |

——--——_—_————_ A. Scott, 1909, p. 177. Pl. XLVIIL.,

figs. 1-5.

—_—___—_—_—_--— Pesta, 1912, p. 50, fig. 10.

Calanopia sp. (= ¢ juv.), Pesta, 1912, p. 52, fig. 12.

Calanopia elliptica, Sewell, 1912; p. 368.

-———_——— Pesta, 1913, p. 32.

This species is of comparatively common occurrence in

Indian waters ; examples of both sexes were plentiful in the

Ceylon collection. The form described by Dr. Pesta (loc. cit.,

1912) is, in my opinion, a young and immature male ; the form

of the fifth appendage is exactly similar to that found in

young males just before they undergo the sexual moult.

CALANOPIA AURIVILLIT, Cleve.

Calanopia aurivillii, Cleve, 1901, p. 37. Pl. IL, figs.

17-23, and PI. IIL., figs. 1-10.

——--——_—_—— Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 251.

232 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Calanopia minor, Sewell, 1912, p. 368.

Calanopia aurivillu, A. Scott, 1909, p.181. Pl. XLVIIT.,

figs. 16-20.

Numerous examples of both sexes were obtained in the

Ceylon collections ; they agree exactly with the descriptions of

Cleve and Scott. I have re-examined the specimens which I

recorded from the coast of Burma under the name C. minor

and I find that for the most part they do not belong to that

species, but are examples of C. aurivillit.

CALANOPIA THOMPSONT, A. Scott.

Calanopia thompson, Scott, 1909, p. 17a. Pl. XLIX.

- figs. 1-8.

Sewell, 1912, p. 368.

Numerous examples of this species were obtained from the

Ceylon pearl banks ; they were especially common in a tow-

netting from Marichchukkaddi Bay. Its occurrence in these

waters increases the range of this species very considerably.

CALANOPIA MINOR, A. Scott.

Calanopia minor, A. Scott, 1902, p. 406. PI. L., figs. 1-5.

—_—_—__—_—_—_—— Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 251.

Cleve, 1903, p. 356.

Wolfenden, 1905, p. 1023.

A. Scott, 1909, p. 177. Pl. XLVIILI.,

figs. 6-10.

Pesta, 1912, p. 51.

Sewell, 1912, p. 368.

A few examples of this species were obtained on the pear

banks, but on the whole it was comparatively rare.

Genus Labidocera.

LABIDOCERA ACUTA (Dana).

Labidocera acutum, Giesbrecht, 1889, p. 27.

—____--—____—— Giesbrecht, 1891, p. 282.

SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE GULF OF MANNAR. 233

Labidocera acuta, Giesbrecht, 1896, p. 317.

—______——— Thompson, 1899, p. 282.

Cleve, 1901, p. 7.

A. Scott, 1902, p. 407.

Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 251.

Cleve, 1903, p. 363.

Cleve, 1904, p. 191.

Wolfenden, 1905, p. 1016.

Scott, 1909, p. 164.

Pesta, 1912, p. 52, fig. 13.

Sewell, 1912, p. 368.

Pesta, 1913, p. 32.

This species was of common occurrence in the Ceylon

collections. As the above list of references indicates, it has a

wide distribution throughout Indian waters.

LABIDOCERA KROYERI (Brady).

Labidocera kroyeri, Cleve, 1901, p. 7.

Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 251.

Scott, 1909, p. 165.

Sewell, 1912, p. 369.

Labidocera kroyert var. stylifera, Thompson & Scott.

Labidocera kroyert var. stylifera, Thompson. & Scott,

Tie; figs 839.

--—___________—__———- Sewell, 1912, p. 369.

Labidocera kroyeri var. burmanica, Sewell.

Labidocera kroyert var. burmanica, Sewell, 1912, p. 369.

PIS XX: figse £

and 5.

Examples of this species were common throughout the area

under investigation. A peculiarity of this species is the

degree of variation exhibited by the males. Thompson and

Scott described two varieties from the Ceylon coast, var.

stylifera and var. gallensis, and I have previously described a

third, var. burmanica, from the Tenasserim coast. The vast

majority of the males obtained in the present collection

234 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

belonged to the variety of stylifera; a few examples of the

burmanica variety and two examples of the normal male were

also obtained.

LABIDOCERA MINUTA, Giesbrecht.

Labidocera minutum, Giesbrecht, 1889, p. 27.

-———__—_—_——. Giesbrecht, 1891, p. 28¢.

-_—_—_—_——— Cleve, 1901, p. 7.

Labidocera minuta, A. Scott, 1902, p. 407.

—_—_—___—————— Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 251.

Cleve, 1903, p. 363.

Wolfenden, 1905, p. 1018. PI.

XCVIII., figs. 18, 24, 25, 29, 32, 37

A. Scott, 1909, p. 167.

Pesta, 1912, p. 53, fig. 14.

Sewell, 1912, p. 370.

Examples of this species, though not common, were yet of

fairly frequent occurrence in the collections; the species

appears to be widely distributed throughout Indian waters.

LABIDOCERA PAVO, Giesbrecht.

(Pl. XXTI., figs. 1-3.)

Labidocera pavo, Giesbrecht, 1889, p. 27.

Giesbrecht, 1891, p. 282.

Cleve, 1901, p. 7.

Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 251.

Cleve, 1903, p. 364.

Numerous examples of this species, including the hitherto

unknown male, were obtained in some of the tow-nettings

from the pearl banks.

$. Total length, 2°2 mm.

Proportional lengths of cephalothorax and abdomen about

4:1. The head and first thoracic segments are fused together,

and there is a well-marked groove across the dorsal aspect of

the ‘‘ neck.”

SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE GULF OF MANNAR. 235

The fourth and fifth thoracic segments are also fused. The

posterior thoracic margin is rounded, and is armed with a small

spine. The head is furnished with a pair of large eye lenses,

and the ventral lens is well developed and of a plum-colour.

The rostrum is bifid, and is composed of two slender spines;

there is no rostral lens. The abdomen consists of five segments,

having, with the furcal rami, the following proportional

lengths :—27 : 32 :32:16:9: 38.

The first antenna, when folded back, reaches to the middle of

the abdomen ; that on the left side consists of twenty-two

joints, having the following proportional lengths, and for

purposes of comparison I also give the lengths of the joints

in the female :—

Segments: 1. Qe 3. Zep Os i Oonmes Osmeel LOsw ye Lire Los

GQ pe Oos Oo ome tT 1326s 40 6 2G Os oem 30

OAS ele wl hep 14-28" 50) 3Oem 109) {2B 38

Seements 3135) 142. 1b 1G) 175 1819s. 20 SFI B2om 930

Oi ete OM GRE. o iioi ee Sle Obs DA On rey 2) Aas ee.

O 32 36, 45-66) “66-78 81 52048) 550) 138\) 38

Segments 7 and 8 are partially fused together. The right

antenna is modified to form a grasping organ ; it consists of

nineteen joints, having the following proportional lengths :—

Segments : if at el Ot 1 es ASS

‘Sun ae SOM Ome Sam 4a a moo ano eae Gud:

Segments : DA SS si Gs 1G 18: - 19-21, 225 28: 24-95.

anti A012 87. 10 LOG LIS" 89 400 40

Segments 11, 12, and 13 each bear a minute spine on the

anterior surface ; the seventeenth segment bears a curved

lamellar plate very similar to that present in L. detruncata ;

the eighteenth segment is armed with a lamellar plate carrying

a number of fine acicular spines, and the nineteenth segment

carries a raised tooth-plate very similar to that of L. detruncata,

but only reaching about three-fourths the length of the

segment, not beyond the distal joint as in L. detruncata, nor

is it so rounded at its extremity.

The Fifth Pair of Legs.—That on the right side has much the

same shape as that of L. detruncata, but the proximal process

is not so stout; the left leg also has a similar structure,

236 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

but the spines on the distal segment are somewhat differently

arranged. The first spine arises from the middle of the

external margin and the remaining three from the extreme

tip ; the inner margin is beset with fine hairs.

It is evident that this species closely resembles L. detruncata,

but in both sexes there are certain constant differences that

render identification comparatively easy.

LABIDOCERA PECTINATA, Thompson & Scott.

Labidocera pectinata, Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 252.

Pl. IL., figs. 10-14.

Labidocera similis, Cleve, 1903, pp.364and378. Pl. XIX.,

figs. 4-6.

Labidocera pectinata, Sewell, 1912, p. 370. Pl. XXIITT.,

figs. 8-9.

A single example of this rare species was obtained from a

tow-netting taken at Paumben.

Genus Ponteilla, Dana.

PoNTELLA DAN, var. CEYLONICA, Thompson & Scott.

Pontella dane var. ceylonica, Thompson & Scott, 1903, p.

252. Pl. II., figs. 1-5.

_—_____--—____— Sewell, 1912, p. 370.

A few examples were obtained ; they agree exactly with the

original figures and description.

PONTELLA INVESTIGATORIS, Sewell.

Pontella investigatoris, Sewell, 1912, p. 371. Pl. XXIII,

figs. 1-3.

This species was first described by me from male examples

taken on the coast of Burma. Several specimens were

obtained in the present collections from the Ceylon pearl banks,

and these agree exactly with the types. One cannot help

SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE GULF OF MANNAR. Zan

remarking on the frequency with which these males are

associated with the females of the preceding species, and in

neither case have any corresponding members of the opposite

sex been obtained. The male, P. danex, as described, is

obviously not the same as the present species, but it is possible

that the variety of the female, as described by Thompson &

Scott, is in reality a different species, and I am inclined to

regard it as the female of P. investigatoris. There is a very

close similarity in the general structure, and especially is this

seen in the relative lengths of the antennal joints in the two

forms. I give below the proportional lengths of the joints in

the antenna of P. dane var. ceylonica (2), and those of the

unaltered antenna of P. investigatoris (4).

