CONTENTS OF VOLUME X.

Part XXXVI.—DECEMBER, 1914.

Wait, W. E.—

The Distribution of Birdsin Ceylon and its Relation to recent

Geological Changes in the Island ae -

Wayland, E. J.—

The Interpretation of Nature and the Nature of Interpretation.

Hartley, C.—

On the Occurrence of Pigmy Implements in Ceylon

Review

Notes.—

1. Microdon, sp. A. Rutherford

2. Short Notes, A. Rutherford

3. Insect Food Plants. F. M. Mackwood a

4. Extensions of the Range of the Common Leech, T. Petch

Proceedings of the Ceylon Natural History Society

Part XXXVII.—OcToBER, 1915.

Clark, Dr. H. L.—

The Echinoderms of Ceylon other than Holothurians

Rutherford, A.—

Notes on Ceylon Coccide

Henry, G. M.—

Note on two Aberrations of Ceylon Butterflies

Lewis, F.—

Notes on Animal and Plant Life in the Vedda Country

Wayland, E. J.—

Notes concerning the Occurrence of Small Desert Tracts in the

North-West of Ceylon om = ae

Notes.—

1. Note on Halodeima atra. Dr. J. Pearson

2. Cannibalism in ee crurifolium. G.M. Henry

3. How Lizards Bathe. M. Henry

4. Do Rat-snakes Strike. er Drieberg

Proceedings of the Ceylon Natural History Society ee

Part XXXVIII.—NovEMBER, 1916.

Wait, W. E.—

Notes on Ceylon Rails, Waders, Gulls, and Terns

Wayland, E. J.—

? Equus Zeylanious 7

PAGE

103

117

119

166

175

176

177

178

179

261

Notes.—

1. Cassia nodosa tree defoliated by Caterpillars of Catopsilia

pomona, Fabr. C. C. Solomons

2. Trees defoliated by is Aisa of Catopsilia pomona, Fabr.

G. M. Henry

3. Flight of Brana Callopasa. C. C. Solomons

4. Nacaduba dana, De Niceville. W. Ormiston

5. Terias rotundalis, W. Ormiston

Proceedings of the Ceylon Natural History Society

Part XXXIX.—Octoper, 1917.

Wait, W. E.—

Notes on Ceylon Water Birds. .

Wait, W. E.—

Rough Draft of Ceylon Pigeons and Game Birds

Records of Ceylon Species

Notes.—

1. Note on the emergence of Winged Termites. T. Petch

2. Note on the Bresding Habits of the Did-he-do-it (Sarco-

grammus indicus), C. T. Symons 73 é

3. Wilson’s Stormy Petrel (O. oceanicus). W. A. Cave

Proceedings of the Ceylon Natural History Society

281

282

283

284

287

347

380

395

397

398

390

INDEX TO VOLUME X.

SUBJECT INDEX.

Adam’s Bridge, 21, 25

Adam’s Peak, 13, 17

Afolus Bastion, 175

Afghanistan, 21

Africa, 5,230, 232, 240, 248

Africa, North, 4, 210, 219, 237, 250

Africa, South, 207, 208, 252, 257

Alaska, 208

Albion Estate, 79

Alps, 25

Ambalam Hill, 60

Ambawela, 79, 80

America, North, 250, 254.

Ampari, 120

Ampilidex, 146

Ampitiya, 159, 161, 164

Anacardiacee, 146

Andamans, 193, 255

Animalculists, 40

Animals, Vertebrate distribution of, in

India, Ceylon, and Burma, 3

Antarctic Skua (the), 260

Anuradhapura, 17, 265

“Arabia, 203

Arachnida, Ceylon—Records of, 393

Arippu, 297

Aristotle, 37

Arrowheads, 67

Arugam, 164

Arugam Bay, 7, 121

Ascidians, Ceylon—Records of, 394

Ash Dove, 20, 362, 364

Ashy-crowned Finch Lark, 13

Ashy-headed Babbler, 8

Asia, 25

Asia, Northern, 208

Asia, Southern, 226, 227, 228, 232,

233, 237, 239, 240, 243, 248

Asia, South-Western, 230

Assam, 3, 219, 238

Assam, Upper, 203

Asvayobendakanda, 264

Australasia, 2, 250

Australia, 5, 55, 193, 197, 206, 207,

209, 219, 222, 227, 231, 232, 248,

256, 260, 302

Australian savage, 55

Aves, Ceylon—Records of, 392

Avissawella, 11

Avocet Sandpiper, 215, 220

Avocets, 200, 211, 213

Babblers, 8, 29

Bagura, 128

Bakkamuna, 159

Bali, 2

Baluchistan, 229

Banda District (India), 55

Bandarawela, 12, 54, 57, 61-66, 139,

149

Banded Bay Cuckoo, 17

, 26, 27, 28, 30 | Banded Crake, 181, 184

Bandicoot, 136

Barawaya, 163

Barbets, 15, 154

Bargura, 158, 159, 160, 163, 165

Barn Owl, 18

Barred -headed Goose, 330

Bats, 136

Batticaloa, 121

Bay of Bengal, 23, 194, 259

Bear, 135

Beavan’s Kinefisher,.16

Béche-de-mer, 176

Bee-eaters, 16

Begonias, 149

Behar-Orissa tract, 3

Belgium, 55

Bengal, 230

Bengal, Bay of, 230, 252, 259

Bengal Green Pigeon, 350

Bibile, 21

Bintenna, 130

Birds (Ceylon), distribution of, and its

relation to geological changes, 1

Birds, Indian, 179

Birds of Ceylon, 6

Birds, short flight, 8

Bitterns, 313

Bixacee, 143

Black-backed Woodpecker, 15, 29

Black-bellied Tern, 246, 253

Black Bittern, 315, 326

Black-breasted Quail, 367, 373

Black-capped Bulbul, 10

Black-capped Kingfisher, 16

Black-crested Baza, 19

Black Crow, 140

Black Drongo, 10

Black Eagle, 19

Black-headed Mynah, 11

Black-necked Stork, 307, 309

Black Petrel, 301

Black-shafted Ternlet, 246, 257

Black-tailed Godwit, 215, 219

Black-winged Stilt, 211, 212

Blanford’s Northern Region, 24

Blanford’s Southern Hill tract, 31

Blanford’s Zoo-geographical tracts,

Blossom-headed Parroquets, 18

Blue-breasted Quail (the), 372

Blue-breasted Banded Rail, 181, 183

Blue Coot or Purple Moor Hen, 189

Blue-tailed Bee-eater, 16

Bocana, 121

Bombay, 21

Bombay Natural History Society, _

Boobies, 296

Booby (the), 297

Borella, 361

Borneo, 2

( vi

Bowela, 123, 136, 145, 147, 149, 161,

162

Brachyopodists, &c., 33

Brahminy Duck, 331, 334

Brahminy Kite, 19

Brana callopasa, flight of, 282

British Isles, 55

Brittle-stars, 96

Broad-billed Roller, 16, 26

Broad-billed Stint, 217, 233

Broad-tailed Grass Warbler, 10

Bronze-wing Pigeon, 26, 349, 356

Brown-capped Babbler, 8

Brown Gannet, 297

Brown-headed Gull, 242, 243

Brown Wood Owl, 18

Bubulcus coromandus, 314

Buddama, 153, 155, 162

Buffalo, 137

Bulbuls, 8

Bungalow Hill, 57, 58, 60

Burma, 3, 10, 17, 18, 23, 181, 184-189,

191, 192, 203, 204, 212-214, 219,

223, 225, 226, 230, 231, 236, 238-

240, 243, 244, 247, 249, 250, 251-

253, 256, 257, 282, 297, 347

Burmese Coast, 233

Bush Bulbul, 9

Bush Quail, 366, 367

Bustard Quail (the), 378

Bustards, 22, 180,190 ~

Buttala-Wedirata, 120, 129, 136

Butterflies, Ceylon—Note on

Aberrations of, 117

two

Cachar, 299 °

Cactacex, 149

Calcutta, 84

Calpentyn Peninsula, 267 ,

Cambridge, Mass., U. 8. A., 83

Cannibalism in Pulchriphyllium eruri-

folium, 176

Cape Colony, 173

Cape of Good Hope, 260

Cape Petrel (the), 301, 302

Carnatic, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 11, 14-20, 24, 27,

29, 32, 294

Carnatic Invader, 29

Carnatic species, 32

Carnatic tract, 6

Carnatic zone, 24

Caspian Sea, 189

Caspian Tern, 245, 249

Cassia nodosa attacked by Catopsilia

pomona, 281

Cassia nodosa tree

Caterpillars, 281

Catopsilia pomona on Cassia nodosa,

281

Cattle Egret, 314, 319

Cave Bat, 136

Celastracious plants, 145

Celebes, 2

Contral India, 3, 294

Central Province, 8, 14

Ceylon, 18, 347 ¢

Ceylon and South India, separation

of,

Ceylon Arachnida—Records of, 393

defoliated by

)

Ceylon Ascidians—R ecords of, 394

Ceylon Aves—Records of, 392

Ceylon Bay Owl, 26

Ceylon Birds—Handbook of, 287

Ceylon, Birds in, distribution of, and

relation to geo'ogical changes, 1

Ceylon Blackbird, 12

Ceylon Black Drongo, 10

Ceylon Chetopoda—Records of, 394

Ceylon Charadriine—R ough Key to,

201

Ceylon Echinoderms other than Holo-

thurians, 83-102

Ceylon Game Birds, 347

Ceylon Grackle, 11

Ceylon Gulls, 179

Ceylon Hematopodine—Rough Key

to, 211

Ceylon Insecta—Records of, 380

Cey!on Jungle Fowl, 366, 369

Ceylon Larine—Rough Key to, 242

Ceylon Magpie, 7, 26, 28

Ceylon Mammalia—Records of, 384

Ceylon Molluseca—Records of, 394

Ceylon Mynah, 12, 29

Ceylon Natural History Society, 64,

262, 284, 285 ~

Ceylon, Northern, 5

Ceylon Parroquet, 26

Ceylon Pigeons, 347

Ceylon Pigmy Woodpecker, 14

Ceylon Porifera—Records of, 393

Ceylon Rails, 179

Ceylon Reptilia—Records of, 392

Ceylon Scclopacinee—R ough Key to,

234

Ceylon, South-Western, 5

Ceylon Species—Records of, 380

Ceylon Spur Fowl, 366, 371

Ceylon Sterninee—Rough Key to, 245

Ceylon Stone Plovers—R ough Key to,

191

Ceylon Terns, 179 /

Ceylon Thrush, 12

Ceylon Totaninae—R oughK ey to,215

Ceylon Tract, the Northern, 4

Ceylon Waders, 179

Ceylon Water Birds, 287

Ceylon White-eye, 9

Ceylon Wood Pigeon, 20, 358, 360

Ceylon Yellow-eyed Babbler, 8

Ceylonese Arrenga, 9

Ceylonese Babbler, 8

Ceylonese Loriquet, 18

Ceylonese Sun-bird, 177

Cheetopoda (Ceylon)—Records of, 394

Challenger, 92 ;

Chameleon, 139

Cheshire Antiquarian Society, 55

Chestnut-backed Owlet, 19

Chestnut Bittern, 314, 325

Chestnut-headed Bee-eater, 26

Chilaw, 11, 31, 260, 267

Chimney Hill, 119, 120, 160

China, 182, 185, 227

China, Eastern, 207

China Sea, 252, 291

Chinese Bittern, 314

Chinese Quail, 366, 367

( vii )

Chisels, 67

Chomanturai of the Tamils, 144

Church Hill, 58, 59, 60

Cloth of the Bark of the Ritti, 125

Coasts of India, 297

Cobras, 139

Coemena, 121

Collared Scops Owl, 18

Colombo, 18, 26, 27, 30, 205, 207, 244,

297, 302

Colombo Drainage Works at Wella-

watta, 261, 263

Colombo Museum, 54, 83, 117

Comb Duck, 331, 423

Common Bulbul, 9

Common Bustard Quail, 21

Common Ceylon Mynah, 11

Common Heron (the), 316

Common Leech—R ange of, 79

Common or Fantail Snipe, 235, 237

Common Peafowl (the), 367

Common Sandpiper, 215, 220

Common Teal, 332, 339

Common Tern, 246, 254

Coot, 189

Coppersmith, 15

Cormorants, 287, 288, 291, 292, 296

Cosmclogies, 36, 37

Cotton Teal, 331, 332, 336

Coueal, 17

Coursers, 190, 194

Crab Plover, 22, 190, 193, 241

Crakes, 180

Crake, the Banded, 181, 184

Crake, the Eastern Baillon’ s, 183

Cranes, 22, 180

Crescentic, 61

Crested Drongos, 10

Crow, 7

Crow Pheasant, 17

Crowned Hornbill, 16

Cuckoos, 17, 160

Cucurbitacez, 146

Curlews, 200, 214, 215, 303

Curlew Stint, 217, 232

Dab-chick, 23

Dabchick, the Indian Little Grebe or,

345

Dambulla, 21

Danakiria, 145, 152

_ Danakirigalla, 159, 164

Danakirigama, 136

Darters, 288, 291, 295

Death of Mr. Andrew Rutherford, 116

Death’s-head Moth, 78

Deccan tract, 3

Degalhella, 120, 143, 159, 161

Dehra Dun, 78)

Delft, breeding Horses on the Island

of, 263

Delwita Estate, 117

Dendrocygna javanica, 23

Description of Microlepidoptera, 380

Devil Bird, 18

Dhoby Hillock, 60

Dikwella, 12

Dilleniace, 142

Dipterous larva, 72

Dissan Hamy, 124

Diving Ducks, 331

Diyatalawa, 66

Do Rat-snakes Strike, 177

Dolosbage, 62, 66

Domestic Aninals, 133

Donside, 66

Doves, 19, 347, 348, 349, 357, 358

Drainage Works at Wellawatta,

Colombo, 261, 263

Dreikante, 169

Drill Points, 66

Drongo Cuckoo, 17

Drongo family, 10

Drongos, 17

Droseracee, 148

Ducks, 23, 327, 329, 330, 333

Dunumadala, 127

Dusky Blue Flycatcher, 11

Dutch, 271

Dynastides, 77

East Africa, 194.

Eastern Baillon’s Crake, 181, 183

Eastern Golden Plover, 201, 205

Eastern Himalayas, 18

Eastern Province, 32, 119, 161

Eastern Purple Heron (the), 315

Echini—Pacific, 100

Echini—Revisicon of, 100

Kehinoderms from Ceylon, list of,

in the Colombo Museum, 84

Echinoderms of Ceylon (other than

Holothurians), 83-102

Eggs, fertilizing filaments in, 40

Elephant, 137

Ellebubbura, 159, 161, 163

England, 57

England and Ireland land connection,

Equus Zeylanicus, 261

Eth.opian Region, 2

Etmole, 144, 148, 158, 159, 160, 161,

' 162, 164

Ettampitiya path, 60

Eugenia, 78

Euphorbia, trees, 364

Europe, 25

European Turtle Dove, 362

Evolution, 41, 42

Exposure of the sedimentary beds, 172

Eye-snake, 177

Faceted Stones, peculiarity of, 170

Fairy Blue Bird, 9

Fan-tailed Flycatcher, 12, 139

Fauna of British India, 75

Fauna of the Gulf of Mannar—Notes

on, 83

Feather-stars, 92

Finches, 12

Flamingos, 164, 327

Flight of Brana Callopasa, 282

Flycatchers, 11

Flying Fox, 136

Did-he-do-it—Note on the breeding} Forest Bulbul, 9

Habits of the, 397

Digalhella, 164 ~~

Forest Eagle Owl, 18, 26

Fort at Galle, 1 18

( viii)

Fort Macdonald, 79

France, 55

France, South-east, 224

Frigate Birds, 287, 288, 289, 290

Frogmouth, 26

Further India, 2

Gadwall, 332, 338

Gajabahu, 138

Galamuna, 140

Galle, 244, 267, 297

Galle District, 8, 16

Game Birds (Ceylon), 21, 347

Game Birds of India, 347

Gamepetalous Plants, 150

Gampola, 66 ;

Gampolawatta Estate, 66

Ganges, 18, 19

Gannets, 287, 288, 296

Garganey Teal, 332, 341

Gecko, 139

Geese, 327, 329, 330

Geographical Distributions of Ani-

mals, 1

Geography, 37

Geological Survey, 32

Gerundiya, 177

Giant Heron, 313, 316

Giraffe’s neck, 41, 42

Glossy Ibis, 304, 305

Gneiss Pebbles, 67

Godabowa, 163

Godwits, 214

Golden-backed Woodpecker, 14, 29

Golden Plover, 201, 206

Gonagramuka, 121

Gonbeli-kokka, 165

Govindu-oya, 119

Grackles or Hill Mynahs, 11

Gray Bat, 136

Gray Heron, 313, 316

Gray Lag Goose, 330

Gray-necked Crow, 7

Gray Partridge, 21, 29, 367, 377

Gray Plover, 201, 206

Gray Quail, 374

Gray Wanduroo, 134

Great Black-headed Gull, 242

Great Britain, 55

Great Stone Plover, 22, 192

Green Bee-eater, 16

Green-billed Shearwater, 300, 301

Green Bittern, 314.

Green Bulbuls, 9

Green Calotis, 139

Green Imperial Pigeon, 354

Green Pigeons, 20, 348, 349, 351, 353

Green Sandpiper, 222

Greenshank (the), 226

Greenshank, Little, 216, 223

Green Whip-snake, 139

Green Woodpecker, 14

Guava, 148

Gulf of Mannar, 92, 299, 302

Gulf of Mannar, Fauna of, 83

Gull-billed Tern, 246, 250, 254

pie 22, 190, 240-242, 259, 287,

Gulls, Ceylon, 179

Guruhela, 158

Haban-kukula, 371 -

Hair-crested Stork, 307, 309

Hakgala, 79, 80

Haldummulla, 282, 283

Haldummulla Hills, 131

Halmilla, 144

Hambantota, 7, 12, 15, 143, 202, 207,

209, 210, 213, 214, 225, 228, 249

Hambantota District, 29, 153, 187,

197, 233, 248, 244, 250

Hampson’s description, 75

Haputale, 12, 16, 55, 66, 139

Hare, 137

Hatton, 62

Hawaiian, 100

Hawk Moths, 77

Hawks (the), 19

Heda-oya, 119, 134, 137, 141, 147, 151,

155, 159, 163

Helicteres isora, 144

Henegama, 140

Herons, 23, 302, 303, 317, 319

Hibitalanagala, 120

Hill Bush Chat, 12

Hill Mynahs or Grackles, 11, 26

Himalayan birds, 28

Himalayan elements, 24, 25

Himalayan exile, 15

Himalayan genus, 16

Himalayan or Malayan, 23

Himalayan region, 17

Himalayan relicts, 13

Himalayan species, 23

Himalayan types, 26

Himalayas, 2, 4, 5, 10, 18, 236, 240

Himitillanegala, 143, 162

Hindford, 66 -

Hollow serapers, 67

Holothurians, 175

Ho-nan (China), 275

Hoopoe, 16

Hora, 142

Hornbills, 16

Horse, teeth in, 36

Horton Plains, 66

House Bat, 136

How Lizards Bathe, 177

Tbises, 302, 303

Ice Age, 25

Ice Age (Great Britain), 1

Ichneumonide, 78

Imperial Pigeon, 20, 348, 353, 367

India, 8, 16, 18, 20, 22, 23, 25, 30, 78,

181, 184-189, 191-193, 195, 197-

199, 212, 213, 225, 226, 228, 230,

232, 244, 247, 250-254, 256

India, coast of, 232

India, Northern, 219, 223, 237, 238, 243

India, Southern, 219, 223, 236, 237,

238, 239, 264

Indian Ashy Drongo, 10

Indian Bird, 16, 19, 179

Indian Blue Chat, 9

Indian Blue Rock Pigeon, 20

Indian Civet, 135

Indian coast, 233, 256, 258

Indian Courser, 22, 29, 194

Indian Darter (the), 295

| Indian Edible-nest Swiftlet, 17, 26

(

Indian Empire, 16

Indian Ghauts, 23

Indian Hoopoe, 16

Indian Insects, 68

Eee Little Grebe or Dabchick (the),

Indian Museum, 84

Indian Ocean, 207, 208

Indian Otter, 135

Indian Peninsula, 3, 5, 18, 20

Indian Pigeons, 347, 348

Indian Reef Heron (the), 319

Indian Ring Dove, 29, 358, 363

Indian Rock Pigeon, 358, 359

Indian Roller, 16, 29

Indian River Tern, 246, 252

Indian Shag, 292, 293

Indian shores, 92

Indian Turtle Dove, 20, 358, 361

Indian Vampire, 136

Indian Waders, 179

Indian Water Rail, 181, 182

Indian Wood Pigeons, 357

Indo-Chinese, 3

Indo-Gangetic Plain, 3, 4, 15

Indo-Malayan, 3

Indus, 198

Insect Food Plants, 79

Insecta, Ceylon—Records of, 380

Insects, South Indian, 68

Interpretation of Nature (the), 33, 45

Treland and England land connection,

is.

Ironwood, 143

Italian, 40

‘Jaganas, 198

Jack Snipe, 235, 239

Jackal, 135

Ja-ela, 182 .

Jafina, 24, 202, 204,207, 212, 214, 225

Jafina Fishermen, 176

Jafina Peninsula, 8, 11, 195

Jafinese tract, 32

Japan, 182, 185, 188, 207, 256, 275

Japanese juggler’s boxes, 40

Jasper, 56

Java, 188

Jerdon’s Bulbul, 9

Jerdon’s Imperial Pigeon, 354, 355

Jungle Bush Quail (the), 374

Jungle Cock, 21, 29

Jungle Fowl, 366

Jungle-Owlet, 19

Jungle Squirrel, 136

Kabaragoya, 138

Kagoshima, 92

Kagoshima Bay, 92

Kall-aar, 166, 167

Kallu Obba, 153

Kaltotta, 140

Kalugama, 66

Kalu-ganga, 30

Kalutara, 7, 297

Kankasanturai, 264

Kandy, 71

Kandyan District, 6, 8-12, 22, 24

Kandyan Forests, 10, 19

Kandyan Frontier, 7

Kandyan Hills, 12

Kandyan Provinces, 23

Kandyan tract, 31

Kanthalai, 197, 209, 210, 213, 224

Karandi-oya, 119

Karane, 162

Kattaragama Hills, 128

Katugastota, 66

Katu-patuk, 149

Katu-tengai, 143

Kebilitte, 119, 139, 158, 162

Kelani, 30

Kelani Valley, 30

Kellie Group, 66

Kentish Plover, 202, 208

Ketulana, 162

Key to Ceylon Fregatide, 290

Kingfishers, 16, 141

Kiripokunagala, 120

Kiri-wawula, 136

Kitchen middens, 55

Kites, 19

Kitul, 132

Kitulana, 159

Kobaragoda, 139

Kodiyana, 161

Komari, 121

Kotiyagoda, 161

Kottawa, near Galle, 283

Kudamahawaraliya, 161

Kulapan-oya, 120

Kumbuk, 148

Kumbukkan, 128, 136, 137, 138, 140,

141, 159

Kumbukkan River, 119, 121, 124, 134,

151, 163, 165

| Kumbukkan Valley, 148, 151, 160-163

Kumuna, 119, 121, 123, 133, 136, 139,

140, 154, 158, 159, 161, 162, 163,

164, 165

Kurapan-oya, 137, 159-161, 163

Kurundt-oya, 66

Kurunegala, 117

Kuthiraikattamoddai, 264

Kuthiraimalai, 264

Laccadives, 258

Lace Bark Tree, 75

Lahugala, 134, 151, 158, 159-165

Lambakarana, 121

Lamp-followers, 141

Lampyrid, 72

Laneashire, 55

Lancashire Antiquarian Society, 55

Lankiya-oya, 119

Lantana, 353, 372

Lapwing, Red-wattled, 201

Lapwings, 194, 201

Lapwing, Sociable, 201, 205

Lapwing, Yellow-wattled, 201, 204

Large Barbet, 15

Large Cormorant (the), 292

Large Crested Tern, 246, 252

Large Egret, 313, 317

Large Indian Swallow Plover, 196

Large Sand Plover, 201, 207

Large Whistling Teal, 332, 335

Larks, 13

toca

Laughing Thrushes, 8

Layard’s Parroquet, 18

Layard’s Woodpecker, 15, 29

Lecanium, 71

Leech, Common—Range of, 79

Legge’s Baza, 19

Legge’s Flower-pecker, 13, 26, 28

Legge’s Hawk Eagle, 19

Legge’ s Indo-Ceylonese District, 31

Lenama, 128

Leopard, 135

« Lepidopterous pupa, 78

- Lesser Sand Plover, 201

Light Corpuscular theory, 50

Lincolnshire, 54

List of Birds observed in the Vedda

Country during July, 1914, giving

Local Distribution, 158 ,

Little Bronze-wing Pigeon, 20

Little Ceylon Hornbill, 16

Little Cormorant (the), 292, 294

Little Egret, 314, 318

Little Green Bittern (the), 321

Little Ringed Plover, 202, 210

Little Scops Owl, 18

Littie Stint, 216, 229, 231

Liyangalla, 142, 152, 159, 161, 163

Lizards—how they bathe, 177

Locustid-nymphal, 77

Lombok, 2

Long-toed Stint, 216, 230

Lunagalla Hills, 139

Lybian, 170

Madagascar, 5, 240

Madras, 8

Madras tract, 3

Madulsima, 380, 381

Madura, 264

Magpie, Ceylon, 7

Mahableswar, 4

Maha-oya, 160

Maha Wedirata, 119, 123, 124, 134,

148, 149

Mahaweli-ganga, 210

Malabar, 14, 15, 19, 20, 23, 24, 29, 32

Malabar Coast, 4, 18-20

Malabar Contingent, 18

Malabar District, 9, 17

Malabar Element, 31

Malabar—Fauna of the, 5

Malabar Hills, 12, 16, 18

Malabar Green Bubul, 9

Malabar Races, 14

Malabar Rufous Woodpecker, 14

Malabar species, 32

Malabar tract, 4-6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 17, 28

Malabar Trogon, 17

Malabar type, 27

Malay Archipelago, 2, 183, 224, 238

Malay Bittern, 23, 314, 323

Malay Peninsula, 19, 185

Malaya, 5, 23

Malayan Bird, 13

Malayan Fauna, 9, 17

Maliacez, 145

Mammalia, Ceylon—Records of, 384

Manawela, 136, 159

Mangroves, 148

)

Mannar, 4, 8, 25, 30, 166, 194, 202, 204,

207, 250, 252, 234

Mannar Coast, 8,11

Man-of-war Bird, 290

Mano-kokka, 165

Mardi, 121

Margosa, 145

Marichchukkaddi, 166

Mars, 48

Marsh Sandpiper, 223

Masked Booby (the), 297

Maskeliya, 66, 118, 380, 381

Matale, 66, 117

Matara, 31, 66

Matara District, 140

Maturata, 66

Mavittapuram, 264

Mediterranean, 4; 233, 239, 251

Mediterranean—Shores of ‘the, 226

Melastomacious Plants, 148

Mergansers, 329

Microlepidoptera—Description of, 380

Middle Azes—Beliefs of, 36

Migrant Birds, 28

Mihintale, 265

Milla, 153

Mineralogical Survey, Ceylon, 2, 32

Minneri, 197, 209, 210, 213, 249, 257,

294

Miriabedde, 139

Moderagam-aar, 166, 167

Modern Veddas, 63

Mollusca, Ceylon—Records of, 394

Monara-gala, 21, 119, 120, 122, 139,

142, 153, 155, 158-165

Monaragala Range, 120

Monara-natana-hena, 21

Monitor, 138

Moor Hen, 22, 182

Moor Hen or Water Hen, 187

Mora, Sinhalese, 146

Moramalpokunna, 159

Morawak Korale, 16

Morduli Portus, 121

Moth, Death’s-head, 78

Mountains : their Origin, Growth, 168

Mouse Deer, 138

Muduwa, 159, 161, 162

Mullaittivu, 334

Munamal, 151

Mun 135

Muppane, 119, 136, 138, 140, 152,

159-163

Musk Rat, 136

Mustard Tree, 135

Mycologists, 33

Myrtaceex, 148

Mysore, 3

Nahmaluwahela, 135

Namal-oya, 119

Nambanna, 162

Nangalla, 152

Natural History octatin Ceylon, 262,

284, 285

Natural Philosophy, 37

Nature of Interpretation (the), 33, 45

Naucoride, 76

Nawalapitiya, 66

Coa)

Negombo, 229, 230

Neolithic Patterns, 63

Neolithic Period, 55

Neolithic Remains, 57, 58, 63

Neolithic Types, 65

Nepaul, 13

Neptune, 49

ew Caledonia, 291

wgalla, 142, 158, 165

New Zealand, 302

Night Herons, 313, 314, 322

Nightjars, 17

Nilgala, 21, 120

Nilgiri House Swallow,13

Nilgiris, 355

Nittawo, 128, 129

Noddy (the), 247, 259

Non-perching, 302

Nordmann’s Tern, 246, 255

North Africa, 55

North America, 2

North-Central Province, 15, 27

North-Western Provinee, 15, 31

Northern Ceylon tract, 4, 31 ©

Northern India, 18

Northern Province, 31

Note on the Breeding Habits of the

Did-he-do-it, 397

Note on the emergence of Winged

Termites, 395

Note on two Aberrations of Ceylon

Butterflies, 117 2

Notes concerning the occurrence of

small Desert Tracts in the North-

west of Ceylon, 166

Notes on Animal and Plant Life in the

Vedda Country, 119

Notes on Ceylon Coccide, 103

Notes on Ceylon Rails, Waders, Gulls,

and Terns, 179

Notes on Ceylon Water Birds, 287

Nuwara Eliya, 19, 236, 237

* Nuwaragala, 145

Nymphal Locustid, 77

Obbekota, 120

Okanda, 121, 139, 149, 158, 159, 160,

162-165

Okanda Bay, 121

Openbill (the), or Shell Ibis, 311

Orange-breasted Green Pigeon, 20,

349, 352

Orange Free State, 173

Orissa, 20

Ovulists, 40

Owls, 18, 347

Oyster-catchers, 211, 212

Pacific Echini, 100

Paddy Bird, 320

Painted Partridge, 21, 367, 375

Painted Snipe, 234, 235, 239

Painted Stork, 307, 310

Painted Thrushes, 13

Palearctic Region, 2

Palavi, 268

Palla’s Grasshopper Warbler, 10

Palm Squirrel, 136

Palu, 135, 151

Panadure, 302

Panawa, 127, 144, 149, 158, 159, 160,

162, 163, 164, 165

Panawa Pattu, 119, 120,121, 123, 124,

128, 133, 134, 138, 1389, 144, 151

Panayan Tern, 247, 257, 259

Pangolin, 138

Papaw, 149

Pariah Kite, 19

Parroquet, 18

Parrots, 17

Parson Stork, 308

Partridge, 366, 376

Pasdun Korale, 11

Passara, [49

Passerine Birds, 7, 13, 347

Pattipola, 66

Pe&dcock, 21, 366

_| Peafowl, 163, 366, 368

Peculiarity about Faceted Stones, 170

Pelicans, 22, 287, 288

Peradeniya, 66, 72, 74, 76, 105, 106,

109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 283

Peradeniya Records, 78

Perching Ducks, 331

Persia, Southern, 203

Persian Gulf, 251

Petrel, Wilson’s Stormy, 398

Petrels, 300

Pheasant, 366

Pheasant-tailed Jagana

Pheasant, 198

Phenomena—Elucidation of, 36

Philippines, 183, 188, 199

or Water

| Pigeons, 154, 347, 348, 353, 355

| Pigmy Implements, 55

Pigmy Implements in Ceylon, 54

Pintail, 332, 340

Pin-tailed Snipe, 234, 235, 237

Pipits, 13

Pisa, 44

Plants—Effect of absertce of light

from, 39

Pliny and Ptolemy’s Map, 121

Plovers, 22, 200, 240, 241

Plover, Eastern Golden, 201, 205

Plover, Golden, 201, 206

Plover, Gray, 201, 206

Plover, Kentish, 202, 208

Plover, Large Indian Swallow, 196

Plover, Large Sand, 201, 207

Plover, Lesser Sand, 201

Plover, Little Ringed, 202

Plover, Small Indian Swallow, 196

Plovers, True, 201

Plumbago, 150

| Point de Galle, 83

Point Pedro, 219, 233

Polonnaruwa, 12

Polynesia, 252

Polynoid Worm, 175

Pompadour Green Pigeon, 20, 349, 351

Pomparippu River, 167

Pond Heron, 314, 320

Porcupine, 136

Porifera, Ceylon—Records of, 393

Portuguese, 271

Pottuvil, 119, 121, 136, 139, 144, 160-

163, 165

( xi )

Pratincoles, 24

Proceedings of the Ceylon Natural

“(ated Society, 178, 284, 285, 399,

Psyllide, 78

Punjab, Western, 204

Purple Heron, 313

Purple Moor Hen, 182

Purple Moor Hen, or Blue Coot, 189

Purple Water Hen, 22

Purple Wood Pigeon, 20, 358, 360

Puttalam, 31, 166, 202, 212

Puttalam District, 195

Pygeum, 147

Pyralid Moth, 75

Pyrenees, 25

Quacky Duck, 23, 336 ‘

Quails, 21, 366, 374, 379

Quaker Thrushes, 8

Quartz Pebbles, 67

Queensland, 208

Racket-tailed Drongo, 10

Rail, the Blue-breasted Banded, 183

Rails, 21, 22, 180

Rails, Ceylon, 179

Rain Quail (the), 373

Rajaputana, 3

Rameswaram, 1], 21, 25

Ranai, 153

Ratnapura, 283

Ratnapura District, 30, 79, 144

Rat Snake, 139, 177

Rats, 136

Records of Ceylon Arachnida, 393

Records of Ceylon Ascidians, 394

Records of Ceylon Aves, 392

Records of Ceylon Chetopoda, 394

Records of Ceylon Insects, 380

Records of Ceylon Mammalia, 384

Records of Ceylon Mollusca, 394

Records of Ceylon Porifera, 393

Records of Ceylon Reptilia, 392

Records of Ceylon Species, 380

Red-backed Woodpecker, 15, 29

Red-crested Pochard, 332, 344

Red-faced Malkoha, 17

Red Monkey, 134

Red Sea, 251

Redshank, 216, 224

Redshank, Spotted, 216, 225 °

Red Turtle Dove, 20, 358, 364

Reduviid Bug, 76

Red-Wattled Lapwing, 201

Reef-Heron, 312, 314

Reeve and Ruff, 215, 216, 227

Reptilia, Ceylon—Records of, 392

Revision of the Echini, 100 ,

Rhamnacex, 146

Rhomboidal, 66

Rilawa, 134

Rillamulle, 66

Rocks, Ceylon, 1

Rocks, Sedimentary, 2

Rock Pigeons, 349, 357

Rock Squirrel, 136

Rock-Veddas, 130

Romans, 121

Rosacez, 147

Roseate Tern, 246, 255

Rose-coloured Starling, 11

Rotawewa, 120

Rough Draft of Ceylon Pigeons and

Game Birds, 347

Rough Key to Ceylon Ardeide, 313

Rough Key to Ceylon Ciconiide, 304

Rough Key to Ceylon Columbine, 358

Rough Key to Ceylon Hezemato-

podine, 211

Rough Key to Ceylon Ibidide, 304

Rough Key to Ceylon Larinez, 242

Rough Key to Ceylon Procellariide,

300

Rough Key to the Ceylon Rallide, 181

Rough Key to Ceylon Scolopacine,

234

Rough Key to Ceylon Species, 331, 349

Ruddy Crake, 181, 185

Ruft and Reeve, 215, 216, 227

Rufous-backed Shrike, 11

Russell’s Viper, 139

Sabaragamuwa, 11

Sabaragamuwa Province, 8, 1], 161

Sahara, 2 $

Salavai, 124

Sambur, 138

Sand Grouse, 347

Sand Plovers, 201, 229

Sanderling, 215, 216, 228

Sandpiper, Green, 216, 222

Sandpiper, Marsh, 223 *

Sandpipers, 200, 214, 215, 224

Sapindacee, 146

Sarasin’s ‘‘ Steinzeit auf Ceylon,’’ 67

Satinwood, 145

Scarborough Estate, 118

Scimitar Babbler, 8

Setawa, 130, 138

Seven Sisters, 8

Shell Ibis, 311

Short-eared Owl, 18

Short-flight Birds, 23

Short-flight Species, 28

Short-tailed Tropic Bird, 298

Shoveller, 332, 343

Shrikes, 11

Siam, 3

Siberia, 206, 227, 232 :

Siberia, Eastern, 182, 230, 238

Siberia, Southern, 224

Sidas urens, 144

Sikkim, 13, 25 .

Sind, 294

Sinhalese Veddas, 153

Sirigala, 119

Siyambala-anduwa, 137,

159, 160, 162

Skimmers, 241

Skuas, 240, 241, 259, 260

Small Brown Bat, 136 -~

Small Ceylon Barbet, 15

Small Indian Swallow Plover, 196 197

Small White-throated Babbler, 8

Smaller Adjutant (the), 309

Smaller Crested Tern, 246, 251

139, 142,

(\ Xai <)

Smaller Egret, 314, 318

Smaller Frigate Bird, 290, 291

Snake Bird, 295

Snipe, Common or Fantail, 235, 237

Snipes, 200, 240

Snipes and Woodcocks, 233

Snippets, 214, 222

Sociable Lapwing, 201, 205

Some South Indian Insects, 68

Sooty Tern, 247, 258

South Africa, 55

South America, 2

South China, 3, 199

South-eastern Boundary, 31

South India, 4-6, 8, 21, 68, 69

South Indian Black Bulbul, 9

South Indian Hills, 12, 18

Southern China, 2

Southern Green Pigeon, 19, 349, 350

Southern Hill, 31

Southern India, 2, 3, 26

Southern Spain, 55

Southern Transvaal, 173

Sparrow, 12

Sphingide, 78

Spoonbills, 302, 303, 305, 306

Spotted-billed Duck, 331, 332, 357

Spotted-billed Pelican (the), 289

Spotted Deer, 138

Spotted Dove, 358, 362

Spotted Redshank, 216

Spotted-wing Thrush, 12

Spur Fowl, 21, 164, 366

Starlings, 11

St. Clive, 66

Stenopelmatine, 77

Sternine, Ceylon—Rough Key to, 245

Stilt, Black-winged, 211, 212

Stilts, 200, 211

Stints, 214, 215, 216, 217, 229

Stone ‘Age, 54

Stone Curlew, 191

Stone Plover, 22, 190, 193

Stone Tools, 56

Storks, 23, 302, 303, 306, 311, 327

Stuart Baker, 348

Studer’s Stellaster Squamulosus, 87

Sudu-waraliya, 161

Sunbirds, 13

Surface-feeding Ducks, 331, 332

Swallow Plovers, 22, 190, 194, 196

Swallows, 13

Swans, 329

Swifts, 17

Syrphide, 71

Tallagoya, 138

Tamankaduwa District, 131

Tamblegam, 237

Tangalla, 4, 11, 12, 14, 24, 31, 230,

304

Tangalla District, 140

Tardenoisian Origin, 54

Tellijjawella, 140

Temminck’s Stint, 216, 231

Termites, Note on the emergence of

winged, 395

Tern, Caspian, 245, 249

Tern, Whiskered, 245, 247, 249

Tern, White-winged Black, 245, 248

Terns, 22, 240, 241, 244, 246-258

Terns, Ceylon, 179

Three-toed Quails (the), 378

Thrushes, 12

higkewdeg

Tincide, 78

Tohoku Imperial University, 275

Topawewa, 249

.| Tortricide, 78

Travancore Hills, 19

Tree Dticks, 331

Trincomalee, 4, 25, 194, 237, 250, 254,

255, 260, 302

Trincomalee District, 9, 144

Triton Bastion, 175

Tropic Birds, 287, 288, 298

True Bulbuls, 9

Turnstone, 200, 201, 202

Turtle Doves, 20

Tuticorin, 26, 27

Uda Wellawey, 131

Uganda, 55, 56,°67

Ulapane, 66

Ullapola, 160, 164

United States, America, Cambridge,

Mass., 83

Uroloncha Kelaarti, 12

Uttiya, 271

Uva, 21, 119

Uva-—Eastern Province, 160

Uva Hills, 154

Vedda Country—Animal and Plant

Life in, 119

Veddas, 59, 64, 65, 124, 126, 129

Veddas, Ancestors of, 59

Veddas (Modern), 63

Vedivaittakalla, 264.

Vellai-oya, 66

Vertebrate Animals; distribution of,

in India, Ceylon, and Burma, 3

Vindhya Hills (India), 55

Vulture, 19, 347

Waders, 22, 190, 241, 287

Waders, Ceylon, 179

Waders, Indian, 179

Wadinagala, 119, 120

Wagtails, 13

Walawe-ganga, 17

Walking Ducks, 331

Wal-kohomba, 145

Wallawe Valley, 140

Waradeniyawa, 129

Waragama, 145

Waragoda, 142

Warblers, 10, 11

Water Cock, 22, 182, 188

Water Hen or Moor Hen, 187

Water Hen, the White-breasted, 186

Water Hens, 22, 180

Water Pheasant, 198

Water Pheasant, or the Pheasant-

tailed Jagana, 198 /

Water Rail, the Indian, 182

Wattegama, 123, 146, 154, 162, 163,

164, 165

(give)

Waves, polarization of, 49

Weaver Birds, 12

Wedirata, 162

Welanga, 144.

Welanga-Wood, 127

Welimada, 60

Wellawatta, 261, 268

West Indies, 41, 75

Western Blossom-headed Parroquet,

Western Province, 8, 16

Westminster Abbey, 119, 120, 136,

139, 141, 143, 144, 145, 148, 149,

154, 158, 159, 161, 162, 164

Whimbrel, 215, 218

Whiskered Tern, 245, 247, 249

Whistling Teal, 23, 332, 334, 336

White-breasted Water Hon, 22, 181,

186, 188

White-headed Mynah, 11

White Ibis, 304

White-necked Stork, 307, 308

White-shafted Ternlet, 246, 256

White Stork, 307

White Tropic Bird, 298, 299

White-vented Drongo, 10

White-winged Black Tern, 245, 248

Wila-oya, 120

Wild Pig, 138

Wilson’s Stormy Petrel, 300, 301, 398

| Wiltshire Estate, 66

Wira, 135

Woodcocks and Snipes, 233, 234, 235

Woodpeckers, 13, 14, 29, 140

Wood Pigeons, 349, 357

Wood Sandpiper, 215, 221

Wood Snipe, 234, 236

Worm living upon Halodeima atra.

175

Wynaad, 19

Xerophytic Plants, 43

Yakko, 126

Yellow Bittern (the), 324

Yellow-fronted Barbet, 15, 26, 28

Yellow-fronted Pied Woodpecker, 14,

Yellow-naped Woodpecker, 14

Yellow-wattled Lapwing, 201, 204

Zoology, 37

NAME INDEX.

Adams, 49

Agassiz, A., 91, 92, 98, 100

Baker, Steuart E. C., 179

Balfour, 120_

Bateson, Professor, 43

Bell, F. J., 83, 92, 94, 95, 100

Bell, H. C. P., 177

Blatiford, Dr., 3, 4, 6, 7, 202-208, 210,

212, 2138, 217, 21'8-233, 235-237,

239, 241-243, 247-260, 275, 291-

Déderlein, 83, 92, 94, 95

Drieberg, C., 177

Finn, Frank, 179

Fletcher, T. Bainbrigge, 68, 69, 70

Fol, 39

Galileo, 44 -

Gatty, Rev. K. A., 54, 65

Geikie, Sir Archibald, 262

Geikie, Prof. James, 168

Graham, 49

295, 297, 298,» 300-302, 305, 308, | Grant, Ogilvie, 179

309-311, 315-321, 322-328, 333-

(Gray), 94, 95, 96

341, 343-345, 348, 350-352, 354, | Green, E. E., 104, 105, 106, 107, 118,

355, 356, 359-364, 367, 369, 371-

315, 317

Bligh, 374

Brown, J. D., 276

Brunetti, 71

Buch, Von Leopold, 274

Carson, A. de Courcy, 263, 264

Cassie, 66

Cave, W. A., 179, 301, 398

Chadwick, T. D., 68

Clark, A. H., 84, 85, 92, 93

Clark, Dr. H. L., 83, 96, 98, 99

Clark’s (A. H,.), Crinoids of the Indian

Ocean, 85

Clifford, Professor W. K., 44

Columbus, 41

Darbishire, A. D., 44, 48

Darwin, 41

De Blainville, 89

De Loriol, 91, 94, 95, 96

De Meijere, 91

De Niceville, 282

Dewanan Piya Tissa, 265

176

Guiguard, 39

Haeckel, 83

Halkett, G. W., 117

Hartley, C., 54

Hartsoeker, 40

Hayley, A. C., 175

Henry, G. M., 67, 117, 177, 282, 395

Hoerdman, 84

Holdsworth, 299

Kelaart, Dr., 275

Kingsley, Charles, 57

Knox, Robert, 121, 263

Koehler, 84, 91, 94-97

Lamarck, 41

Landois, 78

Layard, 253, 361, 365

Leeuwenhock, 40

Legge, Captain, 4, 6, 7, 10, 203-208,

210, 212, 218, 217-233, 235-237,

239, 242, 243, 247-260, 293, 301,

302, 315, 319, 326, 334, 339

(sv. )

Leverrier, 49

Lewis, Frederick, F.L.S., 119, 179

Lockyer, 50

. Ludwig, 83

Lutken, 94

Lyman, 96

Mackwood, F. M., 79, 282, 283

Mahindo, 265

Malpighi, 40

Matsumoto, Hikoshichiro, 275, 276,

278

Mayor, Major, 31

Mayrick, E., 380, 381

Moore, 283

Muller, J., 92, 93

Neville, 236

Noetling, Dr. Fritz, 278

Norman, Sir, 50

Ormiston, W., 282, 283

Pandava King, 264 iu

Parker, H,., 250

Pearson, Dr. Joseph, 83, 84, 179, 176,

261-263

Perrier, 88, 94, 95

Peteh, T., 80, 116, 397

Peters, 96

Pieris, Paul, 263, 264

Plate, Professor, 176

Pole, John, 54, 66

Pryce, Winifred, 48

Ptolemy, 121

Rabl, 39

Réaumur, 78

Ruskin, Mr., 38

Rutherford, A., M.A., B.Se., 74, 78

103

Rutherford, Mr. Andrew, death of,

116

Sarasin, Doctors, 54, 58, 64, 83

Saunder, F. G., 79

Sharp, 77, 78

Sharpe, Dr., 210

Sladen, 94

Smith, E. A., 93, 97

Solomons, C. C., 281, 282-

Spenser, Herbert, 44 -

Still, John, 177

Stuart Baker, 350, 355, 357, 359, 363,

364, 365

(Studer), 94

Sturgess, G. W., 263, 275

| Swammerdam, 40

Symons, C. T., 398

Thurston, 83

Wade, Arthur, 169

Wait, W. E., M.A., M.B.O.U., 179,

247, 266, 287

Wall, 79

Wallace, 2,3, 4, 5

Walter, 83

Walton, G. F., 263

Wayland, E. G., 30, 31, 33, 58, 166,

261

Wiggin, T., 177

Willey, Dr., 5

Woodward, Dr. Smith, 275

LATIN INDEX.

Abrus cesia, 147

Abrus eburnea, 147 a

Abrus leucophlea, 147

Abrus pennata, 147

Abrus precatorius, 147

Abutilons, 143

Acanthaster planci, 95

Accipiter sp., 158

Accipitres, 19

Accipiter nisus, 158

Accipiter virgatus, 158

Acmonorhyncus vincens, 13, 26, 28

Acridotheres melanosternus, 11, 29,

163

Acridotheres tristis, 11

Adina cordifolia, 150

AXgialitis, 201

Adgialitis Alexandrina, 202, 208

Aégialitis cantiana, 208

AEgialitis curonica, 210

AGgialitis dubia, 202, 210

fBgialitis Geoffroyi, 201, 207, 208

Aégialitis jerdoni, 210

Aigialitis mongolica, 201, 208

Aigithina tiphia, 9, 162

Ainopopelia, 19

AMnopopelia tranquebarica, 19

Aischynomene aspera, 146

AXsacus recurvirostris, 22

Ageratum conyzoides, 150

Alauda gulgula, 162

Albizzia odoratissima, 147

Albizzia stipulata, 147

Alcedinidee, 16

Alcedv beavani, 16

Alcedo ispida, 141, 160

Alcippe nigrifrons, 162

Alectoropodes, 365

Aleurites incisa, 155

Aleurites integrifolia, 155

Aleurites triloba, 154

Allceophania decipiens, 79

Allophylus cobbe, 146

Alsocomus, 357

Alsocomus elphinstonii, 20

Alsocomus puniceus, 20, 358, 360

Alsocomus torringtoniz, 20, 358, 360

Alstonia scholaris, 151

/ Amaurornis, 181

Amaurornis fuscus, 181, 185

Amaurornis phceenicurus, 22, 181, 186

Amphimetra milberti, 93

Amphiura duncani, 96

Ampilidex, 146

(

Anacardiacex, 146 |

Anamirta paniculata, 142

Anas acuta, 340

Anas circia, 341

Anas pecilorhyncha, 332, 337

Anastomus oscitans, 165, 307, 311

Anatide, 329

Anatine, 330, 329

Anisodes nebulosata, 72

Anisophyllea zeylanica, 148

Anogeissus latifolia, 148

Anonacee, 142

Anous, 245

Anous stolidus, 247, 259

Anser ferus, 330

Anser indicus, 330

Anseres, 329

Anserineg, 329

Anseropoda sarasini, 95

Anthenea pentagonula (Lam’k), 88, 94

Anthenea rudis (Koehler), 89, 94

Anthocephalus cadamba, 150

Anthracocerus coronatus, 16, 160

Antiaris toxicaria, 125, 154

Antonina sp., 108

Aonidia perplexa, 108

Aonidiella (chrysomphalus) aurantii,

107

Apocynacee, 151

Arachnechthra, 13

Arachnechthra minima, 13

Arachnecthra zeylanica, 177

Arachnida, 393

Araucaria cookii, 111

Ardee, 303, 312, 313

Ardea cinerea, 165, 313, 316

Ardea gotiath, 313, 316

Ardea gularis, 319

Ardea manillensis, 313, 315

Ardea purpurea, 315

Ardeidz, 312

Ardeiralla cinnamomea, 165, 325

Ardeiralla flavicollis, 326

Ardeola grayi, 165, 314, 320

Ardetta, 314

Ardetta cinnamomea, 314, 325

Ardetta sinensis, 314, 324

' Ardisia, 150 ©

Argyroploce erotias, 78

Arrenga blighi, 9

Artamus fuseus, 163

Artocarpus integrifolia, 104,411

Artocarpus nobilis, 155

Ascidians, 394

Asclepiads, 151

Asio accipitrinus, 18

Aspidiotus cuculus, 105

Aspidiotus hedere, 111

Aspidiotus longispinus, 109

Aspidiotus orientalis, 106

Aspidiotus transparens, 111

Asterina cepheus, 95

Asterina lorioli, 95

Asterope carinifera, 94

Asthenosoma urens, 98

Astropecten Andersoni (Sladen), 86,

Astropecten euryacanthus, 94

Astropecten hemprichii, 94

Astropecten indicus (Doderlein), 86, 94

Xvi

)

Astropecten mauritianus (Gray), 86,

Astropecten petalodeus, 94

Astropecten polyacanthus, 94

Astropyga radiata, 98

Astropecten tamilicus, 94

Astropecten velitaris, 94

Astropecten zebra (Sladen) 86, 94

Astrophyton clavatum, 97.

Astur badius, 158

Aulacaspis Barberi, 110

Averrhoa bilimbi, 144

Averrhoa carambola, 144

Avicennia officinalis, 153

Avocado (Pear), 114

Azima titracantha, 151

Balsamodendrum caudatum, ‘143

Balsamodendrum cordatum, 145

Barringtonia acutangula, 148

Barringtonia malabarica, 149

Barringtonia racemosa, 148

Bassia longifolia, 151

Batrachedra psilopa, 78

Batrachostomus moniliger, 17, 26

Bauhinia tomentosa, 147

Baza ceylonensis, 19

Baza lophotes, 19

Berrya ammonilla, 144

Bidens, 150

Bignoniacee, 127, 152

Biophytum sensitivum, 144

Bixaceze, 143

Boarmia crepuscularia, 76

Bohadschia marmorata, 176

Bombax malabaricum, 143

Boragine, 152

Bos bubalus, 137

Brachypodine, 9

Brachypternus, 14, 140, 159

Brachypternus aurantius, 14, 15, 29

Brachypternus erythonotus, 15, 29,

140, 159

Brachypterygine, 9

Brassica juncea, 142

Bridelia retusa, 153

Brousonettia pepyrifera, 109

Bruguiera gymnorhiza, 148

Bryophyllum calycinum, 147

Bubuleus coromandus, 319

Bucanga leucopygialis, 161

Burseracee, 145

Butea frondosa, 147

Butorides javanica, 314, 321

Cactacez, 149

Cxsalpinia bonduk, 147

Calamaria, 90

Calidris, 215, 216

Calidris Arenaria, 216, 228

Calophyllum burmanni, 143

Calophyllum inophyllum, 143

Calophyllum tomentosum, 143

Calotes versicolor, 177

Calotropis gigantea, 151

Calyciflorae, 146

Canarium zeylanicum, 145

Canis aureus, 135

Canthium didymum, 150

Capillaster multiradiata, 92

p22: ae

Capillaster sentosa, 92

Capparidee, 142

Capparis zeylanica, 142

Caprimulgus asiaticus, 160

Caprimulgus indicus, 161

Caprimuleus kelaarti, 160

Carallia integerrima, 148

Cardiospermum halicacabum, 146

Careya arborea, 148

Carinata, 86

Carissa spinarum, 151

Carpophaga zenea, 20, 163, 354

Carpophaginae, 348, 353

Caryota urens, 132

Casarea rutila, 331, 334

Cassia auriculata, 132, 147

Cassia fistula, 147

Cassia marginata, 147

Cassia nodosa, 110, 281

Castanonotum, 159

Catopsilia pomona, 281

Cenometra herdmani, 85, 93

Cenometra insueta, 85

Centranthera procumbens, 132, 152

Centrechinus savignyi, 90, 98

Centrechinus setosum, 98

Centropus, 17

Centropus chlororhyncus, 17

Centropus sinensis, 17, 160

Cephalandra indica, 149

Cerbera odollam, 151

Ceriops, 148

Ceroplatus quadripunctatus, 71

Cervus axis, 138

Cervus unicolor, 138

Ceryle varia, 160

Chetocarpus castanocarpus, 154

Chetopoda, 394

Chaleophaps, 356

Chalcophaps indica,

356

Charadriide, 190, 200

Charadirus fulvus, 201, 205

Chaulelasmus streperus, 332, 338

Chettusia gregaria, 201, 205

Chionaspis Herbe, 113

Chionaspis simplex, 112, 113

Chionaspis subcorticalis, 104, 105

Chloropsis jerdoni, 9, 162

Chloropsis malabarica, 9

Chrysocolaptes, 14, 15

Chrysocolaptes festivus, 15, 29

Chrysocolaptes gutticristatus, 15

Chrysocolaptes stricklandi, 15, 29,

140, 159

Chrysomphalus cistuloides, 104 _

Chrysomphalus rossi, 107

Ciconia alba (Blanford), 307

Ciconiz, 303, 306

Ciconiide, 306

Cinnamonium zeylanica, 109

Cinnyris lotenius, 162

Cinnyris zeylonicus, 162

Cissa ornata, 7, 26, 28

Cisticola cursitans, 162

Citta frontalis, 162

Cittocincla macrura, 161

Clitoria ternatea, 147

Clypeaster humilis, 91, 99

Clypeaster reticulatus, 99

20, 26, 163,

Coccidx of Ceylon, 103, 107, 111, 112.

113

Coceus viridis, 78

Coccystes jacobinus, 159

Cochlospermum gossypium, 143

Collocalia fuciphaga, 160

Collocalia unicolor, 17, 26

Colobometra discolor, 93

Columba intermedia, 20, 163, 358,

359

Columbe, 19, 347, 357

Columbide, 348, 349

Comanthus annulatum (Bell), 34, 92

Comanthus parvicirrum (J. Miller),

84, 92

Comanthus samoanum, 84, 93

Comanthus, schlegelii (P.H.C.), 84, 93

Comatella stelligera, 92

Comatula pectinata, 92

Comatulid crinoids, 92

Combretacez, 148

Combretum ovalifolium, 148

Connaracee, 146

Connarus monocarpus, 146

Copsychus saularis, 161

Coraciz, 16

Coracias indica, 16, 29

Cordia myxa, 152

Corvus macrorynchus, 140, 161

Corvus splendens, 281

Coturnix, 366

Coturnix chinensis, 372

Coturnix communis, 374

Coturnix ccromandelica, 367, 373, 374

Crateva roxburghii, 143

Crateropodide, 8 29

Crateropodine, 8

Crateropus, 162

Crateropus cinereifrons, 8

Crateropus rufescens, 8

Crateropus striatus, 8

Cremastogaster, 71

Criococcus (araucarie, Mask ?), 110

Crocidura coerulea, 136

Crocopus, 19, 349 -

Crocopus chlorogaster, 19, 349, 350

Crocopus pheenicopterus, 350

Crocopus phcenicopterus chlorogaster,

350 .

Crone splendens, 7

Crotalaria retusa, 146

Crotalaria striata, 146

Cryptoblabes proleucella, 78

Cuculide, 17

Cuculus sonnerati, 159

Cucurbitacez, 149

Culcita schmideliana (Retz.), 89, 95

(Cupressus sp.), 113, 114, 115

Cursoriine, 194.

Cursorius, 194

Cursorius coromandelicus, 22, 29, 195

Cyaniris lanka, 79

Cyanops flavifrons, 15, 26, 28, 159

Cycas, 107

| Cyornis tickelli, 161

Cyprea, 267

| Dafila acuta, 332,340

| Dalbergia lanceolaria, 147

Danais fumata, 79

(

Daption capensis, 301, 302

Datura fastuosa, 152

Decametra taprobanes, 93

(? Dendrocalamus sp.), 112

Dendrocygna, 332

Dendrocygna fulva, 332, 335

Dendrocygna javanica, 332, 334

Derris scandens, 147

Diadema, 90

Dialium avoideum, 147

Diaspis boisduvalii, 106

Diceum erythrorhynchum, 162

Dichrometra palmata, 93

Dichrometra protecta (Ltk.), 85, 93

Dichrometra tenera (Hartl.), 85, 93

Dichrostachys cinerea, 147

Dicruride, 10

Dicrurus arter, 10

Dicrurus czrulescens, 10

Dicrurus leucopygialis, 10, 281

Dicrurus longicaudatus, 10

Dictyospermie, 107

Dilleniace, 142

Dillenia indica, 142

Dimorphotalyx glabellus, 154

Dioptoma adamsi, 72

Diospyros ebenum, 106, 151

Diospyros embryopteris, 151

Diospyros ovalifolia, 151

Dipterocarps, 142

Dipterocarpus zeylanicus, 142

Disasterina ceylanica, 95

Disjecta membra, 64

Dissemuroides paradiseus, 10

Dissemurulus lophorinus, 10°

Dissemurus lophorhynus, 161

Dissemurus paradiseus, 161 .

Dissura episcopus, 165, 307, 308

Dodonza, viscosa, 146

Dolichandrone rheedii, 152

Dregea volubilis, 152

Dromadidz, 22, 190, 193

Dromas ardeola, 22, 193

Drosera burmanni, 148

Drymeeca insularis, 162

Dryophis mycterizans, 139

*Ducula cuprea, 354, 355

Ducula insignis, 355

Dumetia albigularis, 8

Dupoetor flavicollis, 315, 326

Dysoxylum binectariferum, 145

Ebenacez, 151

Kchinaster eridanella (M. & T.), 89

Kehinaster purpureus, 96

Echinodiscus auritus, 91, 99

Echinodiscus bisperforatus, 99

Echinolampas alexandri, 91, 99

Echinolampas ovata, 91, 99

Echinometra mathezi, 91, 99

Kchinometra oblonga, 99

Echinoneus cyclostomus, 99

Kchinostrephus molare, 91, 99

Echinothrix diadema, 90, 98

Ectomocoris atrox, 76

Elzodendron glaucum, 145

Elaphrornis palliseri, 9

Elephantopus scarber, 150

Eliphas maximus, 137

Encrinus, 86_

xviii)

Entada scandens, 147

Equus abeli, 276

Equus caballus, 275, 277, 278

Equus ferus, 276

Equus germanicus, 276

Equus Leptostylus, 276, 277, 278

Equus mosbachensis, 276

Equus plicidens, 276

Equus quaggoides, 276

Equus sivalensis, 276

Equus spelceus, 276

Equus stenosis, 276

Equus sussenbornensis, 276

Eriodendron anfractuosum, 143

Erythra phoenicura, 164, 186

Erythrina indica, 147

Erythrina ovalifolia, 147

Erythronotus, 140

Erythroxylon monogynum, 144

Ksacus magnirostris, 193

Esacus recurvirostris, 191, 192

Eucidaris metularia, 97

Eudynamis honorata, 160

Eugenia sp., 71, 115

Kugenia bracteata, 148

Eugenia corymbosa, 148

Eugenia jambolana, 148

Eulabes, 11

Kulabes ptilogenys, 11, 26

Eulabes religiosa, 11, 26, 163

Eulabetide; 11

Euphorbia antiquorum, 153

Euphorbia tirucalli, 153

Euphorbia tortilis, 153

Eurystomus orientalis, 16, 26

Evolvulus alsinoides, 132

Exacum zeylanicum, 152

Excalfactoria, 366

Excalfactoria chinensis, 367, 372

Falco perigrinus, 158

Felis pardus, 135

Ferdina offreti, 95

Feronia elephantum, 144

Fibularia volva, 91, 99

Ficus, 72

Ficus arnottiana, 154

Ficus benghalensis, 154

Ficus hispida, 154

Ficus religiosa, 154

Ficus retusa, 154

Ficus tsjakela, 154

Filicium decipiens, 145

Fiorinia fioriniz, 113

Flemingia strcbilifera, 147

Fluggea leucopyrus, 153

Francolinus, 366

Francolinus pictus, 21, 367, 375

Francolinus pondicerianus, 21, 29,

367, 377

Fregata, 289 -

Fregata aquila (Blanford), 290

Frogata ariel, 290, 291

Fregata minor, 291

Fregatide, 288, 289

Fringillide, 12

Frogattiella penicillata, 104

Fromia milleporella, 95

Fromia tumida, 95

Fulica atra, 189

( Six)

Fulicariz, 180 :

Fuligula rufina, 344

Gallicrex cinerea, 22, 182, 188

Galline, 21, 365

Gallinaceous, 347

Gallinago, 234

Gallingo ccelestis, 235, 237

Gallinago gallinula, 235, 239

Gallingo nemoricola, 234, 236

Gallinago stenura, 235, 237

Gallinula chloropus, 22, 182, 187

Galloperdix, 366

Galloperdix bicalearata, 21, 164, 366,

371

Gallus, 366

Gallus lafayetti, 21, 29, 366, 369

Gallus sonnerati, 21

Garcinia spicata, 143

Gardenia latifolia, 111, 150

Gavie, 240, 241

Gecinus, 14

Gecinus chlorogaster, 14

Gecinus striolatus, 14

Generic diagnosis, 86

Gentianacee, 152

Geometride, 72

Geraniacee, 144

Glareola, 196

Glareola lactea, 22, 164, 196, 197

Glareola orientalis, 22, 196

Glareolide, 22, 190, 194

Glareoline, 194, 196

Giaucidium, 19, 159

Glaucidium castanonotum, 19

Glaucidium radiatum, 19

Gleniea zeylanica, 146

Gmelina asiatica, 153

Goinasleride, 87

Gongylus, 70

Goniodiscus forficulatus, 87

Gordenoviacez, 150

Gorsachius melanolophus, 23, 314, 323

Gralle, 21, 180

Graptophyllum hortensis, 103

Graucalus macii, 161

Grewias, 144

Grewias microcos, 144

Grewias polygama, 144

Grewias tilizfolid, 144

Grues, 180

Guttifex, 143

_ Gymnechinus robillardi, 91, 98

Gyrinops walla, 153

Gyrocarpus jacquini, 148

Hematopodine, 200

Hematopus, 211

Hematopus ostralegus, 211, 212

Halcyon pileata, 16

Halcyon smyrnensis, 141, 160

Halizetus leucogaster, 158

Haliastur indus, 19, 158

Halodeima atra, 175, 176

Harpactes fasciatus, 17, 160

Hedychium flavescens, 80

Heleocoris vicinus, 76

Heliotropium indicum, 132

Hematopodine, 211

Hemicyclia sepiaria, 135, 153

Hemidesmus indicus, 151

Hemipodii, 378

Heortia vitessoides, 75

Heptapleurum stellatum, 78

Heritiera littoralis, 144

Herodias, 313

Herodias alba, 165, 313, 317

Herodias garzetta, 314, 318

Herodias intermedia, 314, 318

Herodiones, 302

Herpestes mungo, 135

Heterometra bengalensis, 93

rere reynaudii (J. Muller), 85,

Hibiscus (sp.), 177

Hibiscus ficulneus, 143

Hibiscus tiliaceus, 143

Himantopus, 211

Himantopus candidus, 164, 211, 212

Hiptage madablota, 144

Hiptage parvifolia, 144

Hirundo, 13

Hirundo hyperythra, 162

Hirundo javanica, 13

Holoptelea integrifolia, 154

Holothuria atra, 175

Holothuria scabra, 176

Huhua nepalensis, 18, 26, 159

Hydnocarpus alpina, 143

Hydnocarpus venenata, 143

Hydrocera triflora, 144

Hdrochelidon, 245

Hydrochelidon hybrida, 245, 247, 249,

254

Hydrochelidon leucoptera, 245, 248

Hydrophasianus,198 ~~

Hydrophasianus chirurgus, 164, 198.

Hydroprogne, 245

Hydroprogne caspia, 245, 249

Hypotenidia striata, 181, 183

Hypothymis azurea, 161

Hypsipetes ganeesa, 9, 161

Hystrix leucura, 136

Thididz, 303

Ibidorhyneus, 211

Ibis melanocephala (Blanford), 304

(Ichneumonidez), 78

Ictinetus malayensis, 19

Idiophantis chiridota, 78

Indiana, 91

Indigofera hirsuta, 146

Indigofera paucifiora, 146

Insecta, 380

Tole icterica, 9, 161

Trene puella, 9

Ischnaspis longirostris, 103

Txora, 108

Ixora parviflora, 150

Tyngipicus gymnophthalmus, 14, 140,

159

Kelaartia penicillata, 10

Ketupa, 141

Ketupa ceylonensis, 141

Ketupa zeylonensis, 159

Kurrimia, 145

Kurrimia zeylanica, 145

(

Laganum depressum, 91 99

Lagerstromia flos-regins, 149

Lagetta lintearia, 75 —

Lalage sykesi, 161

Lamprophorus tenebrosus, 73

Landolphia kirkii, 103

Laniide, 11

Lannis erythronotus, 11

Laride, 241

Larine, 241

Larus brunneicephalus, 242, 243

Larus ichthyetus, 242

Larvivora brunnea, 9

Lawsonia alba, 149

Lecanium, 71

Lecanium psidii, 71

Leea sambucina, 146

-Legnatia concinna, 78

Leguminose, 146

Lepidosaphes, 103

Leptopilus javanicus, 165, 307, 309

Leptorodius asha, 314, 319

Lepus nigricollis, 137

Limicola platyrhyncha, 233

Limicole, 22, 190, 240, 302

Limnecia metacypha, 78

Limonia alata, 106

Limosa, 214, 215

Limosa zegocephala, 219

Limosa belgica, 215, 219

Linaciz, 144

Linckia guildingii, 95

Linckia levigata (L), 95, 89

Liopicus, 14

Liopicus mahrattensis, 14, 15, 29

Liotrichine, 9

Littoral Echinoderms of Ceylon,

excepting Holothurians, 92

Lobipluvia malabarica, 204

Lobivanellus indicus, 164, 203

Locustella certhiola, 10

Loganiacez, 152

Lophocercus gingalensis, 16

Lophocerus griseus, 16

Loranthus, 110

Loriculus indicus, 18, 26, 159

Loriculus vernalis, 18

Lovenia elongata, 91, 99

Luidia maculata, 86, 91, 94

Lutra nair, 135

Lythracee, 149

Macacus pileatus, 134

Macaranga tomentosa, 154

Machetes pugnax, 227

Macrocheires, 17

» Macropteryx coronata, 160

Maculata, 91

Malacocerci, 161

Maliaces, 145

Mallotus albus, 154

Malpighiaceex, 144

Malvacee, 143

Mammalia, 384

Mangifera zoylanica, 146

Manis pentadactyla, 138

Maretia alta, 91

Maretia planulata, 99

Martynia diandra, 152

Ex.)

Mastigometra micropoda, 93

Mauritiensis, 95

Mauritius, 113

Meliadubia, 145

Melittophagus swinhoii, 16, 26

Melursinus ursinus, 135

Memecylon capitellatum, 149

Memecylon grande, 149

Memecylon umbellatum, 149

Menispermacee, 142

Meropes, 16

Merops philippinus, 16, 160

Merops viridis, 16, 160

Merula kinnisi, 12

| Mesua ferrea, 105, 143

| Metalia sternalis, 99

| Metrodira subulata (Gray), 89, 96

| Microcyphus maculatus, 98

| Microdon, 71

Microdon auricinectus, 71

| Micropternus, 14

Micropternus gularis, 14

Miliaris, 95

Milvas govinda, 19

| Mimosa candaria, 148

Mimosa pudica, 147

Mimusops elengi, 151

' Mimusops hexandra, 151

Mimusops luxandra, 122, 135

Mischodon zeylanicus, 153

Modecca palmata, 149

Mollusea, 394

Molpastes hemorrhous, 9

Morganella maskelli, 105, 109

Morindo tinctoria, 150

Morus sp., 107, 109

Motacillide, 13

Mucuna (?) pruriens, 147

Munronia pumila, 132, 145

Murraya keenigii, 144

Muscicapide, 11

Mussenda frondosa, 150

Mycetophilidz, 71

Myiophoneus, 9

Myrsinacee, 150

Nacaduba ardates, 282

Nacaduba dana, 282

Nardoa egyptiaca, 95

Nardoa nove-caledoniz, 95

Nardoa tuberculata, 95

Nardoa variolata; 95

(Naucoridz), 76

Nectariniide, 13

Nelumbium spectosum, 142

Neophron ginginianus, 19

Nephelium longana, 146

Nesocia bandicota, 136

Netta rufina, 332, 344

Nettapus coromandelianus, 23, 164,

332, 336

Nettium crecca, 332

Nothopegia colebrookiana, 146

Numenius, 214, 215

Numenius arguata, 164, 215, 217

Numenius lineatus, 217

Numenius phezopus, 215, 218

Nycticorax griseus, 314, 322

Nymphea lotus, 142

—————

Oe a es

( (AEXE)

Oceanites oceanicus, 300, 301, 398 | Osmotreron pompadora, 20, 163, 349,

Ochna wightiana, 145 351

Ochnaceex, 145 > Osmotreron pompadora pompadora,

Odina wordier, 146 351

Odonaspis penicillata, 104 Otides, 180

CGdicnemidz, 22, 190 Oviformis, 99

(Edicnemus scolopax, 22, 191

(Enopopelia, 358 Pachyglossa melanoxantha, 13

Enopopelia tranquebarica, 358, 364 | Pachyglossa vincens, 13

(Enopopelia tranquebarica humilis, | Palzeornis, 18

365 Paleornis cathrope, 18, 159

Okanda, 150 ; Paleornis columboides, 18

Oligometra serripinna, 93 Palzornis cyanocephalus, 18

Ophiacantha decora, 97 Palzornis eupatria, 18, 159

Ophiactis savignyi (M. & T.), 90,96 | Palzornis nepalensis, 18

Ophiarachnella gorgonia, 96 Paleornis torquatus, 159

Ophiarachna incrassata, 96 Palintropa hippica, 380

Ophiarachnella marmorata, 96, 89 Palumbus torringtoniz, 369

Ophiarachnella septemspinosa, 9 Pammene isocampta, 78

Ophiarthrum elegans, 96 Panicum sp., 113

Ophidiaster cylindricus, 95 Panicum uncinatum, 109

Ophidiaster ornatus, 95 Paralecanium expansum, 111

Ophiocnemis marmorata (Lam’k), 90 pene pergandii, 106

Ophiocoma, brevipes, 96 Sea si 198 ce

Ophiocoma erinaceus, 96 =e ora foetida, 149

Ophiocoma pica, 96 Sai me 11

Ophiocoma scolopendrina, 96 } ae : ‘ Petes “nse Sees aah

Ophiocnemis marmorata, 97 a8 voll = Os aie 33, 366, 3

Ophiocnida sexradia, 96 al aati te a Sia eer

Ophiolepis cineta, 96 | Sy OHCe a DUS Ba Sosa us

: : Pectinura arenosa, 96

Ophiolepis rugosa, 96 | Pectinura fallax, 96

Ophiolepis superba, 96, 89 A padnlan nines: 162

ET tM Peddeia, africana 108

Ophiomaza cacaotica, 97 | Pelargopsis gurial, 141, 160

Ophiomyxa brevispina, 97 lL Peioeanidis O88

Ophionereis porrecta, 96 | 2 ?

Ophioplocus imbricatus (M. & T.), 89, Beleeapusy 286

Pelecanus philippinensis, 165, 289

Pelican Ibis, 310, 311

Pellorneum fuscicapillum, 8, 162

Pellorneum ruficeps, 8

Ophiopteron elegans, 97

Ophiothrix aspidota, 97

Ophiothrix ciliaris, 97 Pentavonul

= : z gonula, 89

Ophiothrix comata, 97 e Penthoceryx sonnerati, 17

Ophiothrix exigua (Lyman), 90, 97 Perdicula 366

Ophiothrix foveolata, 97 Perdicula asiatica, 367, 374

Ophiothrix innocens, 97 Pericrocotus flammeus, 161

Ophiothrix longipeda (Lam’k), 90, 97 | Pernis cristatus, 158

Ophiothrix nercidina (Lam’k), 90, 97 | Persea semecarpifolia, 153

Ophiothrix punctolimbata, 97 Phabinz, 349, 356

Ophiura annulosa, 89 Phenicophes pyrrocephalus, 17

Ophiura kinbergi, 96 Phethon, 298 4

Ophiurans, 96 Phethon flavirostris (Blanford), 298:

Opuntia (?) dillenti, 149 299

Oreaster affinis (M. & 'T.), 89 Phzthon indicus, 298

Oreaster linckii (Bl.), 89, 94 Phethontide, 288, 298

Oreaster mammillatus (Aud)., 89, 94 | Phalacrocoracid, 288, 291

Oreaster nodosus, 94 Phalacrocoracine, 291, 292

Oreaster thurstoni, 94 Phalacrocorax, 292

Oreocincla imbricata, 12 Phalacrocorax carbo, 165, 292, 293,

Oreocincla spiloptera, 12 294

Oriolus melanocephalus, 161 Phalacrocorax fuscicollis, 292, 293

Oroxylum indicum, 152

c Phalacrocorax javanicus, 292, 294

Orthotomus sutorius, 162

Phalacrocorax pygmeus, 294

Ortygornis pondicerianus, 377 Phasianide, 365

- Osbeckia (?) aspera, 148 Pheenicophes pyrrhocephalus, 160

Osmotreron, 349 Pheenicopteri, 327

Osmotreron affinis, 20, 351 Pheenicopteridx, 327

Osmotreron bicincta, 20, 163, 349, 352 | Phoenicopterus roseus, 328

Osmotreron chloroptera, 351 Photodilus assimilis, 26

Osmotreron phayrei, 351 Phyllacanthus annulifera;, 98

(¢ xr)

Phyllanthi, 106

Phyllanthus emblica, 153

Phyllacanthus imperialis (Lam’k), 90,

Pici, 13, 140

Pithecolobium geminatum, 147

Pittidx, 13

Pityranthe verrucosa, 144

Plagiolepis longipes, 396

Platalea leucorodia (Blanford), 164,

306

Platalez, 303, 305

Plataleidz, 303, 305

Plegadis falcinellus, 304, 305

Ploceus baya, 162

Ploceus manyer, 162

Plocide, 12

Plotine, 291, 295

Plotus, 295

Plotus melanogaster, 165, 295

Plumbaginacez, 150

Plumeria acutifolia, 151

Podiceps, 345

Podiceps albipennis, 23, 345

Podiceps fluviatilis, 345

Podicipedide, 345

Polyalthias, 142

Pomatorhinus horsfieldi, 8

Pomateorhinus melanurus, 8, 162

Pongamia glabra, 147

Porifera, 393

Porphyrio poliocephalus, 22, 164, 182,

189

Porzana bailloni, 183

Porzana fusca, 185

Porzana pusilla, 181, 183

Pratincola atrata, 12

Pratincoles or Swallow Plovers, 196

Premna sérratifolia, 153

Premna tomentosa, 153

Prinia valida, 162

Prionocidaris baculosa, 90, 98

Prionocidaris bispinosa, 98

Procellariide, 300

Protopulvinaria longivalvata, 111

Pseudaonidia trilobitiformis, 108

Pseudoboletia indiana, 98

Pseudoboletia maculata, 91, 99

Pseudomaretia alta, 91, 99

Pseudoparlatoria parlatorioides, 112

pea at pd leucocephalus, 307,

Psidium guajava, 148

Psittaci, 17

Psyllide, 78

Pterocarpus marsupium, 147

Pteropus medius, 136

Pterospermum suberifolium, 127, 144

Puffinus chlororhynchus (Blanford),

300, 301

Pulchriphyllium erurifolium, 176

Pulchriphyllium crurifolium—Canni-

balism in, 176

Pycnonotus hemorrhus, 162

Pycnonotus luteolus, 161

Pyctorhis nasalis, 8

Pyctorhis sinensis, 8

Pyenonotus lutcolus, 10

Pyenonotus melanicterus, 10, 161

Pygeum, 147

Pygopodes, 345

Pyralide, 78

Pyrameis cardui, 118

Pyrrulanda grisea, 13

Querquedula circia, 332, 341

Rallidez, 180

Rallide—rough key te Ceylon, 181

Rallina euryzonoides, 184

Rallina superciliaris, 181, 184

Rallus indicus, 181, 182

Recurvirostra, 211

Recurvirostra avocetta, 211, 213

Reptilia, 392

Retaster cribresus, 95

Rhamnacee, 146

Rhipicephalus, 77

Rhipidura albifrontata, 12, 139, 161

Rhizophora mucronata, 148 ;

Rhizophoracce, 148

Rhepedytes viridirostris, 160

Rhynchea capensis, 239

Rhynchopine, 241

Rosacez, 147

Rostratula, 233, 234, 235

Rostratula capensis, 235, 239

Rotundalis, 283

Rubiacez, 150

Salmacis bicolor, 91, 98

Salmacis dussumieri, 98

Salmacis virgulata, 98

Salvadora persica, 135, 151

Sapindacez, 146

Sapindus emarginatus, 146

Sapium insigne, 154

Sapotacez, 151

Saraca indica, 147

Sarcidiornis melanonotous, 331, 333

Sarciophorus malabaricus, 201, 204

Sarcocephalus cordatus, 150

Sarcegrammus indicus, 201, 203, 397

Sarcostemma bruncnianum, 152

Scevola lobclia, 150

Schizaster gibberulus, 99

Schleichera trijuga, 146

Sciurus macrurus, 136

Sciurus palmarum, 136

Sciurus tristriatus, 136

Sccehnicola platyura, 10

Scolopacine, 200, 233

Scolopax, 234

Scolopax rusticula, 234, 235

Scops bakkameena, 18, 159

Scops giu, 18, 159

Scrophulariacez, 152 >

Scutia indica, 146

Sesamum indicum, 153

Sibiineg, 9

Sidas, 143

Sidas colorata, 143

Sidas foetida, 143

Sidas thwaitesii, 143

Siraster squamulosus (Studr.), 88, 94

Siraster tuberculatus, 86, 87, 94

Smithia blanda, 79

Sonerila, 149

Spatula clypeata, 332, 343

Spheranthus indicus, 150

(

Sphingide, 78

Spilornis cheela, 158

Spizetus kelaarti, 19

Spondias mangifera, 146

Squamulosus, 87, 88

Squatarola helvetica, 201, 206

Steganopodes, 287

Stellaster incei, 94

Stellaster squamulosus, 87

Stephanometra indica, 93

Stephanometra marginata, 93

Stephanometra monacantha, 93

Stephanometra tenuipinna, 93

Stephegyne parviflora, 150

Stercorariide, 241, 259

Stercorarius antarcticus, 260

Stereospermum chelonioides, 127, 152

Sterna, 245

Sterna anezstheta, 247, 257

Sterna anglica, 246, 250

Sterna hergii, 246, 252

Sterna caspia, 249

Sterna dougalli, 245, 246, 255

Sterna fluviatilis, 246, 254, 253

Sterna fuliginosa, 247, 258

Sterna longipennis, 246, 255

Sterna media, 164, 246, 251

Sterna melanogaster, 246, 253

Sterna saundersi, 246, 257

Sterna seena, 246, 252

Sterna sinensis, 164, 246, 256

Sternine, 241, 244

Stomopneustes variolaris, 90, 98

Stoparola albicaudata, 12

Stoparola sordida, 11

Streblus asper, 154

Strepsilas, 200

Strepsilas interpres, 201, 202

Striges, 18

Strix flammea, 18

Strobilanthus, 370

Strychnos nux-vomica, 152

Strychnos potatorum, 152

Sturnide, 11

Sturnoruis senex, 11

Sula (Genus), 296

Sula cyanops (Blanford), 297

Sula leucogaster (Blanford), 297 ~

Sulide, 288, 299

Surniculus lugubris, 17 -

Sus cristatus, 138

Syrnium indrani, 18

Syrphide, 71

Tabernemontana dichotoma, 15]

Tachornis batassiensis, 160

Tadorna casarca, 334

Tamarindus indica, 147

Tantalus leucocephalus, 165, 310

Tatanus glareola, 215, 221

Tecoma stans, 76

Telchinia viole, 117

Temenuchus pagodarum, 11

Temnopleurus reevesii, 98

Temnopleurus toreumaticus (Leske),

91, 98

Tephrodornis pondicerianus, 161

<r)

Terias andersoni, 283

Terias rotundalis, 283

Terias silhetana, 283

Termes obscuriceps (Wasm.), 395

Terminalia belerica, 148

Terminalia chebula, 148

Terminalia glabra, 148

Terpsiphone paradisi, 161

Tetrameles undiflora, 149

Thamnobia fulicata, 161

Therciceryx zeylonicus, 15, 159

Thespesia populnea, 143

Thrips, 78

Thymeleacee, 153

Thymiosicya scabra, 176

Tiliacez, 144

Timeliine, 8

Tineide, 78

Tinissa torvella, 78

Tinospora cordifolia, 142

Tituacia deviella, 380

| Tockus singalensis, 160

Toddalia aculeata, 144

Tortricidz, 78 78

Totanine, 200, 214

Totaninz, Ceylon—rough key to, 2

Totanus, 214, 215

Totanus calidris, 216, 224

Totanus fuscus, 216, 225

Totanus glottis, 216, 226

Totanus hypoleucus, 215, 220

Totanus ochropus, 216, 221

Totanus stagnatilis, 164, 216, 222,

223

Tournefortia argentea, 152

Toxopneustes pileolus, 90, 98

Tragulus meminna, 138

Trema orientalis, 154.

Treronine, 348, 349

Tribulus terrestris, 144

Trichosanthes integrifolia, 149

Tringa, 215

Tringa minuta, 216, 228

Tringa platyrhyncha, 217, 233

Tringa subarquata, 217, 230, 232

Tringa subminuta, 216

Tringa temmincki, 216, 231

Tringoides hypoleucus, 220

Trioza, 78

Tripneustes gratilla, 91, 98

Tropiometra encrinus, 85, 86, 93

Tropiometra indica, 85, 93

Tuberculosa (Gray), 89

Tubinares, 300

Turdidz, 12

Turdus spiloptera, 161

Turnicide, 378

Turnix, 378

Turnix taigoor, 164, 374, 378

Turnix pugnax, 21, 378

Turnix pugnax pugnax, 379

Turtur pulchratus, 361

Turpinia sp., 113, 114

Turtur, 358

Turtur ferrago, 20, 358, 361

Turtur (streptopelia) risoria, 364

Turtur risorius, 20, 29, 363, 368

Turtur suratensis, 20, 163, 358, 362

Terekia cinerea, 215, 220 20, 163

Turtur (streptopelia) tigriuns, 363

Terekia, 215

Turtur tranquebaricks, 364

Turtur (streptopelia) turtur, 362

Turtur baricus, 364

Upupa indica, 16

Urenas, 143

Uroloncha kelaarti, 162

Uroloncha malabarica, 163

Uroloncha striata, 163

Urticaces, 154

Var. alata, 153

Vatica obscura, 142

Ventilago maderaspatana, 146

Vernonia cinerea, 150

Vidpani, 144

Vipera russelli, 139

Vitex altissima, 153

Vitex leucoxylon, 153

Vitis quadrangularis, 146

(

Xx1V )

Viverricula malaccensis, 135

Walsura piscidia, 114, 145

Webera corymbosa, 150

Wendlandia notoniana, 150

Woodfordia floribunda, 149

Xantholema hematocephala, 15

Xantholema malabarica, 15

Xantholema rubricapilla, 15, 159

Xenorhynchus asiaticus, 165, 307,

309

Xylotrupes gideon, 77

Zamenis mucosus, 139

Zizyphus, 146

Zizyphus jujuba, 146

Zosterops, 9

_| Zosterops ceylonensis, 9

Zosterops palpebrosa, 9, 162

| Zygodactyli, 15

mee. Amey LA. N TGA,

THE DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS IN CEYLON AND ITS

RELATION TO RECENT GEOLOGICAL CHANGES

IN THE ISLAND.

By W. E. Wart, C.GS.

HE fauna of an island can never fail to be of interest.

Owing tu its isolation there are usually to be found within

its limits a greater number of peculiar species and gencra than

can be expected from a continental area of the same extent.

If the island has been separated from adjacent lands for only

a short geological period, the insularity of its fauna is not

well developed ; but the longer the period of separation, the

more marked become the differences.

As a consequence, the study of an insular fauna will throw

considerable light upon its geological history, corroborating

the geological evidence, or supplementing gaps in the geological

record. ‘Take, for instance, the British Islands. We know

that at a quite recent geological period—that of the great

Ice Age—the whole of the north of Great Britain was covered

by an enormous sheet of glacier ice, and that even the south

of England was too cold to support anything but an arctic

fauna. When the ice receded and the temperature grew

warmer, the present temperate fauna gradually came over

from the Continent. To allow for the influx of mammals there

must have been a land connection, not only between England

and the Continent, but between England and Ireland.

Now, a fair number of animals which came over into England

failed to reach Ireland, so it is evident that Ireland became

an island after the Ice Age, but before Great Britain became

separated from the Continent.

This comparative study of the distribution of animals is of

the greatest importance in working out the geological history

of Ceylon, as our geological record is so imperfect.

The rocks of which the Island is composed belong to the

oldest geological period, and it is fairly certain, from the

] 6(7)14

2 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

absence of any large accumulations of sedimentary rocks,

that throughout the manifold variations of the earth’s surface

during the changing geological periods the main part of Ceylon

was never submerged for any length of time. As it is the

animal and vegetable fossils of the sedimentary rocks which

give us the information of the age of the strata, our information

regarding Ceylon is almost a blank. The only strata in the

Island which, to my knowledge, contain fossils are recent

shell beds on the north, north-west, and south-east coasts,

and certain river gravels here and there through the Island.

Apart from there being so few rocks which can give us fossils,

the study of geology in Ceylon is rendered difficult by the fact

that in most places the strata are so covered with jungle under-

growth and topsoil that their outcrops are hidden, and one

cannot get at them to study them. The present Mineralogical

Survey is largely for economic purposes, and is concerned more

with petrography, or the composition of the rocks, than with

the physical geology of the Island as a whole.

Consequently, in order to throw light on the recent geological

history of Ceylon, we are thrown back mainly upon the study

of its fauna and flora, and upon the relations they bear to

those of the adjacent mainland.

|. Now, there is no doubt from the close connection between

our fauna and that of Southern India that Ceylon is a mere

appanage of that land, and has not been separated from it for

any tremendous length of time.

Wallace, who was one of the great pioneers in the science of

zoo-geography, in his “‘ Geographical Distribution of Animals,”

published in 1876, divided the world into six main zoological

regions. The Palearctic Region roughly comprised Europe,

Africa north of the Sahara, and Asia north of the Himalayas.

The Ethiopian Region took in the rest of Africa. The Oriental

Region contained India, Further India, Southern China, and

the islands of the Malay Archipelago, down to the famous

‘“Wallace’s Line,” which separates Bali from Lombok and

Borneo from Celebes. The islands beyond Wallace’s line,

together with Australasia, formed the Australian Region ; while

North and South America were divided into the Nearctic and

Neotropical Regions.

DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS IN CEYLON, 3

Wallace was so struck with the peculiarities shown in the

fauna of Southern India and Ceylon that he made them into

one of the four sub-regions of the Oriental Region ; the others

being the Indian—which took in the rest of India ; the Indo-

Chinese, comprising Burma, Siam, and South China ; and the

Indo-Malayan, which included the Malay Peninsula, the

Philippines, and the Oriental portion of the Archipelago.

More recent researches have extended the range of many

of the animals supposed by Wallace to be peculiar to the

Ceylonese sub-region and have modified Wallace’s grouping.

So far as India is concerned, a full summary of our know-

ledge of the subject will be found in a paper read in 1900 before

the Royal Society by Dr. Blanford, on the “ Distribution of

Vertebrate Animals in India, Ceylon, and Burma.’’*

As Dr. Blanford is one of the foremost Indian Geologists, the

author of the volume on Mammals in “‘ The Fauna of British

India,” part author of the four volumes on Birds, and editor

of the whole series relating to Vertebrates, one could scarcely

find an authority more competent to deal with the subject.

In this paper Dr. Blanford divides the Indian Empire into

the following five primary geographical divisions :—

A.—The Indo-Gangetic Plain.

B.—The Indian Peninsula.

C.—Ceylon.

D.—The Himalayas.

K.—Assam and Burma.

These five regions are again subdivided into nineteen

zoo-geographical tracts.

The Indian Peninsula splits up into—

No. 4.—The Central Indian or Rajputana tract.

No. 5.—The Deccan tract.

No. 6.—The Behar-Orissa tract.

No. 7.—The Carnatic or Madras tract, which includes that

part of the peninsula south of the river Kistna and east of

the Western Ghauts, thus comprising the Carnatic and Mysore.

This tract is fairly dry, the average rainfall being 35 inches.

* « Phil. Transactions of the Royal Society,” Series B., Vol. CXCIV.,

1901, pp. 335-436.

4 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

No. 8.—The Malabar tract comprises the Western Ghauts

and the western coast lands from a little way north of

Bombay down to Cape Comorin. The average rainfall varies

from 74 inches at Bombay to 261 at Mahableswar.

Ceylon is divided into two :—

No. 9.—The Northern Ceylon tract, comprising north and

east Ceylon and that part of the south of the Island east of

Tangalla. The rest of the Island is classed as No. 10, the

Southern Hill tract.

Of the Northern tract, he remarks : “ This is, in fact, a part

of the Carnatic with a higher rainfall and with much more

forest! The rainfall varies from 35 inches at Mannar to 61 at

Trincomalee.”

Of the Southern tract, he says : ‘‘ South-western Ceylon, to

which, as Legge* has shown, the peculiar fauna of the Island

is largely restricted, must be regarded as part of the Malabar

Coast.”

The difference between the fauna of these divisions and sub-

divisions is more marked in some cases than in others; that is

to say, the divisions are of varying zoological importance.

As Blanford says, the Indo-Gangetic plain forms a geo-

logical boundary of the highest importance.t Many geologists

believed that this great plain was until quite recent times

covered by part of a large sea, which cut off South India from

the country north of the Himalayas, as the Mediterranean now

cuts off North Africa from Europe ; and that in those days

the Himalayas were represented by a chain of islands of quite

moderate altitude.

This was Wallace’s opinion, but Blanford states that there

is no geological evidence to show that this former sea ever

extended eastwards of Delhi.

Again, the place occupied by Ceylon as a primary division

is purely local, and not of great account zoologically, as will

be seen from the remarks introducing the subdivision into

* Legge : ‘* History of Birds of Ceylon,” Introduction, p. xvii., and

map.

+ Blanford, loc. cit., p. 343.

{ “Manual of Geology of India,” Introduction, p. Ix., and also

p. 393.

DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS IN CEYLON. 5

tracts. Northern Ceylon throws in its lot with the Carnatic ;

and South-western Ceylon, though not so closely, with the

Malabar tract.

If we look at the five tracts of the Indian Peninsula, the

difference between the fauna of the first four is mostly specific

and not generic, but the fauna of the Malabar tract differs

widely from that of the adjoining areas.*

It was these differences that led Wallace to make Ceylon

and South India into a separate sub-region. They are largely

due to the presence of certain isolated species and genera

which show connections with such widely separated areas as

the Himalayas, Africa, Malaya, and even Australia.

The presence of these elements in the fauna of Ceylon is

described by Dr. Willey in a paper in the first number of

Spolia Zeylanica,t and their bearing on the past history of

Ceylon is shown by Wallace in his work, to which I have

already referred.

As regards the Australian element, it is practically confined

to the earthworms, an order low down in the organic scale.

Such lowly organisms change slowly, and their presence may

be accounted for by a land connection far back in the geologic

ages, when a continent stretched from Asia to Australia. The

African or Madagascan and the Malay elements, many

geologists hold, may be explained by postulating the existence

of a great continent, which in tertiary times stretched from

South India and Ceylon to Madagascar on the one hand and

to Malaya on the other. It is quite probable, however, that

our connection with Malaya is rather later than that with

Madagascar. These peculiar elements are shared in a

varying degree by Ceylon with the Malabar tract, and I have

dealt with them now as they belong to a period when Ceylon

still formed part of the South Indian Continent and had not

yet become an Island.

As I believe that an examination of the distribution of the

Himalayan, Malabar, and Carnatic elements among our birds

* Blanford : “ Phil. Transactions,” &c., p. 392.

{ Willey: ‘ Constitution of the Fauna of Ceylon,” Spolia Zeylanica

Vol. I., Part I., p. 1.

} ‘‘ Geographical Distribution of Animals,” Vol. I., p. 328.

§ Wallace, loc. cit., p. 361.

6 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

will throw some light on the geological changes which have

separated Ceylon from South India, I will leave all discussion

as to their significance until I have summarized that distri-

bution.

In the course of his paper already alluded to, Dr. Blanford

has given a complete tabulation of all the genera of vertebrate

animals found in the nineteen tracts of the Indian Empire, °

and the differences and affinities shown in these tables are

the bases on which he has founded his conclusions. He has

stopped short at generic and not gone into the further detail

of specific differences, partly because the work would have

been too enormous, and partly because differences in species are

not so sure a guide as differerces in genera.

He has also attached far mcre weight to the distribution of

mammals than to that of other vertebrates, because the means

of dispersal in the case of mammals is more limited than in

other orders. They cannot fly over arms of the sea, nor can

they cross mountain ranges as easily as birds.

However, as I am not competent to deal with any vertebrates

but birds, as my investigations cover a more limited area,

and as the differences between the birds cf Ceylon and those

of the adjoining tracts are largely confined to differences

merely of species and not of genera, I must go into greater but

less sure detail, and take as my unit the species.

First of all it is necessary to examine the division of Ceylon

into zoo-geographical districts.

Blanford divides the Island into two tracts as described

above, but for a more detailed examination one cannot do

better than follow the divisions given by Captain Legge in his

Introduction to the “‘ Birds of Ceylon.” He divides the

Island into four districts: the dry forest areas of the north

~ and south-east ; the arid maritime belt of the north-west coast,

with which he groups the similar belt on the south-east ; the

damp western forest region ; and the hill zone of the Kandyan

districts.

The first two make up Blanford’s Carnatic tract of Ceylon,

and the last two his Malabar tract.

Now, it is true that the south-east “ arid maritime belt ”’ is

exactly suited to the dry-country birds which inhabit the

DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS IN CEYLON. 7

north-west belt, but in the former area there are some notable

omissions, to which I shall call attention later on ; while if we

examine the large portion of the Island which is classed as the

dry forest area, we shall find the Carnatic forms gradually

diminishing as we go from north to south, while the Malabar

and peculiar species diminish as the country spreaas away

from the Kandyan frontier.

I wish at the outset of my summary to state that in it I

have confined myself mainly to birds of weak powers of flight

and of limited range. My object is to show the affinities and

differences between our birds and those of Malabar and the

Carnatic, and in some cases with those of the Himalayas.

Migrant birds and those which have a wide Indian range

will not receive notice where they do not afford evidence of

peculiar distribution.

As regards the distribution in Ceylon of the various species,

my information rests upon Legge’s “ Birds of Ceylon ”’ and

my own observations. As regards India, it is taken from the

tabulation in Dr. Blanford’s paper and the ranges given in

the volumes on “ Birds” in the “ Fauna of British India.”

As I cannot pretend to complete knowledge even in Ceylon,

it is quite probable that there are many more inaccuracies in

the Indian distribution, where my knowledge is solely depend-

ent upon books, in which the information regarding the range

of each species is more general than detailed.

Beginning with the Passerine birds, our two species of Crow

are found all over India, but in Ceylon the Gray-necked Crow—

Crone splendens—so common in Colombo, is worth notice, as it

is probably a new comer. It is found only round the coast,

and whereas in Legge’s time it was not found in the south of

the Island between Kalutara and Arugam Bay, it has now,

to my knowledge, spread from Kalutara southwards and

eastwards as far as Hambantota, and possibly all round

the Island.

The Ceylon Magpie, found in the hills—Cissa ornata—

belongs to a Himalayan genus, otherwise not found between

the headquarters of the genus and our Island. This species is

peculiar to Ceylon, where it is confined to the higher elevations

of the bill-country.

8 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

The Crateropodide—sa large family, which includes the

Babblers and Bulbuls—are mainly short-flight birds, and

include a good many of our peculiar species.

In the sub-family Crateropodine—the Laughing Thrushes—

out of four species three are found only in the Kandyan districts

of the Island. Crateropus rufescens—the Ceylonese Babbler—

occursin the damp forests of the Western and Central Provinces,

the Province of Sabaragamuwa, and the Galle District.

Crateropus cinereifrons—the Ashy-headed Babbler—is even

more circumscribed, being found only in the deep forests of

the wettest zone. On the other hand, we have Crateropus

striatus—the ubiquitous Seven Sisters—occurring all over the

Island up to 3,000 feet. It is found in India from Madras

southwards, but is especially common on the mainland

opposite Mannar and in the north-west of Ceylon, so that it

appears to be an invader from the Carnatic.

Pomatorhinus melanurus—the Scimitar Babbler—again, is

peculiar to Ceylon. Its headquarters are in the Kandyan

districts, but its range extends towards a part of the northern

forest tract. An allied species—P. horsfieldi—is found in

the Malabar tract, but the genus is wanting in the Carnatic.

