CONTENTS OF VOLUME XI.

Part 40.—Joune, 1918.

PAGE

Ormiston, W.—

Notes on Ceylon Butterflies .. se es 1

Van der Goot, P.—

Aphididz of Ceylon Ae Ae ae 70

Senior-White, R.—

A Note on Lymantria ampla (Walker) he s 76

Notes.—

1. Wayland, HE. J.—

Further Notes on the Wellawatta Horse we 81

2. Senior-White, R.— =

On Colour Shades and Wire Meter of Sea tae semi-

signata (W1k.) : 83

Proceedings of the Ceylon Natural History Society a 84

Part 41.—OcroBER, 1919.

Wayland, EH. J.—

Outlines of the Stone Ages of Ceylon ~ ap oy: 85

Ormiston, W.—

Notes on Ceylon Butterflies (Part II.) af oP 126

Notes.—

1. Senior-White, R.—

Toxorhynchites minimus (Theob.) i so WEE

2. Jardine, N. K.—

The Tea Tortrix (Homona coffearia, Neitner) Be 191

3. Henry, G. M.— |

Report of the Second Entomological Meeting, Pusa .. 192

4. Symons, C. T.—

Crocodiles’ Nesting Habits a a, 194

Proceedings of the Ceylon Natural History Society ae EG

Part 42.—Jouxy, 1920.

Wait, W. E.—

The Picarian Birds and Parrots of Ceylon rr ns ee LOG

Wait, W. E.—

The Migration of Birds and Ceylon Migrants .. “igh fades

Senior- White, R.— 92995

A Note on Suana concolor (Walker) <tike 5 ei a 299

ame

Pearson, J.—

A Note on Kogia breviceps

Symons, C. T.—

Notes on certain Shore Crabs

Notes.—

1. Wall, F.—

Viviparous Habit of the Snake Cyindiors maculatus

(Linne)

2. Wait, W. E.—

Occurrence of Motacilla alba (the White lc in

Ceylon

Proceedings of the Ceylon Natural History Society

Parts 43 AND 44.—Marcg, 1921.

Wait, W. E.—

The Owls and Diurnal Birds of Prey found in Ceylon

Senior-White, R. A.—

New Ceylon Diptera

Wall, F.—

Notes on some Ceylon Snakes. .

Notes.—

1. Wall, F.—

Notes on the Vertebrz of Cercaspis carinatus vel Lycodon

carinatus (Kuhl) a0

2. Wall, F.—

Notes on Some Ceylon Snakes Fees roauied by the

Colombo Museum ae

3. Wait, W. E.—

Occurrence of Hypolais cog (the Booted Tree Were,

in Ceylon

4, Wayland, EK. J.—

Preliminary Note on some Fossiliferous Bedsin Ceylon .

5. Nicollier, E.—

Notes on the Natural History of the Tic-Polonga

6. Ormiston, W.—

Disappearance of Butterflies from certain Localities

Proceedings of the Ceylon Natural History Society

PAGE

303

306

314

315

317

381

396

404

405

409

412

INDEX TO

VOLUME XI.

SUBJECT

Aborigines (Ceylon) living in the

Stone Age, 89

Abyssinia, 33

Adam’s Bridge, 140

Adam/’s Peak, 20

Afghanistan, 129, 375

Africa, 5, 15, 29, 33, 34, 39, 41, 42, 55,

56, 129, 137, 227, 292, 356, 363, 370

Africa, East, 377

Africa, North, 54, 315

Africa, North-east, 218

Africa, Northern, 233, 379

Africa, South, 258

Ainu Race, 87

Alaska, 2'79

Alpine Swift, 233

Alps, 233

Ambalangoda, 17, 409

Ambanpola, 143

Ambawela, 58

Ambegamuwa, 164, 175

America, North, 29

America, South, 228

American Golden Plover, 279

Amherst Gap (Uda Pussellawa), 127,

144

Amur, 243

Anasigalla, 396, 397, 399, 400, 401,

402, 403

Anasigalla Estate, 396

Andamanese, 87

Andamans, 38, 46, 58, 176, 224

Anuradhapura, 2, 8, 10, 18, 21, 25,

28, 34, 43, 49, 53, 59, 62, 67, 68,

108, 136, 137, 142, 149, 166, 231,

234

Aphidide, notes on, 71

Aphidide of Ceylon, 70

Aphnezus, Ceylon, 61

Arabia, 34, 42, 54, 137, 148

Arabian Coast, 292

Archzan Epoch in Ceylon, 114

Areca Palm (Cerataphis latanezx

collected on), 75

Argentine, 279

Arippu—implement bearing gravels,

108

Arrow heads (stone implements), 90

Artefacts, 88, 91, 92, 98

Artefacts and patination, 101

Artefacts (Ceylon), want of represent-

ative types, 86

Artefacts (Kandyan Provinces), 90

Artefacts, lowland, 94, 97

Ascidians, 88

Ashy Finch Lark, 287

Asia, 15, 29, 39, 56

Asia Minor, 36

Asia, Southern, 5, 37, 38, 41

Assam, 143, 175, 220, 227, 236, 252,

259, 265, 328

INDEX.

Assamese Hills, 256

Australia, 15, 29, 39, 41, 45, 46, 48,

52, 53, 55, 56, 87, 128, 169, 176,

186, 197, 241, 243, 337, 351, 355,

370

Avissawella, 18, 176

Babbler, Black-fronted, 257

Babbler, Small White-throated, 256

Babbler, Southern Indian, 258, 260

Babbler, Yellow-eyed, 254

Badulla, 21, 23, 33, 36, 64, 169

Badulla District, 389

Badura Eliya, 4

Balangoda, 18, 60, 128, 180, 184

Bamboo, Oregma insularis collected

on, 75

Bandarawela, 237

Bandarawela Hills, 87

Banded Bay Cuckoo, 249, 255

Banded Crake, 292

Banyan Tree, Irasta timoleon feeds

on, 57

Barbet, Common Indian Green, 209,

210

Barbet, Crimson-breasted, 210, 212

Barbet, Small Ceylon, 210, 212

Barbet, Yellow-fronted, 209, 211

Barbets, 209

Batticaloa, 328

Bay of Bengal, 291, 342

Bay Owl, 320, 322

Baza, Black-crestec, 370

Baza (Legge’s), 370, 371

Bazas, 339, 370

Bears, hibernating, 275

Beavan’s Kingfisher, 221, 223

Bee-eater, Blue-tailed, 217, 218, 292

Bee-eater, Chestnut-headed, 217, 219

Bee-eater, Common Indian, 217

Bee-eaters, 213, 216

Bengal, Eastern, 344

Bengal, Lower, 224

Bengal, South-west, 229

Bentota, 4

Besra Sparrow Hawk, 364, 366, 368

Bintenna, 34

Bird (Brain-fever), 253

Birds, accustomed routes of migra-

tory, 278

Birds, breeding instinct, 276

Birds, Central European migrants,

278

Birds (Ceylon), casual visitors, 287,

288

Birds (Ceylon), 40 pecular species,

286

Birds (Ceylon), partial migrants, 286,

287

Birds (Ceylon), regular migrants go

to, 70 species, 288

(

Birds (English), breeding grounds, |

278

Birds, evolution of new species, 295

Birds, Frigate, 287

Birds, height and speed during mi-

gration, 281

Birds in Ceylon, no migratory birds

come for breeding season, 285

Birds, Indian, trinomial classification

Of ol?

Birds, irregular migrants and strag-

glers, 274

Birds, long distances of migrations.

280

Birds, migration in Ceylon, 283

Birds, migration of, 273

Birds, migrations of, complexity of,

273

Birds (migratory), boisterous weather

holds up and destroys many, 283

Birds, mysterious power of direction

in migration, 282

Birds, nesting sites, 276

Birds, night flights ia migration, 281 _

Birds of Passage, 274

Birds of Prey, 334

Birds of Prey, Diurnal (Ceylon), 317

Birds, orientation of, 282

Birds, phenomena of bird migration, |

275

Birds, Picarian (Ceylon), 197

Birds, route of migrants, 277

Birds, Storm-driven Wanderers,

Birds, supposed hibernating of,

Birds, survival of the fittest,

Birds, Tropic, 287

Birds, Vagrant Oceanic Rovers,

Birds who breed in Ceylon,

species, 286

Bittern (Black), 293

Black-backed Woodpecker, 199, 207

Black Bittern, 293

Black-capped Kingfisher, 221, 226

Black-crested Baza, 370

Black Eagle, 341, 344

Black-fronted Babbler, 257

Black-legged Falconet, 380

Black-winged Kite, 353, 355

Black-winged Stilt, 296

Blackwood Estate, 174

Blades (stone implements), 90

Blossom-headed Paroquet, 268

Blown sand, 105, 113

Blue-tailed Bee-eater, 217, 218, 292

Blue-winged Paroquet, 271

Bolivia, 279

Bombay, 351

Bone Needles, 91

Bonellis Eagle, 340, 341

Bonneville (lake), 117

Boobies, 287

Booted Eagle, 340, 342

Booted Tree Warbler (Ceylon), 406

Borers (stone implements), 90

Borneo, 37, 56, 186, 257, 380

Brahmaputra, 292

Brahminy Duck, 288

Brahminy Kite, 352, 353, 362

Brain-fever Bird (Common Hawk

Cuckoo), 253

274

275

277

274

240

)

Brazil, 279

British in Ceylon, 121

British Museum, 32, 38, 47, 305

Broad-billed Roller, 214, 215

Brown Chert, 95

Brown Fish Owl, 326, 327

Brown Hawk Owl, 319, 326, 333

Brown-headed Stork-billed King

fisher, 225

Brown-necked Spinetail, 236

Brown Wood Owl, 319, 323, 324

Buboninez, Ceylon, 326

Bug, Mealy, 37

Bulbul (Bush), 258

Bulbul, Common Bush, 256

Bulbul, Southern Red-whiskered, 255

Burma, 4, 5, 6,9, 18,19, 21, 22, 26, 33,

34, 35, 37, 42, 43, 45, 46, 50, 55, 58,

62, 65, 66, 68, 76, 126, 129, 134,

140, 148, 152, 161, 164, 165, 166,

167, 169, 170, 182, 183, 186, 200,

218, 220, 222, 224, 226, 227, 231,

236, 238, 241, 243, 256, 259, 261,

265, 266, 325, 343, 352, 356, 357,

362, 365, 366, 371, 375, 377

| Burma Miocene, 409

Burma, Upper, 258

Bush Bulbul, 258

Buttala, 135

Butterflies, Ceylon, 2, 126

Butterflies (Ceylon), notes on, 1, 3

| Butterflies, common, of the plains

of India, 3

Batterflies, disappearance

certain localities, 411

from

| Butterflies, Fauna of India, 1

Butterflies (Indian), a list of, 1

Butterflies of Ceylon, notes on, 3

Butterflies of India, Burma, and

Ceylon, 1

Buzzard (Common), 363

Buzzard, Crested Honey, 368

| Buzzards, 339, 362

Buzzards (Honey), 339, 368

_ Cachar, Northern, 328

Caller Crabs, why so named, 307

Caller or Fiddler Crabs, 306

Canaries, 30

Cape Colony, 276

Cape Comorin, 121, 291, 292, 293

| Cape Hatteras, 282

‘* Captain Philpot’s,

Cuckoo, 252

> Cry of Indian

| Cardamom, Lampides elpis pest in, 50

Carribean, 279

| Cashmere, 289, 292

_ Catachrysops, key to the genusof, 52

Celebes, 224

Celtic Folklore, 88

Central Province, 61, 67, 68

Ceylon, 391

Ceylon an ancient land, 114

Ceylon Aphidide, 70

Ceylon Aphnzus, 61

Ceylon Bay Owl, 319, 322

Ceylon birds, 40 peculiar species, 286

Ceylon, birds who breed in, 240

species, 286

Ceylon, Booted Tree Warbler, 406

(

Ceylon Buboning, 326

Ceylon Butterflies, 2, 126

Ceylon Butterflies, notes on, 1, 3

Ceylon Danaids, 5

Ceylon Diptera, 381

Ceylon, Fossiliferous Beds in, 407

Ceylon Haleyones, 220

Ceylon Hesperiide, 156

Ceylon Hornbill, 228, 229

Ceylon,

people, 86

Ceylon, land connection with India,

116

Ceylon, Lepidoptera of, 1, 10, 60

Ceylon Migrants, 273

Ceylon Nacaduba, 44

Ceylon, no migratory birds come for

breeding season, 285

a outlines of the Stone Ages of,

Ceylon, Paleolithic period in, 89

Ceylon Parrots, 197

Ceylon Picarian Birds, 197

Ceylon Pigmy Woodpecker, 199, 203

Ceylon Prehistoric Antiquities, 86

Ceylon, Quarts in, 90

Ceylon Snakes, 396

ohcn Snakes in Colombo Museum,

Ceylon, Stone Age peoples, manu-

facture of materials, 90

Ceylon, stone tools of the hills, 90

Ceylon Veddas, 87

Ceylon Veddas and the Stone Age, 86

Ceylonese Coucal, 261, 265

Ceylonese Frogmouth, 244

Ceylonese Loriquet, 268, 272

Ceylonese Plant Lice, 70

Chad, lake (Sahara), 117

Chalcedony, 95

Chellean period, 125

Chellean period of Europe, 98

Cherra Punji (Assam), average rain-

fall, 118

Chert, 94

Chert (brown), 95

Chert implement, 90

Chert, origin in Ceylon, 95

Chert, outcrop of, at Minihagal-

kanda, 119

Chert, patination of, 100

Chert (white laminated), 96

Cherts seldom homogeneous, 95

Chestnut-backed Owlet, 326, 333

Chestnut-headed Bee-eater, 217, 219

Chilaw, 138, 231, 293, 351

Chilaw, outcrops of gravel in, 108

China, 21, 25, 26, 30, 33, 35, 38, 51,

]

inhabited by primitive |

53, 57, 61, 67, 81, 129, 133, 148, 152, |

155, 164, 166, 168, 169, 170, 183, |

184, 186, 226, 227, 251, 252, 259,

261, 327

China clay, 104, 106

China, Cochin, 220, 224, 225, 269, 371

China, Eastern, Sand Plover breeds

in, 292

China, Northern, 377

China, Southern, 4, 6, 9, 19, 25, 231,

266

Chip-layer, 87, 88, 93

| Common Kingfisher, 221,

vil)

Chisels (stone implements), 90

Chitral, 36

Cinnamon in Ceylon, planted by the

Dutch in pure silica, 122

Cinnamon, Mycromyzus

collected on, 72

Cochin-China, 220, 224, 225, 269,[371

Collard Scops Owl, 326, 330

Colombo, 7, 22, 25, 37, 38, 43, 48,

49, 53, 57, 58, 68, 106, 161, 166,

167, 168, 169, 185, 250, 293, 324,

333, 343

Colombo, outcrops of gravel in, 108

nigrum

| Colombo Museum, 328

Colombo Museum Warblers, 406

Comb Duck, 288

Common Bush Bulbul, 256

Common Buzzard, 363

Common Coucal, 261

Common Crow Pheasant, 267

Common Hawk Cuckco, 248, 252,294

Common Indian Bee-eater, 217

| Common Indian Green Barbet, 209,

210

Common Indian Nightjar, 239, 240

Common Indian Swift, 233, 234

229

Common Teal, 288

Common Wren Warbler, 254

Coorg, 156, 164, 179, 185

Coppersmith, 212

Corea, 227

Cores (stone implements), 90

Coueal, 264

Coucal (Ceylonese), 261, 265

Coucal (Common), 261

Coucal (Lesser), 261, 266

Coueals, 247, 260

Crab (Scopimera), 309, 511

Crabs (Caller), why so named, 307

Crabs (Dotilla), 311

Crabs, Fiddler or Caller, 306

Crabs (shore), 306

Crake (Banded), 292

Crane, migration of, 273

Cranes, 375

Crested Eagle, 340

Crested Goshawk, 364, 365, 367

Crested Hawk Eagle, 318, 341, 345

Crested Honey Buzzard, 368

| Crested Serpent Eagle, 349

| Crested Switts, 237

Crimson-breasted Barbet 210, 212

Crocodile (Estuarine), 195

Crocodile, Marsh, 194

- Crocodiles’ nesting habits, 194

Crow (Jungle), 264

Crow (Pheasant), 260, 264

Crystal quartz not affected by pati-

nation, 100

Crystal quartz, oval pebbies of, 98

| Crystal quartz, pebbles of, 102

Crystalline quartz, 90

Crystalline rocks, 106

Cuckoo, 248, 249, 273, 274, 275

Cuckoo, Australian, 280

Cuckoo, Banded Bay, 249, 255

Cuckoo, Common Hawk, 248, 252, 294

Cuckoo (Drongo), 249, 257

Cuckoo, Emerald, 249, 256

(>). vas)

Cuckoo (Indian), 248, 251

Cuckoo, Indian Plaintive, 249, 253

Cuckoo, Pied Crested, 249, 258

Cuckoo, Red-winged Crested, 249, 259

Cuckoo (Sirkeer), 261, 264

Cuckoo (Small), 248, 250

Cuckoos, 247, 289

Cuckoos (English), 282

Curlew Stint, 276, 280, 297

Curlew (stone), 276

Cyprus, 226

Dambool, 18

Dambulla, 48, 56, 57, 59, 152, 223, 234

Daminiya, 299

Danaids, Ceylon, 5

Deduru-oya, 265

Delhi, 352

Deniyaya, 46, 51, 147, 149, 153, 162,

175, 176, 184, 185

Devil Bird, 328

Devil Bird, cries of, 318, 319, 323, 325

Dikoya, 187, 250

Diptera (Ceylon), 381

Diyatalawa, 1, 30, 61, 389

Dolosbage, 51, 60, 187

Dolosbage, West, 66

Dolphin planes, 98

“* Dosquabattu ’’ knives, 98

Dotilla Crabs, 311

Dover, 43

Drongo, 257

Drongo Cuckoo, 249, 257

Drongo, Indian Ashy, where found,

293

Drongo, White-bellied, 5

Drongoes, 32, 325

Duck (Brahminy), 288

Duck (Comb), 288

Duck (Quacky), 288

Duck (Shoveller), 297

Duck, Spotted Billed, 288

Duck (wild) in Ceylon, 288

Duranta, Delias eucharis found on,127

Dutch in Ceylon, 120

Dutch Indies, 26, 43, 57, 68, 161, 166,

167, 169, 170, 184

Eadella Estate, Polgahawela, 28

Eagle (Black), 341, 344

Eagle (Bonellis), 340, 341

Eagle (Booted), 340, 342

Eagle (Crested), 340

Eagle, Crested Hawk, 318, 341, 345

Eagle, Crested Serpent, 349

Eagle, Large Gray-headed Fishing,

349, 351

Eagle, Legge’s Hawk, 286, 341, 347

Eagle Owls, 323, 325, 326

Eagle, Rufus-bellied Hawk, 340, 343

Eagle, White-bellied Sea, 349, 350

Eagles, 335, 337, 338

Eagles (Fish), 348

Eagles (Hawk), 339, 340, 349

Eagles (Serpent), 348

Eagles, Serpent and Fish, 339

Early man came to Ceylon from India

by means of a then existing land

bridge, 122

Eastern Province, 201, 227, 231, 243,

255, 293, 296, 297, 323, 373, 377

Egypt, flint blades in, 88

Elephant pass, 2, 25, 42, 54, 59, 61,

62, 64, 137

Elpitiya, 9, 10, 14, 147

Emerald Cuckoo, 249, 256

England, 56

England, pre-paleolithic tools of,

English Barn Owl, 320

English Channel, 278

Entomological Meeting held at Pusa,

192

Eocene age, 408

Eocene forms (Paris), 408

Eolithic forms, 99

EKolithic implements, 125

Eoliths, 99, 103 ,

Estuarine Crocodile, 195

Europe, 36, 39, 41,

363

Europe, Chellean period of, 98

Europe, Eastern, 5

Kurope, Southern, 30, 233, 274

European flint, 94

43, 56, 81,

Falcon, Eastern Red-legged,

377

Falcon (Peregrine), 373, 374

Falcon, Shaheen, 296, 373, 375

Falconers, 375

Falconers (Indian), 376

Falconet, 380

Falconet, Black-legged, 380

Falconets, 338

Falcons, 289, 335, 338, 340, 372

Fauna of India (Butterflies), 1

Felspar, 106

Ferromagnesian silicates, 106

Fiddler Crabs, 307

Fiddler or Caller Crabs, 306

Fieldfare, 273, 274

Fish Eagles, 348

Fish Owls, 323, 325, 326

Fishing Hawk, 335

Flakes (Stone implements), 97

Flint blades in Egypt, 88

Flint, European, 94

Flint implements for dressing mono-

liths, 88

Flint, patination of, 100

Flood, story of, 119

Flycatchers, 289

Folklore, Celtic, 88

Forest Eagle Owl, 319, 326, 327

Forest Wagtail, 289

Formosa, 34, 38, 325

Fort Frederick (Trincomalee),

138, 411

Fossil Shells, 407

Fossiliferous Beds (Ceylon), 407

Fossiliferous Beds (Jaffna), 407

Fossiliferous Beds (Kalpentyn), 407

France, 274

Fresh-water Waders, 294, 296

Friar’s Hood, 243

Frigate Birds, 287

Frogmouth Ceylonese, 244

Frogmouths, 231, 232, 243

373,

55,

’ Gadwall, 288

Galaha, 14, 30, 132

Galboda, 14, 147

Galgamuwa, 53

Galle, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 18,

21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 30, 31,

33, 34, 37, 38, 42, 43, 44, 46, 48,

49, 50, 52, 55, 56, 58, 59, 62, 66,

67, 68, 69, 106, 136, 140, 142, 143,

147, 148, 152, 160, 165, 166, 169,

IOS Wile biGs L830; 18h 1825 183!

184, 186, 336, 351, 411

Galle District, 201, 211

Galle (Fort), 126

Galle, Gravels in, 108

Galle (Ramparts), 166

Game Sanctuary (Puttalam),

110

Ganges delta

Garganey, 288

“‘ Garuda,” 22

Gaul, Frankish people of, 88

Ghauts, 292

Giant’s Tank, 25, 34, 42, 61, 138, 147,

166

Gin-ganga, 219

Ginigala (fire stone), 95

Gintota, 142

Giriulla, 328

Glaciation in Ceylon, no evidence of,

103

Gneiss, rounded pebbles of, 96

Godaveri, 200

Gold-crested Wren, 280

Golden-backed Woodpecker, 199, 204

Golden Plover, 290

Gondwanaland (lost continent), 409

Goose Teal, 288

Goshawk (Crested), 364, 365, 367

Gram Crops, Catachrysops ecnejus

Pestin, 53

Gravel, 102

Gravel deposited in water, 111

Great Ice Age, 118

Greenland, 274, 278, 283, 297

Green Shank, 293, 297

Green Shank (Little), 293, 297

Grouse, 274

Grouse (Red), 286

Guiana Coast, 279

Gunflints, Portuguese, Dutch, and

British, 95

108, |

227

> <<

Hematite, 96, 99

Haleyones (Ceylon), 220

Haldummulla, 1, 5, 6, 9, 10, 12, 13, |

14, 15, 16, 17; 18, 19; 20; 21, 22, 23,

24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 31, 32, 33, 34,

35, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45,

46, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, |

56, 57, 59, 61, 62, 63, 65, 66, 67, 68,

69, 126, 127, 129, 130, 133, 136,

138, 140, 143, 144, 145, 147, 149,

150, 152, 154, 158, 159, 160, 161,

162, 164, 165, 166, 167, 169, 170,

7s Wie Wise L774 180s 18t.; 182;

183, 184, 186, 187

Haldummulla-Horton Plains bridle

road, 178

Hambagamuwa tank; 115

Hambantota, 15, 39, 43, 53, 54, 55,

61, 62, 63, 67, 107, 137, 140, 142,

160, 164, 166, 183, 202

Hambantota District, 136, 169, 207,

220, 231

Hambantota, ‘‘ Gravels ”’ in, 108

Hambantota, Plateau deposits in,

107

Hambantota-Tangalla District, 138

Hambantota-Wellawaya road, 148

Hambegama, 66

Hambegama tank, 21, 69, 184

Hammer stones (stone implements),

Haputale, 1, 12, 13, 19, 20, 21, 23, 31,

32,005 306, 37, 39, 41, 56, 62, 87,

115, 132, 138, 149, 158, 159, 161,

164, 165, 169, 171, 182, 186, 187,

263, 411

| Haputale Gap, view from, 115

| Haragam, 53, 163

Harrier (Marsh), 357, 361

Harrier (Montagu’s), 357, 359

Harrier (Pale), 357, 358

Harrier (Pied), 357, 360

| Harriers, 289, 339, 356

Hatagala, 297

Hawk, Besra Sparrow, 364, 366, 368

Hawk Eagle, Crested, 318, 341, 345

Hawk Eagles, 339, 340, 349

Hawk (Fishing), 335

Hawk, Migrant, 273

Hawks, 289, 296, 335, 337, 338, 339,

363

Hawks, seasonal movements of, 287

Hawks (Sparrow), 338, 368

Hebrides, 278

Heliotrope (wild), 7

Henaratgoda, 66

Henaratgoda Gardens, 20

Herons, 375

| Herons, seasonal movements of, 287

Hesperiide, Ceylon, 156

Hewaheta, 380

Hills, South Indian, 237

Himalayan Countries, 251

Himalayan Districts, 289

Himalayas, 20, 252, 257, 280, 294,

325, 328, 336, 343, 363, 371, 376;

395

Himalayas, Eastern, 200, 216, 224,

243, 344

Himalayas, Lower, 220, 256

Himalayas, Western, 237, 292

Himbatu, 69

Hiniduma, 237

Hirimbura, 167

Hirumbara (near Galle), 46

Hobby (Indian), 296, 373, 376

Honey Buzzards, 339, 368

Hong Kong, 42, 165, 166, 167, 170,

182, 227

Hoope (Indian), 231

Hoopes, 213, 230

Hornbill (Ceylon), 228, 229

Hornbill, Malabar Pied, 228

Hornbills, 213

Horowapotana resthouse, 194

Horse (Wellawatta), 81

Horsfield’s Nightjar, 239, 241

(as

Horton Plains, 1, 12, 13, 14,'20, 32,

33, 40, 42, 144, 164, 324

Hudson’s Bay, 279

Humber, 279

Humming Birds, 231

Ice Age, 118, 119

Ice Age and meteorological conditions

in Ceylon, 121

Iceland, 274, 278

Illipakadavai, 65

Ilmenite, 104

Implements of the early Stone Age

man in Ceylon of the Pleistocene

Period, 123

India, 14, 18, 19, 22, 23, 25, 26, 33, 34,

35,37, 38, 39,41, 42,43,45, 46, 47,

48, 50, 51-62, 65-69, 76, 126, 133,

134, 137, 140, 148, 155, 161, 164,

165-170, 182-184, 186

India, Central, 246

India, Central and Southern, 34

India, Northern, 241

India, Southern, 9, 13, 17, 20, 21, 28,

30, 34, 36, 53, 58, 64, 65, 66, 68,

69, 143, 144, 236, 243, 264, 328,

343, 344

India, Southern, tribes of, 87

‘‘Tadia,” the common butterflies |

of the plains of, 62

Indian Ashy Drongo where found,

293

Indian Butterflies, a list of, 1

Indian Crested Swift, 238

Indian Cuckoo, 248, 251

Indian Edible Nest Swiftlet,

237

Indian Falconers, 376

Indian Hobby, 296, 373, 376

Indian Hoope, 231

Indian Koel, 261

Indian Museum (Calcutta), 58

Indian Pied Kingfisher, 220, 221

Indiana Pitta, 290, 292

Indian Plaintive Cuckoo, 249, 253

Iudian Roller, 214

Iadian Three-toed Kingfisher, 221,

224

Indo-China, 19, 59, 231

Indus Valley, 292

Insects (Scale), 37

Tranaimadu resthouse, 188

Ireland, 278

Trish Sea, 278

Tron oxides, 104:

236,

Jafina, 5, 8, 15, 18, 25, 26, 30, 33, 54,

37, 38, 39, 42, 43, 49, 52, 53, 55,

56, 59, 63, 66, 67, 68, 136, 137, 147,

148, 164, 165, 183, 184, 185, 288,

293, 321, 324, 408

Jafina Coast, 139

Jafina District, 138

Jaffna Peninsula, 10, 121, 205, 321

Jaffna Peninsula, arid wastes of the

eastern Coast in Ceylon, 123

Jaffna, quartz flakes in, 113

Jaffna, town of, 126

Jak tree, Greenidea artocarpi collect-

ed on, 73

| Kegalla, 13, 19, 20,

)

Japan, 30, 33, 168, 176, 183, 186, 243,

251, 252, 350

Japan, Sand Plover breeds in, 292

Jaspers, Red and Yellow, 96

Java, 37, 39, 40, 45, 47, 60, 69, 70,

72, 73, 141, 160, 184, 255, 257, 380

Jerdon’s Imperial Pigeon, 288

Jungle Crow, 264

Jungle Nightjar, 239, 242

Jungle Owlet, 326, 332

** Kabook’”’ (Ceylon) is laterite, 125

Kainozoic (Tertiary) Group, 408

Kal-aru, 95

Kalmunai, quartz flakes in, 113

Kalu-ganga river, 113

Kalupahana, 40

Kalutara District, 396

Kamburupitiya resthouse,

gravels

in, 108

| Kandy, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 18, 19, 20,

DI 22.125, 28, 52.005 ols oon tonOus

53, 57, 58, 62, 66, 67, 69, 135, 140,

145, 152, 158, 159, 160-163, 165,

N67s 2 168. 169. AAs Os

183-187, 343

Kandy District, 2, 23, 36

| Kankesanturai, 25, 34, 55, 61, 62, 65,

68, 139, 146

| Kaolin, 104, 106

Karnul cave (near Madras), 81, 82

Karnul horse, 82

PPA PPA BIS ter,

56, 57, 59, 69, 147, 160, 167

Kelani Valley, 11, 51, 66, 113

Kentish Plover, 287

Kestrels, 289, 373, 379

Kingfisher, Beavan’s, 221, 223

Kingfisher, Black-capped, 221, 226

Kingfisher, Brown-headed Stork-

billed, 225

Kingfisher, Common, 221, 222

Kingfisher, Indian Pied, 220, 221

Kingfisher, Iadian Three-toed

224

Kingfisher, Stork-billed, 221

Kingfisher, White-breasted, 221, 226

> «=

21,

| Kingfishers, 213, 220

Kirimalei, 65

Kirinda (sand dunes at), 55

Kirinde, 169, 234

Kite, Black-winged, 353, 355

Kite, Brahminy, 352, 353, 362

Kite, Pariah, 287, 353, 354

Kites, 352

Kites and Allied Species, 339

Knives (Obsidian), 88

Knuckles District, 57

Koel (Indian), 261

Koels, 247, 260

Kokkarevillu, 108, 109

Koslanda, 28, 99

Koslanda district, 389

Kotmale, 158, 250 —

Kottawa, 7, 15, 20, 23, 51, 57, 58,

133, 147, 149, 153, 154, 162, 165,

167, 175, 180, 184

Kottawa forest, 4, 11, 17, 68

Kottawa resthouse, 2, 18

Kudremalai, 102, 111

(

Kulu (Assam), 376

Kumane, 106

Kumbukkan, 9, 21, 66,

Kumbukkan river, 107

Kurunegala, 17, 25, 62, 66, 152, 165,

328

Kurunegala District, 211

Kurunegala, outcrops of gravel in,

108

Kuthiraimalai, 102

Labugama, 4, 21, 175

Lady Horton’s Jungle (Kandy), 167

Lady Horton’s Walk (Kandy), 51

Lah Outan (lake), 117

Lahore (British India), 75

Lanka, 41

Large Ceyionese Paroquet, 267, 268

Large Gray-headed Fishing Eagle, |

349, 351

Large Sand Plover, 297

Larger Whistling Teal, 288

Lark, Ashy Finch, 287

Lark family, seasonal movements

of, 287

Larks, speed of flights, 281

Laterite in Ceylon called ‘* kabook,”’

125

Layard’s Paroquet, 268, 27]

Layard’s Woodpecker, 199, 208

Legge’s Baza, 370, 371

Legge’s Hawk Eagle, 286, 341, 347

Lepidoptera heterocera, 76

Lepidoptera indica (Moore’s), 62, 157

Lepidoptera of Ceylon (Moore’s), 1,

10, 60

Lesser Coucal, 261, 266

Lesser Sand Plover, 297

Lesser Scavenger Vulture, 287

Lighthouses lure migratory birds to

death, 283

Lindula, 5, 9, 14, 169, 176

Little Green Shank, 293, 297

Little Ringed Plover, 296, 297

Little Scaly-bellied Green

pecker, 198, 200

Little Stint, 291

Little Stints, 297

Lizard, Blood-sucker, 5

Loranthus, Delias eucharis found on,

126

Loranthus, larve of Tajuria longinus

feed on, 65

Loriquet (Ceylonese), 268, 272

Lunugala, 53

Lycenid, 47

Wood-

Madagascar, 197, 251, 337, 370

Madampe, 24, 57, 67, 149, 182

Madhu road, 137

Madulsima, 169

Magdalenian Period, 125

Magpie Robin, 260

Mahawansa, 89

Maho, 143

Malabar Coast, 200, 201, 220, 246

225 020

Malabar Pied Hornbill, 228

Malabar Rufous Woodpecker,

204

199,

)

Malabar Trogon, 246

Malawara-desa, 87

Malay Archipelago, 259, 261, 337,

351, 366, 376

Malay Peninsula, 212, 241, 371, 380

Malaya, 5, 6, 9, 21, 22, 24, 26, 33, 34,

35, 39, 42, 43, 45, 46, 47, 48, 50, 51,

52, 53, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 61, 65,

66, 67, 126, 128, 133, 134, 140, 141,

152, 155, 161, 165-170, 182-184,

186, 220, 224, 225, 227, 237, 255,

256, 266, 331, 344, 350, 352, 355

Malayalam hills, 87

Malkoha, Red-faced, 261, 263

Malkoha, Small Green-billed, 260, 262

Malkohas, 247, 260

| Man (early) came to Ceylon from

India by means of a then existing

land bridge, 122

Man first came to Ceylon on foot and

not in ships, 116

| Man first came to Ceylon, the land

was higher, 116

Man, red earth, in Ceylon, 121

Man (savage), in Ceylon, a thousand

centuries ago, 115

Manipai (Jaffna), 68, 188, 376

Mankulam, 149

Mannar, 2, 3, 34, 39, 48, 52, 55, 59,

62, 63, 67, 106, 126, 129, 136, 137,

138, 140, 142, 164, 172, 183, 185,

186, 202, 224, 355, 407

Marichehukkaddi, 98, 99

Marsh Crocodile, 194

Marsh Harrier, 357, 361

Martin’s Town Estate (Rakwana),

323

Maskeliya, 33, 40, 41, 67, 187

| Matale, 28, 31, 66, 69, 158, 159, 211,

382, 383, 384, 386, 391, 393, 395

Matale District, 80

Matale (East), 185

Matale (North), 136, 185

Matara, 57

Matara, gravels in, 108

Matugama, 396

Mealy Bug, 37

Medagama, 223, 245

Medagama Hills, 252

Memer Glover, Brachycaudus helio-

chrysi collected on, 73

Mentenne Rubber Estate, 50

Merlin, Red-headed, 373, 378

Metamorphic recks, 96

Mexico, lakes of (America), 117

Mexico (medieval), 88

Migrant Hawk, 273

Migrants, Central European Birds,

278

Migrants (Ceylon) Birds, 273

Migrants, Irregular Birds, 274

Migration of Birds, 273

| Migration of Crane, 273

Migration of Swallows, 273

Migration, phenomena of bird, 275

Migrations of birds, complexity of,

273

Migratory habit, origin of, 276

Milky quartz, 102

‘* Millet seed,”’ 104

(o* Ran

Minihagalkanda, 99, 110, 111,

408

Minihagalkanda denudation, 119

Minihagalkanda, plateau deposits in,

107

Minneriya-Polonnaruwa country, 129

Miocene Age, 408

Miocene (Burma), 409

Mississippi Valley, 279

Mocha patanas (Maskeliya), 187

Moderagam river, 96

Moderagam river, stone tools found

12 miles from, 109

Monaragala, 51

Mongolia, 81

Monsoon showers in Ceylon, 117

Montagu’s Harrier, 357, 359

Moore’s Lepidoptera indica, 157

Moratuwa, 336

Mousterian type, 98

Mullaittivu, 107, 405, 406

Muppane, 152, 153

Murungan, 407

Murunkan, 137, 139

Murunkan resthouse, 2

Murunkan tank, 55

113,

Nacaduba (Ceylon), 44

Nagas in Ceylon, 123

Namunukula, 23

Narangalla Estate, 389

Narbada beds, 82

Natural History Society (Ceylon), 84,

196, 315, 316, 412

Neerodumunai, 306

Negombo, outcrops of gravel in, 108 |

Neolithic Age, 86

Neolithic date, 90

Neolithic days, 113, 122

Neolithic man, 120

Neolithic man in Ceylon, 123

Neolithic tools, 107

Nepal, 371

Nepaul, 143, 259

New Guinea, 227, 243, 376

New Guinea Region, 237

New York, 30

Nightjar, 330

Nightjar, Common Indian, 239, 240

Nightjar, Horsfield’s, 239, 241

Nightjar, Jungle, 239, 242

Nightjars, 231, 232, 239

Nilgiris, 220, 368

Nilveli-ganga, 265

Niroodamunai (Eastern Province),

406

Nitre Cave, 34

Noah’s flood, 116, 117

Noddy Tern, 282

North-Central Province, 37, 50, 205,

207

North Sea, 279

North-Western Province, 67, 219, 266,

328, 361

Northern Province, 6, 9, 10, 12, 25,

26, 53, 54, 61, 65, 68, 227, 231, 396

Norway, 279

Nova Scotia, 279

Nuwara Eliya, 6, 14, 28-33, 35, 39, 49,

50, 52, 56, 143, 161, 184, 325, 338

)

Obergoda, 58

Obsidian, 96

Obsidian knives, 88

Ocean lapped the high lands

Ceylon, 115

Ohiya, 1, 6, 12, 13, 14, 19, 27, 31, 32,

34, 40, 41, 126, 132, 144, 149, 154,

187, 237

Oil Birds, 231

Opal (Common), 95

Orissa, 229

Orkneys, 279

Osprey, 334, 335, 336

Owl, Bay, 320, 322

Owl, Brown Fish, 326, 327

Owl, Brown Hawk, 319, 326, 333

Owl, Brown Wood, 319, 323, 324

Owl, Ceylon Bay, 319, 322

Owl, Collard Scops, 326, 330

Owl, English Barn, 320

Owl, Forest Eagle, 319, 326, 327

Owl (Scops), 329

| Owl, Short-eared, 323, 324

Owlet, Chestnut-backed, 326, 333

Owlet, Jungle, 326, 332

Owlets, 325, 326

Owls (Bay), 322

Owls, Eagle, 323, 325, 326

Owls (Hared), 323

Owls, Fish, 323, 325, 326

Owls found in Ceylon, 317

Owls, Screech, 320

Owls (Wood), 323

Painted Lady, 30

Painted Snipe, 297

Palatupana, 34

Pale Harrier, 357, 358

Paleolithic, 90

Paleolithic days, 120

Paleolithic deposits, 125

Paleolithic forms, 99

Paleolithic man in Ceylon, 122

Paleolithic Period, 125

Paleolithic Period in Ceylon, 89

Paleolithic savage in Britain, 121

Palestine, 327, 334

Pallai, 165

Palm Swift, 233, 235

Pariah Kite, 287, 353, 354

Paris Eocene forms, 408

Paroquet, Blossom-headed, 268

Paroquet, Blue-winged, 271

| Paroquet, Large Ceylonese, 267, 268

Paroquet, Layard’s, 268, 271

Paroquet, Rose-ringed, 267, 269

Paroquet, Western Blossom-headed,

270

Parrois, 267

Parrots (Ceylon), 197

Patagonia, 276

Patination, exposure to weather an

essential factor in, 101

Patination of flint and chert, 100

Pattipola, 6, 25, 31, 39, 40, 67, 155,

164, 168

Pattipola resthouse, 2

Pearl Banks, buried plateau of, 116

Pebbles chipped, 97

Pebbles (split), 98

(

Pedrotalagala, 30

Peelers (stone implements), 98

Pegu, 269

Penguins going to breeding grounds,

DRé

Peradeniya, 17, 30, 56, 72, 75, 136

Peregrine, 376.

Peregrine Falcon, 373, 374

Persia, 129, 137, 148

Persia, Southern, 218, 365

Petrels, 274.

Pheasant, Common Crow, 267

Pheasant (Crow), 260, 264

Philippine Islands, 312

Philippines, 42, 60, 167, 168, 212,

299, 366

Picarian Birds (Ceylon), 197

Picks (stone implements), 99

Piculets, 197

Pied Crested Cuckoo, 249, 258

Pied Harrier, 357, 360

Pigeon, Jerdon’s Imperial, 288

Pigmies, 107

Pigmies, finest workmanship, 97

Pigmies (Hill), 99

** Pigmies ’’ (stone implements, Cey-

lon), 90

Pigmy factories, 92

Pigmy makers, 92

Pigmy times, conditions of, 92

Pigmy tools, 91, 92

Pintailed Snipe, 288, 291, 292, 296,

297

Pintailed Snipe, breeds in Northern

Siberia, 290

Pipits, 280

Pitta (Indian), 290, 292

Planes (stone implements), 90

Plant Lice, Ceylonese, 70

Plantain-eaters, 247

Plateau beds, 113, 116

Plateau beds (Ceylon), comparable |

in age with the Paleolithic deposits

of Europe, 121

Plateau beds (Ceylon), old as the

Pleistocene Ice Age of Europe, 120

Plateau beds (Ceylon), upheaval of,

12]

Plateau beds, interpretation of, 118

Plateau beds pervious to water, 112

Plateau deposits, Ceylon, 107

Plateau deposits, geology of, and

their derivatives, 101

Pleistocene, 82, 119, 121, 125

Plover, American Golden, 279

Plover, Eastern Golden, 293, 297

Plover, Eastern Kentish, 296, 297

Plover (Golden), 290

Plover, Kentish, 287

Plover, Large Sand, 297

Plover, Lesser Sand, 297

Plover, Little-ringed, 296, 297

Plovers, 296

Plovers (Sand), 297

Plumbago plant, 55

Pochard, Red-crested, 288

Point Pedro, 106, 378

Xili

Points (stone implements), 90

Pointsettia, Rapala schistacea found

on, 68

)

Polgahawela, 17, 25, 28

Polynesia, 197

Pomegranate, Virachola isocrates

found on, 69

Pomparippu, 96, 98, 108

Pomparippu, Stone Age hand axe

found near, 109

Portuguese in Ceylon, 120

Post-plateau deposits (Ceylon), 122

Prehistoric antiquities, Ceylon, 86

| Prehistoric epochs, close of, in Ceylon,

123

Prehistoric man, 96, 98

Pre-paleolithic tools of England, 97

Prismatic tools, 98

Pundalu-oya, 4, 13, 14, 39, 41, 60,

176, 186

Pundaluoya (Upper), 144

Punjab, Western, 231

Pusa, 192

Pussellawa, 43, 147

Puttalam, 14, 53, 66, 136, 137,

293, 321, 344, 408

Puttalam District, 207, 257, 259,

318, 340, 407

Puttalam District, prehistoric work-

manships in, 96

Puttalam Game Sanctuary, 108, 110

Puttalam, outcrops of gravel in, 108

Pygmy Sperm Whale, 303

Quacky Duck, 288

Quartz, 104, 105, 106

Quartz (Crystal), not affected by

patination, 100

Quartz (Crystal), oval pebbles of, 98

Quartz (Crystal), pebbles of, 102

Quartz (Crystalline), 90

Quartz flakes, 103

| Quartz flakes in Jaffna, 113

Quartz flakes in Kalmunai, 113

Quartz in Ceylon, 90

Quartz (milky), 102

Quartzite, 96

Rails, seasonal movements of, 287

Rakwana, Martin’s Town Estate, 323

Ramboda, 187

Rambukkana, 19

Rangalla, 31

Ranna, gravels in, 108

Ranna, Marine Mollusea shells in,

114

Ranungahawa, 21

Ratnapura, 2, 4, 10-15, 18, 20, 21, 24,

28, 32, 33, 37, 38, 41, 46, 48, 49, 51,

58, 59, 61, 66, 67, 68, 69, 128, 135,

140, 144, 147, 149, 153, 158, 159,

161, 162, 165, 168, 169, 174, 175,

176, 178, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184,

187, 245, 336, 361

Ratnapura District, 17, 265

Red-backed Woodpecker, 199, 206

Red-crested Pochard, 288

Red earth man in Ceylon, 121

Red-faced Malkoha, 261, 263

Red Grouse, 286

| Red-headed Merlin, 373, 378

293

297

Red, Shank,

Redshanks,

(

Red-winged Crested Cuckoo, 249, 259

Rhine, 279

Rhine delta, 278

Rhone valley, 279

Ritigala, 237

Robin (Magpie), 260

Rocks (Ceylon), the oldest known,

some formed fifteen million years

ago, 114, 115

Rocks (Crystalline), 106

Rocks (Metamorphic), 96

Roller, Broad-billed, 214, 215

Roller (Indian), 214

Rollers, 213, 214

Rose-ringed Paroquet, 267, 269

Roses, Mycrosiphum rose collected

on, 72

Rufous-bellied Hawk Eagle, 340, 343

Sabaragamuwa, 211, 219

Sabaragamuwa Province, 201

Sahara, south of, 258, 280

Salt-mud Waders, 297

Sandpipers, 294

Sand Plover breeds in Japan and

Eastern China, 292

Sand Plovers, 297

Sandstone, 96

Savage man in Ceylon a thousand

centuries ago, 115

Seale insects, 37

Scandinavia, 274, 278, 280, 281

Scavenger Vulture, 337

Scillies, 278

Scopimera Crabs, 309, 311

Scops Owl, 329

Scrapers (stone implements), 90, 98

Screech Owls, 320

Sedimentary beds, 112, 407

Sedimentary rocks, 113, 408

Serpent and Fish Eagles, 339

Serpent Eagles, 348

Shahin Falcon, 296, 373, 375

Shank (Green), 293

Shank, Little Green, 293, 29

Shank (Red), 293

Shells (Fossil), 407

Shetlands, 279

Shikra, 364

Shore Crabs, 306

Short-eared Owl, 323, 324

Shoveller, 288

Shoveller Duck, 297

Shrikes, 280, 289

Siam, 56, 129, 141, 152, 186, 200, 231,

238

(

X1V

Siberia, 81, 291

Siberia, Eastern, 252

Siberia, Northern, Pintailed Snipe |

breeds in, 290

Siberia, Southern, 407

Siberia, Western, 315

Siberian Tundras, 276

Sigiriya, 376

Sikkim, 175

Silica in the history of man, 96

Silicates (ferromagnesian), 106

Sind, 231

Sirigalla, 153

)

Sirkeer Cuckoo, 261, 264

Skylark, 274, 278

Sling stones, 91

Small Ceylon Barbet, 210, 212

Small Cuckoo, 248, 250

Small Green-billed Malkoha, 260, 262

Small White-throated Babbler, 256

Smaller Whistling Teal, 288

Smaller White Scavenger Vulture,

337

Snake, Cylindrophis maculatus, vivi-

parous habit of, 314

| Snakes, Ceylon, 396

Snakes (Ceylon) in Colombo Museum,

405

Snipe, 290

Snipe, advent of, 273

Snipe, Painted, 297

Snipe (Pintailed), 288, 291, 292, 296,

297

Snipe (Pintailed) breeds in Northern

Siberia, 290

Snippets, 294, 296

| Socotra, 54

| Sclutrean Period, 91

Song Thrush, 274, 275

Sooty Tern, 282

| South Indian Hills, 237

| South Indian Yellow-naped Wood-

pecker, 198, 201

Southern Indian Babbler, 258, 260

Southern Province, 46, 54, 258

Southern Red-whiskered Bulbul, 255

Sparrow Hawk, 365

Sparrow Hawks, 338, 368

Spinel, 104

Spinetail, Brown-necked, 236

Spinetails, 235

Spotted Billed Duck, 288

Squirrels fond of toddy, 2

Starlings, speed of flight, 281

Stilt, Black-winged, 296

Stint (Curlew), 276, 280, 297

| Stint (Little), 291, 297

| Stone

Age, aborigines (Ceylon)

living in, 89

Stone Age cultures of Ceylon practised

on general sites, 97, 120

| Stone Age man, 96

Stone Age peoples (Ceylon), manu-

facture of materials, 90

Stone Ages of Ceylon, outlines of, 85

Stone Curlew, 276

Stone tools of the hills (Ceylon), 90

Stone tools of the lowlands, 94

Stork, 273, 275

Stork-billed Kingfisher, 221

| Stork, White, 297

| Stragglers, irregular birds, 274

Suberial erosion in the Southern

Province (Ceylon), 120

| Sub-erag implements, 125

Sudu-ganga (Matale), 191, 382, 383,

384, 386, 391, 393, 395

Sumatra, 39, 40, 41, 69, 184, 212, 256,

380

Swallow, 273, 275, 279, 280, 289, 293

Swallow, a day migrant, 28]

Swallow, migration cf, 273

Swallows (English), 281

( xv )

Swallows, Migration routes, 280

Swan, 274

Swan (Wild), 273

Swift (Alpine), 233

Swift, Common Indian, 233, 234

Swift, Indian pe a 238

Swift (Palm), 233, 23

Swiftlet, Indian Wet le-rieet, 236, 237

Swiftlets, 235

Swifts, 231, 232

Swifts (Crested), 237

Swifts (True), 233

Tabbowa, 409

Tabbowa (North-Western Province),

408

Tailor Bird, 254

Talgaswella, 410

Tamarind blossom, Tajuria jehana

plentiful on, 65

Tamarind trees, Rapala melampus

found, in, 68

Tanamalwila, 2, 29, 46, 54, 66

Tangalla, 25, 57, 62, 137, 138, 142

Tangalla District, 293

Tasmania, 276 =

Tea cosy tools, 98

Tea tortrix, 191

Teal (Common), 288

Teal (Goose), 288

Teal, Larger Whistling, 288

Teal, Smaller Whistling, 288

Teal, Whistling, 287

Tebuwana, 4

Telulla, 66

Tenasserim, Southern, 380

Tern (Noddy and Sooty), 282

Terns, 287

Texas, 279

Thibet, 292

Thrush (English), 290

Thrush (Song), 274, 275

Thrushes, 280

Tic-polonga, 410

Tic-polonga, natural history of, 409

Tissa, 207

Tissamaharama, 2

Tissamaharama tank, 55

Titicaca (Lake), 117

Tools, milky and crystal quartz, 96

Topaz, pebble of white, 96

Toucans, 228

Travancore, 210, 216, 223, 227, 244,

344

Travancore Hills, 236, 380

Trincomalee, 18, 19, 21, DIN Ds 28%

37, 38, 43, 49, 58, 62, 68, 159, 163,

166, 184, 234, 293, 305. 3950, ot

Trogon, Malabar, 246

Trogons, 245

Tropic Birds, 287

True Swifts, 233

Tundras, Siberian, 276

Turkestan, 407

Turkey, 176

Turnstones, 294

Udagama, 11, 58, 147

Uda Potana, plateau deposits in, 107

Uda Pussellawa, 129

| Vavuniya, 27, 37,

| Vulture, Smaller White

| Vultures,

Urals, 291

Ushant, 278

Uva, 8 13, 14, 15, 18, 21, 23; 24, 25,

26ma2, Si, O05 405) 530,04.) dios;

66, 128, 149, 159, 163, 165, 184,

185

Uva, patanas of, 130

Uva Province, 1. 10, 46, 201

Vannathivillu, 108

‘* Vasanta,’’ 22

55, 140, 154, 160,

163, 166, 171, 172, 183, 186, 396,

397, 399

| Vedda anthropology, 87

Vedda autochthony, 89

Vedda caves, 86, 89

| Veddas a degenerate and not a

primitive race, 87

Veddas and the Stone Age, Ceylon, 86

Veddas, avtochthony of, 87

Veddas do nos laugh or sing, 89

Veddas in Ceylon, 123

Veddas of Ceylon, 87

Veddas or ancestors,

people of Ceylon, 86

Vulture, Lesser Scavenger, 287

Vulture (Scavenger). 337

Stone Age

Scavenger.

337

335, 337

Waders, 287, 289, 290

Waders, Freshwater, 294, 296

Waders, Salt-mud, 297

Wagtail, Forest, 289

| Wactail (White), occurrence in Cay:

lon, 315

Wagtail (Wood), 293

Wagtails, 289

Warbler, Booted-tree, 406

Warbler, Common Wren, 254

Warblers, 280, 289

Warblers in the Colombo Museum,

406

Watering Point, 27, 51, 61

Weligama, 17

Wellawatta Horse,

Wellawaya, 8, 20, 21, 23, 28, 36, 39,

43, 46, 50, 51, 53, 57, 66, 69, 135,

Abe t52, lbe. Lod, GOs 695 170:

183, 188

Wellawaya-Haldummulla road, 21

Wellawaya-Hambantota road, 148

Wellawaya resthouse, 2

Wellipatanwila, 99

Wellipatanwila, gravels in, 108

Wellumwittia, 47

Western Blossom-headed Paroquet,

270

Western Ghauts, 121, 201, 229

Western Province, 201, 211, 227, 265

Whale, Pygmy Sperm, 303

Whimbrel, 293, 297

Whistling Teal, 287

White-bellied Sea Eagle, 349, 350

White-breasted Kingfisher, 221, 226

White Stork, 297

notes on, 81, 82,

(Casyry 3

White Wagtail, occurrence in Ceylon,

BLD

Wild Duck in Ceylon, 288

Wild Swan, 273

Woodcock, 288, 294

Woodcocks, 289

Wood Owls, 323

Woodpecker, Black-backed, 199, 207

Woodpecker, Ceylon Pigmy, 199,

203

Woodpecker, Fulvous-breasted Pied,

202

Woodpecker,

204

Woodpecker, Layard’s, 199, 208

Woodpecker, Little Scaly-bellied

Green, 198, 200,

Woodpecker, Malabar Rufous, 199,

204

Woodpecker, Red-backed, 199, 206

Golden-backed, 199,

Woodpecker, South Indian Yellow-

naped, 198, 201

Woodpecker, Yellow-fronted Pied,

198, 202

| Woodpeckers, 107

Wood Wagtail, 293

Wren, Gold-crested, 280

Wrynecks, 197

Wynaad, 244, 372

Yakkas, 87, 89 :

Yala, plateau deposits in, 107

Yatiyantota, 189

Yellow-eyed Babbler, 254

Yellow-fronted Barbet, 209, 211

Yellow-fronted Pied Woodpecker,

198, 202

Zireon, 104

Zizera, 54

NAME INDEX.

Aleock, A., 308

Anacreon, 273

Archiae, 408

Aristotle, 275

_ Bainbrigge-Fletcher, 167, 169, 192

Baker, E. C. Stuart, 197, 255, 257,

286, 317, 407

Beeson, 299

Bell, T. R., 3, 6, 52, 62

Benham, 303

Bezzi, 393

Bibron, 404

Bingham, 1, 3, 7, 9-11, 15, 16, 22,

24, 27-29, 31, 33, 35-37, 39, 40, 42,

44, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 56, 59, 128,

132, 142, 143, 147, 151, 152, 153

Blainville, De, 303

Blanford, 197, 213, 231, 241

Brooks, Charles E. P., 117, 118

Brunetti, 385

Butler, A. L., 187, 223, 242, 245, 266,

330

Butt, 176

Cantley and Falconer, 82, 83

Chapman, Dr., 175

Churehward, 87

Clarke, Eagle, 274, 275, 278, 281, 284

Cowles, R. P., 312

Das, B., 75

Davies, Dr. Arthur Morley, 407, 408

De Blainville, 303

De Niceville, 3, 13, 16, 22, 28, 36, 47,

48, 49, 60, 61, 128, 151, 153

De Niceville and Manders, 132

De Niceville and Marshall, Colonel, 1

Dumeril, 404

Edwards and Elwes, 156, 157, 160,

GL W6263)) 168, 070s aie:

175, 176, 178, 179, 181, 182, 184

Elliott, T. G., 175, 181

Elwes and Edwards, 156, 157, 160,

16), 1625 163; 168) WO eke:

175, 176, 178, 179, 181, 182, 184

Evans, Colonel, 1, 13, 32, 36, 48, 57,

60, 61, 62, 64, 66, 132, 143, 144, 152,

153, 156, 158, 166, 172, 1735 175;

177, 183

Fairlie, F. A., 68, 188

Falconer and Cantley, 82, 83

Felder, 48, 49

Gadow, 213

Gilbert, C. C., 175

Gill, 303

Green, E. E., 30, 86, 133, 179, 223,

380

Gunther, 404

Haast, 303

Haime, 408

Hampson, 301

Hannyngton, F., 156, 160, 175, 174,

179, 185

Hartley, C., 86, 87, 90, 91, 92, 96, 124

Hayley, A. C., 8, 134

Henry, G. M., 80, 124, 194

Holmes, Arthur, 114

Homer, 273

| Huxley, 87

Jan, 404

Jardine, N. K., 192

Jayasinhe, J. B. N., 303

Jepson, F. P., 389, 390

Jerdon, 254, 328

Jordan and Rothschild, 19

Joseph, Gerard A., 314

Kelaart, 368, 405

Krefft, 303

Laertes, 88

Latreille, 312

Layard, 250, 275, 278, 288

Lefroy, 299

Legge, 207, 242, 243, 245, 255, 330,

368, 378

Loten, Dutch Governor in Ceylon,

256

Lydekker, 81, 82

Mackwood, F. M., 3, 4, 5, 9, 11, 12,

135 14; Woo UT ES 19 205 2 22, 23.

25, 26, 28, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 36, 37,

38, 39, 40, 41, 43, 48, 50, 51, 53, 55,

57, 58, 60, 61, 62, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69,

129, 140, 141, 142, 144, 147, 149,

152, 153, 155, 158, 159, 161, 162, |

163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169,

170, 171, 174, 175, 176, 183, 184,

185, 186, 187, 411

Manders, Colonel N., 3, 129, 132, 411

Manders, Major, 34

Marshall, Colonel, and Niceville, De, 1 |

Matsumoto, H., 81, 82

Moir, Reid, 97

Moore, 1, 3, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14, 15, 18,

28, 29, 39, 42, 45, 46, 47, 56, 57,

60, 62, 65, 67, 133,

143, 144, 145, 153,

168, 170, 173, 175,

183

Murchison, C., 82, 83

Neville, Hugh, 305

Newton, Professor, 276

Nicollier, E., 411

Noethling, Dr., 408

Ormiston, W., 1, 126, 411

Owen, 303

Parker, 87, 297

Parsons, James, 86, 90

Pearson, J., 303

Petch, 302

157, 160, 165,

176, 177, 182,

LATIN

Abaratha ransonnettii, 162

Abisara echerius, 36

Abisara echerius prunosa, 36

Abisara prunosa, 36

Acacia cesia, 49, 57, 411

Accipiter affinis, 367

Accipiter nisus, 368

Accipiter virgatus, 364, 366, 367, 365

Accipitres, 317, 334, 335

Achillides crino fruhstorferi, 152

Acidalia niphe, 33

Acontias, 400

Acontias burtoni, 403

Acreinz, 35

AEgialitis, 296

Atgialitis alexandrina, 287, 296

AEgialitis dubia, 296

Aigialitis geoffroyi, 292, 297

Aigialitis mongolica, 297

Zgithina tiphia, 256, 258

Atsalon, 373

Atsalon chicquera, 373, 378

Albizzia moluccana, 60, 134

Alcedinidz, 220

Alcedo, 221

Alcedo beavani, 221, 223

Aleedo bengalensis, 222

Alcedo ispida, 221, 222

140, 141, 142, |

Phillips, W. W. H., 396

Pole, John, 3, 11, 47, 59, 86, 87, 164,

187

Ricardo, 388

Roberts, 293

Rothschild, 151, 152

Rothschild and Jordan, 19

Rutherford, A., 70, 72, 73, 74, 75, 390

Sarasin, Drs. F. & P., 86, 89

Saunder, F. G., 7

Schiner, 390

Schlosser, 82

Schouteden, H., 70

Seitz, 127

Seligmann, Dr. C. G. & B. Z., 86

Senior-White, R. A., 76, 83, 191, 299,

381

Seward, Professor, 409

Shakespeare, 88

Sowerby, 408

Speyer, EH. R.. 389

Stephens, J. H., 319

Stiess, 409

Swinhoe, Colonel, 168, 187

Symons, C. T., 195, 306

Taverner, A. P., 277

Tennent, 309

Theobald, 189

Van der Goot, P., 70

Virchow, Professor, 87

| Wait, W. E., 197, 273, 315, 317, 407

| Wall, Lieut-Colonel F., 303, 314, 396,

405, 406

Wallace, Dr. A. R., 277

| Wayland, E. J., 81, 83, 35, 409

Wickwar, O. S., 129

| Williston, 390

INDEX,

, Alcippus, 30

| Allceophania decipiens, 7

| Amblypodia anita, 56, 57

| Amblypodia darana, 56, 57

Amblypodia naradoides, 56

| Amphiesma stolatus, 397

Ampittia maro, 166

Anapheis mesentina taprobana, 139

Ancistrodon hypnale, 396, 403, 406

Andrapana jumbah, 23

Anisodactyli, 213

Anthracoceros coronatus, 228

Apatura camiba, 19

Apatura misippus, 29

Apatura parisatis camiba, ,19

Aphididz, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75

Aphidius, 73, 75

| Aphis gossypii, 70, 72

Aphis medicaginis, 70, 73 ¢

Aphis tavaresi, 70, 73

Aphneeus, 2, 3, 64

Aphnzeus fusea, 60, 61, 62

Aphnzeus greeni, 60, 62

Aphnzeus ictis, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 188

Aphnezus lazularia, 60, 61

Aphnzus lilacinus abnormis, 60, 64

Aphnzus lohita, 60, 61, 64

Aphnzeus minimus, 60, 62

(| xviii

Aphneus nubilus, 60, 64, 188

Aphneus schistacea, 60, 62

Aphneus vulcanus, 61

Aphnzeus vulcanus fusea, 61

Aphnzeus zebrinus, 60

Appiz taprobana, 411

Appias, 21

Appias albina, 140

Appias hippo taprobana, 142

Appias indra narendra, 140

Appias libythea, 141

Appias lyncida taprobana, 142

Appias paulina, 2, 141

Appias taprobana, 142

Appias vacans, 142

Argynnis hyperbius, 33

Argynnis hyperbius taprobana, 33

Arhopala, 3

Arhopala, nov. sp., 58

Arhopala abseus, 58, 59

Arhopala amantes, 58

Arhopala centaurus pirama, 58

Arhopala pirama, 58

Aristolochia indica, 72

Artocarpus integrifolia, 73

Asio accipitrinus, 323, 324

Asionidz, 320 321

Asionine, 321, 323

Aspidura guentheri, 398

Astictopterus stellifer, 165

Astur badius, 364

Astur trivirgatus, 365

Atella alcippe ceylonica, 33

Atella ceylonica, 33, 34

Atella phalanta, 33

Atella phalantha, 33

Azanus crameri, 42

Azanus jesous, 42

Azanus jesous gamra, 42

Azanus ubaldus, 42

Badamia exclamationis, 186

Baoris farri, 175

Baoris leechii, 175

Baoris oceia, 175

Baoris pencillata, 175, 176, 151

Baoris simillima, 175

Baoris unicolor, 175

Baracus subditus, 164

Baracus vittatus, 164

Batrachostomus, 243 ‘

Batrachostomus moniliger, 244, 330

Baza ceylonensis, 370, 371

Baza jerdoni, 372

Baza lophotes, 370, 372

Belenois mesentina, 139

Belenois taprobana, 139

Bibasis sena, 2, 186

Bindahara phocides, 69

Bindahara sugriva, 69

Bindahara sugriva moorei, 69

Brachycaudus helichrysi, 70, 73

Brachypternus, 199, 208

Brachypternus auranticus, 199, 204,

206

Brachypternus ceylonus, 206

Brachypternus erythronotus,

205, 206

Brachypternus puncticollis, 204

Bryophyllum, 43

Bubo nipalensis, 327

Buboninze, 321, 325, 326

Bucerotes, 213, 227

199,

)

Bucerotidz, 227, 228

Bungarus, 405

Bungarus ceylonicus, 402

Buteo desertorum, 363

Buteo plumipes, 363

Byblia ilithyia, 34

Cacomantis passerinus, 249, 253

Cadaba indica, 137, 139

Cajanus indicus, 299, 387

Callosune danz, 139

Callosune etrida limbata, 137

Callosune eucharis, 138, 139

Callosune limbata, 137, 139, 411

Callosune sanguinalis, 139

Calctes, 5, 401

Calysisme blasius, 9

Calysisme drusia, 1]

Calysisme mineus, 10

Calysisme mineus polydecta, 10

Calysisme perseoides subdita, 10

Calysisme perseus, 9, 10, 11

Calysisme polydecta, 10, 11

Calysisme rama, 11

Calysisme subdita, 10, 11

Camena deva, 60

Capitonide, 209

Caprimulgi, 232, 239

Caprimulgide, 239

Caprimulgus, 239

Caprimulgus albonotatus, 241

Caprimulgus asiaticus, 239, 240, 241

Caprimulgus atripennis, 241

Caprimulgus indicus, 239, 242, 243

Caprimulgus jotaka, 243

Caprimulgus kelaarti, 242, 243

Caprimulgus macrurus, 239, 241

Caprona ransonnettii, 157, 162, 163

Caprona saraya, 157, 163

Caprona siamica, 2, 157, 163

Capua coffearia, 191

Carissa carandas, 76

Castalius decidea, 56

Castalius ethion, 56

Castalius hamatus, 56

Castalius rosimon, 55, 56

Catachrysops, 52, 53 -

Catachrysops cnejus, 52, 53

Catachrysops cnejus var. contracta, 53

Catachrysops lithargyria, 2, 52

Catachrysops pandava, 52, 53

Catachrysops strabo, 52

Catapzecilma elegans, 66

| Catophaga albina venusta, 140

Catophaga melania paulina, 141

Catophaga neombo, 140

| Catophaga paulina, 140, 14]

Catophaga venusta, 140, 141

| Catopsilia, 21

Catopsilia catilla, 128

Catopsilia crocale, 128

| Catopsilia florella, 129

Catopsilia gnoma, 129

Catopsilia pomona, 128

Catopsilia pyranthe, 128

Celeenorrhinus fusea, 158

Celznorrhinus spilothyrus, 156, 158

Celtis cinnamomea, 72, 75

Centropus, 261

Gentropus bengalensis, 261, 266

Centropus chlororhynchus, 261, 265

Centropus rufipennis, 264

Centropus sinensis, 261, 264, 265

( xix )

Ceratopemphigus zehntneri, 70 Colotis dane, 139

Cerataphis latanezx, 70, 75 Colotis etrida limbata, 137

Cercaspis carinatus, 399, 404 | Colotis eucharis, 138

Cerchneis amurensis, 377 | Colotis fausta tripuncta, 137

Cerchneis tinnunculus, 379 | Coluber helena, 399

Ceryle, 220 | Colubridz, 397, 405

Ceryle rudis, 221 | Copsychus saularis, 260 PRL ae

Ceryle varia, 220, 221 | Coraciadze, 214 SERS i, f :

Cethosia neitneri, 27 | Coracie, 213, 214

Ceyx tridactyla, 221, 224 | Coracias, 214

Cheetura, 235 | Coracias indica, 214

Crastia asela, 7

Crastia core asela, 7

Crateva roxburghi, 142

Cheetura gigantea, 236

Cheetura indica, 236

Cheturine, 232, 235, 236

Chapra agna, 176 | Crateropus striatus, 258,

Chapra mathias, 176 Cremastogaster, 75

Chapra subochracea, 176 Crocodilus palustris, 194

Charadrius dominicus, 279 Crocodilus porosus, 195

Charadrius fulvus, 297 | Crotera roxburghi, 411

Charaxes, 2 Crotalaria striata, 73

Charaxes fabius, 18 | Cuculide, 247

Charaxes psaphon, 18 Cuculine, 247, 248

Charus helenus, 148 Cuculus, 248

Charus helenus mooreanus, 148 Cuculus canorus, 248, 249

Charus mooreanus, 148 Cuculus maculatus, 256

Cheritra freja jafira, 66 Cuculus micropterus, 248, 251

Cheritra jaffra, 66 Cuculus passerinus, 253

Cheritra pseudo jaffra, 66 Cuculus poliocephalus, 248, 250

Chilades laius, 38 Cuculus sonnerati, 255

Chilades putli, 39 Cupha erymanthis placida, 26

Chilades trochilus, 39 Cupha placida, 26

Chilades trochilus putli, 39 Curetis thetis, 59

Chilades varunana, 38 Curetis thetis var. arcuata, 59

Chilasa clytia, 151 Curetis thetys, 59

Chilasa celytioides, 151 | Cyaniris 39

Chilasa dissimilis, 151, 152 | Cyaniris akasa, 39

Chilasa lankeswara, 151 _ Cyaniris huegeli singalensis, 40

Chittira fumata, 6 Cyariris lanka, 40

Chharia nilgirica, 65 Cyaniris lavendularis, 39

Choaspes benjaminii, 186 Cyaniris limbata, 41

Chrysococcyx maculatus, 249, 256 Cyaniris limbatus, 41

Chrysocolaptes, 199 Cyaniris puspa, 39

Chrysocolaptes festivus, 199, 207,209 Cyanaris singalensis, 40, 41

Chrysocolaptes stricklandi, 199, 208 Cyanops flavifrons, 209, 211

Chrysopelea ornata, 401 Cylindrophis maculatus, 314, 396

Chrysophlegma xanthoderus, 201 _ Cynometra cauliflora, 72

Cinnamomum, 72 Cynthia asela, 27

Circus eruginosus, 357, 361 Cyuthia erota, 27

Circus cineraceus, 357, 359 Cynthia erota asela, 27

Circus macrurus, 357, 358 Cyperacee, 72

Circus melanoleucus, 357, 360 Cypseli, 232

Cirrochroa cognata, 28 Cypselide, 232

Cirrochroa lanka, 28 | Cypselinz, 232, 233

Cirrochroa thais, 28 | Cypselus, 233

Cirrochroa, thais lanka, 28 | Cypselus affinis, 233, 234

Cirrochroa swinheei, 28 _Cypselus batassiensis, 235

Citrus, 73 Cypselus melba, 233

Cnaiolade indrani tissa, 159

Coccide, 37 | Dalchina teredon, 154

Coccyges, 247 Danaine, 4

Coccystes, 247, 249 | Danais, 151

Coccystes coromandus, 249, 259 Danais aglea, 6, 145, 151

Coccystes jacobinus, 249, 258 | Danais ceylanica, 6

Cogia breviceps, 303 | Danais chrysippus, 5

Coladenia indrani, 159, 160 | Danais exprompta, 4

Coladenia tissa, 159, 160 | Danais fumata, 6, 7

Collocalia, 235 | Danais genutia, 6

Collocalia francica, 237 | Danais limniace, 4, 145, 151

Collocalia fuciphaga, 237 Danais plexippus, 6

Collocalia unicolor, 236, 237 | Danais septeatrionis, 5, 145

Colotis, 2 Danais taprobana, 6

Colotis amata, 137 | Danais vulgaris exprompta, 4

Colotis amatus, 137 | Debis dynsate, 12

(Wi oe.< 7h)

Delias eucharis, 126, 127

Dendrelaphis tristis, 400

Deadro chelidon coronata, 238

Dendrocalamus strictus, 75

Dendrocopus macii, 202

Dendrophis bifrenalis, 399, 406

Derris scandens, 69

Deudorix epijarbas, 67, 68

Deudorix lankana, 68

Dicrurus leucopygialis, 5, 32

Dicrurus longicaudatus, 293

Dipsadomorphus beddomi, 406

Dipsadomorphus forsteni, 406

Discophora, 2

Discophora lepida, 17

Doleschallia bisaltide, 32

Doleschallia bisaltide ceylonica, 32

Doleschallia, bisaltide malabarica, 32

Doleschallia polibete, 32

Dophla evelina, 21

Dophla laudabilis, 21

Dotilla, 306, 309, 311, 312, 313

Dotilla mycteroides, 309

Drosophilide, 388

Dryocalamus nympha, 399

Dryophis mycterizans, 401

Dryophis pulverulentus, 401

Ducula insignis cuprea, 288

Dumetia albogularis, 256

Dupetor flavicollis, 293

Duranta, 170, 171, 174

Dyctis singhala, 17

Elanus ceruleus, 353, 355

Elymnias fraterna, 16, 187

Elymnias hecate, 187

Elymnias hypermnestra fraterna, 16

Elymnias merula, 187

Elymnias siaghala, 17

Elymnias undularis, 16

Elymnias undularis fraterna, 16

Enhydris curtus, 314, 406

Equus asinus, 81

Equus (Asinus) asinus, 83

Equus (Asinus) zeylanicus, 83

Equus caballus, 81

Equus hemionus, 81

Equus leptostylus, 81

Equus namadicus, 81, 83

Equus onager, 81, 82

Equus sivalensis, 81, 82, 83

Equus zeylanicus, 82

Ergolis ariadne, 34

Ergolis merione taprobana, 34

Ergolis minorata, 34

Ergolis taprobana, 34

Erythropus, 373

Erytbropus amurensis, 373, 377

Eudynamis honorata, 260, 261

Eugenia mooniana, 72

Eulepis athamas, 19

Eulepis athamas agrarius, 19

Eulepis samatha, 19

Euphysetes grayii, 303

Euphysetes macleayii, 303

Euphysetes pottsii, 303

Euphysetes simus, 303

Euploa, 8, 17, 151

Eupleea asela, 2, 5, 7, 8, 9

Euploa core, 7, 8

Eupleea corus, 7

Euplea crastia core asela, 2

Euproctis semisignata, 83

Eurystomus, 214

Eurystomus letior, 216

Eurystomus orientalis, 215

Euthalia evelina, 21

Kuthalia garuda, 22

Euthalia garuda diversa, 22

Euthalia garuda vasanta, 22

Euthalia lubentina, 21

Euthalia nais, 20

Kuthalia psittacus, 21

Euthalia vasanta, 22

Everes argiades, 43, 44

Everes argiades parrhasius, 43

Everes parrhasius, 43, 44, 54

Exechia ampullata, 384

Exechia argenteofasciata, 282

Exechia basilinea, 385

Exechia cristata, 383

Exechia zeylanica, 385

Faleo, 373

Falco chicquera, 378

Falco peregrinator, 373, 375

Falco peregrinus, 373, 374

Falco severus, 373, 376

Falconide, 335, 338

Falconine, 338

Ficus arnothiana, 60

Ficus religiosa, 76

Fimbrystilis diphylla, 72

Flacourtia ramontchi, 72

Gangara thyrsis, 167, 168

Gardenia florida, 73

Gecinus, 198

Gecinus chlorogaster, 198, 201

Gecinus striolatus, 198, 200

Gelasimus, 306, 309

Gelasimus annulipes, 309

Glaucidium, 326

Glaucidium castanonotum, 326, 333

Glaucidium radiatum, 326, 332

Glossopteris flora, 409

Gomalia albofasciata, 156, 164

Greenidea artocarpi, 70, 73

Greenideoida ceyloaiz, 70, 73, 74

Grewia tiliz folia, 299

Gynura ceylanica, 7

Hematopota litoralis, 388

Hematopota rhizophore, 387

Heematopota sinensis, 388

Halcyon pileata, 221, 226

Halcyon smyrnensis, 220, 221, 226

Haleyones, 213, 220

Haliztus, 349

Halizetus leucogaster, 349, 350

Haliastur, 352

Haliastur indus, 353

Halpe brunnea, 173

Halpe ceylonica, 173, 174

Halpe decorata, 174

Halpe egena, 173, 174

Halpe moorei, 174

Hanipha dynsate, 12

Hanipha sihala, 12

Hantana infernus, 157, 159

Haridra fabius, 18

Haridra imna, 18

Haridra peaphon, 18

Haridra serendiba, 18

Harimala montanus, 152

(

Harpactes, 245

Harpactes fasciatus, 246

Hasora alexis, 184, 185, 186

Hasora badra, 184

Hasora butleri, 184, 185, 186

Hasora chromus, 184, 185

Hebomoia australis, 143

Hebomoia glaucippe, 143

Hebomoia glaucippe australis, 143

Hesperia galba, 164

Hesperiide, 36, 155, 156, 171

Hestia jasonia, 4

Heterophylla palmata, 30

Hibiscus rosa sinensis, 299, 395

Hieretus, 340

Hiereetus fasciatus, 340, 341

Hierztus pennatus, 340, 342

Hierococcyx, 248

Hierococcyx varius, 248, 252, 294.

Himantopus candidus, 296

Hiposcritia narendra, 140

Hirundo rustica, 280

Homona coffearia, 191

Homona fasciculana, 191

Horaga cingalensis, 66

Horaga ciniata, 66

Horaga onyx cingalensis, 66

Huhua aepalensis, 319, 326, 327

Huphina nadina cingala, 144

Huphina nadina remba, 144

Huphina nerissa, 143

Huphina nerissa evagete, 143

Huphina phryne, 143

Huphina remba, 127, 144

Huphina zeuxippe, 143

Hyarotis adrastus, 166

Hydrophis gracilis, 314

Hydrus platurus, 406

Hypolais, 407

Hypolais caligata, 406

Hypolimnas bolina, 29, 51

Hypolimnas misippus, 29

Hypolycena, nilgirica, 2, 65

Hyposcritia indra narendra, 140

Tambrix salsala, 165

Ictinzetus malayensis, 341, 344

Idmais modesta, 137

Idmais tripuncta, 137

Tliades parinda, 149

Iliades polymnestor, 149

Iliades polymnestor parinda, 149

Tlysiide, 396

Indigofera anil, 55

Traota mecenas, 57

Traota timoleon, 57

Traota timoleon nicevillei, 57

Isamia sinhala, 7

Ismene ataphus, 184

Ismene cedipodea, 184

Txias cingalensis, 135

Ixias marianne, 136

Ixias pirenassa, 135

Ixias pyrene cingalensis, 135

Txias pyrene var, cingalensis, 135

Tyngipicus gymnophthalmus, 199, 203

Jamides bochus, 50

Junonia, 20

Junonia almana, 26

Junonia asterie, 26

Junonia ailites, 24, 26

Junonia hierta, 25

Junonia iphita, 24, 26

xxi)

Junonia lemonias, 26

Junonia cenone, 25

Junonia orithya, 25

Junonia orithyia, 25

Kempferia rotunda, 169

Kallima, 2

Kallima horsfieldi, 32

Kallima horsfieldi philarchus, 32

Kallima philarchus, 32

Kaniska canace haronica, 31

Kestrel, 373

Ketupa zeylonensis, 326, 327

Kibreeta libythea, 129

Kogia breviceps, 303

Kogia floweri, 303

Kogia grayii, 303

Kogia macleayii, 303

Kogia pottsii, 303

Kogia simus, 303

Lachnus greeni, 70

Lertias polytes romulus, 150

Leertias romulus, 150

Lagopus scoticus, 286

Lampides elianus, 5]

Lampides bochus, 50

Lampides celeno, 51, 53

Lampides coruscans, 50

Lampides elpis, 50, 51

Lampides lacteata, 51

Lampides pseudelpis, 51

Lantana, 57, 393, 395

Lasiocampidz, 299

Lemoniidz, 35

Lepidoptera, 299

Leptosia xiphia, 126

Lethe daretis, 14, 411

Lethe drypetis, 13

Lethe drypetis todara, 13

Lethe dynsate, 2, 12

Lethe dyrta, 13

Lethe dyrta nilgiriensis, 13

Lethe neelgheriensis, 13

Lethe rohria nilgiriensis, 13

Libytheinez, 35

Libythea, 21

Libythea celtis, 36

Libythea celtis lepitoides, 36

Libythea lepitoides, 2, 36

Libythea myrrha, 35

Libythea rama, 35

Limonidromus indicus, 289, 293

Liopicus mahrattensis, 198, 202, 203

Longiunguis spathodez, 70, 73

Lophoceros gingalensis, 228, 229

Lophospizias trivirgatus, 364, 365

Lophotriorchis kieneri, 340, 343

Loranthus, 2]

Loriculus, 267

Loriculus indicus, 268, 272

Loxura arcuata, 67

Loxura atymnus arcuata, 67

Lycznesthes lycznina, 43

Lycenine, 37

Lycznopsis, 39

Lycodon aulicus, 404.

Lycodon ecarinatus, 404

Lymantria ampla, 76

Lymantriidz, 76

Macrochires, 231

Macroplcea elisa, 7

Macropterygineg, 232, 237

Macropteryx coronata, 238

Macrosiphum rose, 70, 72

Macrosiphum minutum, 70, 71

Madais fausta fulvia, 137

Matapa aria, 167

Matapa subfasciata, 167

Megalema flavifrons, 211

Megalema zeylonica, 210

Megisba malaya, 38

Megisba thwaitesi, 38

Melanitis bela tambra, 15

Melanitis ismene, 15, 17

Melanitis leda ismene, 15

Melanitis phedima tambra, 15

Melanitis tambra, 15

Melittophagus, 217

Melittophagus swinhoii, 219

Melynias singhala, 17

Memecylon, 73

Menelaides aristolochie, 150

Menelaides aristolochize ceylonicus,

147

Menelaides ceylonica, 147

Menelaides hector, 146, 150

Menelaides jophon, 147

Meropes, 213, 216

Meropide, 216, 217

Merops, 217

Merops philippinus, 217, 218, 292

Merops swinhoii, 217, 219

Merops viridis, 217

Mesua, 72

Mesua ferrea, 72, 75

Micasea scandens, 68

Microglossa zeylanica, 61

Microhierax fringillarius, 380

Micromyzus nigrum, 70

Micropternus, 198

Micropternus gularis, 199, 204

Milvus, 352

Milvus govinda, 287, 353, 354

Moduza ealidosa, 22

Moduza procris calidasa, 22

Morphine, 17

Motacilla alba, 315

Musophagidee, 247

Mycalesis mineus, 10

Mycalesis patnia, 12

Mycetophilide, 381

Mycromyzus nigrum, 72

Mycteris longicarpus, 312

Naecaduhba, 2, 44

Nacaduba, ardates, 44, 45, 46, 48, 49,

188

Nacaduba atrata, 44, 45, 47, 48, 49

Nacaduba dana, 2, 44, 46, 47

Nacaduba hermus, 46

Nacaduba macropthalma, 44, 45, 46,

Nacaduba nora, 48

Nacaduba noreia, 44, 48, 49, 188

Nacaduba pavana, 44, 45, 46

Nacaduba plumbeomicans, 44, 45, 47,

Nacaduba prominens, 47, 48

Nacaduba viola, 44, 46, 49

Naia tripudians, 402

Narmada montana, 8

Nectaria jasonia, 4

Neophron, 337

Neophron ginginianus, 287, 337

Neopithecops zalmora, 37

( xxi )

Neopus malayensis, 344

Nepheronia, 145

Nepheronia ceylonica, 144, 145

Nepheronia fraterna, 144, 145

Nepheronia hippia, 145

Nepheronia spiculifera, 144, 145

Neptis, 24

Neptis disrupta, 23

Neptis eurynome, 23

Neptis hylas varmona, 23

Neptis jumba, 23

Neptis kamarupa, 23

Neptis nalanda, 23

Neptis varmona, 23

Nerodia piscator, 397

Nilasera amantes, 58

Nilasera pirama, 58

Ninox, 326

Ninox scutulata, 326, 330, 333

Nirmula venata, 130

Niszetus fasciatus, 341

Nisetus pennatus, 342

Nissanga patnia, 12

Notocrypta alysos, 168

Notocrypta feisthamelii, 168, 169

Notocrypta restricta, 168, 169

Numenius phzopus, 293

Nychitona xiphia, 126

Nymphalide, 4

Nymphaline, 18

Ocypodes, 311

Odina wodier, 187

(Ecophylla smaragdina, 72, 73, 75

Oligodon arnensis, 400

Oligodon subgrisens, 406

Oligodon sublineatus, 400

Oligodon templetoni, 400

Oregma bambusz, 70

Oregma insularis, 70, 75

Oregma minuta, 70, 75

Ornithoptera cambyses, 146

Ornithoptera darsius, 146

Orpheides erithonius, 148

Orsotricena mandata, 9

Orsotricena meda, 9

Orsotricena meda mandata, 9

Orthotomus sutorius, 254

Otocompsa fuscicaudata, 255

Padraona dara, 156, 171

Padraona gola, 170, 171

Padraona goloides, 170

Padraona mesioides, 171, 172

Padraona pseudomesa, 171, 172

Padraona tropica satra, 171

Paduka lebadea, 167

Palzornis, 267

Paleornis calthrope, 268, 271_

Paleornis columboides, 271

Palzornis cyanocephalus, 268, 270

Paleornis eupatria, 267, 268

Palzornis torquatus, 267, 269

Panax, 73

Pandemis (? Capua) menciana, 191

Pandion, 335

Pandion halisetus, 336

Pandionidz, 335

Papilio agamemnon, 155

Papilio alcibiades, 152

Papilio antiphates alcibiades, 152

Papilio aristolochiz, 147

Papilio elytia, 151

(

Papilio clytia lankeswara, 151

Papilio crino, 152

Papilio darsius, 146

Papilio demoleus, 148

Papilio eurypylus jason, 153

Papilio hector, 146

Papilio jason, 153

Papilio jophon, 147

Papilio lankeswara, 151

Papilio mooreanus, 148

Papilio nomius, 153

Papilio parinda, 148, 149

Papilio polymnestor parinda, 149

Papilio polytes, 150

Papilio romulus, 148

Papilio sarpedon teredon, 154

Papilionide, 126

Papilioninz, 146

Parantica aglea, 4, 6

Parantica ceylonica, 6

Parantica melanoides, 6

Parata alexis, 184

Parata butleri, 184

Parata chromus, 184

Pareronia ceylonica, 144

Parnara, 2, 157

Parnara austeni, 177, 179

Parnara bada, 177, 183

Parnara bromus, 181

Parnara cingala, 177, 183

Parnara colaca, 177, 183

Parnara conjuncta, 177, 182

Parnara guttatus, 183

Parnara kumara, 157, 177, 178, 179

‘Parnara narooa, 177, 182

Parnara phillippina, 157, 177, 178.

179, 180, 181

Parnaraseriata, 177, 179, 180, 181, 182

Parthenos cyaneus, 20

Parthenos gambrisius cyaneus, 20

Parthenos virens cyaneus, 20

Pathysa antiphates, 152

Pathysa antiphates ceylonicus, 152

Pathysa nomius, 153

Pelargopsis burmanicus, 225

Palargopsis gurial, 221, 225

Penicillium, 302

Penthoceryx sonnerati, 249, 255

Penthoceryx sonnerati waiti, 255

Pernis cristatus, 368

Pernis ptilonorhynchus, 368

Pheenicophes pyrrhocephalus, 260,

261, 263

Pheenicophaine, 247, 248, 260

Phortica, 390

Phortica scutellaris, 390

Phortica xyleboriphaga, 388

Photodiline, 321, 322

Photodilus, 322

Photodilus assimilis, 319, 322

Photodilus badius, 319, 323

Phylloscopus nitidus, 406

Physeter breviceps, 303

Pici, 197

Picidz, 197

Picinsz, 197, 198

Pierinsz, 126

Pithecopos dharma, 37

Pitta brachyura, 290, 292

Platyura talaroceroides, 381

Plesioneura alysos, 168

Plesioneura restricta, 168

Plesioneura spilothyrus, 158

xxiii)

Plumbago capensis, 72

Podargi, 232, 243

Podargide, 243

Poliozetus, 349

Polioxtus ichthyztus, 349, 351

Polyodontophis subpunctatus, 397,

406

Polyommatus beeticus, 56

Pratapa deva, 60

Precis iphita, 24

Precis laomedia, 24

Prinia inornata, 254.

| Prioneris sita, 127

Psidium guyava, 299

Psittaci, 267

Psittacides, 267

Pyctorhis sinensis, 254

Pyrameis cardui, 30

| Pyrameis indica, 30

Pyrrhulauda grisea, 287

Radena exprompta, 4, 145

Radena similis exprompta, 4

Rahinda hordonia sinuata, 24.

Rahinda sinuata, 24.

Rallina euryzonoides, 292

| Rapala lankana, 68

Rapala lazulina, 68

Rapala melampus, 68

Rapala schistacea, 67, 68

Rapala varuna, 68

Rathinda amor, 66

Rhacophorus, 400

Rhinophis oxyrhynchus, 397

Rhinophis trevelyanus, 405

Rhopocichla nigrifrons, 257

Rhopodytes viridirostris, 260, 262

Rhopolacampta benjaminii, 186, 411

| Rioxa, 391 ‘

Rioxa magnifica, 390

| Rohana camiba, 19

Rohana parisatis camiba, 19

Salacea reticulata, 69

Salatura chrysippus, 5, 6

Salatura chrysippus var. alcippus, 6

Salatura chrysippus var. dorippus, 5

Salatura genutia, 6

Salatura hegesippus, 6

Salatura plexippus, 6, 16

Salpinx klugii sinhala, 7

Salpinx kollari, 7, 8 »

Salpinx kollari sinhala, 7

Salpinx sinhala, 7, 8, 9

Sarangesa albicilia, 159

Sarangesa dasahara, 159

Sciomyzide, 393

Scopimera, 306, 309, 311

Scops, 326

Scops bakkameena, 326, 330

Scops giu, 329

Scops minutus, 329

Scops sunia, 329

Senecio tenuifolia, 73

Shivaphis celti, 70, 75

Shorea robusta, 299

| Smithia blanda, 40

Solanum torvum, 72

Spalgis epius, 37, 38

Spalgis epius nubilus, 37, 38

Spathodea diepenhorsti, 73

Spilornis cheela, 349

Spilornis spilogaster, 349

( xmv )

Spizetus ceylonensis, 345

Spizetus cirrhatus, 340, 341, 345

Spizetus kelaarti, 286, 341, 347

Staurella zeylanica, 392

Steatornithide, 231

Stictoploea coreta, §

Stictoploea coreta montana, 8

Stictoploea montana, 8, 9

Striges, 317

Strigide, 319, 320

Strix, 320

Strix flammea, 320

Suana concolor, 299

Suastus gremius, 164, 165

Suastus minuta, 165

Suastus subgrisea, 165

Surendra discalis, 57, 411

Surendra quercetorum, 57

Surendra quercetorum discalis, 57

Surniculus, 248

Surniculus lugubris, 249, 257

Symphedra nais, 2, 20

Syrnium indrani, 319, 323, 324, 328

Tabanide, 387

Taccocua leschenaulti, 261, 264

Tachornis batassiensis, 233, 235

Tagiades atticus, 161

Tagiades distans, 160, 161

Tagiades minuta, 165

Tagiades obscurus, 160

Tajuria cippus, 65

Tajuria jehana, 65, 188

Tajuria longinus, 60, 65, 188

Talicada nyseus, 43

Tapena hamsoni, 162

Tapena minuscula, 161, 162

Tapena thwaitesi, 161, 162

Taractrocera mevius, 166

Tarucus plinius, 55

Tarucus telicanus, 55

Tarucus theophrastus, 54

Telchinia viole, 35

Telicota augias, 170

Telicota bambusz, 169, 170

Telicota dara, 171

Teracolus amata, 137

Teracolus dane, 139

Teracolus eucharis, 138

Teracolus limbatus, 137

Teracolus tripuncta, 137

Terias, 2

Terias andersoni, 132, 135

Terias cingala, 130, 131, 132, 145

Terias citrina, 132, 133

Terias drona, 129

Terias hecabe, 132, 133

Terias hecabeoides, 132, 133

Terias lta, 131, 145

Terias libythea, 129, 131

Terias rama, 130, 131, 145

Terias rotundalis, 132, 133, 134, 135

Terias sari, 132, 133, 135

Terias silhetana, 132, 133, 134, 135

Terias simulata, 132, 133

Terias templetonii, 132, 133

Terias uniformis, 132, 133

Terias venata, 130, 145

Terminalia catappa, 76

Teucholabis annuloabdominalis, 386

Teucholabis fenestrata, 386

Thereiceryx caniceps, 210

Thereiceryx zeylonicus, 209, 210

Thymipa avanta singala, 14

Tinnunculus, 373

Tinnunculus alaudarius, 373, 379

Tipulide, 386

Tirumala limniace, 4, 5

Tirumala melissa musikanos, 5

Tirumala septentrionis, 5

| Tobanus stagnatilis, 293

Tockus gingalensis, 229

Todalia aculeata, 65, 68, 150

Totanus calidris, 293

Totanus glareola, 294, 296

Totanus glottis, 293

Totanus hypoleucus, 294

Toxoptera aurantii, 70, 72

Toxoptera minuta, 70, 72

Toxorhynchites immisericors, 189

Toxorhynchites minimus, 189

Trigonometopus zeylanicus, 393

Tringa minuta, 291

Tringa subarquata, 276

Trochilide, 231

Trogones, 245

Trogonide, 245

Troides darsius, 146

Tropica satra, 172

| Trypetide, 390

Typhlopide, 396

| Typhlops braminus, 396

Udaspes folus, 161, 169

| Upupa, 230

Upupa indica, 231

| Upupa nigripennis, 231

Upupe, 213, 230

Upupide, 230

| Uropeltide, 397

Vanessa canace haronica, 31

Vanessa cardui, 30

Vanessa haronica, 31

Vanessa indica, 30

Vanessa indica nubicola, 30

Varnonia cinerea, 72

Verticillium, 302

Viperide, 403

Virachola isocrates, 59

Vulturidz, 335, 337

Xantholema hzematocephala,

P12

Xantholema rubricapilla, 210, 212

210,

Ypthima avanta singala, 14

Ypthima ceylonica, 14

Ypthima huebneri ceylonica, 14

Ypthima singala, 14

Ypthima thora, 14

Zanclostomus viridirostris, 262

Zaocys mucosus, 399

Zesius chrysomallus, 59, 60

Zetides agamemnon, 155

Zetides agamemnon menides, 155

Zetides doson, 153, 154

Zetides sarpedon teredon, 154

Zetides telephus, 153, 154

Zizera gaika, 41, 42

Zizera indica, 41, 42

Zizera karsandra, 41

Zizera lysimon, 41

Zizera otis, 42

Zizera otis indica, 42

Zizera pygmea, 42

Zygodactyli, 209

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NOTES ON CEYLON BUTTERFLIES.