Sesmentsjeteea soe 4a Oh 6 7a1. Sa Gun 10- Lia 12s

P. dane ;

var, ceylonica,2.. 95 71 16 17 20 22 20 20 27 23 22 38

P. investi-

gatoris, 3 2 9S) 7 16616) WSe 20s USS 1SN25) 20) 20" 35

Segments: 13: 145 15, 16h 175 18% 195 20) 2h). 295 os. 948

P. dane ;

var. ceylonica,2.. 38 42 47 61 61 66 71 49 47 50 34 43

P. investi-

gatoris, J .. 34 34 44 59 60 70 76 56 56 56 40 48

It is obvious that there is a fairly close resemblance between

these two forms, and I am inclined to believe that the form

described by Thompson & Scott as P. dane var. ceylonica is

in reality not a variety of Giesbrecht’s species, but the female

of P. investigatoris.

PONTELLA FERA, Dana.

Pontella fera, Giesbrecht, 1889, p. 28.

— Giesbrecht, 1891, p. 282.

A. Scott, 1902, p. 408.

——-—-—— Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 252.

——--————_ Wolfenden, 1905, p. 1021.

-—-—— A. Scott, 1909, p. 159.

Although recorded from various parts of the Indian Ocean

and its offshoots, this species would appear to be by no means

21 6(10)13

238 SPOLIA ZEYLANIOA.

common ; a single example (female) was found in the Ceylon

collection.

PONTELLA SECURIFER, Brady.

Pontella securifer, Giesbrecht, 1889, p. 27.

—____+__—+_—_— Giesbrecht, 1891, p. 282.

—________—— Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 252.

Cleve, 1904, p. 195.

Wolfenden, 1905, p. 1021.

Pontella spinipes (3), Wolfenden, 1905, p. 1020.

Pontella securifer, A. Scott, 1909, p. 160.

Sewell, 1912, p. 372.

A single specimen (3) was obtained from the pearl banks.

Genus Pontellopsis, Brady.

PONTELLOPSIS ARMATA (Giesbrecht).

Monops armatus, Giesbrecht, 1889, p. 28.

-- Giesbrecht, 1891, p. 282.

—_—_---—__—_—— Cleve, 1901, p. 7.

Pontellopsis armata, Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 253.

—_—_______—_——— Wolfenden, 1905, p. 1022. Pe

XCIX., figs. 1-3.

A. Scott, 1909, p. 170.

A single example of a male of this species was found in the

present collection.

PONTELLOPSIS HERDMANI, Thompson & Scott.

Pontellopsis herdmani, Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 253.

Pl. II., figs. 15-17. .

Pontellopsis macronyx, A. Scott, 1909, p. 137. Pl. LIV.,

figs. 1-10.

Pontellopsis herdmani, Sewell, 1912, p. 375. Pl. XXIV.,

fig. 5.

SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE GULE OF MANNAR. 239

Several examples of this species were obtained from the

pearl banks. Though differing in several unimportant details

from the original description, I have no doubt that the above

is the correct specific identity. In the present specimens, the

genital segment of the abdomen in the female frequently bears

a small spine on the dorsal surface and somewhat towards the

left side, in addition to the two on the right side described by

Thompson & Scott ; in all my specimens the furcal setw are

plumose.

PoNTELLOPIS KRAMERI (Giesbrecht).

Monops krameri, Giesbrecht, 1896, pp. 317, 323.

Pontellopsis krameri, A. Scott, 1902, p. 423. PI. I., figs.

7, 8, amd Pl LE figs. 1, 2.

a Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 253.

Wolfenden, 1905, p. 1021. PI.

XCVIIL., figs. 39-41.

——— A. Scott, 1909, p. 171.

Sewell, 1912, p. 376.

Several examples of the male of this species were obtained,

but no corresponding females.

PONTELLOPSIS PERSPICAX (Dana).

Pontellopsis perspicax, Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 253.

— A. Scott, 1909, p. 171.

A single female belonging to the above species was taken at

Periya Paar.

PONTELLOPSIS REGALIS (Dana).

Pontellopsis regalis, Thompson, 1899, p. 283.

Monops regalis, Cleve, 1901, p. 7.

Pontellopsis regalis, Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 253.

Monops regalis, Cleve, 1903, p. 364.

Pontellopsis regalis, A. Scott, 1909, p. 171.

—_______—_——. Sewell, 1912, pp. 315, 376.

A single example was obtained in the present collection.

240 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Genus Pontellina, Dana.

PONTELLINA PLUMATA (Dana).

Pontellina plumata, Giesbrecht, 1889, p. 29.

Giesbrecht, 1891, p. 282.

- Thompson, 1899, p. 283.

- Cleve, 1901, p. 8.

— A. Scott, 1902, p. 408.

—___—______—— Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 253.

—- Cleve, 1903, p. 367.

——_____—___—— Cleve, 1904, p. 195.

— Wolfenden, 1905, p. 1022.

A. Scott, 1909, p. 175.

Sewell, 1912, p. 354.

A few examples of this species were taken in the present

collections. Though widely distributed, it does not appear to

be common in Indian waters.

Genus Acartia, Dana.

AUARTIA CENTRURA, Giesbrecht.

Acartia centrura, Giesbrecht, 1889, p. 25.

Giesbrecht, 1891, p. 282.

~ -——-— Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 254.

Several examples were obtained in the present collections.

ACARTIA DANA, Giesbrecht.

Acartia danx, Cleve, 1908, p. 355.

Se Cleve, 1904, p. 184.

———_——\—-— Wolfenden, 1905, p. 1023.

—____-—— A. Scott, 1909, p. 187.

— Sewell, 1912, p. 376.

A few examples of this species were present.

SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE GULF OF MANNAR. 241

ACARTIA ERYTHRZA, Giesbrecht.

Acartia erythrea, Giesbrecht, 1889, p. 26.

——_—_———— Giesbrecht, 1891, p. 282.

———_-+_—_—_——- Giesbrecht, 1896, p. 317.

——___—_—_—__-——- Thompson, 1899, p. 284.

———_——— Cleve, 1901, p. 4.

——__——_——— A, Scott, 1902, pp. 408, 423.

———————— Thompson & Scott, 1908, p. 254.

——_—____—_—_——- Cleve, 1903, p. 355.

——-———— Wolfenden, 1905, p. 1023.

—_—_____—___—— A. Scott, 1909, p. 187.

——_———— Pesta, 1912, p. 53, fig: 16:

Sewell, 1912, p. 377.

- Pesta, 1913, p. 32.

Numerous examples of both sexes were obtained ; this

species is both widely distributed and of common occurrence

in Indian waters.

ACARTIA NEGLIGENS, Dana.

Acartia negligens, Cleve, 1901, p. 4.

———_—_—_——_——— A. Scott, 1902, p. 408.

—-—_-—_—_—__— Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 254.

Wolfenden, 1905, p. 1023.

——— A. Scott, 1909, p. 188.

Examples of this species were obtained at several of the

localities on the pearl banks, though in no case was it present

in any considerable numbers.

ACARTIA SPINICAUDA, Giesbrecht.

Acartia spinicauda, Cleve, 1901, p. 4.

———_—_—_—_____—— Cleve, 1903, p. 355.

———_——————. A. Scott, 1909, p. 188.

—_—_—_——— Sewell, 1912, pp. 315 and 377.

Only a few examples of this species were present.

242 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

ACARTIA BISPINOSA, Carl.

Acartia bispinosa, Carl, 1907, p. 13. Pl. L., figs. 1, 2.

— -— - Pesta, 1912, p. 54, fig. 17.

This species was first described by Carl from Amboina, and

since then it has been recorded by Pesta from the Persian

Gulf. Numerous examples were obtained in the Ceylon

collections, and the specimens agree closely with previous

descriptions. According to Carl and Pesta, there are only

two spines on the postero-lateral thoracic margin, but this

appears to be a variable character, as in some of the present

examples an extra spine occurred, making three in all. Only

the males of this species have up to the present time been

discovered.

ACARTIA PIETSCHMANI, Pesta.

Acartia Be. Pesta, 1912, p. 55, fig. 18.

-— Pesta, 1913, p. 33.

This species was described from the Persian Gulf, where

examples of the adult female and some immature males were

obtained, and has since been obtained in the Arabian Sea.

Several examples were found in the Ceylon collections that

correspond with this form ; they at first sight are likely to be

mistaken for A. crythrea, but they are of smaller size, and the

structure of the fifth pair of legs in the female of the two

species is different.

ACARTIA AMBOINENSIS, Carl.

(Pl. XIX., figs. 1-7).

Acartia amboinensis, Carl, 1907, p. 12. Pl. L., figs. 3-5.

Numerous examples were found in the present collections.

This species was described by Carl from male examples only ;

these very closely resemble the male of A. erythrea, but there

are certain constant differences in the structure of the fifth

SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE GULF OF MANNAR. 243

pair of thoracic appendages ; and on the posterior thoracic

margin, in most cases, there are two small spines situated

dorsally, though in some instances as many as three are

present, whereas in A. erythrxa there is only one.

Associated with these males in the present collections were

numerous females.

2. Total length, 1-2 mm.

Proportional lengths of cephalo-thorax and abdomen, 14; 3.

The head and first thoracic segment are separate, but the

last two thoracic segments are fused. The posterior thoracic

margin bears a large lateral spine, as A. erythrea, and one,

sometimes two, small spines dorsally. The rostrum consists

of a pair of slender spines.

The abdomen consists of three segments having, with the

furcal rami, the following proportions :—7:3:2:3. The first

segment is armed near its posterior border with a pair of small

spines dorso-laterally ; the second segment is devoid of spines.

The furcal setz are all of the same thickness, but the second is

somewhat longer than the others.

The first antenna, when folded back, reaches to the end of

the first abdominal segment. It consists of eighteen joints,

having the following proportions :—

Segments: 1. 24, 5-6, 7-8. 9-10, 11, 12-18. 14, 15-16, -

ASee Sie cos. Zoe Oheeol, Wilco .o%

Segments: 17. LSS, 19S) (205) 2 2 22: Zo50 524s 25.

62 57 49 46 57 32 fil ats}: = la

The first joint bears a long straight spine on its anterior

aspect, and two small spines posteriorly ; the second joint

bears a large curved hook on its posterior border ; and the

fourth joint is armed with two small spines posteriorly.

The second antenna is as figured.