In the sub-family Timeliine—the Quaker Thrushes—out of

four species three are peculiar to Ceylon, and only one, Dumetia

albigularis—the Small White-throated Babbler—also occurs

in India, where it is noted only from the western part of the

peninsula. Itis a bird found on the ragged edges of civilization

and scrub jungle, not in deep forest. It is more common in

the south of the Island than in the north, and is apparently

unknown, in that part of the Carnatic which lies opposite to

Ceylon.

Of our three peculiar species, Pyctorhis nasalis—the Ceylon:

Yellow-eyed Babbler—is closely allied to another species—

P. sinensis—found all over India. Its range in Ceylon

approximates to that of Dumetia albigularis. Pellornewm

fuscicapillum—the Brown-capped Babbler—has spread all

over the Island, except in the Jaffna Peninsula and on the

Mannar coast. One species of the genus—P. ruficeps—is

found on the mainland of South India, both in the Carnatic

and Malabar tracts. .

DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS IN CEYLON. 9

Of the Brachypterygine we have three species, two of which

are confined to the upper hills of Ceylor.

Arrenga blighi—the Ceylonese Arrenga—is the sole species

in the genus. Its nearest relative is the genus Myiophoneus,

which has its headquarters in the Malay sub-region, so that

the bird is one of our scanty links with the Malayan fauna.

Elaphrornis palliseri—the Ceylon Short-wing—is placed by

itself in a genus not found outside Ceylon, and its affinities

have not yet been determined with any degree of certainty.

The third species, Larvivora brunnea—the Indian Blue Chat—

is with us a migrant. Being of weak flight it works its way

slowly down from its crossing place at Mannar to the central

hills.

In the sub-family Szbtinx# we have two species, both belong-

ing to the gerus Zosterops. One, Z. palpebrosa—the Indian

White-eye—is common all over the lew-country, and has a

wide range in India; the other, Z. ceylonensis—the Ceylon

White-eye—is peculiar to the Island, but is common at

elevations over 2,000 feet.

The sub-family Liotrichine, which includes the Green

Bulbuls, does not furnish us with any peculiar species.

Agithina tiphia—the Bush Bulbul—has a wide range,

so has Chloropsis jerdoni—Jerdon’s Bulbul; Chloropsis

malabarica—the Malabar Green Bulbul—is found in the

Malabar forests, and is sparingly distributed in Ceylon, while

Irene puella—the Fairy Blue Bird—is a rare visitor to our

hill districts. It hails from Malabar, and is unknown in the

Carnatic.

The last subdivision of this large family is the Brachy-

podinz—the true Bulbuls. We have six species, two of which

are peculiar. Hypsipetes ganeesa—the South Indian Black

Bulbul—is found in the hill forests of the Malabar district and

in the Kandyan districts of Ceylon. It extends a little way

into the northern forest tract, as I have found it in East

Matale, but it is a rare straggler into the North-Central

Province and Trincomalee District.

Molpastes hzemorrhous—the Common Bulbul of our

gardens—is found nearly throughout India. Jole icterica—the

Forest Bulbul—is not found in the Carnatic, but occurs in

2 6(7)14

10 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

the Malabar tract. In Ceylon it is found in the Kandyan

forests up to 3,500 feet, and penetrates some way into the

northern forest zone. Pyenonotus melanicterus—the Black-

capped Bulbul—is a peculiar species found throughout the

Island in forest country up to an elevation of 5,000 feet. — It

appears, however, to be commonest in Kandyan forests.

P. luteolus is found throughout the southern half of the Indian

Peninsula, and with us is common everywhere in the low-

country. Kelaartia penicillata is the sole species in a genus

peculiar to the Island. It is found only in the upper hills,

down to 4,000 or 3,500 feet.

The Dicruride, or Drongo family, are also of interest as

regards distribution. We have six species in the Island,

four of which belong to the genus Dicrurus.

Dicrurus ater—the Black Drongo—is found through the

whole of India, but in Ceylon is confined to the Jafina Peninsula

and the strip along the north-west coast as far as Puttalam.

Elsewhere in the Island the common Drongo is D. leucopy-

gialis—the White-vented Drongo—which is a paler form of

D. cxerulescens, a species which is said to be found in the same

parts of the Island as D. ater.* ;

Dicrurus longicaudatus—the Indian Ashy Drongo—is a

migrant during the north-east monsoon to the east of the Island.

Turning to the Crested Drongos, Dissemurulus lophorinus—

the Ceylon Black Drongo—is peculiar to the Island. Its

headquarters are the deep forests of the Kandyan districts,

and it is replaced in the north-east and south-east by another

species—Dissemuroides paradiseus—the Racket-tailed Drongo,

which has a large range throughout suitable localities in India,

and extends its range to Burma and the Himalayas.

Many of the Warblers—Silviide2—are so widely distributed

that I do not propose to go through them all. The only two

species which are not common to Ceylon and the Malabar and

Carnatic tracts are Locustella certhiola—Palla’s Grasshopper

Warbler—and Scehnicola platyura—the Broad-tailed Grass

Warble:—both of which have only been recorded once or

twice from our Island.

* Vide ** Fauna of British India Birds,” Vol. I., p. 316 ; but see also

Legge: ‘‘ Birds of Ceylon,” p. 394.

DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS IN CEYLON. 11

Our Shrikes—Laniidex—in general are either migrants or

fairly widely distributed. One species, however, Lannis ery-

thronotus—the Rufous-backed Shrike—is in Ceylon confined

to the Jaffna Peninsula and Mannar coast, though it is found

nearly throughout India.

The Hulabetide—the Grackles, or Hill Mynahs

curious distribution.

The genus Hulabes is not found in the Carnatic tract or in

northern Ceylon, bat in the southern half of the Island we

have two species : Hulabes ptilogenys—the Ceylon Grackle-—a

peculiar species, which ranges from Avissawella through

Sabaragamuwa to the summit of the main range, and £.

religiosa, Which is found in more open country throughout the

Kardyan districts below 1,500 feet. It does net appear in

the northern forest tract, except here and there on the southern

edges. In India it appears to be confined to the Malabar

tract.

The Starlings—Sturnide—are represented in Ceylon by

four species. Pastor roseus—the Rose-coloured Starling—is a

rare and occasional migrant. Acridotheres melanosternus—

the Common Ceylon Mynah —is found all over the Island, but

nowhere else. A closely related species—A. tristis—occurs

throughout India.

Sturnoruis senex—the White-headed Mynah—hbelongs to one

of our peculiar genera. It is found only in the wild hill

forests of the Province of Sabaragamuwa and in the Pasdun

korale, where it descends to within a few hundred feet of

sea level.

Temenuchus pagodarum—the Black-headed Mynah—is

found in the dry districts. In India it is found in many parts,

but would appear to be rare on the Malabar coast, though

common in Rameswaram in the Carnatic. Thence it appears

to have crossed to Mannar and made its way round the dry

coasts of the north and east as far to the south as Tangalla.

It is unknown between Chilaw and Tangalla, and it is found

only in dry scrub jungle.

Many of our Flycatchers—M uscicapide—iike our Warblers,

are migratory, or have a wide distribution. I propose to notice

only two. Stoparola sordida—the Dusky Blue Flycatcher—is

have a

12 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA

found in the Kandyan hills above 2,000 feet. Its nearest

relative is S. albicaudata, which is confined to the hills of the

Malabar tract.

Rhipidura albifrontata—our Fan-tailed Flycatcher—is

found nearly all over India, but has a curiously restricted

range in Ceylon—a restriction shared by several other species

found in the Uva basin. It is abundant round Bandarawela,

and equally common southwards from the Haputale range to

the dry chenas of Tangalla and Hambantota. Its western

range would appear to be a line drawn south from Haputale

to Dikwella, ten miles west of Tangalla. North and east of

Bandarawela it appears to range through the park country

to Polonnaruwa in the North-Central Province, where it stops

short on the boundary of the park country.

Many of our Thrushes—7'urdide—show Malabar affinities,

and are restricted to the Kandyan districts; others are

migrants, or have a wide range. Pratincola atrata—the Hill

Bush Chat—is found on the South Indian hills above 5,000

feet. In Ceylon it is found on the higher patanas down to

about 4,000 feet. Merula kinnisi—the Ceylon Blackbird—

is peculiar to the Island, being found only on the higher

ranges. There are two nearly allied species on the hills of the

Malabar tract.

Oreocincla imbricata—the Ceylon Thrush—and O. spiloptera

—the Spotted-wing Thrush—are both hill species peculiar to

‘eylon. The former is confined to hill forests over 3,000 feet,

the latter inhabits the central hill region below 4,000 feet, and

in places is found far into the low-country forests. The genus

occurs in the Malabar tract, but is unknown in the Carnatic.

Of the Plocidex, or Weaver Birds, we have ten species,

belonging to three genera, all of which are common to the

Malabar and Carnatic tracts. Most of our species, too, are

found to have a wide range in India, but there is one, Uroloncha

kelaarti—the Ceylon Munia—which is confined to the hills of

Ceylon at elevations of over 2,000 feet. A closely allied

species is found on the Malabar hills.

The Finches—Fringillide—are largely Himalayan, only

two species of Sparrow venturing as far south as Ceylon, both

of which are widely distributed in India.

DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS IN CEYLON. 13

The Swallows with their migratory habits and powers of

flight would not seem likely to furnish us with a peculiar

species, but of the four species of Hirundo which occur within

our limits, one, Hirundo huyperythra—the Ceylon Swallow

does not occur elsewhere, though found nearly all over the

Island; and another, Hirwndo javanica—the Nilgiri House

Swallow—is really a Malayan bird found within the limits of

the Indian Empire only on the hills of Ceylon and Malabar.

The Motacillide, which include the Wagtails and Pipits,

are largely migrant birds, and those species which are resident

with us are found over the greater part of India. The same

remark applies to the Larks, of which we have only three

species. One of these, Pyrrulanda grisea—the Ashy-crowned

Finch Lark—though found nearly throughout India, in Ceylon

is confined te the dry coast districts.

Of the dainty little Sunbirds—Nectariniide—we have four

species, all belonging to the genus Arachnechthra. A. minima,

a Malabar species, has been found only once or twice in

Ceylon, and the others are found throughout a large part

of the Indian Peninsula.

The equally small Dicewid#—Flower-peckers—contain one

species worthy of note.

Acmonorhyncus vincens, long known as Pachyglossa vincens—

Legge’s Flower-pecker—is one of our few Himalayan relicts.

Its nearest relative, Pachyglossa melanoxantha, occurs in

Sikkim and Nepaul. Our species has retreated, not to the

hills, but to the deep forests in the wettest zone of the low-

country between Adam’s Peak and the sea.

The sole Ceylon representative of the Pittide, or Painted

Thrushes, is with us a migrant.

Turning from the enormous order of the Passerine birds, we

now come to the Pici—Woodpeckers—an order of which the

distribution in Ceylon is full of interest, as it appears to

illustrate in a most striking manner an older Malabar element

and a more recent Carnatic invasion. They are birds of

heavy build and weak powers of flight, so that they are not

fitted of their own accord to cross any but the narrowest

stretches of water, nor are they likely to be storm-driven for any

great distance. Their means of dispersal, therefore, are limited.

14 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

We have nine authenticated species in Ceylon belonging to

six genera. Of these six genera, two, Gecinus and Micropternus,

are absent from the Carnatic and north-west coast of Ceylon,

but present in the Malabar and Ceylon forests. A third genus,

Iiopicus, is absent from Malabar, but found in the Carnatic

and the dry zone of Ceylon. In two of the remaining three

genera, viz., Brachypternus and Chrysocolaptes, we have a

species peculiar to Ceylon, with its headquarters in the southern

part of the Island, together with a more widely distributed

species, which in Ceylon is found solely or mainly in the dry

Northern tract.

Going into details more fully, the genus Gecinus is repre-

sented in Ceylon by two species, G. striolatus—the Green

Woodpecker—which is almost entirely confined to the

patanas of the Central Province, and G. chlorogaster—the

Yellow-naped Woodpecker—which occurs in the foothills

and the forests of the low-country, except in the north of the

Island.

As I have mentioned above, the genus is unknown in the

Carnatic.

On the other hand, Liopicus mahrattensis—the Yellow-

fronted Pied Woodpecker—is not found in the Malabar tract,

and in Ceylon it is confined mainly to the sandy scrub country

round the north-west coast, but some birds have crept round

the east coast to the similar region in the south-east, its

western limit on this side lying a few miles east of Tangalla.

Tyngipicus gymnophthalnus—the Ceylon Pigmy Wood-

pecker—is found mainly in the forests of Ceylon and the

Malabar tract. It would appear to be rare in the Carnatic,

and there are sub-specific differences between the Ceylon and

Malabar races.

Micropternus gularis—the Malabar Rufous Woodpecker—

is not found in the Carnatic. Its main haunts in Ceylon are

the forests at the base of the hills, but it spreads almost

through the northern forest tract.

The genus Brachypternus is represented in Ceylon by two

species.

B. aurantius—the Golden-backed Woodpecker—which is

found throughout India, in Ceylon does not occur south of

DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS IN CEYLON. 15

the North-Central and North-Western Provinces. Its place

throughout the rest of the Island is taken by B. erythronotus—

the Red-backed Woodpecker—which is extremely common.

In the North-Central Province the two species overlap and

apparently interbreed, as intermediate forms are found. In

addition, the specimens of B. aurantius from this district are

generally orange-coloured on the back, while those of B.

erythronotus are of a less pure red than birds from the Southern

Province.

We have an almost similar distribution in the genus

Chrysocolaptes.

C. stricklandi—Layard’s Woodpecker—is peculiar to

Ceylon, and occurs in forest country all over the Island. It

also, like B. erythronotus, has a red back. It is replaced in

the Malabar forests by a golden-backed species, C. gutti-

cristatus. A third species, C. festivus—the Black-backed

Woodpecker—is rare on the Malabar coast, commoner in the

Carnatic, and occurs locally in the northern half of the Island,

though a few specimens, like those of Liopicus mahrattensis,

appear to have worked round to the north of the Hambantota

District.

The next order, that of the Zygodactyli, which comprises

the Barbets, is also interesting. Out of four species two

are peculiar to Ceylon. Therciceryx zeylonicus—our Common

Large Barbet—ranges nearly all over India, but Cyanops

flavifrons—the Yellow-fronted Barbet—is found only in

Ceylon, chiefly in the foothills, and belongs to a genus which

otherwise is confined to the north of the Indo-Gangetic plain.

Our species, therefore, is a Himalayan exile.

The remaining two species, Xantholema hzematocephala—

the Coppersmith—and X. rubricapilla—the Small Ceylon

Barbet —respectively belong to the Carnatic and Malabar

contingents. X. rubricapilla occurs in the wet zone and part

of the northern forest tract. It is peculiar to Ceylon, but is

closely akin to X. malabarica, which occurs only in the

Malabar forests.

X. hematocephala is common in the Carnatic and the dry

districts of Ceylon, but it is rare in the Malabar tract, and not

found in the wet zone of our Island.

16 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

The Rollers—Coracie—show a similar division. Coracias

indica—the Indian Roller—is a common Indian bird, but in

Ceylon it appears to be a neweomer by way of the Carnatic.

Its headquarters are the Northern and North-Central Pro-

vinces, where it is quite a feature of the landscape. It migrates

occasionally as far south as the Western Province, but it has

not penetrated to the dry districts of the south-east, where

one would expect to find it. On the other hand, Zurystomus

orientalis—the Broad-billed Roller—belongs to a Himalayan

genus. The species is found in the Malabar hills, and is a

rare resident in that part of Ceylon which stretches

from Haputale south-west to the hills of the Morawak

korale.

The Bee-eaters—M eropes—have a like distribution. Merops

philippinus—the Blue-tailed Bee-eater—is with us a migrant.

Merops viridis—the Green Bee-eater—has a wide range in

India, but in Ceylon keeps to the dry northern and eastern

side, being practically unknown in the Western Province and

the Galle District. There and up-country it is replaced by

Melittophagus swinhoii, which does not occur in the

Carnatic.

Of the seven species of Kingfishers—Alcedinide—found

within our limits, two, Alcedo beavani—Beavan’s Kingfisher—

and Halcyon pileata—the Black-capped Kingfisher—have been

found only two or three times in Ceylon ; the other five species

occur both in the Malabar and Carnatic tracts.

The evidence afforded by the distribution of our Hornbills

is rather conflicting.

Lophocerus gingalensis—the Little Ceylon Hornbill—is

peculiar to the Island, and occurs throughout the Island up to

elevations of 4,000 feet. An allied species, Z. griseus, is found

only in the Malabar coast. As against this, Anthracocerus

coronatus—the Crowned Hornbill—a heavy ungainly bird,

incapable of a long sustained flight, is wanting in the Carnatie,

but its headquarters in Ceylon are the drier forests in the

northern half of the Island. It thus forms a solitary exception

to the general rule.

Our only Hoopoe, Upupa indica—the Indian Hoopoe—is

found practically throughout the Indian Empire.

DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS IN CEYLON. 17

Most of ourSwiftsand Nightjars—WM acrocheires—are of widely

distributed species, but certain of them are worthy of note.

Collocalia unicolor—the Indian EKdible-nest Swiftlet—is a

rock-loving species found in the hills of Ceylon and the Malabar

tract, but not in the Carnatic. Again, the weird-looking

Frogmouth—Batrachostomus moniliger—belongs to a genus

which is found in the Himalayan region, in parts of Burma,

in certain of the Malabar districts, and in the deep forests of

Ceylon. Our species is confined to Ceylon and Malabar.

With us it is more plentiful in damp forests up to a moderate

elevation, but J have found it as far north as Anuradhapura,

and as far south-east as the banks of the lower Walawe-ganga.

Our only Trogon, Harpactes fasciatus—the Malabar Trogon—

is found throughout the Island in heavy forest. It is very

rare in the Carnatic.

The large family of the Cuckoos—Cuculidex—is represented

in Ceylon by seventeen species, distributed among two sub-

families and eleven genera. Though most of them are

migrants, or range over a wide area, we have two peculiar

species, and several others are worthy of mention.

Penthoceryx sonnerati—the Banded Bay Cuckoo—the sole

species in the genus, is common in the forests of Malabar and

Ceylon, but very rare in the Carnatic.

Surniculus lugubris—the Drongo Cuckoo—which mimics

the Drongos, has a similar distribution, though it is everywhere

a rare bird.

The Red-faced Malkoha—Phanicophies pyrrocephalus—is

found only in Ceylon, and is the most noteworthy among the

few surviving relics of our Malayan fauna. It is found in the

deeper forests all over the Island, except on the higher hills.

Lastly, of the widely distributed genus Centropus we have

two species. Centropus sinensis—the Coucal or Crow

Pheasant—is a very common jungle bird all over Ceylon and

India. Centropus chlororhyncus is confined to Ceylon, where

it is restricted to the damp forests lying between Adam’s

Peak and the sea.

The large order of the Parrots—Psittaci—is not largely

represented in the Indian Empire. Only three genera occur,

two of which are found in Ceylon.

3 6(7)14

18 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Out of the genus Palxornis we have five species, two of

which are peculiar to the Island. One of these, P. ewpatria—

our large Parroquet—is found nearly all over the Island, and

the difference between it and P. nepalensis, which is widely

distributed in Northern India, is very slight.

The beautiful Blossom-headed Parroquets have in general a

much more local range.

P. cyanocephalus—the Western Blossom-headed Parroquet—

may be met with in suitable localities in Ceylon and the

Peninsula of India. P. calthrope—Layard’s Parroquet—is

confined to the centre and south-west of our Island, being

replaced in the Malabar tract by P. columboides, which is

rather doubtfully recorded from Ceylon.

Loriculus indicus—the Ceylonese Loriquet—belongs to the

Malabar contingent. The genus is represented by our species,

which is found in the central and south-western parts of the

Island, and by Loriculus vernalis, which in the Indian

Peninsula occurs only on the Malabar hills, though it re-

appears in the Eastern Himalayas and Burma.

Of the Owls—Striges—we have eleven species.

Strix flammea—the Barn Owl—though distributed through-

out India, with us occurs only in the Jaffna Peninsula.

Asio accipitrinus—the Short-eared Owl—was unknown in

Ceylon until a few years ago, when a good many specimens

suddenly appeared in the Western Province.

Syrnium indrani—the Brown Wood Owl—one of the

candidates for the post of the Devil Bird, occurs most com-

monly in the Kandyan forests, but extends wherever there is

high jungle. It ranges through the Malabar coast, and is

found on the Himalayas, but would appear to be rare or

wanting in the Carnatic.

Huhua nepalensis—the Forest Eagle Owl—connects us with

the Himalayas. It is a hill species, also occasionally found in

the forests at the base of the mountains. Its range south of the

Ganges is restricted to the South Indian hills and Ceylon.

Scops giu—the Little Scops Owl—is found all over the Empire,

but Ceylon specimens show slight differences from those of the

peninsula. The same may be said of Scops bakkamena—the

Collared Scops Owl—which is so common round Colombo,

DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS IN CEYLON. 19

Of our two species of Glaucidium, G. castanonotum—the

Chestnut-backed Owlet—is peculiar to the Island. Its

nearest relative, G. radiatum—the Jungle Owlet—is found,

like the last species, in the Kandyan forests, but it is also

common throughout the Malabar coast. The genus is rare

or wanting in the Carnatic.

The Hawks—Accipitres—are, in general, birds of powerful

flight, and therefore, as might be expected, birds of wide

range.

Many, indeed, are migrants or mere occasional stragglers to

the Island.

Among the order there is one curious gapinourfauna. Only

once has a specimen of a Vulture—Neophron ginginianus—

been recorded from Ceylon. That specimen, a young bird,

was obtained at Nuwara Eliya in 1879.

It will be necessary to note only a few species. IJctinetus

malayensis—the Black Eagle—is mainly a Himalayan and

Malayan species wauting in the districts south of the Ganges,

except in the Malabar and Ceylon hills. With us it occasion-

ally wanders into the low-country.

Spizetus kelaarti—Legge’s Hawk Eagle—was long thought

to be peculiar to Ceylon, but it has now been found in

the Travancore hills. Milvas govinda—the Pariah Kite—a

widely-spread species in India, for some reason or otber in

Ceylon confines itself to the northern scrub jungle tract, its

place elsewhere in the low-country being taken by Haliastur

indus—the Brahminy Kite—an equally common Indian bird.

Two rare Kites are Baza lophotes—the Black-crested Baza—

and B. ceylonensis—-Legge’s Baza. The genus is represented

north of the Ganges, but south of that river it occurs piactically

orly in the Malabar tract and Ceylon. B. lophotes is with us

only a rare migrant from the Himalayas or Malay Peninsula,

while B. ceylonensis has been obtained several times in the

Kandyan hills, and once in the Wynaad.

The Doves—Columbe—found in Ceylon number twelve

species, divided among eight genera, but two of these genera—

Crocopus and Ainopopelia—are represented solely by one or

two recorded specimens of Crocopus chlorogaster—the Southern

Green Pigeon—and Anopopelia tranquebarica—the Red

20 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Turtle Dove. Two more species in other genera—Alsocomus

puniceus (the Purple Wood Pigeon) and T'urtur ferrago (the

Indian Turtle Dove)—have but the same slender claims to a

place in the Ceylon list.

Of our two common Green Pigeons, Osmotreron pompadora—

the Pompadour Green Pigeon—and Osmotreron bicincta—the

Orange-breasted Green Pigeon—the former is peculiar to the

Island, but is found in numbers throughout the low-country

forests. A closely related species, O. affinis, is confined to

the Malabar coast. Osmotreron bicincta is equally common

throughout our low-country, but is not quite such a forest-

loving bird. This species ranges through Malabar to Orissa,

but is almost unknown in the Carnatic.

Carpophaga «xnea—our fine Imperial Pigeon—found in deep

forest throughout the low-country, is likewise absent from the

Carnatic, though it ranges through the Malabar coast region.

Chalcophaps indica—the beautiful Little Bronze-wing Pigeon—

has an almost similar distribution in Ceylon and the Indian

Peninsula.

Columba intermedia—the Indian Blue Rock Pigeon—is a

local bird in Ceylon, being chiefly confined to a few islands

round the coast. It occurs through a large part of India.

Alsocomus torringtonie—the Ceylon Wood Pigeon—is con-

fined to the hill forests of Ceylon, and its nearest relative, A.

elphinstonii, is found only on the Malabar hills. The genus

does not occur in the Carnatic.

Leaving out the accidental stragglers mentioned above, we

have two Turtle Doves in Ceylon: T'urtur suratensis—the Ash

Dove—which is found throughout India, and T'urtur risorius,

which is common throughout India in open country, but not

in forest. It is rare on the Malabar coast, and in Ceylon it is

confined to the northern coast belt of scrub jungle.

This distribution of our Pigeons emphasizes to a remarkable

degree our Malabar and Carnatic connections. Out of eight

species which have real claims as inhabitants of the Island,

two are common to the three tracts. Only one other species

is common to Ceylon and the Carnatic, and in Ceylon it is

found only in that part of the Island which adjoins the

Carnatic, while it is rare on the Malabar coast. The other

DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS IN CEYLON. 21

five species belong to genera common to Ceylon and Malabar,

but rare or wanting in the Carnatic.

The Game Birds—Gallinee—tell almost the same tale. With

the exception of the Quails, some of which are migrants, they

are generally birds with a local distribution. The Peacock—

Pawo cristatus—at present is practically confined to the drier

scrub jungle tracts of the north, east, and south-east of the

Island, but the Sinhalese name for the bird enters into place

names, such as Monara-gala and Monara-natana-hena (the

chena where the peacock dances), in localities where the bird

is no longer found. It may be a Carnatic invader, or as the

bird is so often kept for show, it may have been introduced in

historic times by human agency.

Our Jungle Cock—Gallus lafayetti—is peculiar to Ceylon,

but has spread all over the Island. Its nearest ally—G. son-

nerati—ocecurs both in the Malabar and Carnatic tracts, but I

do not think it is found on the sandy tracts on the Rames-

waram side of Adam’s Bridge.

Our Spur Fowl—Galloperdiz bicalcarata—occurs chiefly in the

south of the Island. On the south-east coast a few stragglers

wander right down to the sandy seashore, but on the northern

side it stops within a short distance of the foothills south of

Dambulla. An allied species is found in South India.

Our Quails are fairly widely distributed, but all are rather

rare or sporadically scattered here and there through the low-

country. The Common Bustard Quail—Turnia pugnax—is

not a true Quail, but belongs to another order. Francolinus

pictus—the Painted Partridge—has a peculiar local distri-

bution, being found only on the Uva patanas, and from thence

eastward to the low-country by Nilgala and Bibile. F. pondi-

cerianus—the Gray Partridge—is confined to the northern

scrub tract. It is unknown on the Malabar coast south of

Bombay, but ranges through the Carnatic to Afghanistan.

With the order Grallz, which comprises the Rails, we enter

upon the vast assemblage of water birds, waders, and birds

of the shore or of inland sandy tracts.

These water birds include in their ranks the larger number

of our migrants, and the resident species and genera are

mostly widely diffused. Most of them are found all over

22 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

India wherever conditions are suitable. For this reason, as

regards Ceylon, comparatively few of them need be looked

for in the Kandyan districts. There are few large tanks for

the swamp birds, few suitable lagoons for the waders, and no

sandy tracts for the shore birds.

With reference to the haunters of sandy shores and wastes,

we have two suitable centres in Ceylon. One the northern

serub tract, where the Ceylon coast approaches the Carnatie,

and a similar stretch near the south-east coast. Now there

are several species found in the northern tract which are

not found in the south-eastern, and in running through the

remaining orders of birds I wish specially to note these

species, for a reason which will become apparent later on.

To return to the Rails. They belong to an order which also

contains the Cranes and Bustards, the two last noteworthy

gaps in our avifauna. Of our Rails, the three Water Hens—

Porphyrio poliocephalus (the Purple Water Hen), Amaurornis

phamicurus (the White-breasted Water Hen), and Gallinula

chloropus (the Moor Hen)—are all birds with a wide range.

Five other species are rare migrants to our shores, and only

one, Gallicrex cineria—the Water Cock—is noteworthy, as not

occurring in the Carnatic. It is locally distributed through

our low-country swamps, but as far as my experience goes it

is more scarce in the north of the Island.

Turning to the Limicole, or Waders, of the three families

(dicnemide, Dromadidx, and Glareolide, which comprise our

aberrant Plovers, we have in Ceylon six species. They are all

birds which love sandy tracts near the sea or in river beds.

Four of them—(Mdicnemus scolopax (the Stone Plover), sacus

recurvirostris (the Great Stone Plover), and the two Swallow

Plovers, Glareola lactea and G. Orientalis—are found both in

the north and the south-east. Dromas ardeola—the Crab

Plover—and Cursorius coromandelicus—the Indian Courser—

are only found inthe north. It may be noted that C. coroman

delicus is rare on the Malabar coast. Our true Plovers, as a

rule, are found over a large part of India. The remainder of

the Waders call for little comment.

-The same may be said of our Gulls, Terns, and Pelicans,

and various sea birds.

DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS IN CEYLON. 23

Of the Storks and Herons, I may remark in passing a curious

point about one species, Gorsachius melanolophus—the Malay

Bittern. It is common in Malaya, but it is unknown west of

the Bay of Bengal, except in Ceylon, where it is a rare migrant

to the low-country, and in the hill forests of Malabar, where it

appears to breed.

Nearly all our Ducks are migrants; the only common

species resident in the Island are the Whistling Teal— Dendro-

cygna javanica—and the Quacky Duck--- Nettapus coromandeli-

anus—-which are found nearly all over India.

Our list of birds is closed by the Dab-chick—Podiceps

albipennis—which may also be met with all over India and

Burma.

Now, what are the salient facts that appear as the result

of the foregoing summary ?

In the first place, it will be noted what a large proportion

of our resident avifauna shows an affinity with that of Malabar.

This affinity applies in special to the Kandyan Provinces and

the wet zone of the low-country. Not only does the main

element among the bird population of our hills closely corre-

spond with that of the Indian Ghauts, but the birds of the

damp low-country zone are as closely connected with those of

the forests of the Malabar coast. A good many of the species

and genera common to these two tracts are not met with in

the Carnatic, and this peculiarity of distribution is most marked

in the case of our short-flight birds.

On the other hand, in the extreme north and north-west of

the Island the species are largely the same as in the Carnatic.

These two regions possess several genera, and a larger

number of species which are not found in the wetter parts of

Ceylon or in the Malabar district.

Again, by far the larger number of peculiar species and

genera belong to the Malabar type of fauna, and have their

headquarters in the wet zone.

A few of our peculiar birds are of Himalayan or Malayan

origin, but none of them are of the Carnatic type.

Lastly, our Himalayan species belong to the ‘‘ Malabar ”’

portion of Ceylon.

24 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

To sum up the situation in a few words, the Malabar affinity

in the wet zone is shown by close correspondence of type ;

the Carnatic affinity in the dry zone by complete identity of

species.

How are we to account for this dual distribution of birds ?

I do not think it can easily be contended that the main

Malabar element in the Kandyan districts invaded the Island

across an intervening dry Carnatic zone. If this had been

the case, there surely would have been more connecting links

in the intervening region ?

Nor, again, does it appear likely that the Malabar element in

the Kandyan districts and the Carnatic element in the north

of the Island developed side by side. In this case the

separation of Ceylon from India would be a mere geological

incident, without any serious zoo-geographical import. It

would imply that Ceylon for some time had been a mere

prolongation southwards of the Malabar and Carnatic tracts,

and I do not think that this is a satisfactory explanation of

the distribution of our birds.

If this supposition were correct, one would expect that the

whole of Blanford’s Northern Region of Ceylon—+.e., the whole

of the east of the Island from Jaffna to Tangalla—would have

a more or less uniform Carnatic element ; whereas, as a matter

of fact, that element diminishes considerably as one travels

southward. One would also expect that the species peculiar

to the Island would be more equally distributed.

I venture to suggest as the most satisfactory solution of the

problem the hypothesis that the distribution of our birds can

be explained by assuming the Malabar and Himalayan elements

to belong to an older period, when our fauna had an uninter-

rupted communication with the fauna of the Malabar coast,

and when the Carnatic element, due to a later invasion,

was as yet unrepresented.

This uninterrupted communication with the Malabar coast

was afterwards broken, and almost all communication for

birds of short flight between Ceylon and the mainland was cut

off by a subsidence of the earth’s surface, which would have

submerged the north-west and south-east of our Island and a

fairly wide strip of the opposite mainland. Quite a small

DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS IN CEYLON. 25

difference of level would let in the sea over a broad stretch of

country on either side of Adam/’s Bridge.

Our birds of weak flight would then be isolated, and the

isolation would give an impetus to the formation of local

peculiar species.

A considerable period of depression would then have been

followed by re-elevation and the connection of Ceylon with

India by a possibly continuous land surface between the

mainland, Rameswaram, and Mannar.

The argument for this elevation is supported by the evidence

of recent marine deposits on the northern coast from Mannar

round to Trincomalee, so it is by no means geologically

unsound.

Ceylon being once more united to India, the more recent

Carnatic invasion would find its way into our Island, and

would naturally make its influence most felt at the point of

entry.

Have we any evidence to date these successive movements ?

Of course, it must be understood that I am arguing mainly, if

not solely, from the distribution of our birds.

I think a possible clue may be found in the presence of the

Himalayan element among our birds.

At the close of the tertiary ages we know that an arctic

climate prevailed over the northern temperate regions to such

an extent that the whole of the north of Europe and Asia was

buried under a great sheet of ice, while beyond the limits of

this northern ice sheet the Alps and Pyrenees were loaded

with vast snow fields, from which enormous glaciers descended

into the plains on either side.

Evidence of this glacial epoch is also found in the Himalayas.

The great terminal moraines of the enormous glaciers of this

period are found in Sikkim at an elevation of 7,000 feet,

whereas at the present day no glacier in Sikkim descends

below 14,000 feet.*

Thus, all over the Northern Hemisphere the temperature

would have been considerably lower than at present, and

during the coldest part of the great Ice Age a large portion of

the Himalayan region must have been covered by snow and

*Blanford: ‘ Phil. Trans.,”’ loc. cit., p 435.

4 6(7)14

26 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

ice. Many of the animals and birds would have been driven

south to a warmer climate, and some of the temperate Hima-

layan types appear to have penetrated as far south as the hills

of Southern India and Ceylon.

Our noticeable Himalayan birds number about a dozen, viz.,

Cissa ornata (the Ceylon Magpie), Hulabes religiosa and

E. ptilogenys (the two Hill Mynahs), Acmonorhyncus vincens

(Legge’s Flower-pecker), Cyanops flavifrons (the Yellow-

fronted Barbet), Hurystomus orientalis (the Broad-billed

Roller), Melittophagus swinhowi (the Chestnut-headed Bee-

eater), Collocalia unicolor (the Indian Edible-nest Swiftlet),

Batrachostomus moniliger (the Frogmouth), Loriculus indicus

(the Ceylon Parroquet), Photodilus assimilis (the Ceylon Bay

Owl), Huhua nepalensis (the Forest Eagle Owl), and Chal-

cophaps indica (the Bronze-wing Pigeon).

It must be borne in mind that this ‘“‘ Himalayan dozen ”

represents the small band of survivois from a considerably

larger immigration.

Now, over half of these surviving species are birds of weak

powers of flight, to whom a wide arm of the sea would prove

an exceedingly formidable barrier. It is quite possible,

therefore, that when the onset of the glacial epoch drove the

temperate Himalayan species southwards, Ceylon was con-

nected with the Malabar coast, or not separated by any

serious barrier.

What was the nature of this connection ?

The sea now lying between the Ceylonese ‘‘ Malabar tract ”’

and the Malabar coast is fairly wide and of a considerable

depth. There is a shallow submerged plateau fringing the

Ceylon coast off Colombo, and a similar plateau on the Indian

side. But these plateaux are of no great width, and between

them lies a deep sea basin. In fact, a few miles from each

shore the water suddenly deepens from a few fathoms to 500

fathoms or more, and this depression reaches north to within

a few miles of Adam’s Bridge.

If we are to maintain that the connection during the glacial

period was formed by a continuous land surface, say, from

Colombo to Tuticorin, we must postulate that this sea floor

was then over 3,000 feet higher than now ; and also to prevent

DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS IN CEYLON. a7

awkward complications on the “‘ Carnatic” side of the Island,

we must argue that the present connection vid Adam’s Bridge

was then under the sea, or relatively more than 3,000 feet

lower than at the present day.

Now, depressions and elevations of the earth’s surface are

not the result of sudden spasms, but are due to infinitely

gradual processes of long duration, and although an earth

movement of 3,000 feet is far surpassed by many on record,

a change of such large vertical measurement would be spread

over a wide area. Consequently, one cannot invoke at will a

fairly sudden change of over 3,000 feet in level between

Tuticorin and Colombo dying away to nothing along the axis

of Adam’s Bridge unless there is geological evidence to support

it. In the present case there is no such evidence on record ;

in fact, the nature of the sea basin in the Gulf of Mannar is all

against the assumption of such a large movement within such

recent geological times.

If, however, the climatic conditions during the glacial

epoch are considered, it is quite possible the connection

required to bridge the gap may have lain along the present

shallow belt of sea—which is nowhere more than seven

fathoms deep—extending from Adam’s Bridge for at least

fifty miles to the north.

The present arid condition of our “ northern maritime

belt ”’ and the opposite Indian coast is no doubt intensified

by the sterile nature of the soil : a wide stretch of sand recently

covered by a shallow sea, and incapable of supporting a growth

of heavy forest. Before its temporary submersion this tract

may well have been country much like the central forest

portion of the North-Central Province. We must also

remember that during glacial times our climate, besides being

colder, was probably also damper, as the Himalayan snow

fields were so much more extensive.

It is not so hard then to suppose that, given a lower tempera-

ture when evaporation would be diminished, and probably also

given at the same time a heavier rainfall, there would be a

continuous stretch of forest damp enough to allow free inter-

course for a Malabar type of fauna between the Malabar coast

and the south-west of Ceylon.

28 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

To account for the numerous peculiar species in Ceylon, we

must now suppose a break in this intercourse lasting for some

little time. It must, therefore, have begun soon after the

close of the glacial epoch, and quite possibly its beginning was

contemporaneous with the close of that period.

As the climate grew warmer, the Himalayan birds would

retreat northwards again, or make for the higher elevations

and the dampest forests.

When this northerly retreat began some of the species

might have found themselves cut off, not only by a belt of

low-country forest in which tropical conditions were again

beginning to prevail, but also by the separation of Ceylon from

the mainland. This would account for the presence among

our birds of such isolated short-flight species as Cyanops

flavifrons (the Yellow-fronted Barbet), Cissa ornata (the Ceylon

Magpie), and Acmonorhynchus vincens (Legge’s Flower-pecker),

whereas these genera do not occur in the Malabar tract.

Either their retreat was not cut off from the Malabar hills, or

they have since died out there in the struggle for existence.

We then come to a period fairly long in time, though short

geologically speaking, in which Ceylon was an island of .

curtailed dimensions. The low-lying “ arid maritime belts ”

of the north-west and south-east would be under water. The

rest of the Island would be populated with an indigenous

fauna of the Malabar type. The climatic conditions would

be much the same as those of the present day. Migrants and

other birds which could cross the intervening sea would come

to our shores, or be carried by the monsoons against their

will, and if the conditions were to their liking would settle

down here.

Within a measurable distance of historic times re-elevation

set in, and continuous communication was again established

with India across Adam’s Bridge. The dry-country “ Car-

natic ’’ type of birds, which heretofore had been wanting in

Ceylon, would find in the newly elevated sandy tracts localities

in which they could flourish, and, of course, the invasion would

be accompanied by a good many birds common to Malabar

and the Carnatic. This invasion would account for the fact

that in so many of our families and genera you will find a

DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS IN CEYLON. | 29

species peculiar to the south-western region side by side with

a later-comer, distributed all over Ceylon, Malabar, and the

Carnatic. The Crateropodidx, or Babblers, afford an instance

of this, and the two strata among our birds are exceedingly

well shown by our Woodpeckers.

Chrysocolaptes stricklandi—Layard’s Woodpecker—and

Brachypternus erythronotus—the Red-backed Woodpecker—

belong to the older contingent ; C. festivus—the Black-backed

Woodpecker—and 6. aurantius—the Golden-backed Wood-

pecker—to the later invasion. -Liopicus mahrattensis—the

Yellow-fronted Pied Woodpecker—is a Carnatic invader,

belonging to a genus unrepresented in the Island before.

The invasion, like all other invasions, shows a record of

varying success. Some species have succeeded in over-

running the whole Island, others have only obtained a footing

close to the point of entry. Similarly, with regard to the

older inhabitants, some may have already retreated to the

damper and cooler portions of Ceylon before the newcomers

came over, others may have been driven to their strongholds

by the invaders, and others again, like our Jungle Cock—Gallus

lafeyetti—and Acridotheres melanosternus—the Ceylon Mynah—

have maintained their position all over the Island.

The recency of the invasion can be argued from the absence

of any peculiar species among our Carnatic birds, and still

more from the fact that so many of them have not succeeded

in penetrating to the south-east of the Island, where the

conditions are suitable. One would expect to find in the dry

Hambantota District such species as Coracias indica—the

Indian Roller, Turtur risorius—the Indian Ring Dove, and

more especially Cursorius coromandelicus—the Indian Courser

—and Francolinus pondicerianus—the Gray Partridge. These

and other omissions are all the more noticeable, as the type

of fauna found in this south-eastern maritime belt is essentially

the same as that of the similar belt in Mannar, and contains

a very small proportion of the Malabar type of fauna.

Before leaving the question of earth movements, it may be

remarked that geological indications point to the conclusion

that the last movement of elevation, which united Ceylon to

the Indian Continent, has ceased, and that there is now a

30 SPOLIA ZEYLANIGCA.

slow process of subsidence, which, if continued, will result

in another period of zoological isolation. It may well be that

Adam’s Bridge was dry land until the dawn of historical

times, and that the traditions of encroachments by the sea

off Mannar and Colombo are founded on fact.

Such are the recent geological changes which I have assumed

in order to account for the distribution of our birds.

But hypotheses which will suit admirably the distribution

of one class of animals may not square at all with that of other

orders. Further, as I said’ at the beginning of my Paper,

birds are not nearly so sure a guide as mammals, while the

differences between species are rather small distinctions upon

which to form conclusions. As a counterbalance to these

defects, the evidence regarding our Ceylon birds is fairly

cumulative, and points persistently in one direction.

The earth movements which I have assumed need not

exceed a vertical measurement of 50 feet in either direction

from the present level, and the change in climatic conditions

during the glacial period is by no means wildly improbable.

So I have hopes that my assumptions may not prove to be

‘wholly empty theories. Indeed, they are more or less con-

firmed by conclusions independently formed by Mr. Wayland,

Assistant Mineral Surveyor, who has been investigating the

river gravels in the valleys of the Kelani and Kalu-ganga. A

few months ago, while the materials for my Paper were only

half collected, and while my ideas were still rather nebulous,

I sent him a short statement of the subsidence and re-

elevation which I supposed might have taken place, and asked

whether he knew of any geological evidence to support or

disprove their existence. I received from him the following

answer, of which he has permitted me to make use :—

As far as I am aware, very little has been done with regard to

the recent earth movements in the South of India and

Geyion.).4....

Your letter came as a curiously unexpected confirmation of my

own views with regard to the recent earth movements in this

country. I have been paying some attention to the high level

gravels of the Kelani Valley and of the Ratnapura District, and

in order to explain the distribution, &c., of the gravels, I invoked

a fairly large subsidence (something over 50 feet), which, according

to my interpretation, probably increased in a N.N.W. direction.

DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS IN CEYLON. 31

Then came upheaval (possibly in two stages), which resulted in

the land standing at a higher level, in relation to the sea, than

it does to-day. Then subsidence again set in.

I have not sufficient evidence to enable me to state with

certainty that this is the true explanation of the facts. It is the

attitude which I feel justified in adopting at present.

It is only fair to state, however, that the Principal Mineral

Surveyor does not agree with me in attributing the high level

gravels to subsidence of the land. He believes that they have

been left high and dry by the river, which has cut its way deeper

since the days when the gravels were deposited.

Personally I believe that these movements have taken place

within human times, as I have recently discovered what I maintain

to be (and in this Mr. Hartley corroborates my view) artefacts of

stone in some of the highest gravels.

I believe that Mr. Wayland intends to follow up the subject,

and will in due course give us his conclusions formed on a more

complete investigation. On the zoo-geographical side, the

recent collection of mammals made in the Island by Major

Mayor, on behalf of the Bombay Natural History Society,

should afford most magnificent materiai for examination,

especially as it will link up with similar work throughout

India. Unfortunately Major Mayor has left the Island

before visiting the Northern and North-Western Provinces,

the very districts most vital to my theory. It is to be hoped

that he will return and complete the work which has thus been

left unfinished.

If the distribution of mammals agrees with that of the birds,

I would suggest the following modification of Blanford’s

z00-geographical tracts.

Instead of his Southern Hill tract and Northern Ceylon tract,

I would divide the Island into—

(1) A division which would comprise the main hill region

and the wet low-country zone lying between it and the

western coast. The north-western boundary would cut the

coast between Chilaw and Puttalam, and the south-eastern

boundary between Matara and Tangalla.

This division, which might be called the Kandyan tract,

would represent the stronghold of the Malabar element, and

would correspond, more or less, with Blanford’s Southern Hill

tract.

(2) A division which would include Legge’s Indo-Ceylonese

district, 7.c., the arid maritime belts of the north-west, north,

32 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

and south-east, with, perhaps, the sea-borde of the Eastern

Province as a connecting link. This might be called the

Jaffnese tract, and would represent the districts in which the

Carnatic invaders had made good their footing.

(3) The last division would comprise the drier forest region

with a rainfall of from 50 to 75 inches. This is the country

through which the Malabar and Carnatic contingents overlap,

and might be called the Intermediate tract.

I would not distribute this tract between the other two,

but keep it separate, owing to its relatively large area, and

the fact that, on the whole, the character of its avifauna is

fairly constant throughout, lacking many of the damp-loving

‘““ Malabar species ” on the one hand, and of the dry-country

“Carnatic species ” on the other.

Until, however, the evidence both geological and zoo-

geographical is more complete, these divisions and reconstruc-

tions of the part must be, more or less, a matter of conjecture.

The collection and examination of that evidence is a task in

which members of our Society can render useful help, whatever

branch of Natural History may be their hobby.

Perhaps some day Government will expand the present

Mineralogical Survey into a full-blown Geological Survey, and

thus provide officers, part of whose work will be to make a

full scientific investigation and to give an authoritative

pronouncement. Meanwhile I have started an interesting

hare, and I hope that others will pursue it.

INTERPRETATION OF NATURE oe

“THE INTERPRETATION OF NATURE’”’

AND

“THE NATURE OF INTERPRETATION.” *

By E. J. Wayianp, F.G:S., F.R.GS., &c.,

Assistant Mineralogical Surveyor (Ceylon),

Late National, Post Graduate, and Marshall (Biological) Research

Scholar, Royal College of Science, London.

A.—THE INTERPRETATION OF NATURE.

HE term “ naturalist ” is, in the popular acceptation,

a very wide one ; it includes all folk from the narrowest

specialist with but one idea (his own) to the over-enthusiastic

amateur with too many ideas for complete digestion (generally

not his own); it includes investigators who think seriously

about their work, and wonder-seekers whose sole quest of

Nature is novelty. It includes those who hug detail and those

who despise it, systematists who collect things fer classification

and collectors who gather specimens as a schoolboy gathers

postage stamps. In fine, all sorts and conditions of people

who think or read about Nature at all.

As the branches of natural knowledge constitute, more or

less, separate departments of science, the various followers of

Nature are best named from the department in which they

work, 7.e., as mycologists, brachyopodists, &c., so that the

name “ naturalist ” is more appropriately reserved foc those

fortunate people who are able to take a broad, intelligent, and

comprehensive interest in the general problems of natural

science. It is in that sense that the name is employed in

this paper.

One of the facts which strongly impresses itself on the

minds of those who study living Nature is that specialization

carried beyond certain limits is a bad thing for the individual] ;

good, as it may be, for the community.

* A lecture delivered to the Ceylon Natural History Society.

5 6(7)14

34 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Specialization, however, is as cardinal a factor in natural

history as it is in Nature, and in these days of rapid progress

the professed scientific investigator is forced to confine the

best of his attention within comparatively narrow limits.

Thus, as the growth of knowledge accelerates, the specialists

are driven into ever-narrowing fields of research. The result

of this minute investigation is a most voluminous and highly

technical literature, which functions as a barrier between what

have been called ‘‘ The man of science’ and “‘ The man in the

street.”

As a matter of fact, “‘ men of science”’ taken as a whole do

not constitute a special breed of humanity intended for the

guidance of the rest, and at least as many good potential

naturalists (not to speak of private investigators) are to be

found outside the professional ranks as active scientists within

them. Commonly enough the amateur has better right to

the title of ‘‘ naturalist’ than the professional man.

Specialization tends to put the universe out of focus for the

conscientious specialist, for he is generally so absorbed in his

investigations that he has no time to thoughtfully consider

in what relation his work stands to the work of all other

naturalists. Indeed, that is a special line of investigation

itself. As one’s judgment of the whole is warped in proportion

as one’s knowledge of the whole is disproportionate, specialists

view the facts of the world by the light of their special know-

ledge, and not their special knowledge by the light of the facts

of the world. We all do this, of course, but, inasmuch as

human life and intellect is limited, it must follow that the more

special your knowledge, the greater its disproportion, and

that, other things equal, one’s right to the title of naturalist

diminishes in proportion as one’s knowledge of some branch

of natural science increases. Specialization is an admirable

thing, but its dangers should be recognized, and here it may

be remarked that the vast accumulation of facts which has

resulted from the patient labours of those engaged in special

research opens a great field for general investigation, for

philosophy, in fact, not for vaguely speculative and groundless

guesses, which have so often masqueraded as the essence of

wisdom, but for a philosophy based on a solid foundation of

INTERPRETATION OF NATURE. 35

facts, built up with the greatest care and the soundest of

judgment by the adoption of those reliable methods of interro-

gation which form the foundations of science. This field of

philosophy, then, is the domain of the true naturalist—perhaps

one might almost say the super-naturalist.

It will not be easy to define Nature to everybody’s satisfac-

tion if we admit into the definition, as some may be inclined to

do, some theory of the ultimate constitution of things. But

we all know what we mean by “‘ Nature,” and for our present

purposes we will say that “‘ Nature” is the external world

unaltered by man ; that a natural thing is an apparent entity

in this external world, while a naturalist is a person who

endeavours to understand the relation of natural things to

each other.

It is both customary and complimentary to assume that

the object of the Nature student in familiarizing himself with

the phenomena of natural things is the discovery of truth, and

pertaining to some particular group of natural things in

which he happens to be interested. Further, the belief that

truth immutable underlies Nature is universal, and it is

commonly supposed that this is the truth towards which the

results of science tend with ever-increasing precision to

approach.

It is not my intention to discuss the nature of ultimate

truth at all, nor, indeed, in the first part of my Paper to show

what the truths of natural history really are, for this cannot

be profitably undertaken till we clearly understand what they

are not.

The ultimate question which a naturalist asks of anything

is, ““ How does it come to exist ?’’ And this is the question

which I propose we put to the truths of natural history. How

do they come to exist ? In other words, how do we interpret

Nature ?

There is no question, of course, that the object of science

(and all science is natural history) should be to discover the

most complete and adequate conception of the relation of

different facts to each other, or, to use the less accurate and

more popular phraseology, “the cause of things.” All

science has this object in view, and the philosophy which has

36 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

any other object than this, though it may be Nature-study, is

not science. It is not enough that this object should be

professed, it should be a very real and thorough principle with

the observer, whose aim should always be to read his theories

out of and not into Nature.

Such an inquirer will of necessity adopt the only method

open to him, and it is the method rather than the object which

has earned the name of science.

There are three stages in the process of elucidating pheno-

mena: (i.) the collecting of facts; (i.) the correlation of

facts ; and (iii.) the formation of theories to account for the

facts. The first two are inseparable, and may be lumped

together under the head of Description, while the third may be

called Interpretation.

In practice description and interpretation go hand in hand,

and while this association is advantageous and desirable for

the progress of research, it is also a constant source of danger to

that very progress which it serves to stimulate. Fortunately,

in these days description is a recognized part of the routine

of a pioneer’s work ; it is the first step in his investigation.

A few centuries ago, however, its contribution to the inter-

pretation of things was, by comparison, trifling, as a study of

the cosmologies, or of the beliefs of the middle ages, will serve

to show. More than one right-minded student, who in the

good old days dared to relegate observation to its rightful

place, paid for his boldness with considerable discomfiture, and

in some cases with his life. We recognize this as deplorable

indeed, yet still we are not quite so apt in separating descrip-

tion and interpretation as we should be.

Description in earlier days was less indulged in than it is at

present, because natural knowledge was the monopoly of a

few educated people, whose authority, as naturalists, was

considered infallible.

Amusing illustrations of the situation were abundant, as

when in the middle ages the question of the number of teeth

in the horse was debated with great heat in many contentious

writings. Apparently none of the contestants thought of the

simple expedient ot counting them, but tried to sustain their

position by reference to authority.

INTERPRETATION OF NATURE. 37

Again, one who noticed spots on the sun became convinced

of the error of his eyes, because Aristotle had somewhere

written ‘‘ the face of the sun is immaculate.”

This childlike faith in authority not only excused people

from personal experiment, but led to the curious idea that

practical investigation was unworthy of the philosopher, and

even up to the first half of the nineteenth century a knowledge

of such things as physiology and anatomy was regarded as the

private property of medical men. It was thought a little

coarse for any but a doctor to know a few simple facts about

the circulation of the blood, and such like.

The cosmologists despised description; we are wont to

confuse it with interpretation. We are still cosmologists at

heart, but with the difference that if the older naturalists

might be said to solve the universe from the depths of the

armchairs in the parlour, we, on the other hand, may be often

accused of taking our armchairs into the field.

To-day, of course, there are several departments of natural

history which deal almost exclusively with description, as,

for instance, pure geography and petrography, and the syste-

matic sides of botany, zoology, and paleontology. Philosophy,

on the other hand, concerns itself entirely with interpretation,

but .cientific, or, as we say, “ natural philosophy,” works

from a basis of observed facts.

The intelligent worker in the field of natural history

combines description and interpretation, thereby proving

himself a natural philosopher, and if when stepping beyond the

realm of description he is entering dangerous territory where

guides are few and mistakes are easy, he may console himself

with the knowledge that many mistakes are avoidable if only

one will tread warily and look before leaping ; and that if he

stand: to take the wrong path, he also stands to get somewhere

interesting in the end. Jt has been wisely said that if you

confine yourself to description you cannot go far wrong, but,

then, you cannot go far.

The error one invariably makes when entering the field of

natural philosophy is the one already alluded to, of confusing

-description with interpretation. One is generally led into

this mistake by the influence of some theory at the back of

38 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

one’s mind, which unconsciously causes one to describe things

in its own terms. There is, for instance, a general tendency

among naturalists to make every peculiarity of living things

fali in line with the theory of natural selection, and when such

and such an animal or plant is found to possess such and such

a puzzling feature, then we immediately invent a use for the

said puzzling featura, and declare that its use is the cause of

its existence. When we cannot invent a use, we assume that

it once had one, and call it rudimentary, or that its full fune-

tion is yet to be, and say the feature is elementary. Failing

these, we say we have not discovered its use, but we firmly

believe that sooner or later we shall find a use for it. In

adopting this position we fail to realize the unwarrantable

nature of the assumption we make in doing so, 7.e., that every-

thing that survives in Nature has some selective value. Again,

if any organ can be shown to have a use, we never fail to assume

that that organ has played a very significant part in the

evolution of its possessor, and this on account of a pre-

conceived idea of what evolution means.

Theory, you will observe, is guiding description. The

temptation to read one’s pet ideas into Nature has always

been a great failing with the naturalist, and is probably no

less common to-day than it was centuries ago. It is this

process of ‘‘ reading in” which has been dignified by the name

of reasoning from analogy—a title which it unquestionably

deserves, for, whereas the common sense interpretation of

Natur: depends upon the /ikeness of things, the scientific con-

ception is founded on differences. For example, the sameness

of the signs of life as exhibited in both the plant and animal

kingdoms has lead to the idea that any general principle in the

one will be found to have its equivalent in the other. Conse-

quently, it was thought that the phenomenon of circulation

as seen in the arterial and venal systems of animals was to be

paralleled by the passage of the sap in the xylem and phloem

tissues of plants, and when Mr. Ruskin (after turning up all

the indexes of the best botanical authorities of his day) found

occasion to grumble at those gentlemen because he could

find no reference to the “ circulation of the sap,” he had to be

told that the botanists had discovered their mistake. _

INTERPRETATION OF NATURE. 39

The confusion of theory and fact is a fault too commonly

seen, especially, one regrets to say, among those whose

business it is to teach the principles of science.

For example. Everybody knows that many plants, when

kept from the influence of light, turn pale, and by lengthening

their internodes grow long. It is commonly taught that this

is the plant’s adaptation for finding light. That the plant is

devoting its energies to the production of extra long shoots,

because by doing so it stands a better chance of thrusting

some part of its person out of the darkness than if it grew

normally. More than once I have heard it said, by people

who ought to know better, that this groping for daylight is a

fact. But is it? Of course not.

Many plants become etiolated (lose their green colour) and

lengthen out their members when the stimulus of light is

withheld. This is the fact. It is obvious that by this abnor-

‘mal growth their chances of reaching daylight are enhanced.

This is also a fact. But the statement that they enhance their

chances or any parallel statement is not a fact, and is probably

(but not necessarily) untrue.

The point is that because the chances of good fortune are

increased by the plant’s behaviour, it has been inferred that the

behaviour is a direct response to the existence of those chances,

which inference is a theory accounting for the plant’s behaviour,

and must not be confured with the fact of behaviour itself.

Again, the study of cytological phenomena led to the

prediction by Rabl of a remarkable form of conjugation of

centrosomes. Fol, in 1891, a year after Rabl’s prediction,

actually described such a conjugation in the growing cells of

sea urchins under the picturesque name of ‘“ The quadrille

of centres.” Later in the same year Guiguard discovered

the same phenomenon in a member of the plant world (in a

lily in fact). Between 1891 and 1895 various workers adduced

additional examples from a snail, a trout, anda lancelet. It is

now known that no such phenomenon exists.

Many examples like the foregoing will occur to you, in which

one clearly sees the influence of the preconceived idea. 4

The tendency is to observe what theory predicts. Most of

us have a theoretical axe or two to grind, and the difficulty

40 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

arises, not in the finding of facts which controvert our theory,

but in the perception of them. Once convince yourself of the

truth of any hypothesis and you receive a mental bias, by

means of which, albeit unconsciously, you correlate your

observations with the inevitable result that they aie made to

fall in line with your preconceived ideas. You are led to

confuse theory with observation, and fact with inference.

A notable example of this curious visual distortion is to be

seen in the predelineation (or evolutio) theory. This theory

maintained that the development of animal life was much the

same as the unfolding of a bud. The immature animal was

considered to exist 7n toto within the reproductive cell, which

merely required a certain stimulus to start its growth. This

theory was a product of the seventeenth century, and is

associated with the great names of Swammerdam, Malpighi,

and Leeuwenhock.

Malpighi observed evidence of organization in an unincu-

bated egg in 1672 (during an Italian summer, be it noted).

Swammerdam had made observations of insects in a chrysalis

stage and of caterpillars about to enter the pupa condition,

in which he discerned the outlines of the organs of a future

state. Leeuwenhock made the discovery (often wrongly

attributed to Hartsoeker) about 1676 of fertilizing filaments

in eggs. This led to a controversy as to whether the embryo

pre-existed in the egg or in the sperm. The egg was regarded

by some as a nidus, within which the sperm developed ; others

declared the ovum to carry the embryo, and regarded the

sperm as a stimulant for growth. Thus arose the rival schools

of animalculists and ovulists. The debate over the details of

the preformation theory gave way to the wildest speculations,

and some ingenious persons computed the number of eggs,

which must have been encased one within the other (like a

Japanese juggler’s boxes), within the ovary of Mother Eve.

The astonishing answer to this remarkable problem in bio-

metrics was two hundred millions. Meanwhile Hartsocker,

who was a confirmed animalculist, gave the world a drawing

of a spermatozoon, in which a little man was to be seen crouch-

ing with his knees tucked up under his chin, and Hartsoeker

seems actually to have believed that he had seen the little man.

INTERPRETATION OF NATURE. 41

A friend of mine was undertaking some research on a group

of sponges some years ago. During this work he found it

necessary to dissolve the spicules in an acid, which at the same

time stained the thin film of animal matter coating them.

As the little calcareous rods finally disappeared in solution, a

black streak made its appearance on the microscope slide.

My friend deduced from this an axial canal lined with animal

matter—a common enough thing in the sponge world. It was

by little more than chance that he eventually arrived at the

true explanation, ¢.e., that the outer film of animal matter

was elastic, and the black line left by the spicule when it passed

away was the contracted film. The spicule had, in fact, no

axial canal at all.

Columbus had no ideas of a new continent when he sailed

westwards, and although he visited the West Indies on four

occasions, he died in the belief that he had discovered the

eastern coast of Asia.

The preconceived idea about evolution often blinds the

observer to another quite as logical interpretation of the facts.

To quote an example. You will recall how Lamarck and his

followers explained the lengthy neck of the giraffe on the

supposition—since substantiated by evidence—that the early

giraffes were short-necked, like other creatures, but circum-

stances necessitated their stretching for food, and the constant

straining of the neck resulted in the permanent lengthening

of that member, which, as it chanced to be hereditary, was

handed down and added to by succeeding generations.

The followers of Darwin, of course, believed this interpre-

tation to be wrong, in so far as the starting of the variation

in length of neck from that of the normal was assumed by

Lamarck to be due to the mere process of stretching. The

Darwinians, as we all know, believed that the variation arose

somehow in the germ cells, from which the longer necked

giraffes originally sprang. But both the later Lamarckians

and Darwinians seem to have believed that the long neck of

the giraffe was a necessary condition of the creature’s existence.

That if the necks had not been lengthened, the whole

race of giraffes would have become extinct by reason of

starvation.

6 6(7)14

42 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Surely in this we see the influence of the preconceived idea.

Evolution was a new principle to science, and every one was

imbued with it one way or another. Here was an extra-

ordinary phenomenon in necks which called for explanation,

and the two alternatives were suggested as we have already

seen. Now, whether the original variation was due to the

acquirement of changes set up in the animals, or to some

spontaneous adventure of the germ cells, we need not discuss

here. Our point is that both parties agreed that the giraffe’s

long neck had a selective value of paramount importance to

its possessor, a belief which is strongly maintained to-day.

Subsequent discovery may show this theory to be right, but

that is quite beside the point, for, meanwhile, who will dare to

say that the girafie’s long neck is not an hereditary variation

of no particular selective value at all? For, let us remember,

the very exceptional nature of this organ should warn us that

we may be dealing with something which does not rightly

fall in line with our general interpretation of things. Again,

consider the consequences of the accepted theory. Inasmuch

as the necessity has been correlated with the want of vege-

tation on lower branches, it must follow that the once leafy

district, rendered leafless by the overcrowded population

(or some other condition), which caused the gradual destruction

of the lower plants, must have witnessed the extinction of all

the larger members of the mammalian fauna save the wily

giraffe. We may, if we like, invent a story about the migra-

tion of other forms of life to other parts on the encroachment

of desert conditions, but then we have to explain why the

short-necked giraffes did not migrate as well, and we must

invent some cause, more potent for effect than starvation

itself, to satisfy us that the giraffes really did stay behind, and

when we have done this, what have we achieved ? Nothing

but pure invention. Interesting, I grant you, and justifiable

enough as a speculation, and as such it should take its rightful

place in our scheme of the interpretation of things. It is

quite unjustified as a final conclusion. Is it not possible that

the length of neck of giraffe is a germinal variation of no

particular selective value, which may have become of value

to its possessor at a more defined period of its development ?

INTERPRETATION OF NATURE. 43

What I mean is that, having grown a long neck in the forests,

the giraffe would then be able to wander off and to feed in places

barren of undergrowth, and, indeed, might take unrivalled

possession of the district. So, too, is it not possible that our

xerophytic plants which grow in dry (or very boggy) places

do so, not by reason of a vigorous eradication of the thirsty

ones, with the consequent survival of those whose wants were

small, but because requiring less they were able to migrate

to situations where competition was not so rife ?

In a word, does environment always select individuals,

and do not individuals sometimes select their environment ?

Does every persistent variation necessarily have a selected

value, or, indeed,a use? Istherea reason why any hereditary

variation (saving a detrimental one) should not persist ?

Once we admit the probability of such persistence, we must

greatly modify our conception of the genesis of species, as, no

doubt, many have already done.

But this preconception, of which we are all guilty, warps

our observation in another way. It often blinds us to excep-

tions, and the progress of science depends nowadays, not so

much on the propounding of great laws, as on the discovery of

exceptions to the rule. One tends, in the light of some

absorbing theory, to pass exceptions by, or to put off their

discussion till they can be made to fall in line with our pet

ideas. Indeed, we are often so bent on the discovery of facts,

which substantiate our views, that the small exceptions pass

unobserved by us, and need to be repeated many times before

their significance can be realized. In this connection let me pass

on to you Professor Bateson’s words of counsel: ‘ Treasure

your exceptions ; when there are none the work gets so dull

that no one eares to carry it further; keep them always

uncovered and in sight. Exceptions are like the rough brick-

work of a growing building, which tells that there is more to

come, and shows where the next construction is to be.”

You have only to look back on the history of any branch of

science to see how valuable exceptions have been, and if you

think of it, perhaps, you will agree that the rule which has most

exceptions is, on the whole, likely to be the truest, and nearly

always has references to the most facts. The fewer the facts

44 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

the easier it is to make a rule about them, or, to use an analogy

invented by the late Professor W. K. Clifford, it is simpler to

put a room in order when it contains little furniture than

when it contains much furniture. Or, again, if you have only

ten books you may classify them without trouble, bat to

adequately arrange a library of 10,000 books is a very different

matter. We should, therefore, not be content to accept the

perfect all-explaining theory without a thorough investiga-

tion of the facts to which it pertains ; in other words, be wary

of the obvious. Nothing could be more obvious than that the

sun goes round the earth, but for all that it does not.

There is still another pitfall in the path of natural history,

and that is the want of precise definition of scientific terms.

Thus, for example, the voluminous literature which has

appeared dealing with the inheritance of acquired characters

is to a large extent the result of the elasticity of the single

term ‘‘acquired.”’

Herbert Spenser’s admirable phrase ‘functionally pro-

duced modifications ”? had been, it would seem, lost sight of.

Then, again, much confusion has existed among biologists

whose interests were with questions of inheritance, owing to

the inability to perceive the difference between a statement

which applies to masses and a statement which applies to

individuals, and also to the want of distinction between a

statistical and a physiological law.

Progress has more than once been hindered by the want of

investigation of the common sense interpretation of things.

Thus, for a lengthy period every one was quite sure that bodies

of different weight, if dropped, would fall at different rates.

It stands to reason, of course, that if you drop a ball of iron

and a wooden door handle at the same moment from a point

of some elevation, the ball of iron will reach the bottom first ;

and that is what everybody thought till Galileo took the

trouble to drop a few articles from the top of the leaning tower

of Pisa, thereby proving everybody to be wrong.

Perhaps I cannot do better in this connection than to quote

that brilliant investigator, Mr. A. D. Darbishire. He says,

in conclusion to an argument, ‘“‘ The cifference between

expectation based on this law (he is referring to a certain law

NATURE OF INTERPRETATION, 45

of hereditary) and the accurate knowledge of what actually

takes place ........ is the same as the difference between

common sense and science, and the same as the difference

between that which stands to reason and that which rests

on evidence.”

The progressive attitude in natural science is that of

scepticism, and most particularly should we guard against the

misuse of the preconceived idea. As a stimulus to further

work it is useful; as a line of tentative investigation it is

invaluable ; but as a guiding principle in inquiry it is to be

heartily condemned.

Generally, I think, we are more interested in proving our

theory right than in proving it wrong. Or, to state this

differently, our real object in studying natural phenomena

is often enough the pleasure of seeing how beautifully they fit

in to our interpretation of them, rather than the knowledge

of how our interpretation fits the facts.

Having made as good a theory as we can, we should

endeavour to disprove it, for then, indeed, are we aiming at

truth and not at romance.

B—THE NATURE OF INTERPRETATION.

In the first part of my Paper I attempted to how that our

methods of studying Nature are sometimes open to the objec-

tion that, inasmuch as we may confuse description with

interpretation, we are liable to draw very wrong conclusions ;

that this is the result of the very human desire to prove our

point of view. Ideally, theory should not be trusted till all

the facts bearing upon it have been collected, and all the

exceptions to the apparent rule appreciated. We should

always be careful to see that we are not led into any looseness

of statement or ambiguity where technical terms are concerned.

We should always approach the problems of Nature with a

perfectly open mind, being ready at any moment to throw

over our most treasured theory in favour of another, or to

adapt it as may be necessary when occasion requires.

In this part of my Paper we shall endeavour to understand

what we are actually doing when we interpret Nature, and

46 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

to what extent our methods and re-ults justify the common

sense conclusion that we are gradually building up a true and

lasting picture of the universe to which we belong.

We have seen that description is often in error and theory

inadequate, and as even the great empirical laws of Nature

constantly require revision as knowledge advances, we cannot,

I think, escape from the conclusion that much of our inter-

pretation is probably not right, and some of it certainly wrong ;

that none of it is final. We have not yet touched the absolute.

The question as to whether we ever can touch the absolute

is, perhaps, a metaphysical rather than a merely scientific one,

and we shall not deal with it at any length here ; but it is a

matter of importance for every student of Nature to inquire

whether or no his work is tending towards this ideal end.

The question arises, Does our work as naturalists help us to

see deeper into Nature, or not ?

If you think of it you will see that a complete description

is an explanation, that when you have described everything

there is to describe about an object or a phenomenon there is

nothing more to be said about it. Interpretation, therefore, is

theoretical description. Now, the completeness of our descrip-

tion of an object varies directly as what may be called our

“closeness” to the object concerned. You cannot describe

the texture of a rock from a distance of half a mile ; indeed, a

petrologist will seldom allow you to name a rock until you

have peered into and through its component grains with a

microscope. ‘That description really does mean the coming

into closer contact is to be seen in the fact that all descriptions

hark back to the ultra-microscopic, about which, unfortunately,

we can only reason and never see. If you attempt to explain

the formation of worlds, you are driven back to the contem-

plation of chemical atoms and ultimately to electrons, or

whatever is considered as the most primitive step in the

series at the time. The explanation of inheritance turns upon

the presence or absence of unit characters supposed to be

stored up in the chromosomes in some unknown way. Even

the investigations of psychological phenomena when carried

out to their legitimate lengths send you back to the minutiz

of things, and so with all explanation. We describe till we

NATURE OF INTERPRETATION. 47

can see no more, and then, according to certain rules, we

invent. It is because of the necessity of invention that the

very useful little interrogative ““ Why” comes into being.

Strictly speaking, there is no such question as Why ; the only

question to science is How. And I venture to think that were

complete description a possibility to us, the question Why would

appear as meaningless as it really is. True interpretation,

then, is complete description, and the completeness of descrip-

tion is dependent on the closeness of contact. Now, the more

we interpret Nature on the true lines, the deeper may we be

said to see into phenomena. But to what extent can we

interpret on the true lines? Consider that clock for one

moment. You can describe its actions from where you sit with

considerable ease ; you may calculate that the bigger hand

moves twelve times as fast as the smaller ; further investiga-

tions may show you that this 12 : 1 ratio is only approximate,

and that the clock is running slow, or fast, compared with

another clock, as the case may be. Then you might theorize

about the works of the clock, and attempt to decide why it

is that one hand moves faster than the other, but if you really

wanted to discover how it worked, you would wait till the

librarian had gone out to lunch and take the clock to pieces ;

with luck you might succeed in reconstructing the clock

before the librarian returned ; in any case you would have

handled the various wheels and springs, and would be able

after your careful study to describe just how the clock works,

and considered as a piece of mechanism you could describe it

perfectly. Now, this is because the mechanism of the clock

bears a certain definite relation to yourself in point of size, for

the reason that it is of human manufacture. But do we ever

see the mechanism of Nature ? Surely there is but one answer

to this question, and that is No ; most decidedly No.

In the case of the library clock we need not bother with

interpretation, for under favourable circumstances we can

examine its works and describe its workings in detail. Not

so with Nature. Nature has a special watcher for her clock,

who never by any chance goes out to tiffin. He sits under the

greater chronometer of the Universe, which was wound up at

the beginning of time, and goes on merrily ticking off the

48 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

zeons of eternity, and displaying on its wonderful dial all that

ever was and is. But nobody can read all the strange figures

and signs of the great chronometer face, and a great deal of

study is required to understand any of them. If we would

know whether Mars is inhabited, or to what extent the prin-

ciple of relativity is applicable to gravitation, or anything else

about the Universe, we are answered by the rooted watcher in

those ominous words of Winifred Pryce, “ Just look at the

clock.”

All that we can see, and hear, and feel constitute the great

dial of Nature. The limit of human sensation is the ever-

present watcher, who prevents us from meddling with the

works. Improved instruments enable us to observe the dial

with greater ease than was formerly the case, and have, indeed,

revealed hordes of previously unsuspected hieroglyphs upon it.

We are getting to know and read the clock more accurately as

days go on, and we are better able as time proceeds to formulate

theories about the works. But, of course, formulating theories

about works is one thing, seeing and handling works is quite

another.

I would like at this point to call your attention to a diagram

invented by Mr. Darbishire to illustrate this position :—

I E P

Let E P represent the distance between the eye and the

phenomenon, when the latter is just so far away that it can

be merely perceived and nothing more, as 10 units of linear

measurement ; and EK I between the eye and that part of the

brain which imagines (whatever it may be) 2 units. The inter-

pretation of the clock (the real one in the library) consists

in decreasing the line E P by dividing it by 1,000, say. But

what about the interpretation of a natural phenomenon ?

Does it consist in the decrease of the length E P? No; it

consists in increasing it by the length of the lime EI. So that

whilst we think that the more we interpret a phenomenon the

more we are getting at close quarters with it, as a matter of

fact, the inverse relation is what really obtains. If we admit

that interpretation consists in going beyond the limits of our

vision, we have to admit that what we do on the other side of

NATURE OF INTERPRETATION. 49

that limit is not seeing, but imagining. And really it is tacitly

conceded that this is so. For when a particularly ingenious

theory which, we think, enables us to come into close quarters

with a phenomenon is brought forward, our praise is not for

the marvellousness of the mechanism discovered, but for the

ingenuity of the brain which conceived it. We praise Mendel,

not for the mechanism of segregation ; how could we? We

have never seen it. We say, ‘‘ What intellect!” and not

“What works!’ Moreover, it is easily proved that this is

so, for if interpretation really meant a making out of works,

there should be greater unanimity in the sphere of interpretation

than in that of description, because the closer we can look,

the more easily can we see. Thus, I think, we must admit that

there is all the difference in the world between discovery of

the mechanism of a human invention and the propounding of

a theory to account for a mechanism of Nature.

Inasmuch as our interpretation of Nature consists in in-

creasing the length of the line E P by the length of the line E I,

instead of shortening the line E P as in the case of our clock,

it follows that there must always be a theoretical doubt

concerning the correctness of our ultimate conclusions about

Nature. So long as we stick to observation we are safe enough,

but the moment we begin to explain things we fina ourselves

on treacherous ground, and the most we can say about any bit :

of Nature’s mechanism is, “ This is how +t might work, and

possibly how it does.”

It may be objected, of course, that although we never see

into Nature because the mechanism of phenomena is invisible

to us, yet we can deduce the mechanism from its effects with

considerable accuracy, and the proof of our accuracy lies in

the fact that the application of our deductions to untried

circumstances has often proved satisfactory in every way.

Thus, Adams and Leverrier independent!y predicted the

existence of a new planet, and on pointing their telescopes to

that particular part of the heavens where the planet was

calculated to be, they were rewarded, as we all know, by the

discovery of Neptune. Graham, reflecting on the consequences

of the theory of the polarization of light waves, predicted the

occurrence of certain optical effects within a crystal, and these

7 6(7)14

50 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

on investigation were found to exist. The observation of a

certain dark line in the sun’s spectrum led Sir Norman (then

Mr.) Lockyer to predict the existence of a new element in the

sun’s atmosphere; many years later another investigator

discovered that element (helium) on earth. These are among

the classical examples of scientific deduction.

First, it must be recollected that a wrong theory is often

capable of extended application, and predicted consequences of

that theory may be found to coincide with experience. The

theory of diminishing ancestral contributions is as old as the

human race itself, and has worked so well that no one thought

it necessary to call attention to the theory at all till the

twentieth century. It is now held by competent authorities

to be totally inadequate. Again, predictions were based on

Newton’s corpuscular theory of light, and the truth of the

theory was held to be proved when these predictions were

verified. Nowadays the corpuscular theory is only of

historical interest.

There can be no kind of a question, of course, that the more

we investigate and theorize about Nature the more utilitarian

do our theories become, and the larger grows the field of fact

which they are capable of explaining.

In a word, the truer do they become from our own stand-

point. Thus, a theory is true in proportion as it is applicable.

So that if we say that the electro-magnetic theory of light is

the true interpretation of certain manifestations, all we can

logically mean is that it is the most capable and comprehensive

guess at the mechanism of those manifestations which has, up

to the present, been put forward. Whether there is or is not

anything behind visible Nature corresponding to our concep-

tion of ether waves is quite another question, and one to

which we cannot possibly give an absolutely definite answer.

We may think there is, or we may think there is not ; or, again,

we may express a philosophical doubt about it. At the best

we can only guess at the mechanism of Nature : we can never

look into Nature and see its works.

It might be difficult to prove that there is anything behind

phenomena at all, but there is surely a very strong presumption

that there is something there ; indeed, in the absence cf evidence

NATURE OF INTERPRETATION. 51

to the contrary, this presumption amounts almost to a cer-

tainty ; no one in practice doubts it fora moment. It does not

fall within the limits of this Paper, or within the ability of the

author, to discuss the supposed nature of things in the back of

beyond. Seeing, however, that there is at present no logical

escape from the conclusion that there is a ‘ back of beyond ”

in which things happen, and that some at least of those

happenings correspond in some sort of way with our inter-

pretation of them, we are tempted to ask whether there are

any grounds for supposing that all the happenings in the

unknown find expression in the material world, and if not, can

we conceive of any reason why they should not ?

To go back for a moment to the theory of light. Physicists

interpret light as a certain kind of wave motion ina hypothetical

ether, while physiologists tell us that light is sensation of

which we are capable under certain conditions. Compounding

these two statements together we arrive at the important con-

clusion that there is a something which transmits vibratory

motion, that this motion excites the sensitive layer of the

retina, and is transmitted by the optic nerve to the brain, where-

on the sensation of light is experienced. Investigations go to

show that only a very limited number of these vibrations are

capable of exciting the retina, and that the differences of

velocity, &c., which exist within those small limits, produce in

the brain the different colour sensations known to us. But

on the authority of evidence it is asserted that there are

wave vibrations of too high and too low a velocity to give us

the sensations of light, that the number of them is in all

probability enormous, as compared with the very few vibra-

tions which affect our eyes. A very similar case is made out

for the sensation of sound, only here the wave vibrations are

transmitted through matter, not through ether, and are of a

somewhat different nature. Further, we are told, again upon

evidence, that all our sensations reach us through the medium

of the nerves, and that the cause of sensation is in all cases

primarily wave motion of one kind or another, always very

limited in its range. Thus, to speak rather inaccurately, but

in a way which will be readily understood, it may be said that

there are sounds we never hear, tastes we never experience,

52 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

touch sensations we never know, and sights we never see.

And this because our susceptibility to wave vibrations are

so excessively limited. Suppose now our susceptibility be

suddenly increased ten-fold, the material world would be

instantly and miraculously changed beyond all recognition :

one cannot even guess what the new world would be lke ;

we have not the faintest idea ; all that we do know is that the

universe would be grander and fuller in every sense of the

words than it is even now, and our conceptions of Nature’s

mechanism would be absolutely changed. But there is no

reason to suppose that the limit of the theoretically knowable

is to be reached by multiplying all that is known by so low a

number as 10; indeed, I think most of us feel that the theoreti-

cally knowable is out of all proportion to the known. The

relation of a pimple to a mountain is probably a very inade-

quate comparison in this connection.

What, then, is the conclusion we must draw from the accepted

facts of natural science? Why, surely, this. Our universe

exists by virtue of the limits of our senses. The world, as we

know it, is the world of man created by man, not of his own

desire, but in response to some other power than the human

will. But it will be objected : you first set out to show that

our scientific theories are at best guesses at the truth, and yet

you do not hesitate to found a very vital conclusion upon

them. My answer is that we have arrived at this conclusion

from a perusal of the wave theory, and, so far as our ultimate

conclusion is concerned, it does not matter one jot whether the

wave theory is the true interpretation of phenomena or not.

The point is that if we believe, as I think we are justified in

believing, that there is something in the back of beyond which

somehow corresponds to our interpretation of it, then we see

that, whatever that something is, it is the starting point of our

sensations ; and our want of receptibility to this same some-

thing defines a limit to our experience. We have arrived, tken,

at the assumption that there is some definite correspondence

between the phenomena of Nature as observed by us, and the

mechanism of Nature which is supposed to lie behind those

phenomena. We shall be agreed, I think, that this assump-

tion is not illogical or unjustified, and that working out the

NATURE OF INTERPRETATION. 53

consequences of this assumption in a logical manner we may

arrive at a theory about the natural world which, if somewhat

astonishing, is capable of abolishing many difficulties ; for

instance, in the light of it, we need not ask where is reality,

what is truth ? We need not be sceptical, as some of our con-

temporaries are, concerning the existence of other things than

mind, and if we follow its consequences still further, we may

find this theory still more adequate. But, as I said in the

first part of my Paper, we should not accept the perfect all-

explaining theory without a thorough investigation of the

facts to which it pertains. These are the facts which we as

members of the Ceylon Natural History Society are particularly

interested. It has not been my object to construct from these

a pretty conclusion for your amusement, but to suggest what

appear to me reasonable lines of procedure, and to point out

where these same lines may possibly lead you.

54 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

ON THE OCCURRENCE OF PIGMY IMPLEMENTS

IN CEYLON.

By C. Harttey, M.A.,

Principal of the Royal College, Colombo.

P a Paper read before the Ceylon Natural History Society

in May, 1913, I gave a brief account of the stone imple-

ments of Ceylon, in which I reserved consideration of the

so-called pigmy implements for a later occasion. The study

of the Stone Age in this country is itself of recent date, and

the identification of pigmies was not completed until the year

1912. Before that date however the Doctors Sarasin in

their excellent work “‘ Die Steinzeit auf Ceylon,” published

in 1908, had illustrated several stones for which they suggested

tentatively a pigmy or (as named on the Continent) a Tardé-

noisian origin ; and the late Mr. John Pole had in his collection

some sixty specimens, now in the Colombo Museum, which

he was unfortunately unable to identify.

My own acquaintance with pigmy implements was until

recently almost non-existent ; but having found a few stones

in Ceylon which strongly reminded me of what I had seen in

England, I sent a few in 1912 to the Rev. R. A. Gatty, who

has collected very large numbers of them in Lincolnshire, and

who, until his lamented death in March of this year, was one

of the authorities on the subject. He replied that my

specimens were undoubtedly pigmies, and prophesied that

they would shortly be discovered in considerable quantities,

a prediction which was abundantly verified the next year.

To begin with a short survey of the pigmy question in

other lands, I may say that there is no division of the stone-age

manufacture which presents so many problems still unsolved.

It is only in comparatively recent years that attention has

been directed to these minute and puzzling objects, which

had previously escaped notice by reason of their insignificant

OCCURRENCE OF PIGMY IMPLEMENTS IN CEYLON. 55

dimensions. In the course however of the last thirty years

a@ number of spots have been discovered in widely separated

lands where these implements occur, sometimes in very large

numbers and in almost precisely similar forms and _ sizes.

From a recent publication by the Lancashire and Cheshire

Antiquarian Society I learn that pigmies have been discovered

at ten places at least in the British Isles, at several in France

and Belgium, in Southern Spain, in North and South Africa,

and in two localities in India, namely, Banda District and

the Vindhya Hills. I have also seen illustrations of them

as occurring in Australia, and I have in my own collection

about sixty specimens which were sent to me by a friend

from Uganda. It is probable that, as the eyes of antiquaries

grow more accustomed to these minute objects, they will be

found all over the world, though possibly in stations widely

separated from each other. As regards the localities where

they occur, in Great Britain they are often discovered in

sandy and desolate spots, but have also been found on high

ground in Lancashire under ten feet of peat and on the sea-

shore at Hastings in heaps of prehistoric refuse known as

kitchen middens. In France and Belgium, besides being

found on the surface, they have been brought to light in

caves ; and by their position it has been proved that they

belong to the end of the paleolithic or the beginning of the

neolithic period.

It must not however be too hastily assumed that all pigmy

implements are to be assigned to the same date. They

probably represent a stage of progress which most or all races

passed through ; and it is almost self-evident that the more

backward nations were living under paleolithic conditions for

long periods after the more intelligent had attained to the

neolithic stage ; and I would remind you that even to-day

the Australian savage breaks up beer bottles and telegraph

insulators to manufacture his primitive spear heads.

Nor is it at all necessary to assume that pigmy implements

imply a diminutive race. If ever we reach a complete under-

standing of the uses to which these singular instruments were

put, we shall probably find that they were capable of employ-

ment by full-sized human beings. Lastly, it is unnecessary to

56 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

suppose that similarity of implements proves identity of race.

Stone tools from all parts of the world offer a general similarity

of types; and it is likely that the invention of a new and

serviceable implement would be communicated gradually to

all accessible quarters of the world, or that the same type

would be independently evolved to meet a similar need.

With regard to the types of the pigmy tools discovered in

so many and distant parts of the world, it is remarkable how

closely they resemble each other both in size and in form,

whether the material be flint as in Hurope, jasper and chal-

cedony as in India, obsidian as in Uganda, or quartz as in

Ceylon. In all lands there are four main types of them :—

(1) The crescentic, which is curved and moon-shaped.

(2) The angular, which takes the form of an equilateral or

scalene triangle.

(3) The pointed, which is generally long and slightly

curved.

(4) The rhomboidal, or four-sided, which seems to be

almost unknown in Ceylon, and which I believe to be

a variation of the crescentic.

In addition, there are found other and universally known

types, such as the round and hollow scraper, the blade, the

chisel, and the arrowhead ; but these are almost invariably

to be distinguished from the parallel neolithic series by their

extreme smallness.

A very large number of guesses have been made at the uses

to which the so-called geometric patterns may have been

applied.

It has been suggested that they are arrowheads ; single

barbs of spears, harpoons, and arrows ; fishhooks ; tattooing

and surgical instruments; teeth of multiple scrapers,

carders, saws, or sickles ; scrapers; borers ; blades, and even

ornaments. I may confess at once that I for my part have

not penetrated the mystery. I can see many uses to which

some of them may have been put. I thought at one time

that the crescentic or lunate type might have been used as an

arrowhead mounted obliquely and presenting a single barb ;

but I cannot solve the problem how they should be fixed in

OCCURRENCE OF PIGMY IMPLEMENTS IN CEYLON. 57

the arrow shaft. I have numerous lunates which could not

possibly be so mounted; and I have found a number of

normal arrowheads, exceedingly small, mingled with the

pigmy specimens below the surface. I think that several

types, including the lunate, may have been used as hooks,

not for fish only, but for birds. In Bandarawela; where the

great bulk of my specimens were found, it is well known that

fish are scarce and small. In England at the present day it

is a@ common poacher’s trick to take pheasants on a hook

baited with beans ; and I have seen a statement in Charles

Kingsley’s works that deer used once to be caught in the

New Forest with an apple suspended on a hook. I believe

that no certainty will be attained until either we find some

backward race using similar tools, or until more or less com-

plete sets are found in caves with their shafts or mountings

intact. I do not despair of such a discovery being made in

Ceylon, where there are innumerable caves awaiting explo-

ration.

I proceed now to give an account of my own researches.

At the beginning of 1913 I had accumulated about a dozen

pigmies from various widely separated hill districts. In

April of that year I rented a house on the top of the main

ridge overlooking Bandarawela, which for want of a better

_ name I have called Bungalow Hill. As all my Ceylon readers

know, Bandarawela is a small inland town at an elevation of

4,000 feet, situated in a grassy, undulating country, entirely

free from continuous jungle, with a soil composed of gneiss,

quartz, and felspar, generally decomposed. Outcrops of

hard rock are scarce, and it is certain from my investigations

that the bulk of the material used for implements, whether

of pigmy or neolithic type, consisted of brook pebbles, which

were carried to the hilltops and there broken up. On

examining the hill on which I lived, I found at once a large

number of pigmy implements scattered on the surface ; and

in the course of a few weeks.I visited every hilltop within a

radius of several miles, finding plentiful neolithic remains on

the surface and occasional pigmies. It was however only on

four hills, all in the immediate neighbourhood of the town,

that I discovered pigmies in profusion. On three of the four

8 6(7)14

58 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

pigmies of all types and sizes have been found ; on the fourth

none but large and massive specimens, usually lunate. The

material of all the specimens but three was quartz, generally

white or clouded for the larger, transparent for the smaller.

The three exceptions were of chert, one lunate, one angular,

(apparently an arrowhead), one pointed. Having collected

several hundred specimens from the surface, I procured a

“ mamoty ” and a quarter-inch sieve and proceeded to dig.

After a few trials I found that the hill which I have named

Church Hill was incomparably the richest. It is a ridge

some 300 yards long, rising steeply on all sides, branching

into several minor spurs, and separated from Bungalow Hill

by a deep and narrow valley. The Doctors Sarasin examined

this spot, illustrated it with a photograph, and alluded to the

great quantity of neolithic remains on its surface ; but they

unluckily overlooked the numerous pigmy specimens which

abounded on it when I first examined it. I have found

pigmies on all parts of its topmost ridge, but the only portion

which yielded good results to digging was a level saddle

between the two highest points running roughly from south-

west to north-east. It is certain that a considerable manu-

factory of pigmies existed here, although there is no material

available near the spot ; and the whole remains were most

fortunately covered with a capping of earth varying in thick-

ness from an inch or two in the centre to six or eight inches

a few yards away. Mr. E. J. Wayland, of the Mineralogical

Survey, has kindly reported on this earth cap, and he informs

me that without any doubt it is composed of the rocks decaying

in situ, and has been deposited over the remains by the

labours of worms, ants, and other insects. In the course of

the months of April, 1913 and 1914, I excavated an area

ninety-three feet long, with an average of about fifteen feet

in width to a depth of six or eight inches, passed it all through

the sieve and afterwards through my fingers. The work was

extremely severe, but my gains were in proportion ; in 1913,

with the invaluable assistance of two Tamil servants, I secured

from all quarters 3,687 specimens ; in 1914, when the richest

area had already been denuded, I had to be content with

‘1,081. These figures constitute easily a world’s record in

OCCURRENCE OF PIGMY IMPLEMENTS IN CEYLON. 59

quantity, and the implements, I believe, furnish another in

quality ; for I have in my collection stones of a beauty of

workmanship and material such as I have never heard of

elsewhere.

It was a disappointment to me that no remains were

discoverable except the imperishable quartz and chert. I

found no pottery, bone, horn, ivory, or wood, except innumer-

able fragments of charcoal from ancient camp fires. The

last has however some significance, as proving that these

ancient hunters, who were almost certainly the ancestors of

our Veddas, were acquainted with fire ; and in addition it

seems to me to indicate that their remains are not of a very

remote date, for otherwise the charcoal embedded in porous

soil would have been absorbed and have left no trace behind.

The freshness of the material and workmanship also points to

a period which may be described as neolithic rather than

paleolithic, in so far as these words have any meaning in

Ceylon. The cap of earth overlying the remains was a stiff,

reddish, sandy loam, retentive of moisture and free from

stones ; very occasionally it contained a chip of quartz or a

fragment of charcoal. Beneath it extended the layer of

chips, implements, and charcoal, rarely exceeding two inches

in thickness and mixed with coarser grit and gravel which

the insects and worms had failed to eject. The fragments of

quartz are frequently spotted with a deposit of iron oxide,

which can only be removed by scraping with a knife. Under

the chips came undisturbed yellowish decayed gneiss of which

the body of the hill is composed. The richest deposits of

implements were always nearest the top, where I have recovered

as many as eighty in a day, though the thickest layer of chips

was generally a little way down the hill. Of the two slopes,

the eastward was very much more prolific than the westward,

and had a thicker coating of earth. The deposit was termi-.

nated on the ridge at the north-eastern end by an outcrop

of gneiss, at the south-western by a gradual rise, where

the layer became thinner and ran out in bands till it ended

altogether.

_ Ihave dealt at some length with the Church Hill, because

it was by far the richest ground examined ; but the other

60 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

three elevations yielded their hundreds, where the Church

Hill gave its thousands. The most important of these is the

Bungalow Hill, a ridge of about half a mile in length, somewhat

higher than Church Hill, which it overlooks at its western end,

and embracing . everal rounded eminences and spurs. I found

specimens both on and below the surface on all the crests and

ridges, but in greatest number on a gently rounded elevation

about a hundred vards scuth-east of the highest point. There

is unluckily no earth cap at this spot, though the two highest

crests are well covered.

The third hill, which I have named Dhoby Hillock, is an

almost imperceptible knoll, overlooked by Church Hill, on the

Kttampitiya path. It is not above fifty yards long, but has

yielded a very large quantity of pigmies, all from the surface,

as it has no earth cap.

The fourth and last, which I have named Ambalam Hill,

lies on the eastern side of the path leading from the

‘““ambalam,”’ or travellers’ shelter, on the Welimada road, and

is parallel to the burial ground close to the western flank of

Church Hill. It has no earth cap, but I recovered a number

of pigmies from pockets of detritus along its eastern side.

The specimens were not numerous, and werg all large and

solid.

Tam quite unable to suggest reasons for these four hills being

selected as manufactories in preference to any others in the

neighbourhood. None of them contain material in any shape.

All have access to water, but are at least two miles from, and

at a considerable height above, a fishable stream. The first

two are large, commanding, and defensible ; the last two are

insignificant in size and overlooked by higher elevations. The

conditions of the four are so mutually contradictory, that I

incline to believe that the occupants changed their ground

according to seasonal or other vicissitudes.

As regards the remains discovered by me, I have divided

them into eighteen types, of which I annex a table later

giving the numbers of each found by me in 1914. In the

case of the much more numerous finds of 1913, I regret that

I omitted to keep a census. Before discussing the types in

detail, I desire to call attention to the very important difference

OCCURRENCE OF PIGMY IMPLEMENTS IN CEYLON. 61

which exists between the chipping of the pigmies and that of

other implements. In the case of the latter, the object of

chipping is to shape the tool and to give it a sharp edge or

point ; in the case of the former the object is, after shaping

the tool, to blunt the part so treated and to do away with its

sharpness. With pigmies, in fact, the sharp edge or point is

the part left untrimmed, and the chipping on the back is at

right angles to the plane of the implement and so totally

destructive of an edge. I have however noted in the table

that ten per cent. of the total of pigmies from Bandarawela

have had their cutting edges trimmed, sometimes to secure a

symmetrical shape, sometimes apparently to obviate sharpness

on both sides alike. This work occurs only in seven of the

types, and is far the commonest in the case of curved and

straight points. I have also noted that in six types there is

no edge at all, what corresponds to the edge in similar tools

being square and solid. Again, it will be observed that the

proportion of square-edged implements is high in curved

points. I regard this as significant, because the curved points

are very suitable for use as hooks or throttles; and it is

obvious that a hook without a cutting edge is less likely to be

torn out than a sharp one. I may mention incidentally that

throttles of wood are used in Ceylon to the present day for

catching crocodiles.

I divide my finds into the following types :—

(1) Crescentic or LuNATE vary in length from one inch

and a quarter to five-sixteenths of an inch, in breadth from

half an inch to less than one-eighth, and in thickness from

seven to little more than one-sixteenth. They present an

infinity of sub-types, long and short, broad and narrow, thin

and thick. They are carefully trimmed the whole way along

the back.

(2) Semi-LunatE resemble the above in all particulars of

length, breadth, and thickness, except that their butts are

left untrimmed, possibly with a view to hafting. They very

frequently contain the bulb of percussion.

(3) IRREGULAR have general affinities with lunates, but

show extraordinary diversities of outline. The sharp edges

are often concave.

62 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

(4) RHOMBOIDAL appear to be lunates with the curved

back truncated. I possess only three: two from Bandarawela,

one from Dolosbage.

(5) ANGULAR are often equilateral, but are sometimes

constituted by a straight sharp edge and two curves meeting

at a point. The scalene form, which is so common in Europe,

appears to be entirely wanting in Ceylon.

(6) D-sHAPED vary in length from seven-eighths to little

more than a quarter of an inch. They are akin to semi-

lunate, but are broad and squat and solid. They often

contain the bulb.

(7) BraKkep are of two types: the one for upward move-

ments, the other for downward. In some cases the butt

appears to have been trimmed for hafting.

(8) Curvep Pornts, the most numerous of all types, vary

in length from three-quarters to five-sixteenths of an inch.

They are generally solid and are fashioned with exquisite

skill. The butt is generally neglected.

(9) Srraicur Points seem to be a variety of the preceding.

(10) Dritt Points (figures 890, 891, 892, 893, 900, 901,

1503) ; Professor Henry Balfour, of the Pitt Rivers Museum,

Oxford, has suggested to me the identification of these

implements. They are straight and roughly rectangular in

section. None were brought to light in 1914. The first six

were found in 1913, four below and two on the surface ; the

seventh was found on the surface at Hatton.

(11) Borers are generally triangular and thin. The work

in which they were employed must have been very delicate.

Almost every one which I possess would infallibly splinter if

applied to wood or bone.

(12) ARROWHEADS are generally of irregular lozenge shape

with truncated base. They vary in length between eleven-

sixteenths and three-eighths of an inch. Their diminution

in breadth towards the butt does not amount to notching,

but was intended no doubt to facilitate their insertion in.

the shaft. No. 1,386 is so far unique in Ceylon, displaying

one well-developed barb, but no stem.

(13) BuapEs are flakes of crystal blunted by characteristic

chipping along the back and with untrimmed convex edge.

OCCURRENCE OF PIGMY IMPLEMENTS IN CEYLON. 63

(14) CutsEts differ only in size from neolithic patterns.

(15) HonLtow ScRAPERS are scarce, and some show very

small apertures.

(16) Rounp Scrapers are plentiful, as always. They are

generally smaller than neolithic patterns, my minutest specimen

measuring three-eighths by one-quarter of an inch. This year

however I recovered one from below the surface measuring

one inch and three-quarters by one inch and five-sixteenths.

This is an unusually large scraper for Ceylon, even among

neoliths.

(17) RouNDED PEBBLES OF QUARTZ, used as hammer stones,

are smaller than those usually found among neolithic remains,

where they are exceptionally plentiful in many sizes.