By W. Ormiston, F.E.S.

(With two Plates.)

ya I have now collected butterflies in Ceylon for nearly

thirty years, my notes may prove of some use to other

collectors, so I have decided to publish them.

The great majority of my collecting was done at Haldum-

mulla, in the Province of Uva. This is an exceptionally well-

situated district : a circle, with its centre at Haldummulla

post office and a radius of 5 miles, includes a portion of the

Horton Plains (7,200 feet), Ohiya (6,000 feet), Haputale (5,000

feet), Diyatalawa (4,400 feet), and low-country with an

elevation of about 600 feet only. In other words, the variation

of elevation is at least 6,500 feet. Within this circle I have

personally taken over 200 species out of the 244 mentioned

in these notes.

Naming the species is not an easy matter. The four leading

authorities on Ceylon butterflies, given in order of date of

publication, are: Ist, “‘ Lepidoptera of Ceylon,” by Moore ;

2nd, “ The Butterflies of India, Burma, and Ceylon,” by

Colonel Marshall and De Niceville; 3rd, “‘ Fauna of India :

Butterflies,” by Colonel Bingham ; 4th, “‘ A List of Indian

Butterflies,’ by Captain Evans. In some instances all four

authorities name the same insect differently, and still further

changes in the names have appeared since Captain Evans’s

list was published.

Most collectors cannot afford to purchase all the books, but

Moore’s “ Lepidoptera of Ceylon” is the standard work on

Ceylon specimens only, and is kept at all the principal

kachcheries, for the benefit of collectors. I have therefore,

as much as possible, given his names the preference, but

mention the others, giving the authority after each.

Butterflies’ names may be composed of four parts: genus,

sub-genus, species, and race, but it is hardly ever necessary to

1 6(2)18

2 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

use all four. For instance, Huplea crastia core asela is equally

well identified if labelled Huplea asela, and as these notes

are only published as an assistance to local collectors, I haye

used two names only, but have mentioned where any of the

authorities consider any insect a local race.

In my personal experience the best places for a collector to

go to, in order to make a fairly complete collection in a short

time, are: (1) Wellawaya resthouse, in the Province of Uva.

The best months are usually March, April, July, November,

and December. About 160 species may be expected to be

taken, including the rarities S. nats (abundant), N. dana,

C. lithargyria, H. nilgirica, L. lepitoides, A. siamica, and B.

sena. (2) Pattipola resthouse,.for hill species ; best during

the north-east monsoon. The special rarity is L. dynsate.

(3) Murunkan resthouse, near Mannar, for Colotis and other

northern and dry-zone species. (4) Kottawa resthouse, near

Galle, for wet-zone species. I have also done very well at

Elephant Pass (near Jaffna), Anuradhapura, Tissamaharama

(Southern Province), and Tanamalwila (Province of Uva).

I understand that the Kandy District is better than Wella-

waya, and that Ratnapura is the best centre for wet-zone

insects, but I have very little personal experience of either.

Baits—1. The best I know is small pieces of sponge

soaked in toddy, in which a little jaggery has been dissolved.

Pin these to trees, or lay them on rocks in likely places. A

jam bottle is the best way to carry them. Squirrels are very

fond of toddy, and will eat the sponges if left unwatched.

2. Treacle, or jaggery boiled in beer, with a good dash of

rum added just before use. This is best for Kallima and

Charaxes.

3. Over-ripe fruit, especially jak. This is best for

Discophora.

4. A dead specimen pinned on a twig will often attract

the males of its species within reach of the net.

Exceedingly little is known of our Ceylon butterflies. It is

nearly impossible to decide how many species thére are of

Nacaduba, Aphneeus, Terias, Parnara, and a few other genera.

Appias paulina is one of our commonest species, but I believe

its larva is still unknown.

CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 3

The southern half of the Island has been fairly well worked,

except in the wettest districts, but practically nothing is

known of the north, and new species should still be discovered

there. In the Colombo Museum collection I found a pair of

an Aphnzeus from 20 miles north-east of Mannar which is

very distinct from any species in our lists ; and there are also

two specimens of an Arhopala from Mr. Pole’s collection which

are certainly new ; unfortunately they are not labelled with

the locality where they were caught. I would especially

impress upon beginners the importance of labelling every

specimen with locality and month of capture. An unlabelled

collection is nearly valueless for scientific purposes.

I have not quoted the localities given by Moore, as these

notes are only intended as a supplement to that work.

In addition to the authorities quoted previously, I am much

indebted to the following : ““ The Common Butterflies of the

Plains of India,” by T. R. Bell, I.F.S., now being published

in the journal of the Bombay Natural History Society; and

‘“ Notes on the Butterflies of Ceylon,” by L. de Niceville and

Colonel N. Manders, R.A.M.C. ‘

Ever since I started collecting I have received the greatest

assistance from Mr. F. M. Mackwood, and I am deeply

indebted to him for his help while writing these notes, and

especially for, in a few instances, adding notes of his own.

For the benefit of beginners I give an illustration showing

the names of the various parts of a butterfly’s wings, as used

in Colonel Bingham’s work.

I shall be glad to receive any criticisms, corrections, or

notes from collectors.

Kalupahani, Haldummulla, June, 1917.

Abbreviations after Names.

M. = Moore: Lepidoptera of Ceylon.

B. = Bingham: Fauna of India: Butterflies.

De N. = De Niceville : The Butterflies of India, Burma, and Ceylon, by

Marshall and De Niceville.

E. = Evans: A List of Indian Butterflies.

4 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

NYMPHALIDZ.

Danaine.

1. Hustia sasonia, DeN., B., & E.; Nectaria jasonia, M.—

Peculiar to Ceylon. Common in forests where there is a

fairly heavy rainfall. Occasionally specimens may be seen

making long flights over the open country. In my experience

these are always females, and are probably hunting for new

breeding grounds.

The males are usually smaller and darker than the females,

but there is great variation in specimens caught in different

localities, those from the wet low-country being far smaller

and darker than those from the hills. By far the smallest

and darkest series I have ever seen were shown to me by Mr.

Mackwood ; they were caught at Badura Eliya in the Kalutara

District in July.

Found at all elevations from sea level to well over 5,000

feet nearly all the year round, and is usually very easy to catch.

*“ T once caught twelve at one sweep of my net at a small

pool in Pundalu-oya, and scores were hovering about ” (F. M.

Mackwood).

2. RapEnA bxprompTA, M.; Danais exprompta, De N. ;

Danais vulgaris exprompta, B.; Radena similis exprompta,

E.—Peculiar to Ceylon, and confined to the south-west of the

Island. It is very like P. aglea, but can be easily distinguished

by its bluer colour, and by having the cell of the fore-wing

crossed by a broad black band.

It has a very slow flight and settles often, so is one of the

easiest insects to catch.

The male has no sex mark, but has slightly narrower and

less rounded wings than the female.

I found it very abundant in the Kottawa forest in February,

and at Tebuwana in April. It is not rare at Galle,

Bentota, and Labugama, and has been taken as far inland as

Ratnapura.

3. Trrumata trmntiace, E.; Tirumala limniace, M.;

Danais limniace, De N. & B—Also found in India, Burma,

and Southern China. A very common low-country fly, hut

occurs at all elevations during the flights.

CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. oD

Has a strong flight while migrating, but at other times it

flies slowly, and settles frequently on wet roads or at flowers.

It is then very easy to catch.

Common all over the Island, and may be taken all the year

round, but is most abundant during the north-east monsoon.

“Has been taken at Lindula at 5,000 feet” (F. M.

Mackwood).

4. TIRUMALA SEPTENTRIONIS, M.; Danais septentrionis,

B.; Tirumala melissa musikanos, K.—Found also in India,

Burma, Malaya, &c.

Occurs in the same places, and at the same times as the

last, but is far more numerous. It usually shares with ZL.

asela the honour of starting the north-east monsoon flights.

Its flight while migrating is much slower than that of 7.

limniace, and when not migrating it is not addicted to settling

on wet roads ; otherwise its habits are similar.

Occasionally, during the flights, hundreds of their wings

may be found in places along the roads. I believe this to be

mainly the work of the White-bellied Drongo (Dicrurus leuco-

pygialis), as I have seen this bird catching them, eating the

body, and dropping the wings. I have also seen the blood-

sucker lizard (Calotes sp.) eating them.

Found everywhere from Galle to Jaffna at all times, but

commonest during the north-east monsoon.

“Taken at Lindula, 5,000 feet, in March and April”

(F. M. Mackwood).

5. SaLATuRA CHRysIppuS, M. & E.; Danais chrysippus,

B—Found also in South-Eastern Europe, Africa, and

Southern Asia.

The most sedentary of all the Ceylon Danaids ; it may be

found day after day in the same place; if disturbed it flies off,

but soon returns. It does not apparently join in the flights.

Specimens from Haldummulla are usually much smaller

than those from the low-country, although the food plant is

very abundant here.

Found everywhere, all the year round.

Var. dorippus.—tIn this the white sub-apical band is wanting.

It is very rare, the only specimens I have seen being four in

the Colombo Museum collection.

6 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Var. alcuppus—In this the lower wings are suffused with

white. The Museum has two specimens, but I have seen no

others.

I have a 2 chrysippus, which shows a tendency to approach

this form, veins 2, 3, 4, and 5 on the upper side of the hind

wing being narrowly edged with white.

6. SALATURA PLEXIPPUS, E. ; Salatura genutia, M. ; Danais

genutia, De N.; Danais plexippus, B—Found in India,

Burma, Malaya, Southern China, &c.

A much more active insect than the last. Joins to a certain

extent in the flights.

Common everywhere nearly all the year round.

Bell, in his description, says : ‘“ Some specimens from dry

regions show a tendency to replace the tawny part of the

hind wing by white, thus approaching the next species ”

(S. hegesippus).

I have noticed this variation, to a slight extent, occasionally

in Ceylon, but it is not here confined to the dry zone, as I have

found it most frequently at Galle and Haldummulla. In

Ceylon, however, the dry regions have been, so far, very little

worked, and little is known of the variations to be found there.

7. PARANTICA AGLEA, E.; Parantica ceylonica, M.; Danais

ceylanica, De N.; Danais aglea, B—Found also in Southern

India, and is very near to P. melanoides, which occurs in

Northern and Eastern India.

Has a very slow flight, and settles often on flowers. Does

not seem to join in the flights, though it is commonest when

they are on.

Very common all the year‘round. I have not, however,

yet seen it in the Northern Province; otherwise it seems to

abound everywhere at all elevations.

Varies in size and the amount of the bluish-white markings.

8. Currrma FuMATA, M. & E.; Danais taprobana, De N. ;

Danais fumata, B.—Peculiar to Ceylon, and confined to high

elevations, where it is extremely abundant all the year round.

It does not join in the flights. Flies very slowly, and settles

frequently on, flowers, so is very easy to catch.

It is especially numerous at Nuwara Eliya, Pattipola, and

Ohiya, but is not rare, in wet weather, at Haldummulla. I

‘= a CESSLON BUTTERFLIES. 7

have never personally seen a specimen below 3,000 feet

elevation, but have heard of its occurrence below 2,500

feet.

“ The larva of Danais fumata feeds on Alleophania decipiens

Thw., a shrub growing in chenas at the higher elevations.

Observer: Mr. F. G. Saunder, Nuwara_ Eliya.’”—“ Spolia

Zeylanica,” Vol. X., Part XXXVI.

9. EKuPL@a ASELA, M.; Crastia asela, De N.; Crastia

core asela, B. & E.—“ More or less confined to Ceylon, though

incidentally recorded from Western India” (Bingham). Only

an insular race of #. core of India. Bingham says it differs

from £. core in having the terminal and sub-terminal spots on

the fore wing smaller. These spots are very variable ; in my

series they vary from three very indistinct spots to twenty-

one in number ; in the latter specimen those at the apex are

very large and diffuse. They are, however, always very dull

white or buff, and never as bright as in the specimens of Z. core

that IThaveseen. It is common all the year round everywhere,

but is particularly abundant in the flights.

Settles readily at certain flowers, particularly Gynura

ceylanica and a species of wild heliotrope ; and I have fre-

quently seen it in clusters, apparently feeding, at an exposed

root or dead stick.

10. ._Eupia@a corvs, De N., B., & E.; Macroplea elisa,

M.—Peculiar to Ceylon, and confined to the south-west of

the island, and apparently does not occur far inland.

It is said to have been formerly common at Colombo and

Galle, but seems to be getting much searcer. I have hunted

for it at all seasons of the year at Galle, but, except on one

occasion, have only seen singlespecimens. The furthest inland

I have seen it is at Kottawa, ten miles from Galle.

Its flight is slow, and it settles often, so it is very easy to

catch.

11. Saupryx sina, De N.; Isamia sinhala, M.; Salpinx

kollari sinhala, B.; Salpinx klugit sinhala, E.—-Peculiar

to Ceylon, but is only an insular race of S. kollari of India,

from which it differs in the same way that asela differs from

core, and it varies almost as much as asela in the number and

size of the spots.

8 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

A common insect in the drier low-country. It often joins

in the flights, and in December, 1902, it was for a few days by

tar the commonest Euplcea in the flight.

It is very common at Wellawaya, in the low-country of Uva,

and at Anuradhapura, Ihave also taken it at Galle and Jaffna.

It is not found at high elevations, except during the flights,

12. SricLopLa@a MONTANA, De N.; Narmada montana, M.;

Sticto plea coreta montana, B. & E.—Peculiar to Ceylon, but is

only a race of the Indian S. coreta, from which it differs in the

same way as asela from core and sinhala from kollart.

| It is almost as abundant as asela in the flights, but does not

usually appear till they have been on for some days.

Like sinhala, it does not seem to remain at high elevations

after the flights end, but it is then common in many parts of

the low-country, particularly in the dry zone.

The females of the three species asela, sinhala, and montana

are difficult to distinguish. 'The usual rule is

A.—Under side fore wing : no spot in cell = sinhala.

B.—Under side fore wing : white spot in cell :

A 1,—No spots outside cell above veins 5 and 6 = asela.

Lb 1.—Complete series of spots between nerves immediately

outside cell = montana.

T have specimens of both asela and montana without the spot

in the cell.. This variety is quite common. Ihave also—

Montana : Only 4 spots outside cell ; no spot above vein 5,

Asela ; 6 spots outside cell ; spot above vein 6.

In my series of montana, thé spots outside celi vary from 4

to 7. In asela from 3 to 6.

Mr, A. C. Hayley has called my attention to another means

of distinguishing them, which, to judge from the specimens

in my collection, seems reliable.

In interspace | on the under side of the fore wing—

2 asela has one long milky white streak (about 10 mm.

long).

2 montana has two similar streaks.

2 sinhala has a very minute white streak, or narrow spot,

seldom over 2 mm. in length.

CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. +9)

The males can be easily distinguished by the sex mark,

which is a black shiny mark in interspace 1 of the upper side

of the fore wing, as follows :—

One short. narrow streak = asela.

Two long rather broad streaks = montana.

One short oval spot = sinhala.

Satyrine.

_ 13. Orsotri@Nna MANDATA, M.& De N.; Orsotricena meda

mandata, B. & K.—Found also in Southern India.

“ Tt differs from O. meda in the white discal band on the

under side being very much broader, and proportionately more

attenuate apically’ (Bingham).

It is very common here nearly all the year round in grass by

the road sides or near jungle, but it doesnot usually frequent

the open patanas away fromjungle. It is common in growing

paddy.

It usually varies very little in the wet or dry seasons, or at

high or low elevations. I have, however, one specimen caucht

at Kumbukkan (500 feet) after a severe drought.

In this the white band is only half the usual width, the ocelli .

are much smaller, and the white marginal and sub-marginal

bands on the hind wing are further apart. Others caught at

the same time were quite normal.

It is common all over the southern part of the Island from

sea level to over 4,000 feet, but I have not yet seen it in the

Northern or North-Central Provinces,

It sometimes comes to sugar.

“ Taken at Lindula, 5,000 feet, in October” (Ff. M. Mack-

wood),

14. CALYSISME PERSEUS.—Moore also gives C. blasius,

which is the wet season form —Found in India, Burma,

Malaya, Southern China, &c. Very common at Haldummulla

on grass by the road sides, or on patanas, especially above

3,000 feet.

T have found it equally plentiful at Elpitiya, in the Southern

Province, on patana very little above sea level, and have taken

it at Galle and Kumbukkan (Uva, 500 feet). I have never seen

it in the Northern Province.

9 6(2)18

10 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

The wet and dry season forms fly together here, but all my

Elpitiya specimens are wet season.

Varies very greatly in the ocelli, both on upper and under

sides, and seems to grade into the next species (C’. polydecta).

Comes to sugar occasionally,

15. CALYSISME POLYDECTA, De N.; Calysisme mineus, M. ;

Calysisme mineus polydecta, B. & E.—Also found in Southern

and Central India. Bingham says: ‘There are no constant

characters by which this race may be distinguished from M.

mineus.”’ Common in grass by the road sides, but especially

an insect of the patanas. Those taken on patanas in Uva,

from 500 to 2,000 feet elevation, are usually larger and more

conspicuously marked than those from higher elevations.

’ I have no specimens from outside the Province of Uva, and

have no notes of its occurrence, but believe it occurs everywhere

in the hills.

It is very easy to breed, as the females lay eggs freely in

captivity. zs

“ Ratnapura and Kandy.”’ (Ff. M. Mackwood).

16. CALYSISME suBDITA, B.; Calysisme perseoides subdita,:

E.—Also found in Southern’ India. Not mentioned by

Moore, as it only differs from polydecta in the sex mark ‘of

the male being much larger, and this was not regarded as a.

distinguishing mark when the “ Lepidoptera of Ceylon *”* was

published.

Common on the road sides at Haldummulla, especially in

May, June, and July, but-I havenot yet taken it above 3,000

feet.

- It is the only Calysisme Inhave taken in the Northern

Province. It is common at Anuradhapura, and occurs

sparingly in the Jaffna Peninsula. Rare at Galle.

It seems to come to sugar more readily than perseus or

polydecta, and.is very easy to breed.

“ Kandy and Ratnapura’”’ (F. M. Mackwood).

The last three species are exceedingly difficult to distinguish.

‘The males of perseus and polydecta have a small dark brown

sex mark near the dorsal margin of the under side of the fore

CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. ll

wing ; subdita has a much larger ochreous one. Bingham

discriminates the two former by hind wing under side :—

Posterior three ocelli only in a straight line = perseus.

Posterior four ocelli straight — polydecta.

From my specimens this does not seem entirely reliable,

as I have very typical polydecta in which the last four ocelli

are not straight, though not so much out of line as in typical

perseus.

Personally I know no rule by which I can separate the two

with certainty, as they grade almost perfectly into one another.

C. subdita has a far larger and lighter sex mark than either,

but the female is, so far as I can see, quite indistinguishable

from polydecta 9.

The breeding experiments I have carried out so far are

quite inconclusive. Being bred where the female was caught,

they have, as was to be expected, bred fairly true. The very

small number of collectors in the Island prohibits experiments

being carried out on a large enough scale to settle the question.

17. CALYSISME RAMA, E.; Calysisme drusia, M.—Peculiar

to Ceylon, and only found in the wet zone. Moore describes

C. drusia from a single specimen taken in the Kottawa forest.

C. rama has been taken there, and Moore’s description agrees

fairly well with it.

I procured specimens of the dry season form from Ratna-

pura in March, 1917. It differs in having the ocelli and other

markings on the under side more or less obsolescent and the

ground colour paler. The upper side is almost identical with

that of the wet season form in both sexes.

Till recently it was only known from specimens taken at

Udagama (near Kottawa) by the late Mr. John Pole. It has

now been discovered to be quite common in bamboo jungle

at Ratnapura.

I have never taken it personally, but have specimens given

to me by Mr. Mackwood from Ratnapura, and some caught

by a native collector at Kottawa.

It can be distinguished at once by the colour of the under

side, which is ochreous brown, viz., far more yellow than in

any other Ceylon Calysisme. ,

** Also Kelani Valley” (F. M. Mackwood).

12 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

18. Nissanea patniA, Me& E.; Mycalesis patnia, B.—

Peculiar to Ceylon. Very common at Haldummulla all the

year round. Frequents jungle or shady road sides. Swarms

on, the fallen fruit of Ficus and other trees, and comes readily

to toddy or sugar, but is easily alarmed.

The dry and wet season forms at Haldummulla vary very

little, those caught during the drought, June—September,

being only a little brighter in colour than those taken during

the November—December rains. Very dark forms may be

taken in some wet districts, and I procured a fine series at

Kandy in June, after a very wet May, and at Deniyaya

(Southern Province) in April.

I have never seen it in the Northern Province, but it is very

common in the south, at Galle and other places.

19. Lerue pynsaTE, B. & De N.; Debis dynsate, E. ;

Hanipha dynsate and sthala, M.—Peculiar to Ceylon, and a great

rarity. Moore separates the variety from the hills as H. sthala.

He says the @ differs from 9 dynsate as follows: Narrower

discal band on fore wing, more defined apical white and black

spots on fore wing, under side fore wing has five sub-marginal

spots instead of four, hind wing has all the spots smaller.

I find in my specimens that all the apical white and black

spots on the fore wing, upper side, are better developed in my

low-country specimen, which also has the fifth sub-marginal

spot on the under side, though it is partly obliterated by the

extra width of the white discal band.

The male of the hill form is not described by Moore.

Mine have the terminal margin of the fore wing less concave

than my Ratnapura specimens; and the ocelli on the under side

of the hind wing are exceedingly minute.

I have no personal experience of the habits of the low-

country form, as I owe my specimens to Mr. Mackwood’s

generosity, but I have seen a fair number of the males of the

hill form in the jungles from Haputale to Ohiya and the

Horton Plains. On a fine morning they fly rapidly round

the tree tops, usually settling high up. Occasionally they

descend within reach, and a very quick stroke will catch

them. Unfortunately their wings are very fragile, and the

stroke must be quick, so I have damaged all I have caught.

CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 13

I have tried sugaring for them, without result so far, but

am confident that they will come, if I can find the right bait.

20. Lerne prypetis, M., De N., & B.; Lethe drypetis

todara, E—De Niceville thought drypetis and todara were

identical, todara being a name given to South Indian speci-

mens, and drypetis to Ceylon ones. Evans gives the name

‘todara to Ceylon specimens, which he thinks a distinct race.

It varies very little in Ceylon, specimens from Ratnapura,

taken during the rains, being almost identical with those from

Haputale, taken during the drought.

Apparently found in all bamboo jungle where there is a

good rainfall, and occurs at all elevations irom sea level to

the Horton Plains. Very common at Haputale, there being

apparently many broods in the course of the year.

It comes readily to toddy, treacle, &c.

Localities : Haldummulla, Haputale, Ohiya, Kandy, Kegalla,

Ratnapura, and Galle.

** Pundalu-oya ” (F. M. Mackwood).

21. LrraHr NEELGHERIENSIS, M. & De N.; Lethe rohria

nilgiriensis, B.; Lethe dyrta nilgiriensis, E—Also found in

Southern India.

De Niceville considers it “ notably distinct ’ from L. dyrta

(= rohria).

The male differs from ¢ rohria in having a fourth white spot

on the upper side of the fore wing, ininterspace2. I have two

specimens, taken at Kandy and Haldummulla respectively,

in which this spot is practically obsolete.

The female differs in having the white pre-apical band on

the fore wing broken up into three white spots. Ihave noticed

no tendency in these spots to unite and form a band.

The larva feeds on grasses; the butterfly is very common

at Haldummulla in grass fields and chenas, and is very easy

to catch, as it only flies a very short distance at a time. It

comes occasionally to sugar.

Taken from 1,000 to 5,000 feet elevation in Uva, but I have

no notes of its capture out of the Province, except the one

specimen from Kandy. — I believe it to be common everywhere

in the hills. Flies all the year round.

14 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

“ Puttalam, Kandy, Ratnapura, common at Lindula ”

(F. M. Mackwood).

22. LETHE DARETIS.—Peculiar to Ceylon, and confined to

high elevations. Personally, I have never taken it below

4,500 feet.

It is nearly always to be found settled on the banks where

the earth has been cut away to make a road, and never very

far from a bamboo clump.

If disturbed, it flies away rapidly, but soon settles again.

Its wings are very fragile, and it is easily damaged by the net.

It comes readily to toddy, &c.

February and August are, in my experience, the best months

for fresh-hatched specimens, but a few may be taken all the

year round.

Localities : Nuwara Eliya, Horton Plains, Ohiya, &c.

23. Ypruima sincaLa, M. & De N.; Ypthima avania

singala, B.; Thymipa avanta singala, E—Also found in India.

Moore also gives Y. thora, but it is certainly only a variety.

It differs only in having a minute sub-apical bi-pupilled ocellus

on the upper side of the fore wing of the male.

The number of ocelli on the under side of the hind wing

varies in my specimens from 4 to 7, and is not always the

same on both wings. They also vary as much in size as in

number; but this does not seem to depend on season or

climate, except that I have only taken a variety with the ocelli

reduced to mere specks at the highest elevations.

Specimens from Elpitiya, near Galle, taken during the rains,

agree very well with those taken at Haldummulla during the

drought, except that var. thora was proportionately more

abundant at the lower elevation.

Common all over the Uva patanas from 500 to over 5,000

feet; Galaha, near Kandy; and Elpitiya, near Galle. Flies

all the year round at Haldummulla.

‘“ Also Galboda and Pundalu-oya ” (F. M. Mackwood).

24. YprHimaA cEYLonIca, M., De N., & E.; Ypthima

huebneri ceylonica, B—Also found in Southern India.

Common everywhere all the year round, especially along

road sides. The variation in the size of the ocelli in this

species seems largely to depend on temperature. I have taken

CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 15

specimens with exceptionally Jarge ocelli at Kottawa (wet

zone) and Jafina (dry zone). They vary slightly, according

to the season, at Haldummulla.

I have noticed swallows eating them. I have a variety of

the female in which the ground colour is very pale ochreous

brown.

25. Mu.anitis ismenn, M. & B.; Melanitis leda ismene,

E.—Also found in Africa, Asia, and Australia.

Moore divides ismene and Jeda as two species. Bingham

says tsmene is the dry and leda the wet season form ; leda

I have found commonest in growing paddy ; elsewhere ismene

is far more plentiful, at any rate in Uva.

As regards the under side, this is the most variable butterfly

in Ceylon, and the variations, in the ismene form, do not seem

to be dependent on climate or elevation.

Flies very little in the day time, but starts at dusk, when it

has-a very jerky and fairly rapid flight, and is not easy to

catch. .The bad light, of course, is against success. Comes

very readily to sugar after dark: till, at any rate, 9 p.m. It

also. comes in the day time:in shady places, but is very shy

then. |

Very common, and: flies: all the year round. I have taken

a few specimens in the Jafina peninsula (all ismene form):

26. MELANITIS TAMBRA, M.; Melanitis bela tambra, B.;

Melanitis phedima tambra, .—Peculiar to Ceylon.

Much more a jungle butterfly than the last, especially the

black, or wet season, form. The red, or dry season, form

seems particularly fond of the shade of jak trees, and its under

side, when settled, matches thesdead leaves well. The black

form is much the rarer here, and always settles on the ground

in the thickest undergrowth, so is difficult to capture, except

at sugar.

In habits otherwise they are similar to ismene, flying little

by day, but coming out at dusk. They come to sugar in the

same manner, but are, perhaps, even more shy in the day time.

I have not yet succeeded in getting the female to lay eggs in

captivity. I have. specimens from Haldummulla, Kandy,

Ratnapura, and Kottawa.

“ Caught also at Hambantota ” (F. M. Mackwood).

16 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

27. ELYMNIAS FRATERNA, M.; Hlymnias undularis fraterna

B., Elymnias hypermnestra fraterna, E.—Peculiar to Ceylon

but De Niceville thinks it only a local variety of £. wndularis.

He says the female is identical, and the male only differs

in the narrower ferruginous border of the hind wing, and

in having scarcely any traces of the blue marks on the

fore wing.

Bingham says the ¢ differs in having the terminal margin

of hind wing ochraceous, not chestnut. 9 has the oblique

preapical white band on fore wing narrow, its margins even.

The males in Ceylon are extremely variable. In those in my

collection the width of the ferruginous band, taken at the

widest spot, viz., vein 4, varies from 6 to 10mm. In one the

fore wing is entirely blackish-brown, with no trace of blue.

Tn a second the colour is the same, with three very conspicuous

elongated sub-apical blue spots. In a third there is a terminal

marginal border of ferruginous, narrowing from the apex to

the tornus, and two faint sub-apical blue streaks. In a

fourth there is a complete row of sub-terminal blue spots,

much elongated at the apex, thus approaching very near to

undularis, but the terminal border on the hind wing is

exceptionally pale and wide, and has white sub-terminal

spots in interspaces 2, 3, and 4.

The female varies much in the width of the sub-apical white

band.

The flight is slow, and it always settles low down, though

very seldom actually on the ground. The female is a mimic

of S. plexippus. In most cases of mimicry in Ceylon an

experienced collector can usually distinguish the mimic by its

different flight. H. fraterna, however, is far better as a mimic

on the wing than in the cabinet, and very frequently deceives

me. Possibly this may be due to the fact that it usually flies

low, and is seen from above, as a bird would probably see it.

If seen from below the under side would, of course, destroy the

illusion.

Rare at Haldummulla, but very common in the coconut

districts, especially where the palms are low, in new clearings,

&c. The larve and pup may often be found on pot palms

in low-country verandahs.

CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 17

Found from sea level up to at least 3,000 feet. Ihave found

it commonest. at Kurunegala, Polgahawela, and the southern

sea coast from Ambalangoda to Weligama,

28. ELYMNIAS sINGHALA, M. & B.; Dyctis singhala, De N.;

Melynias singhala, K.—Peculiar to Ceylon.

Peradeniya is the headquarters of this insect, but it occurs

sparingly in widely scattered localities. I have caught four

specimens only at Haldummulla, two in 1889, when .I was

starting my Ceylon collection, and therefore catching every-

thing, and one each in November of 1914 and 1915.

It is very like an Huplea on the wing, and so I believe often

escapes notice. It is very easy to catch when identified.

It is rare in the Kottawa forest..

“ Numerous in Ratnapura District’ (F. M. Mackwood).

Morphine.

29. DiscopHora LEPIDA.—Also found in Southern India.

The male varies much in the number and size of the ocelli

on the under side of the hind wing. I have one specimen with

five perfectly formed and fairly large ocelli.

A great rarity till its habits became known; the male is |

now easily obtainable, but the female is a prize.

The male flies all the year round, but does not appear till

dusk. It has its particular haunts, and a few may be found

there any evening, flying backwards and forwards, with a very

jerky and rather fast flight. Thanks to the bad light, they

are then difficult to catch. I have searched frequently in a

small jungle where I knew there were plenty, but have never

succeeded in putting up a male in the day time. The only

two females I have seen on the wing were both flying in the

middle of the day. The 3 comes readily to sugar as soon as

it is dark; the 2 is said to come in the day time (especially

to over-ripe jak fruit), but is very shy. Possibly, like M.

ismene, both would come better at night, and be easier to catch.

Personally I have not yet tried sugaring for them after 7 P.M.

Bell says the females come to meet the males in their evening

flight, and thinks they are attracted by the strong scent the

males are notorious for. He describes the scent as that of a

mixture of apples and lemons. (““ Common Butterflies of the

3 6(2)18

18 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Plains of India.”’) If this is so, the females might be caught

by enclosing a few males in a muslin cage, and watching near,

preferably after dark.

A well-known haunt of the males is behind Kottawa rest-

house, where the stream leaves the jungle.

Common at Galle, Ratnapura, Balangoda, Avissawella,

and prebably in all bamboo jungle in the south-west of the

Island.

Nymphaline.

30. HariprA PSAPHON, M. & E.; Charaxes psaphon, B.—-

Moore describes the 2 as Haridra serendiba. Peculiar to

Ceylon, but allied to H. imna of Southern India.

Not at all a rare fly in the low-country, but it is difficult to

capture, especially the female.

The male is very fond of settling on wet roads, and can also

be taken feeding on sap exuding from the trees, or on sugar.

It is rather shy when settled on the roads, but I caught half a

dozen at one patch of sap, and it was difficult to make them fly.

The female is far more often seen at Haldummulla than the

male. It is then nearly always flying straight and very fast ;

it never seems to settle, and is almost impossible to catch. It

is evidently migrating in search of fresh breeding grounds.

I have seen it once at sugar ; the moment the net approached

it shammed dead and fell into the undergrowth and escaped.

It is commonest in Uva during the south-west monsoon,

but may be taken in March and April. It does not seem to fly

above an elevation of about 3,000 feet.

“ Caught at Kandy, Dambool, and Trincomalee” (F. M.

Mackwood).

31. CHARAXES FABIUS, M., De N., & B.; Haridra fabius,

#.—Also found in India and Burma.

In habits it is very much like the 3 psaphon.

It is very frequently seen on the wet roads in the low-country

of Uva, and comes readily to sugar. It is rather rare at

Haldummulla, and I have never seen it above 3,000 feet.

May be found allthe year round. I have taken it at Jafina,

Anuradhapura, and Trincomalee, and it is probably to be

found wherever the tamarind tree flourishes.

CEYLON BUTTERELIES. 19

32. EULEPIS ATHAMAS, B. & De N.; Hulepis samatha, M. ;

Eulepis athamas agrarius, E.

E. athamas is found all over India and Burma. Messrs.

Rothschild and Jordan, however, separate agrarius as a race

occurring in Southern India and Ceylon. It varies a great

deal in the width of the yellow band and the size of the two

pre-apical spots.

Very common at Haldummulla, especially during the south-

‘vest monsoon, and I have taken it at Haputale (5,000 feet).

It may be found day after day in the same place. It settles

high up on a leaf, and flies round very fast, returning to the

same place, and is very difficult to catch. It comes oceasion-

ally to sugar, especially if mixed with well-fermented toddy,

but it much prefers carrion.

I have noted it at Haldummulla all the year round, except

in the strong wind in January and February, and have also

taken it at Kandy, Rambukkana, and Trincomalee.

“In my experience the 2 is exceedingly rare, as regards

captures” (*. M. Mackwood).

33. ROHANA CAMIBA, M.; Apatura camiba, De N.; Rohanu

parisatis camiba, K.; Apatura parisatis camiba, B.—The race.

camiba is also found in Southern India. Parisatis is found

in Northern India, Burma, Indo-China, and Southern China.

It differs from parisatis in the number of the very minute

pre-apical white spots in both sexes. In the 3, camiba has

three spots, parisatis only one. In the female, camiba has

four or five spots, parisatis usually three.

Two of the four specimens of ¢ camiba in my collection have

four white spots, but the fourth is minute, and may esvape

notice ; another has four on one wing and three on the other.

The females are extremely variable in colour and clearness

of markings.

The male is common and easy to capture, but it nearly

always manages to rub its wings badly in the net. The female

is much scarcer, and is usually found in jungle ; it also seems

very hard to capture in good condition.

Found up to 6,000 feet elevation, or higher.

Localities: Haldummulla, Haputale, Ohiya, Kandy, ape

Trincomalee, &c,

20 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

34. PARTHENOS CYANEUS, M.; Parthenos virens cyaneus,

B.; Parthenos gambrisius cyaneus, E.—Peculiar to Ceylon.

It varies very little, and seems to be a well-established. race

or sub-species.

Above 2,500 feet it seems rarely to settle, but is always seen

flying fast and straight across country. In the low-country

its behaviour is quite different ; it is usually found in jungle,

and settles high up in the trees, going off occasionally for a

rapid fly round, but nearly always returning to the same

spot. From this I fancy that the up-country specimens are

probably all females searching for new breeding grounds.

Unfortunately they are very hard to eatch, so I cannot

be certain.

Occurs at Haldummulla all the year round. In December

and January the high wind sometimes forces them to settle in

the tea, and they are then easy to catch.

I have taken them on the Horton Plains (7,200 feet), and at

Haputale (5,000 feet), Wellawaya (600 feet), Ratnapura,

Kottawa, and Kegalla, and believe they are common where-

ever there is a fair rainfall.

Plentiful at Henaratgoda Gardens at times and at Kandy ”

(F. M. Maekwood).

35. SyMPHa&DRA NAIS, M. & De N.; Huthalia nas, B. &

E.—Also found in Southern India and the Himalayas.

Very variable in the amount of black on the upper side and

white below.

Very unlike the other Zuthalias in Ceylon, both in appear-

ance and habits, except that both sexes come readily to

toddy. The latter are far more like those of a Junonia. It

almost invariably settles on the ground, and if disturbed, flies

very quickly for a short distance, returning to the original

spot, usually in a few minutes. Very rarely individuals seem

to be afflicted with the migrating mania, and may be met a

few miles from their haunts, flying very fast and straight.

These sometimes settle, but if disturbed go on straight away.

I have noticed them in March and August on this estate,

going straight in the direction of Adam’s Peak. If these are

efforts to find new breeding grounds, they do not appear to

be very successful.

CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 21

They are, so far as I am aware, only common in one very

limited area in Ceylon, viz., a stretch of quartzy patana,

reaching from Ranungahawa, four miles below Haldumimulla,

to Kumbukkan (25 to 30 miles).

This patana crosses the Wellawaya-Haldummulla road near

the 127th milepost ; the butterfly can nearly always be taken

there. I have found it abundant there in March, May, and

August, and at other parts of the patana in July and November.

36. DopHua EVELINA, M., B., & E.; Huthalia evelina, De

N.—Peculiar to Ceylon, but very near PD. laudabilis of

Southern India.

Occasionally very common in parts of the low-country of

Uva, but very rarely comes above 2,000 feet. It is fond of

settling in wet sand on the river beds, or where sap is exuding

from a tree, and both sexes come very readily to toddy.

The largest numbers I have ever seen were at Hambegama

tank in June. It is not rare at Wellawaya, and I have taken

it once at Haldummulla, 2,500 feet. Very plentiful at the hot

springs near Trincomalee in November.

“ Anuradhapura, Labugama, Ratnapura”’ (F.M.Mackwood).

37. EUTHALIA LUBENTINA.—Also found in India, Burma,

Malaya, China, &c.

The Ceylon race is now said to be distinct, and has been

named psittacus.

The larva feeds on Loranthus, and the insect is nearly as

widely distributed as the food plant, but it seems to be common

nowhere. I have taken it on fallen nutmegs near Galle, in

sandy river beds in the low-country of Uva, on a Duranta

hedge in my garden (3,000 feet),,and in jungle above Haputale

(over 5,000 feet). I have specimens from Kandy and Ratna-

pura, and know of its capture at Badulla.

The sexes seem to occur in about equal numbers, and both

come to sugar, or settle on wet sand. In this latter character-

istic the Huthalias differ from the majority of Ceylon butter-

flies, as, in other genera, those settling on wet roads er in

sandy river beds are almost invariably males. Appias,

Catopsilia, and Libythea are the only others I can remember

that agree with the Euthalias in this respect.

“* Comes to fallen fruit under lime trees ” (F. M. Mackwood),

22 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

38. Kurnanra carupa, M., B., & De N.; Huthalia garuda

diversa, &.—Found in India, Burma, Malaya, &c.

Bingham says the 3 vasanta differs from the 3 garuda in

having no white spots on the fore wing. If this is correct,

garuda has a certain claim to a place in a Ceylon list. My

experience is that at least 20 per cent. of the males I have

seen have shown signs of these white spots, many having a

complete series of four discal and two sub-apical spots. Mr.

Mackwood, who has been collecting for fifty years in the

Island, has never seen a Ceylon specimen of a 2 garuda, so I

think there can be no doubt that it does not exist, but that

the $ vasanta is variable, and approaches very near to garuda

in markings. Four males in the Museum collection show the

white spots well ; they are labelled garuda.

39. EuTHALIA VASANTA, M., De N., & E.; Huthalia garuda

vasanta, B.—Peculiar to Ceylon.

The larva feeds on mango and cashew-nut trees, and the

butterfly is to be found wherever these grow, though I have

not yet seen it in Jaffna.

Both sexes are equally common and have the same habits.

They are fond of settling on wet roads, and come readily to

decaying fruit or sugar. They are rather shy and have

a very strong flight, so are not easy to catch in perfect

condition.

The male varies as already stated (see remarks on garuda) ;

the female varies in the width of the white discal band, but it

is always straight from the costa to interspace 2, not at all

resembling that of the 2 garuda.

Localities : Colombo, Kandy, Galle, Kegalia, Trincomalee,

Haldummulla, &c.

40. Mopuza caLipasa, M.; Moduza calidosa, De N.;

Moduza procris calidasa, B. & K.—Peculiar to Ceylon.

De Niceville thought it “ quite distinct ’ from procris. It

differs from it in its quite different ground colour, different

shape of the white discal band, and entire absence of the

white spot at the end of the cell. Moreover, in no specimen

that I have seen is there any tendency to grade.

May be found at Haldummulla all the year round, but is

commonest during the south-west monsoon.

CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 23

It settles frequently on flowers, but is extremely shy and

difficult to catch. In the dry low-country it settles on the

wet roads ; I have never known it come to sugar.

Localities : from, sea levei to over 5,000 feet. Common at

Haputale and Namunukula (high), Haldummulla and Badulla

(medium), and Wellawaya (low), in the Province of Uva.

Common at Kottawa.

“ Extremely plentiful at times in the Kandy District at

lantana”’ (F, M. Mackwood).

41. Neptis JumBAH, B. & De N.; Neptis jumba, M.;

Andrapana jumbah, E.—Also tound in India and Burma.

Ceylon specimens have recently been named nalanda, as a

separate race. It varies extremely in the amount of white

on the upper side and the black shadings below.

Common at Haldummulla all the year round, except during

the heavy winds in January and February. It joins in the

flights in large numbers, and when these are on it can be

easily captured by walking it up in the tea in the early

morning, as it then only flies a short distance. Later, when

the sun gets hot, it flies straight and seldom settles. When

not flighting it settles freely on Lantana and other flowers.

Localities : from sea level to the Horton Plains, and from —

Galle to Vavuniya. I have, so far, no notes of its occurrence

north of the latter place.

42. NeEptis varmona, M. & De N.; Neptis eurynome, B. ;

Neptis hylas varmona, K.—~Also in India. Tt differs mainly

from eurynome in being smaller.

Extremely abundant everywhere, though more so in the

south than in the north. Freshly-hatched specimens can be

taken in every month of the year at Haldummulla. It does

not join the flights. .

Considering its abundance at all seasons and elevations, it

varies extremely little, but aberrations, such as N. disrupta,

Moore, are occasionally met with. Disrupta and kamarupa

are now given as the names of the extreme wet and dry season

forms respectively of the Ceylon race. Personally I have

failed to observe any tendency to seasonal variation here, and

consider disrwpta to be only an aberration. I do not know

kamarupa.

24 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

In Neptis the males can be-distinguished from the females

by the enlargement of the costa of the hind wings, the distance

between vein 8 and the costa being twice as broad in the male

as in the female.

43. RAHINDA sInuATA, M. & De N.; Rahinda hordonia

sinuata, B. & E—Peculiar to Ceylon. It differs constantly

from hordonia “in the margins of the discal markings

(especially the outer margins) on the upper side of the fore

wing and the margins of the sub-basal and post-discal bands

of the hind wing being more sinuous” (Bingham). It varies

considerably in the amount of yellow on the upper side.

Very common at Haldummulla in jungles or chenas where

there are plenty of thorny Acacias. It is trond of settling

rather high up on these, but if disturbed only flies a short

distance, so can usually be driven to a more favourable spot

for capture. Especially common in May and June.

Found from 500 to over 5,000 feet elevation in Uva. Ihave

also taken it at Madampe and Ratnapura, and believe it to be

common everywhere in the hills.

44. Junonia reyita, B. & E.; Precis iphita, M. & De N.—

Also found in India, Burma, Malaya, and China. Very

abundant everywhere nearly all the year round. Appears in

great numbers in the flights, especially in November-December.

Except during these flights, specimens taken in the hills are

usually ragged and faded. I have seen it in thousands in

the sandy beds of low-country rivers, when practically every

specimen appeared to be newly hatched out. From this I

imagine it mainly breeds at low elevations.

45. JuNONIA Atuites, B., De N., & E.; Precis laomedia,

M.—Laomedia is the wet season form. Also found in India,

Burma, Malaya, &c.

In habits it is very much like the last, but it is rather scarcer

up-country, and even fair specimens are much harder to get in

the hills. I have seen it plentiful on the sea beach in the

south, particularly at Galle in September. ‘These all appeared

to be freshly hatched. It appears up-country usually in

October, before the regular flights begin, and the swarm only

lasts a few days. Stragglers are fairly plentiful in November

and December, but for the rest of the year they are scarce.

CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 25

T have no records of its occurrence in the Northern Province,

or at any very high elevation. It is extremely abundant at

Kurunegala and Polgahawela in November.

** T have caught it at Anuradhapura and Pattipola ” (F. M.

Mackwood).

46. JuUNONIA ornITHYA, M.& B.; Junonia orithyia, De N, &

E.—Found also in India, Burma, Southern China, &c.

Does not join in the flights. It is extremely common all the

year round in the grass fields on this estate, and all places

round Haldummulla where the grass is fairly short. It is

easily alarmed, and flies fast for a short distance. It never

seems to fly far, but can be found in the same spots day after

day. It usually settles on the ground, except when roosting

for the night, when it selects a low plant about a foot or less

in height. It can be walked up in the late evening, and is

then very easy to catch.

It is extremely variable. Specimens from the Northern

Province are much smaller than those from Haldummulla.

The costa and apical markings on the fore wing are nearly

pure white, whereas in the hill specimens they are pale buff ;

the under side also is much lighter. Specimens from the _

low-country of Uva taken during the dry season are inter-

mediate between the two forms. The female is also extremely

variable, at all seasons and localities, in the amount of blue

on the lower wings.

Found everywhere from Galle to Jafina, and from sea level

to over 6,000 feet.

47. JUNONIA HIERTA, De N., B.,& E.; Junonia enone,

M.—Also found in India, Burma, and Southern China.

Mainly confined to the Northern Province.

I have seen it in great numbers at Kankesanturai in

December and January. It is common at Elephant Pass,

but specimens there are much smaller than those from the

north coast. I have also taken it at Giant’s tank, and two

specimens at Anuradhapura. Its habits are similar to those

of J. orithya.

In 1916 this butterfly appeared at Trincomalee, Kandy,

Colombo, Galle, and Tangalla, where it had not been seen for

many years past. Specimens I caught were in perfect condition,

4 6(2)18

26 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

and certainly did not look as if they had “ flighted ’ for any

creat distance.

The female varies a great deal, especially as regards the

blue spot on the lower wing. Often it is entirely absent,

while in other specimens it is as large as that of the male, but

of a more lilac shade.

48. JUNONIA LEMONIAS.—Also in India, Burma, Malaya,

China, &c. Occasionally very numerous at Haldummulla

during the flights in November-December, but does not appear

as regularly as J. iphita or atlites.

In the low-country of Uva it is common nearly all the year

round. It is particularly fond of settling on wet roads or in

the sandy beds of rivers.

The under side is extremely variable, and the variation does

not seem to depend much upon season.

I have one specimen caught at Haldummulla, in which the

under side is of a bright peach colour.

Found everywhere, though I have no records of its capture

at the highest elevations. It is extremely plentiful in the

Northern Province.

49. JUNONIA ALMANA, B. & E.; Junonia asteric, M.—Also

found in India, Burma, Malaya, China, Japan, Dutch Indies, &c.

J. asterie is the wet season form of J. almana. The dry

season form is rare in Ceylon, and I have never caught it, but

Mr. Mackwood has shown me one or two specimens. It

should be plentiful in the Northern Province.

Almana is rather rare at Haldummulla, though single ones

sometimes appear, chiefly in the south-west monsoon. These

are almost invariably poor specimens. It is very abundant

all over the low-country from Galle to Jaffna, especially in

chenas, paddy fields, and the borders of tanks.

50. CupHa pLacipa, M. & B.; Cupha erymanthis placida.,

E.—Peculiar to Ceylon.

It differs from erymanthis as follows : ‘‘ Fore wing: discal

band distinctly darker yellow, with its inner and outer margins

much less sinuous and irregular, the black line defining

the inner margin more slender; the spots on the band in

interspaces 1, 2, and 3 much smaller, especially the spot

in interspace 1, which is no larger than the others, and is

CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. vail

diffuse and ill-defined. The sub-apical yellow spots on the

black area entirely wanting, or, if present, diffuse and

indistinct” (Bingham).

My specimens vary greatly in all these respects. In nearly

all my specimens the spot in interspace | is far larger than those

in 2 and 3, though not so large as in Bingham’s figure of

erymanthis.

Common wherever there is a fair rainfall. It always seems

abundant at Watering Point, Galle, but is found at all eleva-

tions, and apparently all the year round. I have never seen

it north of Vavuniya.

It settles on bushes usually about 5 to 8 feet from the ground.

If disturbed, it dives into the thickest growth, and is therefore

very difficult to capture in first class condition.

51. CETHOSIA NIETNERI.—Peculiar to Ceylon.

1 have records of its occurrence at Haldummulla in every

month but January, but it is most numerous during the

south-west monsoon.

It is one of the easiest insects to catch, owing to its slow

hovering flight ; its wings are not so delicate as they look,

and are seldom damaged in the net.

It usually varies little, except in size, but I have one male

in which the ochraceous patch on both wings is missing.

Found all over the low-country from Galle to Vavuniya,

and up to 6,000 feet (Ohiya) at least, but it seems to be most

plentiful at a fair elevation, say 2,000 to 4,000 feet.

52. CynTHIA ASELA, M., De N., & B.; Cynthia erota asela,

E.—Peculiar to Ceylon.

** g absolutely indistinguishable from the wet season form

of #. ecrota”? (Bingham). The, female differs in having the

white discal band very much narrower and only extending to

vein 6 on the hind wing, whereas in erota it extends to vein 2.

The series of females in the Colombo Museum vary extremely

in the width of this white hand. In some it is almost obsolete

on the hind wing, in others it extends to vein 5. In two of

my specimens it just extends over vein 6.

The male is common at Haldummulla from May to August.

It usually basks high up on trees, taking short flights and

returning to the same spot. It is also very frequently found

28 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

settled on wet patches on the roads. It is then very easy to

approach and capture. The female is rarer, and is usually

seen flying fast and straight ; it, however, stops at flowers

oceasionally. I once saw a large number at the blossom of

Acacia cxsia while travelling in the coach from Kegalla to

Polgabawela.

Localities: Galle, Kandy, Wellawaya, Nuwara_ Eliya.

* Ratnapura ” (F. M. Mackwood).

53. CIRROCHROA LANKA; Cirrochroa thais lanka, K—Moore

separates it into thais, lanka, and cognata, and De Niceville

added swinhai.

It is very questionable whether our Ceylon specimens are

distinct from the South Indian thais. Bingham says: “ After

carefully examining a long series of specimens from Southern

India and Ceylon, I am quite unable to find any constant

characters that would serve to distinguish C. lanka, Moore,

from C. thats, Fabr.”’

He entirely ignores cognata and swinhac.

Personally I agree with him that there is only one species

in Ceylon. The more specimens I examine, the greater

difficulty I find in splitting up the species. It is exceedingly

variable, but all yarieties seem to grade.

The males can be usually distinguished by the entirely

different shape of the fore wings. They also have a sex-mark,

the terminal half of veins 5, 6, and 7 being coloured black,

with a narrow yellow margin of spécialized scales.

On one occasion, in November, I was walking from Wella-

waya to Koslanda, and on the first five miles of the road there

were many thousands of the males settled on the wet patches.

Both sexes often settle at flowers, but I have not found it

easy to catch perfect females.

About twelve years ago I found a small tree on Eadella

estate, Polgahawela, entirely defoliated by the larve. I

collected a few pupx, but they had evidently been starved,

as all hatched out dwarfed or deformed.

T have notes of its occurrence in every month at Haldum-

mulla, but it is only plentiful in the flights.

Other localities : Galle, Kegalla, Wellawaya, Anuradhapura,

Trincomalee, &c. ‘‘ Mataleand Ratnapura” (F.M. Mackwood).

CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 29

54. HypoLimMNas BoLINA.—Moore also gives jacintha,

which is only a variety. Found also in Southern Asia and

Australia,

In his key to the genus Hypolimnas, Bingham says

Bolina can be distinguished by having “‘ fore and hind wings

with a post-discal series of white spots always present.”

Specimens can be found in Ceylon with no trace of these

spots on the fore wing, and only very minute specks on the

hind wing.

Common at Haldummulla all the year round, but especially

in December, when it appears in swarms in the tea. By

walking it up in the evening, after it has gone to roost, it can

easily be captured in any number, and a fine series of varieties

selected. As is usual in Ceylon, both dry and wet season

forms fly together.

The male is an exceptionally long-lived fly. A battered

specimen will take up its position on ene branch for several

weeks, flying off to attack any fair-sized butterfly that passes.

I have known them drive away Kallimas that wished to settle

on sugar. They do not seem to be attacked at all by birds,

or to take the slightest notice of them.

_ Localities : everywhere from sea level to Nuwara Eliya.

55. Hypotimnas misippus, De N., B., & E.; Apaiura

misippus, M——Found in Asia, Africa, Australia, and North

America.

Usually rather rare at Haldummulla, except at one spot

in the tea here, where there is frequently a single male. In

December, however, it often appears in great numbers. In

these swarms the females are much commoner than the

males, which is unusual at other times. The chrysippus form

is always much commoner than the dorippus one, though

the latter is often plentiful. On one occasion I was walking

to Tanamalwila, on the Wellawaya-Hambantota road, and

misippus was in thousands, both males and females, settling

on the road from about the 36th to the 28th mile. I could

have caught any number of the dorippus variety, but could

not find one perfect specimen. In the north, where the

chrysippus form is abundant, I have only twice seen the

dorippus form.

30 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

The alcippus form, with white lower wings, is not, I believe,

found in Ceylon, but I have caught a specimen at Jaffna with

a small but conspicuous white patch on the upper side of the

lower wing.

Localities : it seems to prefer the drier portions of the

Island, though it occasionally visits the wet zone.

06. VANESSA CARDUI, B. & E.; Pyrameis cardui, M. & De

N.—Commonly known as the Painted Lady.

Found all over the world, from New York to Nuwara

Eliya.

Single specimens may be seen anywhere all the year round,

but in many localities great numbers suddenly appear, though

it does not seem to flight.

I have noticed these big hatches at Galle (twice) and Jaftna.

I have also found the larve in great abundance at Galaha,

near Kandy.

“ Caught on the very top of Pedrotalagala ” (F. M. Mack-

wood).

57. VANESSA INDICA, B.; Pyrameis indica, M. & De N.;

Vanessa indica nubicola, E.—The form nubicola is restricted

to Southern India and Ceylon, but it is doubtful if it is distinct

from indica, which is found in Southern Europe, Canaries,

China, Japan, &c.

It is said to differ from indica, in that “the outer margin

of the hind wing is comparatively much more broadly black.”

I have never caught this butterfly below 4,500 feet, but it is

very common at times above that elevation.

It is not difficult to catch, but the easiest way to get perfect

specimens is to collect the pupa.

The larvee feed on Heterophylla palmata, and tie the leaves

into a ball about the size of an orange; the pupze can be

found inside these balls, which are very conspicuous. The

best implements for collecting them are a pair of scissors and

a biscuit. tin, as the sting of the nettle is painful, though it

passes off quickly.

In Vol. VII., Part 38, of ‘‘ Spolia Zeylanica,’’ Mr. E. E.

Green describes two abnormal varieties of this hatched from

larve brought down trom Diyatalawa to Peradeniya, where

they pupated. He thought the aberration might be due to

CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 31

change of climate. I have taken pupz from Haputale to

Galle in the hottest months, but all have hatched normal.

I could not get food for the larve there, or would have tried

with them.

Localities : Haputale, Ohiya, Pattipola, Nuwara Eliya, &e.

58. VANESSA HARONICA, M. & De N.; Vanessa canace

haronica, B.; Kaniska canace haronica, K.—Peculiar to

Ceylon.

It differs from canace as follows : “* The broad blue band is

discal, not post-diseal, and anteriorly is continuous with the

broad short oblique bar beyond the cell, not commencing, as

in canace, below the pre-apical white spot. On the hind wing

the band is without the series of black spots, but beyond it

there is a transverse post-discal row of small blue spots ”

(Bingham).

Specimens showing any signs of grading into canace are

very rare. There is one specimen in the Museum collection

in which the blue band on the upper wing is distinctly forked,

the outer branch continuing to the pre-apical white spot. In

a few cases, where the blue band is especially wide, there are

distinct signs of the post-discal black spots on the lower wing. —

In general appearance, however, the two butterflies are very

distinct.

Moreover, according to authorities quoted by Bingham,

their larve are most distinct, as follows :—

Canace—“ Segments alternately orange and white, with

numerous black spots on the orange segments, and black

streaks on the white. Seven white branching black-tipped

spines on each orange segment.”

Haronica.—* Light red, spotted with black, the segments

divided by blackish and purplish lines, anal segment slightly

humped, segments armed with eight longitudinal rows of

yellow branched spines.”

Very common at Haldummulla and fairly easy to catch.

It comes readily to sugar, but is very shy, Very common at

Haputale and Ohiya, but seems scarcer at lower elevations,

though a few have been taken at Galle.

** Very plentiful in the highest mountain passes, Matale to

Rangalla ” (FE. M. Mackwood).

32 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

59. Katirma pHILARcHUS; M.; Kallima horsfield:, B. ;

Kallima horsfieldi philarchus, K.—-Peculiar to Ceylon, but is

very near K. horsfieldi of Southern India. It differs in being

rather larger and of a more brilliant blue, but is subject to

considerable seasonal variation.

Rare at Haldummulla, except occasionally in December.

The flight nearly always starts in Christmas week, and usually

only lasts a few days. In December, 1914, they arrived

early in December, and were plentiful for the whole of that

month, but at Haputale, Ohiya, &c., viz., at a higher elevation,

they remained in fair numbers till April. During these

flights they are common on the Horton Plains (7,000 feet),

but seldom seem to reach Nuwara Eliya. In parts of the

low-country of Uva they are usually very abundant in July,

but very few of this brood migrate up-country. They are

extremely easy to catch, as they cannot refuse toddy, treacle,

&c., especially mixed with rum.

They are pursued by Drongoes (Dicrurus leucopygialis), -

but I have never seen one eaten, the bird almost invariably

taking a triangular piece out of one of the lower wings.

Whether he finds this distasteful or not I cannot say, but he

never seems to continue the pursuit of that individual, though

the next one to pass is probably treated in the same manner.

At least 50 per cent. of those taken at sugar in open country

will be found to have been damaged. The birds seem quite

unable to see them when settled, though they do not make

the most of their resemblance to a dead leaf. If settled on

a twig with the tail towards the base and the fore wing

well drawn out, the resemblaiice-is perfect ; but they usually

settle with their heads towards. the base, and the fore wing

more than half covered by the lower, when the resemblance

is far inferior. |

“ Of late fairly plentiful at Kandy and Ratnapura ” (F. M.

Mackwood).

60. DoLESCHALLIA BISALTIDE, M.; Doleschallia polibete, De

N.; Doleschallia bisaltide malabarica, B.; Doleschallia bisaltide

ceylonica, F.—Evans writes in his list : ‘“ ‘There is not sufficient

material in the British Museum to judge whether these races

are worth retaining.”

CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 33

It varies a little on the upper side, but very saree on the

under side in Ceylon specimens.

Usually very rare at Haldummulla, but sometimes appears

in fair numbers in the tea in November and December. It

settles, usually low down, on the side of a tea bush, so only

gives room for a very awkward stroke with the net between the

bushes ; it also requires very careful stalking, so is not easy

to catch. I have never succeeded in attracting it with sugar

or other baits.

Localities: Kandy, Badulla, &c. ‘‘ Ratnapura” (F, M,

Mackwood).

61. ARGYNNIS HYPERBIUS, B.; Acidalia niphe, M.; Argyn-

nis hyperbius taprobana, K.—A, hyperbius is found in India,

Burma, Abyssinia, China, Japan, &c., but it is possible that our

Ceylon specimens form a local race, though they only differ in

the slightly darker ground colour. They vary extremely little.

It is common at high elevations nearly all the year round,

and is usually found on the patanas near jungle. It settles

on the ground, or low down, and is very easy to catch, as it

only flies a short distance if disturbed.

I have seen one straggler (2) as low as Haldummulla (3,006

feet), but it is very rare below 4,500 feet.

Localities : Nuwara Eliya, Horton Plains, Haputale, Mas-

keliya ; in fact, wherever the wild violet grows.

62. ATELLA PHALANTA, M. & E.; Atella phalantha, De N,

& B.—Found in Africa, India, Burma, Malaya, China, &ce.

Common at Haldummulla nearly all the year round, except

in September and October, viz., the end of the dry season.

Sometimes it flights in very great numbers. When flighting,

it goes fairly fast and straight, but at other times it settles on

flowers, &c., and is very easy to catch. In the dry low-

country it swarms on wet patches on the roads.

Common from Galle to Jaffna and at all elevations up to

6,000 feet at least.

63. ATELLA CEYLONICA; Alella alcippe ceylonica, B. &

K.—Peculiar to Ceylon. Differs from alcippe “‘ in the broad

immaculate black apex of the fore wing in both sexes and on

the greater breadth of the terminal band on both fore and hind

wings ” (Bingham).

5 6(2)18

34 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

I know nothing of this, so,asked Mr. Mackwood for par-

ticulars. He writes: ‘ Alella ceylonica is a distinct species or

sub-species. Major Manders described it. So far it has only

appeared in one valley in the Nitre Cave, surrounded by

6,000 feet hills, except towards the north-west and east,

where it faces the Bintenna country. ‘The butterflies are found

from 2,000 to 4,000 feet. Principal appearance, May-June.

A few at end of tke year.”’

I possess a pair given to me by Mr. Mackwocd.

64. ERGOLIS TAPROBANA, M. & De N.; Lrgolis merione

taprobana, B. & E.—Also found in Southern India. A well-

defined race, which, in Ceylon at any rate, shows very little

variation.

Common all over the Island up to 6,000 feet at least. ‘The

wings, especially of the females, seem to split extremely easily,

and perfect specimens are not easy to procure.

Found at Haldummulla all the year round, but is only

numerous in the flights. I have seen it at Galle, Jaffna,

Mannar, &c., and up to 6,000 feet at Ohiya.

65. ERGOLIS ARIADNE, De N., B., & E.; Lrgolis minorata,

M.—Also in India, Burma, Malaya, Formosa, &c.

Flights with the last at Haldummulla, but is rather more

numerous. It is far easier to catch perfect.

It is found in the same localities as the last, viz., all over the

Island.

66. Bypiia miruyis, M., De N., & B.; Byblia ilithia, E.—

Central and Southern India, Africa, Arabia, &c.

An extremely local fly, and is apparently gregarious. .In

March, 1909, I found numbers,settled on a small bush at

Palatupane, in the Hambantota District, but in all my

subsequent visits there I have never seen another specimen.

I have specimens from Anuradhapura and Giant’s tank,

and caught one very battered female at Kankesanturai,

probably the sole survivor of a brood. |

It is apparently confined to the driest districts of the

Island. .

If disturbed, it flies off fast and low, but is almost certain

to return in a few minutes,.and can be found in the same place

day afier day.

CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 35

Acrxine.

67. TELCHINIA vi0oL#.—Also found in India.

Very common everywhere, from sea level to 6,000 feet at

least. I have seen it in every month at Haldummulla.

Prefers open country to jungle, and is very easy to catch. It

can be found in the same place day after day, and if disturbed

seldom goes more than a few yards.

LEMGNIID2.

Inbytheine.

68. LipyrHEA MYRRHA.

69. LisyTHEA RAMA.—L. myrrha is found in India, Burma,

Malaya, and China. L. rama is a race or variety from

Southern India and Ceylon.

Bingham says : “ Var. rama, Moore, is the smaller southern

and Ceylon form, with the orange markings much narrower

and restricted, and the pre-apical double spots entirely white,

or white slightly suffused with yellow.”

My specimens of rama also differ from myrrha in the shape

and colour of the lower wings, which are more scalloped along

the termen, and on the under side variegated with light and

dark gray; while in myrrha they are uniformly coloured,

without conspicuous markings.

Both forms fly together at Haldummulla and show very

slight signs of grading, but in a large number of specimens

which I have examined the ‘‘ rama” are always males and the

“ myrrha”’ always females. This seems to point to the con-

clusion that they are the same ifiSect, and that rama is a race

in which the male has varied from the original stock far more

than the female. This point can, of course, be settled at once

by breeding. The sexes can be easily distinguished by the

fact that the fore-legs of the 3 are short hairy brushes, while

those of the @ are functionally perfect.

They are almost always found settled on wet roads. If

disturbed, they usually only fly a few yards, but if frequently

put up, they may fly a little way off the road and settle on the

bushes or grass ; hut in fine weather they are certain to return

to the road in a few minutes,

36 SPOLIA ZEYLANIGA.

Both forms are plentiful at Haldummulla, but probably

ten rama will be seen for one myrrha.

They are found from 500 to 5,000 feet in Uva, but so far I

have not taken them out of the Province.

70. LiByTHEA LEPITOIDES ; Libythea celtis lepitoides, B. &

E.—Libythea celtis is found in Europe, Asia Minor, and

Chitral. Lepitoides is peculiar to Southern India and Ceylon.

It differs from celts in the different shape of the hind wing,

different shape of the orange band on the fore wing, and

absence of an orange spot in interspace 1.

It differs from lepita in having the orange band divided, and.

all the sub-apical spots white.

It is very rare. I have only caught a single specimen at

Haldummulla, and have seen others caught at Badulla and

Wellawaya.

The Colombo Museum has a good series, mainly from the

Kandy District.

** Found also at Dambool” (F. M. Mackwood).

Nemeobiine.

71. ApisaRA PRUNOSA, M.; Abisara echerius, De N. & B.;

Abisara echerius prunosa, .—the race is confined to Southern

India and Ceylon. De Niceville thinks it identical with

echervus. Bingham does not mention prunosa. Evans says

prunosa is larger and brighter.

I have a Y caught at Haputale in March (cold, dry season,

elevation 5,000 feet). It is much darker than usual, and the

post-discal fascia is almost obsolete. The black spots on the

lower wing are very minute. ‘The under side is very like

Bingham’s illustration of the dry season form of echerius. It

is very unlike any specimen of prunosa I have seen.

It is almost always found in jungle. During the day time

it usually settles on a leaf five or six feet from the ground.

If disturbed it flies a yard or two and settles again. In the

evenings, however, its flight completely changes, and it darts

up and down a jungle path with a quick jerky flight, so that

I have more than once mistaken it for one of the Hesperiidw.

It is commonest at Haldtimmulla during the dry weather

in the south-west monsoon,

CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 37

I have taken it at Jaffna, Kandy, Galle, Trincomalee,

Ratnapura, and up to 5,000 feet at Haputale.

* Caught at Colombo ” (F. M. Mackwood).

LycmHNIDz.

Lycxenine.

72. NEOPITHECOPS ZALMoRA, B. & E.; Pithecopos dharma,

M.—Found in Southern Asia.

One of the most variable insects in Ceylon. ‘The amount of

white on the upper side varies as much in location as in amount.

The principal varieties in my series are :—

(1) Upper side: both wings black, minute white speck or

pale patch on dise of fore wing.

(2) Diseal white spot on fore wing much larger. Lower

wing with a large white patch from the cell to the margin,

between veins 4 and 7.

(3) Fore wing about half white. Lower wing with five

very minute sub-marginal white spots. The markings on the

under side almost obsolete, except the black sub-costal spot

on hind wing. (Only taken at over 5,000 feet elevation.)

Very common at times at Haldummulla, and apparently _

flights. A great number appeared in August, 1915, all flying

west. They settle frequently, and usually close to the ground,

and are easy to catch. Their wings, however, are very

frequently rubbed in the net.

I have taken it from 500 to over 5,000 feet elevation in Uva.

Also at Galle, Ratnapura, Trincomalee, Vavuniya, &c.

73. SPALGIS EPIUS.—Also found in India, Burma, Java,

Borneo, &c.

The male can be ae ae by its very sharp-pointed

wings.

The larva feeds on coccida (scale insects), especially “‘ mealy

bug,” and is never known to eat vegetable food.

May be taken at Haldummulla all the year round, but is

never numerous. I have also taken it at Galle, Kegalla, and

Kandy.

** Found in the North-Central Province ” (F. M. Mackwood).

73.4. SpaLcis HPIus NuBILUS, B. & E.—Bingham gives

this race also from Ceylon, and says two typical specimens in

38 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

the British Museum are labelled “ Trincomalee, Ceylon.’

Evans restricts it to the Andamans and Northern India.

It differs from epius as follows: Much darker ground

colour, no white spot on fore wing of 3, and only a slight pale

patch on 9.

S. epius varies considerably in the size of the white patch,

especially the female, but [ have not yet come across a

specimen answering the description of nubilus. I have,

however, no specimens from the dry zone, and this form may

occur there.

74. Mucispa MALAYA, B. & E.; Megisba thwaites:s, M—

Found in Southern Asia.

In India two forms exist : tailed and tailless. In Ceylon

none have tails.

The upper side does not vary much, though the white patch

is occasionally rather indistinct. The under side is variable,

and the spot in the cell of the fore wing is often wanting in the

female.

The male is very abundant at times in the low-country of

Uva, and may be found in dozens settled on wet sand in river

beds or on wet roads.

The female, which has more rounded wings, is much scarcer.

Single specimens may be taken at Haldummulla all the year

round, but I have no notes of its capture above 4,000 feet.

Other localities : Galle, Kegalla, Jaffna, ‘l'rincomalee, &c.

** Colombo to Kandy, Ratnapura” (F. M. Mackwood).

75. CHILADES LAIus, B. & E.; Chilades rarunana, M—

Also in India, China, Formosa, &c¢.

Varunana is the wet seas6én form. Both dry and wet

season forms are very common almost everywhere in Ceylon.

The dry season forms (with clouded brown patch on under side

of lower wing) are rather scarcer than the others, but both

fly together.

The ¢ varies very much in the amount of blue.

Can be taken all the year round at Haldummulla, but is

only abundant here during the north-east monsoon flights,

when it is occasionally the commonest blue for a week or two.

I have taken it evervwhere up to 6,000 feet. It is plentiful

at Nuwara Eliya at times.

CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 39

76. CHILADES PUTLI, M.; Chilades trochilus, B.; Chilades

trochilus putli, E—Also found in Europe, Asia, Africa, and

Australia.

Bingham says var. putli is only the small Indian form, which

is identical with trochilus in ground colour and markings. It is

very variable in these respects and in size, and in the number

of the metallic green spots on the under side of the lower wing.

It is so small that it may be easily overlooked, though it is

generally found fluttering over the shortest grass, or ney

bare ground.

Essentially a low-country insect, but I took one specimen in

January and another in May, 1916, on this estate (3,000 feet).

These are both above the average in size.

Loealities: the lawn in front of the Colombo Museum, Jaffna

(very abundant), Mannar, Hambantota, Wellawaya, &c.

77. CYANIRIS AKASA.—Also in Southern India, Java,

Sumatra, &c.

A very local insect, but plentiful where it occurs. It is

usually found near streams in the hills, the male settling on

wet patches on the roads, the female hovering among the

bushes, and settling frequently on flowers.

It varies very little in Ceylon. The figure in Bingham is

not at all like our specimens. In neither male nor female is

the black border of the upper wing extended to the tornus.

Common at Haldummulla and Haputale, especially during

the north-east monsoon, March and April being the best

months. Also taken at Nuwara Eliya.

‘“ Pundalu-oya and Pattipola ”’ (F. M. Mackwood).

Note.—The genus Cyaniris is;now named Lyczenopsis by

many writers.

78. Cyaniris puspa, B.& E.; Cyaniris lavendularis, M.—

Found also in India and Malaya.

“Var. lavendularis, Moore, has the costal and terminal

margins of both fore and hind wings more narrowly bordered

with black than in typical puspa, but seems otherwise

indistinguishable ” (Bingham).

This seems a very constant feature of the males in Ceylon,

and it is questionable if Moore’s name should not stand for

the race.

40 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA,

The males vary a great deal in the shade of blue, the amount

of white, especially on the lower wing, and the clearness of

the black marginal spots on the lower wing. Bingham says

of these spots in puspa that “ these are formed, not by actual

scaling, but by the dark markings of the under side, which

show through more or less clearly.” This is not the case

with Ceylon specimens, as the spots on the upper side are

frequently far larger than those on the under side, and are

occasionally very large and distinct above, when almost obsolete

below. The female varies chiefly in the markings on the

under side ; in some specimens these are comparatively small

and indistinct, especially on the hind wing.

The male is often very plentiful in the low-country of Uva,

settled in river beds and on wet roads. It occasionally can

be taken at Haldummulla. The female is very common at

Haldummulla at times, and is apparently given to flighting.

Lhave taken it here in every month but February and March,

The female bears no resemblance at all to the figure given

in Moore.

79. CYANARIS SINGALENSIS, M. & E.; Cyaniris huegeli

singalensis, B—Found in Ceylon, Java, and Sumatra.

Originally described from specimens taken at “ Kalupahana,

about 3,000 feet.” I have no doubt this estate is referred to,

The male is very plentiful at high elevations. It is chiefly

found settling in stream beds or on wet roads. Oceasionally

T have taken specimens at Haldummulla, but they do not seem

to descend below 3,000 feet. The iemale I have found

extremely rare, and I know nothing of its habits.

* ~ numerous at Maskeliya and the Horton Plains; 9

scarce” (F. M. Mackwood).

86. CyYANIRIS LANKA.—Peculiar to Ceylon.

The male is extremely plentiful at high elevations. At

Ohiya, Pattipola, &c., it is usually the commonest blue. — It

sometimes descends as low as 3,000 feet. It is nearly always

found settled on damp spots on the roads. The female flies

low over the bushes, settling occasionally on flowers. I have

never taken one lower than 5,500 feet. '

“« The larva feeds on Smithia blanda, which grows in damper

portions of patanas. The egg is deposited on the stem at

CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 4]

the foot of the flower bud” (F. M. Mackwood in “ Spolia

Zeylanica,” Vol. X., Part XXXVI.).

“ Taken also in Kandy District ” (F. M. Mackwood).

81. Cyaninis Limpata, B. & E.; Cyaniris limbatus, De

N.—Also in India and Sumatra. Not mentioned by Moore.

Not common at Haldummulla. The male settles on wet

roads in April, May, September, and October. The female

is a great rarity. I have never taken the males anywhere

else than at Haldummulla, but I have taken the females at

Haputale and Ohiya as well.

The male is intermediate between lanka and. singalensis.

The upper side is much darker than singalensis, but not so

dark as lanka. The marginal spots on the under side in both

sexes on both wings are enclosed in a lunular gray line in

limbata and singalensis ; this is absent in lanka. The upper

side of the female is very distinct from either 2 lanka or

singalensis.

“ $ taken at Kandy, Pundalu-oya, and Maskeliya ” (F. M.

Mackwood).

$2. ZizERA Lysimon, B. & K.; Zizera karsandra, M.—Also

in Europe, Africa, Southern Asia, and Australia.

“Var. karsandra, Moore, is a pale form of lysimon”’

(Bingham).

It very closely resembles Z. indica, but can be distinguished

by the presence of a black spot in the cell on under side of

fore wing.

I have a curious variety, of which I took four specimens on

a small patch of grass on one day, in which there is a quite

irregular dusting of small black spots, ringed with white,

between the discocellular streak and the line of discal spots.

One specimen has four of these spots on one wing and three

on the other. In April, 1916, I took a g Z. gaika showing the

same aberration.

Specimens from Jaffna have the marginal bands and spots

very clearly defined, and one specimen taken there, a female,

measures 26 mm. in expanse.

‘ommon everywhere in short grass from sea level to

5,000 feet at least. It occurs all the year round here, but is

commonest in August and September.

6 6(2)18

42 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

83. ZIZERA GAIKA, B. & E.; Zizera pygmxa, M.—Found

also in Africa, Arabia, India, and Malaya.

Very common at low elevations, but gets scarcer above

3,006 feet. It may be found all the year round at Haldum-

mulla, but is commonest in August. Usually found flying

over short grass.

Localities: the low-country from Galle to Jaffna, but

commonest in the drier districts.

84. Zizpra INDICA, M.; Zizera otis, B.; Zizera otis indica,

E.—Found also in India, Burma, Malaya, Hong Kong, and

Philippines.

Bingham says indica differs from ofts in the great size of the

discal black spots on the under side of the fore wing. .

These spots vary very much in size, shape, and position,

and the two posterior ones are often obsolete.

Very common everywhere from Galle to Jaffna, and from

sea level to the Horton Plains. I have taken it in every

month at Haldummulla.

85. AZANUS UBALDUS.—Found in India and Arabia. Not

mentioned by Moore.

The only place where I have caught this insect is at Elephant

Pass, in the Jaffna Peninsula. It is fairly common there in

December, but is very likely to escape notice. It is very

small, and settles usually at a fair height from the ground,

at the end of a twig or thorn. If disturbed, it flies round

quickly, but soon settles in a similar place, and is not hard to

catch. When settled, it is very like a small specimen of the

next species, A. jesous, but that seldom settles so high up.

Since writing the above E¢have found it common near

Giant’s tank in July.

86. AzANUS JESOUS, B.; Azanus crameri, M.; Azanus

jesous gamra, E.—Found in Africa, Arabia, and India.

Very common in the dry low-country, and is an occasional

visitor to Haldummulla, all caught here being males. It

flies low, and is fond of settling at the end of .a twig or large

thorn, whence it apparently can get a clear view round. It

is seldom seen more than two or three feet from the ground.

It is usually found along road sides in open country or scrub,

very seldom in jungle.

CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 43

Localities : Jaffna, Mannar, Anuradhapura, Wellawaya,

Hambantota, &c.

* Abundant at Trincomalee ” (F. M. Mackwood).

87. LyCHNESTHES LYCZNINA.—Also in India, Malaya,

and Dutch Indies.

The male is very common at Haldummulla, and is always

found settled on wet roads or in the beds of streams, especially

from March to May. [f disturbed, it flies round very rapidly,

but settles again quickly, and will allow one to miss it several

times with the net before clearing off. The female is rarer

here, and may be found settled on the tea or on flowers. I

found it very plentiful on the tea at Kegalla, but I never saw

a male settled on the wet roads there.

Other localities : Galle, Hambantoia, Wellawaya, &c.

‘“ Colombo, Kandy, and Pussellawa ” (F. M. Mackwood).

88. TALICADA NysEus.—Also in India and Burma.

Exceedingly common wherever its food plant (Bryophyllum)

grows. It flies slowly, and settles frequently. In the evenings

it generally roosts on flower heads, and generally in groups of

four or five. It is very conspicuous, and can be easily caught

then in a killing bottle, and the finest specimens and unusual

varieties of under sides can be selected. It does not retire till

rather late, so there is not much time to take them before dark.

The upper side varies little, but specimens with the red

patch replaced by buif maybe taken. ‘fhe under side is vari-

able, especially in the number of black spots on the lower wing.

T have now taken four specimens of a peculiar aberration,

with a conspicuous irregular white patch between the black

and red on the upper side of th¢ lower wing. One was taken

in 1902, two in 1912, and one in 1915. All four were taken at

the same spot, within a few yards of the 1064 milepost on the

Haldummulla road. This rather points to its being hereditary.

One is figured in ‘‘ Spolia Zeylanica,” Vol. 1X., Part XX XIII,

Plentiful all the year round at Haldummulla, and I have

taken it at Galle, Hambantota, Wellawaya, Kandy, &c.

89. EvErEs pAarRHASIuS, M.; Everes argiades, B. & De N.;

Everes. argiades parrhasius, Ki—Argiades is found in Europe,

Asia, Australia, &c., and is said to have been taken near

Dover. The limits of parrhasius do not seem to be defined yet,

44. SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Microscopical examination-of the scales of the male has

proved parrhasius to be distinct from argiades.

Exceedingly plentiful all the year round at Haldummulla.

Common at Galle and all over the southern half of the Island

up to 6,000 feet at least. I have no records of its capture in

the North.

The male varies little, except in size; the female varies

greatly, the ground colour being sometimes brown without a

sign of blue, and at others pale grayish-blue with brown border

at the apex and termen of the fore wing, and along the costa

of the hind wing.

Nacapusa.—This is one of the most difficult families to

name, and apparently the more specimens one examines,

the greater the difficulty becomes. During the last five or six

years I have caught and examined many hundreds of specimens,

and I now feel less competent to name them than ever.

As a guide of sorts, I annex a table, mainly taken from

Bingham :—

Key to Forms of Ceylon Nacaduba.

A.—Under side fore wing: basal area unmarked by white

strigee :

al.—White strigee very broad and diffuse = macropthalma.

b1.— White strigee narrow, never ditfuse = pavana.

B.—White strigz on basal area :

a2.—Fore wing : apex very acute = viola.

62.—Fore wing : apex not very acute :

a3.—Basal strige not extended to vein 1 :

a4.—Under side hind wing: small black spot in tornal

angle, and larger one in interspace 2 = noreia.

64.—Under side hind wing: small black spot in tornal

angle, and equally small one in interspace 2 = dana.

63.—Basal strige extended to vein 1:

a5.—Expanse under 25 mm. = ardates, tailed and tailless.

65.—Expanse over 25 mm.:

a6.—¢ upper side : brownish-purple = atrata.

bh6.—3 upper side: darker brownish-purple suffused

with plumbeous = plumbeomicans.

CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 45

The great objection to this table is that it largely depends

on the old fallacy, that “ the exception proves the rule.”

Tor instance, the atrata group are separated from ardates

by the question of size, all under 25 mm. being classed as the

latter. My smallest specimens are the white variety of female

atrata, and a variety which was flighting in great numbers in

September, 1915, which is certainly not ardates, but probably

a dwarf form of plumbeomicans.

Again, an important division depends on whether the basal

pair of strigz are continued to vein 1. I have a series of tailed

ardates, otherwise quite normal, showing every graduation,

from the strige stopping at the median vein till they reach

vein 1.

As our knowledge now stands, it is nearly impossible to say

how many species we have in Ceylon.

( 90. NacapuBA MacRopTHALMA.—Found in India, Malaya,

| and Australia.

| 91. NacapuBa PAVANA.—Found in India, Burma, Java,

L&e.

The latter is not mentioned in Moore. This group is

unfortunately rare at Haldummulla, so I have a comparatively

poor series. My specimens are easily divided into two

groups :—-

(1) Male very large, my largest being 39 mm. in expanse ;

white strigze on under side rather broad and diffuse. Female:

blue area very large, extending to at least four-fifths of the

posterior portion of fore wing ; veins across the blue area

very clearly marked in dark brown ; under side, white markings

more diffuse. This, I take it, is a form of macropthalma.

(2) Male smaller, average about 30 mm., darker in colour

on upper side, white strigze on under side narrower and more

clearly defined. Female: blue area darker, and much

reduced in size ; the veins very -indistinctly marked ; under

side white strigze clearly defined, but broader than in the male,

a complete series of dark oval spots along margin of fore wing

and along hind wing down to interspace 2.

The female is usually much smaller than the male, one of

mine measuring only 22 mm.

46 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

This I believe to be pavana, though it is considerably

larger than the specimens of pavana I have seen from the

Andamans.

N. macropthalma is not rare in parts of the low-country of

Uva and at Ratnapura, but I have taken very few specimens

as high as 3,000 feet.

N. pavana is not rare at Galle and elsewhere in the wet

zone, and I have a few specimens from Haldummulla.

Both forms vary enormously in almost every particular,

but I have insufficient material to hazard any opinion as to

how the group may be subdivided in Ceylon.

92. Nacapuspa vionA, M. & E.; Nacaduba hermus,

B. & De N.—Also found in India, Burma, Malaya, and

Australia. :

Very rare. I have taken about half a dozen males settled

on wet roads in Haldummulla, but I have never seen a female.

I have seen a male caught at Hirumbara, near Galle, and

another from Deniyaya.

It can be distinguished at once from any other Ceylon

nacaduba by its very pointed wings. It varies very much in

size.

93. NacaDUBA DANA.—Also in India, Burma, &c. Not

mentioned by Moore. ,

This can be at once recognized by the fact that it is the only

Ceylon nacaduba which does not possess the conspicuous

large black spot in interspace 2 of the under side of the hind

wing. There is only a minute spot, nearly equal in size to the

one in the tornal angle.

It is not given in any of the Ceylon lists, but I have taken

mote than a dozen males settled on wet roads, or in beds of

streams, at Haldummulla, and in May, 1916, I found it very

abundant at Wellawaya, and also took one at Tanamalwila,

on. the borders of the Southern and Uva Provinces. - I have

also got it from Ratnapura.

It is tailless, and may easily be mistaken for a tailless

ardaies when settled, but is of a distinctly lighter blue when

flying.

The female is very rare, and I have only taken two speci-

mens.

CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 47

One of my specimens (a 3) is in the British Museum. It is

labelled Wellumwittia, but there is nothing else to show that

it is a Ceylon specimen. It was sent there by the. late

Mr. John Pole.

In May, 1916, I took a butterfly.at Wellawaya in company

with a lot of N. dana, which is entirely unlike any other

Lycenid I have ever seen. The upper side matched dana,

except for a regular, rather broad, black border to both wings.

The under side is dark gray. Unmarked, except for a short

pair of strigze above the end of the cell on the upper wing,

It may be an aberration of dana.

¢ 94. Nacapusa arrara.—Also found in India, Malaya,

2 and Java.

| 95. NacADUBA PLUMBEOMICANS.—Also found in India.

L Moore does not give plumbeomicans, but divides our Ceylon

specimens into prominens and atrata.

T have caught many hundreds of these in the last few years

for examination, and have over a hundred selected specimens

now in my collection.

Both sexes vary very much in the colour of the upper side,

the markings of the under side, and in size (18-36 mm.

expanse). The extreme specimens are very distinct, and

correspond almost exactly in colour, &e., to the two divisions

of the macropthalma group, but all are so variable, and there

are so many intermediate forms, that it is almost impossible

to decide if they belong to one species or to several: Per:

sonally T have roughly divided the males into four groups,

and the females into three, but it is not easy to draw the lines

between them. J orig

Moore divided them by the markings on the under sides,

but these grade perfectly in both sexes.

De Niceville says plumbeomicans differs from prominens

“in its slightly paler colouration on the upper side in the male.”’

Bingham says it differs in being “ darker brownish-purple

suffused with plumbeous.”’

My specimens were almost all taken on one mile of cart road

through this estate. Possibly a quantity from other districts

might help in separating the forms, or in grading them even

more perfectly.

48 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Weather seems to have little to do with the variations, as

the most extreme forms fly together. They can be taken all

the year round at Haldummulla, but are easiest to capture

in the wet months. ‘The males settle on wet roads in abund-

ance in April; May, October, and November. The females

visit flowers, or settle on low bushes, showing a preference for

bare projecting twigs. They flight in large numbers many

times in the year.

A curious flight appeared for a day or two in September,

1915, viz., at the end of the dry season. The insects only

measured 18-22 mm. in expanse, but in colour and markings

were what I understand to be plumbeomicans. A dwart

variety of the white female (prominens) is not rare here, and

I have received it from Ratnapura.

I have taken single specimens at Galle and Dambulla, but

the group seems to be mainly confined to the hills, from

500 to 5,000 feet.

** Taken at Colombo ” (F. M. Mackwood).

96. NACADUBA ARDATES, tailed form; Nacaduba nora,

f E.—Found in India, Malaya, and Australia.

97. NACADUBA ARDATES, tailless form; Nacaduba noreia,

K.—Evans writes : “‘ I believe with various other writers that

nora and noreia are separate species ; nora, the tailed form, is

also yellow below.”

Personally I am of opinion that the two forms are at least

as fully entitled to rank as distinet as, say, atrata and plumbeo-

micans, but I agree with Bingham and De Niceville in thinking

that the tailless form does not answer at all to Felder’s

description of noreia, which Eeonsider quite a distinct species,

Apparently nora should stand for the tailed form and ardates

for the tailless.

It is hard to define any difference between them, but the

post discal pair of strige usually appear to be nearer the

terminal margin in the tailless form, and sometimes even

touch the sub-terminal markings. The bands enclosed by the

strige also seem comparatively broader. I have never yet

seen the variety of the female with the yellow under side

without tails, and in both sexes the tailed form is the most

variable in the ground colour of the under side.

CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 49

They both fly together all the year round, but the males

are most often seen when the roads are wet. In habits they

resemble atrata, but both sexes seem particularly fond of the

blossom of acacia czesia, which is, I believe, also the food

plant of the larve. The tailed form is far the commonest,

though both are very abundant.

They both vary much in the markings on the under side, and

specimens can be taken of both in which the basal strige fail

to reach vein 1.

T have seen a few specimens in Galle, Colombo, Jatina,

Trincomalee, Anuradhapura, &c., but they seem commonest

in the hills. Common at Ratnapura.

98. NACADUBA NOREIA.—This name is usually given to the

tailless form of ardates, but both De Niceville and Bingham

point out that this does not at all agree with Felder’s descrip-

tion. The two main distinctions are :—

(1) The external margin is less convex.

(2) The basal strigze on the under side of the fore wing do

not extend below the median vein.

I have four males and two females which seem to answer

this description. The males are a much brighter purple than

ardates, and have a fairly broad purple-brown border. The

females have a very bright blue patch on both wings, as bright

on the lower wings as the upper; this I have never seen in

ardates. In both sexes the fore wings are distinctly pointed,

though not so much as in viola. The marginal spots on the

lower wing of the female are obsolete, except in interspace 2,

as Felder says ; and the under side agrees with his description

in every particular. :

It is so rare that I do not care to express a decided opinion

as to whether it is a distinct species, or merely a variety of

ardates, but the few specimens I have seem to be quite as

worthy of specific rank as dana, and I have seen no signs of

gradation.

All my specimens are from the Haldummulla district,

Felder described it from a specimen taken at Nuwara

Eliya.

7 6(2)18

50 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Since writing the above I have received 2 33 from

Wellawaya and 2 9° from Kandy.

99. JamipEs Bocuus, M. & De N.; Lampides bochus, B. &

E.—Also found in India, Burma, Malaya, &c.

Varies a good deal in the width of the black border.

Bingham says that, measured on the dorsum of the male,

this takes up one-fourth of the wing. In my specimens one-

sixth is nearer the average. The female varies far more than

the male in this respect.

It is exceedingly plentiful all over the southern half of the

Island, and flies at Haldummulla all the year round. It

occasionally flights in great numbers, and these flights are

usually composed of dwarf specimens 22-25 mm. in expanse.

T have taken it from sea level to over 6,000 feet, and it seems

to be equally plentiful in Galle and Nuwara Eliya. I have no

notes of its occurrence in the north of the Island.

The male sometimes settles on wet roads, but prefers

flowers.

“* Caught in North-Central Province ”’ (F. M. Mackwood).

100. LamprpEs ELPIs.—Also in India and Malaya.

Common at Haldummulla, especially in March, April,

and May. At times it becomes a pest in cardamom

clearings.

The male varies little, and the female only in the width of

the black border to the fore wing.

It is not given to settling on wet roads, but is usually found

on bushes at the edge of jungle.

I found it very common near Galle in February and March,

but have never seen it in the north of the Island.

101. Lamprpes corvscans.—Peculiar to Ceylon and very

local. =

The male varies little, but the female a great deal in the

amount of blue on the upper side.

I used formerly to get this plentifully near Haldummulla,

in a jungle which is now part of Mentenne rubber estate.

Since this was cleared it has apparently disappeared from the

district.

The specimens from there were rather smaller than those

from wetter districts.

CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 51

I have found it in fair numbers at Watering Point, Galle,

in April, and it is common sometimes at Kottawa, and at

Deniyaya. I have also specimens from Ratnapura.

“Found also in Kelani Valley and Dolosbage” (I. M.

Mackwood).

102. LamprpEs LacTEATA, B. & E.; Lampides pseudel pis,

M.—Peculiar to Ceylon.

Bingham thought it might be “ an occasional variation ”’

of L. elpis.

The differences from elpis are very marked, and it shows no

tendency to grade.

In the ¢ it is best distinguished by the absence of the sub-

terminal row of black spots on the hind wing, and the much

narrower terminal black border of the upper wing. In the

? the ground colour is much paler, and the basal half of the

costa is blue, not black as in elpis ; it is much more like the

female celeno than elpis.

In both sexes the large spot in interspace 2 of the under side

of the hind wing is very different, being larger and roughly

pentagonal, instead of round, as in elpis.

It is not given to settling on wet roads.

Not common at Haldummulla, but may be taken in May,

June, November, and December. .

I have also taken it at Wellawaya and Monaragala, and

have received specimens from Ratnapura and Deniyaya.

« Abundant at times in Lady Horton’s Walk, Kandy, near

the Pavilion ” (F. M. Mackwood).

103. LaAMPIDES CELENO, B. & E.; Lampides elianus, M.i—

Also found in India, Malaya, China, &c.

The upper side varies very little. The under side varies in

the ground colour and markings, but I cannot see that the

variations depend on climate.

The male is often seen settled on wet roads, but both sexes

are more frequently found on the bushes and grass by the

road side.