The first pair of swimming legs consist of a basal portion

and two-jointed exopodite and endopodite : exopod 1 has a

fine seta-like marginal spine ; exopod 2 bears three margin

spines, the proximal of which is long and stout and reaches

well beyond the end of the terminal segment, while the distal

two are slender and seta-like ; the end spine is slender and in

length nearly equals the whole exopodite.

244 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

The third and fourth pairs of legs are very similar to A.

crythreea.

The fifth pair of legs bear a short external seta; and the

terminal process is long and curved and is very slightly

swollen at the base.

These examples very closely resemble the females of A.

crythrea, but the spinulation of the basal segments of the

first antenna and the form of the fifth pair of legs are different

and are quite characteristic.

ACARTIA SOUTHWELLI, sp. nov.

(Pl. XTX., figs. 8, 9.)

Several examples, both male and female, of what appears

to be a new species of Acartia were obtained from Kilakarai.

The chief characters of these specimens are as follows :—

2. Total length, 0:8 mm.

Proportional lengths of cephalothorax and abdomen, 35: 1.

The head and first thoracic segment are separate, but the

fourth and fifth thoracic segments are fused together.

The posterior thoracic maryin is rounded, and is devoid of

spines. The anterior extremity is rounded, and bears a pair of

slender curved rostral filaments.

The abdomen consists of three segments having, with the

furcal rami, the following proportions :—26 : 13 : 10: 15; all

the segments are devoid of any trace of spines, and the genital

segment is somewhat swollen and rounded. The furcal rami

are nearly as wide as long, 9 : 10.

The first antenne, when folded back, reach just beyond the

posterior thoracic margin ; each consists of twenty joints, the

more proximal of which are, as usual, very indistinctly marked

off from one another, so that it is a matter of some difficulty

to determine their exact limits ; they appear to have the

following proportions :—

Segments: 1 2-4. 5-6. 7-8. 9-10. 11, 12. 13-14, 15. 16.

73 54 24 24 20 49 43 125 43 68

Segments: 17. See 20. 21, 4 22. 23.3 24. 2555

DSey 68 «724949 49 of M6a0 S44 oe 20)

SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE GULF OF MANNAR. 245

The second antenna and mouth-parts are similar to other

embers of the genus.

The fifth pair of legs consist of a fairly long basal joint

bearing a minute seta on its external margin distally, and

having a long and delicate terminal spine. This spine is

curved, and has a markedly swollen base.

3. Total length, 0-75 mm.

The proportional lengths of cephalothorax and abdomen are,

eal

The abdomen consists of four segments having, with the

furcal rami, the proportional lengths —18: 14: 3:9: 10.

The first antenna on the right side is, as usual, modified to

form a grasping organ; it consists of fifteen separate joints

having the following proportions :-—

Segments : tose O- Orn F—Se 9b 1105.) Wey 2 12: LS. | 4:

Pa) 66"! 66" 18 36. 36 97 42 48

Segments : 15. 16. oun Ss. at Goth 22-25,

96 115 109 42 66 42

The fifth pair of legs are of the usual type; the right leg

forms a claw, the second segment bears a somewhat quadran-

gular process on its inner border, and the third segment

terminates in two short unequal spines.

Genus Acartiella, nov.

I propose to establish a new genus for the reception of

certain Acartia-like species which have been obtained from

Indian coastal waters. The first species I described under the

name Acartia tortaniformis (Sewell, 1912, p. 346, Pl. XXT.,

figs. 1-10), from the Chittagong region and Rangoon river

estuary on the coast of Burma ; a second species was obtained

in a tow-netting taken off Kilakarai.

These two species differ from those of the genus Acartia,

in that in the female the fifth pair of legs possesses both an

exopodite and endopodite, and in the male the right leg forms

a well-developed clasping apparatus ; in both species the

rostrum is absent ; the first antenna of the female consists of

2k 6(10)13

246 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

21 joints, segments 2-6 being fused together, while in the

male the grasping antenna resembles that of an Acartia ; the

abdomen is long, and terminates in two long fureal rami which

are symmetrical,

ACARTIELLA KEMPI, sp. nov.

(Pl. XX., figs. 1-5, and Pl. XXL, fig. 4.)

2. Total length, 1:0 mm.

Proportional lengths of cephalothorax and abdomen, 2°5: 1,

The head and first thoracic segment are separate, thoracic

segments 4 and 5 are fused together, the posterior thoracic

margin is rounded and devoid of spines. The anterior head

region is uniformly rounded, and the rostrum is absent.

The abdomen consists of three separate segments having,

with the fureal rami, the following proportions :—32: 15: 25: °

34. The first segment is devoid of spines, thus differing

from A. tortaniformis.

The furcal rami are long and slender as in the genus T'ortanus,

but are symmetrical.

The first antenna, when folded back, reaches to the last

abdominal segment ; it consists of twenty-one separate joints,

having the following proportional lengths :—

Segments: 1. 2-6. 7. 8. 9. 10, 94d O25 AS aoe:

53 116 53 32 35 39 28 35 32 39 35

Segments: 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.» 21. 22; 23. 24, 25.

By te apa ieye ae AO) cecloye TG toy fail

None of the segments possess spines.

The second antenna resembles that present in the genus

Acartia ; it has a long endopodite and a short exopodite. In

this respect this species differs very considerably from

Acartiella tortaniformis (Sewell), the only other member of

the genus in which this appendage is of a somewhat unusual

form.

The mouth-parts and swimming legs closely resemble those

of A. tortaniformis.

SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE GULF OF MANNAR. 247

The fifth pair of legs consists of a short, stout, basal portion

carrying a single plumose seta, and both exopodite and

endopodite are present; the exopodite consists of a long

slightly curved process, terminating in a sharp point and

bearing a single seta-like spine on its external margin

at about the junction of the middle and distal thirds ; the

endopodite is short and conical. There are no teeth on

either ramus, as is the case in A. tortaniformis.

3. Total length, 0°9 mm.

Proportional lengths of cephalothorax and abdomen, 2: 1.

The abdomen consists of five segments having, with the

furcal rami, the following proportional lengths :—12: 22: 17:

LIN Ws a eats fa 8

The first antenna on the right side is modified to form a

grasping organ. It consists of eighteen separate joints, having

the following proportional lengths :—

Segiventss. > Uy S45. FB) 6S 85 OP IOS aE Ez

66 84 25 11 22 33 25 40 25 33

Segments: 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19-21, 22-25.

44 36 44 40 76 120 131 145

' The second to fourth segments inclusive are fused together

to form a single joint ; the “ endabschnitt ” consists of two

joints, segments 19-21 and 22-25, respectively, being fused.

The seventeenth segment bears a row of needle-like teeth on

its anterior margin ; the eighteenth segment bears a row of

needle-like teeth anteriorly, and distally is armed with two

claw-like spines, of which the proximal is the larger; the

nineteenth segment carries a tooth-plate armed with acicular

teeth, and the plate is produced beyond the distal extremity

of the joint in a sharp spinous process.

The mouth-parts and swimming legs are the same as in the

female.

The Fifth Pair of Legs— Each consists of three segments,

and that on the right side forms a well-developed Eraepine

apparatus, as figured.

248 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

I have much pleasure in dedicating this species to Mr. S. W.

Kemp, of the Indian Museum, who kindly made the collections

for me at Kilakarai and Paumben, in which this species

occurred,

Genus Tortanus, Giesbrecht.

TORTANUS GRACILIS (Brady).

(Pl. XXI., fig. 5.)

Tortanus gracilis, Cleve, 1901, p.5. Pl. VIL, figs. 11-14.

A. Scott, 1902, p. 423.

——_—_-——--—— Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 254.

———_--—__-—_-- Cleve, 1903, p. 369.

—-——.--_——— Wolfenden, 1905, p. 1026.

—_—___—.-—-— A. Scott, 1909, p. 190.

—-——_--__—-—— Sewell, 1912, p. 377.

Several examples of this species, belonging to both sexes,

were present in the Ceylon collections.

Both Cleve and Wolfenden are inclined to believe that this

species and the following, 7’. forcipatus, are synonymous, but a

careful study of the examples in the present collection has

shown that this view is absolutely untenable. For the

purpose of comparison I give below a few details of structure

in this species.

9. The first antenna consists of seventeen joints, having the

following relative proportions :—

Segments: .a—7., 988. 9-10. Te als Pasta a 6 aa

Sie WS 7 o2 > 285 28) 0 Wz: 52 52 59

Segments: 18. 19. 20. 21, 22; 23. 24: 25:

67 68 81 65 61 80 91 37

Segments 1-7, 9-10, and 13-14 are, apparently, respectively

fused together. The fifth pair of legs, as pointed out by Cleve

(loc. cit., 1901), are asymmetrical, but the degree of asymmetry

is very slight, and not in the least comparable to that present

in the corresponding appendages in 7’. forciputus.

SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE GULF OF MANNAR. 249

3. The grasping antenna consists of sixteen joints, having

the following proportional lengths :—

Segments : 1-5. 6. We 8. 9. 10: alg. 12.

62 11 19 16 SU Ray ae 24

Segments : 13. 14, pe 16. Wes 18: 19-21. 22-25,

49 67 67 62... 7615 ESP ls3si > 252

The fifth pair of legs correspond exactly with the description

and figures given by Cleve (loc. cit., 1901).

TORTANUS FORCIPATUS (Giesbrecht).

(Ele XE fiat! Gs)

Tortanus forcipatus, Thompson & Scott, 1903, p. 254.

This species was first described by Giesbrecht from female

examples only. In the present collection numerous examples

were found, and associated with them were several examples

of a hitherto undescribed male, which I have no doubt is the

unknown male of this species.

$. Total length.

Proportional lengths of cephalothorax and abdomen, 5 : 3.

The head and all the thoracic segments are separate. The

abdomen consists of tive segments having, with the furcal rami,

the following proportional lengths :—14: 15: 12:9: 13: 70.

In 7’. gracilis the corresponding proportional lengths are:

14:14:11:8: 15:72. The furcal rami are symmetrical ;

four furcal sete arise from the distal end of the ramus, and of

these the second is the longest. The fifth seta is quite short,

and arises from the lateral border.