(18) RounDED PEBBLES OF GNEISS are found not uncom-

monly in all sizes among neolithic remains on hilltops, where

they could not possibly have been deposited by natural

causes. They are often in an advanced stage of disintegration

and rarely show signs of use. Besides the five recovered in

Bandarawela this year, | have previously found three speci-

mens in a cave many feet below the surface associated with

neolithic remains. Two were large and showed no traces of

use; the other was small and had lost both ends either by

hammering or by attrition. I think that either they were

used as rubbers, or that their softer material recommended

them as hammers for delicate work. The five recovered this

year were all small and two of them were lying side by side.

In completion of my statement I must make mention of the

immense quantities of chert fragments which are associated

with the pigmies, sometimes in the form of rude _ blocks,

sometimes in delicate chips and splinters. The material is

not known to exist in situ, but isolated boulders are found

in many parts of the Island, and rounded pebbles of chert

occur not uncommonly in streams. In view however of the

extreme rarity of chert implements of all patterns, it is

impossible at present to account for the abundance of this

rock among remains both of pigmy and neolithic type. It is

conceivable that it was used for striking sparks from iron

pyrites, which is found in parts of Ceylon, though I have not

met with it in stone-age stations. The modern Veddas are

64 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

acquainted with the mode of producing sparks from chert and

steel, but their usual method of procuring fire is by means of

the bow drill.

It will be observed that the list of implements discloses

some remarkable omissions. Nothing resembling an axe

has ever been found in Ceylon. There was besides no chopper

or heavy blade, no spearhead, saw, punch, or fabricator,

though the two last may have once existed in bone or horn.

There were no sling stones or throwing disks, nor any sign of

potboilers. It is probable that the earth cap has preserved

for us the complete armoury of this ancient race in so far as

it was composed of imperishable materials ; and it is surprising

to find so total an absence of formidable weapons in a land

which must have abounded with elephants, bears, leopards,

and buffaloes, and in an age when these had probably little

terror of man. It may be conjectured either that the insigni-

ficant pigmies are the disjecta membra of some weapon of

power, or that their makers maintained an inglorious existence

by preying upon the lesser creatures and trusting to flight

from the formidable. The latter supposition receives some

support from the researches of the Doctors Sarasin in the

Nilgala cave, in which they found only the scantiest remains

of buffalo, pig, and bear, nothing of elephant or leopard, very

abundant snail shells, and a moderate quantity of deer and

monkey. In my own excavation of a cave near Balangoda,

besides innumerable snail shells, I could only identify bones

of monkey and mouse deer. In neither cave were remains

found of snakes, fishes, or birds, although the Veddas eat the

two last, while they are said to reject the first. The same

absence of large and aggressive weapons was noticeable in the

caves so far explored. The few bone and horn implements

recovered pointed to peaceful rather than destructive uses,

and give no warrant for believing that an armoury of lethal

weapons of perishable material has been absorbed in the soil

of Bandarawela. The situation must therefore be faced that

this race relied for their existence, in the midst of powerful

and ferocious beasts, on a handful of pointed fragments of

quartz, whose purpose is still an enigma to all inquirers.

Fire was no doubt a great protection, and the poisons with

OCCURRENCE OF PIGMY IMPLEMENTS IN CEYLON. 65

which Ceylon abounds may have contributed their share to

human security ; but the leopard, the bear, the wild boar,

and the buffalo even at the present day demand short and

sharp measures instantly and forcefully applied, nor can

immunity be obtained by flight, concealment, or avoidance.

The Vedda of to-day, in spite of occasional catastrophes,

relies with good reason for his safety upon his powerful bow

and steel axe. His predecessors could hardly have maintained

themselves without a weapon for combats at close quarters

in addition to the light arrows evidenced by the absurdly

diminutive arrowheads discovered beneath the soil; and in

my Opinion circumstances demand the supposition of spears

and perhaps weightier arrow shafts, of which some pigmy

types may have formed the barbs.

In conclusion I will add a few remarks on the question

whether pigmy and neolithic types were simultaneously used

by the same race, a theory which was strongly combated by

the late Mr. Gatty. In Ceylon, wherever I have found pigmy

specimens on the surface, I have also found neoliths, though

the converse by no means holds. On certain hills however

near Nawalapitiya, where both types are found associated, I

noted several specimens of pigmies, which by their worn and

frosted appearance seemed to postulate a greater antiquity

than the neoliths. I have not observed this contrast else-

where, and as an isolated fact it may be accidental. I held

till recently the opinion that the two types were coeval, and

in digging at Bandarawela below surfaces richly strewn with

pigmies and neoliths, I expected to find confirmation of my

view. 1am obliged to confess that I have not done so. In

all cases where identical types of implements from above and

below the surface can be compared, there is no question that

the former is on an average considerably larger than the

latter. The only marked exception is the large round scraper

from the pigmy layer already alluded to. I also picked up

on the surface of Bungalow Hill a single arrowhead ; it is

significant that this differs, not only in size, but in type

from any recovered from below ground. I do not attempt

at present to draw any hard and fast conclusion; but the

evidence before me inclines me now to believe that the two

9 6(7)14

types are separated in time.

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

If ever this supposition proves

to be correct, it will be time to consider whether their makers

were or were not of the same race, for which there is at present

no evidence available.

Besides the great deposits at Bandarawela, pigmies have

now been found sparingly in the following localities, all of

which are in the hill country :—Diyatalawa ;. Haputale ;

Pattipola ; the Horton Plains ; Rillamulle and Kurundu-oya

estates in Maturata; Strathdon and Vellai-oya estates in

Hatton ; several estates in Maskeliya by Mr. Pole ; Donside,

Hindtord, and St. Clive estates in Nawalapitiya ; Kellie Group

in Dolosbage ; Ulapane estate ; Kalugama estate in Peradeniya ;

Gampolawatta estate in Gampola; Katugastota river bank ;

Wiltshire estate in Matale. [anticipate that with a little search

they will come to light in all parts of the Island, and that

here and there great manufactories will be discovered, similar

to the one at Bandarawela.

I suspect the existence of one

such close to the resthouse on the Horton Plains (7,200 feet),

where Mr. Cassie has already picked up several pigmies on

the surface, but which I have not had time to explore.

The

most important work to be done now is the excavation of

caves, to which I hope to turn my attention before long.

I annex a table of pigmy types found by me at Bandarawela

in 1914 :—

Types.

Lunate

Semi-lunate

Trregular

Rhomboidal

Angular

D-shaped

Beaked

Curved Points

Straight Points

Drill Points

Blanks

Uncertain

Sharp-

edged.

246

167

257

Square-

edged.

o ©}

corn w «a1

Trimmed-

edged.

Total.

fi (TAR betas el S [s. Angular |

(a C

00 | 1357 1264 1367 1368 528

( > DD Yo cced

at] 1359 SIS Fb 1358

ATO EOdEDHDD

1387 13383 1390 139 ke 139) 1K OS 1407 1392 M400 1446 49 14 JO

[7 Beakea |

oda TDC

Re es

656 648

7 if Straight Points | Points Ee

[bags

959 96! 96% 1h93 Ayy 93% 942 963 964 1270

355 1340 1335 371 573 372 207 210

3. Irregular.

354

4 -

rN sos ea.

460 4 34 478 Aho Ahl A58

2. Semi-Lunate

y |

690 687 734 1434 M3 UKSO Kg Kho

8. Curved Potnts

7549 768 777 778 1300 6 87S GF IZ

aaa

CES

—

ESS

8/4 815 822 823 826 838 846 853 363

| Ih Chisels ial

983 988

\ |

/001 1008 1010 1012 /017

16 Round Scraper 1014. 1015

/0238 1024 1034 /03] 10349 10/3

15 Hollow Scrapers

1062 /063 1064 1065 1066 1067

| EVE ere

MNNAAL

1373 137K 1377) =e ese 1382 1385 1386 902 1316 1277

10. an oe Points

(208 1209 1208

880 188 $32 883 88k 885 886

OCCURRENCE OF PIGMY IMPLEMENTS IN CEYLON. 67

Sharp- Square- Trimmed-

ayBe=- edged. edged. edged. Total:

ll. Borers es — Cs —- i. — 3

12. Arrowheads 56 —_ 2s — ae — ae 8

13. Blades wa — Pe — ee —— ss 4

14. Chisels te — Be, — cies — 2

15. Hollow Scrapers ‘eC ey sie 2

16. Round Serapers as — ae — wns — me 38

17. Quartz Pebbles Le — ee — ots — Be 2;

18. Gneiss Pebbles 4 — 25 —- fe — Se 5

Totaly ~: — — — 1,081

N.B.—Bevelled edges, which are fairly common, are reckoned as

sharp.

Notes TO THE ILLUSTRATIONS.

1. I have rejected photographic reproduction, because I

have seen that this process applied to quartz specimens is

inadequate to render detail. For confirmation see Dr.

Sarasin’s ‘‘ Steinzeit auf Ceylon.”

2. The figures attached to my Paper have been drawn with

the utmost care by Mr. G. M. Henry of the Colombo Museum,

to whom my best thanks are due. The stones are so far

accurately reproduced in their natural size that an implement

laid upon the drawing exactly covers it. It will be at once

perceived that this system implies an unavoidable incorrectness,

inasmuch as the thickness of the stone, sketched in by eye,

encroaches upon and so diminishes its actual breadth. I have

thought it better to put up with this designed inaccuracy than

to conceal the back from view altogether. Considerations of

space and labour preclude us from presenting each stone under

four aspects.

3. The last specimens figured, viz., Nos. 880 to 922, are

not from Ceylon; nor are they of quartz, but are of obsidian

from Uganda. They are inserted here partly for purposes oi

comparison, partly because, as far as I am aware, no similar

specimens have yet been described.

C,H.

68 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

REVIEW.

Some South Indian Insects.*

WE have just received from Mr. T. D. Chadwick, Director of

the Madras Agricultural Department, a copy of an interesting

volume by Mr. T. Bainbrigge Fletcher, R.N. (late of H. M.

Survey Ship “ Sealark”’), F.LS., F.E.S., F.Z.S., Imperial

Entomologist to the Government of India, and formerly

Government Entomologist, Madras, entitled “‘ Some South

Indian Insects and other Animals of importance considered

especially from an economic point of view,’’ which has been

issued by the Madras Government Press. The author

distinctly states that the volume has no pretensions to the

assumption of any status as a text book, and does not pretend

to do much more then provide a narrow end tortuous entrance

into the vast and almost untrodden field of insect life in

South India. However modest the writer himself may be in

this direction, we are sure that any one who peruses even

casually the 564 pages of the work will agree that it is much

more than the retiring author would have us believe. In

addition to a large amount of information, no less than fifty

splendidly coloured plates are provided, which have been

prepared from the original drawings at the Agricultural

Research Institute, Pusa. Most of these have been published

before, and it is to this fact that so large a number of coloured

plates are included in a book costing only six rupees, which

figure is not the least of the surprises in the way of good

value provided. The preliminary chapters give a general

account of the structure, habits, &c., of insects and insect

pests, which are necessarily brief, and, as the author says,

incomplete, as any one of these might be expanded into a

* «Some South Indian Insects,’ by T. Bainbrigge Fletcher, R.N.,

F.L.S., F.E.S., F.Z.8., Imperial Entomologist to the Government of

India; 8vo., Superintendent of the Government Press, Madras, 1914.

REVIEW. 69

whole volume by itself; while the various aspects of ento-

mology that have been omitted would form a companion

series of tomes. The arrangement and information given,

however, is such as will commend itself to a large number of

readers who delve into such works for the purpose of gaining

concise knowledge on the subjects in which they are interested,

and knowledge which can readily be assimilated. In the

succeeding and main portion of the book some ofthe more

important insects are considered, each being treated under

the head of references, distribution in South India, life history,

food plants, status from an economic point of view, and

control. Under the first heading the synonyms, which will

generally appeal only to entomologists, are limited to the

original description and the more important or accessible

references. Under the last heading only such control methods

are usually given as are generally efficacious, special methods

being often applicable to local conditions. In some cases

where no effective method has yet been found, the information

under this head is left blank or represented by a query mark.

Turning to the list of crop pests, Mr. Fletcher says that it is

not complete, and it must be understood that it cannot be

complete for very many years, if ever. Every month new

pests come to light, many of them altogether unknown by

name, and our knowledge of old pests is augmented. In

addition to the fine coloured plates already mentioned, no less

than 440 text figures are included, while the indexing is also

very complete. Nothing but praise can be found for the

work. As Mr. Fletcher says in his Preface, to any in search

of a distraction or a hobby, either to fill an idle hour or to

provide a welcome change of thought and occupation, the

study of insects may well be commended. Insects are always

with us, day and night, in the bungalow, at the office, or in

camp, and the field for observation of life histories and habit,

even of the commonest species, is absolutely boundless. If

this book, he remarks, lends aid to any whose tastes lie in

this direction, its aim will have been achieved. A_ brief

glance at the book is sufficient to prove the attractiveness of

the study, and the work itself follows just the right lines to

attract attention to this absorbing subject, giving, as it does,

70 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

just what is wanted, leaving alone much befogging matter and

detail, and allowing the amateur entomclogist that scope for

individual effort and investigation which is necessary to

promote increasing interest in any study.

The cover bears a representation of one of the most striking

of South Indian Moantids, the Gongylus, often seen in Ceylon,

with its attenuated thorax and vivid green or brown colouring,

in characteristic attitude when at rest among foliage. The

volume contains much that is of interest and applicable to

Ceylon, and its fine get-up makes it a most desirable acquisition,

while its cheap price—it is only six rupees—brings it within

the reach of all who are likely to be attracted to Entomology.

Mr. Bainbrigge Fletcher deserves the sincerest congratulations

on the excellent volume he has produced. Messrs. A. M. &

J. Ferguson act as agents in Colombo for the Madras Govern -

ment Press, and orders can be received at the Ceylon Observer

office for copies.—Ceylon Observer, Octcber 10, 1914.

NOTES. 71

NOTES.

Microdon, sp.—Several larvee of this genus of Syrphide were

found on HLugenia sp., in a nest of the ant Cremastogaster sp.,

along with a colony of Lecanium psidii, Gr. Except for their

peculiar colour—they are bluish-green—and for the fact that

they may be seen moving about, one might mistake them

for a species of Lecanium. They are slightly convex, are

surrounded by a fringe, and in a position corresponding to that

of the anal plates of a Lecanium is a dark brown, conical process.

Each larva is about 5 mm. by 4 mm., oval, broadly rounded

posteriorly, and narrower anteriorly. The head is usually

retracted underneath the prothorax. When protruded it is

seen to bear a forked process, each fork bearing two or three

stout sete at the apex. When treated with KOH and mounted

in Canada balsam the following details can be made out.

The body is studded with circular glands. The fringe is seen

to consist of a series of long feather-like processes, and shorter,

more hyaline processes arranged alternately ; these arise from

the crenulated margin of the body. The margin of the

(stigmatic ?) process that corresponds in position to the anal

plates of a Lecaniid is crenulate, the convexities of the

crenulations being towards the centre of the process. The

cephalic process ends in two finger-like bodies, one of which

suddenly narrows about its middle length and bears a small

spine at that point. The mandibles are large. Each is oval,

and bears on its proximal half large, triangular, backwardly-

pointing teeth, and on its distal half much smaller teeth.

I am unable to say on what they were feeding. The

character of the mandibles suggests that it might be the scales.

One cannot imagine them catching the ants! In confinement

they refused to feed, and died.

In the Records of the Indian Museum, Vol. II., Pt. L.,

Brunetti describes under the name of Microdon auricinctus an

insect taken in Kandy in October, 1907.

Ceroplatus quadripunctatus, Brun. (Mycetophilide)—The

larva of this fly was found feeding on the hymenium of a

72 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

fungus at Peradeniya. It looks more like a worm than a

Dipterous larva, and it flows along with a motion resembling

that of a snake. It spins silk wherever it goes. It is uni-

colorous, shining, covered with mucus, and it leaves an

iridescent mucus wherever it has been feeding.

The anterior end of the body can be expanded and contracted,

and when expanded shows two distinct, dark, longitudinal

bands one on each side of a light-coloured area. When the

larva is moving, a wave is to be seen passing rhythmically

along its body towards the posterior end. The puparium,

which is of much the same colour as the larva, is suspended in

a thin, mist-like web of silk. It is about 6 mm. long, and has

a prominent hump in the thoracic region.

From the puparium, which was formed on May 15th, the

imago emerged on the 18th.

Anisodes nebulosata, Walk. (Geometride)—The caterpillar

was feeding on Ficus sp.

It is about # inch long, and tapers towards the anterior end.

The head, thorax, and first segment of the abdomen are

yellowish-brown, the rest of the abdomen grayish-purple.

Four lateral oblique, reddish-purple bands occur on segments

two to five, the three most anterior being edged ventrally

with yellow. Two narrow, yellowish, longitudinal stripes are

situated on the dorsum of the head. The anal prolegs have a

whitish band on the lateral side.

The pupa is about 4 inch long, and squarely truncate at the

anterior end. The wing cases, head, and thorax are of a

dark purple colour, the rest of the body being greenish-purple.

There is a yellow, transverse stripe at the anterior extremity,

and this is continued along the wing cases. The pupa is

suspended by a loop of silk and by silk at the anal region.

From a pupa formed on October 4th the moth emerged on

October 11th. In wing expanse it is about 25 mm. The body

is grayish-white, the wings grayish-white, with large, bluish-

black blotches and smaller purplish dots.

Dioptoma adamsi, Pase.—On the night of July Ist I took

what proved to be the female of this species of Lampyrid. It

was underneath a hedge, and my attention was attracted to

it by its very bright, steady light. The luminous organ is a

NOTES. ie

large oval area occupying most of the ventral area of the

seventh abdominal segment. When the insect is calling for

the male, she curves up the posterior end of the body until

the luminous area is fully exposed. She seems to move about

so as to turn the luminous area in another direction, if one has

not proved successful. While I watched her, three specimens

of Lamprophorus tenebrosus came down, but they did not

stay long. No males of her own species came on the first

night.

The female is larva-like, softly hairy, slightly flattened

dorso-ventrally, and tapering from the posterior end of the

thorax towards the head, which is small and black. There

are nine broad, dark brown, transverse plates of chitin, one

on each segment from the metathorax backwards. There is

a faint, mid-dorsal, longitudinal brown band on the first two

thoracic segments. The mandibles are narrow, curved, and

sharply pointed, suggesting an animal diet. The antenne

are short, and consist of nine segments. The thoracic legs are

well developed.

Later in the evening of the Ist, when I looked at the tube

in which I had placed her, I was astonished to see that she

was luminous at many points. It is very difficult to make

an accurate count of the number, as all the points may not

be luminous at the same time, but there seem to be ten

transverse rows of four each, two of the four being on the

dorsal aspect, and two low down on the sides. In the third

row from the anterior end, that on the first abdominal segment,

the ventral spot was wanting on one side, and the penultimate

segment bore three on the dorsum in place of the normal two.

When the spots are luminous, the large ventral area is only

faintly so, but there are a few bright points situated round

its margin. So far as I could make out the spots were situated

on the segments, the lateral ones being ventrad of the spiracles.

No males came on the night of the 2nd.

I exposed the insect on the night of July 3rd towards 7 P.M.,

and she had hardly begun to expose her light when I had

secured six males. The males are very much smaller than

the female. They did not show any light, and came running

along the ground. Later in the evening, in confinement, they,

10 6(7) 14

74 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

too, showed a series of luminous points, which, so far as I

could make out, had much the same arrangement as in the

case of the female. The male, however, possesses prothoracic

luminous areas, which are absent in the case of the female.

The spots are even more difficult to count in the case of the

male than in that of the female, owing to the small size of the

insect and its restlessness in confinement. The meso- and

metathoracic ones are weaker than the rest.. The dorsal series

can be plainly seen at the posterior end, and also in favourable

circumstances shining faintly through the elytra. The whole

ventral surface oi the abdomen of the male glows softly.

The male has eight ventral abdominal segments, the

seventh of which is narrow, and is seen clearly only towards

the sides, and the eighth small and somewhat triangular in

shape. As to what may be the significance of this double set of

luminous organs I am unable even to offer a suggestion. The

large one is evidently sexual, but what function has the series

of lights ?. And what part in the economy of the species do

the lights in the case of the male play? If they are rudi-

mentary organs, it is astonishing to find them emitting the

strong, clear light that they do emit.

I nearly lost the female on two occasions. On one occasion

T had left her for a few seconds, and on my return I found a

toad dangerously near her! On the second occasion I found

her in the course of the night wandering about on the floor,

she having made her escape, and the interesting thing was

that she was then showing not the large luminous organ, but

the series of luminous points ; this was on the night of the 3rd.

I exposed her again on the night of the 4th about 7 P.M.,

and soon had captured four males, She laid eggs during the

night of the 5th. On the night of the 6th, though I waited

for a long time, she did not show her strong light, but the

luminous points glowed faintly. She laid a further lot of eggs

on the night of the 6th.

The eggs are whitish, oval-cylindrical, about 1°25 mm.

long, and a little longer than broad. They were laid in a loose

mass in the tube.

Peradeniya. A. RUTHERFORD.

NOTES. he

Heortia vitessoides, Moore.—The caterpillars of this pretty

Pyralid moth defoliated a plant of Lagetta lintearia, the Lace

Bark Tree of the West Indies, growing in the Royal Botanic

Gardens, Peradeniya, in July, and again in September, 1913.

When feeding the caterpillars spin a fine webbing over the

tree, and they are able to lower themselves to the ground by

spinning a thread of silk.

The caterpillars are yellowish-green in colour and shining.

The body-tubercles bear long white hairs. The head is glossy

black. Along each side of the body are two rows of circular,

metallic-blue spots. These are in groups of three above the

spiracles, the two upper being the largest and situated close

together, the lower one just dorsad of the spiracle. These

spots are enclosed in the area between two longitudinal

yellowish stripes. Faint yellow transverse stripes occur on

the dorsum.

The first thoracic segment and the anal segment are orange-

yellow in colour. Just cephalad of the anal plate is a large,

median, metallic-blue spot.

In confinement the larve pupated in the soil in a cocoon

formed of particles of earth and small stones.

The pupa is at first shining reddish-brown in colour, and

bears two rows of dorso-lateral black spots. The apex of the

abdomen is somewhat darker in colour.

Later the pupa as a whole becomes darker, and the dorso-

lateral spots are less distinct. The wing cases are yellowish-

brown at the base, this area being crossed by two dark brown

bands. The apex of the wing case is traversed by numerous

fine, dark, longitudinal lines.

The abdominal region is in general lighter in colour than

the head and thorax.

The cremaster consists of a few (3) hooks situated on a

small tubercle.

From caterpillars that went into the soil on September 25

moths began to emerge on October 9.

They agree with Hampson’s description of Heortia ritessoides,

Moore, in the Fauna of British India, Vol. IV., p. 363, except

that, while Hampson gives the wing expanse as 40 mm.,

these range from 25 to 30 mm.

11 6(7)14

76 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Boarmia crepuscularia, Hub.—This Geometrid moth has

been reared from a caterpillar feeding on the leaves of T’ecoma

stans at Peradeniya.

The twigs of this plant have a silvery-gray bark, and the

caterpillar is of much the same colour. When not feeding it

holds on to the twig by the two pairs of prolegs and projects

at an angle, so that, by the human at least, its presence is very

difficult to detect.

The presence of a head is masked by the fact that the

caterpillar has the power of crinkling up the thorax, so that

over the thoracic region there is a conspicuous hump.

The bark of this plant is minutely grooved, and on the

caterpillar there are faint dark lines corresponding to the

grooves.

Along the dorsum and the exposed part of the venter are

blackish spots.

On the particular twig on which the caterpillar was resting

there was nothing to correspond to these dark areas, but they

bear a strong resemblance to patches of lichen.

The spiracles are oval, and brown in colour, with black

margins. The moth is one of those which rest by day on

bark, to which their colour-scheme gives them a strong

resemblance.

In a shallow, stony-bedded stream running down a hill-

side I encountered a flattish bug clinging to the stones

under the surface of the water. I picked one up to drop it

almost immediately again, for it pierced my finger, causing a

pain not unlike that of a wasp’s sting, and which did not pass

away for several minutes. I secured the bug, however, and

it proved to be Heleocoris vicinus, Mtd. (Naucoride). There

were no after-effects.

There is a Reduviid bug that comes to the lights at night

that should not be handled. It is Hctomocoris atrox. One flew

into the writer’s mouth while he was speaking, and before he

could eject it, it had pierced his tongue, causing a distressing

NOTES. ay

pain. Reduviids are predaceous on other insects, and the

action of this one was no doubt reflex on finding itself confined.

An immature tick, genus Rhipicephalus, had attached itself

in the writer’s armpit. The point of attachment remained

sore to the touch for several weeks after the removal of the

tick, but this was no doubt due to a piece of flesh having been

removed with the tick.

A nymphal Locustid of the family Stenopelmatine lives

within a retreat formed at the apex of a tea leaf. Four cuts

divide the tip of the leaf into three sections, and the lateral

pieces are folded together to form the retreat. In the average

case the cuts are more or less symmetrically arranged with

regard to the midrib, but specimens in which the insect has

evidently lost its bearings are not uncommon.

The tenant is of a shining dark brown colour dorsally,

yellowish-white ventrally. They are splendid jumpers, and

one has to be very quick to capture theni.

Many of such leaves bear small punctures usually arranged

in two, more or less, parallel rows.

Of Dynastides, Sharp says (Insects, Pt. IT., p. 199): “‘ Many

Dynastides possess organs of stridulation, consisting of lines

of sculpture placed so as to form one or two bands on the

middle of the propygidium, and brought into play by being

rubbed by the extremities of the wing cases.”

In the writer’s opinion there does not seem to be any such

arrangement in Xylotrwpes gideon. On the other hand, there

is a row of small teeth on the under side of the proximal half

of the costa of the wing, and this is probably part of the

sound-producing structure, resting as it does on the abdomen.

The production of sound by the Hawk moths seems to the

writer to require further investigation.

Recently I took resting on the stem of a palm what was

probably a species of Acherontia ; it was too much rubbed for

detailed comparison with named specimens.

78 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

When handled it emitted a loud continuous note. Speaking

of this subject, Sharp says (Insects, Pt. I1., p. 382): “ Sphin-

gidze have been recorded as capable of producing sounds in

the larval and pupal, as well as in the perfect, instars ; but

the method in which this is done has not been ascertained,

except in the case of the imago of the Death’s-head moth,

which is well known to emit a very audible cry when not on

the wing ; in this case it is highly probable that the method is

the friction of the palpi against the proboscis, as stated by

Réaumur and Landois ; the inner face of the palp is said to

be marked in this case with fine ridges or striz.”’

The above was not the method in the case of the insect

which came under my observation. It continued to produce

the noise when the proboscis was held away from the palps,

and when the palps had been removed. Just where the seat

of sound production is located I am not prepared to say.

It seemed to me possible that the source was located in the

thorax, perhaps internally.

Some recent Peradeniya Records.

Legnatia concinna, Morl. M. 8. (Ichneumonide). Reared

from Lepidopterous pupa. Previously recorded only from

Dehra Dun, India.

Pammene isocampta, Meyr. (Tortricide). New species.

Limnacia metacypha, Meyr. (Tineidze). New species.

Idiophantis chiridota, Meyr. (Tineide). Larva feeds on galls

of Trioza sp. (Psyllidze), on Eugenia.

Argyroploce erotias, Meyr. (Tortricidze). Larva feeds on galls

of T'rioza sp., on leaves of Eugenia.

Tinissa torvella, Walk. (Tineidze). Larva feeds on fungus on

bamboo.

Batrachedra psilopa, Meyr. (Tineide). Larva feeds in

interior of galls on the leaves of Heptapleurum stellatum.

These galls are probably caused by a species of Thrips.

Cryploblabes proleucella, Hmp. (Pyralidee). Caterpillar feeds

underneath a web on Coccus viridis, Gr.

A. RUTHERFORD.

NOTES. 79

Insect Food Plants —The larva of Danais fumata feeds on

Alleophania decipiens, Thw., a shrub growing in chenas at

the higher elevations. Observer: Mr. F. G. Saunder, Nuwara

Eliya.

Cyaniris lanka feeds on Smithia blanda, Wall., which grows

in damper portions of patanas. The egg is deposited on stem

at foot of flower bud.

February 9, 1914. F. M. MACKWOOD.

Extension of the Range of the Common Leech—To the field

naturalist one of the charms of up-country jungles lies in

their freedom from leeches. One may wander at will, without

taking any thought of the pests which drive him out of the

jungles of (say) the Ratnapura District. Buta close acquaint-

ance with the country round Hakgala during the last nine

years leads me to suppose that the leech is gradually extending

its range upwards. I may say that the same ground has been

traversed every year at about the same time, so that the

observations have some degree of probability.

In 1906 I acquired my first Hakgala leech at the bottom

of the valley below Hakgala, where the Fort Macdonald

footpath runs alongside the stream. This is at a much lower

elevation than the Gardens, and I was not particularly

surprised at the occurrence. In 1907 another found me on

the grass by the roadside near the entrance to the Gardens,

and this was considered a stray example brought up the road

by cattle.

In 1909, however, I found leeches abundant in the boundary

ravine of the Hakgala reservation, 7.e., the last of the ravines

which run down the hillside across the Ambawela footpath

between the Gardens and Albion estate. I had not met with

any in that locality during the previous four years. They

were confined to the part of the ravine below the path, and

though they are still there, they have apparently not yet

(1914) ascended into the upper part.

80 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

In 1912 leeches were common on the grass just below the

laboratory at Hakgala, which is at a slightly lower level than

the Curator’s bungalow (5,600 feet). Better drainage has

apparently driven them off that piece of grass, but they are

always to be found now on the boundary of the oak plantation

next the fruit garden.

Up to that time the Ambawela footpath formed the upper

limit of the leech’s range. In 1913, however, one found me

near the (natural) bed of Hedychium flavescens in the upper

part of the Garden, ¢.e., above the level of the bungalow.

T,. PETCEH:

THE CEYLON NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

Ninth General Meeting.

Tur Ninth (Second Anniversary) General Meeting of the Society

was held in the Colombo Museum on February 27, 1913, with

Mr. V. A. Julius in the Chair. The Secretaries’ and Treasurers’

Reports for 1913 were deferred to be read at a subsequent meeting.

The following were elected as Office-bearers for 1914 :—

Patron :

His Excellency Sir Robert Chalmers, K.C.B.

President :

The Hon. Mr. R. E. Stubbs, C.M.G., F.Z.S.

Vice-Presidents :

Sir 8. D. Bandaranaike, Kt.,

C.M.G.

V. A. Julius, Esq.

F. M. Mackwood, Esq.

A. Nell, Esq., M.R.C.S., L.M.S.

Council :

C. T. Symons, Esq., B.A., F.R.G.S.

O. 8. Wickwar, Esq.

W. E. Wait, Esq., M.A.

T. Petch, Esq., B.A., B.Sc.

Joint Honorary Secretaries and Treasurers :

Joseph Pearson, Esq., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.L.S., and

W. A. Cave, Esq.

Professor L. Plate, Professor of Zoology in the University of

Jena, delivered a lecture on “Some Zoological Observations made

in Ceylon.” A few exhibits were placed on the table,

CEYLON NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 8]

Tenth General Meeting.

Tuer Tenth General Meeting of the Ceylon Natural History

Society was held in the Colombo Museum on April 17, 1914, with

Dr. A. Nell in the Chair.

Mr. E. J. Wayland, Assistant Mineral Surveyor, delivered a

lecture on “ The Interpretation of Nature and the Nature of the

Interpretation.’’*

Eleventh General Meeting.

THE Eleventh General Meeting of the Society was held in the

Colombo Museum on June 12, 1914. Dr. A. Nell presided.

Rev. Father M. LeGoc, B.A., B.Sc., delivered a lecture on

** Symbiosis, or Plant and Animal Life Partnerships.”” Dr. Pearson

made a few observations on the subject.

Twelfth General Meeting.

THE Twelfth General Meeting of the Ceylon Natural History

Society was held in the Colombo Museum on July 24, 1914, with

Dr. A. Nell in the Chair.

Mr. W. E. Wait, M.A., read a paper on “The Distribution of

Birds in Ceylon, and its Relation to recent Geological Changes in

the Island.”* This being over, Commander Kitson, R.N.,

exhibited paintings of Ceylon fishes.

* penadin thas Valume, Part XXXVI.

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THE ECHINODERMS OF CEYLON. 83

THE ECHINODERMS OF CEYLON OTHER

THAN HOLOTHURIANS.

By Husprert LyMAN CLARK,

Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A.

HROUGH the kindness of Dr. Pearson a collection of

echinoderms belonging to the Colombo Museum was

sent to me for examination in the Spring of 1914. There were

no holothurians, but the other classes were well represented

by ten species of crinoids, fifteen species of starfishes, eight

species of brittle-stars, and twenty-two species of echini. Of

these, one crinoid and one starfish seemed to be new to science.

There were no data with any of the specimens, but all were

from Ceylon. Many were taken on the pearl banks.

The first notice of the echinoderms of Ceylon is that

published by Bell (1882), listing nineteen species from Point

de Galle. There were no holothurians ; and the single crinoid,

one starfish, and one brittle-star were not identifiable. Three

years later Walter (1885) reported on the echinoderms which

Haeckel had collected in Ceylon, but (aside from holothurians)

there were only fourteen species, and of one of these the identi-

fication was not complete. Nevertheless, eight of the species

were additions to Bell’s list. In 1887 Bell published a revised

list of the echinoderms of Ceylon, in which he entered forty

identified species, aside from holothurians. The following

year Déderlein (1888), reporting on the Sarasins’ collection,

added twenty-three starfishes, brittle-stars, and sea-urchins

to the list. In 1890 Ludwig added three more brittle-stars,

besides an unidentified amphiurid. Four years later Thurston

(1894), in “* Notes on thé Fauna of the Gulf of Mannar,”’ gives

eight additional species, and subsequent writers in scattered

notes have listed a number of species. At the time of the

2 6(8)L5

84 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

investigation of the Ceylon pearl fisheries by Herdman in

1902, therefore, not fewer than seventy-five well-authenticated

species of echinoderms, other than holothurians, were recorded

from the shores of Ceylon. Herdman’s collections brought

this number up to one hundred and ten at least, of which

fifteen are crinoids, thirty-five starfishes, twenty-five brittle-

stars, and thirty-five echini. Still more recently the reports

on the echinoderms in the Indian Museum at Calcutta have

lengthened the list, Koehler adding four starfishes and nine

brittle-stars, while A. H. Clark adds seven comatulids. A few

species have also been added in other Papers by various

writers, so that the recorded echinoderm fauna of the shores of

Ceylon, excluding holothurians, and allowing for cases where

the same species is probably listed under two different names,

is about one hundred and thirty. The collection before me

from Colombo adds three crinoids, four starfishes, two brittle-

stars, and one sea-urchin. Following the list of specimens

from the Colombo Museum, I give a revised list of the littoral

echinoderms of Ceylon, so far as it is known at this time

(August, 1914), excepting the holothurians. I have ignored

this interesting class, because Dr. Pearson is himself engaged

in preparing a complete account of its representatives in

Ceylon.

List of Echinoderms from Ceylon in the Colombo Museum,

1. Comanthus* annulatum (Bell)—A number of specimens

(22) having from 40 to 54 arms. The division series

are nearly always 4 (3 + 4).

2. Comanthus parvicirrum (J. Miller).—One small specimen

with 21 arms.

3. Comanthus samoanum, A. H. C.—One specimen with

25 arms and 24 cirri, having 15-17 joints.

4. Comanthus schlegelii (P. H. C.).—Two specimens, one of

which has about 120 arms.

* The Greek noun on which this word is based is neuter, hence

specific names ought to use a neuter ending.

THE ECHINODERMS OF CEYLON. 85

5. Heterometra reynaudu (J. Miller).—Fifty-five specimens,

three of which are noticeably larger and with longer

arms than the rest.

6. Dichrometra protecta (Litk.).—Two specimens.

7. Dichrometra tenera (Hartl.).—One fine specimen with

40 arms and the cirri XL., 22-25.

8. Cenometra herdmani, A. H. C.—A calyx with the cirri

and 2 arm-bases attached. In A. H. Clark’s

‘*Crinoids of the Indian Ocean,” on p. 154, are given

figures of a cirrus of this species, labelled ‘‘ Ceno-

metra insueta,’ while on p. 156 similar figures of

a cirrus of that species are labelled ‘‘ Cenometra

herdmani.”’ Mr. Clark’s description of the difference

between the two species is correct ; he tells me that

the labels on these figures have been unfortunately

interchanged.

9. Tropiometra encrinus, A. H. C.—Two characteristic

specimens.

10. Tropiometra indica, A. H. C.

Cirri XXV., 22, 23, about 20 mm. long ; middle and distal

joints 1 mm. long, 1 mm. wide, and 1°5-1:75 mm. thick.

Centrodorsal 7-8 mm. across, thick and discoidal, with cirri in

one, and a partial second, row. Brachials very low, less than a

millimeter thick (longitudinally), even when the distal margin

measures 4°5 mm.; near base of arm there are 14 brachials

(including two syzygial joints) in a centimeter ; beyond middle

there are 18 or 19 brachials (including two syzygial joints) to a

centimeter. Distal margin of basal brachials very uneven

and irregular, slightly flaring, not at all serrate or spiny ; there

are at least three evident projections, the largest near the base

of the pinnule, but separated from it by a re-entrant curve, the

smallest on the other side of the brachial and the third median

in position. This third projection becomes increasingly

conspicuous on each succeeding brachial, until at the middle

of the arm it is a rough projecting knot or rounded tooth.

Distally it gradually decreasesin size and disappears. Pinnules

86 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

much as in 7’. encrinus, but the two basal joints of the middle

pinnules are conspicuously larger than the succeeding joints,

and rather abruptly so ; these two joints are much wider than

high. Arms stout at base, rather abruptly attenuate from

near middle, probably about 60 mm. long, but none is

complete. Colour, light brownish-white, without markings of

any sort.

Comparison of the single specimen on which the above

description is based with typical specimens of carinata and

encrinus shows it is neither of those species. Nor does it seem to

be any nearer indica, so far as Mr. Clark’s fragmentary references

to that species show ; but as he has examined the specimen and

assures me it is indica, I have refrained from giving it another

name. I have decided, however, to let the description I had

drawn up stand. There are no data with the specimen.

11. Astropecten andersoni, Sladen.—One small specimen.

12. Astropecten indicus, Déderlein.—Four small specimens.

13. Astropecten mauritianus, Gray.—Five medium-sized and

large specimens.

14. Astropecten zebra, Sladen.—Two small specimens. I

agree with Bell that zebra is only a name for the

young of some previously described astropecten, but

I am not as yet prepared to assert which one.

15. Lwidia maculata, M. & T.—Nine specimens, ranging from

very small to very large; the smallest and three

others have 8 arms each; the remaining five,

including the three largest, have 7.

16. Siraster tuberculatus, gen. et sp. nov.

Generic diagnosis : Body stellate ; disk flattened, without

secondary plates; primary plates not concealed by skin ;

medioradial plates reaching to terminal plate of arm ; entire

abactinal surface granulated ; papule single, distinct, each

pore surrounded by a few granules, obviously larger than

those covering the neighbouring plates. Inferomarginal plates

without conspicuous spines, but those beyond middle of arm,

each with a low tubercle or flattened tubercle-like spine on

THE ECHINODERMS OF CEYLON. S7

upper distal surface. Adambulacral armature much as in

Stellaster, with a conspicuous, flattened, blunt spine on actinal

surface. (Name from ctodc, a pit in the ground for storing corn

-+ astho, a star ; in reference to the papular pores surrounded

by conspicuous granules.) Genotype—S. tuberculatus, sp. nov.

It is with much diffidence that I add a new genus to the

perplexing family Goinasteride, but I cannot otherwise

dispose of the present species and Studer’s Sfellaster squamu-

losus. That the two are congeneric will not, I think, be

questioned ; that they cannot properly be placed in Stellaster

seems to me equally true. Neither has the plates concealed

by skin, although squamulosus is nearer true Stellaster in this

respect than is tuberculatus. More important is the fact that

neither has the characteristic spine on the inferomarginals,

which is so conspicuous even in very young specimens of

Stellaster. And finally, neither has the arched disc and slender

pointed rays characteristic of Stellaster. Superficially the

two species are much like Goniodiscus forficulatus, Perrier, but

in that species (whose generic position, by the way, is quite

uncertain) the medioradial plates do not reach the terminal

plate of the arm, the papule are not surrounded by enlarged

granules, and the adambulacral armature is in three parallel

series, and has no conspicuous actinal spine.

Specific diagnosis: Body markedly stellate, flattened.

R = 33 mm., r= 14 mm., and Br. (at base of arm) = 15 mm.

R=2-4r. Abactinal plates granulated, but the outlines of

the separate plates plainly visible. Proximal medioradial

plates and some interradial plates, each with a more or less

conspicuous tubercle ; altogether there are about fifty such

tubercles on the holotype, the largest being on the fourth and

fifth medioradial plates. Many plates which lack a tubercle

have three or four central granules noticeably enlarged.

Granules around the papular pores distinctly larger than those

on the neighbouring plates. Superomarginal plates, 11 on

each side of each ray, decreasing steadily in size distally, but

becoming more and more swollen ; central granules of each

88 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

plate much larger than elsewhere on abactinal surface ; distally

one (sometimes two or three) becomes evidently larger than

the others, and may even become a low tubercle. Terminal

plate smaller than penultimate superomarginal, bearing three

distinct tubercles distally. Inferomarginal plates correspond

in number and position with superomarginals ; proximally

they are uniformly granulated, but distally a group of granules

on the upper distal part of each plate becomes conspicuous,

and one of these tends to develop into a distinct tubercle.

Actinal interradial areas small ; actinal intermediate plates only

extend outwards as far as fifth inferomarginal ; these plates

are uniformly granulated, with here and there, generally near

the adambulacral plates, low foraminate or bivalved pedicel-

larie. Adambulacral armature made up of an inner series of

4—6 rather stout blunt spines, the middle ones the largest, and

an outer series (on actinal surface of plate) of one or rarely two

flattened blunt ovate spines ; if two are present, one is much

smaller than the other, and commonly this smaller spine is

replaced by a pedicellaria ; these ovate actinal-adambulacral

spines are much larger than any other spines on the starfish.

Oral spines stout and blunt, but not peculiar. Colour of dried

specimen uniformly pale brown, not at all distinctive. Holo-

type from Ceylon without data.

This species is readily distinguished from squamulosus by

the coarse granules of the superomarginal plates and the

presence of abactinal tubercles ; actinally the adambulacral

armature is distinguishably different. There is no other

species known to me with which it needs comparison.

17. Siraster squamulosus (Studer).—Three large (R=30 mm.)

and well-preserved specimens prove Koehler is right

in maintaining the validity of this species. But, as

already stated, it does not seem to me proper to retain

it in Stellaster.

18. Anthenea pentagonula (Lam’k.).—Three small specimens

of Anthenea agree well with specimens of the same

size from Hong Kong, identified by Perrier as

£9.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

THE ECHINODERMS OF CEYLON. 89

pentagonula. Lamnot satisfied that tuberculosa, Gray,

from tropical Australia, is really specifically distinct.

T have not yet found any tangible, constant differences.

Anthenea rudis, Koehler—Two small but well-marked

specimens give support to the validity of this recently

described form.

Oreaster linckii (Bl.).—T wo characteristic specimens.

Oreaster mammillatus (Aud.).—The series of sixteen speci-

mens shows considerable variation in the details of

the tuberculation. One specimen is almost exactly

like the type of O. affinis, M. & T. (figured by Koehler,

1910), and I have no doubt that affinis is a synonym

of mammillatus.

Culcita schmideliana (Retz.)—Two specimens ; neither is

perfectly typical, but there is little doubt of the

identity.

Linckia levigata (L.).—Two specimens.

Echinaster eridanella, M. & T.—Ten specimens, with

five rays each. The absence of six- and seven-rayed

specimens suggests that this is a selected series.

Metrodira subulata, Gray.—Five specimens ; at least two

have shorter and stouter rays than usual.

Ophioplocus imbricatus (M. & T.).—One specimen.

Ophiarachnella marmorata (Lyman).—Seven specimens,

12-19 mm. across the disc. I believe that this species

must be maintained as distinct from gorgonia,

although it may be only a variety of the latter.

Ophiolepis superba, nom. nov. (= Ophiura annulosa, Bl.

non Lamarck).—One remarkable specimen, 22 mm.

across the disc, uniformly deep buff, with no dark

markings. It is curious that it has not previously

been noted that de Blainville’s name annulosa was

preoccupied and is hence untenable. Both Ophiura

annulosa, Lamarck, and O. annulosa, de Blainville,

have been in constant use for many years, each being

a conspicuous and well-known East Indian species.

36.

37,

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Ophiactis savignyi, M. & T.—Seventy-eight specimens,

mostly very young.

Ophiothrix longipeda (Lam’k.).—One small specimen.

Ophiothria exigua, Lyman.—One small specimen.

Ophiothrix nereidina (Lam’k.).—Four specimens ; one is

remarkable for its large size, the disc being 18 mm.

across ; a second is notable for its colouration, the

yellow (red in life) greatly predominating over the

blue.

Ophiocnemis marmorata (Lam’k.).—One specimen.

Phyllacanthus imperialis (Lam’k.).—T wo specimens.

Prionocidaris baculosa (Lam’k.).—One young specimen ;

test 28 mm. in diameter ; primary spines handsomely

banded with purplish-red and pale greenish-yellow.

Echinothrix diadema (l.).—One young specimen ; test

about 45 mm. in diameter. The colouration of this

specimen is entirely different from that of any other

individual of the species I have ever seen. The test

is yellowish ; ambulacral primaries unbanded yellow-

green ; interambulacral primaries dull reddish-purple,

with or without pale yellow-green bands. The large

pedicellariz and the character of the large primary

spines show that this specimen is diadema rather

than calamaria, but it is possibly representative of an

undescribed species or a hybrid.

Centrechinus savignyt (Mich.).—TIwo specimens, 4 and 40

mm. in diameter. Both are remarkable for very

light colouration. Test dull yellowish, with no black ;

spines banded red or purplish-red and whitish or

pale yellowish. The pedicellariz of the larger

specimen are like those of savignyi, and there are

faint lines on the upper interambulacral plates which

may represent the characteristic blue lines of that

species.

38. Stomopneustes variolaris (Lam’k.).—Two specimens.

39. Toxopneustes pileolus (Lam’k.).—T'wo specimens.

40.

4].

42.

43.

44.

45.

46.

47.

48.

49,

50.

51.

52.

53.

54.

55.

THE ECHINODERMS OF CEYLON. 91

Tripneustes gratilla (L.).—T'wo specimens.

Temnopleurus toreumaticus (Leske).—One specimen.

Gymnechinus robillardi (De Lor.)—One fine specimen,

28 mm. in diameter.

Salmacis bicolor, Agass.—Six fine specimens.

Salmacis virgulata, Agass. & Des.—Fourteen specimens.

Pseudoboletia maculata, Trosch.—Four specimens. Al-

though these individuals have the conspicuous dark

blotches of maculata, the buccal plates are large and

close together, as is supposed to be characteristic of

indiana. Probably the two species are not distinct.

Echinostrephus molare (Bl.)—One specimen.

Echinometra mathzi (Bl.).—One small green specimen.

Clypeaster humilis (Leske).—Seven specimens.

Laganum depressum, Agass.—Two specimens.

Fibularia volva, Agass. & Des.—One bare test, re-

markable for the size and form of the ambulacral

pores. These are not only conspicuously large, but

are distinctly triangular in outline instead of circular.

This is particularly true of those in the outer part of

the posterior petals. There are altogether more than

70 such pores.. The specimen was found in the

stomach of a large starfish, Luidia maculata, M. & T.

Echinodiscus auritus, Leske.—Seven specimens.

Echinolampas alexandri, De Lor.—Six specimens.

Echinolampas ovata (Leske).—Four specimens.

Lovenia elongata (Gray).—Nineteen specimens, mostly

young.

Pseudomaretia alta (A. Ag.).—Three specimens. I think

there is no doubt Koehler is right in separating this

species from Maretia. The difficulty with the

“ Challenger * report figures, to which De Loriol,

De Meijere, and Koehler refer, is due to the fact that

the specimen there figured is not Maretia alta, but

appears to be quite a distinct, though superficially

very similar, species. This statement is based on a

6(8)15

92 SPOLIA ZEYLANIGCA.

‘

comparison of one of the ‘‘ Challenger ’’ specimens

in the M. C. Z. collection with one of Agassiz’s

original types from Kagoshima Bay. The Ceylon

specimens before me are notable for their large size ;

one is 42 mm. long. They are clearly the same

species, however, as the individual from Kagoshima.

Littoral Echinoderms of Ceylon, excepting Holothurians.

In the following list I give in connection with each name a

reference to a standard work,* where synonymy and other

details may be found. Some of the species listed by Bell,

Déderlein, or later writers appear here under other names. A

very few are omitted, as I am convinced the supposed records

are based on incorrect identifications. It should be borne in

mind that this is a list of species actually recorded from

Ceylon. No doubt there are many others living in the

shallow water about the Island which have not yet been seen

by a zoologist. Some of these are already recorded from the

Indian shores of the Gulf of Mannar. Particularly the

comatulids and brittle-stars will prove to be as yet imperfectly

known. Of the latter class, there are probably twice as many

living in Ceylon waters as are here listed. The chief purpose of

this compilation is to serve as a basis for further investigation.

FEATHER-STARS (Comatulid Crinoids).

1. Comatella stelligera (P. H. C.). A. H. Clark, 1912,

p. 68.

2. Capillaster multiradiata (L.). A. H. Clark, 1912, p. 74.

a4 sentosa (P.H.C.). A. H. Clark, 1912, p. 73.

4. Comatula pectinata (L.). A. H. Clark, 1912, p. 80.

5. Comanthus annulatum (Bell). A. H. Clark, 1912,

p. 96.

6. ————— parvicirrum (J. Miller). A. H. Clark,

1912, p. 97.

* See ‘Literature List”? at end of Paper.

THE ECHINODERMS OF CEYLON. 93

Comanthus samoanum, A. H.C. A. H. Clark, 1912,

p. 95.

schlegelii (P. H. C.). A. H. Clark, 1912,

p. or:

Amphimetra milberti (J. Miller). A. H. Clark, 1912,

p. Lil.

Heterometra bengalensis (Hartl.). A. H. Clark, 1912,

p. 130.

reynaudii (J. Muller). A. H. Clark, 1912,

pe 221.

Stephanometra indica (Smith). A. H. Clark, 1912,

p. 135.

—marginata (P. H. C.). A. H. Clark,

1912, p. 135.

—monacantha (Hartl.). A. H. Clark,

1912, p. 136.

tenuipinna (Hartl.). A. H. Clark,

1912, p. 135.

Dichrometra palmata (J. Miller). A. H. Clark, 1912,

p. 148.

protecta (Ltk.). A. H. Clark, 1912,

p. 148.

—tenera(Hartl.). A.H.Clark, 1912, p.148.

Cenometra herdmani, A. H.C. A. H. Clark, 1912,

p. 154.

Decametra taprobanes (A. H.C.). A. H. Clark, 1912,

p. 159.

Colobometra discolor, A. H. C. <A. H. Clark, 1912,

p. 166.

Oligometra serripinna (P. H. C.). A. H. Clark, 1912,

p. 169.

Tropiometra encrinus, A. H. C. A. H. Clark, 1912,

p. LFF,

indica, A.H.C. See ante, p. 85.

Mastigometra micropoda, A.H.C. A.H. Clark, 1912,

p. 227.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

ave

32.

33.

34.

35.

36.

37.

38.

39.

40).

41.

42.

43.

44,

45.

46.

‘SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

STARFISHES (Asteroids).

Astropecten andersoni, Sladen. Koehler, 1910,

p. 24.

-—— hemprichii, M. & T. De Loriol,

1885, p. 74.

—_—_———--— indicus, Déd. Koehler, 1910, p. 27.

-— mauritianus, Gray. Koehler, 1910,

p. 32.

petalodeus (Retz.). Liitken, 1871,

p. 231 (under the name A. euryacanthus).

—-——— polyacanthus, M. & T. De Loriol,

1885, p. 76.

—-——_—_——- tamilicus, Déd. Koehler, 1910

p. 32.

p. 307.

velitaris, v. Mart. Ddderlein, 1896,

zebra, Sladen. Sladen, 1889, p. 212.

Luidia hardwickii (Gray). Perrier, 1875-76,

p. 147 (331 in reprint).

maculata, M. & T. Perrier, 1875-76,

p. 154 (338 in reprint).

Stellaster incei, Gray. Sladen, 1889, p. 322.

Siraster squamulosus (Studer). Koehler, 1910,

Dok.

—-— tuberculatus, H. L. C. See ante,

p. 86.

Asterope carinifera (Lam’k.). De Loriol, 1885,

p. 6%;

Anthenea pentagonula (Lam’k.). Perrier, 1875-

76, p. 90 (274 in reprint).

rudis, Koeh. Koehler, 1910, p. 86.

Oreaster lincki (De Bl.). Bell, 1884, p. 72.

mammillatus (Aud.). Bell, 1884, p. 67.

nodosus (L.). Bell, 1884, p. 70.

———— thurstoni (Bell). Bell, 1888, p. 385.

47,

64.

22.

39.

THE ECHINODERMS OF CEYLON. 95

De Loriol, 1885,

p. 64.

Doderlein, 1896,

p. 315.

Asterina cepheus (M. & T.). De Loriol, 1885,

p. 69.

Culcita schmideliana (Retz.).

lorioli, Koeh. Koehler, 1910, p. 129.

Disasterina ceylanica, Déod. Déderlein, 1888,

p. 825.

Anseropoda sarasini (De Lor.). Koehler, 1910,

p. 127.

Linckia guildingii, Gray (= pacifica, Gray).

Perrier, 1875-76, p. 408 (144 in reprint).

levigata (L.). De Loriol, 1885, p. 36

(under name miliaris).

Ophidiaster cylindricus (Lam’k.). De Loriol,

1885, p. 20.

ornatus, Koeh. Koehler, 1910,

py 151.

Nardoa egyptiaca (Gray). Koehler, 1910, p. 157.

nove-caledonize (Perr.). Perrier, 1875-

76, p. 426 (162 in reprint).

tuberculata, Gray. Perrier, 1875-76,

p. 421 (157 in reprint).

variolata (Retz.). Perrier, 1875-76,

p. 423 (159 in reprint).

Fromia milleporella (Lam’k.). De Loriol, 1885,

p. 44.

tumida, Bell. Bell, 1882, p. 124.

Ferdina offreti, Koeh. Koehler, 1910, p. 143.

Retaster cribrosus (v. Mart.). Perrier, 1875-76,

p. 199 (383 in reprint).

Déderlein, 1896, p. 320.

De Loriol, 1885, p. 6

(under the name A.

mauritiensis).

Acanthaster planci (L.).

65.

66.

67.

68.

69,

70.

71.

ten

73.

74,

75.

76.

78.

79.

80.

81.

82.

83.

84.

85.

86.

40.

41.

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Kchinaster purpureus (Gray). De Loriol, 1885,

p. 10.

Metrodira subulata, Gray. Koehler, 1910, p. 172.

BRITTLE-STARS (Ophiurans).

Pectinura arenosa, Lyman. Lyman, 1882, p. 15.

fallax (Peters). De Loriol, 1894, p. 4.

Ophiarachnella gorgonia (M. & T.). H. L. Clark,

1909, p. 123.

marmorata (Lym.). Lyman,

1874, p. 222.

septemspinosa (M. & T.). De

Loriol, 1893, p. 395.

Ophiarachna incrassata (Lam’k.). H. L. Clark,

1909, p. 127.

Ophiolepis cincta, M.& T. De Loriol, 1894, p. 9.

rugosa, Koeh. Koehler, 1898, p. 64.

superba, H. L.C. (See ante, p. 89.)

De Loriol, 1894, p. 10.

Ophioplocus imbricatus (M. & T.). De Loriol,

1894, p. 12.

Ophiura kinbergi (Lym.). Lyman, 1882, p. 38.

Ophiactis savignyi(M.&T.). Koehler, 1905, p. 26.

Amphiura duncani, Lym. Koehler, 1905, p. 33.

Ophiocnidasexradia, Dune. Koehler, 1905, p.33.

Ophionereis porrecta, Lym. Koehler, 1898, p. 74.

Ophiocoma brevipes, Peters. De Loriol, 1894,

p. 25.

erinaceus, M. & T. De Loriol, 1894,

p. 21.

pica, M.& T. De Loriol, 1894, p. 28

(under the name lineolata).

scolopendrina (Lam’k.). De Loriol,

1894, p. 23.

Ophiarthrum elegans, Peters. Koehler, 1898,

p. 108.

100.

101.

102.

103.

104.

105.

36.

37.

THE ECHINODERMS OF CEYLON. 97

Ophiomastix annulosa (Lam’k.). Lyman, 1882,

p. 174.

Ophiacanthadecora, Koeh. Koehler, 1898, p. 80.

Ophiocnemis marmorata (Lam’k.). Déderlein,

1888, p. 833.

Ophiomaza cacaotica, Lym. Koehler, 1898, p. 84.

Ophiothela holdsworthii, E. A. Smith. KE. A.

Smith, 1878, p. 464.

Ophiopteron elegans, Ludw. Koehler, 1905,

p. LIZ.

Ophiothrix aspidota, M.& T. Koehler, 1904, p. 87.

————— ciliaris (Lam’k.). Koehler, 1904,

p. 100.

comata, M. & T. Koehler, 1904,

p- 105.

—_—_——— exigua, Lym. Lyman, 1874, p. 236.

foveolata, Mrktr. Koehler, 1905,

p. 76.

innocens, Koeh. Koehler, 1898a,

p. 164.

longipeda (Lam’k.). De Loriol, 1894,

p. 36.

nereidina (Lam’k.). Déderlein, 1888,

p- 832.

————— punctolimbata, v. Mart. Koehler,

1905, p. 93.

Ophiomyxa brevispina, var. irregularis, Koeh.

Koehler, 1898, p. 110.

Astrophyton clavatum, Lym. Lyman, 1865,

p. 191.

SEA-URCHINS (Hchini or Echinoids).

Eucidaris metularia (Lam’k.). H. L. Clark, 1907,

p- 184.

Phyllacanthus imperialis (Lam’k.). H.L. Clark,

1907, p. 188.

106.

107.

108.

109.

110.

112.

113.

114.

115.

116.

1 Wf

118.

119.

120.

121.

122.

123.

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Prionocidaris baculosa (Lam’k.). H. L. Clark,

1907, p. 189.

bispinosa (Lam’k.). H. L. Clark,

1907, p. 188 (under the name Phyllacanthus

annulifera).

Centrechinus savignyi (Mich.). <A. Agassiz &

H. L. Clark, 1908, pp. 112-114.

Centrechinus setosum (Leske). A. Agassiz &

H. L. Clark, 1908, pp. 112, 113.

Echinothrix diadema (L.). A. Agassiz & H. L.

Clark, 1908, p. 116.

Astropyga radiata (Leske). A. Agassiz & H. L.

Clark, 1908, p. 123.

Asthenosoma urens, Saras. A. Agassiz & H. L.

Clark, 1909, p. 172.

Stomopneustes variolaris (Lam’k.). A. Agassiz,

1873, p. 437.

Temnopleurus reevesii (Gray). H. L. Clark, 1912,

pp. 312, 313.

—— toreumaticus (Leske). H. L. Clark,

1912, p. 312.

Salmacis bicolor, Agass. H.L. Clark, 1912, p. 316.

— dussumieri, Ag. & Des. H. L. Clark,

1912, p. 316.

——_—— virgulata, Ag. & Des. ~H,-L. Clark,

1912, p. 316.

Toxopneustes pileolus (Lam’k.). H. L. Clark,

1912, p. 283.

Tripneustes gratilla (L.). H. L. Clark, 1912,

p- 285.

Gymnechinus robillardi (De Lor.). H. L. Clark,

1912, p. 287.

Microcyphus maculatus, Agass. H. L. Clark,

1912, p. 323.

Pseudoboletia indiana (Mich.). H. Ll. Clark, 1912,

p. 345.

124.

125.

126.

127.

128.

129.

130.

131.

132.

URE

134.

135.

136.

137.

THE ECHINODERMS OF CEYLON. 99

Pseudoboletia maculata, Trosch. H. L. Clark,

1912, p. 345.

Kchinostrephus molare (Bl.). H. L. Clark, 1912,

p. 342.

Kchinometra mathei (Bl.). H. L. Clark, 1912,

pp. 371, 372.

oblonga (Bl.). H. L. Clark, 1912,

pp. 372, 373.

Clypeaster humilis (Leske). H. L. Clark, 1914,

pp. 24, 36.

——--—— reticulatus (L.). H. L. Clark, 1914,

pp. 24, 34.

Laganum depressum, Agass. H. L. Clark, 1914,

p. 45.

Fibularia volva, Ag. & Des. H.L. Clark, 1914,

pp: 57, 58.

Echinodiscus auritus, Leske. H. L. Clark, 1914,

pp: 105-14:

—_————— hisperforatus, Leske. H.L. Clark,

1914, p. 71.

Echinoneus cyclostomus, Leske. De Loriol,

1883, p. 38.

Kchinolampas alexandri, De Lor. De Loriol,

1883, p. 43.

-— ovata (Leske). A. Agassiz, 18738,

p. 553 (under the name oviformis). See also

pe Li:

Schizaster gibberulus, Agass. A. Agassiz, 1873,

p. 612.

Metalia sternalis (Lam’k.). De Loriol, 1883,

p. 44.

Lovenia elongata, Gray. Koehler, 1914, p. 111.

Maretia planulata (Lam’k.). Koehler, 1914,

p- 106.

Pseudomaretia alta (A. Ag.). Koehler, 1914,

p: 10%

6(8)15

100 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

LITERATURE List.

A. Agassiz.—1873, ‘“‘ Revision of the Echini,” Pt. III. Il.

Cat. M. C. Z., No. 7, pp. 379-628.

A. Agassiz and H. L. Clark.—1908, “‘ Hawaiian and other

Pacific Echini.”” Mem. M. C. Z., 34, No. 2,

pp. 43-134.

1909, the same. Mem. M. C. Z., 34, No. 3,

pp. 135-204.

Bell, F. J.—1882, ‘‘ Note on the Echinoderm Fauna of the

Island of Ceylon.’ Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (5),

10, pp. 218-225.

1884, ‘‘ The Species of Oreaster.”’ Proc. Zool.

Soc. London, pp. 57-87.

—____—__—_— 1887, “‘ The Echinoderm Fauna of the Island

of Ceylon.” Trans. Roy. Dublin Soe. (2), 3,

pp. 643-658.

1888, ‘“‘ Report on a Collection of Echino-

derms,” &c. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, pp.

383-389.

Clark, A. H.—1912, ‘‘ The Crinoids of the Indian Ocean.”

Echinoderma of Indian Museum, Pt. VII.,

pp. 1-325.

Clark, H. L.—1907, ‘‘ The Cidaride.” Bull. M. C. Z., 51

No. 7, pp. 163-230.

—1909, ‘“‘ Notes on some Australian and Indo-

Pacific Echinoderms.” Bull. M. C. Z., 52,

No. 7, pp. 107-136.

—--——_—_——_— 1912, ‘‘ Hawaiian and other Pacific Echini,”

Mem. M. C. Z., 34, No. 4, pp. 205-384.

——_—_——-—— 1914, the same. Mem. M. C. Z., 46, No. 1,

pp. 1-78.

Doderlein, L.—1888, ‘‘ Echinodermen von Ceylon.” Zool.

Jahrb., Abt. f. Syst., 3, pp. 821-846.

—_—_—_—————-—1896, ‘‘ Bericht tiber die .... Asteroidea.”’

In Semon’s Zool. Forsh. Australien. Denk.

Ges. Jena, 8, pp. 801-322.

THE ECHINODERMS OF CEYLON. 101

Koehler, R.—1898, “ ‘Investigator’ Echinodermes.”” Les Ophi-

ures littorales. Bull. Sci. France Belgique, 37,

pp. 54-124.

—_———_———1898a, ‘‘ Description d’une Ophiure,” &c.

Bull. Soc. Zool. France, 23, pp. 164, 165.

—_—_—_—_———]904, “‘ Ophiures nouvelles ou peu connues.”

Mem. Soe. Zool. France, 17, pp. 54-119.

——_——_——- — 1905, ‘“‘ Ophiures de l’expedition du ‘Siboga.’ ”

Siboga Reports, £45), pp. 1- 142.

—_——_+—___—_— 1910, ‘“‘ Shallow-water Asteroidea.”’ Echino-

derma of Indian Museum, Pt. VI., pp.

1-184.

1914, “An Account of the Echinoidea:

Spatangidés.”” Echinoderma of Indian Mu-

seum, Pt. VIII., pp. 1-258.

Loriol, P. de.—1883, ‘‘ Echinodermes recueillis .... a Vile

Maurice: Echinides.”” Mem. Soc. Phys. Hist.

Nat. Geneva, 28, No. 8, pp. 1-64.

a 1885, ‘‘ Echinodermes recueillis .... a Vile

Maurice: II. Stellérides.”», Mem. Soc. Phys.

Hist. Nat. Geneva, 29, No. 4, pp. 1-84.

— 1893, ‘‘ Echinodermes de la Baie d’ Amboine.”’

Rev. Suisse Zool., 1, pp. 359-427.

-——1894, ‘‘ Echinodermes recueillis .... a Vile

Maurice: III. Ophiurides et Astrophytides.”

Mem. Soc. Phys. Hist. Nat. Geneva, 32, Pt. I.,

No. 3, pp. 1-64.

Ludwig, H.—1890, ‘‘ Ceylonesische Echinodermen.” Sitz.

Niederrheinischen Ges. Nat. Heilk. in Bonn,

pp- 98-105.

Liitken, C.—- 1871, ‘‘ Fortsatte kritiske og beskrivende Bidrag

til kundskab om Sostjernerne (Asteriderne).”’

Vid. Med. .... for .. 49 1871, Nos. 15-19,

pp. 227-304.

Lyman, T.—1865, “ Ophiurids and Astrophytide.”’ Ill. Cat.

M. C. Z., No. 1, pp. 1-195.

102 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Lyman, T.—1874, ‘‘ Ophiuride and Astrophytide, new

and old.’ Bull.oM. C. Z., 3; No. 10; app;

221-272.

1882, *‘ ‘Challenger’ Ophiuroidea,” pp. 1-386.

Perrier, E.—1875-76, ‘“‘ Revision de .... Stellérides.”? Arch.

Zool. Exp.

Sladen, W. P.—1889, ‘‘‘Challenger’ Asteroidea,” pp.

1-893.

Smith, Z. A.—1878, ‘“ Description of a remarkable new form

of Ophiuride from Ceylon.”’ Ann. Mag. Nat.

Hist. (5), 1, pp. 463-465.

Thurston, H.—1894, ‘“* Inspection of Ceylon Pearl Banks.”

Bull. Madras Gov. Mus., No. 1, pp. 36-54.

Walter, A.—1885, ‘‘ Ceylon Echinodermen.”’ Jena. Zeits., 18,

pp. 365-384.

NOTES ON CEYLON COCCID&. 103

NOTES ON CEYLON COCCIDA.

By A. RuTHERFoRD, M.A., B.Sc. (EDIN.),

Government Entomologist of Ceylon.

ISCHNASPIS LONGIROSTRIS, Sign.

On Graptophyllum hortensis.

\CALE lepidosaphes-like, long, narrow, very dark brown

in colour. Dorsal surface of pygidium of adult with a

tessellated patch. Two pairs of lobes, median lobes about

half their width apart, each lobe somewhat triangular and

minutely serrated along the margin. Second lobe duplex,

the mesal part much the larger, non-serrated, projecting almost

as far caudad as do the median lobes, and with a chitinous

band on each side running well into the pygidium. Third

lobe and sometimes fourth may be slightly developed. Apex

of pygidium slightly concave. Two short setz between the

median lobes, a seta, a plate, and a conspicuous pore-pro-

jection between the median and second lobes, a seta, a

plate, and a pore-projection laterad of the second lobes, four

plates (or five) on the pygidial margin, and six or seven

plates on the two abdominal segments in front of the

pygidium.

Circumgenital pores 2 (5 and 4) (2 and 2). On Landolphia

kirkii specimens were seen with the circumgenital pores

irregularly arranged in six groups of from two to five each—

totalling seventeen.

On coffee pores were—3 (5 and 6) (2 and 2); 3 (5 and 5)

(2 and 2). Insects, which were examined as soon as collected,

contained larve in an advanced stage of development. An

insect from leaves of coffee contained four large eggs as long

as the breadth of the body, but lying in a slightly oblique

position.

104 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

FROGATTIELLA PENICILLATA, Gr.

(= Odonaspis penicillata.)

J.B.N.H., Vol. XVI., p. 346.

The “ hairs ” of Green are in reality plates, of which there

are six orseven. There are also 2 long setz which reach as far

caudad as do the plates. There is a seta just mesad of the

second paraphyses and another at the anterior limit of the

pygidium. A third pair of paraphyses was not visible in the

insects examined. The body contained larve with mouth-

setze well developed. There are parastigmatic pores associated

with the anterior spiracles. The pygidium and the lateral

margins of the preceding segments are more highly chitinized

than the rest of the pygidium. The anus is surrounded by a

ring of chitin.

CHRYSOMPHALUS CISTULOIDES, Gr.

Ibid., p. 342.

I am not certain that Green is correct in his interpretation

of the shape of the scale. Some look very like it, but though

the ventral scale does stand up, I think there is also a tilt

upwards in the dorsal scale. Many scales are quite without

the erect part of the ventral scale. The clear canal-like area

running cephalad from the margin of the pygidium to the anus

is very conspicuous. There is a conspicuous broad plate

truncate and notched at the apex laterad of the second and

third lobes, and others may have been broken off.

Circumgenital pores 2 (4 and 2); 1 (4 and 4) ; those of each

group in a row. The body contains larve with mouth-setz

developed.

‘SHIONASPIS (SUBCORTICALIS, Gr. ?).

Tbid., p. 351.

Under bark of Artocarpus integrifolia.

The secretion is very thin ; scale otherwise as in C. subcorti-

calis, Gr. Adult female elongated or with the pygidium

somewhat retracted. In its pygidial characters the insect

resembles Chionaspis subcorticalis, Gr. The median lobes,

however, are closer together, while the second lobes are

NOTES ON CEYLON COCCID &. 105

distinct, though hyaline and duplex, each half being longer

than broad; the dorsal pores are slightly fewer than are

represented in Green’s figure, there being six in place of nine

in the second series, four in the posterior, and two in the

anterior portion of the arch. There is a prominent pore-

opening laterad of the median lobes and of the first plate.

Plates 0, 1, 1, 1, 2.

The anterior spiracles possess a prominent group of small

parastigmatic glands (C. subcorticalis, Gr., is said to have no

such glands).

Cireumgenital pores 5 (19 and 18) (24 and 27).

Anus located as in C. subcorticalis, Gr.

ASPIDIOTUS (CUCULUS, Gr. ?).

Ibid., p. 341.

Insect oval, not “‘ long pyriform.” The lobes very distinctly

notched on each side, not “ obscurely emarginate”’ (in

his figure, however, Green represents the notches as very

distinct); apex broadly rounded, the mesal and _ lateral

notches at the same level. Laterad of the lobes some

8 or 9 long pectine; these are in a continuous series, as

in Morganella maskelli, Ckll., not in two groups as in A.

cuculus. No “ distinct marginal prominence” between the

groups, nor a“ larger conical point ” beyond the outer group.

Pectinze (two ?) between the lobes ; all pectin frayed at apex.

The anal orifice has a comparatively broad chitinous margin,

as in Green’s figure of A. cuculus. Asmall seta just laterad of

median lobes, 2 or 3 longer sete in region of the pectine, and

3 or 4 on the margin of the pygidium cephalad of the pectine.

A clear dorsal pore in the pygidium cephalad of the base of

each lobe, as in Green’s figure of A. cuculus. Minute dorsal

pores especially distinct in a row running cephalad from the

lateral side of the median lobes.

On twigs of Mesua ferrea, Peradeniya.

Though this insect shows several points of difference from

A. cuculus, Gr., I hesitate to consider it as a separate species,

the more so as both occur on Mesua ferrea. The one may be

a younger stage of the other.

106 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

PARLATORIA PERGANDII, var. PHYLLANTHI, Gr.

Ibid., p. 350.

On Diospyros ebenum. Colouration of scale as in type.

The fourth lobe on one side is lobe-like with faint serrations,

on the other with distinctly deeper serrations, but still not

pectina-like.

Circumgenital pores (6 and 5) (5 and 5).

DIASPIS BOISDUVALH, Sign.

Scale circular, exuviz more or less central ; grayish-white.

Adult female but little longer than broad; a conspicuous

tubercle on margin of thorax on each side. Apex of pygidium

deeply notched ; median lobes slightly divergent, narrowing

towards apex, which is blunt, serrated on mesal edge, not

markedly free at apex. There is a gland-pore and two short sete

between the median lobes. There is aseta and a plate laterad of

the lobes. A pore-projection, situated between the median and

second lobes, projects as far caudad as does the apex of second

lobes. Second lobe duplex, mesal half reaching further caudad

than do the median lobes ; each half-rounded at apex with a

slight lateral notch. Between second and third lobes a plate

anda pore-projection. Third lobes duplex, slightly larger than

second and of much the same shape. There is a seta on the

lateral half of each of the second and third lobes. Laterad of

third lobe is a plate and a duplex lobe-like projection ; then

two short, stout, pointed plates, and a stout spinous projection

followed by four similar plates. Similar plates occur on the

two abdominal segments cephalad of the pygidium.

Circumgenital pores bunched, 8 (16 and 19) (14 and 14).

On leaf of Orchid, Peradeniya.

ASPIDIOTUS (ORIENTALIS, Newst. ?).

Asp. osbeckiv, Gr. Ibid., p. 47.

On leaves of Limonia alata. Antennal tubercle broader than

long, with a short median projection and bearing a long seta

laterally. Mesal lobes as in Green’s figure. Second lobes

much as in Green’s figure, but the lateral notch is more

distinctly caudad of the mesal. Third lobes almost as broad

as second lobes and deeply notched on the lateral margin.

NOTES ON CEYLON COCCID 2. 107

Pectinz 2, 2, 3, and 3 beyond the third lobes, deeply divided

at apex and scarcely projecting beyond the lobes. All the

pectine laterad of the third lobes with dictyospermie-like

processes ; these processes bent towards the mesal lobes.

Paraphyses indistinct, those on the mesal side of the median

lobe being the most distinct. Anus large, about its own length

from the apex of the pygidium. Interval between second and

third lobes wider than between median and second lobes.

Circumgenital pores present (6 and 6) (5 and 6) ; (6 and 5)

(4 and 4) ; (7 and ?) (5 and 4).

CHRYSOMPHALUS ROSSI, Mask.

Green, “‘ Coccide of Ceylon,” Pt. I., p. 45.

On leaves of Cycas sp.

The lobes are distinctly notched on the lateral margin,

obscurely on mesal margin. The pectin appear as if united

at the base. There are seven pairs of distinct paraphyses ;

a pair at the base of each lobe and a pair between the second

and third lobes, one on each side. The second, fifth, and

seventh paraphyses of each side the longest. Numerous finer

paraphyses on the pygidial margin.

_Cireumgenital pores (9 and 8) (7 and 7) ; (13 and 13) (7 and 8).

The mouth-setz and lobes of unborn young are distinct.

The median lobes of the embryo are widely separated, longer

than broad, convergent, serrated on lateral margin, slightly

notched at apex on mesal side ; two small pointed plates in

the interval between them, also two sete projecting cephalad

and crossing. A second pair of lobes is present, longer than

broad, notched on both margins.

AONIDIELLA (CHRYSOMPHALUS) AURANTH, Mask.

Ibid., p. 58.

- On Morus sp.

The pygidium and one or two segments in front of the

pygidium are less heavily chitinized than the rest of the body.

The paraphyses are inconspicuous. The median lobes are

distinctly larger than the second lobes. The second lobes

may be without a notch on the mesal margin, resembling the

third lobes in that respect. —

5 6(8)15

108 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

PSEUDAONIDIA TRILOBITIFORMIS,. Gr.

Ibid., p. 41.

On Peddeia africana.

Antenna consists of a single long seta. Anterior parastig-

matic pores 12. Median lobes more strongly chitinized than

the others. Median lobes do not reach quite so far caudad as

do the second lobes. All lobes except fourth rounded at

apex and obscurely notched on each side near the apex ; the

fourth notched on the lateral side only. Second and third

lobes of much the same width and but slightly narrower than

the median lobes.

Circumgenital pores (18 and 19) (15 and 18).

On Jxora sp.

Lobes narrowing towards the base, apices rounded. Median,

second, and third lobes project almost equally far caudad.

Anterior parastigmatic pores 17-18. Circumgenital pores

(30 and 25) (23 and 14). Adult female dark purple, tip of

abdomen paler. Larve dark purple.

AONIDIA PERPLEXA, Gr.

J2 .B.N. Hi :Soex Vok. XIE, py 252:

Lobes of the second exuvium expanded caudally, the apex

directed towards the meson ; apex on unbroken curve. Two

pectin between the median lobes, two between the first and

second and second and third lobes, and eleven laterad of the

third lobes ; these eleven pectinz produced into a long point

and pectinate on the lateral margin.

ANTONINA Sp.

Female very dark brown in colour, almost completely

covered by loose white wax. Antenne situated on the

anterior margin, 2-jointed, the basal joint short, the terminal

with about 7 hairs at its apex. Legs absent. Spiracles large,

each with from 22 to 25 parastigmatic glands. Derm pores

circular, of variable size. Derm covered with sete. Apex of

abdomen chitinized and bearing numerous derm pores and

sete. Anal ring with 6 stout sete, which reach to the

NOTES ON: CEYLON COCCID. 109

posterior margin. Posterior margin slightly concave with

large setz on the edge of the concavity. Under the leaf-

sheaths of Panicum uncinatum at Peradeniya.

MorGANELLA MASKELLI, Ckll.

(Aspidiotus longispinus, Morg.)

J. B. N. H. Soc., Vol. XVLI., -p. 340.

Antenna a low tubercle bearing several smaller tubercles,

and at the base a long stout seta curved towards the middle

line. On the cephalic margin between the level of the antenne

and placed close together are two stout sete. Each lobe with

two lateral notches, the proximal near the base and obscure,

the distal very distinct. The lobes project into the pygidium

as far as the anus, and the cephalic end of the projection may

be knobbed. The pygidium is not markedly chitinized,

though there may be several strands of chitin laterad of the

vagina. The first pair of setz laterad of the lobes are short

and stout, the one more laterad the longer ; the second pair

may be similar in shape or long and slender and curved at

the apex. The pectine are much more pectinate than in

Green’s figure, the fringe being present on both sides of the

main shaft and projecting at right angles to the shaft. The

first pair of setz are separated from the lobes by at least two

-pectine. The larva is broadly oval and possesses a well-

marked pair of lobes, which are somewhat convergent and

project slightly into the pygidium. Each possesses three

notches, one mesad and two laterad of the rounded apex.

Between the lobes are two short stout setz and two long sete,

one at the base of each lobe. Laterad of the lobes are several

short setz and a hyaline projection serrated at the apex.

An insect on Morus sp. contained in the posterior abdominal

region a parasite with stout, sharply-hooked mandibles, and

‘at the caudal end a tube continuous with the alimentary canal

and apparently reaching to the outside of the scale insect, and

containing small granular bodies. There were several para-

sites present, but only one had developed.

On Cinnamonium zeylanica, Morus sp., and Brousonettia

papyrtfera, in the last case buried in the bark.

110 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

AULACASPIS BARBERI, Gr.

MW. D: A.’L., Vol. DDaNo- 2: p: sb:

On Loranthus sp. growing on Avocada Pear, Peradeniya,

June 18, 1913.

Median lobes slightly divergent. Apex of mesal half of

second lobe obliquely truncate, slightly incised ; lateral half

small and pointed. Third lobes present on one side, small,

not duplex. Laterad of third lobes are several serrated

projections, those associated with gland pores being large and

prominent. Plates 1, 1, 1 or 2, 2, 3.

Circumgenital pores 8 (17 and 15) (17 and 17).

Two dorsal pores immediately laterad of the cireumgenital

pores.

On Loranthus sp. growing on Cassia nodosa, Peradeniya,

June 3, 1914.

Female scale on petiole. Secretion grayish-white, exuvize

reddish-brown, situated just within margin. Scale highly

convex.

Male scales in hundreds on under surface of same leaf.

Exuvie yellowish-brown, secretion white, with faint median

carina. Scales lying flat on leaf, the exuvie all pointing

towards base of leaf. Antenna of adult female a tubercle

bearing a short spine apically and a long seta laterally.

Anterior spiracles with from 5 to 11 parastigmatie peres.

Three dorsal pores immediately laterad of circumgenital

pores. Mesal half of second lobe dilated, rounded at apex ;

lateral half absent or small and pointed.

Circumgenital pores 6 (12 and 18) (24 and 25) ; 7 (20 and 16)

(22 and 21) ; 10 (22 and 22) (22 and 20). Median circumgenital

pores in a transverse row or in a bunch.

Crrococcus (ARAUCARIZ, Mask. ?).

Larva, antenna with 7 segments, third longest. Body with a

fringe of stout, conical, truncate spines on the dorsal side, and

a fringe of slender pointed spines ventrally. Derm mamil-

lated. Small pores and larger ring-like pores scattered over

dorsum. Venter covered with slender sete and circular pores.

Tarsi of first legs longer than tibie, of almost the same length

NOTES ON CEYLON COCCID&. 111

as tibiz in the second and third pairs. Anal ring with 8 set.

Anal lobe with two shoulders near the base, each bearing a

stout, conical, truncate spine ; another lobe on mesal margin

near apex also bearing a spine. A long seta on apex of lobe.

Two large setz and several smaller sete on venter of anal

lobes.

On Araucaria cookii, Peradeniya.

ASPIDIOTUS HEDER, Vall.

On leaf of Artocarpus integrifolia, Peradeniya.

Seale circular, yellow, transparent. Mounted insect tapering

rapidly towards the posterior end; pygidium small, the

extreme apex rather suddenly truncated. The body contains

yellowish eggs.

The median Jobes are broader in comparison with their

length than in Aspidiotus transparens, Gr. (Coccide of Ceylon,

Pt. I., p. 49); they are rounded at the apex and distinctly

notched on both sides, the mesal notch being caudad of the

lateral. The second lobes are narrower than the median,

longer than broad, rounded at apex, slightly notched on both

sides. The third lobes are slightly narrower than the second,

are longer than broad, rounded at apex, and notched on the

lateral side. Laterad of the third lobes are about seven or

eight short, broad pectine, deeply pectinate at apex, not so

distinctly produced on the mesal side as in Green’s figure of

A. transparens, Gr. Dorsal pores in more or less regular rows

running cephalad from the margin of the pygidium. Anus as

in Green’s figure of A. transparens as regards shape and position.

Circumgenital pores (13 and 11) (9 and 10), those of each group

in two more or less distinct longitudinal rows.

PROTOPULVINARIA LONGIVALVATA, Gr.

Coccide of Ceylon, Pt. IV., p. 254.

On Gardenia latifolia. In fresh specimens the dorsum is

seen to bear wax-plates of the form of those in Paralecanium

expansum, Gr. The marginal, dark-coloured zone is very

distinct.

ne SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

The eighth segment of the antenna is the longest, while the

second is slightly longer than the third. ‘The tarsus is shorter

than the tibia, and in the first pair of legs is distinctly con-

stricted distad of its middle. The marginal hairs are dilated

at the base and apex and extend for half their length beyond

the claw. Tarsal hairs long and knobbed at apex. Four

small “ fringe setze,” two on each side.

On Guava. Eighth segment of the antenna the longest, and

the second is fully as long as the third.

PSEUDOPARLATORIA PARLATORIOIDES, Comst.

On leaves of Guava.

Scale circular, pale yellow, transparent; exuvia large,

situated towards one side.

Three pairs of lobes. Median lobes well separated, each

with sides parallel towards base ; abruptly narrowed towards

apex, which is rounded. Second and third lobes duplex, each

part usually notched at least on the lateralside. There is a pair

of short diverging plates united at base between the median

lobes. There is a plate laterad of the median and second

lobes and two small spinous processes on the margin of the

pygidium cephalad of the third lobes. There is a prominent

pore-opening laterad of the median, second, and third lobes,

and a fourth on the base of the mesal half of the third lobe.

Anus conspicucus and not far from apex of pygidium.

Circumgenital pores (12 and 12) (7 and 8).

The pygidium of the second exuvium is very similar to that

of the adult, except that the third pair of lobes is absent

The pygidium of the first exuvium bears a pair of minute

hyaline lobes, widely separated and abruptly narrowed

towards apex.

There is a stout plate laterad of each lobe and two or three

similar plates more cephalad.

CHIONASPIS SIMPLEX, Gr.

Coccide of Ceylon, Pt. II., p. 160.

Underneath leaf sheaths of small bamboo (? Dendrocalamus

sp.) at Peradeniya. Pygidium without lobes, asymmetrical,

with small crenulations only and a few short sete.

NOTES ON CEYLON COCCID®. 113

Pores of exterior spiracles 6-8, of posterior none. Antenna

a tubercle bearing two setz. Anal opening situated just

cephalad of the anterior group of circumgenital pores, the

vagina at the level of the interval between the cephalo-

lateral and caudo-lateral groups of circumgenital pores.

Numerous small glands opening on pygidium. Numerous

curved striz all over body. Chitinous bands run cephalad

from the apex of the pygidium.

Circumgenital pores in five compact groups, 23 (30 and 39)

(37 and 47).

This insect resembles Green’s insect from Mauritius, which,

he states, resembles in every way, except in number of groups

of circumgenital pores, his C. simplex. Green may have

colonized this insect at Peradeniya.

CHIONASPIS HERB, Gr.

Under leaf sheaths of Panicum sp.

The median lobes are sunk in a slight cleft, and are finely

but distinctly serrated on the mesal margin.

The number of circumgenital pores in the specimen I have

seen is fewer than that given by Green ; 17 (27 and 30) (30 and

25) ; 15 (29 and 32) (27 and 30) ; 14 (33 and 38) (31 and 33).

The antenna is a tubercle bearing a single seta.

FIORINIA FIORINIZ, Targ. Tozz., Green.

Coccide of Ceylon, Pt. I., p. 94.

Male. Scale white, with a slight median carina sometimes

visible towards the posterior end. Exuvium yellowish-brown.

Scale surrounded by powdery wax.

On Cupressus sp.

The antennz of the female are very variable in shape and size ;

generally they consist of a broad, sometimes quadrangular,

tubercle, rounded, pointed, or notched at the apex, and bearing

a stout curved seta near the base. I have never seen them

showing the regularity represented in Green’s figure. Anterior

spiracles with about 5 parastigmatic pores.

The marginal abdominal tubercles are blunt at apex (on

Turpinia sp.).

114 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

The median lobes are situated in a cleft, narrow, tapering,

strongly divergent, pointed, distinctly free at apex and serrated

along the mesal margin and at the apex.

The second lobes are duplex. The mesal half may be

almost twice as broad as the lateral half, which may be well

developed or minute (Z'urpinia) ; the mesal half may project

caudally as far as the apex of the median lobes and may be

slightly serrated on the lateral margin (Avocado Pear). Both

halves are usually rounded at the apex.

There are two short setz between the median lobes, a seta

on the lateral side of the median lobes, a seta and a plate

laterad of the median lobes. Thereafter in succession a

prominent gland-pore, the second lobe with a seta on the base

of its lateral half, a long plate broad at the base and abruptly

narrowed thereafter, a prominent gland-pore, and three more

gland-pores at intervals on the margin of the pygidium, the

most anterior small, a seta being associated with the first of

the three, and another lying near the third. No plates visible

cephalad of the one laterad of the second lobes (Cupressus sp.).

In an insect from J'urpinia sp. the setze between the median

lobes project beyond the lobes.

The number of gland pores on the pygidium is variable,

though four appears to be the rule. In an insect from Avocado

Pear only three could be made out on each side, one laterad

of the median lobes, one laterad of the second lobes, and one

slightly caudad of the level of the posterior end of the caudo-

lateral group of circumgenital pores; and on one side the

last-mentioned pore was either absent or so much reduced as

_to be unrecognizable as such.

In an insect from Walsura piscidia there was a plate cephalad

of the third gland-pore and having a seta mesad of it.

Circumgenital pores. Median in a distinct group : 8 (9 and

5) (18 and 15), Walsura. Median group distinctly isolated :

3 (12 and 11) (11 and 13) ; 2 of the 11 of the posterior group

situated midway between the anterior and the posterior groups

(T'urpinia). Median group of 8 in a double transverse row :

Host ?

Median and anterior-lateral groups practically in a con-

tinuous arch, 5 (9 and 10) (13 and 13) ; 6(9 and 8) (12 and 12);

NOTES ON CEYLON COCCID 4. 115

Eugenia sp. Pores practically in a continuous arch : 7 (9 and

7) (12 and 12) ; 5 (11 and 9) (11 and 12); 6 (6 and 6) (5 and 10).

Avocado Pear.

Median group distinct or continuous with the anterior

groups ; anterior and posterior groups massed or separated.

A median group showed 7 pores partly in a single and partly

in a double transverse row. Cupressus.

Anus just caudad of the median group of circumgenital

pores. Vagina in a line between the break in the lateral

groups of cireumgenital pores. (Z'urpinia.)

The second exuvium may have both halves of the second

lobe well developed, and laterad of the second lobe is the lobe-

like projection of a gland-pore. lLaterad of this is a series of

4 or 5 serrated projections and still farther laterad 2 short

plates. There are at least 5 gland-pores opening on the margin

of the pygidium. There is a prominent seta on the lateral

half of the second lobe. (Z'urpinia.)

Larva with two chitinous processes meso-caudad of the base

of the antenna (Hugenia). In the larval exuvium two clear

areas in corresponding position (Host ?).

Larva with two setz projecting cephalad between the

antenna.

Apex of the pygidium with 2 minute, widely-separated

lobes, and laterad of these two long plates, the one more

caudad the larger.

There are several small setz between the lobes, and two

situated cephalo-mesally of the base of the lobes and con-

vergent caudally. (Hugenia sp.)

Ir is with deep regret that we record the death of Mr. Andrew

Rutherford, Government Entomologist, which occurred unex-

pectedly on February 3, after a brief illness. Mr. Rutherford

was appointed in March, 1913, and though his career in Ceylon

has been prematurely brought to a close, it was sufficient to

demonstrate to his colleagues his thorough grasp of his subject

and keen devotion to the furtherance of entomologicalknowledge.

Mr. Rutherford held the degrees of M.A. and B.Sc. of

Edinburgh University. For some time he was Professor of

Biology at the Agricultural College, Cirencester, and afterwards

Lecturer in Zoology and Botany at University College, Cardiff.

Obtaining a Carnegie Studentship he proceeded to America and

studied entomology at Cornell University. While in America

he visited Trinidad, and travelled through the United States

in order to obtain a first-hand knowledge of field entomology

as conducted in admittedly the best and most highly organized

entomological service in the world. It may be questioned

whether Great Britain has ever sent out to the Colonies a

man who had so thoroughly equipped himself for his work.

Mr. Rutherford devoted himself, especially in Ceylon, to the

collection and study of injurious insects and their parasites,

and had laid the foundation for a complete literature relating

to such as affect Ceylon plants. The large collections which

he amassed were submitted to specialists in Europe and

America, where his work was well known and appreciated.

In his special subject, Coccidee, he had already gained a wide

reputation, and was consulted by entomologists in all parts

of the East. These labours were just beginning to bear fruit,

as is evidenced by his Papers in the Tropical Agriculturist,

the Bulletin of Entomological Research, the Journal of the

Bombay Natural History Society, and Spolia Zeylanica,

though these represent but a small fraction of the results

which would naturally have accrued.

Scientific by training and inclination, Mr. Rutherford

abhorred slipshod work and unsupported hypotheses ; he

subjected his own work to the most rigorous scrutiny, and

expected others to do the same. His loss is deplored not only

in Ceylon, but also by a wide circle of personal friends and

co-workers in Europe and America. T. PETCH.

Peradeniya, July, 1915.

TWO ABERRATIONS OF CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 117

NOTE ON TWO ABERRATIONS OF CEYLON

BUTTERFLIES.

By G. M. Henry,

Assistant in Systematic Entomology, Colombo Museum.

(With one plate.)

1. Telchinia viola, Fabr.—This specimen was presented

to the Colombo Museum recently by Mr. G. W. Halkett, who

caught it in November, 1913, between Kurunegala and Matale,

on Delwita estate. It is an interesting aberration of this

common butterfly, and differs from the normal in the following

points :—

Fore-wing, upper side—The usual spots and streaks in and

beyond the cell are merged in a large, rather ill-defined dark

patch, which occupies almost the whole of the cell and

extends to the usual position of the black spots in spaces

4, 5, 6, and 10. The black spots in interspaces 1 and 3 are

replaced by long irregular dark patches, and there is a similar

patch in interspace 2. In other respects the fore-wing is

normal.

Hind-wing, wpper side—There is a much larger black spot

than usual in interspace 7. The spot in interspace 3 is absent.

The spot in interspace 2 is obsolescent in the left wing, but

well marked in the right. There is a small spot at the point

where vein 6 leaves the cell. The light spots in the interspaces

of the black terminal band are confluent with the tawny of

the disc of the wing. The black band thus becomes a series

of dentate marks at the veins.

_ Fore-wing, under side—This does not greatly differ from

the normal, but the large black patches on the upper side show

through the wing, producing a dusky appearance.

Hind-wing, under side —All the spots anterior to the middle

of the cell are much enlarged. The spots in interspaces la,

LI8 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

1b, 1, 3, and 5 are absent. The large whitish spots in the

terminal black band are confluent with the colour of the

disc, as on the upper side. The head, thorax, and abdomen

are normal.

The figure should make these points clear.

2. Pyrameis cardui, Linn—I caught a curious aberra-

tion of this species at Scarborough estate, Maskeliya, on

October 20, 1913. Many normal specimens of the species

were flying about at the time. It may be described as

follows :—

Fore-wing, wpper side—The irregular black band which in

normal specimens crosses interspaces 1 and 2 and projects

into the cell is absent, its place being taken by the tawny of

the ground colour. Instead of the normal two rows of white

spots in the black apical area, there is a single row of five

large ill-defined white spots. This row is continued down

towards the tornus by small obsolescent whitish spots in

interspaces 1 and 2. The black terminal band is broader

than in the normal, and very ill-defined proximally.

Hind-wing, wpper side—The dusky brown area at the basal

half of the wing is very restricted in area. The row of round

black spots in interspaces 2 to 6 is absent, and is replaced by

a row of ill-defined white spots. There is a white spot in

interspace | belonging to the same row. The inner terminal

row of black lunules is absent.

Fore-wing, under side——The differences here are practically

the same as on the upper side. All the black markings are

paler and less well-defined than in normal specimens. There

are no white spots in the apical area.

Hind-wing, under side —The row of ocelli in interspaces 2 to 6

is represented by two obsolescont ones in interspaces 2 and 5

only. The dark subterminal lunules are absent, and the bold

marblings of the normal P. cardui are reduced to a few ill-

defined smudges.

The specimen was sent to Mr. E. E. Green in England,

who has not yet returned it. I have described it from my

coloured drawing, made before the specimen was sent to

Mr. Green.

Telchinia violz, Fabr.

Linn.

Pyrameis cardut,

G, Henry, del.

ANIMAL AND PLANT LIFE. 119

NOTES ON ANIMAL AND PLANT LIFE IN THE

VEDDA COUNTRY.

By FrRepERIcK Lewis, F.L.S.

(With one map.)

HE locality to which these notes apply represents the

whole of the Maha Wedirata, the eastern half of the

Buttala-Wedirata, and the southern half of the Panawa

Pattu of the Eastern Province.

This large extent of country falls within part of Uva from

the Monaragala range eastwards, and, as indicated above,

part of the Eastern Province, or more specifically within the

following rough boundaries. Starting from the conspicuous

needle-pointed mountain called Wadinagala on the north,

it follows the provincial limits of the Eastern Province to

the point where it crosses the Government cart road from

Potuvil to Muppane. From that point the road to Muppane

is adopted as far at Potuvil, from thence following the sea-

coast to Kumuna on the banks of the Kumbukkan river.

Next the Kumbukkan river is followed to a point called

Kebilitte, at the foot of the imposing mass of rock shown on

the Admiralty charts as “ Chimney Hill.” From here, a

line drawn to Sirigala and thence to Wadinagala encloses

the whole.

Within this area there is only one perennial river—the

Kumbukkan-aar, which forms the southern limit of the

region in question. The next largest stream is the Heda-oya,

which in the north-east monsoon is a wide and formidable

river. To the north the Lankiya-oya is an important stream,

which is supplemented by several considerable branches that

after uniting with it form a great branch of the Namal-oya.

The Govindu-oya, rising on the east flank of the “ West-

minster Abbey,” forms a useful branch of the Karandi-oya

that drains the eastern half of the Maha Wedirata country,

120 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

while the Wila-oya and Kulapan-oya convey the waters from

the eastern limits of the Buttala-Wedirata to the sea through

the Panawa Pattu.

The chief mountains are Wadinagala (2,414 ft.), ‘“ West-

minster Abbey ” (1,830 ft.), Degalhella, Nilgala, Hibitalana-

gala, Kiripokunagala, “‘ Chimney Hill,’ and Obbekota in the

Monaragala range.

Most of these mountains rise abruptly from the plains

below, and terminate in high masses of rock. There are, in

some cases—particularly on the summit of “‘ Westminster

Abbey ”—small patches of vegetation, but in the majority the

summits of the more conspicuous hills are bare. The country

described, therefore, may, broadly speaking, be considered as

flat, broken by a few low undulations, the whole being dotted

over irregularly with abrupt mountainous masses of rock.

The rainfall of this area is comparatively low, and probably

does not exceed an average of 60 inches for the year, nearly

the whole of which falls in the north-east monsoon, thus

involving a period of extreme drought during the south-west

monsoon, when for months there is not a drop of rain, followed

by torrential showers of variable intensity and uneven distri-

bution.

I am indebted to Mr. Balfour, the Director of Irrigation,

for the details of rainfall at Ampari and Rotawewa,* well

outside the area I refer to, and to the Surveyor-Generaly for

the same particulars at Monaragala, these being given in

tabular form in the Appendix. :

As might be anticipated from such variation and extreme,

it would follow that the vegetation of the country embraced

must be, for the most part, what is called dry-zone flora,

but other influences have to be considered in relation to

distribution. These may be considered as being affected—

(a) By influence of streams rising in high altitudes, or in

moister regions ;

(b) By the operations of human beings ;

(d) By wind action.

= a Se ee

* Appendix A. + Appendix B.

ANIMAL AND PLANT LIFE. 121

Before passing to a brief detailed investigation of the

influences roughly classified as above, it may not be out of

place to examine the historical records that apply to the

area at the moment under consideration. Thus, we find

Arugam Bay corresponds to Mardi, or Morduli Portus, in the

time of Ptolemy. Okanda Bay is the same as Bocana—as

the sound nearly implies ; Kumuna, according to the Sanskrit,

is the same as Gonagramuka ; while the Kumbukkan river

appears in Ptolemy’s time to have been called Baracus fluvius.

From this it may be inferred that at least two bays on

our eastern coast, south of Batticaloa, were known to the

Romans, in addition to the perennial Kumbukkan-aar, and it

may be deduced with probable certainty that these bays were

ports of call, while the Kumbukkan river was more than

likely to have been well known as being the one spot on the

east coast where fresh water could always be obtained in both

monsoons, for trading boats of light draught.