The male has the same habit as H. bolina of taking up a

position for days, and attacking every butterfly of about its

own size that passes.

52 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Exceedingly plentiful all the year round at Haldummulla,

and I have taken it from Galle to Mannar, but it is commonest

in the south. It is common in Nuwara Eliya.

104. CATACHRYSOPS STRABO.—Also found in India, Malaya,

Australia, &c.

Very common in Ceylon, everywhere at low elevations, but

becomes rare above 3,000 feet.

In his key to the genus Catachrysops (Bombay Nat. Hist.

Journal, Vol. XXIII., p. 491), Bell gives, as the distinction

between the species, the fact that strabo has “ a dot on costa

between discocellulars and post-discal band of spots.” This

dot is sometimes absent in Ceylon specimens of strabo, and

I have a specimen of cnejus which shows it. In strabo and

lithargyria the eyes are hairy, in pandava and cnejus they are

smooth.

Not given to settling on wet roads, but both sexes fly low

in open ground and settle on flowers, &c. It is especially

plentiful in abandoned low-country paddy fields and chenas.

I have specimens from all over the low-country, from Galle

to Jaffna, and the males show no marked variation dependent

on climate, &c.; the females, however, vary in the amount of

blue on the upper surface.

105. CATACHRYSOPS LITHARGYRIA.—This is said to be

found wherever strabo exists, but I believe that the only

females known were caught in Ceylon. Bingham thinks it is

only a variety of strabo, and says: “Nor has any corres-

ponding difference been found among the females, while in

the blue males the markings are precisely the same as those

of typical males.”

These remarks cannot poste refer to Ceylon specimens.

The 3 differs not only in colour, but in the shape of the wings,

and on the under side the markings are far broader, better

defined, and an entirely different colour, the general appear-

ance being very dissimilar. The female is much larger than

any specimens of strabo I have seen, and the blue on the

upper side is paler ; the markings on the under side agree with

those of the male, though lighter in colour, but are even

broader. Moreover, it is apparently constant, and I have

seen no signs of its grading into strabo.

CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 58

The male may easily be mistaken for L. celeno on the wing,

as the colour is the same, though paler.

It is very rare. I have taken one ¢ and three 2 on this

estate in the tea, and one ¢ settled on leopard’s dung at

Wellawaya.

“ Captured at Puttalam, Lunugala, and Haragam, near

Kandy ” (F. M. Mackwood). -

106. CaTacHRysops cNEJUS.—Also in India, China,

Malaya, and Australia.

Rather a local fly. Very rare at Haldummulla, but is

common in a few places in the low-country of Uva. Very

plentiful in the Northern Province.

The males can be readily distinguished from the males of

other species of Catachrysops in Ceylon by having on the

upper side of the hind wing two nearly equal-sized black spots,

one each in interspaces 1 and 2. The females have both these

spots crowned with orange.

It is very variable in size, in the ground colour of the under

side, and in the amount of blue on the upper side of the female.

Var. contracta is apparently only a dwarf form and grades into

cnejus.

In Southern India it is frequently a serious pest to the

gram crops.

Localities : Hambantota, Wellawaya, Galgamuwa (North-

Western Province), Anuradhapura, Jafina, &c.

** Kandy and Colombo ” (F. M. Mackwood).

107. Catachrysops pandava.—Also found in India, Malaya,

&c. There are two very distinct forms of this in Ceylon, which

apparently do not fly together, and might be separated as

different races, if not species :—

(1). The large form, or true pandara. Average about 30 mm.

The male is a bright lavender-blue, with the veins very

clearly marked. The fore wing with a brown terminal border

over 1 mm. wide. Hind wing with a sub-terminal series of

black spots, edged outwardly by a white line, the one in

interspace 2 being sometimes inwardly bordered by red.

Under side hind wing: sub-basal row of four black spots

edged with white.

54 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

(2) The small form. Average about 20 mm.

The male is a rather dulk-violet-blue (almost matching Z.

parrhasius 3), the markings of the veins very indistinct. The

brown marginal border on the fore wing is extremely narrow,

and the sub-terminal spots and white line on the hind wing

are wanting, except in interspaces 1 and 2. Under side hind

wing : sub-basal row of three black spots, of which the lower

is often very indistinct.

The two females are very similar, but the smaller race have

the blue on the upper side much darker, and on the under side

show only three sub-basal spots instead of fowr. The eyes are

smooth.

The large race is very common in the low-country of Uva,

and is a very rare visitor to Haldummulla. I have not taken

it above 3,000 feet.

The males settle in numbers on wet patches on the roads

or on the sand in river beds, and have rather a quick flight

if disturbed. They usually, however, settle again quickly.

The females are much scarcer, and are most likely to be found

on weeds in abandoned paddy fields or chenas.

The small form is apparently confined to the dry zone, and

is extremely common in the Northern Province. Its habits

are those of a Zizera, both sexes fluttering about together over

short grass, and frequently settling on flowers. I have never

seen the male on wet patches on the roads. It is especially

plentiful at Elephant Pass (Jaffna) in December and January.

I have never yet found both forms in the same district.

The small form occurs sparingly at Hambantota, so one might

expect to find both near Tanamalwila, on the boundary of the

Uva and Southern Provinces.-“So far I have failed to take

either there. I have taken the large form at Trincomalee.

108. Tarucus THEOPHRASTUS.—Also in North Africa,

Socotra, Arabia, India, &c.

There are two varieties of the under side. In the first, all

the black markings are very slender, and the post-discal band

on both wings is a practically continuous slender line. In the

second the markings are much broader, and sometimes rusty

brown in colour. The post-discal band on the fore wing

consists of six well-separated oblong spots ; on the hind wing

CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 55

of eight spots, of which the middle three or four are crescent-

shaped. I have taken both forms together, and think they

are only seasonal. They apparently grade into one another.

A very local fly, and apparently found only in the driest

districts.

It is very abundant on the bund of Tissamaharama tank,

and the sand dunes at Kirinda in the Hambantota District,

in February and March. Also on the bund of Murunkan tank,

near Mannar, in November. Fairly common at Kankesan-

turai on the north coast, and at Fort Frederick, Trincomalee.

It flies slowly near the ground and frequently settles on

flowers, so is very easy to capture.

109. Tarucus puinius, M., B., & E.; Tarucus telicanus,

De N.—Also in Africa, India, Burma, Malaya, and Australia.

Very plentiful at Haldummulla, and I have taken it in every

month but December. Its range extends from sea level to

over 6,000 feet.

I have taken it at Jaffna, Mannar, Vavuniya, and Hamban-

tota, but not in the wet zone.

The male frequently settles on wet roads, and when dis-

turbed has a rather quick flight, and does not usually return.

They are easiest to catch when flying round Indigofera anil,

which is, I fancy, the food plant.

‘“* Also on the seed pods of the “ise. and _ blue-flowered

plumbago plant ” (F. M. Mackwood).

110. CastTaLivus Rosimon.—Also in India,. Burma,

Malaya, &c.

Very plentiful all over the low-country of Ceylon, but

becomes rarer above 3,000 feet;.. dt is commonest at Haldum-

mulla in the dry season, June-August.

T have noticed it all over the low-country, from Galle to

Jaffna. It prefers open country, and especially road sides ;

flies slowly, and is very easy to catch. It settles in numbers

on wet patches on the roads.

It varies a great deal in the amount of black on the upper

surface, but the variation does not seem to depend much on

climate. Several of my lightest-marked specimens are from

Galle (wet zone), and my two darkest are from Haldummulla

(medium) and Jaffna (dry zone).

56 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

111. Castatius ErHiIon.—Also in India, Burma, Malaya,

&e.

Much more a jungle fly than the last, and is fond of settling

on a twig or leaf projecting over a jungle path.

Is found nearly all the year round at Haldummulla, but is

usually commonest in April and May.

It is common in the south of the Island, especially in the

wetter districts, and I have taken it up to 5,000 feet elevation

at Haputale. I have so far not taken it north of Dambulla.

112. CasTaLius DECIDEA.—Also in India and Burma.

Moore also gives C. hamatus, but Bingham says this is only

the wet season form. They certainly grade into one another.

In Ceylon the variation seems to depend very little on

rainfall. Some of mine with an exceptionally narrow band

(viz., hamatus} were taken here in the dry season, and some

with the broadest band were taken from March to May,

when there is a tair rainfall. Others are from Galle, which is

in the wet zone.

It is a jungle fly, with habits like the last, except that it

apparently flights at times.

It seldom settles on wet patches on the roads, like rosimon.

I have ‘only taken it in the southern half of the Island, and

never at any great elevation. It is very plentiful at times at

Galle, and I have also taken it at Kegalla and Peradeniya.

113. Potyommarus Ba@ricus.—Europe, Asia, Africa, and

Australia. It is said to have been taken in England, and is

included in English lists as “ the long-tailed blue.”

One of the commonest butterflies. Is found everywhere,

and is equally common in Galle, Jaffna, and Nuwara Eliya.

It varies very greatly in size, dwarf forms being very

common. The female varies in the amount and shade of

blue on the upper side.

114. Ampiypopia Antta, De N. & E.; Amblypodia darana

and naradoides, M.-Also found in India, Burma, Siam; and

Borneo. ;

Moore says darana is larger than naradoides, the male being

a darker blue and the marginal band narrower ; the anal lobe

is red only in the middle, its margin and the tail being black.

The @ is uniformly brown above. I have not yet acquired

CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 57

any specimens of males answering to this description. Moore

says it is found at Kottawa. I have one 3 from there, but it

exactly matches all my other specimens, and I faney darana

is only a seasonal form. I have a specimen of the brown 9

from Tangalla, and another with only a trace of blue from

Haldummulla. By far the largest 9 I have has a large blue

patch.

Anita is very abundant in parts of the low-country of Uva.

The best place I know for it is Wellawaya, where the males

can often be seen in hundreds, settled on wet roads or any

filth. If disturbed they only tly a short distance, and return

very quickly. I have frequently covered half a dozen with

one stroke of my net.

The female is exceedingly rare. I have taken two (on this

estate) in twenty-seven years, and have seen one taken at

Wellawaya. I have specimens from Tangalla and Kandy.

‘“ Males abundant in the neighbourhood of Kandy ; females

very scarce’ (I. M. Mackwood).

115. Iraora TIMOLEON, De N.; /raota mecenas, M.; [raota

timoleon niceviller, H.—Evans thinks the Ceylon specimens are a

distinct race. Tmoleon is found in India, China, and Malaya.

Very rare. I have taken a single specimen at Haldum-

mulla in June, which appeared to be freshly hatched. I have

three from Colombo.

I know nothing of its habits from actual observation.

“ Feeds on the Banyan tree; emergence about March.

Has been taken in the Knuckles district, and around Kandy ”

(F. M. Mackwood).

116. SurRENDRA DiIscALis, M.; Surendra quercetorum, De

N.; Surendra quercetorum discalis, E.—Discalis is smaller than

quercetorum, which is found in India, Burma, and the Dutch

Indies.

Formerly common at Haldummulla, but Acacia cxsia, its

food plant, is apparently being killed out by Lantana here. 1

have also taken it at Wellawaya, Matara, Kegalla, Madampe,

Dambulla, &e.

None of my specimens show any sign of variation, except

in size. It generally settles on a bush at no great height, and

if disturbed flies a short distance only, so is easy to catch.

8 6(2)18

58 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Usually there are several specimens together, so if one is

caught, an examination of the bushes near will probably lead

to the capture of others.

117. ARHOPALA PIRAMA, De N.; Nilasera pirama, M.;

Arhopala centaurus pirama, E.—A\lso found in Southern India.

Rare in Uva. I found it once in abundance at Obergoda,

on the Muppane-Pottuvil road, in June, in the dry bed of a

river. It only flew a short distance and settled on the bushes,

so was easy to catch.

I have specimens caught at Kandy and Trincomalee in April.

** Taken at Colombo and Galle’ (F. M. Mackwood).

118. ARHOPALA AMANTES, De N. & E.; Nilasera amantes,

M.—Also found in India, Burma, the Andamans, &c.

It can at once be distinguished from the last by having a

distinct lobe in the anal angle of the hind wing.

I have not yet taken it in Uva, but found it common near

Galle, on nutmeg trees. If disturbed it almost always returns

to the same tree at once, so is very easy to catch.

I have specimens from Colombo and Ratnapura.

“ Plentiful around Kandy ” (F. M. Mackwood),.

118 a. ARHOPALA, Nov. sp.—Last April I procured seven

males and one female of an entirely new Arhopala in the forest

between Kottawa and Udagama. I sent a specimen to the

Indian Museum, Calcutta, for identification, and received the

reply that “ the species does not appear to be represented

either in our general collection of butterflies, or in the De

Niceville collection.” It is therefore apparently new to the

Indian region. When it is again safe to send parcels to

England I hope to send one.to the British Museum to be

named. i

119. ARHOPALA ABSEUS.—Also found in India, Burma,

Malaya, &c. Not mentioned in Moore.

Ihave never taken this, but have specimens from Ratnapura

given to me by Mr. Mackwood.

While fishing at Ambawela (6,000 feet) I saw a very small

Arhopala. It settled close to me, and I think it must have

been this species. Unfortunately I could not get my net in

time. -

‘“* Has been taken in Colombo ” (F. M. Mackwood).

CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 59

1194. There are two specimens in the Colombo Museum

labelled abseus (Nos. 829 and 3,484), from Mr. Pole’s collection.

No localities are given. They are much larger than, and very

distinct from, all the specimens of abseus from Ratnapura, and

should be re-named.

120. CureEtis THETIS, B. & E.; Curetis thetys, M.—Also

found in India, Indo-China, and Malaya.

Very common in the drier parts of the low-country. The

male is very plentiful at Wellawaya, and is almost always

found settled on wet roads and river beds. The female is

scarce there. At Anuradhapura I have found the male scarce,

but the female common. I have specimens from Elephant

Pass (Jaffna), Mannar, Dambulla, &c., and have taken one

on this estate (3,000 feet).

It is a most variable insect. I have two males, which

correspond exactly to Bingham’s description of var. arcuata,

and there is a similar one in the Colombo Museum. My other

males vary much in the shape of the wings and in the width

of the black border on the fore wing ; this border is almost

always produced a short way up each vein of both wings.

The female usually has far less white than in Bingham’s

description and plate. In only one of my specimens does. it

reach to vein 1.

Bingham says, writing of the under side of the female: “‘ In

no specimen that I have seen is there any trace of the outer

sub-terminal line of dark dots.”

In three of my specimens these are far more distinct than

in the males, and in all some of the spots are visible.

121. ZEsIUS CHRYSOMALLUS.—Also in India.

A common low-country fly, but the male is not rare at

Haldummulla, April to August.

I found it extremely abundant at Kegalla, both sexes being

equally plentiful on the tea, October to February. It is not

rare at Watering Point, Galle, Jaffna, and Mannar.

The male varies very little, but the female is most variable

in the quantity and colour of the blue on the upper side. In

some of my specimens it is reduced to a few blue scales at the

base of the fore wing, while in others the wings are pale. or

dark blue, with a brown border.

60 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

I have found the pupa on the stem of an Albizzia moluccana.

The larvee are always attended by the large red ant, and the

perfect insect may be looked for wherever these ants’ nests

abound.

122. CamMENA DEVA, De N. & E.; Pratapa deva, M—

Found in India, Java, Philippines, &c.

A quite local insect. For very many years past I have

always been able to find the males basking on one tree (Ficus

arnothiana) on this estate, from April to November. The

strong north-east wind entirely defoliates this tree in December,

and the new leaves do not appear till the end of March, and

the butterfly appears with the leaves.

The tree grows out of the side of a precipice, and requires

a long-handled net to reach it. If disturbed, the males fly

round and settle again, and never seem to go a dozen yards

from the tree.

I have never seen a male anywhere except within twenty

yards of this tree, and have never seen a female there. The

3 Z. chrysomallus is fond of the same tree, but flies away very

soon if disturbed. I have taken four females on the tea on

this estate, and regard them as great rarieties. The female

can be at once distinguished from ? 7’. longinus by the absence

of the post-discal band on the upper side of the hind wing.

I know of no other locality.

“‘ Taken in Balangoda, Dolosbage, and Pundalu-oya ” (F. M.

Mackwood).

Arun a=uUS.—This is quite the most difficult genus to name,

and I confess that I am quite unable to hazard a decision as to

how many species should appear in a Ceylon list.

The literature is unfortunately very limited. Moore’s

‘‘ Lepidoptera of Ceylon” only gives four species, viz.,

schistacea, fusca, lazularia (= lohita), and ictis. De Niceville

mentions a great number of spécies, but says that material is

too limited to decide which should stand. Evans gives, from

Ceylon, shistacea, fusca, lohita, ictis, and lilacinus abnormis.

Species given by other writers are greent, minimus, nubilus,

and zebrinus. .

Every species is variable, some very greatly so, and freaks

seem to be common. There is also evidently a tendency, in

CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 61

the ics group, to form small local races, so it is most

important that all specimens be carefully labelled.

Something might be done by breeding, but the larve

unfortunately require the attention of certain species of ants,

so it is by no means a simple matter to breed them.

There are a very fine series in the Colombo Museum, but

they require a lot of sorting.

123. ApHnaus LoniTa, De N. & E.; Aphnezus lazularia,

M.—Also found in India, Malaya, China, &c.

’ The largest Ceylon Aphnzeus and the easiest to distinguish.

It varies comparatively little on the upper side, but the colour

of the under side varies greatly.

It is usualiy gregarious, and if one is found, a search near

will probably put up others. It is very fond of the blossom

of Microglossa zeylanica, in common with most other species

of Aphnezeus.

It used to be common at Haldummulla, but I have seen only

one specimen there for many years. In February, 1916, it was

very plentiful at Watering Point, Galle, and I have taken it at

Hambantota, and have specimens from Ratnapura.

Its flight is very rapid, but it usually only goes a short

distance and is easy to catch.

** Has been captured at Diyatalawa. Plentiful in southern

parts of the Central Province up to 3,000 feet” (F. M.

Mackwood).

124. Apunaus Fusca, M. & De N.; Aphnexus vulcanus

fusca, E.—Peculiar to Ceylon.

De Niceville eae vulcanus as well, but Evans writes of

Ceylon specimens: “‘ The orange anal patch on hind wing

below is not extended upwards along dorsal margin as in

continental specimens,” 7.¢., vulcanus.

The commonest Aphneus in Ceylon. It varies greatly in

the amount of orange on the fore wing, and in size. On the

upper side of the hind wing the orange anal patch is sometimes

continued nearly the entire length of the termen.

Thave found it in the greatest abundance at Kankesanturai,

on the north coast, in December and January. Very common

at Elephant Pass and Giant’s tank in the Northern Province,

on the hill behind Haldummulla post office, at Hambantota,

62 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

and Tangalla. I have also taken it at Haputale, Kandy, &c.,

but not, so far, at Galle.

Its habits are the same as the last, and it is even easier to

catch. At Kankesanturai I used the killing bottle instead of

the net, as they were so difficult to disturb when feeding at

flowers.

“Found generally north of Kandy, up to 1,500 feet eleva-

tion ” (F. M. Mackwood).

125. APHN&US MINIMUS.—Given in Moore’s“‘ Lepidoptera

Indica ”’ as peculiar to Ceylon. Evans thinks it is a casual

aberration of A. fusca. Ido not think it can stand as distinct.

I have found it with fusca, and it seems to grade. I think it

is only a starved variety. 3

I have specimens from Haldummulla and Anuradhapura.

126. APHN2US GREENI.—Described from a single male

captured at Pundalu-oya. Evans thinks it a casual aberra-

tion of A. fusca.

Considering how common freaks are in this genus, I do not

see how a species can be established on a single specimen.

127. APHNa&US scHIsTACEA.—Also found in India and

Burma.

It is usually larger than fusca, and the males can be

distinguished by the light blue irridescence on the lower wing.

The females are usually still larger, but they seem to grade

with fusca, and I am not always certain that I can separate

them. It is extremely variable, as is usual with the genus.

It is common on a patana ridge near Haldummulla resthouse

and at Haputale, and I have: taken a few specimens at

Kankesanturai, Elephant —— ge ueelies Hambantota, and

near Kurunegala.

128. ApHN#avs IcTIs.—Also found in India.

This is the most difficult species, or group of species, to

name, and I can at present only treat it as a number of local

races.

Bell, in ‘‘ The Common Butterflies of the Plains of India,”

defines it as follows : “‘ Fore wing upper side: brown, with a

large triangular orange patch before apex, reaching the costa,

markings of under side showing through as black spots and

bands.”

CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 63

I know oi no Aphneeus in Ceylon that has an orange patch

reaching to the costa. In most Ceylon races of the ictis group

the orange patch, if present, is very small and diffuse, the

only one with a large clearly-defined patch being—

No. 1.—Very plentiful in the Northern Province.

3.—Upper surface dark brown, with a variable, but usually

well-defined, orange patch on fore wing ; a patch of light blue

scales along the dorsum: lower wing brilliant irridescent blue ;

anal patch usually pale red, with rather large diffuse black spots.

?.—Ground colour slightly paler, orange patch much larger,

occasionally occupying one-third of fore wing ; dorsal portion

of fore wing, and the whole of the hind wing, except anal

patch, covered with pale gray-blue scales. In both sexes the

marking of the under side appears on the orange patch with

exceptional clearness.

Under side, both sexes: very pale gamboge-yellow with

darker markings, occasionally varying into khaki or even,

very rarely, pale reddish-brown.

The markings are always very clearly defined..

I have caught and examined some hundreds of these at

Jaffna and Mannar, and, except for three abnormal specimens,

they seem a fairly constant race or species. One freak is a 3,

upper side both wings pale reddish-brown, with slight blue

irridescence on lower wing. No sign of an orange patch on

fore wing.

Under side pale khaki-brown, the markings very indistinct,

and broken up into more or less round spots with dark borders

and silver centres. The other two are gf and 9, only varying

in entirely wanting the orange patch.

No. 2.—Somewhat resembles the last, but is darker; the

orange patch is very small and very indistinct ; the under

side is reddish-brown with well-defined markings. I have a

single specimen of No. 1 that nearly matches it on the under

side, though very distinct above. This was very plentiful in

the Hambantota district in July, but I did not succeed in

catching a 9. I have taken one g at Haldummulla.

No. 3.—Very near No. 2 on the upper side, except that it is

larger and the blue irridescence is. carried well up into the

upper wing, and the orange spot is sometimes absent.

64 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

The under side is reddish-brown. The markings are very

indistinct, consisting of slender silver lines and a few black

scales. Even the anal patch is merged into the rest of the

ground colour, and the usual black spots are absent.

This is found on the Uva patanas at high elevations, but I

have seen specimens from Badulla.

These are the only three races in my collection, but I think

others could be picked out of the specimens in the Colombo

Museum. Possibly No. 1 may prove to be an extreme dry

season form of Nos. 2 and 3, but in general appearance it is

very distinct.

129. APHNa&Us NuBILUS.—Is said to be distinguished from

A. ictis by the absence of an orange spot on the fore wing of

the male. If this were so, the majority of my specimens of

what I have described as A. ictis—No. 3 race—are nubilus.

At Elephant Pass, in the Jaffna Peninsula, there is a

common Aphnzus which is, I believe, true nubilus. It flies

there with A. ictis, race No. 1, but I have, so far, found it

nowhere else.

It is as widely distinct from ictis—No. 1—in appearance as

any other Aphneus in Ceylon, and I have so far seen no signs

of grading.

$.—Upper side: ground colour intense black, a dark blue

irridescence covering the lower half of the fore wing and all

the hind wing, except the anal patch, which is dark red. It

strongly resembles lohita 3, but the shape of the wings is

different. Under side dark brick-red, with clearly defined

markings ; anal lobe with two large black spots with a border

above varying from yellowish to deep red.

9.—Upper side: ground colour lighter than in the 3; a

small very diffuse orange spot on fore wing, the blue irrides-

cence of the male being replaced by a slight dusting of pale

blue scales. Under side as in ¢.

The very deep red of the under side is in striking contrast

to the gamboge-yellow of A. ictis, No. 1, and they can be at

once distinguished from one another, when settled, as far as

they are visible.

130. APHNAUS LILACINUS ABNORMIS.—Given by Evans as

occurring in Southern India and Ceylon.

CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 65

I do not know it at all, unless two specimens in the Colombo

Museum should prove to be it. .These specimens are g and Q,

and were taken by the Museum collector at Ilipakadavai,

about twenty miles north-east of Mannar.

131. Tagsuria Loneinus, M. & E.; Tajuria cippus, De

N.—Also found in India, Burma, and Malaya.

_It is often very common at Haldummulla, and I have taken

it in every month but February. The larva feeds on Loran-

thus. Neglected orange and lime trees are always infested

with this parasite, and a stone thrown into the top of the tree

will often put up a number of the butterflies. They fly round

rapidly, but soon settle again.

It evidently hatches out in the early morning, and requires

a few hours before it is able to fly fast. If put up then, it

will fly a few yards slowly and settle, and is very easy to

capture in perfect condition.

It is equally plentiful in the Northern Province, and may

either be beaten out of Loranthus-infested trees, or taken at

flowers.

It varies little, except in size.

** All over the Island up to 1,500 feet ” (F. M. Mackwood).

132. TasurRI4a JEHANA.—Also found in India. Not

mentioned by Moore.

It is apparently confined to the N a Province, and the

only place that I have seen it is between Kankesanturai and

Kirimalei on the north coast in July, August, December, and

January.

I found it plentiful on a hedge of Todalia aculeata, which

was in blossom in December and January. I only captured

a few, intending to take more later, but for the rest of my

stay in the district the weather was so bad that I got no more.

It was in company with 7’. longinus, but was easily distin-

guished by the different gray of the under side.

In July, 1916, it was very plentiful in the same place, at

tamarind blossom. The wind was, as usual at that time of

year, very strong, and the butterflies kept to the sheltered

side of the trees, and were easy to catch with a long-handled net.

133. HypoLycana nitotrica, M. & De N.; Chliaria nil-

girica, E.—Also found in Southern India.

9 6(2)18

66 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

An exceedingly rare fly. Ihave taken males at Wellawaya,

settled on wet roads, in March, April, and November, and one

female on this estate in February.

“A searce fly, with extensive range. Has been caught at

Matale (2,000 feet), Kandy, Puttalam, Jaffna, West Dolosbage,

and Henaratgoda ”’ (F. M. Mackwood).

134. CHERITRA JAFFRA, De N.; Cheritra pseudojaffra, M

Cheritra freja jaffra, E—Also found in Southern India. Evans

says the Ceylon race only differs from jaffra in size.

Not rare in the low-country of Uva, but has a habit of

settling too high for an ordinary net to reach. Generally

several will be found together.

I have taken it at Wellawaya, Telulla, Tanamalwila,

Kumbukkan, and Hambegama, in the low-country of Uva,

and have specimens from Ratnapura.

It seems to vary very little, except in size.

** Found in heavy chenas around Kandy, Kurunegala, and

in the Kelani Valley ” (F. M. Mackwood).

135. Raruinpa AmMor.—Also found in India.

Found all over the Island, from sea level to 3,000 feet at

least. Fairly common at Haldummulla. Plentiful at Galle

and Jaffna.

Settles on bushes, and flies a very short distance if disturbed.

Varies very little.

136. HoraGa CINGALENSIS, De N.; Horaga ciniata, M.;

Horaga onyx cingalensis, E.—Peculiar to Ceylon.

Exceedingly rare. I have never seen a living specimen.

I have one, given to me a) Mr. Mackwood, caught at Kandy

in September.

‘“‘ Found at Kandy several months of the year. Very local

and scarce. Latterly a few specimens taken near Ratna-

pura ” (F. M. Mackwood).

137. CATAPACILMA ELEGANS.—Found in India, Burma,

and Malaya.

When I first came to this estate in 1889, this butterfly was

plentiful on one field of tea. An adjoining chena was then

cleared, and it entirely disappeared, and I never saw another

specimen till August, 1915, when I took a male near Haldum-

mulla kaddies.

CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 67

I have never come across it in my travels, so it must either

be very rare or very local.

“Found around Kandy resting on stems of sunflower

plants during the heat of the day. Has been taken in

Maskeliya, Ratnapura, &c.” (F. M. Mackwood).

138. Loxura arouata, M. & De N.; Loxura atymnus

arcuata, K.—Peculiar to Ceylon.

Common at Haldummulla, and I have taken it in every

month but February. Common at Galle, and I have speci-

mens from Ratnapura and Madampe.

It varies very greatly in the shade of the ground colour, the

amount of black on the lower wing, and the markings on the

under side.

I have noticed that the colour fades a great deal if it is left

too long in the killing bottle (cyanide).

Generally found fluttering along the edges of jungle or

chenas, and is very easy to catch.

“Common in Central and North-Western Provinces to

about 2,000 feet ” (F. M. Mackwood).

139. DEvDoRIX EPIJARBAS, M. & De N.; Deudoryx epi-

jarbas, E.—Also found in India, Malaya, China, &c.

Common at Haldummulla, especially when flighting. There

was a very large flight in August, 1915, travelling west, and

small ones often arrive about December.

I noticed an exceptionally large flight at Pattipela, in

November, 1917.

I have also taken it at Galle, Hambantota, Jaffna, Mannar,

Anuradhapura, and Ratnapura,

The male varies in the amount of red, especially on the

lower wing. The female seems very constant.

Is fond of settling on the tea and on low bushes, but flies off

very strongly if disturbed, and cannot be relied on to settle

again quickly.

“ Fond of the cultivated Lantana in gardens. Has been

taken at Nuwara Eliya” (F. M. Mackwood).

140. RapaLa scHIstaceA.—Found in India and Malaya.

Not mentioned by Moore.

Usually very common at Haldummulla all the year round.

I believe the larva feeds on tea blossom inter alia.

68 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

It is always to be found on tea which has run some time from

pruning ; if disturbed it flies very rapidly round and settles

quickly, generally on the same bush, so is easy to catch. It

visits flowers freely, and seems especially fond of Pointsettva.

I have taken it at Anuradhapura, at the blossom of Micasea

scandens, and also at Jaffna and Trincomalee.

‘“‘ Found in Central Province generally, up to 2,500 feet”

(F. M. Mackwood).

141. Rapata LazuLina, M.& De N.; Rapala varuna, E.—

Also in India.

Can be distinguished at once from the last, R. schistacea, by the

much broader bands on the underside. The male has none of the

brilliant blue irridescence on the upper side that schistacea has.

Very rare at Haldummulla, and it is many years since I

caught one. Commoner at lower elevations in Uva. I have

taken it in company with R. schistacea, at Anuradhapura, at

the blossom of Micasea scandens. I have also specimens from

Galle and Ratnapura.

** Found from Galle to Anuradhapura, up to 3,000 feet ”’

(F. M. Mackwood),

142. RapaLaA LANKANA, De N. & E.; Deudorix lankana,

M.—Also found in Southern India.

I have never taken this, and my only specimen was caught

by a native dealer—he said ‘‘ at Colombo.”

It is found in the wettest district, viz., from Ratnapura to

the Kottawa forest.

“Caught near Ratnapura, March, May, October, and

December” (F. M. Mackwood).

143. RapaLA MELAMPUS.—Also in India, Burma, Dutch

Indies, &c. Not mentioned by Moore.

I took one male at the blossom of Todalia aculeata, near

Kankesanturai (Jaffna), in December. It is apparently

confined to the Northern Province.

The upper side of the male is bright red, and the female dull

brick-red, and they may easily be mistaken for D. epijarbas.

In fact, I believed my only specimen was epijarbas when I

first saw it in the net.

Mr. Fairlie took it at the blossom of tamarind trees in July,

at Manipai, Jaffna.

CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 69

144. Brypawara suariva, De N.; Bindahara phocides, M. ;

Bindahara sugriva moorei, E.—B. sugriva is found in Southern

India, Java, Sumatra, &c. Sometimes common at Haldum-

mulla.

The larva feeds inside the fruit of a creeper, called by the

Sinhalese Himbatu (Salacea reticulata). An examination of

these fruits will often show the eggs, usually near the stalk,

and a hole by which the larva has entered. Curiously enough

there are almost invariably two or more eggs, but I have never

found more than one larva in the fruit.

When fully fed it leaves the fruit, and evidently burrows

into the bark of some tree. I had great difficulty in rearing

them at first, as, if they could not burrow to pupate, they

died. I then gave them a sheet of cabinet cork, and it seemed

to be just what they wanted ; the burrows were usually about

one inch long.

Note—Do not cut open the fruit to get the larve, or they

will probably die.

My specimens show very little variation.

I have also taken it at Galle, Kegalla, and Kandy, and

found it plentiful at the hot springs near Trincomalee in October.

“ Very plentiful in the Matale district. Taken also around

Ratnapura ” (F. M. Mackwood).

145. VIRACHOLA IsocRATES.—Also in India.

I have found this at Kirinda, in the Hambantota district,

in February, at Elephant Pass (Jaffna) in December and

January. And at Murunkan, near Mannar, in July, on the

blossom of Derris scandens. The males are much less rare

than the females. :

*“ Low-country, generally’ where the pomegranate grows,

as the larva feeds on its fruit ” (F. M. Mackwood).

146. VIRACHOLA PERSE.—Also in India.

I took this, with the last, at Kirinda (near Hambantota), in

February, and one female at Hambegama tank, in the low-

country of Uva, in July, and have seen it caught at Wellawaya.

I have found it so rare that I know nothing of its habits.

“* Similar range to the preceding, food plant being the same ”’

(F. M. Mackwood).

(Zo be continued.)

70 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

APHIDIDA: OF CEYLON.

By P. vAN DER Goot. (Salatiga, Java.)

(With two Illustrations.)

P to the present time but little has been recorded about

the Aphidide which occur in Ceylon. The most

important Ceylon publication on this interesting group of

insects is a paper by Mr. H. Schouteden, of Brussels, entitled

** Notes on Ceylonese Aphides’”’ (“‘ Spolia Zeylanica,”’ Vol. IT.,

Part VIII., 1905, pages 181-189). This paper gives us a

fairly good description of four Ceylonese plant lice, namely,

Greenidea artocarpi, Westw., Lachnus greeni, Schout., Oregma

bambuse, Buckt., and Ceratopemphigus zehntnert, Schout.

Since then little or no further systematic work has been

done on this group of insects in Ceylon. In the course of 1913

and 1914 a number of Aphidide, collected by the late Mr. A.

Rutherford, the Government Entomologist of Ceylon, were

submitted to me for determination. Most of them were either

well-known species, or had already been previously collected

by me in Java ; two of them appeared to be new to science.

A list of the plant lice in this collection may, perhaps, be of

some value in increasing our knowledge of Ceylonese insects ;

with the kind permission of Mr. Rutherford I therefore give

a list of the plant lice observed, together with a description of

the two new species.

List of Ceylon Aphidide, eolleeted by Mr. Rutherford.

Macrosiphum, minutum, nov. | Longiunguts spathodex, v.d.G.

sp. Brachycaudus helichrysi, Kalt.

Macrosiphum rose, L. Greenidea artocaryi, Westw.

Micromyzus nigrum, v.a.G. Greenideoida ceyloniz, nov. sp.

Toxoptera aurantit, Boyer. Shivaphis celti, Das.

Toxoptera minuta, v.d.G. Oregma insularis, v.d.G.

Aphis gossypit, Glov. Oregma minuia, v.d.G.

Aphis tavaresi, Del Guercio. Cerataphis latanex, Boisd.

Aphis medicaginis, Koch.

APHIDID OF CEYLON. 71

Notes on the above-mentioned Aphidide.

Macrosiphum minutum, nov. sp.—

Apterous viviparous female-——Examples of some measure-

ments :—

Length of body .. 2°34 mm. | Lengthofsiphunculi 0-63 mm.

Breadth of body .. 1°17 mm.| Length of cauda .. 0°45 mm.

Length of antenne. . —

Colour.—Body brownish. Eyes black. Antenne yellowish-

brown, darker towards the tip. Legs yellowish-white ;

the tarsi, the tip of the tibiz, and the greater part of the femora

blackish. Cornicles and cauda black. (Notes from specimen

preserved in alcohol.)

Fie. 1.—Macrosiphum minutum, n. sp.

HINDER PART OF ABDOMEN OF WINGLESS FEMALE (UPPER SIDE),

Morphological Characters—Body ovate, the dorsum with

transverse rows of spiny hairs, which do not arise from tuber-

cles ; the hairs are mostly slightly knobbed at the apex.

Antenne partially broken off in all specimens examined,

with a few stout spines. The third antennal joint bears only

a single sensorium near its base. Frontal tubercles strongly

developed.

Rostrum reaching to the third coxe.

72 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Siphunculi fairly long and thin, their basal half distinctly

enlarged ; the top part of the cornicles is finely reticulate.

Cauda ensiform, about quarter shorter than the cornicles.

Legs long and slender, with scattered short spines.

Life History—This small Macrosiphum was captured by

Mr. Rutherford in May, 1914, living on Vernonia cinerea.

Only a few wingless specimens could be discovered at that time.

Locality —Peradeniya.

Macrosiphum rose, L.—Collected on roses, only wingless

specimens present.

Locality —Peradeniya.

Mycromyzus nigrum, v.d.G.*—A few winged and wingless

individuals of this small species were collected by Mr. Ruther-

ford on ferns (17-11-13); some months later (11-7-14) a

single-winged female was observed on cinnamon (Cinna-

momum, sp.). In Java only ferns have been observed as

host plants.

Locality —Peradeniya.

Toxoptera aurantii, Boyer.—The author’s recent observa-

tions on this species have proved that Toxoptera aurantti has

a very wide range of food plants. In Ceylon it has been

collected by Mr. Rutherford on the following host plants :

Celtis cinnamomea (on flowers), Cynometra cauliflora (on

inflorescences), Hugenia mooniana (on apex of twigs), Fla-

courtia ramontcht (on young shoots), Mesuaferrea (on young

twigs), and on Plumbago capensis. On Mesua the colonies

were attended by the well-known ant @cophylla smaragdina.

Locality.—Peradeniya.

Toxoptera minuta, v.d.G.—A single specimen was captured

on the wing. In Java the author has observed a Cyperace

(Fimbrystilis diphylla) as a food-plant of this species.

Locality —Peradeniya.

Aphis gossypii, Glov.—This widely spread and polyphagous

species has been collected by Mr. Rutherford on Aristolochia

indica, on an Euphorbiaceous weed, and on Solanum torvum.

On the latter food-plant the colonies were attended by the red

* This and following species, bearing the author’s name, are described

in full in his recent publication on Javanese plant lice (Zur Kenntnis der

Blattlause Java’s. Contributions & la faune des Indes neerlandaises.

Vol. I., fase, iii., 1915).

APHIDID A OF CEYLON. 73

ant Gcophylla smaragdina ; though the infestation was heavy,

only a single Syrphid larva was observed.

Locality —Peradeniya.

Aphis tavaresi, Del Guercio—Observed on Citrus, sp.

only wingless specimens collected.

Locality —Peradeniya.

Aphis medicaginis, Koch.—Collected on Crotalaria striata ;

the colonies consisted chiefly of wingless individuals.

Locality.—Peradeniya.

Longiunguis spathodee, v.d.G.—A number of wingless

and winged females of this species were collected by Mr.

Rutherford on the shoots of Panax, sp. The colonies were

exterminated by Syrphid larve and by an Aphidius, sp. This

same species has been collected by the author in Java on

Gardenia florida, Senecio tenuifolia, and Spathodea diepenhorstt.

Locality.—Peradeniya.

Brachycaudus helichrysi, Kalt —A few wingless specimens

were collected by Mr. Rutherford on Memer glover [? Meme-

cylon.—Kd.].

Locality —Peradeniya.

Greenidea artocarpi, Westw.—A number of apterous and

alate females belonging to this species have been collected on

the young shoots of the jak tree (Artocarpus integrifolia).

Locality —Peradeniya.

Greenideoida ceyloniz, nov. sp.—

Apterous viviparous female-—Examples of some measure-

ments of the body :-—

Length of body .. 2:50mm. | Lengthofsiphuneuli 2: 16mm,

Breadth of body .. 0°72 mm.j|Length of cauda .. —

Length of antenne.. 2°70 mm.

Colour.—Body pinkish-white (from notes by Mr. Rutherford

on the living insect).

Morphological Characters.—Body elongate, slightly arched,

nearly naked, except the margins of the body, which bear a

few very short, slightly capitate hairs.

Antennz about as long as the body, seven-jointed (the

processus terminalis considered as a true joint); relative

lengths of the last five joints about as 60, 23, 25, 18, 32.

Primary sensoriz apparently without hair fringe.

10 6(2)18

74 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Rostrum slender, reaching to the third coxe.

Siphuneuli very long, not much shorter than the body,

nearly cylindrical, with rather short hairs. Cauda nearly

obsolete, obtuse. Rudimentary gonapophyse 3, often in-

distinct.

Legs normally built, with a few short hairs.

een ee

Fie. 2.—Greenideoida ceylonee, n. sp.

FORE AND HIND WINGS OF ALATE FEMALE,

Alate viviparous female.—-Examples of some measurements :

Length of body .. 2°35 mm. | Lengthofsiphunculi 2°70 mm.

Breadth of body .. 0°72 mm. | Expanse of wings.. 7:90 mm.

Length of antennee. . — Length of cauda .. —

Colour.—Body brownish-black ; the sides of meso and meta-

thorax, the base and the apex of the abdomen yellowish-brown.

Venter yellowish-brown. Eyes crimson. Antenne black.

Legs dusky white. Cornicles black. Pterostigma of fore

wings black.

(Notes on living insects by Mr. Rutherford.)

Morphological Characters *-Body elongate, nearly naked.

Antenne broken off in the specimens examined ; the third

joint bears about 23 fairly large sensorie. The antenne are

placed on very small frontal tubercles.

Rostrum, siphunculi, and cauda as in the wingless form.

Wings hyaline, the fore wings with the pterostigma very

long, extending to near the tip of the wing ; sector radi short

and nearly straight, the media I. only once forked, the media IT.

somewhat curved. Hind wings very small, with only a single

longitudinal vein. Hooking hairs 2°in number.

(Description from two specimens.)

APHIDID® OF GEYLON. 715

life History—tThis interesting species was discovered by

Mr. Rutherford on May 11, 1914, feeding on the young foliage

of Mesua ferrea. Only a few winged individuals could be

collected at that time.

The species is preyed on by Syrphid larvee and parasitized

by an Aphidius, spec.; the parasitized insects are black in

colour and somewhat circular.

Locality —Peradeniya.

Shivaphis ecelti, Das.—A number of winged females and a

few wingless ones were observed by Mr. Rutherford on the

under surface of leaves of Celtis cinnamomea. The insects

are very conspicuous owing to their white waxy coating and

the large amount of a yellowish liquid (honey-dew) which

they secrete. The same species has been found by Mr. B. Das

in the neighbourhood of Lahore (British India).

Locality —Peradeniya.

Oregma insularis, v.d.G.—Of this species a number of

wingless individuals were collected on the under surface of

leaves of bamboo (Dendrocalamus strictus). The colonies

were attended by (cophylla smaragdina, the red ant. The

same species is fairly common on bamboos in Java.

Locality — Peradeniya.

Oregma minuta, v.d.G.—Some alate and apterous females

of this species were observed on the under surface of leaves of

Dendrocalamus strictus, where they were attended by small

blackish ants (Cremastogaster, sp.).

Locality —Peradeniya.

Cerataphis lataneze, Boisd——A large number of apterous

females were found on the inflorescences of an Areca palm.

Locality —Peradeniya.

76 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

A NOTE ON LYMANTRIA AMPLA (Walker).

By R. Sentor-Wurre, F.E.S.

(With a coloured Plate.*)

Position.—Order Lepidoptera, Heterocera. Family Lyman-

triide.

Distribution.—Throughout India, Burma, and Ceylon

(Hampson).

Food Plants—Terminalia catappa (De Niceville) ; Ficus

religiosa (Lefroy) ; while in Ceylon I have found it on cacao,

Carissa carandas, geranium, begonia, and rose. It appears to

be extremely polyphagous, not one of the plants mentioned

being even of the same natural order. The normal food plant

in this district is probably cacao.

Occurrence.—There appear to be four broods a year, in

January, April, June, and October.

Eqg.—ggs are laid on the food plant in masses, which may

measure as much as 25 mm. by 15 mm. by 12 mm., and which

contain hundreds of eggs. The individual eggs are pinkish,

over 1 mm. in diameter. The egg mass is covered with buff

down from the body of the female moth.

Larva —The hatching of an egg mass commences in about

11-12 days after laying, and continues irregularly for two or

three days. The young larve make their first meal off the

ego shell, and are at first 3 mm. long, buff in colour; but

within twenty-four hours they darken to light brown, with a

darker bar dorsally on abdominal segments 1-4 and 6-9, the

ends of the bars being rounded off. As is usual with all

Lymantriid larve, there are rings of small hair-bearing papules

on each segment, and on either side of the head is an anteriorly

directed hair pencil, but the large dorsal hair cushions on the

leading abdominal segments so noticeable in other genera of

the family are wanting.

The appearance of the larva remains thus until a length of

15-20 mm. is attained. During this time there are probably

two instars.

LYMANTRIA AMPLA

Stage III

R. S-W. del.

This plate to face page 76 in Vol. XI., Part 40, of “ Spolia Zeylanica.”

LYMANTRIA AMPLA. 77

In the second stage the colour is brown, darker dorsally

throughout, with a bluish spot, faintly ringed with yellow, on

each segment each side of the median line, while, in addition,

on the sixth abdominal segment there is a median red spot

ringed with black, and on the seventh abdominal segment a

median black spot. The hairs are as in the first stage. This

second stage lasts through only one instar. The maximum

length attained is 30 mm.

Third Stage——Colour coffee-brown. There is an inverted

Y-mark on the clypeus. The junction of the pro- and meso-

thorax bears dorsally a broad transverse dark velvety band,

only visible when the segments are extended. There is a

light median line on the three thoracic segments. On each

segment is a dark brown hair-bearing papule each side of the

median line, and on the meta-thorax and abdominal segments

a similar but smaller pair of papules interior to and anterior

of the larger pair. The larger outer papules are connected

transversally across the segment by a dark line, which is

complete on abdominal segments 4, 5, 6, and interrupted

medianly on abdominal segments 2, 3, 7. On the three first-

mentioned segments an inwardly directed dark line leads from

in front of the larger hair papule to the anterior edge of the

segment, but the lines from each side do not meet at the

segmental edge. These lines are prominent only on segment

5 of the abdomen. On the sixth and seventh abdominal

segments is a small dark reddish horn-like process on the

median line. On the anal segment are three additional hair

papules. The anteriorly directed hair pencils from the pro-

thorax are prominent. There are the usual lower rows of

hair papules, those at the lateral position being larger than the

others. This is the last larval stage, and is of one instar

duration only. The length full grown varies with the sex,

the male larve attaining a length of 20-30 mm. only (this

last being exceptional, and found only in the case of one iarva,

to be referred to later, which pupated in stage 2), while the

female larve attain a length of 50 mm. with a corresponding

increase in girth.

Varieties in Larve—In one case | have found a larva, of

normal appearance in stage 1, to appear in stage 2 with a

78 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

white subdorsal band, extending from the lower edge of the

dark dorsal bar to the upper side of the sub-dorsal hair papules,

which were thus strongly accentuated in appearance. The

white bar was most marked on abdominal segments 1-4

and 7-8. In this larva the median spot on abdominal segment

7 was red. This larva pupated in stage 2, never assuming

the appearance of the third stage, but the second stage was, as

usual, confined to one instar. It gave rise to a normal male

imago.

In another case I found a larva in stage 3 which possessed

a broad white lateral suffusion from the meta-thorax to the

anal segment. This larva gave rise to a normal female. It is

thus apparent that the white bar is not indicative either of

sex or of larve which pupate without assuming the appearance

of the third stage.

Pupa.—tn no ease have I found a cocoon formed. The male

pupa is 15 mm. long, chocolate-brown, slender. The wing

cases are fully formed. The female pupa is 25 mm. long,

ovate, with noticeably small wing cases. It is free, or attached

to a twig by a few silk threads. The colour is similar to the

male pupa. Pupz of both sexes have tufts of short lighter

hairs in rings on the abdominal segments, a few scattered

tufts on the thoracic portion, and a collection of closely set

small tufts around the head end. Both sexes have an obtuse

anal spike.

Imago: Male—KEKxpanse 30 mm. Fore wings brown,

lighter basally, across which portion are three ill-defined

crenulated dark lines from costa to dorsum. The inner half

of the costal margin is dark, but exterior to cell there is a

whitish patch on costa, which may be very noticeable, or

nearly uniform with the brown of the wing. ‘The outer portion

of the wing is dark, with a post-medial lunular line of darker

brown, divided from the outer dark area by a lighter brown

line of lunules. There is a dark spot in cell, and a dark lunule

at the end of it. The median nervure is dark and prominent,

especially from the sub-basal line to end of cell. The terminal

cilia are yellowish at the extremity of each vein. The hind

wings are a uniform somewhat lighter brown, but in one

specimen (which originated from the above described larva

LYMANTRIA AMPLA. 79

which pupated in stage 2) there were traces of post-medial

and marginal dark lines. The body is small, slender, of a

uniform brown. Antenne plumose.

Imago : Female——The female imago possesses only rudi-

mentary white scale-like wings, which are functionless. The

body is dark gray-black, pubescent. On emergence from the

pupa the body length is 30 mm., being enormously distended

with eggs, but as these are laid the length shrinks to only

10mm. The legs are somewhat long, and enable the female

to crawl a few inches from the pupa. Antenne serrate.

Life Cycle—Kgg 11-12 days. Male: larva 27-32 days.

Pupa 10-12 days. Total 48-56 days. Female: larva more

than 55 days. Pupa 6-9 days. The total female life cycle

thus occupies probably quite a month longer than that of the

male. As the moths have no means of feeding, it is difficult

to understand how the male moth exists until the female has

emerged.

Oviposition—On emergence from the pupa the female

imago usually crawls a few inches and awaits the advent of

the male. The female apparently produces a scent (though

this is not noticeable to man), which reaches its strongest on

the fourth day of imaginal life, when males are attracted

in considerable numbers from some distance. In one case a

female confined under a glass bowl from the time of emergence

attracted five males into the laboratory from cacao quite

75 yards distant. The windows were shut at the time, but

the males at length managed to gain entrance through a

fanlight only some two feet square. The male is apparently

‘dependent entirely on his scent organs to find the female,

as on another occasion, when a male had entered the room

and was fluttering round the table on which the female was

confined in a glass, the latter was removed from the glass,

the disturbance of the air in which apparently sent a wave

of scent upwards, to which the male immediately flew,

settling at the bottom of the glass, now empty, and ignoring

the female herself, placed on the table within a few inches

of him. He even had to pass her to enter the glass. The

visits of the males to females in confinement always

appear to take place abott noon, and the males fly in the

80 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA,

brightest sunlight. At no other time have I seen the male

flying by day.

An unvisited female appears to eagerly await the male,

seeming uneasy, and continually raising the end of the abdo

men and extruding the ovipositor. Copulation continues for

about five hours, and fertilized egg laying commences about

two hours later. If the male is not allowed access to the

female, unfertilized egg laying may commence within a few

hours of emergence, or be postponed for as much as two days.

If the female has commenced to lay unfertilized eggs prior to

copulation, eggs laid subsequently to this are still infertile.

An unfertilized female can live ten days, but no eggs are laid

after the sixth day until within a few hours of death, when a

few separate white eggs, not covered with down, and removed

from the main egg mass, are laid. Fertilized females do not lay

such last few eggs, and die when oviposition is completed. The

death of the male has not been observed.

Control_—The larve are parasitized by a hymenopterous

fly, probably a chalcid, the grubs of which kill the larvee at

any stage, emerging from the dead body, pupating close by

and emerging as imagines 9-10 days later. In common with

other Lymantrid larve, the larve sometimes die of a kind

of dysentery, very dark brown in colour, which appears

to be caused by a diplococcus, which can be found freely

in the discharge. Light has apparently no attraction for

the males.

Status.—At present the insect can hardly be described as a

pest, save of pot plants, geranium, and begonia, to which it is

very partial. Its attacks on cacao are very slight, though I

have no doubt that this is its main food plant in the Matale

district, and much searching is necessary if larve are to be

found. It is probably kept in check by the hymenopterous

parasite. As, however, owing to obscure causes, the control

over it of the latter may suddenly prove ineffectual, and a

serious attack occur, the above notes are offered in the hope

that they may prove of service in the event of such happening.

Tn conclusion, I have to thank Mr. G. M. Henry, Assistant

Entomologist at Peradeniya, for confirming my identification

of the insect.

NOTES. Sl

NOTES.

Further Notes on the Wellawatta Horse —In a recent publica-

tion of the Colombo Museum (‘‘ Spolia Zeylanica,’’ Vol. X.,

Part 38) the writer (Mr. Wayland) attempted to establish a

case in favour of the antiquity and specific distinctness of a

couple of equine teeth discovered at Wellawatta. In the

absence of type specimens and paleontological literature, it

was not possible to compare the remains with any fossil species

already described, excepting Hquus leptostylus, Matsumoto

(Science Reports, Tohoku Imperial University, Japan, Second

Series (Geology), Vol. III., No. I., pp. 29-30), but certain

structural differences between the Wellawatta teeth and those

of the modern domesticated horse (Hquus caballus) were noted

and described in detail. Moreover, it was shown that while

the remains are younger than the oldest stone implements of

Ceylon, they almost certainly antedate the historic period.

Hikoshichiro Matsumoto, the Japanese Palzontologist, in a

letter to the writer goes into the question of the possible

affinities of the Wellawatta horse in some detatl. After

pointing out the more important features of the grinder (7.e.,

very simple plication of the enamel; the great width of the

bay between the anterior and posterior inner pillars, and the

concave inner side of the sub-triangular inner pillar), he shows

that the Wellawatta horse exhibits likenesses to certain

members of the Ass group (sub-genus Asinus). Next he gives

some account of the following species: H. sivalensis and EL.

namadicus (upper Pliocene, India), H. (Asinus) asinus (upper

Pleistocene, Europeand India), L., hemionus (upper Pleistocene,

Europe and India), #. hemionus (upper Pleistocene, Europe and

China, still living in Central Asia, Mongolia, and Siberia), 2.

onager (still existing in India), and an unnamed species described

by Lydekker from the Karnul cave near Madras.

Matsumoto points out the resemblance between the Wella-

watta molar and the corresponding teeth of #. onager and E.

hemionus. He maintains it is not impossible that H. hemionus

and the Wellawatta horse are co-specific, but does not, for

zoographical reasons, regard this as a probability. He says

in his covering letter: ‘‘ I have observed the Wellawatta

il | 6(2)18

82 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA,

horse* from the Paleontological side. I can safely regard that

the Wellawatta horse [? molar] belongs to a certain horse not

yet palzontologically nae Pheust there is a possibility that

it belongs to Equus onager.”

In his summing up Matsumoto favours a correlation with

Lydekker’s unnamed species from the Karnul cave—a species

which may, or may not, be closely allied to LH. onager. He

calls attention to the strong resemblance of a grinding tooth

of the Karnul horse to the Wellawatta molar, and adds: “‘ On

the other hand, it may easily be expected that some members

of the Karnul fauna haunted also in Ceylon. Thus, it is

highly probable from the morphological and zoogeographical

points of view that the Wellawatta and Karnul horses are

co-specific. Thus, the specific name ZL. zeylanicus, Wayland,

may be applicable to both horses, at least for the present, and

until the supposed alliance of them with HL. onager be actually

proved. The following is a statement by Lydekker with

regard to the antiquity of the Karnul remains :—

“The comparatively large number of species either totally

extinct, or which are not now found living in India, renders it

probable that the age of a considerable part of the Karnul cave

deposits is not newer than the Pleistocene ; and the fauna,

as being almost certainly more recent than the Narbada beds,

may be provisionally assigned to the latter part of that period.”

Such an age corresponds well enough with the geological

position of the Wellawatta teeth.

The following bibliography of the fossil horses of India is

supplied by Matsumoto :—

(1) Hquus sivalensis, Falconer and Cantley.

Falconer and Cantley : Fauna Antiqua Sivalensis, Pt. [X.,

1849, Pls. LXXXI-LXXXYV.; Falconer: Palzontological

Memoirs (edited by Charles Murchison), Pt. I., 1868, pp.

186 and 524; Lydekker: Palzontologia Indica, Ser. 10,

Vol. II., Pt. 3, 1882, p._87 (21); Lydekker: Brit. Mus.,

cat. Foss. Mam., Pt. IIT., 1886, p. 66; Lydekker: Rec. Geol.

Surv. India, Vol. XXIV., 1891,p.211 ; Schlosser : Abhandl. k.

bayer. Akad. Wiss., II. Class, Bd. X XII., Abth. I., 1903, p. 86.

* From my drawings of the teeth ; that is, Mr. Matsumoto has not

had the advantage of handling the actual specimens.

NOTES. 83

(2) Hquus, sp., aff. namadicus, Falconer and Cantley.

Lydekker : Paleontologia Indica, Ser. 10, Vol. II., Pt. 3,

1882, p. 88 (22), Pl. XIV., fig. I. (as L. sivalensis).

(3) Lquus namadicus, Falconer and Cantley.

Faleoner and Cantley : Fauna Antiqua Sivalensis, Pt. IX.,

1849, Pls. LXXXI-LXXXII.; Falconer : Paleeonotological

Memoirs (edited by Charles Murchison), Pt. I., 1868, pp. 186

and 525; Lydekker: Palzontologia Indica, Ser. 10, Vol. IL.,

Pt. 3, 1882, p. 92 (26); Lydekker: Brit. Mus., cat. Foss.

Mam., Pt. III., 1886, p. 71.

(4) Equus (Asinus) zeylanicus, Wayland. ? Cf. onager

Brisson.

Leydekker : Palzontologia Indica, Ser. 10, Vol. IV.,

Pt. IL., 1886, p. 39 (without specific determination) ; Wayland :

Spolia Zeylanica, Vol. X., Pt. 38, 1916, p. 261.

(5) Equus (Asinus) asinus, Linne.

Lydekker, Paleontologia Indica, Ser. 16, Vol. IV., Pt. 2,

1886, p. 39.

EK. J. WAYLAND.

On Colour Shades and Wing Markings of Euproctis semi-

signata (Wlk.)—An egg mass of this moth bred out yielded

thirty-nine imagines, in which the fore-wings were coloured

and marked as follows :—

Male. Female.

White. Yellow. White. Yellow.

Four spots on band cellto dorsum .. — .. 3 .. — .. —

Faint traces of such throughout == 1 I 1

One spot below cell .. = dee ye 1

One spot above vein 1 Vee ey de ee

Immaculate oe Ss Ae OT a LO ee —

* 53 per cent. ft 86 per cent. 5 12 20 2

The “ smoky black spot at end of cell” described by Hamp-

son was only slightly developed on the left fore wing of one of

the strongly marked males.

Five of the males had a dark brown patch on the posterior

abdominal segments, absent from the rest of the series.

R. SENIOR-WHITE.

84 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CEYLON NATURAL

HISTORY SOCIETY.

Twenty-first General Meeting.

THE Twenty-first General Meeting of the Society was held

in the Colombo Museum Library on November 16, 1917, at

5.15 p.m., the Rev. Father M. J. Le Goce in the Chair.

A paper entitled ‘“‘ Notes on Colombo Water Plants ’’ was given

by the Rev. P. T. Cash, and illustrated by many specimens.

In the absence of the contributors, Mr. W. A. Cave read the

following papers :—

(i.) Further notes on the Wellawatta Horse, by Mr. E. J.

Wayland.

By Mr. G. M. Henry :—

(ii.) Note on an albino Barbet (Cyanops flavifrons).

(iii.) Tameness of nesting Fantail Flycatcher (Rhipidura

albifrontata).

(iv.) Land Leeches (Hemadipsa zeylanica) attacking Snails

(Achatina fulica).

(v.) Food of the Water Tortoise (Nicoria trijuga).

New Members :—G. H. Elliott; R. A. Senior-White; Dr.

Gerald H. de Saram ; C. Ismail.

STONE AGES OF CEYLON. 85

OUTLINES OF THE STONE AGES OF CEYLON.

By E. J. WAYLAND,

Late Assistant Mineral Surveyor to the Government of Ceylon.

(With nine Plates.)

I.—INTRODUCTION.

URING the last five years much of my spare time has

been spent in the investigation of the Stone Age

remains of this country, and more particularly of those which

occur in the lowland and coastal regions. I hoped to publish

a detailed account of such discoveries as it was my lot to make

when I had earned the right to do so; and the end of this

year would probably have seen the result had it not been for

a more urgent call upon my time. The present outlines are

sketchy and somewhat disconnected, but they must serve in

the circumstances, as best they may, to indicate present results

and possible lines of future investigation. My entire collec-

tion, with the exception of a few duplicates and hill specimens

which have been given to other collectors, has been passed

over to the Principal of the Royal College, who will select a

representative series for the Colombo Museum. Unfortunately

the most prolific sites for the older tools, of which my collection

chiefly consists, are hidden away in far jungles, in places which

are both costly and difficult to get at, and where too, the

explorer must risk sickness and discomfort. It is unlikely,

therefore, that the work which I drop so unwillingly will be

at once taken up by others. ‘There are few in this country

so fortunately placed that they can in the course of their

2 6(8) 19

86 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

official travels get well away from the beaten track ; but to

those who travel at all opportunities to add something to our

knowledge of early man must now and then occur. It is to

such among you that these outlines are more particularly

addressed. They will serve a useful purpose if they keep to

stimulate an interest in the prehistoric antiquities of the

Island, and thereby tend to foster future research. If they

are no more than outlines, it is for reasons already told.

TI.—VEDDAS AND THE STONE AGE.

The researches of Messrs. J. Pole, E. E. Green, Drs. F.

and P. Sarasin, Dr. C. G. and B. Z. Seligmann, and Mr. C.

Hartley have shown that in bygone days Ceylon was inhabited

by a primitive people, whose weapons and tools were of stone,

bone, and wood.

The want of representative types of artefacts has, till quite

lately, rendered the culture stage (or stages) attained by these

early folk a matter of some speculation ;* while, in the absence

of definite geological evidence, nothing certain could be said

of the age of such tools as were discovered. The vast majority

of implements recorded by the above-mentioned authorities

were found in the hill country, often on the surface, and

seldom more than a foot below it. Their association with

charcoal and presumably modern refuse and their occurrence

in Vedda caves have led to the belief that the Veddas them-

selves or their immediate ancestors were the stone-age people

of Ceylon.

* Drs, F. and P. Sarasin (‘‘ Spolia Zeylanica,”’ Vol. IV., Part XVI.,

1907, p. 189) say: ‘“‘ These stone chips are of a very rough kind,

belonging to the older or Paleolithie Stone Age.” And on p. 190:

‘We, furthermore, may venture to say that the second main period

of the Stone Age, the Neolithic one,, . . ,is entirely wanting in the

Island of Ceylon.” Dr. C. G. and B. Z. Seligmann say (“ Spolia

Zeylanica,”’ Vol. V., Part XX., 1908, pp. 162 and 163): “‘ As regards

the type of these quartz implements, there seems no good reason to

consider them other than neolithic; . . . . many of the specimens

differ in no respect from implements of the neolithic age found in

Europe.’’ James Parsons (loc. cit., p. 190) remarks of one tool which

was submitted to him that it closely resembles an eolith.

STONE AGES OF CEYLON, 87

Misconceptions with regard to Vedda anthropology have

fostered this view,* and the occasional discovery of bits of

worked, bottle-glass would appear corroborative.t

To the best of my belief, however, there is no evidence at

all to show that people of Vedda blood passed through a stone-

age phase in this country. Moreover, if, as seems highly

probable, the wild forest people, so recently extinct in this

Island, were the last survivals of the Yakkas of antiquity, one

can hardly doubt that they (the Veddas) were a degenerate and

not a primitive race.t The Mahawansa makes it plain that

more than twenty centuries ago the Yakkaswere highlycivilized.

The fact that beneath the floors of Vedda caves stone tools

are sometimes to be found throws little light upon their

authorship ; nor is the apparent newness of the tools them-

selves a telling argument in favour of modernity, since the

crystal quartz, from which the vast majority were struck, is

among the most imperishable of substances. Mr. Charles

Hartley has shown that charcoal not uncommonly occurs in

the “‘ chip-layer ”’ of the oe hills, Em) he takes this

— eee ee —_

* The late Professor Tieehow, although a weieene in the probable

autochthony of the Veddas, shows in his monograph upon them (first

published by the Royal Academy of Sciences of Berlin and afterwards

translated—Jour. C. B., R. A. S., Vol. [X., No. 33, 1886) that anthro-

pologically they are related to certain tribes of Southern India, and not

to the Andamanese or to the aborigines of Australia, as some have

thought. Churchward (‘“ The Signs and Symbols of Primordial Man,

London, 1913, p. 133) speaks unblushingly of ‘‘ The Viddas of Ceylon—

The race that the Ainu drove out and destroyed inJapan. . .

Parker, writing with some authority on the Veddas, says (“ Ancient

Ceylon,” London, 1909, p. 20): “‘ Perhaps the strongest evidence of

the country of their origin is their own tradition that this deity

(a Hill God) came to Ceylon from Malawara-desa, ‘the Country of the

hill-region,’ that is the Malayalam hills.”” If I remember rightly, even

Huxley went amiss about the Veddas ; to the best of my recollection

he says in effect that the internal evidence of their language shows

them to be related to the aborigines of Australia. (I cannot verify

this statement, as the Colombo Museum Library has no copy of that

remarkable work “‘ Man’s Place in Nature,’ and my own copy is in

England.) The Vedda language, of course, is little known.

+ I was much puzzled when, in August, 1912, I found at Haputale

a fragment of a bottle which had obviously been worked to an edge.

The explanation of this interesting specimen is probably to be found

in a statement made by Mr. John Pole (Ceylon ‘‘ Stone Implements,”’

Calcutta, 1913, p. 3) to the effect that Tamil coolies working on estates

in Ceylon, some thirty years ago, fashioned ** rude glass razors ’’ from

the bases of beer bottles.

t See Chapter II. of Parker’s ** Ancient Ceylon,” and in particular

the last section of it ‘‘ Evidence of Former Civilization ”’ (pp. 103-112).

88 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

(o indicate that the artefacts with which it is associated “ are

not of a very remote date, or otherwise the charcoal would

have been absorbed and have left no trace behind.’ Again, I

do not think this argument is valid, firstly, because charcoal is

durable enough, and has been found on Roman and on stone-

age sites of proved antiquity before ; and secondly, because

not everything in the “ chip-layer ” is of prehistoric date, as

a recent find of brass cartridge sheets (by Mr. Hartley)

conclusively proves.

If the Veddas made the stone tools of Ceylon, how is it that

these people who lived, as we know they did, under conditions

of extreme want and savagery, made no use of their art in

the quest after a livelihood ? Why should a people skilled

in the manufacture of tools and weapons sufficient for their

needs depend on barter with an alien race for precisely these

implements ?*

A wild hunting race, so long as it remains such, is not likely.

to forget the very rudiments of a craft wpon which its life

depends ; but the weaker members of a civilized community,

forced by the growing strength of class antipathy back into

the wilderness, and divorced from the common arts of primitive

folk by a thousand generations of specialized endeavour, may

well be at a loss to cope with the conditions of a nomad’s life.

Such in effect, I believe, is the story of the Veddas. Like the

Ascidians, who have forgotton how to swim, they have turned

aside from the paths of progress and belied their heritage.

* The use of stone implements persists among a people long after

their first acquaintance with metals. For example, flint implements,

probably used for dressing monoliths, have been found at Stonehenge,

and this structure is generally supposed to be a temple of the Bronze

Age. In Egypt flint blades were used for eviscerating a body before

embalmment long after the discovery of metals. Obsidian knives were

used by the priests of medieval Mexico to hack out the vitals of their

victims ; and sharpened flint was used at Jewish circumcisions. The

custom of placing flint blades in graves persisted as an ancient rite

among the Frankish people of Gaul (whose sway over what is now north-

west France came to an end in 752 a.p.); but the habit survived in

Celtic folklore toa much later period. It is significant that Shakespeare

makes the priest say at the burial of the unfortunate sister of Laertes—

. «Her death was doubtful ;

And, but that the great command o’ersways the order,

She should in ground unsanctified have lodg’d

Till the last trumpet ; for charitable prayers,

Shards, flints, and pebbles should be thrown on her.”

STONE AGES OF CEYLON. 89

Out of tune with their environment, out of time with their

era, they were doomed to extinction. The Veddas, we are

told by those who knew them, did not laugh or sing, “ but for

amusement they would toss leaves in the air, in order to

watch how these would flutter to the ground.’’* ‘This is,

indeed, a sad picture.

Man’s innermost being is mirrored in nature, and so perhaps

the Vedda saw (albeit subconsciously) little but his own sorry

heart expressed in forest and dell, in the running waters, and

the pleasant glades of Uva. And he must have known, if

indeed, he cared to know, that the days of his pilgrimage were

few ; that ere long he and his kind must pass away for ever.

Perhaps he was glad of it, for to those who fall short in com-

pliance with the demands of life there is a welcome in oblivion.

The brothers Sarasin say (loc. cit.) that the Veddas must

represent the few remnants of the aborigines of the Island,

who were met with by the Sinhalese on their first arrival, and

were called by them Yakkas, according to the old tradition

preserved in the Mahawansa. If this were true, it 7s necessary

to presume that these aborigines were living in the Stone Age

at the time. . . . (the italics are mine). Why should it

be necessary to presume any such thing? That the Veddas

and Yakkas were one is probable enough ; but the authoritative

statements of anthropology and history in so far as they

prove anything at all go to show that the Veddas, as a race,

have known better and kindlier days. Moreover, we are

told by the same authorities that the Veddas were an older

stone-age people, and, as I hope to show, the Paleolithic

period, in Ceylon takes us back many thousands of centuries,

to a time when the geography of the land was different, and

to days before the modern races of mankind had yet emerged.

Twice on one page the brothers Sarasin find it expedient to

insist that the autochthony of the Vedda “‘is a proved fact,”

and their evidence for this statement is the occurrence of

stone tools under the floors of Vedda caves and in the soil of

the patanas. I submit that the autochthony of the Veddas

is not a proved fact, and further, that it is not even probable.

» * Lewis, I’. : “* Notes on an Exploration in eastern Uva and southern

Panama Pattu.”” (Jour.C. B., R.A.S., Vol. XIIT., No. 67, 1914, p. 285.)

90 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Il].—Tue Stone Toots oF THE HI.s.

Stone tools are now known to exist in enormous numbers

in Ceylon. I divide them into two series : The Hill series and

the Lowland series. This division is not a strictly natural one,

but it is convenient. Previous authors have dealt chiefly

with the Hill series. The artefacts found upon the highlands

of the Kandyan Provinces are generally supposed to be of

Neolithic date. They comprise scrapers (round, hollow,

irregular, and straight), small blades, chisels, planes, arrow-

heads, points and borers, flakes, cores and hammer-stones, &c.

Large tools are conspicuous by their absence.

Nearly all of them are made from crystalline quartz, but

occasionally one comes across a chert implement.* It is a

curious fact that while chert tools are remarkably rare in the

hills, flakes and broken fragments of this material occur in

great abundance on certain sites. No doubt this fact is not

without significance, but no one has yet ascertained its

meaning.

Over and above these ordinary tools, Mr. C. Hartley has of

late years discovered large numbers of highly specialized

implements, which, on account of their small size and the

fineness of their workmanship, are generally known as Pigmies.

The term refers, of course, to the tools alone, and not to the

people who made them.

This discovery is one of extreme interest and importance,

for Pigmies are known to represent a particular culture-stage

in the history of man, obtaining either at the close of the

older (Paleolithic) or at the beginning of the newer (Neolithic)

Stone Age. Authorities are inclined to differ on this point.

I need not detail to you the features of these implements,

as they have already been figured and described in the pages

of “‘ Spolia Zeylanica.”’+ Their uses are not certainly known,

* Mr. James Parsons, the late Principal Mineral Surveyor, in his

paper on ‘‘ The modes of occurrence of Quartz in Ceylon ”’ (“* Spolia

Zeylanica,”’ Vol. V., Part XX., 1908, pp. 171-177), gives an interesting

account of the materials used by stonesage peoples of this country in

the manufacture of their tools. Collectors should consult this.

+ Hartley, C.: ‘‘ On the occurrence of Pigmy Implements in Ceylon

(** Spolia Zeylanica,’’? Vol. X., Part XXXVI., 1914, pp. 54-67).

STONE AGES OF CEYLON. 9]

but the fact that their distribution is practically world-wide*

shows that they were designed to meet a very general demand ;

and, if I might throw out a suggestion in passing, it is that the

pigmy tools were used chiefly in the manufacture of bone

needles, and that the so-called “‘ back ”’ was really the business

edge. Mr. Hartley has called attention to the curiously

limited number of types of artefacts in the Hill series ; he says :

* Nothing resembling an axe has ever been found in Ceylon.

There was, besides, no chopper or heavy blade, no spearhead,

saw, punch, or fabricator. . . . there were no sling stones

or throwing discs, nor any sign of pot-boilers.”+ It should be

remarked that this statement applies to the implements of the

hill group only ; no information with regard to the tools of

the lowlands was available at the time when Mr. Hartley’s

paper was written. These omissions cannot be without their

meaning, but I for one am disinclined to throw in my lot with

those who believe that the makers of the pigmies “‘ maintained

an inglorious existence by preying on the lesser creatures and

trusting to flight from the more formidable.”

It should be remembered that the tools of the Hill series

have been collected almost exclusively from the tops of grass-

covered knolls and ridges which protrude from the upland

forests. There is no reason to believe that the natural con-

ditions of this part of the country were essentially different

in pigmy times; indeed, the large accumulations of flakes

and cores, indicative of ‘factory sites,’ show beyond reasonable

doubt, that patanas existed in those far off days much as now.

There can be no question that the differentiation of crafts

proceeds pari passu with the growth of civilization ; and, for

my part, I believe this tendency to specialize expressed itself

in very early times. One has only to see some of those

excellent productions of the Solutrean periodt to realize that

the individuals who could express designs in flint with such

extraordinary skill had advanced beyond the ordinary run of

men. I believe that since the earliest times men have made

* England, France, Belgium, Spain, North Africa, Egypt, Palestine,

Kast Africa, South Africa, India, Ceylon, and Australia are the countries

from which pigmies have been recorded up to date. Doubtless they

will be found in many more places yet.

T Loe. ctt., p. 64. t See Appendix A,

92 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

two sets of implements: a common set to meet demands of

immediate necessity, and another for more permanent use.

The tools of the first were crude and made by any man, while

those of the second were the work of few, who constructed

them, no doubt, with not a little pride. They are the index

of the culture-stage of the folk who made them, and, in some

measure, a criterion of the mental status of the race.

The rise of industrial arts would naturally lead to the

centralization of industries, with results akin to those which

still obtain in some parts of Africa, where an entire village is

devoted to the manufacture of spears and knives, another to

wood-carving, &c. Nor is it perhaps too much to suppose

that among a savage people skilled workers would be looked

upon as a Class apart at first escaping, and later on despising,

common labour; living by means of their craft alone and

bartering their artefacts for the products of the chase.

If these, then, were the conditions of pigmy times, the larger

implements adapted to the ordinary needs of life might well

be missing from the patana sites. There on the open ground

a colony of pigmy-makers, protected from intrusion, no

doubt, by a palisade of stakes, could live at ease, quite un-

molested by the big carnivores and other dangerous inhabitants

of the wild. The meaner people would construct the palisade

and build the huts with timbers hewn in the neighbouring

forest. They would supply the pigmy-makers with meat and

fruit and honey collected in the woods. All materials for the

manufacture of the pigmy tools were brought up from the

valleys, and as the industry was presumably special and more

or less exclusive, the common tools were made, no doubt, in

the valleys below, where the streams supplied large quantities

of quartz.

I suggest this explanation of pigmy-factories merely as a

working hypothesis. Further research will show whether it

is acceptable or not, for the proof of its validity (or otherwise)

lies in the jungles, the rice fields, and the wooded dells, which

separate the patanas ; and these have never yet been searched.

There is one fact which, taken together with the general

absence of common tools and weapons of offence, seems at

first to militate against the hypothesis I offer. Mr. Hartley

STONE AGES OF CEYLON. 93

states it thus: “‘In all cases where identical types of imple-

ments from above and below the surface can be compared,

there is no question that the former is on the average consider-

ably larger than the latter. The only marked exception is

the large round scraper from the pigmy-layer alluded to. I

have also picked up on the surface of Bungalow Hill a single

arrowhead ; it is significant that this differs, not only in size,

but in type from any recovered from below ground. I do not

attempt at present to draw any hard and fast conclusion ; but

the evidence before me inclines me now to believe that the

two types are separated in time.’’* This may be so, of course,

but it is well to remember that in soils subject to conditions

such as those which affect the patanas, the larger pebbles and

rock-fragments are situated at the tops, when they themselves

are both chemically and physically stable, and are not derived.

from the strata underneath.

Microscopic examination shows that the soil-cap on the hill

referred to is due to the weathering of the rocks below. The

chip-layer is situated, at a depth seldom less than two inches

or more than six beneath the surface ; since, as can be shown,

the soil-cap was not deposited over the chip-layer from an

extraneous source, it follows that the chips must have sunk,

as there can be no doubt that they were originally on the

surface.

Worms, as far as my observations go, are decidedly rare on

the patanas, so their participation as burying agents may be

safely ignored ; burrowing insects, however, are more common.

The latter carry out most of their work during the dry season,

when a large percentage of the soil which they bring to the

surface must be blown down the hill slopes. Consequently

the chips descend chiefly by a process of undermining, and

since small chips are more easily undermined than large ones,

the tendency is for the larger fragments to lag behind in the

downward movement. Moreover, large stones protruding

from the soil are more easily dislodged from their positions by

accidental circumstances, and are also less liable to be pressed

into the soil by the feet of animalsand men who may by chance

trample on them.

* Loc. cit., p. 66.

3 6(8) 19

94 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

A difference in size of “identical types ’ from above and

below the surface is not enough to establish an essential

difference in age when the specimens are separated by only

a few inches of soil ; a consistent difference of type is what is

wanted. I will not here enlarge on the question of surface

and buried implements, though it is one of considerable

interest. Nor will I deal further with the stone tools of the

hills, for all else I can say under this head has been said by

others before me, so I will pass on to speak of the prehistorie

antiquities of the lowlands.

TV.—THE STONE TOOLS OF THE LOWLANDS.

The stone tools of the lowlands occur in detrital deposits

or on the surface of such deposits, from which some of them

are derived. These accumulations take the form of gravels

terracing the river valleys and capping low hills composed of

red earth which commonly overlies the gravels, of sand dunes,

of the clays and loams of the rice flats, and the beds of modern

streams. The features of these deposits will be described

later.

The tools discovered include the forms described as belong-

ing to the Hill series, together with another, and, I venture

to think, older, assemblage, in which the types missing from

the upland series are present.

Noticeable features of the lowland group, as a whole, are

the prevalence therein of steep-sided scrapers or planes, the

number of split and worked pebbles, the presence of domed,

tortoise-like pieces, the size of the tools, and their composition.

On the average the lowland artefacts are very much larger

than those of the Hill series. Small types occur, and these

are generally composed of quartz either of the milky or crystal

variety, while the bigger forms, more characteristic of the

group to which they belong, were commonly struck from

chert.

The chert varies in quality from an opaque splintery

substance, little used by stone-age peoples, to a stone with a

fine conchoidal fracture, closely resembling European flint,

and often translucent in thin flakes.

STONE AGES OF CEYLON. 95

In colour the newly cleft surfaces vary from almost black

(rare) to white (also rare). The commonest colours are brown,

greenish-brown (rarely distinctly green), various shades of

buff, and an occasional gray. Brown chert, which is the

commonest of all, is known to the Sinhalese as ginigala

(fire-stone), and was in former days used by them, and also

probably by the Portuguese, Dutch, and British, for gunflints.

Dark red and pink shades are also to be found.

Comparatively pure chalcedony also occurs, while in the

North-Central Province (basin of the Kal-aru) common opal,

due to the replacement of limestone by silica, has been

occasionally made use of by early man; but the material is

too soft to have been much sought after.

The cherts are seldom homogeneous. The buff and brown

varieties often contain strings and rosettes of a fibrous hghter-

coloured silicious substance, in which the fibres are arranged

at right angles to the length of the strings. Sometimes, too,

the chert is brecciated or conglomeratic in structure, very

rarely the latter.

Under the microscope many specimens show a marked

development of spheroidal structures, due to the segregation

of the purer silica around numerous centres. The more

ferruginous material lies between the centric structures.

Some cherts, more particulary those of Uva, exhibit a finely

mottled appearance; and in these the microscope reveals

a system of branching, butt-ended rods or tubes. These

strongly recall organic structures. I believe, however, that

they are nothing of the sort.

The origin of chert in Ceylon does not appear to be always

the same. The mottled variety and that which contains the

fibrous structures are formed, as far as my observations go,

by the metasomatic replacement of gneissose and granulitic

rocks by silica, a very curious and interesting phenomenon.

Some grayish and brown cherts of the Northern Province

appear to have been formed by a similar replacement of lime-

stone. I say “appear” advisedly, for though I have never

seen direct evidence of this replacement, I find it extremely

difficult to account for the presence of the mineral otherwise.

Some specimens from the extreme north of the Island bear

96 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

so astonishing a resemblance to European flint, that I was

led at first to suppose that they had been imported (in the form

of ballast) in the days of our forefathers for the purpose of

making strike-a-lights or gunflints.

The occasional occurrence of a precisely similar material

in the jungles of the Puttalam District, showing prehistoric

workmanship proves this supposition unnecessary.

An extremely remarkable white laminated chert occurs

interbedded with the metamorphic rocks of the lower part of

the basin of the Moderagam river in the Northern and North-

Western Provinces ; while red and yellow jaspers of inferior

quality are to be found near Pomparippu and in a few

other districts. All these materials have been worked by

prehistoric man.

Tools of milky and crystal quartz occur as they do, in the

hills, while certain large implements were made from granular

quartz rock (sometimes wrongly called quartzite). Tools of

quartzite and volcanic glass resembling obsidian, like the

materials themselves, are exceedingly rare, as are those of

sandstone. Some bits of hematite appear to have been

“nibbled ”’ at and cast aside as useless. Once I came upon

a pebble of white topaz which a stone-age man had attempted

to flake under the impression that the material was quartz ;

his blows soon developed the perfect natural cleavage of the

mineral and he cast the stone away. But that was in the

hills.

Mr. Hartley records rounded pebbles of gneiss from hill

sites. Personally I have never come across any tools composed

of this material whether in the hills or lowlands.

How important a thing is silica in the history of man !*

With no other substance could he have developed his skill so

well, given a latent intelligence, two hands, and a chunk of

flint, the rise of civilization is assured. Without the flint (or

a closely allied substance) and the hands to work it, the most

potent intelligence on earth would not have enabled man to

rise above the status of a cunning beast.

* I suppose that 99 per cent. of the older stone tools of the world

are composed of silica in one form or another. Quartz, jasper, chal-

cedony, opal, flint, and quartzite are chemically identical.

STONE AGES OF CEYLON. 97

In order to indicate the several culture-stages represented

by the lowland artefacts, it would be necessary to describe

the various forms in detail and to draw comparisons between

them and what may be called the standard types of Europe.

This would be a lengthy procedure, and one which, tomy great

regret, I have not the time to carry out. It will have to be

done one day, and when it is accomplished, I believe we shall _

see some striking parallels. Most interesting work it will

prove, and it is not without considerable reluctance, and

perhaps just a soupcon of jealousy, that I leave it to another.

It is my hope that some future explorer will sooner or later

be able to spare time to investigate the collection which [have

made, and to publish his conclusions with regard to it. Here

I will confine myself to general remarks. I may say at once

that from all the best lowland stone-age sites artefacts of

very different types may be recovered from the surface ; the

crudest tools may be seen rubbing shoulders, as it were,

with Pigmies of the finest workmanship ; and much-abraded

artefacts with implements as sharp almost as in the days

when they were made. Not only so, but flakes of new

appearance may be gathered with others showing evidence of

advanced decay. From these facts there is but one conclusion

to be drawn, namely, the very obvious one, that manufactories

have always been established near the source of raw material,

In many parts of the Island gravels have afforded the one and

only source.

Some day it will be shown, I think, that all of the several

stone-age cultures of Ceylon were practised on the gravel sites.

Meanwhile I will deal with a few outstanding features. One

characteristic set of tools was made from pebbles (very

generally quartz) of various sizes ; these comprise scrapers,

blades, axes, &c., so closely resembling some pre-paleolithic

tools of England,* that a similarity of culture of their respective

makers can hardly be denied. These I call chipped pebbles.

Another series, possibly representing an advance, comprises

flakes, trimmed and otherwise, which were detached from

* Reid Moir: ‘‘ A Series of Pre-Paleolithic Implements from Darms-

den, Suffolk” (Proc. Prehist. Soc. E. Anglica, Vol. II., Part II., 1916,

pp: 210-213). The tools figured on Plates XLI. and XLIV. can be

matched exactly from the Ceylon gravel sites.

98 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.,

pebbles by a smart blow delivered with a hammer-stone. The

result of such a blow, of course, was to cleave from the pebble

a segment having an oval outline, one flat, and one domed

face. Such segments were, no doubt, used as knives, while

trimming of the edge produced a scraper ; these I call split

pebbles, and since all these tools, whether of the chipped or

split variety, are restricted in form by the stones from which

they were made, I class them all together as the ‘‘ Pebble

group.” There is another class of pebble tools which I regard

as probably of later date. :

These are widely distributed, but few and far between.

They are small oval pebbles of crystal quartz, seldom more

than an inch in length, which have been worked in such a

manner that they resemble very tiny hand-axes of the Chellean

period of Europe. They are delightful little tools, but I cannot

tell what they were used for ; and, as far as I know, they do

not occur outside Ceylon.

The remaining artefacts are mostly unconditioned by the

pebble outline. In passing we may note that pebbles of chert

are by no means common, although this substance was

extensively used by prehistoric man. Of angular fragments

there is any number.

The Chellean phase seems to be represented by the usual

hand-axe ; but I have found few of these. The best example

that I have came from the elevated ground to the east of

Pomparippu ; and one I found in situ at the base of the red

earth near Marichchukkaddi. Serapers of all sorts (hollow,

round, straight, and irregular) are common. Side scrapers,

the racloir and “‘ pointe,’ of Mousterian type occur, as do

tea-cosy and prismatic tools. Pointed instruments with edge

trimming, resembling that of the Aurignacian culture, and

‘* hoof-shaped ”’ pieces recalling those of Egypt* and North-

fleet in England, are characteristic. Steep-faced scrapers or

planes are very common, and Dolphin planes are to be found,

columnar cores, conical cores, and throwing discs are fairly

abundant. “* Dosquabattu ” knives and forms that I class as

** neelers ’ arecommon. Beaked instruments are to be found.

* See ‘‘ The Stone Age in Egypt,” by W. M. Flinders Petrie (““Ancient

Kgypt,” Part II., 1915, p. 68).

STONE AGES OF CEYLON. 99

Picks (or perhaps I should call them gravers) made from large

thick flakes and large rude digging tools are characteristic.

Chopping instruments occur, of course, arrowheads (rare),

(?) spearheads, points of various kinds, borers, and discarded

bulb-ends are not uncommon. Flakes are to be found in enor-

mous numbers accompanied by hammer-stones. Besides these,

the ordinary Neoliths and Pigmies of the hills are not wanting.

A word about the peelers. These are worked on one face,

and generally on one edge ; the chipping is on a large seale,

so that the worked edge appears more or less engrailed or

coarsely toothed. I suppose that these were used in preparing

spear- and arrow-shafts, or sticks for fish kraals and traps.

Nor must I forget to mention bits of hematite ground flat on

one or more faces. The flat faces are covered with scratches,

which I take as evidence that these curious relics were used

for the production of pigment.

Lastly, I may add that among the tools that I have

mentioned, one occasionally comes across well-worn stones

apparently chipped by man which recall the eoliths of Europe .*

There are other forms besides these, but for the present we

must pass them by. JI have merely mentioned the more

important types as they presented themselves to my memory ;

but enough has been said to support my main contention,

which is, that among the lowland implements we have an

assemblage of distinctly paleolithic forms, and also a cruder

and possibly older set. Added to these we have others

resembling the neoliths of the hills. Cireumstances have not

permitted me to do much digging on the plateau sites, but I

have several times recovered flakes in situ in the gravels,

once a broken boring tool (?) (at Wellipatanwila), some crude

pebble and eolithic forms (at Minihagalkanda and Kosgala),

and a net-like tool, already mentioned, from the base of the

red earth near Marichchukkaddi. The examination of steep

and crumbling talus-heaps, particularly those of Minihagal-

kanda in the Southern Province, leaves little room for doubt

that the Paleolithic forms gathered therefrom were once in

situ in the gravel.

* Besides these, there are some quite unworn tools of eolithic type

certainly, in my opinion, chipped by man.

100 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Before passing on to speak of the geology of the plateau

deposits and their derivatives, I must say a word upon the

much-discussed subject of patination. By patination is meant

the surface changes affecting the colour and other physical

characters of flint or chert. Crystal quartz is not liable to

these, but may become frosted either by constant collision

with other stones and particles of sand in motion, as in a river

bed, or by long-continued exposure to the influence of the

weather. In the former case the surface of the stone is

generally covered with a meshwork of microscopic cracks ;

in the latter, the surface resembles that of ground glass, but

is infinitely finer.

Patination is a big subject, but I shall dismiss it briefly.

Some chert tools acquire during the course of ages a deep

almost black hue, others affect ochreous shades, and a good

many of them turn white of these only Ishallspeak. Ceylon

chert is an intermediate mixture of crystalline and colloid

silica. The first is hardly soluble at all, the latter is more

easily dissolved in alkaline solutions. Consequently the

colloid particles are leached out during the course of centuries,

and what remains is nothing but a spongy mass of tiny

erystals which reflect the light, much as powdered chert would

do, and make the stone look white.

The degree of rigidity of the spongy matter depends, of

course, upon the ratio of the colloid to the crystalline material

in the original chert and the proportion of the former removed.

It would appear that the cherts of this country contain a high

percentage of uncrystalline material, with the result that they

are far less stable than European flint, which contains less,

Indeed, not a few tools and flakes which I have collected are

so “‘ rotten” that one can scrape their surfaces with as much

ease as one could a piece of chalk.

In certain circumstances fresh silica, drawn up probably

from the as yet undecomposed chert below the surface of a tool

by a process akin to inflorescence, is apparently deposited in

crystalline continuity with the surface grains ; and, as a con-

sequence of this, the tool presents a glazed exterior. The thin

crust thus formed is tolerably resistant, and protects the

‘rotten ’’ layer below, which is generally so porous, that it

STONE AGES OF CEYLON. 101

will cling to the tip of the tongue more readily than will the

broken stem of a new clay pipe.

The mottled cherts often display differential weathering,

the mottling, by reason of its,more resistant nature, standing

out in bold relief from the remainder of the stone.

I am strongly disposed to believe that exposure to the

weather is an essential factor in patination. I do not wish to

be dogmatic on a subject which we have no time to pursue ;

but I may add that I am inclined to think that patination

never comes about without exposure. At any rate, I am

convinced that no one who studies Ceylon stone artefacts

impartially will place much reliance on degrees of similar

patination as indices of age. That an artefact must be old

to be patinated I have no doubt, but I do not think it follows

that an old artefact must of necessity be patinated.

V.—THE GEOLOGY OF THE PLATEAU DEPOSITS AND

THEIR DERIVATIVES.

In order to understand the history of early man in this

country, it is necessary to pay some attention to the deposits

in which such relics as he has left may yet be found. I have

already briefly outlined these beds, and would not dwell

further upon them were it not that the story they tell is one

full of interest and significance.

The oldest accumulations with which we shall deal in this

connection are what I have called the plateau deposits for

reasons which will be presently apparent.

They are very widely distributed, and were, no doubt, at one

time developed along the entire seaboard of the Island and

covered much of the lowland regions. Since then, however,

they have suffered denudation, and are now represented by

detached and often widely separated outcrops.

The plateau deposits are generally venetian or brick-red

in colour. They are liable, however, to be bleached from

various causes, the growth of vegetation being one, when they

present various shades of buff; while some detrital beds

derived directly from them are snow-white.

They consist typically of two strata; the lower of these,

though varying a good deal in composition in different areas,

4 6(8)19

102 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

belongs to that series of rabbly débris which the Public Works

Department describes under the sometimes misleading name

of gravel ; while the upper stratum consists of a red earth free

of stony content. The whole series varies in thickness up to

50 feet or more.

The larger of the “gravel” fragments may consist of

quartz in various stages of angularity and roundness, or of

irregular concretionary bodies consisting chiefly of ferric oxide

and angular sand. Every gradation exists between a good,

well-rounded gravel, and a deposit in which the concretionary

bodies are paramount.*

The quartz pebbles are seldom more than a few inches in

length, while the longest axes of the concretionary bodies

hardly ever exceed aninch. The matrix of the beds is a finely

divided red material, which varies considerably in proportion

to the mass, even within very limited areas. Pebbles of

crystal quartz, when present, are generally corroded over their

entire surfaces ; with milky quartz it is otherwise.

Boulders, sometimes weighing over a ton, occur locally.

All the pebbles are remarkably free from iron staining or

any colouring matter, which cannot be removed with a

scrubbing brush and a little water.

The gravel bed, as for the purposes of this paper I will call

the lower of the plateau deposits, overlaps all the older rocks.

It is to be seen sometimes resting on the archzean, sometimes

on the older sedimentaries of the North-Western Province,t

and sometimes on the various members of the Kudremalai

(Kuthiraimalai) series. It fills up the irregularities of the

ancient surface below it. Nowhere does it overlie the alluvials

of the rice fields, the coastal (or “ reef ’’) sandstone,§ or any

* Similar concretionary bodies are to be found in the beds of practi-

cally all streams which run dry in the rainless seasons.