The grasping antenna consists of sixteen joints, having the

following proportional lengths :—

Segments : 1-5, 6. 7. 8. 9-10. alale 12. 13%

UVA. LS 20F 2 203526229) Ba Dake as

Segments: 14, 15, 16, 17. 18. 19-21, 22-25

62 59 62 75 98 150 183

250 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

So far as its structure is concerned, the grasping antenna

very closely resembles that of 7. gracilis : segments 17, 18,

and 19-21 are all armed with rows of needle-like teeth.

The fifth pair of legs show distinct ditferences from the

corresponding appendages of 7’. gracilis ; these can best be

seen by comparing the figures given.

2. In the female 7’. forcipatus the first antenna consists

apparently of seventeen joints, having the following pro-

portional lengths :—

Segments: 1-7. 8. 9-10. 11. 12. 13-14. 165) 6.

99°. 23 aap DAS ats} ollie 42 48

Segments: 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 2de') 24 4 20s

54.5759) N68. S82) eT ATL. O92 48

The fifth pair of legs are markedly asymmetrical and

correspond exactly with the figure given by Giesbrecht (1893,

Pl. 31, fig. 15).

The occurrence of the hitherto unknown male is of interest

and the differences that it presents to the male of 7’. gracilis

show that these two forms are undoubtedly different species.

REFERENCES.

Carl, 1907.—‘‘ Copépodes d’Amboine.’’ Revue Suisse de Zoolo-

gie, Vol. 15, p. 7. Genéve.

Cleve, 1901.—‘* Plankton from the Indian Ocean and the Malay

Archipelago.” Kongl. Svenska. Vetenskap. « Akadamiens,

Handlingar. Bd. 35, No. 5. Stockholm.

Cleve, 1903.—‘‘ Report on Plankton collected by Mr. Thorild

Wulff during a Voyage to and from Bombay.” Arkiv for

Zoologi, Bd. 1, p. 327. Stockholm.

Cleve, 1904.—‘‘ The Plankton of the South African Seas.”

Marine Investigations in South Africa, Vol. III., p. 177.

Cape Town.

Dahl, 1894.—‘‘ Die Copepodenfauna des unteren Amazonas.

Berichte de Naturforschenden Gesellschaft zu Freiburg

Vol. VITII., p. 10. Freiburg und Leipzig.

SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE GULF OF MANNAR. 251

Giesbrecht, 1888.—Elenco dei Copepodi pelagici raccolti dal

tenente di vascello G. Chierchia durante il viaggio dela R.

Corvetta “ Vettor Pisani ’’negli anni, 1882-1885 e dal tenente

di vascello.”” F. Orsini ‘‘ nel Mar Rosso nel 1884.” Atti.

Accad. Lincei. Roma(4) Rend. Vol. 4,Sem, 2, p. 330, Roma.

Giesbrecht, 1889.—Ditto, ditto. Atti. Accad. Lincei. Roma (4)

Rend. Vol. 5, Sem. 1, p. 811, and Sem. 2, p. 24. Roma.

Giesbrecht, 1891.—‘‘ Elenco dei copepodi pescati della R. Cor-

vetta ‘vettor Pisani’ secondo la loro distribuzione geo-

graphica.”” Atti. Accad. Lincei. Roma (4) Rend, Vol. 7,

Sem. 2, p. 276. Roma.

Giesbrecht, 1893.—“* Systematik und Faunistik der Pelagische

Copepoden des Golfes von Neapel und der Angrenzenden

Meeres-Abschnitte.”’ Fauna und Flora des Golfes von Neapel,

Vol. XIX.

Giesbrecht, 1896.—‘* Ueber pelagische Copepoden des Rothen

Meeres.”” Zoologische Jahrbiicher. Abt. fiir Systematik, &c.

Bd. IX., p. 315. Jena.

Giesbrecht und Schmeil, 1898.—Copepoda, 1 Gymnoplea, Das

Tierreich, Lieferung 6. Berlin.

Pesta, 1912.—‘*‘ Copepoden aus dem Golf von Persien.’? Wissens-

chaftliche Ergebnisse der Expedition nach Mesopotamien.

Annalen des R. R. Naturhistorischen Hofmuseums,

Bd. XXVI., p. 39. Wein.

Pesta, 1913.—** Copepoden aus der Arabischen See und Nachtrag.”’

Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse der Expedition nach Meso-

potamien. Annales des K. K. Naturhistorischen Hofmu:

seums, Bd. XXVII.,p.18. Wien.

Sars, 1905.—Liste préliminaire des Calanoides recueilles pendant

les campagnes de 8. A. § le Prince Albert de Monaco, avee

diagnoses des generes et des espéces nouvelles. Ite Partie.

Bullet. du Musée Océanographique de Monaco, No. 26.

Monaco.

Scott, T., 1894.—‘‘ Report on Entomostraca from the Gulf of

Guinea, collected by John Rattray, B.Sc.’ Transactions,

Linnean Society, 2nd Ser., Zoology, Vol. VI., p. 1. London.

Scott, A., 1902.—‘‘On some Red Sea and Indian Ocean Copepoda.”

Proceedings and Transactions of the Liverpool Biological

Society, Vol. XVI., p. 397. Liverpool.

Scott, A., 1909.—‘‘ The Copepoda of the Siboga Expedition,”

Uitkomsten op Zoologisch, Botanisch, Oceanographisch en

Geologisch Gebied. Vol. XXIX., Pt. I. Leiden,

252 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Sewell, 1912.—** Notes on the surface-living Copepoda of the Bay

of Bengal,” I. and II. Records of the Indian Museum,

Vol. VII., p. 313. Calcutta.

Thompson, 1899.—‘‘ Report on two collections of tropical and

more northerly plankton.’ Proceedings and Transactions

of the Liverpool Biological Society, Vol. XIV., p. 262.

Liverpool.

Thompson and Scott, 1903.—‘‘ Report on the Copepoda.”

Ceylon Pearl Oyster Fisheries and Marine Biology, Pt. L,

Supplementary Report No. VII., p. 227. Royal Society,

London.

Tollinger, 1911.—Die geographische Verbreitung de Diaptomiden.

Zool. Jahrbiicher: Abt. System. Geog. und Bidl., Vol. XXX.,

p. 1. Jena.

Wolfenden, 1905.—‘“‘ Notes on the Collection of Copepoda.” The

Fauna and Geography of the Maldive and Laccadive Archi-

pelagoes, Vol. II., p. 989. Cambridge.

SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE GULF OF MANNAR. 253

12/20-2-13

13-2-13

14-2-13

22-2-13

24-29-13

25-2-13

Date.

8-11-08

13-11-08

4-11-08

5-11-08

6-11-08

14-11-08

11-11-08

12-11-08

4-11-08

eT,

APPENDIX.

Kilakarat.

List oF COLLECTING STATIONS.

Tow-net in shallow water, 0-2 fathom.

Tow-net from weeds.

Tow-net from weeds in 2 ft. of water.

Tow-net from weeds over shallow water.

Tow-net over weeds, 4 ft. of water.

Tow net over 3 fathoms of water.

Between Kilakarai and Apa Island.

Tow net over 2 to 3 fathoms.

Paumben.

Tow-net over 4 ft. of water.

Q netin 2 it. of water through “ Yostera”’ bed.

Surface tow-net.

Anaivilundan Paar.

Depth in

Time, Fathoms

of Net.

7.30 A.M. Pe 0

8 A.M. an 0

Nadukudda Paar.

12 noon

5 P.M.

8 A.M.

12 noon

7.30 A.M.

12.30 P.M.

oococe

Koopay Paar.

12 noon

5 P.M.

ae )

8.30 A.M. “a 0

5 P.M. Tees 0

Position.

Dutch Anaivilundan.

West side.

Dutch Nadukudda.

South.

West.

6(10)13

Date.

11—4-07

30-10-08

31-10-08

15-10-08

15-11-08

16-11-08

7-2-08

7—-2-08

22-2-08

17-11-08

18-11-08

19-11-08

20-11-08

22-11-08

23-11-08

9-407

10—4-07

11—4-07

17-11-08

3-12-08

9-4—07

7-11-07

19-11-07

6-11-07

6—11—07

6-11-07

Tailor

7-11-07

20-11-07

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Vankalai Paar.

Depth in

Fathoms

of Net.

12 noon

5.30 P.M.

8 A.M.

Periya Paar Karat.

5-5.30 P.M. ..

SiO Aer oe

8-8 .30 A.M. ..

8.30 A.M.

12 noon

Ariupu Paar East.

8 A.M.

North Cheval Paar.

8-8.30 A.M. ..

4—4.30P.M. ..

4—4 .30 P.M.

8-8.30 A.M. ..

oooocooo°ods

Periya Paar.

eoooococooconane

o°oaoam

BD WS

Position.

14 mile W.N.W.

do.

24 miles N.N.W.

South end.

1 mile W. by 8.

1} mile N. by W.

24 miles N.W.

24 miles N. by W.

24 miles W.S.W.

South shoal.

North-East Cheval Paar.

| |

go 0 @ > © CO

ee Os Oe

.30 A.M.

.30 A.M

seUiDsinig 38

oo ONAN nue

o> OPAnIVIy pete

ae ) PANT anaes

onoone

SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE GULF OF MANNAR. 255

Depth in

Date. Time. Fathoms Position,

of Net.

8-11-08 Bont CoA) Asie A (ee —

27-11-08 .. 5.30 P.M. as OMeae —

28-11-08 .. 7.30 a.m. avs O) s- —

Mid-East Cheval Paar.

7—-2-07 ae Sh.) wae oe 0 ==

8—2-07 as | SHS OOPAe Min 45 0 ss:

8—2-07 ae) L211 SOP at 0 a

8—2-07 S| UE S10) Ge ame 6 ==

3-11-07 Oe 443 OEP SVs 0) =

4—1]1—-07 Fe OH Oo OpARiin se 0 ==

4-1 107 So) tHe) Ane os ce ee —

4-11-07 ce Gad 1s AM, ps OF. —

4—11—07 a4 allow eats 4. ==

5-11-07 8—-8.30 A.M. .. 0 —

5-11-07 Ag Sool) Amie os 4. —

PAD O7 45 Gath si)) mann | 0 ==

21-11-07 .. 8-8.30Aa.m.. ) East side.