From this circumstance alone it is probable that the traders

of the Roman period had dealings at Kumuna, while Okanda

and Arugam Bays both offered a safe anchorage to the traders’

vessels.

The whole of the Panawa Pattu from a point south of

Komari was included in the region called in Sanskrit times

Lambakarna, which, according to Pliny and Ptolemy’s map,

covered Bocani, of which Bocana (= Okanda) was the port.

Passing to more modern maps, we find about 1681

Knox gives Pottin for Pottuvil ; Coemena for Kumuna; and

Konokan-aar for the Kumbukkan, showing that these places

had, up to that time, sufficient importance to find their

recognition in maps of the day. Knox, moreover, distinctly

shows Pannoa or Panova Regnum, implying that that part of

the country was under a sovereign at that time, insignificant

though he may have been.

This evidence, however, which might be elaborated but

for pressure on the space of this Paper, points to the definite

conclusion that for a considerable period a large extent of

our eastern coast was well known, even to the traders of the

western world, and we must anticipate, therefore, that in

the course of that trade there would be an exchange of

122 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

commodities which would produce both directly and indirectly

its effect upon local plant life, either by the introduction of

species of economic value, or by the direct export of woods

found at hand.

In support of this it is noticeable that to the north-west of

Pottuvil, Palu (Mimusops luxandra) and Satinwood (Chloroxy-

lon swietenia) are comparatively abundant, as contrasted with

the scarcity of the same species on the banks of the Kumbukkan

river. Again, while Mi (Bassia longifolia) is abundant on

the Kumbukkan, it may be called rare west of Pottuvil. As

this last-named is an introduction of great value, it was spared

where it existed near towns, but was neglected in those loca-

lities where the population had no permanent settlement, as

we find is the case with the majority of the Maha Wedirata

‘« villages ’’ of the present day, and it is only in some places

of old establishment that we find the Mi tree now.

The present population is very much scattered, its distri-

bution being undoubtedly governed by the presence or

absence of water; hence it will be found that the so-called

villages are at considerable distances apart, and only where

a supply of water can be got, however small or impure,

all the year round. On the other hand, one finds the example

of an unpopulated area bounded by a perennial stream, as

in the case of the valley of the Kumbukkan river for the

last thirty miles of its course. Here, however, we have the

instance of a stream that rises to an enormous flood that

inundates the country to a depth of many feet on both its

banks, thus drowning out, in the wet season, any annual

cultivation, and leaving the place parched and dry during

the periods of drought—two factors sufficient to keep back

a people unprepared to establish strong measures to secure

permanent occupation.

Nor is this all. The Kumbukkan river, after it passes the

foot of the isolated mass of the Monaragala hills, enters a

country that afforded the Veddas their best hunting ground,

and the Veddas appear in their early history to have been a

race of people who depended almost entirely on the chase,

using for their dwellings the rudest shelters of caves and

temporary branch huts. They had no inducement to build

ANIMAL AND PLANT LIFE. 123

houses of lasting character, as neither their instincts nor

habits necessitated such procedure.

At Kumuna alone we find a modification of these conditions,

in that the greater part of the land where the village stood is

above flood level, and possessed of constant fresh water all

the year round, besides being at a spot where there was a

prospect of trade.

It should be added that all the many anicuts on this river

between. Kumuna and Kebilitte bear silent testimony to the

violence of the floods on the river, and to the once existence

of a large population, that probably vanished as soon as these

engineering works were destroyed—a population who could

enjoy the benefit of the river’s floodings by diverting the water

into immense tanks, that now are but park-like pieces of jungle.

The present inhabitants of the region embraced within the

boundaries recorded here are unquestionably of mixed origin,

as it is easy to trace on the western limits the pure Sinhalese

type of feature, these fading again to a more specific type

through the Maha Wedirata, and again changing markedly

on the north-east of that country, till it is practically

replaced by Tamils in the Panawa Pattu. Thus, it would

seem that the Vedda type lay between the Uvan Sinhalese

on the west and the Tamil on the east, with the result that

frequently one would hear men, while asserting that they

were pure Sinhalese, conversing with each other in Tamil.

This I found to be actually the case at Bowela, where the

villagers insisted that they were of the Goigama caste.

I was completely baffled in my attempts to secure a voca-

bulary of Vedda words, though I offered liberal payment

for a few lessons in that language. I was pointed out men

who were able to speak Vedda, and it was arranged that we

should meet, in secret, at a definite time, and at a fixed spot,

but when the time came I was told the men had gone away

to find stray cattle, or some other equally trumped-up

story.

One night I camped close to some huts in the village of

Wattegama, and after my lamp had been put out and I was

supposed to be asleep, I heard an animated discussion in the

nearest hut, but though I could hear every word, I did not

i 6(8)15

124 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

recognize a single expression. The following morning I taxed

the people with speaking in Vedda language, but they stoutly

declared that they could only speak Sinhalese.

In my opinion the majority ol the people of the Maha

Wedirata are of Vedda origin, but have discarded their

primitive customs as they dwindled in numbers, and while

other causes, such as marriage with neighbouring people,

tended to still further break down the older customs of the

isolated clans that made up the Vedda race as a whole, they

still clung in secret to the language of their forefathers, as a

binding link and a means of private communication.

- At Salavai, in the Panawa Pattu, I found one family who

admitted that their grandfather was a real Vedda, belonging

to one of the clans occupying the country on the confines of

the Kumbukkan river.

From the oldest member of this family I obtained a mass

of information respecting the habits and customs of the Vedda

people.

According to this individual, who has adopted the Sinhalese

name of Dissan Hamy, the Veddas were divided up into a

number of waruge or clans, each of which occupied and

hunted over a specific area of country, and had no connection

with the others who lived as separate communities.

The members of each clan were more or less related, and

previous to the disintegration of the Veddas as a race, they

could not marry any but members of the same waruge.

They lived by hunting, in which only the males took part.

Their habitations were caves, and occasionally leaf shelters,

but the latter was uncommon.

The females were kept in a state of rigid subjection to the

males, and could not take part in the chase, ordinary

ceremonials, or conversation with any but those who were

immediate relations, or the closest relatives of the husband.

If the husband was pleased to throw some meat to his wife,

as part of his spoil in the chase, that was all the woman was

entitled to. She could not claim a share simply because she

was the man’s wife.

Under ordinary circumstances, both the males and females

were naked, assuming only for special occasions a loin cloth

——_

ANIMAL AND PLANT LIFE. 2:

of the bark of the Ritti (Antiaris toxicaria) for males, and a

sort of leaf-skirt for the females.

No jewellery was worn by the males or females. Sometimes

a necklace made of shells (“* Bellan’’) was worn by the younger

females, but such things as rings were unknown to the earlier

Veddas.

They had no idea of time beyond the subdivision of the 24

hours into two divisions, viz., that of light and darkness.

Other than this there was no computation except a man’s

knowledge of a certain striking event that happened in his

* small time,” but how long ago that was could not be stated.

The taking of a woman to wife required mainly the sanction

of the girl’s father, after which a few exchanges might be

made in signification of the consent of parties. After this

the man and woman lived together, while before they would

not so much as dare speak to one another in public, unless

related.

The age of the woman was invariably extremely youthful

at the time of her “‘ marriage,’ and even at the present day,

notwithstanding the comparative civilization of the modern

Vedda descendants, youthful marriages still prevail.

I found in response to my inquiries in all parts of the Vedda

country that I visited, that 12 years was a common age for a

girl to be taken to wife at. In one village I was present at

an inquiry by a headman into a case where the girl was only 8.

In this case the headman expressed the opinion that the

marriage was “‘ very bad.”

My informant told me that with the Veddas there was no

custom for the woman, when about to give birth to a child,

to go to a separate house or hut for the purpose, but that this

custom had only come in later.

Among the Veddas there was no such thing as prostitution,

nor could I learn that there was polyandry.

The bearing age of women would be at about 14, that of

puberty being a year earlier.

Women would have children up to about 28, and as might

be expected from the condition cf youthful cohabitation for

one or two years prior to puberty, the proportion of males

and females in a family would be pretty nearly equal. On

126 SPOLIA ZBYLANICA.

the other hand, the mortality would be very considerable

among the offspring. This mortality, when infantile, would

generally be among the first born and last born, owing to

maternal immaturity in the first case and constitutional

depletion in the last.

On the question of sex I found that the prevalent idea was

that if a wife was not thoroughly obedient to her husband

she would invariably give birth to females, and it was only

complete subjection to the husband’s will that could secure

a preponderance of males.

I could get no information on the subject of barrenness or

sterility.

As regards the religion of the Veddas previous to their

modernization, it appears that they believed in certain

‘“* Yakko,”’ who exercised certain influences for good or evil.

There was no conception of a Supreme Creator. On the other

hand, the “‘ Yakko ” possessed, in common with humanity,

a tendency to favour; so that it was always possible to secure

its influence in return for special molifying ceremonies. Thus,

by certain incantations, ceremonial offerings, or honorific

declarations, the Yakko who exercised specific powers could

be induced to subtend influence to the advantage of the

individual then desiring it. Thus, the Yakka who guarded

the deer might be induced to direct the deer to come within

the reach of the Vedda’s bow and arrows. On the other

hand, another Yakka might be propitiated so as to render

the hunter invisible to the leopard, so that the hunter would

escape harm.

Special incantations were supposed to render an individual

successful in the chase, so that his aim would be deadly, or

that more game would come his way.

Again, disease or sickness was the direct outcome ef certain

malign Yakko, who could be propitiated, and this was specially

to be considered when a woman was pregnant, so that the

evil might be diverted from the unborn child.

I was not able to discover from my informant if the Veddas

in their primitive times had any definite form of agriculture.

It is certain that they were acquainted with rice, but I could

not ascertain how it was procured.

ANIMAL AND PLANT LIFE. 127

Equally they were acquainted with tobacco and betel, for

I was shown a place where the Veddas established a toll that

was paid usually in these particular commodities.

The dog was the only domestic animal reared by the Vedda,

and special names were given to these pets.

The Veddas appeared to have no knowledge of melting iron

for the manufacture of their particular implements, which

consisted of the bow and arrow, the spear, and the small axe,

or hatchet. Arrow and spear-heads were procured by barter ;

the method of procedure was to clear a small space round

the foot of a tree by the wayside leading to a village known to

contain smiths. Here the Vedda would hang up to the branch

of a tree a vessel containing honey, or a piece of meat, which

would be taken by the smith, who in return would hang up an

arrow-head.

It was understood by both that the quantity or number of

articles required would be represented by the number of

parcels of meat or honey. Should the smith, however, take

the meat and not leave the arrow-heads that were thus

silently requisitioned, he would pay the penalty with his life,

or some of his animals would be shot by the defrauded Vedda.

The bow was usually made from the wood of the Dunu-

madala (Stereospermum chelonioides) and of the Bignoniacez.

It was not always of the same length, as this appears to have

depended on the springiness of the wood. The arrow was

generally about 4 ft. long, or as much as a man could draw the

bow to. The arrow-head appears to have been small, large

arrow-heads being for ceremonial purposes only.

Fire was obtained by spinning, under moderate pressure, a

vertical rod of Welanga wood (Pterospermum suberifolium) on

a flat piece of wood of the same species, with the point of the

former surrounded by floss, or some quickly inflammable

material. Later, the flint and steel were found more effective.

One example of a flint and steel was shown to me at Panawa,

and I tried to purchase it at the owner’s valuation, but I found

he was most reluctant to sell. 1 understood that the flint and

steel, a lock of hair, and a fragment of cloth represented a title

deed, these being given by a dying man to his heir, or adopted

heir, as a mode or evidence of transfer.

128 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

According to my authority the Veddas indulged in no

games, unless, indeed, the custom of tossing dry leaves in the

air and speculating on their position when they fell back upon

the ground could be called a game. This, I am told, was only

an occasional recreation, and indulged in by boys alone.

The limits.of the hunting ground were jealously guarded by

the Veddas, and anything like poaching by the members of

one clan in the area recognized as belonging to another was

punishable by death. Should a hunter lose his way and fall

into the hands of a neighbouring clan, he would be closely

watched, remaining for the time being in a sort of captivity.

If the man’s conduct during that time was such as to disarm

suspicion he was permitted to go, and might even be accom-

panied to the confines of the clan’s hunting ground, but he

would have to proceed at once without looking back, or his

conduct might lead to the belief that he was a spy, with fatal

consequences.

The method of fishing was to hem in a piece of water by

closely fencing in both ends of the stream. People would

then enter the enclosed piece of water, armed with slender

sticks, thrashing the water therewith till a fish was actually

struck, when it would be captured. I saw this actually done

in one pool on the Kumbukkan.

My informant told me that the Veddas were at one time

harassed by a race of pygmy people, called the Nittawo, who

lived in the country known as Lenama, that extended from

Bagura in the Panawa Pattu in the east to the confines of the

Kattaragama hills on the west.

According to him, these people lived in small troops of from

10 to 40, inhabiting caves, hollow trees, and crevices of

precipices. They were about 3 feet or a little more in height,

exactly like normal human beings, only in miniature. Their

legs were hairy like those of the Wanduroo ; they walked

erect, and had no tails.

Their arms were short and very powerful, with strong hands,

and talon-like finger-nails with which they tore and dis-

embowelled whatever they captured. These generally were

small animals, such as hare, mouse-deer, monkeys, iguanas,

and tortoises. Their method of attack was by surrounding

ANIMAL AND PLANT LIFE. 129

the prey, especially if it was sleeping. In this way the Veddas

occasionally fell victims, and in consequence they revenged

themselves by exterminating the Pygmies. According to my

authority, the Nittawo existed at the time of his grandfather,

who, he asserted, took an active part with the other members

of his clan in burning out one of their encampments.

The Nittawo were an entirely naked race; the females

were shorter than the males. Their language appears to

have been understood by the Veddas, and was described to me

as like the twittering of birds.

My informant knew nothing of their customs, or if they

made use of fire. They were, however, unarmed, and appear

to have been finally exterminated by the Veddas about three

or four generations ago.

I may here mention that as I was sceptical as to the story

about this race, I took particular care to make inquiries at the

distant village of Waradeniyawa (the furthest inhabited spot

on the south of the Buttala-Wedirata) if the oldest inhab-

itant of that place could give me any confirmation of it. This

inquiry was made when Dissan Hamy was not present, and it

would have been impossible for my questions to have been

anticipated. To my surprise, a very old man of the village

completely confirmed in detail Dissan Hamy’s description.

I also made further inquiry at another village from a head-

man, and he repeated the same story, adding that the Nittawo

were destroyed by the Veddas out of fear.

It is difficult to reject as false a story, told devoid of the

usual fantastic embellishments that characterize the history

of mythical creatures such as Yakko, when it is completely

confirmed by parties ignorant of what the others have said.

Even though tangible evidence is not forthcoming, and it

would be difficult to find any, of a people so primitive as these

creatures appear to have been, I see no valid reason for

disbelieving the statements made to me.

It would appear that the early Vedda and the Nittawo to

some extent lived side by side, and both were primitive. In

time the Nittawo were destroyed by a race who were armed,

and these in turn were disintegrated and absorbed by forces

they were powerless to overcome. The clan system was

130 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

effectual so long as there were no influences to weaken it, but

when once a preponderating force came to surround these

clans, their chance of survival was small, and to prevent

individual extinction amalgamation presented the path of

minimum resistance.

The effect of this amalgamation was to break down the

primitive methods, and concurrently to infuse new blood, and

with it to stay, or lessen, the forces that were weakening an

already over-inbred stock.

If we refer to certain statistics, as recently as 1840 we find

that a rough enumeration of the so-called Rock-Veddas

disclosed that only thirty families in Bintenna then existed.

Since then the increase ot civilized races pressed with yearly

greater insistence, till we are forced to conclude that the

primitive Vedda is now no more, or nearly so.

In my Paper read at the meeting of the Ceylon Branch of

the Royal Asiatic Society on September 19, 1914, I have

described the features of the Vedda family I found at Setawa,

but I venture here to repeat it for easy reference.

The man Dissan Hamy is about 5 ft. 10 in. in height,

thin, small round the chest, with rather short arms, slender

legs, with hardly any calf development. He does not know

his age. His head is small, with small dark-brown beady eyes

set far back in their sockets. His hair is short, not tied in a

knot, staring, and frizzy. His younger brother is shorter in

stature, but with the same character of hair on the head.

The elder has short, scanty, and bristly moustaches, but in

both brothers there is a marked scarcity of hair on the face

and body. Dissan Hamy’s two sisters are both of normal

height, and dress Jike the other women of the country. They

are about 5ft.3in.in height, with slender limbs. Both women

are mothers, and both indicated the small breast develop-

ment that appears to be characteristic of women residing

in the arid parts of the country I explored. In both women

the hair is short and frizzy. Their infants had shaved heads.

I remarked that the skin of Dissan Hamy’s body is darker

than that of the other members of the family. The nose is

strongly formed, with thin dilated nostrils. The mouth is

rather wide, with lips of no unusual thickness.

ANIMAL AND PLANT LIFE. 13i

J remarked that while walking through the jungle, though

provided with a knife, Dissan Hamy rarely used it to cut away

any intercepting branch or creeper, these being invariably

bent to one side by the hand.

I observed this custom many years ago when travelling

through a distant village called Uda Wellawey at the foot of

the Haldummulla hills, and I understand it is to prevent

persons from finding a hunter’s trail.

I made inquiry, in addition to direct observation while

exploring the Vedda country, as to the prevailing diseases

among the inhabitants, and what was done as regards remedies.

The result cf my investigation led me to conclude that the

commonest disease among adults was fever, but I could get

no statistics on which I could rely to form an opinion as to

the percentage this particular disease afforded as compared

with others.

It was, however, difficult to discriminate in what proportion

of fevers typhoid was to be regarded, as I found in many cases

the people did not know the difference. Dysentery appears to

be well known, and is locally called ‘* Le-pachchane,” bet I

was told that it was not nearly so common as fever. Fever is

not common as compared with the prevalence of that disease

in the Tamankaduwa District.

Venereal, I am told, is unknown, and probably for reasons

I gave earlier in this Paper. It occurs, however, more in the

neighbourhood of civilized centres. I did not see a single

instance of goitre, or of elephantiasis, though I cannot suppose

the latter is unknown. I found numerous cases of sores on

the feet and legs of both adults and children, but these were

explained as being in all cases due to accidental injuries.

Bronchitis, however, is common, more especially in children,

who also appear to be commonly troubled with anemia, which

may or may not be directly due te intestinal parasites.

As regards treatment, I found that the remedy was invari-

ably based on the theory that diseases may be divided into

two great classes—heating or inflammatory, and the opposite

—therefore the cure was to be found in those specifics which

were opposed to these two heads of causation. For example,

if a man had a violent cold, the “‘ milk ”’ of the coconut could

8 6(8)15

132 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

not be drunk. Again, in case of fever a decoction would be

given of a number of vegetable productions that were believed

to be cooling. I may here mention that when questioned as

to the exact effect any one of these ingredients would speci-

fically bring about, I could get no clear answer. I found that

both Cassia auriculata and Evolvulus alsinoides were regarded

as most beneficial in fever, but I failed to find an answer as

to their direct action. Equally Munronia pumila would be

considered as a most valuable medicine for fits, as well as

fevers.

Charms and incantations appear to be more important than

medicines with the people.

I found that castor oil was appreciated and its action

understood, but it is curious to note that it is supposed to

be effective by outward application, as well as inward.

Generally speaking, I found that the local knowledge of our

plants was very wide, and it would be difficult to find a plant

of any use that the people could not correctly name.

In some cases where a plant was rare, I found that no name

could be given to it ; as, for instance, I obtained a few examples

of Centranthera procumbens, but the people had no acquaintance

with its name whatever. Nor did I find names invented in

order to afford answers to my questions: it was a case of

giving the right answer, or expressing ignorance.

I might mention incidentally, that though our familiar

Kitul (Caryota wrens) is well known, I found the people

equally unacquainted with toddy or jaggery, except as

purchaseable commodities, just as much as kerosine oil is.

This ignorance of a source of alcohol may have much to do

with the striking absence of crime in the country I refer to,

and I mention it in passing, as worthy of consideration. On

the other hand, I would again point out that owing to the

rigidity of certain customs there is not the same scope for

jealousy over women that plays such an important factor in

crimes of violence in other parts of this Island. Again, it

should not be lost sight of that in the Vedda country small

groups of people congregate round centres where water,

however limited in quantity and impure in quality, is to be

found, and are therefore much more mutually dependent

ANIMAL AND PLANT LIFE. 133

than in densely populated areas, where the individuality of the

creature is Jost in environmentalimmensity. In the one case he

and his are known, in the other he and they are but a fraction.

Considerations of space preclude my enlarging on this

subject, or describing in detail the individual conditions of

the different villages that I explored, but I venture to think

that a careful examination of local factors would throw much

light on the evolution of the race from its early stages of

primitive existence to its present state of partial civilization.

Domestic Animals —These consist of cattle, buffaloes,

goats, dogs, cats, and fowls.

Black cattle are abundant in all the inhabited parts of the

country I explored, and naturally more so where the oppor-

tunities for trade in them exists than in very isolated places.

Milk is nearly always procurable, but I heard of no instance of

children being exclusively reared upon cow milk. Buffaloes

are, where possible, reared for agricultural purposes, and also

for the supply of milk, which is often turned into a form of

junket that is in much demand.

In one village in the Panawa Pattu I found a Tamil man

owning a large herd of buffaloes, and to my surprise I found

that he called them by individual names, the animals respond-

ing to his call.

I was informed that quite a large proportion of the domesti-

cated buffaloes were half-breeds between the wild and the

tame. This may explain why the Vedda-country animal is

so much larger than the buffalo of, say, the Western Province.

Goats are rare, and only occur where there are Tamil or

Moorish people. I met with them occasionally, but nowhere

away from the influences above mentioned. Pigs, except

wild, I never met with. Dogs are plentiful, and of a much

superior build and type to the village pariah of the civilized

country. This is doubtless due to the care the real Vedda has

bestowed upon this animal from the earliest time. In point of

size the dogs of the Vedda country are large, powerfully built,

and bold. Black and white, or brown and white, are the

usual colours of these animals. Cats are, generally speaking,

scarce, though I remarked at Kumuna that while I only saw

one dog, I found six cats in that little village.

134 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Of fowls, I observed a remarkable diversity of breed. They

may be classed as—

(a) The Bantam type, with the medium length of saddle

and conspicuous erect tail.

(b) The wild type, with long saddle and large drooping tail.

In the first of these the crow of the cocks is quite distinct,

it being what I call a shrill falsetto. In (b), what I call the

wild type, the plumage of the males approximates that of our

jungle fowl, both in its beauty of colouring and in the disposi-

tion of the tail feathers. The hens, too, were more commonly

brown than in the Bantam type, where white is the prevailing

colour of this sex. In (c) the feathered leg is the outstanding

characteristic. Here the size of bird is larger than in the

first group, but shorter in the back than in what I call the

wild type. In no case did I find birds with yellow combs,

though the early presence of the comb in cock chickens is

particularly noticeable. It would appear, therefore, that the

domestic fowl has here developed characteristics that would

imply crossing from three stocks, one of which is analogous to,

if not identical with, the wild bird, On the other hand, the

unmistakable crow of the wild bird is different from that of

any of the village races.

Of wild animals, the following is a brief list of observed

mammatlia :—

(1) The Gray Wanduroo.—Searce in the Maha Wedirata,

plentiful towards the sea coast in the Panawa Pattu and in

the valley of the Kumbukkan river. Probably this species

was common all through the Vedda country, but as its flesh

was eaten it became exterminated, except in uninhabited

places.

(2) The“ Red Monkey ’’ or Rilawa (Macacus pileatus),—Not

common. I found a few in the valley of the Heda-oya and

near Lahugala.

(3) The Loris (Loris gracilis)—Very rare. I did not see a

single example, but I was told by the people that it was

known near the “‘ Westminster Abbey ” range of hills, and

again near Monaragala. ;

eo!

ANIMAL AND PLANT LIFE. 135

(4) Leopard (Felis pardus)—Common. I constantly came

upon the tracks of the leopard in all parts of the Vedda

country, except very far away from water.

(5) Indian Civet (Viverricula malaccensis).—Occasional.

(6) Mungoose (Herpestes mungo)—Very common, usually

pale’ coloured.

(7) Jackal (Canis aureus)—Very common all through the

Vedda country, and probably crosses with the domestic dog.

It is commonly believed that the jackal conveys rinderpest,

owing to its devouring cattle that have died of that disease.

I secured a jackal pup out of a hollow scraped at the foot

of a Mustard tree (Salvadora persica). The little creature at

first showed considerable timidity, but rapidly got over this

shyness. Finding a difficulty in providing it with food I had

it put back at the place where it was captured. It soon ran

off, apparently led by its mother, as I found the spot afterwards

to b2 completely unoccupied.

(8) Indian Otter (Lutra nair)—I found the marks ot this

animal on the Kumbukkan river, but nowhere else. It is well

known by the name of Diya-balla, so that I cannot suppose it

is rare.

(9) Bear (Melursinus ursinus)—Common. I found foot-

prints of bear in the driest parts of the country that I explored,

and in piaces where I could find but few other traces of animals.

The fruits of the Palu (Mimusops luwandra) and Wira (Hemi-

cyclia sepiaria) are readily devoured by bears, who in this way

to some extent spread the growth of these plants. I am

informed by the people that direct attacks upon human

beings by bears are uncommon, and that when injuries

have occurred the animal has invariably been startled. Thus,

I was told that hollow trees should be approached with

caution, as a bear roused suddenly from its sleep within

might with equal likelihood spring upon, as away from, its

disturber.

Near Nahmaluwahela, on a rocky mass, I found a dead

bear. He appeared to have fallen from the rock above on to

a ledge below which there was a still larger drop, and being

maimed was unable to get up or down from the spot where I

found the body.

136 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

(10) Musk Rat (Crocidura ccerulea)—Very uncommon. I

found it at Potuvil only.

(11) Flying Fox (Pteropus medius).—I can only remember

seeing this bat once in the Buttala-Wedirata.

(12) Bats.—I did not shoot any, so am unable to specifically

name those that I saw, which included—

(a) The cave bat ;

(>) The house bat ;

most active species ; and

(d) A gray bat—probably the Indian Vampire.

The first of these is found in great abundance in caves, but

I did not find them as widely distributed as the last three.

I noticed when lying on my camp bed at night under trees

that the brown bat would hover quite close to my face. I

tried the experiment of lying still with my feet uncovered,

to see if they would attack the exposed limb, but beyond

hovering within a few inches of me they did no harm.

(13) The Rock Squirrel (Sciurus macrurus)—Common, away

from habitations, as it has been shot down for food. On the

Kumbukkan I found it plentiful, while at Bowela, Danakiri-

gama, and Manawela it is distinctly rare. The black variety is

perhaps a little more rare than the gray.

(14) Palm Squirrel (Sc. palmarum).—Not generally common, °

and appears to follow human distribution. It is more plenti-

ful near Muppane than at Bowela.

(15) A Jungle Squirrel, probably Sc. tristriatus, was seen by

me at the base of the “ Westminster Abbey ” hills. It is readily

distinguishable from the last by being a dark s!ate-coloured

animal, with bright chestnut stripes. It is usually solitary.

(16) Rats are not very plentiful from my observations,

except at Kumuna.

(17) Bandicoot (Nesocia bandicota)—I repeatedly heard of

this animal as being very destructive to chena crops, but I

did not actually see one. It is said to be eaten as freely as the

mouse deer.

(18) Porcupine (Hystrix leucura)—Uncommon. I found

traces of it on the banks of the Kumbukkan river and at

ANIMAL AND PLANT LIFE. S37

Siyambala-anduwa, but the people do not speak of it as

common.

(19) Hare (Lepus nigricollis)—Common.

(20) Elephant (Eliphas maximus)—I came on elephants

frequently, but as regards their abundance or the reverse, it

appears to be a matter of water distribution ; thus, near the

Kumbukkan river, the Heda-oya, and Kurapan-oya one would

find abundant traces, or, as I did, the animals themselves. As

soon as the country gets dried up in the south-west monsoon

the distribution ceases to be general, and the places where

elephants will be found is only within reach of water.

Directly the rains begin and the fresh grass springs up—as it

does do with remarkable rapidity—elephants may be found in

all parts, so that it might be said that there is a distinct

symptom of migration. I entirely disagree with the opinion,

frequently expressed, that “‘ elephants are on the increase ”’;

on the contrary, I believe the opposite to be the case. The

elephant has to-day a much more restricted area to wander in

than it had a hundred years ago. This area, by the cultural

operations of man, is yearly being shrunk up, while shooting

for “ sport” and kraaling still further lessen the numbers of

these magnificent animals. The ease with which one can get

_an elephant proclaimed a “ rogue” adds another to the many

causes of its destruction, not to mention the facilities that

have in the last twenty years been offered to certain Chiefs to

have kraals, the few survivors of which do not breed in

captivity. It is only a matter of time for the elephant to be

completely exterminated in Ceylon, unless steps are taken,

with the aid of suitable sanctuaries, in addition to the com-

plete prohibition of kraaling, except at intervals of, say,

twenty years, to prevent this disaster. The actual damage done

by elephants is not to be compared with their value as transport

animals, and nothing can be more deplorable than allowing

such valuable creatures to be shot in the cause of so-called

** sport.”

(21) Buffalo (Bos bubalus)—I found these to be generally

distributed in the country I traversed, but not nearly in the

same numbers as I found them in 1906. I found many

skeletons—usually much devoured—of buffaloes, all pointing

138 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

to the fact that rinderpest had destroyed numbers of these

creatures. [I am informed that in the Panawa Pattu alone

that disease killed the wild and tame buffalo alike, and that

thousands died in a few months. I found one herd on the

Kumbukkan in which I counted some thirty individuals, while

in 1906, on the Gajabahu plain, I counted in a single herd

over one hundred.

(22) Sambur (Cervus unicolor).—Moderately common.

(23) Spotted Deer (C. axis)—Common, especially in the

valley of the Kumbukkan river. I repeatedly came on herds

in this river, in one case finding over 200 drinking in the

stream at noon.

(24) Mouse Deer (Tragulus meminna).—Moderately common,

but more so in the south.

(25) Wild Pig (Sus cristatus)—Fairly common, but much

less abundant than in 1906, owing to their having been killed

out by rinderpest.

(26) Pangolin (Manis pentadactyla)—I found traces of

this animal occasionally, and by inquiry I heard frequently of

its occurrence. It is, however, not common near the coast.

Of reptiles, the crocodile is plentiful where there is water,

either in tanks, rivers, or backwaters towards the sea, as, for

instance, at Setawe, and all up the Kumbukkan river I found

these creatures in abundance.

The Monitor or Talla-goya is fairly plentiful. It is eaten by

‘both Tamils and the Sinhalese of this locality. I am inclined

to believe that there is a dark and a pale race of this species,

as I remarked that the latter were much more numerous

towards the sea coast, and much lighter coloured than examples

obtained near Muppane.

The Kabaragoya is comparatively rare. I only saw one or

two examples near Muppane. This scarcity I attribute

entirely to the absence of water all the year round.

On the north bank of the Kumbukkan I found a (?) Cerato-

phora in considerable abundance. These animals are pro-

tectively marked, and usually select trees with dark rugged

bark to take up their position upon, their own colouring

assimilating precisely with that of the bark. Under sexual

stimulus in the males the lips become a rich crimson red, with

ANIMAL AND PLANT LIFE. 139

large rhomboidal dorsal patches of the same bright colour. On

the stimulus diminishing, these points of colour become a dull

ashen gray, turning to a pale horny gray with death. The

females have similar markings, only in a very inconspicuous

degree.

I failed to find any examples of this reptile in the north or

west of the country to which this Paper refers.

The so-called Chameleon I found no examples of. I

obtained a green Calotis, and two examples of Gecko, one

about seven inches in length. ;

Of snakes I only saw three species, viz., the Rat Snake

(Zamenis mucosus), Russell’s Viper (Vipera russelli), and the

Green Whip-snake (Dryophis mycterizans). I specially looked

for Cobras, but without success. Russell’s Viper, on the other

hand, is comparatively common.

As regards the bird distribution, I have thought it desirable

to supply a list* in which I have detailed the distribution, as

it is of interest to note the exact localities for future reference.

Before passing to this list I would draw attention to certain

points of special interest that appear to me to be worthy of

more than a brief catalogue notice.

The curious distribution of one Fan-tailed Flycatcher

(Rhipidura albifrontata) is singular. I found it did not occur

east of Monaragala or north of Kebilitte, though in 1906 I

found it breeding freely at Pottuvil. On my present explora-

tion I observed it at a place called Kobaragoda, south of

Okanda in Panawa Pattu, and frcm thence still further south

to Kumuna, on the Kumbukkan river. It was not seen north

of Siyambala-anduwa, nor in any part of the country round

the “* Westminster Abbey” hills, thus indicating a piece of

country of limited extent touching the sea south of Okanda

and forming a strip running intc Monaragala. From here it

passes to the Lunagalla hills, and thence right up to Bandara-

wela and into Haputale, where it may be found up to 4,000

feet.

I have found it resting at Miriabedde estate, at about 3,800

feet altitude. Again I have found it in abundance in the

* Appendix C.

9 : 6(8)15

140 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Wallawe valley below Kaltotta, and from there it spreads into

the Tangalla District, and again at Tellijjawella and Henegama

in the Matara District, where the rainfall exceeds 100 inches

per annum. Briefly, therefore, it is to be found both in the

dry and wet zones. It breeds at sea level, and at over 3,500

feet it is common in“ park” country as well as in“ chena ”

country. I am not acquainted with a more remarkable

distribution—remarkable for its contradictions—of any Ceylon

land bird.

Of the Woodpeckers—Pici— both Chrysocolaptes stricklandi

and Brachypternus erythronotus—are common in the Vedda

country, but chiefly in damp forest areas, where owing to the

presence of moisture the trees are large. Away from the

damp forests the little Lyngipicus gmnophthalmus is common

right to the coast at Kumuna.

At Galamuna, on the Kumbukkan river, I secured a Brachy-

pternus that may prove to be a new species. It resembles

erythronotus, except that the inner hind toe is only rudimen-

tary, forming only a minute dactyle projection, terminating in

an apiculate point that serves as a claw. My example—an

adult —measured 104 in. in length: wing 54 in., tail 34 in.,

bill (along ridge) 1} in., tarsus 1 in. Unfortunately the skin

of this bird got destroyed, so that I have been unable to

compare it with Museum examples.

I have already hinted that the presence or absence of water

governs the question of human distribution within the area

under consideration, and I venture to think that the same

applies, in some particulars, to the distribution of birds ; thus,

for instance, the common Black Crow (Corvus macrorynchus)

occurs only where there are villages ; nowhere did I find it in

uninhabited forest areas. It was equally common at Kumuna

on the sea coast and at Muppane—far inland—in a hilly

country. The same might, with some curious exceptions,

be said of our Sparrow, that I noticed was common at Pottuvil,

Panawa, and Okanda on the east coast, but was absent at

Kumuna, and equally absent from many of the smaller villages

in the interior of the Vedda country.

The drying up for several months of the year of most of the

streams naturally causes a restricted distribution among the

ANIMAL AND PLANT LIFE. 141

Kingfishers, but it is conceivable that this periodical flooding

and drying of these streams initiates a form of migration that

on a more extended scale, brought about by weather fluctua-

tions in geological times, might indicate the impulse of

migration in birds. Thus, reverting to the local migration

incident to the drying up of large waterways, I noticed on the

Kumbukkan river that Alcedo ispida, Pelargopsis gurial, and

Halcyon smyrnensis were plentiful, while not one of these birds

could be found on the Heda-oya—a river only a few miles to

the north ; the explanation being that the former stream is

perennial, and the latter dry in the south-west monsoon. For

the same reason Ketwpa ceylonensis occurs at tanks that have

water, and is absent where the opposite is the case. Ketwpa is,

therefore, to be found along the valley of the Kumbukkan in

both monsoons, but only in the north-east on the Heda-oya.

As the time at my disposal was necessarily very limited I

could do no more than note what was then to be found, so

that a more studied verification of these observations becomes

desirable in order to establish proofs of what might be called a

local migration law. Itis, however, rather striking that species

of wide general distribution in the wet zone should show an

erratic distribution in the dry, the key to the explanation

being possibly found in water distribution. In that direction

therefore we may anticipate room for the development of a

definite form of migration, though its range may be com-

paratively limited.

I observed in the immediate vicinity of the Kumbukkan

river that at night numbers of insects were attracted by a

light, while in the dry country south-east of “* Westminster

Abbey ” there was a comparative scarcity of what I might call

lamp-followers.

At a spot midway between Kebilitte and Ellebubbura I

had a unique opportunity of observing the effect of scarcity

of moisture and its influence on insect life. I had seated

myself under a tree for a few minutes, to rest after a hot

march of about 15 miles. The jungle all round me appeared

to be utterly faint with the drought, and I may add that I

felt much the same myself. I was in a considerable state of

perspiration, when I noticed a couple of butterflies hovering

142 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

quite close to me. Presently one of them lit on my wrist, and

began sipping the moisture as it came from my skin. The

second insect quickly followed exactly the same procedure

on my slowly extending my arm.

At a small puddle, measuring about 2 ft. by 18 in., I found

the whole of the damp ground covered with wasps sipping the

moisture.

Some idea of the dryness of the locality can be judged from

these instances, and I submit that animal distribution must be

affected thereby.

The distribution of plants, not of direct value to man,

moreover shows certain erratic conditions. The most striking

instance of this is in the distribution of the Dipterocarps. At

Monaragala, and a little to the eastward, our common Hora

(Dipterocarpus zeylanicus) is moderately plentiful. From

Liyangalla onwards towards the east it is absent, but to the

north-east of Siyambala-anduwa, near the village of Newgalla,

one finds fringes of Vatica obscura on the banks of the dry

streams ; in other words, there is an enormous belt of country

the opposite sides of which have representations of this

important order of trees, with no examples in the intermediate

area.

On the other hand I found no examples of Vatica obscura to

the south of Siyambala-anduwa on any of thestreams I crossed.

Of the Dilleniaceze, I found Dillenia indica on the higher

reaches of the Heda-oya, and a few individual examples—

probably introduced—towards Waragoda in the north and at

Kumuna in the south-east.

Of the Anonacez, the usual dry-zone Polyalthias are very

abundant. Both Anamirta paniculata and Tinospora eordi-

folia are abundant representations of the Menispermacez.

In the tanks where there was water, both Nymphea lotus

and Nelumbium speciosum are common Lotuses. Both roots

and bulbs of these plants are eaten.

In some of the chenas I found Brassica juncea grown with

the other crops, but I could get no definite explanation why it

was cultivated.

Of the Capparidee, the typical Capparis zeylanica is plentiful.

Its fruits are eaten by the Veddas as well as the Tamils. IL

ANIMAL AND PLANT LIFE. 143

found that towards the coast Crateva roxburghii occurs, but

it is by no means plentiful, as in the Hambantota country.

Of the Bixacex, I found a few examples of Cochlospermum

gossypium, but clearly these were introductions connected with

Buddhistic places of worship. It may be safely assumed that

where an “ escape ”’ of this species is found, one may look for

temple “ remains,’ and the same may be said of Ironwood,

Hibiscus ficulneus, or Balsamodendrum caudatum.

Scolopia gertneri is a wild and plentiful representation of

this order, and abundant round ‘“‘ Westminster Abbey ” and

Degalhela. Hydnocarpus venenata occurs in abundance by

stream sides, and is probably more plentiful than JH.

alpina, which is confined to the dry low-country, notwith-

standing its inappropriate specific name.

Passing over unimportant orders to the Guttiferze the

following claim notice: Garcinia spicata is very common and

widely distributed; Calophyllum burmanni is occasional ;

C. tomentosum occurs at ‘‘ Westminster Abbey” and near

Degalhela ; C. inophyllum is practically confined to the coast,

though not entirely so, while a further example of this genus

(the identity of which has yet to be determined) I have

referred to already in an earlier Paper, published in the

Journal of the Ceylon Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society,

as being a probable foreigner.

Tronwood—Mesua ferrea—occurs in quite a forest form round

the base of Himitillanegala, where, I suspect, it was introduced.

It occurs at all the old temples, but is otherwise scarce.

Of the Malvaceze, Sidas and Abutilons are exceedingly

common. Urenas, on the other hand, are to be looked for

in damp waste places, where they attain to considerable size.

Thespesia populnea is an introduction, and not particularly

common. Hibiscus tiliaceus occurs near backwaters, but it is

not generally plentiful. Bombaxzx malabaricum occurs in the

form of immense individuals, but it is certainly not plentiful ;

while Hriodendron anfractuosum, on the other hand, is a plenti-

fully introduced garden plant.

Among the Sterculias prominence should be given to

S. faetida, well known to the Tamils as the Katu-tengai or

forest coconut, S. colorata, and S. thwaitesii. I obtained a

144 ‘ SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

few solitary examples of S. urens, but I feel confident that

this last is an introduction. Pterospermum suberifolium—the

Welanga of the Sinhalese—is very abundant.

The young straight shoots of this plant supplied the Vedda

arrow, while the wood was employed by them for the

manufacture of ‘‘ fire drills.”

The distribution of Helicteres isora is curiously restricted

to what might be turned “ patches,” the largest of which I

found at Etmole. Heritiera littoralis—the Chomanturai of the

Tamils—is searce, but occurs near Panawa and Pottuvil.

Of the Tiliaceze, I noticed that the distribution of Halmilla

(Berrya ammonilla) was not very general, while its abundance

or scarcity appeared to be a matter of its easy access or the

reverse. This is to be expected of so valuable a timber tree.

“ Vidpam”’ (Tamil) (Pityranthe verrucosa), so plentiful in

the Trincomalee District, is comparatively scarce in the Vedda

country. Of the Grewias, G. lilizfolia, G. microcos, and G.

polygama are the commonest, but the first of these is not so

abundant here as in the dry zone of the Ratnapura District.

As representing the Linacie, Hrythroxylon monogynum

may be taken as an abundant typical example. It is alleged

in the Panawa Pattu that meat hung in the smoke from

burning wood of this plant, if eaten produces a purgative

action.

Both Hiptage madablota and H. parvifolia of the Malpighiacez

occur in the Vedda country, but in no abundance.

The bright, but pestiferous, T'ribulus terrestris, is to be

found near Pottuvil and at Panawa, in places where the soil

is not too dry, but its distribution does not spread far inland.

Of the Geraniaceze I found very few examples. In some

slightly moist spots, west of ‘‘ Westminster Abbey,” I observed

Biophytum sensitivum, and in some of the tanks I got Hydrocera

iriflora, but in other respects, except the introduced Averrhoa

bilimbi and A. carambola—common in gardens—this order

is poorly represented. The Rutacez is not well represented in

wild species, if we except the well-known Feronia elephantum,

Murraya kenigii, and Toddalia aculeata. In the gardens

oranges, lime, and pummalo have been introduced, but with

no marked success either in the matter of quality or quantity

ANIMAL AND PLANT LIFE. 145

of fruit, an insipid fibrous product being the usual type of

Vedda-country orange.

In dry rocky ground Ochna wightiana is to be found in some

abundance, as exemplifying the small order of the Ochnacez.

Of the Burseracee, I have already pointed out that Balsamo-

dendrum cordatum may be taken as indicating some place of

veneration. I found in many cases where there were ruins,

or abandoned monastic caves, this plant would be sure to occur.

On the summit of “‘ Westminster Abbey ” it is comparatively

abundant, as also at Nuwaragala—another ancient fort.

Doubtless the fragrant smell of the wood led to its use as an

incense, and, thus, to its cultivation. Canarium zeylanicum

occurs very sparingly west of Bowela, and Filiciwm deciziens

may be found in the forest valleys, though it does not attain

any striking proportions.

The Maliaceze is very well represented. The Margosa,

however, as typical of this order, is an introduction, and where

it is found under semi-wild conditions the inference is that that

particular spot was once inhabited. This beautiful tree, how-

ever, is afflicted with a disease that kills back the young twigs,

and I remarked that this sickness is very widespread. Melia

dubia, often called Wal-kohomba, occurs in the western part

of the Vedda country, but in no great abundance. Walsura

piscidia and Dysoxylum binectariferum are both common, while

the famous Satinwood is, of course, very fairly abundant,

except in what might be called wet forest. The abundance of

_ Satinwood has, as I have hinted, doubtless from very early

times been influenced by human operations, as the value and

quality of this excellent wood is widely known. That being

so, its spread has been materially governed, with the result

that in a great deal of the country where it once must have

been plentiful there are now only isolated examples.

Munroma pumila occurs in tolerable abundance round

Bowela, Waragama, and Danakiria. It is medicinal.

Of Celastracious plants, Hlzodendron glaucum is very common

near the coast, and attains a large size. A Kurrimia, probably

a variety of K. zeylanica, is found occasionally in the northern

half of the country I explored, but dces not appear to attract

native attention.

146 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

It is almost superfluous to remark that the Rhamnacez are

abundantly represented by various forms of Zizyphus, both as

an abominable thorny climbing bush, or in the more elegant

Z. jujuba. Scutia indica is plentiful near damp spots, while

Ventilago maderaspatana is most abundant.

Vitis quadrangularis is, perhaps, the most common example

of the Ampilidez, while Leea sambucina is specially noticeable

in the vicinity of large streams.

The Sapindacez afford plentiful examples in Allophylus

cobbe, Sapindus emarginatus, or soap-nut, Nephelium longana

(Mora, Sinhalese), Schleichera trijuga (Kon, Sinhalese), and

Gleniea zeylanica, all of which are about equally distributed.

In waste ground the creeping Cardiospermum halicacabum

is plentiful; its use as a tonic appears to have been known to

the Veddas.

I also observed Dodonza viscosa in a few isolated places,

particularly near Wattegama, but to my surprise its use as an

embrocation was apparently unknown.

Of the Anacardiacee, if we except cultivated species, few

occur. The wild mango (Mangifera zeylanica) is to be found

near or in the Heda-oya valley, but not in great profusion.

Odina wordier is to some extent cultivated, as it is frequently

to be found preserved where there are fields. Nothopegia

colebrookiana is seemingly unknown to the people, though I

found it frequently. Spondias mangifera I believe to have

been introduced.

Passing to the Calyciflore, the small order of Connaracez

finds as its best representative the widely distributed Connarus

monocarpus, that appears to thrive equally well in the wet

and dry zones. J found it in abundance in some of the driest

situations. It is said to be of use for buffalo ropes.

Of the Leguminosz, space considerations oblige me to make

but the briefest reference to the better known examples in

a list form :—

Crotalaria retusa. In open waste places.

C. striata. Occasional, in dry fields.

Indigofera pauciflora. In abandoned fields.

I. hirsuta. In waste places and road sides.

Aischynomene aspera. In damp places or puddles,

ANIMAL AND PLANT LIFE. 147

Abrus precatorius. Very common in scrub jungle.

Mucuna (?) pruriens. Moderately common (in fruit),

Erythrina indica. In gardens—occasional.

E. ovalifolia. Near streams and tanks—uncommon.

Butea frondosa. In the park country near Etmole.

Clitoria ternatea. Common; not seen in forest.

Flemingia strobilifera. Near streams and cool spots.

Pterocarpus marsupium. In park country—common.

Pongamia glabra. Common near water.

Dalbergia lanceolaria. Moderately common ; of large size.

Derris scandens. Common all over the country.

Cesalpinia bonduk. Occasional ; possibly introduced.

Cassia fistula. Moderately common.

C’, marginata. Common, even close to the sea.

C. auriculata. Commoner near the coast than inland.

Dialium ovoideum. Common on the summit of “ West-

minster Abbey.”’

Saraca indica. Occasional in damp forests.

Tamarindus indica. In gardens, abandoned or otherwise.

An introduction.

Bauhinia tomentosa. Plentiful.

Entada scandens. Generally near streams.

Dichrostachys cinerea. Moderately common in bush land.

Mimosa pudica. Occasional.

A. leucophlea. Comparatively rare.

A. eburnea. Common near the coast. -

A.cxsia. Very common, especially near damp forests.

A. pennata. Less common, generally locally plentiful.

Albizzia odoratissima. Moderately abundant in the west.

A. stipulata. Occasional.

Pithecolobium geminatum. Locally abundant.

Of the Rosacez, I noticed a Pygeum near Bowela, in a

valley, but procured no examples for identification. On the

banks of the Heda-oya I also secured another, probably an

escape from higher altitudes.

Bryophyllum calycinum, as representing the Crassulacez, is

probably an introduction. It infests places where the soil

is not deep, as, for example, near slab rocks, but generally in

these cases near habitations or places once inhabited.

10 6(8)1L5

148 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Of the Droseracese, Drosera burmanni is to be found on

the edges of tanks where the soil is damp, and again I have

found it on thin soil on rocks. This plant appears to be

equally at home at all altitudes in Ceylon, both in the wet as

well as the dry zone. I failed to find it near the sea, though

it occurs at no great distance inland.

The Rhizophoracee are well represented by Mangroves

that occur in tidal estuaries. Of these, Rhizophora mucronata

is by far the most common. M. candaria, with its large

leaves, is also often found along with the last, and with

Bruguiera gymnorhiza. I also observed a Ceriops, but not in

flower. In a valley south of ‘* Westminster Abbey ” I saw

Anisophyllea zeylanica, but this plant appears to belong to a

higher altitude. Carallia integerrima is to be met with in

the Kumbukkan valley.

The Combretacez afford magnificent examples of Kumbuk

(Terminalia glabra), that are to be found on the banks of all

the streams in the Vedda country. The “ Aralu” (Zermi-

nalia chebula) is also common in the “ park country ”’ near

EKtmole, while its close ally, 7’. belerica, is frequently to be

met with right through the Maha Wedirata. Again, in the

“park country” Anogeissus latifolia is fairly common.

Combretum ovalifolium occurs in rocky places in some abund-

ance. The gaunt Gyrocarpus jacquint is very common ; it

forms a characteristic tree in this dry locality.

Of the Myrtacez, I found the most abundant examples in

Eugenia jambolana, that occur in tank beds, while 2. bracteata

occurs in all the dry forests. By the sides of backwaters,

or where the soil is damp, #. corymbosa forms a common bush.

I noticed a few examples of our common Guava (Psidium

guajava) in some of the old gardens, but nobody could tell me

how it came to be introduced. Barringtonia acutangula is

moderately common in and about tanks, where it attains a

considerable size. On the banks of the larger streams I

obtained BL. racemosa, but it is not plentiful. Careya arborea,

however, is moderately common in the northern part of the

country I am treating of.

Of Melastomacious plants, I found very stunted forms of

Osbeckia (?) aspera growing in most impossible places. Near

ANIMAL AND PLANT LIFE. 149

Bowela I found, in a damp valley, a Sonerila growing in a

rocky crevice. Memecylon umbellatum, M. grande, and M.

capitellatum are all very common in the forest areas.

Of the Lythraceze, I found Lagerstremia flos-regine not

uncommon on the banks of the larger streams, where it

frequently occurs as a large tree. Lawsonia alba is cultivated

at Panawa. In the “ park country” I found a few examples

of Woedfordia floribunda, but this is far more common near

Passara and Bandarawela.

The poisonous Modecca palmata is often to be met with,

but isnot common. I was surprised to notice that it was little

known to the people. Passiflora fetida, however, appears

to be well known, though its distribution is probably more

restricted. The Papaw has been introduced here, and is to

be found in some of the gardens, but sparingly.

Of the Cucurbitacee, I found T'richosanthes integrifolia to

be fairly common, its brilliant red billiard-ball-like fruits

being very conspicuous. Isuspect that it is eaten by monkeys,

as I frequently found fragments of the fruit. Cephalandra

indica is often to be seen in dampish forests. In all the

chenas Cucumbers of sorts are grown, and appear to find a

considerable market demand.

Possibly these may have originated in the well-known

cucumber, but owing to degeneration and environment have

changed their form, for certainly the average shape of Vedda-

country “ Kekiri”’ is more round in outline than ovate. The

‘“ yind”’ is remarkably bitter to the taste.

Of the Begonias, I found a few examples of what I take to

be B. malabarica not far from the base of Westminster Abbey,

but it may have been an “ escape.”

Our monotypic Tetrameles undiflora occurs but sparingly in

the north of the Maha Wedirata, while the individual trees

are immense.

Of the Cactaceze, Opuntia (?) dillenii is frequently to be

met with, bothinasemi-wild state and in hedges. I found it

growing in profusion at Okanda, and all down the coast where

there were, or had been, gardens. I am unable to say if the

Veddas knew it, though the name Katu-patuk is well known.

I am inclined to suppose that it was spread by the Tamils.

150 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Considerations of space oblige me to avoid more than a

passing reference to the larger Gamepetalous plants, hence

my having unnoticed several of botanical interest. I therefore

select of the Rubiacez the following :—

Sarcocephalus cordatus. Moderately common in beds of

tanks and by river sides.

Anthocephalus cadamba. Rather rare, but occurs towards

Muppane.

Adina cordifolia. Locally plentiful.

Stepheqyne parviflora. Rather common, and valued for its

timber.

Wendlandia notoniana. Occasional, towards the Monaragala

hills.

Mussenda frondosa. Not uncommon near streams.

rardenia latifolia. Plentiful in rocky ground.

Canthium didymum. Common, especially near rocks.

Txora parviflora. Common.

Morinda tinctoria. Common, especially near the coast,

and often found in gardens.

Webera corymbosa. Exceedingly common.

Of the Composite :—

Vernonia cinerea. Exceedingly common.

Elephantopus scarber. Plentiful in the whole country, but

avoids deep shade.

Ageratum conyzoides. Everywhere an abundant introduc-

tion.

Spheranthus indicus. Common in fields.

Bidens ? Not uncommon near abandoned villages, and

occasionally on river banks.

Of the Gordenoviacer, 1 found Scevola lobelia common at

Okanda on the sea coast, the only place I have found it in

Ceylon.

Of the Plumbaginacez, our only Plumbago is occasionally

found in most unexpected places, but nowhere in abundance.

Of the Myrsinacez, I found an Ardisia in many of the forests

near rivers, but I am uncertain of its identity. The leaves

are large and grow in verticils.

ANIMAL AND PLANT LIFE. 151

Of the Sapotacez, by far the most important is the Palu

(Mimusops hexandra), but its distribution is erratic. It is

plentiful between Lahugala and Pottuvil, but the individual

trees are not large. Towards the Heda-oya, and in the arid

country west of Panawa, it also occurs plentifully, but

towards the Kumbukkan valley it again ceases to be abundant.

This erratic distribution in a country that favours the growth

of Palu is probably, as suggested earlier in this Paper, the

outcome of early trade in this valuable timber.

Munamal (Mimusops elengi) occurs very frequently, but

does not become very large. Bassia longifolia I have already

referred to. It is very plentiful up the Kumbukkan river, the

trees there attaining an enormous size; elsewhere it is

practically rare.

Of the Ebenacez, perhaps the most common is Diospyros

embryopteris, that occurs where there is moisture near at hand.

The Veddas eat its fruit.

D. ebenum, like “ Palu,” appears to have been largely

exploited, with the result that it is only in remote spots that

it is to be found in any abundance. D. ovalifolia occasional,

growing in patches.

Both Salvadora persica and Azima titracantha are abundant,

the former being common near the coast, but neither in real

forests.

Of the Apocynacere, the most distressingly common is

undoubtedly Carissa spinarum, that occurs always where treed

forest has been cleared. Cerbera odollam is fairly plentiful in

the Panawa Pattu, and is regarded as useful for fencing fields.

Plumeria acutifolia is always associated with temples,

abandoned or otherwise, but I failed to obtain any information

regarding its introduction.

Alstonia scholaris is not uncommon, and attains enormous

proportions.

Tabernemontana dichotoma is also to be found sparingly,

but generally in damp spots.

Of Asclepiads, Hemidesmus indicus is very plentiful in

waste land.

Calotropis gigantea is very abundant, especially near the

sea.

152 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Sarcostemma brunonianum occurs frequently, especially in

the bush country.

Dregea volubilis is also fairly abundant near to Liyangolla

and Muppane.

Of the Loganiacee, the well known Strychnos nua-vomica

is most abundant. It is remarkable, in view of its being so

common, that cases of children poisoning themselves by

eating the seed are rarely heard of.

S. potatorum occurs, but is not abundant. I looked out for

cases where the seeds were used for precipitating muddy

water, but failed to find an instance of its use in this direction.

Of the Gentianacez, Hxacum zeylanicum occurs in fields,

but the flowers are much paler than in wet-country examples.

Of the Boraginex, Cordia myxa is fairly common. T'ourne-

fortia argentea occurs on the seashore, but is not plentiful.

Heliotropium indicum is very common in waste ground.

Of the Solanacez, mention need only be made of Datura

fastuosa, which appears in nearly all the more established

gardens. The various “ Battus”’ I can pass over, as being

common all over the Ceylon low-country, and as probably

introduced.

Of the Scrophulariacez I desire to draw attention to only

one, Centranthera procumbens, owing to its presence in a dry

country being remarkable. I found it on two occasions only,

first between Nangalla and Danakiriya, and the second time

about five miles south of Liyangolla. On both these occasions

I asked the villagers if they could name it, but without success.

Its presence is singular, as it is generally to be found only in

the wet zone, or in a country where extremes of drought are

not experienced.

Of the Bignoniacese, Oroxylum indicum is moderately

common, but I think there is little doubt that it was introduced

for the sake of its medicinal value. Dolichandrone rheedit

occurs near the coast, near standing water. Stereospermum

chelonioides is fairly common. Its wood was used by the

Veddas for bows.

Of the Pedaliacese, Pedalum murex is common near the

coast, and is used by both the Sinhalese and Tamils for a

demulcent. Martynia diandra occurs on the fringes of villages

ANIMAL AND PLANT LIFE. 153

in waste ground, as if introduced. Sesamum indicum is

sparingly cultivated.

The Verbenacez afford, among many others, the valuable

Milla (Vitex altissima), which is generally plentiful. I am

inclined to doubt if var. alata can be sustained, as I repeatedly

obtained examples of “‘ broadly-winged ” petiolated leaves on

the same tree that bore normally petiolated leaves. This

“winging ”’ of the leaf stalk appears to be a matter of maturity,

as in very young shoots the “wings” are often markedly

pronounced. JV. leucoxylon is common about tanks. Gmelina

asiatica is moderately common in waste ground near habita-

tions. Premna tomentosa and P. serratifolia are both

abundant, the leaves of the latter being eaten. Avicennia

officinalis is common in wet ground near the coast.

Passing to the Lauracee, the most useful is the well known

“ Ranai ” (Persea semecarpifolia), fairly common in the forest

areas, especially south of Kallu Obba and below Degalhela.

Of the Thymeleacez, I repeatedly obtained Gyrinops walla,

its value as a cordage being known to the Sinhalese Veddas.

With a rapid glance at the Euphorbiacez and the Urticaceze

I must conclude my notes on the plants of the Vedda

country :—

Euphorbia antiquorum is frequently to be met with, but it

does not attain the proportions so marked in the Hambantota

District.

E. tortilis, if I may accept a 4-winged branch as indicating

this species, I observed near Buddama.

E. tirucalli is common as a hedge plant, especially near the

coast.

Bridelia retusa. Rather common.

Phyllanthus emblica. Occasional, more common towards

Monaragala.

Fluggea leucopyrus. Very common in land that has been

cleared.

Hemicyclia sepiaria. Exceedingly abundant. Its fruits

are much relished by the Veddas, and, I might also add, by

bears and monkeys.

Mischodon zeylanicus occurs sparingly by the rivers, but is

not generally distributed.

154 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Aleurites triloba is to be found in a few village gardens

towards the west, but is nowhere cultivated in much quantity.

It is an introduction.

Dimorphocalyx glabellus. Exceedingly common, except

near the sea shore.

Mallotus albus. Tolerably plentiful, especially in the west.

Macaranga tomentosa. Occasional. There is reason to

suppose this has been to some extent introduced merely for

the sake of the large peltate leaves, that afford a useful

substitute for plates. By tracing a group of these trees I was

able to find one of the most important of the caves on the east

flank of ‘‘ Westminster Abbey.”

Cheetocarpus castanocarpus. Occasional.

Sapium insigne. Common, especially near rocks.

Holoptelea integrifolia, representing the Urticaces, is very

common up to within a short distance of the coast. It occurs

right up the Kumbukkan valley to the foot of the Uva hills,

after which it becomes scarce.

Trema orientalis I found to be locally plentiful, but more so

towards the hills.

Streblus asper. Very common, and with much variation in

the size of the leaf.

Ficus benghalensis (the Banyan of Europeans) is very

abundant right down to the coast. It appears in all the old

established villages, which leads one to the idea that it was

introduced. I have, however, found it in localities where it

may have been introduced by birds transporting the seed from

the (?) cultivated trees, as the fruits are readily devoured by

Barbets and Pigeons.

F. retusa. Very common.

F. arnotiiana. Occasional, especially in rocky places.

F. tsjakela. Occasional, and appears to be singularly

partial to old ruins.

F hispida. Not uncommon near rivers and in damp forests.

F. religiosa. Common near any temple. At Kumuna I|

found some enormous examples, as also at Wattegama.

Antiaris toxicaria. Rare. I am informed, as stated early

in this Paper, that the Veddas use it for making “ loin cloths ”’

to be worn on ceremonial occasions,

ANIMAL AND PLANT LIFE. 155

Artocarpus nobilis. Quite rare, and only seen up the Heda-

oya valley.

A. integrifolia. Cultivated, but not usually attaining any

very large size, unless water is within reach.

A. incisa. At Buddama I was shown a solitary example

of our well known Breadfruit tree, and I was informed that it

was the only one of its kind to be found in the Vedda country.

While this may not be strictly correct, | may mention that

I found Breadfruit trees became exceedingly rare east of

Monaragala.

i 6(8)15

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158 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

APPENDIX B.

“Hoop Mean for

700 ftv altitude. | 1° “Orr

Inches. Inches.

January .. ah 3°13 7°51

February .. se *26 3°51

March “ie ih 3°20 3°78

April ea Be 15°07 7°02

Wile a oe 7°64 8°48

June £3 ste 1hO7-E: 1°72

July a re -70 3°09

_ August m3 ee 3°33 ore

September .. ne 2°47 4°41

October a3 oe 4°88 12°72

November .. 3 8°74 9-80

‘December .. ats 10°33 10°15

Total .. ha (ORS 70°91F

* 110 days for 1912. 7 101 days.

APPENDIX C.

List of Birds observed in the Vedda Country during July, 1914,

giving Local Distribution.

1. Astur badius. One seen at Guruhela.

2. Accipiter sp. (?). The Museum Collector obtained a 9

Accipiter, which I am inclined to think is a new species to Ceylon.

It was one of a pair that were engaged in building at the time

it was shot. It possesses the characteristic long central toe, but

in size it is much smaller than A. nisus or A. virgatus, with the

breast boldly marked with dark smoke-brown streaks and blotches,

and not barred. The second and third primaries also differ from

the last mentioned, while the tarsus is also markedly stouter. My

example was obtained at Newgala.

3. Pernis cristatus. Observed at Panawa and Bargura

4. Spilornis cheela. Observed at the base of the Monaragala

hills, at Guruhela, Etmole, Panawa, and near Kebilitte.

5. Halixtus leucogaster. Observed at Panawa, Okanda,

Lahugala, and Kumuna,

6. Haliastur indus. Common at Panawa and at Bargura.

7. Falco perigrinus. Nesting in the eastern cliff of ‘* West-

minster Abbey.”’

ANIMAL AND PLANT LIFE. 159

8. Ketwpa zeylonensis. Heard at Muppane, Liyangolla, but

only near places where there was water.

9. Huhwa nepalensis. At Panawa I heard the cry of what I

believe to be this, but I include it doubtfully.

10. Scops giu. Heard at Siyambala-anduwa.

ll. S. bakkamuna. Heard at Danakirigalla, Ellebubbura,

Muduwa, and Kumuna. I think there is no doubt about this

being bakkamuna, though I did not actually obtain one.

12. Glaucidiwn. I heard these owls repeatedly at Panawa,

Bargura, Danakirigalla, Ellebubbura, Muduwa, and Moramal-

pokunna, but unfortunately obtained none so as to determine the

species, but judging by the note I believe the birds I heard were

Castanonotum.

13. Palxornis eupatria. Distinctly scarce. Occur in the

valley of the Kumbukkan.

14. P. torquatus. Kumbukkan valley, Uva _ boundary,

Siyambala-anduwa, Manawela, Ellebubbura, and Liyangolla.

15. P. calthrope. Common at Danakirigalla, some at Liyan-

golla, Muduwa, and Panawa.

16. Loriculus indicus. Seen at the Uva boundary near

Siyambala-anduwa, and heard in the Kumbukkan valley.

17. Lyngipicus gymnophthalmus. I obtained two at Siyam-

bala-anduwa. Common at Ellebubbura, Ampitiya, Kitulana,

Kumuna, and east of Panawa. My examples are both Y, and

measure :—

(a) Length 4°75 in., tail 1:50 in., wing 3 in,, bill °54 in,

tarsus °50 in.

(6) Length 5:00 in., tail 1°50 in., wing 3 in., bill +50 in.,

tarsus * 50 in.

18. Chrysocolaptes stricklandi. Plentifulat Lahugala. Occurs

at Kurapan-oya, in Kumbukkan valley, Heda-oya valley, Dana-

kirigalla, Ellebubbura, Ampitiya, and Etmole.

19. Brachypternus. I obtained, while going up the valley of

the-Kumbukkan river, what I have referred to in the text as

possibly a new species belonging to this genus. The short, or I

should say rudimentary, inner hind toe is particularly striking.

20. B. erythronotus. Valley of the Kumbukkan, Panawa,

and Bargura.

21. Thereiceryx zeylonicus. Occurs at Lahugala, Panawa,

Kurapan-oya, Okanda, Kumuna, valley of the Kumbukkan,

Bowela, and round ‘‘ Westminster Abbey.”

22. Cyanops flavifrons. Not particularly common. Found

near Degalhela, Ellebubbura, Lahugala, Panawa, Okanda,

Kumuna. Plentiful near Monaragala.

23. Xantholema rubricapilla. Common all over the Vedda

country.

24. Cuculus sonnerati. Observed in the valley of the Kum-

bukkan river.

25. Coccystes jacobinus. Not seen east of Muppane, where it

is plentiful.

160 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

26. Without having actually seen the bird, I venture to include

a Cuckoo that may be identified by its monotonous and melancholy

note, that represents the words ‘‘ Captain Philpotts.’’ Tt is common

in the dry forests and plentiful near Maha-oya. I have spent

considerable time and trouble in trying to obtain it, and while

getting to within a few yards of the creature, I have always failed.

I found it to occur at Etmole and the dry country towards

Chimney Hill. Its exact identity is unknown to me.

27. Hudynamis honorata. Heard at Panawa.

28. Phaenicophes pyrrhocephalus. Seen at the Uva—Eastern

Province boundary, Kumbukkan valley, Siyambala-anduwa,

but not near the sea.

29. Rhopodytes viridirostris. Scarce ; only near Monaragala.

30. Centropus sinensis. Abundant right down to the coast.

31. Harpactes fasciatus. Common at Siyambala-anduwa ;

seen in the valleys of the Kurupan-oya and Kumbukkan river ;

not elsewhere.

32. <Anthracoceros coronatus. Common in the valley of the

Kumbukkan. Seen at Panawa and Bargura, at which last place

I obtained two measuring :—

6 Length 35°50 in., wing 12°85 in., tail 14 in,, bill 7 in,,

tarsus 2°25 in.

2 Length 33°50 in., wing 12°25 in., tail 12°25 in, bill6in.,

tarsus 2°30 in.

33. Tockus singalensis. At Lahugala, Kurupan-oya, Kum-

bukkan river. Comparatively a scarce bird.

34. Ceryle varia. Occurs at Panawa and the lower reaches of

the Kumbukkan river.

35. Alcedo ispida. Common at Lahugala, Panawa, Kum-

bukkan river, Kurapan-oya, and near all the wet paddy fields

round Monaragala.

36. Pelargopsis gurial. Common on the Kumbukkan river,

at Lahugala, Panawa, Okanda, Kumuna, and lower reaches of

Heda-oya.

37. Halcyon smyrnensis. Common at Pottuvil and down the

coast to Kumuna, and in all places where flowing water is present.

38. Merops philippinus. These migrants had already arrived,

and were plentiful at Lahugala, Kumuna, and at Muduwa. In

the early part of August they had reached Muppane.

39. M. viridis. Occurs at Ullapola, Bargura, Lahugala, .

Panawa, Okanda, but is scarce towards the centre of the area

involved.

40. Tachornis batassiensis. At Pottuvil, Okanda,and Kumuna.

41. Collocalia fuciphaga. Abundant, and nesting at Monara-

gala.

42. Macropteryx coronata. Common at Panawa and all

down the coast to the Kumbukkan. TI also found it sparingly at

Siyambala-anduwa.

43. Caprimulgus kelaarti. Heard in the Kumbukkan valley.

44, C. asiaticus. Common down the coast from Pottuvil to

Kumuna.,

ANIMAL AND PLANT LIFE. 161

45. C. indicus. Common down the coast from Pottuvil to

Kumuna.

46. Corvus macrorhynchus. Common where there are in-

habited villages only.

47. Oriolus melanocephalus. Common right to the coast.

48. Graucalus macvi. Found at Ampitiya.

49. Pericrocotus flammeus. Common in the Heda-oya valley.

50. Lalage sykesi. Found at Muduwa, Kumuna, and plentiful

up the Kumbukkan valley.

51. Tephrodornis pondicerianus. Heard at Pottuvil and at

Lahugala.

52. Dissemurus lophorhynus. I suspect that this bird occurs,

but not having actually shot one I include it doubtfully from

Kumbukkan valley.

53. D. paradiseus (locally called Kudamahawaraliya) is very

plentiful all through the Vedda country forest area. Unlike its

relations in the Sabaragamuwa Province it does not associate with

numbers of the Malacocerci. The following measurements of

examples were obtained :-—

$ Length 17 in., tail 12 in., wing 5°87 in., bill 1°37 in., tarsus

Lin.

9 Length 134 in., tail 8 in., wing 5°25 in., bill 1 in., tarsus

1 in.

54. Bucanga leucopygialis. Plentiful west of Siyambala-

anduwa.

55. Terpsiphone paradis?. Seenat Pottuvil, Panawa, Okanda,

and in Kumbukkan valley.

56. Hypothymis azurea. Common. I found a nest of this

species on the summit of ‘“‘ Westminster Abbey.” It oceurs com-

paratively sparingly in the Eastern Province.

57. Rhipidura albifrontata. See text.

58. Cyornis tickelli. Common at a place south-east of

Kotiyagoda, and at Ellebubbura, Liyangolla, Etmole, and the

base of ‘‘ Westminster Abbey.”

59. Copsychus saularis. Common up to the Heda-oya, but

not seen east of “‘ Westminster Abbey.” Few at Lahugala, plentiful

south of Pottuvil.

60. Cuttocincla macrura. Abundant right to the coast. The

local name is Sudu-waraliya.

61. Thamnobia fulicata. Comparatively scarce. Found

breeding at Lahugala ; occurs down the coast to Kumuna.

62. Turdus spiloptera. Heard in the high forest south of

Degalhela, but nowhere else. :

63. Hypsipetes ganeesa. Plentiful at Kotiyagoda, Heda-oya

valley, Bowela, Etmole, and towards Monaragala.

64. Tole icterica. Common in the Heda-oya and Kurapan-oya

valleys, but scarce north and east of Degalhela. Not seen west

of Kodiyana.

65. Pycnonotus luteolus. Common right to coast.

66. P. melanicterus, Common in the river valleys, especially

near Kumuna westwards.

162 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

67. P.hemorrhus. Common right to the sea.

68. Chloropsis jerdoni. Very scarce ; only near Monaragala

hills and at Pottuvil.

69. <Algithina tiphia. Not very common, Seen near coast

line.

70. Orateropus. Common down the coast, but comparatively

rare towards Siyambala-anduwa. I found a few at Bowela and

towards Buddama.

71. Pomatorhinus melanurus. Heard at Panawa, Himitillane-

galla, round ‘‘ Westminster Abbey ” and Muduwa, but not in the

Kumbukkan valley.

72. Alecippe nigrifrons. Common at Lahugala, Kumuna

Breeding near Panawa and on summit of ‘* Westminster Abbey,”

extending south to the Kumbukkan valley.

73. Pellorneum fuscicapillum. Common, but the birds from

the region under consideration are distinctly paler than those

from the wet districts.

74. Orthotomus sutorius. Common everywhere right down

to the sea-side.

75. Prinia valida. Seen at Bowela, and in a piece of grass

land at Karane. Heard at Lahugala and Okanda.

76. Drymeca insularis. (I am retaining Legge’s species and

name.) Seen only in the park lands south of Etmole.

77. Cisticola cursitans. Only seen at Newgalla in an aban-

doned field and at Panawa.

78. Citta frontalis. Heard at Siyambala-anduwa.

79. Cinnyris lotenius. Seen at Wattegama, Siyambala-

anduwa, Pottuvil, down the coast to the Kumbukkan.

80. C. zeylonicus. Seen all down the coast from Panawa,

but few only observed near ‘‘ Westminster Abbey.”

81. Diceuwm erythrorhynchum. Seen at Lahugala, Ketulana,

Pottuvil to Kumuna, but becoming distinctly scarce between the

Kumbukkan valley and Monaragala.

82. Zosterops palpebrosa. Heard at Siyambala-anduwa.

83. Hirundo hyperythra. Common. I found its nest at

Kebilitte. It is quite plentiful at Okanda.

84. Passer domesticus. Not generally common. I found it

at Pottuvil, Panawa, Okanda, but not at Kumuna, on the coast ;

again at Bowela and Nambanna (few), while it is plentiful at

Etmole and Muppane.

85. Alauda gulqula. Common.

86. Ploceus baya. Near Okanda I found several trees in

which the familiar pendulous nests were in abundance, but in all

cases these were last year’s work. I looked in vain for this bird

in the northern part of the Wedirata, where I suspect it occurs

when the rice fields are in cultivation, but as that 1s not of regular

occurrence, I assume that a local migration takes place.

87. P. manyar. I found this species at Lahugala, where, the

tank being full all the year round, both rushes and sedges are

available for nesting in.

88. Uroloncha kelaarti. Occurs near Monaragala, but I have

no notes of it eastward of that place.

ANIMAL AND PLANT LIFE. 163

89. U.malabarica. Seen at Kumuna.

90. U. striata. Common. Plentiful in the Panawa rice fields.

Kumbukkan valley, Wattegama. and Muppane.

91. Artamus fuscus. Common at Barawaya, Ellebubbura,

abundant at Pottuvil.

92. Acridotheres melanosternus. At Panawa and near coast,

and plentiful at Monaragala, Wattegama ; not generally common.

93. Hulabes religiosa. Common up the Heda-oya valley.

Plentiful at Ellebubbura, Liyangolla, and the Kumbukkan valley,

down to the coast.

94. Columba intermedia. From a description given to me

1 think this bird occurs at Okanda, but personally I did not

observe it.

95. Turtur suratensis. Common throughout the whole of the

Vedda country where there is any open land ; especially common

in fields.

96. Chalcophaps indica. Common. The variability of the

bearing of the tail feathers is striking.

97. Carpophaga xnea, locally called Godabowa, is fairly

common, especially in the valleys of the larger streams, such as

the Heda-oya, the Kurapan-oya, and the Kumbukkan river.

The following measurements I took from examples shot at

Newgala and the Kurapan-oya, respectively :

6 Length 15 in., tail 5°75 in., wing 8°25 in., bill 1°25 in,

tarsus 1-12 in.

3 Length 15°25 in., tail 6°00 in., wing 8°00 in., bill 1°25 in.,

tarsus 0°87 in. ;

98. Osmotreron bicincta. Common right down to the coast

line, especially where ripe Banyan fruit is plentiful.

99. O. pompadora. Common like the last, but, perhaps, more

abundant.

100. Pavo cristatus. I did not see a single trace of Peafowl

in Uva. All downthe coast from Pottuvil to the Kumbukkan it

is common over a belt of country varying from 6 to 15 miles in

width, but these birds appear to exclude themselves from high

forests.

Near Lahugala I found cock birds more plentiful than hens,

and at Bargura I saw a procession of eleven cock birds walking

in single file down to a pool. Hens appear to be either solitary

or more shy than the males, hence their seeming rarity.

101. Gallus lafayetti. Exceedingly common, and, like the last,

the males are seemingly more common than the females.

There is much reason to believe that this species crosses with

the village fowl, but evidence as to further intercrossing is obscure,

as no definite examples of connected history can be obtained

from a people to whom such a subject is of no interest. In the

text reference has been made to distinct strains of domestic

fowls that, it may be assumed, have developed without any

definite human intervention, and it is beyond demonstration to

show how these strains came to be established ; but whether the

variation arose from the cross-breeding of domestic birds with

12 6(8)15

164 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

others of their own species, or by crossing an inbred stock with

the wild bird, is equally open to question.

I am inclined to believe that the inbreeding of the domestic

bird has been an important factor in the forming of specific

strains, and these have again been varied by the crossing with

the wild bird: hence in one strain we find a distinct difference in

the note, while in another we find a close identity of general

* build.”

102. Galloperdix bicalcarata. I was able to make careful

notes of the distribution of our Spur-fowl. I found it to occur

at the foot of some low hills west of Siyambala-anduwa ; again

at the foot of Digalhella, at Danakirigalla, at the base of

Westminster Abbey, near Ullapola, Nambana, Monaragala hills,

Ampitiya; plentiful at Lahugala and at Kumuna. This last

named place is the nearest point to the sea that I have traced this

species. It is remarkable that in the plains the Spur-fowl does

not appear to occur unless at the base of small hills; thus, while

it is common at the foot of the Lahugala hills, it appears to be

absent between that point and Siyambala-anduwa, where the

country is flat.

103. Turnix taigoor. At Kumuna and in park lands near

Etmole.

104. Erythra phenicura. Common where there is water.

I found it at Newgalla and Wattegama, confining its movements

to small tanks in each instanee. Plentiful at Monaragala.

105. Porphyrio poliocephalus. At Lahugala tank.

106. Totanus stagnatilis. Common in small numbers near

backwaters and pools right through the country I explored.

107. Numenius arquita. I found it in the neighbourhood of

the sand dunes near Panawa, where it might be considered

plentiful.

108. Hydrophasianus chirurgus. On the tank at Lahugala.

109. Himantopus candidus. Very numerous round shallow

lagoons at Okanda and near Panawa.

110. Lobivanellus indicus. Common, especially in flat damp

ground.

111. Glareola lactea. I only once met with it at Panawa,

where it appeared to be very plentiful.

112. A Tern, which I take to be Sterna media, is common along

the coast. I found it frequenting both Arugam and Okanda

bays.

113. A smaller species than the last, that I presume to be

S. sinensis, I saw at Panawa only.

114. Nettapus coromandelianus. Abundant at Lahugala only.

115. Dendrocygna javanica. Plentiful at Lahugala and

Panawa tanks. Breeding near Kumuna.

116. Phenicopterus roseus. When I was surveying near the

coast south of Panawa in March of 1907 I found a large flock of

these Flamingos at one of the shallow lagoons, but on the occasion

of my present visit in July I did not see a single example.

117. Platalealeucorodia. Seen at Okanda.

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ANIMAL AND PLANT LIFE. 165

118. Tantalus leucocephalus. Seen at Kumuna.

119. Anastomus oscitans. Along the coast south of Pottuvil.

Local name Gonbeli-kokka.

120. Dissura episcopus. Seen in numbers at Bargura.

121. A bird locally called “‘ Mdno-kokka”’ was seen by me at

Lahugala, but I am uncertain if it is identical with Leptopilus

javanicus.

122. Xenorhynchus asiaticus. I watched a pair at the mouth

of the Kumbukkan river, seemingly feeding on fish, but I was

unable to procure an example for more close identification.

123. Ardea cinerea. Near Panawa and at Bargura.

124. Herodias alba. Seen at Panawa and at Okanda, but

doubtfully included here.

125. Ardeola grayi. Plentiful at Newgalla, Wattegama, and

in wet fields round Monaragala.

126. Ardeiralla cinnamomea. Only seen near wet fields near

Monaragala and the margin of the tank at Wattegama.

127. Phalacrocorax carbo. Plentiful in Panawa and Lahugala

tanks.

128. Plotus melanogaster. Common ; often found in stagnant

river pools right in the heart of the forest.

129. Pelecanus philippinensis. Only seen in the large

at Kumuna, where it is very abundant, and breeds there.

‘ py

‘villu’

166 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

NOTES CONCERNING THE OCCURRENCE OF SMALL

DESERT TRACTS IN THE NORTH-WEST

OF CEYLON.

By E, J. WAYLAND.

(With five plates and a map.)

ROBABLY no road in Ceylon is so little known as that

which runs from Puttalam to Mannar. It can hardly

be traversed without considerable difficulty, for in point of

fact it is not aroad but a track. Not always easy to determine,

and varying considerably from point to point, it affords the

traveller an interesting, if somewhat tiresome, journey. It

passes through dense forest, thorny scrub, and park lands ;

over miles of parched red earth and sun-baked plains, over the

dry beds of rivers and under the cool surface of lakes and

permanent water-courses ; through the mire and slush of reed-

choked swamp, and in one place, at least, across a desert.

This remarkable and unlooked for desert tract lies about half

a mile to the south of the Moderagam-aar (the river which

forms the northern boundary of the North-Western Province).

There are, to my knowledge, two other desert-like areas within

easy reach of Marichchukkaddi; the one which I propose to call

(b) (reserving (a) for the first mentioned) is some four or five

miles to the east of the village, and the other (c) immediately

south of the Kall-aar (Northern Province). Some indications

of a fourth are to be found about a quarter of a mile to

the north of the same river. They share the peculiarity of

being surrounded by jungle, which ends sharply at their

edges; much as the up-country forests abut against the

patnas. Not one of them is far from a water-course, but they

are not in themselves stream beds. They are totally unlike

the broad sandy channels of the rivers which dry up completely

OCCURRENCE OF SMALL DESERT TRACTS. 167

for several months of the year.* During the rains the desert

tracts drain off rapidly to the rivers, as indicated by the

narrow effluent ravines choked with sand (plate I., fig. 2).

The deserts tend to assume the form of more or less ellip-

tical depressions bounded by scarped faces, which are most

conspicuous along the borders furthest from the main drainage

line of the district.

Approaching the largest and most typical desert tract (a)

from the south one passes through dense forest of the dry-zone

flora springing from a brick-red soil, which evidently makes a

very fertile ground. The forest ends abruptly on the edge of

an escarpment, the upper fifteen feet or so of which is a red

loamy deposit, while the lower half is composed of sedimentary

deposits (plate II., fig. 1). The barren tract is scarcely

more than a quarter of a mile wide, but extends laterally for a

mile orso. On the northern side of the desert the jungle starts

again, and nearly half a mile beyond this point lies the Modera-

gam-aar (Uppu-aar).

The sedimentary rocks which form the floor of the desert

tract reach down to the coast and extend scme miles inland.

They vary in composition from compact limestone to arena-

ceous and calcareous beds, in which limonite concretions are

common. The compact limestone does not occur, except as

pebbles and isolated fragments, in any of the barren tracts.

During the early part of the monsoons strong winds blow

across the country, catching up sand denuded from the rocks

of the desert floor and carrying it along in scurries and whirl-

pools. These effect much wear and tear of softer parts of

exposed rocks, so that the harder bands and cencretions come,

in time, to stand out in bold relief. As may well be imagined,

the resulting surface is rough in the extreme and very tiresome

to walk over. It recalls in some measure the less sandy parts

of the great African deserts, which are locally such “ bad

* At the time of my visit—February and March—the Pomparippu

river was chest deep at the ford, while the Moderagam-aar was rapidly

drying up. The Kall-aar was completely dry to its mouth. The

country is almost uninhabited, and information concerning it is difficult

to obtain, but I gathered from some fishermen at the coast that the

Kall-aar never contains much water now-a-days.

168 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

going’ that the Arabs are obliged to fit leather shoes to

their camels in order to traverse this unhospitable ground

(plate II., fig. 2, and plate III.). Mushroom-shaped rocks,

which are common features of some arid regions, are hardly

represented in this country ; but hard stones polished by the

attrition of the blowing sands are by no means rare (plate

IV., figs. 2 and 3). Speaking of deserts in general Prof. James

Geikie says :—

So effective is the action of the sun and wind that the whole

surface of a rainless region is gradually denuded and lowered, the

loose materials continually travelling onwards to the borders of

the desert. The sands of continental dune-lands, therefore, have

no necessary connection with abandoned sea floors. It is true

that within certain desert areas there exist lakes and inland seas

that are gradually drying up. In the great desert of Gobi, for

example, lakes occur which have obviously at one time been

considerably more extensive. So again in the Aralo-Caspian

depression, abundant sand hills are scattered over wide areas,

which were certainly under water at quite a recent geological

date. Within such tracts, therefore, after the water had dis-

appeared, much loose sand was doubtless already prepared for

the direct action of the wind. But in the case of extensive

deserts, such as those of North Africa, Central Arabia, &c., the

sand has been derived almost wholly from the sub-disintegration

of rock.*

During the long dry season the heat is intense, and not a few

stones which have offered a resistant face to the ravages of

time have been burnt brown or black by continued exposure

to the sun (plate IV., fig. 2). But sun-baked stones are

much more common in or near the river beds than on this

practically waterless tract. Though heat is certainly one

factor in the process of tanning, moisture is undoubtedly

another, and the present writer remembers his astonishment

at seeing certain rocks near the Nile, on the Sudan border

land, which were markedly more sun burnt on the sides

which obtained most shade than on those which were subjected

to the glare of the sun all day.

Disintegration through the action of solar heat is the most

potent form of weathering in the desert tracts (a), (6), and (c)

with which we are dealing ; wind erosion has accomplished

comparatively little. Its effects are, however, to be seen, and

*** Mountains : their Origin, Growth, and Decay,” 1913.

OCCURRENCE OF SMALL DESERT TRACTS. 169

probably better in tract (c) than in either of the other two.

Faceted stones occasionally occur, and these are of interest in

the present connection.

In most deserts, and especially in those whereon the wind-

direction is constant for months together, the bigger stones

and pebbles, which successfully resist the pushing power of the

air current, become faceted by reason of the sand blast action

of the grit-laden wind. It not uncommonly happens that

these stones possess three faces separated by three sharp

edges, for which reason they have been called “‘ Dreikante.”

The exact mode of formation of Dreikante was an open

question till five years ago, when Mr. Arthur Wade settled the

matter in a short Paper to the Geological Magazine. Some

were of opinion that the keels, or edges, were to be explained

by the dividing effect which a stone might be supposed. to

have upon the incident blast, thus causing the simultaneous

production of two facets, which, in time, would meet along

an edge in the plane of the wind ; but Wade’s observations,

made on the seaboard of the Egyptian desert, showed that

the broad face of Dreikante are opposed to the wind and not

parallel to its direction, as the above-mentioned theory would

require. It is not proposed to go deeply into the theory of

faceted stones in this short Paper, but briefly it may be stated

thus : The natural sand-blast gradually wears away the stone

upon which it impinges, producing, in time, a more or less

smooth face, which exhibits, in profile, a very characteristic

curve, convex below and concave above (plate V., fig. 1). The

edge between the facet and the base is also a curve, as shown

in plate V., fig. 3. Astone loses weight, of course, during the

process of faceting, and the time comes when the wind is

able to move it—or perhaps it is moved by some accidental

circumstance. Sooner or later it takes up a stable position

with another part of it exposed to the blast, so another face is

formed, and, in time, they meet each other along a sharp edge.

In the course of its subsequent movements the stone is almost

sure to come to rest on one or other of these faces, and then

maintain itself in stable equilibrium for a long period, wherein,

unless one face chances to be again opposed to the wind,

another face is formed. Not all wind-cut stones show three

170 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

facets; some have more, many have less. The example

figured in plate V. has one wind-cut face—the curved face ; the

plain surfaces are the result of jointing in the original rock.

A peculiarity about faceted stones is that while they are

characteristically desert products, they are often thinly

distributed and are only locally abundant. In (a) desert

faceted stones are scarce, but polished pebbles are not un-

common, while a fair proportion of stone age artifacts, in

which the tract is peculiarly rich, bear a high lustre.

Besides these wind-cut and wind-polished stones some

cherts occur with curious spongy surfaces ; indeed not a few

of the stone artifacts which were gathered on these sites

showed this form of weathering (plate IV., fig. 1). It can

hardly be doubted that the weathered surface is the result of

exposure of the artifacts since the days of their manufacture.

Many of the stone tools of the Lybian and Egyptian deserts

are affected in a precisely similar manner, and it seems

probable that the spongy exterior of these stones points to

exposure continued over long periods of time, and may there-

fore be taken as a fair criterion of antiquity. It should be

noted, however, that not all varieties of stone are subject to

this form of decay, and therefore the absence of a spongy

surface is no argument in favour of a recent production. In

the absence of vegetation, the want of water, the characteristic

features of erosion and sun baking, the tracts (a), (b), and (c)

are typical deserts conforming more to the rocky type than to

the sandy variety. They are peculiar in that they are cireum-

scribed and abrupt in their occurrence. The exact mode of

their origin is not altogether clear, but the following facts are

suggestive :—

(i.) They are not far from rivers which appear to have

dwindled in volume since their valleys were

excavated.

(ii.) Their surfaces are extremely unfertile, for although

of lower altitude than the surrounding forest

country they support no vegetation.

(iii.) There is no reason to suppose that they are chemi-

cally unfertile.

OCCURRENCE OF SMALL DESERT TRACTS. 17]

(iv.) In texture the sedimentary beds are gritty and

coarse. Their component grains and fragments

vary considerably in size. They are generally

more or less angular and are rather tightly packed.

(v.) The red, fertile earth, on the contrary, is fine and

regular in grain, and its individual particles tend

towards a spherical shape. The packing is by no

means tight.

There can be no question that at one time the red earth

cliff reached as far as the river bank, and it is probable that in

those days precipitation was greater than now (see note at

bottom of page 167). One may well imagine a gulley running

off the escarpment to the river and being rapidly deepened

during the rainy season. The intermittent stream would soon

cut its way down to the sedimentaries below, and a small

corrie might be started at its head by the collapse of the soft

beds above, facilitated, perhaps, by a spring at their junction

with the underlying series. Phenomena of this nature are

by no means uncommon up-country, where the soft laterite

overlies less permiable beds below. Whatever may be the true

interpretation of the early beginnings of the desert tract,

there is no doubt that exposure of the sedimentaries was the

first landmark in its history, and (given a diminishing rainfall)

from thence onwards the expansion of the barren area was

merely a matter of time.

The thickly forested red earth shows that the unequal

distribution of rainfall throughout the year* is not the main

determining factor in the formation of the desert floors ; but

it seems equally obvious that the absence of moisture is the

cause of the barren nature of the tracts, and one naturally turns

to the consideration of soils as water carriers.

The amount of water that can be held by soils and subsoils

when saturated depends on the size and shape of the particles and

stones (their mean diameter being termed the effective size), and

on the consequent pore-spaces. Here...... we cannot do better

than quote from Warington,} who states that, *‘ if a soil consisted

* The yearly average for the part of the country is probably about

forty inches (see ‘‘ Manual of the Puttalam District,’ 1908, p. 20).

+ Referring to ‘* Physical Properties of the Soil,’ 1911.

13 6(8)15

172 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

of spherical particles all of the same size, the empty spaces

between these particles would amount to about 47 per cent. of

the volume with the loosest packing, and to nearly 26 per cent.

with the closest packing. The total empty space would be the

same, whatever the size of the particles. If the interspaces with

the closest packing were occupied by another set of smaller

spheres, they would be reduced to 6°7 per cent. of the volume.

If this process was again repeated, they would become 1:7 per

cent. With loose packing the proportion of interspaces would,

’

in all cases, be much larger ...... * In many subsoils the

ingredients are of various sizes and irregular shapes, as in @

mixture of gravel and sand, or in boulder clay, with a conse-

quent reduction of pore-spaces. In many loams, clays, and marls,

as well as sands, the materials are fairly uniform.*

It will be seen therefore that the character of the desert

floor (recorded above) is such that it is unable to take up as

much water as the red earth; and we learn, moreover, that

its retentive powers are less, for as Woodward (speaking

on the authority of Warington) says :—

The amount of water retained by @ soil depends on the

extent of the surfaces of the particles to which the water adheres,

not on the volume of the interspaces; hence, the smaller the

particles, if they are not excessively fine, the greater is the

amount of the water held by capillary attraction.’ }

Add to this the fact that rain falling on a dry soil sinks but

slowly, while in a moist soil it is freely absorbed, and the

apparently anomalous juxtaposition of forest and desert

becomes easy of explanation. It would seem that most of

the rain which falls on the barren tracts flows rapidly away,

and the remainder is abstracted by the process of evaporation,

which, in the almost entire absence of vegetable growth, is

unimpeded.

These, then, appear to be the conditions which have given

rise to the small desert tracts which are described in these

notes :—

(i.) The exposure of the sedimentary beds, possibly at a

time when the rainfall was greater—or more evenly

distributed throughout the year—than it is at

present.

*H. B. Woodward: ‘‘ The Geology of Soils and Substrata,” 1912.

} Op. cit.

OCCURRENCE OF SMALL DESERT TRACTS. is

(ii.) The inability of the sediments to take up moisture

to any considerable extent ; which, combined

with their poor retentive powers, has led, during

the hotter months of the year, to the almost entire

depletion of their free water content.

(iii.) The air spaces between the particles of the now

perfectly dry soil resist the downward percolation

of the rains when they fall ; while in the absence

of a continuous film of wetted particles to establish

surface tension (and thus bear the water down-

wards) this resistance can hardly be overcome.

By the gradual crumbling away of the red earth deposit and

the consequent exposure of fresh sedimentary surfaces the

deserts are slowly expanding. Year by year they encroach

upon the red earth.

Heat and the absence of water are the two chief factors in

desert development.* Climate alone may account for desert

conditions, and in this connection Corstorphine calls attention

to the fact that certain sandstones and shales, which yield

deep fertile soils in Southern Transvaal and in the Orange Free

State, form desert areas in Cape Colony.f Here in Ceylon our

small desert tracts are due, as we have seen, not so much to the

arid nature of the climate as to the inability of the ground to

hold water.

Once a desert is started it tends to grow, and our small

examples in Ceylon are no exception to the rule. By the

gradual crumbling away of the red earth deposit, and the

consequent exposure of fresh sedimentary surfaces, the deserts

are slowly expanding. Year by year they encroach upon the

red earth escarpment, and by imperceptible degrees the living

forest gives place to the barren wilderness.

Under the present conditions the sedimentary rocks of this

type, and in this part of the country, must always give rise to

arid tracts—unless the theory advanced for their origin be

wrong.

* For an account of the conditions which make for aridity see Prof.

Macdougal’s Paper (Jour. R. G. S., Vol. XXXIX., No. 2, Feb., 1912,

pp. 105-120).

+ Proc. Geol. Soc. (S. A.), 1907, p. xix.

174 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

It is pleasant to think that it probably lies within the power

of man to control the conditions and reclaim the lost fertility.

But Nature might reclaim it herself, and one wonders whether

she has not already done so once. The well-defined line of

demarcation between the two sets of deposits exposed along

the scarp points to a discontinuity in the sequence of events.

Thus, the question arises, Does the upper limit of the lower beds

represent the buried surface of an ancient desert plateau or not ?

It is impossible to answer this question definitely at the present

time, but the past existence of large desert tracts in the north

of this country is quite a feasible suggestion, and the geological

evidence, as it stands at present, is, perhaps, rather in favour of

it than otherwise.

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Plate I.

FIG, 1.—.A GENERAL VIEW OF DESERT TRACT (a) AND THE FOREST BEYOND.

FIG, 2.—AN EFFLUENT RAVINE IN DESERT TRACT (a).

Plate II.

FIG. 1.—THE SOUTHERN ESCARPMENT OF DESERT TRACT (@).

FIG. 2.—A ROUGH SURFACE IN DESERT TRACT (@).

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Plate IV.

ANCIENT STONE TOOLS FROM DESERT TRACT (qd).

FIG, 1.—A CHERT BLADE SHOWING A SPONGY SURFACE.

FIG, 2.—A JASPOID IMPLEMENT, SUN-BURNT AND POLISHED.

FIG. 3.—A QUARTZ BORER, HIGHLY POLISHED.

Plate V.

A WIND-CUT STONE FROM DESERT TRACT (a).

FIG. |.—SIDE VIEW.

FIG. 2.—THREE-QUARTER SIDE VIEW.

FIG, 3.—BASE VIEW.

NOTES. 175

NOTES.

Note on Halodeima atra (Holothuria atra)—During a visit

to Galle in April, 1915, Mr. A. C. Hayley drew my attention

to the presence of a worm living upon Halodeima atra, which is

abundant on the reefs fringing the Fort at Galle. Mr. Hayley

accompanied me to that part of the reef which lies between

the lighthouse and the Triton Bastion, where some months

earlier he had found Halodeima atra in abundance. On this

occasion, however, we found no specimens. A few were

discovered on the north-west side of the Triton Bastion, but

the best locality was at the base of the Aolus Bastion.

Incidentally I have suggested to Mr. Hayley that it would be

of interest to determine the seasonal movements of this species

on the reefs at Galle. Many Holothurians were examined by

Mr. Hayley and myself, and about 30 per cent. of the specimens

bore a Polynoid worm. Asarule not more than one worm was

found ona Holothurian. The presence of the worm was difficult

to detect owing to its colour adaptation. The colour of the

general surface of the Holothurian was black or a deep brown,

and the worm was black with a few insignificant white spots.

If the worm were detached from its host it very quickly

returned. Mr. Hayley stated from previous experience that

the worm died very quickly if it were prevented from

returning to its host, but I was unable to verify this. The

identity of the Polynoid worm has not yet been determined.

Mr. Hayley also drew my attention to another case of

commensalism in connection with the same Holothurian.

A small crab was found on a few occasions in the cloacal

cavity, and in one case in the intertentacular cavity formed

by the partial withdrawal of the tentacles. This crab also

exhibited cryptic colouring. The background was black,

broken here and there by a few yellowish-white lines or spots.

The crab has not yet been identified.

Most of the Holothurians were found living on sand, and

in many cases the back (bivium) was covered with a thin

coating of sand-grains fastened together by mucus from the

epidermal cells. There were generally about seven pairs of

176 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

small circular patches of black arranged along the back

where the layer of sand was interrupted and the black integu-

ment showed through. It is possible that there may be

groups cf sensory cells at these places.

Although Halodeima atra is one of the most abundant, and

at the same time one of the largest Holothurians found on the

Ceylon coast, it is not used commercially as “ béche-de-mer ”

or ‘‘ trepang.” This is also the case with Bohadschia mar-

morata, a large species which is so abundant at Trincomalee.

So far as I know the béche-de-mer which is most commonly

dried and cured by the Jaffna fishermen for export is

Thymiosicya scabra (Holothuria scabra).

Colombo, July 16, 1915. JOSEPH PEARSON.

Cannibalism in Pulchriphyllium crurifolium, Serv.—Mr. E. E.

Green states in Spolia Zeylanica, Vol.II1., p. 221, that specimens

of Pulchriphyllium crurifolium, Serv., in captivity frequently

nibble away portions of their companions. When Professor

Plate was in Ceylon, he stated in the course of a lecture delivered

before the Ceylon Natural History Society that Green was

mistaken in supposing that the insects nibble each other. He

remarked that the erosion of the sides of the body and tegmina,

which Green put down to nibbling, was really part of the mimetic

character of the insects, and was not an artificial effect, but

the result of the infinite capacity for variation which this

insect posesses, and which is shown in the colour-markings.