+ The Tabbowa beds. These have never been described, except in an

official (unpublished) report on the district by the present writer.

{ Though it has been necessary to make several references to these

rocks in my official reports, no detailed description of them has yet been

produced. It will suffice for the present to say that they are younger

than the Tabbowa beds (older sedimentaries of the North-Western

Province), and older than the high gravels which terrace the main river

valleys.

§ For some account of this, see ‘‘ Equus zeylanicus’”’ (‘‘ Spoha

Zeylanica,”” Vol. X., Part 38, 1916, p. 267).

STONE AGES OF CEYLON. 103

deposit belonging to the modern era, The gravel bed is not

always present, but whether this or the other member of the

series, the red earth, directly overlies more ancient beds, the

contrast in colour between the older rocks and the plateau

deposits is striking, except when the former have suffered

laterization. (See Appendix B.)

A typical plateau gravel in this country consists of a powdery

deposit stuffed with stones, of which well-rounded pebbles are

in the minority. It contains stone-age tools and flakes of

both chert and quartz. The former, to judge by their surface

appearances alone, are of every age from the newest to the

oldest ; the quartz flakes, too, give one a similar impression.

It is evident that in this jumble of things, apparently ancient

and apparently new, with a mixture of perfectly rounded and

perfectly angular detritus in an earthy matrix, we have a

deposit of no ordinary kind. These things are certain : it is

not marine ; it isnot a common soil; it is not any ordinary

accumulation at all. More than anything else it suggests a

glacial till; but I may say at once that no theory of its

origin founded on the presence of ice in this country: can be

entertained, for there is not the slightest evidence of past

glaciation in Ceylon.

The apparent diversity in age of the contained artefacts is

almost certainly deceptive, although it is probable that in

the plateau gravels we have tools of more than one period.

Among the specimens which I have obtained in situ, some

highly frosted forms, recalling eoliths, and the occasional

inclusion in plateau beds of masses of conglomerate, suggest an

older deposit, from which the gravels have been in part

derived.

The red earth which overlies the gravel is of simpler com-

position and justifies its name, in that it is best described as

an earthy material of a brick (or venetian) red colour. It is

remarkably free from stones or other foreign material, except

very occasional flakes and artefacts.

I have examined: a number of samples from various parts of

the country, and I find that the following general description

applies to all of them. They consist essentially of sand grains

and very finely divided material, which is probably a mixture

104 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

of kaolin or china clay (with, perhaps, some aluminium

hydrates) and iron oxides. The sand grains themselves are

thickly coated with iron oxide, which often requires acid to

remove it. The surface of the grains beneath this red coating

are peculiar. Under the high power of the microscope, and by

reflected light, they are seen to be polished and covered with

the tiniest little pits imaginable. Moreover, sharp angles are

generally wanting. The grains are all small, and seldom

exceed one-sixteenth of an inch in diameter, while the majority

are smaller. Most of the grains are quartz, but other minerals,

such as spinel, zircon, ilmenite, &c., occur sparingly.

Rounded grains of quartz, like these, do not exist in the

rocks from which they were certainly derived ; so that, like

pebbles, they must have acquired their roundness by a process

of attrition.

If you examine the sand of rivers or of the sea, you will find

that itis sharp. Thereason for this is that the grains have

been protected from excessive abrasion by the water, which

acts as a cushion or fender between the solid particles.

In wind-blown sand, however, the grains are typically

rounded, while the sand of most deserts includes a varying

proportion of millet seed, or practically spherical particles.

The reasons for these differences are given by Hatch thus :-—

~“ Under wind action the rolling motion is predominant,

while sliding is subordinate ; secondly, when a sand grain

moves in air, the whole weight is effective in producing

friction, while in water only part comes into play.”’*

So that while sand deposited by water is sharp, that blown

by the wind is rounded. Another distinctive feature of sands

is the presence or absence of mica. This mineral is nearly

always present in aqueous sands, but practically never in

wind-blown sands, though exceptional cases, of course, occur.

Acertain proportion of millet seed grains is to be found in the

red earth, while all the quartz particles are characteristically

rounded. These facts taken together with the absence of

mica point very decidedly to an eolian origin of the red earth ;

but there are difficulties. The wind in transporting material

* Hatch and Rastell: ‘“‘ The Petrology of the Sedimentary Rocks,”

London, 1913, p. 54.

STONE AGES OF CEYLON. 105

acts as a sorting agent, and separates lighter from heavier

particles, so that in a wind-blown deposit we should expect to

find an evenness of grain and an absence of pebbles. These

two features are those of the red earth, but let us examine the

matter more closely.

I find that the vast majority of particles in the red earth are

less than one-sixteenth and more than one-sixtieth of an inch

in longest diameter. A similar statement can be made with

regard to recent blown sands in the north of the Island.

These figures are by no means bound to hold good for all blown

sands for obvious reasons ; but I have selected this example

from the north for comparative purposes. Now, since the

wind is selective, we may well expect to find some sort of rule

with regard to the proportion of the different sized particles

which it will shift, or has shifted. There will always be a

certain amount of very fine material present in a blown sand ;

let us examine that. The average of eighteen specimens (all

of which conform in the general size of their constituent

particles with those of the red earth) collected over a seaboard

of some 30 miles in length shows that 1:114 per cent. of the

material is less than one-ninetieth of an inch in diameter,

while an average of sixteen samples of red earth from different

districts shows that 4°52 per cent. of its bulk is equally small.

This is a very big difference, and this last figure is too low, for

it only expresses the proportion of fine material (less than one-

ninetieth of an inch in diameter), which is easily separated by

means of a sieve. It says nothing of the quantity of snuff-like

dust which clings to the larger particles.

If the first figure then is of any use for comparative purposes,

the red earth is either not a wind-blown deposit, or it is a very

abnormal one.

If you take a handful of dry red earth and sprinkle it in fair

quantities before the breeze, you will find that the wind

separates, more or less, the fine material from the coarse as it

falls ; this argues badly for the zxolian origin of the red earth.

But in this connection there is one significant point to be

noticed.

All the larger grains are composed of chemically stable

materials, the vast majority being quartz. Now the ordinary

106 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

river or sea sand is differently constituted, for, in addition to

quartz, a large number of other minerals are present. Among

these felspar 1s conspicuous.

Felspar gradually decomposes under the influence of

meteoric waters ; and one of the chief products of this break-

down is kaolin (china clay), which takes the form of exceed-

ingly minute flakes. But felsparis not by any means the only

other mineral besides quartz, which is to be found in sands

derived, as those of Ceylon are, from igneous and metamor-

phic rocks. There are, besides, ferromagnesian silicates and

iron ores, all of which are unstable. These decompose in time

under the influence of rain water just as felspar does.

In the light of these facts, therefore, we may interpret the

redearth. In my opinion the red earthisa wind-borne deposit,

of which the constituent grains were those of the crystalline

rocks from which the particles were derived. In the course of

time the unstable minerals have decomposed, thereby giving

rise to the usual decomposition products, of which finely

divided kaolin and hydrated iron oxide are the two most

prominent. Thus can we account for the peculiar features of

the red earth.

I may say that certain deposits of white sand in the Western

Province can be shown to be derived directly from the red

earth. All the fine earthy material has been removed from it

by natural causes, so that now it consists of over 99 per cent.

of quartz sand. I find on estimation of sixteen samples that

on the average 1°225 per cent. of the material is below one-

ninetieth of an inch in diameter, a figure sufficiently close to

that obtained from modern dunes to corroborate our con-

clusion drawn from other facts. The wide occurrence of red

earth points to the past existence of enormous stretches of

blown sand, in fact to desert-like conditions over much of

the low-country.

Such, then, are the plateau deposits; now for their

distribution.

In the course of coast surveys I have traversed on foot the

entire coast between Kumane in the south-east and Point

Pedro in the north vid Galle, Colombo, and Mannar; and

from Point Pedro to the mouth of lagoon immediately above

STONE AGES OF CEYLON. 107

Mullaittivu, a total distance of over 850 miles, most of which

[have covered more than once. Besides this, I have travelled

and made observations in all the Provinces of Ceylon, except

the Eastern. From what I have learnt from those who know

the Eastern Province, I gather that plateau deposits are

represented there ; certainly they occur in all the others, and

everywhere their features are much the same.

A complete list of all the places in which I have found these

remarkable beds would not only be tiresome, but also out of

place in a general paper such as this.

The following is an account of the more interesting localities

in which plateau deposits occur.

Starting from the Kumbukkan river and working eastwards

to Hambantota one comes upon a number of plateau outcrops,

and a still greater number of plateau deposits which have

been reconstructed at lower levels. The best exposures are to

be seen between Uda Potana and Yala, where there are several

outcrops of exceptional interest. The best, perhaps, is at

Minihagalkanda.

Here an ancient plane of marine denudation, once of

crystalline rock, but now highly kaolinized, supports sedi-

mentary strata, which in their turn are covered by plateau

beds. The site is highly implementiferous, and is, perhaps,

the most geologically interesting of all plateau sites that I

have seen. Between Minihagalkanda and the lowland hills,

situated several miles inland, are reconstructed plateau gravels

and other deposits of newer formation than the red earth,

while here and there one can trace the remains of gravels still

in situ around the hills.

Travelling towards Hambantota one sees occasional plateau

outcrops, and quite a number of implementiferous deposits

of younger date. I am inclined to think, though I have not

sufficient evidence to prove the supposition, that the re-

constructed gravels and other beds formed after the denuda-

tion of the red earth are more or lesscontemporaneous with the

Pigmies and (?) Neolithic tools with which they are associated,

and younger than the larger types which are found in the same

beds, which artefacts, I suppose, were derived from the older

gravels,

108 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Beyond Hambantota gravels occur. These yield a certain

number of implements. Exposures are best seen between

Ranna and the coast.

Wellipatanwila affords some interesting sections ; and there

implements are fairly plentiful. Several gravels capping low

hills between Hambantota and Tangalla are exposed in road

cuttings.

Outcrops between Tangalla and Colombo are, as far as my

knowledge of the country goes, not particularly good. They

are to be seen, however, between Matara and Galle—the

Kamburupitiya resthouse is built on them—and in patches

between Galle and the Capital.

North of Colombo outcrops are more plentiful. Numerous

between Negombo and Chilaw. They are, however, small,

and seldom afford anything but the crudest artefacts.

Between Chilaw and Puttalam plateau gravels are fairly

common, and artefacts rather more plentiful.

In the Puttalam District many may be gathered. Outcrops

along the main roads to Anuradhapura and Kurunegala are not

without interest ; but the best occurrences are to be found to

the north of Puttalam. A fairly good section is to be seen

to the south of Karativu, but the implements are poor.

The coast road from Puttalam to Mannar is easily followed

to Vannathivillu, a distance of 12 miles; beyond that it is

nothing but a jungle track to beyond Arippu ; but implement-

bearing gravels along it are worth investigating. The best

sites along the track are (1) 4 miles beyond Vannathivillu, and

(2) a mile south of Marichchukkaddi.

If one turns aside from the tract, however, and goes into the

Puttalam Game Sanctuary, more interesting discoveries may

be made. In order to do this, one must be prepared to

“rough it.”

Nothing but a bullock cart can be taken beyond Vannathi-

villu, and that only with difficulty. The collector must make

his way to Pomparippu, and thence into the sanctuary,* as

far as Kokkarevillu. Beyond this his only means of transport

is a gang of coolies. In the sanctuary, of course, nothing can

* Permission must first be obtained to enter the sanctuary.

STONE AGES OF CEYLON. 109

be shot, and all supplies both for the collector and his men

must be carried, as well as a tent, that is if he wants a tent ;

personally I have managed without, but I cannot recommend

this mode of travelling to anybody who cares for comfort.

From Kokkarevillu he must travel northwards and eastwards

to a point some 12 miles from the mouth of the Moderagam

river (marked on the map with a cross) and establish his camp.

Once across the river one is beyond the limits of the sanctuary,

and may shoot for the pot, but there are no villages here, so

nothing can be bought.*

This spot is a perfect paradise for the Prehistoric-archzeo-

logist, and is the most productive that I know. Here the

plateau beds are dissected by a number of streams and

exposed over a wide area. Stone tools of all descriptions, from

the earliest to the latest, may be gathered here; and to

anybody who will spend a week or so collecting interesting

discoveries are assured. There are, too, several relics of

ancient Sinhalese civilization in the vicinity.

Another good site for the collector lies near Pomparippu.

Looking eastwards from the village one sees two ridge-like

elevations (really turtle backs).

The further of these, some 3 miles away, is well worthy of

investigation. It was from there that I obtained my first

Ceylon example of an early stone-age hand-axe.

Several sites in the North-Central Province are worthy of a

visit. One of the best is Kumpudumalai; another prolific

locality is the source of the Kunji-aru; but these again are

difficult of access.

Though a number of sites from the Moderagam river to

Mannar and northwards might. be mentioned, none to my

knowledge yield many relics. The same remark applies to

the Jaffna peninsula and to the country between Point Pedro

and Mullaittivu.

* A word of notice to the intending traveller. Do not pay too much

attention to the maps of the jungle parts of the Puttalam District.

They are often inaccurate and liable to lead one astray. The best plan

is to take a native who knows the country, if one can be found, and let

him act as guide. There are several men in Puttalam at the present

time who were members of my caravan.

5 6(3)19

110 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

The two best sites that Iam aware of are (1) Minihagalkanda

in the Yala Game Sanctuary, and (2) the point marked with a

cross on the map in the Puttalam Game Sanctuary. These,

like all the best plateau sites, are situated in unopened

country ; and in order to work them, the collector must

exchange the artificial comforts of the town for the rough and

ready ways of the wild.

The red earth country has a geography of its own. It is

essentially low-lying, with large low domes generally less than

100 feet in altitude above sea level and 2 or 3 miles in length

by, perhaps, 1} in width. From the plain they resemble low

ridges, but are best described as “turtle backs.” They

are covered with red earth, but the flats between them are of

varying composition, and, are younger than the red earth.

The whole supports dense jungle or cultivation. This

curious undulating country is at first extremely difficult to

account for, since the red earth is a soft deposit,and not likely

to offer much resistance to denudation. Nor are matters

simplified by the occurrence of pools which have no outlet

or streams to feed them,* and the fact that all the turtle backs

appear to have a core of older rocks. At first sight it looks

almost like a case of folding. The older rocks of Ceylon have

been bent and folded to a remarkable degree by secular move-

ments. That these are exceedingly old there can be no doubt,

inasmuch as all the bold features of our mountain scenery

have all been produced by denudation since the ancient crys-

talline rocks were twisted and crumpled. The movements

were due to certain tangential stresses set up in the earth’s

crust, and acting for the most part in approximately east and

west directions, so that the major folds run across the country

more or less at right angle to them. Now the long axes of

the red earth domes also follow this direction, but evidence

of folding in the plateau beds is generally wanting. It would

not be surprising to find that beds newer than the ancient

crystalline rocks, and separated from them by a tremendous

lapse of time, had been folded too, for the axis of a fold is

a line of weakness, and earth movements often re-assert

* Most of fuone Pa as they are called, dry up in the rainless

season,

STONE AGES OF CEYLON. Lata

themselves after a considerable interval. Now at Kudremalai

the red earth is bent over an anticline of sedimentary rocks,

while plateau beds at Minihagalkanda have suffered in a

somewhat similar way ; but evidence, so far as I have been

able to gather it, does not allow one to apply these facts to the

explanation of the earth domes in general. Indeed, folded

plateau beds seems to be the exception, not the rule. Owing

to the density of the vegetation and the thick mantle of red

earth, and also to the accumulations of detrital matter derived

from the red earth which flank the domes, the internal struc-

ture of these features is generally difficult to observe. Small

streams, however, sometimes afford interesting sections ;

and from them one gathers that the structure of what I shall

call the typical red earth dome is as follows.

The central core is a mass of ancient rock ; over and around

this is a layer of sedimentary material. Above the whole are

the plateau deposits.

There can be no doubt whatever that the cores are the

remains of ancient turtle backs which once ran in lines across

the country. They are not in themselves folds, but a product

of past differential weathering. What is the probable history

of these remarkable elevations? I think it is this. We

start from the fact that gravel is deposited in water, and

water shows a preference for valleys, not for hills. Now the

plateau beds can be traced from one elevation to another,

but they are missing in the valleys between ; and so we must

infer that the valleys have been produced since the plateau

beds were deposited. All this is plain sailing, but we have to

account for the curious persistence of the hills. When the

plateau gravels were left dry, they must have formed a vast

plain, and in places, such as the north of the Island, where

there are no permanent rivers (and where, by the way, the

domes are best developed), there was no @ priori reason why

valleys should have been produced on particular sites ; and

apparently none whatever why denudations should choose to

carve out hills exactly where it had done so before. Mani-

festly then the cause must be, so to speak, an internal one ;

and since secular movement cannot be invoked, the cause

must somehow lie in the buried hills themselves. Now the

112 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

plateau beds are extremely pervious to water. The sedimen-

tary beds, though less so,* are infinitely more pervious than

the crystalline rocks. Consequently rain water which passes

freely downwards through the plateau deposits soaks through

the sedimentary beds and tends to collect upon the rocks

below, making its way down the slopes of the ancient turtle

backs to the bottom of the buried valleys. Somewhere along

the main line of flow the surface of the country is bound to

cut the water table, for meanwhile subaerial denudation

will have been at work ploughing runnels and small streams

in the plains, or, failing that, the water table, kept up by the

beds below, will be cut at the coasts if the country has been

elevated at all. And so a spring starts. The gradual crumb-

ling in the beds above the source of the spring opens the way

for a surface water-course, and thereby to external drainage

on ancient lines. Thus the general features of the buried

landscape are reproduced.

But superimposed upon this persistent geography are the

remains of that of red earth days ; that is to say, of a desert

geography ; and just as water tends to accumulate between

the hollows of the sand hills of the Jaffna peninsula, so, no

doubt, it did among the dunes of red earth times. Thus, I

think, are the villus, those curious ponds unfed by streams and

provided with no outlets, of which I have spoken before, to be

explained. Nearly two years ago Mr. H.F.Tomalin, the present

Conservator of Forests, suggested to me that villus owe their

origin to the action of the wind. Inowsee that his suggestion

was probably much nearer the truth than I was at that time

disposed to think. The fact that villus really are ancient

features is rendered probable by the occurrence of stone tools

on more recent sand dunes, which sometimes flank them on

the north-east sides. The sand of these dunes is white;

it was derived from the red earth and bleached by the hygro-

phytic vegetation on the edges of the water before it was

blown into its present position. The stone tools cannot have

been blownup as well; and, as we haveseen, they are probably

* See my remarks on this subject in “‘ Spolia Zeylanica,” Vol. X.,

Part 37, pp. 166-174.

STONE AGES OF CEYLON. 113

of ancient manufacture. Presumably these white sand heaps

belong to Neolithic days. They do not seem to be encroaching

much upon the jungle now.

Ancient red earth dunes are to be found buried beneath

those of more modern dates and lighter colour in the Jaffna

peninsula. From some of the former, at Kalmunai, I have

gathered quartz flakes.

Denudation has accomplished so much since the red earth

was laid down that the present outcrops are mere scattered

remnants. One traces them over the lowlands and up the

valleys of the permanent rivers.* And here I would call

attention to the difference between permanent rivers, such as

the Kelani and the Kalu-ganga, for example, with their

buried bottoms and ancient history, and the modern streams

which have no such buried bottoms. The latter have all been

formed since red earth times, and the great majority (though

not all, I should suppose) rise in the low-country, and run dry

in the rainless seasons ; whereas all the permanent rivers rise

in the mountain zone.

I have already made reference to the occurrence of red earth

dunes below more modern ones at Kalmunai and elsewhere.

The former have been preserved of course by the latter, which

protect them from denudation. Blown sand is a fine pro-

tection, for as fast as it is removed, either by the wind or rain,

it is replaced with fresh material; but its action is often

limited to a zone a few hundred yards in width around the

coast. So one finds high rims of sedimentary rocks and plateau

beds along the coast which separate flat country, standing

but a very few feet above sea-level, from the ocean. An

excellent example of this is seen at Minihagalkanda in the

Southern Province. In this instance elevation has gradually

raised the plateau beds above the influence of the blown sand,

and now denudation is ‘playing its usual part. From the

present distribution then of plateau deposits and their typical

occurrence on the summits of low hills, it follows that the

geography of the low-country is distinctly different to-day

* In the case of the Maha-oya this can be traced with comparative

ease, and I have no doubt whatever that some of the higher gravels of

the Kelani river are part of the flaked series,

114 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

from what it was when these beds were laid down. It is

quite certain that the valleys and flats separating these

elevations have been carved out since plateau days. One can

hardly escape from the conclusion that the present isolated

outcrops once formed part of a huge plain surrounding the

hill country of Ceylon. Since these outcrops are now well

above the sea, though bordering upon it, it must follow that

in plateau times the coast line cannot have been situated

where it now is.

We may suppose, if we like, that the country as a whole

stood at much the same elevation as it does to-day, but that

the coast line was situated further out in what is now the

Indian ocean ; or we may suppose that the country as a whole

has risen in relation to the sea. From general considerations,

which I will not go into now, the latter supposition is preferable.

But I can produce something more than supposition. Near

Ranna, in the Southern Province, some of the plateau repre-

sentatives contain the shells of marine mollusca, similar to

those which now inhabit the very shallow inlets of the sea

that run into the coast, like salt pans.

The beds which hold these fossils are now some 50 feet

above the ocean, while the breakers themselves are within

shouting distance. We must believe then that the relative

altitudes of sea and land have changed. Whether the ocean

has subsided or the land has risen, or whether both have

moved, I will not discuss in detail; but since the plateau

beds have undergone a small amount of folding, we know

that the land is at least in part responsible.

What were the conditions under which early man lived

in Ceylon? When did he arrive? Was he or was he not

succeeded by another people before the Veddas came ?

Let us go back to the days before the plateau beds were

deposited and discover, if we can, what in general were the

then conditions of the country.

Ceylon is an ancient land. The great majority of its rocks

are among the oldest known. They belong to what: is called

the Archean epoch; and some of them, according to the

last pronouncement of my friend Mr. Arthur Holmes, who

STONE AGES OF CEYLON. 115

determines the periods of geology by means of radio-activity,*

were formed some fifteen hundred millon years ago, The

sedimentary beds, practically unknown in this country till

recently, are on this basis comparatively modern.

How long the country of Ceylon has been above the ocean

nobody can say ; but the extremely advanced stage of denu-

dation of the mountains shows that many eons have passed

since the rain first beat and the sun first shone upon this

land.

Doubtless all have seen that wonderful view from the Hapu-

tale Gap, where one looks down upon the jungle across the tank

of Hambagamuwa, and on to the sea 5,000 feet below and 40

miles away. And beneath the general level of the range you

must have noticed the remnants of a vast plateau, which now,

battered and dissected by the ravages of time, stands out as

hills and pinnacles from the forest-covered plains. From

Haputale this plateau, or periplane, is best observed ; but it

can be traced with more or less distinctness all round the

mountain zone. It is a wonderful relic of a time long past

when the blue ocean lapped the highlands of Ceylon. Below

the level of the periplane, which I call the mountain plateau,

is the remnant of another, infinitely younger, yet almost as

old may be as the human race itself. Over this vast plain

roamed savage man; perhaps a thousand centuries ago.

The rivers began to carve their courses in the mountains

before the periplane emerged ; probably they were hoary with

age ere this event took place. That they had run for countless

ages before the second periplane was formed is certain, for it

can be shown that the former was dissected much as now

when the plateau gravels were deposited. The rivers had

taken their courses before denudation had carved away the

less resistant portions of the mountain plateau, so that now we

have the quaint anomaly of rivers cutting through hills instead

of adopting easy routes around them.+

* Radio-activity and the Earth’s Thermal History, Part II. (Geol.

Mag. N. S., Decade VI., March, 1915, Vol. II., pp. 102-112).

+ For example, the Kelani-ganga above Hadduwa cuts through a

high rocky ridge, thus detaching the end of it from the main mass.

The Kalu-ganga flows through the range between Nambapana and

Dumbara,

116 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

The low degree of culture evidenced by the early plateau

tools suggests that man first came to Ceylon on foot and not

in ships. Moreover, the large mammalia must have come

hither thus, so that we may infer a land connection between

Ceylon and some other country, most probably India, in the

past. It is reasonable to assume that our land stood higher

then than now, since by a smallelevation a connection with the

continent would be established. Have we any evidence, then,

that Ceylon was ever higher? Indeed, we have. Besides

the buried plateau of the Pearl Banks, which seems to point

to such conditions, we have the fact, which I was incidentally

able to establish when boring in the Western Province and

Sabaragamawa, that the ancient bottoms of modern rivers,

vertically beneath their present beds, are now below sea-level.

I will not elaborate this point, though its side issues are

important ; it is sufficient for our purpose now to realize that

when man first came the land was higher.

Now we come back to the plateau gravels, which were depo-

sited after man arrived ; and when, as we have seen, the land

was lower, at a time, too, when the connection with India

had doubtless broken down. Who were these people? Did

they make the frosted ‘“‘ Eoliths ” which one finds associated

with a better type of tool in the plateau beds? Are these,

indeed, derived from older sites? For my part I answer

probably. And the plateau gravel, how came it to be strewn

about the ancient plain? How comes the plain at all?

The surface of the beds below the gravel is likely enough an

old sea bed converted into land by elevation ; but the gravels

are not sea gravels ; of that I am persuaded.

They have none of the characters of a marine deposit. But

that they were low-lying and liable in places to inundation

by the sides we have already seen.

What cause can weascribe to the midden-like accumulations

and wide occurrence of these beds? Glaciers will not do ;

yet no other ordinary agency is half as capable. The cause

seems catastrophic. An alternative suggests itself, and that

is Noah’s flood !

The legend of the deluge is so universal and so ancient that

one can hardly escape from the conclusion that it originated

STONE AGES OF CEYLON. EY

in some real occurrence. It may be, as Suess maintains,

nothing more than a traditional account of a flood in the

lower Euphrates valley ;* but the wide diffusion of the story

is more easily understood, if it can be shown that the catas-

trophe which it chronicles was one affecting many countries

of the world.

And can it be shown that any such event was probable ?

I think it can. My friend Mr. Charles E. P. Brooks, in a

masterly paper read before the Royal Meteorological Society

three years ago, showed how the influence of low temperature

on the density of the air causes a permanent anticyclone

to occupy the Arctic regions, and that within such regions

precipitation must be very slight.t These conditions must

have been very marked during the glacial period.

Now, although the precipitation for the world at large was

probably below normal by reason of decreased evaporation

caused by a general lowering of temperature, the outward

blowing winds from the anticyclone deflected by the earth’s

rotation into a south-easterly and easterly direction allowed

so little moisture to fall over the ice sheets that in unglaciated

and tropical areas the annual precipitations must have been

considerably above the normal. Evidence of a heavier

rainfall in the past is widespread enough, for not only are

most modern rivers too small for the valleys they occupy, but

the great lakes, like those of Central Africa, Australia, Chad

in the Sahara, lakes Bonneville, Lah Outan, Titicaca, and the

lakes of Mexico in America, to mention a few, were very much

larger in bygone days than now.

We in Ceylon who know what a monsoon shower can do,

and have seen hundreds of square miles inundated in a day,

may well shudder at the thought of what the rivers really

could accomplish if they tried.

**“ Das Antlitz der Erde.” See English translation by Sollas,

London, 1904, Vol. I., Chapter I.

+ “ The Meteorological Conditions of an Ice Sheet, and their bearing

on the Desiccation of the Globe ”? (Q. J. R. Met. Soe., Vol. XL., No. 169,

1914, pp. 53-70).

t Investigations show that nearly all the moisture in the Arctic

regions falls as snow, which measured in terms of rainfall seldom

exceeds 10 inches a year.

6 6(8)19

118 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

And Ceylon is not a land of exceptional precipitation.

Look at Cherra Punji in Assam, with its yearly average of

458 inches, ““and a maximum record of 905 inches said to

have fallen during the year 1861, of which 503 inches came

down in June and July.”* We who saw how choked the

rivers were with sand after the rapid and disastrous floods

of 1913 may well be glad that the rain stopped when it did,

for otherwise the entire rice crop of the low-country would

have been buried in a bed of mud and silt. i

If the average yearly rainfall for Ceylon were as great as

that of Cherra Punji, the low-country would be flooded out at

least once a year.

Let us see how Mr. Brooks’s contentions help us to interpret

the plateau beds.

Across the plain formed by the emergence of the ocean floor

rivers would flow, probably much as they did in previous days

when the land was more elevated, and when man first came

to the Island. For these upheavals are generally very slow

affairs, and the rivers would have time enough to cut anew

their courses as the country rose again. But these, we will

assume, were the days of the Great Ice Age, when prehistoric

man was living in Europe under conditions of intense cold.

Precipitation, as we have seen (by the thesis noticed above),

was greater then than now, and so we see the rivers filling

their valleys in the hills and pouring forth in great volume

over the plains below. The renewed energy of the running

water engendered by the heavy rains, and the rising country,

would enable it to carry enormous loads as long as the gradient

was steep enough to permit of a high velocity. But once the

streams poured forth upon the flats, much of their power would

be lost, their channels choked, and their detritus spread abroad.

Large boulders would be dropped first, later the gravel, while

some of the fine sediment would be carried out to sea or spread

on distant portions of the plain.

* Pascoe, E. H.: The Petroleum Occurrences of Assam and Bengal

(Mem. Geol. Survey, India, Vol. XL., Part 2, Calcutta, 1914, p. 274).

+ The transporting power of a current varies as the sixth power of

its velocity ; so that if the velocity be doubled, the transporting power

is multiplied sixty-four times (see I. C. Russel’s “ River Development,”

London, 1909).

STONE AGES OF CEYLON. 119

Seasonal variations probably existed then as now, and during

the dry months the streams would dwindle, and seeds of grass

and other plants brought down by the floods would germinate

and grow, thereby giving rise to a patchy grass land Vescon

tion and a splendid hunting ground.

In the quieter days that follow floods, a stream starts to

scour its bed; but at the beginning of the rains, before the

load is heavy, this work is mostly finished. Thus, the rivers

would tend to keep an outlet.

As time went on, the load would diminish, for the débris

spread about the hills would have been disposed of. Moreover,

the velocity of the rivers would diminish with their gradients.

As the glaciers dwindled, too, in other lands, the rainfall would

become more evenly distributed, and in the course of time

normal conditions would supervene.

Such a state of things may well explain the plateau deposits.

That the rivers played no small part in the deposition of these

beds is manifest, for the poorest gravels are furthest from the

permanent water-courses.

We have seen that elevation followed the formation of

plateau beds, but, in spite of the energy thereby gained, the

phenomena of the preceding period were not repeated. The

rivers wanted volume ; the flood had passed, and with it the

conditions of plateau days.

I will not insist that this was, indeed, the flood recorded in

the Hebrew scriptures, but I suggest the possibility as a point

of interest. Even could it be proved that the deluge and the

abnormal rains of the Pleistocene were indeed one, it would

not follow that early man had handed the story on to

succeeding generations.

In fact, this would be most unlikely, since the conditions

of the Ice Age were not cataclysmic, but of gradual increase

and decline. It is quite possible that the story of the flood

is the result of one of the earliest geological deductions man

ever made. For consider this. At Minihagalkanda denuda-

tion in producing a cliff of a hundred feet in height has laid

bare an outcrop of chert, from which comparatively modern

stone-age man has shaped his implements. Now, he must

have been able to recognize a chipped stone at least as well

120 SPOLIA ZEYLANICGA.

as we, and in searching for materials with which to make

certain of his tools, he was bound to come upon artefacts of a

pre-existing time in the gravels near the cliff top. Savage

man is an excellent observer ; doubtless he knew well enough

that gravels are not in general deposited upon an elevation.

Movements of the land were presumably unknown to him,

and the rise and fall of tides was an everyday affair. A heavy

flood, such as might occur at almost any time, would provide

an explanation of the gravels. The extinction of a race of

men, save a favoured few who carried on the race, might be

read by Neolithic man by the light of the buried artefacts.

We have yet to show it probable that the plateau beds of

this country are as old as the Pleistocene Ice Age of Europe,

for without this probability our theory of the origin of the

gravels is of little weight.

The only criteria which we have in this connection are the

comparative results of denudation. But it may be argued

that denudation is more rapid in the Tropics. I hardly think

this is so, at any rate as far as Ceylon is concerned. Have we

not in this Island inscriptions which have felt the sun and

rains for a couple of millennia and yet are readable? Would

they have lasted better in Europe? I doubt it. There is no

evidence to show that denudation in Ceylon is more rapid

than in Europe. Since the earliest Paleolithic days the

Thames Valley has been carved, and many of the features of

European geography produced. Here, in Ceylon, results

comparable to these have been achieved since the red earth

waslaiddown. Great areas of land milesin length and breadth

and a hundred feet in depth have been gradually eaten away

without the assistance of a great river. Witness, for example,

the stupendous effects of subaerial erosion which have slowly

accrued in the Southern Province since red earth times alone.

Secular movements of a widespread nature have impressed

their influence on the country ; stone-age cultures have

succeeded each other and passed away; civilizations have

risen and declined ; great cities have been built, and the

trackless wilderness converted to a fertile plain. All this has

passed ; the grasping jungle has regained its own, and Euro-

pean men have come, the Portuguese, the Dutch, and latterly

STONE AGES OF CEYLON. 121

the British, with their goods, their gods, and their women to

settle in the land.

History, as we know it, affords but a poor picture of man’s

activity. Aggressively foreshortened at best, it is all conse-

quence and no foundation. Like the Struldbrugs of Swift’s

incomparable satire, the races of man have outlived the reach

of memory.

Judged by the span of mortal generations humanity is old,

ridiculously old, yet, we suppose, it has all before it. But the

story of man is the last paragraph, as it were, in a whole

library of chronicles ; and well may we believe with the more

moderate savants of the Western School that a hundred

thousand years have gone since the Paleolithic savage BN

shaped his implements in Britain.

And if it were true of Britain, why not of Ceylon? The

evidence of both is comparable in kind and in degree. The

cradle of humanity is still unknown, in spite of many bold and

ingenious contentions ; but as facts accumulate, it becomes

increasingly apparent that in those dim and far-off days

stone-age people had multiplied and spread to many corners

of the earth.

I submit then that we have reason to suppose that the

plateau beds of Ceylon are comparable in age with the Pale-

olithic deposits of Europe, and that their formation may in

part be explained by the meteorological conditions which

accompanied the Ice Age.

As to the red earth which overlies the gravels, it is largely

sand blown over the low-country from the seaboard, when

the wet phase of the Pleistocene was passing or had passed.

In red earth days much of the low-country no doubt resembled

that sandy waste which borders the eastern coast of the Jafina

peninsula at the present time ; dry and arid conditions must

have supervened. From Cape Comorin in the Native State

of Travancore one sees the fag-end of the Western Ghauts

protruding from a sand plain. Not far otherwise, if one

allows for modern cultivation, must Ceylon have appeared

to red earth man.

The period of denudation which followed the upheaval of

the plateau beds gave rise to fresh deposits derived in no

122 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

small measure from those we have been studying. We may

not consider these in detail now, but I cannot dismiss them

without a few remarks.

One striking feature of the post-plateau deposits is their

contrast in colour with their parent beds. They are never

deep red, while some of them are dazzlingly white. These

are the sands derived from the red earth and bleached by

vegetation. While geologically younger, they are geographi-

cally lower than the red earth, but above the general level

of the rice fields which were formed after them. They

indicate swamp conditions in the past. Mineralogically they

are of interest, in that they are practically pure silica, and

historically they are of interest as the ground on which the

Dutch chose to plant their cinnamon.

The beds of the paddy flats (rice grounds) which were

formed after them have a history of their own, and they, the

cinnamon grounds, and certain interesting shell deposits of

local occurrence, may be correlated with the more recent

sediments of the coast. Here, too, belong the white dunes

of the villus.

I have on a previous occasion (‘‘Spolia Zeylanica,” Vol. X.,

Part 38, pp. 273 and 274) given a short account of the move-

ments which these depositsindicate. I will say nothing further

of them now beyond that I am strongly inclined to think that

some of them at least belong to Neolithic days.

VI.— SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION.

To recapitulate. According to the evidence the following

seems probable. Early man came to Ceylon from India by

means of a then existing land bridge. He had not in those

days reached the Paleolithic stage of culture ; but he attained

this later in the Island.

The downward movement of the Iand, which took place

after man’s arrival, was followed by an uplift ; and on the

coastal plains, thus widened by the exposure of the ocean bed,

the now Paleolithic man hunted in the drier seasons.*

* Uplifts seem to have been as characteristic of the Pleistocene, as

depressions were during the later carboniferous.

STONE AGES OF CEYLON. Zs

The climatic conditions of the Pleistocene period caused

the rivers to fill their valleys and discharge their loads

during one or both of the monsoons over the coastal flats: In

these deposits were buried the implements of early stone-age

man.

As the ice sheets of other lands retreated towards the poles,

the rainy phase of the Tropics passed away ; and the drier

monsoon winds, laden with the fine detritus of the coast,

spread a mantle of sand over the low-lying regions. In those

days the low-country probably resembled the arid waste

which now exists on the eastern coast of the Jaffna peninsula.

Later elevation re-asserted its sway, and the denuding

agencies of rain and sun and wind began to develop the

features of modern lowland geography.

With the new condition of things came Neolithic man, but

whether of a race apart from the people of the Pleistocene

nobody can say. Later still came the Veddas and the Naga

people from Southern India,* and finally, the Sinhalese, whose

advent brought the prehistoric epochs to a close.

The above, I submit, are outlines of the Stone Ages of

Ceylon—sketchy outlines, nothing more.

A great deal of work must be accomplished and much detail

added before these outlines can assume the aspect of a tolerable

picture. Nor do I blind myself to the fact that some alteration

of the outlines may be necessary. In the main, however,

I fancy they will stand. For what they are worth I give

them here now; and it is for others to investigate and

criticise.

If any one will take the subject up and work upon it

systematically, he cannot fail to achieve valuable results.

Moreover, if he is unable to carry on research in the wilder

districts of the Island, where, in addition to the human interest

of the work, he will experience all the romance of a jungle life,

there is yet open to him a wealth of possibilities in more

convenient spots.

* The Nagas were a Dravidian people who found their way to Ceylon

before the Aryans arrived. Their chief stronghold appears to have

been in the north of the Island.

124 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

For along the river valleys, in the gemming fields, in the

beds of streams, and in a hundred other places relics of a

long-forgotten past lie buried to him who will investigate is

the joy of fresh discovery assured.

Much may be done if only people will keep their eyes open

and record simple facts. Every fact, however isolated, is of

value, though its true significance may not be gauged at once.

There are men among us who have done splendid service

and will yet do more in the cause of science ; but the humblest

may add his quota to the store of knowledge by the simple

means of observation.

If there is any one in need of a hobby, but who feels

himself unqualified to tackle the more intricate problems of

biology, let him take up the work where I have dropped it ;

for there he will find himself on the edge of a vast and un-

explored territory, wherein he may accomplish far more than

it has been my humble lot to do for the Natural History of

the Island.

I have to express my indebtedness to Mr. G. M. Henry for

kindly undertaking to draw the figures, and to Mr. C. Hartley,

not only for the helpful criticism and advice, from which the

author has on many occasions profited, but also, and chiefly

perhaps, for performing the onerous task of seeing this paper

through the press.

APPENDIX A,

The Human Period is subdivided as follows :—

[2Bstore Age

Early Iron Age | Modern races |

voce 4 Bronze Age r of man l

| Modern species

| Neolithic Age, i) f of man

(Magdalenian |

Solutrean J

RES eres Aurignacian

( Pal eolithic 4 Mousterian |

eters eO eee = ; ( Gh Bee Extinet species

| Pre-Paleolithic of man

: Kolithie

Pliocene

Sub-Crag

LYMANTRIA AMPLA

Stage Ill

R. S-W. del.

This plate to face page 76 in Vol. XI., Part 40, of ‘‘ Spolia Zeylanica.”

\ | NX \ :

iN\

en \ N NAAN \S

WA fl = _N J

i i NS aS ¥

Ws LIS

) Yh AY . h

WHI hii, \

MON nail

Wy is

‘ Le ITT HD

Ns ul

Wi hip

Va i)

HOLLOW SCRAPERS

\ i

we =e

ee | ( \ ie

ec yr

WORKED PEBBLES

Plate IT.

——eEeEow eo

POINTED

I ie

POINTED ees

WTR,

\ b, Wt

SLUG PLANE

HAND AXES Plate V.

AN =

S= ‘ S . S

WN 1,47

i) i! :

—

DISCS

ae 3

ae o

A ANA

Va we Ws ae

ii;

de |

“a

WORKED FLAKES

Plate V1.

eS Np Sg ee ee ee ee ee cl A a ce

OVATE SCRAPERS Plate VIII.

EA A

Soe

Mie

WORKED FLAKES

_ -_

; ;

~~. = 2 ¥ : i ae fei 0a ,

ae . . = ae se ae cone RS eo = ee ee

——— ee == mein es Tr eR ry Se ene —

Rae

+ OR cee —— ee — = 2 eee Ge

STONE AGES OF CEYLON. 125

The exact range in time of the extinct and modern species of

man is at present a little uncertain. Homo sapiens certainly

existed in the Magdalenian Period, while some now extinct species

were probably still living. No human remains indisputably older

than the Chellean Period have yet been discovered. Those which

have come to light from the older Paleolithie deposits, however,

all belong to extinct species. ‘The subdivisions of the Paleolithic

Period are based on discoveries in Europe, and have not yet been

proved to have a world-wide application. The question of

Eolithie and Sub-Crag “implements” is still being debated.

There are high authorities on both sides.

APPENDIX B,

Laterite is a product of decomposition of igneous, metamorphic,

and sometimes sedimentary rocks. Itisthe substance well known

in Ceylon as “‘ Kabook.”

The origin of laterite has given rise to considerable discussion ;

and the term itself has had more than one definition. Geikie

(Text Book of Geology, London, 1903, Vol. I., p. 169) defines

it thus :-— \

** A cellular, reddish, ferruginous clay, found in some tropical

countries as the result of the subaerial decomposition of certain

kinds of rock, as granites, gneiss, diorite, and basalt ; it acquires

great hardness after being quarried out and dried. The peculiar

kind of alteration exemplified by this rock and by Bauxite

(hydrated aluminium oxide) has been termed ‘ laterization.’ ”’

A good description of laterite will be found in “A Manual

of the Geology of India’’ (Medlicott and Blanford), Calcutta,

MDCCCLXXIX., pp. 348-370.

7 6(8)19

126 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

NOTES ON CEYLON BUTTERFLIES,

Part II.

By W. Ormiston, F.E.S.

(With seven Plates.)

Abbreviations after Names.

M. = Moore : Lepidoptera of Ceylon.

B. = Bingham : Fauna of India : Butterflies.

De N. = De Niceville: The Butterflies cf India, Burma, and Ceylon.

E. = Evans: A List of Indian Butterflies.

PAPILIONID.

Prerine.

147. Leprosra xrpHta, B. & E.; Nychitona xiphia, M.—

Also found in India and Malaya. |

Very common in jungles all over the low-country. It

becomes much scarcer above 2,500 feet elevation, and is rather

a rarity at Haldummulla. A native collector once brought

me a specimen said to have been caught at Ohiya (6,000 feet).

Though mainly a jungle fly, it sometimes appears in open

country, and I have noticed it in the Fort at Galle, and it is

common in the town of Jaffna.

I have two specimens from Mannar (January—wet season).

They are very small, but have an exceptional amount of black,

the post-discal spot being joined by a black line to the black

on the terminal margin ; one of these specimens also shows a

very fine black marginal line on the lower wing. With these

exceptions, I have noticed very little variation.

It is the slowest flying butterfly I know, and is nearly always

found fluttering low on the edge of the jungle, so is very easy

to catch. It flies all the year round.

148. Devias BucHARIS.—Found also in India and Burma.

It is abundant everywhere, at all elevations, and flies all the

year round.

The larva feeds on Loranthus, but wanders some distance

to pupate, as the pupa, which is very conspicuous, may be

found anywhere : on bungalow walls, rocks, &c.

CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 127

It usually flies rather high, but comes readily to flowers,

especially Duranta. It is not given to settling on wet roads,

like the next species (P. sita).

The female varies greatly in the width of the black markings,

and I have also taken two or three specimens of a variety in

which the white of the upper surface is replaced by yellow.

I have found this form rare, but a native collector assures me

that he has frequently seen it in the Ratnapura District, so

it is apparently a wet season form.

149. PrioneRis stra.—Also found in Southern India.

A well-known mimic of the last (D.eucharis). The males can

be distinguished by their stronger flight, their much more

pointed fore wings, and the absence of the post-discal band on

the upper side of the fore wing. The real mimicry is, as |

believe is always the case among Ceylon butterflies, shown by

the female. She has a much slower flight than the male, the

fore wing is not so pointed, and the post-discal band is almost

as well marked as in ewcharis, the resemblance being even

greater on the wing than in the cabinet. On the under

side the mimicry is not quite so perfect; the marginal

spots on the hind wing being vermillion instead of carmine,

and they are broadest at the margin, whereas in eucharis

they come to a point there. Seitz, in his work on Butter-

flies, states that eucharis is white at the apex of the fore

wing below and sita is yellow. In all my specimens both are

yellow.

The male is common all the year round at Haldummulla,

especially during the south-west monsoon, and may be seen

day after day in the same place. It flies fast and high, going

round the same trees for hours, often in company with

eucharis, but it comes to flowers, especially Lantana, early in

the morning, and often settles on wet patches on the roads in

the heat of the day, so it is not difficult to procure. The

female is very seldom seen, or, if seen, is mistaken for 9

eucharis.

I once came on females in numbers settled on an

evil-smelling blossom in the Amherst gap, Uda Pussellawa,

in company with H. remba, but not a specimen was

perfect.

128 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

I have taken it from 500 to 6,000 feet elevation in Uva, and

have specimens from Uda Pussellawa, Balangoda, and the

hills above Ratnapura.

f 150. Caroprsri1a crocaLE, B. & E.; Catopsilia catilla, M.

< 151. Caropsm1a pomona, E.; Catopsilia crocale, M., B.,

L& De N.—Also found in India, Malaya, and Australia.

De Niceville and Bingham treated these as one species, but

Bell has found that their larve are distinct. They can be

distinguished as follows :—

Crocale.—A conspicuous reddish pearl-centred spot at the

end of the cell on the under side of both wings. Antennze

plum coloured.

Pomona.—The spots at the end of the cell usually absent

in the 3, and absent or inconspicuous in the 9. Antenne

blackish-brown.

C. crocale 3 varies very little. The 2 has two forms: one

sulphur-yellow, and the other cream colour. The first is by

far the most common. Var. catilla is the variety of 9 crocale,

with large reddish blotches in the centre of the under side of

both wings.

C. pomona 3 varies in the amount of yellow on the upper

side. The Qis very variable in ground colour and the amount

of the black markings. I have no specimens of as bright a

sulphur-yellow as normal 2 crocale.

Both species appear in enormous numbers in the flights,

but are not usually at their maximum at the same time.

These flights of crocale will be found almost always to consist

of well-grown specimens of 2 inches to 2} inches in expanse.

In pomona, on the contrary, dwarfs of under 2 inches form the

great majority.

152. CaTopsILId PYRANTHE.—Moore divided this into

pyranthe, ilea, and chrysets. Found also in India and Malaya.

It is very plentiful at times everywhere, but chiefly so at a

low elevation. It seldom appears at Haldummulla, except

during the north-east monsoon flights, but I have often seen

it laying its eggs then. This district is exceptionally well

stocked with small insectivorous birds, and I fancy the great

majority of the larve fall a prey to them. ‘To observe this

CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 129

better I have grown the food plant in a flower pot in my garden,

and, though I have seen a large number of eggs being laid, I

have so far failed to find a single half-grown larva on the plant.

‘It is very variable, but all the varieties grade. The one

named chryseis by Moore is by far the rarest.

153. CATOPSILIA FLORELLA, B. & E.; Catopsilia gnoma,

M.—Found in Africa, Persia, Afghanistan, Siam, China, &c.

C. florella differs mainly from pyranthe in the terminal

border of the fore wing ; pyranthe has a continuous band,

broad at the apex and narrowed posteriorly ; florella has a

narrow macular band, as broad in interspace 2 as at the apex.

The difference is only clearly shown in the females.

The female is occasionally very plentiful in Ceylon, and is

found in company with pyranthe from Galle to Jaffna. Iam

uncertain if I can distinguish the male from pyranthe, as it

seems to grade perfectly. The female is certainly very

distinct on the upper side, but typical specimens of 2 pyranthe

may be found with the under side coloured almost as in

florella. The antenne of florella are said to be plum coloured,

and those of pyranthe dark brown, but I have not found this

test reliable. Personally I suspect it to be only a seasonal

variety of pyranthe, but I hope to induce a Q to lay her eggs

in captivity and so settle the point. Breeding experiments

by Mr. O. 8S. Wickwar and the late Colonel Manders seem to

prove that gnoma is a wet season form of pyranthe, but I am

not sure that gnoma = florella in this case.

It is commonest at Haldummulla in November and

December, viz., during the north-east monsoon flights.

“Found in the Minneriya—Polonnaruwa country” (F. M.

Mackwood).

154. TERIAS LIBYTHEA, B.; Terias drona, M.; Kibreeta

libythea, K.—Found also in India and Burma.

This is a most variable insect in size, shape of the wings, and

markings, and I consider that the variation is seasonal, the

extremes being the cold and warm season forms respectively.

They grade perfectly into one another. See PI. 2, figs. 1 and 2.

In the cold season form the apex of the fore wing is acu-

minate, the black marginal band on the fore wing is inter-

rupted by a narrow yellow patch in interspace 1. The band

130 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA,

on the lower wing is broken up into a broad apical patch

reaching to interspace 5, followed by triangular spots at the

ends of veins 2 to 5, continued a little way up each vein.

There is usually a pink border to the under side of the costa

of the fore wing, and the cilia are sometimes salmon-pink, as

given by Bingham. In the warm season form the apex of the

fore wing 1s more rounded, and the black marginal band on

both wings is unbroken, being continuous from the apex of

the fore wing to the tornus of the hind wing. The pink border

to the under side of the costa is never present, and the cilia are

pale yellow mixed with black. On the under side of the

fore wing there is occasionally a distinct narrow pre-apical

black streak running from the costa to vein 4. All the other

markings are more obscure.

The cold season form is rare, and is most likely to be taken

at Haldummulla from January to March, a cold, dry season

following the rains. The warm season form is very plentiful

here all the year round, and is found everywhere on the patanas

of Uva from 500 to over 6,000 feet elevation. It is common at

Galaha, near Kandy.

The size of my specimens varies from 26 to 45 mm. in

expanse, dwarfs being by far the commonest.

155. TeRraAs venaTA, B. & De N.; Nirmula venaia, EK. ;

Terias cingala and rama, M.—Found in India, China, the

Philippines, &c.

Moore separated this into cingala and rama, and, taking

extreme examples, the difference is considerable, especially

in the females. Cingala has the apex of the fore wings

rounded, rama has it acuminate. Other differences are :—

In cingala 3.—Upper side: The black border of the fore

wing is but slightly, if at all, narrowed below vein 1, and it is

continued as a fine black line the whole length of the dorsum

to the base ; its inner edge is very slightly produced inward

along veins 2 and 3; there is a distinct black streak on the

disco-cellulars, and the veins of the upper half of the wing are

marked out in black ; the sex mark is large.

Under side: All markings are very indistinct ; on the fore

wing there is usually a minute black spot at the upper apex

CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 131

of the cell, and others at the end of each vein, but all these are

sometimes absent. The discal bands on the hind wing,

though faint, can always be distinguished.

In rama 3.—Upper side: The black border of the fore wing

is abruptly narrowed below vein 1, and is not continued along

the dorsum; its inner edge is strongly produced inwards

along veins 2 and 3; there is no disco-cellular streak, and

the veins are not marked out in black; the sex mark is

smaller.

Under side: There is a distinct black linear spot at’ the

upper apex of the cell. On the lower wing there is a black

spot in the basal half of 7, and a series of three dusky spots

across the wing near the middle of the cell. The discal bands

are very clearly marked.

In cingala 2.—Upper side: The black border of the fore

wing 1s of nearly even width from vein 4 to the tornus, and it

is usually produced a short distance along the dorsal margin ;

on the hind wing it is broad at the apex, but narrows gradually

to the tornus ; there is a fine black line on the disco-cellulars

of the fore wing.

In rama 2.—Upper side: The ground colour is much

brighter ; the black border of the fore wing is broken below

vein 2, and continued to the tornus as a fine line; on the

lower wing there is a broad apical black patch, but it narrows

abruptly in interspace 5, and is continued thence to the tornus

as a narrow black line ; there is no mark on the disco-cellulars

of the fore wing.

Under side: In cingala it resembles the 3. In rama it

answers nearly in ground colour and markings to Bingham’s

description of 7’. leta, wet season form.

- The males are fairly constant, but it is possible to grade

them. The females are very variable, and grading is easy. I

believe that rama is the cold and cingala the warm weather

form of our Ceylon race. The differences between them

coincide very nearly to the seasonal variations of 7. libythea.

See Pl. 2, figs. 1 to 6.

Cingala is very plentiful on the Uva patanas, from 500 to

3,000 feet elevation. Rama is not so common, and is chiefly

132 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

found from 3,000 feet upwards, at Haputale, Ohiya, &c. TI

found cingala very plentiful at Galaha, near Kandy.

Although I have always regarded cingala as by far

the commonest form, it is curious that the Colombo

Museum did not possess a specimen till I sent them some

a few years ago. They had, however, a very fine series of

rama.

T have an exceptionally large specimen of cingala 9, in which

the ground colour is nearly white.

The next group of Trias have always given a lot of trouble,

as the species have a wide range, and are very variable,

Moore split it into seven species in Ceylon, viz., hecabe, heca-

beoides, simulata, citrina, uniformis, rotundalis, and temple-

tonii. Manders and De Niceville (A List of the Butterflies of

Ceylon) reduced the number to three : hecabe, silhetana, and

sari. Bingham and Evans do not give silhetana from Ceylon ;

the former allows us hecabe and sari, and the latter hecabe and

andersont.

Mr. E. E. Green, writing in “ Spolia Zeylanica,” Vol. VIIL.,

Part XXX., gives silhctana and hecabe, and distinguishes them

as follows :—

** hecabe—Outer margin of fore wing entire; marginal

area of costa distinctly black ; lower extremity of black border

not subtended by yellow.

“© silhetana.—Outer margin of fore wing distinctly crenulate ;

marginal area of costa yellow; lower extremity of black

border partially subtended by yellow.”

My objection to this is that I have several hecabe in which

the basal half of the costal border is yellow, and. si/hetana in

which it is black. In a variety of silhetana mentioned later

it is almost always black.

Bingham separates the Indian species as follows :—

Three spots in base of cell = silhetana or moorei.

Two spots in base of cell = hecabe.

One spot in base of cell = andersont OY SArt.

My objection to this is that one or both of the spots in

hecabe are frequently obsolete in Ceylon specimens.

CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 133

My own opinion is that we have three species in Ceylon,

which, making use of both Green’s and Bingham’s tables, I

would define as follows :—

Three spots in basal half of cell; terminal margin of fore

wing distinctly crenulate ; lower extremity of black border

of fore wing usually subtended by yellow = silhetana.

Not more than two spots in cell; if only one, it is usually

rather indistinct ; terminal margin of fore wing entire ; lower

extremity of black border of fore wing never subtended by

yellow = hecabe.

One very distinct black streak in cell ; terminal margin of

wing entire, or very slightly crenulate ; lower extremity of

black border of fore wing distinctly subtended by yellow =

rotundalis.

156. TeRIAS HECABE.—F ound in India, Malaya, China, &c.

Moore also gives hecabeoides and simulata, but these are

now regarded as varieties only. Itis very variable in markings

and in size, and a dwarf form from 25 to 30 mm. in expanse is

very common at Haldummulla.

While in the Northern Province in November, 1915, and

January, 1916 (wet season), I noticed that a large number of

specimens showed exceptionally few markings on the under

side. I caught many with both spots in the cell wanting,

others with only one spot, and even a specimen with two spots

on one wing and none on the other. More than half of those

I caught were abnormal. I have subsequently found similar

varieties plentiful at Haldummulla, Kottawa, &c. On the

upper side the markings are normal, but the colour of the

females is rather paler than usual, the under side of the hind

wing being, as a rule, very pale. ‘There are two specimens in

the Colombo Museum labelled 7’. sari, which are, I believe,

only this variety of hecabe. They are very unlike Indian

specimens of sarv.

It is one of the commonest butterflies everywhere in the

Island, and both wet and dry season forms fly together all

the year round.

157. TRIAS SILHETANA.—Moore gives citrina, uniformis,

and templetonii. From the illustrations the two former are

8 6(S8)19

134 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

clearly only varieties of si/hetana, and the latter is described

as having three spots in the cell. Also found in India, Burma,

and Malaya.

It is as common as the last in the hills, but less plentiful in

the low-country. I have taken it all over the southern half

of the Island, but not so far in the north. When Albizzia

moluccana was first planted through the tea it became a pest,

but latterly its natural enemies have kept it fairly well in

check. The best way to get fine specimens and varieties is

to find an Albizzia leaf of which all the soft part has been

eaten, and the pup are hanging about an inch apart along

the ribs. Thirty to forty pupz may be found on one leaf, and

a fine series of varieties will probably hatch out, as the wet

and dry season forms fly together. These pup on Albizzia

leaves are always black, but a few larvee sometimes descend

and pupate on the under side of tea leaves ; these pupe are

usually green.

It is extremely variable, and cream-coloured specimens

are not at all rare. With one possible exception mentioned

below, every specimen [ have seen had three spots in the

basal half of the cell, but Manders mentioned one in his notes

in which the basal spot was “almost obsolete.” There is a

variety found in the wettest forests, the male of which was

described by Moore as rotundalis 3, probably because it is

usually found in company with that species. It differs from

normal silhetana in the narrower and more intense black

borders to both wings, that on the fore wing being usually

continued to the base of the costa, and that on the hind wing

being clearly defined, never diffase, as usual, in silhetana,

The reddish-brown apical patch, when present, is a narrow

streak from the costa to vein 4, asin hecabe. There are three

basal spots in the cell. On the lower wing below there is a

black streak across the angle at the base of vein 8, which I

find in all my silhetana, but never in hecabe or rotundalis.

Mr. A. C. Hayley has given me a specimen, which I believe

to be an aberration of si/hetana. The spots in the basal half

of the cell have coalesced into one large irregular figure, and the

black streak across the angle of vein 8 on the hind wing is

wanting.

CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 135

158. TERIAS ROTUNDALIS, M.—Occasionally plentiful in

forests in the wettest zone, but rare elsewhere. Mr. Mackwood,

who is by far the greatest authority on our butterflies, has

always insisted on its claim to specific rank. See PI. 2, figs.

7 and 8.

At the first glance the upper side of the 3 is very like a

variety of silhetana, but its rounded wings distinguish it. On

the under side of the fore wing there is only one very dark

streak in the basal half of the cell. It answers nearly to

Bingham’s description of andersoni, but in the specimens I

have examined the inner margin of the black border of the

fore wing is very rarely angulated on vein 7, and the ground

colour of the under side is not noticeably paler than that of

the upper. Moore’s figures of the under side, and of what he

calls the female, are fair. That of the male is, I believe, that

of a variety of silhetana. The female resembles the male in

the shape and markings of the fore wing, but is paler in colour.

The border of the hind wing is a very fine black line, widening

out into slightly diffuse triangular spots at the end of each

vein. This border is sufficient to distinguish the female from

any other Ceylon Trias.

The reddish apical patch below is wanting, its place being

sometimes taken by an indistinct patch of black scales.

Judging from my specimens, this species varies less than any

Terias in Ceylon.

Evans writes : “ sari is recorded from Southern India and

Ceylon ; the only specimens in the British Museum marked

as such are two from Ceylon, which may be andersoni, but are

certainly not sari.” It would be interesting to see if these

are rotundalis.

Pending a decision as to whether this is andersont, or a race

thereof, I retain Moore’s name.

I have taken it at Wellawaya and Buttala in the low-

country of Uva, and have specimens from Kandy, but it is

apparently only plentiful at Ratnapura and in other very

wet forests.

159. IxtAs crncGALENsis, M.; Iavias pyrene cingalensis, FE. ;

Txias pyrene var. cingalensis, B.—Moore also gives pirenassi,

under which name he describes the dry season form,

136 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

It is peculiar to Ceylon, but is very near pyrene, from which

it differs in having the ground colour of the fore wing extended

into the base of interspace 3. This seems to be constant,

though very variable in amount.

The males vary chiefly in the width of the black border of

the hind wing and the amount of markings on the under side.

The females vary in the same way, but the band on the fore

wing also varies much in width and colour. In specimens

from the north this band is usually yellow or pale orange, in

those from the south it 1s almost always deep orange. In

Ceylon the ground colour of the female is, I believe, always

yellow, slightly paler than that of the male.

It is an insect of the dry low-country, but in some years it

joins in the flights in November—December, and may then be

found anywhere. I have known it then common at Haldum-

mulla, Peradeniya, and Galle, none of which places are its

usual haunts. It is very plentiful in the low-country of Uva

and at Anuradhapura, but becomes rarer in the Northern

Province. It is not easy to catch, as it is usually found among

thorny bushes, and dives into them to escape. The female is

especially hard to procure in good condition. The males

sometimes settle on wet patches on the roads or in river beds.

“From North Matale to Anuradhapura and Puttalam ”

(F. M. Mackwood).

160. Ixtas MARIANNE.—Also found in India.

Its habitat is much the same as that of the last, but it prefers

more open country, and is commoner in the Northern Province.

It is very plentiful in the Jaffna and Mannar Districts. It

flies more away from the thorny bushes, and is therefore much

easier to catch. I have never seen it settling on wet patches

on the roads. I have once only seen a specimen at Haldum-

mulla during the flights, and, in my opinion, it does not

** flight.”

The male varies very little, but in the female the black inner

border to the orange band is sometimes missing between veins ~

2 and 4, and the ground colour of the under side varies greatly.

A melanism of the 3 of this species, captured by myself in

the Hambantota District, is described and figured in “ Spolia

Zeylanica,” Vol. [X., Part X XXIII.

CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 137

161. Conotis AmatTa, B.; [dmais modesta, M.; Colotis

amatus, E.; Teracolus amata, De N.—Also found in Africa,

Persia, Arabia, and India.

It is not common in the Province of Uva, except near the

boundaries of the Southern and Kastern Provinces. I have

taken. a single specimen at Wellawaya. It is very plentiful

in the drier districts, especially in the Southern Province, from

Tangalla to Hambantota, Anuradhapura, Jaffna, Mannar, &c.

The males vary little, but the females grade perfectly from

salmon colour to almost pure white, specimens as dark as the

males being by far the rarest ; they also vary considerably in

the ground colour of the under side.

They fly slowly near the ground, and settle frequently, so

are very easy to catch.

162. Ipmats tripuncta, M.; Teracolus tripuncta, De N. ;

Colotis fausta tripuncta, B.; Madais fausta fulvia, E.—Also

found in India.

Moore figures the female the same colour as the male, but

all the specimens I have seen have been white. The markings

are the same in both sexes, so, if a salmon-coloured female

exists, she could only be distinguished by the different shape

of the dorsal margin of the fore wing and the absence of the

sex mark, which is a small oval patch of specialized scales on

the under side of the fore wing above the basal half of vein 1.

It is found only in the north of the Island, and is never

plentiful. It has a very strong flight in the middle of the day

in bright sunshine, but is easier to catch in the early morning.

I have taken a few males at the blossom of Cadaba indica. It

seems to frequent forest country more than any other member

of the group, with the exception of amata.

There is a fair amount of seasonal variation, but the dry

season forms, especially of the female, seem to be very rare.

I have specimens from Puttalam (October), Murunkan

(July and November), and Elephant Pass (November to

January), and I saw a fair number from the train near Madhu

Road, on the Mannar line, in November.

163. CALLOSUNE LIMBATA, M. ; Teracolus limbatus, De N. ;

Colotis etrida limbata, B.; Callosune etrida limbata, E.—

Peculiar to Ceylon, but is an insular race of the Indian C. etrida.

138 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

It varies considerably, but the race seems to be well established

everywhere, except in the Mannar District, where specimens

that are very close to typical etrida may be taken in company

with typical limbata. Their flight is so weak that it is difficult

to imagine specimens of etrida crossing by Adam’s Bridge,

so they may only be extreme dry season forms of limbata ;

they are almost invariably very dwarfed. (My specimens

vary from 21 to 32 mm. in expanse.) In this connection I

may mention that I have taken a specimen of limbata on the

cart road at Haldummulla, at least 50 miles from its usual

haunts. I believe in this case that the insect had pupated

on a Hambantota salt cart, and hatched out on the road to

Haputale. Specimens might, therefore, be easily brought over

from India in a similar manner on the native boats, and thus

interfere with the complete establishment of the race in the

Mannar District.

It is found all round the north and east coasts from Chilaw

to Tangalla, but its range does not, as a rule, extend for as

much as 10 miles inland. The largest and darkest specimens

are found in the Hambantota—-Tangalla District. It flies

close to the ground, and is very easy to capture.

“ Particularly abundant in Fort Frederick, Trincomalee ”

(F. M. Mackwood).

164. CALLOSUNE EUCHARIS, M. & E. ; Colotis ewcharis, B. ;

Teracolus eucharis, De N.—Also found in India.

‘onfined to the north of the Island and never found very

far from the sea. It is very abundant in places in the Mannar

and Jaffna Districts, especially near Giant’s tank.

Both sexes are very variable, and the variation seems to be

largely dependent on season. In the dry season form of the

male the black is confined to an external border to the orange

patch on the fore wing, and very minute spots at the end of

the veins on the hind wing. In the wet season form there is a

large black patch on the fore wing below the orange, extending

to the tornus, another small one on the costa at the commence-

ment of the orange, and traces of an inner border connecting

the two. The black spots on the hind wing are much larger,

and sometimes coalesce to form a black border. In the

females the orange spots at the apex vary in number from 3

CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 139

to 5, 4 being the usual number; the orange often extends

into the wing within the inner border of the black area. In

some specimens the apical spots are nearly white. This may

be the result of fading, as the majority of those I have caught

were worn specimens. I have, however, failed to produce

the effect by exposing dead specimens to sunlight for some

weeks. The under side of both sexes varies greatly in ground

colour and markings.

In bright sunshine its flight is rather fast, though low, and

owing to the thorns it is not easy to catch. In cloudy weather

it flies little, and, if beaten up, is easily taken.

165. CALLOSUNE DAN/E, M. & E.; Colotis dane, B.; '

Teracolus dane, De N.—Moore also gives sanguinalis, which is

only the small dry season form. Also found in India and

Persia.

I have never seen it out of the Northern Province, though

I believe it has been taken at Puttalam. It is extremely

plentiful in the Mannar District, and is not rare at Kankesan-

turai on the Jaffna coast. The females are usually much

scarcer than the males, but I found them in profusion at

Murunkan in July.

It flies with C. eucharis, and has the same habits, its flight

in bright sunshine being rather fast, but it is easy to catch

in the early morning or in cloudy weather. Both species con-

gregate round bushes of Cadaba indica, which is apparently

the chief food plant of their larve in Ceylon, and they may be

found roosting at the foot of these bushes in the evening, and

the finest specimens can be easily selected.

It seems to vary much less than either eucharis or limbata,

the chief variation being in the ground colour of the under

side. Dry season specimens are very often dwarfed.

166. BELENOIS TAPROBANA, M.; Anapheis mesentina

taprobana, B. & E.—Peculiar to Ceylon, but is an insular race

of B. mesentina, which is found from Africa to India.

It is very variable, but seems to be well established as a

race, except in the north of the Island. [have single specimens

from Jaffna and Mannar, and have seen one from Anuradha-

pura, which are very near typical mesentina, though the under

side of the hind wing is chrome-yellow in all. It is much given

140 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

to “flighting,” especially during the north-east monsoon.

During these flights it is common at Haldummulla, Kandy,

and Galle, which are much further from its normal haunts

than the distance across Adam’s Bridge, so it is easy to

understand the introduction of fresh blood, from the parent

species, in the north.

It is very plentiful in the drier parts of the Island, especially

in the Hambantota and Mannar Districts. The cream-

coloured variety of the female is commonest in the wet

season.

167. HtpPoscriITiIA NARENDRA, M. ; Appias indra narendra,

B.; Hyposcritia indra narendra, E.—Also found in Southern

India.

I have never come across this butterfly, my only specimen

being a male from Ratnapura given to me by Mr. Mackwood,

** Found also at 3,000 feet elevation in the country north of

Matale and the Knuckles Mountains ” (F. M. Mackwood).

168. CATOPHAGA VENUSTA, M.; Appias albina, B.; Cato-

phaga albina venusta, E—Also found in India, Burma,

Malaya, &c.

Moore divides it into venusta and neombo. I have never

seen anything at all resembling his figure of neombo 3, but

those of the female and under side are clearly lightly marked

varieties of venusta. It is, however, curious that he describes

neombo as extremely plentiful, and venusta as having been

taken only at Vavuniya. In both the white and yellow

varieties of the female specimens may be captured in which

the pre-apical black band on the under side of the fore wing

is obsolete, except for a round spot in interspace 3. This

variety, however, grades perfectly into the normal.

The male can be distinguished from the next (C. paulina)

by its more pointed wings. The female can be distinguished

by having the outer margin of the black band on the under

side of the fore wing, irregularly zig-zag, never regularly curved

asin paulina 2. It has in addition, as a rule, four or five white

spots at the apex of the fore wing above, while paulina has

almost invariably only 3; but I have specimens of venusta

in which these spots are reduced to two, those in interspaces

3 and 4 being obsolete.

CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 141

It is very plentiful everywhere during the flights, but is not

often found at high elevations, except when these are on.

169. CATOPHAGA PAULINA ; Appias paulina, B. ; Catophaga

melania paulina, K.—Also found in Malaya, Siam, and Java.

Moore divides it into galene and lankapura. In galene 9 the

under side of the hind wing is pearly white, while in lankapura

Qitis yellow. They are now regarded as varieties only.

It is very variable. In heavily marked specimens of the

male the costa and apex of the fore wing are heavily irrorated

with black scales. This dark area is widened on the termen

in interspace 3, and then narrowed abruptly, stopping before

vein 1. On the hind wing there are black spots on the termen

at the end of each vein, and the tornus is irrorated with black

scales. In the hghter marked specimens the black scaling is

restricted to the costa, and a small patch at the apex of the

fore wing. The female varies much in the width of the apical

black area, and in the colour and markings of the under side.

The variations may be seasonal, but all varieties fly together

at all times.

It is extremely plentiful all over the Island during the flights,

and single specimens may be found everywhere all the year

round.

“Up as high as Pattipola, 6,000 feet ’’ (F. M. Mackwood).

170. APpPiAs LIByTHEA.—Also found in India.

This is another most variable species, especially in the case

of the females. In the males the variation seems to be largely

dependent on locality, the darkest specimens being most often

found in the south-east of the Island, in the Hambantota—

Tangalla country. This does not, however, apply to the

females, as the most extreme forms always fly together, and

my lightest and darkest specimens were taken on the same

day at Murunkan (Mannar District) in July—dry season.

The male is very similar to C. venusta 3, but can be distin-

guished by the absence of the yellow tint on the under side

of the hind wing. This is usually pure white and unmarked,

but there is sometimes a small yellow patch at the humeral

angle. I have two specimens which have black spots at the

ends of the veins of the hind wing above ; on the under side

there are diffuse black spots at the ends of veins 2 and 3 of

=) 6(8) 19

142 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

the fore wing, the terminal halves of the veins on the hind

wing are very lightly marked with grayish-black, and there

is a narrow gray marginal line at the tornus.

It is normally an insect of the dry low-country, but it often

joins in the November—December flights, and may then be

found at any elevation. I received a very dark variety of

the female from Ohiya (6,000 feet) in October, 1917, before

the flights had started. It was in perfect condition, not like

those that have “ flighted ” far ; it may, therefore, occasionally

breed in the hills.

I have found it especially abundant in the Hambantota

District in March and May, and in the Mannar country in

July, November, and January.

‘““ Also Anuradhapura in December ” (F. M. Mackwood).

171. Appias TAPROBANA, M. ; Appias hippo taprobana, B. ;

Appias lyncida taprobana, E.—Moore also gives A. vacans,

which is only a lightly marked variety.

Bingham separates the race taprobana, from Southern India

and Ceylon, from hippo, by the fact that, on the under side of

the hind wing, the sub-costal vein and veins 6, 7, and 8 are

conspicuously edged with black in taprobana, whereas they are

yellow in hippo. This does not apply to Ceylon specimens,

as, in my experience, almost 25 per cent. show no signs of

this black edging. The width of the black border to the hind

wing below is extremely variable, and specimens in which

this border is narrow (viz., A. vacans) seldom show any black

edging to the veins. All varieties fly together.

T had been collecting in Ceylon for twenty-seven years before

I caught a specimen of this butterfly. In May, 1916, I saw a

fair lot of males while travelling from Galle to Tangalla.

After entering the dry zone east of Tangalla I saw no more,

although species of Capparis, which is said to be its food plant,

are plentiful between Tangalla and Hambantota, and much

scarcer further west. It continued to be plentiful at Tangalla

till, at any rate, the end of October, and I also received

specimens from Kandy in September and October. It was

fairly common round Galle in July, 1918, especially at

Gintota, where I saw numbers flying round a tree of Crateva

roxburghi.

CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 143

“ Thirty years ago plentiful in and round Colombo ” (F. M.

Mackwood).

172. HErBomora AUSTRALIS, De N.; Hebomoia glaucippe,

M.; Hebomoia glaucippe australis, B. & E.—Also found in

Southern India, but is only a race of H. glaucippe, from

which it differs in having no inner black border to the

orange patch on the fore wing. Females in the wet season

sometimes show this black border fairly well, and the ground

colour of the upper side is then pale greenish-yellow instead

of white.

It is very common in the low-country, especially in the

drier regions. Single specimens apparently “‘ flight” all the

year round, and may be seen at the highest elevations. These

fly very fast and seldom settle, so are almost impossible to

catch. The largest flight I ever saw was in November, 1912.

From south of Maho to Ambanpola, on the Northern line, the

train passed for nearly half an hour through a swarm of many

thousands.

In the dry low-country the males settle in numbers on wet

patches on the roads, in river beds, &c., and are easy to catch.

The females may be taken at flowers. When settled the

resemblance to a dead leaf is very striking.

173. HupHINA PHRYNE, M.; Huphina nerissa evagete,

EK. ; Huphina nerissa var. phryne, B.; Huphina nerissa,

De N.—Moore also gives H. zewxippe from Ceylon, but this

is only a pale variety, which I have taken at Haldummulla

and in the north of the Island. It is probably a dry season

form.

Evans does not give nerissa as found in India. He gives

the race phryne from Nepaul and Assam, and evagete for the

rest of India and Ceylon. Bingham gives nerissa for Nepaul,

Assam, and Bengal, and var. phryne from Nepaul, Bengal,

Southern India, and Ceylon.

It is very plentiful in the low-country, especially in the

drier parts, and may be seen settled in hundreds on mud or

wet sand. It flights at least twice a year, and is then common

everywhere in the hills. I have seen it in swarms at Nuwara

Eliya. I have not yet, however, observed it in the Galle

District.

144 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

174. Hupurna REMBA, M.; Huphina nadina remba, B.;

Huphina nadina cingala, E.—Evans gives our Ceylon race as

distinct from remba of Southern India. Bingham says:

‘Ceylon specimens differ in the relative width of the black

markings, and in the general paleness and dull tint of the

greenish-yellow on the under side.” Among the few specimens

that I possess there is great variation in both respects, those

from Ratnapura being much larger and far brighter in colour

on the under side than those from the hills of Uva. I have;

however, not yet seen a female from Ratnapura. In some

of my specimens of both sexes from above 4,000 feet elevation

the greenish tint is entirely absent, all markings on the under

side being in dull shades of brown. This is a dry season form. —

A specimen in Colombo Museum has the under side bright

brownish-red. It is not labelled with the locality, but from

its size and brightness of colouring 1s evidently from the

wet zone.

Itis usually a great rarity. In February and March, 1902,

it appeared in fair numbers on the bridle road from Haldum-

mulla to the Horton Plains and at Ohiya (6,000 feet). In

March, 1906, I found it plentiful at the Amherst gap, Uda

Pussellawa, but every specimen was worn. On these two

occasions the females seemed almost as common as the males.

They flew slowly and settled frequently, so were easy to catch.

The low-country form, on the other hand, is said to be very

hard to catch, and females are extremely rare.

“Found in Upper Pundaluoya and the higher parts of Kast

Matale. A rarity, especially the female” (F. M. Mackwood).

175. NEPHERONIA CEYLONICA, M.; Pareronia ceylonica,

B. & E.—Also found in Southern India.

Moore divides it into ceylonica, fraterna, and spiculifera.

Bingham says it differs from pingasa in having the black

border of the hind wing of even width throughout, not narrowed

towards the tornus.

Both sexes are very variable, and extreme forms of the male

are very distinct. These are named by Moore—

1st, ceylonica.—The terminal margin of the fore wing is very

slightly concave, if at all. It has a very broad black border,

with only a few minute, or no, blue spots on it.

CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 145

2nd, spiculifera.Smaller and of a paler blue. The termen

of the fore wing more falcate, and the hind wing proportion-

ately smaller. The black border of the fore wing is much

narrower, especially near the tornus, and there is a series of

small elongated blue spots on this border that in interspace 3

being shifted inward, and the two in interspace 1 almost or quite

joined to the ground colour. As Moore points out, ceylonica

appears to be nearest to pingasa and spiculifera to hippia.

His variety fraterna appears to be an intermediate form.

Ceylonica is common in the drier low-country, but is found

at all elevations during the flights, but I have only taken

spiculifera in the hills. Both are variable, and it is easy to

grade them.

Personally I believe spiculifera to be the cold season (or high

elevation) form, while fraterna and ceylonica are the dry and

wet season forms respectively of those bred in the low-country.

Indian writers all agree in regarding pingasa and hippia as

distinct species, and it is curious that varieties of our Ceylon

race should almost grade into each of them. An analogous

case i8 that of Terias leta and venata, the former of which is

allied to the Ceylon 7. rama and the latter to 7’. cingala, and

yet there can be little doubt that rama and cingala are only

varieties of our Ceylon race.

The females vary greatly in the width of the blue markings

on the upper side and the amount of black shading below.

In June, 1916 and 1917, I got specimens at Wellawaya, which

were very exceptionally dark both above and. below ; in fact,

all flying there then were of this unusual colour. The males

with them seemed to be normal specimens of ceylonica above,

but had more black shading below. I have received a similar

pair from Kandy. These dark varieties of the female are

good mimics of D. septentrionis. Normal varieties mimic D.

limniace and aglea, but especially resemble R. exprompta,

which, however, is not found in the usual haunts of Nepheronia.

They usually fly among thorny bushes in the low-country,

and are not easy to catch. They are often seen at Haldum-

mulla when “ flighting,’ but are seldom caught, as they go

fast and straight and seldom settle. The mimicry of the

females also prevents recognition until too late.

146 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Var. ceylonica is very Common in the low-country of Uva

and at Anuradhapura, but becomes scarcer further north. I

have seen single specimens at Galle and Nuwara Eliya. It is

not rare at Ohiya during the flights. Var. spiculifera is much

rarer, and I have only seen it above 4,000 feet.

PAPILIONINA.

176. ORNITHOPTERA DARSIUS, M. & E.; Papilio darsius,

B. ; Troides darsius, De N.—Peculiar to Ceylon.

It differs from Indian species in having the yellow area on

the lower wing more restricted. It varies to a certain extent

in this respect, but all my specimens of both sexes have the

apex of the cell yellow. One male in the Colombo Museum

collection has the whole cell black, but I believe this variety

is very rare. In a few cases the male has black spots in the

yellow interspaces. One of mine has four of these spots, one

each in interspaces 2, 3, 5, and 6, and the yellow in 7 is

exceptionally smali, the reduction being apparently caused

by a spot coalescing with the basal black area. I have two

others with a spot in interspace 2, and the Colombo Museum

has one with spots in 2 and 3. This variety has been named

cambyses ; it is far from common.

It flies all the year round at Haldummulla, and is apparently

common everywhere up to 6,000 feet elevation at least, except

in the Northern Province, the furthest north that I have taken

it being at Puliyankulam resthouse. It usually flies very high,

but frequently visits flowers, and it is then easy to catch.

177. MenevaipEes HECTOR, M. & E.; Papilio hector, B. &

De N.—Also found in India.

It is very plentiful all over the low-country, but especially

so in the drier districts. Single specimens visit the hills all the

year round, but their flight is usually fast and straight, and

they seldom settle. In the low-country they fly, as a rule,

close to the ground, visiting flowers, and are very easy to catch.

In November, 1914, I saw a fair number far out to sea, off the

Indian and Ceylon coasts, several of which came on board the

ship. At Kankesanturai, on the north coast, I have often

noticed its gregarious habits when roosting for the night, a

dozen or more settling on a single palmyra leaf.

CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 147

The female is much more difficult to procure in good con-

dition than the male. It can be distinguished by the much

duller colour of the crimson spots and the greater amount of

black on the upper surface of the abdomen.

** Female difficult to get in perfect condition on account of

being incessantly harassed and damaged by the males ” (F. M.

Mackwood).

178. MENELAIDES JoPHON, M. & E. ; Papilio jophon, De N.

& B.—Peculiar to Ceylon, and confined to the wet zone.

I have taken it at Elpitiya and Kottawa in the Galle

District, and single very battered specimens at Kegalla and

Rambukkana. The latter place is, I imagine, quite its most

northern limit. J am told that it is quite common at times

at Ratnapura and at Udagama and Deniyaya in the Southern

Province. I have noticed very little variation, except in size.

It is very easy to catch in the early morning or late evening,

but it flies very high in the middle of the day in fine weather.

“Has been captured at Pussellawa and Galboda in Ambe-

gamuwa ” (F. M. Mackwood).

179. MENELAIDES CEYLONICA, M. ; Papilio aristolochie, B.

& De N.; Menelaides aristolochie ceylonicus, K.—Peculiar

to Ceylon, but is at the most only a race of the Indian

aristolochiz. | .

Bingham says : ‘‘ Var. ceylonica has a white spot at the apex

of the cell of the hind wing.” The great majority of Ceylon

specimens show this spot, but others without it are not very

rare,and are widely scattered in different localities in both the

wet and dry seasons. I have one specimen, a female, from

Giant’s tank, Mannar, which not only has no white in the cell,

but the white spots do not commence till at least 4 mm.

below it. These spots are much reduced in size, the one in

interspace 5 being almost obsolete. The black on the upper

surface of the abdomen is much reduced. It answers to

Bingham’s description of the dry season form of aristolochiz.

It was caught in July (dry season). It seems to me, therefore,

that the race ceylonica is hardly well established yet.

It is very common at Haldummulla all the year round, and

is well distributed all over the Island from Galle to Jaffna,

though it is less common in the north than in the south. Its

148 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

flight is slow, and it settles frequently at flowers, so it is easy

to catch. I have never noticed it “ flighting.”

I have seen a full-sized specimen killed and carried off for a

short distance by an Asilid fly.

180. Pariiio DEMOLEUS, De N., B., & E.; Orpheides

erithonius, M.—Found also in Arabia, Persia, India, Burma,

China, &c.

It is common all over the low-country, from Galle to Jaffna,

and occasionally joins the flights in great numbers, and may

then be taken at the highest elevations.

The colour seems to be much affected by the sun or age, as

specimens of a rusty orange are very plentiful all over the

low-country, though I have never seen one over 3,000 feet

elevation. These specimens will almost invariably be found

to be much worn. An extraordinary aberration captured by

myself on the Wellawaya—Hambantota road is figured and

described in “‘ Spolia Zeylanica,” Vol. [X., Part XX XIII.

The larve may be found on orange and lime trees,

and are very like those of romulus, parinda, and mooreanus,

which are found on the same trees. According to Fryer

(‘‘ Spolia Zeylanica,” Vol. VII., Part XXVIII.), they may be

distinguished as follows :—

A.—Fourth and fifth segments markedly swollen :

a1.—Diagonal bands on segments 8 and 10 mainly brown,

and meeting in the dorsal middle ine = mooreanus.

61.—Diagonal bands mainly white, not meeting in middle

line = parinda.

B.—Fourth and fifth segments not markedly swollen :

a2.—Candal tubercles white, much reduced = romulus.

62.—Candal tubercles brown, size moderate = demoleus.

181. CHarus moorEANUS; Charus helenus, M.; Charus

helenus mooreanus, B. & E.; Papilio mooreanus, De N.—

Peculiar to Ceylon.

It differs from the Indian C. helenus in having a complete

series of seven sub-discal blue lunules on the under side of the

hind wing, but the two in interspaces 3 and 4 are sometimes

nearly obsolete. The number of. red lunules visible on the

upper surface of the hind wing varies from 1 to 5 in my

specimens,

CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 149

It is only found where there is a fairly heavy rainfall. It is

very plentiful in the jungles between Haputale and Ohiya

(4,000 to 6,000 feet), and occasionally descends as low as

Haldummulla, but it is very rarely seen below 3,000 feet in

Uva. In wetter districts it is found at very low elevations,

and it has been taken at Kottawa, near Galle. It is common

at Ratnapura, Madampe, and Deniyaya.

The female seems to be very rarely captured. I have only

one specimen, which I bred. It differs from the male in

having the inter-nervular yellow streaks on the fore wing

much more clearly marked, as they are formed by scales in

the 2, and by hairsinthe 3. It also differs in having the white

patch on the lower wing the same size both above and below,

in the g this patch is mach smaller on the under surface than

on the upper. The males are fond of settling on wet patches

on the roads or in the beds of streams.

“Generally plentiful in heavy jungle land, especially in the

Matale hills’? (F. M. Mackwood).

182. ItIADES PARINDA, M.; Papilio parinda, De N.;

Iliades polymnestor parinda, E.; Papilio polymnestor parinda,

B.—Peculiar to Ceylon, but is a race of the Indian I. polym-

nestor. The male differs from polymnestor in the greater

area of the blue on the upper side. The female differs in

having the blue area tinged in spots, or sometimes even

entirely replaced by pale buff. The last form is by far

the rarest.

It is a most variable insect. In the male the width of the

blue band on the fore wing varies greatly, and the post-discal

spots on the hind wing may be large and conical, as in polym-

nestor, or small and round. In the female these spots are

sometimes very much reduced, and the two upper ones may

be entirely obsolete.

It is very common at Haldummulla, especially during the

south-west monsoon (viz., the dry season). I have seen it all

over the low-country as far north as Mankulam, and I found

it once in extraordinary abundance at Anuradhapura in

December. The male is very fond of settling on the sand in

river beds and on wet roads in the hot weather. The female

is easiest to catch when laying her eggs.

10 6(8)19

150 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

183. Larrias romuLuUs, M.; Papilio polytes, B. & De

N.; Lertias polytes romulus, E.—Evans says: ‘“ Jordan

confines polytes to China, giving the Indian race as

romulus.”

As is well known, there are three varieties of the female :

Ist, like the f ; 2nd, mimics M. aristolochiz 2 ; and 3rd, mimics

M. hector °. The first has been named cyrus, the second

polytes or stychius, and the third romulus. The one which

mimics aristolochi# has usually in Ceylon a white spot in the

cell (like the race ceylonica), but sometimes the white patch

does not commence till well below it. The one which mimics

hector is, as might be expected, a far better mimic of the female

hector than of the male, though it is sometimes compared with

the latter in articles on mimicry. It has been suggested that

the crimson bodies of aristolochiz and. hector would spoil the

mimicry, but in the females of both almost the whole of the

upper surface of the body is black, and the abdomen is so

carried in flight that the crimson would be quite invisible

when viewed by a bird from above.

It joins the flights in great numbers, especially in November

and December, and I have noticed that in these flights the

variety which mimics hector is the commonest. At Haldum-

mulla hector is far less common than aristolochiz, but these

flights were coming from the dry low-country, where the

opposite is the case. When the flights are not on, the variety,

like hector, is by far the rarest at Haldummulla, and the one

like the male is the commonest.

The males may often be found settled on mud or wet sand.

The females visit flowers, but are best caught when laying

their eggs} They are very easy to breed, but occasionally

remain for a long time in the pupal stage. Last year I had

six larvee which pupated in May. Three hatched out early

in June, one at the end of July, one in the middle of August,

and the last in September. The larve are usually to be found

on orange and lime trees, but I have often seen the females

laying their eggs on Todalia aculeata. I have bred a fair

number, but have not yet lost a single larva through parasites,

and I imagine their numbers must be mainly kept in check

by birds.

CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. Ww L

184. CHILASA LANKESWARA, M. ; Papiliolankeswara, DeN. ;

Papilio clytia lankeswara, B. ; Chilasa clytia, with var. lankes-

wara and dimorph dissimilis, E.—Moore gives dissimilis and

clytioides as separate species.

I think it is certain that there is only one species in Ceylon,

but I do not feel competent to express an opinion as to whether

it is a variety of clytia, as given by Evans ; a race, as given by

Bingham ; or a sub-species, as given by De Niceville. All

the later writers agree that dissimilis is only a dimorph.

Rothschild says that lankeswara “differs from P. ciytia

in the umber brown colour of the wings, and in the small sub-

marginal spots of the fore wings . . . . This sub-species

has been described from slightly aberrant specimens, in which

the sub-marginal spots of the fore wings are partly obliterated ;

in most individuals the series of these spots 1s complete, and on

such specimens Moore’s clytioides is based.”

I have only a rather poor series, but they vary much in the

number and size of these spots and of the discal sagittate spots

on the hind wing. The umber brown colour seems constant.

C. lankeswara is a mimic of the Hupleas, and it is curious

that these, in Ceylon, differ from their corresponding Indian

species in the same way that lankeswara differs from clytia.

The form dissimilis mimics D. limniace and aglea, and is said

to agree with Indian specimens. It varies greatly in size and

the amount of the white markings. In both forms the females

can be distinguished by their broader and more rounded fore

wings.

It has as rapid a flight as any Papilio in Ceylon, but does not

always make use of its powers. When visiting flowers, or

hovering over wet patches on the roads, its flight is slow, and

so like that of a Danais or Euplea, that after thirty years’

experience I am still sometimes deceived by it. I imagine

that protection is most needed by the female when laying

her eggs ; she would then probably be hovering slowly over

the cinnamon, &c., and her mimicry would be most advan-

tageously displayed. The pupa is a most wonderful example

of camouflage. Itis fixed to a branch so as to exactly resemble

the end of a broken twig, and I have found it difficult to

distinguish even in a breeding cage.

152 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

I have found dissimilis rather more plentiful than lankes-

wara, but neither form is common. The best localities I have

noticed are the road from Wellawaya to Muppane and

Dambulla. I have also taken it at Haputale (5,000 feet),

Haldummulla, and Galle, but have not yet seen it in the

Northern Province.

185. Papiiio crino, B. & De N. ; Harimala montanus, M. ;

Achillides crino fruhstorferi, K.—P. crino is found in India.

Evans gives fruhstorfert as the Ceylon race. Bingham says :

“var. montanus, Felder, was founded on specimens devoid of

the cottony scent streaks on the upper side of the fore wing.”

These streaks are present in the male in a fair proportion of

Ceylon specimens, but those without them are usually the

commoner.

It is especially abundant in the low-country of Uva and the

North-Central Province, but is common everywhere in the

low-country, except in the extreme north. I have seen it

once inthe Mannar District. Individuals which are apparently

‘“ flighting ” appear all the year round in the hills. I once

saw a very big flight at Galle in March, the direction was south-

west, viz., straight out to sea. It continued for three or four

days, and enormous numbers must have perished in the sea.

The male is often to be found settled in numbers in the

sandy river beds, and is very easy to catch. The females

are not easy to procure in good condition. They can be

distinguished by the narrower green band on the fore wing,

and there is also usually a diffuse orange spot near the apex

of the hind wing above.

“ Abundant in Kandy and Kurunegala jungles” (F. M.

Mackwood).

186. PaTrHysa ANTIPHATES, M. ; Papilio alcibiades, De N.;

Papilio antiphates alcibiades var. ceylonicus, B.; Pathysa

antiphates ceylonicus, E.—P. antiphates is found in India,

Burma, Siam, Malaya, China, &c. The range of the various

races is still unsettled.

Rothschild describes ceylonicus as having “‘ Two basal black

bands on the upper side of the fore wing extending beyond

the median nervure ; the fourth band broad and reaching to

the median nervure (not triangular).”’ This I consider merely

CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 153

a seasonal variety. Intwoof my specimens from the dry zone

this fourth band does not reach the median nervure, and is

triangular ; those from the wet zone agree with Rothschild’s

description. The specimens in the Colombo Museum vary

much in this respect, and in one the band is very acutely

triangular; unfortunately it has no label of locality. It is

so rare and so variable in every respect that ic is difficult to

say whether it is a local race or not, but dry zone specimens

seem to agree approximately with Bingham’s description of

alcibiades.

The only place where I have personally taken it is at

Sirigalla, near Muppane, in the low-country of Uva. I found

it settled on wet sand in the bed of astream. A native catcher

has brought me specimens from Ratnapura, Kottawa, and

Deniyaya. All my specimens are males.

“Found in the Ratnapura District February to June and

October to December ” (F. M. Mackwood).

187. PatHysa nomius, M. & E.; Papilio nomius, De N.

& B.—Also found in India.

This is usually rare in Uva, but it occasionally appears in

great numbers at the commencement of the north-east

monsoon. In October, 1893, I found it in hundreds settled

on the wet roads near Wellawaya, and I have heard of two

similar swarms in the same district since. It joins in the

flights, and I have notes of its occurrence above Haldummulla

at an elevation of 5,000 feet. I have also seen it in great

numbers on the road from Trincomalee to Dambulla, and have

received specimens from Kandy.