3—2-—08 .. 44.30P.M. . 0 do.

18-2—09 7.30 A.M 0 =

South-Hast Cheval Paar.

6—2—07 O=O RT OUSP ONT ae 0 —

7-2-07 SSO OPAL NE ae 0 —

23-11-07 .. 8-8.30a4.m. . 0 North edge.

16—2-—09 Be PacWany 0 — :

16-—2—09 .. 5.30P.M. 6 —

South Cheval! Paar.

19-2-—09 si) ORE AVE re Gaia —

20-2-—09 a AGC ats OBes7 —

20-2-09 ao Uf Acai: as Ge cas —

South-West Cheval Paar.

20-2-—09 ao Beet) wave ee OWS. —

21-2-09 BOW RAO PAGE Le Grasse —

21-2-09 7. veb2 nNoom es OW ae ——

Mid-West Cheval Paar.

22-107 Sh o— 4 Pains Getta —

23-1-07 .. 8-9 A.M. nits (Si oa —

23—-1-—07 ate lard O—MPrivinver 6 —

23-1—07 se L0=5'. 45 Piet 6 —

24-1—07 .. 8-9 A.M. 0 ne

24—1-07 .. 8-9 A.M. ae 6 —

24—1—07 .. 12.30~1.30 P.m. 0 —

256

Date.

25-1-07

6-2-07

9-2-07

30-3-07

30-3—07

30-3-07

31-3-07

1—4-07

1—4—07

2-4-07

2-407

6-2-08

28-11-07

4—2-08

26-11-08

27-11-08

1—2-08

2-—2-08

3—2-—08

28-—3-09

21-10-08

22-10-08

29-10-08

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Depth in

Time. Fathoms Position.

of Net.

8-9 A.M.

8-9 A.M. Fp

12-12.30 p.m.

8—8.30 A.M.

oat) Nait, Sc

8-8.304.M. ..

8 JO ORASVian

5.302.M. ..

5-5.30P.M. ..

8 o0 AME.

8-8.30 A.M. .

5—5.30 P.M.

8-8.30 A.M. ..

S870 OVAL eens

5-5.30 P.M. ..

—8§.30 A.M. ..

—§,.30 A.M. ..

—§8.30 A.M. .

West edge.

do.

Peo

SFPADDDRDCARPOHAOCOMROCODRSOOMVMS

—

West Cheval Paar.

8-8.30 A.M. .. Ogre. —

8 So 0 Auvinen (iteae —

North-West Cheval Paar.

4-4.30P.M. .. OW ae =

Mid-Cheval Paar.

8=8. 30 A. 0 .. Hast side.

North-Central Cheval Paar.

12 noon Le Oy) Ae —

5.30 P.M. aC (Okie =

8 A.M. ae 0 =

Challai Paar.

8-8.30 A.M. .. CO A —

Hoal Bx) meals 6 0 .. 1 mile west.

8-8.30 A.M. .. Oreo do.

8-8 .304.M. .. 0 .. 3miles west.

Stlavatiurat Paar.

12 noon Be Ont ne —

K pndache Paar.

8 A.M. Ae Ome —

8-8. SORA Mice LO lies —

8 A.M. ae QO f29, WNear to;

SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE GULF OF MANNAR.

Date.

22—2-09

6—4—07

7-4-07

74-07

28-11-07

29-11-07

14—2—08

17—2-08

14—2-09

15—2-09

15—2—09

15-—2-09

16—2-09

10-2-09

10-—2-09

11-2-09

11—2—09

10-—2-—07

11-2-07

12—2-—07

13—2-07

14—2-07

17-—2-07

18—2—07

ig aay ee

10-2-08

11-—2-08

27-1-07

28-1—07

28-1-07

28-1—-07

28-1-07

29-1-07

20-—2-07

Time.

7 SOV Mt,

Moderagam Paar.

30 P.M. .

Jo0) PeMs 5

.30 A.M. .

ses AG IViN, =

> 00 PR OOM NG

.40 P.M.

oO GO

5 P.M.

7.30 A.M.

12 noon

Depth in

Fathoms

of Net.

Jaggerboom Bank.

SACTTOCCCAOmMFTOacoNRSo

Old Dutch Jaggerboom Bank.

Position.

South.

do.

North end.

do.

North.

do.

South.

Marichchukkaddi Bay.

88.30 A.M.

Kudrimalai Paar.

10-10.30 a.m.

Dutch Moderagam Paar.

5.30-6 P.M. ..

8-8.30 A.M...

12-12.30 P.m.

12-12.30 p.m.

5—5.30 P.M.

8-—8.30 A.M. A

8-8.30 A.M. ..

7.30-8 A.M. ..

OCFHODBSDHOAaD

2 miles out.

257

14-11-06

26-1-07

29-1-07

30-1-07

31-1-07

4—3-07

5-3--07

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Time.

7.30-8 A.M. ..

5-5.30P.mM. .

5-5.30P.m. .

5-5.30 P.M. ..

8—-8.30 Aum. ..

8—9 A.M.

5-5.30P.u. .,

5-5.30 P.M. .

8-9 A.M.

55. 30be 1h

8-8.30 A.M. ..

8-8 .30 A.M.

12-12.30 P.M.

5—5.30 p.m.

5—5.30 P.M.

Toate te Teale

.30 P.M.

mmonw og oe

.15 P.M.

eae

Karaitivu Paar.

9 A.M.

9 AM

12-12. 30 P.M.

Deo UMP Mien ree

epue 30 P.M.

5-5.30P.mM. .

8-8.30 A.M. ..

12-12.30 p.m.

8.00 AUMe

wallets, 5.4

De DO EP HIV aee

Seo AMIN

—5.30P.M. .

8.30 a.m.

Deo OP SVie mene

5.30P.M. ..

So UBACIVinn as

ate OE aIViemee

—8.30 A.M. ..

8.30A.mM. .

.15 P.M.

OEP SMe

8-8.30 A.M. ..

5-5.30P.M. ..

8—8.30 A.M. ..

Depth in

Fathoms

of Net.

DROOARDROORHRSOSSOHROABSSOAHSSORSBSCSOADSSABSDSOROAS

Cage.

Position.

14 mile to the east.

do.

Old Dutch site.

SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE GULF OF MANNAR. 259

Date.

5-3-07

5—3-07

5-3-07

6—3-07

8—3-07

14-3-07

14—3-07

15—3-07

16—3—07

16—3-07

18—3-07

19-—3-07

20-—3-07

20-3-—07

21-3-07

21—3-07

21-—3-07

14—2-08

14-2-08

15—2—08

7—2-09

1-11-07

2-11-07

21-07

2-1-07

1-2-07

2-2-07

3-2-07

12-3-07

13-3-07

14-3-07

Time.

sie &

cial

NG 11M Om WD Oo

.30 A.M.

LM OL

To OPAS Mes

noi) Te

5oO)Ps Ma).

Be PART.

SSO Pye

5) a ONPeMin le

8 A.M.

.30 P.M.

fitness

co H H Or CO CO Or

~1 00

.sg0 A.M. .

SBD) TERN Lp

580) Acute. 45

OU PP ENE t).

RoE SVireear

soa, Go

SOARING 6

Depth in

Fathoms

of Net.

Position.

.. 2} miles to the eastward.

Karaitivu Shoal, North End.

4-4.30P.m. ..

4—4.30 P.M.

8-8.45 A.M.

8-8 .45 A.M.

4-4,.45 P.M. ..

4-4.45 P.M. ..

ROOF OK ©

Alanturai Paar.

S=8), 30) Aum ai.

ofall) WAM 6b

1223 Okeavs

SR OOPAS Neate.

12-12.30 P.M.

12-12.30 p.m.

oO avin ris

5-5 .30 P.M.

5—5.30 P.M.

Sse OFARMeaeers

5h oO Pies.

5-—5.30 P.M. ..

5-5.30 P.M. ..

8-8.30 A.M.

8-8.30 A.M. ..

DOAGTARMOCAGACISOAS

260

Date.

27-3-07

27—3-07

28-3-07

28-3-—07

13—4—07

13-—4-07

14-407

144-07

16—4—07

17—4-07

18—4—07

19-407

1-2-09

1—2—09

42-09

5-2-09

8-2-09

8—2-—09

19-11-06

20-11-06

21-11-06

22-11-06

52-07

(2)-2-07

223-07

23-3-07

26-3-07

18-2-08

27-1-09

271-09

27-1-09

281-09

29-109

3—2-09

3-2-09

1—2-—09

2-2-09

4-2-—09

4-11-09

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Depth in

Time, Fathoms Position.

of Net.

8—-8.30 A.M 0 =

8-8. 30 a.m 6 —

5-5.30 P.M 6 —

8-8 .30 a.m 0 —

5-5.30 p.m 0 =

5-5.30 P.M 0 —

5-5.30 P.M 6 =

8-8.30 a.m 0) —

8-8 .30 a.M 6 =

5-5.30 p.m 0 —

8—8.30 A.M 0 =

5-5 .30 P.m 0 an

8—8.30 a.m 0 eae

5-5.30 P.M 6 =

8—8.30 A.M 6 —

7.30 A.M 0 —_

12.30 p.m 0) —

5.30 P.M 0 ae

12 noon Oy ei —

12 noon ae Om he do.

Muttuvaratu Paar. -

pure 0 a

==, 6 eee

poke 0 as

— ise i) _—

12-12.30 p.m. 0 =

12-12.30P.mM. (?) —

5—5.30 P.M. ... 6 —

8—8.30 a.m. 6 ==

8—8.30 A.M. 0 —

8—8.30 A.M. 0 North end.

8-8.30 M.A. .. 6 do.

7.30 A.M. 0 —

9.30 a.m. 0 ==

5.30 P.M. 0 —

12 noon 0) —

5.30 P.M. 0 13 mile to the east.

7.30 A.M. 0 do.

Donnan’s Muttuvaraiu Paar.