From personal observation I am able to refute this latter

view of the case, as I have repeatedly witnessed the insects

nibbling each other. It is amusing to watch the frantic

efforts of a leaf-insect to dislodge its assailant when it is

attacked. The adult insects seem to let each other alone,

but half grown or very young ones are constantly to be seen

chewing calmly, while their victims writhe and struggle to

free themselves. This habit seems to be induced by over-

crowding or shortage of food, and many vegetarian caterpillars

become cannibals under the same circumstances.

Colombo, June, 1915. G. M. HENRY.

NOTES. 177

How Lizards Bathe-—-On April 12, 1915, after a slight

shower of rain I watched a lizard (Calotes versicolor) bathing.

It was cn a shoe-flower bush (Hibiscus sp.), and the bathing

consisted in dragging itself along the branches and rubbing

its sides against the wet leaves. I watched it for about five

minutes, while it crawled slowly along and occasionally opened

its mouth as if drinking the drops which adhered ‘to its lips.

It appeared to enjoy the feel of the water on its sides and back.

Birds frequently bathe in the same way. I have seen

a little Ceylonese Sun-bird (Arachnecthra zeylanica)

*“ scrabbling ’’ about on the curved surface of a canna-leaf

which had just been watered by the garden cooly, and hugely

enjoying itself.

Colombo, June, 1915. G. M. HENRY.

Do Rat-snakes Strike ?—Last February my son suffered an

injury to his right foot while going for a rat-snake (S. gerundiya)

in the garden, and subsequently developed an abscess near

the ankle.

The doctor in attendance found no trace of a snake-bite

wound, and was of opinion that the injury was caused by

a blow (concussion) of some kind.

My son got the impression that he had. been struck by the

tail of the reptile, but from inquiries made this does not

seem probable.

Mr. H. C. P. Bell writes : “‘ I once drove a rat-snake into

a corner, and the reptile in self-defence literally got its back

against the wall and struck at me like a cobra—fortunately

without effect. The rat-snake’s bite (indeed the bite of all

snakes) is known to be slightly poisonous, 7.e., likely to cause

inflammation for a time. Mr. John Still when with me was

bitten on the finger by an “ eye-snake”’ (8. gulla), and was

laid up with the wound for three days.”

Mr. T. Wiggin, of Anuradhapura, writes : ‘‘ I have seen

rat-snakes strike out like cobras.”

Kandy, June 11, 1915. oe olen

178 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CEYLON NATURAL

HISTORY SOCIETY.

Thirteenth General Meeting.

Tur Thirteenth (Third Anniversary) General Meeting of the

Society was held in the Colombo Museum on May 7, 1915, with

Dr. Andreas Nell in the chair. The Secretaries’ and Treasurers’

Reports for 1914 were duly adopted. The following were elected

as Office-bearers for 1915 :—

Patron :

His Excellency Sir Robert Chalmers, K.C.B.

President :

The Hon. Mr. R. E. Stubbs, C.M.G., F.Z.8.

Vice-Presidents.

F. M. Mackwood, Esq.

Sir S. D. Bandaranaike, Kt., C.M.G.

Dr. A. Nell, M.R.C.S., L.M.S.

Council :

Joseph Pearson, Esq., D.Sc., | W. E. Wait, Esq., M.A.

F.R.S.E., F.L.S. O. S. Wickwar, Esq.

T. Petch, Esq., B.A., B.Sc.

Joint Hon. Secretaries and Treasurers :

W. A. Cave, Esq.

C. T. Symons, Esq., B.A., F.R.G.S.

Mr. Frederick Lewis read a Paper on “Some Notes on the

Natural History of the Vedda Country.’’*

A few natural history specimens were exhibited.

* See p. 119 of this Part.

CEYLON RAILS, WADERS, GULLS, AND TERNS, 179

NOTES ON CEYLON RAILS, WADERS,

GULLS, AND TERNS.

By W. E. Wait, M.A., M.B.O.U.

(With two Plates.)

YOME time ago it was decided to bring out a handbook

of Ceylon birds, and the work was placed in the hands

of Mr. Frederick Lewis, F.L.S., Mr. W. A. Cave, and the

present writer, with Dr. Pearson as editor. As it is anticipated

that some time may elapse before the whole handbook is

ready for publication, it is thought desirable to place on

record the rough draft of such instalments as have been

completed. The present section deals with the Rails, Waders,

Gulls, and their allies.

The classification followed is that of Dr. Blanford in Vol. IV.

of the series on Birds in the ‘“ Fauna of British India,’ as

being the standard work on Indian Birds. As is natural, the

present paper is mainly based on that work and on Legge’s

“History of the Birds of Ceylon.” I have, however, endeav-

oured to give as much fresh information as was possible on

the distribution and nidification in Ceylon of the various

species. I have also to acknowledge my indebtedness to

Frank Finn’s ““ How to know the Indian Waders.”

The descriptions are taken from specimens, partly in the

Colombo Museum, but mainly from the series in the British

Museum, and I have to thank Mr. Ogilvie Grant for his

kindness in granting me access to the latter.

Lastly, I owe much to Mr. E. C. Stuart Baker for his help

and encouragement to a beginner in ornithology.

2 6(9)16

180 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

The measurements given are those adopted in the * Fauna

of British India,’ expressed in inches and decimals, viz. :—-

Length —From the tip of the bill to the tip of the longest

tail feather.

Tail—From the root of the tail on the underside to the tip

of the longest feather. .

Wing—The greatest distance from the bend of the folded

wing to the tip of the longest quill, measured straight.

Tarsus —The distance from the centre of the joint of the

tarsus with the tibia to the base of the middle toe.

Bill—tThe distance from the angle of the gape to the tip,

measured straight.

The rough keys do not pretend to be based on strictly

scientific distinctions, or to hold good for other species than

those on the Ceylon list.

Order GRALLZA.

Sub-order FULICARIA.

Family Ramp.

The Indian members of this order are divided into three

sub-orders: Fulicariv, the Rails; Grues, the Cranes; and

Otides, the Bustards. In Ceylon, however, we have no

Cranes or Bustards, and the Fulicariz are confined to a single

family Rallide, which comprises the true Rails, the Crakes,

and the Water Hens.

The Ceylon members of the family are all marsh birds,

greatly given to skulking in reeds and thick grassy swamps.

Owing to their fondness for keeping to cover, it is probablé

that some of our rarer species are in reality far more generally

distributed than would appear from the few recorded occur-

rences. Rails are usually slender in build, and stand fairly

high on the legs. The toes are long and narrow and not

webbed, though all our species are good swimmers. The

wings are short, and the flight awkward ; but in spite of this

several species are migratory, and must cover long distances.

The tail is short and constantly jerked wp and down as the

birds walk. The bill is usually moderately stout, the nostrils

linear and lying in a grove.

CEYLON RAILS, WADERS, GULLS, AND TERNS. 18]

The family is mainly vegetarian, feeding on seeds, grain,

and water plants, but the food in addition consists of insects,

larvee, and the smaller forms of molluscs and crustaceans.

The nest is generally a large rough structure of grass or

rushes placed on or near the ground. The eggs are spotted

with two different colours, and are usually fairly numerous.

The young when hatched are covered with down, and can run

and swim within a few hours of their birth.

Within our limits are found nine species, each the sole

representative of its genus, with the exception of Amaurornis,

of which we have two members. The four larger species are

resident and comparatively abundant, the five smaller are

rare and mainly migratory, though two of them have been

known to nest in the Island, and a third may possibly do so,

as it is partially resident throughout its range in India and

Burma.

Rough Key to the Ceylon Rallide.

I.— Bill from gape not shorter than tarsus. Length 10 to

11 inches.

(a) Bill slender, back streaked brown and black.

Rallus indicus (Indian Water Rail).

(b) Bill stouter, back brown speckled with white.

Hypotenidia striata (Blue-breasted Banded Rail).

I{.—Bill from gape much shorter than tarsus.

A.—No frontal shield.

(a) Length 7°5inches. Upper parts brown, streaked

black, and. smeared. with white.

Porzana pusilla (Eastern Baillon’s Crake).

(6) Length 10 inches. Back olive-brown. Lower

parts below breast barred black and white.

Rallina superciliaris (Banded Crake).

lower parts vinous chestnut.

Amaurornis fuscus (Ruddy Crake).

(d) Length 12 inches. Upper plumage black, breast

white, stern chestnut.

Amaurornis pheenicurus (White-breasted

Water Hen).

182 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

B.—Length 12 inches or over. A horny shield on forehead

formed by a _ backward prolongation of upper

mandible.

(a) Sexes alike, frontal shield rounded behind, toes

with a narrow straight fringe.

Gallinula chloropus (Moor Hen).

(b) Sexes dissimilar, shield pointed behind and, in

breeding males, prolonged into a horn, toes

not fringed.

Gallicrex cinerea (Water Cock).

blue.

Porphyrio poliocephalus (Purple Moor Hen).

RaLuus inpicus (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 158 ; Legge, p. 778).

The Indian Water Rail.

Description —Upper plumage black with wide olive-brown

margins to the feathers ; ashy gray above the eye, on the

cheeks, and sides of throat ; a dark brown streak from the

bill through the eye to the ear coverts ; most of wing quills

dark brown ; chin white ; lower parts ashy gray, washed with

brown on the breast; flanks barred black and white ; under

tail coverts black, edged with white.

Young birds have white bands on the wing coverts.

Bill brown, the basal portion of the lower mandible scarlet

in adults, yellowy-red in young birds. Ivis red ; legs and feet

dull yellowish-pink.

Length about 11; wing 5; tail 2; tarsus 1:7; bill from

gape 1°75. Females rather smaller.

Distribution —A rare straggler to Ceylon. The only

specimens recorded are a few birds taken years ago near

Ja-ela. A winter visitor to parts of India, also occurring in

China, Eastern Siberia, and Japan.

Habits —A shy skulking bird found in grass and rushes

round marshes or in paddy fields. It does not breed within

the Indian limits.

CEYLON RAILS, WADERS, GULLS, AND TERNS. 183

HyYPoT&NIDIA STRIATA (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 160;

Legge, p. 775).

The Blue-breasted Banded Rail.

Description.—Crown and back of the neck chestnut ; rest

of the upper surface, including wings and tail, dark olive-

brown speckled with broken white crossbars. Throat and

chin white ; face, foreneck, and breast ashy gray ; remainder

of the under surface blackish with white bars.

Females are duller, and have the middle of the abdomen

dirty white.

Young birds have a brown cap and no white crossbars on

the back.

Bill stouter and shorter than in the last species and variable

in colour ; upper mandible brown, lower some shade of red ;

legs and feet olive-green or gray ; iris red or yellowy-brown.

Length 10°5; wing 4°65; tail 1°75; tarsus 1°55; bill

from gape 1°65.

Distribution —A rare resident scattered through the low-

country ; some birds may be migrants. The species occurs

in the greater part of India and Burma, and through South-

eastern Asia to the Malay Archipelago, and the Philippines.

Habits —Similar to those of the last species, but the bird is

more silent. It breeds apparently during the wet weather, as

I have one clutch of eggs taken in December in the North-

Western Province. The nest was a pad of flattened-down

grass stalks on the edge of a paddy field ; eggs five in number,

pinky-white, rather sparingly spotted, chiefly at the larger

end, with reddish-brown and pale grayish-purple. They

measured 1°39 by 1°02.

PoRZANA PUSILLA (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 165).

PORZANA BAILLONI (Legge, p. 766).

The Eastern Baillon’s Crake.

Description —Upper plumage brown with black streaks and

some white marks as if smeared with white paint. Face,

throat, neck, and breast ashy-gray; a brown stripe runs

from the base of the bill through the eye to the side of the neck ;

184 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

abdomen barred black and white. In young birds the gray

of the lower parts is replaced by buff.

Bill short and comparatively stout, green in colour ; iris

in adults red, in young birds reddish-brown ; legs and feet

green tinged with yellow ; toes long.

Length about 7°5; wing 3°5; tail 1°75; tarsus 1-1; bill

from gape °7.

Distribution —May be looked for in swamps throughout the

low-country. Only recorded a few times from, Ceylon, but

largely overlooked owing to its small size and skulking habits.

On one circuit in the Southern Province I came across five

specimens. Most birds are probably migratory, but some may

possibly be found breeding.

Found scattered throughout India and Burma in suitable

localities, its range extending through Eastern Asia. Most

birds are migratory, but some reside in India all the year

round.

Habits —This is smallest of our rails, being no larger than a

slim quail. It runs in and out of the rushes round the edges

of swamps, keeping much to cover and being hard to flush.

The nest is the usual pad of rushes, grass, &c., on floating

vegetation or amongst swampy grass. The eggs are five to

seven in number, pale olive, rather streakily marked with

darker brown, and measure about 1°16 by °87.

RALLINA SUPERCILIARIS (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 167 .

RALLINA EURYZONOIDES (Legge, p. 772).

The Banded Crake.

(Plate I., fig. 1.)

Description.—Head, neck, and upper breast chestnut ;

chin and throat whitish ; remainder of upper plimage dark

brownish-olive ; rest of lower parts boldly barred black and

white.

An old female in the Museum collection resembles the male,

another, probably younger, has the crown and nape olive-

brown.

Young birds are brown on the head, neck, and breast.

CEYLON RAILS, WADERS, GULLS, AND TERNS. 185

Bill of moderate length and fairly stout, dark brown in

colour and green at the base; iris blood-red ; legs and feet

grayish-black.

Length about 10; wing 5; tail 2:2; tarsus 1°7; bill from

gape 1:2.

Distribution —A rare but fairly constant migrant to the

Island, arriving in October or November, and leaving probably

about February. Stray specimens have been recorded from

various parts of India and the Malay Peninsula. Its summer

quarters are unknown.

Habits —Rather a mysterious bird ; most of the specimens

have been obtained in Colombo, where they arrive about the

end of October in a very exhausted condition. On arrival

they generally seek refuge in bungalows, hiding in any odd

corner they can find. When they recover from their journey

they make for the hills. The bird is nocturnal in its habits,

and frequents sedgy streams and paddy fields up-country.

Sometimes it wanders into the jungle far from water.

AMAURORNIS FuscusS (Blanford, Vol. I[V., p. 170).

PORZANA FUSCA (Legge, p. 769).

The Ruddy Crake.

Description —Upper plumage olive-brown ; forehead, sides

of the head, neck, and lower parts, except the abdomen,

vinous chestnut ; a trace of white on the throat ; abdomen

and lower tail coverts brown with whitish streaks.

Young birds are uniformly dusky olive, with the exception

of the chin, throat, and centre of the abdomen, which are

whitish.

Bill olive-brown ; iris orange-red ; legs and feet reddish.

Length about 8; wing 4; tail 1°5; tarsus 1-4; bill from

gape about 1:0.

Distribution —Scattered sparingly through the low-country.

Most birds are probably migrants, but some undoubtedly

breed with us.

The species occurs throughout India and Burma, the range

extending through South-eastern Asia and the adjoining

islands to China and Japan,

186 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Habits —Frequents rushy ponds and swamps, hunting for

food on floating lily leaves or amongst the vegetation in

swamps. It occasionally wanders up-country. The nest is

the usual pad of weeds or grass placed either on floating

weeds, or amongst the herbage in swampy ground. The eggs

three to five in number, measure about 1:2 by °84, and are of

creamy white streaked and spotted with reddish-brown and

pale inky purple.

AMAURORNIS PH@NICURUS (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 173).

ERYTHRA PH@NICURA (Legge, p. 786).

The White-breasted Water Hen.

(Plate I., fig. 2.)

Description.—Upper plumage and sides of body slaty black

tinged with olive; forehead, sides of face, and lower parts

from chin to breast white ; abdomen rufescent darkening to

chestnut on the vent and under tail coverts.

In young birds the forehead, crown, and upper parts are

olive-brown, and the white feathers of the lower parts have

dusky tips.

Bill greenish, red at the base ; iris brown or brownish-red ;

legs olive-yellow.

Length 12; wing 6°25; tail 2°5; tarsus 2°25; bill from ~

gape 1-5. Females slightly smaller.

Distribution —Abundant in the neighbourhood of water

all over the low-country and up to about 2,000 or 3,000 feet.

Ranges through India and Burma and the greater part of the

Oriental region.

Habits —This bird with its loud ery must be familiar to

most people in Ceylon. It often wanders some way from

water to feed in the open, but it makes a bee-line for cover

at a sharp run whenever disturbed. The nest is a large pad

of rushes, grass, or leaves, sometimes on floating clumps of

vegetation, sometimes on swampy ground, or occasionally in

bushes or reeds a little away above the surface of the water.

The eggs are four to seven in number, elongated ovals, obtuse

at both ends. They are creamy, white in colour with pale

CEYLON RAILS, WADERS, GULLS, AND TERNS. 187

grayish-purple blotches overlaid with markings of deeper

red-brown, mostly round the large end, but often longitu-

dinally streaked over the rest of the surface. Average

measurements 1°59 by 1°19.

GALLINULA CHLOROPUS (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 175;

Legge, p. 781).

The Moor Hen or Water Hen.

Description — Back and. wing coverts olive-brown ; tertiaries

and upper tail coverts rusty-brown ; primary coverts and wing

quills almost black ; head and neck slaty-black shading into

slate-gray on breast and flanks ; some white streaks on the

flanks and a white patch under the tail; middle of abdomen

almost always partly white.

Bill yellow at the tip, remainder red; the upper mandible

prolonged on the forehead into a red shield rounded at the

back ; iris red ; legs olive-green, with an orange garter just

below the feathered portion.

Young birds are lighter above, and the slate-gray of the

lower parts is mixed with whitish ; bill and shield olive

coloured ; orange garter absent.

Length 12°5; wing 6:5; tail 2°75; tarsus 1°9; bill from

gape 1-1. Females slightly smaller.

Distribution —This species, which was a great rarity in

Legge’s time forty years ago, has rapidly increased, and is

abundant on the marshes and lagoons of the Hambantota

District, where it breeds freely. I have also found it resident

on some of the larger tanks in the North-Central Province.

It occurs as a resident or partial migrant throughout India

and. Burma, and ranges over the greater part of the Old World,

being the species so common in the British Isles.

Habits. —Found on reedy tanks and marshes, often in the

water, being a good swimmer. In Ceylon I have always

found the nest to be a fairly thick platform of rushes, &c.,

about 6 to 8 inches across, wedged in among the stems of

rushes growing in shallow water. The breeding season is

about March, and again in July. Eggs vary from five to nine

3 6(9)16

188 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

in number ; oval slightly pointed at one end ; ground colour

drab or brownish-stone, sparingly blotched or spotted with

chocolate or reddish-brown, and a few paler purplish markings.

Average measurements 1°62 by 1-16.

GALLICREX CINEREA (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 176;

Legge, p. 791).

The Water Cock.

Description.—Males in breeding plumage almost uniformly

slaty-black, more or less tinged, with gray on the head, neck,

and lower parts, and generally with a little white on the

abdomen ; back and wings blackish-brown.

Out of the breeding season males assume the same plumage

as females, which have the upper parts dark brown, with paler

brown edges to the feathers, except on the crown ; lower

parts light brown, with fine wavy dark brown bars.

In young birds the barring on the lower parts is less distinct,

and sometimes absent.

Bill and frontal shield, which is pointed behind, are red in

males ; in the breeding season the shield of the male is

lengthened into a horn; legs red; iris red. Females have

yellowish bills, dusky green legs, and brown irides.

Length: Males, 16°5; wing 8°5; tail 3; tarsus 3; bill

from gape 1°55. Females, length 14; wing 7°0; tail 2°8;

tarsus 2°6,; bill from gape 1°4.

Distribution.—Found. locally in marshy ground throughout

the low-country. Common in the damper plains of India and

Burma, and extends through South-eastern Asia to Java, the

Philippines, and Japan.

Habits —A long-legged, long-toed rail, rather nocturnal in

its habits, and keeping to cover in the thick grass of swamps

and wet paddy fields. Mainly a vegetarian, and very good

to eat.

The nest is the usual large pile of grass among reeds or on

floating vegetation. The breeding season is said to bein July or

August. The eggs rather resemble those of the White-breasted

Water Hen, but are browner and larger, averaging about 1°7

by 1°27,

CEYLON RAILS, WADERS, GULLS, AND TERNS. 189

PoRPHYRIO POLIOCEPHALUS (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 178 ;

Legge, p. 795).

The Purple Moor Hen or Blue Coot.

Description.—General colour of upper plumage, flanks, and

abdomen purplish-blue; head and face grayish ; wings and

chest greenish-blue ; under tail coverts white ; unexposed

portion of wing and tail feathers black. The bill is stout, the

nostrils rounded and not situated in a groove, the frontal shield

is square behind ; both bill and shield bright red ; iris red ; legs

fleshy red.

Length 17; wing 10; tail 3°6; tarsus.3°4; bill from gape

Way

Distribution —Numerous on the brackish lagoons and

fresh-water swamps of the South-east Coast, and found locally

inland on large swampy tanks. Occurs throughout India and

Burma in suitable situations, and extends westward as far as

the Caspian Sea.

Habits —A conspicuous marsh bird with its bright blue

plumage. Rather heavier in build than most rails, with

longish legs and bony toes. The flight is awkward, and. in

flying the legs are extended at full length behind the bird. It

often swarms in masses of tangled rushes, and when flushed

takes fairly readily to wing. In the Southern Province it

breeds freely about February, and again in July.

The nest varies from a large structure of rushes, &c.,

wedged in bulrush thickets to quite a moderate pad of grass

on grassy islets or among floating vegetation.

The eggs, four to eight in number, rather resemble larger

editions of those laid by the common Moor Hen, being stone

colour, with fairly bold spots of reddish-brown and paler spots

of grayish-purple. Average measurements 1°98 by 1°38.

Note-—The Coot, Fulica atra, a widely distributed member

of the family, has not yet been recorded authentically from

Ceylon, but a good lookout should be kept for it.

The species may easily be distinguished by its slaty-black

plumage, white bill and shield, and from the fact that the

toes are furnished with lobed fringes.

190 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Order LIMICOLZA.

The Waders.

The members of this large order, as their name implies,

are mainly birds of the seashore, of sandy wastes, or of marshes.

The formation of the legs and feet is usually adapted for

running and wading. The birds seldom perch, and the hind

toe in consequence is generally minute and often wanting.

The tarsus in most cases is comparatively lengthy, and not

only it, but also the lower half of the tibia arenaked. The toes

are seldom conspicuously webbed, but most species can swim

well. Many of the birds are migratory, and the flight of

almost all is strong, the wing quills being well developed.

The bill shows great diversity. It may be long and straight like

the snipe’s, pigeon-shaped as in the plover, curve up like the

avocet’s, or down like the curlew’s. It is, however, generally

slender, with the nostril carried in a lateral groove. As regards

nidification, the eggs are nearly always laid on the ground,

with a scanty nest lining or none at all. The young when

hatched are covered with down, and can run about forthwith.

The order is divided into five families, one of which, the

Charadrude, is well represented, comprising, as it does, the

plovers, avocets, sandpipers, and snipes. The other four

are small, and include groups of birds which—though their

internal structure shows them to be nearly related to the

plovers—often differ considerably in outward appearance,

and in several cases point to affinities with other orders. The

(Edicnemidx, Stone Plovers, resemble the Bustards ; while

the Crab Plover, sole representative of the Dromadide, is

distinctly related to the Gulls. The remaining two families

are the Glareolide (Coursers and Swallow Plovers) and the

Parride (Jaganas).

Family GipicnemMipa&.

The Stone Plovers.

A small family, limited in Ceylon to two species placed in

separate genera. They are rather bigger than the ordinary

run of plovers, with heayier and stouter bills. The plumage

is harsh and stiff. The hind toe is absent; the three front

CEYLON RAILS, WADERS, GULLS, AND TERNS. 191

toes are short and stout, and united by a slight web at the

base. The eyes are very large, and the birds are rather

nocturnal in their habits.

There is no nest, two eggs as a rule being laid on the bare

ground.

Rough Key to Ceylon Stone Plovers.

A.—Length 16 inches. Bill from gape 2 inches in length,

and moderately stout.

(Hdicnemus scolopax (Stone Curlew).

B,—Length 20 inches. Bill from gape over 3 inches, and

large and heavy.

Esacus recurvirostris (Great Stone Plover).

CEDICNEMUS SCOLOPAX (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 204;

Legge, p. 969).

The Stone Curlew.

Description —Upper plumage sandy brown or buff, the

feathers with blackish shaft-stripes ; lores, eyebrow, and a

stripe below the eye creamy-white ; two white bars across the

wing coverts, and between them a band of brownish-black.

Wing quills blackish-brown ; a white patch on each of the

first two or three primaries; tips and roots of the later

primaries white, as are the basal parts of the inner webs of the

earlier secondaries. Tail ashy-brown with a bold black and

a white bar on all but the two middle feathers. Lower parts

white to rufous with blackish shaft-stripes on the neck, upper

breast, and sides of body. Young birds have irregular darker

bandings on wing coverts and tail feathers.

Bill black at the end, yellow at the base ; iris large, and

bright yellow ; legs and feet greenish-yellow.

Length 16; wing 8°5; tail 4-5; tarsus 3°1; billfrom gape 2:0.

Distribution —Thinly though fairly widely distributed

round the sandy coasts of the dry zone, and occasionally

found inland on sun-baked fallow stretches of paddy land.

Occurs throughout India and Burma in suitable localities, its

range extending from England southwards to North Africa,

and eastwards to Central and South-western Asia.

192 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Habits —A wary bird, fond of dry open ground. It has the

same trick as the Bustard of lying flat on the ground to escape

detection. The wild shrill cry is rather like that of the Curlew.

The breeding season is probably about March, and again in

July. Two, or occasionally three, eggs are laid in a slight

depression of the ground.

The ground colour is buff or olive-green with blackish

clouds and blotches, and sometimes paler purplish markings.

Average size about 1°90 by 1°40.

Esacus RECURVIROSTRIS (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 205 ;

Legge, p. 974).

The Great Stone Plover.

(Plate L., fig. 3.)

Description.—Upper parts ashy-brown, with darker narrow

shaft-stripes ; base of forehead, lores, orbits, and a stripe

behind the eye white. The last-mentioned white stripe is

bordered above and below by a black band, which runs round

the front of the eye ; another dark stripe from the gape of the

bill down the cheeks. Greater and median wing coverts

lighter than the back and with a pearly tinge ; on the lesser

wing coverts a dark-brown band edged with white. Wing

quills blackish, with a white band on the first three primaries ;

sixth primary with some white on the inner web, and later

primaries white banded with black. All tail feathers, except

the middle pair, barred with white, and black at the tip.

Under plumage whitish, more or less tinged with gray on

the fore-neck and upper breast ; under tail coverts tinged

with rufous.

Bill powerful and straight along the ridge, yellow at the

base, remainder black ; iris very large and yellow ; legs and

feet pale yellowish-green.

Length 20 ; wing 10:5; tail4-75; tarsus 3°25 ; billfrom gape 3:5.

Distribution.—Confined to dry sandy stretches near the

shore or round coastal lagoons ; may occasionally be found

inland round the larger tanks if they have gravelly margins

or a small rocky island in the middle. Found throughout

India and Burma on the banks of large rivers.

CEYLON RAILS, WADERS, GULLS, AND TERNS. 193

Habits—The birds are usually met with in pairs, which

keep almost entirely to one beat. Like the last species, it is

semi-nocturnal. In India this Stone Plover almost always

haunts the banks of rivers. In Ceylon it is mainly found on

the seashore, and would thus seem in its habits to approach

the allied 2. magnirostris, a littoral species which ranges from

Australia to the Andamans. The series in the British Museum

included only one skin from, Ceylon, but I rather fancy that

when a larger series of specimens and eggs from, this [sland

can be compared they will establish a slight racial distinction

approaching the larger and darker Australian bird with a

higher upper mandible and curved culmen.

The birds breed in March and April, and perhaps again in

July, laying two eggs in a slight hollow in the sand or among

stones. In shape these are slightly pointed ovals ; stone-

coloured, scrawled and blotched with umber, the larger

blotches being partly overlaid with black. The average size

of a small Ceylon series is 2:25 by 1°68.

Family DRoMADIDz.

The Crab Plovers.

The family is restricted to a single genus and species occurring

on the shores of the Indian Ocean. In outward appearance

and habits this bird shows a strong resemblance to the Gulls.

The hind toe is fairly well developed ; the front toes are long

and noticeably webbed ; the bill is strong, stout, and longer

than the head ; the nostrils are oval and placed, not in a

groove, but in a small depression. The nidification is unlike

that of any other member of the order, a single white egg

being laid in a burrow.

DROMAS ARDEOLA (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 208 ;

Legge, p. 991).

The Crab Plover. Z

Description.—General colour white pied with black, the

black being confined to the back, the elongated feathers of

the mantle, the greater wing coverts, and the major portion

194 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

of the wing quills. There is also a small black speck in front

of and behind each eye.

Young birds are gray on the upper parts and streaked with

black on the head and nape.

Bill black ; iris dark brown ; legs and feet grayish-blue ;

claws black.

Length 16; wing 8°25; tail 2°8; tarsus 3:75; bill from

gape 2°75.

Distribution.—Found in small numbers, chiefly on the

north coast from Mannar to Trincomalee. Its range extends

from the shores of East Africa to those of the Bay of Bengal.

Habits—A curious bird, confined to the sea coast or shores

of salt lakes ; as a rule gregarious. Crabs are its main food.

The flight and gait are those of a Plover. Breeds about the

end of May. The bird digs in a sandy beach a long curved

burrow, in which it lays a solitary white egg measuring about

2°50 by 1°75.

Family GLAREOLIDA.

Coursers and Swallow Plovers.

A family confined to the Old World. In it—with the excep-

tion of a genus which does not occur within Indian limits—the

nostrils are not pierced through the bill, as in all the other

groups of the order, but have a partition between them.

The bill is slight and not grooved. None of the forms are

large. The eggs resemble those of Plovers, but are of a more

dumpy oval and less pointed at the narrow end. There are

two well-marked sub-families.

(a) The Coursers (Cursoriine).

(6) The Swallow Plovers (Glareoline).

Sub-family Cursoriine.

Genus Cursorius.

The Coursers.

Represented in Ceylon by a single species. The Coursers

are great runners, and frequent dry plains. The tarsus is

longish, and there is no hind toe. In outward appearance

they are not unlike small Lapwings, but the bill is ie

and not swollen at the tip.

CEYLON RAILS, WADERS, GULLS, AND TERNS. 195

CURSORIUS COROMANDELICUS (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 210 ;

Legge, p. 977).

The Indian Courser.

Description —Upper plumage in general grayish-brown ;

forehead and crown rich chestnut, the long crown feathers

partly concealing a black patch on the nape. A broad white

stripe runs from near the bill over each eye meeting at the

nape ; this is bordered below by a black band running through

the eye. Chin white, passing into rufous on the throat ;

upper neck, all round fore-neck, and breast rufous, deepening

into chestnut on the lower breast ; centre of the abdomen

black ; the lower abdomen, flanks, upper and under tail

coverts white. The sides of the body and axillaries the same

gray-brown asthe back. Primary coverts and primary quills

black ; secondaries grayish towards the ends and tipped with

white. All except the two middle feathers of the tail are

banded with black and tipped with white, the white increasing

towards the sides of the tail, the outer feathers being practi-

cally all white.

Females are slightly larger than males.

Young birds are mottled all over above with brown and

buff, with some spots as well on the under plumage.

Bill blackish, moderately long, slender, and slightly curved ;

iris dark brown; legs and feet white or whitish-yellow ;

claws black.

Length 9; wing 6 ; tail 2°25 ; tarsus 2-1 ; bill from gape 1:1.

Distribution —The north-west coast, from the Jaffna

Peninsula to the boundary of the Puttalam District. Occurs

through a great part of the Indian Peninsula, except in the

north-west. ‘J

Habits —In Ceylon it is restricted to sandy wastes and

bare pasturages near the sea. In India it is also found in

open sandy or stony plains inland.

Generally seen in small scattered troops running hither and

thither in search of insects. It appears to breed about March,

and probably later in the year, laying on the bare ground

two, or sometimes three, eggs, broad oval in shape, and

stone-coloured, with dull black scrawls, mottlings and blotches.

Average size about 1°20 by °97.

4 6(9)16

196 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Sub-family Glareoline.

Genus Glareola.

The Pratincoles or Swallow Plovers.

A small group of birds, which in outward build and flight

much resemble Swallows. The wings are long, reaching when

closed well beyond the tail. The bill is short and curved, and

the gape wide. The legs are short; the hind toe is fairly

well developed, and there is a trace of webbing between the

middle and outer toes. The birds are crepuscular in their

habits, hawking for flying insects in the evening and early

morning, and resting on the ground during the day.

Two species are found in Ceylon.

Rough Key to Ceylon Species.

A.—Tail deeply forked ; wing over 7 inches.

G. orientalis (Large Indian Swallow Plover).

B.—Tail only slightly forked ; wing under 6 inches.

G. lactea (Small Indian Swallow Plover).

GLAREOLA ORTENTALIS (Blanford, Vol. 1V., p. 214;

Legge, p. 980).

The Large Indian Swallow Plover.

Description —Upper plumage brown to brownish-olive,

tinged with rufous on the back of the neck. Wing quills

blackish-brown, the primaries almost black, the tertiaries

lighter ; shaft of the first primary whitish ; upper tail coverts

white ; tail feathers white at the base with broad brown tips.

Lores dusky-brown; chin and throat rufous buff, ringed

round by a narrow black band, edged with white on the

inside, which runs from the gape. Upper breast olive-brown,

passing through rufous on the chest into sullied white on the

abdomen and lower tail coverts. The greater portion of the

wing lining and axillaries is chestnut.

Young birds have no gorget, and are mottled brown and

buff above. The gorget is not assumed until the upper

plumage has lost its mottling.

a —

CEYLON RAILS, WADERS, GULLS, AND TERNS. 19

-I

Bill black, vermilion round the gape ; iris dark brown; a ring

of white skin round the orbit ; legs and feet reddish-brown.

Length 9°5; wing 7°4; tail 3; depth of fork 1-0 ; tarsus

1:3; bill from gape 1:0.

Distribution —Resident in a few scattered colonies round

large tanks, such as Minneri and Kanthalai, and on the shores

of lagoons in the Hambantota District. Locally distributed

in India and Burma, ranging north-east through China, and

south-east to Australia.

Habits —Already described in my remarks on the sub-family.

I have taken the eggs twice, both times in the same locality

in the Hambantota District, once in April and once in July.

In each case the two eggs were laid on a small disintegrated

patch of dry cowdung in dry sandy pasture near a lagoon.

They are dumpy, slightly pointed ovals, rather velvety in

appearance. The ground colour is drab, fairly evenly blotched

with brown-black markings over fainter washy splotches of

grayish-purple. Average size 1°20 by °93.

GLAREOLA LACTEA (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 216;

Legge, p. 984).

The Small Indian Swallow Plover.

(Plate I., fig 4.)

Description —Upper plumage pale ashy-gray, darker on

the forehead. Primary quills and wing lining black; there

is some white on all the primaries, except the first two, the

white increasing on the secondaries, which are black only

towards the tip. Upper tail coverts white ; tail white with

a broad black border tipped on all but the two central feathers

with white. Chin whitish; throat, foreneck, and upper

breast ashy-gray, tinged more or less with rufous ; abdomen

and under tail coverts white.

Bill black, red at the base, and yellowish round the gape ;

iris dark brown ; a creamy orbital ring ; legs and feet brownish.

Length 6°5; wing 5:9; tail 2°0; tarsus *75; bill from

gape °75.

Distribution —Fairly common near Hambantota, and

found in a few other localities in the dry zone by the coast or

198 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

inland round some of the larger tanks. A resident in suitable

localities on the plains of India east of the Indus and in Burma.

Habits —Those of the genus. In Ceylon this species haunts

sand banks near the sea, or the sandy shores of inland tanks ;

in India it is mainly found on the sandy beds of large rivers.

With us it breeds about April. Two eggs from Minneri were

laid on bare gravelly sand under the shade of a small plant.

Clutches in India vary from 2 to 4. The ground colour is pale

brownish-buff, rather sparingly speckled with pale gray-

purple and light umber. The average of my two Ceylon

eggs is 1:02 by ‘81.

Family Parrip2.

The Jacanas.

Genus Hydrophasianus.

A family with only one representative in Ceylon, though

other genera are met with all over the tropics. They are

marsh birds, distinguishable by their feet ; all the toes, including

the hind toe, being enormously long, and furnished with

equally long claws, thus enabling the bird to run easily over

floating water leaves. The bill is plover-like.

In the genus Hydrophasianus, of which our Water Pheasant

is the sole species, the first wing quill is elongated into a

curious little lance-shaped tip connected with the rest of the

feather by a slender and flexible shaft.

The shape of the fourth quill is also peculiar, running into

a point. The genus is further noticeable from the fact that

in the breeding season both sexes assume a nuptial plumage

with longer tail feathers, and develop a strong sharp spur on

the bend of the wing.

HyYDROPHASIANUS CHIRURGUS (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 219;

Legge, p. 914).

The Pheasant-tailed Jacana or Water Pheasant.

Description Winter : Upper plumage in general brown,

darker on the lower back and rump, and speckled with white

on the forehead and crown; a white stripe on the lores and

above the eye ; behind the eye this stripe becomes a broaden-

ing band of yellowish-brown running down the side of the

CEYLON RAILS. WADERS, GULLS, AND TERNS. 199

neck ; below this is a black stripe running from each side of

the gape and meeting in a broad band across the breast. The

remainder of the lower parts with the outer tail feathers are

white. Wing coverts largely white, the inner, median, and

greater coverts being barred with brown and buff. First

primary black ; second with a white patch on the inner web

near the root: the white gradually increases on the next

quills, the secondaries being entirely white.

Breeding plumage: Head, throat, and foreneck white ;

the back of the neck glistening golden yellow, bordered on

each side by a black stripe, and in front by a black patch on

the nape ; back, scapulars, tertiaries, and lower plumage from

the neck down chocolate-brown ; tail, upper tail coverts, and

rump black; wing coverts and wing lining white; wing

quills remain as in winter. The tail increases in length from

about 4 inches to nearly a foot.

Females are slightly larger than males.

Young birds are like adults in winter plumage, but have a

rufous head and rufous edges to the feathers of the upper parts ;

the gorget is wanting, the upper breast being speckled brown.

In the breeding season the bill is bluish, the iris brown, and

the legs and feet plumbeous black ; in winter the bill is dark

brown, paler at the tip, the iris yellow, and the legs greenish.

Length of male in winter 12, in summer 18; wing 7°8 ;

tail in winter 3°75, in summer 10; tarsus 2; bill from gape

1-3. Females: length in winter 15, in summer 21] ; wing 9.

Distribution —Common throughout the low-country wher-

ever there are suitable sheets of water. The species extends

all over India and Burma, and eastwards to South China and

the Philippines.

Habits —Frequents tanks and still sheets of water covered

with lotus leaves, over which it runs rapidly, feeding on insects,

crustaceans, and vegetable matter. The cry rather resembles

the mewing of a cat. The breeding season is from about March

to June. The nest is generally a blob of floating waterweed,

almost awash, but sometimes the eggs are laid on bare floating

lotus leaves. They are four in number, peg-top shaped, and

in colour a glossy bronze, which becomes lighter as incubation

proceeds. Average measurement about 1°44 by 1°06.

200 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Family CHARADRIID!.

Plovers, Sandpipers, Snipes, &c.

A large family, comparatively well represented in Ceylon.

The forms vary greatly in size, in length of bill and of limb.

The tail is always short, the hind toe short or absent, and the

wing usually strong. The gape of the mouth is peculiarly

narrow, never extending further back than the feathering of

the forehead. All of them are ground birds, only a few

species ever perching, and those but occasionally. With one

exception, a migrant breeding in cold northern climates, the

eggs are laid on the ground with little or no nest lining. The

eggs are four in number, peg-top shaped and spotted ; the

ground colour being drab or some approximate tint.

The family as classified by Blanford falls into four fairly well-

marked. sub-families, which may be distinguished as follows :—

A.—Bill short and, with one exception, pigeon-shaped ; the

groove from the nostrils extending for not more than

half the length of the bill.

Charadriine (Plovers).

B.—Bill long, plumage pied.

Hematopodine (Stilts, Avocets, &c.).

C.—Bill variable ; nasal groove extending for more than half

the length of the bill ; plumage not pied, a distinct _

summer and. winter dress.

Totanine (Curlews, Sandpipers, &c.).

D.—Bill long ; eyes large, and placed far back ; toes without

a trace of web.

Scolopacine. (Snipes).

Sub-family Charadriine.

The Plovers.

Plovers are birds not so much of the marsh, as of grassy or

sandy places. They are often found near water, but not, as a

rule, actuallyinswamps. Many of the smaller species haunt the

seashore. The genus Strepsilas (the Turnstone) stands apart, in

having the bill straight and pointed ; whereas in all the true

Plovers the bill is shaped like that of a pigeon, with the tip of

the upper mandible swollen and the ridge curved at the end.

CEYLON RAILS, WADERS. GULLS, AND TERNS. 201

We have one species of Turnstone in Ceylon, while the true

Plovers fall into three groups : the mainly resident Lapwings,

with broad wings and a flapping flight; the migratory Golden

Plover and its allies, with a speckled upper plumage; and the

smaller Sand Plovers, of which some species migrate, while

others remain with, us all the year.

Ten members of the family come on to the Ceylon list.

The four small Sand Plovers are all referable to the genus

Aigialitis, the remaining six species are divided among as

many genera.

Rough Key to Ceylon Charadriine.

I.—Bill straight, short, and conical, no swelling on tip.

(a) Size small ; length 8°5 inches.

Strepsilas interpres (the Turnstone).

Ii.—Bill pigeon-shaped, slightly swollen at tip.

A.—Wings broad ; upper plumage not speckled.

(a) A red wattle in front of eye.

Sarcogrammus indicus (Red-wattled Lap-

wing).

(6) A yellow wattle in front of eye.

Sarciophorus malabaricus (Yellow-wattled

Lapwing).

Chettusia gregaria (Sociable Lapwing).

B.—Upper plumage speckled ; wings sharp and pointed.

(a2) No hind toe ; length 9°5 inches.

Charadrius fulvus (Eastern Golden Plover).

(6) A small hind toe ; length 12 inches.

Squatarola helvetica (Gray Plover).

C.—Small forms under 9 inches; upper plumage not

speckled ; wings sharp and. pointed.

(a) No white ring round neck.

(1) Wing 5:5 inches ; bill from gape 1 inch or

over.

. Aigialitis geoffroyi (Large Sand Plover).

(2) Wing 5 inches ; bill from, gape -75 inch.

Aj. mongolica (Lesser Sand Plover).

202 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

(6) A white ring round neck.

(1) No dark band across breast.

gialitis alecandrina (Kentish Plover).

(2) A dark band across breast.

AY. dubia (Little Ringed Plover).

STREPSILAS INTERPRES (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 223 ;

Legge, p. 900).

The Turnstone.

(Plate I., fig. 5.)

Description.—Winter : Top and sides of head brown with

darker streaks ; upper back, scapulars, tertiaries, and wing

coverts dark brown with slightly paler edges, some of the

under scapulars being partly or wholly white ; lower back,

rump, and longer tail coverts white; shorter tail coverts

dark brown ; wing quills blackish-brown with white shafts, and

some white on the inner webs ; some of the later secondaries

almost or wholly white. Tail white at the base, the outer half

brown with white edges to all but the central pair of feathers ;

the outer pair of feathers almost wholly white. Foreneck

and sides of breast brown ; the rest of the lower parts with

wing lining white.

Summer : Head, chin, and throat white, with black streaks

on the crown ; a black band from eye to eye across the fore-

head and a black patch below the eye. The back, scapulars,

tertiaries, and wing coverts are mingled black and chestnut.

A partial collar on the side of the neck, the foreneck, breast,

and sides are black ; remainder of lower parts white.

Bill black ; iris brown ; legs and feet orange-red ; claws

blackish.

Length 8°5; wing 6°2; tail 2°5; tarsus 1; bill from gape 1.

Distribution.—A migrant during the north-east monsoon,

fairly common on the coast from Jaffna to Mannar ; rarer on

the east coast, but met with as far south as Hambantota ;

a mere straggler to the west coast south of Puttalam.

Of almost world-wide distribution, breeding in high northern

latitudes and wintering in the south ; not, as a rule, found

away from the coast.

CEYLON RAILS, WADERS, GULLS, AND TERNS. 203

Habits —Found on sandy flats by the sea or round lagoons,

hunting underneath stones and shells for insects, and generally

going about in small parties. By the time the birds leave

the Island, about the end of April, many have almost

completely assumed summer plumage.

SARCOGRAMMUS INDICUS (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 224).

LOBIVANELLUS INDICUS (Legge, p. 962).

The Red-wattled Lapwing (Did-he-do-it).

Description.—General colour above light brown, slightly

glossed with bronze-green and lilac-red, the latter colour

strongest on the wing coverts. Head, neck, and upper breast

black with a broad white band running from the eye down

the side of the neck to join the white plumage of the lower

parts, sides, and flanks. Primary coverts and wing quills

black with a white bar across the wing formed by the tips of

the greater secondary coverts and the bases of the secondary

quills, one or two of the later secondaries being entirely white.

Rump and upper tail coverts white. Tail white, the central

feathers with the outer half brown, and all the feathers with

a broad black cross-band near the tip.

Young birds are brown, not black, on the crown and

upper breast, and grayish-white on the sides of the face and

throat.

Bill red at the base, black at the tip; eyelids and wattle

lake-red ; iris reddish-brown ; legs yellow.

Length 13; wing 8:5; tail 4°25; tarsus 3; bill from

gape 1-4.

Distribution —Abundant all over the low-country, except

‘In very dry districts, where its place is largely taken by the

next species. Not found in Burma or Upper Assam, but

ranges through the rest of India westwards to Southern Persia

and Arabia.

Habits—Common on the open ground round every village

tank, about the edges of paddy fields, and on grassy land near

water. Its cry of Did-he-do-it must be familiar to every one.

Generally seen in pairs. ‘

5 6(9)16

204 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Breeds during dry weather from April till about August,

laying four eggs on the bare ground. Their colour is yellowish-

stone with blotches of deep brown or black, and under markings

of paler purple-gray. Average size 1°68 by 1°20.

SARCIOPHORUS MALABARICUS (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 226).

LOBIPLUVIA MALABARICA (Legge, p. 966).

The Yellow-wattled Lapwing.

Description. —General colour of upper parts, with sides of

head, neck all round, and upper breast, light brown ; crown

and nape black bordered below by a white stripe round the

nape from eye to eye. Chin black ; lower parts from breast

downwards, with the sides, flanks, and wing lining, white.

Quills and primary coverts of wing blackish-brown ; the

primaries white on the inner web near the base ; outer sec-

ondaries white at the base, the white increasing towards the

later secondaries, which are wholly white ; secondary coverts

tipped white. Tail white ; the middle feathers brown on the

outer half ; the whole crossed by a black band towards the

tip, the band being broad in the middle, and tending to

disappear on the outer feathers.

Young birds have paler bands on the brown upper parts

and, at first, no black on the head, which becomes more and

more mottled with black as maturity appreaches.

Bill yellow at base, black at tip; eyelid and wattle lemon-

yellow ; iris silver-gray or light yellow ; legs yellow.

Length 10°5; wing 7°75; tail 3; tarsus 2°4; bill from

gape 1°25.

Distribution —Fairly plentiful in the dry coast zone from

Jaffna to Mannar ; rare on the east, but commoner round

Hambantota. Resident on dry plains throughout India,

except in the Western Punjab ; unknown in Burma.

Habits —Kssentially a bird of dry sandy wastes and parched

fields. In Ceylon it never goes far inland. The cry is a

plaintive “ pee-wit.” It breeds in June and July, laying on

the bare ground four pyriform eggs of buff or pale stone colour

blotched with dark brown and pale inky-purple. They are

considerably smaller than those of the last species, averaging

1°45 by 1:07. -

“——

CEYLON RAILS, WADERS, GULLS, AND TERNS. 205

CHETTUSIA GREGARIA (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 231:

not in Legge).

The Sociable Lapwing.

(Plate I., fig. 6.)

Description.—General tone of upper plumage light ashy-

brown, darker on the wing coverts and on centre of lower back.

Crown and nape black ; forehead and a stripe running over the

eye round the nape white; below this a black stripe passes

through the eye to the ear coverts. Primary coverts and

primaries black ; a little white on the bases of all the quills and

on the inner border of the last primary ; secondaries and outer

part of the greater secondary coverts white. Chin white,

shading through buff on the throat and sides of the face into

ashy-brown on the neck and breast. Abdomen black with a

patch of chestnut behind. Wing lining, flanks, vent, lower and

upper tail coverts, and greater part of tail white ; a black band

across the tail near the tip, broad in the centre and disappearing

on the outer feathers.

In immature birds the crown is dark brown often streaked

with black ; forehead and band round the nape buff instead of

white. The brown of the upper plumage is darker, and the

feathers are edged with rufous buff; breast mottled brown ;

remainder of lower parts white.

Bill, legs, and feet black ; iris dark brown.

Length 12 ; wing 8 ; tail 3°5 ; tarsus 2°4 ; bill from gape 1°2.

Distribution —A very rare winter visitor to Ceylon ; has

been obtained two or three times on the racecourse at Colombo.

A migrant, breeding in Eastern Europe and Central Asia, and

wintering chiefly in North Africa and North-west India.

Most Indian specimens are in immature plumage.

Habits —Occurs in small flocks, and is generally found in

open country.

CHARADRIUS FULVUS (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 234;

Legge, p. 934).

The Eastern Golden Plover.

Description.—Winter : Upper plumage dark brown or

blackish, each feather with yellow spots, which are whitish

on the wing coverts. The forehead and an indistinct streak

206 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

above the eye fulvous or whitish ; sides of head and neck

fulvous with brown streaks. Primary coverts and wing quills

dark brown with indistinct white edges on some feathers.

Tail dark brown mottled with yellow or whitish. Under part

sullied white or dull brown, darker and streaked with brown

on the breast. Wing lining and axillaries gray-brown.

Summer: All lower parts turn black, except the wing lining

and axillaries, which do not change. The brown of the upper

plumage becomes darker, and the yellow spots brighter ; the

forehead and the streak over the eye become pure white.

Bill black ; iris dark brown ; legs and feet leaden black.

Length 9°5; wing 6:5; tail 2°4; tarsus 1°7; bill from

gape 1:1.

Distribution —Common in suitable places throughout the

low-country from end of August to end of April. A migrant,

breeding in Siberia and wintering over the whole of Southern

Asia and as far south as Australia.

Habits —Generally found in flocks on bare fields, grassy

land round tanks, or sandy pastures near the coast. During

the wet weather the birds wander about a good deal. Some

specimens on their first arrival in the Island bear traces of the

summer plumage, and most birds before they leave have a

large amount of black on the breast.

SQUATAROLA HELVETICA (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 236;

Legge, p. 929).

The Gray Plover.

Description.—Winter : Dark brown above, with pale edgings

to the feathers. Forehead, lores, sides of head, and neck dirty

white streaked with brown. Wing coverts edged and notched

with pearly-white ; primary coverts and wing quills black-

brown, with some white on the webs and shafts. Upper tail

coverts and tail white with darker bars; the barring more

marked on the tail. Lower parts white or whitish, streaked

with brown on the foreneck and breast.

Summer: The lower parts become black from the chin to

the upper abdomen ; lower abdomen, flanks, thighs, and lower

tail coverts pure white. The upper parts are brown-black

marked and barred with pure white.

CEYLON RAILS, WADERS, GULLS, AND TERNS. 207

Immature birds are spotted with golden buff above like a

Golden Plover.

Bill black ; iris dark hazel ; legs and feet gray-black.

Length 12 ; wing 8 ; tail 2-9 ; tarsus 1°8 ; bill from gape 1°3.

Distribution —An occasional and irregular winter visitor,

specimens having been obtained at various points on the coast

from Jaffna to Colombo. Breeds in the far north, wintering

chiefly near the sea in India and Burma.

Habits —Generally found in small flocks frequenting sandy

beaches, tidal flats, and the shores of lagoons. In other

respects the habits are similar to those of the Golden Plover.

ANGIALITIS GEOFFROYI (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 237 ;

Legge, p. 939).

The Large Sand Plover.

Description.—Winter : Upper plumage brown, the feathers

with slightly paler edges and narrow darker shaft-stripes ; the

forehead and eyebrow white or whitish ; a dark brown band

from the lores passes under the eye to the ear coverts ; the

greater wing coverts with white tips ; the primary coverts and

wing quills brown, with a little white on the outer webs of the

inner primaries and on the tips and shafts of the secondaries.

The lateral tail coverts are edged with white ; the tail feathers

brown tipped with white, the outermost pair being almost

entirely white. The lower parts are white, with a more or

less perfect band of brown across the breast.

Summer: The upper plumage turns paler brown with a

rufous tinge. The forehead is white below and black above ;

a broad black stripe runs from the bill through the lores to the

ear coverts ; the crown, sides of neck, hind neck, and a band

across the upper breast pale rufous.

Bill black ; iris brown ; legs and feet grayish-green, gray, or

yellowish-black.

Length 8°5; wing5°5; tail 2°2; tarsus1°5; billfrom gape 1°1.

Distribution —A migrant found on the coasts of the dry

zone from Mannar round by Jaffna to Hambantota. Breeds

in Japan and Eastern China, wintering on the shores of the

Indian Ocean from South Africa to Australia.

208 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Habits.—Frequents the seashore, tidal flats, and the sandy

stretches round lagoons, often in company with the next

species. Some immature birds in winter plumage remain with

us throughout the year.

ANGIALITIS MONGOLICA (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 238 ;

Legge, p. 943).

The Lesser Sand Plover.

(Plate II., fig. 7.)

Description.—Similar to the last species in either plumage,

but smaller and with a shorter bill.

As a rule, in the winter plumage the upper surface is darker

brown, and in summer the western race which visits India has

the forehead wholly black or with only a little white. The

Chinese race has more white on the forehead and a brighter

pectoral gorget.

Bill, iris, and feet as in 4. geoffroyi.

Length 7°5; wing 5; tail 2; tarsus 1°2; bill from

gape °75.

Distribution.—Plentiful all round the coast line of the dry

zone during the north-east monsoon.

Breeds in Central and Northern Asia and in Alaska ; winters

round the shores of the Indian Ocean from South Africa to

Queensland. Numbers of immature birds in winter plumage

remain with us throughout the year.

Habits —Like the last species, may be found on sandy or

muddy flats by the shore and round the margins of lagoons,

often in large scattered flocks.

ANGIALITIS ALEXANDRINA (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 240).

ANGIALITIS CANTIANA (Legge, p. 947).

The Kentish Plover.

Description.—Winter : Upper plumage in general mud-

brown. Forehead, eyebrow, a ring round the neck, and all

the lower parts, with the wing lining and axillaries, white ;

CEYLON RAILS, WADERS, GULLS, AND TERNS. 209

a brown patch on each side of the breast, extending sometimes

nearly to the middle ; lores and a stripe through the eye and

round the nape a richer brown than on the back. Wing quills

blackish-brown, the inner primaries with a white patch on the

outer web, and the secondaries with white tips and borders.

The four central tail feathers are blackish-brown, the next

pair white on the tips and outer borders, the two outside pairs

entirely white.

Breeding plumage. Male: A broad black patch appears

above the white forehead ; remainder of crown and nape

tinged with rusty red. A band from the lores to the ear

coverts, and the patch on each side of the breast black.

Female : Lacks the black patches on the front of the crown,

while the loral band and breast patches are rusty brown

instead of black. The rufous tinge on the head is less pro-

nounced than in the male.

Young birds have paler edges to the feathers on the upper

parts.

Tropical birds are smaller than northern specimens.

Bill black ; iris brown; legs and feet dusky gray or

blackish.

Length 6°5; wing 4:1; tail 1:9; tarsus 1; bill from

gape °7.

Distribution —Found all round the coast ; most plentiful in

the north and about Hambantota ; some birds are resident,

but their numbers are largely reinforced during the north-

east monsoon by migrants. Occurs throughout the Indian

Empire, chiefly near the sea. The species ranges through

Europe, Africa, most of Asia, and Australia, but many of

the birds which winter in warmer climates breed in the

north.

Habits —Mainly a bird of the sea coast, preferring sandy

shores rather than mud flats. Has been found breeding in

June and July on sandy wastes near Hambantota, but some

birds at the breeding season retire inland to nest round

Minneri and Kanthalai tanks. Ceylon birds appear to lay

only two or three eggs, which are stone-coloured with rather

scratchy black markings and a few pale gray-purple spots.

Average measurement 1°18 by °87.

210 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

ANGIALITIS DUBIA (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 241).

ANGIALITIS CURONICA (Legge, p. 952).

ANGIALITIS JERDONI (Legge, p. 956).

The Little Ringed Plover.

Description —General colour above brown, darkest on the

wings and tail, the wing quills and the tip of the tail being

almost black. The forehead, the fore part of the crown, and

the sides of the head from the bill to the ear coverts are black,

with a white band across the forehead from eye to eye, and a

white border behind the black of the crown and ear coverts.

The chin, throat, and a collar all round the neck are white ;

behind this is a collar of black, broadest on the breast. The

remainder of the lower parts and the wing lining are white.

The later primaries and the secondaries are tipped with

white, the white increasing on the later secondaries ; the two

outer tail feathers are almost entirely white, the remaining

feathers, with the exception of the central pair, tipped with

white.

Bill black ; iris dark brown ; eyelid yellowish ; legs and

feet dusky yellow.

Length 7; wing 4°5; tail 2°5; tarsus 1; bill from gape 6.

Note.—By many Indian ornithologists this species is divided

into two: a larger migrant form (4. curonica of Legge) and

a smaller resident species (4. jerdoni of the same author).

Dr. Sharpe, in the British Museum Catalogue, unites the two

forms, and is followed by Blanford. The matter is still a

moot point I believe. The resident form is noticeably

smaller, with a wing measurement of 4:0, has more yellow at

the base of the bill, and a broader naked yellow ring round

the eye.

Distribution —The migrant race visits the coast in the north

of the Island during the north-east monsoon, is a winter

migrant to the whole of the Indian Empire, and occurs all

over Europe, Asia, and North Africa, The resident form is

found sparingly round Kanthalai and Minneri tanks, and on

the sand banks in the lower reaches of the Mahaweli-ganga

and its larger tributaries. I have also seen it near Hamban-

tota.

CEYLON RAILS, WADERS, GULLS, AND TERNS. Zt

Habits —Sometimes seen away from water in dry or sandy

fields, but generally found on sandy margins of large tanks or

in river beds. With us migrant birds appear to frequent

sandy wastes near the coast. Resident birds appear to nest

about June, the eggs being slightly smaller than those of

Af. alexandrina, averaging about 1°14 by ° 84.

Sub-family Hematopodine.

Stilts, Oyster-catchers, and Avocets.

A group consisting of three widely-spread genera : Hema-

topus (the Oyster-catchers) ; Himantopus (the Stilts) ; and

Recurvirostra (the Avocets), together with one curious central

Asian bird Jbidorhyncus (the Ibis Bill). The last-named

genus does not occur in Ceylon ; in each of the other genera

we have a single species. All three are birds of medium, size

found by the water’s edge, and feeding on molluscs, crustacea,

worms, &c. ‘Two of them are rare winter visitors to our shores,

the other—the Black-winged Stilt—is fairly common and

largely resident. All of them have the front toes webbed to

a certain extent, a pied plumage, long pointed wings, and a

long bill. The shape of the bill, however, differs greatly,

affording an easy means whereby the three forms may be

distinguished.

Rough Key to Ceylon Hematopodine.

A.—No hind toe; bill straight, strong, chisel-tipped, and

longer than tarsus.

Hematopus ostralequs (the Oyster-catcher).

B.—No hind toe ; bill straight, slender, pointed, and shorter

than tarsus.

Himantopus candidus (the Black-winged Stilt).

C.—A small hind toe ; bill curving upwards, thin, flexible,

and pointed.

Recurvirostra avocetta (the Avocet).

6 6(9)16

212 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

HA4&MATOPUS OSTRALEGUS (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 245;

Legge, p. 987).

The Oyster-catcher.

Description —Head and neck, upper back, scapulars, and

tertiaries black ; lower back, rump, tail coverts, and under

plumage from the lower neck white. The primary coverts

and primary quills are black, with some white on the latter ;

there is also some white on the edge of the wing, and a white

wing band formed by the tips of the median coverts, the outer

secondary coverts, and the inner secondary quills. The tail

is white with a broad black band at the tip.

Young birds are browner, and have a patch of white on the

throat.

Bill orange-red at the base, yellower and more dusky at the

tip ; iris red, orange, or browny-red ; legs and feet brownish-

purple, the toes slightly webbed at the base, and with broad

soles.

Length 16; wing 10; tail 4; tarsus 2:1; bill from gape 3

to 3°25.

Distribution —A rare and occasional visitor during the

north-east monsoon to the coast from Jaffna to Puttalam.

Found during the winter on the coasts of India and Burma,

but not common, except in the north-west. Found by the

sea in most parts of Europe and Asia, breeding in the north

and. wintering in the south.

Habits —Usually seen in small troops, which keep largely

to the shore, feeding between high and low water marks on

shellfish, &c. Especially fond of rocks uncovered by the tide.

A very wary bird.

HIMANTOPUS CANDIDUS (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 247 ;

Legge, p. 919).

The Black-winged Stilt.

(Plate II., fig. 8.)

Description. —Adult male: Head, neck, lower parts, lower

back, and rump white, the crown and nape often being tinged

with gray. The upper part of the back, the wing coverts,

and wings, together with the wing lining, glossy green-black ;

CEYLON RAILS, WADERS, GULLS, AND TERNS. 213

tail white or grayish. Females have the black of the upper

parts replaced by brown, except on the wing quills.

Young birds are blackish on the crown and grayer on the

hind neck. Probably only quite old birds have the head pure

white.

Yearling birds are still lighter brown on the back, with pale

edges to the feathers ; the head and hind neck are gray-brown.

Bill black ; iris red ; legs and feet lake-red or pinkish-red

with black claws.

Length 15; wing 9°25; tail 3°25; tarsus 5-0; bill from

gape 2°85.

Distribution —Fairly common in the north of the Island

and down the east coast as far as Hambantota. Occurs

throughout India and Burma, extending through Southern

Europe, all Africa, and Southern Asia.

Habits —Most of our birds appear to be resident. During

the wet season they may be seen far inland at the edges of

tanks in the Northern and North-Central Provinces. They

breed from April to June in fairly large colonies round certain

lagoons all down the east coast and by a few tanks, such as

Minneti and Kanthalai. The nest is the usual depression in

the ground near the water’s edge ; it is sometimes lined with a

few rushes, a little grass, or with waterweeds. The eggs, three

or four in number, are drab or stone-coloured blotched with

black. They much resemble the eggs of the Red-wattled

Lapwing. Average size 1-64 by 1°19.

RECURVIROSTRA AVOCETTA (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 248 ;

Legge, p. 925).

The Avocet.

Description. —General colour white, with the following parts

brown in winter and black in summer :—The forehead, crown,

nape, hind neck, the upper part of the mantle, including the

shorter scapulars, together with a band on the wing formed

by the median coverts, the greater part of the primary quills,

and some of the tertiaries. In the winter the hind neck is

white, and the tail tinged with brownish-gray.

Bill black ; iris reddish-brown ; legs and feet bluish-gray.

214 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Length 18; wing 9; tail 3°5; tarsus 3°3,; bill from gape

3°25.

Distribution.—A very rare straggler in winter; has been

obtained near Jaffna, and I believe that I once saw one near

Hambantota. A winter visitor to India, commoner in the

north, and unknown in Burma. Found all over temperate

Europe, Africa, Northern and South-westera Asia, breeding in

the north of its range.

Habits —Generally found about mud flats and sand banks,

in estuaries, or by the shores of salt lagoons.

Sub-family Totanine.

Curlews, Sandpipers, and Stints.

A large sub-family, all the members of which are migrants,

with a distinct summer and winter dress, visiting us in the

winter months and breeding mainly in the far north. In

some species, however, more or less numerous immature

specimens loiter, 7.c., do not go north to breed, but remain in

the Island during the summer months in a bachelor state

and winter dress.

The plumage is generally some shade of gray or brown

above ; paler and often white underneath ; never pied, but

often streaked.

The bill is slender, usually long, and provided with well-

developed nerves, giving the organ a keen sense of touch—a

necessity for birds which obtain their food mainly by probing

in mud and soft sand in search of worms or other similar small

forms of life. This is especially the case with the Stints.

No less than seventeen species are found in Ceylon, distri-

buted among seven genera. These genera fall into two groups :

those which have some trace of webbing at the base of the

front toes and those which have none. To the former category

belong five genera. The first of these, Nwmenius (the Curlews),

fairly large birds with long curving sickle-shaped bills, gives

us two species. T'olanus (the Sandpipers) is well represented

in Ceylon by seven species, the smaller of which are so familiar

to snipe shooters under the name of Snippets. The genus

Limosa (Godwits), finds its way into the Ceylon list owing

CEYLON RAILS, WADERS, GULLS, AND TERNS. 219

to stray specimens of one species having been recorded from

the north of the Island. The remaining genera—T'erekia

(Avocet Sandpiper) and Pavoncella (Ruff and Reeve)—are

each confined to a single species, of which rare stragglers have

been obtained within our limits.

The two genera devoid of webbing between the toes are :

First, Tringa (the Stints), out of which five species visit us.

These are all small birds about the size of a sparrow. Three

of them swarm, about the flat shores of our lagoons, but two

are excessively rare. Second, Calidris (the Sanderling), another

single species, placed in a separate genus by reason of its

having no hind toe, and only once recorded from, Ceylon.

Rough Key to Ceylon Totanine.

I.—Toes partially webbed.

A.—Bill curved downwards, long; wing over 9 inches.

Genus Numenius.

(a) Crown streaked, wing about 11°5.

Numenius arquatus (Curlew).

(6) Crown brown with a pale broken band down

centre, wing about 9°5.

Numenius pheopus (Whimbprel).

B.—Bill straight, long, and with a blunt point ; wing 7°5

or over. Genus Limosa.

(a) Tail half white, half black.

Limosa belgica (Black-tailed Godwit).

C.—Bill curved upwards, twice as long as tarsus, which is

short. Genus Terekia.

Terekia cinerea (Avocet Sandpiper).

D.—Bill about same length as tarsus, slender, straight

(except in one species), the tip of upper mandible

hard and slightly bent down. Genus Jotanus.

(a) Small forms, wing not over 5 inches, legs greenish.

(1) Rump not white.

Totanus hypoleucus (Common Sandpiper).

(2) Rump white.

Totanus glareola (Wood Sandpiper).

216 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

(6) Medium forms, wing 5 to 6 inches, legs olive or

green.

(1) Lower back brown. !

Totanus ochropus (Green Sandpiper).

(2) Lower back white.

Totanus stagnatilis (Little Gréenshank).

(1) Secondary quills white.

Totanus calidris (Redshank).

(2) Secondary quills brownish barred with

white.

Totanus fuscus (Spotted Redshank).

(d) Wing over 6 inches, rump white, bill slightly

curved up, legs greenish.

Totanus glottis (Greenshank).

E.—Wing 6 inches or over, bill noticeably shorter than

tarsus, rump and lower back brown. Genus Pavon-

cella.

Pavoncella pugnax (Ruff and Reeve).

II.—No trace of web between toes.

A.—No hind toe. Genus Calidris.

(a) Plumage pale, length 7°5 inches.

Calidris arenaria (Sanderling).

B.—A hind toe. Ceylon forms all under 9 inches in length.

Bill slender. Genus T'ringa.

(a) Billstraight ; shafts of all primaries partly white.

(1) Tarsus gray.

Tringa minuta (Little Stint).

(6) Bill straight ; shafts of all primaries, except first,

brown.

(1) Tail all brown ; mid toe and claw 0°9 inch.

Tringa subminuta (Long-toed Stint).

(2) Outer tail feathers white; mid toe and

claw 0°75 inch.

Tringa temmincki (‘Temminck’s Stint).

CEYLON RAILS, WADERS, GULLS, AND TERNS. 217

(1) Upper tail coverts chiefly white.

Tringa subarquata (Curlew Stint).

(2) Upper tail coverts blackish-brown.

Tringa platyrhyncha (Broad-billed Stint).

NUMENIUS ARQUATA (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 252).

NUMENIUS LINEATUS (Legge, p. 906).

The Curlew.

(Plate IT., fig. 9.)

Description.—General colour of upper parts light brown, the

feathers with darker shaft-stripes, which are broader on the

back than on the head and neck ; some of the larger scapulars

with dark arrowhead bars ; wing coverts with paler edges to

the feathers; primary coverts and primaries brown-black

with white tips, except on the outer primaries ; white mottling

on the inner web of the outer and on both webs of the inner

primaries ; secondaries brown barred with white ; tertiaries

ash-brown with dark brown shaft-stripes and crossbars.

Lower back and rump white, the middle feathers with a black

shaft-stripe expanding on the tip into a broad spot. Upper

tail coverts white with dark spots; tail ashy-brown with

dark crossbars. Chin and throat whitish; the foreneck

reddish-buff or brownish, and the remainder of the lower parts

white ; the feathers on the neck, breast, and flanks with dark

shaft-stripes.

In summer the whole plumage is darker ; the shaft-stripes

are everywhere broader, and extend further down on the

abdomen.

Bill dark brown or blackish, the lower mandible being

fleshy-white near the base ; iris brown; legs and feet blue-

gray.

Length about 23; wing 11°5; tail 4°5; tarsus 3°4; bill

from gape 5 to 6 or over.

The birds vary considerably in size, and females are larger

than males.

PAS SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Distribution —Fairly common on the north coast during

the north-east monsoon, rarer on the east coast, and a mere

straggler in the south and west. A winter visitor to the

Indian Empire. The species breeds in temperate zone of the

Old World, wintering in Africa and Southern Asia.

Habits —Frequents shallow tidal flats, low shores round

lagoons, or marshy land near the coast. In the north, of the

Island it may be seen in large flocks on favourite feeding

grounds.

NUMENIUS PHAOPUS (Blanford, Vol. [V., p. 253 ;

Legge, p. 910).

The Whimbrel.

Description Upper parts in general brown with paler

edges to the feathers, most noticeable on the wing coverts.

Forehead and crown darker with an indistinct paler line down

the centre ; a pale band with narrow dark streaks from base

of bill over the eye to the nape; lores and ear coverts dark

brown. Primary coverts and primaries blackish-brown, tipped,

except on the outer primaries, with white ; inner webs of all

quills and both webs of inner quills notched with white.

Lower back and rump white with brown drops. Upper tail

coverts barred brown and whitish ; tail ashy-brown with

darker crossbars. Chin and throat white; foreneck and

breast whitish with darker shaft-stripes ; remainder of lower

parts white, barred with brown on the flanks, wing lining,

axillaries, and lower tail coverts.

In winter the barrings and streaks on the lower back and

under parts are less distinct than in summer.

Bill black, the under mandible much paler near the base ;

iris dark brown ; legs and feet blue-gray.

Length 17; wing 9°5; tail 3°75; tarsus 2°3; bill

3°25.

Females are slightly larger than males.

Distribution —Occurs during the north-east monsoon at

various places round the coast. A winter visitor to the Indian

coasts. Breeds in Europe and Northern Asia, extending in

winter from North Africa to Australia.

CEYLON RAILS, WADERS, GULLS, AND TERNS. 219

Habits —Much, the same as those of the last species, but

this bird is not often seen in flocks, and is more fond. of rocky

shores. Immature specimens sometimes loiter, as I once

shot one near Hambantota in July.

Lrmosa BELGICA (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 254).

LIMOSA AZGOCEPHALA (Legge, p. 832).

The Black-tailed Godwit.

Description.—Winter : General colour above ashy-brown,

paler on the head and neck, and darkening towards the rump,

which is blackish-brown. There is an indistinct whitish

eyebrow and a whitish spot under the eye ; a white band along

the tips of the greater wing coverts ; primary coverts and

primaries blackish-brown, with some white on the inner webs

of all and on the outer webs of the inner primaries ; secondaries

white with a broad black tip, which diminishes on the inner

feathers, the outer webs of the inner secondaries being entirely

white.’ Upper tail coverts and base of tail white ; the outer

half of the tail blackish, but lighter at the tip. Chin, throat,

and under parts whitish, darkening on the foreneck and

breast to grayish-brown.

Summer: Head, neck, breast, and back rufous, streaked

with black on the crown and nape, mottled with black on the

back, and barred with dusky black on the breast ; the bars

are continued on the abdomen and sides of the body.

Bill fleshy-red, dusky at the tip ; iris dark brown ; legs and

feet blackish.

Length about 17°5; wing 8°5; tail 3; tarsus 3; bill 3 to 4°8.

Specimens vary greatly in size and in length of bill, females

are generally larger than males.

Distribution —A pair was once obtained at Point Pedro.

Common in Northern India in winter ; rare in Burma, Assam,

and Southern India. Breeds in temperate Europe and Asia,

wintering from Southern Europe and North Africa eastwards

to Australia.

Habits —May be looked for on the tidal flats along the north

coast, as possibly a few stragglers now and then visit the

Island during the winter months. In India it is found inland

on the edges of tanks and swamps.

7 6(9)16

220 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

TEREKIA CINEREA (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 258 ;

Legge, p. 836).

The Avocet Sandpiper.

Description —Winter : Upper parts, including tail, light

ashy-brown, with darker shaft-stripes ; forehead and eyebrow

whitish ; lores brownish. There is an indefinite dark brown

band along the lesser wing coverts; outer wing coverts and

primaries dusky brown ; secondaries brown edged with white ;

outer tail feathers mottled with white. Lower parts white ;

the foreneck and sides of the breast more or less streaked and

washed with gray.

Summer: The black shaft-stripes are strongly developed

on the scapulars, and in general are more conspicuous ; the

sides of the head, the neck, and breast are more noticeably

streaked with a shade of brown.

Bill blackish-brown ; iris brown; legs and feet orange-

yellow.

Length 9°5; wing 5:1; tail2°2; tarsus 1-1; bill from gape 2.

Distribution —A rare straggler recorded from the coast

in the Mannar District and Southern Province. Breeds in

North-eastern Europe and Northern Siberia, wintering in

East Africa, Southern Asia, and Australia. Occurs locally on

the coasts of the whole Indian Empire.

Habits —A curious bird, easily distinguished by its pale

plumage, long bill curving upwards, relatively short legs,

and orange feet. It generally associates in small troops of

five or six, and may be looked for on tidal flats and muddy

shores of lagoons. |

ToTaNUS HYPOLEUCUS (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 260).

TRINGOIDES HYPOLEUCUS (Legge, p. 867).

The Common Sandpiper.

Description —Upper parts, including head and tail, slightly

glossy olive-brown, with darker shaft-stripes to the feathers ;

scapulars, tertiaries, wing coverts, and middle tail feathers

with a darker border near the tip, which is edged with white.

Primary coverts and primaries dark brown, the coverts tipped

CEYLON RAILS, WADERS, GULLS, AND TERNS. 221

with white ; part of the inner web of all primaries, except the

first, white ; secondaries white with a broad outer dusky band,

which gradually disappears on the inner feathers. Outer

tail feathers barred brown and white. There is an indistinct

white eyebrow ; the cheeks and sides of the neck and breast

are streaked grayish-brown ; lower parts whitish with some

darker shaft-streaks on the foreneck.

In summer the upper parts lose the olive tinge and become

darker with bolder shaft-stripes and crossbars. The foreneck

and breast are more distinctly streaked with brown.

Bill deep brown above, tinged with yellow at the base ;

iris brown ; legs grayish-green.

Length 8; wing 4°25; tail 2°25; tarsus -95; bill from

gape 1-1.

Distribution —Common throughout the low-country during

the north-east monsoon, occasionally found as high up as

Nuwara Eliya.

Common throughout India in the winter, but less abundant

in Northern India than 7’. ochropus ; breeds in the temperate

regions of the Old World, migrating in the winter as far as

South Africa, Southern Asia, and Australia.

Habits —Usually solitary or found in pairs, and fonder of

the seashore, the gravelly borders of tanks, and the sides of

streams than of paddy fields and swamps. One of our earliest

migrants, many birds arriving during August. It often

perches on fences or low boughs near the water.

TOTANUS GLAREOLA (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 261 ;

Legge, p. 857).

The Wood Sandpiper.

(Plate IT., fig. 10.)

Description.—Winter : Upper parts bronze-brown ; the

crown and hind neck with faint paler edges to the feathers ;

a whitish streak from the bill to above the eye. On the back,

scapulars, wing coverts, rump, and tertiaries the feathers have

more pronounced white edges and spottings of white and

deep brown. The upper tail coverts are white, the middle tail

feathers light brown barred with dark brown ; the remainder

229 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

of the tail barred brown and white, the brown disappearing on

the outside feathers. The lesser wing coverts, primary coverts,

and wing quills dark brown; the secondaries and later

primaries tipped with white. Foreneck and upper breast

light ashy with darker brown streaks ; rest of lower parts

white with a few black markings on the lower tail coverts.

Summer : The upper plumage is more distinctly variegated

dusky brown and white ; the head and neck are streaked with

white ; the breast with distinct dark spots.

Bill greenish at the base, blackish at the tip; iris deep

brown ; legs yellowish-olive.

Length 8°5; wing 4°8; tail 2; tarsus 1°5; bill from gape

1-3.

Distribution.— Abundant all over the low-country ; common

throughout the Indian Empire; breeds in Europe and

Northern Asia, wintering from Africa eastwards to Southern

Asia and Australia.

Habits —The species is found in swarms all over the paddy

fields and marshes of the low-country from September to

April. It arrives earlier than the Snipe and leaves a little

later, collecting in large flocks before departure. It is also

fairly common on salt marshes, tidal flats, and the low shores

round lagoons. This and the next species but one, 7.e., 7.

stagnatilis, are the birds usually known to Snipe shooters as

Snippets.

Toranus ocuropus (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 262 ;

Legge, p. 862).

The Green Sandpiper.

Description.—Winter : Upper surface brown with a tinge

of olive ; paler on head and neck ; the feathers of the scapu-

lars, wing coverts, and tertiaries edged with alternating pale

and dark spots. The outer wing coverts, the primaries, and

secondaries unrelieved dark brown ; tail white barred with

brownish-black, the bars disappearing towards the outside

feathers ; upper tail coverts white. There is an indistinct

white streak on the eyebrow ; the chin and throat are whitish ;

the sides of the head and of the neck with the upper breast

CEYLON RAILS, WADERS, GULLS, AND TERNS. 223

streaked with brown. Remainder of lower parts white ; the

axillaries and wing lining dusky brown barred with white.

Summer: The crown and hind neck are much streaked

with white ; the back is spotted with white, and the brown

streaks on the sides of head and neck and on the upper breast

are broader and more conspicuous.

Bill deep brown, greenish round the nostrils and at the

base of the lower mandible ; iris hazel-brown ; legs and feet

dingy green, grayish, or bluish.

Length 9°5; wing 5:5; tail 2°5; tarsus 1:3; bill from

gape 1-5.

Distribution —Sandy beds of rivers in the northern half of

the Island ; also on streams up-country. Common in Northern

India, rarer in Burma and Southern India. Occurs through-

out the Old World, breeding in the north and wintering in the

south.

Habits —Not a very common bird with us, and seldom seen

away from the beds of streams, though in Northern India it

frequents marshes or even paddy fields. It is a wary bird,

with a much louder note than that of the last species. About

our earliest migrant, arriving in August and not leaving till

May.

TOTANUS STAGNATILIS (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 263 ;

Legge, p. 844).

The Marsh Sandpiper ; Little Greenshank.

Description.—Winter : General colour above ashy-brown,

the feathers with paler edges and inconspicuous darker shaft-

stripes. The wing coverts and primaries are dark brown ;

greater coverts, later primaries, and secondaries edged with

white, lower back and rump white ; upper tail coverts white,

sometimes barred with brown ; tail white irregularly barred

with brown, the central feathers and the outer webs of the rest

tinged with ashy-brown. The forehead, lores, cheeks, and

under parts white, with brown streaks on the sides of the

upper breast, neck, and of the head behind the eye.

Summer: The general tone of the upper plumage is ashy-

gray tinged with brown ; there are conspicuous black angular

224 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

patches on the feathers of the back and black arrowheads on

the tertiaries. The foreneck and upper breast are marked with

brown spots, which turn to irregular bars on the sides of the

body.

Bill dark brown, the basal portion of lower mandible

greenish ; iris hazel-brown; legs and feet bluish-green or

yellowish.

Length 10; wing 5:5; tail 2°3; tarsus 2°15; bill from

gape 1°7.

Distribution —Extremely common, mainly near the coast

in the north and east of the Island. Occurs only locally in

India and Burma, and generally inland. Its summer haunts

lie further south than those of most Sandpipers, extending

from South-east France, through Central Asia, to Southern

Siberia. It winters in Africa and Southern Asia as far east-

wards as the Malay Archipelago.

Habits —In Ceylon this species may be found in numbers by

every lagoon, salt marsh, and tidal flat along the coast of the

dry zone. It also frequents paddy fields in districts near the

sea, and occurs inland round such tanks as Kanthalai. Some

immature birds remain with us throughout the year.

TOTANUS CALIDRIS (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 264 ;

Legge, p. 852).

The Redshank.

Description.—Winter : Upper plumage light ashy-brown ;

the wing coverts with white edges and irregular dark bars; the

lower back and rump white ; upper tail coverts and tail white

barred with brown, the central feathers tinged with ashy-

brown towards the tip. The primary coverts and primaries

are dark brown; the inner margins of the primaries are

mottled with white ; the tips and the inner webs of the later

primaries and the exposed portion of all the secondaries are

white, showing a large clear white area on the expanded wing.

Forehead and lores brown ; a white streak from the bill to the

eyebrow ; sides of face, foreneck, and upper breast white

streaked with brown ; remainder of lower parts white with a

few streaks on the flanks and lower tail coverts.

CEYLON RAILS, WADERS, GULLS, AND TERNS. 225

Summer: Upper plumage brown, tinged in parts with

rufous and streaked with dark brown ; scapulars and tertiaries

with dark shatt-stripes and herring-bone bars. The feathers

of the lower plumage, except on the abdomen, are boldly

streaked and spotted in the centre with blackish-brown.

Young birds resemble adults in winter plumage, but are

more marked on the upper parts, where the feathers have

reddish-brown edges; the wing coverts and tertiaries are

marked with fulvous; the foreneck, breast, and flanks are

streakily marked. with ashy-brown.

Bill black, reddish at the base ; iris brown; legs and feet

orange-red.

Length 11; wing 6°25; tail 2:5; tarsus 1:9; bill from

gape 1°9.

Distribution.—Moderately common on the coast from Man-

nar round by Jafina to Hambantota. Rare on the west coast.

Scattered through India and Burma in suitable localities ;

found over most of Europe, Africa, and Asia, breeding in the

temperate zone and wintering further south.

Habits —Generally seen in small troops on the muddy

shores of estuaries or lagoons near the cover of bushes or

mangroves. A very shy bird with a loud call and a swift

twisting flight, especially when fired at.

Toranus Fuscus (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 265 ;

Legge, p. 848).

The Spotted Redshank.

Description.—Winter : Upper plumage ashy gray-brown ;

lower back and rump white ; upper tail coverts barred black

and white ; tail ashy-brown with broken bars of dark brown

and white on the edges. Scapulars, wing coverts, and tertiaries

dusky, edged and notched with white, the tertiaries with

imperfect black bars. Primary coverts and primaries dark

brown, the inner borders of primaries mottled with white,

the later primaries and secondaries brownish, barred and

tipped with white. Lores ashy-brown, eyebrow white ;

sides of face, foreneck, and upper breast indistinctly streaked

226 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA,.

with ashy-gray ; there are dusky bars on the flanks. Chin,

throat, and remainder of lower plumage white.

Summer: The brown of the upper plumage becomes dusky

black spotted and mottled with white on the edges of the

feathers. The head, neck, and lower parts gradually become

sooty gray, with narrow white fringes to the feathers on the

body ; the under wing coverts and axillaries remain white.

Young birds resemble adults in winter plumage, but have

more white spots on the edges of the upper plumage, and are

broadly barred with dull brown on the lower parts.

Bill black, the basal half of lower mandible orange-red ; iris

brown ; legs and feet orange-red in winter, dark red in summer.

Length 13; wing 6°75; tail 2°4; tarsus 2°3; bill from

gape 2°5.

Distribution —Has once been procured in the Jaffna

Peninsula. A common winter visitor to Northern India,

rare in Burma, and the south; breeds in the far north of

Europe and Asia, migrating in winter to the shores of the

Mediterranean and to Southern Asia.

Habits —May be looked for in the same localities as the

last species. Like many other of our rare migrants, it may

occasionally visit the Island unnoticed.

ToTanus GLoTTIs (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 266 ;

Legge, p. 840).

The Greenshank.

Description —Winter : General colour of upper parts ashy-

brown ; the top and sides of the head and sides of the neck

much streaked with white ; back, wing coverts, scapulars, and

tertiaries with dark shaft-stripes and black and white edges

to the feathers, the scapulars and tertiaries in some cases being

imperfectly barred with black on their margins. Lower back,

rump, and upper tail coverts white. The tail is barred with

brown, most strongly on the central feathers, which are ashy-

brown at the tip. The primary coverts and primaries are

blackish-brown, the later primaries and secondaries narrowly

edged with white. The forehead, eyebrow, the sides of the

face in front of the eye, and the lower plumage white. There

CEYLON RAILS, WADERS, GULLS, AND TERNS. 227

is a patch of streaky brown on the lores at the base of the

lower mandible. The wing lining and axillaries are barred

with brown.

Summer: The whole head and neck are streaked with

blackish-brown ; the feathers of the back and scapulars have

conspicuous broad black centres ; the foreneck and sides of

the breast are spotted with dark brown, a few spots extending

to the middle of the breast.

Bill olive-brown, darker at the tip and slightly curved

upwards ; iris brown ; legs and feet yellowish-green.

Length 14; wing 7°5; tail3°25; tarsus 2-5; billfrom gape2°5.

Distribution —Widely distributed round the coast, com-

monest in the north and east. Occurs throughout the Indian

Empire. Breeds in Northern Europe and Siberia, wintering

from Southern Asia to China and Australia.

Habits —Keeps chiefly to tidal flats, the shores of lagoons,

and. wet fields near the sea, but I have seen it in paddy fields

30 miles inland in the south of the Island. It is never very

numerous. A good many immature birds remain during the

south-west monsoon.

PAVONCELLA PUGNAX (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 268).

MACHETES PUGNAX (Legge, p. 873).

The Ruff and Reeve.

Description —Winter : Both sexes—forehead, lores, and

cheeks whitish speckled with dusky brown ; sides of head

and neck speckled with brown ; the upper parts to the tail

ashy-brown, with dusky brown centres and whitish fringes

to the feathers; greater wing coverts tipped with white ;

primary coverts and wing quills dark gray-brown, the secon-

daries with white tips. The outermost upper tail coverts

are white. The lower parts are white with a varying amount

of gray or brown diffused over the foreneck and wpper breast.

In summer the males grow yellow tubercles on the face,

develop enormous ruffs, and assume a fancy dress on the head,

breast, and ruff. The colours may be any combination of

white, glossy metallic black, chestnut, or orange-buff. The

back, scapulars and inner wing coverts are sprinkled with hues

8 6(9)16

228 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

to correspond. Females in summer have the feathers of the

upper plumage velvet black, fringed with sandy-buff ; the

tertiaries are boldly marked with buff and black in irregular

bars ; the foreneck and breast are mottled with black.

Young birds are mostly ashy-gray, tinged with buff on the

lower parts, while the tertiaries are not barred ; otherwise they

resemble females in summer.

Bill dark brown, paler at the gape; iris brown ; legs and

feet fleshy-yellow to yellowish-brown.

Males : length 12 ; wing 7:3; tail 2°75; tarsus 1:9; bill 1°5

Females are smaller: length 10 ; wing 6.

Distribution —One specimen was obtained forty years ago

in the Hambantota District, and in February, 1914, I saw

three birds near Hambantota and secured one for the Museum.

Common in Northern India during the winter. Rare in

Burma and the south. Breeds in temperate Europe and Asia,

migrating to Africa and Southern Asia as far east as India.

Habits —Should be looked for round unfrequented lagoons

from November to March. It may occasionally visit us and

pass unnoticed among the swarms of other waders. It can

be distinguished from Sandpipers of the same size by its dark

lower back and rump.

CALIDRIS ARENARIA (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 270 ;

Legge, p. 1220).

The Sanderling.

Description.—Winter : Upper parts light gray tinged with

brown, each feather with darker shaft-stripes and paler edges.

Forehead, face, and lower parts white. The wing coverts and’

quills are blackish-brown ; across the wing there is a white

band formed by the tips of the greater coverts. The basal

portion of the inner web of all the quills and the same part of

the outer web of the later primaries is white ; quill shafts

white. The hind neck is lighter and the rump darker than

the back. The rump is white at the sides ; the central tail

feathers are ashy-brown, black at the tip with white shafts and

margins ; the rest of the tail feathers are grayish-brown edged

with white and with some white on the inner webs.

CEYLON RAILS, WADERS, GULLS, AND TERNS. 229

Summer : The upper parts are rufous cinnamon with black

centres and pale ashy edges to the feathers. The foreneck

and breast are rufous mottled with black. Remainder of

lower parts white.

Young birds are blackish, with pale gray edges to the feathers

of the crown and upper back. The scapulars, wing coverts,

and tertiaries are much mottled with white ; the lower parts

are white.

Bill black ; iris deep brown ; legs and feet black, there is

no hind toe.

Length 7°5; wing 4°75; tail 2; tarsus 1; bill from

gape 1-1.

Distribution —A specimen was once obtained from, a flock

on an islet in Negombo lagoon. This bird is found on the

coast of India, but is rare, except in Sind and Baluchistan.

It occurs nearly all over the world, breeding in arctic regions

and migrating south in winter.

Habits —Usually met with in small flocks round flat shores,

often in company with other waders, especially Sand Plovers

and Stints.

TRINGA MINUTA (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 273 ;

Legge, p. 884).

The Little Stint.

Description.—Winter : Upper plumage brown tinged with

gray, each feather with broad black shaft-stripes ; the fore-

head, eyebrow, lower cheeks, and under parts white ; the sides

of the neck and of the breast brownish with darker streaks.

The wing coverts and tertiaries are darker with pale edges to

the feathers ; the greater coverts have broad white tips ; wing

quills dark brown with white shafts ; secondaries white at the

base, the white predominating on the inner secondaries. The

middle of the lower back, rump, and tail coverts are blackish-

brown, the sides white ; the tail is dark brown in the centre,

lighter smoky brown at the sides.

Summer: Upper parts rufous with black centres to the

feathers ; foreneck and upper breast tinged with rufous and

spotted with dark brown.

230 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Young birds have the upper plumage blackish with rufous

borders and white edges to the feathers ; the lower parts are

tinged with dingy buff on the neck and breast, but not spotted.

Bill black, straight ; iris brown ; legs and feet black or deep

lead. colour.

Length 6; wing 3°95; tail 1°6; tarsus °8; middle toe and

claw ‘75; bill from gape °7.

Distribution.—Common. all round the coast, except from

Negombo to Tangalla; sometimes found inland round larger

tanks. Abundant in suitable localities throughout India

west of the Bay of Bengal. Breeds in Northern Europe and

Siberia, wintering in Africa and South-western Asia.

Habits —Feeds in large flocks on flat sandy or muddy

shores ; in Ceylon it is commonest on the coast or round

lagoons. A few immature birds stay with us through the

summer.

TRINGA SUBMINUTA (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 275;

Legge, p. 889).

The Long-toed Stint.

Description.—Winter : The plumage is similar to that of

T. minuta, but is darker ; the head and neck are more spotted

’ with black, while the lower throat and foreneck are noticeably

streaked and mottled with brown. The shaft of the first

primary is dirty white, of the remainder pale brown.

In summer also the colouration resembles that of the last

species, but in both stages this species may be distinguished

by the long middle toe and claw, which together measure 0°9

to 1:0 inch as against *75.

Bill olive-brown ; iris brown ; legs and toes olive-yellow or

brownish.

Length 6; wing 3°7; tail 1°5; tarsus ‘8; bill from

gape °75.

Distribution.—Fairly common on the coast in the north-west,

north, and east of the Island. Common in Bengal and

Burma during the north-east monsoon. Breeds in Eastern

Siberia, migrating to South-eastern Asia and Australia for

the winter.

CEYLON RAILS, WADERS, GULLS, AND TERNS. 231

Habits —Feeds in small parties on salt marshes or on the

ooze round lagoons ; occasionally found in paddy fields near

the sea, as at Galle, or even further inland. A good many

barren birds remain with us through the summer months.

As usual, the birds which thus loiter are in winter plumage,

though birds which migrate have often assumed most of their

summer dress before leaving.

TRINGA TEMMINCKI (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 75 ;

Legge, p. 892).

Temminck’s Stint.

Description —Winter: Upper plumage ashy-gray with

indistinct darker shaft-stripes, the colour becoming deeper

towards the rump. The wings and central feathers of the

tail are dark brown ; the inner primaries, secondaries, and

greater wing coverts are tipped with white ; shaft of the first

primary white, of remainder pale brown. The two outer

feathers on each side of the tail are pure white, as are the

sides of the rump and upper tail coverts. The lores are

brown edged above with a faint white streak ; chin, throat,

and lower parts white with a broad band of brownish-gray

on the lower foreneck and chest.

Summer: The upper plumage is darker and mottled with

black and the edges of the feathers are more or less tinged

with rufous ; the pectoral band is marked with small dark

spots.

Bill black ; iris brown ; legs and feet greenish-olive.

Length 6; wing 3°75; tail 2; tarsus ‘65; middle toe and

claw °75; bill from gape °65.

Distribution.—Obtained once near Trincomalee by Captain

Legge. Common in Northern India, rare in the south and

Burma. Breeds in the extreme north of Europe and Asia,

wintering in Southern Europe, North Africa, and Southern

Asia.

Habits —Those of the Little Stint, with which it associates.

Quite possibly it visits the Island in small numbers regularly,

passing unnoticed among the swarms of the commoner

species.

T32 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

TRINGA SUBARQUATA (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 278 ;

Legge, p. 879).

The Curlew Stint.

Description —Winter : General colour of wpper parts ashy-

brown with slightly darker shaft-stripes ; most of the wing

coverts have paler edges and the greater coverts have white

tips ; primary coverts, primaries, and secondaries dark brown ;

the inner primaries and secondaries edged with white on the

outer web ; the secondaries are also white at the base, the

white increasing on the inner feathers. Lower back and

centre of rump dark brown with paler edges; upper tail

coverts and sides of the rump white. The tail is ashy-brown

fringed with white. The lores are dusky and bordered above by

a white streak running from, the bill over the eyes. Sides of

head and neck brownish with darker streaks ; lower neck and

chest tinged with gray and streaked with brown ; remainder

of lower parts white.

Summer: Upper plumage rufous chestnut mottled with black

and whitish-buff ; lower parts reddish-chestnut with faint hoary

margins to the feathers, most conspicuous on the abdomen.

The young resemble old birds in winter plumage, but the

lower parts are almost all white, and the feathers of the upper

parts are fringed with buff or whitish.

Bill black and curving at the tip, the groove from the

nostrils distinctly marked for over half the length of the bill ;

iris brown ; legs dusky gray.

Length 8°5; wing 5:1; tail 1°85; tarsus 1:2; bill from

gape 1-5.

Distribution —Abundant all round the coast of the dry

zone. Common on the coasts of India; rare inland. Breeds

in the far north of Siberia, wintering in Africa, Southern Asia,

and Australia.

Habits —Found on sandy shores and salt marshes, and in

great numbers round lagoons ; seldom seen inland. It may

be met with in small troops associating with other Stints, or

in large flocks of its own species. Immature birds in con-

siderable numbers stay in the Island during the summer.:

Mature birds often change to full summer dress before they

leave in May.

CEYLON RAILS, WADERS, GULLS, AND TERNS. 233

TRINGA PLATYRHYNCHA (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 279).

LIMICOLA PLATYRHYNCHA (Legge, p. 896).

The Broad-billed Stint.

Description.—The colouration is similar to that of the last

species, but the bird is slightly smaller. The shaft-stripes of

the upper plumage are more developed, while the rump, upper

tail coverts, and tail are blackish-brown with paler edges.

The under parts are white with a few narrow dark streaks on

the foreneck and upper breast. In the summer the upper

parts are velvety black with narrow whitish or buff edges ;

the crown is almost unstreaked, and there are narrow rufous

borders to the tertiaries. The throat, the sides of the neck,

the foreneck, and upper breast are tinged with rufous and

spotted with dark brown. In both stages the.bird may be

recognized by the bill. The ridge between the nasal grooves

is not continued far down the upper mandible, which is

flattened out for about two-thirds of its length.

Bill brownish-black ; iris dark brown ; legs olive-brown.

Length 7; wing 4°2; tail 1-5; tarsus -08 ; bill from gape

1:3.

Distribution —Another rare straggler noted from Point

Pedro and the Hambantota District. Possibly not so rare as

would appear, as it may pass unnoticed among commoner

species. Scattered locally over the Indian and Burmese

coasts. Breeds in the north of Europe and Asia, wintering

round the Mediterranean and in Southern Asia.

Habits —May be looked for among flocks of other Stints on

sandy or muddy flats by the sea and round lagoons. It

seldom ventures inland.

Sub-family Scolopacine.

Woodcocks and Snipes.

These are a group of birds with well-marked external

characteristics familiar to every sportsman. The bill is long

and slender, well provided with nerves, slightly swollen at the

tip, and, save in the case of the aberrant genus Rostratula,

straight and pitted. The eyes are large and set far back in the

934 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

head. The tarsus is of moderate length, the front toes bear

no trace of webbing, the hind toe is present but small. The

plumage of the upper parts is of richer colour and more

heavily mixed with black than is the case among the

Totanine. All the species are more or less nocturnal in their

habits.

The sub-family is divided into three genera :—

1. Scolopax (the Woodcocks), in which the legs are

feathered to the tarsal joint, and the crown is banded across

with black. Only one species, the typical Woodcock,

occurs in Ceylon, being occasionally recorded from the hill

districts.

2. Gallinago (the Snipes).—In this genus the leg is naked

for some little way above the tarsal joint, and the crown is

streaked lengthwise by pale bands. Five species find their

way into the Ceylon list, but only one—the Pin-tailed Snipe—

is common ; the others are all rare stragglers.

3. Rostratula (the Painted Snipes).—A curious genus which

differs from the others in many ways. The bill is slender, but

not so long as usual, slightly bent downwards at the tip, and

not pitted. The birds are resident, whereas all our other

members of the sub-family are migratory. The flight is weak,

the wing quills are short and. broad, and marked with, beautiful

buff-coloured ocellate spots. The female is larger than the

male, with a well-marked and more gaudy attire ; accordingly

young birds resemble the more soberly clad male in their

plumage. Only one species occurs in the Island.

Rough Key to Ceylon Scolopacine.

I.—Bill straight ; crown barred crosswise ; legs feathered

down to tarsal joint. Genus Scolopax.