It varies a great deal in the width of the black markings,

dry season forms being much lighter than those taken during

the rains. I have not yet obtained specimens from the wet

zone, though it is found there.

‘‘Numerous on roads to Trincomalee. Caught at Kottawa”’

(F. M. Mackwood).

188. ZxtTipEsS poson, M. & E.; Papilio jason, De N.;

Papilio eurypylus jason, B.—Evans gives doson as peculiar to

Ceylon, and eleius as the Southern Indian race; Bingham and

De Niceville give jason from both Ceylon and Southern India.

Moore divides our Ceylon race into doson and telephus. He

154 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

says that doson “ differs from Z. telephus in being larger, the

transverse medial macular band much narrower in both wings.

On the under side the medial band is also narrower, especially

across the hind wing . . . ., the outer black spots to

the discal band are larger, and less bordered with carmine.”

Extreme specimens are fairly distinct, but they vary, and it

is easy to grade them. I consider the difference is seasonal.

In March, 1917, I took telephus at Wellawaya after two

months’ drought, and doson in May after heavy rains.

It is extremely plentiful at times all over the low-country,

except in the extreme north, and I have taken it from Kottawa

to Vavuniya. It sometimes “ flights” in great numbers, and

on rare occasions these flights visit the hills, and specimens

may then be taken at any elevation. The males settle in

crowds on wet patches on the roads and in river beds, and a

dozen or two may be covered at one stroke of the net. The

females seem to be very difficult to obtain, and I have not yet

succeeded in capturing a single specimen.

189. DatcHINA TEREDON, M.; Papilio sarpedon teredon,

B.; Zetides sarpedon teredon, K.—Also found in Southern India.

It differs from sarpedon in the narrower medial band across

both wings, and in the upper portion of this band, on the fore

wing, being of a more distinct greenish shade. The width of

the band varies in Ceylon specimens, but the greenish tint is

usually very pronounced ; in one of my specimens, however,

it is almost indistinguishable.

They may be seen day after day in the same place flying

very fast round the tree tops, generally in pairs, but are then

extremely hard to catch. The females occasionally visit

flowers, but I have found it very difficult to get specimens in

good condition. The males are much addicted to settling on

wet roads, but are not gregarious like doson ; usually there is

only one on the wet patch, and to find more than two is

extremely rare.

They are very plentiful at Haldummulla all the year round,

and I have found them common at Kottawa, near Galle, and

at Ohiya (6,000 feet). They become much rarer in the drier

districts, and I have not yet seen a specimen in the northern

half of the Island. They do not join in the flights.

CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 155

** | have seen six or more together on wet patches on several

occasions. Fairly plentiful in the Central Province hills ”’

(F. M. Mackwood).

190. ZETIDES AGAMEMNON, M.; Papilio agamemnon, De

N. & B.; Zetides agamemnon menides, K—Z. agamemnon is

found in India, Malaya, China, &c., The race menides, which

only differs in the greater length of the tails, is restricted to

Southern India and Ceylon.

It is common all over the low-country, but especially. so in

the south. Not rare in the hills at times, and, as a rule,

does not appear to be “ flighting,” as the direction of flight

is seldom constant. In November, 1917, however, I saw it

at Pattipola in great numbers, and on this occasion it was

certainly “flighting,” as all were flying due south.

It is most frequently caught when visiting flowers. It only

stops a very short time at each blossom, so is not easy to

capture. Occasionally the males may be taken settled on

the mud near cattle sheds or lines.

‘Fairly plentiful everywhere. Larva feeds on the soursop

leaves ” (F. M. Mackwood).

HESPERIID 2.

This group of butterflies are not, as a rule, showy, and

therefore they have been less studied than the others. From

an economic point of view, however, they are the most import-

ant group in Ceylon, as at least four species feed on paddy,

two on coconut palms, two on ginger, one on sugar cane, &c.

The literature is rather meagre, as they were not dealt with in

De Niceville’s work, and have not been reached in the Fauna

of India series. The leading work is still ‘“‘ A Revision of the

Oriental Hesperiidz,” by Messrs. Elwes and Edwards (Trans-

actions of the Zoological Society of London, Vol. XTIV..

Part 4). Unfortunately the authors had apparently few

Ceylon specimens to examine, and I fear, therefore, that several

of our species will require re-naming.

This work mainly decides questions of specific identity by

an examination of the prehensores of the males, and the

authors point out “that a very considerable practice in

156 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

making this examination, and great experience in estimating

the value of the characters observed, are necessary to form an

opinion on the subject.”’ Iconfess that I have had no previous

experience, but the sketches in the plates herewith are in

nearly every case the result of the examination of.a large

number of specimens. In no case was the sketch made from

a single specimen. I am sending a set of my slides to the

Colombo Museum, where any one interested can examine

them. ‘They include all the Ceylon Hesperiide, with the

exception of C. spilothyrus and G. albofasciata. When

removed from the body and allowed to dry, the clasps almost

invariably shrivel and curl up, thus entirely altering their

outlines as seen under a microscope. I have, therefore,

whenever possible, used perfectly fresh, undried specimens

for my sketches.

In cases where there are only slight differences between the

prehensores of two forms, it is necessary to examine a large

number of each, to ascertain if these differences are permanent,

or only casual variations. For instance, with regard to

Padraona dara, Messrs. Elwes and Edwards write that ‘‘ Mr.

Edwards dissected fifteen specimens from different localities,

and found considerable variation in degree, but no differences

which can beregarded as specific.”” Lieutenant-Colonel Evans,

in his Notes on Indian Butterflies (Journal of the Bombay Nat.

Hist.Society, Vol.X XIIT., p.808),says that he examined twenty-

three malesin his collection, and found that he had five species.

I have dissected well over a hundred Ceylon specimens, and

find two very distinct forms, which show no signs of grading,

and extremely slight internal variation. (See Pl. 5, figs. 3, 4;

5,and 6). I believe there is also a third form, but I have been

unable, so far, to obtain sufficient specimens to prove that it

is not merely a variety or seasonal form. (See PI. 5, figs. 7

and 8). _ By the courtesy of Mr. F. Hannyngton, I.C.8., I have

been able to dissect a few specimens from Coorg, and found

two forms among them, which are quite distinct from anything

I have seen in Ceylon. Apparently this group is split up into

numerous local races, and, so far as my experience goes, the

prehensores will be found a more constant and reliable means

of separating them than the colouration of the wings. Similar

CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. V57

local races apparently also occur in the phillippina and

kumara groups of the genus Parnara and others.

A question which arises is whether differences in colour

caused by climatic influences are accompanied by changes in

the prehensores. This, of course, can only be settled by breed-

ing experiments. For instance, Indian writers treat Caprona

saraya as a seasonal form of C. ransonnettii, though Elwes and

Edwards point out that their clasps differ considerably. In

Ceylon CO. siamica shows an almost similar divergence from

C. ransonnettit, and would therefore, I presume, be regarded

as a seasonal form. I have examined over a dozen specimens

of C. siamica, and have, so far, found no signs of grading in the

clasps, and am therefore inclined to regard it as distinct.

(See Pl. 3, figs. 9, 10, 11, and 12.)

To satisfactorily settle the status of our Ceylon species and

races, it will be necessary to examine a large number of allied

Indian forms, especially from Southern India, and I shall be

very grateful to any Indian collectors who may send me

specimens for dissection.

In describing external markings, Elwes and Edwards use

a different nomenclature for the parts of the wing from that

given in Plate 1. For instance, they call the vein next below

vein 2 vein la, and the interspace between this vein and vein 2

cell la. To avoid confusion I have continued to use Bing-

ham’s terms, and call the former vein 1, and the latter

interspace 1.

My attention has been called to the fact that Moore’s

Lepidoptera Indica is now the leading work on this group.

The price (£80), however, places it beyond the reach of most

collectors.

191. HANTANA INFERNUS.—Peculiar to Ceylon.

‘This is a very variable species. In my lightest marked

specimen the markings on the upper side of the fore wing

consist of two minute pre-apical yellow spots. In the most

heavily marked there are three pre-apical spots, one spot in

the cell touching the pre-costal vein, and a smaller one

below it, and a small one in the centre of interspace 2. Some

specimens have a minute spot on the costa, above the spot in

the cell ; Moore says these are females ; all I have seen were

11 6(8)19

158 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

males. The upper side of the hind wing is usually uniformly

black, but sometimes the terminal half is irrorated with golden

yellow scales shaped like a sword blade; these are grouped

between the veins, forming a row of post-discal diffuse spots.

On the under side of the fore wing, in addition to the pre-

apical spots, there is sometimes a straight row of five spots,

viz., three from the costa to the middle of the cell, a round spot

in interspace 2, and a smaller one below in interspace 1.

There is also occasionally a large very diffuse spot at the apex

of interspace 1. On the hind wing some specimens have

complete discal and post-discal rows of very diffuse orange

spots ; in others all these spots are absent. When present

they are formed by sword-shaped scales as above.

Itis usually found in junglefrom 2,000 to 6,000 feet elevation,

and settles with its wings spread out flat on the under side of

a leaf ; if disturbed it seldom flies far. It is very active in

the net, and the wings rub easily, so perfect specimens are not

easy to procure. I have not yet seen a female.

It is plentiful at Haputale, and not rare at Haldummulla,

and occurs at all times of the year. I have also specimens

from Kandy and the hills above Ratnapura. For prehensores,

see Pl. 3, figs. 1 and 2.

“Kandy District, Matale hills at 5,000 feet, parts of

Kotmale, and in the Ratnapura hills” (F. M. Mackwood),.

192. CELNORRHINUS SPILOTHYRUS, E.; Plesioneura spilo-

thyrus, M.—Also found in Southern India.

Evans says: “‘C. fusca can easily be separated from spilo-

thyrus by the chequered cilia.’’ In several of my specimens

the cilia of the hind wing are distinctly chequered. Elwes and

Edwards point out that in C. fusca the costal spot “is usually,

but not always, white,” whereas in Ceylon specimens “it seems

to be always yellow.” Moore says this spot is white in the

male, and yellow in the female. He may be right. In every

specimen I have seen it was yellow, though varying in depth

of colour, but I have never seen a male from Ceylon.

It varies greatly in the size and shape of the spots on the

fore wing, and one or both of those in interspace 1 are often

missing. The definition of the golden-yellow spots on the

hind wing is very variable, and they may be entirely obsolete

CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 159

below. They are formed by sword-shaped scales identical

with those of H. infernus, but, when especially well marked,

there is also a mixture of broader scales.

It is found in the same localities, and has the same habits

as H. infernus, but, whereas the female of infernus seems

unprocurable, in spilothyrus the opposite is the case, and I

have not yet seena male. This, coupled with the resemblance

in habits, venation, and scaling, gives rise to a suspicion that

infernus is the male, and spilothyrus the female, of our Ceylon

form. Of course, this can only be proved by breeding.

My specimens are from Haldummulla, Haputale, Kandy,

and the hills above Ratnapura.

“ Occurs in jungles about 3,000 feet elevation, mostly July

to September ” (F. M. Mackwood).

193. SARANGESA ALBICILIA.—Peculiar to Ceylon, but

probably a race of S. dasahara of India. It only differs in

having the under side of the hind wing white. The prehen-

sores seem to be identical. (See Pl. 4, figs. 1 and 2.)

It varies little. On the fore wing the discal spot in inter-

space 2 is sometimes obsolete. On the under side of the hind

wing there is sometimes a complete series of diffuse black

marginal spots in interspaces 1 to 5, in other specimens there

is no trace of these.

In May, 1917, it was apparently ‘“ flighting ”’ at Haldum-

mula, and I caught a fair number of specimens. The direction

of flight was west. It is usually a rarity here, but is very

common in the low-country of Uva. I have taken it at

Trincomalee in November, and have received specimens from

Kandy taken in August.

“Numerous in the Kandy—Matale heavy chenas” (F. M.

Mackwood).

194. CoLADENIA TISSA, M.; Coladenia indrani, De N.;

Cnaiolade indrani tissa, K.—Probably a race of C. indrani,

which is found in India and Burma. Elwes and Edwards

distinguish tissa from indrani by the “distinct displacement

inwards of the middle one of the three pale spots which form

the sub-apical series.” In my specimens these spots vary in

number from 2 to 5, though 3 is most usual.. The spot in 7 is

usually displaced inwards, but the displacement is sometimes

160 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

very sight. All other markings and the ground colour are

also extremely variable. I have only been able to examine

a single specimen of indrani from Coorg. In it the three

pre-apical spots are equalin size, and are far larger than in any

specimen of tessa that I possess. They are arranged in a

straight line. The clasp differs slightly from that of tissa,

but this cannot be relied on with the examination of only a

single specimen. For the prehensores of tissa, see Pl. 3,

figs. 5 and 6.

It is very widely distributed in Ceylon, but I have never found

it common. I have taken it at Haldummulla, Wellawaya,

Hambantota, Galle, Kegalla, and Vavuniya, and have speci-

mens from Kandy. It settles with its wings spread out flat

on the under side of a leaf, and, as a rule, does not fly far if

disturbed ; but its flight is so rapid that it is not always easy

to see where it settles.

“ Captured at Jaffna in August ; found at Badulla ” (F. M.

Mackwood).

195. TaGIADES pDisTANS, M. & E.—Also found in India,

but is probably a race of obscurus from Java. Moore says:

** Obscurus differs in the absence of the discal semi-transparent

spots on the fore wing.” Elwes and Edwards say they have

not been able to compare Malayan with Ceylon specimens,

but regard the distinction as of no value, as these spots are

often missing in Ceylon specimens. Males without them are

not at all rare, but all the females in my collection show them.

I have received three specimens of an allied race from Mr. F.

Hannyngton, I.C.8., Coorg. I am uncertain whether they

are obscurus or alica. They differ in many ways from Ceylon

specimens, but especially in the markings on the under side

of the hind wing. The clasp is distinct, though clearly allied.

The clasp of distans is figured on PI. 3, fig. 7.

It is common from sea level up to 5,000 feet at least,

wherever there is a fair rainfall. It flies all the year round,

but is most abundant at Haldummulla, near the changes of

the monsoons.

On the roads at Haldummulla large skippers are often met

“ flighting ” west. When approaching they are inconspicuous,

but when going away they show a lot of white. These flights

CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 161

are, I believe, almost entirely composed of 7’. distans and

atticus, but one specimen I succeeded in catching proved to

be U. folus. In May, 1917, they were exceptionally numerous,

and all I caught, or saw settled, were 7’. distans. When not

flighting, it only flies a short distance, and settles. with its

wings expanded, usually on the under side of a leaf, but often

in the most conspicuous positions.

“Has a wide range, from Colombo to Nuwara Eliya” (F.

M. Mackwood).

196. TacrapEes arricus.—Also found in India, Burma,

Malaya, Dutch Indies, &ce.

This is a very variable species ; as a rule, specimens from

Kandy, Ratnapura, and other places in the wet zone are

much smaller, and have less white, than those from the highest

elevations. The marginal spots on the hind wing vary greatly

in size, but the one at the end of vein 1 is usually the largest.

The black spot in the cell on the under side of the hind wing

is frequently missing. In my series the number of hyaline

spots on the fore wing varies from 5 to 10, the lowest one in

the cell, and those in interspaces 2 to 5 being sometimes

obsolete. The clasp is figured on Pl. 3, fig. 8. I have noticed

no variation in it so far, but have only been able to spare

specimens for dissection from Kandy and Ratnapura (wet

zone).

It is much rarer at Haldummulla than distans, and far

harder to catch, as it seldom seems to settle here. It is

commoner at Haputale (5,000 feet), and I am told that it is

abundant in Nuwara Eliya at times. I can get plenty from

Kandy.

“An up-country species, from Kandy upwards” (F. M.

Mackwood).

197. TarEna THWAITESI.—Also found in India, Burma,

Malaya, &e.

Elwes and Edwards divide this genus as follows :—

“1. Upper lobe of clasp bifid at the apex = thwaitesi.

“2. Upper lobe of clasp not bifid at the apex.

“3. Upper lobe of clasp with three limbs, all of which are

serrate. Similar to thwaitesi, but smaller and paler above =

minuscula,

162 SPOLIA ZEYLANICGA.

“4. Upper lobe of clasp with two limbs, of which the lower

is serrate and the upper simple. Size of thwaitesi, but upper

side in the male nearly uniformly umber brown = hampsoni.”’

Swinhoe groups them all as one species, as the only differences

are, he considers, in the genitalia, and it seems probable

that they will eventually be only classed as local races of

thwaitesi.

As might be expected, the clasp of the Ceylon form is nearest

to that of the Southern Indian one, viz., hampsoni. See P1.3,

figs. 3 and 4. The sole difference appears to be the slight

serration of the upper limb of the clasp. This is present in the

four specimens that I have dissected, but almost disappears

when the clasp dries up. The name thwaitesi was originally

given to a specimen from Ceylon, so that name would, I

presume, stand for our form in any case. Externally my

specimens of both sexes closely agree with the description of

hampsoni. The clearness of the dark markings in the male

is very variable.

A great rarity, and [ have never personally caught a speci-

men. A native collector has sent me specimens from Kandy,

Deniyaya, and Kottawa, and I saw Mr. Mackwood catch one

at the latter place in February.

“ Found at Kandy February to August, and Ratnapura

January to April and October ” (F. M. Mackwood).

198. CAPRONA RANSONNETTI, E.; Abaratha ransonnetti,

M.—Also found in India.

This is a variable insect. The hyaline spots on the fore

wing vary much in size and shape, the two in interspace I,

and the one at the upper margin of the cell being often nearly

obsolete. In all my males there are three pre-apical spots,

but the females sometimes have four or five. Some specimens

have a faint marginal row of pale spots, with a sub-marginal

row of more conspicuous ones in interspaces 4, 5, 6, and 7,

thus disagreeing with Elwes and Edwards’ classification of

the species. The markings on the under side are very

variable.

It is fairly common at Haldummulla during the south-west

monsoon (dry season), but becomes much more abundant at

a lower elevation, and I have taken it all over the low-country

CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 163

of Uva and at Trincomalee and Vavuniya. The males are

most frequently found settled on the wet sand in river beds

or on wet roads ; the females visit flowers, and seldom fly far

if disturbed.

The clasps are figured on PI. 3, figs. 9 and 10.

** Common in the low-country up to Jafina ” (F. M. Mack-

wood).

199. Caprona staAmica.—Not mentioned in any list that

J know of Ceylon Butterflies.

Elwes and Edwards, in their analytical table of the genus

Caprona, divide the species by two important characters : Ist,

the possession of “‘ a terminal row of pale spots on the fore

wing above’; and 2nd, the presence of “a hyaline spot in

the cell of the fore wing above, near the middle.” Neither of

these help to place this species. The row of pale spots is

sometimes very prominent, but in other specimens it is equally

obscure. The spotin the middle of the cell is usually present,

but I have specimens without it. The other hyaline spots

seem fairly constant, but the large one at the end of the cell

is sometimes divided into two very small ones. The pre-

apical spots usually number 5, but they are sometimes reduced

to 3. Asa rule, the under side of the hind wing is pure white,

but it is occasionally tinged with ochreous. The ring of small

black spots round the dise number 10 in all my specimens.

In general appearance it somewhat resembles Elwes and

Edwards’ figure of saraya. Evans thinks saraya is a dry

season form of ransonnettii. If he is right, it seems probable

that siamica bears the same relationship, as the clasps differ

from those of ransonnettii in almost exactly the same way as

those of saraya. See Pl. 3, figs. 11 and 12.

I found it fairly common many years ago in chenas at

1,000 to 2,500 feet elevation below Haldummulla, but I have

not been able to work this country lately. It is not rare at

Wellawaya, and a native collector caught fourteen specimens

there at the beginning of November, 1917 (commencement of

rainy season). It does not seem to settle on wet sand, like

C. ransonnettii. I have not yet caught a female.

“A scarce fly. Caught in Kandy and Haragam January,

July, August, October, and November” (F. M. Mackwood).

164 SPOLIA ZEYLANIGA.

200. GOMALIA ALBOFASCIATA.—Also found in India,

A very scarce and local insect in Ceylon. It is said to be

found in the jungle between Weerawella and Kirinde, in the

Hambantota District. I have frequently searched for it there

without success, but only in February, March, and April.

My only specimen was given to me by the late Mr. John

Pole. It has no label of locality or date.

“ Hambantota District in July. Found also near Batti-

caloa ’’ (F. M. Mackwood).

201. H&sPERIA GALBA.—Also found in India, Burma, &c.

This is one of the commonest skippers in Ceylon. I have

taken it all over the low-country, from Galle to Jaffna, but

have no records of its capture above 4,500 feet elevation. It

is especially common at Haldummulla, and can be taken all the

year round. Specimens from Jafina and Mannar are usually

very small.

It varies little, except in the size of the white discal band

on the upper side of the hind wing. It flies low and settles

on the ground or short grass, and never goes far if disturbed,

so is very easy to capture.

“T have caught it at Haputale and Pattipola” (F. M.

Mackwood).

202. Baracus virratus.—Peculiar to Ceylon.

The male varies in the size of the white patch on the fore

wing, and the spots in interspaces 6 and 7 may be absent. In

the female these spots are also sometimes absent, and those in

interspaces 2 and 3 may be very small; the amount of white

scaling on the lower wing also varies considerably.

It is exceedingly plentiful on patanas at high elevations,

especia'iy on the Horton Plains. It may occasionally be

taken on grass by the roadsides as low as 3,000 feet at Haldum-

mulla, and I found it common at Galaha, near Kandy. Those

taken below 4,500 feet are usually smaller than those from the

highest elevations.

For prehensores see Pl. 4, figs. 3 and 4. They bear a very

close resemblance to those of B. subditus from Coorg.

“On the Ambegamuwa patanas ” (F. M. Mackwood).

203. Suastus GREMIuS.—Found also in. India, Burma,

China, &e

CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 165

Moore also gives subgrisea, and says it differs in having the

three discal spots smaller, the sub-apical spots very indistinct,

and the under side less gray. It is a most variable insect,

but all my varieties grade perfectly with one exception. This

specimen was taken on this estate. It is smaller than usual,

and the ground colour above and below is much darker. The

only markings above are two minute spots, one each in inter-

spaces 2 and 3 of the fore wing. Below, in addition to these

spots, there are very minute black dots in interspaces 6, 7,

and 8 of the fore wing, and a small black spot in the cell of the

hind wing ; the discal series of black spots is wanting. This

may be the insect named subgrisea by Moore, though he

describes it as having the black discal spots below. I have

only seen the one specimen. The ground colour of the under

side of gremius seems to vary climatically, those from the hills

being usually much darker than those from the low-country.

The larva feeds on palms, and the butterfly is found wherever

coconuts are grown, and in some places where they are not.

It is very abundant at Galle and Kurunegala, common at

Pallai, near Jaffna, and not rare at Haputale and Haldum-

mulla. I have no records of its capture above 5,000 feet.

204. Suastus minuta, E.; Tagiades minuta, M—Peculiar

to Ceylon. |

The prehensores are somewhat like those of S. gremius, the

tegumen being almost identical. See Pl. 4, figs. 5, 6, and 7.

They are very distinct from those of any T'agiades that I have

examined.

It is very rare in Uva, and I have never found it common

anywhere ; the native collectors, however, seem to be able to

get any quantity at Kandy, and they have also sent me

specimens from Ratnapura and Kottawa. The few living

specimens I have seen only flew a short distance, and were

very easy to catch.

“Not uncommon in the Kandy District in February and in

August, September ” (F. M. Mackwood).

205. IAMBRIX SALSALA, E.; Astictopterus stellifer, M.—

Found also in India, Burma, Malaya, Hong Kong, &c.

The male is fairly constant, but the female varies very much

in the number and size of the translucent discal spots on the

12 6(8)19

166 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

fore wing. These vary in number in my specimens from

4 to 8.

It is very common in jungles or on grass by the roadsides

at Haldummulla, especially during the dry season. It is

plentiful in jungles near Galle, and I have also taken it at

Hambantota, Anuradhapura, Trincomalee, Kandy, &c., but

have no notes of its capture above 3,000 feet, or north of

Vavuniya.

‘“Numerous in guinea grass fields, Colombo, and similar

localities in July and August ” (F. M. Mackwood).

206. TARACTROCERA MvIUS. — Found also in India,

Burma, Borneo, &c.

Evans says : “ The Ceylon form of mexvius has not the veins

on the hind wing below conspicuously pale as in continental

specimens.” I have not been able to compare them with

Indian specimens, but my series vary considerably in this

respect, and also in the size of the spots on the upper side,

which are sometimes white and sometimes yellow in both sexes.

It is very abundant at Haldummulla all the year round,

and I have found it plentiful on the ramparts at Galle in May.

It is so small, and looks so like a fly, that it can be easily over-

looked, but I fancy it is common on short grass in most

districts. I have not, however, noted it yet north of Vavuniya.

207. Amprrr1a mMaAaRo. — Also found in India, Burma,

Malaya, China, Dutch Indies, &c.

The amount of the yellow markings is variable in both sexes,

but specially so in the male.

It may be seen in plenty at times in growing paddy, but I

have also taken a few on the grass by the roadsides at Haldum-

mulla during the south-west monsoon (dry season), when the

paddy fields are not being cultivated. Other localities I have

noted are Kandy, Galle, and Anuradhapura, and a single

specimen from Giant’s tank, near Mannar. It flies low and

settles often, so is very easy to catch.

208. Hyarotis apRAsTUS.—Also found in India, Burma,

Dutch Indies, Hong Kong, &c.

The spots on the fore wing vary much in size, and those in

interspaces 1 and 3 are sometimes absent. The clasp is

figured on PI. 3, fig. 8.

CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 167

It is usually very rare at Haldummulla, but in July, 1900,

it appeared in fair numbers in the jungle bordering this estate.

They flew fast, settled rather high, and were very difficult to

catch. They could, however, be found day after day in the

same spot, so gave me plenty of chances. Except for a single

specimen at Kottawa, I have never come across it anywhere

else, so imagine it must be very local. I get plenty of

specimens from the native collectors at Kandy.

“Numerous in Lady Horton’s jungle at Kandy from June

to December ” (F. M. Mackwood).

209. MaTapaA artA.— Found also in India, Burma,

Dutch Indies, Hong Kong, &c.

This can be at once distinguished, when settled, from any

other Ceylon skipper of the same size, by its bright red eyes,

which, however, fade soon after death.

The only place I have taken it is at Hirimbura, 3 miles from

Galle, in February, March, April, July, and October. As a

rule, it only flies a short distance if disturbed, and is very easy

to catch.

The prehensores are figured on PI. 4, figs. 9 and 10.

‘“ Found at Colombo and Kandy. Comes freely to flowers

of white Lantana” (F. M. Mackwood).

210. GaNGARA THYRSIS.—Also found. in India, Burma,

Dutch Indies, Philippines, &c.

Judging from my personal experience, I should consider this

a great rarity in Ceylon. I have only once seen it on the

wing, viz., at Kegalla. It was settled on a path in jungle with

its wings closed over its back ; on being approached it flew

away very fast, and I did not see it again. For some years

past I have asked the native collectors in Kandy to get me

specimens, but without result till August, 1918, when they

brought me half a dozen males. I have not yet succeeded in

getting a female. Bainbrigge-Fletcher describes it as a minor

pest of palms in India (“‘ Some South Indian Insects’). The

clasp is figured on PI. 4, fig. 12.

“Found in damp jungles in several low-country districts.

Females in condition quite scarce ” (F. M. Mackwood).

211. PapuKA LEBADEA, E.; Matapa subfasciata, M—

Found also in India, Malaya, Dutch Indies, &c.

168 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

The figure in Moore’s “ Lepidoptera of Ceylon ” is evidently

drawn from a very dwarfed specimen, as, with the exception of

G. thyrsis, it is the largest Hesperid in the Island. I have

never seen a specimen alive, and the Kandy collectors were for

many years quite unable to supply me with one. In August,

1918, however, it was common near Kandy, and a collector

brought me a fair number, of which six were females.

The clasp is figured on PI. 4, fig. 11.

“Found also in Colombo, Ratnapura, and Pattipola ”

(F. M. Mackwood).

{ 212. Novrocrypra Aatysos ; Plesioneura alysos, M.

212a. NovTocRYPTA RESTRICTA ; Plesioneura restricta, M.

Grouped as Notocrypta feisthamelit by Elwes and Edwards,

but Swinhoe (“ Lepidoptera Indica ’’) gives feisthamelit and

restricta from Ceylon.

NV. feisthamelii, or races thereof, is found in India, Malaya,

China, Japan, Philippines, &c.

I agree with Moore that there are two distinct forms in

Ceylon, but they may prove to be merely seasonal varieties of

our local race: /st, alysos—Upper side fore wing : The white

band is of nearly even width throughout, and its outer edge

has a fairly regular curve. Beyond this band there is, as a

rule, one spot in interspace 4, but this is sometimes absent.

I have seen a few specimens in which there was also a very

minute spot in interspace 5. Under side: The white band is

always continued to the costa by an opaque whitish patch.

2nd, restricta—Upper side fore wing : The white band broad

in interspace 2, and narrower in the cell and interspace 1.

White spots outside the band in 3, 4, 6, 7, and 8, and oceca-

sionally in 5. The spot in 6 is sometimes absent. That in

interspace 3 1s always the largest ; this spot is never present in

alysos. ‘The white band is never continued to the costa below.

I have examined a great number of specimens, but so far

I have seen only one exception to the rule in Ceylon, that, if

the band below is continued to the costa, there are never more

than two spots beyond the band, and very rarely more than

one ; whereas, if it is not so continued, there are always 4 to 6.

The sole exception is in the Colombo Museum collection. In

addition to the small spots in 4 and 5, it has two very minute

CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 169

pre-apical dots in 7 and 8. [I have only noticed small

differences in the prehensores, the most marked being the size

of the clasps. I have selected males of both for dissection

approximately equal in size, and the clasp of restricta has

invariably proved to be larger, and comparatively broader,

than that of alysos. Elwes and Edwards describe fecsthamelit

as having a “ broad white band on the fore wing, and five

white spots besides,’ and quote Leech as saying that the band

is continued to the costa below by a pale patch. If both these

points are essential, typical fezsthamelii does not, I believe,

exist in Ceylon.

Both are plentiful at times at Haldummulla, though alysos

is by far the commoner form. I have specimens of alysos

from Kandy, Ratnapura, and Galle, and of restricta from

Haputale and Kandy. I have bred restricta on Kempferia

rotunda.

They are usually found in jungle, and fly rather fast up and

down the paths, settling frequently. They are not at all shy,

and, if frightened away, will nearly always return in a few

minutes.

“Taken at Lindula, and common at Kandy and Ratna-

pura” (F. M. Mackwood).

213. Upasprs rotus—Found in India, Burma, Dutch

Indies, &e.

A rarity in Ceylon, though Bainbrigge-Fletcher says it is

“ occasionally a serious pest of ginger and turmeric ” in India

(“ Some South Indian Insects ”’).

I have seen it three times in my garden, and believe it had

bred on Kempferia rotunda, as I caught a freshly hatched one

close to the plant, and found a fresh empty pupa case on a leaf.

I have also taken it at Kirinde, in the Hambantota District,

and have seen specimens from Badulla, Madulsima, and

Wellawaya.

* Caught at Batticaloa ”’ (F. M. Mackwood).

214. TrELicota BAMBUSa.—Found also in India, Malaya,

Australia, China, &c.

It is very common at Haldummulla, and I have taken it in

every month, but January. It is notrare at Haputale (5,000

feet), and I have specimens from Colombo, Kandy, Galle, &c.

170 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Usually seen settled on grass by the roadside, but it visits

flowers, especially Duranta, and is very easy to catch.

““ Common at Colombo ” (F. M. Mackwood).

215. TrLicota auctAs.—Also found in India, Burma,

Malaya, Hong Kong, &ce.

This has not been previously recorded from Ceylon, having

been mistaken for 7'. bambuse.

Elwes and Edwards say that it differs from bambuse in

having the “‘ lower outer angle of the yellow spots in cells

2 to 4 narrowly produced along the contiguous vein nearly or

quite to the termen ; terminal dark band brown.’ Whereas

in bambuse the “ lower angle of the yellow spots in cells 2 to 4

is not, or but little, produced ; terminal margin §black-

brown.’

The male can also be at once distinguished from male

bambusex by having narrow yellow streaks along all the veins at

the apex of the fore wing. As pointed out by Elwes and

Edwards, there is a marked difference in their clasps. See

Pl. 5, figs. 1 and 2.

The female is a much duller insect than female bambuse,

the ground colour being dark brown, not black-brown, and the

orange markings being narrower. The spots in interspaces

1 to 3 have their lower edges produced along the contiguous

veins, but to a much less extent than in the males. The veins

at the apex of the fore wing are not edged with yellow. The

under side of the hind wing has a marked greenish tinge.

There seems to be a tendency to grade.

It is very common at times at Haldummulla. The larva is

said to feed on sugar eane, which is extensively cultivated in

native gardens here. I have specimens from Wellawaya and

Galle. ;

216. Papraona Goa, E.; Padraona goloides, M~—Found

also in India, Malaya, China, Dutch Indies, &c.

Moore says goloides is “‘ nearest allied to P. vola. Differs

from it on both sides in the narrower discal band of the fore

wing, the band being also disconnected from the costal spots.

The band of the hind wing is also narrower.” My series show

considerable variation in the width of the band in both sexes,

and it is connected to the pre-apical spots in a few of my

CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 17]

males. The prehensores are similar to those of P. gola, as

figured by Elwes and Edwards.

It is almost always found settled on grass by the roadsides,

or at flowers, and is especially attracted by Duranta. If

disturbed, it darts off very rapidly, but usually settles again

near, and is easy to catch. It is very common at Haldum-

mulla all the year round, except in August and September. I

have also taken it at Haputale, Galle, Kandy, and Vavuniya.

“A common insect up to 5,000 feet’ (F. M. Mackwood).

217. PapRAONA PSEUDOMaSA, M.; Padraona mesiocides,

EK.

218. PADRAONA MSIOIDES, M.; Padraona tropica satra,

218a. PADRAONA DARA ?

Elwes and Edwards group these as one species, T'elicota dara.

In my preliminary remarks on the Hesperiide I have already

given my reasons for disagreeing with their opinion. I am

convinced that there are two very distinct forms in Ceylon,

and suspect that there is a third. I do not care to express an

opinion as to which of the local forms, here or in India, are

entitled to specific rank, and which are merely races, or even

varieties. A great deal of investigation is still required before

this can be settled. In the meantime I use Moore’s names for

the two common Ceylon forms.

Ist, Pseudomesa—tThis is a large form. The yellow band

on the fore wing is broken, the spots in 4 and 5 being never

jomed to the apical group, but usually to the discal in the

male. On the lower wing the band is divided along the veins

by brown lines. There is, as a rule, a small well-defined spot

in 6, and sometimes a larger faint and diffuse one in 7. It

varies much in size. In the female the yellow markings are

much reduced, and the band on the fore wing is more broken,

the spots in 4 and 5 being almost invariably well separated

from both the apical and discal series. On the lower wing

there is usually a very minute spot in 6. For prehensores see

PL. 5, figs.3 and 4. The clasp is very like Elwes and Edwards’

figure of that of dara, but the tegumen is quite distinct.

This is extremely plentiful at Haldummulla, but I have

no specimens from any other locality. My notes give many

172 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

loealities for dara, but I cannot say for certain to which one of

the group they refer. It usually settles on grass by the

roadsides, but visits flowers in bright sunshine.

2nd, Mesioides—This is a small form. I think it is either

the one described by Evans as Tropica satra, or a closely allied

race. He describes the clasp as ending in a bluntly triangular

point, but all [ have examined show a distinct spine at the

apex of the triangle. See Pl. 5, figs. 5 and 6.

The yellow band is almost always continuous, the spots in

4 and 5 being joined to both the discal and apical series ; it,

however, varies greatly in width. The band on the hind wing

is not divided by brown lines along the veins. There is almost

invariably a large spot in 7, but very rarely one in 6. In the

female the yellow markings are much reduced, and the spots

in 4 and 5 are not always joined to the apical series. I have

one aberration of the female, in which the spots in 4 and 5 are

quite obsolete, and the discal band almost so. I took it at

Anuradhapura in company with normal specimens.

It is not so plentiful as pseudomesa at Haldummulla, but is

very abundant in the Galle District. I have also taken it at

Vavuniya and Mannar.

3rd, Dara ?—This is intermediate in size between the two

last. The male closely resembles pseudomxsa female ; in

fact, I had placed it as such in my collection till I noticed the

sex mark. This, in all Ceylon forms, is a deep black streak of

specialized scales above the middle of vein 1 of the fore wing.

Elwes and Edwards have overlooked this. The yellow band

is very narrow, and the spots in 4 and 5 are well separated

from both the discal and apical series. There is a spot in 7,

but none in 6. The band on the hind wing is not divided by

brown lines. The female has the yellow markings greatly

reduced, and the band on the hind wing is broken up by brown

lines along the veins. The under side of the hind wing in both

sexes has a very distinctive greenish tinge, which is, I believe,

typical of dara. The prehensores differ slightly from those

of pseudomexsa, but the differences appear to be constant ;

however, I have so far only been able to dissect four males.

See Pl. 5, figs. 7 and 8. It may prove to be only a seasonal

form of pseudomesa.

CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 1733

The only place I have seen it is on the cart road near

Haldummulla in March and May.

In working out this group, I am greatly indebted to some

notes on Indian Butterflies published by Colonel Evans in the

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society (Vol. X XIIT.,

p. 307). Lam also indebted to Mr. F. Hannyngton, I.C.S., for

some specimens of two forms from Coorg. One of these is

very like pseudomesa externally, but the prehensores are quite

distinct ; the other is very unlike any Ceylon form both

externally and internally.

219. HALPE CEYLONICA.

} 220. Hatprr naEena, E.; Halpe brunnea, M.

Halpe egena is restricted to Ceylon. H. ceylonica is also

found in Southern India.

According to Moore, who described brunnea (= egena) from

a single female specimen, the chief distinction between it and

ceylonica lies in the ground colour, which is “ dark vinous

brown ”’ in brunnea, and “ dark brown, base of wings and body

olive-brown,”’ in ceylonica.

Elwes and Edwards distinguish them by the discal band

on the under side of the hind wing, which is brownish-yellow,

and very indistinct, in egena, and yellowish-white, and clearly

defined, in ceylonica. The colour of the discal band is usually

as they state, but it varies greatly in definition, and I have

specimens of ceylonica in which it is so diffuse as to be almost

indistinguishable. My experience is that the ground colour

is the only reliable test. In the specimen of egena described

by Moore the discal band was evidently exceptionally indis-

tinct. As a rule, the spots on the fore wing are larger in

ceylonica, but they vary much in size in both. In ceylonica 3

the pre-apical spots vary from 1 to 3 in number, but the discal

spots vary only in size. I have a specimen of egena 3 with

the wing entirely unspotted. The spot in the cell is rarely

present in egena 3, and rarely absent in ceylonica 3. I can

perceive no difference whatever in the prehensores. See PI. 5,

figs. 9 and 10. The females are much rarer than the males,

and the material at my disposal is rather limited. Apart

from the ground colour, the chief difference between them

seems to be the spots in interspace | of the fore wing. I have

13 6(8)19

174 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

so far examined 15 ceylonica 9 and 6 egena 9. The usual

marking in ceylonica is apparently one spot visible above

and 2 below, but one or more of these are sometimes absent,

and I have two specimens in which this interspace is quite

unspotted. In 5 egena 292 the interspace is unmarked, but

in one specimen there is a white spot visible above and below.

Personally I can find no reliable tests for separating the two

forms, except by the ground colour when freshly caught, and

I strongly suspect them to be only seasonal varieties of the

same insect.

H. ceylonica.—I have never taken this myself, but the

native collectors seem to be able to get the males in any

quantity at Kandy ; females are apparently scarce. It is also

common at Ratnapura, and Mr. Hannyngton has sent me a

specimen from Coorg, which seems to be identical. It is very

distinct, both externally and internally, from H. moorez.

“ Numerous at Kandy in the latter part of the year, and

found at Pundaluoya ” (F. M. Maeckwood).

H. egena.—This was originally described by Felder from

“ Kalupahana, Ceylon,” and I think there can be little doubt

that this estate was meant. The gentleman who was Superin-

tendent then (Mr. R. E. Pineo) told me that naturalists used

frequently to stop with him on their way to collect in the

Bintenna country. I have taken it on the estate.

It is a very local fly, and was formerly always plentiful on a

Duranta hedge at the bungalow on Blackwood estate, 2 miles

from here. This hedge has now been cut out, but a few

specimens may still be taken in the garden there, in July—

August and November—December. I have also taken it on

the Haldummulla-Horton Plains bridle road, and received

specimens from Ratnapura.

221. Hanpr Decorata.—Peculiar to Ceylon, and confined

to the wettest zone.

I have never caught this myself, but have received a lot of

males from Ratnapura. The female was discovered by the

CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 175

late Mr. C. C. Gilbert. It is extremely rare. Messrs. F. M.

Mackwood and T. G. Elliott have given me specimens, and

my collector caught one at Deniyaya. On the upper side the

fore wing differs from that of the male in having an orange

spot above vein 1, and the orange patch in the cell is much

reduced in size. On the lower wing the large median yellow

patch is much reduced, or even sometimes entirely obsolete.

All markings are much darker in colour. The ground colour.

of the under side is entirely different, being brownish-red

instead of gamboge yellow ; the spots on the fore wing agree

with those on the upper side, except that that on vein 1 is

more diffuse. On the lower wing the small black spots are

usually very indistinct or absent, but when present they

correspond in position with those of the male. I figure the

prehensores on PI. 5, figs. 11 and 12.

“ Very abundant in Ratnapura, and parts of Ambegamuwa.

Caught also at Labugama and Kottawa. Females very

scarce ’ (KF. M. Mackwood).

222. BaAoRIS PENCILLATA, M.; Baoris oceia, K.—Evans

says (Bombay Natural History Society Journal, Vol.

XXIII., p. 309): “ Dr. Chapman has dissected fourteen

specimens, and finds that there are four species under the

name ocera, viz., oceia, confined to the Philippines ; leechiz, EL.,

confined to China; farri, M., the common Indian species ;

unicolor, M., from Sikkim and Assam, a species with no

markings on the fore wing.”

Elwes and Edwards figure the prehensores of oceia, leechir,

and simillima, but none of them resemble those of our Ceylon

race. See Pl. 6, figs. 1 to 4. Till the question is settled as to

whether this is pencillata or farri, I think Moore’s name may

stand.

The few males in my collection vary in the number of spots

on the fore wing ; in one there are spots in 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, and 8,

the latter beg very minute ; in another there are spots in

2 and 3 only. The cell of the fore wing and the whole hind

wing are unspotted in all.

I do not know the female, though possibly I have a specimen,

and have described it further on as an unknown form of Par-

nara (see No. 225c later). Mr. Mackwood has given me one

176 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

from the Andamans ; it differs from all large Ceylon Parnaras

(except conjuncta), in having two large spots in the cell. i

have seen nothing like it in Ceylon.

I consider pencillata a great rarity. Till last year my only

specimen was one given to me by the late Mr. Butt, of Avissa-

wella, in 1889. I have now received one each from Galle and

Deniyaya, and Mr. Mackwood has given me two from Ratna-

pura.

It is apparently confined to the wettest zone.

“ Found at Avissawella, Pundaluoya, and Lindula ”

(F. M. Mackwood).

223. CHAPRA MATHIAS ; Chapra agna, M.

223a. CHAPRA SUBOCHRACEHA ; Chapra mathias, M.

C. mathias, or races thereof, is found from Turkey to Japan,

and in Australia.

Moore gives mathias and agna from Ceylon, and says agna is

larger than mathias, and has smaller spots. Personally I

find that the form with the small spots is usually the smaller

insect. Elwes and Edwards agree with Moore in dividing it

into two species, naming the one with the small spots mathias,

and the one with the large subochracea. There are certainly

two distinct forms in Ceylon which are extremely common ;

they fly together, and the males, at any rate, do not seem to

grade.

The male of the large form, with large spots, is much

lighter in colour both above and below ; the fore wings are

broader in proportion to their length, and the hind wings

more rounded. The females show this difference in the shape

of the wings to a greater degree than the males. There is

little variation in either form in the number of spots on the

fore wing ; the males of swbochracea usually have a spot in

interspace 8, which is seldom present in mathias ; all the

females of both forms in my collection show this spot. A spot

in 5 is present, more often than not, in both females, but it is

only traceable in two of my specimens of male subochracea.

The differences in the prehensores are exceedingly minute

and hard to see, though they are apparently constant ; the

chief one lies, as pointed out by Elwes and Edwards, in the

apex of the tegumen. Personally I attach much more

CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. gee

importance to external differences, and the fact that I have

seen no signs of grading in the males. They may be only

seasonal varieties, as the dry and wet season forms of most

species fly together in Ceylon. Both fly all the year round at

Haldummulla. A small form of subochracea is found in the

Northern Province (and very rarely, during the drought, at

Haldummulla). In this the under side of the hind wing is

suffused with pale gray.

Both are potential pests of paddy.

PARNARA.—The true Parnaras, or those without a sex mark,

are only represented by a few species in Ceylon, but they seem

to have been little studied, and I find some difficulty in naming

them. Moore gives five species: kumara, seriata, narooa,

cingala, and bada, Evans gives phillippina, kuwmara, austeni,

conjuncta, colaca, and bada. These separate easily into two

groups, the large and the small, the latter consisting of cingala

and bada. The large can be again subdivided by the colour

of the under side of the hind wing, viz., reddish-brown or

greenish-brown.

There is no Indian collection in the Colombo Museum, and

little literature on the subject, so the most I can do is to

roughly describe our forms, leaving it to Indian collectors to

compare the descriptions and figures of the prehensores with

Indian specimens and settle their true status.

_ [hope to send slides of the prehensores to the Entomological

Section of the Agricultural Research Institute at Pusa for

their assistance.

Group A.—Under Side of Hind Wing Reddish-Brown.

224. PARNARA KUMARA g, M.—Expanse 40-45 mm.

No spot in cell of fore wing ; hind wing unmarked. Spots on

the fore wing in 2, 3, 4, 6, and 7, some or all of the three latter

being sometimes obsolete. Under side: Costa and apex of

fore wing and the whole hind wing dark orange-brown,

deepening in worn specimens into vinous brown. As a rule,

178 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

there are no spots in interspace 1 of the fore wing below, but

very rarely a small very diffuse one is present. I have three

specimens in which there is a minute spot showing above on

vein 1, but in colour, shape of the wings, and prehensores

they are identical with this species.

I have dissected many specimens with both bright and dull

coloured under sides and find the prehensores to be identical.

See PL. 6, figs. 5to 8. The clasp answers exactly to Elwes and

Edwards’ illustration of that of austeni, the tegumen, however,

is quite distinct from that of either austeni or kumara, though

nearer to that of the former.

It occasionally appears in great numbers on the Haldum-

mulla-Horton Plains bridle road, and a few can be taken as

low as 3,000 feet here. It is abundant on the hills above

Ratnapura. It usually settles low along the roadsides, and

does not fly far if disturbed.

224a. PARNARA KUMARA 2, M.; Parnara phillippina.—

Differs from No. 224 as follows :—Expanse 42-48 mm. Spots

on fore wing in 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, and 8. The spot in 8 is some

times missing, and there is occasionally a second minute spot

in 1 just below vein 2. The wings are broader in proportion to

their length, the termen and dorsum of the fore wing being

almost equal. The colour of the under side and cilia are

identical with No. 224. There is always a diffuse spot in

interspace 1 below, and often a second very minute one

touching vein 2.

Elwes and Edwards’ table of the species of Parnara gives

the presence of a spot in 1 as the difference between phillip-

pina and kumara. This form differs from the preceding

mainly in that respect, and therefore it is usually labelled

phillippina in Ceylon collections.

Moore believed it to be the female of No. 224, and I am very

strongly of opinion that he was right. Both forms are very

plentiful at times, and invariably appear together. I have

never seen any specimens of No. 224 which were not males, nor

of No. 224a which were not females. The sole objection, I

understand, to Moore’s opinion is that the female of kumara

has no spot in interspace 1. I do not, however, believe that

No. 224 is rightly named kumara.

CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 179

224b. PARNARA AUSTENI.—This is given by Elwes and

Edwards from Ceylon on the authority of Mr. E. E. Green.

I have never seen a specimen.

As far as I can follow Elwes and Edwards’ work, the

description is as follows ——Expanse 37-41 mm. One or two

spots in the cell of the fore wing in the male, none in that of

the female. Hind wing unmarked. No white spot in inter-

space 1 of the fore wing of the male; a white point near

vein 2 of the female. Under side: apex of fore wing and

whole of hind wing reddish-yellow-brown.

224c. PARNARA KUMARA 9.—A single battered female

specimen. Very similar to No. 224, but the spots in 2 and 3 are

larger, and there is a spot in 8. On the under side of the fore

wing there is a small spot on vein 1 so diffuse as to be almost

obsolete. Under side dark vinous brown.

To sumupGroup A. Ibelieve Nos. 224, 224a, and 2246 only

represent one species, and that that will prove to be a local

race of austeni. The males differ from that species in being

larger, and in having no spots in the cell of the fore wing.

The females apparently differ only in size. No.224c may bea

variety of No. 224a. Ihave only seen the one poor specimen.

The markings of the fore wing answers to the description of

kumara 2, in having no spot below vein 2 above; true

kumara may, therefore, exist in Ceylon, though I have not yet

identified the male.

Mr. Hannyngton has sent me two pairs of a very closely

allied race from Coorg. They differ from Nos. 224 and 224a

in being smaller, and the female has a white spot in interspace

2 of the hind wing only visible on the under side. The clasp

is identical with that of our Ceylon race, but the tegumen

differs slightly.

Group B.—Under Side of Hind Wing Greenish-Brown.

225. PARNARA SERIATA, M.; Parnara phillippina.—Moore

describes it well, as “‘ smaller than kumara, the spots smaller

and less angular. Under side greenish-brown, not deep

ochreous brown.”

180 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Expanse 36-42 mm. Spots on fore wing above in 1, 2, 38,

4, 6, and 7. In two of my specimens there is also a minute

dot in 1, just below vein 2. In a fewothers the spot on vein 1

is almost obsolete. No spot in cell. Under side: Spots on

fore wing as above, except that there are always two diffuse

spots in 1. I have seen two specimens which showed a

rudimentary spot in the cell which did not show above.

Costa, apex of fore wing, and whole of hind wing brown,

irrorated with yellow scales, giving a marked greenish tinge.

The fore wing is much narrower than that of No. 224.

This is also classed as phillippina, though very unlike

No. 224a in colour and shape of the wings. Elwes and

Edwards say: “ We think the identification must remain

somewhat uncertain.’ The clasp bears a resemblance to that

of phillippina, but the tegumen is very different. See Pl. 6,

figs. 9 to 12. In the very large number of specimens that

I have examined I have found no variations in these. I

have no specimens of phillippina with which to compare it,

but it does not resemble the figures of that species in Elwes

and Edwards’ work. It varies little, except in the size of the

spots.

It is found from sea level to 3,000 feet elevation. I have

taken it at Haldummulla and Galle, and received specimens

from Kottawa and Ratnapura. The native collectors can

get abundance of males in the Kandy District, but seem quite

unable to catch the females there.

225a. PARNARA SERIATA 9, M.—Expanse 42-45 mm.

Spots on fore wing in 1, 2, 3,4, 6,7, and 8. There is also a

second very small spot in 1, just below vein 2. The spot in

8 is sometimes missing. No spots in cell visible above.

Under side : Two large diffuse spots in 1. Many specimens

also show rudimentary spots in the cell, of which the lower is

the larger. In ground colour and shape and colour of the

spots it is identical with No. 225, and I am quite confident

that it is the female seriata.

I have taken it at Galle in the same localities and at the

same seasons as seriata 3, and I have specimens from Ratna-

pura and Balangoda. It is far rarer than the male, and I

have only a poor series.

CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 18]

2256. PARNARA SERIATA 9 var. ?—This differs from all

others in Ceylon, in having a single white spot on the under

side of the hind wing, in the basal half of interspace 2, clearly

defined below, and sometimes visible above. The only Parnara

mentioned by Elwes and Edwards with this spot is P. bromus,

of which they say: “I have great doubt as to whether P.

bromus can. be separated from P. phillippina . . . . The

fact remains that in phillippina the cell spots of the fore

wing are wanting, or at most feebly developed, and the

hind wing below is unspotted, and in bromus there are two

well-developed cell spots visible on the upper side of the

fore wing, and the hind wing below bears a small pale spot

near the middle of cell 2. We have not seen any intermediate

specimens.”

This also differs from No. 225a, in having the spot below

vein 2 on the fore wing sometimes enlarged into a streak,

almost joining the spots in l and 2. All my specimens show

two rudimentary spots in the cell below, and in most cases

the upper one is visible above as a minute white dot.

All the specimens I have seen were females. I have five

from Galle and one from below Haldummulla. Mr. T. G.

Elliott has shown me three from Ratnapura. In April, 1918,

I took one specimen at Galle intermediate between Nos. 225a

and 2255. It has a white spot in interspace 2 of the hind wing

on one wing only.

225c. BAORIS PENCILLATA 9 ?—Expanse 43 mm. Spots

on fore wing in 1, 2, 3, 4,6, 7,and 8. No spot incell. Hind

wing unmarked. It differs from Nos. 225a and 225b as

follows :—The yellow hairs above and scales below are darker.

The fore wing is broader in proportion. to its length, and is more

evenly convex on the termen. The spot on vein | is much

smaller, and those in 2 and 8 are distinctly excavated on the

outer margin, which I have never seen in any specimen of

sertata. On the under side of the fore wing there is only one

small diffuse spot in interspace 1. It is almost identical with

No. 224a in markings and shape of the wings, but differs in

the ground colour, especially of the under side of the hind wing.

I have only a single specimen, and Mr. Elliott has shown me

another, both females from Ratnapura.

14 6(8)19

182 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

To sum up Group B. I believe Nos. 225, 225a, and 2250

represent one species, viz., Moore’s. P. seriata. As to whether

this is a good sub-species, a local race, or merelya variety of

phillippina, | can express no opinion, as I have no specimens

of typical phillippina with which to compare it. I rather

expect further investigation will prove it to be a local race of

that species. ‘Till this is settled I think Moore’s name may

stand.

No. 225c is, I think, quite distinct. The material avail-

able at present is too limited to decide anything, but

I expect it will prove to be the unknown female of B.

pencillata.

226. PaRNARA NAROOA, M.; Parnara conjuncta, E.—

P. conjuncta is also found in India, Burma, Malaya, Hong

Kong, &c.

Elwes and Edwards say: “‘ Though we have no specimens

from India or Ceylon, yet we think the plate in ‘ Lep. Ceylon ’

sufficiently identifies the species, which has been hitherto

known as narooa, Moore.’ Personally I regard such an

identification as eminently unsatisfactory, as the plate is a

very poor representation of the insect.

It is by far the largest of the genus in Ceylon, the females

attaining up to 55 mm. in expanse, and it can be at once

distinguished from all our other large Parnaras by the two

large spots in the cell and the row of spots on the under side of

the hind wing. From subochracea 9 it can only be distinguished

by its greater size and darker ground colour. The tegumen

seems to be very near that of conjuncta, but the clasp differs.

It may possibly prove to be a local race of conjuncta.

The spots vary much in size. In some specimens there is a

minute spot below vein 2 and another in interspace 5; in one

of my specimens this latter spot is crescent-shaped. Hither

two or three spots are visible on the hind wing above ; below

there are usually four discal and one in the cell. In fresh

specimens the spots on the fore wing have a pronounced

yellow tinge, but this soon fades.

It is not rare at Haldummulla, but is difficult to catch in

first class condition. I have also taken it at Haputale,

Madampe, and Galle, and have specimens from Ratnapura.

CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 183

Taken at Kandy and Ratnapura in July ” (F. M. Mack-

wood).

227. PaRNARA BADA.—Found also in India, Malaya,

Burma, China, and Japan. Evans gives guttatus as a distinct

species from Chitral and Assam.

This is the smallest Parnara in Ceylon. It can be

distinguished from cingala, which is only slightly larger, by

the absence of the spot in interspace 1. The spots vary

greatly in size, shape, and number. On the fore wing there

are normally spots in 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, and 8, but those in 4 and 8

are often absent. I have one specimen with a spot in 5, and

two with a linear spot on the lower edge of the cell, near the

base of vein 3. On the hind wing there is normally a row of

four spots in interspaces 2 to 5, visible both above and. below.

I have two specimens in which the hind wing is quite unspotted

above or below, and several with only one to three spots

below. I have also two or three with five discal spots in

interspaces 2 to 6, and one in the cell. The spot in 6 is never

in line with the others.

For comparison with Indian specimens, I give a figure of the

prehensores. PI. 7, figs. 5 to 7.

It is not very common at Haldummulla, but becomes much

more abundant at lower elevations, being widely distributed

through the low-country. I have taken it at Wellawaya,

Hambantota, Galle, Vavuniya, Jaffna, Mannar, &c., and have

specimens from Kandy.

228. PARNARA CINGALA, M.; Parnara colaca, K.—P. colaca

is also found in India.

Moore thought it distinct from colaca, but did not state in

the ‘“‘ Lepidoptera of Ceylon” how it differed. I give a

sketch of the prehensores for comparison with Indian speci-

mens. PI. 7, figs. 8 to 10.

It varies much less than the last species (bada), the main

variation being in the number of spots in the cell ; these may

be two,.one, or none ; all varieties seem to be equally common

in both sexes. The number of the spots on the fore wing

outside the cell never seems to vary, being always one each in

1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, and 8. On the hind wing below there are

always three large spots in 2, 3, and 5, and usually a smaller

184 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

one in 4; of these, one or two are, as a rule, visible above.

Some varieties are very like mathias 2, but can be distinguished

by the absence of the small spots just below vein 2 and in 5 of

the fore wing above, and of that in the cell of the hind wing

below.

It is the commonest skipper at Haldummulla, and flies all

the year round. I have also taken it at Ohiya. (6,000 feet),

Jaffna, Mannar, Galle, &c. It is chiefly found in the grass by

the roadsides, and visits flowers when the sun is shining.

229. IsmeNE ATAPHUS, E.; Ismene adipodea, M.—Also

found in India and Burma.

I. edipodea differs in having the ‘‘ costa of the hind wing

folded over on to the upper surface of the apex ” (Elwes and

Edwards). It is found in Java and Sumatra.

Very rare in Uva, but well distributed. I have taken it at

Ohiya (6,000 feet), Haldummulla (3,500 feet), and Hambe-

gama tank (400 feet). It is fond of settling in the beds of

streams, on wet rocks, or sand.

For prehensores see Pl. 7, figs. 11 and 12.

‘Not uncommon round Kandy. Taken at Trincomalee ”

(F. M. Mackwood.)

930. HasoraA BADRA. — Found also in India, Burma,

Malaya, Dutch Indies, China, &c.

T have taken a pair in my garden, but have seen no others in

the Province of Uva. I have specimens from Ratnapura,

Kottawa, Deniyaya, end Kandy. I understand it is not rare

at Balangoda, and has been taken in Nuwara Eliya.

The prehensores are figured on PI. 8, figs. 5 and 6.

“Not uncommon around Kandy. Caught at Kottawa ”’

(F. M. Mackwood).

{ 231. Hasora ALExis; Hasora chromus, E.; Parata

‘6

chromus, M.

9232. Hasora BUTLERI, E.; Parata alexis, M.

P. butleri is found also in Southern India. Races of

chromus are found in India, Burma, Dutch Indies, &c.

Elwes and Edwards treat these as varieties of H..chromus.

The external differences are very marked, they fly together

and do not grade, and their prehensores are widely different. ’

To judge from the latter, H. chromus is not found in Ceylon.

CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 185

The clasp of alexis agrees with that of inermis, to which it is

apparently closely allied, but the tegumen is entirely distinct.

The clasp of buileri is the same as that of chromus, but, again,

the tegumen is very different. See Pl. 8, figs. 1 to 4.

The upper sides of the males are similar, but the under sides

are very distinct, the most prominent difference being that

butlert has a broad, sharply defined, white band on the lower

wing, and alexis has a narrow diffuse one. The female of

butlert has, as a rule, two small white spots on the upper side of

the fore wing in 2 and 3, of which the lower is much the

smaller, but both these spots are often absent. In this case

the 2 can only be distinguished from the g by the absence of

the sex mark. The female of alexis has two spots in all my

specimens, of which the lower is the larger. It has also

occasionally a minute dot in 6.

Mr. Hannyngton sent me a chromus 2 from Coorg. It is

larger than our Ceylon forms, the spots in 2 and 3 are much

larger, and there is a spot in 6 anda small dot in 7. The band

on the hind wing is broader than that of alexis, but is not

sharply defined like that of butleri.

They suddenly appear in great numbers, generally during

the north-east monsoon, and I am of opinion that they

“ flight.”’ In October, 1916, I noticed great flights of large

Hesperiide on several evenings just before dark, all going

south. I put on two native collectors and tried myself to

catch specimens, but owing to the bad light and the speed of

the flight I secured none. They can be walked up in the

daytime in the tea or jungle, but then only fly a short distance,

and settle on the under side of a leaf with their wings closed

over their backs. They visit flowers in the early morning or

evening or on a dull day, and I have known them come to my

moth lamp at night.

Both are extremely plentiful all over Uva up to the highest

elevations, and I have specimens of butleri from Kandy

and Deniyaya, and of alexis from Kandy, Jaffna, and

Mannar.

Alexis : ““ Numerous in low jungles of North Matale.”

Butleri : ““ Colombo, East Matale ’ (F. M. Mackwood).

186 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

233. Breasis SENA.—Also found in India and Siam,

The colour of the cilia on the hind wing and the patch of

long hairs on the dorsum, above the tornus, varies from rather

pale orange to orange-vermillion in freshly caught specimens.

The fore wing of the female is broader than that of the male,

and the hind wing is more rounded.

T consider ita rarity. I have taken one or two specimens on

this estate, and in December, 1904, I found several inside

Wellawaya resthouse settled on the walls. They were very

wary and. difficult to catch, so I only got three or four ; the

others did not return to the resthouse that day. With these

exceptions, I have never come across it.

The prehensores are figured on PI. 8, figs. 9 and 10.

“Found at Kandy and Pundaluoya ” (F. M. Mackwood). -

234. BaDAMIA EXCLAMATIONIS.—Also found in India,

Burma, Malaya, China, and Australia.

It appears in great numbers at times, usually in company

with H. alexis and butlert. It has the same habits as these,

but seems to be less afraid of the sun, and to visit flowers more

on a bright day.

I have notes of its occurrence at Haldummulla, Haputale,

Kandy, Galle, Vavuniya, and Mannar, and believe it to be

common everywhere at times.

The prehensores are figured on Pl. 8, figs. 1] and 12. That

of the clasp is poor, as it does not show the formidable

armament of spines on the inner face.

“ All over the low-country, and up to 5,000 feet or over ”

(F. M. Mackwood).

235. RHOPOLACAMPTA BENJAMINIT, E.; Choaspes benja-

minit. M.—Found also in India, Burma, China, Japan,

Borneo, &c.

There seems to be a doubt as to whether two species are not

included, under this name, I therefore figure the prehensores

of our Ceylon form. PI. 8, figs. 7 and 8.

It is fairly common in the hills, and was formerly very

plentiful on the cart road below the Haputale jungle, but since

the Forest Department has cleaned out the original vegetation

and planted Eucalyptus in its place, this and other hill insects

have, of course, disappeared. It is still common between

CEYLON BUTTERFLIES. 187

Haputale and Ohiya, and I have specimens from Maskeliya,

the hills above Ratnapura, and Kandy. I have taken it as

low as 3,500 feet at Haldummulla.

When walking in the jungle near the Mocha Patanas,

Maskeliya, with the late Mr. John Pole, he pointed out the

larve to me feeding on a shrub, called by the Sinhalese there

hik. I have been unable to identify this. The name hik is

usually given to Odina wodier, a low-country tree.

The males are nearly always found settled on wet roads or

in the beds of streams. They are strongly attracted by birds’

droppings. The females are difficult to procure.

“ Found at Kandy, Ramboda, Dolosbage, and Dikoya ”

(F. M. Mackwood).

ADDENDA.

27a. ELYMNIAS MERULA.—Colonel Swinhoe gives this as a

new species from Ceylon (Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., No. 93.,

September, 1915, Vol. XVI., page 171). His description is :

** ¢ upper side deep black, as dark as HL. hecate, Butler, from

North Borneo ; fore wing with the costa spotted with blue,

three blue streaks near the apex, and three sub-marginal blue

spots in interspaces 2, 3, and 4; hind wing with a slight shade

of fulvous on the outer margin; outer margins of both wings

as in hecate. Under side dark chestnut-brown, densely

striated with pale blue, fore wing with white costal points,

which become thickly clustered together at the apex ; hind

wing with a small bluish-white spot below the middle of the

costa.

‘ Expanse of wing, 2 8/10 inches.

* Habitat : Kandy, Ceylon.

“ Except for the white spot on the hind wings beneath, it

much resembles hecate.”

I know nothing of the history of this insect. It is difficult to

imagine a new species of a large butterfly being discovered at

Kandy, which is the headquarters of the native collectors, and

the best worked district in Ceylon. From the description it

seems possible that it may be a melanism of E. fraterna. It is

188 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

larger than normal in that species, but the description of the

under side tallies very closely. .

98.. NACADUBA NOREIA.—Since Part I. was published I

have received ‘sixteen 33 of this from Wellawaya, and have

now no doubt. as to its being quite distinct from NV. ardates.

It seems to vary very little.

In addition to the distinctions previously mentioned, I

notice that the cilia at the apex of the fore wing are pure

white, and those of the hind wing are lighter than those of

ardates. | ,

128, 129. APHNauS IcTIs and NnuBILUS.—Mr. F.--A.

Fairlie, who made collecting trips to the Northern Province

some years before the railway to the North was built, writes as

follows in reference to my remarks in Part I. :—

“Under A. nubilus you describe a butterfly I have taken

many specimens of at Iranaimadu resthouse, about 50 miles

from Jafina on the North road, which I think has not yet been

named. I took it with an equal number of A. ictis, race 1, and

it is certainly quite distinct. |

** At Manipai, Jafina, I took races 2 and 3 of A. ictzs, also

with race 1, and I consider these also quite distinct from

A. ictis No. 1, and have always considered them to be A.

nubilus. This was in July and August, 1890.

‘“‘T sent several specimens of them to De Niceville at that

time, and he named those without the discal spot A. nubilus,

race 3 of your notes. Race 2 appears to me to be only a

variety, and cannot be separated from race 3, but both distinct

from race 1, which I eall typical A. cctis.

“The blue irridescence on both wings of the male of

Nos. 2 and 3 is more violet than in the Aphnzus you describe

under A. nubilus, and spreads over a larger area of the fore

wing in my specimens, and the under sides are paler red.”

132. TasurIA JEHANA.—In September, 1918, I took two

pairs of this at Pointsettia blossom in my garden (3,000 feet).

These specimens are larger, much darker in colour, and have

far broader wings than those from Jaffna, but agree in mark-

ings. They were taken at the end of a severe drought in

company with 7’. longinus. They may prove to be a new

species.

Plate IT.

J. Terias libythea : normal form { 5. Terias venata var. rama 3

2. Do. cold season form | 6. Do. Q

3. Terias venata var. cingala 3S 7. Terias rotundalis 3d

4. Do. O 8. Do. 2

Plate ITT.

Tagiades distans : inner face of clasp

8. Tagiades atticus : inner face of clasp

| 9 and10. Caprona ransonnettii: inner face of

| clasps

1. Hantana infernus: inner face of clasp

2: Do. dorsal aspect of tegumen

5. Tapena thwaitesi: inner face of clasp

Do. dorsal aspect of tegumen f

5 . . CQ = > Canron: sigmica: ij a0e

5. Coladenia tissa ; inner face of clasp 11 aa Caprona siamica: inner face of

6, Do. dorsal aspect of tegumen

- - . i

Ae Net :

| (a eo.

* * = o 5 =o Dissent 5

mame, 5 me ‘

F 5 Praveen," 4s

rn cba! 7 a

S5 \ *y a 5

. >

=, F ; _ es oY -

~ : k Li yon

: - i

= <7 ’

7 ;

Fs =

Plate 1V.

1. Sarangesa albicilia : inner face of clasp 7. Suastus minuta: dorsal aspect of tegumen

2. A Do. dorsal aspect ot 8. Hyarotis adrastus: inner face of clasp

egumen eer s

4 = : ; : : 9. Matapa aria: inner face of clasp

3. Baracus vittatus : inner face of clasp 10 Do dorsal aspect of tegumen

4, Do. ‘allasveet of tecume ; ; Ses “ea

ie o : sore ul genet of tegumen 11. Paduka lebadea : inner face of clasp

5. Suastus gremius: inner face of clasp 12. Gangara thyrsis : inner face of clasp

2s a shyrsis : é as

6. Suastus minuta ; inner face of clasp

Plate V.

/0.

1. Telicota bambuse : inner face of clasp

. Padraona dara? : inner face of clasp

2. Telicota augias : inner face of clasp SE Do. dorsal aspect of tegumen

8. Padraona pseudomesa: inner face of clasp 9. Halpe ceylonica (or egena) : lateral aspect

4, Do. dorsal aspect of ot clasp

tegumen 10. Do. dorsal aspect of

5. Padraona mesioides: inner face of clasp teguimen

6. Do. dorsal aspect of 11. Halpe decorata : inner face of clasp

tegumen

12. Do. dorsal aspect of tegumen

’ Plate VI.

1. Baoris pencillata : inner face of clasp 7. Parnara kumara ?: dorsalaspect of tegumen

2% Do. lateral aspect of tegumen | 8. Do, ventral aspect of tegumen

3: Do. dorsal aspect of tegumen | 9. Parnara seriata: inner face of clasp

4, Do. ventral aspect of tegumen | 10. Do. lateral aspect of tegumen

5. Parnara kumara ? : inner face of clasp | 11. Do. dorsal aspect of tegumen

6, Do. lateral aspect of tegumen | 112). Do. ventral aspect of tegumen

“ad

“ps

stn.

eae

setts

ion

Plate VII.

1. Parnara narooa: inner face of clasp | 8. Parnara cingala: inner face of clasp

2: Do, lateral aspect of tegumen 9, Do. lateral aspect of tegumen

3. Do. dorsal aspect of tegumen | 19. Do. dorsal aspect of tegumen

4. Do. ventral aspect of tegumen | 11. Ismene ataphus : inner face of clasp

5. Parnara bada: inner face of clasp | 12. Do. dorsal aspect of tegumen

6. Do. lateral aspect of tegumen

da Do. dorsal aspect of tegumen |

’

“ he.

Pins

ee aa ees

1, Parata butleri: inner face of clasp

oO.

Do.

dorsal aspect of tegumen

Parata alexis: inner face of clasp

Do.

elasp

dorsal aspect of tegumen

. Hasora badra: inner face of clasp

dorsal aspect of tegumen

. Rhopolacampta benjaminii: inner face of

Plate VITT.

8. Rhopolacampta benjaminii: lateral aspect

of tegumen

9. Bibasissena: inner face of clasp

10. Do. dorsal aspect of tegumen

11. Badamia exclamationis : inner face of clasp

Qe Do. lateral aspect of

tegumen

NOTES. 189

NOTES.

Toxorhynchites minimus (Theob.)—References:—Theobald :

Jl. Bom. N. H.S., Vol. XVI., p. 237; Monog. Culic., Vol.

IV., p. 138. Brunetti: Rec. Ind. Mus., Vol. I., p. 324;

Vol. IV., p. 437.

Since the unique male, which is the type, was captured at

Yatiyantota in 1902, no further specimens of this species

seem to have been taken, and though it has been moved from

the genus Megarhinus, in which it was originally placed, to

Toxorhynchites, the proof of its belonging to the latter genus

is wanting in the absence of a female specimen.

It has recently been my lot to obtain two such, and from

them it is at once obvious that the species belongs to Toxor-

hynchites.

Before describing the female, I would like to note that

Brunetti’s remark in his paper “‘ Critical Review of Genera in

Culicide ”’ (Rec. Ind. Mus., Vol. X., p. 34) that the section

Megarhint of the sub-family Culicine is characterized by

possessing the posterior cross-vein beyond the anterior does

not seem to constantly apply, as this is not the case in the

type specimen here described ; whilst I also possess a female

T. immisericors, in which the posterior cross-vein, though

approximate, is distinctly before the anterior.

Female—Head : nape black with apple-green and blue

flat scales behind occipuf and over most of the surface, the

posterior orbits fringed above with a single line of white

seales, broadening on gene. Two pairs of blackvertical bristles,

the median pair porrect, the outer more upward-directed,

Basal joint of antennz globular, black with whitish sheen at

sides, the flagellum 14-jointed, brown, the first joint very

small, clothed throughout with microscopic white hairs, in

addition to the long dark verticils at the joints. Clypeus

black, shining whitish viewed from before and above. Pro-

boscis black, with metallic violet reflections. Palpi only as

long as head, apparently 3-jointed, black with metallic blue

reflections, purple at apex of first and second joints, the

colouration extending over the second joint on to basal third

15 6(8)19

190 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

of apical segment, which has the tip yellowish, leaving only

the middle third black. First and second segments approxi-

mately equal in length, apical short, slightly incurved, so that

its tip tonches the proboscis.

Thorax: shining black, clothed with flat metallic brassy

scales, with a patch of brilliant scales at base of wings, blue

before and green behind. There are some short black bristles

over base of wings also. Behind the root of the wing is a

prescutellar tuft of bright metallic yellow hairs, arising

from the patch of coloured seales. Prothoracic lobes clothed

with purple and greenish scales, bearing on anterior margin

some long golden brown hairs. Scutellum very dark brown,

with one or two flat brassy green scales on mid-lobe, and at

tip of each side lobe. Border bristles brown ; pleure black

with dense flat snowy white scales.

Abdomen : apically somewhat truncate, but not expanding.

Dark brown mottled with paler yellow-brown scales, which

form a broad dorsal band at junction of first and second

segments. With the exception of this yellow band, the

whole dorsal surface has metallic blue and purple reflections.

Laterally the apical margin of the first with a large, and basal

margin of the fourth, fifth, and sixth segments with a small,

patch of creamy-white scales. Venter creamy-yellow, apex

black, :

Legs : coxa, trochanter, and most of femur creamy-yellow

with purple scales exteriorly on apical two-thirds of fore

femur, a line of such throughout extoriorly on mid-femur, and

on apical one-third of hind femur ; tibiz and tarsi black with

a mottling of yellowish scales. Tibize with purple reflections.

Wings: small with dark brown scales, with a little purple

reflection showing at the base of the first longitudinal vein.

First, sub-marginal cell minute ; second, posterior cell barely

one-third as long as its stem. A line of scales appears to

carry the third longitudinal vein inward to a point well interior

of the fork of the fifth vein. The basal erect portion of the

third vein about three times its own length nearer the apex of

the wing than the anterior cross-vein, which is small, in the

type about its own length beyond the posterior cross-vein, in

another specimen the posterior cross-vein is just beyond the

NOTES. 191

anterior. Posterior cross-vein inwardly sloped in both

specimens. Halteres creamy-yellow. Length of type 6mm. ;

of second specimen nearly 8 mm.

Described from a female in perfect condition taken at

Suduganga, Matale District, Ceylon, flying in bungalow

garden at 10 a.m., April 20, 1919. Another female taken on

same estate, around Lantana scrub on boundaries, at dusk on

March 30, 1919. Type and additional specimen in my own

collection.

April 20, 1919. R. SENIOR-WHITE, F.E.S.

The Tea Tortrix (Homona coffearia, Neitner)—Synonyms :

Tortrix coffearia, Feld. in lit. Neitner. Capua coffearia,

Neitner, Enem. Coff. Ceyl. 1861. Pandemis (? Capua)

menciana, Walker, E. C. Cotes, Ind. Mus. Notes, Vol. IIT.,

No. 4,1896. Homona fasciculana, Walker, List Lep. Het. Brit.

Mus., Vol. 28, p. 424, 1863.

Male—Gray. Head and thorax gray, densely scaled ;

eyes rufous; antenne ciliated filiform, reaching to medial

portion of wing; palpi short, curled, ascending, with ap-

pressed scales, terminal joint short ; thorax with crest of scales

on dorsal surface. Fore wing gray, narrow, with an oblique

slightly sinuous medial band of light brown from costal

margin to centre of dorsum ; a dark gray punctum bordered

with black at centre of costa ; a sinuous brown band crossing

apex from costa to termen; termen arcuate, fringed with

gray scales ; costal fold, curled towards the upper surface,

densely scaled ; 3 from angle, 7 and 8 stalked, 7 to termen.

Hind wing unicolourous, dark gray, fringed, without basal

pecten, 3 and 4 connate, 5 approximate to 4 at base, 6 and 7

stalked. Posterior tibia with a pair of medial spurs as well as

an apical pair. 15 to 17 mm. expanded.

Female —Ochraceous. Head and thorax ochraceous, eyes

black, sometimes rufous ; antennz simple, filiform, as long as

head and thorax, palpi as in male; thorax without crest.

Fore wing ochraceous with a darker ochraneous patch on the

shoulder, and oblique slightly sinuous medial band of the

192 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

same shade from costal margin to dorsum, a similar band

across apex, borders of the atomi rufous ; apex pointed,

termen arcuate and fringed ; no costal fold ; venation as in

male. Hind wing unicolourous, cupreus, fringed, venation as

in male. The wings when at rest lie over the body. Their

outline being of the same shape as the section of a bell.

Posterior tibia with a medial as well as an apical pair of spurs.

25 to 28 mm. expanded.

Pupa: Naked. Thorax fulvous, darker on the dorsum ;

wing cases well defined and dark fulvous ; ventral median

area bronzus in male; eyes rufescent; abdomen tawny, dorsum

adminiculate, adminicule transversely placed, rescuspate,

two rows to each segment, with the exception of the penulti-

mate and ultimate segments, anterior rows more developed

than posterior ; two dorso-lateral rows of cilia extending to

the penultimate segment, each segment bearing four cilia ;

penultimate segment thinly cirrose, rescuspate ; creamaster

stout, flattened dorsally, eight-spined, four apically bifarious,

a pair dorso-laterally, a pair ventro-laterally placed.

Male 7mm. Female 11 mm.

N. K. JARDINE.

Report of the Proceedings of the Second Entomological Meeting,

held at Pusa, February 5 to 12, 1917, edited by T'. Bainbrigge-

Fletcher, R.N., F.LUS., FES. F.ZsS—This publication

justifies the claim made in the preface that it is “‘ practically

an abstract of our current knowledge of Indian crop pests.”

In addition to this, it gives some idea how meagre our know-

ledge is, and how many are the gaps yet to be filled before

it will be reasonably complete,even in the case of the commoner

pests. To quote again from the preface, the report is “ based

partly on the notes prepared before the meeting was held, and

partly on a running abstract made during the meeting.”

The book commences with a list of members and visitors

who attended the meeting—twenty-six in all. A list of the

coloured plates follows. There are no less than thirty-four

of these depicting the life-histories of various major and

minor pests. These plates are one of the most useful features

NOTES. 193

of the book, as they are well drawn and accurate, and should

enable any one, whether with Entomological knowledge

or not, to recognize their subjects, without difficulty, in the

field.

An account is given of the combined Entomological and

Mycological conference, at which were discussed various

questions relating to the Madras Agricultural Pests and

Diseases Act and the Rome Phytopathological Conference.

Then follows the Chairman’s opening address, in which the

present state of Entomological knowledge in India is com-

mented on, and many practical hints regarding the labelling

of specimens and keeping of exact records are given. Various

questions that need solving are briefly mentioned by way of

stimulating research.

The various insects are treated of under the following

headings :—(1) Pests of Hill Crops ; (2) Miscellaneous ; (3)

Leguminous Field Crops ; (4) Oil Seeds ; (5) Malvacez ; (6)

Non-Malvaceous Fibre Plants ; (7) Sugar Cane, Paddy, and

other Cereals, Grasses, and Fodder Crops ; (8) Fruit Trees ;

(9) Palms ; (10) Garden Plants ; (11) Drugs and Dyes; (12)

Cruciferous Crops ; (13) Other Vegetables and Condiments ;

(14) Insect Pests of Stored Products.

Under these headings all the principal crops of India are gone

over in detail, with a list of recorded pests divided into such

sections as leaf-eaters, stem-borers, sucking-insects, &¢., for

each plant. The discussion on each pest is given. With so

large an amount of work to get through in so limited a time,

it is obvious that these discussions could not be very full, and

there is inevitably a good deal of matter which contains very

little information, but, nevertheless, the main facts concerning

each insect seem to have been brought to light with great

success. As many of the insects treated of are pests of several

distinct crops, there is a considerable degree of repetition,

but this is reduced to a minimum.

The name of each speaker is given in the margin opposite

to his remarks. A very full index is given.

The notes on control methods are often meagre, except in

the case of insects, which have received a good deal of attention

from Entomologists. This is unfortunate, but it is probably

194 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

unavoidable, owing to the small amount of work that has been

done in India on the testing of suitable insecticides and

insecticidal methods. The main reason for this deficiency of

knowledge is, of course, the difficulty of devising methods

suited to the uneducated native cultivator, who cannot be

induced to try anything in the way of a “* new departure ” in

his cultural operations, unless its simplicity and efficiency are

demonstrated to him in the clearest possible way.

The book forms an excellent companion and extension of

the Editor’s former volume, entitled ““ Some South Indian

Insects and other Animals,” and will prove a most useful

addition to the library of any Economic Entomologist, whether

professional or amateur, who works in India or the countries

adjacent to it. It gives a very complete summary of the

known pests of practically all the crops which are grown in

India, and this information is given in a readily accessible form.

Finally, the price is only Rs. 3, which, as in the case of

“ Some South Indian Insects,” is astonishingly cheap,especially

considering the number of coloured plates.

The Editor and his staff are greatly to be congratulated on

the excellent work they have turned out.

G. M. HENRY.

Crocodiles’ nesting Habits —My personal experience of the

nests of crocodiles is, I am sorry to say, limited to one, which

was found near the resthouse at Horowapotana. It was

situated on a small backwater of the tank, not far from the

bund, in a position only slightly above the water level at the

time, but apparently flooded at high-water level. The species

must thus have been the Marsh Crocodile (Crocodilus palustris).

In this case the parent certainly remained near the nest. We

cautiously approached from behind the bund, and saw that

the animal was actually over or very near the site of the nest.

While we were watching another adult crocodile approached,

for what purpose is unknown, but possibly for the purpose of

robbing the nest. At any rate the parent at once attacked

the intruder, and they had a tussle. As some of our party

wanted to get a crocodile, they then fired, and both beasts

NOTES. 195

escaped into the water. We went up to the nest and had it

dug up. The tracker who did it was very careful when he

came to the eggs, as he said that he was afraid that some of

the young crocs might have hatched out and would then bite

him. The eggs, which numbered over thirty, were about

six inches below the surface, and were not all heaped together,

Possibly the arrangement was such as is described elsewhere,

namely, laid around a central small mound, which causes the

eggs to scatter in a circular layer as they are laid. They hada

thick hard shell, and were about the size of a goose egg. Those

we opened were all quite fresh, but our efforts to hatch them

out after our return to Colombo failed, possibly owing to the

vibration on the motor journey. I have spoken to another

keen and reliable observer with regard to the nesting of the

crocodiles on the south coast rivers and lagoons, His obser-

vations would refer to the Estuarine Crocodile (Crocodilus

porosus). He states that the parent does not remain near the

nest, but leaves the sun to do its work alone. Also the nests

appear to be placed in very much drier ground, considerably

above high-water level. Speaking of nests that he has

observed when the young were on the point of hatching out,

he states that it is quite easy to tell when the youngster is ready

to come out, as it makes a cheeping noise, rather like that of a

young chicken. It then breaks the shell by means of a tem-

porary tooth developed at the end of the snout. When it

emerges, the youngster does not at once make for the water,

but stays near the nest for several minutes with its mouth wide

open. If during this period it is put into the water, it at once

comes out again and stays with its mouth open. After a

certain time it goes down to the water and swims away, as

an adult would. I presume that this action of the young

crocodile in avoiding the water at first is due to the fact that

in the egg its lungs are not expanded, and the interval with

gaping mouth on dry ground is to give the lungs and the air

tube, which runs up to the back of the nostrils, time to open

and expand properly without any chance of their being

choked with water.

October 8, 1918. C. T. SYMONS.

196 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CEYLON NATURAL

HISTORY SOCIETY.

Twenty-second General Meeting.

THE Twenty-second General Meeting of the Society was held

in the Colombo Museum Library on May 22, 1918, at 5.15 P.M.,

Dr. A. Nell in the Chair.

A paper on the Mendelian theory was given by the Rev. Father

M, J. Le Goce, O.M.I.

New Members :—Mrs. Sri Pathmanathan; Leigh Smith, Esq.,

and A. C. Hayley, Esq.

Twenty-third General Meeting.

The Twenty-third General Meeting of the Society was held

in the Colombo Museum on October 10, 1918, at 5.15 P.M..

Dr. A. Nell in the Chair.

Dr. R. L. Spittel gave a paper entitled ‘“‘ Nuwaragala, and the

Veddas of Henebeda.”’ illustrated by lantern slides.

New Members :—A. M. Hurst, Esq., and H. Wicebloom, Esq.

PICARIAN BIRDS AND PARROTS OF CEYLON. 197

THE PICARIAN BIRDS AND PARROTS OF CEYLON.

By W. E. Wart, M.A., F.Z.S.

(With two Plates.)

“Notes on Ceylon Butterflies.”’

With reference to the “Notes on Ceylon Butterflies,”

published in Vol. XI., Parts 40 and 41, of this Journal,

Mr. Ormiston will be glad to receive any criticisms, corrections,

or notes from any one interested in the subject, as it is proposed

to publish these notes in an enlarged and revised form at some

future date.

THE Eprror,

Spoha Zeylanica.

AuSUaIMDIa, WUU LULYUeSIa, AA are Teaauy distinguishable by

their outward form and habits, which do not vary greatly

among the different species. The bill, which is generally

strong and chisel-shaped, is used for cutting away the bark of

trees in search of insects, and for excavating nest holes in

tree trunks or branches. The tongue is peculiar, being of

enormous length, and provided with glands secreting a sticky

fluid, to which insects adhere. The foot is usually four-toed,

and adapted for climbing. The arrangement of the toes is

zygodactylic, i.e., the hallux or true hind toe and the fourth

toe are directed backwards, the second and third toes

2 6(5)20

196 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CEYLON NATURAL

HISTORY SOCIETY.

Twenty-second General Meeting.

PICARIAN BIRDS AND PARROTS OF CEYLON. 197

THE PICARIAN BIRDS AND PARROTS OF CEYLON,

By W. E. Watt, M.A., F.Z.8.

(With two Plates.)

HE present paper comprises the Picarian Birds and

Parrots found in Ceylon. It includes all the Ceylonese

species described in the third volume of birds in the Fauna of

British India, with the exception of the Owls and Hawks.

T have again to acknowledge my thanks to Mr. Stuart Baker

for advice and for information on the nesting of many of the

rarer species.

Order PICI,

Family Picrp @.

Sub-family Picine.

Woodpeckers.

The true Woodpeckers, together with two allied sub-

families unknown in Ceylon—the Piculets and Wrynecks—

form a well-marked family, which, by Blanford, has been

placed in a separate order. They are found in the temperate

and tropical regions all over the world, except in Madagascar,

Australasia, and Polynesia, and are readily distinguishable by

their outward form and habits, which do not vary greatly

among the different species. The bill, which is generally

strong and chisel-shaped, is used for cutting away the bark of

trees in search of insects, and for excavating nest holes in

tree trunks or branches. The tongue is peculiar, being of

enormous length, and provided with glands secreting a sticky

fluid, to which insects adhere. The foot is usually four-toed,

and adapted for climbing. The arrangement of the toes is

zygodactylic, z.e., the hallux or true hind toe and the fourth

toe are directed backwards, the second and third toes

2 6(5)20

L198 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

forwards. In one Ceylon genus, Micropternus, the hallux is

rudimentary. ‘The wings are short and pointed, and the

flight undulatory. The tail feathers are twelve in number

(the outermost pair being frequently concealed by the tail

coverts), and are provided with stiff shafts. Woodpeckers

seldom perch, but cling to trees in an upright position with

the tail pressed as a support against the stem ; hence the tail

feathers are often much worn. The birds generally alight at

the foot of a tree and work their way up the trunk in a

spiral, moving rapidly for a short distance, and then stopping

to tap on the bark for insects. Their cry is generally a harsh

scream, or in the smaller species a shrill trill. Their food

consists wholly or mainly of ants and other similar insects.

All Woodpeckers lay white eggs in a nest hole, which in

nearly all cases is hollowed in the stem or branch of a tree.

One genus, however, Micropternus, makes the nest hole in

the interior of the hanging nest of a certain species of ant.

Nine species, divided among six genera, occur in Ceylon,

two species being peculiar to the Island.

Rough Key to Ceylon Picine.

A.—Mantle green. Genus Gecinus.

(1) Length 11. Rump tinged with bright yellow.

Male : Crown and crest crimson. °

Female : Crown and crest black.

Gecinus striolatus (The Little Scaly-bellied Green

Woodpecker).

(2) Length 9°5. Rump green.

Male : Crown and crest crimson.

Female : Crown dark olive, crest crimson.

G. chlorogaster (The South Indian Yellow-naped

Woodpecker).

B.—Mantle black and white.

(1) Length 7. A small crest, pale crimson in males,

yellow in females.

Liopicus mahrattensis (The Yellow-fronted Pied

Woodpecker).

PICARIAN BIRDS AND PARROTS OF CEYLON. 199

(2) Length 4°8. Nocrest. Males with a vermilion

streak on side of occiput.

Tyngipicus gymnophthalmus (The Ceylon Pigmy

Woodpecker).

C.—Mantle dull rufous-brown barred with black. Feathers

below the eye in males tipped with crimson.

Micropternus gularis (The Malabar Rufous Wood-

pecker).

D.—Mantle wholly or in part either crimson or yellow.

(az) Bill about 1°5; jaws, throat, and fore-neck

black speckled with white. Genus Brachypternus.

(1) Mantle yellow or orange, crest crimson.

Forehead and crown in, males black tipped with

crimson, in females black with white spots.

B. aurantius (Golden-backed Woodpecker).

(2) Mantle and crest crimson, bill blackish.

Forehead and crown in males black tipped with

crimson, in females black with white spots.

B. erythronotus (Red-backed Woodpecker).

(b) Bill about 2; jaws, throat, and fore-neck white

with five longitudinal black stripes. Genus

Chrysocolaptes.

(1) Wing coverts golden, a white triangular patch

on hind-neck and upper back. Crest crimson in

males, yellow in females.

C. festivus (The Black-backed Woodpecker).

(2) Mantle crimson, bill greenish-white. Crown

and crest crimson in males, black with white

spots in females.

C. stricklandi (Layard’s Woodpecker).

200 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA,

GECINUS STRIOLATUS (Blanford, Vol. III., p. 20;

Legge, p. 194).

The Lattle Scaly-bellied Green Woodpecker.

Description.—Male : Crown and crest crimson; general

colour of upper parts olive tinged with green ; rump and upper

tail coverts bright yellow, sometimes tinged with orange.

Wing quills dusky brown with white bars on the inner webs ;

the primaries have white spots on the outer webs, and the

outer webs of the secondaries are washed with green. Tail

blackish-brown with indistinct lighter bars towards the base.

On the eyebrow a white stripe runs back to the nape, it is

bordered above by a black stripe extending forward to the

nostrils ; lores and cheeks dirty white, the cheeks with darker

streaks ; ear coverts streaky gray. Chin and throat yellowish-

white with darker centres to the feathers and black streaks

along the jaw. Under parts greenish-white, each feather

with a dark V-shaped band near the margin, and some feathers

with dark shaft stripes.

Female : Differs only in the crown and nape, which are

black streaked with ashy-brown.

Bill dusky horn colour, the greater part of the lower

mandible yellow ; iris red with an outer ring of white; legs

and feet dusky green.

Length 11; wing 5:2; tail 3°75; tarsus 1°00; bill from

gape 1°5.

Distribution.—Rare in Ceylon, and apparently found only

on the higher patanas of the Central Province and Uva. In

India it occurs in forest country on the Malabar Coast and on

the eastern side of the peninsula north of the Godaveri. It is

also met with in the Eastern Himalayas, North Burma, and

Siam.

Habits, &c.—This species may be looked for on patanas

which are thinly dotted with trees and in the intersecting

ravines where wooded. The eggs do not appear to have been

found in Ceylon as yet. In India the birds breed from March

to May, making the usual nest hole in trees, and laying four

to five glossy white eggs, averaging 1°05 by °8.

PICARIAN BIRDS AND PARROTS OF CEYLON. 201

GECINUS CHLOROGASTER (Blanford, Vol. III., p. 25).

CHRYSOPHLEGMA XANTHODERUS (Legge, p. 197).

The South Indian Yellow-naped Woodpecker.

Description.—Male: The feathers of the forehead, crown,

crest, and a stripe down the jaw crimson with greenish-black

bases ; nape yellow. Upper plumage and wing coverts olive-

green, the greater coverts golden-olive. Wing quills dark

brown with some white spots; the outer webs of the inner

primaries and secondaries orange-red bordered with bronze-

green; tail black. Lores dusky; face, throat, and under

parts dull green ; the throat, abdomen, and flanks more or

less barred with white ; the breast generally unspotted.

Female: Forehead and crown dark olive, the crimson

cheek stripe is wanting, otherwise it resembles the male.

Bill blackish, the sides of the lower mandible and the edge

of the upper mandible near the gape yellowish ; iris brownish-

red ; legs greenish-olive.

Length 9°5; wing 4°65; tail about 3°50; tarsus *80;

bill from gape 1-0; females are a little smaller.