7.30 A.M. oe Onunse —

12 noon on 0 .. North end.

Hamilton's Muttuvaratu Paar.

5.30 P.M. Si On eens —

LOOP MMcame oye OSCE: —

7.30 am. .. O .. 14 mile to the west.

12 noon ae (erica F do.

SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE GULF OF MANNAR. 261

Depth in

Date. Time. Fathoms Position.

of Net.

6-2-09 ST (iy tai uit Or ke do.

6—2-09 ae OOn AA Onsen: do.

Krusadai Paar.

1411-06 2: (2) 6 =

ies 1-06-33 (2) 1 see

19-11-06. (2: (2) 1 se

25-11-07 8-8 .30 a.m 0 a

25-11-07 8-8 .30 A.M 5 —

26-11-07 8—8.30 a.m 0 —

26—11—07 4-4 .30 P.M 5 West side.

27-11-07 .. 8-8.30a.m 5 do.

15—2-—08 .. 44.30P.m 0 —_

15—2-08 oon 4—4) SOP vie 6 —

16—2-—08 .. 8=8.30 A.M. 0 —-

16—2-—08 -j 44 OPN eye 0 South side.

17—2-08 .. . S=SeSO\A.Mer 0 do.

Dutch Bay Spit.

30-1-09 [2D Poe 6 0 os . 4) miles north.

31—1-09 Be dines ONACNTS Ss Oe es do.

31-1-09 .. 12noon .. °O .. 4 miles west.

Talaiwvillu Paar. °

4—3-09 5.30 P.M. oo One —

5—3-09 7.30 A.M. Ae Oras —

5—-3-09 5.30 A.M. GF: —

Navakkaduwa Paar.

5-3-09 a Ono0 P.M. ae OhSe —_

6—3-09 = » ¢.30 A.M. BG Ops —

Jokenpiddi Paar.

11-3-09 ee Uae Nis as Owe s2 —

11-3-09 ees OO ALI a: Ge —

Karkopanni Paar.

7-3-09 Se POO TAS MeN Macs OV Bt. —

Chilaw.

9—3-09 be binaO! Pees Le Ome —

Nadalaikula Paar.

4—3-09° eee] ne OLAcMis ye Uso =

43-09 Bee oh oO ARNE NS Gees: —

Bar Reef.

29-109 ie SPM. .. ,.0—.. 2£ miles north.

30-1-09 at ho OO AGM. Pe Or. 2s —— :

a = 42 300n 50H Orr ise —

2M 3 6(10)13

262

elas)

DoF AE SO OE era ee

Oh aN Ne eM eo Sa ae

eo Cun aie

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

EXPLANATION OF: PLATES.

Plate XVII.

Undinula vulgaris (Dana), var. ..

Acrocalanus similis, sp. Nov.

Acrocalanus similis, sp. nov.

Scolecithricella pearson, sp. NOV...

TONE 5

Scolecithricella pearsont, sp.

Plate XVIII.

Scolecithricella pearsont, sp.

Scolecithricella pearson, sp.

Scolecithricella pearsont, sp.

Centropages trispinosus, sp.

Plate XIX.

Acartia amboinensis, Carl

Acartia southwelli, sp. nov.

nov...

NOW. >

Plate XX.

Acartiella kempi, gen. nov.; sp. nov.

Acartiella kempi, gen. nov. ; sp. nov.

Acartiella kempi, gen. nov.; sp. nov.

Acartiella kempi, gen. nov. ; sp. nov.

Plate XXI.

Labidocera pavo, Giesbrecht

Acartiella kempv; gen. nov. ; sp. nov.

Tortanus gracilis (Brady)

Tortanus forcipatus (Giesbrecht)

Left posterior thoracic

margin, lateral view.

Left posterior thoracic

margin, dorsal view.

9, 8rd leg.

9, 4th leg.

6, 5th leg.

@, dorsal view.

2, Ist leg.

Q, 2nd leg.

Q, 3rd leg.

Q, 5th leg.

36, 5th pair of legs.

Q, lateral view.

2, Ist antenna.

Q, 2nd leg.

Q, 5th leg.

. 9, lateral view.

. 9, abdomen,

view.

.. 9, Ist antenna, basal

joints.

. 9, Maxilliped.

.. 9, Ist leg.

.+ 9, 3rd Jeg.

~. 9, Sth leg.

.. 6, 5th pair of legs.

.. 9, 5th leg.

dorsal

9, lateral view.

Q, Ist antenna.

6, lst antenna.

Q, 2nd leg.

6, 5th pair of legs.

. 6, dorsal view.

. 6, grasping antenna.

.. 6, 5th pair of legs.

9, 5th pair of legs.

.. 6, 5th pair of legs.

Plate XVII.

Spolia Zeylanica. Vol. IX, Pt. XXXV.

Spolia Zeylanica. Vol. IX. Pt. KXXV. Plate XVIII.

Spolia Zeylanica. Vol. IX, Pt RXV. Plate XIX.

University Press,Cambridge

Vol DO Puen

Spolia Zeylanica

Spr

Spolia Zeylanica Vol IX, Pt XXXV. Plate XXI.

Spolia Zeylanica, Vol. 1X., Part XXXV.

Viz

Vil.

VItl.

IX.

Xx.

XI.

XII.

XAT.

EXeIIV;:

XV.

XVI.

XVII.

XVIII.

XIX.

XX.

XXI.

XXII.

XXIII.

XXIV.

XXV.

NAMES OF PAARS.

Anaivilundan.

Nadukudda.

Koopay.

Vankalai.

Old Dutch.

Outer Vankalai

Periya Karai.

Periya.

Arippu.

Kalitidal.

Cheval.

Challai.

Silavatturai.

Kondachi.

Jaggerboom Bank.

Moderagam.

Old Dutch Jaggerboom Bank.

Old Dutch Moderagam.

Kudrimalai.

Alanturai.

Hamilton’s Muttuvaratu.

Krusadai.

Lonnan’s Muttuvaratu.

Talaivillu.

Jokenpiddi.

Narakadu

Putlam Lake j Xe

Mar oF THE GULF OF MANNAR.

SURFACE COPEPODA OF THE GULF OF MANNAR.

‘Table showing the Distribution of Species and Varieties.

-Calanus minor (Claus.)

Calanus tenuicornis, Dana ..

Canthocalanus pauper (Giesbr.)

Undinula vulgaris (Dana) ..

Undinula darwini (Lubbock)

Undinula darwint, var. caroli (Giesbr.) .

Bucalanus attenuatus (Dana)

Bucalanus subtenuis, Giesbr.

Hucalanus mucronatus, Giesbr.

Bucalanus pileatus, Giesbr. ..

BRucalanus monachus, Giesbr.

ERucalanus crassus, Giesbr. .

Eucalanus subcrassus, Giesbr.

Rhincalanus cornutus, Dana

Rhincalanus gigas, Brady. .

Mecynocera clausi, Thompson

Paracalanus aculeatus, Giesbr.

Paracalanus parvus Claus. ).-

Paracalanus serratipes, Sewell

Acrocalanus longicornis, Giesbr.

Acrocalanus gracilis, Giesbr.

Acrocalanus gibber, Giesbr. .. on

Acrocalanus monachus, Giesbr.

Acrocalanus gardinert, Wolfenden

Acrocalanus similis, sp. nov.

Calocalanus pavo (Dana) ..

Calocalanus plumulosus (Claus.)

Clausocalanus arcuicornis (Dana)

Olausocalanus furcatus (Brady)

Buchezta marina (Prestand.)

Buchzta concinna, Dana ..

Euchexta woljfendeni, A. Scott

Scolecithriz dane (Lubbock). .

Scolectthricella pearsoni, sp. NOV.

Centropages furcatus (Dana)

lentropages orsinit, Giesbr. . .

‘opages elongatus, Giesbr.

Centropages gracilis (Dana) . . ws

lentropages tenuiremis, Thompson & Scott...

Centropages dorsispinatus, Thompson & Scott.

ypages truspinosus, Sp. NOV. an

diaptomus aurivilli, Cleve

~ diaptomus serricandatus (T. Scott)

_ Lemora discaudata, Giesbr. ..

__ Pemora turbinata (Dana)

_— Pemora stylifera (Dana)

Lucicutia flavicornis (Claus.)

Metacalanus aurivillii, Cleve

Candacia zthiopica (Dana) ..

Candacia catula, Giesbr. .. °

Candacia bradyi, A. Scott .

Candacia discandata, A, Scott

Candacia pachydactyla, Dana

Candacia truncata, Dana...

Calanopia elliptica (Dana) ..

Calanopia minor, A. Scott -

Calanopia aurivillii, Cleve .

Calanopia thompsoni, A. Scott

Labidocera acuta (Dana) ..

Labidocera kroyert (Brady) .-.

Scott he

Labidocera kroyeri var. burmanica, Sewell

Labidocera menuta, Giesbr. ..

Labidocera pavo, Giesbr.

Labidocera pectinata, Thompson & Scott

Labidocera kroyeri var. stylifera, Thompson &

Pontella dane var. ceylonica, Thompson

& Scott He

Pontella investigatoris, Sewell

Pontella fera, Dana ne

Pontella securifer, Brady

Pontellopsis armata (Giesbr.)

Pontellopsis kramert (Giesbr.)

~ Pontellopsis herdmant, Thompson & Scott

Pontellopsis perspicax (Dana)

Pontellopsis regalis (Dana) ..

Pontellina plumata (Dana) ..

Acartia erythrza, Giesbr,

Acartia dane, Giesbr.

Acartia spinicauda, Giesbr. .

Acartia negligens, Dana

Acartia centrura, Giesbr.

Acartia bispinosa, Carl

Acartia amboinensis, Carl -

Aeartia pietschmani, Pesta .

Acartia southwelli, sp. nov. --

Acartiella kempi, sp. nov.: gen. Nov.

Tortanus gracilis (Brady)

Vankalai Paar.

Nadukudda, Paar.

Koopay Paar.

Periya Paar.

sleateetes

Bele}

eal

ya le

ee se

SH hi oe ee OG

Periya Paar Karai.