Scolopax rusticula (Woodcock).

IL.—Tibia partly naked, head and back with pale stripes

engthwise. Genus Gallinago.

A.—Bill over 2 inches, a pale stripe down middle of crown.

(a) Length about 12 inches, abdomen barred through-

out,

Gallinago nemoricola (Wood Snipe).

CEYLON RAILS, WADERS, GULLS, AND TERNS. 235

(6) Middle of abdomen not barred, save in exceptional

specimens. Length about 10°5 inches.

(1) Secondary quills with noticeable white tips.

No pin feathers in tail.

Gallinago celestis (Common or Fantail Snipe).

(2) Pin feathers in tail, secondaries with

narrow inconspicucus white tips or

none.

Gallinago stenura (Pin-tailed Snipe).

B.—Bill under 2 inches; no pale band down middle of

crown ; back glossed with green and purple.

Gallinago gallinula (Jack Snipe).

Ill.—Sexes different in plumage ; bill curved downwards

at the tip; wing quills with ocellate buff spots. Genus

Rostratula.

Rostratula capensis (Painted. Snipe).

ScoLOPAX RUSTICULA (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 283 ;

Legge, p. 806).

The Woodcock.

(Plate IT., fig. 11.)

Description —Upper plumage blackish-gray mottled with

black and rufous ; forehead and fore part of crown grayish ;

the top of the head and the nape black with two tawny

crossbars ; a dark broad stripe from the gape of the bill to

the eye and another down the cheek ; the rest of the head

and neck buff with black spots. The wing coverts and

tertiaries are barred with dusky brown and rufous; the

primary coverts, primaries, and secondaries are black-brown

notched with rufous. The rump and upper tail coverts are

barred black and rufous ; tail black, the outer webs of the

feathers with rufous markings and the tips dark gray above,

silvery white underneath. The chin is more or less white ;

the lower parts whity-brown barred across with dark brown.

Bill dark brown, fleshy-brown near the base; iris dark

brown ; legs and feet grayish-drab or lead colour.

9 6(9)16

236 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Length 14; wing 7°75; tail 3°25; tarsus 1:5; bill from

gape 3°00.

Distribution —An occasional migrant to the higher hills.

Breeds in the Himalayas above 10,000 feet, visiting in the winter

the lower valleys and the South Indian and Burmese hills.

Habits ——May be found occasionally in the hills from

November to February. The birds generally keep to damp

forest near water, where the ground is soft.

GALLINAGO NEMORICOLA (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 285 ;

Legge, p. 814).

The Wood Snipe.

Description.—Upper plumage black, the wing coverts

spotted and barred with tawny buff, and the scapulars with

broad tawny edges ; head and neck brownish-black ; a light

stripe down the centre of the head imperfectly developed ; a

dark band from, the gape of the bill to the eye, and another

across the cheek. The sides of the head and the neck all

round are dull buff streaked with black ; lower back and

rump marked with narrow bars of whitish or brownish buff

brightening to rufous on the upper tail coverts. The six

central feathers of the tail are black ; their ends are rufous with

a slight black crossbar and pale tips. The outer tail feathers

are barred with dull rufous and brown, and are pale-tipped.

The primary coverts, primaries, and secondaries are dark brown.

Breast and abdomen grayish-white barred with dull brown ;

wing lining and axillaries grayish-brown barred with white.

Bill reddish-brown, pale at the base underneath ; iris dusky

brown ; legs plumbeous green.

Length 12; wing 5-5; tail 2-2; tarsus 1°5; bill from gape 2-5.

Distribution.—Its occurrence in Ceylon is a little doubtful,

no Ceylon specimens are on record, but Neville states that it

has been found near Nuwara Eliya. It ranges through the

Himalayas, where it breeds at considerable elevations ; in

winter it descends lower, and occasionally visits the hills of

Southern India and Burma.

Habits—Should be looked for in damp spots on the

outskirts of forest in the higher hills.

——

CEYLON RAILS, WADERS, GULLS, AND TERNS. 237

GALLINAGO C@LESTIS (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 286).

GALLINAGO SCOLOPACINA (Legge, p. 821).

The Common or Fantail Snipe.

Description.—This species in plumage closely resembles the

next, G. stenura, but may be distinguished as follows :—The

tail has no pin feathers ; on the axillaries the white bars are

broader than the brown; the bill of the present species

broadens slightly towards the tip, that of the Pin-tailed Snipe

does not ; the outer web of the first primary is whitish instead

of brown ; the secondary quills have fairly conspicuous white

tips. 3

Length 10°5; wing 5:00; tail 2°25; tarsus 1:25; bill

from gape 2°6.

Distribution —A very rare migrant during the north-east

monsoon. It is said to have been seen at Nuwara Eliya, and

two specimens were obtained at Tamblegam, near Trincomalee.

In Northern India it is the predominant Snipe, but in Southern

India and Burma it is rare, being largely replaced by the

Pintail Snipe. It breeds in Europe and Central and Northern

Asia, wintering in Southern Europe, North Africa, and

Southern Asia.

Habits —Similar to those of the next species.

GALLINAGO STENURA (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 289;

Legge, p. 816).

The Pintail Snipe.

Description —General colour of upper plumage black ; the

top of the head with a broad pale band down the centre, and

another on each, side just over the eye; a dark brown band

from, the bill to the eye ; the sides of the head streaky whitish

and brown. The broad tawny edges of the scapulars form

two long bands down the back. The primary coverts,

primaries, and secondaries are black-brown, the later primaries

and the secondaries faintly tipped with white ; tertiaries

barred black and tawny ; rump and upper tail coverts barred

with rufous or dark buff; the ends of the tail feathers are

238 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

rufous-yellow fringed with black and have pale edges ; the

pin feathers, which are often hidden under the tail coverts,

usually number six on each side and are brown with white

tips. The chin is whitish ; the neck all round and the upper

breast dull buff streaked with dark brown. The remainder

of the lower parts is generally white, the flanks being

barred with brown, while the lower tail coverts are buff

with dark brown markings. The wing lining and axillaries

are coloured dusky brown and white in bars of equal

width.

Bill blackish, paler at the tip, and olive-green underneath

at the base ; iris deep brown ; legs and feet olive-green.

Length 10°5 ; wing 5°25-; tail 1-8; tarsus 1:25; bill from

gape 2°5.

Distribution —The only snipe which visits the Island in any

great numbers. Abundant all over the low-country during

the north-east monsoon, and more or less plentiful in up-

country paddy fields and swamps. Common in Southern

India, Assam, and Burma, but rarer in the west and north.

Breeds in Eastern Siberia, and winters throughout South-

eastern Asia and the Malay Archipelago.

Habits —The earliest birds arrive on the western side of the

Island at the end of August or the beginning of September ;

in the north, east, and south-east they are not generally found

till a few weeks later. The birds begin to leave again about

mid-April, and few are left by the end of the month. Some

immature individuals may stay with us during the south-west

monsoon, and in the Colombo Museum there is a fully-formed

egg taken from the oviduct of a bird shot late in the season,

showing that occasional and probably slightly wounded

stragglers may breed in the Island. Snipe keep to soft and

muddy ground, and are most abundant in large paddy fields

near jungle and in the marshy surroundings of tanks. They

move about from field to field a good deal, preferring, as a

rule, those in which the crop has grown fairly thick, but not

too high. To some extent they are nocturnal, and in the

low-country during the heat of the day they lie up in the edge

of the jungle round the fields, or in any little shady retreat

that may be handy.

CEYLON RAILS, WADERS, GULLS, AND TERNS. 239

GALLINAGO GALLINULA (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 292 ;

Legge, p. 828).

The Jack Snipe.

Description —Crown and nape black in the centre with a

few rufous specks, and bordered on each side with broad butt

stripes from the bill to the nape ; a dark band from the bill to

the eye and a dark cheek stripe ; sides of the head speckled

whitish ; hind neck fulvous brown mottled with black and

traces of whitish. The back and scapulars are black with a

metallic gloss of green or purple, and mottled with rufous ; a

broad edge of rich buff on the outer webs of the scapulars

forms a band down each side of the back ; upper tail coverts

and tail brown bordered with buff. The wings are brown,

the lesser wing coverts with whitish and the median coverts

with rufous-buff edges ; secondary quills with white tips. The

chin is whitish; the foreneck and upper breast brown

streaked with white and black; lower breast and abdomen

white ; under tail coverts striped with brown.

Bill brown at the sides, black at the tip, elsewhere yellowish ;

iris dark brown ; legs grayish-green.

Length 8°5; wing 4°25; tail 2; tarsus 0°9; billfrom gape 1°6.

Distribution —An occasional visitor to the extreme north of

the Island. A fairly common migrant in Northern India ;

rare in Southern India and Burma. Breeds in the Arctic

Cirele of Europe and Asia, wintering in Southern Asia and the

countries bordering the Mediterranean.

Habits—tIn general, a solitary bird, frequenting damp

marshy ground, where the grass is thick.

RosTRATULA CAPENSIS (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 293).

RHYNCHHA CAPENSIS (Legge, p. 800).

The Painted Snipe.

Description.—Male : Crown olive-black with a buff band

down the centre ; a ring round the eye and a stripe behind it

are also buff ; lores brown ; sides of head streaked white and.

brown. The upper surface is ashy-brown glossed with olive

and marked with fine wavy bars of dusky black and broader

bars of greenish-black ; the buff outer borders of the scapulars

240 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

form a pale streak down each side of the back. The tertiaries

and wing coverts are marked with buff bars and buff black-

bordered spots ; wing quills bluish-gray barred and blotched

with black and spotted with oval buff markings; rump,

upper tail coverts, and tail blue-gray barred with black, and

with buff spots on the coverts and tail. The chin is whitish ;

sides of neck, foreneck, and upper breast streaky brown and

white ; remainder of lower parts white, with a white band

running from the breast up each shoulder ; the sides of the

breast bordering this white band are deep brown.

Female: The lores and cheeks are rufous, passing into

chestnut on the throat and round the neck. There is a broad

black pectoral gorget. The wing coverts lack the buff spots,

and beneath the scapulars is a tuft of pure white lanceolate

feathers. Young birds resemble adult males.

Bill dusky green, reddish at the tip ; iris olive-brown ; legs

olive-brown.

Distribution.—Resident throughout the Island, but moves

about a good deal, being commonest in the west during the

north-east monsoon. Found all over India south of the

Himalayas and in Burma ; ranges almost throughout Africa,

Madagascar, and Southern Asia.

Habits.—In its ways this species resembles the Rails more

than the other Snipes. It skulks about in damp ground,

where the grass and rushes:are thick, or hides in damp corners

of paddy fields. It is heavy on the wing, and generally

difficult to flush. As arule, not more than a pair are met with

together. It breeds in its haunts from November to May,

but mostly in March. The nest is a slight depression in moist

ground, lined with grass or rushes. The four eggs are stone-

yellow boldly blotched with black, and measure about 1°35

by °98.

Order GAVIA.

Gulls, Terns, and Skuas.

The Gaviz constitute an order which is closely related to the

preceding Limicole. It has been shown that in all probability

the Gulls and their allies sprang from the common ancestors

of the Plovers and Snipes, and are in fact aberrant Plovers, to

CEYLON RAILS, WADERS, GULLS, AND TERNS. 241

which other aberrant Plovers, such as the Pratincoles and

Crab Plovers, show considerable affinity, all being specialized

offshoots from the same main stem.* In details of anatomy

the two orders display marked resemblance, the Gaviz,

however, being modified in outward form to fit them for their

sea-faring life. Their wings are long and pointed, giving

their flight speed and endurance ; their legs are short ; the

front toes are webbed, while the hind toe is small and set on

the foot at a higher level than the others ; the bill varies in

the families and sub-families of the order.

In their nidification also these birds resemble the Waders ;

their eggs are of much the same character, being marked by

spots of two different hues, and laid on the ground with little

or no nest. The young are hatched covered with down, and

are able to run about at once, though for a few days they are

fed by their parents.

The classification of the order varies considerably among

different authors. By Dr. Blanford the Indian members are

divided as follows :—The Skuas are placed by themselves in

one family Stercorarivide ; the Gulls Larine, the Terns

Sternine, together with the Skimmers Rhynchopine, of which

no species occurs in Ceylon, form three sub-families of a

second family Laride.

The two families are outwardly distinguished thus :—

1. Inthe Laride the bill has no cere, 7.e., membrane of skin

covering the base of the bill from the forehead to the nostrils,

while the claws are only moderately curved and not sharp.

2. In the Stercorariide the bill is furnished with a cere,

and the claws are powerful, boldly curved, and sharp.

Family Laripa.

As stated above, the Ceylon Laride fall into two sub-

families, which may be distinguished by the shape of the bill :—

A.—Larine.—The Gulls have the upper mandible longer

than the lower and curved at the tip.

B.—Sternine.—The Terns have both mandibles of equal

length.

* Mr. R. P, Lowe ** On the Crab Plove” Ibis, April, 1916, p. 337.

242 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Sub-family Larine.

Gulls.

Gulls are in general birds of the sea, though many of them

are also found on inland waters, and some of them breed far

from the coast. They are fairly stout in build ; the wings

are long, and when closed project beyond the tail ; the tarsus

is shortish, and the feet large ; the front toes are fully webbed ;

the bill is of moderate length and fairly strong, the upper

mandible being curved downwards at the tip into a moderate

hook. They habitually rest on the surface of the water,

sitting very buoyantly. Often, however, they take to the

land, and can walk well. Their food consists mainly of dead

fish, floating garbage, and crustacea.

The sub-family is not well represented in Ceylon. Only one

genus occurs within Indian limits, and of this genus only two

species visit us. Neither of them breeds anywhere near the

Island, and one of them visits us only as a very occasional

storm-driven straggler.

Rough Key to Ceylon Larine.

A.—Length 26 ; wing 19.

Larus ichthyaetus (the Great Black-headed Gull).

B.—Length 17 ; wing 13.

Larus brunneicephalus (the Brown-headed Gull).

LARUS ICHTHYAETUS (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 299 ;

Legge, p. 1046).

The Great Black-headed Gull.

Description —Adult summer plumage: The whole of the

head, including the nape and throat, jet-black, contrasting

sharply with the neck and lower parts, which, together with

the tail coverts and tail, are white. There are two minute

patches of white, one above and one below each eye. The

mantle down to the rump, with the wing coverts and tertiaries,

are pale slate-gray ; first five primary quills white crossed near

the tip by a bar of black ; first quill also black along most of

the outer web ; later primaries gray on the inner web, white

on the outer web and tip ; secondaries mostly gray.

CEYLON RAILS, WADERS, GULLS, AND TERNS. 243

Winter : The lower neck becomes white right up to the chin,

and the upper part of the head and nape white streaked with

brown-black.

Young birds are very differently coloured. The upper

plumage to the rump is mottled brown with paler edges to the

feathers ; tail coverts and upper part of the tail white ; the

end of the tail blackish-brown faintly tipped with white ;

under parts white, the sides of the neck and upper breast

more or less mottled with pale brown ; wing quills dark brown,

the secondaries with a narrow white edge. As the bird grows

older the mantle gradually changes to gray.

Bill yellow with a black band halfway between the nostrils

and the tip, tip and gape dull crimson ; in young birds the

bill is dark horn-colour ; iris deep brown ; legs and feet dull

yellow.

Length 26; wing 19; tail 7-5; tarsus 3:00; bill from gape

3°5. Specimens vary in size, and females are smaller, wing

about 18.

Distribution.—An_ occasional storm-driven visitor during

the north-east monsoon. Not uncommon in Northern India

and parts of Burma, otherwise rare. Breeds in Central Asia,

migrating in winter to Southern Asia and North-east Africa.

Habits —In Ceylon may be looked for on the coast, during

stormy weather, from about November to March.

LARUS BRUNNEICEPHALUS (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 301;

Legge, p. 1049).

The Brown-headed Gull.

Description.—Adult in summer : The whole of the head and

upper neck hooded with brown, which darkens on the nape,

contrasting sharply at the point of junction with the white of

the lower neck ; the lower parts, rump, and tail are also white ;

mantle pearl-gray. The first five primary quills are white at

the base with the outer portion black, the amount of black

decreasing in length from the first to the fifth quill ; the first

and. second quills have a large white patch near the tip ; later

primaries mostly gray ; the secondaries the same colour as the

mantle.

10 6(9)16

244 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

In winter there is no brown hood, the head being white

mixed with a little brown in front of the eye and behind the

ear coverts.

Young birds are mottled brown above, the colour gradually

changing to the pearl-gray of the adult. The primaries are

largely brown-black ; the outer third of the tail is of the same

shade tipped with white.

In adults the bill, eyelids, and feet are coral-red ; the iris

varies from white to brownish.

In young birds the bill is yellowish-red, blackish at the tip ;

legs and feet reddish-yellow.

Length about 17; wing about 13; tail 5:25; tarsus 2 ;

bill from gape 2°25. Females are smaller.

Distribution. Abundant round the coast in the north of

the Island from October to April. Rarer in the south, but

recorded from Galle, Colombo, and Hambantota. Found all

round the coasts of India and Burma ; also inland on large

rivers and lakes. Breeds in Central Asia.

Habits —Occurs generally in flocks, and in Ceylon does not

appear to fly inland. Its habits are those of the family.

Sub-family Sternine.

Terns.

The Terns are among our most pleasing birds, and the

commoner species are equally familiar sights round the coast

or on inland tanks. Their wings are very long and pointed,

the flight is buoyant and graceful, the birds constantly flying

over the surface of the water, into which they dip their bills

while on the wing to scoop up their food, chiefly small fish

or little floating forms of animal life. They seldom alight

on the water, and swim far less than many birds whose

toes are not webbed. The bill is straight, or very gently

curved, and usually slender, while the mandibles are equal,

or nearly equal, in length. The legs and feet are generally

small,

The Indian members of the sub-family are divided into four

genera, distinguished, as shown in the key below, chiefly by

the shape of the tail, the nature of the webbing between the

CEYLON RAILS, WADERS, GULLS, AND TERNS. 245

toes, and the character of the bill. Of the four genera, two—

Hydroprogne and Anous—each give us a single species ;

Hydrochelidon furnishes us with two, one of which is common

on inland waters, the other rare. Of the genus Sterna, we

have no less than twelve species. Two of these can be

distinguished at once by the colour of their upper plumage,

which is sooty-brown instead of some shade of pearly-gray ;

the remaining ten have to be differentiated mainly by their

wing measurements and the colour of their bills and feet. In

consequence the key may not seem very simple in its working,

but it should be borne in mind that the gray-mantled. species

usually met with are either the three largest or the two

smallest. Of the five medium-sized species, only one—S.

dougallimis in any degree common, the other four are rare,

two being rather doubtful inclusions in the Ceylon list.

Rough Key to Ceylon Sternine.

I.— Medium size ; wing 8 to 9 inches ; webs deeply scalloped

between the toes ; tail short and only slightly forked. Genus

Hydrochelidon.

(a) Bill from gape 1:6; in winter the black spots on the

crown extend forward of the eyes ; in summer the

wing lining remains white.

Hydrochelidon hybrida (the Whiskered Tern).

(6) Bill from gape 1°3; in winter the black spots on the

crown do not generally extend forward of the eyes ;

in summer wing lining turns black.

Hydrochelidon leucoptera (White-winged Black

Tern).

II.—Tail forked, but very short; bill powerful; webs

fully developed ; size large. Genus Hydroprogne.

(a) Wing 15°5; bill red.

Hydroprogne caspia (Caspian Tern).

Il1.—Tail deeply forked, the outer pair of feathers notice-

ably longer than the rest; bill fairly slender; webs well

developed. Genus Sterna.

246

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Back gray.

A.—Large size; wing over 11°5 inches; tarsus

blackish.

(a) Bill black ; wing 12°5 inches.

Sterna anglica (Gull-billed Tern).

(b) Bill yellow, under 3 inches; wing 12 inches.

Sterna media (Smaller Crested Tern).

14 inches or over.

Sterna bergii (Large Crested Tern).

B.—Medium size ; wing 8 to 11°5 inches.

(a) Bill yellow and stout; legs red; wing

11 inches.

Sterna seena (Indian River Tern).

(b) Bill orange-yellow and slender; legs

orange-red ; wing 9 inches.

Sterna melanogaster (Black-bellied Tern).

about 2 inches; legs and feet same

colour as bill.

Sterna fluviatilis (the Common Tern).

(d) Bill black always, about 1°75 inches;

legs and feet blackish.

Sterna longipennis (Nordmann’s Tern).

(ec) Bill orange-red, black at the tip; legs

and feet scarlet; outer tail feathers

practically all white.

Sterna dougalli (Roseate Tern).

C.—Small size ; wing about 7 inches.

(a) In adults shafts of all primaries, in young

shaft of first primary, white.

Sterna sinensis (White-shafted Ternlet).

(6) Shaft of first three primaries blackish.

Sterna saundersi (Black-shafted Ternlet).

CEYLON RAILS, WADERS, GULLS. AND TERNS. DAT

2. Back dark brown.

(a) Wing 10 inches.

Sterna anestheta (Panayan Tern).

(b) Wing 11°5 inches.

Sterna fuliginosa (Sooty Tern).

IV.—tTail not forked, but wedge-shaped; webs well

developed ; plumage dark. Genus Anous.

(a) Size medium; wing 10°5 inches; plumage blackish-

brown.

Anous stolidus (the Noddy).

HyDROCHELIDON HYBRIDA (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 307;

Legge, p. 996).

The Whiskered Tern.

_ Description—Summer: A black cap on the forehead,

crown, and nape ; below this a white streak runs from the

gape of the bill to the nape; upper parts ashy-gray ; chin

white to pale gray, gradually darkening through slate-gray

on the breast to sooty-black on the abdomen and flanks ;

vent, under tail coverts, and wing lining white. The primaries

in fresh plumage are frosted, otherwise darker than the gray

of the upper plumage.

Winter : Upper parts lighter gray than in summer ; all the

lower part, including the wing lining, are white. The forehead

is white, the crown white with streaking black spots, which

begin at a point a little forward of the eye and increase on the

nape, which is bordered behind by a more or less imperfect

white collar.

Young birds are mottled brown on the crown and mantle,

the plumage gradually changing towards the gray of the adult.

Bill blood-red ; iris brown ; legs and feet dull red; claws

black.

Length 10; wing 8:75; tail 3:25; tarsus 0:9; bill from

gfe 1-6.

Distribution —Common all round the coast, also on marshes,

tanks, and paddy fields inland, chiefly in the northern half of

the Island. Abundant throughout India and Burma. Occurs

248 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

throughout temperate Europe, all Africa, and Southern Asia

to Australia. Many birds are migrants in the southern part

of their range, but some are resident.

Habits —Found more in marshes, paddy fields, and round

tanks’ or lagoons than by the open coast. Like gulls in

England they often follow the plough. Many of our birds are

migrants, seen only during the north-east monsoon. Some

birds stay, chiefly immature individuals in winter dress, but

others are in full summer plumage, so that the nest and eggs

may yet be found in Ceylon.

The birds breed in colonies on beds of water-lilies or other

floating plants in large swamps; the nest is a fairly large

structure of reeds or straw. The eggs are generally three,

pale olive or greenish, with blotches of purple-gray and brown.

Average size about 1°50 by 1-10.

HYDROCHELIDON LEUCOPTERA (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 308 ;

Legge, p. 1000).

The White-winged Black Tern.

Description —In winter plumage closely resembles the

previous species, but is slightly smaller; the bill is smaller

and darker, and on examination of the series in the British

Museum the forepart of the head appears to be whiter, the

black spots of the crown seldom coming further forward than

the eye. In summer the species is at once recognizable,

as the head and neck, the back, and the under parts as

far as the vent, together with the wing lining, are black.

The coverts on the edge of the wing are white, as are the

rump and the upper and lower tail coverts ; tertiaries dark

gray ; remainder of wing lighter gray, except for the first few

primaries, which are often sooty-brown, where the frosting has

worn off.

Young birds are mottled with dark brown on the crown and

mantle, and have whitish upper tail coverts.

Bill livid red in summer ; blackish-red in winter ; iris d&rk

brown ; legs vermilion.

Length 9:5; wing 8°25; tail 2°8; tarsus +75; bill from

gape 1:3.

CEYLON RAILS, WADERS, GULLS, AND TERNS. 249

Distribution —Until recently only a few specimens have

been recorded from Ceylon, but in April, 1914, at Topawewa

and Minneri in the North-Central Province, and in April, 1915,

near Hambantota, I found a fair number of specimens flying

among flocks of the previous species. At that time of year

the birds were changing to summer dress, and the black wing

lining at once betrayed them. It is possible that being

mainly migrants, and almost indistinguishable from the

Whiskered Tern in their winter dress, they often pass unnoticed.

The species is common in certain localities in Burma, but

extremely rare in India west of the Bay of Bengal. It ranges

through temperate Europe and Asia in summer, wintering

southwards from, Africa to Australia.

Habits —Those of the last species, with which it associates.

As it has been obtained in the Island in May, July, and

October, it is quite possible that if ever H. hybrida is found

breeding in Ceylon, this species may be found nesting in the

same colony. The eggs are very similar, but slightly smaller

and darker.

HyYDROPROGNE CASPIA (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 309).

STERNA CASPIA (Legge, p. 1008).

The Caspian Tern.

Description.—Summer : The forehead, crown, and nape

are glossy green-black ; remainder of the upper parts and the

wings pearl-gray ; primaries when fresh are frosted, getting

darker as the frosting wears off ; rump and tail pale gray ;

entire under plumage white.

In winter the black cap becomes white, thickly streaked

with black, and behind it is a white collar.

Young birds resemble adults in winter dress, but have more

black round the eye ; the mantle and tail are mottled and

barred with rusty black, and the primary quills black frosted

with gray.

Bill stout, coral-red ; iris dark brown ; legs and feet black.

Length 20; wing 15:5; tail 5°5; depth of fork 1:25;

bill from gape 3°5.

250 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Distribution —Fairly common on the north coast during the

north-east monsoon ; rarer elsewhere. A few birds remain in

the north to breed. Locally found in many parts of India and

Burma. Occurs throughout the whole of the Old World, except

in the extreme north, also in North America and Australasia.

Habits —Found in Ceylon chiefly on lagoons near the coast.

When fishing it flies with its large bill pointing downwards,

and covers its beat with a regular and powerful flight. Mr. H.

Parker found a few birds breeding in June on sand banks off

the island of Mannar. One or two eggs were laid in shallow

hollows scratched in the sand. Colour grayish-white with

markings of grayish-purple and dark brown; average size 2°43

by 1°70.

STERNA ANGLICA (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 311;

Legge, p. 1011).

The Gull-billed Tern.

Description —Summer : A black cap on the head from the

forehead to the nape, coming as far down as the lower edge

of the eye ; the nape is crested ; remainder of upper plumage

pearl-gray ; the wing quills are frosted when fresh, smoky-

brown as the frosting wears off ; lower parts, including wing

lining, white.

In winter the black cap becomes white streaked with black,

otherwise there is no change. Young birds are gray or gray

and white on the crown, and the primaries are usually darker.

Very young birds are partly brown on the back.

Bill black ; legs and feet black, sometimes tinged reddish ;

iris hazel-brown.

Length 15; wing 12°5; tail 5°25, depth of fork 1°5;

tarsus 1°4; bill from, gape 2.

Distribution —Common during the north-east monsoon on

lagoons and estuaries from Mannar round through Trincomalee

to Hambantota; rare on the west and south-west coast ;

oceasionally found inland on the larger tanks. Common in

winter throughout India, and found on the coast in Burma.

Occurs from the east coast of North America, throughout

temperate and Southern Europe and Asia, to North Africa

and Australasia.

CEYLON RAILS, WADERS, GULLS, AND TERNS. 251

Habits —Frequents sheets of fresh water and_ brackish

lagoons rather than the open coast. Most of our birds are

migrant, but some remain all the year. The majority of these

are immature specimens in winter plumage, but some, as

Capt. Legge noticed, were in breeding dress, so a lookout may

be kept for breeding birds. The eggs are of the usual type,

and measure about 2 by 1:46.

STERNA MEDIA (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 313 ; Legge, p. 1030).

The Smaller Crested Tern.

(Plate II., fig. 12.)

Description —Summer : A black cap from the forehead to

the nape coming as far down as the lower edge of the eye ; the

crest also is jet-black ; back, wings, and tail pearl-gray. The

lower parts and a collar round the neck are white. The

outer tail feathers are sometimes whitish ; the primary quills

when fresh are frosted silver-gray on the outer web; the

inner webs are brownish-gray near the shaft, otherwise

white.

In winter the nape and a band from it to the front of the eye

remain black ; the feathers of the crown are black with white

borders ; the forehead and lores are white.

Young birds bear the winter dress of adults, with some

brown on the lesser wing coverts, the tertiaries, and tail.

Bill yellow ; iris brown ; legs and feet black, the soles pale

yellow.

Length about 16-5, less in winter plumage, when the tail is

shorter ; wing 12 ; tail in summer 6°75, in winter may be only

5 ; depth of fork 2-3 ; tarsus 1:00 ; bill from gape 2°8.

Distribution —Common all round the coast during the north-

east monsoon. A migrant species common in winter on the

coast of India, but rarer in Burma. Extends from the shores

of the Indian Ocean to the Mediterranean, breeding on sand

banks in the Persian Gulf and Red Sea.

Habits —This species frequents lagoons and sheets of open

water near the sea as well as the open coast, but it never goes

far inland. It often associates in large flocks, and may be

met with several miles out at sea.

11 6(9)16

2] 592? SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

STERNA BERGII (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 314; Legge, p. 1026).

The Large Crested Tern.

Description —Though this bird may be distinguished. by its

larger size, the colouration is the same as in the last species,

save that the forehead is white in summer and the crest more

distinct, and that at all seasons the mantle is much darker

gray with a smoky-brown tinge.

Young birds have a good deal of brown on the upper parts,

and the wing quills are mostly smoky-brown.

Bill pale yellow ; iris dark brown; legs and feet black,

tinged at times with red ; soles yellowish.

Length about 21 ; wing 14:5; tail 6°5-8; tarsus 1°3; bill

from gape 3°6.

Distribution —Found all round the coast, especially during

rough weather. Fairly common round the coast of India ;

rarer in Burma. Ranges from the west coast of South Africa,

along the shores of the Indian Ocean, to Polynesia and the

China Sea. The race found in Ceylon and round the Bay

of Bengal has lately been sub-specifically distinguished as

Sterna (Thalasseus) bergii edwardsi.

Habits —A maritime species, which may often be seen in

fine weather fishing miles out at sea. Rough weather drives

it to the shore, but it seldom goes inland. It has been found

breeding in June on rocks off the south coast and on sand

banks between Mannar and India. The eggs, one to three in

number, are pinkish-buff or green-gray blotched with black or

reddish-brown and inky-gray.

STERNA SEENA (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 315 ; Legge, p. 1003).

The Indian River Tern.

Description.—Summer : A cap of glossy green-black on the

head from the forehead to the nape, extending down the side

of the head to a little way below the eyes ; a small white patch ~

under each eye ; remainder of upper plumage dark pearl-gray,

becoming paler on the rump and tail; wing quills in fresh

plumage frosted white on the outer webs ; under parts and

wing lining delicate pale gray, which passes into white at the

line of junction with the black cap and on the under tail

CEYLON RAILS, WADERS, GULLS, AND TERNS. 253

coverts. In winter, after the moult, the forehead becomes dull

white, the crown gray; the crown then gradually passes

through a streaky black stage into the full summer plumage.

In the young the feathers of the upper parts are smoky-

gray with a brown inner and a whitish-buff outer border.

Bill in summer orange ; iris brown ; legs orange-red. In

winter plumage the bill and legs are duller.

Length 15 to 18 ; wing 11 ; tail 6-9°5 ; depth of fork 5-6 ;

tarsus °8; bill from gape 2°3.

Distribution.—Rather a doubtful inhabitant. Layard stated

it was common in the north, but no one else appears to have

met with it. A resident species on large rivers throughout

India and Burma, extending as far east as Singapore.

Habits —A river species, which should be looked for on the

sand banks of our largest rivers and round our larger tanks.

STERNA MELANOGASTER (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 316).

STERNA MELANOGASTRA (Legge, p. 1006).

The Black-bellied Tern.

Description —Summer: The forehead, crown, and nape

down to the lower edge of the eye black; the lores, chin,

cheeks, and throat white or nearly white ; the upper parts

ashy-gray with a brown tinge on the wings ; the wing quills

have the usual frosting, becoming dusky brown where it has

worn off ; the tail is paler than the back ; the outer web of

the outer tail feathers is white. The lower neck is pale gray,

passing on the breast through chocolate to black, which

continues from, the lower breast to the tail coverts ; wing

lining white.

In winter the lower parts are white, and the cap white

streaked with black.

Half-grown birds are mottled with brown and buff on the

upper parts.

Bill orange-yellow ; iris brown ; legs and feet orange-red.

Length 13 ; wing 9; tail 5 ; depth of fork 3°5 ; tarsus °55 ;

bill from gape 1°8.

Distribution —Another rather doubtful inhabitant reported

by early observers from the north of the Island, but probably

254 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

in mistake for H. hybrida. No authentic specimens appear

to have been obtained. Found by rivers and tanks through-

out India and Burma, but rarer in the south than in the north.

Habits —Those of the last species. The only likely place

in the Island for these two Terns is on the broad sandy reaches

of the lower Mahaweli-ganga and in the adjoining marshes.

STERNA FLUVIATILIS (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 318;

Legge, p. 1015).

The Common Tern.

Description Summer : A black cap from the forehead to

the nape, extending down the side of the head to the lower

edge of the eye ; back and wings ashy-gray. The first primary

has the outer web black and the portion of the inner web

next the quill blackish, the remainder of the inner web white ;

the black decreases on the second and inner primaries. The

rump, upper tail coverts, and the inner webs of the tail feathers

are white ; the outer webs of the tail feathers gray. The lower

lores, cheeks, chin, throat, wing lining, and under tail coverts

are white or nearly white ; breast and abdomen pale vinous gray.

In winter the forehead is white or mottled, and the crown

streaked with black ; lower parts whitish.

Immature birds have a whitish forehead, a sooty-black

nape, a dirty white collar round the neck, and a dark gray

band along the wing coverts. Very young birds are also

mottled on the mantle.

Bill of adult coral-red in summer, duller in winter ; young

birds have a blackish bill ; iris brown ; legs and feet the same

colour as the bill.

Length 14; wing 10°5; tail 6°5 ; depth of fork 3-5 ; tarsus

‘8; bill from gape 2.

Distribution —An occasional migrant during the north-east

monsoon to Ceylon and India, most of the birds being im-

mature. Found throughout the temperate parts of Europe,

Asia, and North America.

Habits —Similar to those of the Gull-billed Tern. It is

only occasionally seen in Ceylon, but in October, 1874, Capt.

Legge found it plentiful near Trincomalee.

ee) |

CEYLON RAILS. WADERS, GULLS, AND TERNS. 25

STERNA LONGIPENNIS (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 319; see

Legge, p. 1016).

Nordmann’s Tern.

Description.—Similar to that of S. fluviatilis, save that the

bill and feet are always blackish and slightly smaller, the

bill in the present species being only 1°75 from the gape as

against 2.

Distribution —One example shot by Capt. Legge at Trinco-

malee in June, and classified by him as S. fluviatilis, is now in

the British Museum, and has been assigned to the present

species, which ranges from North-eastern Asia to New Guinea,

and has been obtained in the Malay Peninsula.

STERNA DOUGALLI (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 319;

Legge, p. 1033).

The Roseate Tern.

Description —Summer: A black cap from the bill to the

upper part of the hind neck, coming down the sides of the

head to the lower edge of the eye; remainder of the hind

neck white, shading into the pearl-gray of the upper plumage ;

primary quills a little darker with some black; all the

primaries and secondaries have a white inner border. The

tail is a little paler than the back, and the long outer tail

feathers are almost white throughout. The under parts are

white with a roseate tinge.

In winter the top of the head forward of the eyes is white

with black spots, while the rosy hue almost disappears from

the under parts. Immature birds resemble adults in winter,

but the black cap is tinged with brown ; the upper parts are

white banded with brown, and the darker parts of the primaries

are dark gray instead of black.

Bill in summer orange-red at the base, remainder black, in

winter almost all black ; iris dark brown ; legs and feet coral-

red or scarlet.

Length about 15 ; wing 8°75; tail 5°5-7°5 ; depth of fork

4-5 ; tarsus °85 ; bill from gape 1:90.

Distribution.—Occasionally seen in fairly large numbers at

various points on the coast. Occurs in the Andamans, but

256 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

scarcely anywhere else on the Indian coast. Ranges all along

the temperate and tropical shores of the Atlantic and round

parts of the Indian Ocean.

Habits —A Sea Tern rarely seen away from the coast,

seldom even haunting lagoons. Mr. H. Parker once found

a colony breeding in June on sand banks in the Gulf of

Mannar. ‘The eggs were one or two in number, brownish or

greenish-gray, blotched with dark brown and inky gray.

Average measurement 1°58 by 1°12.

STERNA SINENSIS (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 320 ;

Legge, p. 1019).

The White-shafted Ternlet.

Description—Summer : An arrow-shaped white patch on

the forehead running back above the eye ; below this a black

band from the bill to the eye ; the crown down to the lower

edge of the eye and the nape black. The upper plumage

pearl-gray, darker on the wings, and paling to white or

whitish-gray on the upper tail coverts and tail. The outer web

and half the inner web of the first two primaries black or dark

gray, the quill shafts and the inner half of these feathers white.

The under plumage is white, sometimes tinged with gray.

In winter the white patch on the forehead is broader and

the tail shorter.

Young birds on the crown are grayish streaked with black,

which increases towards maturity ; the black band from the

bill to the eye is wanting, and the primaries are grayer ; only

the shaft of the first primary is white, those of the later

primaries are grayish or brcwnish.

Bill in summer yellow with a black tip, in winter brown ;

iris hazel-brown ; legs and feet in summer orange-yellow, in

winter dusky yellow.

Length about 10, when the tail is fully developed ; wing 7 ;

tail 3-5-5°5 ; depth of fork 2-3°4 ; tarsus ‘65 ; billfrom gape 1-7.

Distribution—Common round the coast of the dry zone,

rare on the west coast south of Puttalam. Found on the

east coast of India and in Burma, extending eastwards to

Japan and Australia.

CEYLON RAILS, WADERS, GULLS, AND TERNS. 257

Habits —Occurs on the open coast and on lagoons near the

sea. During the breeding season some birds move inland to

breed on the shores of large tanks, such as Minneri, where

the water is not choked with weeds and the shores are

gravelly ; it also breeds on the sandy shores of lagoons. The

breeding season is from June to August ; the nest is a shallow

depression in gravel or sand with little or no lining. The eggs

are two or three in number ; the colour is pale brownish-bufft

marked with deep brown and inky gray. Average size about

1:25 by °94.

STERNA SAUNDERS! (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 321;

Legge, p. 1023).

The Black-shafted Ternlet.

Description.—Similar to that of the last species, but

slightly smaller ; the shafts of the first three wing quills are

dusky brown or black, whereas in S. sinensis the first quill

shaft is clear white ; the mantle is paler, and the tail grayer ;

the bill is more slender, and even less slightly curved.

Length about 8°5; wing 6°75; tail up to 3:0; depth of

fork 1:0; tarsus *6; bill from gape 1:6.

Distribution.—-Not so common as the last species, but more

widely distributed round the coast. Its range extends along

the coasts of the Indian Ocean from South Africa to Burma.

Habits.—Similar to those of the last species. It has been

found breeding in company with it in June on the south-east

coast. The eggs are slightly longer, but narrower.

STERNA ANZSTHETA (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 323;

Legge, p. 1040).

The Panayan Tern.

Description.—A white arrowhead patch on the forehead

extending above the eyes and bordered below by a black

band from the eye to the bill ; the crown, nape, and sides of

the head behind the eyes are black ; hind neck grayish-white ;

rest of upper parts dark grayish-brown ; primaries are darker

brown than the back, with some whitish-gray on the inner

258 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

webs. The long outside pair of tail feathers are white, darken-

ing to gray-brown on the inner webs towards the tip. The

cheeks and lower parts are white, with a sooty tinge on the

breast, abdomen, and flanks. In winter for a short while the

feathers of the lores and crown are mottled with white.

Immature birds are whiter on the head, the feathers on the

back are grayer with whitish edges, and there is less white on

the outer pair of tail feathers.

Bill, legs, and feet black ; iris deep brown.

Length 14°5 ; wing 10; tail 6-7, depth of fork 3-4 ; tarsus

*8; bill from gape 2.

Distribution Numerous on the coast at intervals, especially

after high winds ; found all round the Indian and Burmese

coasts and on the outlying islands, its range extending through-

out the tropics.

Habits—An oceanic species, often seen far from land, and

breeding on islands, such as the Laccadives. During high

winds they appear on shore, probably having been driven

by the weather from the open sea.

STERNA FULIGINOSA (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 324;

Legge, p. 1036).

The Sooty Tern.

Description.—Similar to that of the last species, but larger

and darker. The white arrow-shaped patch on the forehead

is broader, but does not run so far back, stopping above the

middle of the eye, while the black stripe in front of the eye

runs down more obliquely to near the gape of the bill. The

upper plumage is sooty-black, the lower parts white with a

grayish tinge on the abdomen and lower tail coverts. In

winter the lores and crown become flecked with white.

Immature birds are sooty-brown above, the feathers with

white tips, which are broadest on the wing coverts and terti-

aries ; the under parts are slightly paler brown than the

upper plumage, the vent being grayish.

Bill, legs, and feet black ; iris almost black.

Length 17; wing 11°5; tail 6°5-7°5; depth of fork 3°5-

4°5; tarsus ‘9; bill from gape 2°3.

CEYLON RAILS, WADERS, GULLS, AND TERNS. 259

Distribution.—Has been recorded two or three times from

the coast near Colombo, and is occasionally met with on

Indian shores. Its range is the same as that of the Panayan

Tern, but it keeps even more to the open sea, breeding on

oceanic islands.

ANOUS STOLIDUS (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 325 ;

Legge, p. 1043).

The Noddy.

Description.—Forehead and crown pale gray, passing

through gray-brown on the nape into the dark smoky-brown

of the upper and lower parts. The lores are black, gradually

paling into lead-brown on the cheeks and throat. The wing

quills and tail feathers are darker than the body.

Immature birds are paler brown, with a grayish-brown

forehead and neck.

Bill black ; iris deep brown ; legs and feet dark flesh colour

or reddish-brown, the webs paler.

Length 16 ; wing 10°5; tail6; tarsus 1:0; bill from gape 2°3.

Distribution —An oceanic bird, occasionally seen on the

seas round Ceylon, and once obtained on the beach near

Colombo. It also occurs in the Bay of Bengal, and breeds on

the Laccadives in February. The range extends all round the

tropics.

Family STERCORARIID A.

The Skuas.

The Skuas are a family of marine birds, with a piratical

manner of existence. They obtain their living chiefly by

chasing other sea birds on the wing, forcing them to drop any

food which they have secured, and bearing off the booty thus

relinquished. They also harry colonies of breeding birds,

stealing the eggs and fledglings.

As I have shown above in my remarks on the order, the

chief external differences between Skuas and Gulls lie in the

bill and claws. The hind toe is small ; the front toes are long

and fully webbed ; the wing is long and pointed ; the tail is

longish and rounded, and the two middle tail feathers are

noticeably longer than the rest.

12 6(9)16

260 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Skuas breed in the cold regions of both hemispheres, at

other times they range far into the tropics. Several species

oceasionally visit Indian seas, but apparently only one large

form, of which the classification is a little open to doubt, has

been obtained in Ceylon.

STERCORARIUS ANTARCTICUS (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 330,

footnote ; Legge, p. 1050, footnote).

The Antarctic Skua.

Description.—Upper parts dark brown, darkest on the

crown ; the under surface slightly paler ; the neck and mantle

feathers have paler shaft-stripes ; the primaries are white at

the base and black towards the tips.

Immature birds are paler brown throughout, with light

shafts to the neck feathers and grayish edges to the feathers

of the under surface.

Bill black ; iris brown ; legs and feet black.

Length 24 ; wing 16°5; tail 6°5.

Distribution.—A fine immature specimen with its wing

clipped was brought alive to Capt. Legge by a native, who

said it had been caught near Chilaw. As it seemed very

tame, he was doubtful of the authenticity of the record,

Since then, however, two more immature large dark Skuas

have been shot in Ceylon. One was found in an exhausted

state after a storm at Trincomalee; the other was killed

while swimming in the sea at Negombo. Both these later

specimens have been referred tentatively to the present

species. The usual range of this Skua is from the Antarctic

Ocean to the Cape of Good Hope and Australia.

Spolia Zeylanica, Vol. X., Part 38. Plate I.

FIG, 1.—RALLINA SUPERCILIARIS. FIG. 4.—GLAREOLA LACTEA.

FIG. 2.—AMAURORNIS PHG@NICURUS. FIG. 5.—STREPSILAS INTERPRES.

FIG. 3.—ESACUS RECURVIROSTRIS. FIG. 6.—CHETTUSIA GREGARIA.

Spolia Zeylanica, Vol. X., Part 38. Plate IT.

FIG. 7.—ZXGIALITIS MONGOLICA. FIG. 10.—TOTANUS GLAREOLA.

FIG. 8.—HIMANTOPUS CANDIDUS. FIG. 11.—SCOLOPAX RUSTICULA.

FIG. 9.—NUMENIUS ARQUATA. FIG. 12.—STERNA MEDIA.

? EQUUS ZEYLANICUS. 261

? EQUUS ZEYLANICUS.

By E. J. Wayuanp, F.G.S.,

Assistant Mineral Surveyor for Ceylon.

(With two Plates.)

I.—INTRODUCTION.

T a meeting of the Ceylon Natural History Society held

on Friday, December 17, 1915, Dr. Joseph Pearson

exhibited two teeth of a horse (a canine and the first upper

left molar), which were recovered from a bed of gray sandy

clay ata depth of 23 feet below the surface, and about 135 feet

below mean sea level, in a trench opened by the Colombo

Drainage Works at Wellawatta.

Wellawatta is a southern suburb of Colombo, and is situated

about 4 miles south of the Fort. The trench was opened

between the main road and the railway line ; it ran more or

less parallel to both, and was approximately 200 yards from

the sea at the point where the teeth were obtained. The

section exposed above the teeth was as follows :-—

Feet.

Vegetable earth 4

Vegetable earth and sea sand 4

Clean sand 54

Coral fragments 14

Gray sandy clay 8k

The bottom of the gray sandy ip was not egohed’ As

may be expected, lateral variations along the section were

to be seen ; thus, the stratum of clean sand passes horizontally

into sandstone, while coral fragments give place to solid

reef near Wellawatta station. The teeth were discovered at

a depth of 8 feet below the stratum of coral fragments, and

were fortunately saved by a kangany, who had the intelligence

to realize the remarkable nature of the find.

On the supposition that horses were unknown in Ceylon

before the days of European occupation, the occurrence of

the teeth in the gray sandy clay could only be accounted for

by postulating some exceptional circumstances of natural

262 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

burial ; for, since it was evident that the strata had not been

disturbed, the possibility of burial in a refuse pit or of deliberate

interment was out of the question. The fragmentary nature

of the coral stratum above the teeth was not at first realized,

and the hypothesis advanced at the meeting of the Ceylon

Natural History Society, already referred to, was that the

teeth had been carr‘ed to their position in the section by means

of a mud stream (the gray sandy clay) which flowed into a

kind of cavern, the roof of which was formed of coral rock.

Apart from the improbability of this explanation arising

from the difficulty of accounting for the cavern in the first

place, the discovery of the fact that the coral stratum was a

fragmentary and not a solid one gave the deathblow to the

cavern theory, and substantiated the opinion—which I had

reason to confirm when subsequently visiting the site with

Dr. Pearson—that the teeth were, geologically speaking, in

situ. There is nc @ priori reason why the remains of a horse

introduced by Europeans should not be found under cireum-

stances similar to those pertaining to the Wellawatta remains.

One has only to postulate certain land movements within the

last few centuries, and the occurrence of the fossil remains

of a modern horse may easily be accounted for. But the

question is essentially geological, and the answer must be

determined by evidence afforded by the recent marine and

estuarine deposits around the coast. It was with due regard

to these that I stated my opinion that the remains are those

of a creature whose advent long antedated the European

occupation of the Island, and in all probability the Sinhalese

invasion of Lanka.

Some exception has been taken to my use of the term

“ fossil.” The following quotation from Sir Archibald Geikie

will serve as my justification :—

The term ‘‘fossil,”’” meaning literally anything ‘‘dug up,”

was formerly applied indiscriminately to any mineral substance

taken out of the earth’s crust, whether organized ornot. Ordinary

minerals and rocks were thus included as fossils. For many

years, however, the meaning of the word has been so restricted

as to include only the remains or traces of plants and animals

preserved in any natural formation, whether hard rock or loose

superficial deposit. The idea of antiquity or relative date is not

necessarily involved in the conception of the term. Thus, the

? EQUUS ZEYLANICUS. 263

bones of a sheep buried under gravel and silt by a modern flood,

and the obscure crystalline traces of a coral in ancient marshes

of limestone are equally fossils.*

It should be noted that by no means are all fossils petrified.

Indeed, at a guess, I should say that at least 50 per cent.

are not.

The object of this paper is to show reason for the opinion,

already stated, that the teeth discovered during excavation

carried out by the Colombo Drainage Works are not those of a

modern horse, but that they are to be regarded as evidence of

the former existence of Hqguus in Ceylon during a remote—

and, as I shall hope to show, a prehistoric—period.

I have to thank Dr. Pearson for the loan of the teeth and for

information concerning them ; Mr. Paul Pieris for historical

facts ; Mr. A. de Courcy Carson for some geographical informa-

tion; Mr. G. F. Walton for a detailed drawing of the trench ;

and Mr. G. W. Sturgess, Government Veterinary Surgeon, for

the loan of a horse’s skull.

IJ.—Hitstoricat ASPECT.

The question naturally arises, Is there any historic or

traditional evidence to prove that horses existed in this

Island before the first European occupation ?

In late medieval times the horse could not be counted as

a member of the Ceylon fauna, for Knox, speaking of the

Sinhalese in the seventeenth century, says: “ Lions, Wolves,

Horses, Asses, Sheep, they have none.”+ But some Euro-

peans in the country possessed steeds it would seem,{ for the

same author says of the French Embassador : “ He rode up

from Cotiar on Horseback.” §

That the Sinhalese have been acquainted from the earliest

times with the horse there can be no doubt, since they have their

own name for it, as have the Tamils ; nor, since the antiquity

of the horse in India is unquestionable, is this to be wondered

* Text book of Geology, London, 1903, Book V., Vol. Il., pp. 824,

825.

+ Robert Knox: ‘‘ An Historical Relation of Ceylon,’ London,

1681, p. 20.

t In the time of Knox the Portuguese were already breeding horses

on the island of Delft.

§ Op. cit., p. 184.

264 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

at.* There are, however, very few place names in this

country which record the former existence of this creature.

The writer is only aware of three, though there may be others :

Kuthiraimalai (7. the horse mountain) on the north-west coast

of the North-Western Province, identified with the Hipporus

of Pliny by some authors, is well known ; two others, as I am

informed by Mr. Carson, are to be found in the North-Central

Province : one, Kuthiraikattamoddai (T. the post where the

horse was tied), is situated some 6 miles south of Vedivaitta-

kalla ; and the other, Asvayobendakanda (S. the hill where

the horses were tied), is near the north-eastern boundary of

the Province.t

Ancient records, however, are more productive, and from

them a good deal of evidence may be obtained to show the

former existence of the horse in Ceylon. Mr. Paul Pieris was

good enough to go into the matter for me, and the following

excerpts from the Mahawansa are taken at his suggestion :—

1. (Mahawansa, ed. 1889, p. 34) King Pandava sends

wedding presents (from Madura, South India) to Wijayo,

circ. 500 B.c. :-—

The king Pandava having consulted with his ministers (decided

that) he should send him (Vijaya) his own daughter Vijaya ; and

for the retinue of that (king) one less than seven hundred

daughters of his nobility.

‘* Those ’’ (said he) ‘“‘ among you who are willing to send your

daughters to renowned Sihala, send them. Let them be quickly

ranged before their doors, decorated in their best attire.’ Having

bestowed many presents on their fathers, he, with their concur-

rence, assembled the maidens (at the palace), and causing his own

daughter to be decorated with every description of gold ornaments

befitting her sex and exalted rank, he bestowed on her, as dowry,

elephants, horses, chariots, and slaves. With eighteen officers of

state, together with {seventy-five menial servants §(being horse-

* In the history and ancient mythical lore of the Hindus many

references to the horse may be found; take, for instance, Dasharatha’s

horse ‘‘ sacrifice ’’ mentioned in the Rdmdyana. The horse is often

referred to, and sometimes plays a conspicuous part in the mythology

of India.

+ Since writing the above I have been informed of another place-

name of interest in the present connection: Mavittapuram (Skt. the

city of the abandoning horse) near Kankasanturai in the Northern

Province.

t Sixty.

§ Omit this. The other reading gives ‘“‘ one thousand artisans from

the eighteen classes (or castes).”’

? EQUUS ZEYLANICUS. 265

keepers, elephant-keepers, and charioteers), the monarch despatched

these (maidens), bestowing presents on them. All these persons

having embarked in a vessel, from the circumstance of great

concourses of people landing there, the port (at which they

debarked) obtained the name Mahatittha.

2. (Page 53) Dewanan Piya Tissa’s chariot was sent to

convey Mihindo to Anuradhapura :—*

In the morning the king sent his chariot. The charioteer, who

repaired (to Mihintalé), said unto them (the théras), ‘‘ Ascend

the carriage that we may proceed to the town.” ‘* We will not”

(replied the priests) “‘ use the chariot; do thou return, we shall go

hereafter.’ Having sent away the charioteer with this message,

these truly pious personages, who were endowed with the power

of working miracles, rising aloft into the air, alighted in the

eastern quarter of the city, on the site where the first dagoba

(Thaparama) was built.

3. (Page 91) A description of the breaking in of a horse by

a Sinhalese boy, circ. 200 B.c. :-—

He, leaping on the charger, pressed him into full speed in a

ring. (The animal) presented the appearance of one continuous

horse in every part of the circus. Poising himself by his own

weight on the back of the flying steed, the fearless youth

repeatedly untied and rebound his scarf.

4. (Page 41) An incident which shows that the Yakkos kept

horses :—

A certain yakkhini named Cetiya} (the widow of Jutindhara, a

yakkha, who was killed in a battle fought at Sirivatthupura), having

the form and countenance of amare, dwelt near the marsh of Tum

bariyangama, at the Dhumarakkha mountain. A certain person

in the prince’s retinue having seen this beautiful (creature), white,

with red legs, announced the circumstance to the prince, saying

“There is a mare of such a description.” The prince set out

with a rope to secure her.

» From excerpt 4 we gather that the aboriginal, or at any rate

pre-Aryan, inhabitants of the Island kept horses.

The case of Ceylon, then, may be similar to that of America,

where the indigenous Hquus became extinct, and was replaced

in historical times by a modern horse of Hindu or European

introduction.

* Tissa reigned from 307 B.c. to 267 B.c.

+ Who dwelt at Dhumarakkha mountain was wont to walk about

the marsh of Tumbariyangama in the shape of a mare.

{I am informed by Mr. Pieris that references to the horse are

scattered through Sinhalese literature from the earliest times of the

Portuguese period.

$$$

266 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

II1J.—GkroLocicaL ASPECT.

The coast of Ceylon is fringed with littoral deposits, which,

though geologically recent, are of remote antiquity when

regarded from the point of view of human affairs. They

consist of ancient unconsolidated beaches, sandstones, raised

coral reefs, leaf beds, submerged coastal flats, &c., and plateau

gravels. The last of these, as the present writer has been

able to show, contain stone tools belonging to a primitive stage

of culture. The coast deposits, which may in part be correlated

with some high-level gravels terracing the main river valleys,

indicate cycles of upheaval and depression, which have

influenced wide stretches of country.

There can be no doubt that Ceylon and India have been

connected by a land bridge in the past. It is probable, too,

that this connection has been established and broken more

than once. Minor movements have also affected the coast

at various times, and are doubtless still proceeding. There

is no evidence to show that they were violent ; indeed, they

are best regarded as discontinuous and slow. Land bridges

have, of course, influenced the distribution of animals and

plants, and by means of such connections came many of the

indigenous creatures of this country, not excepting man

himself. It is not possible within the limits of the present

paper, nor is it desirable, to consider the recent geological

history of Ceylon in detail. Suffice it to say that evidence

enough exists to show that the coastal belt is cohstantly

subject to slow fluctuations of level ; and that whereas the

most ancient movements which affected this country were

epeirogenic (or mountain forming) in type, those of more recent

date were orogenic (or continent forming), that is, general and

widespread in effect. It is hoped that at some future date

occasion will be found to publish an account of the later

geological history of Ceylon, and the influence of land move-

ments upon our flora and fauna ; meanwhile the reader must

be asked to take the above statement for granted, subject

to forthcoming proof.*

* The most recent contribution to this subject is a paper by

Mr. W. E. Wait, ‘‘ The Distribution of Birds in Ceylon and its Rela-

tion to recent Geological Changes in the Island.’’—Spolia Zeylanica,

Vol. X., Part XXXVI., December, 1914, pp. 1-32.

? EQUUS ZEYLANICUS. 267

Fringing the western and southern coasts of this country

is a well-marked “ reef” of sandstone containing the fossil

remains of existing species of mollusca. This rock is

exposed in many places, generally between high- and low-

water levels, and will serve as a good geological datum.

It is often very hard, and is locally used as building stone.

The consolidation of this rock probably took place after

the loose sand was elevated above sea level; the cement

is carbonate of lime, as was probably derived from marine

shells. It is an interesting fact that whereas the fossils belong

to recent species, they indicate a distribution somewhat

different from that which obtains to-day. At Chilaw, for

instance, Cyprea is a very eemmon fossil genus, but the only

Cypreas which I was able to discover on the present beach at

Chilaw were derived from the sandstone. Cyprea, however,

is common as a living form further north—on the western

shores of the Calpentyn Peninsula, for example. After eleva-

tion the sandstone was evidently depressed, for in many places

a sea-worn surface may be exposed under more modern

accumulations. The rock is of no great width, and passes

inland into unconsolidated sand, with which it is doubtless

contemporaneous. Both the sandstone and the soft sand are

overlain by other beach or swamp accumulations and blown

sand of later date. The hard rock was probably formed on

flats above high-water level, just as similar rocks are tending

to form at the present day (7.e., on the eastern shores of the

Puttalam lake). That between the time oi its consolidation

and the present day it was depressed below the surface of the

sea is evident, not only from the erosion of its surface, but also

from the fact that dead corals, now above water, may often

be seen adhering to it.

The earth movements chronicled by the coastel sandstone

were of the nature of vertical uplifts and depressions ; but, as

may be expected over so large an area as the western and

southern coast belts, local tilting has occurred. From the

mouth of the Kelani-ganga to Chilaw the slightest perceptible

tilt to the west is to be seen, while near Galle the dip is much

more apparent. On the whole, however, tilting is very slight,

and for all practical purposes may be ignored. A glance

13 6(9)16

268 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

at the section (Plate II.) will show the relationship of the

sandstone to the beds above and below it. This section is

generalized, but, although compiled from many observations

taken along the coast, is especially designed to illustrate the

Wellawatta exposures.

Underneath a thin layer of blown sand is a deposit of

vegetable earth indicative of a land surface; below this

a layer of vegetable earth and sea sand—a record of swamp

conditions ; below that again comes a thick layer of sea sand

with marine shells overlying a reef, or a stratum of coral

fragments. The coral rests upon the coarse gray sandy clay

which yielded the fossil teeth. The depth of the sandy clay

in the Wellawatta district is unknown, as its bottom has never

been found ; it probably rests on the ancient crystalline rocks,

which are exposed in a cliff to the east of the generalized

section.

The gray sandy clay deposit is of special interest, inasmuch

as it exactly resembles the material which forms the coastal

flats in the northern part of the Island. These represent, in

my opinion, accumulations which were formed on shallow

sea floors away from the sorting influence of the waves. In

composition they are an admixture of sand and mud with

small quartz pebbles and shells, generally unbroken. Most of

the molluscan species are small, but fairly large shells are not

uncommon. The flats are only covered (if at all) by excep-

tional tides. They are for the most part dry, and support a

scanty vegetation of succulent and herbaceous plants. Thorny

scrub and ranawara bushes find a footing on any patches of

blown sand or ancient beach which may here and there be

found upon the surface. They form a fair grazing ground for

cattle, and footprints show that deer, pig, buffalo, leopard,

elephant, and other creatures of the neighbouring jungle

resort to these open spaces ; while, as I have observed in some

localities, jackal and hare seem particularly fond of them.

I have many times found the remains of wild creatures upon

such ground as this, and here, as in many other places,

scattered teeth are of fairly common occurrence.

At the moment of writing my camp is pitched by just such

a flat as this (at Palavi, Northern Province), and as I have in

? EQUUS ZEYLANICUS. 269

my possession a sample of the deposit from which the fossil

teeth were obtained, a comparison between it and the sediments

of the flat is easy. In the hand specimens the two would be

quite indistinguishable were it not for some difference in the

contained molluscan species. Mineralogically the samples

are identical, but a slight difference exists between the pro-

portions of the minerals present, as may be expected from the

difference of local geology. The gray sandy clay from Wella-

watta, for example, is richer in heavy minerals (ilmenite,

zircon, &c.) than that of Palavi; but the deposits of some

other flats south of Palavi yield concentrates comparable in

bulk with those of the Wellawatta stratum.

The gray sandy clay is a typical “ flat’ deposit. It is

formed in quiescent places, and is characteristic of large

sweeping bays; it is commonly associated with coral reefs.

The deposit is sufficiently definite and distinct in type to be

entitled to a special name ; it has no specific place in geological

nomenclature as far as I know, nor do I intend to christen it ;

it will be convenient, however, to call it by its Tamil equi-

valent kadu-suli (@@een).* The deposit composing the

coastal flats is a kadu-suli, so is the gray sandy clay from

Wellawatta. The striking similarity of the two sediments is

the strongest possible argument in favour of a common origin.

In all probability the Wellawatta kadu-suli was laid down

in a bay, the span of which was defined on the north by a

rocky headland, which now supports the battery, and on the

south by a similar prominence—the site of the present Mount

Lavinia Hotel.

As we have seen, the coast of Ceylon is subject to fluctua-

tions of level. It is not possible to say with certainty whether

the land is stationary or sinking or rising at the present time ;

* The present day mud flats are almost confined (on the western

coast of the Island) to the sea-board of what may be called the Tamil

country (i.e., the Northern Province and the northern part of the

North-Western Province). The Tamils, however, seldom use the term

kadu-suli (sea mud), as suli suffices for most varieties of clay and

slush. Curiously enough the Sinhalese have a saying in which “ sea

mud ”’ (mude-mada) is used in the exemplary sense for a thing unheard

of : &G29.956) 9,829 gman 06.8 Gag O08 Am, DenmS—* Just

. one needs stars from heaven and mud from the sea to cure a fire-fly’s

ite.”

270 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

but some curious hydrographical phenomena, the facts of

subterranean erosion, the rapid denudation of the coast, and

the abrupt ending of shallow platforms under the sea suggest

that the land is being slowly submerged. If such is the case,

and if depression continues for a sufficiently lengthy period,

fresh sediment will be distributed over the coastal belt ; fresh

kadu-suli may be deposited upon the flats, and the bones

and teeth of animals lying on the ground will be covered by

deposits similar to those on which they rest. So will these

accumulations grow till a change of conditions (the result of

depth attained or some other circumstance) necessitates a

change of material precipitated. Thus, a bed of clay may be

covered by a layer of sand, or coral reef submerged in mud.

In the light of these considerations we may interpret the

exposures of the Wellawatta trench, but before doing so it

will be as well to consider the section in general (Plate IT.).

The points A, B, C, and D vary considerably in relative

position along the coast. A is the modern shore line, B is

the edge of the coastal plane, C is the edge of an ancient beach,

and D is the junction of the coastal plane with the Archean

crystalline rocks which form the main mass of the Island.

In places where coastal erosion is rapid (southern part of

the Western Province and Southern Province) A, may coincide

with one or more of the other points. In many localities in

the south (Dondra Head, for example) all four are coincident.

Near Wellawatta A and B are close together, C is about a

quarter of a mile from B, while D is situated some considerable

evidence of land movements is observable, the best conditions

for geological observations are obtained when all four points

are well separated. A, B, C, and D are situated on shore

lines.

Besides the deposits of the Wellawatta section enumerated

in the Introduction, two others are to be considered. ‘The

first of these is the plateau gravel which caps the low hills in

various localities; the second is an ancient beach which

occurs between points C and D.

The plateau gravel was deposited before the minor configu-

rations of the solid land were developed, and the relationship

? EQUUS ZEYLANICUS. 271

of the ancient and modern beaches with the deposits below

them to the inlets of the coast shows these sediments to be

younger than the plateau gravel. Moreover, since the gravel

has yielded Stone age relics, it must be inferred that the

coastal deposits have accumulated during the human period,

that is to say, within (? Pliocene), Pleistocene, and Holocene

times.*

From a comparison of the kadu-suli of the northern flats

with buried teeth-yielding deposit exposed at Wellawatta,

one may reasonably infer that the creature of which the

relics once formed part, met its death, as many others have

subsequently done, on the open plains by the ocean. Since

that time the coast has been depressed in relation to the sea

to a depth of over 20 feet. There can be no doubt that this

did not take place during the European occupation of the

Island, for the sandstone, which we have taken as our geo-

logical datum, is certainly more recent than the gray sandy

clay, and was used by the Portuguese and Dutch in the con-

struction of their buildings. Nor is it likely to have occurred

during any period of the Sinhalese occupation, for, although

minor oscillations may be inferred from some legends in the

Mahawansa,t no depression of anything like 20 feet can

be admitted within the historical period, inasmuch as the

* The tertiary periods arranged in a descending order of antiquity

read as follows :—Holocene; Pleistocene; Pliocene; Miocene; Oligo-

cene ; Hocene. The nomenclature refers to the percentage of certain

living species present. The Holocene period, in which we are now

living, begins with the newer Stone age, and is characterized by an

almost entire absence of extinct species.

+ A minor movement or, more probably, an abnormal wave like

that of 1907, is recorded in the Mahawansa (Wijesinha’s translation,

1889, Part IIL., p. 84) as follows :—

1Tissa, the sovereign of Kalyani, had a brother named Utttya, who,

terrified at the resentment borne to him on the king’s detection of his

criminal intercourse with the queen, fled from thence. This prince,

called Uttiya, from his grandfather (king of Anuradhapura), established.

himself in another part of the country (near the sea). From that

circumstance, that division was called by his name. The said prince,

entrusting a secret letter to a man disguised in the garb of a priest,

despatched him to the queen. (The messenger) repairing thither,

stationed himself at the palace gate ; and as the sanctified chief théra

daily attended the palace for his repast, he also unobserved entered

(with that chief priest’s retinue) the royal apartment. After having

1°° Now there was a sovereign of Kalyani called Tissa, a Kshatriyva,

whose brother Uttiya, terrified,’ &c.

272 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

stupendous effects gradually arising from such a movement

could hardly fail to find recognition again and again in

early writings unless the movement was extremely local.

All the evidence goes to show that the more recent oscilla-

tions of Ceylon have been of a widespread character. The

distribution of the sandstone, already briefly discussed, is a

case in point. A depression of 10 feet, if at all general, would

submerge hundreds of thousands of acres; while a drop of

20 feet would make an enormous difference to the country.

Since, however, such depression has occurred within the

human period, one may safely conclude that the event belonged

to pre-historic days, nor can its protracted nature be reasonably

questioned. At any rate, it is certain, from geological evidence,

that the sinking of the ancient coastal flat was far from

cataclysmic, and the present writer ventures to think that

the few thousand years which have elapsed since civilization

first found its way to this Island are insufficient for the com-

pletion of a movement—or series of movements—which the

geology of the coast records.

But there is time enough and to spare for these happenings

within the “ human period ” of Ceylon, for it can be shown

that early man existed in the country more or less contem-

poraneously with the Paleolithic people of Europe, and

there is nothing extravagant in the statement that man

was probably living in Ceylon a hundred thousand years ago.

taken his repast with the théra, on the king’s leaving the apartment in

attendance (on the théra), this disguised messenger catching (at last)

the eye of the queen, let the letter drop on the ground. By the noise

(ofits fall) the king’s (attention) was arrested. Opening it and discover-

ing the object of the communication, the monarch misled (into the

belief of the chief priest’s participation in the intrigue), became enraged

with the théra ; and in his fury putting both the théra and the messenger

to death, cast their bodies into the sea. The dévatas, *to eapiate (this

impiety), submerged that province by the overflow of the ocean. This

ruler of the land (to appease the dévatas of the ocean) quickly placing

this own lovely daughter Suddhadevi in a golden vessel, and inscribing

on it “* a royal maiden,” at that very place launched her forth into the

ocean. The king (of Mahégama) Kakavanna raised to the dignity of

his queen-consort her who was thus cast on shore ton his dominions.

Hence (from the circumstance of her being cast on shore near a vihara),

her appellation of Vihéra Dévi.

2** incensed at.”

*“ his daughter Devi, a princess of great beauty and purity.”

*** near the Lanka. vihara.”’

? EQUUS ZEYLANICUS. 273

The geological interpretation of the Wellawatta sections

appears as follows :—

On a pre-historic flat bordering the sea an indigenous

horse met its death.* Subsequent slow depression of the land

resulted in the burial of such organic remains as might be

strewn upon the surface of the flat, under deposits akin to

those upon which they were resting. The flat, which partly

filled a large bay (see p. 269), was bounded on the west by a

coral reef. As the land sank the reef grew, till the quiet

conditions which allowed of coral growth and the accumulation

of kadu-suli no longer obtained. Possibly an ancient reef or

rock-bar out at sea, serving in times of greater elevation

to protect the shore from the onslaught of the waves,

was now too far submerged to funetion as a_ break-

water. Whatever the cause may have been, conditions

changed ; the coral reef was denuded, and fragments of the

mass were strewn across the surface of the kadu-suli. The

land continued to sink, and sand was deposited seawards of

the reef, above it, and above the gray sandy clay. Then a

period of elevation set in and continued till the top of the

sand appeared above sea level. Some of the upper layers

were afterwards consolidated by lime-charged waters, and

partially, perhaps, by efflorescence from the coral below,

slight depression again took place, and swamps (to which the

vegetable earth and sand bears testimony) appeared along

the coast. Depression then continued, and marine deposits

crept further inland. While the hardened sandstone out at

sea supported coral growth (see p. 267), at length the down-

ward movement was complete and the land rose again in a

slow discontinuous way, thus giving rise to shore lines C, B,

and A. When the coast had extended to B, swamps appeared.

along the plain, and were afterwards replaced by jungle. The

present beach and blown sand are the youngest deposits in

the series. In a sense the vegetable earth is their contem-

porary ; it should be noted, however, that this bed has a

double history, for, although organic matter accumulates

part passu with the dunes, and has been accumulating since

* Indigenous for reasons set forth under the heading of Palzeonto-

logical Evidence.

274 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

the beginning of the jungle phase, the stratum itself, as such,

is older; it is, as it were, a reservoir for decaying plants.

All fresh material added is younger (and if it falls upon the

surface is separable from the mass) ; but much of the organic

contribution takes the form of decaying roots, which penetrate

and add to a bed which is older than the ancient beach at C.

Such, then, appears to be the history of the more recent

deposits of the coast. There is nothing remarkable in this

succession of movements ; a similiar story may be read round

almost every coast line of the world—a fact which has been

more or less realized ever since the publication of Leopold von

Buch’s classical researches on the Baltic and elsewhere.*

IV.—PALZONTOLOGICAL EVIDENCE.

If the Wellawatta horse is to be considered as a contem-

porary of early man, certain structural differences may be

expected between it and the modern Hquus caballus, but I

am not aware that any great difference necessarily exists.

The question arises, too, Was the horse introduced by early

man from India, or was it part of the indigenous fauna of

Ceylon? This is a question to which no definite answer can

be given ; but it seems unlikely that Stone age tribes would

have deliberately brought the creature to this country, for

the domestication of the horse by so primitive a people as

that announced by the plateau antefacts must be considered

doubtful. In the absence of evidence to the contrary one

must assume that horses reached the Island, as the elephants

and other large mammalia did, of their own accord by means

of a land connection. That pre-historic Ceylon did know

the horse is probable, as we have seen, from the Mahawansa

(excerpt 4).

It has been suggested that the discovery of a couple of

teeth is not enough to establish the existence of ancient horses

in the Island ; but the objection is hardly valid, for although

there can be no doubt that elephants have inhabited the

forests since pre-historic days, no well-authenticated discovery

of their fossil remains has been recorded, despite the fact that

the officers of the Mineral Survey have paid special attention

** Reise durch Norwegen und Lapland.” 1810.

? EQUUS ZEYLANICUS. 275,

to alluvial deposits ever since the inauguration of the Depart-

ment in 1903. The same remark applies to other mammalian

relics which might be expected to occur in river gravels and

valley silt. The fact is that conditions are not conducive to

the preservation of bones.*

There is no obvious reason why horses should not have

found their way to Ceylon in Pliocene or Pleistocene times,

for as Dr. Smith Woodward says: “ The earliest remains of

one-toed horses hitherto discovered occur in the lower Pliocene

Siwalik Formation of India ;’’+ and on the same authority

we learn that horses appeared in Europe during upper Pliocene

and. in America during Pleistocene times.{ Quite recently

equine remains have been obtained from some later tertiary

beds of China.

By the kindness of Mr. Sturgess, I have been able to compare

the Wellawatta teeth with those of the modern horse. I have

also been able to compare the grinding tooth with a photograph

and description of the upper fourth premolar of a new fossil

species from Ho-nan (China), recently published by Hikoshi-

chiro Matsumoto in the Science Reports of the Téhoku

Imperial University, Sendai, Japan.§ Specific distinctions

between ancient horses are liable to raise vexed questions,

for ““ None of these species, old world or new, are easily to be

separated from £. caballus, but many names have been given

to them. It is, of course, perfectly conceivable that they

may have differed among themselves, as much as do- the

existing zebras and asses, the separation of which would be

hardly possible did we know their bones only.” ||

Woodward, speaking of Pleistocene horses, remarks: “* A

large proportion of the remains can scarcely be distinguished

from the corresponding parts of the existing #. caballus.”§

* If I recollect rightly, however, Dr. Kelaart somewhere speaks of

elephant remains in the leaf beds of the Getaheta Valley. I do not

know on what authority.

+‘ A Guide to the Fossil Mammals and Birds ”

Museum. London, 1904, p. 24.

{ Loc. cit.

§ Second Series (Geology), Vol. III., No. L., pp. 29, 30.

|| Beddard, F. E.: ‘‘ Mammalia.”” Cambridge Natural History.

Vol. X., 1902, p. 240.

4] ‘‘ Outlines of Vertebrate Palzontology.”’ London, 1898, p. 338.

14 6(9)16

Mei tenete British

276 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Nevertheless, teeth are generally considered a fairly safe

guide,* and the Japanese author above named does not

hesitate to found a new species (HL. leptostylus) wpon some

peculiarities of dental structure.

Hikoshichiro Matsumoto says on page 2 of his paper :—

“The Pliocene horses of the old world, such as H. stenosis,

EB. quaggoides, and E. sivalensis, are characterized by the very

small anterior inner pillar and the more or less Hipparion-like .

plication of the enamel of the upper premolars and molars, while

the majority of the large Pleistocene horses, such as H. speleus,

E. ferus, E. mosbachensis, E. germanicus, HE. abeli, as well as

“E. caballus foss.’ of auct., &c., are characterized by the large

and long anterior inner pillar and the less complex plication of

the enamel of the same. Between these two groups I distinguish

two lines of intermediation. The first, being represented by £.

plicidens and H. sussenbornensis, has the premolars and molars,

of which the anterior inner pillar is large and short, and the

plication of the enamel is very complex and rather Hipparion-

like. The second, being represented by Boule’s ‘ EL. cf. stenosis °F

and the present species, has premolars and molars of which the

anterior inner pillar is small and short and the plication of the

enamel is rather simple.”

Let us examine the Wellawatta molar in the light of these

remarks with a view to determining where it may be placed

in the above scheme of classification.

The tooth is one that belonged to a full-grown horse, and

is well worn at the grinding surface. It is quite unmineralized,

but has lost its organic content, as may be shown by its

adhesiveness to a moistened surface—the tip ot one’s tongue,

say. It is short and remarkably squarish in section ; its

weight is 49°72 grammes. The canine, which calls for no

* Speaking of the lakes (or crescents) observable in the teeth of the

Equidz, Professor Flower says (‘‘ The Horse,’ London, 1891, p. 126):

‘The sinuosities of their enamel margins, which are sometimes ex-

tremely complex, present great variations in different species, as also

do the indentation in the edges of the sinus which runs forward from

the inner side of tooth between the two internal columns, the form of

the folds at the bottom of which constitutes the only easily recognizable

distinction between the molar teeth of the common horse and the ass.”

This distinction which I have been able to observe through the kindness

of Mr. J. D. Brown, C.C.S.—who in his interest in the matter procured

for me the skull of a donkey—is as follows :—The spur which projects

into the bay between the two inner pillars (internal columns) is hardly

represented at all, while the inlet immediately posterior to the spur

runs up to meet the anterior crescent, (Compare with this statement

character 6 of the table and diagram.)

{ Les Chevaux Fossiles de Grottes de Grimaldi. Ann. Pal., V.. 1910.

p. 113, text fig. I.

? EQUUS ZEYLANICUS. 277

further remark save that its size (74 mm. outside curve,

13 mm. widest part, and 42 mm. greatest circumference)

declares its possessor to have been a stallion, weighs 8°19

grammes.* When due allowance is made for unequal wear,

certain peculiarities, more or less distinctive of the Wellawatta

molar, are to be noted ; these, together with the corresponding

characters of H. leptostylus and EH. caballus, are set forth in

tabular form below.

The first ten characters of the upper left P. M. 4 of 2.

leptostylus are taken from Hikoshichiro Matsumoto’s descrip-

tion, while the others under the same heading are to be

observed in the plate accompanying the same publication. In

Plate I. of this paper the more important structures of the

teeth are drawn to a magnification of two diameters.

In no instance is there complete agreement between the

three teeth.

With regard to one character (16), (B) and (C) are alike in

their difference from (A); in three characters (1, 2, and 7)

(B) approaches (C) more closely than it does (A); in four

characters (4, 5, 6, and 12) (B) is more or less intermediate

between (A) and (C) ; in six characters (3, 8, 9, 10, 11, and 15)

(B) shows more resemblance to (A) than to (C); while in two

characters (13 and. 14) (B) is peculiar.

The upper left last premolar of #. leptostylus is more akin

in structure to the first upper left molar of #. caballus than

it is to its homologue in the latter species, inasmuch as last

upper left premolar of the modern horse is longer in proportion

to its width and has more marked and more complicated

plications than either the corresponding tooth of Z. leptostylus

or its own first molar. On the other hand, the Wellawatta

cheek tooth resembles the collateral grinder of E. caballus

more closely than it does any other tooth of the modern

horse. What degree of correspondence exists between the

upper left first molar of 2. leptostylus and the upper left first

molar of #. caballus we do not know, but we see from analogy

that the plications of the former were simpler than those of

* One of the minor difficulties of the “‘ cavern” theory was to

explain how two teeth of such very different size and weight should

have remained together during the movements of the mud stream.

15 6(9)16

278 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

the latter. Moreover, we know from observations that the

same general statement holds good where we substitute the

Wellawatta horse for #. leptostylus. But the Wellawatta

horse cannot be placed in either of Hikoshichiro Matsumoto’s

lines of intermediation ; for this very simplicity which allies

it with line 2 separates it from line 1, while the long and

comparatively large anterior inner column excludes it from

both,* it obviously belongs to the group of “ Pleistocene

horses,” as might be expected from the geological evidence.

Geological evidence alone, however, would be incapable,

in the present instance, of proving the teeth any more recent

than Pliocene; for, while a strong presumption exists in

favour of a Pleistocene date, the fact that the relics are younger

than the implements of the plateau gravels cannot, while the

antiquity of man is disputed, be held to preclude the possibility

of a greater age.

g ge.y V.—CoNCLUSION.

The Wellawatta teeth, when considered in relation to the

historical, geological, and palzontological evidence bearing

upon them, must be taken to indicate the existence of horses

in Ceylon during pre-historic days. The individual proclaimed

by these relics exhibits the characters of a group of Pleistocene

horses, while a number of features (simplicity of the crescents,

narrowness of the anterior inner column, &c.) serve to

distinguish it from the modern £. caballus. Whether it is

sufficiently distinct from the present day horse on the one

hand, or from, certain extinct species on the other, to entitle

it to a specific name of its own, must be left to the decision of

Naturalists who possess a more intimate knowledge of the

paleontology of the horse, and are more fortunately placed

with regard to recent literature than the present writer.

* The quotient of “* length of pillar’ into ‘‘ length of tooth ” in the

three cases is as follows :—A = 2°90, B = 2°37 nearly, C = 2°28 nearly.

| Dr. Fritz Noetling, in a paper ‘‘ On the Occurrence of Chipped (?)

Flints in the Upper Miocene of Burma” (Rec. Geol. Survey, India,

Vol. XXVII., Part 3, 1894, pp. 101-103), records some flaked stones

which have been recognized by some authorities as the handiwork of

man. Since the publication of his paper, Dr. Noetling has found

reason to regard the beds containing the supposed antefacts as older

Pliocene ; and it may be noted that savants are not wanting who

maintain that Pliocene man in Europe is a proved fact. Some contro-

versial papers concerning Dr. Noetling’s discovery will be found in

‘* Natural Science ”’ and elsewhere.

? EQUUS ZEYLANIOUS.

279

Comparative Table of the more important Characters of the upper left P. M. 4 of (A) Hquus leptostylus,

and the upper left M. I. of (B) the Wellawatta Horse, and (C) Z. caballus.

(See Plate I.)

Character

No.

Pillars

(A) E leptostylus (upper left P. M. 4).

(B) The Wellawatta Horse

(upper left M. I.).

The anterior middle and outer folds are well developed

and wide, each having a distinct vertical median

furrow

Anterior inner pillar very small and short, measures

10 mm. in length and 5 mm. in width at the grinding

surface

Anterior inner pillar is not rounded, but irregularly

triangular, with concave inner side in section

Posterior inner pillar also very small and short, with

perfectly rounded posterior border

Neither of the pillars reaches the boundary of the tooth

proper; the bays just anterior to the anterior

pillar and posterior to the posterior pillar yielding

a comparatively large surface for cement.

Simple spur projects into bay between two inner

pillars

Anterior border of anterior crescent has one con-

spicuous fold

Posterior border of anterior crescent has one con-

spicuous double fold and two rather feeble ones

Anterior border of posterior crescent has one very

conspicuous and two very feeble folds

Posterior border of posterior crescent has one rather’

conspicuous single fold (the additional fold which

appears in the original photograph and in the

diagram is presumably only apparent, and is due to

the foreshortening of a worn surface)

Anterior horn of anterior crescent is wide and squarish,

but not angular, it is directed

Posterior horn of anterior crescent tending to pointed

Anterior horn of posterior crescent is club-shaped and

laterally directed. The apex is anterior.

Posterior horn of posterior crescent points outwards

and backwards

Bay between anterior and posterior inner pillars

widens towards its mouth

Bay anterior to anterior inner pillar is angular

Not quite s0 wide

Longer in proportion to

length of tooth than in

(A). Length 11 mm.

width 44 mm.

Distinct concavity on. inner'

side

Rather small and_ short ;

well rounded exterior

border

Much as in (A), but bay pos-

terior to posterior pillar

smaller (in proportion)

than in (A)

As in (A), but spur not so

large in proportion to bay

One conspicuous fold and

one very feeble, one accen-

tuated by uneven wear of

the tooth

Double fold highly conspic-

uous, one well marked,

one fairly well marked,

and one very feeble fold

As in (A)

One fairly conspicuous single

fold

Wide and squarish ; points

outwards and forwards

Much as in (A)

Crescentrie in shape.

is posterior

Points laterally

Apex

As in (A), but not so marked

Bay is rounded

Much as in (B)

Longer in proportion to

length of tooth than in (B).

Length 11 mm.; width

5 mm,

Rounded

Asin (B), but exterior border

somewhat subangular

As in (B), but bay posterior

to posterior pillar not so

deep as in (B)

Spur extremely small; is

accompanied by a small

fold to the inner side

As in (B), but minor fold very

slight

One very conspicuous single

fold; one well-marked

double fold; two well-

marked single fold

One highly conspicuous, one

conspicuous, one very

feeble, and two long gentle

folds

One conspicuous double fold

Wide and tending to pointed.

Points forwards and out-

wards

Rather more pointed

As in (A), but less club-

shaped

Much as in (A)

Bay narrows towards its

mouth

As in (B), but with squarish

tendency.

———

Note,—The numbers in column 2 correspond with the numbers in Plate I.

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A GENERALIZED GROLOGICAL SECTION OF THE WEST COAST OF CEYLON,

NOTES. 281

NOTES.

-——

Cassia nodosa tree defoliated by caterpillars of Catopsilia

pomona, Fabr.—-Having heard that caterpillars were devouring

the foliage of certain trees in the Victoria Park, | decided to

collect specimens and, if possible, to take a photograph of the

affected tree. The ground all round the tree was one mass

of struggling green. Perched on all the adjoining branches

were crows (Corvus splendens) which were devouring the

caterpillars wholesale, and except for them much damage

would have been caused. I collected some of the caterpillars

and bred them in captivity. They were full grown, and

pupated in three days, the butterflies were the ordinary

Catopsilia pomona, Fabr. The tree adjoining the one which

was eaten was in blossom and of the same family, a few

branches showed signs of the pest, but the gardener timely

intercepted the spread of them. I understand that all this

damage was caused by the caterpillars to the tree in two days.

Colombo, May, 1916. C. C. SOLOMONS

A similar incident to the one described by Mr. Solomons

took place at the Royal Botanic Gardens at Peradeniya this

year. The same thing has happened for several years in

succession, I understand, on practically the same date.

Unfortunately, when my attention was drawn to the outbreak,

the caterpillars were so well grown that nothing could be done

to save the trees. Thousands of the caterpillars were

ascending and descending the trunks and crawling about the

grass and neighbouring bushes. No birds were observed to

be eating them this year, but in the 1914 outbreak king crows

(Dicrurus leucopygialis, Blyth) were seen feeding on the

caterpillars both on the ground and on the trees, and crows

fed eagerly on the pupz, doing, in fact, some damage to the

trees by breaking small branches, &c., to get at them.

282 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Strange to say, the only trees seriously attacked were those

bordering the Palmyra Avenue, others in private gardens

near by not being touched apparently. The outbreak does

not appear to have done any serious damage to the affected

trees, however, as they are coming into new leaf and flowering

vigorously now.

Peradeniya, May 22, 1916. G. M. HENRY.

Flight of Brana callopasa —A very unusual sight attracted

my attention whilst out collecting Cicadas. The lamp on the

gate leading tc the Museum was besieged by what I at first

thought to be a swarm of bees, but on closer inspection they

proved to be moths (Brana callopasa, Wlk.). The lamp

was covered with the moths which were about ten deep. The

next morning I found every one had flown away.

Colombo, May, 1916. Cc. C. SOLOMONS.

Nacaduba dana, De Niceville—This butterfly is new to the

Ceylon lists. It is allied to N. ardates, but can at once be

distinguished by—

(1) Much lighter blue on upperside.

(2) Basal pair of strigz on underside of forewing not

produced below median vein.

(3) Two minute equal-sized black spots, one each in inter-

spaces (1) and (2) of the underside of the hindwing.

The last is the most useful distinction, as all the other

Nacaduba of Ceylon have a large black spot in interspace (2).

Mr. Mackwood has compared it with specimens of NV. dana

from Burma and finds it identical.

The male is found in the Haldummulla district settled

on wet roads, chiefly in April and November. The female is

very rare.

Haldummulla, April 6, 1916, W. ORMISTON.

NOTES. 283

Terias rotundalis.—Moore in his “‘ Lepidoptera of Ceylon” des

cribes and figures this species. Subsequent authors have treated

it as a variety of Terias silhetana, partly, I believe, because

they have never seen a specimen, and partly owing to Moore’s

reputation for splitting the butterflies into unnecessary species.

Mr. Mackwood, who is by far our greatest authority on the

subject, has for many years insisted on its specific rank.

I saw my first specimens in February last, when I was

lucky enough to catch one in the Kottawa forest, near Galle.

Mr. Mackwood gave me another specimen from Ratnapura,

and I found one in the Museum collection from Peradeniya

labelled Teria silhetana.

I give a short description :—

Male (I have not examined a female yet).----Wings short and

more rounded than in silhetana or hecabe, hence the name

rotundalis.

Upperside: Colour a very bright citron-yellow. Black

border very similar to 7’. silhetana, but of a far more intense

black. Not sharply angulated on vein 7 as in 7’. andersont.

Lower Wing: Narrow terminal border intense black, broader

anteriorly, extended along veins near apex as a fine streak.

Underside : Can be distinguished at once from 7’. silhetana

by having only one streak in cell, whereas silhetana has

invariably three. Narrow black border to upperwing, extended

as a triangular black patch down each vein from 4 to 11. In

place ef the pre-apical red patch in hecabe and silhetana,

there is a slight dusting of intense black scales.

Lower Wing: Markings as in silhetana, but narrow black

border from vein 7 to tornus, slightly thickened at end of

each vein. General colour of underside quite as bright as

upper, not paler as in 7’. andersoni.

Sexual mark similar to szlhetana.

Thorax and abdomen much blacker above than in any other

Ceylon Terias ; yellow below. Antenne longer in proportion

to size than in silhetana.

Habits : So far as is known is found in the forests of the

wettest zone. The Peradeniya specimen is probably an

accidental visitor.

Haldummulla, April 6, 1916. W. ORMISTON.

284 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA,

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CEYLON NATURAL

HISTORY SOCIETY.

Fourteenth General Meeting.

THe Fourteenth General Meeting of the Society was held

in the Colombo Museum Library on October 20, 1915, with

Dr. A. Nell in the Chair.

Dr. Pearson gave a few notes on the colouration of animals,

after which Rev. Father M. J. Le Goc, O.M.1., delivered a lecture

on ‘‘ Social Life among Ants.”

Fifteenth General Meeting.

The Fifteenth General Meeting of the Society was held in

the Colombo Museum Library on December 17, 1915, with

Dr. Joseph Pearson in the Chair.

The Chairman proposed alterations to rule 9. There were two

alterations of the same rule, and he combfned both in one

resolution. (a) Instead of the first sentence, read ‘‘ The sub-

scription to the Society shall be Rs. 5 per annum, which will fall

due on January 1 of each year.’ (6) Instead of last sentence,

read ‘‘ In the case of new members, the subscription will fall due

on the date of election, and such election will not be confirmed

until the first annual subscription or life-membership subscription

is paid,”’

The Ven. the Archdeacon said he understood the alterations

proposed were the raising of the subscription from Rs. 3 to Rs. 5,

and in the case of new members their subscriptions fall due on

the date of election. Was the Committee authorized to confirm

the election ? The Chairman said in future, if the proposed rule

was adopted, no elected member would be considered a member

of the Society until he had paid his subscription. The subserip-

tion of Rs. 3 was only a temporary measure, as they did not

know exactly how the finance of the Society would stand. He

thought that Rs. 5 per annum would meet the case. Eighty-

seven members who had been elected had not paid their first

subscription. Under the proposed rule ‘it would be easy for

members to forward cheque for Rs. 10, subscription for two

years,

Mr. Macready seconded the proposition,

CEYLON NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 285

Mr. Holsinger proposed an amendment that the two parts of

the resolution be taken separately.

The Ven. the Archdeacon seconded. Carried.

The Ven. the Archdeacon suggested a verbal alteration in the

second part of the Chairman’s resolution. Instead of the words

“will not be confirmed’ he suggested the words “‘ will not be

complete.”

Mr. C. T. Symons seconded.

The two proposals embodying the amendments were put to the

meeting and carried.

The Chairman next proposed new rule for foreign members as

follows :—

Non-residents of the Island who are distinguished men of

science, and who have made important researches in Natural

History, particularly of Ceylon and the surrounding seas, may be

elected as foreign members without payment of fee or subscription.

Such foreign members will have all the privileges of an ordinary

member, except that they cannot serve on the Council of the

Society. Ordinary members of the Society will be eligible for

election as foreign members after having given up residence

in Ceylon, but no part of a life-member’s subscription will be

refunded.

The Ven. the Archdeacon seconded. Carried.

Mr. C. T. Symons then read a paper on ‘“‘ The Habits of some

Gregarious Shore Crabs.”” The Chairman having offered some

remarks on the Paper, next explained a few exhibits which were

put on view.

Sixteenth General Meeting.

The Sixteenth General Meeting of the Society was held in the

Colombo Museum Library on January 28, 1916. His Excellency

Mr. R. E. Stubbs presided.

Dr. W. J. Dakin, Professor of Biology, University of Western

Australia, delivered a lecture, illustrated by lantern slides, on

““ Whaling in Australian Waters.” Dr. Pearson offered a few

comments.

—— _—__.——

Seventeenth General Meeting.

The Seventeenth (Fourth Anniversary) General Meeting of the

Society was held in the Colombo Museum Library on March 28,

1916, at 5.15 p.m., with Dr. A. Nell in the Chair.

The report of the Henorary Secretaries and Treasurers and the

accounts for the past year were adopted and passed unanimously.

A vote of thanks was passed to Mr. J. F. Sibbald for kindly

auditing the accounts.

286 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

The following were elected as Office-bearers for 1916 ;—

Patron.

His Excellency Sir John Anderson, G.C.M.G., K.C.B.

President.

The Hon, Mr. R. E. Stubbs, C.M.G., F.Z.S.

Vice-Presidents.

F, M. Mackwood, Esq. Dr. A. Nell, M.R.C.S., L.M.S.

Sir 8S. D. Bandaranaike, Kt., Dr. Joseph Pearson, D.Sce.,

C.M.G. TRS! BS LS)

Council.

T. Petch, Esq., B.A., B.Se. The Hon. Mr. Harry Creasy.

O. S. Wickwar, Esq. The Rev. Father M. J. Le Goe.

The Ven, the Archdeacon of C. F. 8. Baker, Esq.

Colombo.

Joint Honorary Secretaries and Treasurers.

W. A. Cave, Esq. | CT. Symons, Esqi, pie

je Re Gi,

The following amendments to rule 21 relating to the election of

foreign members was carried unanimously. The rule will now

read :—

Non-residents of the Island who are distinguished men of

science, and who have made important researches in Natural

History, particularly of Ceylon and the surrounding seas, may be

elected on the recommendation of the Council as foreign members

without payment of fee or subscription. Such foreign members

will have all the privileges of an ordinary member, except that

they cannot serve on the Council of the Society. Ordinary

members of the Society will be eligible for election as foreign

members after having given up residence in Ceylon, but no part

of a life-mempber’s subscription will be refunded (words italicized

constituting the amendment).

Under rule 21 the following foreign members were then

elected :—

E. E. Green, Esq., late Government Entomologist.

Dr. A. Willey, F.R.S., Professor of Zoology, MeGill University,

Montreal.

Dr. J. C. Willis, late Director of Royal Botanic Gardens,

Peradeniya.

Dr. N. Annandale, Superintendent, Indian Museum, Calcutta.

Professor Herdman, F.R.S., Professor of Zoology, University of

Liverpool.

Professor J. Stanley Gardiner, F.R.S., Professor of Zoology,

University of Cambridge.

Dr. Pearson then gave a lecture on the subject of Jelly Fishes,

and several specimens were exhibited,

CEYLON WATER BIRDS. 287

NOTES ON CEYLON WATER BIRDS.

Part II.

By W. E. Wart, M.A., M.B.0.U.

(With a Plate.)

HE present paper is the second instalment of the rough

draft for the handbook on the birds of Ceylon. It

comprises the remainder of the water birds, including the

Pelicans, Cormorants, and allied species ; the Ibises, Storks,

and Herons ; the Flamingoes ; the Geese, Ducks, and Grebes.

Order STEGANOPODES.

Pelicans, Cormorants, &c.

Birds of the present order are readily distinguished by

having all four toes webbed, the hallux or hind toe, which is

long, being turned inwards and forwards and connected with

the three front toes. In their structure the Steganopodes

show a connection with the birds of prey, and differ widely

from the Gulls and Waders. Their nestlings when hatched

are helpless, and remain for some time in downy plumage,

during which stage they are fed by their parents.

Of the five families into which the order is divided, four

contain but a single genus ; the fifth consists of two genera,

each raised to the rank of a sub-family. These five families

differ considerably in outward appearance, but all are fish

feeders. The Pelicans and Cormorants are found equally on

inland waters and round the coast; the Frigate Birds, Gannets,

and Tropic Birds are marine, and mainly oceanic.

2 6(7)17

288 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

The families may be differentiated as follows :—

A.—Tail rounded ; bill long, flattened, and provided under-

neath with an enormous pouch.

Pelecanide (Pelicans).

B.—Tail forked ; the web between the toes deeply scalloped ;

bill straight and sharply hooked at the tip.

Fregatide (Frigate Birds).

C.—Tail rounded, the feathers very stiff ; bill slender, either

hooked or pointed ; plumage mainly black.

Phalacrocoracide (Cormorants and Darters).

D.—Tail long and wedge-shaped ; bill stout and pointed ;

nostrils almost invisible externally.

Sulide (Gannets).

E.—Tail long, the central feathers greatly exceeding the

rest ; bill stout and pointed, the nostrils plainly

visible.

Phaethontide (Tropic Birds).

Family PELECANID 2.

Genus Pelecanus.

Pelicans.

The Pelicans are a familiar group of large birds with

enormous bills, which are adapted for fishing. The upper

mandible is very long and flattened, and terminates in a strong

“dertrum,” or nail, at the tip. At each side, running down

the length of the bill, there is a narrow groove from the

nostrils, which are very small and placed at the base. The

lower mandible is a mere flexible pointed arch forming a rim

to the large pouch of naked skin, which is used as a net to

scoop up fish. The wings are long and ample. Pelicans are

found in warm climates all round the world, frequenting

marshes, rivers, lagoons, or sometimes the sea. They can

both fly and swim well, but do not dive, and are bad walkers,

not often seen on land. Only one species is found in Ceylon.

CEYLON WATER BIRDS. 289

PELECANUS PHILIPPENSIS (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 335).

PELECANUS PHILIPPINENSIS (Legge, p. 1198).

The Spotted-billed Pelican.

Description.—Breeding plumage : mainly white, the feathers

of the crown and neck short and rather fluffy, with dark bases ;

there is a slight crest and a sort of mane, brownish in colour,

down the hind-neck ; the scapulars and feathers of the wing

coverts and upper tail coverts have black shafts ; the lower

back, flanks, vent, and lower tail coverts are tinged vinaceous

pink. The primaries and primary coverts are dark brown ;

outer half of secondaries brown; tail lighter brown, the

» feathers white at the base.

Adults out of breeding plumage and immature birds lack

the rosy tint on the lower back, flanks, and under parts. The

feathers of the head and neck are white with black bases ;

wings and tail brown ; under parts whitish-brown. The lesser

wing coverts are short, instead of being long and pointed.