Distribution.—Apparently confined to the southern half of

the Island. It is found in the Western Province and Galle

District. I have occasionally seen it north of Tangalla, and

it occurs in the Eastern Province. It is also met with in

the hills, mainly in Sabaragamuwa and Uva. In India it

occurs on the Malabar Coast and the Western Ghauts up

to 5,000 feet.

Habits, &c.—Rather a shy bird, found in forest country,

especially near streams, and in decayed gardens where there is

plenty of undergrowth. It may sometimes be seen on the

ground breaking open dried cowdung in search of beetles.

It feeds also on ants.

In India this species breeds about March and April, making

the usual nest hole in a tree in the jungle. One to three, but

generally two, white eggs are laid. The texture is hard and

glossy, the shape a long oval. Average measurement about

1 by °74.

202 SPOLJA ZEYLANICA.

LiopicuS MAHRATTENSIS (Blanford, Vol. IIT., p. 43;

Legge, p. 184).

The Yellow-fronted Pied Woodpecker.

Description.—Male : Forehead and front of crown shining

straw colour, remainder of crown with the crest pale crimson ;

nape and hind-neck smoky brown ; back and scapulars white,

much mixed with black ; wing coverts, wing quills, and tail

black, largely spotted or barred with white ; rump and upper

tail coverts white, the latter with broad arrow-shaped black

markings. Sides of face, chin, throat, and fore-neck white ;

a broad brown stripe runs from below the ear coverts down, the

sides of the breast ; remainder of lower parts white streaked

with brown, the centre of the abdomen being stained with

crimson.

Female : The whole of the top of the head, including the

crest, straw yellow.

Bill dusky bluish, darker on the ridge and at the tip ; iris

deep red ; legs and feet lead colour.

Length 7; wing 3°80; tail 2°5; tarsus -7; bill from gape

1°05.

Distribution —This little Woodpecker is nowhere very

common. Its chief haunts are in the Mannar and Jaffna

Districts. Thence it appears to have worked its way east and

south, as it occurs in the Eastern Province and parts of the

Hambantota District, and on the patanas in the drier parts of

Uva and the Central Province. It is found in India in suitable

places here and there throughout the peninsula, in the valleys

at the base of the Western Himalayas, and the drier parts of

Upper Burma.

Habits, &c.—This species haunts low jungle and scrub, being

especially fond of Euphorbia trees. The note is a weak trill.

I have known it to breed in, the Mannar District in May, and

near Hambantota in July. The nest is a small hole in the

stem or branch of a decaying tree.

The three white eggs average about *87 by °68.

Note.—Dendrocopus macii (The Fulvous-breasted Pied

Woodpecker) is said by Kelaart to have occurred in Ceylon,

PICARIAN BIRDS AND PARROTS OF CEYLON. 203

but his identification was probably incorrect, as the species is

restricted to the base of the Himalayas, Lower Bengal, and

parts of Assam.

It is slightly larger than L. mahrattensis, which it somewhat

resembles in build, but has no crest. It may be distinguished

by the uniform black of the hind-neck, upper back, and upper

tail coverts, and by the bright crimson of the vent and

lower tail coverts. The top of the head is crimson in males

and black in females.

Length 7°5; wing 4°3.

Iynerrrous GYMNOPHTHALMUS (Blanford, Vol. II1., p. 48;

Legge, p. 186).

The Ceylon Pigmy Woodpecker.

Description—Male: The top of the head, the centre of

the nape, and the hind-neck very dark brown ; a broad white

stripe runs from behind the eye to the nape, and is bordered

above by a streak of vermilion. Remainder of upper plumage

dark brownish-black ; the back is barred, and the wing quills,

wing coverts, and tail are spotted with white. The cheeks,

ear coverts, and sides of the neck are brown. Under plumage

dirty white, faintly streaked with brown in young birds; under

tail coverts streaked with brown.

Females lack the vermilion stripe over the eyebrow.

Bill olive-brown, paler underneath ; iris white, at times

tinged with gray, yellow, or red ; legs and feet greenish.

Length 4°8; wing 3; tail 1°25; tarsus -58; bill from

gape °62.

Distribution —F¥ound nearly all over the low-country,

except in the extreme north, and in the hills up to about

3,000 feet, occasionally higher. In India it occurs on the

Malabar Coast.

Habits, &:c.—This, the smallest of our Woodpeckers,

frequents the top branches of trees. Its presence is generally

betrayed by its note, a shrill long trill. It makes its nest hole

in small dead branches, laying probably three white eggs,

which measure about °62 by *53.

204 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

MICROPTERNUS GULARIS (Blanford, Vol. IIT., p. 57 ;

Legge, p. 200).

The Malabar Rufous Woodpecker.

Description.—Male : General colour dull rufous ; head and

cheeks dark brown, the feathers from the gape beneath the

eye to the ear coverts tipped with crimson. The upper

plumage from the hind-neck to the tail is barred with black.

The chin and throat feathers have broad darker borders and

faint whitish edges. The remainder of the lower plumage is

almost uniform rufous-brown with indistinct black bars on

the flanks and thighs.

Females have no crimson tips to the cheek feathers.

Bill dull black, paler beneath ; iris deep brown ; legs and

feet slaty-black. .

Length 9°5; wing 4°75; tail 2°75; tarsus °75: bill from

gape 1-2.

Distribution.—Fairly well distributed throughout the low-

country, and on the lower hills up to about 2,000 feet. In

India its range is restricted to the forest tracts of the Malabar

Coast.

Habits, &c.—This species is found in forests or well-wooded

gardens. It feeds mainly on ants, and occasionally may be

seen on the ground in search of its food.

The nest has not yet been recorded from Ceylon, but in

India the breeding season is during April and May. The nest

hole is excavated in the interior of large hanging ants’ nests.

Three fragile, glossless, white eggs are laid, measuring about

1°12 by °68.

BRACHYPTERNUS AURANTIUS (Blanford, Vol. ITI., p. 58).

BRACHYPTERNUS PUNCTICOLLIS (Legge, p. 205).

The Golden-backed Woodpecker.

Description.—Male : Pale form. Feathers of forehead and

crown black with crimson tips ; crest crimson ; a fairly broad

stripe runs from over the eye to the nape, another broad white

stripe extends from the nostrils across the cheek and broadens

down the side of the neck. The sides of the head between

these two stripes are streaky black and white. The hind-neck,

PICARIAN BIRDS AND PARROTS OF CEYLON. 205

upper back and primary coverts, rump, tail coverts, and tail

are black ; scapulars and middle of the back golden-yellow ;

a portion of the wing coverts and the outer webs of the

secondaries golden-olive ; primary quills and inner webs of

secondaries black with white spots ; the wing coverts are also

more or less spotted with yellowish-white. The jaws, chin,

throat, and fore-neck are black, speckled with white ; the

lower neck and upper breast mainly black. The rest of the

lower surface, with the upper flanks whitish, more or less

tinged with tawny buff, each feather margined with black,

most heavily on the breast ; the lower flanks and under tail

coverts barred with black.

Forest Race : The yellow of the back and wings is tinged

more or less with orange, or even red ; some specimens are so

red that they are probably hybrids between this and the

next species.

Female : The feathers of the forehead and crown are black

with terminal white spots, the crest is crimson as in the

male.

Bill slaty-black ; iris reddish-brown ; legs and feet dark

green.

Length about 10°5; wing 5:25; tail 3°5; tarsus °8 ; bill

from gape 1-5.

Distribution —Occurs only in the northern half of the

Island. The palest specimens come from the Jaffna peninsula

and the scrub country adjoining the coast of the Northern

Province. In the jungles of the North-Central Province the

specimens are much darker, and appear to interbreed with

the red-backed species B. erythronotus.

In India the present species is found over the greater part

of the continent westward of Assam.

Habits, &c.—A common bird in the north of the Island,

occurring in coconut and palmyra groves, village gardens,

scrub jungle, and forest.

It is usually seen in pairs. The nest is the usual hole in the

stem of a tree. The breeding season is about April. Three

rather glossy white eggs are laid, measuring about 1°10 by °8.

3 6(5)20

206 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

BRACHYPTERNUS ERYTHRONOTUS (Blanford, Vol. III., p. 60).

BRACHYPTERNUS CEYLONUS (Legge, p. 202).

The Red-backed Woodpecker.

Description.—In the typical form from the south of the

Island, where B. aurantius is not found, the present species

differs from the last named as follows :—The middle of the

back and the scapulars are bright crimson, the wing coverts

and outer webs of the secondaries are duller crimson, while

the black of the lower back and rump is faintly tinged with

the same colour; the spots on the wing coverts are, as a

rule, fewer and tinged with the colour of the mantle, they may

be almost absent ; the white stripes above and below the eye

are considerably reduced in breadth. In the north of the

Island, where both species are found together, the Red-backed

Woodpecker approaches the Golden-backed form more nearly.

The crimson of the mantle is tinged with orange, and the

white stripes down the head and neck are more conspicuous.

Some specimens seem to be undoubted crosses.

The sexual differences in plumage are as in B. aurantius.

Bill blackish ; iris red ; legs and feet dusky green.

Length about 11°5 ; wing 5°5; tail 4; tarsus +7; bill from

gape 1:5.

Distribution —Peculiar to Ceylon. Found all over the

low-country, except in the extremely dry maritime coast

tracts of the north-west and south-east. It ascends the hills

to about 4,000 feet.

Habits, d&-c.—This is the most abundant of our Woodpeckers,

being equally common in plantations and forest. It always

alights near the bottom of a tree and works its way spirally

to the top, tapping the trunk for insects. It feeds largely

on red ants. The flight is undulatory and jerky ; the cry a

loud harsh scream. The breeding season is from about March

to June, and again in September. The nest is the usual

hole in the stem of a decaying coconut or other tree. The

three eggs in appearance closely resemble those of the last

species, and have approximately the same measurements.

PICARIAN BIRDS AND PARROTS OF CEYLON. 207

CHRYSOCOLAPTES FESTIVUS (Blanford, Vol. III., p. 64 ;

Legge, p. 191).

The Black-backed Woodpecker.

Description.—Male : Forehead brownish with large white

spots ; crown and crest crimson bordered by a black stripe ;

a broad white stripe runs from behind the eye to the nape,

and expands into a triangle of white on the hind-neck and

upper back. The rest of the back, the scapulars, rump, upper

tail coverts, and tail are black, as are the smaller wing

coverts on the forearm. The remainder of the wing coverts

are black at the base, the exposed portions being golden-olive

with bright golden-yellow fringes. The outer webs of the

secondary quills are golden-olive ; remainder of wing quills

brownish-black, the outer webs with light brown or greenish,

and the inner webs with large white spots. A broad black

stripe runs from the eye down the side of the neck. The jaws,

chin, throat, and fore-neck are white with five longitudinal

black stripes. The under parts are white streaked with black,

most heavily on the breast.

Female : The fore part of the crown, as well as the forehead,

is speckled black and white, the rest of the crown and crest

are light golden-yellow.

Bill blackish ; iris crimson ; legs slaty-greenish.

Length about 12; wing 5°8; tail 35; tarsus 1°1; bill from

gape 2.

Distribution —A rare bird, found in a few forest localities

in the northern half of the Island. Legge met with it also

near Tissa in the Hambantota District. In India it is locally

distributed throughout part of the peninsula, but is every-

where rare.

Habits, &c.—I have come across several small colonies cf

this species in the North-Central Province and Puttalam

District always in large trees, and generally in the ‘‘tisbambka,”

or clearing, round isdlated villages in the jungle. They nest

high up in large trees, and, to judge from the number of holes,

make a fresh nest every year. Apparently they roost in these

nest holes. The breeding season is in March, and again in

August. I once obtained an addled egg on April 1 from a

208 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

nest in which there were two young ones, and again found a

single young bird in September.

The birds thus seem to have two broods and to lay from

one to three eggs.

The single egg in my collection is rather elongated, measur-

ing 1°25 by °88. ‘The texture almost exactly resembles that

of celluloid.

CHRYSOCOLAPTES STRICKLANDI (Blanford, Vol. III., p. 67 ;

Legge, p. 188).

Layard’s Woodpecker.

Description.—Male : Forehead dark brown ; crown and crest

crimson ; hind-neck blackish with large white spots ; back,

rump, wing coverts, and outer webs of secondaries crimson,

the colour being brightest cn the rump ; primaries and inner

webs of secondaries blackish-brown with white spots; tail

coverts and tail black. A row of white spots passes from

behind the eye above the ear coverts to the hind-neck; cheeks

and sides of head and neck blackish-brown. The jaws, chin,

throat, and upper fore-neck are white, at times tinged with

buff, with five black longitudinal stripes. The feathers of

the breast and lower fore-neck are white with broad black

borders, giving a scaly appearance; remainder of lower parts

more streaky black and white; under tail coverts barred black

and white.

Female : The whole of the top of the head above the eyes,

together with the nape and hind-neck, are black with white

spots ; the hindmost under tail coverts are dark brown.

Bill mainly greenish-white, darker at the base ; iris yellowish-

white ; legs and feet greenish-slate colour.

Length about 11°5; wing 5°15; tail 3°5; tarsus 1°05;

bill from gape 2.

Distribution.—Peculiar to Ceylon; found practically all over

the Island in suitable forest country, but never so abundant

as the two species of Brachypternus.

Habits, &c.—A bird usually found in tall forest ; in wilder

districts it occasionally visits large trees in gardens. The

flight is more rapid than that of the common Red-backed

Woodpecker, and the note is a thin shrill trill.

PICARIAN BIRDS AND PARROTS OF CEYLON. 209

It would appear to have much the same nesting habits as

C. festivus. The first brood is hatched early in the year, and

I once found an addled egg with two young ones in September.

Oftener only one egg is laid.

The eggs measure about 1°16 by °86.

Order ZYGODACTYLI,

Family CAPITONID2.

Barbets.

The Barbets are found in the tropical regions cf Africa, Asia,

and America. Four species occur in Ceylon ; two of them

are peculiar to the Island. In general structure and nesting

habits they are akin to Woodpeckers, but they feed almost

entirely on fruit, and perch on branches, instead of clinging

to the stem in a vertical position. The bill is generally stout,

slightly curved, and fairly powerful. Prominent bristles

overhang the nostrils and spring from the chin. The wings

are short and rounded ; the tail is short and soft and composed

of ten feathers.

As in the Woodpeckers, the feet are zygodactylic, the first

and fourth toes being directed backwards. The cry is a

peculiarly monotonous call of from one to three syllables

repeated at intervals. The nest hole is like that of a Wood-

pecker, the entrance being generally neatly bevelled and

rounded.

The eggs are of a dull glossless white.

In all Ceylon species the plumage is mainly green. The

short wing quills and soft but rather scanty plumage give the

birds the appearance of not being quite fledged.

Rough Key to the Ceylon Capitonide.

A.—Larger forms ; length over 8 inches ; no crimson on

head and neck.

(1) Length 9°75 ; whole head and neck brown with

pale streaks.

Thereiceryx zeylonicus (Common Indian Green

Barbet).

(2) Length 8°5 ; cheeks, chin, and throat blue.

Cyanops flavifrons (Yellow-fronted Barbet).

210 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

B.—Smaller forms under 7 inches; patches of crimson

on head and neck.

(1) Throat yellow ; cheeks black.

Xantholema hematocephala (Crimson-breasted

Barbet).

(2) Throat orange ; cheeks blue.

X. rubricapilla (Small Ceylon Barbet).

THEREICERYX ZEYLONICUS (Blanford, Vol. IIL., p. 86).

MEGAL&MA ZEYLONICA (Legge, p. 208).

The Common Indian Green Barbet.

Description.—Head, neck, breast, and sometimes the upper

abdomen umber-brown, each feather with pale shaft-stripes,

co the head these stripes are not very distinct. Back, wing

coverts, and tail grass green, the mantle with a few pale streaks

and the wing coverts tipped with small white spots. Wing

quills brown with pale inner margins, the outer webs green,

except on the first few primaries.

‘On the abdomen, the brown of the chest gradually merges

into the pale grass green of the flanks and lower tail coverts ;

under surface of tail bluish.

Bill orange-brown ; iris red-brown ; a circle of naked yellow

skin round the eye; legs and feet light browrish-yellow.

Length about 9°75; wing 4°37; tail 3; tarsus 1°2; bill

1-60.

Distribution —Common over nearly all the low-country,

except in the arid maritime districts and the dense forest

tracts of the wet zone. It ascends the hills to three or four

thousand feet. Blanford unites in one species the northern

form, 7’. caniceps, which ranges over the greater part of

India proper, and the southern race, 7’. zeylonicus, a smaller

and darker form, which is confined to Travancore and Ceylon.

Habits, &¢.—This species is very common in village gardens

and thin jungle, chiefly near cultivation. It feeds largely on

various species of wild fig. The nest hole is hollowed out of

a rotten tree, or even a fence post. The three dull white eggs

PICARIAN BIRDS AND PARROTS OF CEYLON. 211

are usually laid on a few stalks of dried grass which line the

bottom of the cavity. Theiraverage size is about 1:23 by °87.

There appear to be several broods, as I have taken eggs

as early as March and as late as August.

CYANOPS FLAVIFRONS (Blanford, Vol. III., p. 94).

MEGALMA FLAVIFRONS (Legge, p. 212).

The Yellow-fronted Barbet.

Description.—The forehead, front of crown, and a spot

below the gape golden-yellow ; top of the head brownish-green,

passing into the grass-green of the remainder of the upper

plumage ; the feathers of the nape and of the back and sides

of the neck have pale shaft-stripes. Wing quills brown with

pale yellow inner margins, the outer webs of all but the first

few primaries green. Eyebrows, lores, cheeks, ear coverts,

chin, and throat verditer-blue ; rest of lower plumage pale

green, the breast feathers bordered, and the flanks and

abdomen washed with emerald green ; under surface of tail

shot with blue.

Bill greenish horn colour, darker by the nostrils ; iris light

red ; legs and feet greenish, sometimes bluish.

Length 8°5; wing 3°5; tail 2°30; tarsus °9; bill from

gape 1-1.

Distribution.—Peculiar to Ceylon. Found chiefly in the

hill zone, except at the highest altitudes. From the bases of

the hills it spreads into the damp low-country zone, being found

in most parts of the Western Province, Sabaragamuwa, and

the Galle and Kurunegala Districts. In the drier forest region

it is more restricted, but is found locally in parts of the Eastern

Province and the district north of the Matale hills.

Habits, &c.—Chiefly a forest bird, keeping to the tops of

trees and feeding on fruit. It is very noisy in the mornings

and evenings. The call is something like that of the preceding

species, but more shrill. The birds breed in almost every

month of the year. The nest hole is usually excavated in a

soft-wooded tree. ‘Two or three eggs are laid on the bare wood.

They are white and smooth in texture, and generally slightly

pointed at each end. Average size 1:10 by °80.

DZ, SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

XANTHOL]MA H4EMATOCEPHALA (Blanford, Vol. IIT., p. 98).

XANTHOLZMA HAMOCEPHALA (Legge, p. 218).

The Crimson-breasted Barbet ; Coppersmith.

Description.—Lores black ; forehead and crown, crimson ;

top and sides of head, hind cheeks, and a stripe forward along

the jaw to the lower mandible black ; a patch above and below

the eye, the chin, and throat yellow ; nape and sides of neck

grayish-green ; remainder of upper plumage dull olive-green ;

tail and outer web of most wing quills bluish-green, the outer

primaries and the inner webs of the remaining wing quills

blackish with pale yellow edges. On the lower throat is a

crimson patch, bordered behind by a wash of yellow ; rest of

lower plumage and the flanks whitish streaked with dull green.

Bill black ; iris reddish ; legs and feet coral red.

Length about 6; wing 3; tail 1°5; tarsus °8; bill from

gape °9.

Distribution.—Found all over the drier parts of the low-

country, and in the adjoining hills up to about 2,000 feet. It

occurs practically all over the Indian Empire, except on the

hills, and ranges east and south-east to the Malay Peninsula,

Sumatra, and the Philippines.

Habits, &:¢c—Common in almost every village garden in the

localities in which it is found, also in thin jungle, especially

near cultivation. It isa greatfruiteater. It getsthename of

Coppersmith from its cry (wonk-wonk-wonk slowly repeated),

which resembles the tapping of a hammer on copper.

The breeding season lasts from January to June. The nest

is a small hole in a decaying branch or rotten fence post.

Three dull, white, glossless eggs are laid on the bare wood at

the bottom of the cavity. Like nearly all white eggs, they

have a pinkish tinge when fresh and unblown. They are

large for the size of the bird, measuring about +99 by °69.

XANTHOL]MA RUBRICAPILLA (Blanford, Vol. III., p. 100;

Legge, p. 215).

The Small Ceylon Barbet.

Description —A narrow black line across the base of the

forehead; remainder of forehead and the front of the crown

crimson bordered behind by a black band which passes behind

PICARIAN BIRDS AND PARROTS OF CEYLON. 213

the eye to the cheeks; a stripe above and a patch below

the eye, together with the chin and throat, bright orange.

Remainder of upper plumage dark green, tinged on the top

of the head with blue; the outer web of most wing quills

bluish-green, the outer primaries and the inner webs of the

remaining quills black with white inner margins. Hind cheeks,

ear coverts, and sides of neck bluish; a small crimson patch

on the lower throat fringed behind with orange. The bases

of the throat feathers are black. Lower parts from breast

pale green, often with a bluish tinge.

Bill black ; iris red-brown ; legs and feet coral-red.

Length 6 ; wing 3°1 ; tail 1-4 ; tarsus *75 ; bill from gape ° 85.

Distribution —Peculiar to Ceylon. It replaces the last

species in the damp parts of the low-country, where it is

commonest, and is found in the hills up to about 4,000 feet.

It also extends locally into the dry zone, except in the arid

maritime districts. It is, however, occasionally found in the

Jafina peninsula.

Habits, &c.—Like the last species, this bird is common in

gardens and compounds, but in the north and east it is rather

more partial to wild fruit trees in the forest. The call is

quicker and sharper than that of the Coppersmith. The

breeding season is from about March to June. The nest is

the usual small round hole in the dead branch of a living tree.

The eggs resemble those of the last species, but are slightly

smaller, averaging *9 by °65.

Order ANISODACTYLI,

In the classification adopted by Blanford, who in this respect

follows Gadow, the above order comprises five sub-orders :

Coracie—Rollers ; Meropes—Bee-eaters ; Halcyones—King-

fishers ; Bucerotes—Hornbills ; and Upwpe—Hoopoes. This

order thus comprises birds which in outward appearance seem

to have little in common, but all have the same structure of

palate, that known as desmognathous, a hallux or hind toe is

always present, while the three front toes are more or less

joined at the base.

All members of the order lay white eggs in a nest hole,

which may be hollowed out either in a tree or in the ground.

and in all cases the young when hatched are naked.

4 6(5)20

214 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Sub-order CORACI.

Family Coractap”.

The Rollers.

The Rollers are birds mainly of brilliant plumage found

throughout most parts of the Old World. In build and in the

shape of the bill they resemble crows. The soles of the feet,

however, are flat, and the three front toes more or less united

at the base. The flight is buoyant, with vigorous flaps of the

wings, and at intervals curious turnings and tumblings, which

have given the birds their English name. The nest is placed in

the hole of a decaying tree, and the eggs are white and glossy.

Two genera are found in India: Coracias—the true Rollers,

and Hurystomus—the Broad-billed Rollers. One species of

each genus occurs in Ceylon.

Rough Key to Ceylon Coraciade.

A.—Plumage gay; bill twice as long as broad. Throat and

fore-neck lilac with buff shaft-stripes.

Coracias indica (The Indian Roller).

B.—Plumage more sober; bill as broad as long. Throat

and fore-neck washed with royal blue in adults.

Eurystomus orientalis (The Broad-billed Roller).

Coractas Inpica (Blanford, Vol. III., p. 103 ;

Legge, p. 281).

The Indian Roller.

Description —A small patch above the nostrils sandy buff,

at times tinged with violet ; crown and nape bluish-green,

tinged above the eyes with turquoise-blue ; hind-neck and sides

of neck brownish-lilac ; back, scapulars, and innermost wing

quills dull greenish-brown ; lower back and tail coverts deep

purple-blue, the former tinged with greenish-blue. Middle

tail feathers dark dull green washed with purple-blue at the

base ; rest of tail deep purple-blue with a broad band of

turquoise-blue on the outer half. Innermost wing coverts

deep purplish-blue, most of the remainder greenish-blue, the

primary coverts, the tips of the secondary coverts, and the

PICARIAN BIRDS AND PARROTS OF CEYLON. 215

edge of the wing being turquoise ; wing quills deep purplish-

blue tipped with dusky brown and with a broad band of

turquoise across the six outer primaries. Chin sandy buff ;

throat and sides of the head purplish-lilac with broad pale

shaft-stripes; breast llac-brown; abdomen, wing lining,

thighs, and lower tail coverts pale greenish-blue.

Bill blackish-brown ; iris grayish-brown ; eyelids and naked

skin round eye pale orange-yellow ; legs and feet brownish-

yellow.

Length 13; wing 7; tail 4°75; tarsus °9; bill from gape

PTO.

Distribution —Found chiefly in the drier northern half of

the Island ; during the north-east monsoon it wanders south

to the Western, Province and Ratnapura District, where it

also occasionally breeds. Occurs in suitable localities over

most of India, but avoids the hills, thick forests, and deserts.

It straggles westwards to Asia Minor.

Habits, &c.—Generally seen in open compounds, round

paddy fields, or near the borders of tanks. It is extremely

fond of perching on dead trees or telegraph wires. The cry

is a harsh grating call. The bird feeds largely on insects.

The breeding season extends from January to June. The

nest is a hole generally in a rotten tree, sometimes in an old

wall. It is lined with a modicum of grass or vegetable fibre.

The eggs generally number four, sometimes five. They are

almost round and of a glossy china white. Average size of

a small Ceylon series 1°38 by 1-10.

EURYSTOMUS ORIENTALIS (Blanford, Vol. IJ., p. 107;

Legge, p. 285).

The Broad-billed Roller.

Description. Head, face, and chin rusty black, slightly

tinged on the nape with green. Rest of upper plumage dark

dull green, with a tinge of dark blue on the rump, tail coverts,

and wing coverts. Primary coverts deep blue ; quills black,

washed with deep blue on the outer webs ; outer primaries

crossed with a broad band of turquoise-blue ; tail black,

washed on the outer half with deep blue, the basal portion of

the central feathers shading into the dark blue-green of the

216 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

tail coverts. Throat and fore-neck rusty greenish-black,

a patch of varying size on the centre of the throat and neck

washed with royal blue, which is brightest on the shafts of the

feathers. Remainder of lower parts greenish-blue, darker on

the breast.

Bill deep orange-red, the extreme tip blackish-red, in

young birds wholly black ; iris dark brown ; legs and feet

orange-red.

Length 11°5; wing 7°25; tail 4; tarsus -75; bill from

gape 1:5.

Distribution.—One of our rarest residents ; has been found

in thick forest in various scattered localities in the Island.

The southern form of this species—HL. letior of the British

Museum Catalogue—occurs in Ceylon and ‘Travancore.

It is darker than the northern forms, which range along the

base of the Eastern Himalayas through Burma to China and

Malaya. Blanford unites all these forms into one species.

Habits, &c.—Kssentially a forest bird, frequenting tall dead

trees in deep jungle. The food appears to consist mainly of

wood-boring beetles. In Travancore this species has been

found breeding from September to April in a hole in a large

tree at a great height from the ground. The three white eggs

measure about 1°38 by 1°15, but vary considerably in shape

and size.

Sub-order MEROPES.

Family Mrroprp 2.

Bee-eaters.

The Bee-eaters are a single family found throughout the

greater part of the Old World. They are slim-built smallish

birds, the plumage—with certain African exceptions—being

mainly or largely of some shade of green. The bill is long,

slender, pointed, and gently curved ; the wings are long and

pointed; the legs and feet are weak. The three front toes

are syndactylic, 7.e., united at their bases between the mner

and middle toes along the basal joint, between the middle and

outer toes up to the last joint. In all Ceylon species the

nostrils are partially covered with plumes, and there are a

few small rictal bristles at the base of the bill.

PICARIAN BIRDS AND PARROTS OF CEYLON. Pa) |

All species feed on insects, chiefly bees and wasps, which

they capture on the wing with an audible snap of the beak.

They generally keep a lookout for their prey from a perch

on a telegraph wire, railing, or twig, and after making a short

swoop return to their starting pomt. The nest is a small

unlined chamber at the end of a long burrow excavated in the

bank of a river or roadside ditch. At times the little tunnel

is driven at a gentle slope into almost level ground. The eggs

are white, glossy, and nearly globular. Three species are

found in Ceylon; one is migratory, two belong to the genus

Merops, one is a Melittophagus.

Rough Key to Ceylon Meropide.

A.—Middle pair of tail feathers in adults much longer than

the others. Genus Merops.

(a) Wing 3°65; chin and throat bluish-green.

Merops viridis (Common Indian Bee-eater).

(b) Wing 5°25; chin yellow, throat chestnut.

M. philippinus (Blue-tailed Bee-eater).

B.—Middle pair of tail feathers not elongated. Genus

Melittophagus.

Wing 4°2; chin and throat saftron-yellow, fore-neck

chestnut.

M. swinhoii (Chestnut-headed Bee-eater).

Merops viripis (Blanford, Vol. IIIL., p. 110;

Legge, p. 309).

The Common Indian Bee-eater.

Description—Upper vlumage green with a bronze tinge,

most pronounced on the crown and nape, which at times are

almost golden-brown ; tertiaries, rump, and tail coverts often

washed. with greenish-blue. Wing quills pale rufous on the

inner, and greenish-bronze on the outer webs, the tips and

shafts black ; tail bronze-green, the outer half of the long

central feathers and the tips of the remainder black. There

is a black band from the nostrils through the eye to the ear

218 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

coverts. Chin, cheeks, and throat greenish-blue ; a black

band across the fore-neck; lower parts green, the lower

tail coverts and vent much paler.

Bill black ; iris red ; legs and feet brown.

Length 9°5 to 10°5; wing 3°65; tail, outer feathers 2°85,

central feathers up to 5°25; tarsus °4; bill from gape 1-4.

Distribution Common. throughout the drier parts of the

low-country, especially in the sandy tracts round the coast

in the north-west and south-east. It avoids the damp low-

country, and seldom ascends higher than 1,000 feet. It occurs

almost throughout India and Burma, and extends through

Southern Persia to North-East Africa.

Habits, &c.—Those of the family. May commonly be seen

perching on a rail or low branch, from which it makes frequent

short flights. The cry is a not unpleasant chirrup. I have

often seen it hawking for insects over small sheets of water.

The breeding season is from April to August. The nest hole

is run almost horizontally into any little hummock of sandy

soil, frequently along the side of a road. or path.

Three to five eggs are laid in a small circular chamber at the

end of a passage 2 to 4 feet in length. They are glossy white,

almost spherical, and average *79 by *70.

Merops PHILIPPINUS (Blanford, Vol. IIT., p. 3:

Legge, p. 306).

The Blue-tailed Bee-eater.

Description.—Upper plumage, together with the wing

coverts, brownish-green, darkest on the crown and nape, and

shading on the lower back and tertiaries into the bright blue-

green of the rump and tail ; the elongated central pair of tail

feathers tipped with black. Primary and secondary quills

pale cinnamon on the inner margin, the remaining portion

bronze-green, brightest on the outer web, tips blackish. From

the nostrils through the eye to the ear coverts runs a black

streak, bordered above by a narrow pale blue line, and below

by a broader line of the same colour; chin pale yellow,

throat chestnut, shading on the breast into green, which

again passes into pale blue on the vent and lower tail coverts ;

wing lining light rufous-brown.

PICARIAN BIRDS AND PARROTS OF CEYLON. 219

Bill black ; iris crimson ; legs and feet blackish.

Length about 12; wing 5°25; tail, outer feathers 3°5,

central pair 5 to 6; tarsus *5; bill from gape 2.

Distribution —A migrant species, arriving about the end of

August and leaving in April. It spreads fairly well all over

the low-country, and is found in the patanas up-country to

about 5,000 feet. It occurs over a great part of the Indian

Empire, being partially migratory in many districts, and

extends almost throughout the Oriental region.

Habits, &c.—In Ceylon it is found chiefly in open country,

or about paddy fields, swamps, and hill patanas. Its habits

are much the same as those of the last species. Its note is

rather fuller and louder. Just before leaving the Island it

collects in large flocks. It has not been known to breed in

Ceylon.

MELITTOPHAGUS SWINHOT! (Blanford, Vol. III., p. 114).

MEROPS SWINHOEI (Legge, p. 313).

The Chestnut-headed Bee-eater.

Description.—Forehead, head above the eyes, hind-neck,

and upper back chestnut ; a black streak runs from the gape

of the bill under the eye to the ear coverts. Wing, wing

coverts, and scapulars green, the primary and secondary quills

with black tipsand rufous inner margins ; rump and upper tail

coverts pale blue; tail green, the margins and tips of all but

the central pair of feathers blackish ; chin and throat saffron-

yellow ; fore-neck chestnut, bordered below by a_ black

gorget band ; breast greenish, the tips of the feathers across

which the black gorget runs are washed with pale yellow ;

abdomen and lower tail coverts bluish-green.

Bill black ; iris crimson ; legs and feet dark brown.

Length 8°5; wing 4°2; tail 3°25; tarsus °43; bill from

gape 1°7.

Distribution —Rather locally distributed ; it is common on

the banks of the Gin-ganga in the Galle District and on

some rivers in the Western Province. Scattered colonies are

also found in the North-Western Province, Sabaragamuwa,

220) SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

and Hambantota District, while a few birds may be seen here

and there in the northern forest tract. It is more common in

the central hill zone up to a moderate height.

It occurs on the Malabar coast and the Nilgiris, and also

ranges from the Lower Himalayas through Assam and Burma

to Malaya and Cochin-China.

Habits, &c.—This species is generally to be found on the

banks of rivers, round tanks, or inforest country. It generally

perches on the upper branches of trees. The birds occasionally

fish for insects and small fry on the surface of water. They

breed about April, excavating a long tunnel in the sandy

bank of a river or tank bund. The eggs are laid in a circular

chamber at the end of the passage. They are glossy white

and spherical, averaging *87 by *76.

Sub-order HALCYONES.

Family ALCEDINID&.

Kingfishers.

The habits and outward appearance of the Kingfishers are

too well known to require much description. The sub-order

consists of a single family, which ranges over the whole world,

though only one genus—Ceryle—is found in America. The

bill is long, stout, and pointed, the wings are moderate, the

tail is short and consists of twelve feathers, the legs and feet

are weak, the formation of the toes is the same as in the

Rollers. Most of the species are fish feeders, but some

members, including one Ceylon species, Halcyon smyrnensis,

may be seen away from water feeding largely on land insects,

small lizards, &c. The nest, like that of the Bee-eater, is a

small round chamber at the end of a tunnel excavated in a

bank, generally near water. As a rule, the round, white,

glossy eggs are laid on the bare floor, but in some cases on a

lining of fish bones. Seven species, belonging to five genera,

are found in the Island, but only four are common, two being

excessively rare, while a third is by no means abundant.

Rough Key to Ceylon Halcyones.

A.—Plumage black and white ; length 11°7.

Ceryle varia (Indian Pied. Kingfisher).

PICARIAN BIRDS AND PARROTS OF CEYLON. PAN

B.—Cap transversely barred blackand blue. Genus Alcedo.

(a) Cap light blue and black ; a rufous patch from

eye to ear coverts ; length 6°5.

Alcedo ispida (The Common Kingfisher).

(b) Cap deep blue and black ; no rufous patch from

eye to ear coverts ; length 6°5.

Alcedo beavani (Beavan’s Kingfisher).

C.—Cap orange-red, washed with violet ; only three toes ;

length 5°35.

Ceyzx tridactyla (Indian Three-toed Kingfisher).

D.—Cap and face dingy brown ; length 15.

Pelargopsis gurial (Stork-billed Kingfisher).

E.—Head and face chocolate-brown: no white collar ;

length 11.

Halcyon smyrnensis (White-breasted Kingfisher).

F.—Crown and cheeks black ; a white collar; length 12.

H. pileata (Black-capped Kingfisher).

CERYLE VARIA (Blanford, Vol. IIL; p. 119).

CERYLE RUDIS (Legge, p. 288).

The Indian Pied Kingfisher.

Description.—Male : Crown and nape black, streaked with

white ; rest of upper plumage, including wing coverts and

wings, black, mottled or barred with white ; tail feathers

white on the base and tip, remaining portion black ; cheeks,

wing lining, and most of lower plumage white. The fore-neck

is often spotted with black, and there are two black bands

across the breast, the upper being the broader, while the

flanks are more or less spotted with black.

Females lack the lower black gorget, while the upper broad

band is imperfect, leaving the centre of the breast white.

Bill black ; iris brown ; legs and feet blackish.

Length 11-7; wing 5°4; tail 3; tarsus 4; bill from gape

2°75.

5 6(5)20

222 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Distribution —Fairly common on lagoons, tanks, near the

sea coast, and the lower reaches of our rivers. It is found on

some of the larger inland tanks, but its occurrence elsewhere

in the Island is rare. It is common throughout the plains of

India and Burma, and ranges eastward to China.

Habits, &c.—This species avoids forest streams, and is most

plentiful on brackish lagoons and large sheets of fresh water.

Unlike many other Kingfishers, it hovers over the water and

plunges perpendicularly on its prey, instead of darting at an

angle from a fixed perch. The breeding season is about May.

The nest hole is driven for some distance into the bank of a

river, tank bund, or water channel. The eggs, generally four

in number, are of the usual spherical form and glossy white

colour. Average size 1°15 by °92.

ALCEDO ISPIDA (Blanford, Vol. III., p. 122).

ALCEDO BENGALENSIS (Legge, p. 292).

The Common Kingfisher.

Description.—General colour above greenish-blue ; crown

and nape with fine transverse bands of dusky black ; a rust-

coloured stripe runs from the base of the upper mandible to

the ear coverts, terminating in a whitish patch on the side of

the neck ; a broad blue stripe runs from the lower mandible

down each cheek ; centre of back, rump, and upper tail coverts

bright cobalt blue ; wing coverts greenish-blue, each of the

feathers of the lesser and median coverts with a brighter blue

spot. Wing quills brown, with greenish-blue outer edges ;

tail blue above, dusky brown beneath. Chin and throat

whitish ; rest of lower surface rusty orange-brown.

Bill, upper mandible black, lower mandible generally

reddish-yellow ; iris deep brown ; legs and ‘eet coral red.

Length 6°5; wing 2°75; tail 1°3; tarsus -35; bill from

gape 1°8.

Distribution.—Common all over the Island wherever there

is water, stagnant or running. The range of the species

extends throughout Europe and: Asia. In India it is found

everywhere, except in the Himalayas.

PICARIAN BIRDS AND PARROTS OF CEYLON. 223

Habits, &c—This little Kingfisher lives mainly, if not

entirely, on small fish, and is seldom seen away frem water.

It generally darts on its prey from a fixed perch, but occasion-

ally hovers. The flight is swift and low ; the ery is a shrill

whistling note. The birds are usually met with in pairs.

The breeding season lasts from February till about June,

and occasionally birds breed as late as November.

The nest hole is usually in a bank close to the water’s edge.

The passage is about 2 to 4 feet in length, and the nest chamber

6 inches in diameter. The eggs are of the usual type, and

measure about *8 by °68.

ALCEDO BEAVANI (Blanford, Vol. III., p. 124 ;

not in Legge).

Beavan’s Kingfisher.

Description.—The colouring is deeper and richer than in

the preceding species. Crown, nape, and hind-neck black

with narrow cross bands of royal blue ; lores rufous, the lower

border black ; sides of head and cheeks royal blue ; a whitish

patch on the side of the neck behind the ear coverts ; middle

of back and rump deep cobalt blue ; upper tail coverts deeper,

almost royal blue ; scapulars, wing coverts, and wings blackish-

brown, the inner quills washed with royal blue, and most

of the wing coverts tipped with a spot of deep cobalt blue ;

tail feathers dusky brown at the base, deep purplish-blue at

the tip. Chin and throat buffy white ; remainder of lower

plumage deep chestnut.

Ceylon specimens appear to be darker than typical A.

beavant.

Bill dusky brown ; lower mandible paler ; iris dark brown ;

legs and feet red.

Length 6°5; wing 2:75 tail 1°35; tarsus °35; bill

from gape 1°8.

Distribution.—A fairly recent addition, first discovered by

A. P. Greene, I believe near Dambulla, in 1893. <A. L. Butler

found it several times near Medagama, in Uva. It should be

looked for on forest streams among the lower hills. It is

occasionally seen in Travancore and a few other localities in

224 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

South and Central India; commoner, but locally distributed,

at the foot of the Eastern Himalayas, and through parts of

Burma to the Andamans, Cochin-China, and Celebes.

Habits, &c.—A shy bird, keeping to lonely streams and

tanks in the heart of the jungle. It probably breeds in the

Island. The nesting habits are similar to those of the last

species. The eggs, four to six in number, average about

°78 by °69.

CEYX TRIDACTYLA (Blanford, Vol. III., p. 127 ;

Legge, p. 303).

Indian Three-toed Kingfisher.

Description.—A V-shaped mark of black washed with

purple on the forehead at the base of the upper mandible ;

crown, nape, hind-neck, lower back, rump, and upper tail

coverts orange-red with a metallic lilac gloss, which is strongest

behind the eye and on the rump and tail coverts ; upper back

black washed with brilliant cobalt blue; wings dark brown,

the coverts tinged with blue ; the edge of the wing, the wing

lining, and the inner margin of wing quills rufous ; tail orange-

red. There is a black spot in front of the eye and a deep blue

spot behind the ear coverts ; lores, cheeks, ear coverts, and

ower parts from the fore-neck orange-yellow ; chin and

throat white tinged with yellow.

Bill, legs, and feet coral red ; iris brown.

Length 5°35; wing 2:2; tail :9; tarsus ‘35; bill from

gape 1:5.

Distribution.— Occurs sparingly in the dry and medium

zones up to about 2,000 feet. It is found rarely in scattered

localities in the Indian Peninsula, also in Lower Bengal and

through Burma to Malaya and the Andamans.

Habits, &c.—This beautiful little species is occasionally

met with on lonely streams. It is generally seen singly or in

pairs, and at times wanders away from water. It has been

found breeding in the Mannar District. The nest hole was

excavated in the side of a small water-course. The eggs,

three in number, were more oval than is the case with most

Kingfishers, measuring *77 by °66.

PICARIAN BIRDS AND PARROTS OF CEYLON. 225

PELARGOPSIS GURIAL (Blanford, Vol. III., p. 129;

Legge, p. 295).

The Brown-headed Stork-billed Kingfisher.

Description.—Head, face, hind-neck, and ear coverts dull

brown ; a collar round the back of the neck, together with the

whole of the lower plumage, orange-buff, deepest on the

flanks and abdomen, and palest on the chin and throat ;

upper back and scapulars with the lesser wing coverts dull

bluish-green ; the greater wing coverts, the tertiaries, the

outer webs and tips of the secondaries, the larger tail coverts,

and tail slightly bluer ; the primary quills, the inner webs of

the secondaries, and the under surface of the tail dull brown ;

the lower back, rump, and lesser tail coverts bright turquoise

blue.

In the young birds the buff feathers on the collar and breast

have darker edges.

Bill dark blood red ; iris brown; legs and feet coral red.

Length about 15; wing 5°75-6°25; tail about 4; tarsus

°75 ; bill from gape 3°75.

Distribution.—Occurs more or less all over Ceylon on rivers,

streams, brackish lagoons, and tanks. Commonest in the

northern half of the Island. It is found throughout the

Indian Empire, and extends southward and eastward to

Malaya and Cochin-China. Some authorities differentiate

the Burmese race as a sub-species, P. burmanicus.

Habits, &c.—Our largest Kingfisher. It is always found

“near water, generally in the neighbourhood of large trees,

or, on lagoons, among the mangrove swamps. The cry is a

loud, harsh laugh. It feeds on frogs, fish, and crabs. The

flight is straight and powerful. The usual nest hole is

made in the sandy banks of rivers and streams, generally in

dense jungle, or in the bund of a lonely tank. It appears to

be always made in a bank well covered with bushes, at least

in the immediate vicinity of the nest. The eggs are typical

Kingfisher’s eggs in shape and texture, and measure about

1°50 by 1°18,

226 SPOLIA ZEYLANIGA,

HALCYON SMYRNENSIS (Blanford, Vol. ITI., p. 13

Legge, p. 298).

The White-breasted Kingfisher.

Description.—The head, cheeks, hind-neck, sides of neck,

flanks, and lower parts from the breast downwards chocolate-

brown ; the chin and throat to the centre of the breast white ;

back, scapulars, tertiaries, outer portion of secondaries,

greater wing coverts, rump, and tail blue, brightest on the

rump and tail coverts ; medium wing coverts black, lesser

wing coverts chestnut ; inner margin of secondaries and the

end half of primaries black ; basal portion of primaries white

on the inner and blue on the outer web.

Bill dark blood red ; iris brown ; legs coral red.

Length 11; wing 4°5; tail 3°3; tarsus -5; bill from

gape 2°6.

Distribution Common all over the Island, and found

throughout India and Burma, except on the Himalayas. The

range extends from Cyprus to Southern China.

Habits, &c.—May be seen on rivers, swamps, and paddy

fields. It is by no means confined to the neighbourhood

of water, and is not uncommon in Colombo gardens. It

occasionally fishes, but feeds chiefly on insects, small lizards,

and crabs. The call is a harsh scream, generally uttered

while flying. As the breeding season extends from January

to August, there are probably several broods during the year.

The nest is the usual hole in the bank of a stream, pond, or

ditch. The eggs are of the usual type, and average 1°14

by 1:04.

HALcyon PILEATA (Blanford, Vol. IIT., p. 133 ;

Legge, p. 301).

The Black-capped Kingfisher.

Description—Crown, nape, and cheeks black; a white

collar round the neck ; the feathers of the upper back adjoin-

ing the collar and the wing coverts are black ; the general hue

of the rest of the upper plumage, including the tail, tertiaries,

and the outer webs of the secondaries, is purplish-blue, brightest

on the lower back and rump. The inner webs and the tips of

PICARIAN BIRDS AND PARROTS OF CEYLON. rapa

the secondaries are black ; the primaries are black on the

terminal half, the basal portion being white on the inner and

bluish-white on the outer web. Chin, throat, and middle of

breast white, shading into rusty buff on the remainder of the

lower parts ; under surface of tail black.

In young birds the breast feathers have dusky black fringes.

Bill deep coral red ; iris dark brown ; legs and feet dull red.

Length 12; wing 5°1; tail 3°25; tarsus °6; bill from

gape 3°0.

Distribution.—Solitary specimens have been obtained in the

Northern, Eastern, and Western Provinces. This species has

been found in various localities throughout the Indian Penin-

sula, the Ganges delta, Assam, and Burma, and ranges east-

wards through Malaya to China and Corea. It is extremely

rare over most of its habitat, but turns up unexpectedly all

over India, generally near the coast, but at times far mland.

It is common during the breeding season in Hong Kong.

Habits, &c.—Occasionally seen by fresh water, but generally

found on brackish lagoons and among mangrove swamps,

where it feeds upon the crabs, which swarm in the mud. It

may possibly be found breeding in Ceylon, as the nest has

been taken in Travancore in February and March. ‘The nest

is the usual hole, generally in the sandy banks of streams near

the seashore, but occasionally on the banks of forest streams.

The eggs are of the usual round shape and glossy texture,

four to six in number, and measure about 1°15 by 1.

Sub-order BUCEROTES.

Family BuCcEROTID.

Hornbills.

The Hornbills are a family of large, ungainly, forest birds,

which are found in Africa, Tropical Asia, and New Guinea.

They derive their English name from the enormous bill, which,

as a rule, is surmounted by a hollow or cellular horny casque.

In some cases, however, including that of the smaller of the

two species found in Ceylon, the casque is wanting. Other

peculiar features are that the eyelids are furnished with

strong lashes, while the wing lining—.e., the coverts on the

228 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

underside of the wing—does not cover the bases of the quills.

The feet are fairly large and stout, and formed like those of the

Rollers. The nidification is extraordinary, and the accounts

of it were long regarded as travellers’ fairy tales. At the

breeding season, before the eggs are laid, the female is walled

up in the hollow of a tree by means of a plaster formed of

earth mixed with the bird’s droppings, or of the droppings

alone. An opening is left, through which the male feeds her,

and there she remains imprisoned, apparently until the young

are fledged. The eggs when new laid are white, but, as

may be imagined, they soon get discoloured as incubation

proceeds. The young are naked when hatched. MHornbills

feed largely on fruit, but also to some extent on small lizards,

scorpions, insects, &e. They are frequently, but erroneously,

called ‘* Toucans,” a name which applies to a family of large-

billed birds of brilliant plumage, akin to the Barbets, and

found only in South America.

Rough Key to Ceylon Bucerotide.

A.—Size large; length about 36; a compressed casque

pointed in front.

Anthracoceros coronatus (Malabar Pied Hornbill),

B.—Size smaller ; length about 23; no casque.

Lophoceros gingalensis (Ceylon Hornbill).

ANTHRACOCEROS CORONATUS (Blanford, Vol. IIT., p. 144;

Legge, p. 272).

The Malabar Pied Hornbill.

Description. —The head, neck, and upper parts with the wing

and the middle pair of tail feathers are glossy greenish-black ;

the remainder of the tail and the under parts from the breast

downwards white. The primaries—with the exception of the

first two quills, which are small—and the secondaries have

broad white tips, and the primaries have whitish bases.

The bill is large and curved, with serrated edges ; in adults

it is surmounted by a large horny casque, which slopes back-

ward over the crown, and in front runs into a pointed pro-

jection overhanging its line of junction with the bill. The

PICARIAN BIRDS AND PARROTS OF CEYLON. 229

casque and bill are pale yellow, witha black patch at the base

of the mandible and a large black patch covering most of the

upper portion of the casque. In males the back of the casque

is also black. Iris in males orange-red, in females brown ;

naked skin round eye, blackish in males, whitish in females ;

bare skin of throat flesh coloured ; legs and feet grayish.

In young birds the contour of the casque is not developed,

but grades into the upper mandible, giving the beak a distinctly

Roman-nosed appearance, and there are patches of bare skin

on the thighs and hind-neck, which remain unfledged until

after the wing and tail quills are fully formed.

Length about 36; wing 13; tail 13; tarsus 2°5; bill from

gape 7. Females are slightly smaller.

Distribution —Found in the drier forest zone of the low-

country, ascending the foothills to about 2,500 feet ; com-

monest in the northern half of the Island. In India it occurs

at the foot of the Western Ghauts and the forests of South-

west Bengal, Orissa, and the Eastern-Central Provinces.

Habits, &c.—Generally found in small troops in heavy forest.

Tt has a laboured, ungainly, dipping flight, alternately flapping

its wings and sailing. The note is loud and harsh. The

curious nesting habits are described in the remarks on the

family. The breeding season appears to be from March to

June. The eggs are two to four in number, white at first,

but much discoloured as incubation proceeds. They measure

about 2 by 1°5.

LOPHOCEROS GINGALENSIS (Blanford, Vol. IIL., p. 157).

TOCKUS GINGALENSIS (Legge, p. 275).

The Ceylon Hornbill.

Description.—Crown. and nape ashy-brown with pale shaft-

stripes ; ear coverts slightly darker ; rest of upper plumage

ashy-gray, the wing coverts with darker edges ; wing quills

black, the middle primaries with white tips and the secondaries

with gray outer margins ; tail feathers dusky with a greenish

tinge, all but the central pair with broad white ends ; in old

birds the three outer pairs become entirely white. Lower

parts grayish-white, becoming lighter with age; vent and

lower tail coverts dingy rufous.

6 6(5)20

230 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Bill curved, and not surmounted with a casque; in adult

males it is yellowish-white, with a black patch at the base of

the upper mandible from the gape to the nostril, and another

indistinct patch beneath the lower mandible. Females have

the bill grayish-black, with a long white patch on the lower

portion of the upper mandible. Iris red; orbital skin and

eyelashes black ; legs and feet greenish lead colour.

Length 23; wing 8; tail9; tarsus1:7; billfrom gape 4°25.

Females slightly smaller, and with shorter bills.

Distribution.—Peculiar to Ceylon ; fairly common all over

the low-country wherever there is forest. It ascends the hills

to about 4,000 feet.

Habits —A rather shy forest bird, keeping to the tops of

trees. The flight is slow and dipping. The cry is rather

a harsh laugh, starting with the syllable ‘‘ kaa,’’ which is often

repeated, at first slowly, then quicker and quicker. It breeds

from April to August in the fashion peculiar to the family.

The two or three dingy white eggs measure about 1°62 by 1°25.

Sub-order UPUPAE.

Family UpupIp&.

Genus Upupa,

Hoopoes.

The Hoopoes are confined to a single family and genus,

which ranges through the temperate and tropical parts of the

Old World. In structure and nesting habits, though not in

appearance, they are closely related to the Hornbills. They

are all birds of moderate size, about one foot in length. The

bill is long and slender, and curves from the base. There is

a large conspicuous crest on the crown, folded or erected at

will. The wings are rounded, the tail moderate in length, and

the legs short. Hoopoes feed on the ground, scratching and

probing for grubs and insects. The females, though not walled

into nest holes like the Hornbills, sit very close, and are fed

entirely by the males during the breeding period. Only one

species occurs in Ceylon.

PICARIAN BIRDS AND PARROTS OF CEYLON. 231

Upupa tnpica (Blanford, Vol. III., p. 161).

UPUPA NIGRIPENNIS (Legge, p. 278).

The Indian Hoopoe.

Description.—Head, crest, hind-neck, throat, upper back,

and breast cinnamon brown. The crest feathers are broadly

tipped with black, and the breast has a vinaceous tinge. The

lower back, wings, and tail are black barred with white, the

tertiaries are tinged with brown and barred and tipped with

buff. The abdomen is whitish, more or less streaked with

brown, the vents and under tail coverts are white, the thighs

have often a rufous tinge.

Bill brown-black, pinkish at the base ; iris brown ; legs

and feet lead colour.

Length 11°5; wing 5:25; tail 3°75; tarsus -85; bill

from gape 2°3.

Distribution —Fairly common in the Northern Province,

occasionally wandering as far south as Anuradhapura and

Chilaw ; occurs in portions of the park country in the Eastern

Province and on the Uva patanas, while it is by no means

rare in the Hambantota District eastwards of Ranna. It is

found all over India, except in Sind and the Western Punjab,

and ranges through Burma to Siam, Indo-China, and Southern

China. .

Habits, &c.—This species is found chiefly in open country,

grazing grounds, and patanas, and is generally seen on the

ground searching for insects. The breeding season appears

to last from November to April. The birds nest in holes in

trees, banks, or walls. The nest chamber is usually very

insanitary. The eggs, four to seven in number, are of a pale

bluish- or greenish-white, and measure about *97 by °66.

Order MACROCHIRES,

Swifts, Nightjars, and Frogmouths.

By Blanford the Swifts, Nightjars, and Frogmouths are

grouped together in the above order, which also includes the

Humming Birds, T'rochilide, and the Oil Birds, Steatornithide,

two families, which are confined to the New World. All the

members of the order have short bills with broad gapes, and

live on insects captured while on the wing.

932 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

There are three Indian sub-orders: Cypseli, Swifts ;

Cauprimulgi, Nightjars; and Podargi, Frogmouths. Each

sub-order consists of a single family.

Sub-order CYPSELI.

Family CypsELip 2%.

Swifts.

Outwardly Swifts resemble Swallows, in each case the form

having been specialized for the purpose of a swift and enduring

flight. Anatomically there are considerable differences. In

the structure of the sternum, feet, and wings, the Swifts are

Picarian, while the Swallows are typically Passerine. All

Swifts have ten tail feathers, Swallows have twelve. The

primary wing quills are very long and curved, the secondaries

extremely short. The bill is small and hooked at the tip,

while the gape is broad. The hind toe is either directed

forwards or is more or less reversible. Swifts are aerial in

their habits, and feed entirely upon insects captured on the

wing. They are found all over the world, except in Arctic

or Antarctic regions. Their powers of flight are enormous,

and they often cover immense distances in the course of a day’s

wanderings. All our species are resident or mainly so. The

nidification varies, but all species lay white eggs, and in almost

all cases the materials of the nest are cemented together with

hardened saliva, which is also used to glue the nest itself to the

surface from which it depends.

The family is divided into three sub-families :—

(1) Cypseline.—The true Swifts, in which the tarsus is

feathered, and all the front toes have but three phalanges or

joints.

(2) Cheturine.—Spinetails, &c., have the normal number

of phalanges in the three front toes, 7.c., three in the second

toe, four in the third, and five in the fourth. In most forms,

including both our Ceylon species, the tarsus is naked.

(3) Macropterygine.—Crested Swifts differ from the two

preceding sub-families, in that the closed wings only just

reach the end of the tail instead of extending far beyond it,

while the head is crested.

PICARIAN BIRDS AND PARROTS OF CEYLON. 233

Sub-family Cypseline.

True Swifts.

The typical Swifts are represented in Ceylon by three species

belonging to two genera.

Rough Key to Species.

A.—All four toes directed forwards. Genus Cypselus.

(1) Size large ; wing 8°25; tail deeply forked.

C. melba (Alpine Swift).

(2) Size smaller; wing 5°20; a white band across

rump ; tail almost square.

C. affinis (Common Indian Swift).

B.—Toes arranged in pairs ; first and second toe pointing

inwards, third and fourth outwards; size small ;

wing 4°4 ; tail deeply forked ; no white on rump.

Tachornis batassiensis (Palm Swift).

CYPSELUS MELBA (Blanford, Vol. IIT., p. 164 ;

Legge, p. 317).

The Alpine Swift.

Description—Upper parts with the sides of the head and

neck mouse-brown ; darker on the wings and tail; chin,

throat, breast, and abdomen white; a broad, dark brown

band across the upper breast ; wing lining and lower tail

coverts deep brown with whitish edges. In young birds all

the dark feathers have whitish edges.

Bill black ; iris brown ; legs and feet livid brown.

Length 8°5; wing 8°25; tail about 3; tarsus °55; bill

from gape °85.

Distribution.—Resident in the higher hills, and being a bird

of great powers of flight, it visits all parts of the Island. The

_ Species ranges from the Alps, Southern Europe, and Northern

Africa, eastwards to India.

Habits, &c.—The birds roost and breed in colonies on high

rocky cliffs, and cover enormous distances during the day

while hawking for insects. The cry is shrill and tremulous.

234 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

They probably breed during April and May on some of the

great precipices of the higher ranges in the Central Province

and Uva. ‘The nests are of the usual Swift type, and are

composed of feathers, grass, &c., cemented with hardened

saliva and glued to the surface of a rock. The eggs, three or

four in number, are pure white, smooth, and slightly glossy.

In shape they are elongated ovals, and average about 1:2

yagi:

CYPSELUS AFFINIS (Blanford, Vol. III., p. 168 ;

Legge, p. 319).

The Common Indian Swift.

Description.—Head, wings, and tail dark brown with a slight

gloss, the crown and nape slightly paler ; back black with a

greenish gloss ; a broad whitish band across the rump and

sides, chin and throat whitish with faint black shaft-stripes ;

remainder of under surface blackish-brown, paler on the wing

lining and lower tail coverts.

Bill black ; iris deep brown ; legs and feet vinous-brown.

Length about 5°3 ; wing about 5°20; tail 1°75; tarsus °4 ;

bill from gape °*75.

Distribution. Occurs over the greater part of the Island ;

found throughout India, and ranges westward to Palestine

and the greater part of Africa.

Habits, &c.—While there are regular breeding colonies in

many parts of the low-country, as at Trincomalee, Anuradha-

pura, Dambulla, and Kirinde, in other parts this species

appears to be a mere wanderer. It is, however, resident

almost throughout the hills. It generally occurs in fairly

large flocks, which may be seen high in the air hawking for

insects. The cry is a shrill, weak scream. The breeding

season is between March and July. The birds nest in colonies

in rock caves, verandahs of buildings, &. ‘The nests are

made of grass, straw, or feathers, cemented together with

saliva, and glued to the roof or walls of the nesting haunt.

The eggs, generally two in number, are long, pure white ovals,

measuring about *92 by °59.

PICARIAN BIRDS AND PARROTS OF CEYLON. 235

TACHORNIS BATASSIENSIS (Blanford, Vol. IIL., p. 170).

CYPSELUS BATASSIENSIS (Legge, p. 322).

The Palm Swift.

Description.—Upper parts ashy-brown, the head slightly

darker, the wings and tail dark brown with a slight gloss ;

under parts mouse-gray, paler on the throat and chin.

Bill black; iris reddish-brown ; legs and feet vinous-

brown.

Length 5°20; wing 4°4; tail 2°6; tarsus °4; bill from

gape °5.

Distribution —Common all over the low-country and in the

lower hills ; most abundant in districts where the palmyra

palm grows. Found in suitable localities throughout the

Indian Peninsula.

Habits, &c.—This little Swift prefers fields and open spaces

round palmyra and coconut plantations, or, in the south of

the Island, near areca palms. It never wanders far from the

palms in which it roosts and nests. The breeding season

appears to extend from October to April. The nest is placed

on the under surface of a downward hanging palm leaf, and

is a little open pocket made of wild cotton and feathers

glued together with saliva. Two or three eggs are usually

laid. They are pure white long ovals, measuring about

‘71 by °46.

Sub-family Cheturine.

Spinetails, d&c.

This sub-family contains two Indian genera, each of which

is represented in Ceylon bya single species. The Spinetails—

genus Chetura—are the fastest birds in existence. Théy

take their name from the tail feathers, in which the shafts

project beyond the webs and end in a spiny point. The

genus Collocalia comprises the Swiftlets, whose nests, almost

wholly composed of hardened saliva resembling isinglass, are

much prized by the Chinese as an article of food.

236 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Rough Key to Species of Cheturine.

A.—Size large ; wing 8; tail nearly square ; shafts of tail

feathers ending in spines.

Chetura indica (Brown-necked Spinetail).

B.—Size small ; wing 4°6; tarsi naked ; tail slightly forked ;

tail feathers normal ; hind toe directed backwards,

and only partially reversible.

Collocalia unicolor (Indian Edible-nest Swiftlet).

CHa&TURA INDICA (Blanford, Vol. III., p. 173).

CHHTURA GIGANTEA (Legge, p. 314).

The Brown-necked Spinetail.

Description.—The crown, the sides of the head, the nape,

wings, the sides of the rump, upper tail coverts, and tail

black, with a metallic gloss of green and steel blue; the back,

scapulars, and rump pale brown, palest on the centre of the

back. A deep velvet black spot in front of each eye, and a

white spot on each side of the forehead bordering the upper

mandible ; chin and centre of throat whitish ; lower parts

umber-brown with a faint gloss; under tail coverts and a

streak along the flank white.

Bill black ; iris dark brown ; legs and feet fleshy purple.

Length 9; wing 8; tail 2°7; tarsus °65; bill from

gape I.

Distribution.—Resident in the hills, occasionally wandering

over the whole Island. It occurs in Southern India, and also

ranges from Assam eastwards throughout Burma.

Habits, &c.—This species may be seen wheeling at enormous

speed round hillsides. Often after rain it wanders far over

the low-country in the course of a day’s flight. ‘The nesting

habits are peculiar. It has been found breeding in March and

April on the Travancore hills inside green trees, of which the

core is hollow down to the ground. The nest is a mere

depression in the earth at the foot of the hollow core, and is

lined with dry leaves and straw. The eggs, three to five in

number, are pure white, and measure about 1°28 by 1. The

shell is hard, and like porcelain in texture.

PICARIAN BIRDS AND PARROTS OF CEYLON. 237

COLLOCALIA UNICOLOR (Blanford, Vol. IV., p. 485).

CoLLOCALIA FUCIPHAGA (Blanford, Vol. III., p. 176).

COLLOCALIA FRANCICA (Legge, p. 324).

The Indian Edible-nest Swiftlet.

Description.—Upper parts blackish-brown, with a greenish

gloss on back, wings, and tail ; under parts mouse-gray, the

feathers of the lower breast and abdomen with darker shaft-

stripes ; tarsi quite naked.

Bill black ; iris brown ; legs and feet fleshy brown.

Length 4°65; wing 4°6; tail 2:1; tarsus -4; bill from

gape °4.

Distribution.—Roosts and breeds in rock caves in the hill

ranges, and also in the isolated hills of the low-country, as at

Hiniduma and Ritigala. As it wanders a good deal in the course

of a day’s flight, it may be seen almost anywhere in the Island.

It also occurs in the South Indian hills and the Western

Himalayas.

Habits, &c.—This species is often seen in company with

the Palm Swift hawking for insects over open ground, round

tanks, &c. The breeding season varies in different localities

between Christmas and April. The birds nest in large

colonies. Of late years they have taken very kindly to the

railway tunnels between Ohiya and Bandarawela. The nest

is a half saucer formed of clear hardened saliva mixed with a

little moss and glued to the wall of the cave. Two white eggs

of the usual type are laid, measuring about 84 by °53.

Sub-family Wacropterygine.

Crested Swifts.

This sub-family consists of a single genus confined to India,

Malaya, and the New Guinea region. Only one species occurs

in Ceylon.

The Crested Swifts differ considerably from the other sub-

families. The tarsus is short and naked, and the closed

wings do not extend beyond the tail, which is long and forked.

f| 6(5)20

238 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

The plumage is more silky than in other Swifts, and differs

slightly in the two sexes. The feathers of the crown are

elongated into a crest, which is raised or depressed at will.

MACROPTERYX CORONATA (Blanford, Vol. IIT., p. 180).

DENDRO CHELIDON CORONATA (Legge, p. 328).

The Indian Crested Swift.

Description.—Male : Upper plumage with the sides of the

neck bluish-gray ; the crest and upper wing coverts darker

with a bluish-green gloss; wing and tail quills dark brown

glossed with green ; lores velvet black, bordered above with

a thin whitish stripe ; upper chin, moustache stripe, and

ear coverts chestnut ; throat, breast, and sides of body light

bluish-gray, passing gradually into the white of the abdomen

and lower tail coverts.

Females lack the chestnut patch on the face and throat ;

the ear coverts are almost black, and are bordered below by a

white stripe from the gape.

Young birds have broad brownish-gray borders, edged with

white, on the feathers of the upper parts, and dark brown

bars near the tips of the feathers on the lower plumage.

Bill black ; iris dark brown ; legs pinkish-brown.

Length 9°5; wing 6°1; tail, outer feathers about 5, central

about 1°75; tarsus *4; bill from gape °75.

Distribution.—Fairly common all over the Island. Like

most Swifts, the birds wander a good deal; in the northern

half of the Island it is found chiefly round the large tanks.

It occurs in the better wooded parts of India, and extends

eastwards throughout Burma and Siam.

Habits, &c.—Found generally in small parties round forest

clearings or jungle tanks. It is extremely fond of perching

on dead trees. When flying over water, it often dips to the

surface and rises again. The breeding season is about May.

The nest is a tiny, fragile, half saucer composed of flakes of

bark cemented with saliva, and glued to the side of a bare

horizontal branch generally at some height from the ground.

A solitary grayish-white egg is laid, measuring about *85

by °55.

PICARIAN BIRDS AND PARROTS OF CEYLON. 239

Sub-order CAPRIMULGI.

Family CAPRIMULGID 2.

Genus Caprimulgus,

Nightjars.

The Nightjars or Goatsuckers are a family with crepuscular

and nocturnal habits, found almost all round the world, except

in the Frigid Zones. The plumage is soft and mottled, and

the flight noiseless. Their food consists wholly of insects,

which are generally caught on the wing. The gape of the

mouth is very wide, but the bill itself is short, weak, and

flexible. The only genus found in Ceylon is furnished with

strong rictal bristles, 7.e., bristles bordering the upper man-

dible of the bill. The wings are long and pointed. The legs

are rather weak ; the middle toe is long, and furnished on the

inside of the claw with a comb-like appendage. There is no

nest, the two protectively coloured eggs being laid on the

bare ground. The young when hatched are covered with

down, and are helpless. In one Ceylon species—C. asiaticus—

the sexes are alike, but generally males are distinguished by

white spots on the wings and tail. In the females these spots

are either buff coloured or rufous, or are altogether wanting.

Three species are found in the Island.

Rough Key to Ceylon Caprimulgi.

A.—Tarsus almost entirely naked ; sexes alike ; length 9.

C. asiaticus (Common. Indian Nightjar).

B.—Tarsus feathered ; sexes not quite alike ; length 10

or over.

(1) Rictal bristles white at the base, a continuous

white patch across the throat.

C. macrurus (Horsfield’s Nightjar).

(2) Rictal bristles dark throughout ; centre line of

throat dark, dividing the white throat patch

into two.

C. indicus (Jungle Nightjar).

2A) SPOLIA ZEYLANIGA.

CAPRIMULGUS ASIATICUS (Blanford, Vol. TIT., p. 186:

Legge, p. 343).

The Common Indian Nightjar.

Description.—General colour of upper plumage sandy gray

finely pencilled with brown ; forehead and centre of crown

striped with black ; the feathers of the back with dark shaft-

stripes ; round the neck a broad collar of buff speckled with

black ; scapulars velvety black with broad margins of rich

buff ; paler buff patches on the wing coverts. Wing quills

dark brown, the first four primaries each with a large white

spot in the middle, the secondaries barred with rufous-buft ;

middle tail feathers coloured like the back, but with indistinet

narrow cross bars, the two outer pairs with large white tips,

and the outermost pair with buff margins to the outer web.

Moustache stripe whitish-buff ; on each side of the throat a

patch of white feathers tipped with buff and black ; rest of

lower parts buff barred indistinctly with brown ; lower tail

coverts buff without any bars. Sexes alike.

Bill reddish, the tip black ; iris deep brown ; legs and feet

fleshy brown.

Length 9; wing 5°75; tail 4; tarsus -8; bill from gape

1-2. Females rather smaller.

Distribution.—Common all over the low-country, except in

the wet forest zone, and ascends to about 4,000 feet in the

drier parts of the hills. It occurs throughout the greater

part of India and Burma, except on the higher hills and in the

large forests.

Habits, &c.—This species haunts scrub jungle, especially

low sandy scrub near the sea ; it is also fond of open tracts

near woods and chenas. Any one motoring after dark in the

wilder parts of the Island will probably flush dozens of them

off the road. During the day they roost on the bare ground,

between bushes, and can almost be trodden on before they get

up. The cry starts off with a slow chuk, which is repeated at

quickening intervals, and exactly resemble the sound of a

stone skimming across a stretch of ice. The breeding season

is about April, and again in August. The two eggs are

laid on the bare ground, generally in the shelter of a bush

PICARIAN BIRDS AND PARROTS OF CEYLON. 24)

They are fairly regular ovals, with a smooth texture, and a

ground colour of salmon pink, or some approximate shade,

marbled and mottled with brownish-red and faint purplish-

gray. Average size 1:05 by ‘78.

CAPRIMULGUS MACRURUS (Blanford, Vol. IIT., p. 188).

CAPRIMULGUS ATRIPENNIS (Legge, p. 340).

Horsfield’s Nightjar.

Description—Male : General colour above a minutely

mottled brownish-buff ; crown and hind-neck paler, with long

black spots on the middle feathers ; lower hind-neck slightly

tinged with rufous; scapulars with large velvety black

patches, some feathers with buff bars and margins ; wing

coverts mottled and stippled with black and buff; a white

spot on the inner web of the first primary and on each web of

second primary, a white bar across the third and fourth.

Tail feathers blackish-brown with lighter mottlings, the

two outermost pairs with broad white tips. Moustache stripe

whitish ; chin, throat, and breast a finely mottled brown ;

across the centre of the throat a patch of white feathers tipped

with buff and black : abdomen and lower tail coverts fulvous,

narrowly barred with dark brown.

In females the spots on the primaries and tail feathers are

smaller and buff coloured instead of white.

Bill reddish-brown, tip black ; iris deep brown; legs brown.

Length 10°5-11; wing 7; tail 5; tarsus +7; bill from

gape 1°35. Females are smaller. Wing about 6:5.

Distribution —More local than the preceding species, but

fairly well distributed over the low-country and up to about

3,500 feet. Blanford has united in one species three races :

C. atripennis, a small form from Southern India and Ceylon ;

C. macrurus, which ranges through the Malay Peninsula to

Australia ; and C. albonotatus, which occurs in Northern

India and Burma.

Habits, &c.—More of a forest bird than C. asiaticus, but

equally fond of squatting on paths after dark. It also

frequently perches on dead branches of trees. It is found

mainly in dry forest or chena, avoiding localities in which there

24.2 SPOLIA ZEYLANIGA.

are no large trees. The note is a fairly loud “‘ churr,’”’ preceded

by a low “ grog-grog-grog ” heard only when one is close to the

bird. The breeding season is from March to about May.

Two eggs, as usual, are laid on the bare ground, but Ceylon

eggs are not of the normal marbled type. Eight eggs in my

collection taken from five nests are pale buff sparingly spotted

with dark brown. Legge and A. L. Butler both give the same

description. Northern Indian birds appear to lay eggs of the

usual marbled type, so probably the southern race is a good

sub-species or even species. Average size of Ceylon eggs

1-14 by -88.

CAPRIMULGUS INDICUS (Blanford, Vol. III., p. 190). .

CAPRIMULGUS KELAARTI (Legge, p. 337).

The Jungle Nightjar.

Description.—Male : General colour above ash-gray mottled

with white, and finely pencilled with dark brown ; the centre

of the crown and nape, the back, scapulars, rump, and upper

tail coverts are heavily marked with black ; the scapulars have

pale buff margins ; wing coverts dusky brown with ocellate

whitish spots, which are faintly mottled with brown. Wing

quills dusky brown ; first primary notched on the outer web

with buff and with a white spot on the inner web ; the next

three primaries have a white bar right across the quill. The

tail is much mottled, and is irregularly barred with black.

All feathers, except the central pair, have large white spots

towards the end, the extreme tips being mottled brown.

There is an imperfect white moustache stripe ; centre of the

throat chestnut buff with black cross markings, on each side

of the throat the feathers have white bases, which form a white

patch ; the buff markings are continued round the sides of the

neck forming an imperfect collar ; fore-neck and breast dusky

brown, mottled with ash colour; abdomen and lower tail

coverts whitish-buff with brown bars.

Females are darker; the spots on the wing quills are

smaller, and buff instead of white ; the tail feathers have no

white tips, and the throat patches are buff.

Bill vinous-brown, paler at the gape and black at the tip :

iris deep brown ; legs and feet vinous-brown.

PICARIAN BIRDS AND PARROTS OF CEYLON. 243

Length 10°5; wing 7°25; tail 5; tarsus +6; bill from

gape 1°25. Females slightly smaller.

Distribution —Occurs mainly on the hills of the central

ranges down to about 3,000 feet, but Legge also found it in

the forests at the foot of Friar’s Hood in the Eastern Province.

Blanford again unites in one species three forms:

C. kelaarti, from Ceylon and South India ; C. indicus, which

oceurs over the greater part of India and Burma; and

C. jotaka, a larger bird which ranges from the Amur and

Japan through South-eastern Asia to New Guinea.

Habits, &c.—Occurs chiefly on the patanas, open forest

glades, and * eliyas”’ of the higher hills. During the day it

lies up among the rocks at the edge of the jungle, coming out

in the evening.

The cry is described by Legge as *‘ chump-pud ”’ repeated

at intervals. It is noisiest in the breeding season, which

occurs about April.

The usual two eggs are laid on the ground under a bush.

The ground colour is salmon-pink, with brown and purplish-

gray markings. Average size (in the small South Indian

race) 1:15 by °86.

Sub-order PODARGI.

Family PoDARGID-.

Genus Batrachostomus,

Frogmouths.

The Frogmouths closely resemble the Nightjars in their

general appearance and habits, but are readily distinguished

by the bill, which is extremely broad, and flat, rigid, and

horny, while the tip is hooked. There are no true rictal

bristles, but at the base of the bill on each side is a tuft of

bristly feathers. There are similar tufts in front of the eyes,

while the feathers of the ear tufts also end in bristles. The

wings are rounded and short. The nest is either a structure of

twigs, or a pad of moss, &c., placed on a branch. The eggs,

one or two in number, are white and glossless. Frogmouths

are found in South India, the Eastern Himalayas, South-

eastern Asia, and Australasia. One species occurs in Ceylon.

244 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

BATRACHOSTOMUS MONILIGER (Blanford, Vol. III., p. 196;

Legge, p. 331).

The Ceylonese Frogmouth.

Description—Male: In a beautiful gray bird from the

North-Central Province the general colour of the upper

plumage is lichen-gray, mottled with soft black. The feathers

of the crown and back end in black spots with a minute tip of

white or buff; an indistinct white collar on the hind-neck ;

the outer feathers of the scapulars almost entirely mottled

white, with the same terminal black spots and white specks as

on the crown feathers, the inner scapulars are pale only on the

outer web. Some of the wing coverts have conspicuous white

spots. Primary and outer secondary quills dull blackish-

brown, notched with black or rufous on the outer web ; tail

mottled gray with narrow wavy dark cross bars. Under

surface the same mottled gray as the back, with an imperfect

white gorget ; the abdomen much paler. Some birds, probably

older, are less mottled and much more rufous.

Females are reddish-brown with faint blackish mottlings,

and have an indistinct white collar, sometimes wanting, on

the hind-neck ; there are minute black tips to a few of the

scapulars, and white spots on a few of the longer wing coverts ;

the tail feathers bear traces of narrow dark bars.

The feathers of the throat have sub-terminal black bars and

white fringes ; a few similar feathers are scattered over the

abdomen.

Bill olive-brown, paler on the lower mandible ; iris dull

yellow ; legs yellow or fleshy brown.

Dimensions vary considerably ; length 7°75—9 ; wing 4° 3-5 ;

tail 44°75 ; tarsus about 5; bill from gape about 1°4.

Distribution.—Occurs in the heart of the jungle probably

all over the Island, but very seldom seen. Specimens have

been obtained from sea level to nearly 6,000 feet up. It is

also found in the Wynaad and Travancore.

Habits, &c.—A sluggish nocturnal bird frequenting thick

bamboo jungle or dense forest growths. During the day it

lies fast asleep perched across a branch with its bill turned

PICARIAN BIRDS AND PARROTS OF CEYLON. 245

upwards. A. L. Butler reported it as common round Medagama

in Uva, and describes the cry as a rapid “ coorroo, coorroo,

coorroo.”” Legge also noticed a chuckling cry as fairly

common in the northern forest tract and in Ratnapura, and

attributed it to this species, which is more abundant than

generally supposed. The nest is a small pad of dead leaves,

lichen, &c., woven in with vegetable down, and placed in the

fork of a sapling at some height from the ground. The

breeding season is probably from Christmas to April. The

single egg is pure white and glossless ; the texture is fine, but

the shell is rather fragile and porous ; the shape is long and

eylindrical, with little difference between the two ends.

Average measurement about 1°19 by °80.

Order TROGONES.

Family TRoGoNID®.

Genus Harpactes.

Trogons.

The Trogons form a well-marked group of forest birds

found in the tropical regions of Asia and America, and in

Africa south of the Sahara. They are noted for their brilliant

colours, soft plumage, and tender skin, and may be told apart

from all other birds by the structure of their feet. The first

and second toes are turned backwards, the third and fourth

forwards. Herein they differ from the zygodactylic orders,

in which the first and fourth toes are turned backwards. The

bill is short, strong, and wide ; the tip of the upper mandible is

hooked and notched ; the nostrils and chin are covered with

bristles. In the only Indian genus the wing is short and

rounded ; the tail is long, with broad feathers, which are

square-tipped in adults and pointed in young birds; the tarsi

are short and half feathered ; the feet are small.

All Indian species feed on insects, captured mainly while

flying, but sometimes picked up from the ground. They breed

in the hollows of rotten stumps or branches, laying three

creamy white eggs on the bare wood. Only one species is

found in Ceylon.

8 6(5)20

246 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

HARPACTES FASCIATUS (Blanford, Vol. III., p. 199;

Legge, p. 269).

The Malabar Trogon.

Description—Male : Head, neck, and upper breast dull

black, the breast slightly tinged with slate gray; back,

scapulars, and the short wing coverts along the forearm

yellowish-brown ; rump and upper tail coverts slightly paler.

Wings mainly black; the unexposed bases of the primary

quills are white, and all primaries, except the first, have

a well-defined white outer edge; outer webs of secondary

quills, the whole of the tertiaries, and the wing coverts, except

those on the forearm, black, daintily barred with fine, close

set, wavy white lines. The middle tail feathers are chestnut,

tipped with black, in the next two pairs the black increases on

the inner web, while the three outer pairs have black bases and

long white tips. A white band across the chest divides the

dark upper breast trom the pale crimson of the rest of the lower

plumage.

Females: Head and neck olive-brown; upper breast

lighter brown ; chin blackish ; the bars on the wing coverts

and inner wing are light brown instead of white, while the

second and third pair of tail feathers have more chestnut.

There is no white chest band, and the under parts from the

lower chest to the vent are brownish-buff.

Immature males have a brownish head and neck, the bars

on the wings are fulvous, the chest feathers are mixed with

gray, and the breast and abdomen with rusty buff.

Bill deep blue ; iris dark brown ; legs grayish-blue.

Length 11; wing 4°7; tail 5°7; tarsus -6; bill from

gape 1. Females slightly smaller. Indian birds are larger.

Distribution.—Occurs in high forest all over the Island. It is

also found on the Malabar Coast and in parts of Central India.

Habits, &c.—May be found in thick forest. The birds

generally go about in pairs and spend most of their time

perched bolt upright on a large branch, flying out now and

again to catch insects. The breeding season is about May.

Three very glossy pale buff eggs are laid in a hollow in a rotten

stump 6 to 12 feet off the grourid. Average size about *94

by °82. |.

PICARIAN BIRDS AND PARROTS OF CEYLON. 247

Order COCCYGES.

Family CucuLip.

The Cuckoos, Koels, Malkohas, and Coucals are comprised

in one family—Cuculide—which is united with an African

group, the Plantain-eaters—Musophagide, to form the

Order Coccyges.

The birds of this order show some affinities in their anatomy

with the Parrots and also with the Game birds. The Cuculide

are found almost all over the world, but are most humerous in

the tropics. The feet are zygodactylic, the first and fourth

toes being directed backwards. The young are hatched

naked, and acquire their feathers without passing through a

downy stage. The family is divided by Blanford into two

sub-families : the Cuculine, or true Cuckoos, which have the

tarsus feathered in front, and the Phenicophaine, in which

the tarsus is naked.

Sub-family Cuculine.

Cuckoos.

The true Cuckoos are a curious group of birds with parasitic

breeding habits. Nearly all the species, instead of pairing,

indulge in promiscuous intercourse, while the eggs are placed

in the nests of other birds. In most cases the females appear

to lay their eggs on the ground, and convey them in their bills

to the chosen nest. As soon as the young cuckoos grow large

enough, they eject the young of their foster parents from the

nest.

Cuckoos are found nearly all over the world ; most species

are migratory, or partially so. They are wholly or mainly

insectivorous. The bill is of moderate size, slightly curved

towards the tip, and pointed ; the wing is more or less pointed,

and the tarsus more or less feathered in front. In most

genera the measurement of the tail is equal, or nearly equal

to that of the closed wing. Im one genus, Coccystes, it is

much longer. The last-named genus is also differentiated by

a pointed crest and rather rounded wings, and forms a connect-

ing link between the typical forms of the present sub-family

248 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

and the Phaenicophaine. The various species of the genera

OCuculus and Hierococcyx are very hawk-like in their flight and

outward appearance, but may be recognized by their head and

bill, which are much longer in profile than those of a bird of

prey, and by their zygodactylic feet. The genus Surniculus

closely mimics the Black Drongo.

Those who care to know more about the breeding habits

and eggs of this group will find an interesting series of articles

with coloured plates in Volume XVII. of the Journal of the

Bombay Natural History Society.*

Ten species, which include representatives of all the seven

Indian genera, are found in Ceylon, but several of them

are rare migrants, and one is rather a doubtful inclusion

in our list.

Rough Key to Ceylon Cuculine.

A.—No crest ; tarsus feathered.

I.—Wing over 5°6 ; appearance hawk-like.

(a) Tail not regularly cross-barred; primary quills

twice the length of secondaries. Genus Cuculus.

(1) Wing 8 or over; tail same shade of brown

throughout.

C. canorus (The Cuckoo).

(2) Wing about 6.

©. poliocephalus (The Small Cuckoo).

(3) Wing about 7°5; a broad black band at end of

tail.

C. micropterus (The Indian Cuckoo).

(b) Tail regularly cross-barred ; primary quills half

as long again as secondaries.

Hierococcyx varius (The Common Hawk Cuckoo).

*«The Oology of Indian Parasitic Cuckoos” (J. B. N. H. 8&.,

Vol. XVIL., pp. 72, 351, 678), by E. C. Stuart Baker.

PICARIAN BIRDS AND PARROTS OF CEYLON. 249

II.—Wing 5 inches or under and comparatively shorter,

primaries only one-third longer than secondaries.

(a) Bill fairly slender, not compressed ; wing about

4°5; adult plumage unbarred ashy-gray; im-

‘mature birds suffused with rufous on throat and

chest, and with barred upper plumage.

Cacomantis passerinus (Indian Plaintive Cuckoo).

(6) Bill stouter and compressed ; wing about 5 ; no

distinct immature dress ; plumage always barred ;

no rufous on throat and chest.

Penthoceryx Sonnerati (Banded Bay Cuckoo).

III.—Sexes dissimilar ; upper plumage metallic green or

bronze ; wing about 4°4.

Chrysococcyx maculatus (Emerald Cuckoo).

IV.—Plumage black; appearance mimics that of the

Drongo ; wing about 5.

Surniculus lugubris (The Drongo Cuckoo).

B.—A distinct crest; tarsus feathered only at the base.

Genus Coccystes.

(a) Wing under 6 ; upper parts black.

C. jacobinus (Pied Crested Cuckoo).

(b) Wing over 6, and mainly chestnut coloured ; a

white collar.

C. coromandus (Red-winged Crested Cuckoo).

CucuLus canorus (Blanford, Vol. EO 205):

Legge, p. 221).

The Cuckoo.

Description.—Adult : Upper plumage ashy-gray, paler, and

tinged with bluish on the rump and upper tail coverts ; wing

quills brown, the inner webs with deep notches of white ;

tail feathers blackish-brown with white tips, the margin of the

inner webs spotted with white, and a few white markings along

the shafts. Throat and fore-neck pale ashy-gray, blending

on the sides of the neck into the darker hue of the upper

250 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

plumage ; rest of lower parts and wing lining white with

narrow wavy bars of brownish-black.

Young, First Stage: Feathers of upper parts dark brown,

barred with rufous and edged with white. A white spot on

the nape. Lower plumage broadly barred with brownish-

black and white ; tail browner than in adults and more

boldly spotted ; as the birds grow up the rufous bars on the

upper plumage are lost, except on the wings.

Second Stage : The black bars on the under parts become

narrower ; the upper plumage, wings, and tail are barred with

pale rufous. As the birds reach maturity the white nape spot

disappears, while ashy patches appear on the upper parts and

spread until they wholly replace the rufous bars.

Bill dark horn colour, orange-yellow at the gape, and

yellowish on the edges and at the base ; iris yellow; legs

yellow. In young birds the lower mandible is pale green

and the iris brown.

Length about 13; wing 8-9; tail about 7; tarsus ‘8 ;

bill from gape 1°2. The dimensions are variable.

Distribution —The Common English Cuckoo is one of our

rarest hill migrants. Two or three specimens have been

obtained during the north-east monsoon in Dikoya and

Kotmale and Layard once shot a specimen in Colombo while |

migrating. It is found practically over the whole of the Old

World, breeding in the north and centre of its range, and

wintering in the tropics, occasionally going as far south as

Australia.

Habits, &c.—Should be looked for on the borders of woods.

The well-known callis uttered only by the male in the breeding

season, so is not likely to be heard in Ceylon. In flight and

appearance it is singularly like a hawk. It feeds on cater-

pillars, grubs, and insects.

CUCULUS POLIOCEPHALUS (Blanford, Vol. ITI., p. 208;

Legge, p. 231).

The Small Cuckoo.

Description.—Adult : Very similar to the last species,

but considerably smaller ; the black bars on the breast are

broader.

PICARIAN BIRDS AND PARROTS OF CEYLON. 251

Young birds pass through three stages. In the nestling

plumage the feathers of the upper parts are blackish-brown

with white margins; chin and throat almost wholly black ;

rest of lower parts white broadly barred with black.

Second Stage: Chin and throat imperfectly barred with

white and tinged with rufous ; the white margins on the upper

plumage become smaller, while a white spot, sometimes

extending to a half collar, appears on the nape.

Third Stage: The white disappears from the nape ; the

upper parts become bright chestnut with black bars, as the

birds approach maturity the black bars disappear from the

neck, rump, and tail coverts, while the throat and breast are

tinged with rufous.

Lastly, the ashy adult plumage appears in patches which

spread. All the changes from one phase to another are

gradual.

- Bill blackish, the gape and the base of the lower mandible

yellow ; iris brown ; legs and feet yellow.

Length about 10; wing about 6; tail 5-6; tarsus +75;

bill from gape 1.

Distribution — Breeds in the Himalayan countries, China,

and Japan. In winter it migrates southwards, and has

occasionally been recorded from Ceylon. It also occurs in

‘ Madagascar and Africa south of the Equator.

Habits, &c.—Appears to be a very tame bird, “frequenting

low trees and stunted jungle near open places ”’ (Legge). The

cry appears to be uttered only in the breeding season, and is a

loud, harsh call of several syllables.

CUCULUS MICROPTERUS (Blanford, Vol. TII., p. 210;

Legge, p. 228).

The Indian Cuckoo.

Description.—Adult : Upper plumage ashy-brown, grayer on

the back of the neck and head ; the wing quills have deep

notches of white on the inner webs. Tail light smoky brown,

with a broad dark sub-terminal bar and a white tip. The

tail feathers also have white or buff marks on the edges, and

on the shafts white spots, which on the outer feathers form

irregular bars. Throat and neck pale gray, sides of the face

252 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

darker ; rest of lower parts creamy white with broad black

bars. The bars are narrower and more distant on the under

tail coverts and wing lining.

Females are browner on the throat and neck.

Immature birds are brown above; the head and neck

mottled with white and rufous ; the feathers of the back and

wings tipped with rufous ; lower parts buff, barred with dark

brown ; the markings on the tail are more rufous and banded.

The change to adult plumage is gradual.

Bill horny black, the lower mandible fleshy ; iris brown ;

legs yellow.

Length about 12°25; wing about 7°5; tail 6°25; tarsus

°8; bill from gape 1°25.

Distribution.—Said to be rare in Ceylon, and apparently

a migrant. Specimens have been recorded from various

localities both in the low-country and in the hills. In the

breeding season it is found in the Himalayas and Assam hills,

and ranges north to Eastern Siberia, China, and Japan. In

winter it is found over most of India, though rarer in the south,

and extends south-eastwards through Burma, &c., to the

Malay Archipelago.

Habits, &c.—This species has a very hawk-like appearance.

It keeps to the tops of trees in tall forest, especially on hill

slopes, and is a very shy bird. The call is described as a

melodious double note of two syllables in each part, represented

by its Bengali name of ‘‘ Boukotako.” It may be the bird

whose call is not uncommonly heard in the Eastern Province,

where it is known as ‘‘ Captain Philpots.” I have also heard

this call in the Medagama hills and near Polonnaruwa, but

have never seen the bird or met any one who has done so.

Hrerococcyx vaRius (Blanford, Vol. III., p. 213 ;

Legge, p. 240).

The Common Hawk Cuckoo.

Description.—Adult : Upper plumage dark ash-gray, darkest

on the back and palest on the rump and upper tail coverts.

Wing quills browner, with broad white bars on the inner webs ;

tail ash-brown crossed with four or five bars of blackish-

brown, each of which is bordered behind with a pale rufous

PICARIAN BIRDS AND PARROTS OF CEYLON. 253

band. Lores, cheeks, and ear coverts bluish ash colour ; chin

and throat whitish ; fore-neck and breast rufous mixed with

pale ash colour; the rest of the lower parts shade from rufous

on the breast to white on the lower tail coverts, and are barred

with ashy-gray.

Young birds are dark brown above with rufous crossbars ;

the lower parts are tinged with rufous and marked from the

throat to the abdomen with rufous-brown drop-shaped mark-

ings ; tail as in adults, but more rufous. The adult plumage

is gradually assumed.

Bill horny black on the upper mandible, lower mandible and

gape yellowish ; iris in adults yellow or orange, in young

brown ; legs and feet yellow.

Length about 13°5; wing 7:5; tail 6°75; tarsus ‘95;

bill from gape 1°25. Dimensions are rather variable, and

females are smaller than males.

Distribution —A migrant to Ceylon, arriving early in

November, and making at once for the hills. It is found as a

resident over all India westward of the Bay of Bengal, except

in the Punjab, Sind, and Assam.

Habits, d&:c.—This is the true ‘“‘ Brain-fever Bird.” Its ery

is a piercing ‘‘ pipeeha,”’ repeated several times in an ascending

scale. In Ceylon it is found in big jungle, especially on the

borders of the grassy “‘ eliyas ’’ in the higher ranges. It does

not appear to be very abundant.

CACOMANTIS PASSERINUS (Blanford, Vol. IIT., p. 216).

CUCULUS PASSERINUS (Legge, p. 235).

The Indian Plaintive Cuckoo.

Description.—Adult : Upper plumage dark ash colour with

a greenish gloss on the mantle. Wing quills brown, with a

white patch near the base of the inner webs. Tail feathers

nearly black, with white tips and oblique bands of white on

the inner webs, most noticeable on the outer feathers. Lower

plumage ashy, paler on the abdomen ; the edge of the wing,

the vent, and lower tail coverts are white.