Cheval Paar.

set [aedn sateen oes

ee ee ee

hear ae aS

Challai Paar. -

+/+

Sea en PPR amg STE Ole Bile

D++++ FF 4:47:

pti

Silavatturai Paar.

Kondachi Paar.

ee ee

Jaggerboom Bank.

| Old Dutch Jaggerboom Bank.

| Moderagam Paar.

| Marichchukkaddi Bay.

Kudrimalai Paar.

| Dutch Moderagam Paar.

Karaitivu Paar.

| Alanturai Paar.

Muttuvaratu Paar.

| Hamilton’s Muttuvaratu Paar.

| Krusadai Paar.

Se See ee

D+

Sole tsieashncactats ieee

SS eee ea

+) See oe eee

oF SSS Sa permite eo Gini Ae pio. Monn

5 SP ee eS ear

ae iy eek wares et oe 5

SRS nO ES OO DEE TEs eS A ee

5 rag Oe

EET ee

: ee ee

ee ee ee ee

15 Seis Sa ie eer ec oe, eee aoa

Doe EEE FES AE EEE

i sfirteincie teat

3 Geer en ie ees cols eer

DD ++

Se ee

++:

iste

ee ee

pS Po ame See SPI ee Sine coe

+4:

DHL:

Bia onetes

+t:

Siceeae wma eae

eth Nee Rargmch eck appre Me ot Co oan Oe

LE+EH:

L+H:

Cocina

3 FETE RE Re Re Re ape on gees

BIE 3C> Pale pone es

Esp

we ee beck

263

| Donnan’s Muttuvaratu Paar.

| Talaivillu Paar.

| Karkopanni Paar.

| Navakkaduwa Paar.

| Dutch Bay Spit.

: : | Jokenpiddi Paar.

pee eicectantateme

Get ig rete ear

Fs iC ae ad

2 SEE

a ee

SO i

Dit

Pete a et aoe

Dea Oh Ge concice a

pa Ps a ce Rae ee ee oer oe

Bor ro Fai rere eS SCR Seas tcl

Bora in oer ee eee cen eaeees

Olerarats

D+

Tortanus forcipatus (Giesbr.) Sie fatal tala tate las wal ocala 'alis ctocelniete = Leeaames o Bee, ee) ae Sl el OF .

REVIEWS. 265

REVIEWS.

1.—Ceylon Stone Implements.*

THE publication of this volume marks the first attempt on

the part of a resident to give a connected account of stone-age

discoveries in Ceylon and to formulate theories as to the uses

to which the stones were put, their age, and their place in the

great scheme of lithic remains which is being tentatively con-

structed by the efforts of Kuropean antiquaries, not without

doubts, disagreements, and controversies.

Of these labours, it is to be feared that the late Mr. Pole

was almost totally ignorant. Whenever the stone-age

literature of Ceylon grows to respectable proportions and can

be summarized and surveyed by a master of the science,

honourable historical mention will always be accorded to

Mr. Pole, who was not only the first in the field of inquiry,

but who persisted in the face of incredulity and discourage-

ment, until his discoveries, in themselves humble, were

confirmed by the Doctors Sarasin and placed beyond dispute

by subsequent investigations. The death of Mr. Pole in

June, 1913, adds an additional pathos to the publication

of the volume which he never lived to read, and renders the

task of examining it in detail one of more than usual delicacy ;

but it would be a dereliction of duty to permit this work to go

forth unchallenged as representing the reasoned conclusions

of inquirers into the questions raised by his discovery of

stone-age remains in Ceylon.

To the most casual reader it will be at once apparent that

Mr. Pole was little qualified either by temperament or by

acquired knowledge to decide these questions. Almost any

stone showing signs of human fracture was to him an imple-

ment, to which he would confidently assign a use, with the

result that the greater part of his collection was composed. of

* «Ceylon Stone Implements,”’ by John Pole, Scarborough estate,

Maskeliya, Ceylon. Thacker, Spink & Co., Calcutta, 1913,

266 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

what others would discard as “ chips.’ Thus, on page 8 we

read that—

With almost a total absence of secondary chipping any single

chert flake might rank as a scraper, re-chipping is very rare.

On page 26—

Should the material have fractured conveniently, little or no

work was expended.

On page 31—

Any flake may have been applied to this purpose, without

having on it any mark of manufacture.

These passages show that Mr. Pole was unacquainted with

the most elementary rules either of logic or of lithic manu-

facture. Scientific method imperatively demands the eli-

mination of all specimens which do not carry upon their faces

undeniable proofs of their human origin and design; and to

introduce a number of ‘‘ may haves ” and “ might have beens ”

is only to darken counsel. In the case of objects so debatable

and so ambiguous as stone implements not unfrequently are,

the inquirer must hold fast to the legal maxim, De non appa-

rentibus et de non existentibus eadem est ratio.

Mr. Pole divides his book into two parts, one concerned

with chert, the other with quartz implements, apparently

for the sake of convenience and not as implying any difference

in time or in phase of culture. There is, in fact, at present no

reason for supposing that the two materials were not simulta-

neously employed. When, however, he quotes. from the

Doctors Sarasin that Ceylon quartz implements are to be

assigned to the Magdalenian age, he is adopting a theory

which will find little support among prehistorians acquainted

with the facts, and which is almost certainly negatived by the

recent discovery of pigmy implements. It was the mis-

fortune of the brothers Sarasin that their stay in the Island

was far too short for adequate collection and study of the

material available; and their conclusions must be treated

with corresponding reserve. It is also regrettable that they, as

well as Mr. Pole, should have handled and actually published

illustrations of pigmy implements without recognizing the

type or the importance of the discovery. Several specimens

figured in Mr. Pole’s Pl. IIL. (quartz) are undoubtedly pigmies.

REVIEWS. | 267

One word should be said concerning the supposed

palzoliths figured in Plates I. and IT. (chert). The probability

of these dating back to the paleolithic age has the high

authority of the late Mr. Bruce Foote. My own opinion on

the subject, after an examination of the stones, is that it would

be unsafe to regard them as certainly belonging to so early

a phase, unless it can be shown that paleolithic types persisted

in Ceylon till a very recent date, as was undoubtedly the case

in Tasmania. According to my view there is nothing in the

workmanship which differentiates them beyond controversy

from a clumsy neolithic chopper or even core, while the unworn

and recent appearance of the material contributes to throw

doubt upon their extreme antiquity. It should be added

that their type, if they were admitted to be paleolithic, would

cause them to be referred to a pre-mousterian age, that is,

to a period antedating the earliest complete skeletons which

we possess from France and Belgium, the Neanderthal skull,

and probably even the Gibraltar remains. There is nothing

incredible in this theory ; but for its acceptance it needs

strong confirmation based upon a larger and more varied

collection of stones than is at present available. Indubitable

paloliths will be discovered in Ceylon first, if at all, in

gravel-beds. 7

I would add in conclusion that the Colombo Museum has

lately acquired the whole of the late Mr. Pole’s collection of

stones. With the consent of the authorities I have gone care-

fully through the entire series, and among much that- was

worthless I have found a really considerable number of un-

doubted stone implements, including scrapers (round and

hollow), borers, blades, and in particular over sixty pigmy

implements of quartz. One large round scraper of chert is by

far the finest specimen which I have yet seen from Ceylon, and

is worthy of a place on the shelves of any Museum; of the

pigmies, many are of the best type and deserving of the closest

study. On comparing the available implements with the

specimens selected for illustration in Mr. Pole’s book, it is at

once apparent that the author, with all his merits, was not

qualified to distinguish the bad from the good. Itis even more

268 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

lamentahly obvious that he had the opportunity, by making a

judicious selection from the stones in his possession, of produc-

ing a work which would have: been of immense value to

students, and which might have inaugurated a new era in the

history of the Stone Age in Ceylon.

The illustrations contained in the book and contributed

by Mrs. Maclure and Mrs. Harper are admirably done. It is

melancholy to reflect that the excellence of their drawings

renders the conviction so much the more inevitable that the

majority of the stones figured are waste chips, not completed

implements.

November, 1913. C. HARTLEY.

2.—Poisonous Snakes of India and Ceylon.*

THE enlarged third edition of Major Wall’s book, which is

publishéd by the Bombay Natural History Society, and which

treats so thoroughly with the posionous snakes of British

India, is particularly well arranged and lucidly written,

avoiding that complexity which so often characterizes books

of this type, and which is so confusing to the general reader.

The first portion of the book deals with the identification

of the poisonous snakes, chiefly by means of scaling and

head shields, and is illustrated by clearly printed diagrams

which should prove extremely useful, as the shields, which

are often difficult to examine on a living specimen, are here

clearly portrayed, and the necessary explanation is reduced

to a minimum.

Each snake is concisely and clearly described, only those

features that are necessary for its identification being given,

to which are added.short notes on its distribution, dimen-

sions, colour, and poison. Of the “ Kraits” Major

Wall recognizes twelve species, two of which, Bungarus

ceylonicus and Bungarus ceruleus, occur in Ceylon. The

* “<The Poisonous Terrestrial Snakes of our British India Dominions

(including Ceylon), and how to recognize them,” by Major F. Wall,

I.M.S., C.M.Z.8. 38rd edition. Bombay Natural History Society, 1913.

REVIEWS. 269

similarity in appearance of many of the “ Kraits ” has, up

to the present, rendered their identification somewhat

difficult except to the expert, and the author is to be con-

gratulated on his “ Key,” in which the distinguishing

characters of the snakes are ones that are easily discernable,

being as follows :—The number of scales round the body ;

the shape of the vertebral scales ; the number of ventrals and

subcaudals, and whether the latter are divided ; the comparative

width of the second supralabial ; the shape of the body ; the

number of bars on body and tail. Particularly useful to the

naturalist should be the different native names that are given

of the commoner snakes, as much interesting information must

often be lost through the casual observer,.who is only able to

obtain the native name of a snake, being ignorant of its

English equivalent.

In the account given by the author of the cobras and

coral snakes, the former are distinguished from the latter

by the fact that the third upper labial in the cobra (counting

from the nostral) touches both the nasal shield and the eye.