Bill flesh-coloured, with bluish spots on the sides of the

upper mandible ; pouch dull purple with blue-black markings ;

iris pale yellow or almost white ; legs and feet dark brown.

Length 57; wing 22; tail 8; tarsus 3:5; bill from gape

14 ; females slightly smaller.

Distribution—Found wherever there are suitable sheets of

water throughout the north and east of the Island as far

south as Hambantota. Occurs in similar places all over India,

Burma, and the East.

Habits.—This species is found often in large flocks on

brackish lagoons and large tanks, but is commoner near the

sea than far inland. It breeds from about December to

March, building a large stick nest in high trees. It generally

lays three chalky-white eggs measuring about 3 by 2°15.

Family FREGATID2.

Genus Fregata.

Frigate Birds.

These are oceanic birds of dark plumage, whose enormously

long pointed wings and slender build give them a power and

speed of flight unsurpassed even by the Albatross. The bill

290 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

is long and sharply hooked at the tip ; the upper mandible is

flattened; the nostrils are situated near the base of the bill;

the nasal grooves are well marked, and run to the nail at the

tip. The chin is naked and pouched, the tarsus very short

and feathered, the web between the toes deeply scalloped and

the tail deeply forked. The birds obtain their food while on

the wing, largely, like the Skuas, by chasing Gulls and other

sea birds and forcing them to drop their catch, but also by

capturing flying fish or by swooping down on such fish,

crustaceans, and young turtles as show themselves on the

surface of the water. The various species range over the

tropical seas and breed on oceanic islands, constructing a stick

nest resting on rocks or in bushes. They lay one or two pure

white eggs. Two species have occurred as stragglers on the

shores of Ceylon.

Key to Ceylon Fregatide.

A.—Bill from gape 4°5 or over ; wing 22 or over.

Fregata aquila (Man-of-war Bird).

B.—Bill from gape under 4 ; wing about 20.

Fregata ariel (Smaller Frigate Bird).

FREGATA AQUILA (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 338 ; Legge, p. 1204).

Frigate Bird ; Man-of-war Bird.

Description.—Male : black all over ; the head, neck, scapu-

lars, and back glossed with green and purple.

Female: back brownish-black; feathers of lesser and

medium wing coverts lighter brown with a dark shaft stripe

and pale edges ; breast and sides of abdomen white.

Immature birds resemble the female, but have the head,

neck, breast, and middle of the abdomen white ; the flanks

are darkish brown.

Bill bluish-gray ; iris dark brown ; naked skin of throat red ;

legs and feet red.

Length about 40; wing 22 to 25; tail 15 to 19; depth of

fork 10 to 11°5; tarsus +08; bill from gape 4°5 to 5°5.

Females are rather smaller than males.

Distribution.—The British Museum series includes one skin,

that of a moulting bird, from Ceylon. The species ranges all

round the seas of the tropics.

CEYLON WATER BIRDS. 291

FREGATA ARIEL (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 338).

FREGATA MINOR (Legge, p. 1203).

The Smaller Frigate Bird.

Description.—Similar to that of the last species, but the

bird is smaller, while the male has an irregular white patch on

the flanks, and the female a whitish collar all round the neck.

In young birds the breast is sooty-brown ; the abdomen,

head, and neck white.

Bill gray ; iris red, black in young birds ; naked skin of

throat red ; feet black.

Length about 30 ; wing 20; tail 13 ; depth of fork 6 to 7:5 ;

tarsus -75 ; bill from gape 3°75.

Distribution—A not uncommon straggler to our shores ;

generally observed on the west coast. The species ranges

over the tropical parts of the Indian Ocean, and in the Pacific

from the China Seas to New Caledonia.

Family PHALACROCORACID &.

Cormorants and Darters.

The present family are birds either of medium or fairly

large size and of rather heavy build ; their plumage is wholly

or mainly black, especially on the upper parts. The neck is

long ; the bill long and slender ; the tail feathers are stiff and

harsh. The wings are of moderate length ; the birds rise

heavily, but have a powerful flight. They are all voracious

fishers, diving and often swimming for some distance under

water after their prey. After coming out of the water they

have a curious habit of alighting on a low rock or tree stump,

and as it were hanging themselves out to dry with their

wings half extended. The nest is a platform of twigs, more

or less lined with grass or water weed, and placed on low trees

or ledges of rock. The eggs are narrow ovals, with an inner

texture of green and a rough outer layer of chalky-white.

The family is divided into two sub-families, distinguishable

by the shape of the bill, as follows :—

A.—Bill hooked at the tip, edges of the mandibles smooth.

Phalacrocoracine (Cormorants).

B.—Billstraight and pointed, edges of the mandibles serrated.

Ploting (Darters).

292 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Sub-family Phalacrocoracine.

Genus Phalacrecorax.

Cormorants.

A large genus, containing nearly forty species, distributed

almost all over the world. Three species occur in Ceylon.

As mentioned above, the bill is hooked at the tip. The

nostrils are concealed by the skin at the base of the bill ; the

nasal grooves are long and narrow. There is a naked gular

pouch extending almost to the end of the lower mandible, the

sides of which are joined together only at the tip.

Rough Key to Ceylon Species.

A.—Fourteen feathers in tail; wing 12 inches or over >

plumage across the throat from eye to eye white.

P. carbo (Large Cormorant).

B.—Twelve feathers in tail.

(a) Wing about 10°5.*

P. fuscicollis (Indian Shag).

(b) Wing about 7°5.

P. javanicus (the Little Cormorant).

PHALACROCORAX CARBO (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 340 ;

Legge, p. 1182).

The Large Cormorant.

Description.—Adults : black glossed with green or purple ;

a white band across the throat from eye to eye adjoining the

naked skin of the face ; a small pointed crest on the head

and nape ; feathers of the upper back and wing coverts dark

brown edged with black ; wing quills bronzed black.

In the breeding season adults assume a patch of white low

down on each flank; the head and neck are streaked with

long narrow white plumes, which often almost hide the black

plumage underneath.

* Abnormal specimens sometimes occur with fourteen tail feathers,

but they have no white facial band.

CEYLON WATER BIRDS. 293

Immature birds have the top of the head and neck finely

- streaked with rather lighter brown ; the middle of the throat,

the breast, and the middle of the abdomen are white, which

becomes increasingly streaked with black until the full adult

plumage is attained. Bill dark on the upper mandible and

on the tip of the lower, remainder pale ; iris green ; naked

skin round the eye dusky yellow, on the throat bright yellow

spotted with black ; legs and feet black.

Length 32; wing 12 inches or more; tail 7; tarsus 2°3;

bill from gape 3°75.

Distribution.—There appears to be some confusion in the

records concerning the occurrence in Ceylon of this species

and the next. Legge does not appear to have obtained

specimens of either, and thought that some large Cormorants

seen by him on Minneri tank were P. carbo, whereas they were

probably P. fuscicollis. The present species certainly occurs

during the north-east monsoon in the north of the Island,

where it may be met with on lagoons near the coast. It has

not yet been ascertained if it remains all the year round. It

is found on the coast, large rivers, and suitable sheets of water

throughout India and Burma, and breeds in a good many

localities. Its range extends over almost the whole of the

Old World, also Australia and the east coast of North America.

Habits.—The birds often scatter during the day, but roost

and breed in large companies. The nest is placed on trees

growing in the water or on rocks. The eggs may be four to .

seven in number, and measure about 2°50 by 1°60.

PHALACROCORAX FUSCICOLLIS (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 341 ;

Legge, p. 1182).

The Indian Shag.

Description.—Adults : black glossed with green or purple ;

the black of the face plumage extends right up to the naked

facial skin, there being no white border. There is no crest.

On the side of the head are a few minute white specks. Out

of the breeding season the throat is more or less speckled with

white ; in breeding plumage the birds assume a minute tuft

of two or three white feathers on each side of the neck behind

the ear.

294. SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Young birds are brown above; the throat, breast, and

abdomen are mostly white, becoming more and more streaked

with brown as age increases.

Bill dark horny-brown, often lighter underneath ; iris greeny-

blue ; naked skin round the eye black, on the throat yellow ;

legs and feet black.

Length 25; wing about 10°5; tail 6°5; tarsus 1°8; bill

from gape 3°25.

Distribution.—Occurs on Minneri and other large tanks in

the north of the Island.

Four specimens shot by me out of different flociss on Minneri

tank all belonged to this species.

It is also sparingly distributed in the Hambantota District

and probably in the Eastern Province. I have shot the bird

in August, so it would appear to be resident. Elsewhere it

occurs in Sind, Central India, and the Carnatic, and more

abundantly in Burma.

Habits.—This species occurs in fairly large flocks on some

of the larger inland sheets of water. It is a wary bird, and

seldom comes within range of the shore. As yet no nesting

place appears to have been discovered in Ceylon. In India

the birds breed in colonies on low trees standing in the water.

The eggs are rather smaller than those of P. carbo, and

measure about 2°1 by 1°4.

PHALACROCORAX JAVANICUS (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 342).

PHALACROCORAX PYGMUS (Legge, p. 1191).

The Little Cormorant.

Description.—Black slightly glossed with green; wing

coverts and scapulars dark silver-gray, each feather bordered

with black. Out of the breeding season the throat adjoining

the naked skin is white ; in the breeding season some scattered

white feathers appear on the crown and sides of the head,

with a few white filaments on the sides of the neck.

Bill brown, livid purple in the breeding season ; iris greenish-

brown to greenish-white ; the naked skin of face and throat

and the legs blackish out of the breeding season, livid at

breeding time.

CEYLON WATER BIRDS. 295

Length 20; wing 7°5; tail 5°50; tarsus 1°3; bill from

gape 2°2.

Distribution —Common all over the low-country wherever

there are tanks or marshes. Found throughout India and

Burma, the range extending eastward through Malaya to the

Dutch East Indies.

Habits ——The birds scatter during the day, but sometimes

on large tanks unite in huge parties which form across the

water and drive the fish before them. They roost and breed

in big colonies on low trees. They breed chiefly during the

rains of the north-east monsoon, but in favourable localities

several broods are reared. The eggs are three to five in

number, and measure about 1°75 by 1°15.

Sub-family Plotine.

Genus Plotus.

Darters.

The Darters are a tropical genus, differing from the Cormo-

rants in having a long straight pointed bill with no nasal

grooves. The head and neck are very slender, the latter

being long and with a bend in the vertebre, like the neck of a

Heron. There is no naked pouch under the chin. Only one

species occurs in Ceylon.

PLOTUS MELANOGASTER (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 344;

Legge, p. 1194).

The Indian Darter, or Snake Bird.

Description.—General colour glossy black ; head and hind-

neck blackish-brown with paler edges to the feathers ; a fine

white streak above the eye ; the feathers of the upper back

with brown edges ; conspicuous silvery white shaft-streaks

on the scapulars, wing coverts, and tertiaries ; the innermost

_ tertiary and the four central tail feathers have the outer web

corrugated. The face, throat, and upper part of the fore-neck

white, a white stripe extending from the bill above the gape

for some way down the side of the neck.

3 6(7)17

296 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Immature birds are sooty-brown on the under parts and

lower back ; the white shaft-stripes on the upper plumage are

tinged with yellow ; the neck is pale brown, whitish under-

neath. ,

Bill brownish on the upper, yellowish on the lower mandible ;

iris yellow ; legs black.

Length 36; wing 13°5; tail 10; tarsus 1:5; bill from gape

38.

Distribution —Common on tanks all through the dry zone

of the low-country. Found throughout India, Burma, and

the whole of the Oriental region.

Habits.—Like the Cormorants, this bird feeds entirely on

fish. It swims with only the head and neck out of water,

and can travel for a long way under the surface. It is very

wary, and generally keeps well out of range. It breeds in

colonies in the early part of the year. The nest and eggs

resemble those of Cormorants. The eggs are three or four in

number, and measure about 2°10 by 1°35.

Family SuLIDz.

Genus Sula.

Gannets and Boobies.

The genus contains about six species, comprising the more

active Gannets which are found in the temperate zone and

the more sluggish Boobies which range round the tropics.

The bill is powerful and pointed, curving slightly at the end.

The skin of the face and of the throat adjoining the bill is

naked ; the nostrils are placed at the base of the bill, being

minute even in young birds and completely closed in adult

specimens. The wings are long and pointed, the tail long and

wedge-shaped.

The Boobies feed mainly on flying fish and wander through-

out the tropical seas, but are chiefly found about reefs and

islands. They breed on isolated rocky islands, laying one

chalky-white egg with an inner texture of green.

Two species have occurred in Ceylon as occasional stragglers.

CEYLON WATER BIRDS. 297

Rough Key to Ceylon Species.

A.—Fourteen tail feathers ; wing about 15 ; feet paie yellow.

Sula leucogaster (the Booby).

B.—Sixteen tail feathers ; wing about 16°5 ; feet slaty.

S. cyanops (the Masked Booby).

SULA LEUCOGASTER (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 346).

SULA LEUCOGASTRA (Legge, p. 1177).

The Booby, or Brown Gannet.

Description.—Head, neck, all upper parts, and upper breast

chocolate-brown, with a deeper bluish tinge on the wing quills

and tail feathers ; the lower breast and abdomen with the

lower tail coverts white ; wing lining brown with some white.

Immature birds are rather lighter than adults on the upper

plumage, and the lower parts are pale brown with whitish tips

to the feathers.

Bill creamy white ; iris white or very pale ; the pouch and

naked skin of the face is pale, with a blue, green, or yellow tinge.

Length 28 to 32; wing 15; tail 8; tarsus 1°8; bill from

gape 4°5.

Distribution.—A straggler to Ceylon during the north-east

monsoon. It has been recorded on several occasions from

Arippu, Colombo, Kalutara, and Galle. Occasionally met

with on the coasts of India and Burma, its range extending

throughout tropical seas all round the world.

SuLa cyanops (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 347; Legge, p. 1180).

The Masked Booby.

Description.—Plumage white, except the wing quills, greater

coverts, and tail feathers, which are blackish-brown.

Immature birds are brown throughout, with a few paler

feathers on the breast and abdomen; the wing lining is

mostly white with some brown.

Bill yellow or greenish-yellow ; iris yellow, reddish, or

greenish-yellow ; pouch and naked skin of face dark slate-

colour ; legs and feet slate-gray, the webs darker.

Length 32; wing 16°5; tail 7°25; tarsus 2°2; bill from

gape 5.

298 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Distribution.—There is one specimen in the Colombo

Museum, which came from the coast of the North-Western

Province. The bird has occasionally been obtained off the

west coast of India, and, like the former species, ranges

throughout tropical seas.

Family PHAETHONTIDA.

Genus Phaethon.

Tropic Birds.

The Tropic Birds are the most graceful members of the

order. In size and appearance they are not unlike the larger

species of Terns.

The plumage is satiny and mainly white ; the young are

barred on the back with black, and in one Indian species the

barring persists in the adult plumage.

The bill is stout, gently curved, and pointed ; the nostrils

are linear, and placed near the base of the bill. The wings

are very long, and the first primary is the longest. The two

middle tail feathers are produced into long narrow streamers,

greatly exceeding the other tail feathers, which are short.

The birds spend a great part of their time far out at sea, and

breed on oceanic islands, where they nest in holes in the

rocks, laying a single egg of reddish-white with brownish-purple

markings. Four or five species are known, ranging over the

tropical ocean. Two are said to have occurred in Ceylon.

Rough Key to Ceylon Species.

A.—Fourteen tail feathers; bill 3°25; back barred in

adults, as well as in young birds.

Phaethon indicus (Short-tailed Tropic Bird).

B.—Twelve tail feathers ; bill 2°80 ; back white in adults.

P. flavirostris (White Tropic Bird).

_Puartuon tnpicus (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 349; Legge, p. 1173).

The Short-tailed Tropic Bird.

Description.—Plumage satiny white, barred on the upper

parts from the neck to the tail coverts with black ; the wing

coverts and tertiaries are almost wholly black. There is a

CEYLON WATER BIRDS. 299

crescent-shaped black patch in front of the eye, and a broken

curved black streak running from behind the eye to the

nape. The first five primary quills are black on the outer

and on half of the inner web ; the remainder of the inner web

and the tip of the quill are white. The flanks are barred

with black. The middle tail feathers or streamers are under

12 inches long, their shafts are black at the base and white at

the tip.

Bill pale orange-red, dusky on the margins ; iris blackish-

brown ; legs and feet yellowish-white, with some black on the

inner toes and their webs.

Length, including streamers, up to 21 ; wing 11°5; tail 7°5

to 12; tarsus 1; bill 3°25.

Distribution.—Rather a doubtful inclusion in our list, but

birds seen by Holdsworth in the Gulf of Mannar probably

belonged to this species. It occurs on the Indian seas, from

the straits of Malacca to the Red Sea.

PHAETHON FLAVIROSTRIS (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 350 ;

Legge, p. 1172).

The White Tropic Bird.

Description.—Plumage in adults satin white; a black

crescent-shaped patch in front of the eye and a black stripe

behind the eye to the back of the head. There are two broad

black bands on the wings: the inner one on the median

coverts and tertiaries, the outer on the first five or six

primaries. The streamers are long and white, with black

shafts which whiten towards the tip. There isa wash of gray-

black on the flanks.

Immature birds are barred with black on the upper plumage.

Bill pale yellow ; iris brown ; legs and base of the toes dull

yellow ; rest of foot black.

Length, including streamers, up to 30; tail up to 18; wing

1@-76.; tarsus °9 5 pull 2°8.

Distribution—Specimens have been obtained at Chilaw and

Colombo, others have been seen off the west coast. Occasion-

ally reported from the Indian coast, and once a bird was

caught 170 miles inland in Cachar, north-east India. The

species ranges all round the tropical seas.

300 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Order TUBINARES.

Family PROCELLARIID #&.

Petrels.

The Petrels are oceanic birds, which generally live far

from land, resting on the water, and resorting to the shore

merely for breeding purposes. In outward form they are

not unlike Gulls, but differ from them in many characteris-

tics of their structure. They may be told apart from all

other orders by their nostrils, which terminate externally in

tubes. These tubes may be united or separate, the nostrils

in some species having but a single orifice, in others a double

orifice separated by a septum. The upper mandible of the

bill is deeply grooved, and generally sharply hooked at the

tip. The front toes are well webbed ; the hind toe or hallux

is small, often represented by a mere claw, or sometimes absent.

The wings are long in most forms, and the flight swift and

powerful, the birds generally skimming near the surface of the

waves. They feed on small floating forms of marine life and

on small fish. Many of them follow in the wake of ships and

feed on the refuse thrown overboard.

Several different methods of classification have been adopted

within the order. Blanford, largely for the sake of conven-

lence, seeing that the birds found in Indian seas are limited to

rare stragglers of a few species, has left all the Indian genera

in one family—Procellariide.

Three species, each representing a genus, have occurred

within Ceylon limits.

Rough Key to Ceylon Procellarude.

A.—Size small ; wing under 7 inches ; nostrils with a single

external orifice.

Oceanites oceanicus (Wilson’s Stormy Petrel).

B.—Size medium ; wing 11 inches; nostril tube with a

double external orifice separated by a broad septum ;

plumage dark brown.

Puffinus chlororhynchus (Green-billed Shearwater).

CEYLON WATER BIRDS. 301

C.—Size medium ; wing 10°25; nostril tube terminating

in a single orifice, but divided within ; plumage

black and white.

Daption capensis (the Cape Petrel).

OCEANITES OCEANICUS (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 354 ;

Legge, p. 1056).

Wilson’s Stormy Petrel.

Description.—Upper parts sooty black ; the forehead and

under parts slightly browner and paler; the greater wing

coverts gray-brown ; the upper tail coverts and hindmost

part of the flanks white.

Bill black ; iris almost black; legs and feet black, the

centre of the webs between the toes pale yellow.

Length 7°5; wing 6:25; tail 3; tarsus 1°3; bill from

gape °65.

Distribution.—Legge records the fact that a small black

Petrel with white tail coverts had occasionally been seen

round the coast of Ceylon, and that it was probably this species,

which occurs in the Indian and Atlantic Oceans and is not

rare in the seas round India. Recently, in October, 1916,

Mr. W. A. Cave came across some small petrels of a similar

description skimming close to the water in rough weather at

the mouth of Colombo harbour. On several occasions he

came within a few yards of the birds, and identified them with

practical certainty as belonging to the present species.

PUFFINUS CHLORORHYNCHUS (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 356 ;

Legge, p. 1054).

Green-billed Shearwater.

Description—Dark smoky brown above, paler beneath,

with a grayish tinge, which is most pronounced on the chin

and throat.

Bill dusky greenish ; iris almost black; legs and feet

fleshy-white.

Length 16; wing 10°75; tail 5; tarsus 1°8; bill from

gape 1°8.

302 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Distribution—Has been obtained on several occasions

between Panadure and Colombo, and has been seen by Capt.

Legge at Trincomalee. It is found in the Indian Ocean, the

South Pacific, and the seas round Australia and New Zealand.

DapTION CAPENSIS (Blanford, Vol. TV., p. 357 ;

Legge, p. 1056).

The Cape Petrel.

Description.—The whole head with the back and sides of

the neck brownish-black ; the remainder of the upper parts

white with a broad black tip to each feather, except on the

primary coverts and lesser wing coverts, which are wholly black.

Most of the outer web of the primary quills and the tip of the

inner web are black, the rest white ; tail white with a broad

black tip. The under plumage is white, mottled on the throat

and lower tail coverts with dusky brown.

Bill black ; iris brown ; legs and feet blackish-brown, with

light patches on the side of the toes.

Length 16; wing 10°25; tail 4; tarsus 1°7; bili from

gape 1°6.

Distribution.—A single specimen was obtained many years

ago in the Gulf of Mannar. The species is abundant in the

southern hemisphere, but rare north of the equator.

Order HERODIONES.

Ibises, Spoonbills, Storks, and Herons.

These are all wading birds found about marshes and swamps.

They resemble the Limicole, or non-perching waders, in

having the neck, bill, and legs long, and the hock or tibia

usually bare for some distance above the joint with the tarsus.

They differ from them widely, however, in many points of

their structure, the most noticeable outward point of distinc-

tion being the hind toe, which in the present order is well

developed and set on the foot in the same plane as the other

toes, thus enabling the birds to perch firmly and to roost in

trees. Again, in the manner of nidification and in the charac-

ter of the nestlings they show more relationship with the

CEYLON WATER BIRDS. 303

birds of prey and the Steganopodes. The nest is usually a

platform of twigs placed in a tree, the eggs are, with few

exceptions, unspotted, while the young are helpless when

hatched, and require to be fed for some time by the parents.

The Indian members of the order fall into three sub-orders,

characterized outwardly as follows :—

I.—Bill long, either curved downwards or spoon-shaped.

Platalex (Ibises and Spoonbills).

II.—Bill long, stout, with no distinct nasal groove, and

generally straight.

Ciconie (Storks).

JIJ.—Bill generally straight, slender, and pointed ; a distinct

groove running from the nostrils down each side of

the upper mandible ; claw of middle toe furnished

with a comb.

Ardezx (Herons).

Sub-order PLATALE/L.

Ibises and Spoonbills.

The Ibises and Spoonbills are closely related, but have been

placed in separate families owing to the great difference in the

beak, the bill curving downwards in the [bidide or Ibises, and

being straight and spoon-shaped in the Plataleide or Spoon-

bills.

Family [pip1p #.

[bises.

Ibises are medium-sized birds, with long curving bills and

legs of comparatively moderate length, the bill being consider-

ably longer than the tarsus. The nostrils are placed near the

base of the bill in a groove which extends down the side of the

upper mandible. Their flight is characteristic : the neck is

outstretched, as with the stork, but the wing beats are quicker,

and there are frequent intervals of gliding with the wings held

steady. They are frequently confused with the Curlews, but

may be distinguished at once by their having long hind toes

and perching in trees.

Two species, placed in separate genera, are found in Ceylon.

4 6(7)17

304 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Rough Key to Ceylon Ibidide.

A.—Plumage white ; head and neck naked in adults.

Ibis melanocephala (White Ibis).

B.—Plumage coloured; head and neck feathered, except in

front of the eye.

Plegadis falcinellus (Glossy Ibis).

IBIS MELANOCEPHALA (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 361 ;

Legge, p. 1106).

The White Ibis.

Description.—Plumage white ; the tertiaries slate-gray at

the ends ; the primaries generally mottled with brown at the

tips ; the skin of the head and neck black and naked in adults.

In breeding plumage the tertiaries grow long and soft, and

there are a few plumes on the upper breast.

Young birds have blackish-gray feathers on the head and

neck as far forward as the eyes.

Bill black ; iris red-brown; legs and feet black ; wing skin

scarlet.

Length 30; wing 14; tail 5; tarsus 4; bill from gape 6°5.

Distribution.—Scattered throughout the northern half of

the Island and down the east side as far south as Tangalla.

Occurs throughout India and Burma, and ranges eastward to

China and South Japan.

Habits.—This species may be found in flocks here and there

round the large tanks or in marshes, feeding on molluses,

worms, &c.

The birds breed in colonies, mainly during the north-east

monsoon rains, but occasionally later, as I have found young

unable to fly in July. The nests are fairly large platforms of

twigs placed on trees growing in the water. Three eggs are

generally laid; they are white elongated ovals, sometimes

delicately spotted with brown, and measuring on an average

2°57 by 1°65.

CEYLON WATER BIRDS. 305

PLEGADIS FALCINELLUS (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 364 ;

Legge, p. 1109).

The Glossy Ibis.

Description.—Head, wings, and tail deep brown .glossed

with bronze-green and purple ; remainder of upper plumage

dark chestnut ; a patch of bright maroon-red on the scapulars

and smaller wing coverts; the breast and abdomen lighter

chestnut.

Out of the breeding season the red patch disappears from

the wing coverts and scapulars, and the head and neck

become blackish-brown streaked with white.

Young birds have sooty-black heads and necks, and

brownish-black under parts.

Distribution —Found about tanks in the low-country,

and by the lagoons of the north and east coasts. Mainly

resident and commonest in the north, where the numbers

are probably augmented during the north-east monsoon by

migrants. It occurs throughout the better-watered plains

of India and Burma mostly as a winter visitor. Its range

extends all round the warmer parts of the world.

Habits —Generally met with in flocks, but not very com-

mon, and usually very shy. The birds breed in small colonies

in trees near water, making smallish stick nests. The eggs

are oval, pointed at each end ; the colour is a beautiful blue-

green, and the surface is slightly pitted. Three are usually

laid ; average size 2 by 1°40.

Family PLATALEID.

Genus Platalea.

Spoonbill.

Only one species occurs within our ‘limits; in form it

resembles the Ibises, but is larger, more slender, and with

longer legs. The bill is long and very flat, broadening and

curving downwards at the extreme tip, like the wide handle

of a huge spoon. The nostrils are placed near the base of the

bill, and the nasal grooves run close to the edge of the man-

dible right up to the tip ; half of the tibia is naked ; the toes are

long, bordered by membrane, and slightly webbed at the base.

306 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

PLATALEA LEUCORODIA (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 366 ;

Legge, p. 1096).

The Spoonbill.

Description.—Plumage white; adults have a patch of

cinnamon on the lower neck. In the breeding season a crest

of pointed plumes is assumed. The skin of the face in front

of the eye is naked and yellow ; the skin of the throat is also

naked and yellowish-red.

In young birds the primary quills have black shafts, and

the outermost quills are tipped with black.

Bill in adults black, yellow at the tip; in young birds

mainly yellow ; iris red; legs and feet black.

Length 33; wing 15; tail 5; tarsus 6; bill from gape 8.

Distribution.—Met with in small flocks on large tanks and

marshes in the wilder parts of the dry zone. Occurs here and

there on the well-watered plains of the Indian peninsula,

but unknown in Burma ; ranges from Central Europe to East

Africa and through Central Asia to China.

Habits —An extremely shy bird. The species is resident,

and breeds about March in small colonies by the water-side.

The nest is a large massive structure of sticks placed in a tree.

The eggs are two to five in number, chalky-white ovals with

a few brown blotches ; average size about 2°5 by 1°8.

Sub-order CICONIAL.

Family Ciconmp@&.

Storks.

The Storks are a familiar and widely-distributed family of

large birds. Many of them are migratory, breeding in tem-

perate regions and wintering southwards ; others are resident

in the warmer regions of the world. The neck is long; the

bill long, stout, pointed, and generally straight. The nostrils

are placed at the base of the bill, but there is no distinct nasal

groove. The structure of the windpipe is peculiar, the voice

muscles being absent, so that the birds are dumb. The legs

are long, the measurements of the tarsus and of the bill from

gape to tip being equal or almost equal ; the lower half of the

tibia® is naked. The toes are fairly short but broad, and

CEYLON WATER BIRDS. 307

furnished with broad short claws. The tail is short; the

wings are long and broad ; the flight is ponderous, but power-

ful, with slow, steady wing beats, the neck and legs being

held outstretched. Storks frequently soar high in the air,

wheeling in slow circles with expanded wings. Their food

consists of small fish, frogs, reptiles, molluses, large insects, or

even mice and such small animals. Six species, distributed

among as many genera, are found in Ceylon. Three of them

are decidedly rare.

Rough Key to Ceylon Ciconiide.

A.—Length about 46 inches ; bill straight ; naked skin on

face confined to a ring round the eye.

Ciconia alba (White Stork).

B.—Length about 32 inches ; bill straight ; forehead and

cheeks naked.

Dissura episcopus (White-necked Stork).

C.—Length about 52 inches ; bill slightly curved up at the

end ; head and neck completely feathered.

Xenorhynchus asiaticus (Black-necked Stork).

D.—Length about 54 inches ; bill straight ; head and neck

almost naked.

Leptoptilus javanicus (Hair-crested Stork).

E.—Length about 40 inches; bill curved downwards at

the tip ; head and throat naked.

Pseudotantalus leucocephalus (Painted Stork).

F.—Length about 32 inches; forehead feathered; face

and throat naked ; bill in adults with a gap between

the mandibles.

Anastomus oscitans (the Openbill).

Ciconta ALBA (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 369 ;

Legge, pp. 1119, 1226a).

The White Stork.

Description Plumage white; the wing quills with the

primary and larger secondary coverts black with a slight green

or purple gloss; the secondary quills more or less frosted

with white.

308 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Bill blood-red ; iris brown ; naked skin round the eye

black ; legs red.

Length about 46; wing 24; tail 9°5; tarsus about 8 ; bill

from gape 8.

Distribution.—An extremely rare migrant; has been seen

in the south-east of the Island and, contrary to its usual

habits, once found breeding in 1880 in the North-Western

Province. Fairly common during the winter in northern

India, rare in the south, and unknown in Burma. Breeds in

temperate climates from Holland to Central Asia, wintering

all over Africa and in South-western Asia.

Habits.—In its. winter quarters this species is generally

met with in flocks in open fields usually away from water.

It feeds on locusts, reptiles, and small animals. The nest

is a large structure of sticks placed in a tree or on a

building. ‘The eggs are three to five in number, pure white,

and measuring about 3 by 2°15.

DissuRA EPIscopus (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 370 ;

Legge, p. 1119).

The White-necked Stork ; Parson Stork.

Description.—The crown black; neck, lower abdomen,

and tail white ; remainder of plumage black, glossed with

purple on the upper back and breast, and with bronze-green

on the lower back and upper abdomen.

Bill black, tinged with red on the ridge and along the

edges ; iris crimson ; bare skin of the face lead-coloured ; legs

and feet red.

Length 32; wing 18°5; tail 7°5; tarsus 6°5; bill from

gape 6. Ceylon birds appear to be rather smaller than Indian.

Distribution.—Fairly common in the dry zone of the low-

country. It is found almost throughout India and Burma

in the plains, and extends eastwards to Cochin-China and the

Dutch East Indies. -

Habits.—In Ceylon this Stork appears to prefer the neigh-

bourhood of abandoned or secluded tanks in the heart of the

jungle.

CEYLON WATER BIRDS. 309

The birds generally nest apart, not in colonies, making a

large structure of twigs in a tall tree. The nest is lined with

down or with straw, leaves, and feathers. There are generally

four bluish-white eggs, averaging about 2°5 by 1°83.

XENORHYNCHUS ASIATICUS (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 372 ;

Legge, p. 1116).

The Black-necked Stork.

Description.—Head and neck black, the crown glossed with

copper and purple, the remainder with bluish-green ; scapu-

lars, tertiaries, some of the wing coverts, and tail dark glossy

green ; rest of plumage white.

In young birds the upper plumage is brown with a green

gloss on the scapulars and wing quills ; the lower back and

rump are whitish.

Bill black ; naked patch under the bill dusky purple ; iris

dark brown in males and young birds, bright yellow in

females ; legs coral-red.

Length about 52; wing 24; tail 9; tarsus about 12°75;

bill from gape about 12.

Distribution.—Occurs in the wildest parts of the low-country,

but very rare, though probably resident. It is found in

suitable localities throughout India and Burma, and extends

south-eastwards to the Malay Archipelago and Australia.

Habits.—Found round wild forest tanks or secluded lagoons.

Probably breeds about Christmas time. The nest is a big

platform of sticks lined with rushes, grass, or water weed, and

placed in a large tree. The four white eggs measure about

2°91 by 2°12.

LEPTOPTILUS JAVANICUS (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 374;

Legge, p. 1113).

The Smaller Adjutant, or Hair-crested Stork.

Description.—Skin of head and neck sallow and almost

naked, being sprinkled with grayish down and long hairs of

dark brown; upper plumage, wings, and tail glossy green-

black ; the longer scapulars and tertiaries edged with white ;

lower parts white ; wing lining black.

310 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Young birds have more feathers about the head, and the

tertiaries have no white edging.

Bill dirty yellow ; iris whitish ; legs dirty ashy-brown.

Length 54; wing 26; tail 11; tarsus 10°5; bill from

gape 12.

Females are a good deal smaller.

Distribution.—Sparingly scattered through the wilder parts

of the dry zone. May be met with here and there over most

of India ; commoner in Burma, and ranges eastwards to China

and the Malay Archipelago.

Habits —Frequents remote tanks and water-holes in the

heart of the forest. The species probably breeds in the Island,

but no eggs appear to have been taken as yet. The nest is

the usual huge pile of sticks in a tree; the three white eggs

measure about 2°84 by 2°09.

PSEUDOTANTALUS LEUCOCEPHALUS (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 376).

TANTALUS LEUCOCEPHALUS (Legge, p. 1100).

The Painted Stork, or Pelican Ibis.

Description.—Plumage mainly white ; primaries, second-

aries, and tail black with a green gloss; tertiaries rose-pink

edged with white; lesser wing coverts glossy green-black

with white edges ; scapulars and greater wing coverts tinged

with rose. The wing lining and a broad band across the

breast black with a green gloss, each feather being edged with

white ; under tail coverts with a faint rosy tinge.

Young birds have the wing quills and tail coloured as in

adults, but the rest of the upper parts are brown, with the

exception of the rump, which, with the breast and abdomen,

is dirty white.

Bill and naked skin of head, face, and throat orange-yellow ;

iris pale yellow ; legs brown.

Length 40 ; wing 20; tail 6°5; tarsus about 8°5 ; bill from

gape 10.

Distribution —Fairly common round tanks and lagoons in

the dry zone. Occurs in suitable localities all over India

(except in the Punjab) and Burma, ranging eastwards to

Southern China.

CEYLON WATER BIRDS. 311

Habits.—This species, commonly but erroneously called the

Pelican Ibis, is a Stork, with the usual habits of the rest of the

family. It is sometimes met with in large flocks, but is

usually found alone or in small parties about secluded tanks

and brackish lagoons. The birds breed in small colonies

during the early months of the year. The nest is the usual

platform of sticks placed in a tree. The eggs are generally

three or four in number, but sometimes more, dull white in

colour, and measuring about 2°77 by 1°88.

ANASTOMUS OSCITANS (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 377;

Legge, p. 1103).

The Openbill, or Shell Ibis.

Description.—In breeding plumage mainly white; the

longer scapulars, the greater wing coverts, the wing quills, and

tail being glossy green-black. After the breeding season the

white is replaced by smoky gray, which changes without a

moult into white again as the breeding season approaches.

Young birds resemble adults in the off season, but are

browner on the back, the face and throat are more completely

feathered, while the edges of the mandibles meet throughout

instead of gaping in the middle.

Bill greenish or grayish, tinged underneath with red ;

naked skin of face and throat almost black ; iris gray or light

brown ; legs flesh-coloured.

Length 32; wing 16-5; tail 7; tarsus about 6; bill from gape 6.

Distribution.—Oceurs in flocks round tanks and lagoons in

the dry low-country. It is found all over the plains of India

by large rivers and marshes, but in Burma its range is very

restricted. Further eastwards it reappears in Cochin-China.

Habits.—This is our smallest and commonest Stork, though,

like the last species, it is popularly mistermed an Ibis. It

lives chiefly on freshwater molluscs, crushing the shells with

its powerful beak. The constant attrition of the shells is

said to cause the gap between the mandibles. It breeds in

colonies during the rains of the north-east monsoon. The

nest is of the usual type. The eggs vary from two to five,

are white in colour, and measure about 2:25 by 1°6.

5 6(7)17

312 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Sub-order ARDE.

Family ARDEID.

The Herons, which are well represented in Ceylon, form

the largest family of the order. The bill is straight, pointed,

and usually slender; the nostrils are placed in a distinct

groove, which runs nearly to the tip of the bill. The lores,

or space in front of the eye,arenaked. The neck is long, with

a bend in the vertebra, and is generally held in an S curve,

whether the bird is flying or standing. This bend of the neck

will almost always serve to distinguish a Heron, when on the

wing, from a Stork. The wings are broad and rounded ; the

tail short. The body is slender and small for the size of the

bird. The legs are long, the toes long and slender; the hind

toe is well-developed, and there is a slight web between the

middle and outer toes. The nest is made of sticks or reeds ;

the eggs in most cases are a pale shade of blue or green, but

in some species are white or almost so.

Herons live largely on fish, and while fishing stand motion-

less, or stalk slowly in shallow water until a fish swims by,

when it is secured by a quick dart of the head. They will also

eat frogs, small crabs, and insects.

Fifteen species, representing ten genera, are found in the

Island ; from their size, colouration, and habits they may be

divided into three main groups.

Firstly, three typical Herons, large birds over 36 inches in

length, all belonging to the genus Ardea. The upper plumage

is gray, the head is crested, the scapulars and the feathers at

the base of the neck are lengthened into ornamental plumes,

but there is no dorsal train nor change of plumage during the

breeding season.

Next come the Egrets, which are in general more slenderly

built and smaller, ranging from 18 inches to 3 feet in length.

In the breeding season these all develop a more or less lengthy

dorsal train (the egret or “osprey”? plumes of commerce),

except one curious species, the Reef-Heron, which carries its

dorsal train of elongated, but not ‘‘ decomposed ” feathers all

the year round. The Reef-Heron is also peculiar, in that some

CEYLON WATER BIRDS. 313

specimens are wholly white, while others are almost entirely

slate-gray. The remaining members of this group are either

entirely white, or white on the wings, tail, and greater part of

the body.

Lastly, we have the Bitterns and Night Herons, six species,

which are mainly nocturnal in their habits. These are stouter

in build and not so long in the leg as other Herons, the measure-

ment of the tarsus being less than that of the bill from gape

to tip, except in one conspicuously short-billed species. All

the Ceylon species are under 2 feet in length, in no case are the

wings, back, and tail white, nor is there a change of plumage

in the breeding season.

Rough Key to Ceylon Ardetde.

I.—Size large ; length 36 inches or over ; upper plumage

gray. Genus Ardea.

(a) Length about 38; middle of breast and abdomen

black in adults, buff and gray in young.

Ardea manillensis (Purple Heron).

(b) Length about 39 ; middle of breast and abdomen

white.

A. cinerea (Gray Heron).

in adults, streaked white and brown in young.

A. goliath (Giant Heron).

II.—Size medium ; 18 to 36 inches in length ; plumage all

white, all gray, or with wings, tail, and greater part

of body white.

A.—Plumage wholly white, naked portion of tibia or hock

much longer than inner toe and claw, tarsus longer

than bill. Genus Herodias.

(a) Length about 36; dorsal plumes in breeding

season, but no crest or breast plumes; tarsus

about 6, but variable.

Herodias alba (Large Egret).

314 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

(6) Length about 26; dorsal and breast plumes in

breeding season, but no crest ; tarsus about 4°5.

H. intermedia (Smaller Egret).

crest in breeding season ; tarsus about 4 ; bill 4.

H. garzetia (Little Egret).

B.—Plumage white ; head and neck buff in breeding season ;

naked part of tibia shorter than inner toe and claw ;

bill 3 inches.

Bubulcus coromandus (Cattle Egret).

C.—Plumage white or slate-coloured ; naked part of tibia

about same length as inner toe and claw; tarsus

shorter than bill ; length about 25.

Leptorodius asha (Reef Heron).

D.—Wings, tail, and greater part of body white; back

ashy-brown, maroon in breeding season; length

about 18.

Ardeola grayt (Pond Heron).

111.—Size small or medium, 14 to 24 inches ; wings and tail

not white.

A.—Plumage dark throughout; 12 tail feathers ; bill

slender, longer than tarsus ; length 18.

Butorides javanica (Green Bittern).

B.—Bill stout, longer than tarsus ; length 23; eyes red.

Nycticorax griseus (Night Heron).

C.—Bill stout, 2-5 inches long, shorter than tarsus ; length

20.

Gorsachius melanolophus (Malay Bittern).

D.—Size small, about 15 inches ; bill slender, longer than

tarsus ; plumage mainly yellow or chestnut. Genus

Ardetia.

(a) Wing quills black.

A. sinensis (Chinese Bittern).

(b) Wing quills chestnut.

A. cinnamomea (Chestnut Bittern).

CEYLON WATER BIRDS. S15

E.—Size medium, about 23; plumage dark; chin and

throat richly variegated ; bill slender, much longer

than tarsus ; 10 tail feathers.

Dupetor flavicollis (Black Bittern).

ARDEA MANILLENSIS (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 381).

ARDEA PURPUREA (Legge, p. 1132).

The Eastern Purple Heron.

Description.—Forehead, crown, and crest black ; chin and

throat white; remainder of head and neck cinnamon-rufous,

with long black streaks down the back and sides ; upper parts

from lower hind-neck, including wings and tail, slaty-gray,

darker on the back, and almost black on the wing quills and

tail feathers ; scapulars long, pointed, and rufous at the ends.

The long feathers of the lower neckare pale buff streaked with

chestnut and black ; sides of the breast reddish-chestnut ; the

centre of the breast, the abdomen, and under tail coverts slaty-

black ; the thighs cinnamon ; wing lining pale ferruginous.

Young birds are drab and fawn, with sometimes an almost

golden tinge, and lack the crest and elongated feathers on the

back and breast.

Bill yellowish-brown above, yellowish underneath ; iris

clear yellow ; naked skin on face yellowish-green ; legs and

feet reddish-brown and yellow.

Length about 38; wing 14-5; tail 5-25; tarsus 5°5; bill

from gape 6.

Distribution.—Common throughout the low-country. Occurs

throughout India, Burma, and the whole Oriental region.

Habits—May be seen about most tanks, brackish lagoons,

and marshes, often skulking in long grass and reeds. The

main breeding season is during the rains of the north-east

monsoon, but where there is a favourable water supply the

birds breed again in June. The nest may be placed in trees,

on the flat tops of screw pines, or in thick clumps of bulrushes.

In the former case it is a large platform of twigs ; in the two

last dried reeds and flags may enter into its composition. The

eggs, three or four in number, are pale bluish-green, almost

regular oval in shape, and measure about 2°19 by 1°58.

316 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

ARDEA CINEREA (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 382 ; Legge, p. 112).

The Common Heron ; Gray Heron.

Description.—The crown, the crest, and a band from the

eye to the crown black ; rest of head white ; the neck white

with a few black streaks on the lower fore-neck. The upper

parts from the neck to the tail ashy-gray ; the primary coverts

and wing quills black. The under parts are white with a broad

black band running from the sides of the breast under the thigh

to the vent; the sides of the body and wing lining ashy-gray.

Females have a shorter crest and less prominent black

feathers on the side of the breast.

Young birds are of a darker and dirtier gray, with gray

heads, and no black on the sides of the breast.

Bill dusky yellow, brownish along the ridge ; iris golden

yellow ; naked skin on face greenish ; legs and feet greenish-

brown and yellow.

Length 39; wing 17°5; tail 7; tarsus 6; bill from gape 6.

Distribution.—Not so common as the last species, but may

be met with in the north, east, and south-east of the Island.

Abundant in most parts of India ; rarer in Burma. Occurs

nearly all over the Old World.

Habits—Frequents the more secluded tanks and brackish

lagoons. It breeds during the rains of the north-east monsoon,

generally in the company of Egrets, Night Herons, &. Such

Heronries are usually on clumps of trees growing in the water.

The nest is a large platform of twigs. The three eggs are

fairly deep sea-green, and usually slightly pointed at each end.

Average measurement 2:28 by 1°70.

ARDEA GOLIATH (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 384; Legge, p. 1124).

The Giant Heron.

Description.—Afriean adults : crown and crest deep venous

chestnut ; the hind neck and sides of the neck rather paler.

Upper parts with wings and tail slate-gray. The chin, cheeks,

and throat white; the lower fore-neck purple-black streaked

with white ; breast plumes streaked with slate-black and

white ; remainder of lower parts, including wing lining and

lower tail coverts, dark chestnut.

CEYLON WATER BIRDS, 33 '7/

Immature birds are duller; the head and neck is paler ;

the feathers of the upper parts are edged with rufous ; the

under parts are brown streaked with white.

Bill dark slate-colour ; iris yellow with reddish margins ;

naked skin on face pale slate ; legs and feet dark slaty-black.

Distribution —The usual habitat of this species is in Africa,

Two or three immature specimens have been obtained in

Ceylon, and a few more have been shot or seen in various

parts of India. All the known Indian and Ceylonese specimens

are immature birds, so that it is not certain that they are

identical with the African species.

Habits—This enormous Heron may be looked for near

lagoons or by the mouths and lower reaches of the larger rivers

in the very wildest parts of the Island.

HeRopiAs ALBA (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 385 ; Legge, p. 1138).

The Large Egret.

Descrvption.—Plumage entirely white. In the breeding

season the bird assumes a train of long plumes, with very open

drooping barbs. These feathers spring from the back and

reach several inches beyond the tail.

Bill in breeding season black ; naked skin of face bright

green ; iris yellow; legs and feet black. At other seasons

the bill is yellow, the facial skin greenish-yellow, and the legs

and feet dull greenish.

The dimensions are very variable. Length about 36; wing

13 to 15:5; tail 5:5; tarsus 6 to 7:5; bill from gape 5 to 6.

Distribution —Common throughout the low-country,

wherever there are tanks and large stretches of paddy field ;

also found about brackish lagoons. Occurs all over India and

Burma, ranging westwards to Africa and Southern Europe.

Habits——These birds are usually met with singly or in very

small groups. They feed in shallow water well out in the open,

and are very wary. They are fond of perching on tall trees.

They breed in colonies, often in the company of other allied

species, making a large stick nest on trees growing in the water.

The eggs generally number three or four, are nearly oval in

shape, bluish-green in colour, and measure about 2°18 by 1°57.

318 SPOLIA ZEYLANIOA.

HERODIAS INTERMEDIA (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 386;

Legge, p. 1141).

The Smaller Egret.

Description.—Plumage white. In the breeding season, in

addition to the long dorsal train, egret plumes are also developed

on the breast ; all the plumes are dropped when the breeding

season is passed.

Bill in breeding season black ; naked skin of face green ;

iris yellow ; legs and feet black. At other times the bill is

yellow with a dusky tip, and the facial skin greenish-yellow.

Length about 26; wing 12; tail 5; tarsus 4°5; bill from

gape 3°75.

Distribution —Common all through the low-country, but

in the north not so numerous as the next species. Occurs

throughout India and North Burma, the range extending to

Java, the Philippines, China, and Japan.

Habits.—Similar to those of the last species, but usually

the birds are met with in larger troops. They breed in Heron-

ries from November to March, making the usual stick nest.

The eggs are pale blue-green, three or four in number, and

measure about 1°86 by 1°37.

HERODIAS GARZETTA (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 388 ;

Legge, p. 1144).

The Inttle Egret.

Description—Plumage white. In the breeding season, like

the other members of the genus, it carries a dorsal train of

“decomposed”? plumes; it also assumes breast plumes of

long but not filamentous feathers, and a head crest of two

feathers about 5 inches long.

Bill always black; naked skin on face greenish-yellow ;

iris yellow ; legs and feet black with some yellow on the toes.

Length about 25 ; wing 11; tail4 ; tarsus 4 ; billfrom gape 4.

Distribution —Not so widely spread in Ceylon as the other

Egrets, but fairly common in the north and in the Hambantota

District, and occasionally found up-country. It is common

all over India and Burma, and ranges throughout Africa,

Southern Europe, and Southern Asia.

CEYLON WATER BIRDS. 319

Habits —Generally met with singly or in pairs, but roosts

and breeds in colonies in the same manner and at the same

time as other members of the genus. In Ceylon it generally

lays three or four eggs, pale bluish-green in colour, and

measuring about 1:66 by 1°30.

BUBULCUS COROMANDUS (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 389;

Legge, p. 1147).

The Cattle Egret.

Description.—Out of the breeding season the plumage is

white with sometimes a wash of yellow on the forehead and

fore-neck. In breeding plumage the head and greater part

of the neck become golden-buff, sometimes with a brown or

pink tinge, while long dorsal plumes of the same colour are

developed ; the plumes do not extend beyond the tail.

Bill yellow ; facial skin greenish-yellow ; iris pale yellow ;

legs black, the naked portion of the tibia yellow, and the soles

greenish-yellow.

Length 20; wing 9°50; tail3°5; tarsus 3°5 ; billfrom gape 3.

Distribution —Abundant all over the low-country, ascending

the river valleys for some little way into the hills. Common

in India and Burma, ranging eastwards throughout China to

the Philippines and south-east to Celebes.

Habits.—This species wanders away from water far more

than other Herons and constantly follows buffaloes and cattle

in the fields, feeding on ticks and grasshoppers. It breeds in

colonies on trees growing in the water, making the usual stick

nest and laying three to five eggs of very pale green averaging

1-71 by 1°32.

LrproroDIus AsHA (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 390).

ARDEA GULARIS (Legge, p. 1136).

The Indian Reef Heron.

Description.—Most birds are slaty-blue, with a white patch on

the chin, throat, and lower cheeks ; the plumes on the back and

breast are long, but not filamentous, andare worn all the year

round; there is a crest of two long narrow ash-gray feathers.

A good many specimens, however, are pure white all over.

6 6(7)17

320 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Young birds lack the ornamental plumes, and those of the

dark variety are ashy-gray. Some young birds are pied

slaty-blue and white, occasionally unsymmetrically.

Bill brownish-yellow, paler at the tip and greenish at the

gape ; iris golden yellow ; naked part of tibia and just below

the knee brownish ; the tarsus green.

Length 25; wing 10:5; tail 4; tarsus 4; bill from gape 4°5.

Distribution.—Found only in a few localities on the north

and west coast of the Island. Extends along the west coast

of India to the Persian Gulf.

Habits.—A rare bird, frequenting the open coast, especially

where there are coral reefs, or the mud flats of estuaries. It

has been found breeding near Chilaw about the end of May.

The nest is a large platform of sticks placed in mangroves

or on rocks. ‘The eggs are said to be three in number, slightly

pointed at each end, pale sea-green in colour, and measuring

about 1:70 by 1°30.

ARDEOLA GRAYI (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 393; Legge, p. 1150).

The Pond Heron ; Paddy Bird.

Description.—In breeding plumage the head and neck are

grayish-yellow, with an ashy tinge on the crown; chin and

throat whitish; a crest of two to four white streamers; the

feathers of the back and scapulars, which are long and fila-

mentous, are deep maroon tinged with black, the outer scapu-

lars being brownish to creamy-buff. The remainder of the

plumage, including the wings, is white, the tips of the primary

quills tinged with brown.

In the off season adults have the head and neck blackish-

brown streaked with yellowish-buff, the crown darker, and

the buff streaks becoming wider on the lower neck ; the crest

wanting ; chin and throat white ; upper breast white streaked

with brown. The back, scapulars, and tertiaries are glossy

ash-brown, the scapulars with paler shaft-streaks ; remainder

of plumage white.

Bill bluish at the base and on top, the sides of the upper

mandible and the lower mandible yellowish, the tip black ;

iris bright yellow; legs greenish,

CEYLON WATER BIRDS. 321

Length 18; wing 8; tail 3; tarsus 2°15; bill from gape 3.

Distribution.—Ubiquitous in the low-country wherever

there are paddy fields or water, ascending to a fair height in

the hills, common throughout India and Burma, ranging from

the Persian Gulf to the Malay Peninsula.

Habits —May be found fishing in any little pond, stream,

tank, or paddy field, and occasionally on the seashore. When

standing still with its head drawn in, the white portions of the

plumage are concealed and the bird is an inconspicuous object.

As soon as it flies off it appears to transform itself into a white

bird with startling suddenness.

It breeds pretty nearly all the year round. I have taken

eggs as late as August, and the breeding season begins again

in the November rains. It builds in colonies on trees, making

a small platform of twigs, and generally laying four greenish-

blue eggs measuring about 1°53 by 1:15.

BUTORIDES JAVANICA (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 395;

Legge, p. 1153).

The Little Green Bittern.

Description.—Adults : head, down to the eyes, and the

occipital crest black glossed with green ; a narrow black band

under the eye ; the area between this and the black cap buft

or whitish. The chin and throat are white; a whitish band

washed with brown down the middle of the foreneck ; remainder

of the head and neck ashy-gray tinged with blue. The backis

ash-coloured, the rump dark gray, the upper tail coverts and

tail blackish, all washed more or less with green. The scapulars

and wing coverts are glossy green, the long scapulars with ashy-

gray ends and white shafts; wing coverts and tertiaries edged

with pale buff; wing quills blackish-slate ; secondaries and

inner primaries tipped with white. The lower parts are

slaty-gray with a brown wash on the belly and thigh coverts.

Immature birds have the crown blackish-brown with pale

shaft-stripes. The upper parts, including the wings and tail,

are brownish, with pale terminal spots on the scapulars and

wing coverts, and white spots on the tips of the quills; lower

parts streaky white and brown.

Ry SPOLIA ZEYLANIGA.

Bill black, yellowish underneath ; naked skin of face

yellowish-green, dull livid in the breeding season ; iris yellow

or reddish-yellow ; legs and feet greenish-yellow, pale rufous

in the breeding season.

Length 17°5; wing 6°8; tail 2°3; tarsus 1:8; bill from

gape 3.

Distribution.—Fairly common all over the low-country,

but often escapes notice owing to its skulking habits. Occurs

throughout India and Burma, except in dry regions ; extends

over almost the whole of the Oriental region.

Habits —This is more of a river bird than most of our

species, and may be found along the shady borders of streams,

backwaters, and mangrove-fringed lagoons, or in dark corners

of tanks. It is generally solitary, and during the day time

keeps mainly in the shade, feeding mostly at night. The

breeding season is probably from April to July ; the nest is a

small structure of sticks placed low down in trees near the

water or among reeds; the three eggs are greenish-white,

and measure about 1°62 by 1-21.

NYCTICORAX GRISEUS (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 397;

Legge, p. 1165).

The Night Heron.

Description—The crown and nape, back, and scapulars

are black with a metallic green gloss; from the nape, the

feathers of which are lengthened, spring two or three long

narrow white streamers, which are dropped after the breeding

season. ‘The forehead, together with a stripe over the eye, the

cheeks, and all the lower parts from chin to tail coverts are

white. The sides and back of the neck and the sides of the

body are delicate pale ash-gray ; the wings, rump, and tail

are darker ashy-gray, with a bluish or pinkish tinge.

The immature plumage is strikingly different. The upper

parts are brown, the crown almost black, with pale brown

shaft-stripes ; there are triangular buff tips to the feathers of

the back and wing coverts, and buff or whitish spots on the

tips of most of the wing quills. The lower plumage is whitish

with broad brown streaks.

CEYLON WATER BIRDS. 323

Bill black, paler at the base ; iris blood-red or scarlet ;

naked facial skin yellowish-green, dull livid in the breeding

season; feet yellowish-green, pale rufous in the breeding

season.

Length 23; wing 11:5; tail4; tarsus 3; billfrom gape 3°8.

Distribution —Found in scattered colonies throughout the

low-country ; locally distributed throughout India and Burma ;

occurs all over Africa and the temperate and warmer regions

of Europe, Asia, and North America.

Habits —The birds roost in company on large trees during

the day, departing at nightfall for their fishing grounds with

a slow heavy flight, during which they frequently utter a

harsh cry of “ kwark.”’

Like many other Herons, they breed gregariously in thickets

surrounded byswamp. Thenest is the usual structure of sticks,

and there are generally four eggs of pale sea-green measuring

about 1:97 by 1°38. The breeding season appears to vary,

depending on suitable conditions of weather and water supply.

I have taken eggs in March, July, September, and December.

GORSACHIUS MELANOLOPHUS (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 398 ;

Legge, p. 1169).

The Malay Bittern.

Description.—Adults : the crown and crested nape are

black, tinged with ashy-white ; sides of head, including a band

above the eye, the sides of neck, and hind-neck vinous chest-

nut ; the main portion of the upper parts are cinnamon, with

wavy freckled lines of black ; the outer primary coverts black

with white tips ; wing quills black, the outer primaries with

white tips, the rest with the ends chestnut freckled with white ;

upper tail coverts dull rufous brown ; the tail darker, almost

black. The chin and throat are white; the fore-neck and

upper breast brownish-buff streaked with black ; the abdomen

is mottled and streaked with white, black, and rufous ; the

lower tail coverts mainly white.

Young birds are blackish on the crown and nape, with

angular white or buff spots. The upper parts are dull dark

brown with wavy buff crossbars ; wing quills blackish, tipped

324 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

or freckled at the tips with white; lower parts rufous buff,

streaked, speckled, and blotched with white and brownish-

black ; chin and throat white with a few dark spots.

Bill black along the ridge, the remainder fleshy ; iris golden

yellow ; facial skin slaty-green ; legs and feet greenish tinged

with brown on the front of the tarsus.

Length 20; wing 10°5; tail 3°8; tarsus 2°75; bill from

gape 2°5.

Distribution. —In Ceylon an occasional north-east monsoon

migrant, coming probably from Southern India.

In India the species occurs and breeds on the Malabar Coast,

in Assam and Burma, and extends eastwards through the Malay

Peninsula to Borneo and the Philippines.

Habits—Chiefly a forest bird, but most of the specimens

procured in Ceylon appear to have been obtained round

Colombo, in November, on their first arrival in the Island.

ARDETTA SINENSIS (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 400;

Legge, p. 1156).

The Yellow Bittern.

Description.—Male : crown and nape black, the feathers

with paler gray edges ; sides of head and neck vinous, darken-

ing to chestnut on the longer plumes of the hind-neck ; back,

scapulars, and tertiaries pale yellowish-brown with a tinge of

gray ; wing coverts yellowish-buff; primary coverts, wing

quills, and tail slaty-black ; rump and upper tail coverts ashy or

bluish-gray. The chin, throat, and fore-neck are light fulvous

yellow ; upper breast and abdomen buff, the long pectoral

plumes concealing the lower breast feathers, which are

brownish-black with fulvous edges.

Female ; the upper plumage is more rufous ; the crown is

streaked with rufous instead of gray; the back and scapulars

are rufous-brown, each feather edged with buff; the buff of

the throat and fore-neck is streaked with tawny brown.

In young birds the upper and lower plumage is more

streaked ; the crown is brown with buff streaks, while the

streaks on the fore-neck and breast are darker brown.

CEYLON WATER BIRDS. 325

Bill brown on the ridge, pinkish-brown beneath ; naked skin

on face green ; iris golden yellow; tarsus dull flesh-colour ;

toes pale yellow.

Length 15; wing 5:25; tail 1°8; tarsus 2; bill from

gape 2°75.

Distribution.—It is scattered throughout the low-country

marshes, rare in the north and east, but fairly common in

certain localities in the west and south. It occurs locally

over India and Burma, but is generally rare, and is found

through south-eastern Asia to Japan in the north-east and

Australia in the south.

Habits —This bird skulks about reeds and thick grass in

marshes and swampy banks. It is much more in evidence

during the north-east than in the south-west monsoon. The

majority of the birds either betake themselves to very

secluded spots to breed or are migrants. The breeding season

is probably from May to August ; the nest is a pad of grass

hidden in a clump of rushes or long grass ; the eggs, three to

five in number, are pale greenish-white, measuring about 1-3

by °95.

ARDETTA CINNAMOMEA (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 402).

ARDEIRALLA CINNAMOMEA (Legge, p. 1162).

The Chestnut Bittern.

Description.—Male : the crown and sides of the head and

the whole upper plumage, including the wings and tail,

chestnut ; the wing coverts are a little paler; the shafts of

the wing quills black. The crown is sometimes tinged with

gray. The chin, throat, and lower parts are mainly tawny-

brown, with a white stripe down each side of the throat and a

dark brown streak down the centre of the fore-neck ; the lower

breast feathers, which are concealed by the pectoral plumes,

are blackish-brown edged with buff.

Female: crown blackish; upper parts dull dark brown,

lighter on the wing coverts and scapulars, both of which have

buff edges notched with pale brown spots ; wing quills chest-

nut, browner at the base; the tail is dull chestnut. The

326 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

sides of the head are dull chestnut ; the under parts tawny-

yellow, with dark brown streaks. ‘There is a conspicuous

dark chain-patterned streak down the centre of the chin,

throat, and fore-neck.

Young birds resemble females, but the back and mantle

feathers are more spotted on the edges with yellowish-buff.

Bill yellow, the ridge dark brown ; iris pale red or yellow ;

legs and feet yellowish-green ; naked skin of face yellow in

females, reddish-purple in males.

Leneth 15; wing 5:5; tail 1:7; tarsus 1°90; bill from

gape 2°6.

Distribution.—Found in marshy spots all over the low-

country, and in the hills up to about 4,000 feet. It is generally

distributed, but local in India, commoner in Burma. The

range extends from Sind to China, the Dutch East Indies,

and the Philippines.

Habits—A solitary bird, and nowhere very numerous. It

keeps more to standing paddy, long grass, or rushes near the

water than to reed beds or tangled swamps. It breeds in

June and July ; the nest is a pad of grass in a bush, or a thick

clump of grass; the five or six eggs are dull white ovals,

measuring about 1°28 by 1.

DUPETOR FLAVICOLLIS (Blanford, p. 403).

ARDEIRALLA FLAVICOLLIS (Legge, p. 1159).

The Black Bittern.

Description Male : the upper parts, including the wings,

black with a tinge of slate-gray ; the sides of the head duller

black ; the lower cheeks slightly mottled with rufous; a

golden-yellow stripe down each side of the throat. The chin,

throat, and fore-neck are motley white, chestnut, and black,

the feathers of the fore-neck being buffy-white on one web,

black in the centre, and chestnut on the other margin. The

plumes on the side of the chest are slaty-gray, with white

margins ; the centre of the breast and the abdomen slaty-

black, the abdomen more or less streaked with white.

Females are brown,

CEYLON WATER BIRDS. BA

Young birds are deep brown, the feathers of the upper

surface fringed with buff, while the breast and sides of the

body are dusky brown.

Bill dusky red-brown, lighter underneath ; iris golden-

brown, sometimes with an outer ring of red; facial skin livid

or red-brown ; legs dark brown.

Length 23; wing 8; tail 2:7; tarsus 2-7; bill from

gape 4.

Distribution.—Probably a partial migrant, but some birds

remain to breed. It is nowhere common, but is widely

scattered over the low-country. It is extremely local in most

parts of India, but commoner in Eastern Bengal and Burma,

ranging eastward to China and the Dutch East Indies.

Habits —This species often passes unnoticed owing to its

skulking nocturnal habits. It breeds about April, in which

month I have twice found the nest in the North-Central

Province. In each case it wasa small structure of twigs placed

on a low thorny tree within three feet of the surface of a tank.

The full clutch numbers four eggs, of very pale sea-green,

measuring about 1°65 by 1°25.

Order PHCENICOPTERI.

Family PH@NICOPTERIDA.

Genus Pheenicopterus.

Flamingoes.

These birds stand in an order by themselves. In their

length of neck and limb, and in their general structure, they

approach the Storks ; in the formation of the foot with its

fully-webbed front toes and rudimentary hind toe, and also

in the fact that the young when hatched are covered with

down and able to run, they resemble Ducks and Geese.

Flamingoes feed in shallow water with their inverted heads

. between their legs, and the bill is adapted accordingly. It is

bent in the middle, the lower mandible is large and practically

fixed, while the upper mandible issmalland movable. As with

the Ducks, the whole bill, except the tip, is covered with soft

7 6(7)17

328 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

skin, and the margins of the mandibles are furnished with

lamella or ridges, with which the food is sifted from the water

and soft mud in which the birds find their living.

Only one species is found in Ceylon.

PHGNICOPTERUS ROSEUS (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 408;

Legge, p. 1092).

The Common Flamingo.

Description.—The whole plumage, except the wings, white,

tinged more or less with rose-pink ; the greater portion of the

wing coverts and tertiaries almost scarlet; primary and

secondary quills black ; the axillaries and edge of the wing

lining scarlet ; the rest of the wing lining largely black.

Young birds are grayish-white on the head, neck, and body,

the axillaries being the only feathers tinged with pink ; the

wing coverts mainly brown with dark shaft-stripes ; wing

quills brown. Bill flesh-coloured, black at the tip; naked

facial skin whitish-pink ; iris yellow ; legs and feet pinkish-

red ; claws black.

Size variable. Males: length about 50; wing 17; tail 6;

tarsus 14; bill from gape 4°5. Females: length about 40;

wing 15; tail 5; tarsus 10°5; bill from gape 4.

Distribution. Found in large flocks on lagoons and the

open coast round the dry zone from Puttalam, by Jaffna, to

Hambantota ; common about salt lakes in north-west India,

and met with round the Indian coast as far as Bengal,

but not in Burma. The species ranges throughout Africa,

Southern Europe, Central Asia, and Southern Asia as far

east as India.

Habits.—Most of our birds are migrants arriving in October

and leaving in April, but some immature birds may remain

all the year round, and there are traditions, which, however,

have never been verified, that a breeding place lies in the

extreme south of the Eastern Province. The nest is a mound

of mud, raised a few inches above the surface of a shallow

lagoon, and hollowed at the top.

The birds breed in colonies. Two chalky-white eggs are

laid, measuring about 3°50 by 2°50.

CEYLON WATER BIRDS. 329

Order ANSERES.

Family ANATIDZ.

Geese and Ducks.

The Anatids, which comprise the Swans, Geese, and Ducks,

form the only family of this familiar and world-wide order.

The three front toes are fully webbed ; the hind toe is small,

and set on the leg higher up than the others. The bill is

straight and covered with a membrane of soft skin, except on

the nail, or “‘ dertrum,” at the tip of the upper mandible.

The edges of both mandibles are laminated, the ridged pro-

cesses varying in development among the different genera.

The tongue is large and toothed at the sides to correspond

with the ridges of the mandibles. Many of the family are

migrants ; those that breed in northern climates generally

build a nest on the ground and line it with their own down ;

the species resident in warmer countries, as a rule, build in

trees, and the warm nest-lining is more scanty or altogether

wanting. The eggs are numerous, white or pale in colour, and

unspotted. The nestlings when hatched are downy, and can

run about and feed themselves. At the moulting season all

the wing quills are shed at once, so that for some time the

birds are unable to fly.

According to the classification adopted by Blanford, the

family is divided into four sub-families.

To one of those—Anatine, the Ducks—belong all the

authenticated Ceylon members of the order. There are

traditions of the occurrence of Geese in the Island, but the

other two sub-families—Swans and Mergansers—are with us

unknown.

Sub-family Anserinez.

Geese.

Geese, though they swim well, spend more of their time

upon land and less upon water than do the Ducks, having the

legs set further forward on the body and adapted for walking.

The nostrils are placed nearly half-way down the bill, which

is comparatively short and high at the base. The wings are

long and broad, and the tail rounded.

330 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

In colour they are mostly gray or brownish, with lighter

edges to the feathers, the plumage having a barred appearance.

They are vegetarians, feeding mainly on grass or other

green food. All species are migratory, and the sexes are alike

incolour. As mentioned above, there are persistent rumours,

some resting on competent authority,* that Geese have been

seen in Ceylon. If eventually any specimens are procured,

they will probably prove to be Anser ferus—the Gray Lag

Goose—which breeds in the north, and visits Northern India

during the winter in considerable numbers, occasionally

wandering further southwards. It is a large bird, the males

running to 32 inches in length, with a wing measurement of

18 inches. The general colour is brownish-gray with lighter

transverse barrings. It is just possible, however, that another

common North Indian species, Anser indicus—the Barred-

headed Goose—may some day turn up as a straggler. This

species is more slender in build than the Gray Lag, and the

greater part of the plumage is a clear pale gray. Old birds

can be told at once by the white head with two black bars on

the nape. Young birds have the crown and nape dark brown

without any black bars.

Sub-family Anatine.

Ducks.

The ducks constitute a large and varied sub-family, nearly

thirty species being found in the Indianarea. ‘Twelve of these

have occurred in Ceylon, and it is possible that stray specimens

of others may from time to time straggle to the Island.

In size they are generally smaller than Geese. The legs

are rather short, set far back, and adapted more for swimming

than walking. The bill is usually broad and shallow, with

the lower mandible narrower than the upper, into which it

shuts, so that the lamellze are seldom apparent when the bill

is closed. The nail, or “ dertrum,” at the tipof the upper

mandible is, as a rule, bent downwards into a distinct hook.

The nostrils, save in one genus not found in Ceylon, are

situated. less than half way from the base of the bill. In the

majority of species the drakes before the breeding season

* Vide Legge, p. 1072, footnote.

CEYLON WATER BIRDS. Sal

moult into a bright nuptial dress, which they drop by a second

moult as soon as breeding is over, assuming for the rest of the

year a plumage similar, or almost similar, to that of the female.

The drakes, with few exceptions, also differ from the ducks in

possessing a bony bulb or drum at the base of the windpipe. In

most forms the exposed portions of the secondary wing

quills, together with their coverts, are brilliantly coloured, and,

especially when the wing is closed, form a ribbon-like mark

known as the wing bar, or “speculum.” This is often more

conspicuous in adult males than in females and young birds.

The twelve species on the Ceylon list are divided among

eleven genera, and fall into three groups :—

(1) The Walking and Tree Ducks. These resemble Geese

more nearly than do the other Ducks, and the tarsus is approxi-

mately equal in length to the bill. Five species, including

our few common residents, occur in Ceylon. In only one

case—the little Cotton Teal—does the drake assume a breed-

ing plumage differing markedly from that of the duck.

(2) The Surface-feeding Ducks, which are mainly migra-

tory. In these the tarsus is noticeably shorter than the bill.

The drakes of all the six Ceylon species possess a brightly

coloured wing bar, and, with the exception of the Spotted-billed

Duck, in which both sexes are alike, assume a distinct breeding

plumage. In the females of several species the wing bar is

duller or wanting.

(3) The Diving Ducks ; limited in Ceylon to a single species

of rather doubtful occurrence. These may be distinguished

from all other members of the sub-family by the large foot, in

which the outer toe is as long or longer than the middle toe,

while the hind toe has a deep lobe.

Rough Key to Ceylon Species.

I.—Perching Ducks.—Outer toe shorter than middle toe ;

bill approximately same length as tarsus.

A.—Size large ; wing 11 inches or more.

(a) Lower parts white.

Sarcidiornis melanonotus (Comb Duck).

(6) Lower parts reddish-brown.

Casarca rutila (Brahminy Duck).

332 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

B.—Size medium ; wing under 10 inches, broad and rounded.

Genus Dendrocygna.

(a) Wing about 7°5 ; upper tail coverts maroon.

D. javanica (Whistling Teal).

(b) Wing about 9; upper tail coverts creamy white.

D. fulva (Large Whistling Teal).

C.—Size small ; wing 6°5; bill 1°15 inch.

Nettopus coromandelianus (Cotton Teal).

11.—Surface-feeding Ducks.—Outer toe shorter than the

middle ; tarsus noticeably shorter than bill.

(a) Wing 10 to 11; wing bar metallic green or purple,

bordered with black ; sexes alike; bill black with

a broad orange band.

Anas pecilorhyncha (Spotted-billed Duck).

(6) Wing 9°5 to 10°5; wing bar black and white ;

sexes unlike.

Chaulelasmus streperus (Gadwall).

sexes unlike.

Nettivum crecca (Common Teal).

(d) Wing 10 to 11; tail long and pointed ; wing bar

in males bronze-green and velvet-black, with an

inner border of cinnamon; in females replaced

by two white bars ; sexes unlike.

Dafila acuta (Pintail).

(e) Wing 8; wing coverts lavender-gray ; wing bar

in males glossy green between two white bands,

in females absent or nearly so.

Querquedula circia (Garganey Teal).

(f) Wing 8°75 to 9°5; bill long, much broader at tip

than at base, speculum glossy green, bordered in

front with white ; sexes unlike.

Spatula clypeata (Shoveller).

I11.—Diving Ducks.—Outer toe as long as the middle toe ;

hind toe deeply lobed.

Netta rufina (Red-crested Pochard).

CEYLON WATER BIRDS. 333

SARCIDIORNIS MELANONOTUS (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 423 ;

Legge, p. 1063).

The Comb Duck.

Description.—Male: head and neck white, interspersed with

feathers of metallic black, which are thickest on the crown

and down the back of the neck. The lower parts and the

lower neck all round are white ; the upper back, wings, rump,

upper tail coverts, and tail are black glossed with green and

blue, except the scapulars, which are glossed with rich purple ;

the lower back is dusky gray; the flanks vary from brownish-

gray to white with a gray tinge ; a black bar runs from the

upper back a short way down the side of the breast and another

black bar from the rump to the lower flanks.

Males carry at the base of the bill a high fleshy comb, which

is largest during the breeding season.

Females are similar in plumage, but smaller ; they lack the

comb on the bill ; the head and neck are blacker, there is less

gloss on the upper plumage, while the lower back and rump

are paler.

Young birds are brown where adults are black, and the

white of the lower plumage is tinged with rust-colour.

Bill and comb black ; iris brown; legs and feet dull lead-

colour.

Length of male 30; wing 15; tail 6; tarsus 2:75; bill

from gape 2:7. Females: length 26; wing 11°25; tail 4:5;

tarsus 2; bill 2.

Distribution.—Found here and there on larger tanks in the

north and east of the Island. It occurs in suitable localities

over the greater part of India and Burma, also in tropical and

Southern Africa.

Habits—This large Duck is nowhere common, but may be

met with in small flocks on large weedy tanks in the heart of the

jungle. During the breeding season, about February and

March, the birds pair off. The nest is a slight collection of

sticks, leaves, grass, and feathers placed in a hole low down in

a large tree, or in the hollow angle where a large branch meets

the stem. The eggs number seven to twelve, are polished

ivory-white, and measure about 2°40 by 1-70.

334 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

CASARCA RUTILA (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 428).

TADORNA CASARCA (Legge, pp. 1070 and 1222).

The Brahminy Duck.

Description.—Male : head and neck creamy-buff, darkenings

to orange on the lower neck, which is encircled by a narrow

blackish ring. This ring disappears in the winter months.

The upper and lower body plumage is mainly fox-red or orange-

brown ; the lower back and rump are vermiculated with

black ; the upper tail coverts, tail, and wing quills black, the

secondary quills being metallic green, glossed with bronze on

the outer webs; the inner tertiaries fox-red on the outer web

and gray on the inner; wing coverts whitish-buff; wing

lining white.

Females are smaller and duller, have whitish heads, and

never assume the black collar.

Bill, legs, and feet blackish ; iris dark brown.

Length 26; wing 14°6; tail 5°5; tarsus 2-5; bill from

gape 2°2. Females: length 23; wing 13.

Distribution.—A rare winter visitor to the lagoons on the

north coast from Mannar to Mullaittivu. This is a migratory

species, breeding from Southern Europe and Northern Africa

to Thibet, and wintering southward. It is a winter visitor to

India and parts of Burma.

Habits.—This species is partly vegetarian, eating grass and

green crops. The birds generally associate in pairs, but

occasionally gather into flocks. During the day time they

usually sit on the sand by the edge of the water, and are not

often seen swimming. They are good walkers. In India

they mainly frequent the banks of rivers.

DENDROCYGNA JAVANICA (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 430 ;

Legge, p. 1069).

The Whistling Teal.

Description.—Forehead, crown, and nape brown, darkest

on the nape ; sides of head and neck fulvous gray, becoming

almost white on the throat and chin ; back and scapulars dark

brown, each feather with a rufous tip ; the upper tail coverts

and most of the wing coverts deep maroon ; the greater wing

CEYLON WATER BIRDS. 335

coverts, the wing quills, tail, lower back, and rump brownish-

black. The lower parts are ferruginous, shading on the upper

breast to yellowish-brown, and on the vent to whitish.

Females are similar, but slightly paler on the under parts.

Young birds have the under parts uniformly dull pale brown.

Bill, legs, and feet brownish-blue ; iris brown ; eyelids yellow.

Length 17; wing 7°5; tail 2:2; tarsus 1°75; bill from

gape 2.

Distribution —Abundant in most parts of the low-country.

Occurs almost throughout India and Burma, extending east-

wards to China and the Dutch East Indies.

Habits—Found on almost every tank in the dry zone of

the low-country, and on marshes, weedy backwaters, and

flooded paddy fields in parts of the wet zone where there are

no tanks. The birds move about a good deal, and appear to

be commonest during the rains of the north-east monsoon.

It is probable that many of the birds seen then are migrants

from Southern India. At that time of year I have heard

whistling from flocks passing over Colombo during the night.

This species is very fond of roosting and perching on the dead

branches of trees near water. Its cry is a peculiar whistling

uttered while on the wing. It breeds mostly in the early

part of the year, but if the weather conditions and water

supply are favourable, it will breed right on to June, or even

August. The nest may either be formed by beating down a

small circle of reeds, rushes, or grass in swampy ground, or

consist of a scanty lining of grass and feathers placed in the

angle made by the junction of a large bough with the stem of

a tree standing in the water. The eggs are broad, almost

regular ovals, white and smooth, but not glossy. They

measure about 1°89 by 1°49, and the full clutch varies from

seven to twelve, or even more.

DrENDROCYGNA FULVA (Branford, Vol. IV., p. 432 ;

Legge, p. 1226a).

The Large Whistling Teal.

Description.—This bird is, in general, similar to the last

species, but considerably larger, rather darker on the upper

parts, and has the following differences: there is a black

8 6(7)17

335 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

stripe down the back of the nape ; the chestnut on the wing

coverts is not nearly so pronounced ; the upper tail coverts

are creamy-white, while the sides and front of the lower neck

are whitish, with small and often inconspicuous dusky streaks.

Bill blue-black ; iris brown ; eyelids pale livid ; legs and

feet dark lead-colour.

Length 20; wing9; tail2; tarsus 2-25 ; billfrom gape 2°4.

Distribution —A few specimens were once obtained near

Mannar. It is occasionally found in various parts of India

and Burma, but its main habitat is in Central and South

America, tropical and South Africa, and Madagascar.

Habits—Similar to those of the common Whistling Teal ;

the birds associate in small flocks, and should be looked for

on the north coast of the Island.

NETTOPUS COROMANDELIANUS (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 433).

NETTAPUS COROMANDELIANUS (Legge, p. 1066).

The Cotton Teal ; Quacky Duck.

Description.—Males in the breeding season have the fore-

head, crown, and nape brown ; the rest of the head, the neck,

and lower parts are white, with a broad black collar, glossed

with green behind, round the neck. The remainder of the

upper parts down to the rump are dark brown glossed with

green and purple ; the outer half of the primaries white tipped

with black ; white tips to the secondaries ; wing lining brown ;

flanks white vermiculated with brown, which increases in

density on the upper tail coverts ; tail dark brown ; under

tail coverts mottled brown and white.

In winter the male loses the black collar, and resembles the

female, but retains the white on the primaries and some of the

gloss on the wings and back.

Female : crown and nape brown ; a brown stripe from the

base of the bill through the eyes ; the rest of the head, the

neck, and upper breast grayish-white with stipplings and wavy

_bars of brown; remainder of under plumage dirty white

mixed with brown, darkest on the flanks and under wing

coverts. The upper surface, wings, and tail are brown ; inner

primaries and secondaries with white tips ; upper tail coverts

freckled white and brown.

CEYLON WATER BIRDS. 337

Young birds resemble the females.

In breeding males bill black ; iris red ; legs and feet black,

dusky yellow down the sides.

In females bill brown above, yellowish underneath ; iris

brown ; legs and toes greenish-yellow, webs black.

Length 13; wing 6:5; tail 2°75; tarsus 1; bill from gape

1-15.

Females are slightly smaller.

Distribution —Commonest in the north and east of the

island, but spreads during the north-east monsoon to the

west and south-west. Occurs through most parts of India and

Burma, and extends through south-eastern Asia to China, the

Philippines, and Dutch East Indies.

Habits—Very fond of weedy tanks, which it frequents in

small flocks ; occasionally larger flocks may be seen, especially

on large tanks during the hot weather, when smaller tanks

are dry. These little ducks fly low and fast, uttering their

curious cackle, which sounds like ‘‘ quacky-duck, quacky-

duck.’’ They breed in the early part of the year and again

about August. The nest is a scanty lining of down placed in

holes in trees or in old buildings. About eight to twelve eggs

are laid, smooth ivory-white, measuring about 1°65 by 1°28.

ANAS PCCILORHYNCHA (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 436 ;

Legge, p. 1073).

The Spotted-billed Duck.

Description.—Forehead, crown, and nape dark brown, with

paler streaks; a stripe above the eye; the sides of the head

and the neck whitish with brown streaks ; chin and throat

unstreaked. The rest of the upper partsare brown, darkening

almost to black on the tail, with pale edges to the feathers on

the upper back and scapulars, and a slight green gloss on the

tail coverts ; breast and abdomen buff-white with large brown

spots; on the lower abdomen the ground-colour gradually

deep sooty-brown.

The primaries are dark brown; the outer webs of the

secondaries are glossy purple, shading to peacock-green, with

an outer border of black narrowly edged with white ; outer

338 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

webs of tertiaries white ; the greater wing coverts are brown,

with a sub-terminal white band and velvet-black tip; wing

lining white. The sexes are alike.

Bill black with a broad orange-yellow tip and a blackish

nail ; a naked orange or red patch on each side at the base of

the upper mandible ; iris reddish-brown ; legs and feet orange-

yellow, claws black.

Length 24 ; wing 11; tail 4°5; tarsus 1°75 ; bill from gape

2°5.

Females are rather smaller.

Distribution—In Ceylon probably a winter migrant from

India. It is occasionally found during the north-east monsoon

on some of the larger tanks in the north and east of the Island.

A resident species in India, Upper Burma, and the Shan States.

Habits.—A fresh-water species, which generally goes about

in pairs or small troops. It is rather heavy on the wing.

CHAULELASMUS STREPERUS (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 440 ;

not in Legge).

The Gadwall.

Description Male in breeding plumage: head and neck

grayish-white, speckled with brown most thickly on the

crown and nape ; lower neck, upper back, scapulars, flanks,

and upper breast whitish with brown wavy bars, which

become crescent-shaped on the breast; lower back dark

brown, turning to black on the rump and upper tail coverts ;

tail and wing quills grayish-brown ; the outer webs of the

middle secondaries black, of the inner secondaries white ; the

smaller wing coverts brown, the median chestnut, the greater

velvet-black ; lower breast and abdomen dirty white, with

indistinct brown bars towards the vent ; the under tail coverts

black. In the off season drakes assume female plumage.

Female : head and neck streaky brown and white, darkest

above ; the upper parts dark brown mottled with buff on the

upper back and scapulars; breast and flanks rufous-buft

spotted with brown ; abdomen dirty white ; wings as in the

male, save that the chestnut of the median wing coverts is

wanting or greatly diminished.

CEYLON WATER BIRDS 339

Young birds resemble females, but have no chestnut or black

on the wings, while the lower parts are spotted throughout.

Bill in males lead-colour or blackish-brown, and in females

orange ; iris brown ; legs yellowy-brown to dull orange.

Length 20 ; wing 10°5 ; tail 3°4 ; tarsus 1-5 ; bill from gape

2K.

Females are smaller ; their wings about 9°5.

Distribution —A recent addition to the birds of Ceylon. A

single specimen, now in the Museum, was secured a few years

ago at Palatupana, in the Hambantota District. A winter

visitant to Northern India and Upper Burma; rare in the

south. Found nearly all over the Northern Hemisphere,

breeding in the temperate zone and wintering further south-

wards.

NETTIUM cRECCA (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 443).

ANAS ORECCA (Legge, p. 1083).

The Common Teal.

Description.—Male : the head and upper neck chestnut ; a

broad band of metallic green surrounds the eye and runs

backwards to the nape ; a narrow buff line runs from the chin

to the front of this green band, and then borders it above and

below. ‘Fhe chin and feathers edging the upper mandible are

almost black. The lower neck all round, upper back, inner

scapulars, and flanks are minutely barred black and white ;

outer scapulars buff with a broad black edge on the outer

web ; lower back and rump brown, turning to black on the

tail coverts, which are edged with dark buff. The tail and

wing quills are brown; the outer secondaries velvet-black

edged with white ; outer webs of inner secondaries metallic

green ; a velvet-black band on the outer web of the first

tertiary ; the outer wing coverts whitish-buff, the remainder

dark brown. ‘The breast is white with black drops ; abdomen

white, tinged at times with brown ; under tail coverts black

in the centre and buff at the sides. Males, from about June

to October, assume a plumage like that of females.

340 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Female: upper parts dark brown, with buff or reddish

edges to each feather ; lower parts dirty white, sometimes with

a reddish tinge ; the sides and under part of the head and neck

whitish speckled with brown, the upper part of the head and

neck being darker. Wings and wing bar as in males, but

duller, while the larger secondary coverts are white or buff.

Young birds resemble females, but have pale edges to the

wing coverts.

Bill almost black ; iris hazel ; legs and feet brownish-gray.

Length 14°5 ; wing 7°25; tail 3 ; tarsus 1-2 ; bill from gape

1:7. Females are rather smaller.

Distribution —An irregular visitant during the cold weather,

chiefly to the north of the Island. At this season it is found

nearly all over India and Burma. It occurs throughout

Europe, Asia, and Northern Africa, breeding in the north

temperate zone and wintering in the south.

Habits—In some years this species is fairly plentiful among

the lagoons in the north of the Island ; at such times it spreads

inland over the tank country as far south as Anuradhapura

and down the east coast to the confines of the Hambantota

District. It flies in considerable flocks, resting during most

of the day and flighting to its feeding grounds at sunset.

DaFiLa acuta (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 447).

ANAS AcuTA (Legge, p. 1076).

The Pintail.

Description —Male : the head and under-side of the neck

dark brown ; hind-neck black ; on each side of the neck is a

white stripe, which meets the white of the under parts ; the

lower hind-neck, the back, sides, and flanks dark brown, with

fine wavy markings of light gray. The larger scapulars are

velvet-black edged with whitish or light brown ; upper tail

coverts black and gray ; tail black ; wing coverts gray-brown,

the last row bordering the wing bar being tipped with cimna-

mon. Primary quills brown-gray ; the secondaries have the

outer webs bronzed-green and purple and the ends black,

tipped with white; the innermost secondary has the outer

CEYLON WATER BIRDS. 341

web black with a whitish bar inside ; the tertiaries are gray

with a velvet-black stripe ; breast and abdomen white, speckled

towards the vent with gray; lower tail coverts black, the

outside feathers with a whitish border. From June to October

the male resembles the female, but retains the wing bar.

Female: dusky gray above, with irregular buff or white

bars on the back and scapulars ; the greater wing coverts and

the secondaries are tipped with white, thus forming two white

bands across the wing ; there is no bright wing bar ; primaries

brown-gray. The chin and throat are whitish ; the sides of

the head and fore-neck white speckled with dark brown

markings, which are more distinct on the lower neck. The

lower parts, flanks, and under tail coverts are whitish tinged

and streaked with dusky brown.

Young males resemble females, but show traces of the wing

bar.

Bill black, dull lead-blue on the sides; iris dark brown ;

legs and feet gray-black.

Length 22 to 29; wing 11; tail 5 to 8°5; tarsus 1°6; bill

from gape 2°25. Females are smaller ; wing 10.

Distribution —Appears to visit the lagoons in the north of

the Island fairly regularly from November to about March.

A winter visitor to scattered districts throughout India and

Burma. It occurs almost throughout the Northern Hemi-

sphere, breeding near the Arctic Circle.

Habits —This is mostly a fresh-water bird, but with us it

seems to be confined to coastal lagoons, which, however, at

the season of its visit are flooded with rain water and become

brackish, in some places nearly fresh.

QUERQUEDULA cIRCIA (Blanford, Vol. [V., p. 449).

ANAS cirRciA (Legge, p. 1080).

The Garganey Teal.

Description.—Male in breeding plumage: the top of the

head, from crown to nape, brownish-black ; a white stripe

from the front of the eye to the side of the nape; the chin

342 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

black ; the remainder of the head and neck rufous-brown

finely streaked with white ; back, ramp, and upper tail coverts

brown with pale edges to the feathers ; the scapulars, which

are elongated, black with white shaft-stripes ; the outer webs

of the outer scapulars and the wing coverts lavender-gray ;

the tips of the secondary coverts white ; tail feathers and

primary quills dark brown ; the secondaries with glossy green

outer webs and white tips, tertiaries dark brown with narrow

white borders. The breast is buff or brownish with concentric

bars of dark brown ; abdomen white, speckled with brown

towards the vent and on the tail coverts ; the flanks marked

with narrow wavy dark lines.

In the off season males resemble females, but retain the

bright wing bar and lavender-gray wing coverts.

Female: upper parts brown, with pale borders to each

feather ; the top of the head dark brown ; a buff spot on the

lores, and a white stripe running back from above the eye;

ehin and throat whitish ; the sides of the head and neck and

the fore-neck white, streaked with brownish-black ; the wing

coverts grayish-brown or ash-coloured ; the wing bar is absent,

or is merely a faint tinge of bronze-green between the white

bars formed by the tips of the secondary coverts and of the

secondary quills; the breast and abdomen white, spotted

towards the vent and on the flanks and lower tail coverts with

brown.

Young males resemble the females.

Bill black-brown ; iris hazel; legs and feet lead-colour to

greenish.

Length 16; wing 7°75; tail 2°75; tarsus 1:1; bill from

gape 1°75.

Females are rather smaller.

Distribution —A winter visitor, chiefly to the northern

lagoons, but sometimes extending down the east coast as far

as Hambantota. Found at this season throughout India and

Burma. It is a migratory species, breeding in Central Europe

and Asia and wintering southwards.

Habits —Very similar to those of the Common Teal. Like

that species, it keeps, in Ceylon, to lagoons near the coast,

though mainly a fresh-water bird.

—————

CEYLON WATER BIRDS. 343

SPATULA CLYPEATA (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 452 ;

Legge, p. 1086).

The Shoveller.

Description.—Male in breeding plumage: head and upper

neck glossy green ; lower neck, breast, and shorter scapulars

pure white ; the feathers of the back dark brown with paler

edges ; the rump with the upper and under tail coverts black

glossed with green ; tail dark brown, the outer feathers edged

with white ; the wing coverts and outer webs of the two longest

scapulars pale blue-gray ; the rest of the long scapulars are

black with broad white shaft-stripes. The wing quills are

brown; the wing bar on the secondaries is bright green

bordered by a white bar formed by the outer wing coverts ;

tertiaries glossy green-black with a whitish stripe along the

shafts. The lower breast and abdomen are chestnut; the

feathers round the vent and the upper flanks finely barred

with buff; a patch of white on the lower flanks. Males in

undress resemble females, but are more richly coloured.

Female: feathers of the upper parts brown with broad

rufous margins; the scapulars and upper tail coverts with

concentric bands of buff or rufous ; the wing coverts are duller,

and the wing bar less glossy than in the male ; under parts

reddish or brownish-buff speckled with brown.

Bill of male in full plumage black, in females dark brown

above, lighter underneath ; iris hazel-brown in females, yellow

or orange in males ; legs orange or red.

Length 20 ; wing 9°5 ; tail3°75 ; tarsus 1°4 ; bill from gape 3.

Females are rather smaller.

Distribution —An occasional winter visitor to the lagoons

on the north coast ; rare in the south of India and Burma,

much commoner in the north. It is found over most of

the Northern Hemisphere, breeding in temperate climates.

Layard once found a female with nestlings near Jaffna in

March.

Habits —This is usually a fresh-water species, found in small

flocks round tanks and marshes. It nests in dry secluded

spots in the middle of a swamp. The nest is made of flags

and rushes and lined with down, the feathers of which are

9 6(7)17

344. SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

small and dark brown with whitish centres. The eggs, 8 to 12

in number, are smooth gray-green or stone-green, and measure

about 2°17 by 1°48.

NETTA RUFINA (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 456).

FULIGULA RUFINA (Legge, p. 1087, note).

The Red-crested Pochard.

Description.—Male: head, throat, and upper neck reddish-

chestnut, paler on the crown and rufous-buff on the longish

crest ; lower neck all round and upper breast glossy brown-

black, which changes on the lower breast and abdomen to

glossy brown ; the middle of the back lighter brown darkening

to brownish-black on the rump and upper tail coverts, which

are slightly glossed with green ; tail brown. The primaries

are white at the base and whitish-brown outside, the tips of

all and the outer webs of the first five quills being dark brown ;

secondaries creamy-white, with an outer brown _ border

narrowly edged with white ; the tertiaries and most of the _

wing coverts are grayish-brown ; the coverts near the edge of

the wing and the wing lining are white, as is a large area on the

flanks and sides of the body. Males in the off season resemble

females, but are more richly coloured, and have a longer crest.

Female: the upper plumage grayish-brown darkening to

blackish-brown on the rump ; there is no white on the wing

coverts, and the secondaries are grayish-white ; otherwise the

wings and tail resemble those of males. The under parts are

grayish-white.

Bill in males vermilion-red, the nail whitish-pink ; in females

the bill is black, becoming reddish towards the tip ; iris in

males red-brown, in females brown ; legs and feet in males

orange-red, in females brownish-orange.

Length 21; wing 10°5; tail 3:5; tarsus 1:75; bill from

gape 2°25. Females are slightly smaller.

Distribution —A doubtful visitor to Ceylon; said to have

been seen near Jaffna by Layard. This species is a winter

migrant to Northern and Central India. It breeds in Northern

Africa, Southern Europe, and in Asia from the Caspian to

‘Turkestan.

CEYLON WATER BIRDS. 345

Order PYGOPODES.

Family PopiciPEDID 2.

Genus Podiceps.

The Grebes.

The Grebes belong to an order represented in the Indian

area by a single genus, of which only one species is found in

Ceylon.

The bill is fairly short, straight, and pointed. The legs are

placed very far back ; the small hind toe is placed alove the

level of the others and is lobed ; the front toes are furnished

each with a separate broad fringe of web, the fringes uniting

only at the base of the toes. Grebes are expert swimmers and

divers, but bad walkers, and seldom leave the water. Their

wings are short and pointed, and their flight is usually an

agitated scurry along the top of the water ; but once they have

mounted, they have powers of flying which enable them to

travel long distances. The tail is practically wanting. The

nest is composed of floating water weed or other herbage ; the

eggs are white; the young when hatched are covered with

down, and are able to swim at once.

PODICEPS ALBIPENNIS (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 476).

Popicurs FLUVIATILIS (Legge, p. 1059).

The Indian Little Grebe, or Dabchick.

Description-—In breeding plumage the chin, the lores, the

front of the cheeks, the forehead, crown, and hind neck are

blackish-brown ; the side of the head up to the eye, the

throat, and fore-neck are chestnut; upper parts dull dark

brown ; the wings paler, the primaries being white at the base

and the secondaries almost wholly white. The abdomen is

silky white, which colour mingles gradually on the breast,

flanks, and vent with the brown of the upper parts.

346 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

In the off season the crown and hind-neck are brown ; the

chin turns white, and the chestnut of the head and neck is

replaced by pale rufous-buff.

Young birds are paler brown above, white underneath, and

pale rufous on the side of the head and neck.

Bill black with a white tip, greenish or yellowish at the base

and round the gape ; iris red-brown ; legs and feet blackish-

green, the inside of the tarsus pale olive-brown.

Length 9 ; wing 3°9; tarsus 1°38 ; bill from gape °9.

Distribution —-Found all over the low-country wherever

there are suitable sheets of water ; it has been seen on the

Nuwara Eliya Lake ; occurs throughout India and Burma.

Habits —This species may be found in little flocks on most

tanks and still weedy stretches of water. The breeding

season is from May to about July. The nest is usually a

large round blob of floating water weed, and the eggs are always

covered over with wet weed when the bird leaves them.

They are long narrow ovals, dull white when first laid, but

soon discoloured as incubation proceeds. ‘The usual number is

four or five, and the average size 1°36 by °97.

Plate I.

Fic. 1.—PHALACROCORAX JAVANICUS. Fic. 5.—ARDEA MANILLENSIS

Fic. 2.—PUFFINUS CHLORORHYNCHUS Fic. 6.—NYCTICORAX GRISEUS.

Fic. 3.—PLEGADIS FALCINELLUS. Fic. 7.—DENDROCYCNA JAVANICA

Fic. 4.— DISSURA EPISCOPUS FIG 8.—QUERQUEDULA CIRCIA.

CEYLON PIGEONS AND GAME BIRDS. 347

ROUGH DRAFT OF CEYLON PIGEONS

AND GAME BIRDS.

By W. E. Watt, M.A., M.B.O.U.

(With a Plate.)

HIS instalment of the rough draft comprises the Pigeons

and Game Birds. In my notes on the Pigeons, while

following Blanford’s classification in accordance with the

scheme adopted for the handbook, [ have given short references

to the trinomial arrangement adopted by Stuart Baker in his

recently published monograph “‘ Indian Pigeons and Doves,’’*

the latest work on the Indian families of this order. Un-

fortunately, the same author’s ““ Game Birds of India, Burma,

and Ceylon,” which is now appearing serially in the Journal

of the Bombay Natural History Society, has not yet treated

of more than two or three species of our Ceylon game birds.

Order GCOLUMBEZ.

Pigeons and Doves.

The Pigeons and Doves form a distinct order, their nearest

allies being the Sand Grouse and the Gallinaceous birds ; but

they differ from these two orders, in that the young when

hatched are helpless and naked. In this respect they resemble

the Passerine birds. Again, in certain details of their anatomy

they show affinities with the Owls and Vultures.

In the bill of a Pigeon the basal portion of the upper mandible

is covered with a soft skin or cere ; the tip is swollen, hard,

and convex, forming a sort of knob. The nostrils are narrow

slits placed near the base of the bill. The wings are generally

long and pointed, with eleven primary and four secondary

* Published in London, 1913, by Witherby & Co.

348 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

quills. The hind toe is placed on the same level as the front

toes, and is well developed ; in those forms which are wholly

arboreal the soles of the foot are flat and expanded, in the

species which feed on the ground they are more slender.

The birds are vegetarian, living mainly on fruit or seeds.

In most cases the nest is the scantiest platform of twigs

placed in a tree or bush, but some species nest on rocks.

The eggs are white or cream-coloured, oval, and usually

glossy ; they are generally two in number, but some Pigeons

lay only one.