Young birds are largely rufous, and pass through three

stages. At first the upper plumage is dark glossy brown, with

rufous edges to the feathers ; tail black, with broad white and

9 6(5)20

254 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA,

rufous bars and marks ; lower parts white, with dull brown

bars ; throat and breast tinged with rufous.

Second Stage: Upper parts and sides of head and neck

bright chestnut, with broad black bars on the back and wings,

and a few black spots on the head, hind-neck, rump, and tail

coverts ; tail feathers chestnut, with irregular black markings

on the shaft and a large black patch near the tip, which is

usually white.

Third Stage: The head, hind-neck, back, rump, and tail

coverts lose their spots, the dark bars on the wings change to

spots ; the tail feathers lose all black marks, save the patch

near the end, and many of the bars on the throat and breast

disappear, leaving these parts bright chestnut. Young birds

can always be distinguished from the next species by their

slightly smaller size, more slender bill, and by the rufous

tint of the throat,and breast. The change from one stage to

another is gradual.

Bill dark brown ; iris reddish- or grayish-brown; legs and

feet dingy yellow or grayish.

Length about 9; wing 4°5; tail 4°5; tarsus °65; bill from

gape |.

Distribution.— Apparently a migrant, appearing during the

north-east monsoon, and wandering all over the Island. It is

commonest in the drier parts of the low-country, and does not

ascend to any great height. It occurs over the greater part of

India.

Habits, &c.—This species frequents low and scrubby jungle,

the edges of open spaces round tanks, &c. It is a restless and

rather wary bird. In India during the breeding season it

has a plaintive, ventriloquistic note, described by Jerdon as

‘“ ka-veer, ka-vee-eer.’’ During its stay in Ceylon it appears

to be silent. A few birds may possibly remain and breed in

Ceylon, as the species is resident over the greater part of its

range in India. The eggs have been found in the nest of the

Tailor Bird—O. sutorius. These are of a white type, rather

larger than the eggs of its host, with a few reddish spots.

Another type of egg is blue, with even more scanty spots. In

India it also lays in the nests of the Common Wren Warbler

(P. inornata) and the Yellow-eyed Babbler (P. sinensis).

PICARIAN BIRDS AND PARROTS OF CEYLON. 255

PENTHOCERYX SONNERATI (Blanford, Vol. IIT., p. 219).

CUCULUS SONNERATI (Legge, p. 233).

The Banded Bay Cuckoo.

Description.—In this species the adult plumage remains

barred, and resembles that of the immature bird. Upper

plumage dark brown, lustred with green and barred with

rufous ; forehead more or less mottled with white ; wing quills

dark brown, the outer webs with a narrow rufous margin, and

the inner with a broad rufous white border; middle tail

feathers brown with indented rufous edges ; the other feathers

have white tips, and the rufous borders increase, the outer-

most feathers being mainly rufous with irregular brown bars.

The lower parts from chin to tail coverts, together with the

sides of the head and neck, are buffy-white with many narrow,

wavy crossbars of dark brown ; the ear coverts are darker.

Bill black above and at the tip, greenish-yellow underneath ;

iris brownish or yellowish-red ; legs and feet brownish-slaty,

or bluish-lead colour.

Length about 10; wing 5; tail 4°85; tarsus *7 ; bill from

gape 1-1. Females rather smaller : wing 4°75.

Distribution. Resident in Ceylon ; found almost all over

the Island ; commonest in the Eastern Province, but nowhere

numerous. Mr. Stuart Baker informs me that the Ceylonese

form is a good sub-species, recognizable at a glance from

typical P. sonnerati, a reddish form, which occurs in India and

Burma, by its almost blackish colouration. He has done me

the honour of naming the Ceylon sub-species P. sonnerati

waiti. Allied sub-species occur in Java and Malaya.

Habits, &c.—Frequents the edges of tanks where there are

dead trees, also chenas and the park country. It isa shy bird,

keeping to the tops of trees. It is noisy in the mornings and

evenings, giving out a curious whistle, which Legge represents

by “ whi-whip, whi-whip—whi-whip, whi-whip.” It has also

a call note, beginning in a low key, changing to a higher, and

then dying away.

In India this Cuckoo is reported as laying its eggs in the

nests of the Southern Red-whiskered Bulbul (O. fuscicaudata),

a species not found in Ceylon ; also in the nests of the Small

256 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

White-throated Babbler (D. albogularis) and the Common

Bush Bulbul (4. tiphia). An egg taken from the oviduct

is described as brownish-pink, speckled and freckled with

reddish-brown. ‘The size is about -76 by °63; the shape a

broad blunt oval, slightly pointed at one end. The texture is

smooth and fine and somewhat glossy.

Curysococcyx MACULATUS (Blanford, Vol. III., p. 222).

CucULUS MACULATUS (Legge, p. 238).

The Emerald Cuckoo.

Description —Adult Male : Head, neck, upper breast, and

upper parts glossy green tinged with bronze ; wing quills brown ;

a white patch on the basal portion of the inner webs of most

of the primaries ; outer tail feathers tipped with white, the

outermost pair with three white bars; lower breast, wing

lining, and abdomen banded with white and metallic green or

bronze ; under tail coverts green with narrow white bars.

Females and Immature Males: Crown and back of neck

pale rufous, generally barred with white and dark brown ;

back, wings, and tail metallic green tinged with yellow or

coppery bronze ; wing quills brown with rufous patches on

the inner webs; central tail feathers tipped with coppery

bronze ; outer feathers barred with chestnut and black and

tipped with white ; under surface barred white and copper.

Bill orange-yellow, black at the tip; iris red-brown ; legs

and feet reddish-brown.

Length 7; wing 4°4; tail 2:9; tarsus ‘6; bill from gape

85.

Distribution.—The specimen figured in Brown’s “* Illustra-

tion of Indian Zoology, 1776,” is said to have been obtained

in Ceylon by the Dutch Governor Loten. As the bird has

never been seen in the Island since, its place in the Ceylon list

isa little doubtful. It occurs in the Lower Himalayas and

the Assamese hills, and ranges eastward through Burma and

Malaya to Sumatra. It is nowhere common.

Habits, &¢—This species keeps to the tops of trees in forest.

It feeds entirely on insects.

PICARIAN BIRDS AND PARROTS OF CEYLON. 257

SURNICULUS LUGUBRIS (Blanford, Vol. III., p. 223 ;

Legge, p. 243).

The Drongo Cuckoo.

Description.—Adult : Black all over, with a green and

purple gloss, which is brightest on the upper plumage ; there

are white patches on the inner webs of the primary quills ;

the outermost tail feathers are crossed with slanting bars of

white, and there are a few white spots on the next pair ; there

is also a little white on the thighs and lower tail coverts.

Fledglings are speckled all over with white, each feather,

except the wing quills, being marked with a clear white

spot on the centre near the tip ; these white spots gradually

disappear, but often a few spots remain after maturity on the

nape and upper tail coverts.

Bill black ; iris brown ; legs blackish. Length about 10;

wing 5°1; tail 5°5 to end of longest quill; tarsus *60; bill

from gape 1°0.

Distribution —Locally distributed throughout the low-

country and up to about 4,000 feet; in some districts it is

possibly a partial migrant. In the peninsula of India it is

very rare, but it is commoner on the Himalayas west of

Nepaul, and ranges through Burma to Borneo and Java.

Habits, &c.—This species frequents the undergrowth and

low branches of trees throughout the northern forest tract ;

it is also found in scrub jungle, chena clearings, and on patanas

dotted with trees. It is by no means shy. The call, heard

chiefly during the north-east monsoon, is a clear whistle of six

ascending notes. The food consists of seeds, as well as of

caterpillars and beetles. As the adults in their appearance

closely mimic Drongos, it was for long supposed that this

species deposited its eggs in the nest of the Drongo. It will

be seen, however, that the fledgling is most unlike that of the

Drongo, and I have lately obtained clear evidence that in

Ceylon this Cuckoo lays in the nest of the Black-fronted

Babbler (R. nigrifrons), as in May, 1917, in the Puttalam

District, a nest of this species was brought to me tenanted by

a young Drongo Cuckoo. Previously to this, Mr. E. C. Stuart

Baker had seen a strange egg taken by me from a Black-

fronted Babbler’s nest and had assigned it tentatively to this

258 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Cuckoo. This egg was taken in the Southern Province also

in May. Inshape it isan elliptical oval, measuring *83 by °61.

The ground colour is white, with a very faint pink tinge,

fairly profusely spotted with reddish-brown and dull inky

purple. This Cuckoo may also possibly lay in the nests of the

Bush Bulbul (44. tiphia).

CoccysTEs JACOBINUS (Blanford, Vol. III., p. 225 ;

Legge, p. 246).

The Pied Crested Cuckoo.

Description.—Adult : Upper plumage and sides of the head

black, glossed with green and purple. Wing quills brown with

a broad white band across them ; the tail feathers have white

tips, which on the central feathers are narrow and tend to be

abraded ; under parts and wing lining dirty yellowish-white.

Immature birds are brown above ; the markings on the

wings and tail are buff; the chin and throat are gray ;

remainder of lower parts buff.

Bill black ; iris reddish-brown ; legs leaden blue.

Length 12 to 13; wing 5°5 to 6; tail about 6°5; tarsus

OF mptlislec

Distribution.—Found fairly widely over the low-country,

commonest near the sea. It is resident in the drier zone, but

in the wet districts it is apparently a migrant during the

north-east monsoon. It may be found up to about 3,000 feet.

It occurs throughout India and Upper Burma, and ranges

through South-west Asia to the whole of South Africa south

of the Sahara.

Habits, &c.—Usually found in scrub jungle, the fringes

of open spaces in the forest zone, and in open: plains. It is

generally met with singly or in pairs, but in the Hambantota

District I have seen flocks of as many as twelve perched on

low rushes in swampy ground and hunting for flies. The note

is a distinctive high metallic whistle. The eggs are laid in the

nests of the Southern Indian Babbler, Crateropus striatus, and

the breeding season appears to be as extended as that of their

host, for I have taken eggs from November to June, and

again in August. I have several times found two of these eggs

PICARIAN BIRDS AND PARROTS OF CEYLON. 259

in one nest, but never more. They closely resemble the

Babbler’s eggs in size and colour, but are generally of a

slightly different shade. They are broadly elliptical in shape,

sometimes with rather square ends, the shell is hard, the

surface smooth, satiny, and slightly pitted, while the ‘* white ”’

is greenish instead of being colourless as in Babbler’s eggs.

The average of a dozen Ceylon eggs is *94 by °76.

CoccYSTES COROMANDUS (Blanford, Vol. III., p. 226 ;

Legge, p. 249).

The Red-winged Crested Cuckoo.

Description.—Crown, nape, and sides of head black ; a blue-

green gloss on the longish crest ; a clearly marked half collar

of white on the hind-neck. The back, scapulars, inner wing

coverts, and tertiaries are black glossed with green ; the

remaining coverts and the wing quills chestnut ; rump, upper

tail coverts, and tail black, the two former glossed with green,

the last with purple ; outer tail feathers narrowly tipped with

white. The throat and fore-neck are chestnut-buff ; breast

and upper abdomen white ; lower abdomen, vent, and thighs

dusky gray ; under tail coverts black glossed with violet.

In young birds the feathers of the upper parts are tipped

with rufous ; chin and throat whitish ; under tail coverts and

edges of the tail feathers buff.

Bill black ; iris hazel brown ; legs and feet lead colour.

Length 15 to 16; wing about 6°4; tail 9°5; tarsus 1;

bill from gape 1°4

Distribution —A rare bird, found here and there throughout

the Island up to about 4,000 feet. The majority of the

specimens appear to be migrants, arriving in October and

leaving about Easter, but it is possible that in the northern

forest tract some birds stay all the year round, and I have an

egg found in the Puttalam District, which probably belongs to

this species. This Cuckoo is very rare in the Indian Penin-

sula, but ranges from Nepaul, through Assam and Burma, to

China and the Malay Archipelago.

Habits, &c.—Found singly or in pairs in thick scrub and

thorny jungle. It feeds on caterpillars, beetles, &c. In the

north of the Island the eggs may be looked for in the nests of

260 SPOLIA ZEYLANIGA.

the Southern Indian Babbler, C. striatus, or possibly in those

of the Magpie Robin, Copsychus saularis. They resemble

those of the last species, but are larger and of a slightly paler

blue. An egg from near Puttalam, which probably belongs

to this species, measures 1°04 by °83. The average size of

Indian eggs is about 1°06 by °90.

Sub-family Phenicophaine.

Koels and Coucals.

The Koels, Malkohas, and Coucals are a cuculine group,

typically represented in Ceylon by the familiar Crow Pheasant,

frequently but erroneously termed the ‘“‘ Jungle Crow ”’ and

the Koel. They are all birds of moderate size, with short,

rounded wings and long, broad tails; the bill is generally

stout, and the upper mandible much curved ; the tarsus is

always naked. Most of them are ground feeders, and are

found in thorny scrub, thick jungle, or long grass. Their

powers of flight are poor, but they slip through tangled thorn

bushes and undergrowth with surprising ease. The Koel,

Eudynamis honorata, like the true Cuckoos, is parasitic in its

nesting habits, and its eggs approach in colour and markings

those of the crows, in whose nests it lays. The other members

of the sub-family build their own nests and lay chalky-white

eggs. Seven species representing five genera are found in

Ceylon. Several of them are rare or local, while one—Pheni-

cophes pyrrhocephalus—placed in a genus by itself, is peculiar

to the Island.

Rough Key to Ceylon Pheenicophaine.

A.—Tail and wing measurements equal; male glossy

black ; female glossy brown speckled with white.

EHudynamis honorata (Koel).

I.—Tail tipped with white.

Tail measurement longer than that of wing.

(1) Upper plumage gray, glossed with green ; naked

skin of face bluish.

Rhopodytes __viridirostris (Small Green-billed

Malkoha).

PICARIAN BIRDS AND PARROTS OF CEYLON. 261

(2) Upper plumage glossy green; naked skin of

face red.

Phenicophes pyrrhocephalus(Red-faced Malkoha).

(3) Plumage sandy brown ; back and breast feathers

spiny.

Taccocua leschenaulti (The Sirkeer Cuckoo).

If.—Plumage black ; wings chestnut. Genus Centropus.

(a) Wing lining black.

(1) Bill black.

C. sinensis (Common. Coucal).

(2) Bill green.

C. chlororhynchus (Ceylonese Coucal).

(6) Wing lining chestnut.

C. bengalensis (Lesser Coucal).

EUDYNAMIS HONORATA (Blanford, Vol. ITT., p. 228 ;

Legge, p. 251).

The Indian Koel.

Description.—Male : Black all over with a bluish-green gloss.

Female: Upper plumage brown with an olive gloss; the

head, black, and wing coverts speckled, and the wing and

tail quills barred with white ; throat and fore-neck brown

with white streaks, which change to wavy crossbars on the

rest of the lower parts.

Young birds at first are black like the males, then become

barred and spotted like the females, only the spots and bars

on the upper plumage are rufous. Males then gradually

assume their adult plumage, and females their adult markings.

Bill dull green ; iris crimson ; legs plumbeous.

Length about 16; wing 7°5; tail about 7°5; tarsus 1°2 ;

bill from gape 1°5.

Distribution Common all over the low-country, but

rather more local in the north than in the south. It appears

to wander about to some extent, but does not ascend the hills

to any great height. It occurs practically all over India,

except on the higher slopes of the Himalayas, and ranges

through Burma to China and the Malay Archipelago.

10 6(5)20

262 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Habits, &c.—A noisy bird, familiar to most people in Ceylon.

Its cry of “ kuil, kuil ” is uttered most persistently during the

breeding season ; the male has another call ‘ ho-iy-o.”” The

birds skulk from tree to tree, and seldom remain long in the

open. They feed on fruit for the most part. The breeding

season is in June and July. Near the coast, where the Gray

Crow is found, the eggs are laid in the nests of that species,

elsewhere in the nests of the Black Crow. As many as five

Koel’s eggs have been found in one Crow’s nest, and I have

several clutches of four. They are noticeably smaller than

Crow’s eggs, and, as a rule, more dumpy. The ground colour

is a grayish- or brownish-green, blotched and spotted with

reddish-brown. The average size of a fair Ceylon series is

1°23 by °94.

RHOPODYTES VIRIDIROSTRIS (Blanford, Vol. III., p. 231).

ZANCLOSTOMUS VIRIDTROSTRIS (Legge, p. 258).

The Small Green-billed Malkoha.

Description—Upper parts gray with a greenish gloss, most

noticeable on the wings and tail; tail broadly tipped with

white ; under parts ashy ; the feathers of the throat and fore-

neck are forked, which gives these parts a streaky appearance ;

the breast and abdomen are more or less tinged with rufous.

Bill pale leaf-green ; iris blood-red ; a small naked patch of

bluish skin round the eye ; legs dusky greenish or bluish.

Length about 15°5; wing 5:25; tail 8°5 to 9°5; tarsus

1°35 ; bill from gape 1°35.

Distribution.—Found all over the low-country, but most

numerous in the drier parts of the Island. It does not appear

to ascend the hills to any great height. It also occurs in the

southern half of the Indian Peninsula.

Habits, &c.—Found in thickets and thorny scrub, flitting

through the bushes, but seldom coming out into the open. It

feeds on both fruit and insects. The breeding season appears

to extend throughout the year, as I have taken eggs from

January to November. The nest is rather a flimsy structure

of twigs placed at no great height from the ground in a thorny

bush. It often contains a sprig of green leaves, on which two

PICARIAN BIRDS AND PARROTS OF CEYLON. 263

or sometimes three eggs are laid. The bird sit fairly close.

The eggs are blunt ovals with little difference between the two

ends. They are dull white, and chalky in texture. Average

size 1:21 by °96.

PH@NICOPHAES PYRRHOCEPHALUS (Blantford, Vol. III., p. 234;

Legge, p. 255).

The Red-faced Malkoha.

Description.—Crown, sides, and back of neck black, glossed.

with green and streaked with white ; remainder of upper

plumage deep glossy green, the wing quills and tail with a

bluish lustre; tail feathers with long white tips, longest on the

outer feathers ; chin and feathered portion of cheeks white

with black shaft streaks ; throat and fore-neck glossy black ;

remainder of lower parts white.

The feathers of the head and neck are forked ; the whole

side of the face from the bill to the ears is covered with a short

stiff crimson, growth resembling rudimentary feathers.

Young birds have only a bare brick-red naked patch round

the eye ; the streaks on‘ the crown are dull gray ; the black

feathers on chin and throat are streaked with white ; the tail

feathers are shorter and less broadly tipped with white than

in adults.

Bill apple-green, paler below; iris in males brown, in

females white ; legs and feet bluish.

Length about 18; wing 6°25; tail 11; tarsus 1°4; bill

from gape 1°55.

Distribution.—Peculiar to Ceylon ; found in thick forest

and heavy jungle over most of the medium and wet zones. It

ascends the southern hill ranges as high as Haputale.

Habits, &c.—A very shy bird, not uncommon in the wilder

stretches of forest, but seldom seen near cultivation. It feeds

mainly on fruit, and travels about in small parties. The

breeding season appears to be about May. The nest probably

resembles that of the preceding species. The eggs, two or

three innumber, are also similar, but slightly less chalky on the

surface. They are short broad ellipses, practically the same

at both ends. Average measurement about 1°40 by 1°04.

264 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

TACCOCUA LESCHENAULT! (Blanford, Vol. III., p. 237

Legge, p. 266).

The Sirkeer Cuckoo.

Description.—Upper plumage olive or sandy brown, with a

gray-green gloss on the back and wings; the shafts of the

feathers on the head, neck, mantle, and chest are glossy black

and spiny. The middle tail feathers are of the same colour

as the back, the others blackish with broad white tips. The

chin and throat are pale buff or whitish ; fore-neck and upper

breast darker and grayish or brownish ; remainder of lower

plumage rufous, and much darker in some birds than in others.

Bill cherry-red with a yellowish tip ; iris reddish-brown ;

feet lead colour.

Length about 16; wing 6°1; tail 8°60; tarsus 1°6; bill

from gape 1°4.

Distribution Found mainly in the tract between the

Haputale hills and Hambantota, also on the eastern slopes

of the Uva and Central Province ranges and the park country

at their foot. Fairly widely distributed in the Indian Penin-

sula, but nowhere common.

Habits, &c.—A shy bird, found chiefly in the long grass of the

patanas and park country. It feeds almost entirely on the

ground. In South India the birds breed in March and April.

The nest is a loose cup of twigs lined with green leaves.

The three chalky-white eggs measure about 1°39 by 1°07.

CENTROPUS SINENSIS (Blanford, Vol. III., p. 239).

CENTROPUS RUFIPENNIS (Legge, p. 260).

The Coucal, Crow Pheasant, or Jungle Crow.

Description.—The entire plumage, except the wings, wing

coverts, and scapulars, black with a metallic gloss, which is

mainly purple on the hind-neck, back, and breast, and bluish-

green on the tail. The wing coverts, scapulars, and, in some

specimens, the inter-scapulars are chestnut. The tips of the

quills are dusky, the wing lining black.

Young birds are duller ; the upper parts are marked with

bars and spots of rufous or white ; the wings and coverts are

barred with black, the tail is dark brown with narrow whitish

bars; the lower parts dull black with grayish-white bars.

PICARIAN BIRDS AND PARROTS OF CEYLON 265

Albino specimens sometimes occur. Legge notices one in

which the body was white and the wings light brown, and there

is a pure white chick in the Colombo Museum collection.

Bill black ; iris crimson ; legs black.

Length 18; wing about 7°7; tail 9°75; tarsus 1-9; bill

from gape 1°75.

Distribution Found all over the Island, Blanford unites

in one species three fairly well-marked races which occur

respectively in Peninsular India, Northern India, and the

country from Assam to Burma ; the last race is identical with

typical Centropus sinensis from China.

Habits, &c.—Found everywhere, except in the heart of

heavy forests. It feeds on the ground on insects, small

reptiles, &c., and is not averse to the eggs and young of

smaller birds. It can run with considerable speed. The

flight is slowand heavy. The cry isa resounding ‘‘ kook-kook-

kook.’ The breeding season continues from March till about

September. The nest is a large globular affair of sticks, dry

leaves, and grass, placed in a thick bush or thorny tree. The

three chalky-white eggs are broad, oval in shape, and measure

about 1°34 by 1°14. :

CENTROPUS CHLORORHYNCUS (Blanford, Vol. IIL, p. 242 ;

Legge, p. 263).

The Ceylonese Coucal.

Description.—Similar to the last species, only rather smaller

and slighter ; the gloss on the breast, hind-neck, and upper

back is purple and bronze ; the wing coverts and wings are

darker chestnut, and the quill tips more dusky ; the feathers

of the crown and nape are longer and looser, and the bill pale

instead of black. The young have no distinct plumage.

Bill pale apple-green ; iris deep red or dull crimson ; legs

and feet black.

Length about 17; wing 6°4; tail9°25; tarsus 1°75; bill1°7.

Distribution.—Peculiar to Ceylon, and practically confined

to the tract between the Deduru-oya and the Nilveli-ganga.

It ascends the western slopes of the hills to about 2,500 feet.

It is commonest in the dense forests of the Western Province

and Ratnapura District, where the rainfall is heavy.

266 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Habits, &c.—An inhabitant of the deep jungle, where the

undergrowth is thick and tangled. It very seldom emerges

into the open. The cry is a sonorous “‘hoo-whoop-whoop,”’

given out in the morning and evening, or after rain.

The breeding season appears to last from April to July.

The nest and eggs are similar to those of the last species, only

a little smaller.

CENTROPUS BENGALENSIS (not in Legge ; Blanford,

Vol. IIT., p. 243, and Vol. IV., p. 485).

The Lesser Coucal.

Description —Considerably smaller than either of the last

two species, but the adult is similarly coloured ; the gloss on

the body plumage is purplish, and on the tail green ; the wings

are deep chestnut; the wing lining, however, is chestnut, and

not black.

Young birds at first are dark brown, spotted with rufous on

the head and neck, and barred with rufous on the back, wings

and tail; under parts rufous-white, with dark spots on the

throat and dark bars on the abdomen.

Second Stage : Sides and top of head and neck, the back,

scapulars, and wing coverts brown with white on the shafts ;

the upper tail coverts are lengthened, and they and the rump

are narrowly barred with black ; wings and tail as in adults,

save that the tail feathers are tipped with rufous and the wings

are more dusky ; lower parts are rufous-white speckled with _

dark brown on the throat, and with narrow dark bars on the

lower abdomen, flanks, and tail coverts. The changes from

one phase to another are gradual.

Adults : Bill and legs black; iris crimson. In the young

the bill and iris are yellowish, legs lead colour.

Length about 13 ; wing 5:4; tail 7; tarsus 1°6; bill from

gape 1-1. Females are larger : Jength 14°5; wing 6°7.

Distribution Mr. A. L. Butler found in the collection of a

native dealer a single skin procured in the North-Western

Province in April. 1896. It is possibly a rare resident. The

species is found in a few localities in Peninsular India. It is

commoner in Bengal, and ranges through Burma to Southern

China and Malaya.

PICARIAN BIRDS AND PARROTS OF CEYLON. 267

Habits, &c.—Somewhat similar to those of the common

Crow Pheasant, but this species is found mainly in high grass.

It feeds largely on grasshoppers. In India the breeding

season lasts from May to August. The nest is a domed

structure of long grass woven in among growing grass stems.

Two or three chalky-white eggs are laid, measuring about

7 by 1-01:

Order PSITTACI.

Family Psirracip®.

Parrots.

The Parrots form a distinct order, whose nearest affinities

are with the Owls and Hawks. The feet are zygodactylic ;

the bill is short, stout, and boldly hooked, the upper mandible

is loosely articulated to the skull and is movable ; the base of

the bill is covered by a cere of fleshy skin ; the tongue is thick

and fleshy. All species lay white eggs in a hollow excavated

in the stem or branch ofa tree. The young are naked when

hatched. Parrots are found all round the world, mainly

in the tropics, but one species occurs as far north as Carolina,

United States of America, others as far south as New Zealand

and Patagonia. They all have more or less the same habits,

feeding on fruits and seeds and going about in flocks. The

flight is swift and straight, and the cry a harsh scream. They

are not well represented in India, as only three genera belong-

ing to one family are found within Indian limits. In Ceylon

_ we have four species of the genus Palxornis and one species of

Loriculus. Out of these five species three are peculiar to the

Tsland.

Rough Key to Ceylon Parrots.

A.—Tail long ; the middle feathers much longer than the

rest. Genus Palxornis. —

(a) Head and body green; males with, females

without, a rose collar on hind-neck.

(1) Alarge red patch on wing coverts ; wing about 8.

P. eupatria (Large Ceylonese Paroquet).

(2) No red patch on wing coverts ; wing about 6°3.

P. torquatus (Rose-ringed Paroquet).

268 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

(b) Head and neck not green, or not wholly green.

(1) Head, in males red with a purple bloom, in

females bluish-gray ; upper back green.

P. cyanocephalus (Blossom-headed Paroquet).

(2) Crown and upper back gray ; a bright green

collar on neck.

P. calthrope (Layard’s Paroquet).

B.—Tail short ; size small; length about 5°5.

Loriculus indicus (Ceylonese Loriquet).

PALMHORNIS EUPATRIA (Blanford, Vol. III., p. 247 :

Legge, p. 168).

The Large Ceylonese Paroquet.

Description —Male: Upper plumage grass-green, most

vivid on the forehead, lores, and rump, and darker on the

wings ; a faint dark stripe from the nostril to the eye ; a rose-

pink collar round back and sides of neck, met by a broad black

stripe, which runs from the side of the neck to the lower

mandible. The nape just in front of the collar has a grayish-

blue bloom. A large dark-red patch on the secondary wing

coverts ; the first primary and the inner webs of the remaining

quills are dark brown. The central tail feathers pass from

green at the base into verditer blue, the tips being yellow.

Lower plumage dull pale-green, brightening a little on the

flanks and abdomen ; wing lining and lower tail coverts pale

green ; lower surface of tail dull yellow.

Females and young lack the rose collar and black mandi-

bular stripe.

Bill deep red, paler at the tip; iris pale yellow with a bluish-

gray inner circle ; legs and feet greenish or grayish lead colour.

Length about 19; wing about 8; tail up to 11°5; tarsus

‘75; bill from cere 1. Females rather smaller.

Distribution.—Peculiar to Ceylon, but closely allied forms

with probably only sub-specific differences occur throughout

the greater part of India and Burma. It is widely, but rather

locally, distributed throughout the low-country, and is most

numerous in the maritime districts of the northern half of

the Island ; rare above 1,000 feet, but occasionally found at

higher elevations.

PICARIAN BIRDS AND PARROTS OF CEYLON. 269

Habits, &c.—Found in flocks, generally round villages

where coconut plantations border on forest and jungle. The

birds usually roost in colonies in coconut groves, flocking with

loud screams towards their roosting ground just before sunset.

They feed on fruit, berries, and seeds.

The breeding season is from November to about March.

The birds usually select natural holes in trees on the outskirts

rather than in the interior of forests, increasing these holes to a

suitable depth and size. Two to four white glossless eggs are

laid. Average size about 1:2 by °95.

PALHZORNIS TORQUATUS (Blanford, Vol., III., p. 250;

Legge, p. 171).

The Rose-ringed Paroquet.

Description.—Smaller, but very similar to the last species,

and with the same sexual differences in the plumage. The

present species, however, lacks the red patch on the wing

coverts, and there is little or no yellow on the tips of the

central tail feathers. In the males the rose collar is generally

paler and narrower, and the bluish-gray bloom on the neck

in front of it is more pronounced. In some birds the green

plumage is tinged in places with yellow.

Bill, upper- mandible red, lower mandible blackish ; iris

pale yellow ; legs and feet dusky slate colour or greenish.

Dimensions are very variable : length about 15 ; wing 6°3 ;

tail 9; tarsus ‘6; bill from cere °85.

Distribution.—The most abundant species over the greater

part of the low-country, except in the wet zone ; it is not

found at any great elevation. It occurs throughout India ;

and ranges through Pegu to Cochin-China.

Habits, &c.—Found in flocks about villages and in open

lands or scrub jungle near coconuts. Like the last species,

it roosts in dense flocks in coconut groves, and is very noisy

when flymg home in the evening.

The breeding season is from Christmas time to about

April. Four or five white eggs are laid in a hole in a tree.

Ceylon eggs appear to be smaller than Indian, two in my

collection measure 1°15 by °85.

a 6(5)20

270 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA,

PALMORNIS CYANOCEPHALUS (Blanford, Vol. III., p. 251;

Legge, p. 174).

The Western Blossom-headed Paroquet.

Description—Male: Head red, tinged with a purple

bloom on the nape and lower cheeks; chin, throat, and

a narrow collar round the neck black; adjoining this

collar the sides of the neck and the hind-neck are verdigris

green ; back and scapulars olive-green ; wing coverts green

with a wash of verdigris ; a red patch on the middle coverts ;

inner wing quills green with pale edges and dusky black

shafts and inner margins; the black increases on the outer

quills, the first primary being almost wholly black ; rump

verdigris green. The central tail feathers are blue with

greenish bases and broad white tips ; in the next pair only the

outer web is blue, the inner web being yellowish-green and the

tip yellow ; in the remaining feathers the outer web is green,

the inner weband tip yellow. Lower plumage yellowish-green.

_ Females: Head slaty with a blue bloom on the crown and

nape ; the black collar and throat patch are lacking, being

replaced by a yellowish-green ring round the neck; no red

patch on the wing coverts.

Young birds are green, all over, and gradually assume the

coloured hood.

Bill, upper mandible orange-yellow, lower blackish-white

or yellowish ; iris white or yellowish-white ; legs and feet

dusky green.

Length about 13°5; wing 5°20; tail about 7°5; tarsus °5;

bill from cere ‘6. Females a little smaller.

Distribution—Common in many parts of the low-country,

but avoids the coast, and is distinctly scarce and local in the

northern forest tract. In the hills it is fairly common, up to

4,000 or 5,000 feet. It is found in suitable districts throughout

the greater part of India westwards of the Bay of Bengal.

Habits, &c.—This species feeds largely on grain and native

vegetables, and is found mainly round paddy fields and in

jungle chenas. Up-country it is partial to hillside patanas.

The breeding season is from February to May; the nest hole

is excavated generally in the smaller limbs of dead trees. The

eggs are white and glossless. They are usually four in number,

and average 1°0 by °81.

PICARIAN BIRDS AND PARROTS OF CEYLON. 271

PALHORNIS CALTHROPA (Blanford, Vol. III., p. 256 ;

Legge, p. 177).

Layard’s Paroquet.

Description.—Male : Forehead, lores, and a patch round the

eye green ; rest of head, nape, and upper back bluish-gray ;

lower back and upper tail coverts bluer ; a broad emerald

collar on the neck ; chin and a broad stripe on the side of the

neck dusky black; lower parts bright green; under tail

coverts yellowish ; wing coverts green, the smaller secondary

coverts rather yellower; wing quills as in the preceding

species, only the pale edges are not so noticeable ; tail feathers

a beautiful deep blue with yellow tips, the outer feathers

washed and edged with green.

Bill, upper mandible coral-red with a yellowish tip, lower

dusky red; iris greenish or yellowish-white ; legs and feet

greenish or lead-coloured.

_ Females are of a duller green on the face, and the upper

mandible is black. Young birds are green throughout, except

the tail, which is blue.

Length about 12; wing 5°5; tail 6; tarsus °6; bill from

cere *7. Females a little smaller.

Distribution —Peculiar to Ceylon. The common Paroquet

of the hill-country, but rather local, and in some localities

replaced by the Blossom-headed Paroquet. It also extends

into the forests at the foot of the hills.

Habits, &c.—A forest bird feeding on jungle fruits, such as

wild figs and wild cinnamon, also on flower buds. It is found

in fair-sized flocks on the outskirts of woods, in open spaces

in the jungle, and in the wooded gorges of patanas. The cry

is harsher than that of the last species. The breeding season

lasts from January to May; the nest and eggs are of the

usual type.

The nest hole is often in dead coconut trees, sometimes high

up in big forest trees. The eggs are from one to three in

number, the texture is dull and rather soft and porous.

Average size about °97 by °78.

Note.—Palzornis columboides (The Blue-winged Paroquet) is

said to have been recorded from Ceylon, but probably in error.

It is a hill species, more or less of the same type as P. calthropex,

22 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

and occurs in the hill forests of the Malabar Coast. It may be

recognized by the blue wing quills, and by the fact that the

breast as well as the crown and upper back are dove-gray

in males and greenish-gray in females. Length about 15;

wing 6°5; tail 8°5.

LoricuLus Inpicus (Blanford, Vol. LII., p. 262 ;

Legge, p. 180).

The Ceylonese Loriquet.

Description.—General colour of upper parts green ; crown

deep red passing into orange on the nape ; back and scapulars

faintly washed with orange ; rump and upper tail coverts

deep red ; wings and tail rather deeper green ; inner webs of

wing quills dusky black, the outer primary almost wholly

black ; cheeks and lower plumage paler green, the throat

faintly washed with blue ; under surface of wing and tail quills

verditer blue.

In young birds the crown is green, the crimson tint being

assumed. gradually.

Bill orange-red, paler at the tip; cere yellow ; iris white ;

legs and feet dusky yellow.

Length 5°5; wing 3°7; tail 1°75; tarsus 45; bill from

cere °5.

Distribution —Peculiar to Ceylon ; widely distributed in

many parts of the low-country, commonest in the south-west

of the Island, almost wholly absent from the arid maritime

region, and local in the northern forest tract. It is common

in the hills up to about 4,000 feet, and during the north-east

monsoon is found at even higher elevations.

Habits, &c.—Found in native gardens or in any jungle

which contains the fruit and flowers on which it feeds. It is

a ravenous eater, and is especially fond of kitul toddy, on

which it will gorge until stupefied. The flight is swift ; the

ery is a shrill little scream. The breeding season lasts from

March till June. For its nest it chooses a small natural

cavity in a tree, excavating the interior to a depth of 2 to 4

feet. The clutch consists of two or three eggs laid on a pad

of green leaves spread about an inch thick at the bottom of

the hole. They are white and glossless, and measure about

‘75 by °62.

Plate I.

Joicel, Be

Raicaor

Fic. 1.— XANTHOLEZMA H2MATOCEPHALA. | Fic. 3.—-MEROPS VIRIDIS.

Fic. 2.—CoRaAcrIAS INDICA. | Fig 4.—HaLcYON SMYRNENSIS.

Fie. 5.—UPupPa INDICA.

Plate II.

Bigeye

Bre. 3:

Fire. 4. ies,

Kia. 1.—MAcROPTERYX CORONATUS. Fie. 3—HARPACTES FASCIATUS.

Fig. 2.—Caprimvuuaus INDICUS. Fie. 4—-CUcULUS MICROPTERUS.

Fig 5 —PH@NICOPHAES PY RRHOCEPHALUS.

MIGRATION OF BIRDS. 273

THE MIGRATION OF BIRDS AND CEYLON

MIGRANTS.

By W. E. Wart, M.A., F.Z.S8.

HE migration of birds may roughly be defined for general

purposes as the seasonal movements of those birds which

spend the winter and the breeding season in different regions.

These seasonal movements are well known in all countries, and

references to them may be found in the literature of all ages.

There is an allusion in Job to the migrant Hawk ; the Greek

poets Anacreon and Homer speak of the migration of the

Crane and the Swallow ; the arrival of the Cuckoo and the

Swallow with the returning spring in England, and of the

Stork in Continental Europe, are constant themes in folklore

and proverb. In Ceylon the advent of the Snipe and other

birds in autumn and their departure from the Island at Easter

are well known to all of us.

Many people, however, are unaware of the enormous number

of birds which migrate, or of the scope and complexity of

their migrations. Within the last hundred years the subject

has received increasing attention, and especially within the last

quarter of a century a mass of observations has been patiently

recorded, chiefly in temperate climates. From these records

have been deduced many clearly-ascertained facts, which have

thrown much light on the question, and beyond these facts

a number of theories and surmises have been propounded to

account for many problems which still remain a mystery.

In temperate regions the number of species which migrate

is relatively far higher than in the tropics. In England, for

instance, nearly every species is migratory to a greater or less

extent ; the migrants are by no means confined to those species

which, like the Swallow and the Cuckoo, are purely summer

residents, or, like the Fieldfare and Wild Swan, purely winter

visitors.

274 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

As regards migration, the birds of a temperate climate, such

as the British Islands, may be divided into five main classes :—

(1) Permanent residents, for instance, the Grouse, though

even the Grouse has a short local migration from the moors,

where it breeds, to the valleys, where it spends the winter.

(2) Summer residents, such as the Cuckoo, which spend the

winter in warmer countries.

(3) Winter residents, such as the Fieldfare and Swan noted

above. These birds breed in the far north and come in winter

to the British Isles as a haven of comparative warmth.

(4) Birds of passage. In the spring hosts of birds which

neither breed nor winter in the British Isles halt there for

short intervals en route from their winter quarters in the

south to their breeding stations in Scandinavia, Iceland, and

Greenland. In the autumn the process is reversed.

(5) Irregular migrants and stragglers. These are birds

which occur only at irregular intervals. Some species turn up

fairly often in more or less regular cycles ; others, again, are

vagrant oceanic rovers, such as some of the rarer Petrels,

while yet others are storm-driven wanderers.

It must not be imagined that each species has a hard and

fast place in only one of the above classes. Numbers of the

commonest English species, such as the Song Thrush and

Skylark, which many people look upon as permanent fixtures

in the English landscape, have the most complex movements.

Some Song Thrushes are perennial residents in the British

Isles, though even among these there is a vast amount of local

movement from the more exposed localities, where they breed,

to more sheltered valleys, where they retreat in cold weather.

Many of the Thrushes, however, are only summer residents,

and winter in countries south of the Channel. Their place in

winter is taken by individuals which have bred in Scandinavia

and Central Europe. Other Thrushes, again, winter in France

and Southern Europe, breed in Scandinavia, and occur on

English shores as birds of passage. Lastly, birds which

usually winter in Central Europe may occasionally be driven

out of their accustomed winter haunts by unusually severe

weather, and may seek temporary refuge from the cold snap

in the milder English climate. Indeed, as Mr. Eagle Clarke

MIGRATION OF BIRDS. 275

remarks :* ‘* The Song. Thrush furnishes us with a most

excellent example of the complex nature of the phenomena of

bird migration as observed in Great Britain and Ireland, and

its various movements cover nearly the whole year.”’

What is the cause of this widespread migration, and how

did the habit origmate ? To quote Professor Newton :} ‘‘ Here

. we are brought face to face with perhaps the greatest

mystery which the whole animal kingdom presents—a mystery

which attracted the attention of the earliest writers and can

in its chief points be no more explained by the modern man

of science than by the simple-minded savage or the poet or

prophet of antiquity.”

The theories are many ; some more or less far fetched, but,

as Mr. Eagle Clarke{ points out, the question may best be

answered by asking yet another, namely: ‘‘ What would

become of those myriads of birds, which in the summer delight

in and breed amidst the solitude of the Arctic countries,

when those vast wastes which form their feeding grounds lie

under a pall of snow or are transformed into solid ice ? What,

too, would become of certain birds which, similarly, make our

islands their summer home if they attempted to remain the

winter with us ?”’ He goes on to point out that insect feeders,

such as the Swallow and Cuckoo, would perish during the

English winter for want of food. Bears or various other

animals solve the problem by hibernating during the winter

months, and writers from Aristotle down to savants at the

beginning of last century have held the theory that certain

birds also hibernated, while the superstition that Swallows

spent the winter in holes or even under the ice in ponds and

streams was widely believed in medizval times.

Modern observation has entirely disposed of the theayy of

hibernation among birds. Their power of flight enables them

to escape starvation by moving to warmer climates in search

of food. The reason for the autumn migration is thus then

comparatively easy of explanation, but once the birds have

reached their winter quarters, what is the impulse which calls

them back in spring ? In some cases the food problem again

* «‘Studies in Bird Migration,”’ Vol. I., p. 212.

¢ *‘ Dictionary of Birds,”’ p. 549.

t * Studies in Bird Migration,”’ Vol. I., p. 15.

276 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

may have something to do with it. The torrid and often

parching tropical summer in many localities may lower the

food supply to someextent. Again, it must be borne in mind

that some northern migrants winter far to the south of the

Equator, and may be warned to turn north by the approach

of the southern winter. In many cases, however, these

factors do not come into force, and it is probable that the

breeding instinct is the main impulse which calls birds back

to their summer haunts. Most birds seem greatly attached to

particular nesting sites which they occupy year after year.

Professor Newton records* a remarkable instance of such a

persistent habit : “A pair of Stone Curlew—a very migratory

species, affecting almost exclusively the most open country—

were in the habit of breeding for many years on the same spot,

though its character had undergone a complete change. It

had been part of an extensive and barren rabbit warren, and

was become the centre of a large and flourishing plantation.”

It is undoubtedly the fact that many birds which have a

comparatively restricted breeding area scatter widely during

the winter. For instance, the Curlew Stint, Tringa subarquata,

breeds only within the Arctic Circle cn the Siberian Turdras,

while in winter it is found all over the trepics, and occurs as far

afield as Patagonia, Tasmania, and Cape Colony. Probably

it is this attachment to accustomed breeding grounds that

prevents northern migrants which visit the Southern Hemi-

sphere from breeding a second time in their winter quarters.

A not inconsiderable number of such species

South Africa—which, of course, is then enjoying summer—at

a time when the local residents are breeding. In spite of such

favourable conditions, there is as yet no positive evidence

that these northern migrants turn their “ winter” into a

second breeding season. The breeding impulse does not seem

to be awakened until the season for their migration north-

wards sets in, by which time conditions in the South Temperate

Zone are unfavourable.

As regards the origin of the migratory habit, however

instinctive it may now be, it must have originated in an

intelligent movement intended to escape some danger or secure

‘winter ”’ in

* « Dictionary of Birds,”’ p. 553.

MIGRATION OF BIRDS. 277

some advantage.* Dr. A. R. Wallace offers a probable expla-

nation of the manner in which the habit had its origin as

follows : f ‘It appears to me probable that here as in many

other cases ‘ survival of the fittest ’ will be found to have had

a powerful influence. Let us suppose that in any species of

migratory bird breeding can, as a rule, be only safely accom-

plished in a given area ; and further, that during a greater part

of the rest of the year sufficient food cannot be obtained in

that area. It will follow that those birds which do not leave

the breeding area at the proper season will suffer and ulti-

mately become extinct, which will also be the fate of those

which do not leave the feeding area at the proper time. Now,

if we suppose that the two areas were (for some remote ancestor

of the existing species) coincident, but by geological and

climatic changes gradually diverged from each other, we

can easily understand how the habit of incipient and partial

migration at the proper seasons would at last become heredi-

tary, and so fixed as to be what we term an instinct. It will

probably be found that every gradation still exists in various

parts of the world, from a complete coincidence to a complete

separation of the breeding and subsistence areas ; and when

the natural history of a sufficient number of species in all parts

of the world is thoroughly worked out, we may find every link

between species which never leave a restricted area in which

they breed and live the whole year round to those other cases

in which the two areas are absolutely separated. The actual

causes that determine the exact time, year by year, at

which certain species migrate will, of course, be difficult to

determine.”

The next problem to consider is the route by which migrants

find their way between their summer and winter quarters. It

must not be supposed that each bird moves indiscriminately

southwards in autumn and northwards in spring. Indeed,

it is by no means the case that the winter quarters are always

southwards of the summer breeding grounds. For instance,

owing to the gulf stream, the British Isles in winter have

a milder climate than parts of Central Europe which lie

* A.P. Taverner. ‘‘ Auk,” Vol. XXI., 1904, p. 322.

t ‘* Nature,” Vol. X., p. 459.

12 6(5)20

278 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

further to the east, and a proportion of the Central European

migrants turn their course in autumn, not south, but west,

to find winter quarters in South England and Ireland. Mr.

Eagle Clarke, when spending a month in autumn at the Kentish

Knock lightship off the mouth of the Thames, found on the

same day and hour streams of the same species, such as

the Skylark, crossing the North Sea in contrary directions.

Birds from the north which had followed the east coast line

southward to the Thames were flitting across to the Continent

from north-west to south-east en route for Southern Europe,

while at the same time there was a steady stream of birds

which had come down the Rhine delta from Central Europe

and were migrating to England from east to west.*

Many observations have shown that migratory birds do not

perform their journey “as the crow flies,” but follow certain

accustomed routes. For many species these routes coalesce,

for longer or shorter distances, and form favourite fly lines.

Most birds follow coast lines as far as possible.

The main fly lines used by migrants to and across the

British Isles have been worked out, from a multitude of

records, by Mr. Eagle Clarke, the great British authority on

the subject. If you look at the map you will see that these

Islands form as it were a great junction for migratory birds.

It lies on the migration route of many species which breed in

Greenland and Iceland on the north-west and in Scandinavia

on the north-east. Let us examine some of the main routes

as used in spring.

The English Channel is crossed at various points. Immi-

grants to Ireland and many birds on passage to Iceland and

beyond take the route from Ushant to the Scillies, and from

thence round the west coast of Ireland. Others, again, make

their way up the coast of the Irish Sea and on through the

Hebrides. Birds breeding in England and many Scandinavian

birds use various crossings between the Ushant-Eddystone

route on the west and the Straits of Dover on the east. The

English birds on their arrival slip inland to their breeding

grounds ; the northerners mainly follow the coast round as

* «Studies in Bird Migration,” Vol, II., Chap. I.

MIGRATION OF BIRDS. 279

far as the Humber, where they begin to cross the North Sea.

Few leave our shores before they reach this point in their

northward journey. Many hold right on till they come to

the Orkneys and Shetlands. Others, again, such as the

Swallows, cross the North Sea at various points between the

Humber and the north coast of Scotland.

From the Shetlands there are two main streams: one

north-west to Iceland, meeting the Irish and Hebridean routes

at the Faroes ; and one north-east to the mainland of Norway.

In autumn the process is reversed.

From observations on the Continent and in America we find

that there also there are favourite fly lines ; river valleys and

coast lines are greatly followed. For instance, from South-

west Europe there is a main route up the Rhone Valley and

down the Rhine, while in the United States the Mississippi

Valley is a much-used route.

It is interesting to note that for some species the spring

route is not the same as that taken in autumn. This is

especially well shown in the case of the American Golden

Plover, Charadrius dominicus, whose routes have been care-

fully worked out by an American ornithologist.* This bird

breeds in Arctic North America, from Alaska to Hudson’s

Bay. In autumn the flocks move south-east to Labrador,

where the autumn berries give them abundant food. After

a short stay there, they move on to Nova Scotia, and then

cross the sea by a long journey southwards to the north-east

coast of South America. It is probable that this direct sea

route is the evolution of a longer coastal journey down the

eastern shores of the States and round the Caribbean. On

arrival on the Guiana coast the birds rest for a short time,

then cross Brazil to winter quarters, mainly in the Argentine.

The return journey in spring is more directly northwards,

probably because the spring moves northwards earlier on the

western side of the States than on the bleaker Atlantic coast.

The route lies across Bolivia, through Central America, to

Texas, thence up the great fly line of the Mississippi and over

Western Canada.

* Vide Coward, “‘ Migrations of Birds,” p. 77, &e.

280 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

It will be noticed from the foregoing pages that many birds

traverse enormous distances in their annual migrations. The

American Golden Plover and the Curlew Stint travel between

the Arctic Circle and the South Temperate Zone. Other

species perform journeys not so extended, but still very

wonderful when one considers how fragile and apparently

weak-winged many of them are. The Himalayas and the

desolate high-lying plateaux north of them are crossed by

numbers of Shrikes, Pipits, and the most diminutive little

Warblers. A small Australasian species of Cuckoo winters

in Eastern, Australia, and summers 1,200 miles across the open

ocean in New Zealand ; the tiny Gold-crested Wren regulary

braves the crossing of the North Sea.

A rather curious fact is brought to light when examining the

distances travelled by various species, and even by different

birds of the same species. Birds which breed the furthest north

often winter the furthest south. I have already exemplified

this in the case of the Curlew Stint and Golden Plover. Here

the species as a whole performs a long journey. But take the

case of the European race of the common Swallow, Hirundo

rustica. In the summer it is found breeding throughout

Europe, from the Mediterranean to Scandinavia. Some

specimens also breed in North Africa. The winter quarters

lie in Africa, south of the Sahara right down to Cape Town

but a few birds winter in the North African oases. The

Swallow happens to be a day migrant, which performs its

journey leisurely, and its movements northwards can, there-

fore, be timed accurately. Birds which breed in England

begin to appear there as early as the end of March, and most of

them have come by the end of April. These birds appear on

the North African coast at the end of February, and through

March and early April they are crossing Spain and France.

Now most of the birds which winter in Cape Colony do not

leave that part of the world until March, so they cannot

possibly be the birds which are then crossing South-western

Europe. During May, for some time after our English birds

have settled down to breed, Swallows on passage are met with

along the English east coast migration routes. They reach

Shetland about the end of May and early June. Some breed

MIGRATION OF BIRDS. 281

there, others proceed to Scandinavia. The inference is fairly

obvious that our English Swallows come from the northern-

most winter quarters, and that the South African birds breed

in Scandinavia. In the far north nesting conditions are not

favourable till June, so South African birds have no need to

migrate as early as those which nest in Central Europe and

England.

I have just mentioned that the Swallow is a day migrant,

but this is not the case with many birds. A vast amount of

the migration which takes place is unseen by us, as it is

performed at night, and at altitudes and speeds which are still

to a certain extent open to conjecture. The reason why birds

chose night time for a long flight, especially across the sea,

admits of a very probable explanation. Most birds spend a

great part of the day hunting for food, so that if a bird takes

an all-day flight, it must start on an empty stomach, spend an

exhausting day without food, and on arrival pass another

night of fasting before it can satisfy its hunger. A night flight

can be taken without interfering with the feeding hours.

Various and often accidental observations by astronomers

have given interesting data of the height and speed of some

migrations. An observer was measuring the height and

velocity of clouds when some ducks came under his notice.

He calculated that they were 958 feet up, and flying at a rate

of 48 miles an hour. Other records based on somewhat

similar observations give heights varying from 1,400 to 5,400

feet. Mr. Eagle Clarke observed during his stay at the Kentish

Knock lightship that many birds performing this North Sea

journey of about 120 miles by day flew close above the waves,

whatever the weather, and at no extraordinary speed. He

says: ‘‘ Speaking generally, the migrants pursued their way

at the steady rate characteristic of their respective species.

There was no hurry, but at the same time there was a business-

like manner about them in keeping with the important work

on hand. Certain species habitually fly faster than others.

He roughly gauged the speed of the Larks at 25 miles per hour,

and of the Starlings at 35 to 40.

Lastly, there remains a problem as difficult to answer as any.

By what faculty do migrants find their way from point to

282 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

point and from start to finish of their journey ? The great

majority cannot possibly be guided by unaided sight or

memory, as most of the migration takes place at night, and

often over hundreds of miles of trackless ocean. Again, in

many species, the young birds migrate apart from their

parents, and so have no bird with actual experience of the

route to guide them. The older Cuckoos leave England some

weeks before the yearling birds, which have been brought up

mainly in the nests of English residents and have never seen

their parents. Yet the young Cuckoos hatched in England

manage the long autumn trip over strange ground to their

winter home which lies in Africa, south of the Sahara. There

is no doubt that birds possess a special and mysterious sense of

direction, known technically as “ orientation,’’ or, as Professor

Newton phrases it, “inherited but unconscious experience.”

Explorers in Antarctic seas have come across flocks of

flightless Penguins trudging along over the open ocean to

breeding grounds hundreds of miles away. Practical experi-

ments with other birds have also proved their possession of

this mysterious power of direction. The Florida Keys are the

most northerly breeding grounds of the Noddy and Sooty Tern.

Fifteen marked birds of these two migrant species were taken

from their nesting haunts on one of these Keys and placed

on board a steamer. They were then released at distances

varying from 20 to 850 miles away. Some of them were set

free off Cape Hatteras, many degrees northward of their usual

range. Thirteen out of fifteen found their way home.

It is also fairly obvious that in the course of long flights,

which may extend to over a thousand miles, many birds must

frequently be blown by contrary winds far out of their direct

route, so that, if they had not this sense of direction, few would

ever reach their destination.

But this sense, as might be expected, is by no means

infallible, and birds often stray. No doubt the majority of

these strays come to a tragic end, but some find unaccustomed

havens, and account for the irregular appearance of many

species far away from their usual haunts. Some of these waifs

may owe their salvation to falling in with a train of another

species using a different route. This explanation has been

MIGRATION OF BIRDS. 283

ingeniously used to account for the fairly constant appearance

of odd specimens of North American species in Great Britain.

It is pointed out that a certain number of these species breed

in Greenland, not far away from species which migrate

south-east to Europe, instead of south-west to America. An

American bird straying slightly might fall in with voyagers

taking the European route and follow in their wake to Great

Britain instead of taking its proper course.

There is no doubt that the perils of the journey are many,

and take a heavy toll of the migrating hosts. A bird may

start from Ushant with a fair wind and encounter a gale before

Scilly or the Eddystone is reached. Fog is another source

of danger, especially when there are lighthouses near. When

the nights are clear, the light does not exercise so great an

attraction, but in haze, drizzle, or fog it seems to act in a

mesmeric manner and lures thousands of birds to death. They

dash at the lantern, strike the glass, fall stunned or with broken

wings, and so perish.

Weather, in fact, has a most important bearing on migration.

Migrants have in the main a fairly regular time table. Most

of the English summer visitors, for instance, start south before

the necessities of inclement weather and a failing food supply

drive them away, but an unusual warm spell in autumn may

make birds put off their departure or linger en route, while a

sudden cold snap will hasten their going. The great thing to

remember is that it is the weather at the point of departure

which influences them, especially at the start of a long overseas

journey. The direction of the wind does not seem to have a

great influence, provided it is not too strong, but boisterous

weather holds migrants up. Most of the wholesale destruction

which at times overtakes migrating flocks is due to their

suddenly meeting with unfavourable weather after they have

once committed themselves to an extended flight.

In the light of these main facts concerning migration in

general, we may now consider the special conditions applying

to migration in Ceylon. I am afraid that in this part of my

paper many of my remarks have to rest on inference and

analogy. Little detailed observation on the subject has been

done in the Island, nor can I find much on record regarding the

284. SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

neighbouring continent of India. We know pretty accurately

what species are migrant, together with their summer and

winter quarters, but details of the routes and times have not

been thoroughly worked out. As a matter of fact, Ceylon

lacks many of the advantages possessed by the British Isles as

a centre for the study of the subject.

It does not lie athwart the main thoroughfares of migration,

while in the tropics the proportion of migrant birds is fewer.

Above all, we lack the incomparable observation stations

which surround the British Isles in abundance. * To quote

Mr. Eagle Clarke once more :* “In connection with the geo-

graphical aspect of migration, it is impossible to over-estimate

the value of observations made at islands, 7.e., small islands,

and rock stations, and other places removed from the usual

haunts resorted to by the various species. At such stations to

see certain birds is to know at once that they are migrating,

for under no other conditions would these particular species be

found there. The most unsatisfactory of all observations are

those made inland. Here individuals of many species moving

to other quarters are most difficult, if not impossible, to dis-

tinguish from the native representatives of the same species.

In addition, the area, and in many cases the cover, is so

extensive that few, very few, of the birds passing through any

district come under notice. One never knows what is in the

next field or the next bit of cover, while woods are hopeless, it

being impossible to ascertain the smaller migrants which are

nesting in them.”

The few lighthouses in Ceylon, with the exception of

Colombo, lie away from the main routes of migration ;

Colombo lighthouse is in the middle of the town, and does not

seem to attract any remarkable number of birds. The open

grassy extents on the Galle Face, the racecourse, and the

golf links are among the best stations obtainable. Probably

a good deal might be done on some of the islands between

Mannar and Point Pedro, but Ceylon will never be a paradise

for the recorder of general migratory movements, though, as

I shall show later, in one or two respects our opportunities

are unique.

—

* «Studies in Bird Migration,” Vol. I., Chap IV.

MIGRATION OF BIRDS. 285

To realize the position occupied by Ceylon in the general flow

of migration, one should glance at the map of Asia. The bulk

of the migrant species which are summer residents in Northern

and Central Europe winter in Africa. The desert of the

Sahara is the ‘“‘No man’s land,’ which lies between the

summer and winter quarters of many a species. In Asia

a more or less corresponding position is occupied by the

Himalayas and the great elevated plateaux of Central Asia.

Countless hosts which breed on the Siberian Tundras winter

in. Tropical Asia. There can be no doubt that many

Siberian birds move south-eastwards down through the Malay

Archipelago to Australasia, or south-westwards down the

Arabian Coast to East Africa; but for those that cross the

Himalayas and strike southwards through India, Ceylon lies

at the end of the route.

Accordingly, instead of beg a busy junction like the

British Isles, Ceylon is a terminus reached by comparatively

few. It is possible, but unlikely, that a certain number of

migrants may strike off from our shores south-west to Mauritius

and Madagascar or south-east to the Malay Archipelago ; but

in each case the sea voyage is so long, and these countries may

be reached by so much easier routes, that in all probability

we may say we have practically no birds of passage. Again,

as we are almost on the Equator, we have no summer resi-

dents, that is, as far as I know, we have no migrants which

come to us for their breeding season. Our Island is wholly a

winter resort. Our stragglers, too, are comparatively few in

number, and are composed, not so much of birds which have

wandered off their true line of migration, as of stray specimens

of species which usually winter a little to the north of us, but

which have pushed on beyond their accustomed range. We

must also remember that being in the tropics the proportion

of resident species is larger than it would be in a temperate

climate. The migratory movements, therefore, in Ceylon are

not nearly so complex as in England.

The total number of species at present recorded from Ceylon

is roughly 375; of these, about 15 are very doubtful inclusions,

leaving about 360 genuine species on the list. Of these 360

species, two-thirds are known, or are reasonably believed, to

13 6(5)20

286 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

breed with us, leaving about 120 species to be accounted for

between the regular migrants and the stragglers. The above

figures are rough calculations based on our present knowledge,

which is in many cases by no means perfect. So much work

remains to be done with regard to the oology and distribution

of our birds that the figures may need some revision when our

information is more complete.

Now these 240 species which breed in Ceylon may be either

wholly ‘‘ permanent residents” or ‘partial migrants.”

‘Partial migrants’ are those species in which some indi-

viduals reside with us all the year round, while others migrate

usually to regions not very faraway. Our knowledge of local

seasonal movements is so incomplete that in many cases it is

extremely hard to say with any certainty whether a species is

wholly resident or only partly so.

On the one hand, we know that in the tropics birds are

much less given to wander than in temperate climates.

This is forcibly illustrated by the much greater part borne

by geographical isolation in the evolution of peculiar species

in Ceylon as compared with the British Isles. In Britain

there is only one well-defined species peculiar to the country—

the Red Grouse, Lagopus scoticus—though it has been

ascertained, largely as the result of studies in migration, that

there are various insular races, or resident sub-species, even

among the partial migrants. In Ceylon, which lies about as

near to India as England lies to the Continent of Europe, we

have over 40 peculiar species. Legge mentions 47 such, but

one or two of these—e.g., Legge’s Hawk Eagle, Spizetus

kelaarti—have since been discovered in South India, and

several others might now be classed as only sub-species. ‘The

number of insular races or sub-species is probably very high.

Mr. Stuart Baker, who has been working out the races and

sub-species of a good many Indian birds, tells me that, in his

opinion, two out of every three of our residents will turn out to

be more or less sub-specifically distinct.

On the other hand, we know that, as a rule, in the case of

partial migrants, the migrant individuals do not make a very

extended journey, and India does not lie far away. It is

very obvious to any one who is acquainted with the birds of

MIGRATION OF BIRDS. 287

any locality in Ceylon that there is a good deal of seasonal

movement, especially among such birds as the smaller species

of Heron, the Lark family, the Rails, and some of our Hawks.

We have still to ascertain whether numbers of these birds

move merely to other parts of the Island during the breeding

season, or leave our shores for South India.

It is definitely known that some species—for example, the

Ashy Finch Lark, Pyrrhulauda grisea, and the Pariah Kite,

Milvus govinda—which have only a local distribution in

Ceylon, are largely reinforced during the north-east monsoon

by migrants from India. I have heard Whistling Teal pass-

ing over Colombo at night and coming probably from South

India.

We have also a small, but very interesting, group of partial

migrants, which includes the Kentish Plover (Agialitis

alexandrina), several other species of Waders, and one or two

of our Terns. The birds of these species which breed with

us are really resident races of northern migrants, and their

permanent abode in our Island is probably due to the gradual

breaking down of the migratory habit. I shall revert to this

group later on.

To sum up. Our knowledge of the partial migrants is

very imperfect, and while in Ceylon this group undoubtedly

includes a far smaller proportion of the bird population

than in temperate climates, probably a good deal of partial

migration passes unsuspected.

We now turn to a group of non-resident species: the

stragglers and casual visitors. It is very difficult to draw at

any one point a hard and fast line of demarcation for these

two classes. There are about 60 species on the Ceylon list

which visit us at very infrequent intervals, or which have

been recorded less than half a dozen times. Some of these

are genuine waifs, such as the Lesser Scavenger Vulture,

Neophron ginginianus, of which a stray specimen, probably

storm-driven from South India, was once obtained at Nuwara

Eliya. Then there are the ocean wanderers, such as the

Frigate Birds, Tropic Birds, Boobies, several species of Tern,

and so on. ‘These turn up at odd intervals, generally after

stormy weather, and can hardly be classed as seasonal migrants,

288 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Again, how are we to class Jerdon’s Imperial Pigeon, Ducula

insignis cuprea, which occurs all over South India? It has

only once been recorded from Ceylon, but was on that one

occasion found breeding.

However, at least half of our casual visitors are species

which perform regular migrations, but whose usual winter

quarters do not extend so far south as our Island. Nearly all

the members of this class belong to families which include our

common winter visitors. If we look at the 12 species of duck

which occur in Ceylon, the gradation is well seen. The

Smaller Whistling Teal, the Quacky Duck or Goose Teal, and

the Comb Duck are resident, but also in all probability partial

migrants ; the remainder are all migrants, which visit us in

varying numbers. The Common Teal and Garganey are

fairly abundant in some years, but scarce in others. The

Brahminy Duck and the Shoveller visit the lagoons in the

north of the Island in small numbers, which vary from year

to year. The same may be said of the Spotted-billed Duck

and the Pintail. Two more species, the Larger Whistling

Teal and the Gadwall, have only been recorded once or twice,

and should, therefore, be put down as casual visitors, while the

Red-crested Pochard is on the doubtful list ; it is said to have

been seen near Jafina by Layard.

We have now arrived by the process of elimination at our

regular migrants. These vary from birds which visit us every

year in enormous quantities, such as the Pintail Snipe, to

species which are extremely scarce, but fairly regular in their

visits, such as the Woodcock. At the lower end of the scale,

as I have said, it is difficult to draw the line between them and

the casual visitors. We may, however, say roughly that the

regular migrants number between 60 and 70 species, all of

which visit us during the north-east monsoon.

The number of species is thus only just over one-sixth of

those on the Ceylon list, but the number of individuals is so

large that the bird population is swelled enormously by their

arrival. This is especially the case on our lagoons, paddy

fields, and tanks, which teem with bird life during the north-

east monsoon, and presenta comparatively deserted appearance

during the south-west. In fact, im Ceylon we have the

MIGRATION OF BIRDS. 289

converse of the conditions obtaining in the far north of Asia.

From about October to April, at a time when Siberia is frozen

out, there are vast areas all over the ‘‘ dry zone ”’ of the Island

which are swamped by the heavy monsoon rains, and afford

abundant sustenance for the hordes of Waders and aquatic

birds which visit us. From April to October these mud flats

and paddy fields are parched and dry, and many of the tanks

have shrunk to mere puddles. The aquatic and semi-aquatic

migrants would have a meagre time if they all stayed on.

Frem what regions do our migrants arrive ? The Passerine

migrants, which are most strongly represented by the Warblers,

Shrikes, Flycatchers, Thrushes, and Wagtails, mostly come

from North India. The same may be said of the Cuckoos.

Most of the migrant Hawks and Waders come from further

afield, from temperate or Northern Asia.

I have noted earlier that the Himalayas in a great

measure form the dividing line between the winter and

summer quarters of the Asiatic migrants, just as the Sahara

does for those of Europe and Africa. There is this difference

though: on the southern slopes of the Himalayas we have

an extensive regional belt of elevated land with temperate

conditions of climate, and many birds find a congenial

breeding ground there without continuing their course

further north. It is no wonder, therefore, that many of

the more delicately formed Passerine migrants settle down

to breed in large numbers in Cashmere and other Himalayan

districts, which are well suited for them, while the stronger-

winged Harriers, Falcons, and Waders carry on to the

enormous breeding grounds in the marshes of Siberia.

This distinction, however, is by no means universal. Some

Swallows and other Passerine species breed on the north as

well as on the south side of the great ranges. The Forest

Wagtail—Limonidromus indicus—retreats to Northern China

and Eastern Siberia, and so on, while some of the Kestrels and

Woodcocks breed on the Himalayas.

It is quite possible, though in the present state of our

knowledge it would be unwise to be dogmatic, that the axiom

that those birds which breed furthest north winter furthest

south holds good to a certain extent, in which case our Ceylon

290 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

birds would seek the northernmost confines of their breeding

area. The same axiom may hold good when we come to

examine the range of several species, which, though wholly

migratory as far as Ceylon is concerned, are only partial

migrants in India, for example, the Indian Pitta—Pitta

brachyura. ‘This species ranges practically all over India. In

summer it is found in Northern India ; in winter in Southern

India and Ceylon ; ina good many parts of Central India it is

a permanent resident. Very possibly it is the South Indian

and Ceylon birds which migrate to Northern India. It is

equally possible that in Central India the seasonal movements

of this species may be as complex as those of the Thrush in

England.

Another general axiom that migrants wander a good deal

more in winter than at the breeding season has considerable

bearing on the ebb and flow of our migrant population, and

accounts for many of our irregular migrants. There is no

doubt that the Snipe, Golden Plover, and many more of the

Waders which visit us in such hosts are more abundant in

some years than in others. The difference may to some extent

be accounted for by favourable or unfavourable conditions on

the breeding grounds, resulting in a stronger or weaker tide

of migration from the far north. On the other hand, the

difference in number seems to be affected rather by a favour

able or unfavourable season in Ceylon. Our winter visitors

do not arrive from Siberia in one long flight. Once they have

crossed the Himalayas, they probably filter gradually down

through India, and if they do not find conditions suitable

as they proceed south, they do not penetrate in their usual

numbers as far as Ceylon.

There is no doubt that many birds linger some time on the

way. Letustakea typical Wader. The Pintailed Snipe breeds

in Northern Siberia, from the Yenesei to the Pacific, and the

birds must leave such a cold region fairly early. The van-

guard arrives in Ceylon on the south-west coast of the Island

about the beginning of September. In the north and east of

the Island, where the rains do not render the country suitable

for them until far later, the birds do not appear in great

numbers until well on towards Christmas. These later arrivals

MIGRATION OF BIRDS. 291

must have journeyed down gradually and lingered on the way,

knowing that it was useless for them to arrive here before the

conditions were favourable.

This leads us on to a discussion of the routes by which our

migrants in general arrive and spread over the Island, and

also of the times of their arrival and departure.

Our knowledge of the particular routes used by the various

species leaves much to be desired, but there are fair general

indications. We have seen that coast lines and large river

valleys are favourite fly lines, so it is probable that most of our

migrants come to us down the Indian Peninsula either by the

east coast or west coast routes. Birds from Eastern Siberia,

Mongolia, and the Chinese Empire would come chiefly by the

former fly line ; birds from Turkestan and Western Siberia

by the latter.

We have a very good example of a species which uses the

east coast routes in the Pintailed Snipe, which, as I have

mentioned, breeds in Siberia from the Yenesei eastwards to

the Pacific. During the winter it is very rare in the Punjab

and North-west Provinces, commoner as one passes east to

the Ganges delta, while it is the Snipe of Southern India,

Ceylon, Assam, and further India. It is fairly obvious, then,

that this species finds its way into India mainly from the

north-east. Probably its main line of migration lies down

the valley of the Brahmaputra, and divides when the delta

is reached, one branch going south-east to Burma, the other

south-west down the western sides of the Bay of Bengal.

There may be other crossings over the Eastern Himalayas,

in which case the birds would make their way to the coast

down the Ganges valley. Migrant species in general coming

from Nepaul and the Eastern Himalayas would follow this

latter fly line.

There can be little doubt that species, such as the Little

Stint (Lringa minuta) come to us mainly by the west coast.

This Stint breeds in Northern Europe and Siberia, and in

winter is not found east of the Bay of Bengal. Individuals

from the neighbourhood of the Urals may possibly come

southwards to the Caspian, then across country to the Persian

Gulf, and right along the coast line of India to Cape Comorin.

292 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Others, again, from further east may cross the Western

Himalayas and come down the Indus. The Indus valley and

west coast fly line would also serve many of our visitors from

the Western Himalayas as far east as Cashmere.

Some species may come to us by both routes. The Large

Sand Plover (Agialitis geoffroyi) breeds in Japan and

Eastern China. In winter it is a shore bird, found all along

the coasts of the Indian Ocean, from Australia to Africa.

Birds proceeding to western winter quarters probably cross

over the mountain ranges from Thibet and so down the Indus

valley. On arrival at the mouth of the Indus birds going to

Africa would cross to the Arabian coast, others would turn

south-east down the west coast of India. More easterly

migrants would come down the Brahmaputra and the east

coast of India. These two routes would meet in Southern

India, so that Ceylon birds may arrive from either direction.

Again, some migrants, especially hill species, may come

overland most of the way south, keeping down the line of

the Ghauts.

As regards the actual crossing from India to Ceylon and

vice versa, we have a good many indications to show that there

are two main routes: one which strikes the shore at or near

Colombo, and the other into the north of the Island along the

belt of shallows from Point Pedro to Mannar. There is no

doubt that a good many of our migrants use the Colombo

route. Exhausted specimens of such species as the Indian

Pitta (Pitta brachyura) and the Banded Crake (Rallina

euryzonoides) are found from time to time at the beginning

of the north-east monsoon in Colombo gardens. They are

generally in a very exhausted state, and have evidently just

landed. Again, the earliest Snipe of the season are usually

obtained in the Western Province, while the Blue-tailed

Bee-eater (Merops philippinus) appears in the south-west

as soon as in other parts of the Island. As a matter of

fact, Colombo is just the place where one might expect the

arrival of the Indian west coast route migrants, which would

take off at Cape Comorin; but the early presence of the

Pintailed Snipe would seem to show that it is not confined

to such birds, unless it be that the early Snipe cross over to

MIGRATION OF BIRDS. 293

the western side of the peninsula before Cape Comorin is

reached. Probably, too, many of our hill migrants arrive

by this route, as it affords them a more direct journey, and

avoids the long stretch of unsuitable country in South-eastern

India and North Ceylon.

The evidence that a large number of birds reach us vid the

north of the Island is equally satisfactory. This route would

appear to feed especially the north-west, north, and east of

the Island. Many of our lagoon-haunting species are found

on the north-west coast as far south as Chilaw, and all down

the east coast as far round as the Tangalla district, while

between Chilaw and Tangalla they are rarer or absent. There

are a good many such species, e.g., the Little Green Shank

(Tobanus stagnatilis), the Whimbrel (Numenius pheopus),

the Red Shank (Yotanus calidris), and the Green Shank

(7. glottis).

Again, the Wood Wagtail (Limonidromus indicus) is

extremely common round Puttalam during the north-east

monsoon, and spreads across through the forests in the north

of the Island. It is very rare further south.

To this evidence we must add that some common species,

such as the Swallow and the Eastern Golden Plover, appear

in the north of the Island just as soon as in Colombo. Mr.

Hartley tells me that the Golden Plover is generally seen by

him on the Royal College grounds very early in September.

This year they appeared on the 2nd. I once saw a flock at

Mannar on August 30.

There is one species which seems to give a very striking

proof that these two routes are the main fly lines. The Indian

Ashy Drongo (Dicrurus longicaudatus) is with us a migrant

found chiefly in the forests of the north and east of the

Island. It has been seen at the beginning of the north-east

monsoon at Jaffna and Trincomalee, and also at Colombo,

but apparently at no other points on the coast.

There are also traces of cross-country migration, between

the south-east or east and the west or north-west. On April

22 of this year, for instance, Mr. Roberts of Kotiyagalla,

Bogawantalawa. shot a Black Bittern (Duwpetor flavicollis) in

14 6(5)20

294. SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

that district. It must have been migrating from somewhere

in the low-country of the south or south-east to Colombo or

the north-west.

The times of arrival and departure of our migrants varies

to a certain extent, some species putting in their appearance

earlier than others; many species begin to arrive in September,

and the tide of migration has set in strongly by the end of

that month ; but, as we have seen, many birds, especially

the Fresh-water Waders, do not arrive in the north of the

Island until later. April appears to be the month in which

most depart, and by May 1 the bulk of them have gone.

Some species, probably those which migrate slowly and linger

on the way, seem to arrive later and leave earlier. This is the

case with such hill birds as Hierococcyx varius—the Common

Hawk Cuckoo—and the Woodcock, which do not come in

much before November and depart about February.

Other species, such as the two small Sandpipers—Totanus

glareola and T. hypoleucus—usually known as Snippets, often

come in considerable quantities quite early in August. Now

these particular species do not generally leave us till April, and

they breed north of the Himalayas, where the country cannot

be ready for them until well on in May ; so that birds which

arrive early in August can scarcely have had time to get to the

breeding grounds and stay there long enough to bring up a

family before their return. We know, however, that many

individual Waders do not breed at the end of their first year.

Some of these on arrival in their summer quarters play about

for a few weeks and then turn south earlier than the nesting

birds. Some, again, only perform part of the journey ; for

instance, in England numbers of Turnstones and other species,

which are solely ‘“ birds of passage’? breeding further north

and wintering further south, spend the summer as non-nesting

birds. So birds which arrive in Ceylon from the far north

early in August are most certainly those which have not been

breeding.

This habit of loitering is carried even further. In some

species a certain number of birds never start on their north-

ward journey, but remain in their winter quarters throughout

the breeding season,

MIGRATION OF BIRDS. 295

You may find little groups of such birds in suitable places

on the Ceylon lagoons during the south-west monsoon, and it

is important to note that the great majority of such birds have

not changed into breeding plumage. This fact strengthens

the evidence for the theory that it is the breeding impulse

which calls migrants north in the spring. Birds which for

some reason or other have not developed full maturity do

not feel the impulse to such a degree, and so some of them

remain with us.

This habit of loitering has been known for some time, but

no one seems to have studied it with great thoroughness, pro-

bably because most of the work on migration has been carried

out in temperate climates, where loiterers do not attract so

much attention. I think it is a subject which will well repay

investigation, and here in Ceylon we have an ideal opportunity

for its study.

It is at the southern limits of the migration routes that the

question of actual loitering of migrants in their winter quarters

can best be investigated. Then there is no disturbing factor

introduced by birds of passage. Where such a southern

limit lies far south of the Equator, as in South Africa, much

loitering is not likely to take place. The approach of the

southern winter would drive north those birds which might

otherwise be inclined to stay. In our case we are at the very

end of a migration route, and in the tropics, with an equable

climate, a combination of conditions which affords the fullest

temptation for birds to linger.

It appears to me that in loitering we may see the inter-

mediate steps by which all along the tropics new resident

species are being evolved from northern forms by the gradual

breaking down of the migratory habit among a proportion

of the birds of any species. When birds once take to loitering,

they find that life in the tropics is possible all the year round,

and so in process of time may slowly be induced to overcome

the deeply ingrained instinct which impels them to migrate

northward for the purpose of breeding. In some cases, from

whatever reason, this evolution has already taken place, and

accounts for the interesting group of our “ partial migrants,”

to which I have already alluded.

296 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

The most noticeable instances are among the Hawks and

Plovers. The Shaheen Falcon, resident in India and Ceylon,

and, similarly, the Indian Hobby, differ almost solely by their

smaller size and darker colouring from closely allied migrant

species, which breed in the north and visit the tropics in winter.

Herein they follow the general rule, exemplified again and

again in Indian Ornithology, that where species are found

over a wide range of latitude, birds bred in the south of that

range are smaller and darker than those from the north.

Two migratory species of the genus Mgialitis—. alexandrina

(the Eastern Kentish Plover), and 4. dubia (the Little

Ringed Plover) have also produced resident tropical races,

which breed in Ceylon. Each of these resident Plovers is a

little smaller and darker than the allied migrant form from

further north, which visits us during the winter in considerable

numbers. Again, Himantopus candidus (the Black-winged

Stilt) isa Ploverine species, in which a very large proportion of

our Ceylon birds are resident ; whereas over the greater part

of India the species is migrant, and appears to visit breeding

srounds in Central Asia. There are, however, well-known

nesting localities in several parts of India.

Now, if there is any truth in my theory, we should find

every gradation between species with resident tropical forms

and those in which there is little or no loitering. If we take

a census of Ceylon loiterers, this does seem to be more or less

the case ; and further, loitering seems to be commonest among

those species for which our Island affords the most suitable

summer conditions, and consequently the greatest temptation

to loiter.

The ‘‘ Fresh-water Waders,’ of which the commonest are

the Pintailed Snipe and the Snippet (otanus glareola), do

not appear to linger much in the Island. By Easter the

paddy fields, which are their main haunts, have been reaped,

and in the dry districts are parching up, so there is no great

inducement for them to stay. There isno doubt that loitering

Snipe are occasionally seen, and in one or two instances have

nested in Ceylon. Very probably these are birds which have

received some slight injury from a stray pellet during the

shooting season, and so have been incapacitated from making

MIGRATION OF BIRDS. 297

the long journey north. Also in some cases confusion has

arisen from inexperienced persons failing to distinguish

between the Painted Snipe, which is a resident species, and

the migrant Pintail Snipe. The loitermg records for this

species are thus not very trustworthy.

Loiterers are more common among the “ Salt-mud Waders.’

In the mangrove swamps and on the adjoining shores of the

lagoons in the Puttalam District I have seen from May to July

quite a number of Whimbrel and Curlew Stints and a few

Redshanks and Little Stints. Most of these birds are not

in breeding plumage, but some bear traces of their summer

dress. On the big brackish lagoon at Hatagala, in the

Tangalla district, I have at the same time of year come

across the Greenshank and the Little Greenshank. I have

never yet, however, discovered any traces of breeding among

birds of these species.

The loiterers are most numerous among our Sand Plovers,

and it is in this sub-family that we get the most distinct signs

of the evolution of resident forms. As we have seen, the

Eastern Kentish Plover and the Little Ringed Plover have

already reached the resident stage. The Lesser Sand Plover

(42. mongolica) is found in comparative abundance during the

south-west monsoon, and an equal proportion of the relatively

scarcer Large Sand Plover (4. geoffroyi) remain. Most of

these, again, are in winter plumage, but a few are in full

summer dress, and some are halfway towards it.

I have once or twice seen the Lesser Sand Plover in pairs

late in May, though I have never found the eggs. The Eastern

Golden Plover (Charadrius fulvus) for some reason does not

appear to loiter much, though Mr. Parker seems to have

discovered traces of birds laying eggs in Ceylon.*

It is also interesting to note that there have been sporadic

instances where migrants which do not usually loiter have

nested in the Island. There seem to be fairly authentic

records of such nesting on the part of the White Stork? and

the Shoveller Duck.t

* Legge: ‘“‘ Birds of Ceylon,’ p. 1222; and “Stray Feathers,’

Vol. IX., p. 482.

7 ‘‘ Stray Feathers,”’ Vol. [X., p. 485.

t Legge: ‘‘ Birds of Ceylon,”’ p. 1088.

’

298 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

I do not by any means pretend that I have proved my

theory conclusively, but the facts I have stated seem to

indicate its possibility. Our knowledge of the subject is as

yet very imperfect. In other problems of migration we have

for guidance a great mass of carefully sifted evidence based

on work in other parts of the world; but here is a point

which seems to have been comparatively unnoticed, and in

which reliable evidence would be of great value. Such reliable

evidence requires a large series of accurate observations and a

patient examination of the records obtained. It is one more

instance of the vast field of work in our Ornithology which

still awaits investigation.

NOTE ON SUANA CONCOLOR. 299

A NOTE ON SUANA CONCOLOR (WALKER).

By Ronatp Sentor-Wuite, F.E.S.

(With one Plate.)

Position.—Lepidoptera, Heterocera. Family Lasiocampide.

Distribution.—Throughout India and Ceylon; Philippines ;

Java (Hampson).

Food Plants —Psidium guyava ; Cajanus indicus ; Hibiscus

rosa-sinensis ; “ Daminiya” (Sin.) =? Grewia tiliefolia.

Lefroy gives Shorea robusta as the food plant, whilst Beeson

(Ag. Jo. Ind. 1918) mentions it as a definite pest of this tree.

It probably occurs locally on other plants, but such have

not come under my notice. It is said to occasionally attack

tea in Ceylon.

Occurrence.—There are in this district two broods per

annum, maturing in February-March and _ September,

respectively.

Egg.—Barrel-shaped, height 2 mm., diameter 14 mm.

Upper end brown, micropyle black, lower end all white.

There is a brown patch on each side apparently at point of

contact with adjacent two eggs. A few eggs are pale green,

and not white. Eggs laid in plates around a branch strongly

cemented together. A few eggs are found on the ground

beneath, mixed with male anal hairs, being apparently those

first laid. A female I had under observation laid 611 eggs

in one night, and contained on dissection 50 more developed

eggs.

Larva.—The young larve on hatching make their first meal

off the shell, and take no other food for two days. Length

when hatched 7 mm. Head black, body ringed black and

white, with a yellow patch on the black meta-thoracic band.

There are long soft hairs, those from the thorax directed

300 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

upwards and outwards. There are no urticating hairs at this

stage. The length increases to 13 mm. before changing.

The cast skin is not eaten. When very young the larve web

the food plant, but only for the first few days of larval life.

After the first skin change, the appearance of the larve is

unchanged as regards the thorax, save that the yellow patch

is not so broad, but abdominally dorsally there is a broad

bluish band with darker striz. Dorsally on the eighth

abdominal segment a black cushion with white tips to hairs.

The black and white bands remain laterally. Thoracic lateral

hairs white and thick, abdomen up to eighth segment almost

naked. The meso- and meta-thoracic bands of black urti- -

cating hairs develop in this instar. These are situated in folds

on the upper surface of these segments, and are erectile when

disturbed. Towards the end of the instar the white abdo-

minal bands turn yellowish, and are indistinguishable. Head

blue-gray, with longitudinal black striz. The length before

the next change is 30 mm. After this change the abdomen

becomes entirely bluish, irrorated with yellow. As the instar

progresses, the yellow predominates over the blue, till later-

ally the abdomen is all yellow with darker striations. There

is an oblique white bar on the meta-thorax—first abdominal

segments. Length before next change 50 mm. The next

is normally the last larval instar. Colour uniformly pale

gray-brown with darker striz all over. On meso- and meta-

thorax are fan-shaped tufts of black erectile very urticating

hairs, barbed, which, if they enter the skin, set up severe

irritation, which persists for 48 hours or more. On the eighth

abdominal segment dorsally is a dark hair cushion. On each

segment sub-infra-spiracularly are downly-directed gray

hairs, with some, shorter, whitely spatulate. The hairs at the

extremities are anteriorly and posteriorly directed, those on

the thorax make tufts, not pencils. There are five pairs of

prolegs, the anal pair spread sideways and nearly hidden in

hair. Head brownish, with four vertical lines on the occiput,

the two central ones shorter, basal joint of antenne and clypeus

white. All legs brown. The ventral colour is pink with

median orange bar, and black bands to segments. Length,

full grown: male 75 mm., female 140 mm., though bred

NOTE ON SUANA CONCOLOR. 301

larve of this sex do not exceed 120 mm. The larval sex is

indistinguishable by size until the last instar is approaching

completion.

Pupa.—After 7 days as a pre-pupa this is formed within

a very tough cocoon of grayish silk interwoven at each end

with the urticating thoracic hairs. The pupa itself is dark

brown with three yellow rings abdominally. Length, male

26-30 mm., female 50 mm. The cocoon is softened by a fluid

prior to the emergence of the imago.

Imago.—Male: Fore-wings dark red-brown, some pale

yellowish suffusion along costal margin, and some lighter

scales along the course of the veins. The hind-wings are dark

brown. Thorax red-brown, abdomen dark brown, with long

anal tuft of very dark brown hairs. Antenne bipectinate,

very broadly on the basal half. Expanse 48-60 mm.

Imago.—Female : Fore-wings a paler red-brown, the basal

area slightly darker, and a slightly darker indefinite broad

band across the middle of the wing, with some darker colour-

ation from outside this bar below costa to apex broadly.

Near outer edge of sub-basal dark area is a prominent white

lunule. The hind-wings are pale brown. The thorax and

abdomen coloured as fore- and hind-wings respectively.

Antenne minutely pectinate. Expanse 106 mm.

Life Cycle—Kgg 14 days. Larva 12-16 + 21-24 + 25 +

58-78. In all 119-140 days. Pupa: (male) 29-33 days ;

(female) 24 days. Total 162-178 days. These figures apply

to the brood maturing in February, but the September brood

probably is of very similar duration.

Hampson describes a variety or “ ? younger stage ” of the

larva with small white-haired dorsal papille on segments

4. to 10, each with a pair of red-brown papille in front and

a pair of crimson papille on each side. In all the larve that

I have bred I have never seen this form occur.

The female has a very strong attraction for the male. Ifa

female be placed out at dusk,I have never failed to attract a male

within a few minutes between the hours of 6.30 and 6.45 P.M.,

though the insect is by no means abundant here. Copulation

commences at once, and egg laying is completed by morning.

15 6(5)20

302 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Tf both sexes emerge on the same evening in the breeding cage,

they couple as soon as the wings harden, though in the one

case on which this occurred with me the pair were still in

copulation at 7 A.M. next morning. In copulation the male

alights on the back of the female, after flying round her for

from only a few seconds to 5 minutes, and then, conjoining

the abdominal apices, the male hangs below the female, which

supports the weight of both, in the usual Lasiocampid attitude

of a fallen leaf, the stalk of which is made by the palpi.

With one brood which I carried through from the egg there

were two larvee, which did a fourth change (5 larval instars),

and lived for 47 days after the last change, then dying without

any visible cause or attempt to pupate.

Control.—The larve are attacked at all stages by a fungus,

which has been identified by the Government Mycologist as

Verticillium sp., a Penicillium being also found on a dead

larva kept for some time, which Mr. Petch considers as being

probably secondary. The attack of the Verticilliwm is rapid,

larvee being suddenly found covered with the matted white

hyphe of the fungus. A Phorid with a pupal period of about

16 days was also found in suspicious circumstances emerging

from dead larvee which had turned a dark brown prior to death,

though there was no visible fungus attack. These had been

placed in test tubes closed with a cotton wool plug when

almost dead, and though it is not proved that the Phorid

will parasitize healthy larvee, I think I am correct in stating

that it will certainly oviposit in larvee before death from some

other cause. Specimens of this fly have been sent out for

identification, but this has not yet been done.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE.

Suana concolor.

Fig. 1.—Larva, first instar. 3.

Fig..2.—Larva, second instar. 3.

Fig. 3.—Larva, third instar. X 3

Fig.4.—Imago g. X 1.

Fig. 5.—Pupa g. X 3.

Fig. 6.—Larva, fourth instar. X 1.

NOTE ON KOGIA BREVICEPS. 303

A NOTE ON KOGIA BREVICEPS.

By JosEPH PEARSON.

(With four Plates.)

SPECIMEN of Kogia breviceps (de Blainville), the Pygmy

Sperm Whale, was washed ashore at Moratuwa on

the western coast of Ceylon on November 30, 1915, and the

carcase was presented to the Colombo Museum by Mr. J. B.

N. Jayasinhe. The specimen was stuffed, but the skin dete-

riorated very rapidly owing to the difficulty of removing the

fat and oil. Finally, it was decided to make a papier-maché

cast, and this has proved a complete success, and is now

exhibited in the Mammalian Gallery of the Colombo Museum,

together with a complete skeleton. Although the skull and

other parts of the skeleton are fairly well known, I do not

know of any other Museum in which there is a cast of the

soft parts.

The synonymy of Kogia breviceps is somewhat complicated,

and it has been described under the following names :—

Physeter breviceps de Blainville, 1838; Hwphysetes grayit Wall,

1851; Huphysetes simus Owen, 1869; Huphysetes macleayii

Krefit, 1865; Kogia flowert Gill, 1871; Huphysetes pottsii

Haast, 1874; Cogia breviceps Benham, 1901. Also Kogia

breviceps, K. grayit, K. simus, K. macleayii, and K. potisi: by

various authors.

It is now generally agreed that there is only one species,

though there appears to be a good deal of variation within

the species regarding the proportions of the cranial bones,

the absence or presence of teeth on the upper jaw, the number

of ribs, the vertebral formula, and the phalangeal formula.

304 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

The following notes refer to the Ceylon specimen :—

Colour.

Jet black above and at the sides, the belly being pinkish

in colour. The two colours do not merge into one another

at the sides, but are clearly separated.

Measurements.

Total length from tip of snout to tip of tail 6 = OD lenis

From tip of snout to tip of dorsal fin .. OL29senn

Height of dorsal fin oe ‘-) » 4d Dien:

Length of flapper +1) (Bo en,

Distance from front of eye to tip of snout oa!) U2 3venR,

Depth of body just in front of dorsal fin so 1 63 )ena,

Girth of the same place : ve 45 enn,

Girth halfway between dorsal fin and base of tail 72 cm.

Extreme horizontal distance between the two

flukes of the tail id A 56 em.

The vertebral formula of the specimen under examination

is C7, D13, L9, Ca24. The 25th caudal vertebra is absent,

but I am satisfied that it has been lost in the preparing of

the skeleton. There are only fifteen hemal arches, the small

posterior vertebrae apparently not having any, though it is

possible that some of these may have been lost in preparing

the skeleton owing to their small size.

There are thirteen ribs, the anterior eight alone having

both capitulum and tuberculum. Each rib consists of a

single bone, from the ventral end of which is a cartilaginous

extension, with the possible exception of the last pair, which

are exceedingly short.

The sternum consists of three parts, the presternum being

the largest, and having a deep cleft in its anterior border.

The first pair of ribs articulate with lateral expansions of the

presternum. The second pair of ribs joms the sternum

between the presternum and mesosternum, and the third

pair between the mesosternum and xiphisternum. The

cartilaginous extensions of the fourth and fifth ribs unite and

join the posterior part of the xiphisternum. The last eight

ribs are not joined to the sternum,

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NOTE ON KOGIA BREVICEPS. 305

The phalangeal formula differs from the general arrange-

ment usual in the species, but this may be due to small bones

having been lost in mounting. The formula of the Ceylon

specimen is I2, I18, III8, [V6, V4.

In the skull there are thirteen sharp slightly curved teeth

at each side of the lower jaw.

Distribution.

Cape of Good Hope (type locality), Indo-Pacific, Australasia,

Atlantic and Pacific coasts of North America, and the coast

of France. Records of the species are rare. At least one

specimen has been recorded from Ceylon previously, as the

specimen on view in the British Museum was presented by

Mr. Hugh Neville in 1891 from Trincomalee.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Plate 1.—Lateral view of Kogia breviceps. x 3k.

Plate II.—Lateral view of the complete skeleton. x 7

wae

Plate III.—Lateral view of skull. x 2.

Plate IV.—Dorsal view of the skull (x 4) and lateral view of

pectoral girdle and skeleton of paddle (x 4).

[Note.—While this paper was in the press, the writer received Schulte’s

paper on the Skull of K. breviceps (Bull, Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., Vol.