The common cobra (Naia tripudiang) may be distinguished

from every other snake by the presence of a wedge-shaped

scale (or scales, as there may be as many as three), the

“ cuneate” situated at the edge of the lower lip above the

lower labials, and which may be hidden by the upper lip when

the mouth is closed. The length of the two largest cobras

recorded by the author is 6 ft. 7 in., one of which was killed

in Colombo. The largest recorded Hamadryad, king cobra

(Naia bungarus), which is distinguished by a pair of contiguous

shields behind the parietals, was 15 ft. 5 in

From the account given of the Pit vipers little appears to

be known of the poison of many of them, but none of the cases

of bites by these snakes, recorded by the author, terminated

fatally.

The first portion of the book ends with descriptions of the

Pitless vipers (Viperinz), and those interesting snakes the

Vipera russellit and Echis carinata are particularly described.

In the second part Major Wall gives a highly interesting

account of snake poison, which includes the analyses of the

different poisons, and the effects of their constituents on the

270 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

blood, while the symptoms produced, by the bites of ten

different snakes are fully described.

As Major Wall explains in his preface, the purpose of his

book is to enable the general practitioner to determine a case

of snake poisoning, the type of snake which inflicted the bite,

and the treatment to be used, and as the subject of snake

poisoning and its antidotes is exhaustively dealt with, the

book should admirably fulfil its object.

The author begins this part with a chapter on death

arising from complications due to fear of patients who have

been bitten by mnocuous snakes and even lizards, and com-

pares the symptoms produced by fear with those of cobra-

poisoning. Further on he gives the following summary of

Colubrine and Viperine poisoning :—

‘“‘ Colubrine poisons act chiefly on the central nervous

system (cord and brain), and cause death by

paralysing the respiratory centre in the brain.

Their efiects upon the blood are slight. compared

with the viperine class, so that hcemorrhages are

not usual, and when present are not severe.”

‘“‘ Viperine poisons have no paralysing effect upon the

nervous system, except on the vaso motor centre,

but a very marked effect on the heart and blood,

death being usually brought about by paralysis

of the vaso motor centre, exhaustion from profuse

and persistent bleeding, or from septicemia (a

blood poisoning due to germs).”

The third portion of the book deals with the treatment of

snake poisoning—preventitive, antidotal (antivenene), sympto-

matic, and local treatments, also treatment to be adopted by

non-professional people.

Major Wall appears to have made an exhaustive study of

his subject; and his book, which has been considerably

enlarged since its first edition, should prove of much value to

all who are interested in snakes and snake poison, and arouse

interest in those who are not.

A. F. ABERCROMBY.

Anuradhapura, November, 1913.

, NOTES. 271

NOTES.

13.—List of Birds found at and around Hakgala Gardens,

Nuwara Eliya.

Accipiter virgatus—The Jungle Sparrow Hawk. Only

seen occasionally.

Alcedo ispida.— The Little Indian Kingfisher. Occasionally

seen in Nuwara Eliya, but never at Hakgala.

Munia kelaartii—The Hill Munia. Very common; breeds

all the year round, and ccnp uses the old nests more

than once.

Amadina malacca.—The Black-bellied Munia. Seen in

parties of five and six below Hakgala and on Albion estate,

frequenting long grass on the patanas. Breeds from February

to June. Common.

Arachnechihra asiatica.—The Purple Sun-bird. Occasionally

seen at Hakgala.

Arachnechthra ceylanicus —The Ceylon Sun-bird. Occasion-

ally seen at Hakgala.

Brachypternus erythronotus—The Red Woodpecker. Com-

mon all the year round.

Caprimulgus «indicus So ieinart s Night-jar. Seen about

here from December to May.

Centropus sinensis—The Common Coucal. Fairly common

from January to June.

Chalcophaps indica.—The Bronze-winged Dove. Generally

seen in October and November ; feeds on the fruits of Sapiume

sebiferum.

Cisticola cursitans—The Common Grass Werklan. Seen

nearly all the year round. Breeds in March and April.

Collocalia fuciphaga—The Indian Edible-nest Swiftlet.

Very common all the year round. Breeds from March to

September. J have found nests of these in caves just below

Hakgala. The young have their feet glued to the nest until

they are able to fly.

Columba intermedia—The Indian Rock Pigeon. Seen in

October and November.

20 6(10)13

Pf rs SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Coracias indica.—The Indian Roller. Rarely seen.

Corvus macrorhynchus.—The Jungle Crow. Fairly common,

in the villages below Hakgala. I often see a pair of these

birds at Sita Eliya, just above Hakgala, elevation about

5,700 ft.

Crateropus rufescens——The Rufous Babbler. I saw these

for the first time in February last year in the thick jungle

below Hakgala Peak. There were about fourteen of them

together.

Culicicarpa ceylonensis—The Grey-headed Fly-catcher.

Common, especially during the N. E. monsoon.

Cyanops flavifrons —The Yellow-fronted Barbet. Common

nearly all the year round.

Diceum erythrorhynchus.—Tickell’s Flower Pecker. It is

fairly common, and chiefly responsible for the spread of the

Loranthus parasite.

Gallinago celestis—The common Snipe. A few were shot

this year near Hakgala in the middle of October.

Galloperdix bicalcarata—The Ceylon Spur Fowl. Fairly

common.

Gallus lafayettii—The Ceylon Jungle Fowl. Common.

Geocichla spiloptera—The Spotted Ground Thrush. Occa-

sionally seen during the N. E. monsoon.

Geocichla Wardi.—Ward’s Pied Blackbird. Seldom seen at

Hakgala, but very common on Lower Albion estate during the

N. E. monsoon.

Harpactes fasciatus ——The Ceylon Trogon. Rarely seen.

Hemipus picatus——The Little Pied Shrike. Usually seen

in the N. E. monsoon.

Hirundo javanica—The Bungalow Swallow. Common in

the N. E. monsoon.

Hypsipetes ganeesa—The Black Bulbul. Common, except

during the 8. W. monsoon.

Kelaartia penicilata——The Yellow-eared Bulbul. Very

common nearly all the year round.

Lanius cristatus——The Brown Shrike. Arrives here in the

end of September.

Larvivora brunnea.—The Indian Wood-chat. Seen in the

N. E. monsoon only ; appears about October.

NOTES, 273

Molpastes heemorrhous—The Madras Bulbul. Occasion-

ally seen at Hakgala, but common just below.

Melittophagus swinhovi—The Chestnut-headed Bee-eater.

Occasionally seen in the villages below Lower Albion estate

during March and April, in threes and fours, but never seen

at Hakgala.

Merops philippensis—The Blue-tailed Bee-eater. Seen at

the beginning of the N. E. monsoon in the villages below

Hakgala.

Merula kinnist—The Ceylonese Blackbird. Common at

Hakgala, especially during the N. E. monsoon.

Mirafra affinis——The Madras Bush Lark. Seen all the year

round, and breeds in February.

Motacilla melanope—The Grey-and-yellow Wagtail. Very

common during the N. E. monsoon. The first arrival seen

here this year was on August 25, just below Hakgala.

Oreocincla imbricata—The Buff-breasted Thrush. Occa-

sionally seen in the N. E. monsoon. Rather rare.

Orthotomus sutorius—The Indian Tailor Bird. Fairly

common. Breeds from February to August. A nest was

found on Lower Albion estate last April containing three

eggs. The nest was built in a cinchona leaf.

Parus atriceps—The Grey-backed Titmouse. Generally

seen from January to May.

Passer domesticus-—The Common House Sparrow. Very

few seen at Hakgala, but common just below.

Pericrocrotus flammeus——The Orange Minivet. Only seen

occasionally.

Acanthopneuste nitidus—The Green Willow Warbler. Com-

mon during the N. E. monsoon. The first arrival this year

was seen on September 25.

Pomatohinus melanurus—The Ceylonese Scimitar Babbler.

Fairly common. Breeds during March, April, and May.

Pratincola caprata—The White-winged Black Robin. Seen

nearly all the year round, and breeds from January to June.

Prinia socialis—The Ashy Wren Warbler. Fairly common ;

breeds about March, April, and May. Eggs brick-red.

Sitta frontalis—The Indian Blue Nuthatch. Usually seen

during the N. E. monsoon in parties of four or five.

274 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Spilornis spilogaster.—The Ceylonese Serpent Eagle. Fairly

common.

Stoparola sordida—The Ceylonese Blue Fly-catcher. Seen

all the year round ; fairly common from April to September.

Thereiceryx zeylanicus—The Brown-headed Barbet. Occa-

sionally seen at Hakgala, but common below all the year round.

Turtur suratensis—The Spotted Dove. Seldom seen at

Hakgala, but common in the villages just below.

Upupa indica—The South Indian Hoopee. Occasionally —

seen on Lower Albion estate.

Xantholema hematocephala—The Crimson-breasted Barbet.

Seen below Hakgala nearly all the year round, and common

from January to May.

Zosterops ceylonensis—The Ceylonese White-eye. Very

common all the year round, and breeds from January to July.

Zosterops palpebrosa—The Common White-eye. Common

on Albion estate. Never seen at Hakgala.

Hakgala, December 1, 1913. JAMES J. NOCK.

THE CEYLON NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

Seventh General Meeting.

Tur Seventh General Meeting of the Society was held in the

Colombo Museum on September 2, 1913.

Dr. A. Nell presided.

Major S. James, I.M.S8., gave a lecture on “‘ The Mosquito Work

in Ceylon,” which was illustrated by lantern slides.

Eighth General Meeting.

Tur Eighth General Meeting of the Society was held in the

Colombo Museum on Tuesday, November 18, 1913.

Dr. Andreas Nell, Vice-President, presided, in the absence of the

President.

Dr. Pearson gave an account of “ The Natural History of the

Window-pane Oyster (Placuna placenta).”

Dr. Pearson also exhibited several instruments intended for

use in oceanographical investigations around the Ceylon coast.

Among these exhibits were an Ekman current meter, a Nansen-

Petterssen water bottle, and a Lucas sounding machine.