Classification within the order is a subject of some difficulty

and divergence of opinion. The British Museum Catalogue

recognizes five families, three of which contain genera found

in India. Blanford, however—followed by Stuart Baker in

his recent work on the Indian Pigeons and Doves—includes

all the Indian representatives in one family Columbide, which

he divides again into six sub-families, stating at the same time

that the differences between several of these sub-families are

hardly more than generic, and that he has adopted these

divisions more from deference to the usual practice than from

conviction.

In Ceylon thirteen species of Pigeon have been recorded,

belonging to four of the six Indian sub-families. Of these

thirteen, however, five are the merest stragglers, three more

are local, and only five are common and widely distributed

throughout the Island.

The following are the external characteristics by which our

four sub-families may be distinguished :—

(1) T'reronine (Green Pigeons).

Fourteen feathers in the tail ; plumage mainly green, with

conspicuous yellow bands on the wings ; wing measurement

not exceeding 8 inches ; in all Ceylon species the inner web of

the third wing quill is notched.

(2) Carpophagine (Imperial Pigeons).

Fourteen feathers in tail ; size large ; wing 8 inches or over ;

soles of feet flat and expanded ; in Ceylon species the head,

neck, and lower parts are gray.

CEYLON PIGEONS AND GAME BIRDS. 349

(3) Phabine (Bronze-wing Pigeon).

Twelve feathers in tail; size small; wing under 6 inches ;

back and wing coverts metallic green ; bill red.

(4) Columbine (Rock Pigeons, Wood Pigeons, and Doves).

Twelve feathers in tail; size variable ; large forms, in which

the wing is 8 inches or over, have a glossy upper plumage or

a metallic lustre on the neck feathers ; in smaller forms the

plumage is dull-coloured and lustreless.

Sub-family Treronine.

Green Pigeons.

The Green Pigeons may be distinguished at once by their

plumage, which is mainly a soft yellowish-green, and by their

call, which is a low melodious whistle, not a coo.

They associate in flocks, and live almost entirely in trees,

seldom descending to the ground. The soles of their feet are

well adapted for perching, being flat, and considerably broader

than the upper sides of the toes ; the tarsus is short, and has

the upper portion feathered. They feed entirely on the fruit

of various trees and shrubs, and are themselves very good for

the pot.

Three species are found in Ceylon : one, a very rare straggler,

belongs to the genus Crocopus, in which the sexes are almost

alike ; the other two, our common Green Pigeons, are both

members of the genus Osmotreron, in which the males differ

distinctly from the females in their colouration.

Rough Key to Ceylon Species.

A.—Legs and feet yellow ; wing 7°25.

Crocopus chlorogaster (Southern Green Pigeon),

B.—Legs and feet red ; wing 5°6: genus Osmotreron.

(a) Middle tail feathers green ; males with a maroon

mantle.

O. pompadora (Pompadour Green Pigeon).

(b) Middle tail feathers slate-gray ; males with a

breast of lilac and orange.

O, bicincta (Orange-breasted Green Pigeon).

350 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

CROCOPUS CHLOROGASTER (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 6).

CROCOPUS CHLORIGASTER (Legge, p. 722).

The Southern Green Pigeon.

Description —-Male : the forehead, top, and sides of head

bluish-gray, often encroaching on the yellowish-green of the

chin and throat; under parts yellowish-green, brightest on

the upper breast; vent and thighs yellow; flanks grayer ;

under tail coverts dull purple-chestnut with broad white

edges and tips of grayish-white. Round the hind-neck is a

broad collar of olive-yellow, and behind this a narrower

collar of bluish-gray ; the rest of the upper parts, together

with the wing and tail coverts, are olive-green with a yellow

tinge ; greater wing coverts and secondary quills edged with

yellow ; primaries dark brown, also more or less edged with

yellow. The small coverts at the bend of the wing are lilac.

The tail is gray above, the feathers being tinged with green

at the base; underneath the tail feathers are gray with a

broad black base.

Females, as a rule, are slightly duller, while the lilac patch

on the wing is smaller and not so pronounced.

Bill greenish or bluish-white ; iris with an inner circle of

blue and an outer ring of carmine; legs and feet chrome-

yellow.

Length up to 12°50 ; wing 7°25 ; tail about 4°5; tarsus °9;

bill from gape °9.

Females are a little smaller. Ceylon and South Indian

birds are smaller than those from Northern India.

Distribution —In Ceylon a very rare visitor from Southern

India. A few specimens have been obtained near Jaffna and

at Arippu.

Blanford gives specific distinction to the southern form of

this Pigeon, which ranges through Southern, Central, and

North-western India.

Stuart Baker counts it as a sub-species of the Bengal Green

Pigeon, C. phanicopterus, and describes it as C. phenicopterus

chlorogaster.

CEYLON PIGEONS AND GAME BIRDS 351

Habits—According to Layard, this species appears in

Ceylon only when the fruit is ripe in the jungles. He says it

is especially fond of the figs of the banyan. Like most Green

Pigeons, it always perches in trees, but occasionally descends

to the water to drink.

OSMOTRERON POMPADORA (Blanford, Vol. VI., p. 9;

Legge, p. 728).

Pompadour Green Pigeon.

Description—Male : forehead, lores, and cheeks greenish-

yellow, becoming purer yellow on the chin and throat. Crown

and nape ashy-blue, changing into ashy-green on the hind-

neck and sides of neck. The mantle (¢.e., back, scapulars,

and lesser wing coverts) chestnut-maroon. Lower back,

rump, and upper tail coverts green. Central tail feathers

green, the outer feathers passing into black with bluish-gray

tips. Outer wing coverts and quills black, the secondaries

and greater coverts boldly edged with bright yellow. Under

parts yellowish-green ; the flanks more ash-coloured ; lower

flanks and thighs dark greenish with yellowish-white tips ;

under tail coverts pale buff or whitish.

Female : the maroon mantle is wanting, being replaced by

dark green. As a rule, the yellow edges of the wing feathers

are paler, and the lower tail coverts are more marked, especially

at their bases, with green and ash-colour.

Bill glaucous-green, the tip bluish ; iris carmine, with an

inner ring of cobalt-blue ; legs and feet red with a purple tinge.

Length 10°5; wing 5:6; tail 3:6; tarsus ‘8; bill from

gape ‘9.

Distribution —Peculiar to Ceylon. It is abundant all over

the low-country, and ranges up to about 4,000 feet. Near

the sea, except in the north-east, it is largely replaced by the

next species.

Stuart Baker regards it as a sub-species, which he names

O. pompadora pompadora, uniting with it as three allied sub-

species the three forms from Eastern India and Burma, the

Malabar Coast, and from the Andamans, which are described

by Blanford as O. phayrei, O. affinis, and O. chloroptera,

respectively.

10 6(7)17

352 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Habits —The present species is common in forest country,

largely in the vicinity of jungle-girt villages. In the more

cultivated districts it may be found in plantations of jak or

other fruit trees, but such birds are generally not such fine

specimens as those from the thick jungles of Sabaragamuwa

or the North-Central Province. They live entirely upon

fruit, and at the season when the banyan and other wild figs

are ripe their flesh is delicious. The breeding season is from

about February to May, or, if the weather is favourable, right

on to August. The nest is a scanty mesh of twigs placed in

the small branches of a tree, usually about 10 to 20 feet from

the ground. Sometimes two, often only one egg is laid.

They are broad blunt ovals, white and smooth in texture.

The average size is about 1°12 by °90.

OsMOTRERON BIcINCTA (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 11;

Legge, p. 725).

The Orange-breasted Green Pigeon.

Description.—Male : the forehead, crown, face, and throat

yellowish-green, passing into delicate blue-gray on the nape

and hind-neck. Back, wing coverts, and tertiaries are green,

shading into bronze-green on the rump and upper tail coverts.

Tail ashy-gray, with a dark broad cross-band, which is most

marked on the outer, and indistinct on the central, feathers.

Wing quills black ; the primaries and secondaries are narrowly

edged with bright yellow, the outer coverts and tertiaries with

deep borders of the same colour.

The upper portion and sides of the breast are lilac, the lower

breast orange ; abdomen yellowish-green, shading into pure

yellow round the vent ; thigh plumes yellow with broad centres

of ashy-green ; under tail coverts cinnamon.

Females have no lilac and orange on the breast, which is

yellowish-green ; the under tail coverts are paler, the outer |

webs being almost white.

Bill glaucous-green, pale blue on the tip ; iris cobalt-blue,

with an outer ring of carmine ; legs pinkish-red.

Length 10°5; wing 5°6; tail 3°7; tarsus *75; bill from

gape °8.

Females are slightly smaller.

CEYLON PIGEONS AND GAME BIRDS. 353

Distribution Common all round the coast, except in the

palm belts, where it keeps a little further inland ; it is also

found over a good part of the low-country in the interior.

Blanford unites in one species the larger northern form of

this Pigeon, which is found in Bengal, Assam, and Burma,

ranging eastward to South China and south-eastwards to

Malaya, with the decidedly smaller form from Southern India

and Ceylon. Stuart Baker distinguishes the latter as a sub-

species, O. bicincta bicincta.

Habits —The present species, though often found in the

same locality as the Pompadour Green Pigeon, is rather

fonder of lower jungle or even scrub. In the chena districts

in the Southern Province it has taken kindly to the fruit of

the lantana ; it also feeds on wild dates and the berries of

various shrubs, as well as on wild figs and other forest fruits.

Like all Green Pigeons, these birds will swarm on the boughs

of a favourite fruit tree, and their plumage so harmonizes

with the foliage that unless they move it is almost impossible

to see them. The call is a low soft whistle, like that of the

last species, but generally preceded by a funny little chuckle.

The breeding season is from February till May, and some-

times again from July till September. I have found a fair

number of nests, always by the side of a path or clearing and

placed from 6 to 10 feet up in a low tree or tall shrub. Two

white eggs of the usual type are laid on a very scanty structure

of twigs. During the day incubation is carried on by the male,

which sits so close that one can almost touch it.

The average size of the eggs is about 1:10 by ‘88.

Sub-family Carpophagine.

Imperial Pigeons.

The Imperial Pigeons are large fruit-eating species with

arboreal habits resembling those of Green Pigeons. In their

structure they are more akin to the Common Pigeon. The

toes are stout, the sole broad and flat. Two species have

occurred. th Ceylon: one is fairly common; the other owes

its place in the list to a single and recent record.

354 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Rough Key to Ceylon Species.

A.—Mantle green with a metallic gloss.

Carpophaga znea (Green Imperial Pigeon).

B.—Mantle olive-brown with little or no gloss.

Ducula cuprea (Jerdon’s Imperial Pigeon).

CARPOPHAGA NEA (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 19;

Legge p. 718.)

The Green Imperial Pigeon.

Description.—The head, neck, and the lower parts to the

vent pale dove-gray, sometimes tinged wholly or in part with

vinous. The short feathers adjoining the bill are generally

white. Back, rump, upper tail coverts, and wings bronze-

green with a metallic lustre ; tail deep slaty-green above with

less lustre than the back, underneath yellowish-gray. Wing

quills blackish, tinged on the outer webs with gray, and

changing gradually on the secondaries into the same colour

as the back feathers. Lower tail coverts liver-coloured.

Bill grayish-green, bluish at the tip, and dull red by the

nostrils ; iris deep red : legs and feet dull lake-red.

Length 16; wing 8°25; tail 5°5; tarsus 1; bill from gape

1°3. Ceylon birds are considerably smaller than those from

Northern India.

Distribution —Fairly common throughout the low-country

wherever there is high forest. In India it occurs in heavy

forest on the Malabar Coast, and in similar country up the

east coast through Bengal and Assam to Burma and the

south-eastern portion of the Oriental region.

Habits —A forest-loving species, commonest in the wilder

districts. In the jungles of the northern and south-eastern

parts of the Island, where the rainfall is not very heavy, it

may be found in the strips of tall timber which fringe the

streams and tanks.

The birds are generally very shy, but like the Green Pigeons

they are greedy fruit eaters, and when the berries are ripe on a

favourite tree they will flock to it in the morning and early

CEYLON PIGEONS AND GAME BIRDS. 355

evening. At such times they can be approached with more

chance of success. Old birds are apt to be tough, but young

ones are tender and good to eat. The call is a fine deep

dissyllabic coo.

The nest is the usual scanty saucer of twigs placed at a

height of about 20 feet or more on a tree in the heart of the

jungle. The nesting season appears to be in April and May.

A single smooth white egg is laid, measuring about 1°65 by

1°30.

DucuLa CuPREA (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 22 ; not in Legge).

Jerdon’s Imperial Pigeon.

Description.—Upper part of head, neck, and shoulders pale

lilac-gray, remainder of upper plumage, including wings, dark

olive-brown, with little or no gloss; rump and upper tail

coverts almost the same colour as the back ; basal portion of

tail dark chocolate-brown, outer third lighter brown. Chin

and throat white; remainder of lower parts grayish-lilac ;

abdomen and hinder flanks tinged with ochreous ; under tail

coverts buff with dusky freckles.

Bill dull lake-red at the base, slaty at the tip ; iris reddish-

brown ; legs dull lake-red.

Length 17 ; wing 8°75; tail7; tarsus 1-1; bill from gape 1 °4.

Distribution —In recent years a breeding bird and an egg

have been obtained in the Ratnapura District.* In India

this Pigeon, which is considered by Stuart Baker to be a

sub-species of the Himalayan form D. insignis, occurs on the

Nilgiris and other hill ranges near the Malabar Coast.

Habits —This species has only recently been discovered in

Ceylon, but as the nest and egg were taken, it would appear

to be a very rare resident in the jungles of the Adam’s Peak

range. In the South Indian hills it keeps to heavy forest,

but at certain seasons it migrates in large numbers to the

coast to feed on the buds of various plants which grow in

salt-water swamps.

The breeding season in Southern India is from January to

April and again in November.

* Vide Stuart Baker, ‘‘ Indian Pigeons and Doves,” p. 107.

356 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

The egg obtained in Ceylon was taken in October. The

nidification resembles that of the last species. The average

size of the egg is 1°75 by 1°29.

Sub-family Phabine.

Genus Chalcophaps.

Bronze-wing Pigeons.

This sub-family contains a considerable number of genera

and species from Africa, Asia, the Malay Archipelago, and

Australia, but only one species is found within Indian limits.

‘The feathers of the mantle have a metallic lustre ; the wing is

moderately long, the tail short and slightly rounded ; the

tarsus is slender and not feathered, the toes are slender and

adapted to the terrestrial habits of the bird.

CHALCUPHAPS {NDICA (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 26;

Legge, p. 714).

The Bronze-wing Pigeon.

Description.—-Male : forehead and eyebrow white, changing

to slate-gray on the crown and nape. The sides of the head,

the neck all round, and the upper breast are deep vinous-red,

which pales gradually on the lower breast and abdomen ; the

gray of the nape may be continued more or less indistinctly

down the hind-neck. The back and wing coverts are golden

green with a varying amount of bronze sheen. ‘The primaries,

secondaries, and greater primary coverts are dark brown, the

outer webs of the secondaries glossed with green, the small

wing coverts at the shoulder of the wing vinous-red fringed

with white. The lower back is coppery-brown with two blue-

gray cross-bands ; rump and upper tail coverts blackish-brown ;

tail blackish-brown, the outer feathers gray, with a black

cross-bar towards the tip.

In females the white patch on the forehead and eyebrow is

smaller, and at times almost absent ; there is no slate-gray on

the crown and nape, and the white patch on the shoulder of

the wing is lacking. The upper tail coverts are chocolate-

brown with dark tips; the middle four tail feathers are

reddish-brown, the next pair redder with darker tips, and the

outermost pair, as in the male, gray with a black cross-bar,

CEYLON PIGEONS AND GAME BIRDS. 397

Bill red ; iris dark brown ; legs coral-red.

Length 10°5; wing 5°6; tail 8°75; tarsus 1; bill from

gape °9.

Distribution —Found almost all over the Island wherever

there are forests. In India it occurs in most forest districts

with sufficient rainfall. Common throughout Burma, and

extends through South-eastern Asia to New Guinea and the

Philippines.

Habits —Essentially a bird of the forest ; it feeds largely on

the ground, and may often be seen on roads and paths through

the jungle, picking up any grain which has been spilled at

wayside halts. In the low-country it is also very fond of the

little open spaces made in the jungle by the outcrops of bare

slab rock, coming to drink from the water-holes in the crevices.

The call is a soft deep “ hoo.” The flight is low and swift.

There are probably several broods during the year, and the

nest. may be looked for at any time from February to June:

it is a more compact structure than that of most Pigeons,

placed in a tall bush or low tree from 5 to 10 feet above the

eround.

The two eggs are not white, but buff or cream-coloured, and

their average size is about 1°05 by °83.

Sub-family Columbine.

Rock Pigeons, Wood Pigeons, and Doves.

This sub-family includes the typical Pigeons and Doves, of

which seven species are found in Ceylon. These seven species

are distributed amongst four genera, which vary considerably

in size and colour of plumage—-superficial distinctions without

any correspondingly important structural differences. In the

Rock Pigeons—genus Columba—the plumage is mainly gray

with some metallic lustre about the neck ; the wings are fairly

long and pointed, the tail is short, the tarsus is not feathered,

and the feet are formed for walking, with slender toes and

narrow soles.’ The Indian Wood Pigeons—genus Alsocomus—

have a dark plumage, the greater part of it lustred with a

changeable metallic sheen. In habits they approach the

Imperial Pigeons, being arboreal and fruit eaters. The Turtle

358 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Doves—genus 7'urtur—are smallish birds, clad in rather sober

brown or gray, with small heads, slender necks, and weak

bills. The wing is long and pointed, the legs short, and the

foot formed for walking. The sexes are similar. The genus

(Enopopelia contains one small Dove, which has been placed

apart owing to the difference in plumage between the sexes

and the comparatively longer wing.

Rough Key to Ceylon Columbine.

A.—Size large ; wing 7°5 inches or over.

(a) Secondaries barred with black, a metallic lustre

on neck.

Columba intermedia (Indian Rock Pigeon).

(b) No bars on wing quills, plumage iridescent.

(1) A patch of black feathers with white tips on

either side of the hind-neck.

Alsocomus torringtonize (Ceylon Wood Pigeon).

(2) Mantle chestnut, the hind-neck without a

mottled patch.

A. puniceus (Purple Wood Pigeon).

B.—Size smaller ; wing under 7°5 inches, plumage dull.

(a) Sexes alike ; second and third wing quills longest.

(1) A patch of black feathers tipped with gray

on each side of the neck ; wing 7°25.

Turtur ferrago (Indian Turtle Dove).

(2) A collar, round the back of the neck, of

black feathers, each tipped with a white spot ;

wing 5.

T.. suratensis (Spotted Dove).

(3) A collar of plain black round the back of the

neck ; wing 6°5,

T'. risorius (Indian Ring Dove).

(b) Sexes unlike ; first and second quills longest ;

wing 5°5.

(Hnopopelia tranquebarica (Red Turtle Dove).

CEYLON PIGEONS AND GAME BIRDS. 359

COLUMBA INTERMEDIA (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 29;

Legge, p. 698).

The Indian Rock Pigeon.

Description —Head slate-gray ; neck glossed all round with

metallic green changing into purple, especially on the lower

hind-neck and upper breast; back and wings ashy-gray ;

rump, upper tail coverts, and tail darker, the tail being

broadly tipped with black. There is a black bar across the

greater wing coverts, also a second black bar formed by

the tips of the secondaries, together with a broad band on

the tertiaries ; primaries grayish-brown ; under plumage dark

slate-gray ; wing lining whitish.

Bill black, the cere grayish-white ; iris brownish-orange ;

legs and feet pinkish-red.

Length 13°25 ; wing 8°75 ; tail 4°75 ; tarsus 1:1; bill from

gape |.

Distribution —In Ceylon very local; confined to a few

colonies on rocky islets off the coasts of the Trincomalee

District and of the Southern Province, and on one or two of

the isolated hills in the northern forest tract. This Pigeon,

which is merely the eastern form of the European Rock Pigeon

C. livia, and which is classified by Stuart Baker as a sub-

species C. livia intermedia, is found practically all over India,

especially in the west and north-west, and in the drier parts

of Burma.

Habits—This species roosts and breeds in colonies in the

crevices of cliffs and rocks. It feeds on grain, especially

paddy. In India it is commonest in cultivated country, and

it is strange that it is not more abundant in this Island.

According to Legge, in the Trincomalee District it breeds in

May and June, but off the Hambantota coast [ have taken the

eggs in February. The nests were placed in the jagged rifts

of a low rocky islet, and consisted of a few twigs mixed with

some dry grass and feathers. The eggs are a smooth glossy

white, their average measurement being about 1°45 by

1°12.

11 6(7)17

360 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

ALSOCOMUS TORRINGTONI® (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 36).

PALUMBUS. TORRINGTONIZE (Legge, p. 694),

The Ceylon Wood Pigeon.

Description—Male : head and nape lilac-gray, with a lilac

and green gloss ; a patch on the back and sides of the neck

black, with broad white tips to the feathers ; the sides of the

neck and the upper back are glossed with reddish-lilac ; rest

of the upper parts, including wings and tail, blackish-brown ;

rump blackish-gray ; chin and middle of throat whitish ;

lower neck and breast lilac, glossed as on the upper back, but

not so intensely ; lower breast and abdomen paler ; under tail

coverts ashy-brown with a reddish tinge.

Females are similar, but the head, chest, and under surface

are more ruddy, and there is a deeper coppery hue on the

lower hind-neck.

Bill lead-coloured at the base, bluish at the tip ; iris pale

red ; legs red in front, paler behind.

Length about 14 ; wing 7°6 ; tail 5°25 ; tarsus :9 ; bill from

gape l.

Distribution—Peculiar to Ceylon; found only in the hill

forests, mostly above 4,000 feet, but occasionally aslowas 2,500.

Habits —A shy forest bird feeding entirely on fruit, especially

wild cinnamon.

Like many fruit-eating pigeons, it roams about a good deal

in search of its food, moving from locality to locality as the

various jungle fruit trees ripen. The flight is powerful.

The call is a deep “ hoo,” rather like the hoot of an owl.

Little is known of its nidification. It would appear to breed

during the north-east monsoon, making a slight stick nest

placed in forest trees at a height of about 20 feet. Probably

only one egg is laid, of a pure glossy white, and measuring

about 1°50 by 1°12.

ALsocomus PUNICEUS (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 38 ;

Legge, p. 696).

The Purple Wood Pigeon.

Description.—The top of the head from the forehead to the

nape and a line under the eye grayish-white ; neck, cheeks,

and throat pale chestnut-brown ; back, scapulars, wing coverts,

CEYLON PIGEONS AND GAME BIRDS. 361

and tertiaries rich chestnut, the feathers edged with glossy

green and amethyst, the green predominating on the shoulders

and the amethyst on the inter-scapulars and back ; rump and

upper tail coverts dark slaty-gray, almost black, and edged

with amethyst ; wing quills and tail blackish-brown ; lower

plumage, including wing lining, pale vinous-chestnut ; under

tail coverts rather paler than the tail.

Bill, the horny tip bluish-white, basal portion lake-pink ;

iris orange ; legs and feet purple-red.

Length 16 ; wing 8°75 ; tail 6 ; tarsus *9 ; bill from gape 1-1.

Distribution —A specimen, probably a chance straggler, was

once obtained by Layard in Ceylon. The species is unknown

in Southern India, its range extending from the forests of

Eastern Bengal through Burma to Cochin-China and Malaya.

Habits—tIn India this Pigeon is found in forests near

cultivation. It feeds both on fruit and on grain. Natives

informed Layard that it visited Ceylon when the cinnamon

fruit was ripe, and Legge thought he once saw a flock in the

cinnamon near Borella. No specimens are likely to be found

breeding.

TURTUR FERRAGO (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 412).

TURTUR PULCHRATUS (Legge, p. 711).

The Indian Turtle Dove.

Description —Head, neck, and back brown with a vinous

tinge, the margins of the feathers shading into a dull rusty

colour, and the forehead and crown often with a blue-gray

bloom. On each side of the neck is a patch of black feathers

tipped with blue-gray ; the scapulars, the greater part of the

wing coverts, and the tertiaries are slaty-black with broad

rufous-brown borders. The outer wing coverts are bluish-

gray, lightest at the tips ; wing quills brown with a pale line

on the outer border; lower back and rump bluish-gray ;

upper tail coverts slaty-brown with pale margins. The tail

is blackish-brown ; all the feathers, except the middle pair,

have pale gray tips, the tip and outer web of the outermost

feathers being almost white.

362 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

The face and throat are pale ashy-brown, the chin and centre

of the throat almost white ; neck and breast vinous-gray ;

abdomen whitish ; flanks and wing lining ashy-blue, under

tail coverts pure white.

Young birds have no neck patch, and are duller brown,

while the feathers of the back, wing coverts, and breast have

pale borders.

Bill dull slate-colour, the cere and base reddish ; iris light

orange ; legs and feet dull or purplish-red.

Length 13; wing about 7°25; tail 5°25; tarsus °85; bill

from gape °95.

Distribution —Stragglers have been recorded from Ceylon

twice. The species is migratory, spreading in winter over

nearly the whole of India, and breeding in the Himalayas and

Central Asia. Stuart Baker regards it as a sub-species of

Turtur (streptopelia) turtur, the European Turtle Dove.

Habits —The bird may be looked for about Christmas time

in the wetter districts of the Island. Its habits are very much

those of the common Ash Dove.

TURTUR SURATENSIS (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 43 ;

Legge, p. 705).

The Spotted Dove ; Ash Dove.

Description —The upper part of the head and nape are

vinous-gray, grayer on the forehead and above the eye; a

black spot between the eye and the bill; the sides and back

of the neck are black, each feather bifurecate and with two

white spots on each fork. On the upper back the black

ground-colour shades into brown and the white spots into

rufous, while the feathers become less forked ; on the lower

back and rump the spots are replaced by pale rufous fringes.

The scapulars and wing coverts are brown at the base and

grayish-rufous at the tip, with wedge-shaped black-brown

shaft-stripes ; primary and greater wing coverts bluish-gray

with some brown; wing quills blackish-brown. The tail

coverts are ash-brown, the tips marked with a dark central

wedge and paler fringes on each side. The four central tail

feathers are brown, the remainder almost black, with slate-

gray ends becoming paler and broader on the outer feathers.

CEYLON PIGEONS AND GAME BIRDS. 363

The chin and centre of the throat are whitish, the rest of the

throat and the breast vinous ; the centre of the abdomen and

lower tail coverts whitish, the tail coverts often spotted at

the tips with black.

Young birds have no black and white collar, are duller in

colour, and less spotted on the back and wing coverts.

Bill dark lead-colour ; iris hazel with a reddish outer ring ;

legs and feet lake-red.

Length 11°25; wing 5; tail 5°25; tarsus °85; bill from

gape *7. Ceylon birds are smaller than Indian.

Distribution—Abundant all over the Island up to about

3,000 feet ; found all over India ; replaced in Burma by T'urtur

(streptopelia) tigrinus, which is considered by Stuart Baker to

be only a sub-species of the present form.

Habits —A ground feeder, living on paddy, other grains,

and grass seeds. It may be seen in swarms about native

threshing-floors and newly-reaped paddy fields or in chenas

searching for the grains which have been dropped. The nests

may be taken at almost any time of year. They are small

slight saucers of twigs, usually placed in thorny bushes or

low trees about 5 to 10 feet above the ground. Generally

two eggs are laid, but sometimes only one. They are broad

ovals of pure white, measuring about 1°02 by °80.

TURTUR RISORIUS (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 46 ;

Legge, p. 702).

The Indian Ring Dove.

Description —Head and neck gray with a lilac tinge, the

forehead paler and the chin almost white. On the sides and

back of the lower neck runs a collar of black bordered above

and below with a narrow edge of white. The upper plumage

from this collar to the tail, including the wing coverts, is

brownish-gray. The outer wing coverts and secondary quills

are largely tinged with bluish-gray ; primary coverts and quills

dark brown. The middle tail feathers are brownish-gray,

the outer feathers grayer with whitish tips, the white increasing

towards the sides. Breast lilac-gray passing through dove-

gray on the abdomen and flanks into slate-gray on the lower

tail coverts. Wing lining very light gray.

364 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Bill black ; iris crimson ; legs and feet purple-red.

Length 12°25; wing 6°5; tail5; tarsus °9 ; bill from gape °9.

Ceylon birds are slightly smaller than Indian.

Distribution —Confined to the dry north-west coast district

from Jaffna to Puttalam. Within these limits it is fairly

common. It occurs in open country nearly all over India,

except on the Malabar coast. The Burmese form is separated

by Stuart Baker as a sub-species—T'urtur (streptopelia) risoria

xanthocycla.

Habits —Found in open country dotted with scrub jungle ;

it is especially fond of places in which Euphorbia trees are

abundant. ‘The note is much deeper than that of the Ash

Dove, and consists of three syllables, ‘‘ kookoo—koo,”

repeated two or three times. It feeds principally on grain,

but sometimes on fruit. The nest is the usual small saucer of

twigs placed generally in Euphorbia trees from 5 to 15 feet above

the ground. The two white eggs measure about 1°14 by -90.

CENOPOPELIA TRANQUEBARICA (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 47).

TURTUR TRANQUEBARICUS (Legge, p. 708).

The Red Turtle Dove.

Description—Male : upper part of the head and neck dark

ashy-gray ; a black collar round the sides and back of the

neck ; back, scapulars, wing coverts and innermost secondaries,

together with the greater part of the lower plumage, vinous-

red, paler on the breast and fore-neck; primary coverts

and quills blackish-brown ; lower back, rump, and upper

tail coverts dark slate-gray ; the middle tail feathers brown

tinged with gray, the next feathers dark gray at the base

and with pale ends, the outermost pair being black at the

base with the whole outer web and the end half of the inner

web white. Chin and vent whitish, flanks and wing lining °

very pale gray ; under tail coverts white.

Female: the upper plumage is brown; the black collar

and colouring of the tail as in the male; the forehead and

crown, the rump, flanks, and edge of the wing are grayish,

and the breast brownish-gray, often with a vinous tinge.

Young birds resemble females, but have no collar, while

the feathers of the back and wings have pale edges.

CEYLON PIGEONS AND GAME BIRDS. 365

Bill blackish ; iris dark brown ; legs dull red or brownish.

Length 9 ; wing 5:5; tail 4; tarsus -7; bill from gape °75.

Distribution —Layard once found a small colony breeding

in the Jaffna peninsula. The species occurs throughout the

greater part of India. Stuart Baker gives a_ sub-specific

title—Oe. tranquebarica humilis—to the Burmese race, which

ranges eastward to China and the Philippines.

Habits —This tiny Dove should be looked for in the dry

north-west district, where it may possibly be re-discovered.

The birds found by Layard, probably in April, were nesting

on the dry leaf-stems of a palmyra palm. The nest and two

eggs are of the usuai Dove type. The average measurement

of the eggs is 1°02 by ‘8.

Order GALLINA.

Sub-order ALECTOROPODES.

Family PHASIANID2.

The game birds, which in one form or another are found

nearly all over the world, constitute a well-marked order. The

body is plump, the wings are rounded with ten primary and

five secondary quills, while the legs and feet are well developed

for running and walking, and the bill is stout. In many

genera the tarsus is furnished with a spur, sometimes with

more than one. ‘The hind toe is present, and in the family to

which all our Ceylon species belong it is short and raised

above the level of the three front toes. In this family, too,

the tarsus and toes are naked.

As a general rule the nest is placed upon the ground ; the

nestlings are covered with down when hatched, and can run

about almost as soon as they come out of the eggs.

Compared with many parts of India, Ceylon is poorly

stocked with game birds. Only eight species, distributed

amongst seven genera, have been authentically included in

our list ; most of them are rare or local, while two are peculiar

to the Island.

366 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Turning to the characteristics of the various genera, the

Peacocks—Pavo—and the Jungle Fowl—Gallus—are too well

known to require much description. The Spur Fowl—

Galloperdix—belongs to an Indian genus, which in structure

shows affinity with the Pheasant and Jungle Fowl, but which

in appearance approximates to the Partridge. Of the Quail

croup, the Chinese Quail is placed in a separate genus—

Excalfactoria—owing to slight differences in the wing and

tail feathers, and to the greater dissimilarity between the

sexes in the colouration of the under parts.

The true Quails—Coturnix—are almost unknown in Ceylon ;

one species has recently been authenticated, while another

may possibly occur. In parenthesis, it should be noted that

the Bustard Quail, the “‘ Quail” of Ceylon sportsmen, is not

a true game bird, but belongs to the next order. The Bush

Quails—Perdicula—form another Indian genus. They are

little larger than Quails, but rather resemble Partridges in

their habits, structure, and unspotted eggs. The list is closed

by the Francolins—Francolinus—a Partridge-like genus with

many African and five Indian species, two of which are found

within our limits.

Rough Key to Ceylon Species.

A.—Size large ; wing 6 inches or over.

(a) Wing about 20 inches in males, 16 in females ;

~ an erect crest on the crown.

Pavo cristatus (Peafowl).

(b) Males with a large fleshy comb ; wing about 9°5.

Females with a rudimentary comb; the wing

about 7°5.

Gallus lafeyetti (Ceylon Jungle Fowl).

6 to 6°5.

Galloperdix bicalcarata (Ceylon Spur Fowl).

CEYLON PIGEONS AND GAME BIRDS. 367

B.—Size small ; wing under 4 inches.

(a) Tail of 8 feathers ; * wing 2°75.

Excalfactoria chinensis (Chinese Quail).

(b) Tail of 10 or 12 feathers ; * first and second wing

quills longest ; no spur ; wing 3°5.

Coturnix coromandelica (Black-breasted Quail).

males with a blunt spur ; wing 3°25.

Perdicula asiatica (Bush Quail).

C.—Size medium ; wing about 5:5 ; face completely feathered.

(a) Back black and white.

Francolinus pictus (Painted Partridge).

(6) Back brown and buff.

Francolinus pondicerianus (Gray Partridge).

Pavo cristatus (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 68 ; Legge, p. 731).

The Common Peafowl.

Description.—Male : the head, face, and throat are covered

with short feathers of metallic green and blue, the blue

predominating on the crown and the green elsewhere ; from

the crown springs an erect crest of feathers with almost naked

shafts and fan-shaped tips of black fringed with blue-green ;

the neck all round and upper breast are a rich metallic blue.

The back feathers are metallic green with black circular margins

at the tip and dark wedge-shaped stripes adjoining the shafts,

which are green. These feathers shade into the bronze-green

plumes of the long train with their ocelli of purple and black

ringed by blue-green, copper, green, and bronze. The

scapulars, wing coverts, and tertiaries are buff-barred and

mottled with black. The primary coverts and quills are

chestnut, the secondary quills blue-black; some of the secon-

dary coverts are black glossed with purple and green. The

tail is brown ; the breast and flanks glossy dark green ; the

abdomen and fluffy lower tail coverts dark brown ; the thighs

buff.

* The tail feathers in these species are concealed by the tail coverts.

12 6(7)17

368 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Female : head and nape chocolate-brown ; the tips of the

crest feathers chestnut fringed with green ; the upper plumage

brown ; the coverts of the wings and tail finely mottled with

buff, the quills darkish brown; a patch on the throat and

sides of the neck whitish ; below this the neck is chestnut,

changing on the lower neck to metallic green ; breast feathers

dark brown glossed with green and with broad buff fringes ;

abdomen whitish-buff ; vent and fluffy under tail coverts

dark brown.

Young males resemble females, save that the primary quills

are chestnut or partly so.

Bill horny brown ; naked skin of face grayish ; iris dark

brown ; legs and feet fleshy-brown.

Male: length without train about 47; tail 22; wing 20;

tarsus 5°75; bill from gape 2; the train in old birds may be

up to 5 or 6 feet.

Females are smaller ; length about 38; wing 13 to 16;

tarsus 5; bill 1°75.

Distribution.—Found in the scrubby tracts of the dry coast

zone from Puttalam to Jaffna, and down most of the east

coast as far south as Ranna, a little east of Tangalla. It also

occurs inland in the park country as far north as Polon-

naruwa, and there are a few isolated colonies at the heads of

some of the largest tanks in the North-Central and Northern

Provinces.

It is common in suitable districts throughout the low-

country in India. In Burma it is replaced by an allied species.

Habits.—Peafow] are most common in scrub jungle or forest

adjoining wild open spaces, in which the birds can come out

to feed on grass seeds, insects, and small reptiles. In the

forenoon and towards nightfall they perch on the branches of

tall trees, from which they can keep a good look out. The

cocks are polygamous, and may often be seen attended by

four or five hens; in the mating season they spread their

trains and execute fantastic step dances to show off before

their partners. The cry is a loud harsh “ pee-auw.” During

the rains of the north-east monsoon or a little later the hen

lays four or five eggs in a small hollow of the ground, which it

CEYLON PIGEONS AND GAME BIRDS. 369

lines with dry grass or leaves. The eggs are broad ovals

measuring about 2°70 by 2°15; in colour they are brownish-

buff. The shell is extremely thick, much pitted, and fairly

glossy.

GALLUS LAFEYETTI (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 77 ;

Legge, p. 736).

The Ceylon Jungle Fowl.

Description.—Male: the hackles of the neck and the

smaller wing coverts are golden or straw-yellow with dark

shaft-stripes ; on the crown the feathers shade into chestnut,

on the back, scapulars, medium wing coverts, and elongated

feathers at the side ofthe rump into shining yellowish-red

with almost black shaft-stripes. The feathers of the lower

back and centre of the rump are amethyst with reddish-

chestnut margins ; the greater wing coverts are black splashed

with dull chestnut ; primary quills dark brown, secondaries

black with a metallic purple gloss ; tail coverts glossy violet ;

tail feathers black with a purple and steel-blue gloss. The

fore-neck is glossy purple, the breast bright chestnut with dark

shaft-stripes, shading through reddish-brown on the upper ab- -

domen into dull blackish-brown with rufous edges on the thighs

and towards the vent. The under tail coverts are green-black.

Female : the crown is dark brown, the sides and back of

the neck blackish-brown with rufous edges to the feathers.

These colours gradually shade into the fine vermiculated

blackish-brown and buff of the back, scapulars, and wing

coverts. The rump and tail are similarly coloured, but the

shafts of the feathers are darker. The primary quills are

dark brown with lighter mottlings on the outer web ; the

secondaries and greater wing coverts are black, boldly marked

with mottled buff cross-bars and tinged at the ends with rufous.

The chin and throat are almost naked ; the fore-neck and

breast are mottled black and brown with broad buff centres ;

the lower breast and abdomen are white with broad black

markings, which disappear towards the vent. The under tail

coverts are of the same colour as the tail.

Young males resemble females, but the upper plumage is

more rufous, and there is no white on the under parts.

370 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

In the male the bill is brownish-red, paler at the tip and on

the lower mandible ; comb orange-yellow, shading into bright

red on the edge; the naked face, throat, and wattles are

purplish-red ; iris light yellow; legs and feet pale yellow,

darker down the front ; tarsus armed with a sharp spur.

In females the bill is dark brown, paler beneath ; iris olive-

yellow ; feet and legs as in the male.

Male: length about 27; wing 9°5; tail 13 to 15; tarsus

3°25; bill from gape 1:2.

Female: length about 14; wing 7; tail 4; tarsus 2°5;

bill 1+.

Distribution.—Peculiar to Ceylon. Found in most parts of

the Island, except in the more cultivated districts. Its chief

haunts are the forests of the north and the scrub jungle of the

dry maritime districts. It ascends in great numbers to the

Horton Plains and other elevated plateaux when the nellu

(a species of Strobilanthus) is ripe to feed on the seeds.

Habits—A jungle bird living largely in the cover of the

undergrowth. In the morning and evening, especially after

rain, it comes out on the roads, jungle paths, and open spaces

in the forest to feed ; during the heat of the day it keeps well

inside the jungle, and at night time roosts in trees. The cry

of the cock, “ cluck—joy-joyce,” may be heard constantly

from sunrise till about 9 a.m.; the hen has a curious littie

metallic clucking cry. The cocks are polygamous, and leave

all family cares entirely to the hens. I have taken the eggs

in February, April, June, and August, so the breeding season

extends over a considerable period. The nest is sometimes a

small hollow in the ground under a bush or behind a fallen

log, the eggs resting on a few dry leaves. I have, however,

often found it in such situations as on the stump of a felled

tree, in the tangle of dry leaves caught up by a bush over-

hanging a water-course, or in an oven-shaped hollow in a

tree trunk. The eggs vary in number from two to four. In

shape they resemble those of a domestic hen. The ground

colour is creamy-white with light brown or purple-brown

markings, which vary from an excessively fine stippling all

over the egg to comparatively large and scattered freckles.

Their average size is 1:82 by 1°39.

CEYLON PIGEONS AND GAME BIRDS. 371

GALLOPERDIX BICALCARATA (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 109 ;

Legge, p. 742).

The Ceylon Spur Fowl.

Description.—Male : the top of the head, the back and the

sides of the neck, the upper back, the sides of the breast, and

the flanks are black with white shaft-stripes, which are

narrowest on the head and broadest on the flanks. The

inter-scapulars, scapulars, and wing coverts have conspicuous

white wedge-shaped shaft-stripes surrounded by a_ broad

black border, the rest of the feather being chestnut vermi-

ewated with black. The lower back, rump, and tail coverts

are rufous chestnut finely mottled with black. The primary

quills are dark brown ; the secondaries mottled with chestnut ;

the tail black, with minute indistinct chestnut mottlings.

The feathers of the face and throat are white edged with black,

the chin white ; the centre of the breast and the upper abdomen

are white with black borders, giving a scaly effect ; the lower

abdomen is dirty brown mixed with whitish-gray ; the under

tail coverts brownish-black with paler tips.

Female : head and hind-neck blackish-brown ; the chin is

whitish ; most of the remainder of the plumage dull chestnut

finely mottled with black, except on the breast ; wing quills

and tail as in the male.

Bill, legs, and feet red ; naked skin round the eye red ; iris

yellowish-brown. In males the tarsus is armed with spurs,

generally two on each leg ; sometimes the number is uneven.

Females are generally without spurs; if they are present,

they are small and often uneven in number.

Length 13:5 ; wing 6:5; tail 4; tarsus 2; bill from gape | ;

females are smaller, length 11-75 ; wing 6.

Distribution.—Peculiar to Ceylon. It is found up to about

4,500 feet in the central hill zone and in the forests of the

damp zone. In the north it does not extend much beyond

the foothills of the main ranges ; in the south-east it spreads

further into the dry flat country between the hills and the sea.

Habits—The ‘‘ Haban-kukula ” is a very shy bird. Like

the English Corn-crake, it is constantly heard but seldom

seen, and possesses undoubted powers of ventriloquism. In

oie SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

the foothills of the Southern Province, where it is very common,

its piping note may be heard nearly all the morning among

the undergrowth and lantana scrub.

The breeding season appears to be from about November to

March or April, and occasionally again in July and August.

Usually two eggs, sometimes more, are laid in a slight hollow

of the ground under a bush in the jungle. In colour they are

cream or cafe-au-lait, at times with a few white chalky specks.

In shape they are long ovals, slightly pointed at the narrow

end. The average size is 1:60 by 1°16.

EXCALFACTORIA CHINENSIS (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 112).

CoTURNIX CHINENSIS (Legge, p. 755).

The Blue-breasted Quail.

Description.—Male : upper plumage in general is brown

vermiculated and blotched with black ; in younger birds the

feathers of the back and rump have conspicuous white shaft-

stripes ; in very old birds these fade away, and the upper parts

are largely tinged with bluish-gray. In some birds the larger

wing coverts are washed with chestnut. The wing quills are

dull brown, the tail slaty-blue edged with chestnut, in old

birds entirely chestnut. The sides of the head are slaty-gray

or brownish; the chin and throat black, bordered on each

side by a white cheek stripe edged above with black ; lower

fore-neck white, bordered by a band of black; the upper

breast, the sides of the breast, and the flanks bluish-gray ;

the rest of the under surface chestnut.

Female: on the upper parts the plumage resembles that

of young males, but there is more black on the scapulars and

wing coverts. The forehead, eyebrow, face, chin, and throat

are pale rufous-brown, lightest on the chin and throat ; lower

parts buff, with black cross-bars on the breast, flanks, and

thighs.

Bill black, lead-coloured at the base ; iris in adult males

crimson, in young males and in females yellowish-red ; legs

and feet yellow.

Length 5°5; wing 2°75; tail -9; tarsus ‘85; bill from

gape *45.

CEYLON PIGEONS AND GAME BIRDS. BHI.

Distribution.—Found here and there in the low-country and

in the hills up to about 3,500 feet. Rare in Southern India,

commoner in Bengal and the plains of Northern India ;

ranges eastwards through Burma to South-eastern Asia and

Southern China.

Habits.—Nowhere in the Island is this species very common ;

it is occasionally met with in damp grass, especially round the

edges of tanks and in rough grassy paddy fields. The breeding

season is generally about May. Four to six eggs are laid ona

little pad of grass in a hollow of the ground amongst damp

herbage. I once, however, gota clutch of seven eggs in January

in the North-Central Province, from a nest which was a pad of

grass lined with soft rootlets and moored to the floating stems

of a water grass in abouta foot of water at the head of a tank.

The eggs are dumpy ovals of brownish-olive, thinly speckled

with very dark brown dots. Their average measurement is

-98 by °76

CoTURNIX COROMANDELICA (Blanford, Vol. IV., pp. 116

and 486 ; not in Legge).

The Black-breasted or Rain Quail.

Description.—Male : the crown and nape black with brown

edges and a buff streak down the centre ; a white stripe from

the forehead over each eye to the hind-neck ; back, rump,

and upper tail coverts mottled black and light brown with

broad whitish-buff shaft-stripes ; scapulars and wing coverts

sandy-brown with buff shaft-stripes and markings ; primary

quills drab-brown. The throat and fore-neck are white ;

down the chin and centre of the throat is a black stripe which

crosses a curved black band running across the throat to the

ear coverts ; another black stripe runs also to the ear coverts

from the gape of the bill, passing below the eye. The breast

and sides of the body are rufous-buff with broad black median

stripes ; in old birds almost the whole breast is black. The

centre of the abdomen and the lower tail coverts are buff.

In females the chin and throat are buff, while the breast is

rufous-brown with buff shaft-stripes and dark brown spots.

Bill in males blackish, in females brownish horn ; iris

brown ; legs pale fleshy.

374 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Length 7 ; wing 3:5; tail 1; tarsus 1 ; bill from gape °5.

Distribution —The species has been recorded from Colombo,

and there are three specimens in the Museum taken near that

town; it is probably not a resident. It occurs throughout

the greater portion of India, where it is partially migratory.

In Burma it appears to be confined to the Irrawaddy valley.

Habits —This Quail is found in grass land and growing crops

of dry grain, moving from district to district with the seasons.

It is just possible that stray birds may be found breeding in

the Island. The nest is a mere hollow in the ground ; the

eggs, four to nine in number, are whitish to brownish-buff,

speckled thickly with brown, and measuring about 1-09 by °83.

Note.—Coturnix communis, the Gray Quail, may possibly

occur in Ceylon. Legge (p. 757) states that Mr. Bligh, a

well-known Ceylon Ornithologist, met with a pair of quails

larger than T'urnix taigoor in the Yala district one January.

He was, however, unable to obtain a specimen, but concluded

that they were Gray Quail. The species differs from C.

coromandelica in being larger, with a wing measurement of

4 inches, and by having pale cross-bars on the primary quills.

PERDICULA ASIATICA (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 118;

Legge, p. 752).

The Jungle Bush Quail.

Description.—Male : the crown is rufous-brown with some

blackish markings ; it is bounded below by a white streak

running over the eye to the nape ; forehead, eyebrow, chin,

and throat rufous-chestnut ; hind-neck and upper back brown,

with light shaft-stripes and narrow black wavy cross-bars ;

rump and upper tail coverts similarly coloured, but the pale

shaft-stripes are wanting, and there are some dark buff

black-bordered markings. The scapulars, wing coverts, and

tertiaries are more boldly marked with blackish-brown and

dark buff ; wing quills brown with buff markings on the outer

webs ; tail brown with wavy cross-bars of black and dark

buff. The cheek feathers are whitish with black edges ;

under parts from the lower neck barred black and white ;

lower abdomen, thighs, and under tail coverts rufous.

CEYLON PIGEONS AND GAME BIRDS. 375

In females the upper plumage is similar, but less conspi-

cuously marked than in the male ; the under parts from the

fore-neck are plain dull rufous with a grayish or lilac tinge

on the breast.

Young birds lack the chestnut on the head, while the shaft-

stripes on the upper plumage are broader ; under parts dull

rufous with pale shaft-stripes on the throat, fore-neck, and

sides of the breast.

Bill dark horn-colour, the lower mandible paler ; iris brown ;

legs yellowish-red.

Length 6:5; wing 3:2; tail 1:4; tarsus 1; bill from

gape °5.

Distribution.—In Ceylon confined to the grassy glades in

the forest from the foothills of the Uva ranges eastwards

through the park country. It does not appear to extend

much south of the Kumbukkan river, nor as far north as the

Mahaweli-ganga. In India it occurs in well-wooded tracts

from the lower Himalayas to the extreme south of the

peninsula.

Habits—Like the Partridge, this species goes about in

covies, and may be found in the grassy “talawas”’ of the

park country. After rain the birds come out on to roads

and paths in search of food. Like other quails when flushed,

they fly straight and swiftly for a short distance, then suddenly

drop into the grass andrun. They breed about April, making

a small nest of grass on the ground under a bush or tuft of

grass. The full clutch is from five to seven eggs of creamy

white, rather pointed at one end, and measuring about 1°02

by °84.

FRANCOLINUS Picrus (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 137 ;

Legge, p. 744).

The Painted Partridge.

Description.—Male : the forehead, face, and a broad stripe

over the eye to the sides of the nape dull rusty red; the

feathers of the crown and nape black with buff edges ; on the

13 6(7)17

376 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

back and sides of the neck the buff edges are broader and

more rufous ; the upper back black with white spots ; the

scapulars browner with transverse and arrow-shaped bars of

rufous-buff ; the wing coverts similarly coloured, but with

more blotchy buff markings ; wing quills brown with broad

blotchy rufous bars ; the lower back, rump, upper tail coverts,

and central tail feathers black with narrow white cross-bars,

the outer tail feathers with black ends, broadest on the outer-

most pair. Thechinand throat pale rust-colour, the fore-neck

with black streaks ; breast and flanks black with large scaly

white spots, which increase in size on the flanks ; abdomen

pale rufous shading into chestnut on the under tail coverts ;

lower flanks rufous barred with black.

Female: the upper parts are less conspicuously marked ;

the rump and tail are browner, with the white cross-bars set

further apart ; throat whitish ; the under parts buff with

broad irregular bars of black, at times approaching in character

the markings of the male.

Bill blackish ; iris yellowish-brown ; legs and feet yellowish-

red.

Length 12; wing 5°'5; tail 3; tarsus 1:6; bill from

gape 1-05.

Distribution —In Ceylon confined to the patanas of the

Uva basin and the south-eastern and eastern slopes of the

hills towards Wellawaya and Nilgala. It occurs in various

parts of Central India, becoming rarer southwards, and

wanting south of Coimbatore.

Habits—This Partridge frequents the patanas, ferny slopes,

and scrub jungles within its limits. It is of rather skulking

habits, coming out into the open only early in the morning,

late in the evening, or after rain. When flushed it rises with

a whirr, rather like an English Partridge. It breeds apparently

about Christmas time, making a grass nest in a hollow under

a bush or tuft of grass. There are seven or eight eggs, which

in colour are creamy white or drab, and in shape broad at

one end and pointed at the other. They measure about 1-40

by 1°18.

—

CEYLON PIGEONS AND GAME BIRDS. 377

FRANCOLINUS PONDICERTANUS (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 139).

ORTYGORNIS PONDICERIANUS (Legge, p. 748).

The Gray Partridge.

Description.—The sexes are alike. The crown and nape

olive-brown ; forehead rufous ; a broad eyebrow, with the

cheeks and throat paler rufous, the lores speckled with

black ; hind-neck, back, scapulars, and wing coverts grayish-

brown, splashed with chestnut and chequered by cross-bars of

buffy-white, with narrow black edges and white shafts ; wing

quills brown, at times with whitish spots on the outer webs ;

secondaries barred with pale buff; the upper tail coverts

and the two central tail feathers marked like the back, but

without any chestnut ; the remaining tail feathers chestnut,

deepening towards the end to nearly black, but with pale tips ;

a patch on the chin and throat is rufous-buff or whitish

bordered by a broken line of deep brown ; remainder of lower

parts grayish-white, tinged on the breast with rufous and

crossed by narrow wavy black bars, which fade away on the

abdomen and tail coverts.

Bill dusky brown, paler beneath ; iris light hazel ; legs and

feet dull red.

Length 12-25 ; wing 5-6; tail 3-3; tarsus 1:7; bill from

gape *9. Females are slightly smaller.

Distribution.—Restricted to the dry zone of the north-west

coast from the Jaffna peninsula to Puttalam, with the adjacent

islands. It occurs in suitable country throughout most of

India proper, but is not found in lower Bengal or eastwards

thereof, and is unknown on the Malabar Coast, south of

Bombay. It extends westwards to the Persian Gulf.

Habits —It is found in open grotind dotted with scrub

jungle, but never very far from cover. It is a strong runner

and often rather difficult to flush. The noisy callis constantly

uttered in the early morning and again in the evening. It is

said to breed in August and again in December. The nest isa

small hollow under a bush or grass tuft. The eggs vary in

number from six to eight or nine ; they are of the usual

. partridge type, pale buff in colour, and measuring about

L+3 by 1°03.

378 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Order HEMIPODII.

Family TurNicip a

Genus Turnix.

The Three-toed Quails.

The Three-toed Quails are a group of quail-like birds, which

have been placed in an order apart from the game birds,

owing to several important distinctions in their anatomical

structure. As regards the Indian forms, the chief external

difference is the lack of a hind toe, though in an Australian

genus the hind toe is present. Only one genus occurs within

Indian limits, and but a single species in Ceylon. In this

genus the females are larger and generally more brightly

coloured than the males. They take advantage of their

superior position, leaving the cocks to incubate the eggs and

look after the chicks.

TuRNIX PUGNAX (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 151).

TURNIX TAIGOOR (Legge, p. 761).

The Bustard Quail.

Description.—Male : head and upper parts rufous-brown ;

eyebrows, lores, and sides of head speckled black and whitish ;

the crown is black, with rufous edges to the feathers and often

with a paler stripe down the middle. The plumage of the

back is very variably marked, the rufous ground being

irregularly banded with black, and many of the feathers

edged with white ; wing coverts buff with broad black bars ;

wing quills dark brown, the outer webs of the primaries

edged with buff; the outer webs of the secondaries with buff

indentations ; the throat, fore-neck, and chest whitish-buff ;

the breast buff with black bars ; the rest of the lower parts

tawny rufous.

Female: the chin, throat, and a patch of variable size on

the middle of the breast are black ; the stripe down the centre

of the crown is speckled black and white ; the lower parts are

deeper rufous.

Bill slate-colour, dusky brown on the ridge ; iris white or

pale yellow ; legs and feet leaden.

CEYLON PIGEONS AND GAME BIRDS. 379

Length of female 5:3; wing 3°3; tail 1; tarsus 1; bill

from gape *65. Males are slightly smaller ; wing 3.

Distribution —This species occurs in chena, scrub jungle, or

patana nearly all over the Island, except perhaps on the

higher hills. It is found in similar localities throughout India

and Burma, and from thence east and south-east to South

China, Malaya, Java, &c. The various geographical races are

divided into sub-species, the form from Ceylon—which

curiously enough is identical with that from Java—being

termed 7. pugnax pugnax.

Habits.—This is the “‘ Quail’? usually met with in Ceylon.

During the day the birds keep to cover, coming out into bare

open spaces mainly in the morning and evening. When

flushed they fly off with some speed for a few yards, then

suddenly drop into cover and run, seldom taking flight a

second time. Their food consists chiefly of small seeds. The

hens challenge their rivals by making a low drumming call,

and often have furious fights with each other. If conditions

are favourable, breeding seems to go on for a great part of the

year, and I have taken eggs in February, May, and August.

They vary from two to four in number, and are usually laid

in a small hollow under the shelter of a grass tuft or bush.

The colour varies from dirty white to almost olive-brown,

thickly speckled with inky-gray and black or dark brown

spots ; the size of the darker spots varies greatly in different

clutches. In shape they are dumpy ovals, rather pointed at

one end. The average size is ‘91 by °71.

380 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

RECORDS OF CEYLON SPECIES.

INSECTA.

Description of Microlepidoptera from Ceylon. E. Mayrick.

J.B.N.H.S., Vol. XXII., No. 1, April, 1913, pp. 160-182.

Tituacia deviella, Walk. Habitat : Maskeliya, Madulsima

Palintropa hippica,sp.n. Habitat: Maskeliya, Madulsima

Chelaria iophana, sp.n. Habitat : Central Province.

Chelaria corynetis, sp.n. Habitat: Maskeliya.

Chelaria ericta, sp.n. Habitat : Maskeliya.

Chelaria isoptila, sp.n. Habitat : Kandy.

Chelaria scriniata, sp.n. Habitat : Pundaluoya.

Chelaria tortuosa, sp.n. Habitat : Matale.

Chelaria phacelota, sp.n. Habitat : Peradeniya.

Chelaria paroctas, sp.n. Habitat : Maskeliya.

Chelaria particulata, sp.n. Habitat: Maskeliya.

Encolapta metorcha, sp.n. Habitat : Maskeliya.

Anarsia phortica, sp. n. Habitat: Maskeliya, Kegalla,

Haldummulla, Undugoda.

Anarsia tricornis, sp.n. Habitat: Maskeliya, Peradeniya,

Haldummulla.

Anarsia stylota, sp.n. Habitat: Maskeliya, Pattipola.

Anarsia patulella, Walk. Habitat : Maskeliya, Peradeniya.

Anarsia pensilis, sp.n. Habitat : Maskeliya.

Nothris incondita, sp. n. Habitat : Madulsima.

Hypelictis charonxa, sp.n. Habitat : Puttalam.

Dichomeris metrodes, sp.n. Habitat: Hambantota.

Dichomeris intensa, sp. nu. Habitat: Maskeliya, Puttalam.

Dichomeris clarescens, sp.n. Habitat : Maskeliya.

Dichomeris olivescens, sp.n. Habitat: Kandy, Maskeliya.

Dichomeris ampliata,sp.n. Habitat : Eppawela, Puttalam.

RECORDS OF CEYLON SPECIES. 381

Holaxyra isoclera, sp.n. Habitat : Maskeliya.

Holaxyra ampycota, sp.n. Habitat: Hakgala.

Trichotaphe chartaria, sp.n. Habitat : Peradeniya, Kandy.

Trichotapheimmerita, sp.n. Habitat: Puttalam, Maskeliya.

T'richotaphe plutelliformis, Snell. Habitat : Puttalam.

Carbatina levigata, sp.n. Habitat: Puttalam.

Description of Microlepidoptera from Ceylon. E. Mayrick.

J. B.N.H.S., Vol. XXII., No. 4, March, 1914, pp. 776, 778.

Trissodoris honorariella, Wals. Habitat: Ambalangoda,

Weligama, and Barberyn Island.

Amorbea galbanea, sp.n. Habitat : Maskeliya.

Metathrinca memnon, sp.n. Habitat: Hakgala.

Ptochoryctis anguillaris, sp.n. Habitat : Hambantota and

Maskeliya.

Epimactis infulata, sp.n. Habitat : Kegalla.

Epimactis strombodes, sp.n. Habitat: Kandy.

Odites atmopa, sp.n. Habitat : Kandy.

Description of Indian Microlepidoptera. E. Mayrick.

J. B.N. H.8., Vol. XXTIT., No. 1, June, 1914, pp. 120, 122,

123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130.

Acrocerops preclusa, sp. n. Habitat : Maskeliya.

Gracilaria ariana, sp.n. Habitat: Pundaluoya.

Argyresthia leuculias, sp.n. Habitat : Maskeliya.

Zellerva strophea,sp.n. Habitat : Maskeliya, Namunukuli

Puttalam.

Paradoxus deformis, sp. n. Habitat: Kegalla.

Xyrosaris campsiptila, sp. n. Habitat: Puttalam.

Prays citri, Mill. Habitat : Maskeliya, Madulsima.

Prays ducalis, sp.n. Habitat : Namunukuli.

Orthosaris strictulata, sp. n. Habitat: Matale.

Anticrates decaplaca, sp.n. Habitat : Anuradhapura.

Aetherastis constellata, sp.n. Habitat: Wellawaya.

Comocritis precolor, sp. n. Habitat : Trincomalee.

Comocritis nephelista, sp. n. Habitat : Kandy, Maskeliya.

Ethmia duplicata, sp. n. Habitat: Maskeliya Pattipola,

Puttalam.

382 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Description of new Thysanoptera. R. S. Bagnall. Ann.

Mag. Nat. Hist., Vol. XV., No. 87, eighth series, pp. 318, 319,

320, 321, 324, March, 1915.

Heliothrips brunneipennis, sp. n. Habitat : Peradeniya.

Dinurothrips rutherfordi, sp.n. Habitat : Peradeniya.

Rhipiphorothrips bicolor, Morgan. Habitat (no definite

locality given).

Ecacanthothrips sanguineus, Bagnall. Habitat (no definite

locality given).

Ecacanthothrips steinskyi, Schmutz. Habitat: Peradeniya.

Aleurodothrips fasciapennis, Franklin. Habitat: Pera-

deniya.

Description of new Dermestide from Ceylon. G. J. Arrow.

Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., eighth series, Vol. XV., No. 89, May,

1915, pp. 441, 451.

Orphinus funestus, sp.n. Habitat : Dikoya.

Trinodes emarginatus, sp.n. Habitat: Kandy.

Description of an undescribed Rhynchota from Ceylon.

W.L. Distant. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., eighth series, Vol. XV.,

No. 89, May, 1915, p. 506.

Salda rutherfordi, sp.n. Habitat: Peradeniya.

Description of four Psyllide from Ceylon. D. L. Crawford.

The Philippine Journal of Science, Vol. X., Sect. D., No. 4,

July, 1915, pp. 259, 260, 265.

Pauropsylla floccosa, sp.n. Habitat: Peradeniya.

Pauropsylla spondiase, sp. n. Habitat : Peradeniya.

Paurocephala psylloptera, Crawford. Habitat: Peradeniya.

Trioza eugeme, sp.n. Habitat : Peradeniya.

Description of Lepidoptera from Ceylon. C. Swinhoe.

Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., No. 93, September, 1915, Vol. XVI.,

eighth series, p. 171.

Elymnias merula, sp.n. Habitat: Kandy.

RECORDS GF CEYLON SPECIES. 383

Description of the Xylophilidz of Ceylon. G.C. Champion.

Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Vol. XVI., No. 93, September, 1915,

eighth series, pp. 215-226.

Hylobenus fasciatus, Pic. Habitat: Galle.

Euaylophilus principalis, sp.n. Habitat: Dikoya.

Xylophilus palliditarsis, Pic. Habitat: Kandy.

Xylophilus dentatifemur, Pic. Habitat: Kandy.

Aylophilus planipennis. Habitat: Nuwara Eliya.

Xylophilus testaceipennis, Pic. Habitat: Dikoya, Nuwara

Eliya.

Xylophilus crassipes, sp.n. Habitat: Kandy.

Xylophilus taprobanus, sp.n. Habitat: Bogawantalawa.

Xylophilus scoparius. Habitat: Dikoya.

Xylophilus cribricollis, Habitat: Kandy.

Xylophilus nigronotatus. Habitat: Kandy.

Xylophilus nigropictus, sp.n. Habitat: Dikoya.

Xylophilus ceylonicus. Habitat: Kandy.

Xylophilus dikoyanus, sp.n. Habitat: Dikoya.

Xylophilus orientalis, sp.n. Habitat (no definite locality

given).

Xylophilus diversiceps. Habitat : Kandy.

Xylophilus bryantt. Habitat: Kandy.

Xylophilus concolor, sp.n. Habitat: Kandy.

Xylophilus subcrassicornis. Habitat: Kandy.

Xylophilus laticornis. Habitat: Kandy.

Description of some new Ceylon Coccide. A. Rutherford.

J.B.N.H.S., Vol. XXIV., No. 1, September, 1915, pp. 111-

118.

Ripersia thee, sp.n. Habitat : Peradeniya.

Coccus litzee, sp.n. Habitat: Peradeniya.

Neolecanium pseudolew, sp.n. Habitat: Peradeniya.

Aspidiotus (s. str.) panici, sp.n. Habitat: Peradeniya.

Parlatoria zeylanica, sp.n. Habitat: Peradeniya.

Parlatoria cinnamomi, sp.n. Habitat : Peradeniya.

Parlatoria zeylanica, sp.n. Habitat: Peradeniya.

Parlatoria sp. Habitat : Peradeniya.

Lepidosaphes vande, sp.n. Habitat: Peradeniya.

Leucaspis limoniz, sp.n. Habitat: Peradeniya.

14 6(7)17

384 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Description of Ceylon Dragon Flies. F. F. Laidlaw. Ree.

Ind. Mus., Vol. XI., Pt. V., September, 1915, p. 389.

Platysticta hilaris, Hagen. Habitat: Kandy.

Description of Lucanide from Ceylon. F.H.Gravely. Rec.

Ind. Mus., Vol. XI., Pt. VI., December, 1915, pp. 416, 427, 430.

Odontolabis carinatus, Linneus. Habitat: Central Pro-

vince: Lindula, Maskeliya; Sabaragamuwa: Bulutota in the

Ratnapura District.

Aegus kandiensis, Hope. Habitat: Central Province:

Kandy, Peradeniya, Pundalu-oya, Talawakele ; Sabaragamu-

wa: Kegalla, Yatiyantota; Uva: Haldummulla.

Figulus interruptus, Waterhouse. Habitat : Peradeniya.

MAMMALIA.

Description of the Mammal Survey of Ceylon. Kathleen

V. Ryley. J. B. N. H.S., Vol. XXII., No. 4, March, 1914,

pp. 700-710.

Simia pileatus, Shaw (the Toque Monkey). Habitat :

Kottawa, Ranna, Wellawaya, Kumbukkan.

Presbylis cephalopterus, Zimm. (the Purple-faced Monkey).

Habitat: Kottawa.

Presbytis priamus, Blyth (the Madras Langur). Habitat :

Ranna, Kirinda, Weligatta.

Rousettus seminudus, Kel. Habitat : Hambantota.

Cynopterus sphinx sphinx, Vahl. (the Southern Short-nosed

Fruit Bat). Habitat : Hambantota.

Lyroderma lyra, Geofir. (the Indian Vampire Bat). Habitat:

Udugama, Nagoda.

Hipposideros dukhunensis, Sykes (Sykes’ Leaf-nosed Bat).

Habitat : Hambantota, Weligatta.

Hipposideros fulvus, Gray (the Bicoloured Leaf-nosed Bat).

Habitat ; Hambantota.

Rhinolophus rouxi, Temm. (the Rufous Horseshoe Bat).

Habitat : Wellawaya, Lunugala.

- Pipistrellus coromandra, Gray (the Coromandel Pipistrelle).

Habitat : Nakiadeniya.

Pipistrellus mimus, Wrought. (the Southern Dwarf Pipis-

trelle). Habitat : Ranna, Hambantota.

RECORDS OF CEYLON SPECIES. 385

Mimopterus schreiberst, Kuhl. (the Long-winged Bat).

Habitat : Wellawaya.

Pachyura sp., Shrews. Habitat : Udugama, Wellawaya.

Felis pardus, L. (the Panther). Habitat: Tanamawila.

Felis rubiginosa, Geoffr. (the Rusty Spotted Cat). Habitat:

Weligatta.

Mungos smithi, Gray (the Ruddy Mungoose). Habitat :

Ranna, Hambantota, Weligatta, Wellawaya.

Mungos flavidens, Kel. (the Ceylon Brown Mungoose).

Habitat : Weligatta, Kumbukkan.

Viverricula malaccensis, Gmel. (the Small Indian Civet).

Habitat ; Ranna, Weligatta, Kumbukkan.

Paradoxurus niger, Desm. (the Indian Toddy Cat). Habitat :

Udugama, Nakiadentya.

Melursus ursinus, Shaw (the Sloth Bear). Habitat:

Kumbukkan.

Petaurista lanka, Wrought. (the Large Gray Flying Squirrel).

Habitat : Kumbukkan, Wellawaya.

Sciuropterus (petinomys) fuscocapillus, Blyth (the Small

Flying Squirrel). Habitat: Wellawaya.

Ratufa macroura, Penn. (the Black Giant Squirrel). Habitat:

Kottawa.

Ratufa macroura tennenti, Blyth (the Grizzled Giant Squirrel).

Habitat : Ranna, Wellawaya, Kumbukkan.

Funambulus palamarum, L. (the Palm Squirrel). Habitat :

Colombo, Kottawa, Udugama, Ranna, Hambantota, Weli-

gatta, Wellawaya, Kumbukkan.

Funambulus trilineatus, Kel. (the Nuwara Eliya Ground

Squirrel). Habitat : Kottawa. .

Tatera indica, Hardw. (the Indian Gerbil). Habitat :

Udugama, Ranna, Hambantota, Tellula, Weligatta, Wella-

waya.

Millardia meltada, Gray (the Soft-furred Field Rat).

Habitat : Ranna, Hambantota, Weligatta, Wellawaya.

Epimys rufescens, Gray (the Common Indian Rat). Habitat:

Colombo, Hambantota, Kumbukkan.

Variety with white under parts. Habitat: Kottawa,

Udugama, Nakiadeniya, Colombo, Hambantota, Weligatta,

Wellawaya, Kumbukkan.

386 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Mus manei, Kel. (the Common Indian House Mouse).

Habitat : Colombo, Udugama, Nakiadeniya, Hambantota,

Wellawaya.

Mus booduga, Gray (the Southern Field Mouse). Habitat :

Kottawa, Hambantota, Weligatta, Kumbukkan.

Bandicota malabarica, Shaw (the Malabar Bandicoot).

Habitat : Udugama.

Leggada hannyngtoni, Ryl. (the Coorg Lowland Leggad).

Habitat : Kottawa.

Lepus nigricollis, Cuv. (the Black-naped Hare). Habitat :

Hambantota, Kirinda, Weligatta, Kumbukkan.

Tragulus meminna, Erxl. (the Indian Chevrotian, or Mouse

Deer). Habitat : Kumbukkan.

Manis crassicaudata, G. St. Hil. (the Indian Pangolin).

Habitat : Karinda.

Description of a new Murine genus and species from Ceylon.

Oldfield Thomas. J.B. N.H.S., Vol. XXIITI., No. 3, Febru-

ary, 1915, p. 44.

Celomys mayort, sp.n. Habitat: Pattipola.

Description of a Bat from Ceylon. Oldfield Thomas. J.B.

N.H.S., Vol. XXTII., No. 4, May, 1915, p. 610.

Lewone hasseltt, Temm. Habitat: Kokopeetchie, Eastern

Province ; Anuradhapura, North-Central Province.

Description of the Giant Squirrels of Ceylon. Oldfield

Thomas and Robert C. Wroughton. J. B. N. H. 8., Vol.

XXIV., No. 1, September, 1915, pp. 35, 36.

Ratufa macrowra macroura, Penn. Habitat: Pattipola,

Nuwara Eliya, and central highlands.

Ratufa macroura melanochra, subsp. n. Habitat : Southern

Province: Kottawa.

Ratufa macroura dandolena, subsp. n. Habitat: lowland

areas all round Ceylon; Province of Uva: Wellawaya.

RECORDS OF CEYLON SPECIE£S. 387

Description of the Sinhalese species of Funambulus. Oldfield

Thomas and Robert C. Wroughton. J. B. N. H. S., Vol.

XXIV., No. 1, September, 1915, pp. 37 to 41.

Funambulus layardi, Blyth. Habitat (no definite locality

given).

Funambulus kathleene, nom. nov. Habitat: Southern

Province: Kottawa; Central Province: Pattipola, Amba-

wela.

Funambulus palmarum favonicus, subsp. n. Habitat: sub-

montane area of Southern Province and Udugama.

Funambulus palmarum kelaarti, Layard. Habitat : North-

Central Province to Trincomalee.

Funambulus palmarum brodiei, Blyth. Habitat: North

Ceylon: the palmyra district, Puttalam to Jaffna.

Funambulus palmarum olympius, subsp. n. Habitat: the

highlands of central Ceylon. Type from Urugala.

Description of the Ceylon Hare. R.C. Wroughton. J. B.

N.H.S., Vol. XXIV., No. 1, September, 1915, pp. 41, 42.

Lepus nigricollis singhala, subsp. n. Habitat: Kum-

bukkan, Uva.

| Description of the genus Epimys in Ceylon. R.C. Wrough-

ton. J. B. N. H.S., Vol. XXIV., No. 1, September, 1915,

p. 48.

Epimys kelaarti, sp.n. Habitat: highlands of Ceylon (no

definite locality given). Type from Pattipola.

Description of a second species of Ceelomys from Ceylon.

Oldtield: ‘Thomas: J; B. N. Hi S.,. Vol. XXIV:; Noi",

September, 1915, p. 49.

Celomys bicolor, sp. n. Habitat: Kottawa, Southern

Province.

Description of a new Mungoose. R.C. Wroughton. J. B.

N. H.S., Vol. XXIV., No. 1, September, 1915, p. 53.

Mungos lanka, sp.n. Habitat : Cheddikulam.

388 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Description of the Mammal Survey of Ceylon. R. C.

Wroughton. J.B. N. H.S., Vol. XXIV., No. 1, September,

1915, pp. 83 to 96.

Pithecus pileatus, Shaw (the Toque Monkey). Habitat:

Maha-oya, Mankeni, Cheddikulam, Panadure, Kesbewa,

Rayigam, Tammanewa, Kala-oya, South Ceylon.

Presbytis ursinus, Blyth (the Bear Monkey). Habitat:

Pattipola, Hakgala.

Presbytis cephalopterus, Temm. (the Purple-faced Monkey).

Habitat; South Ceylon (no definite locality given).

Presbytis priamus, Blyth (the Madras Langur). Habitat :

Arugam Bay, Mankeni, Valaichenai, Cheddikulam, Kala-oya,

Tammanewa, Ambawela, Bambarabottuwa, South Ceylon.

Loris tardigradus, L. (Slender Loris). Habitat: Mannar,

Anuradhapura, Willichia, Tammanewa.

Pteropus giganteus, Bruenn. (the Common Flying Fox).

Habitat : Valaichenai, Cheddikulam, Peradeniya.

Rousettus seminudus, Kel. (the Ceylon Fruit Bat). Habitat :

Urugala, Kandy, South Ceylon.

Cynopterus sphinx, Vahl. (the Southern Short-nosed Fruit

Bat). Habitat: Urugala, Ambawela, Nochchiyagama, Tam-

manewa, Kala-oya, Anuradhapura, South Ceylon.

Rhinolophus rouxi, Temm. (the Rufous Horseshoe Bat).

Habitat : Maha-oya, South Ceylon.

Rhinolophus beddomei, K. And. (the Great Indian Horseshoe

Bat). Habitat: Kala-oya.

Hipposideros brachyotus, Dobs. (the Dekhan Leaf-nosed Bat).

Habitat : Kala-oya.

Hipposideros dukhunensis, Sykes (Sykes’ Leaf-nosed Bat).

Habitat : Samarakella, Valaichenai, Mannar, Tammanewa,

Kala-oya, Trincomalee, Anuradhapura, South Ceylon.

Hipposideros fulvus, Gray (the Bicoloured Leaf-nosed Bat).

Habitat : Valaichenai, Trincomalee, Anuradhapura, South

Ceylon.

Megaderma spasma trifolium, Geoftr. (the Malay Vampire

Bat). Habitat: Mankeni, Panchikankeni, Samarakella, Trin-

comalee.

Pipistrellus coromandra, Gray (the Coromandel Pipistrel).

Habitat : South Ceylon (no definite locality given).

RECORDS OF CEYLON SPECIES. 389

Pipistrellus mimus, Wrought. (Southern Dwarf Pipistrel).

Habitat : South Ceylon and Kandy.

Scotophilus wroughtoni, Thos. (Wroughton’s Bat). Habi-

tat : Anuradhapura.

Hesperoptenus tickelli, Blyth (Tickell’s Bat). Habitat :

Anuradhapura,

Miniopterus schreibersi, Kuhl. (the Long-winged Bat).

Habitat : South Ceylon (no definite locality given).

Leucone hasselti, Temm. (Van Hasselt’s Bat). Habitat :

Valaichenai, Kokoputchi, Anuradhapura.

Taphozous crassus, Blyth (the Pouch-bearing Sheath-tailed

Bat). Habitat : Gangodawila.

Pachyura sp. (Shrews.). Habitat : Mannar, Colombo, Kandy.

Pachyura kandiana, Kel. (the Kandy Shrew). Habitat ;

South Ceylon, Kandy.

Pachyura montana, Blyth (the Ceylon Highland Shrew).

Habitat : Pattipola, Ambawela, South Ceylon.

Felis pardus, L. (the Panther). Habitat: Ambawela, Kala-

oya, South Ceylon. :

Felis viverrina, Benn. (Fishing Cat). Habitat: Maha-oya.

Felis affinis, Gray (Jungle Cat). Habitat: Cheddikulam.

Felis rubiginosa, Geoffr. (the Rusty Spotted Cat). Habitat:

Ambawela, Hakgala, South Ceylon.

Felis (domestic). Habitat: Yatiyantota, Ambawela.

Viverricula malaccensis, Gmel. (the Small Indian Civet).

Habitat : Maha-oya, Mankeni, Cheddikulam, Pattipola, Tam-

manewa, South Ceylon.

Paradoxurus niger, Desm. (the Indian Toddy Cat). Habi-

tat : Tammanewa, South Ceylon.

Paradoxurus aureus, F. Cuy. (the Ceylonese Palm Civet).

Habitat : Maha-oya.

Mungos lanka, Wrought. (the Common Ceylon Mungoose).

Habitat : Mannar, Kala-oya, Tammanewa.

Mungos smithi, Gray (the Ruddy Mungoose). Habitat :

Mankeni, Kirinda, Kala-oya, South Ceylon.

Mungos flavidens, Kel. (the Ceylon Brown Mungoose).

Habitat : Yatiyantota, Pattipola, South Ceylon.

Canis indicus (the Common Indian Jackal). Habitat:

Arugam Bay, Mankeni.

390 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

LIutra lutra, L. (the Common Otter). Habitat : Nuwara

Eliya.

Melursus ursinus, Shaw (the Sloth Bear). Habitat:

Delagowella, South Ceylon.

Petaurista lanka, Wrought. (the Large Gray Flying Squirrel).

Habitat : South Ceylon (no definite locality given).

Pteromys (Petinomys) layardi, Kel. (the Small Ceylon Flying

Squirrel). Habitat : South Ceylon (no definite locality given).

Ratufa macroura, Penn. (Pennant’s Long-tailed Squirrel).

Habitat : Pattipola.

Ratufa macroura dandolena, Thos. and Wr. (the Common

Ceylon Giant Squirrel). Habitat: Maha-oya, Arugam Bay

Mankeni, Tammanewa, Anuradhapura, South Ceylon.

Ratufa macroura melanochra, Thos. and Wr. (the Black and

Yellow Giant Squirrel). Habitat : South Ceylon (no definite

locality given).

Funambulus layardi (Layard’s Striped Squirrel). Habitat :

Ratnapura.

Funambulus kathleenz, Thos. and Wr. (the Ceylon Dusky-

striped Squirrel). Habitat: Pattipola, Ambawela, Bambara-

bottuwa, South Ceylon.

Funambulus palmarum brodiet, Blyth (the Northern Ceylon

Palm Squirrel). Habitat : Mannar, Cheddikulam.

Funambulus palmarum olympius, Thos. and Wr. (the High-

land Ceylon Palm Squirrel). Habitat; Urugala, Kandy,

Peradeniya, Ambawela.

Funambulus palmarum kelaarti, Lay. (the Lowland Ceylon

Palm Squirrel). Habitat: Pattipola, Mankeni, Welimada,

Kala-oya, Tammanewa, Puttalam, Anuradhapura, Trinco-

malee, South Ceylon.

Funambulus palmarum favonicus, Thos. and Wr. (the Sub-

montane Ceylon Palm Squirrel). Habitat: Kottawa, Udu-

gama, Ranna.

Tatera cuviert, Waterh. (the South Indian Gerbil). Habitat :

Maha-oya, Mankeni, Colombo, Kala-oya, South Ceylon.

Mus manei, Kel. (the Ceylon House Mouse). Habitat :

Maha-oya, Kandy, Cheddikulam, Colombo, Urugala, Pera-

deniya, Ambawela, Tammanewa, Anuradhapura, Trinco-

malee, Nagagala Estate, South Ceylon.

RECORDS OF CEYLON SPECIES. 391

Mus booduga, Gray (the Southern Field Mouse). Habitat :

Maha-oya, Mankeni, Mannar, Valaichenai, Cheddikulam,

Urugala, Kala-oya, South Ceylon.

Celomys mayori, Thos. (Mayors’ Rat). Habitat: Patti-

pola.

Celomys bicolor, Thos. (the Bicoloured Ceelomys). Habitat :

South Ceylon (no definite locality given).

Epimys nemoralis, Blyth (the Ceylon Large Tree Rat).

Habitat : Mannar, Kandy, South Ceylon, Trincomalee.

Epimys kandianus, Kel. (the White-bellied Tree Rat).

Habitat : Maha-oya, Valaichenai, Cheddikulam, Urugala,

Nagagala Estate, Kandy, Tammanewa, Mankeni, Peradeniya,

South Ceylon. ;

Epimys kelaarti, Wr. (Kelaart’s Rat). Habitat: Patti-

pola.

Gunomys gracilis, Nehr. (the Ceylon Mole Rat). Habitat:

Urugala, Tammanewa, Kandy.

Bandicota malabarica, Shaw (the Malabar Bandicoot).

Habitat : Urugala, Ambawela, South Ceylon.

Millardi meliada, Gray (the Soft-furred Field Rat).

Habitat : South Ceylon (no definite locality given).

Golunda newera, Kel. (the Nuwara Eliya Bush Rat).

Habitat : Pattipola, Ambawela, Nuwara Eliya.

Hystrix leucura, Sykes (the Indian Porcupine). Habitat :

Mankeni, Yatiyantota, Tammanewa.

Lepus nigricollis singhala, Wrought. (the Ceylon Hare).

Habitat : Tammanewa, Hakgala, Ambawela, South Ceylon.

Muntiacus malabaricus, Wr. (the South Indian Muntjac).

Habitat : Tammanewa, Ambawela.

‘Auis axis ceylonensis, Fitz. (the Ceylon Spotted Deer).

Habitat : Mankeni, Valaichenai, Cheddikulam.

Rusa unicolor, Bechst. (the Sambur). Habitat: Uru-

gala.

Tragulus meminna, Erxl. (the Indian Chevrotain). Habitat :

Tammanewa, Cheddikulam, South Ceylon.

Sus zeylonensis, Blyth (the Ceylon Wild Pig). Habitat :

Mankeni.

Manis crassicaudata, G. St. Hil. (the Indian Pangolin).

Habitat : Kala-oya, South Ceylon.

15 6(7)17

392 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

REPTILIA.

Notes of Snakes from Ceylon. F. Wall. J. B. N. H. &,

Vol. XXIT., No. 3, December, 1913, p. 639 (no definite locality

given).

Dryophis pulverulentus. Habitat (no definite locality given).

Dendrophis bifrenalis. Habitat (no definite locality given).

AVES.

Description of Timeliides from Ceylon. Major Ls be 2

Harrington. J.B.N.H.S., Vol. XXIII, No. 2, November,

1914, pp. 326, 327.

Crateropus griseus striatus, Swainson (the Ceylon Babbler).

Habitat (no definite locality given).

Crateropus rufescens, Blyth (the Ceylon Rufous Babbler).

Habitat (no definite locality given).

Description of the Game Birds of Ceylon. E. C. 8. Baker.

J. B.N.H.S., Vol. XXTII., No. 3, February, 1915, p. 391.

Turnix pugnax pugnax, Temm. (the Ceylon Bustard Quail).

Habitat (no definite locality given).

' Description of Timeliides from Ceylon. Lieut.-Col. H. H.

Harrington. J. B. N. H.8., Vol. XXIII., No. 3, February,

1915, pp. 423 to 437.

Pyctorhis sinensis nasalis, Legge (the Ceylon Yellow-eyed

Babbler). Habitat (no definite locality given).

Elaphrornis palliseri, Blyth (Palliser’s Warbler). Habitat :

Horton Plains.

Dumetia albigularis albigularis, Blyth (the Small White-

throated Babbler). Habitat (no definite locality given).

Scotocichla fuscicapilla, Blyth (the Brown-capped Babbler).

Habitat (no definite locality given).

Rhopocichla atriceps nigrifrons, Blyth (the Black-fronted

Babbler). Habitat (no definite locality given).

RECORDS OF CEYLON SPECIES. 393

ARACHNIDA.

Description of two new Pedipalpi from Ceylon. F. H.

Gravely, M.Sc. Rec. Ind. Mus., Vol. XI., Pt. V., September,

1915, pp. 383, 385.

Schizomus (Trithyreus) perplexus, sp. n. Habitat: Polon-

naruwa, North-Central Province.

Schizomus (Trithyreus) buxtoni, sp.n. Habitat: Minneriya,

Polonnaruwa, North-Central Province, Sigiri, Central

Province.

Description of Ant-like Spiders from Ceylon. K. Narayan.

Rec. Ind. Mus., Vol. XI., Pt. 5, September, 1915, p. 396.

Myrmarachne plataleoides, Camb. Habitat : Peradeniya.

Description of Oriental Tarantulide. F.H. Gravely, M.Sc.

Rec. Ind. Mus., Vol. XI., Pt. VI., pp. 449, 450, 452.

Phrynichus ceylonicus, Koch. Habitat: North-Central Pro-

vince : Horowapotana, Maha [luppallama ; Western Province :

Wennappuwa, ten miles from Negombo ; Central Province :

Nalanda, Galagedara, Haragama, Kandy, and Peradeniya ;

Southern Province : Ambalangoda, Kottawa.

Phrynichus ceylonicus var. gracilibrachiatus, Gravely.

Habitat : Central Province: Nalanda, Galagedara, Kandy,

Peradeniya.

Phrynichus ceylonicus var. pusillus, Pocock. Habitat:

Central Province: Nalanda, Galagedara, Kandy, Peradeniya.

PORIFERA.

Description of Parasitic Sponges from Ceylon. N. Annan-

dale. Rec. Ind. Mus., Vol. XI., Pt. VI., December, 1915,

pp. 459, 460.

Stelletta vestigium, Dendy. Habitat (no definite locality

given).

Coppatias investigatrix, sp. n. Habitat (no definite locality

given).

Cliona quadrata, Hancock. Habitat: Gulf of Mannar.

16 6(7)17

394 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

ASCIDIANS.

Description of Tunicata from Ceylon. A. Oka. Mem. Ind.

Mus., Vol. VI., No. 1, December, 1915, pp. 8, 13, 15.

Hexacrobylus indicus, Oka. Habitat: south of Ceylon at

station 278; 6° 52’ N., 81° 11’ E.

Cynthia lanka, Herdman. Habitat: Palk Strait.

Rhabdocynthia ceylonica, Herdman. Habitat: Station 152;

113 miles 8. 83° W. of Colombo lighthouse.

CHATOPODA.

Description of Oligocheta from Ceylon. J. Stephenson.

Mem. Ind. Mus., Vol. VI., No. 1, December, 1915, pp. 61, 75,

76, 77, 78, 80, 83, 84, 86, 88, 99, and 105.

Pontodrilus agnese, sp.n. Habitat : Nuwara Eliya.

Megascolex nureliyensis, Mich. Habitat : Horton Plains.

Megascolex singhalensis, Mich. Habitat : Horton Plains.

Megascolex escherichi, Mich., var. papilifer, var. nov.

Habitat: Horton Plains.

Megascolex campester, sp. n. Habitat : Horton Plains.

Megascolex bifoveatus, Stephenson. Habitat: Horton Plains.

Megascolex hortonensis, sp. n. Habitat : Horton Plains.

Megascolex kempi, sp.n. Habitat: Horton Plains.

Megascolex varians, Mchlsn., var. insolitus, var.n. Habitat:

Horton Plains.

Megascolex sextus, Stephenson. Habitat: Pattipola.

Pheretima heterochxta, Mchlsn. Habitat : Horton Plains.

Genus pontoscolex, probably P. corethrurus. Habitat: west

Haputale.

Mo.uuvusca.

Description of a new Modiola from Ceylon. H. B. Preston.

Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Vol. XVI., No. 91, July, 1915,

p. 84.

Modiola taprobanensis, sp.n. Habitat (no definite locality

given).

Plate Il

FIG. 1.—CHALCOPHAPS INDICA, FIG. 3.—EXCALFACTORIA CHiNENSIS.

Fic. 2.—GALLUS LAFAYETTII Fic. 4 —TURNIX PUGNAX.

NOTES. 395

NOTES.

Note on the emergence of Winged Termites—Though the

appearance of swarms of winged termites is a common occur-

rence, very little is known of the circumstances attending their

emergence from the nest. It may be worth while, therefore,

to place on record a few observations on a flight of a species

which has been kindly identified by Mr. G. M. Henry as

Termes obscuriceps, Wasm.

The nest is situated beneath the verandah of my bungalow

at Peradeniya, and the insects chose to emerge through cracks

in the cement at the entrance. At midday on December 11,

1916, my attention was directed to the spot by a squirrel, which

was devouring the workers, and shaking its head from time to

time when a soldier bit it on the nose. The appearance of

worker termites at the entrance to the nest at midday is

somewhat unusual, but, as subsequent events proved, they were

engaged in narrowing the crack in the cement by lining its

sides with earth, preparatory to the exit of the winged insects

in the evening.

The flight began at 5.57 p.m. The main exit, which may be

called A, was a narrow slit, 1} inches long. Besides this, there

was a small circular hole, B, about a quarter of an inch in

“C

Ace

‘B

diameter, about 6 inches from A, and another slightly larger

circular hole, C, about a foot from A, on the other side. The

majority of the winged insects emerged from A; only a few

from Band C. All the holes were surrounded by workers

and soldiers, which, in the case of A, formed a dense crowd

about six inches in diameter.

The main flight occupied about 13 minutes, from 5.57 to

6.10 p.m. During this time winged insects poured out in a

continuous stream. Between 6.10 and 6.15 P.M. only nine

emerged, and from 6.15-6.20 only three, all from A. At

6.17 all the workers and soldiers round C had re-entered the

hole, and this had happened at B by 6.20 p.m. By this time

396 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

several dealated males and females were wandering about, in

pairs as usual. At 6.22 one more winged insect emerged from

A; with the exception of a few workers, the crowd which

originally surrounded A had now re-entered the nest.

At 6.24 a pair of dealated insects crossed A, and were driven

off by a soldier. At the same time a winged insect emerged

from A, and was followed by another a minute later. Band C

were now Closed by a layer of earth. The first seal is very

thin, and consists of apparently a single layer of particles with

numerous minute interspaces. The particles are subsequently

re-arranged and more added, and during the course of re-

arrangement the opening may be partly opened from time to

time. C was partly open at 6.30, and was approached by a

pair of dealated insects ; one tried to enter, and got partly in,

but came out again. On a second attempt it succeeded.

The other ran round the entrance for a little while, and then

followed the first into the nest.

At 6.30 a winged insect emerging from A stuck fast in the

earth with which the exit was being closed ; it succeeded in

getting free at 6.32, but whether it was assisted by the workers

I could not determine. At 6.34 a dealated insect attempted

to enter B (now open), and was driven off by a soldier, which

was carried away adhering to its head. Another tried to enter

B at 6.35, but was attacked and dragged away by a red ant

(Plagiolepis longipes). At 6.36 two tried to enter A, but were

driven off. At 6.37 one entered B through a small opening

which was guarded by a soldier, and another forced its way

into C through the thin earthen covering.

At 6.40 A appeared to be closed, but the process of re-

arranging the earth was not completed until 7.30, and in the

interval the exit was frequently partly open. Several dealated

insects were wandering round, but the red ants, now present

in considerable numbers, prevented them approaching the

holes. At 7 P.M. one more winged insect emerged from A.

At 7.5 P.M. one dealated insect attempted to enter B, and was

driven off by a soldier. B and C were finally closed at 7.10,

and A at 7.30. No workers or soldiers were left outside the

nest. In the latter respect this flight differed from the one

recorded in Annals of Peradeniya, III., p. 269.

NOTES. 397

The majority of the dealated males and females took refuge

under the matting on the verandah, but [am unable to say what

ultimately becameofthem. Their behaviour under observation

may be to some extent abnormal, as it is usually necessary to

use a light, and that, of course, induces them to remain in the

vicinity of thenest. Inthepresentinstance they were observed

by the light of a lamp 4 feet from the exits of the nest.

The following points may be specially noted :—

1. The narrowing of the exit in preparation for the emer-

gence of the winged insects. This has been observed on several

occasions during the last ten years, and it would appear to

be the usual course in the case of the Ceylon mound-building

termites. The opening is narrowed, generally so that the

insects emerge in a single row. This is probably done to

facilitate the closing after the flight.

2. The provision of a ‘‘ guard ”’ of soldiers and workers

round the exits, and its withdrawal as soon as the main flight

is over. It would seem improbable that these are for the

protection of the winged insects, as they re-enter the nest

when they are most required, 7.¢e., when the dealated insects

return ; and if for protection, the workers would be useless.

It may be that they are merely stationed in a convenient

position for closing the nest. The operation of closing,

however, is conducted from within.

3. The return of dealated females and males to the nest,

apparently before the fertilization of the female.

4. The apparent selection of the returning insects by the

soldiers.

5. The closing of the exits after the flight. The chimneys

of the common termite hills in Ceylon are normally open ;

they are closed after the flight, perhaps in order to prevent

the return of too many males and females.

6. The absence of any exiled workers and soldiers who

could assist the discarded female insects in founding new nests.

T. PETCH.

Note on the Breeding Habits of the Did-he-do-it (Sarco-

grammus indicus) —Two years ago, in the Northern Province,

398 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

while on a camping trip in jungle, I had an opportunity of

watching one of these birds on its nest. The nest is a mere

scrape in the ground. It was situated within a few feet of the

track from the road to the village, in an open grassy spot,

where the village cattle were in the habit of grazing. There

were plenty of other suitable spots quite close and further from

the path. Within a few yards was a shallow stretch of water,

a few inches deep and grassy. It seemed wonderful that the

eggs could have escaped destruction ; our carts were drawn

up within a few yards of them. The eggs are, of course,

protectively coloured, and it was rather hard to spot the nest,

even after one had seen the place several times. We watched

the bird on the nest from the shelter of our carts, and unsuc-

cessfully attempted to get photographs of it on the nest.

In the middle of the day, when the sun was very hot, the bird

would frequently leave the eggs and go down to the patch of

water, walk into and deliberately move its breast up and down

in it, at the same time spreading out its breast feathers.

When this part of the body was apparently wetted and cooled

it would cautiously return to its nest and sit on the eggs.

We watched this happen frequently, so that there was no

question as to whether the bird was merely going into the

water to get a drink or to get some food. I presume that the

reason is that on the dry ground and in the hot sun the eggs

would become too dry if the bird did not adopt some means

of this sort to keep them in proper condition.

C. T. SYMONS.

Wilson's Stormy Petrel (O. oceanicus) at Colombo.—In

September of last year I was fortunate enough to see a number

of these Petrels about a quarter of a mile outside Colombo

harbour. ‘The first one I saw took no notice of the boat I was

sailing, until I got to within a few yards of it, and so I had

an excellent view of the bird. On two or three successive

evenings later I saw flocks of three to ten in number of these

birds actually inside the harbour flying about over the water at

dusk. I was able to sail quite close to them.

W. A. CAVE.

CEYLON NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 399

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CEYLON NATURAL

HISTORY SOCIETY.

Seventeenth General Meeting.

THE Seventeenth General Meeting of the Society was held in

the Colombo Museum Library on June 6, 1916, at 5.15 P.m., with

Dr. A. Nell in the Chair.

A lecture on “ Plant Dispersal’? was delivered by G. Bryce

Esq., Assistant Botanist and Mycologist, Peradeniya, and severa

specimens of seeds, &c., were exhibited.

Mr. W. A. Cave read a paper entitled ‘‘Some Notes on the

Flight of the Albatross,’ made on a recent voyage to Australia.

Eighteenth General Meeting.

The Eighteenth General Meeting of the Society was held in the

Colombo Museum Library on September 20, 1916, at 5.15 p.m.,

with Dr. A. Nell in the Chair.

A lecture on ‘‘ Root Parasitism (Flowering Plants)’ was

delivered by H. L. van Buuren, Esq., which was well illustrated

by diagrams and specimens.

Nineteenth General Meeting.

The Nineteenth General Meeting of the Society was held on

January 18, 1917, in the Colombo Museum Library, at 5.15 p.M.,

with Dr, A. Nell in the Chair.

A resolution to the effect that the annual subscription of bona

fide students of recognized institutions in Ceylon shall be two

rupees was unanimously passed. Twenty-seven student members

were elected.

Miss Ursula van Rooyen read a paper on ‘‘ Autotomy in

Crustacea,”’ illustrating her remarks by diagrams and demonstra-

tions on live specimens.

An account of a fight between a frog and a sparrow was given

by C. T. Symons, Esq., who had witnessed the incident.

The Chairman took this opportunity of bidding farewell, on

behalf of the Members of the Society, to Dr. Joseph Pearson, who

was about to proceed to England to offer himself for war service.

400 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Twentieth General Meeting.

The Twentieth, or Fifth Anniversary, Meeting of the Society

was held in the Colombo Museum Library on March 13, 1917,

at 5.15 p.m., with Dr. A. Nell in the Chair.

The report of the Honorary Secretaries and Treasurers, together

with the accounts for the past year, were adopted and passed

unanimously.

A vote of thanks was passed to Mr. Sibbald for kindly auditing

the accounts,

The following were elected as Office-bearers for 1917 :—

Patron.

His Excellency Sir John Anderson, G.C.M.G., K.C.B.

President.

The Hon. Mr. R. E. Stubbs, C.M.G., F.Z.S.

Vice-Presidents.

F. M. Mackwood, Esq. | Dr. A. Nell, M.R.C.S., L.M.S.

Sir 8. D. Bandaranaike, Kt., | Dr. Joseph Pearson, D.Se.,

C.M.G. | F.R.S.E., F.L.S.

Council.

T. Petch, Esq., B.A., B.Sc. The Rev. Father M. J. Le Goce

The Ven. the Archdeacon of O.M.I., M.A., Ph.D.

Colombo. | C.F. 8. Baker, Esq.

The Hon. Mr. Harry Creasy. | E. Evans, Esq., B.Sc.

Joint Honorary Secretaries and Treasurers.

C. T. Symons, Esq., B.A., W. A. Cave, Esq.

F.R.G.S.

The Rev. Father M. J. Le Goce delivered a very interesting

lecture on the Madugaha plant (Cycas Rumphit), during the course

of which he explained a fact new to Science, which he discovered

whilst making investigations with the plant, and whichis published

in “The Annals of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Peradeniya,”

Vol. VI., Part III, June, 1917.

Mr. W. A. Cave read ‘‘ A Note on the Occurrence of Wilson’s

Stormy Petrel (Oceanites oceanicus),’’ which he observed near

Colombo harbour.