XXXVII.,1917,p.361). He gives a list of twenty-one specimens of the

species that have been described up to the present. Atleast two other

specimens are known, both from Ceylon, viz., the Trincomalee specimen

presented to the British Museum by Mr. Hugh Neville in 1891, and the

Moratuwa specimen, which forms the subject of the present note.—

J. P.]

306 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

NOTES ON CERTAIN SHORE CRABS,

By C. T. Symons, B.A. (Oxon.), F.R.G.S.

HE observations here recorded were made at Neerodu-

munai, which is a few miles south of Trincomalee, at

the outlet of Lake Tamblegam. It appeared advisable to

put them on record, firstly, because there do not appear to be

many records of the habits of crabs ; and, secondly, because

there is some discrepancy in the records of the habits of one

of the crabs mentioned.

The shore crabs which were watched belonged to three

distinct genera, namely, a Gelasimus, a Dotilla, and a Scopi-

mera, the first and third of which have not yet been

absolutely identified.

Gelasimus.—The Fiddler or Caller crabs are well known as

possessing one cheliped enormously exaggerated in size, and

usually of a very distinct pink colour. This enlarged claw

may occur on either side of the body, the numbers, so far as

I could ascertain, being about equal for each.

Near Neerodumunai there are three colonies of these crabs,

and it is very noticeable that they are all situated in positions

where the sand is comparatively muddy, only just covered

at high tide, and not on the fine soft sand which is so abundant

there. In one case the colony is amongst rocks, under some

shrubs. Here the crabs are much tamer than in the more

open colonies, presumably because a person watching them is

mistaken for the overhanging branches. In watching these

crabs it is very noticeable that though their sight is very

acute, their sense of hearing appears to be very deficient.

They remain quite undisturbed while an ordinary conver-

sation is carried on, and I understand that even a gun-shot

produces little effect on the colony. The situation of their

eyes on long eyestalks renders them very efficient for keeping

a good lookout in all directions.

The male members of the colony do not appear to wander

far from the entrances to their burrows. All seem to spend

most of their time in feeding, and it was their method of

doing this which first attracted me to this series of crabs.

NOTES ON CERTAIN SHORE CRABS. 307

As soon as the crabs emerge from their burrows, if not alarmed,

they commence to feed, a process which is carried out by

means of the chelipeds, the male using only the smaller one.

Small particles of sand are passed up to the mouth, being

seized by the upper end of the maxille. These small parti-

cles are then passed downwards, presumably in the process

being scraped by the mandibles to remove minute traces of

food. The sand thus accumulates at the lower end of the

mouth, and when sufficient has accumulated still adhering

to the jaws, the ball of sand is carried downwards and back-

wards by the walking legs and deposited behind the crab.

I have not seen these crabs eating anything else, even when

such a thing as a small dead fish or crab was available,

although other observers report the use of such food. In the

colonies of Fiddler crabs, which I watched, the females were

certainly in the minority, and usually, so far as I was able

to see, lived in small colonies amongst the males, though

some appeared to be paired. The females certainly wandered

further from their burrows. On one occasion I was watching

the colony, and noticed a female wandering about. There

were eight males grouped around her in a circle about 2 feet in

diameter. These males were in a most excited state, and

showed the one most obvious use to which the large pink

cheliped is put. They were standing near the entrances to

their burrows on tip-toe, 7.e., raised on the points of their

walking legs and waving their conspicuous chelipeds in the

air, all around the female, evidently determined to do their

best to arrest her attention. She seemed to be rather

frightened or annoyed. When she approached the edge of

the circle, a male would attempt to head her off, but they

made no attempt to seize her, nor would they venture far

from their burrows. Eventually the female wandered away.

At times the whole colony of males may be seen in the same

excited state, waving their pink “‘arms” in the air, and

hence earning the name of “Caller”? crabs. The burrows

inhabited by these crabs appear to descend nearly vertically

to below sea level, for the crabs when they emerge are quite

wet. As the entrances are comparatively small, the large

cheliped has to be carried closely folded to the body on

308 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

entering, but there appears to be no general rule as to

whether the larger arm shall be moved into the entrance

first or after the other arm. In the colonies these crabs do

not appear to be very pugnacious, and I have never seen

the large cheliped used as a weapon of offence. In fact, the

animals appear to find it somewhat unwieldy, and do not

move it rapidly. Occasionally I saw one crab trespass on the

feeding ground of his neighbour, but I never saw a fight.

I have seen one male take hold of the cheliped of another,

but nothing more happened, so far as I could see.

Alcock,* who gives a description of these crabs, states

that “the dismembered chelipeds of the vanquished males

could often be seen lying on the battlefield.’ I have noticed

Fia. 1.—Gelasimus protecting its burrow.

two uses for the large cheliped, in each of which it was used

as a kind of shield. In one case a male when approached

by another one, presumably for the purpose of attack,

crouched down in a small cavity in the ground and covered

himself with his large arm. In the second case the method

was similar, except that the crab escaped into his burrow,

leaving the cheliped to block up the entrance (Fig. 1). This

was evidently quite intentional, because the animal, instead

* A. Alcock: A Naturalist in Indian Seas, p. 219.

NOTES ON CERTAIN SHORE CRABS. 309

of carrying the arm folded closely to the body, as is usual

on entering the burrow, in this case carried it trailing behind.

Tennent, in his ‘‘ Natural History of Ceylon,” says that these

crabs, presumably Gelasimus annulipes, are common on the

sandy shores north and south of Colombo. I have not found

any in the immediate neighbourhood of Colombo, but there

is a colony to be seen on the island opposite the resthouse

at Negombo.

Dotilla—This species, which I have identified as Dotilla

mycteroides, is not so striking in appearance as the last

one, but in its habits it is more interesting. It is of a dull

brown colour, rather globular in form, and is provided

rather long arms of equal size with long pointed fingers. It

inhabits the fine, rather dry sand nearer the sea than the

Gelasimus. Its burrows are of much the same form, though

smaller, are usually covered at high tide, and thus have to be

partly re-made after each tide, as in the case of the others.

The diagram (Fig. 2) shows the surroundings of one of the

burrows of a Scopimera crab, which closely resemble the

runways of the Dotilla. These crabs are comparatively tame,

and as they are small, the best way to watch them is to sit or

lie down in the middle of a colony. They will soon emerge,

and may be watched at a distance of a few inches if the

watcher remains absolutely still. The most noticeable

feature of the colony is a series of “‘ pathways” leading to

little holes, with heaps of countless little round pellets of

sand at one side (occasionally both sides). When the tide

has gone down leaving the sand quite smooth, the crab, from

inside, breaks open the entrance to the burrow and emerges,

at once starting to feed; at first there is no sign of a

pathway, and no sign of balls of sand, the feeding crab making

both as it feeds. As in the case of the Gelasimus, this

crab appears to live entirely upon fine particles of food which

adhere to the sand. Thus, in order to feed, the crab squats

down and starts shovelling sand up to its mouth with the

two long “‘hands” alternately. In this case, as opposed to

the habit of the Gelasimus, the sand passes into the mouth

from below and emerges above to form a sort of ball or pellet,

which is held in position by the maxillary palps which extend

16 6(5)20

310 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

outwards from the mouth. When a considerable pellet has

accumulated, one of the arms is used to carry the pellet

downwards ; it is then passed backwards by the legs and

deposited on one side. The first part of this latter movement

is very rapid, and looks as if the crab was wiping his mous-

tache, so to speak, with his hand. This feeding goes on

Are 299,

IF 0 a 3

TEU oobi,

Pf. Ae

Fic. 2.—Runways of Scopimera.

continuously, and the crab works usually in a direct line from

his burrow, thus cutting a kind of hollowed-out pathway

about half an inch wide, which has the balls of ‘‘ eaten ”’

sand on one side. Whenever the crab emerges, it appears

to go down the pathway and commence feeding. Thus, the

smooth sand left by the receding tide is soon covered with

lines and piles of pellets of sand, separated seemingly by

pathways leading to the burrows of the crabs. The burrows

are close together, so that the pellets may be heaped

NOTES ON CERTAIN SHORE GRABS. 311

somewhat haphazard, and though there is in every case a

clearly defined pathway, it is not so well defined as with the

Scopimera crabs.

There is another phenomenon amongst these Dotilla crabs

which is worthy of mention. As is usual, on the stretches

of shore which are exposed at low tide some parts are

quite dry, whereas others are comparatively wet during the

whole period of low tide. These animals appear to have

adapted themselves to both these conditions. Some live,

as above described, in burrows in dry sand, while others of

the same species live on the wet patches. If such a wet-sand

colony be cautiously approached, troops of these crabs may

be seen moving about and feeding. When disturbed, they

do not scurry away, as Ocypodes do, and having no ready-

made burrows, they cannot escape as their dry-sand brethren

do. Their method is to move to a soft wet patch of sand, if

not already there, and then to vanish. This disappearance is

is at first sight very astounding, as it only takes a few seconds

for a whole colony of them to pass out of sight and leave

the sand looking almost undisturbed. On closer examina-

tion the mystery is explained, when one of them is seen

disappearing down into the sand by a kind of corkscrew

movement. The animal accomplishes this by digging itself

sideways and downwards into the sand. This method of

taking cover is only used for temporary escape ; for the crabs

may be unearthed by disturbing the surface of the sand. I

never found one which had penetrated more than an inch

under the sand in this way. This habit provides the easiest

method of procuring specimens.

When these wet-sand crabs have finished feeding, 1.e.,

when the tide is rising, they have a most ingenious way of

providing themselves with a retreat full of air while the tide

covers their feeding ground. In the wet sand a small cavity

about three-quarters of an inch in diameter is excavated in

the shape of a cup (Fig. 3). Then the crab, standing in the

middle, starts to carry wet lumps of sand from the bottom and

piles them on to the sides. Working very rapidly, he soon

(that is, in 2 or 3 minutes) has a complete wet-sand ‘chamber

enclosed and roofed in, the air inside being retained by the

S12 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

wet sand. I watched one do this, waited for a few minutes,

and then dug down at the spot and found that the crab and

the air chamber had disappeared quite deep into the sand.

Presumably, although it is impossible to see this part of the

process when the chamber is completely roofed in, the crab goes

on working in the same way until the air bubble or chamber is

carried down to the requisite depth, so that the tide overhead

will not disturbit. In this air chamber the crab remains until

the tide has gone down and he can come up again to feed.

Fic. 3.—Section showing stages in the formation

of an air chamber by Dotilla.

The habits of a nearly-allied species of crab is described

by R. P. Cowles,* who has observed the habits of Mycteris

longicarpus, Latreille, in the Philippine Islands. But though

he gives photographs of the sand pellets and describes the

corkscrew descent of the hiding crab, with a plate illustrating

the crab in the air chamber, he appears to think that the

pellets are thrown up and the air chamber is made by the

rapidly-descending crab. As I have recorded above, these

two habits are quite distinct. The air-chamber method is

used by those which live on the wet sand and have no per-

manent burrows. In one case I noticed that one of the crabs

living on the dry sand most carefully closed up the entrance

to his burrow with several lumps of sand, presumably to

retain the air inside when the tide came up.

* R. P. Cowles: ‘‘ Habits of some Tropical Crustacea,’ II. Philip-

pine Journal of Science, Vol. X., Sec. D, No. 1, p. 11.

NOTES ON CERTAIN SHORE ORABS. 313

Scopimera.—I have not been able to identify the species

to which these crabs belong. Their habits closely resemble

those of the Dotilla just described. They are always to be

found on the dry, fine sand just below high-water mark.

They are smaller and flatter than the Dotillas, and their

chelipeds are much more spade-like. Their method of feeding

is exactly the same as that of the Dotilla species, but the

pellets of sand are often as large as the body of the crab

before they are removed from the mouth and placed on the

heap. Their burrow “paths” and piles of “eaten” sand

are much more orderly than those of the Dotilla. Just

after the tide has fallen and the sand become fairly dry, this

neatness is most marked. They work a path, which is about

three-quarters of an inch wide, and only scrape it on the

surface to form a shallow groove, all the pellets being placed

on one side of the path, that is, in eating they always appear

to face in one direction. Occasionally an aberrant one is

seen, feeding in an irregular manner so far as the pathways

are concerned, but the actual method of handling the sand

is always the same, and there is no possibility of mistaking

the work of one of these crabs for the work of an Ocypode

in clearing out its burrow.

314 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

NOTES.

Viviparous Habit of the Snake Cylindrophis maculatus

(Linne)—Among half a dozen Ceylon snakes sent to me

recently through the kindness of Mr. Gerard A. Joseph, I found

a specimen of Cylindrophis maculatus, which proved to be

gravid. As far as I am aware, the viviparous nature of this

species has not been previously noted ; in fact, judging from

Boulenger’s Catalogue (1893, Vol. I., p. 131 et seg.), nothing

is known of the breeding habits of any of the species of the

family Ilysiide. This being so, the specimen referred to by

me is of very special interest.

When cut open two foetuses (1 g, 1 2) were brought to

light, each folded twice into three about equal parts, and

marked and coloured just like the dam. The 3g, known from

its extruded claspers, measured 53 inches, and the 9 5 inches

in length, the parent taping just 10% inches. Now I find that

in most viviparous snakes the young measure at birth about

one-quarter the length of the dam, so that the embryos now

referred to are relatively very large, bemg almost half the

length of the parent. Such unusual development probably

influences the numbers in the brood, which in this case is

considerably less than in any other land snake that I am

acquainted with. Ina paper of mine published in the Bombay

Natural History Journal (Vol. XXV., p. 607), I drew attention

to the very small broods that two sea snakes (Hnhydris curtus

and Hydrophis gracilis) produce. Both usually discharge one

or two ata birth, and in the case of the former, the embryos

measure at least two-fifths of the dam before birth.

Unfortunately there is no record of the date of capture of

this interesting C. maculatus.

October 12, 1918. F. WALL.

NOTES. - od

Occurrence of Motacilla alba (the White Wagtail) in Ceylon.—

On Saturday, November 23, 1918, when walking from the

Residency to the Kachcheri at Puttalam I saw a strange

Wagtail on the maidan. I went out to look for a specimen in

the evening and shot a young male, which turned out to be

M. alba—the White Wagtail—in its first autumn plumage.

There were several other specimens. One I used to see almost

daily either in the resthouse compound, or on the maidan

between the Residency and the Kachcheri. They stayed until

early February. I left Puttalam for a week’s circuit in the

first week of February, and when I came back they had gone.

The specimen I obtained is now in the Colombo Museum.

The species is common in summer throughout Northern

Europe and Western Siberia. It winters in North Africa and

India, but seldom visits the extreme south of the peninsula,

and it has never before been recorded from Ceylon.

December, 1919. W. E. WAIT.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CEYLON NATURAL

HISTORY SOCIETY.

THE Seventh Anniversary Meeting of the Society was held in

the Colombo Museum Library on March 14, 1919, at 5.15 p.m,

the Hon. Mr. R. E. Stubbs, C.M.G., President, in the Chair.

The accounts and reports of the Honorary Secretaries and

Treasurers for 1918 were read and confirmed.

A vote of thanks was proposed to Mr. W. H. Young for auditing

the accounts.

The following office-bearers were elected for the ensuing year :—

Patron.

His Excellency the Governor.

President.

The Hon. Mr. R. E. Stubbs, C.M.G.

Vice-Presidents.

F. M. Mackwood, Esq. Dr. A. Nell.

Sir 8. D. Bandaranayake, C.M.G.| Dr. J. Pearson.

316 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Couneil.

T. Petch, Esq. The Rev. Father M. J. Le Goe. ‘.

The Ven. the Archdeacon of | HK. Evans, Esq.

Colombo G. A. Joseph, Esq.

Harry Creasy, Esq.

Joint Honorary Secretaries and Treasurers.

Messrs. C. T. Symons and W. A. Cave.

New Member :—T'. R. Mitchell, Esq.

Further exhibits of photographic animal studies from the Game

Sanctuary taken by F. E. Mackwood, Esq., were shown. Some

interesting notes on these exhibits were given by Mr. C. T. Symons,

who accompanied Mr. Mackwood on the trip.

Twenty-sixth General Meeting.

The Twenty-sixth General Meeting of the Society was held in

the Colombo Museum Library on April 24, 1919, at 5.30 P.m.,

Dr. A Nell in the Chair.

A paper on “ Sex Statistics oi the Mullaittivu District, Northern

Province,’ was given by Frederick Lewis, Esq.

Mr. C. T. Symons gave a few short notes on squirrels eating

butterflies, white ants working in the open, and some crossed

varieties of Mirabilis jalappa (Marvel of Peru).

Twenty-seventh General Meeting.

The Twenty-seventh General Meeting of the Society was held

in the Colombo Museum Library on May 20, 1919, at 6 P.M.,

Dr. A Nell in the Chair.

A paper on ‘“‘ Wild Life at the Water-hole”’ was given by .

Dr. R. L. Spittel.

Mr. David Scott gave a short note on the depredations of white

ants in the top floor storey of a building in the Fort remforced

with concrete.

Twenty-eighth General Meeting.

The Twenty-eighth General Meeting of the Society was held

in the Colombo Museum Library on June 26, 1919, at 6 P.M.,

Dr. A. Nell in the Chair.

A paper on ‘“‘ Notes on Ceylon Cuckoos and their Eggs

given by W. E. Wait, Esq., M.A., M.B.O.U.

Twenty-ninth General Meeting.

The Twenty-ninth General Meeting of the Society was held

in the Colombo Museum Library on July 17, 1919, at 6 P.Mm.,

Dr. A. Nell in the Chair.

A paper on the “ Pernicious Weeds in Colombo Gardens ” was

given by Rev. Father M. J. Le Goc.,.O.M.I.

New Member :—L. M. Maartensz, Esq.

37)

was

OWLS AND DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY. 317

THE OWLS AND DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY

FOUND IN CEYLON.

By W. E. Wart, M.A., F.Z.S.

ERRATUM,

It is regretted that by an oversight, in the second figure of

the first plate accompanying Mr. W. E. Wait’s article on the

* Picarian Birds and Parrots of Ceylon” in Part 42 of this

Magazine, facing page 272, an illustration of Amaurornis phenicu-

rus, The White-breasted Water-hen, has been inserted instead of

a presentment of Coracias indica, The Indian Roller.

I hope, however, when the Handbook is published in volume

form, to follow the new trinomial classification of Indian birds,

which Mr. E. C. Stuart Baker is bringing out in the Journal of

the Bombay Natural History Society.

Order STRIGES.

Owls.

The Owls form a naturally marked order, lying between

the Parrots and the Birds of Prey. They are birds, mainly

nocturnal, of very distinctive appearance. The whole

plumage is soft and fluffy. In most genera the head is large

and densely feathered; the big round eyes are directed

2 6(21)20

316 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Council.

T. Petch, Esq. The Rev. Father M. J. Le Goc.

The Ven. the Archdeacon of | E. Evans, Esq.

Colombo é G. A. Joseph, Esq.

Harry Creasy, Esq.

Joint Honorary Secretaries and Treasurers.

Messrs. C. T. Symons and W. A. Cave.

New Member :—T.. R. Mitchell, Esq.

with concrete.

Twenty-eighth General Meeting.

The Twenty-eighth General Meeting of the Society was held

in the Colombo Museum Library on June 26, 1919, at 6 P.m.,

Dr. A. Nell in the Chair.

A paper on “ Notes on Ceylon Cuckoos and their Eggs ”’ was

given by W. BE. Wait, Esq., M.A., M.B.0.U.

Twenty-ninth General Meeting.

The Twenty-ninth General Meeting of the Society was held

in the Colombo Museum Library on July 17, 1919, at 6 P.M.,

Dr. A. Nell in the Chair.

A paper on the “ Pernicious Weeds in Colombo Gardens ’

given by Rev. Father M. J. Le Goc., O.M.TI.

New Member :—lL. M. Maartensz, Esq.

was

OWLS AND DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY. 317

THE OWLS AND DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY

FOUND IN CEYLON.

By W. E. Warr, M.A., F.Z.S.

(With one Plate.)

spe present instalment of the rough draft for the Hand-

book on the Birds of Ceylon includes the members of

the Orders Striges and Accipitres. As in the earlier portions,

I have followed the classification given by Oates and Blanford

in the volumes on Birds in the ‘‘ Fauna of British India.”

After this paper had been completed, I had the advantage of

meeting with Mr. W. L. Sclater, and of reading the manuscript

of his forthcoming rescension of the Accipitres. There is

no doubt that since Blanford wrote much greater accuracy

of classification has been attained, largely by the use of the

trinomial system in differentiating sub-species, or geographical

races. As, however, Mr. Sclater’s work was not complete,

and as the adoption of his classification would have entailed

the recasting of a considerable portion of my paper, I am

publishing it as it stood, in order not to delay its appearance.

I hope, however, when the Handbook is published in volume

form, to follow the new trinomial classification of Indian birds,

which Mr. E. C. Stuart Baker is bringing out in the Journal of

the Bombay Natural History Society.

Order STRIGES.

Owls.

The Owls form a naturally marked order, lying between

the Parrots and the Birds of Prey. They are birds, mainly

nocturnal, of very distinctive appearance. The whole

plumage is soft and fluffy. In most genera the head is large

and densely feathered ; the big round eyes are directed

2 6(21)20

318 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

forwards, and are cireled with disks of radiating feathers,

which may be bordered by a close-set ruff. Many species

bear, above the eyes, upstanding tufts of feathers known as

aigrettes, horns, or ear tufts. The bill is short, curved, and

hooked ; its base is furnished with a cere, which is usually

covered by stiff bristles concealing the nostrils. The ear

openings are generally of large size, and are often protected

by a lid or ‘‘operculum.’’ The legs are usually, but not

always, completely feathered down to the toes. The feet are

strong, the toes have sharp, curved claws of moderate length ;

the hallux or hind toe is always present, the outer toe is

reversible.

The coloration, as might be expected in nocturnal birds,

is mainly some combination of brown or rufous. Most species

breed in hollow trees and lay white eggs, which are almost

spherical. The young when born are helpless and covered

with down. Owls are carnivorous, the larger species preying

chiefly on small mammals and birds, while the smaller forms

feed mainly on beetles and various other insects.

Members of the order are found all over the world, and

from their silent ghost-like flight, their large eyes, nocturnal

habits, and weird cries have always been looked upon in all

countries as birds of ill-omen. The usual call is either a hoot

or a shriek, but in the forests of India and Ceylon eerie,

strangulated sounds are heard at night, and are usually

supposed to be the alarm calls or mating cries of one or other

of the Owls. In Ceylon the identity of this ‘‘ Devil Bird ”

is still a subject of much discussion and conjecture. From

personal experience, inquiries, and the evidence recorded, J am

convinced that the cries vary considerably, and probably are

not all made by the same species. In the northern forest

tract the cry usually heard is a loud, piercing, single scream,

which is audible at a great distance. The villagers in the

interior of the Puttalam District ascribe this call, not to an

Owl, but to the Crested Hawk-Eagle—S. cirrhatus—and I

believe that in some cases they are right. I have heard this

ery at night in the North-Central Province, and although the

effect was blood-curdling, there was a ring in it not altogether

unlike the ordinary note of an eagle. The calls described by

OWLS AND DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY. 319

other observers in the central and southern parts of the Island

differ so from this cry that they seem fairly obviously to be

uttered by some other bird, and it is not improbable that more

than one species is responsible. Four Owls are held in sus-

picion. Native legends and belief point to the Brown Wood-

Owl—S. indrani—a fairly common, large species. Its

ordinary note is a resounding ‘‘ too-whoo,” but tame birds

have been known to utter dismal wailing sounds (vide Legge,

p. 158) where the question is discussed at some length.*

Another bird with equai claims is the Forest Eagle-Owl—

H. nepalensis. There is in the Colombo Museum a skeleton

of this Owl, presented by J. H. Stephens, who stated that

he shot it while uttering the cries of the Devil Bird. It is,

however, a rare species in Ceylon, though the few specimens

recorded come from widely distributed localities, both in the

hills and in the low-country. Others, again, state that the

Devil Bird is a “small whitish bird,’ which would point to

the Ceylon Bay-Owl—P. assimilis. This is also a rare bird

peculiar to Ceylon, and as yet recorded only from the hills and

from the forest at their bases. An allied species from northern

India—P. badius—is said to make an appalling noise. The

latter two species are probably genuine ‘“‘ Devil Birds,” but

as they are either rare or restricted in range, and as the Devil

Bird’s cries are reported from all over the Island, I cannot

imagine that they are the sole authors of the ill-omened

sounds.

Lastly, the Brown Hawk-Owl—JN. scutulata—a small species

found all over the Island, is mentioned by several Indian

observers as making noises like a strangled cat, or a hare

caught by hounds. It has not, however, been regarded with

suspicion in Ceylon.

The order is divided into two families, the distinction being

founded solely on osteological characters, there being no

external differences of any importance. In the family

Strigide, which includes only one of the eleven species found

* The cries described in the letter from Mr, Mitford, quoted in the

passage here alluded to, as having been ‘‘ heard on the rock at the

back of the Residency at Kurunegala,”’ are probably those made by

the Flying Squirrels, which still haunt the same locality and utter

wailing calls at night-time.

320 SPOLIA ZEYLANIGA.

in Ceylon, the skull is long and narrow, and the “ fureula,” or

merrythought is united to the keel of the breastbone. In

the Asionide the skull is broader, and the fureula is not in

contact with the keel of the breastbone.

Family STRIGIDz.

Genus Strix.

Screech Owls.

This is a small family, containing only twe genera, one of

which—WStria—is world-wide, the other confined to Madagascar.

Inthe genus Strix there are no ear tufts, the facial disk is large

and full, and completely surrounded by a ruff of stiff feathers.

The bill is weak and compressed, the nostrils are oval ; the

wings are long and pointed, and when closed reach beyond

the tail. The legs are long, the upper part of the tarsus is

feathered ; on the lower tarsus and toes the feathers become

bristles. The middle toe is of about the same length as the

inner ; the middle claw is serrated on the inner margin. Only

one species, the familiar English Barn Owl, is found in the

Island. It may be distinguished from all other Ceylon Owls

by its pale plumage, and by the combination of the long

pointed wings with the slightly serrated comb on the middle

claw. The Bay Owl has a serrated middle claw, but the

wings are comparatively short and rounded.

STRIX FLAMMEA (Blanford, Vol. III., p. 264; Legge, p. 164).

The Barn Owl ; Screech Owl.

Description.—Facial disk white, a rufous patch in front of

the eye ; ruff feathers white, the outer feathers rufous towards

the end and with dark brown tips ; back and upper parts

tawny-buff and stippled-gray, with a small eye-shaped spot of

black and white at the end of each feather ; wing quills tawny-

brown with mottlings and irregular cross bands of dark

grayish-brown and a large amount of white on the inner webs ;

tail tawny brown with four wavy, slightly mottled bars of

dark brown, the tip mottled-white and dark brown, with some

traces of eye spots as on the back ; the underside of the tail

feathers white. Lower parts white, more or less tinged on

OWLS AND DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY. 321

the flanks and thighs with very pale buff, and with scattered

small triangular dark spots, mainly on the sides of the breast,

the flanks, and wing lining.

Bill fleshy-white ; cere flesh colour; iris black; bare

portion of legs and feet fleshy-brown.

Length about 14; wing 11°25; tail4-75; tarsus 2-5;

bill from gape 1°5.

Distribution.—In Ceylon practically limited to the Jaffna

peninsula ; a few specimens have been recorded from the

north-west coast as far south as Puttalam. It occurs all over

the world in tropical and temperate regions, with minor racial

distinctions in the various continents.

Habits, &c.—A thoroughly nocturnal bird, frequenting

house roofs, outhouses, old buildings, ruins, or occasionally

old hollow trees. In Jaffna it haunts the old drainage outlets

from the bastions of the fort into the moat. It feeds almost

entirely on rats and mice. The cry is a loud and rather weird

screech. The birds are noisiest in the breeding season, which

at Jaffna is in June and July. The eggs are Jaid in some hole

in a building or tree ; generally there is no nest lining, in some

cases a few sticks are placed on the floor of the hole. The eggs

vary in number from 3 to 6; the shape is roundish oval, the

colour white with a creamy tinge, the measurement about

1°69 by 1:28.

Family ASLIONID As.

This family compuises ten out of our eleven species. It is

again sub-divided into three sub-families as follows :—

Photodiline.—Facial disk and ruff weJl marked ; ear orifice

smaller than the eye, and not furnished with an operculum

inner margin of the middle claw with a small serrated

comb.

Asionine. —Faeial disk and ruff well marked ; ear orifice

larger than the eye, an operculum present ; middle claw not

serrated.

Bubonine.—Facial disk and ruff not well marked ; ear

orifice smaller than the eye ; middle claw not serrated.

322 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA,

Sub-family Photodiline.

Genus Photodilus.

Bay Owls.

This sub-family is Jimited to a single genus of two species,

one of which is peculiar to Ceylon. Both are of medium

dimensions, being slightly under a foot in length. As in the

genus Strex, the inner margin of the middle claw is furnished

with a slightly serrated file-like process or comb. The wings,

however, are much shorter and rounded. The tarsus is

feathered throughout, the inner toe is longer than the middle.

The facial disk is very distinct, but the ruff is not quite

complete above the eyes. The Ceylon species can be told apart

from all our other Owls by the pinkish tinge of the face and

lower parts.

PHOTODILUS ASSIMILIS (Blanford, Vol. III., p. 269).

PHODILUS ASSIMILIS (Legge, p. 161).

The Ceylon Bay Owl.

(See Fig. I.)

Description.—Forehead and facial disk vinous-pink ;

feathers round the eye chocolate ; ruff white tipped with

chestnut and black ; feathers of the crown and nape dark

chestnut, flecked in the centre with black and paler chestnut,

a few feathers sometimes whitish ; remainder of upper parts

a mixture of chestnut and rich tawny-buff, marked with

smallish triangular spots of black, which on the scapulars and

wing coverts are flecked with white ; wing quills chestnut on

the outer, dark grayish-brown on the inner webs, both webs being

barred with biack ; on the long winglet feathers, on the outer

web of the first primary, and on the ends of the outer webs of

the next two or three primaries the spaces between the black

bars are white ; tail rufous chestnut with narrow black bars.

Throat and chest buff, shading into pale vinous-pink on the

remainder of the under parts ; most of the feathers with two

dark brown spots on the centre ; the thigh plumes sometimes

silky-white ; wing lining buff with a patch of deep chocolate

brown at the base of the primaries.

OWLS AND DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY. 543)

Bill greenish-white ; iris dark brown ; feet pale whitish-

green.

Length about 11; wing 7°75; tail 3°5; tarsus 1°65; bill

from gape 1°25.

Distribution.—A rare bird peculiar to Ceylon. A few speci-

mens have been obtained in the hills under 3,000 feet, and in

the forest country at the foot of the ranges.

Habits, &c.—There is little on record regarding these. The

species is nocturnal and lives in the forest. The nest has been

found on Martin’s town estate, near Rakwana. It was made

in the hole of a tree, and was composed of dry twigs, moss, and

feathers. The parent bird and three young were taken from

the nest in November, so it would appear to breed towards

the end of the year and to lay three eggs. As stated in the

remarks on the order, this Owl is probably the author of some

of the eerie cries of the Devil Bird. Mr. E. C. Stuart Baker

informs me that the North Indian species—P. badius —makes

a noise “ like half a dozen mad cats.”

Sub-family Asionine.

Eared Owls and Wood Owls.

The two Ceylon members of this sub-family are of fairly

large size. The ear orifice is larger than the eye, and is

furnished with an operculum. The facial disk is well marked

and the ruffdistinct. The tarsus and upper surface of the toes

are fully feathered. The legs and feet are fairly strong, but

not so stout and formidable as in the Fish and Eagle Owls.

Rough Key to Ceylon Species.

A.—Length about 15; wings long and pointed ; ear tufts

well marked.

Asio accimitrinus (The Short-eared Owl).

B.—Length about 18 ; wings rounded ; no ear tufts.

Syrmum indrani (The Brown Wood Owl).

324 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

ASIO ACCIPITRINUS (Blanford, Vol. III., p. 271 ;

not in Legge).

The Short-eared Owl.

Description.—Facial disk pale tawny-buff, the feathers

round the eye black ; the ruff rich buff, streaked and speckled

with dark brown ; upper plumage buff, broadly streaked and

mottled with dusky-brown; on the scapulars and longer

wing coverts the buff colour is paler ; primary quills chestnut-

buff with broad tips and irregular bands of dark brown ;

secondaries buff, banded with brown ; tail tawny-buff with

irregular brown bars. Lower parts buff with longitudinal

streaks of brown, broad on the breast and narrow on the

abdomen ; the lower abdomen, legs, and under tail coverts are

unmarked.

Bill black ; iris deep yellow ; claws black.

Length about 15; wing 12°25; tail 6; tarsus 1°6; bill

from gape 1°2.

Distribution.—On several occasions in recent years this Owl

has visited Ceylon insomenumbers. In November, 1896, seven

specimens were recorded from Jaffna, and next February two

from the Horton Plains. There was another strong invasion

about Christmas, 1904, when ten specimens were obtained in

Colombo alone. The species is a migrant found aimost all

over the world, breeding in temperate climates, and visiting

warmer regions in winter.

Habits, &c.—In Ceylon most of the specimens have been

secured immediately on their arrival. In India this Owl is

met with chiefly in grass plains, but sometimes in low bush or

cultivated lands. It is largely nocturnal, and feeds principally

on small mammals.

SYRNIUM INDRANI (Blanford, Vol. III., p. 275 ;

Legge, p. 155).

The Brown Wood Owl.

Description.—Loral plumes black, fringed with dirty-white ;

facial disk rufous-tawny, whitish above the eyes, the feathers

round the eye black ; ruff and chin dark chocolate-brown ;

Crown and upper plumage dark sepia-brown ; scapulars, wing

OWLS AND DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY. 325

coverts, rump, and upper tail coverts paler, and with narrow

whitish bars; wing quills deep brown with paler brown

crossbars ; tail feathers brown with narrow white tips and

crossbars. Under parts and legs whitish or yellowish, closely

barred with dark brown.

In young birds the feathers have broad whitish edges, the

whole of the upper plumage is barred, but the under parts are

white, and only gradually assume the barring of the adult

phase.

Bill bluish near the cere, whitish-horny near the tip ; cere

dusky-bluish - iris deep brown ; claws bluish.

Length about 18; wing 12:25; tail 7; tarsus 2:15; bill

trom gape 1°5. Males slightly smaller than females.

Distribution —May be met with in forest over the whole of

Ceylon from sea level to Nuwara Eliya. In India the species

is rarely found on the plains, but occurs in the Himalayas and

on the hills of the Malabar Coast. It has been recorded from

a few other localities in India proper, Burma, and Formosa.

The Himalayan form is probably a good sub-species, much

larger than our Ceylon bird.

Habits, &c.—A fairly common species, found mainly in

heavy jungle. At times it may be seen during the day being

mobbed by drongos and other small birds. It feeds on small

birds, lizards, and, at any rate in captivity, on small fish. The

note is of four syllables *‘ oot-oot-tu-whoo,” but the first two

syllables can only be heard when close at hand. As noted in

my remarks on the order, this is the species commonly

credited with the cries of the Devil Bird. The breeding

season is during the early part of the year ; two eggs are laid

in a hole in a large tree, but in India stick nests have been

found, placed on a rocky shelf, or in the fork of a tree. The

eggs are of the usual owl type. North Indian eggs measure

about 2°25 by 1°81.

Sub-family Bubonine.

Fish Owls, Eagle Owls, and Owlets.

This sub-family comprises a much larger variety of forms

than the other two, and includes seven Ceylon species: our

two largest Owls and five owlets.

3 6(21)20

326 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

The Fish and Eagle Owls are large birds with well-marked

ear tufts, powerful beaks, stout legs and feet, the latter armed

with powerful talons, and rounded wings. The Fish Owl, as

suits its mode of life, has a naked tarsus ; the Eagle Owl has

its legs feathered to the toes, and differs from most Owls in

possessing a completely distinct immature plumage.

The Owlets fall into three genera : Scops, with ear tufts and

a streaky upper plumage ; Glaucidiwm, with no ear tufts and

a barred upper plumage ; and Ninox, which is very hawk-like

in appearance, as it possesses no ear tufts, and the ruff and

facial disk are not developed.

Rough Key to Ceylon Bubonine.

I.—Size large ; length 20 or over ; ear tufts present.

(1) Tarsus naked.

Ketupa zeylonensis (The Brown Fish Ow}).

(2) Tarsus feathered.

Huhua nepalensis (The Forest Eagle Owl).

11.—Size small ; length under 12.

A.—Kar tufts well developed (genus Scops).

(1) Wing abowt 5°25; third primary longest,

first longer than eighth.

S. giu (Scops Owl).

(2) Wing about 5°85; fourth or fifth primary

longest, first much shorter than eighth.

S. bakkamena (Collared Scops Owl).

B.—Kar tufts absent.

(a) Upper plumage barred (genus Glaucidium).

(1) Abdomen transversely barred.

G. radiatum (Jungle Owiet).

(2) Abdomen longitudinally streaked.

G. castanonotum (Chestnut-backed Owlet).

(6) Upper plumage not barred.

Ninox scutulata (Brown Hawk Owl)

OWLS AND DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY. 327

KETUPA ZEYLONENSIS (Blanford, Vol. III., p. 281 ;

Legge, p. 127).

The Brown Fish Owl.

Description.—Bristly loral plumes white at the base, black

towards the tips ; cheeks ‘tawny with black shaft-stripes :

upper parts light chestnut-brown with broad black shaft-

stripes ; lower back, rump, and upper tail coverts a little

paler and with narrow shaft-stripes ; scapulars, tertiaries,

and wing coverts considerably mottled with whitish, the outer

webs of the outer scapulars white ; wing quills and tail

feathers dark brown, barred and tipped with dusky buff.

which becomes almost white on the outer webs of the larger

primaries. Throat white with dark shaft-stripes, in some

birds the white throat patch is almost absent ; feathers of

remaining lower parts with fine wavy pale brown crossbars

and bold black shaft-streaks. Bill yellowish-green ; cere pale

dusky-green ; iris golden-yellow ; legs greenish or yellowish.

- Length about 21; wing 15; tail 7-5; tarsus 2°75; bill

from gape 2.

Distribution.—Fairly common and well distributed over the

whole of the low-country, ascending the larger river valleys

up to about 3,000 feet. It occurs in suitable localities

throughout the Indian Empire, extending eastwards to China, ~

while westwards it re-appears in Palestine.

Habits, &c.—This species is generally found in fairly thick

jungle near water. During the daytime it roosts in large trees.

Its ery is a deep triple note “ tu-whoo-hu.” Its food is com-

posed mainly of fish, but it will also eat small animals, snakes,

large beetles, &c. It breeds about April, making a scanty

stick nest on the ledge of a rock near water. At times it will

lay in the hollow of a tree or even appropriate the deserted

nest of a Fish Eagle. The two white, broad, oval eggs are

fairly glossy, and measure about 2°30 by 1°75.

HvHUA NEPALENSIS (Blanford, Vol. III., p. 287).

BUBO NIPALENSIS (Legge, p. 131).

The Forest Hagle Owl.

Description.— Bristly loral feathers, cheeks and ear coverts

grayish-buff with rather darker shafts; ear tufts blackish-

brown, sometimes barred on the inner webs with whitish-buff ;

328 SPOLIA ZBYLANICA.

upper plumage glossy sepia-brown with narrow cross bands

and edges of tawny-buff ; on the scapulars and wing coverts

these pale cross bands become broader and are mottled with

brown ; wing quills dark brown with bands of smoky gray ;

tail with mottled bands and tips of buff. Lower parts white,

at times tinged with buff, with broad brown crescent-shaped

hars.

Young birds are white cr buff, with crescent-shaped dark

brown bars on beth upper and lower plumage ; quills and tail

feathers as in adults.

Bill yellow ; iris brown ; toes yellow.

Dimensions variable ; females, as a rule, are larger than

males, Length about 23; wing 15°3-18; tail 7°5-9°5;

tarsus 2°60; bill from gape 2.

Distribution.—Not very common, but found apparently as

much in the low-country forests as on the hills. Specimens

in the Colombo Museum come frem Kurunegala ; Giriulla,

North-Western Province; and Batticaloa. If this species is

the only Devil Bird, it is found fairly generally throughout the

Island. In India, like Syrnium indrani, this is a hill species,

occurring in the lower Himalayas and the hill ranges of Assam

and Southern India. It is also recorded from one or two

localities in Burma.

Habits, &c.—A forest bird, but found more in scattered

clumps of large timber, such as the wooded gorges of the

patanas, and on the edges of thick forest than in the heart of

the jungle. Not much is known of its mode of life, as it is

a nocturnal bird seldom seen. To judge from its size and

powerful talons, it probably hunts fairly large game, and

appears to live mainly on birds. In India it is credited with

killing pheasants, hares, and even young deer. The cry is

described by Jerdon as alow, deep, and far-sounding moaning

hoot. I have discussed in my remarks on the order the claims

of this species to be the Devil Bird. Nothing appears to be

known of its breeding habits in Ceylon. In India the nest has

been found in Northern Cachar, It consisted of a broad plat-

form of sticks and grass, placed about 6 feet from the ground

in a large fig tree. One white egg of the usual type measured

abot 2°21 by 1°87.

OWLS AND DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY. 329

Scops Giu (Blanford, Vol. ITI., p. 291).

Scops suntA (Legge, p. 139); 8. minutus (Legge, p. 143).

The Scops Owl.

Description.—General colour above grayish-brown, more

or less tinged with rufous, finely stippled with black and

white, and with dark shaft-stripes and some lighter patches.

The lores are whitish, some of the bristles with black tips :

remainder of facial disk light grayish-brown with slightly

darker markings ; ruff feathers narrowly tipped with black ;

the outer scapulars have the outer webs whitish tipped with

black ; wing coverts with pale spots which are sometimes

indistinct ; wing quills rufous-brown with irregular dark

barrings and pale patches, most distinct on the outer webs of

some of the primaries ; tail pale sandy-brown, mottled and

irregularly barred with darker-brown. Lower parts grayish-

buff, vermiculated with sandy brown, and with irregular but

fairly conspicuous shaft-stripes of black-brown.

Rufous Phase.—The ground colour of the upper plumage,

including wings and tail, almost uniform pale rufous chestnut

with black shaft-stripes, most conspicuous on the head ; the

white outer webs of the scapulars stand out most distinctly,

and are bordered behind with black. Lower parts much the

same as in the gray phase, but tinged with rufous.

Bill olive-brown ; cere greenish ; iris yellow ; feet fleshy-

brown.

Length about 6°5; wing 5°25; tail 2:2; tarsus *75 ; bill

from gape °75.

Distribution.—Blanford regards a variety of gray Indian

forms, which others divide into several species, as merely

local races of Scops giu, which ranges over central and southern

Europe and Asia and the greater part of Africa. Of these

local races, our Ceylon bird—Legge’s S. minutus—is the

smallest and darkest. S. sunia of some authors is held by

Blanford to be merely a rufous phase, which may occur in any

of the Indian forms. Both the rufous.and gray birds are

extremely rare in Ceylon, but have been recorded from a few

widely scattered localities both in the hills and the low-country.

330 SPOLIA ZEYLANIGA.

Habits, &:c.—Found in the outskirts of jungle, or in isolated

thickets and round lonely bungalows. A nocturnal species,

feeding on insects and at times small birds and mammals.

The cry according to Legge is 1 feeble ““ woot-woot.” This

agrees with the note recorded for the Indian species. A. L.

Butler,* however, says the note of the Ceylon bird is “* hoot-

coorroo.” Legge noticed a similar call, but thought it was

possibly the ery of Ninox scutulata. This cry may be heard

at night at several of the wilder circuit bungalows and rest-

houses in the northern forest tract. It isreally a four-syllabled

ery, “‘ wook took-toorroc,”’ the first note not carrying so far

as the others. I am inclined to put it down as the call of

Batrachostomus moniliger, as the cadence seems more like

the note of a Nightjar than of an Owl. If, however, Butler

is correct, our Ceylon bird having a cry so different from the

Indian form must surely be a distinct species. The point

requires further elucidation. Little is known of the nidi-

fication in Ceylon, but such a well-marked local race must

breed in the Island. Indian forms are largely migratory, but

breed in certain hill localities, laying three or four white eggs

in holes of trees.

ScoPS BAKKAMGNA (Blanford, Vol. IIL., p. 297).

SCOPS BAKKAMUNA (Legge, p. 135).

The Collared Scops Owl.

Description.—Bristly loral feathers grayish or buffy-white

tipped with black; facial disk grayish, or at times rufescent,

with darker pencillings ; ruff feathers buff, beldly tipped

with blackish-brown; the forehead, a broad eyebrow, and the

inner webs of the ear tufts grayish or buffy-white pencilled

with black; upper plumage buff or grayish finely vermi-

culated with blackish-brown, and with brcad black shaft-

stripes on some of the feathers ; crownand nape almost black,

more or less mottled with buff; a more or less distinct collar

on the hind-neck, formed by buff feathers with dark edges ;

* Journal Bombay Nat. Hist. Society, Vol. XII., p, 570.

OWLS AND DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY. 331

the outer webs of the outer scapulars are buff bordered with

black ; wing quills brown with paler mottled bands and tips,

the pale bands becoming white patches on the outer webs of the

primaries ; tail brcwn mottled and banded with smoke gray or

tawny ; chin buff or whitish: throat, breast, and remainder of

lower parts grayish or tawny-buff, more or less marked with

fine wavy crossbars of brown and with occasional bold

black-brown shaft-stripes ; legs, vent, and under tail coverts

generally unmarked. Some birds are grayer, others more

rufous.

Bill greenish-horny, darker above ; iris chestnut or reddish

yellow ; feet brownish-olive or greenish.

Length 8; wing 5°85; tail 2:6; tarsus 1°25; bill from

gape ° 8).

Distribution —The commonest small Owl in the Island,

most abundant in the west and south, especially near the sea,

rarer in the north and east. In the lower hills it is found up to

about 3,000 feet. It occurs all over the Indian Empire and

Malaya, including the Archipelago. As in the last species,

there are several distinct local races, raised by some to the

rank of species. As usual, Ceylon and Scuthern Indian forms

are the smallest and darkest.

Habits, &c.—A nocturnal species. occurring largely in

cultivated country, and even in town gardens. Its mono-

tonous little “‘ wok, wok” is frequently heard after dark in

Colombo. The birds go about in pairs. For months a couple

slept every day side by side in a tall shady thorn bush in my

compound at Puttalam. It feeds mainly on insects and

other small fry. The breeding season appears to be about

February, March, and April. It nests in hollow trees, or in

the angle between the frond and stem of a palm. A few leaves

or blades of grass are sometimes placed as a lining, but in the

only two nests I have found the eggs were laid on the chips of

rotten wood et the bottom of the hole. In Ceylon two eggs

appear to be the usual number, occasionally three. They are

of the usual shape, almost spherical, and not very glossy.

They soon become stained with yellow. The average of four

Oeylon eggs is 1+ 24 by 1-09.

332 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

GLAUCIDIUM RADTATUM (Blanford, Vol. IT1., p. 306 ;

Legge, p. 152).

The Jungle Owlet.

Description.—Lores whitish with dark tips; the sides of

the head and neck, the crown and the upper plumage, the

wing coverts, tertiaries, and upper tail coverts dark brown

with narrow bars of pale rufous or white ; some white spots

on the scapulars and wing coverts ; wing quills barred with

rich dark brown and rufous, the latter colour paling into

whitish at the edge of the larger primaries and near the tips

of the secondaries ; tail feathers black-brown with narrow

white tips and crossbars. The chin and a band on each side

of the throat whitish ; remainder of lower parts whitish-buff

with numerous bars of olive-brown which become rather

arrow-shaped on the abdomen and fade away on the legs and

lower tail coverts.

Bill greenish-horny ; cere greenish; iris yellow; feet

greenish-yellow.

Length 8; wing 5:1; tail 2:6; tarsus °9; bill from

gape °75.

Distribution.—Fairly widely distributed over the southern

half of the Island, being commonest in the Eastern Province.

Tt is found also in the Uva hills. It occurs in well-wooded

country over the greater part of India.

Habits, &c.—Found in tall forest and dense jungle, or

occasionally in scrub jungle near the sea. It is very seldom

seen, but its presence may be detected by its peculiar call,

which is uttered during the daytime when the weather is dull

or cloudy. This call is described by Legge as starting ‘* with

the syllable kaow, slowly repeated, and gradually accelerated

until changed to kaow whap, kaow whap, which increases

in loudness til) suddenly stopped.” Its flight is straight and

strong. It feeds on beetles and other insects, and also on

small birds, even attacking young chickens. In India it

breeds during April and May in holes of trees, laying two or

three smooth white glossless eggs averaging 1°25 by 1:06.

eel

OWLS AND DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY. 300

GLAUCIDIUM CASTANONOTUM (Blanford, Vol. III., p. 307;

Legge, p. 149).

The Chestnut-backed Owlet.

Description.—Lores whitish with dark tips; whole head,

sides and back of neck, throat, chest, and sides of breast dark

brown with narrow transverse bars of whitish-buff ; on the

back and sides of the lower neck the bars are broader and pure

white, forming a broken white collar ; the back, scapulars,

wing coverts, and tertiaries reddish-chestnut with faint dark

bars ; at times there are some pale spots on the scapulars and

wing coverts ; wing quills brown with rufous bars, which

become almost white on the inner webs of the secondaries ;

upper tail coverts and tail brownish-black with narrow white

crossbars. Chin and a band on each side of throat white ; a

white patch in the centre of the fore-neck ; centre of breast

and remainder of lower parts white, with broad longitudinal

streaks of dark brown on the abdomen and thigh plumes.

Bill greenish-horny ; cere dusky-greenish ; iris yellow ; feet

olivaceous.

Length 7°5; wing 5:15; tail 2:5; tarsus ‘85; bill from

gape -75.

Distribution.—Peculiar to Ceylon ; found in the hills, the

forest tracts at their base, and the wet zone of the low-country,

being not uncommon round Colombo.

Habits, &c.—Occurs in forest or jungle, also in thickly

planted native gardens. A shy bird, keeping to the top

branches of tall trees. It is fairly diurnal in its habits. The

note is a curious little “‘“craw.’’ Like other small Owls, it

feeds on insects, lizards, small birds, mice, &c. It breeds

from March to May in holes in trees, laying two white oval

eggs on the bare wood. Average size about 1°37 by L-LL.

Ninox scututata (Blanford, Vol. III., p. 309 ;

Legge, p. 145).

The Brown Hawk Oul.

Description.—Feathers of the lores and edge of the forehead

white at the base and black at the tip ; the sides of the head

and neck, the crown, and upper plumage chocolate-brown.

4 6(21)20

334 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

often grayer on the head and neck ; some concealed white

patches on the outer scapulars ; edge of wing white ; wing

quills brown, crossed by narrow bars, which at the ends of the

primaries are only slightly paler than the ground colour, but

become white on the inner webs of the secondaries and across

the tertiaries. Tail feathers equally barred with black and

smoky-brown, and tipped with whitish. Chin and upper throat

dirty-white with black shaft-stripes ; fore-neck, breast, and

flanks rich chocolate-brown with paler lateral margins ; lower

down these lateral margins increase and become white, while

the brown centres of the feathers dwindle into heart-shaped

spots on the abdomen, and into bars on the thighs; lower

tail coverts almost entirely white.

Bill bluish-black ; cere dull-greenish; iris, golden-yellow ;

feet dusky-vyellow.

Length about 11°5; wing 7°65; tail 4°5; tarsus 1 ; bill

from gape °85.

Distribution.—Fairly widely distributed throughout the

low-country, and in the hills up to about 4,000 feet. It

oceurs in she well-wooded parts of the Indian, Empire, and

ranges throughout the Oriental region.

Habits, &c.—Found mainly in thick jungle, preferably on

the borders of tanks or on river banks. The cry, much more

musical than that of other owls, is a clear low ‘“ coo-ook,”’

which may be heard, especially on moonlight nights, soon after

sunset and again towards midnight. It also continues to call

in the morning till some time after sunrise. This species feeds

almest entirely on insects. It breeds from about Christmas

to April, laying two or three almost spherical white eggs in

holes of trees. A Ceylon egg measured 1°45 by 1°27.

Ordaer ACCIPITRES.

Birds ef Prey.

The diurnal Birds of Prey found in the Indian region fall

into a very natura! group, with the Osprey forming a probable

connecting link between the rest of the order and the Owls.

By some authors, indeed, the Osprey is placed in an

OWLS AND DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY. 325

intermediate order, but Blanford includes it in the Acczpitres,

giving it rank only as a separate family.

The Accipitres, which are found all over the world, agree

with the Owls in the structure of the palate, in the strong,

much-hooked beak, furnished with a cere, and in their curved

claws. They differ in the position of their eyes, which are

directed laterally and not forwards, while the plumage is

firmer and not so fluffy. The females in most species are

larger than the males. The young when hatched are helpless

and covered with down. The nest is usually a large structure

of twigs placed in a tree, or on a rocky ledge. The eggs are

often white, but generally more or less blotched with red or

brown.

Indian members of the order are divided into three

families :—

(1) Pandionide—The Osprey, in which the outer toe is

reversible, 7.e., provided with more or less the same power

of movement as the human thumb, and capable of being

directed backwards or forwards. The contour feathers are

not provided with an after-shaft.*

(2) Vulturide-—-Vultures. In this family the contour

feathers are provided with an after-shaft, while the outer toe

is not reversible. The crown of the head is either wholly

naked, or covered only with down.

(3) Falconide.—Eagles, Hawks, and Falcons. These agree

with the Vultures in the non-reversible outer toe and the

presence of an after-shaft, but have the crown of the head

fully feathered.

Family PANDIONID 2.

Genus Pandion.

The Osprey.

The Osprey or Fishing Hawk, as stated before, differs from

all the other members of the order in having no after-shaft to

the feathers, and in possessing a reversible outer toe.

* The after-shaft is a miniature feather springing from the inner

surface of the shaft of the main feather at its base. 1t can generally

be well seen on the breast feathers of an Eagle or Hawk.

336 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA,.

The family is confined to a single genus and species, which,

however, is found nearly all over the world. The bill is of

moderate size and much hooked; the nostrils are small,

narrow, and oblique ; the long and pointed wings, when closed,

extend beyond the tip of the tail. The tarsus is short, naked,

and reticulated ; the under surface of the toes is provided with

prickly scales; the claws are much curved and slightly

rounded beneath.

PANDION HALIZTUS (Blanford, Vol. II1., p. 314 ;

Legge, p. 122).

The Osprey.

Description.—Head and neck white, the middle and some-

times the sides of the crown and nape with broad brown shaft-

stripes and tips ; a broad brown band runs from each eye

down the sides of the neck; upper parts pale glossy brown ;

wing quills blackish-brown ; tail feathers brown, tipped with

whitish and barred with paler brown, the bars becoming

fainter in old birds. Lower parts white, the feathers of the

upper breast with dark shafts and brownish centres of varying

width ; the flanks also partially streaked with brown.

In young birds the brown feathers of the upper parts are

edged with whitish, the tail is more distinctly barred, and the

breast is quite white, or only faintly spotted with brown, —

Bill black ; cere dull greenish-blue ; iris yellow ; legs and

feet greenish or yellowish.

Females: Length 22; wing 20; tail 8°5; tarsus 2°25;

bill from gape 1°6. Males are rather smaller ; wing about

18°5.

Distribution.—A winter visitor, mainly to the north of the

Island, where it is said to be fairly common on the lagoons.

It has been recorded from Galle, Moratuwa, and the Ratnapura

District. It is a world-wide species, occurring over the whole

Indian Empire in winter, though probably few birds remain

couth of the Himalayas in the breeding season.

Habits, d&:c.—This species in Ceylon seldom goes inland, but

haunts brackish lagoons, estuaries, or sometimes the open

coast. When at rest it may be seen perched on dead trees,

OWLS AND DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY. 337

guide posts in channels, &c. It often soars at a considerable

height, and may then be recognized by its long-pointed wings

and quick circling movements. It feeds wholly on fish, which

it catches in its talons, dropping on its quarry often from a

considerable height.

Family VuLTurRID Az.

Vultures.

The true Vultures are confined to the warmer regions of the

old world, but are unknewn in the Malay Archipelago, Mada-

gascar, and Australia. They are practically unrepresented

in Ceylon, as only a chance straggler of a single species of

Scavenger Vulture has been recorded. This gap in our

Avifauna is curious, as one would have imagined that ‘there

was abundant opportunity for such birds—which are common

in the Indian peninsula—to find a living in the Island. They

feed on dead animals, or even excrement, and the absence of

feathers from the head and neck, which is the distinguishing

feature of the family, is a modification highly necessary for

pirds of such unclean habits. In other respects they closely

- resemble Eagles and Hawks.

The only species recorded from Ceylon is the smallest of the

family and. belongs to the genus Neophron. The bill is long

and slender, straight at the base, with a sharply-hooked tip ;

the cere is very long. The head and upper fore-neck are

naked, and below the naked portion is a ruff of hackles. The

erop also is naked. The wings are long and pointed ; the

tail wedge-shaped ; the tarsus is fairly Jong and _ partly

feathered.

NEOPHRON GINGINIANUS (Blanford, Vol. III., p. 326 ;

Legge, p. 2).

The Smaller White Scavenger Vulture.

Description —Plumage in general whitish ; the neck hackles

often with a rusty stain ; primaries mainly black, ashy-white

on the outer web near the base ; secondaries dark brown with

some ashy-white on the outer web ; tertiaries pale brown.

Young birds are blackish-brown, with fulvous tips to the

feathers, and gradually change to the adult plumage.

338 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

In adults the bill is horny-yellow ; cere and naked skin of

head and neck yellow ; iris dark brown; legs dirty-yellow.

In young birds the bill is dark, and the naked skin of the head

and neck giay.

Length 24; wing 18°25; tail 9°5; tarsus 3; bill from

gape 2°4.

Distribution.—A solitary specimen, probably a storm-driven

straggler, was shot at Nuwara Eliya in March, 1874. The

species is found over the greater part of India, south of the

Himalayas, and westwards of lower Bengal.

Habits, &c.—In India this bird is a regular town scavenger,

living largely on human excrement and other filth. It is,

however, also found in open country, away from human

habitations.

Family Fauconrp a.

Sub-family Falconine.

Hagles, Hawks, Falcons, &c.

In Blanford’s classification the whole of the Eagles, Hawks,

and Falcons found in Ceylon—some twenty-nine species—fall

ranging in size from the Eagles to the Sparrow-Hawks and

Falconets. They are practically all carnivorous, and the

greater number of them feed on living prey. ‘Some of our

smaller species are partly or wholly insectivorous, while

others, especially the Kites, feed on carrion.

Most of the sub-family undergo considerable changes of

plumage between their immature and fully adult phases ; in

consequence coloration is often a very unsafe guide for the

differentiation of the various species. There are, however,

noteworthy characteristics of the bill, lores, wings, and tarsi,

which serve to divide our twenty-nine forms into small, fairly

well-marked groups, without altering the sequence adopted

by Blanford, or greatly disturbing the natural affinities of

the various species. I propose, therefore, for the sake of

simplicity, in the first place to split the sub-family into nine

small groups, and to treat each group separately.

In most groups the tarsus is naked behind, and only partially

feathered in front ; the upper mandible of the bill is sharply

OWLS AND DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY. 339

hooked, and its cutting edge between the hook and the cere

has a wavy outline or “festoon”’; the feathers of the lores—

i.e., the space in front of the eye—are mere bristles or end in

bristles. Exceptions to these general characteristics serve to

mark out several of the groups, as will be noted below :—

Group I.: Hawk Hagles.—Legs feathered all round down

to the toes. Six large or fairly large species.

Group II.: Serpent and Fish Eagles.—Three large, stoutly-

built species, well over 20 inches in length. Tarsus over

3inches in length, and only partially feathered. Wings broad

and rounded, long in the Fish Eagles, and short in the

Serpent Eagle.

Group IIf.: Kites and allied Species —Two fairly large

and one small species. Tarsus short, only about half as long

again as the measurement in a straight line from the gape to

the tip of the bill. Toes short.

GroupIV.: Harriers —Four species: one fairly large, three

of medium size. Form slender; wings long and pointed ;

tarsus long and slender, feathered im front only at the base,

the naked portion covered in front with transverse shields and

behind with polygonal scales.

Group V.: Buzzards——One rare species of medium size.

Wings long ; tarsus long and fairly stout, feathered in front

to halfway down or more, the naked portion covered both in

front and behind with transverse shields.

Group VI.: Hawks.—Three small species. Wings short

and rounded ; tarsus long.

Group VII.; Honey Buzzards.—One rarish species of fairly

large size. Face, lores, and eyelids covered with small over-

lapping scale-like feathers. Wings long, tarsus short, toes

very long and scaly.

Group VIII.: Bazas.—Two rare, smallish species. Bill

with two “teeth ” or notches on the upper mandible opposite

the end of the lower mandible. Head crested; wings

moderate ; first quill much shorter than fourth.* Nostrils

linear.

* In young birds there is at times only one notch, but such birds may

be distinguished from Falcons by the shortness of the first quill.

340 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Group IX.: Falcons.—Six medium or small species. Bill

with one notch onthe upper mandible. No crest; wings long,

first quill not shorter than fourth. Nostrils round.

Group I.—Hawk Eagles.

The Hawk Eagles differ from the true Eagles, which do not

occur in the Island, by their slimmer build, longer tails, and

more slender tarsi. They resemble them, however, and differ

from all the remaining groups in having the tarsus clothed all

round down to the toes with fine close-set feathers. Theyareall

birds of large or fairly large size, armed with powerful bills and

talons, and flying witha fine boldsweep. The note is generally

a loud, clear call. Among the villagers of the Puttalam

District the Crested Eagle—S. cirrhatus—is put down as the

author of the Devil Bird’s ery, and a loud, resounding, eerie

scream, which I have heard at night in the northern forest

tract, seemed certainly more like the cry of an Eagle than of

an Owl. The six species found in Ceylon are mostly rare.

They are divided among four genera. The main generic and

specific differences are shown in the following key :—

Key to Ceylon Species.

1.—Wings long; when folded the tip of the longest primary

exceeds the tip of the longest secondary by more than

the length of the tarsus.

A.—Claws much curved ; hind claw longest.

(a) No crest ; mid-toe without claw not much longer

than bill.* Genus Hieraetus. .

(1) Larger : wing well over 18.

H. fasciatus (Bonelli’s Eagle).

(2) Smaller : wing under 17.

H. pennatus (Booted Eagle).

(6) A wedge-shaped crest on the nape ; mid-toe without

claw more than half an inch longer than the bill.

Lophotriorchis kieneri (Rufcus-bellied Hawk Eagle).

* I.c., the distance from the gape to the tip of the upper mandible.

measured in a straight line, not round the curve.

OWLS AND DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY. 341

B.—Claws not much curved ; inner claw longer than hind

claw.

Ictinaelus malayensis (Black Eagle).

IT.—Wing short ; primaries exceed secondaries by less than

the length of the tarsus ; a long thin crest on the

crown. Genus Spizaetus.

1) Smaller; wing up to 15; lower parts plain or

streaked but not crossbarred.

S. cirrhatus (Crested Hawk Eagle).

(2) Larger ; wing over 16; lower parts crossbarred.,

S. kelaarti (Legge’s Hawk Eagle).

HIERAETUS FASCTATUS (Blanford, Vol. ITI., p. 343).

NISAETUS FASCIATUS (Legge, p. 36).

Bonelli’s Eagle.

Description.—Adult : Upper plumage deep brown, the

feathers with white bases; eyebrows and sides of neck

streaked with white; cheeks and ear coverts streaked with

brown ; sides of face white ; upper tail coverts with pale

margins ; wing quills black, the bases of the inner webs

mottled with white; tail feathers brownish-gray above,

almost white underneath, with a broad band of dark brown

at the tip, and irregular wavy bars of the same colcur near the

base. Lower parts white with black-brown shaft-stripes of

varying width ; thigh plumes and lower abdomen more or less

pale brown with the same dark streaks ; under tail coverts

with light brown crossbars ; wing lining black-brown marked

along the edge with white.

In some old birds the ground colour of the lower parts is

buff, and the thighs and abdomen are darker.

Young birds are lighter above, with pale edges to the

feathers of the crown and nape; lower parts brownish-rufous

vith narrow dark stripes ; the wing quills are more banded ;

the tail is smoky-brown without the dark broad terminal band

but with numerous, narrow, wavy, dark bars.

Bill bluish-gray, darkening to black at the tip; cere and

gape yellowish ; iris bright yellow or brownish-yellow ; feet

yellowish or whitish-brown.

5 6(21)20

342 SPOLIA ZEYLANIGA.

Male: length 27; wing 19; tail 11; tarsus 3°6; middle

toe 2°4: bill from gape 2°15. Females are larger ; length 29 ;

wing 20.

Distribution.—Only once recorded from Ceylon.* It oceurs

throughout India, west of the Bay of Bengal, and ranges

westward through Scuth-western Asia to Northern Africa and

Southern Europe.

Habits, &c.—A powerful species, which kills its own prey,

and never touches carrion. It feeds largely on mammals and

small birds, especially pigeons. It is a fine bird on the wing,

and generally soars at some height. As it is resident through-

out its range, it may possibly be found nesting in Ceylon. In

the plains of India it breeds about Christmas time, making a

large stick nest, lined with green leaves and placed on a rocky

ledge or in a high tree. Two eggs are laid. The ground

colour is dirty white faintly blotched at the large end with

brown. Measurement about 2°75 by 2:2.

HIERAETUS PENNATUS (Blanford, Vol. ITI., p. 344).

NISAETUS PENNATUS (Legge, p. 36).

The Booted Eagle.

Description—Adult : Forehead and lores whitish; a

narrow black streak above the eye ; feathers of sides of head,

erown, and hind-neck fawn colour with black shaft-streaks,

which are broadest on the crown; cheeks and ear coverts

richer brown ; upper plumage brown, darkest on the upper

back, rump, and large scapulars ; smaller scapulars, tertiaries,

and wing coverts paler with dark shaft-stripes and broad

whitish-brown edges ; wing quills almost black, the second-

aries with pale ends; upper tail coverts fawn colour ; tail

feathers dark grayish-brown above, grayish-white underneath,

with paler tips and traces of darker bars. The lower parts,

including the wing lining, are buff-white with blackish shaft-

stripes, which are most numerous on the chin, less so on the

breast, and fade away on the abdomen ; a few large black

spots on the wing lining.

* Vide Leggo’s Birds of Ceylon, p. 37 The locality and date are not

known.

OWLS AND DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY. 343

Some specimens are dark brown all over. In old birds

there are faint rusty barrings on the thigh coverts and vent.

Jn young birds the head and neck are rufous-brown or dark

brown ; the upper plumage much as in adults, but with dark

shaft-stripes ; tail coverts paler ; lower parts dark brown, or

pale rufous, with dark shaft-stripes, except on the abdomen ;

upper surface of tail as in adults, but under surface pale brown

instead of whitish-gray.

Bill pale blue at the base, blackish at the tip; iris pale

brown ; cere yellow ; legs and feet yellow.

Male : length 20; wing 15; tail 8°5; tarsus 2°4; mid-toe

without claw 1°60; bill from gape 1-4.

Females larger : length 22 ; wing 15°75.

Distribution.—An occasional visitor to the Island ; speci-

mens have been recorded from Colombo and Kandy. It is

found, mainly as a winter visitor, throughout India, and

occasionally in Burma. It also occurs in Southern Europe,

South-western and Central Asia, and the greater part of

Africa.

Habits, &:c.—A bold and active little Eagle, which preys on

squirrels, birds, &c., being very fond of poultry and pigeons.

It may be found both in wooded country and about inhabited

places. It generally breeds north of the Himalayas, but a

nest has been found in Southern India. It is of the same

description as the nest of the last species, and is placed in a

tree. The two eggs are greenish-white, and measure about

2°13 by 1:78.

LopHOTRIORCHIS KIENERI (Blanford, Vol. III., p. 345;

Legge, p. 42).

The Rufous-bellied Hawk Eagle.

Description.—Adult: Whole upper plumage and sides of

head and neck glossy-black ; wing quills black, tinged with

brown ; tail feathers dark brown with indistinct black bars ;

the underside of the wing and tail is gray with dark ends and

bars. Chin, throat, and breast white ;- remainder of lower

parts, including the wing lining, chestnut-red, streaked with

bold black shaft-stripes.

344 SPOLIA ZEYLANIGA,

Young birds are dark brown above, some of the feathers

with paler edges ; tail barred ; lower parts pure white ; ear

coverts rufous-brown streaked with black.

Bill black; cere yellowish-white ; iris dark brown; feet

pale yellow.

Male : length 21; wing 15; tail 8°25; tarsus 2°8; middle

toe without claw 2°15; bill from gape 1°5.

Females larger: length about 24; wing 16. Both male

and female appear to vary in size.

Distribution.—A rare bird, but apparently resident in the

hills, and occasionally seen in the low-country, as I recently

obtained a specimen in forest 16 miles south-east of Puttalam.

It is found in the Eastern Himalayas and the hill ranges

of Eastern Bengal and Southern India. It also occurs in

Malaya, but is nowhere common.

Habits, &c.—A fine bold bird with a graceful buoyant

flight. It may be met with perched on tall trees in the forest,

or seen sailing over wooded hillsides, patana gorges, &c. It

feeds on small mammals and birds. It breeds regularly on the

hills of Travancore in Southern India. The nest, which is used

year after year, is a huge structure of sticks. The work of

repairing it is begun in October or November. As early as

December or as late as March a single egg is laid on a lining

of green leaves. The colour is white, roughly speckled and

dotted with pale reddish or yellowish-brown, sometimes with

some deeper markings of blood red, and faint underlying

blotches of gray. The texture is fairly smooth, but coarse-

grained, and the inner lining of the shell is a fairly bright green.

Average size about 2°29 by 1°83.

IcTINAETUS MALAYENSIS (Blanford, Vol. III., p. 347).

NEOPUS MALAYENSIS (Legge, p. 47).

The Black Eagle.

Description.—Adult : Brown-black almost all over ; lores

whitish ; lower parts with a browner tinge ; the tail feathers

and the inner webs of the wing quills near the base are barred

with mottled-gray, which on the underside of the feathers

appears whitish.

Young birds are browner, the. head is almost tawny,

especially on the sides. Some specimens have tawny spots

OWLS AND DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY. 345

on the tips of the feathers of the crown, hind-neck, and sides

of neck; also similar pale drops or broad shaft-stripes on the

lower plumage. The change to the adult plumage is gradual.

Bill greenish-horny, the tip black; cere and gape citron-

yellow ; iris dark brown ; legs gamboge-yellow.

Males: length 27; wing 21°5; tail 13; mid-toe without

claw 1:60; bill from gape 2.

Females : length 31; wing 24; tail 14.

Distribution.—Found on the hills and in low-country forest

tracts. It occurs in the Malay Peninsula and Archipelago,

on the Western Himalayas and Western Ghauts, on the hills

south of Assam, and more rarely in Burma.

Halits, &c.—A graceful long-winged bird, usually seen

sailing over forests with a flight rather like that of a Harrier.

It is known to kill such large game as jungle fowl, but also

feeds on lizards, grasshoppers, &c. Unlike most birds of

prey, it does not require an open space in which to swoop on

its quarry, but will seize it even ir forest. It is, as a rule,

a silent bird, but occasionally utters a shrill cry when soaring.

The nest may be used for many years in succession, and is the

usual large structure of sticks lined with green leaves and

placed in a large tree.* Repairs start in October or November,

and about Christmas time one or occasionally two eggs are

laid. They vary a good deal in size, shap3, and the character

of their markings, but most specimens are extremely hand-

some. The ground colour is white or creamy, with large

irregular blotches and specks of rich brown. In some speci-

mens these markings are not so distinct, and the egg is more

or less clouded with secondary markings of neutral tint or

grayish-purple. Average size 2°45 by 1°95.

SPIZAETUS CIRRHATUS (Blanford, Vol. III., p. 349).

SPIZAETUS CEYLONENSIS (Legge, p. 55).

The Crested Hawk Eagle.

Description.—Adult : The whole head except the chin and

throat, the sides of the neck, and the hind-neck tawny-brown,

* The statement in Blanford and in Humes’ * Nests and Eggs ” that

this species builds in the ledges of cliffs appears to be erroneous (vide

‘« This,” January, 1918, p. 51).

346 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

with dark centres to the feathers; a long dark crest with

conspicuous white tips ; back, scapulars, and wing coverts

dark brown with pale edges ; rump and tail coverts smoky-

brown with darker shafts; wing quills smoky-brown above

and whitish underneath, barred and tipped with black, the

inner webs white towards the base ; the tail feathers are of the

same smoky brown above and white beneath, with broad

black crossbars and narrow white tips. The chin, throat, and

under surface are white ; there is a narrow black streak down

the centre of the throat; the feathers of the breast and

abdomen are splashed with bold brownish-black drop-shaped

marks, which increase in size downwards, the flanks, vent, and

under tail coverts being almost wholly brown ; the thighs and

upper tarsus are rather more rufous, the lower tarsus is white.

The edge of the wing and the wing lining are white with long

drop-shaped marks of dark-brown.

Some mature birds appear to be much lighter and have no

dark clin stripe. There are fewer dark drops on the breast,

while the abdomen, thighs, and under tail coverts are white

with patches of pale rufous-brown.

In young birds of the darker race the head and neck are

lightish brown ; the feathers of the upper plumage have white

edges, most conspicuous on the wing coverts ; the dark bars

on the wings and tail are more numerous than in adults ; the

lower parts are white or pale buff, with fewer dark drops ; the

abdomen and thighs are lighter.

Young birds of the pale race have the upper plumage much

mixed with white ; the head and neck are inconspicuously

streaked with tawny buff, against which the dark crest shows

boldly. The lower parts are of unspotted white shading into

rufous on the abdomen; the thighs and under tail coverts are

barred with pale rufous.

Bill dark leaden, black at the tip; cere yellow in young

birds, leaden in adults ; iris pale straw to golden-yellow ; feet

yellow.

Dimensions are rather variable ; males, as a rule, are smaller

than females, and dark birds than light forms.

Length about 23°5; wing 14°5; tail 9°75; tarsus 3°6;

mid-toe without claw 2 ; bill from gape 1: 65.

OWLS AND DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY. 347

Distribution.—Fairly common nearly all over the low-

country, and in the hills up to abouit 4,000 feet. It is replaced

in the higher ranges by the next species. In India it is

practically confined to the peninsula south of the plain of the

Ganges.

It is possible that the smaller darker birds are a local resident

race, and the larger paler birds migrants from India.

Habits, &c.—A woodland species, usually met with on the

edge of heavy jungle, in park country, or in chenas and scrub

jungle through which larger trees are scattered. It rarely

soars for any prolonged period, but is usually seen perched on

the top of a high tree. It feeds mainly on lizards, but also

kills small mammals and birds, and on occasions is very

destructive to poultry. It breeds early in the year on tall

trees, constructing a large nest of twigs lined with green

leaves. The single egg is of dull greenish-white, either

unspotted or faintly streaked at the larger end with reddish-

brown. Measurement about 2°67 by 2°03.

SPIZAETUS KELAARTI (Blanford, Vol. III., p. 354;

Legge, p. 51).

Legge’s Hawk Eagle.

Description.—Adult : Feathers of the head and hind-neck

black with pale edges, which are broadest on the hind-neck ;

the long crest black, tipped with white ; upper parts blackish-

brown ; the scapular and upper tail coverts tipped with white ;

wing coverts pale brown, darker at the ends; wing quills

brown above, pale gray below, with dark crossbars ; tail

feathers smoky-brown above and gray below with dark

crossbars and narrow white tips. Chin, throat, and fore-neck

creamy-white, with a broad darkstripe down the centre and a

less clearly-defined stripe down each side ; rest of lower parts,

including the legs and tail coverts, pale brown with broad

white crossbars ; the bars on the thighs are narrower ; tarsus

pale brown with white tips to the feathers.

Young birds are paler. The head and neck feathers are

tawny white with drop-shaped marks of rufous-brown ; there

is a good deal of white on the wing coverts ; the sides of the

348 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

head and neck, the throat, and fore-neck are almost unmarked

creamy-white ; the breast and abdomen are very pale brown

with white crossbars.

Bill black, paler at the base ; cere blackish ; iris yellow ;

feet lemon-yellow.

Females : length about 31; wing 18; tail 12°5; tarsus

4-5; mid-toe without claw 2°8 ; bill from gape 2.

Males are rather smaller.

Distribution.—Confined to the higher ranges of Ceylon and

Southern India. _ In Ceylon it appears to reside at elevations

of over 4,000 feet, though it may be met with at lower altitudes

in search of food.

Habits, &c.—Rather a shy bird. It may be seen soaring

slowly in wide circles above the higher ranges. It remains

on the wing longer than the preceding species. It is fond of

poultry, and most of the specimens obtained have been shot

while raiding hen runs. The nest has frequently been found

in the hills of Travancore. It is a huge structure of twivs

lined with green leaves and placed in a tall tree. Unless the

birds are driven away, it is used year after year. A single egg

is laid generally in December. If the first egg is taken, a

second may be laid later on. The shape is a broad oval, the

small end well defined, but not pointed. The colour is white,

at times with a few scattered markings of faint yellow or red.

The texture is coarse, rough, and glossless. Average size

2°75 by 2° 14.

Group II.—Serpent and Fish Eagles.

For the sake of convenience I have included the Serpent and

Fish Eagles in one group, though they are not very closely

akin, the main points of resemblance being their large size,

powerful build, and longish tarsi. The Serpent Eagle—genus

Spilornis—has a very distinctive plumage; adults being

brown above and below, with white rounded spots on the

lower parts. The wing is short, but broad and rounded ; the

bill is fairly long and stout, with only a trace of a festoon ;

the lores are nearly naked ; the nape is covered with a thick

bushy crest; the tarsus is only moderately stout, is naked,

except for a short distance in front, and is covered with small

OWLS AND DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY. 349

polygonal scales ; the toes and claws are short, the latter are

not very much curved, The two Fishing Eagles rival in size

the largest of our Hawk Eagles. The plumage is a combi-

nation of white and gray or brown. The wing is long, broad,

and rounded ; the bill is stout with a well-marked festoon :

the tarsi and feet are very stout and powerful, the former are

feathered in front for about one-third of the length. In the

genus Haliaetus the outer toe is not reversible, but it is

partially reversible in the genus Polioaetus.

Rough Key to Group.

A.—A thick bushy crest ; tarsus almost naked, and only

moderately stout; plumage brown, the lower parts

with white rounded spots.

Sprlornis cheela (Crested Serpent Eagle).

B.—No crest ; tarsus very stout and powerful, feathered in

front for about one-third length.

(1) Claws grooved beneath.

Haliaetus leucogaster (White-bellied Sea Eagle).

(2) Claws rounded beneath.

Polioaetus ichthyaetus (Large Gray-headed Fishing .

Kagle).

SPILORNIS CHEELA (Blanford, Vol. III., p. 35).

SPILORNIS SPILOGASTER (Legge, p. 61).

The Crested Serpent Eagle.

Description.—Adult : The feathers of the forehead, crown,

crest, and hind-neck jet black with a very narrow tip of

brown and a white base ; the lores naked, except for a few

black bristles; the cheeks and ear coverts grayish-black ;

upper parts dark brown with a purplish gloss ; smaller wing

coverts blackish with a few small white spots at the tip ; wing

quills blackish with some white patches at the base of the

inner webs and with three broad bars, which are smoky- brown

above and whitish below; basal half of tail smoky-brown,

outer half blackish with a broad band of whitish brown and

a pale tip. Lower parts earthy-hrown, lighter in some birds

6 6(21)20

350 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA,

than in others; chin and throat rather grayer; the whole

under surface from the breast down marked with roundish

white spots, which are edged with darker brown ; on the vent,

thighs, and lower tail coverts these spots change to bars.

In young birds the crown and nape are white with black-

brown ends and pale edges ; the feathers of the upper parts

are lighter at the base and have pale tips ; the wing coverts

are a good deal mixed with white ; the pale bands on the

wing quills and tail are more numerous ; the breast bears

tcaces of fulvous crossbars ; the edge of the wing lining is

white.

Bill lead colour, darker at the tip ; cere and naked skin of

face lemon-yellow ; iris yellow ; legs and feet dingy-yellow.

Males : length about 23; wing 15; tail 9°5; tarsus 3:25 ;

mid-toe without claw 1:8; bill from gape 1:7

Females are a little larger: length 24; wing 15-5.

Distribution.—Fairly common all over the Island, but most

abundant in the drier low-country forest tracts. Blanford

unites in one species several races which range all over the

Indian Empire, also south-east to Malaya, including the

Archipelago, and eastwards to Japan.

Habits, &c.—A forest species, generally found on large trees

by the banks of rivers and streams, and round village tanks.

From such trees the birds watch for their prey, which consists

mainly of snakes, lizards, and frogs. They may also be seen

soaring, often at a considerable height, and may then be

recognized by their loud whistling cry and by the numerous

light bars on the wings and tail. The birds appear to breed

from about March to May. ‘The nest is a loose structure of

twigs, scantily lined with green leaves, and placed in a tall tree.

The eggs number one or two, and are dirty-white with rusty-

red stains and blotches. They measure about 2°50 by 1°95.

HALIAETUS LEUCOGASTER (Blanford, Vol. II1., p. 368 ;

Legge, p. 67).

The White-bellied Sea Eagle.

Description.—Adult : The whole. head, neck, and lower

parts are white, the neck and breast generally marked with

OWLS AND DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY. 351

narrow dark shaft-lines; the back and wings are dark ash

colour tinged with brown ; wing quills and base of tail blackish ;

outer third of tail white.

In young birds the head, neck, and lower parts are pale

tawny or rufous ; the breast is darker ; the upper plumage is

brown, many of the feathers with pale edges ; the tail feathers

are whitish with brown ends, which are narrowly tipped with

white.

Bill dark leaden ; cere paler; iris hazel-brown ; legs and

feet whitish.

Male : length 27°50; wing 22; tail 10; tarsus 3°6; mid-

toe without claw 2°3; bill from gape 2°25. Females are

slightly larger.

Distribution Not uncommon round the coast, except

from Chilaw to Galle, where it is local. Jt is also found on

the large inland tanks. It occurs on the shores of the Indian

Ocean, from Bombay to the Malay Archipelago, and ranges

into Australasia.

Habits, &-c.—The birds live in pairs and reside year after

year in the same place, hunting along the coast, lagoons, or

tanks in the vicinity of their eyrie. Their food consists

mainly of fish, sea-snakes, crabs, &c., but they will also on .

occasion seize wounded wild birds or young chickens.

The nest is a huge structure of sticks in a large tree, and

is used year after year. The breeding season is early in the

year. ‘Two eggs are generally laid on a lining of green leaves.

They are dull white with a green inner texture, and measure

about 2°85 by 2° 10.

PoLioAETUS ICHTHYAEHTUS (Blanford, Vol. II1., p. 370 ;

Legge, p. 72).

The Large Gray-headed Fishing Eagle.

Description.—Forehead whitish ; the head, upper part of

hind-neck, and throat ashy-gray ; crown and nape brownish ;

back, wings, rump, upper tail coverts, and a broad band at the

end of the tail dark brown ; breast and flanks rather lighter

brown than the back ; abdomen and basal two-thirds of the

tail pure white.

352 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Young birds are lighter brown, the feathers with pale edges ;

head light brown with pale shaft-lines ; fore-neck and breast

with broad white shaft-stripes; wing quills barred with

smoky-brown above and whitish underneath ; the white

upper surface of the tail much mottled.

Bill dark horny, bluish at the base ; cere lead colour ; iris

clear yellow, at times mottled with brown, or tinged with red ;

legs and feet whitish.

Males : length 24°5; wing 17°25; tail 9°75; tarsus 3°5;

mid-toe without claw 2°3; bill from gape 1°85.

Females rather larger: length 27; wing 18.

Distribution.—Found mainly in the northern half of the

Island on coastal lagoons and estuaries, or inland on rivers

and village tanks. It occurs in India eastwards of Delhi

and throughout Burma to Malaya and the Archipelago.

Habits, &:c.—A pair of these birds may usually be seen on

jungle-girt village tanks of any size in the northern and

eastern forest tracts. It is also fairly common round well-

wooded shores of lagoons and estuaries. It feeds largely on

fish, for which it watches from a perch on a tall tree near the

water, swooping out now and then for short flights, but

seldom soaring or staying on the wing for any very long period.

The cry is a deep resonant “ kyaw ”’ repeated several times.

The birds are frequently noisy early in the morning long

before it is light. The breeding season is about Christmas

time. The nest is a huge platform of sticks in a large tree.

Two eggs are laid, grayish-white in colour, and measuring

about 2°68 by 2°09.

Group IIT.—Kites.

The Kites and their allies form a group distinguished by

their long, pointed wings and distinctly short tarsi, which are

feathered for about halfway down or a little more. The bill

is moderate with a distinct festoon, less prominent in the

true Kites—Milvus—than in the other genera. The toes and

claws are shortish.

There are three Ceylon species, two of medium and one of

small size. Hach is placed in a separate genus. Haliastur—

the Brahminy Kite—forms a connecting link between the

-Sea Eagles and the true Kites.

OWLS AND DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY. 350

Rough Key to Group.

A.—Size medium ; length 19 or over.

(1) Adult plumage maroon and white ; tail slightly

rounded at the end.

Haliastur indus (Brahminy Kite).

(2) Plumage streaky brown ; tail forked.

Milvus govinda (Pariah Kite).

B.—Size small; length about 12° 50.

Adult plumage black, white, and gray.

Elanus ceruleus (Black-winged Kite).

HALIASTUR INDUS (Blanford, Vol. III., p. 372;

Legge, p. 76).

The Brahminy Kite.

Description.—Adult : Head, neck, flanks, and lower parts

to the centre of abdomen white with dark brown shaft-lines ;

rest of plumage chestnut-maroon with the same dark shaft-

lines, except on the tail ; primaries black, except on the basal

portion of the inner webs ; the tip and the under surface of

the tail whitish.

Young birds are very different ; the upper plumage is earthy-_

brown ; the feathers of the head and hind-neck with pale

tawny tips; the back feathers and wing coverts with pale

margins ; primaries black ; secondaries and tail dark brown,

Throat and breast brown with tawny shaft-stripes ; abdomen

and lower tail coverts with dark shaft-lines.

In the next stage the head, neck, and breast feathers are

pale brown with a rufous tinge, and have dark shaft-lines ;

wing coverts mixed with white ; lower abdomen dull-rufous.

From this the birds moult into the adult plumage.

Bill bluish-horn colour ; cere yellowish ; iris brown ; legs

’ and feet greenish-yellow.

Male : length about 19; wing 14°75; tail 8:5; tarsus 2;

middle-toe without claw 1°25; bill from gape 1:4.

Females are a trifle larger.

Distribution.—Found all round the coast, and abundant on

the tanks in the northern and eastern forest tracts ; much

354 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

more local in the south of the Island and the Western

Province, and only a straggler in the hills.

It occurs throughout the Indian Empire, except in the dry

districts and hill forests. It ranges eastwards to China and

south-east to the Malay Peninsula. Closely allied forms are

met with in the Malay Archipelago and Australia.

Habits, &c.—This, with us, is the commonest species of the

group, and takes the place of the true Kites in acting as a

general scavenger of garbage. It is, however, seldom met

with far from water, and its food consists largely of fish, frogs,

and crabs. On the coast it is generally seen near towns, large

villages, and fishing stations. Inland it is a familiar sight

round tanks and over paddy fields. It is continually on the

wing, soaring and wheeling at a considerable height. The

cry is a peculiar, rather dreary squeal. The breeding season

begins about Christmas, with apparently a second brood about

June. The nest is a structure of twigs, somewhat larger than

a crow’s nest, and placed in much the same positions. The two

or three eggs are grayish-white, generally scantily speckled

or dotted with faded reddish-brown. They measure about

1-95 by 1-62.

MILvus GOvINDA (Blanford, Vol. III., p. 374 ;

Legge, p. 80).

The Pariah Kite.

Description.—Adult : Head and neck slightly tawny-brown

with dark shaft-stripes ; a patch of unstreaked brown on the

ear coverts ; back a more uniform, deeper, and slightly glossy-

brown ; the medium wing coverts lighter, with dark shaft-

stripes ; wing quills the same colour as the back, except the

longer primaries, which with their coverts are blackish ; the

inner secondaries are paler, and bear traces of dark brown

crossbars ; all the quills are mottled with whitish on the

concealed parts of the inner webs ; tail brown above, whitish-

brown below, with faint dark bars. The lower parts are paler

brown than the back ; the chin whitish ; abdomen and lower

tail coverts generally tinged with rufous ; the whole marked

with dark shaft-stripes.

OWLS AND DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY. ao

Young birds are much streaked with pale buff on the head

and lower parts, while the feathers of the back, secondaries,

and tail are tipped with whitish.

Bill black ; cere pale greenish ; iris brown ; legs and feet

yellow or greenish.

Males: length about 22°5; wing 17; tail 10°5; tarsus

2-1; middle toe without claw 1:5; bill from gape 1:6.

Females larger : length 23:5; wing 18.

Distribution.—Confined to the sea coast in the north, from

near Mannar to Trincomalee. It is apparently a partial

migrant, especially on the north-east coast. It abounds all

over the Indian Empire. A closely allied species inhabits

Malaya and Australia.

Habits, &c.—It is strange that a bird so common all over

India has such a restricted range in Ceylon. With us it feeds

on garbage and the leavings of the nets when the fishermen

haul in their catch. It breeds in the north of Ceylon in the

early part of the year. The nest is a loose mass of twigs

mixed with old rags and grass and placed in a tree. Two eggs,

occasionally three or four, are laid. The colour is pale

greenish-white generally spotted and blotched with brown or

reddish, but occasionally unmarked. Average size of eight .

Ceylon eggs 2°08 by 1-55.

ELANUS CHRULEUS (Blanford, Vol. III., p. 379;

Legge, p. 85).

The Black-winged Kite.

Description.— Adult : Upper plumage ashy-gray, paler on

the head ; fore-neck, a streak above the eye, the sides of the

head, and all the lower parts white ; at times the fore-neck

and flanks are tinged with pearl-gray; lores, eyebrow,

median, and smaller wing coverts black ; primary quills dark

ash-gray above and blackish below ; the central pair of tail

feathers ash-gray, the rest white, tinged with gray on the

outer webs.

In young birds the feathers of the upper parts are brownish-

ashy with pale edges ; the quills and tail feathers are tipped

with white ; the throat, chest, and breast are tinged with buff.

356 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Bill black ; cere pale yellow ; iris in adults deep ruby-red,

in young birds yellow ; legs and feet rich yellow.

Length about 12°50; wing 10°5; tail 5°25; tarsus 1°3;

mid-toe without claw 1; bill from gape 1:1.

Distribution.—-Fairly widely distributed over the Island,

probably a partial migrant, as in some districts it is commoner

during the north-east monsoon. It is found throughout the

greater part of India and Burma, ranges over the whole of

Africa, and occurs locally in Southern Europe and South-

western Asia.

Habits, &c.—This handsome little species avoids heavy

forest, and is partial to grassy lands, patanas, young planta-

tions, and low chenas, provided they are thinly dotted over

with large trees. It is a solitary bird, and nowhere abundant.

It is most noticeable during the north-east monsoon, but

undoubtedly breeds in the Island. On the wing it rather

resembles a gull in appearance. It seldom soars or takes

long flights, but frequently hovers like a kestrel. Its food

consists of insects, mice, small lizards, &c. In the hills the

breeding season appears to be from December to March, In-

the low-country I once saw a bird in the Tangalia district

beginning to build in July. The nest is like that of a crow,

and is placed generally high up in a solitary tree. The eggs

number two or three, and are almost perfect ovals. The

ground colour is dull white, more or less densely blotched with

brownish-red. Average size 1-55 by 1:20.

Group IV .—Harrvers.

The Harriers belong to a single large genus, various members

of which are found in most tropical and temperate climates.

Four species, all of which are migratory, occur in Ceylon.

They are easily recognized by their appearance and flight.

The form is slender ; the beak is small, curves regularly from

the base, and has a very slight festoon. There is a ruff of

small soft feathers across the throat and up the sides of the

neck to behind the ear coverts. The tail is long and even at

the tip, or slightly rounded. The wings are long and pointed.

The tarsus is long and slender, and is feathered in front only

OWLS AND DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY, 357

at the base. The naked portion is covered in front with

transverse plates, and behind with smaller polygonal scales,

The toes are moderate, the claws slim, curved, and sharp.

In their habits all the species are very similar. They are

generally seen flying over marshes or open grassy lands with

heavy flaps of the wings, beating up and down for their prey,

which consists largely of frogs, reptiles, insects, and small

mammals. They are somewhat crepuscular, and generally

perch and roost on or near the ground. In many species the

male and female have a very different plumage, and the best

way to identify the various forms is by the “notch” or

indentation in the outer web of the larger primaries. This

“notching * is characteristic of the larger wing quills in most

birds of prey. From the base to this wavy indentation the

barbs of the quill are set at an angle of about 45° to the shaft.

From the “ notch ” to the tip the barbs, though no shorter in

length, are set at a much more acute angle, thus considerably

reducing the width of the web.

Rough Key to Species.

A.—Outer web of second, third, and fourth quills notched ; |

fifth quill not notched.

(1) Tarsus over 2°5 in length ; notch on second quill

close to tip of greater coverts.

Circus macrurus (Pale Harrier).

(2) Tarsus under 2°5; notch on second quill about

an inch beyond tip of greater coverts.

C. cineraceus (Montagu’s Harrier).

B.—Outer web of second to fifth quills notched.

(1) Wing under 15 in length.

C. melanoleucus (Pied Harrier).

(2) Wing 16 or over.

C. eruginosus (Marsh Harrier).

7 6(21)20

358 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Circus MACRURUS (Blanford, Vol. IIT., p. 381 ;

Legge, p. 17).

The Pale Harrier.

Description.—Male: Upper surface pale bluish-gray ;

except in very old birds, the nape and mantle are tinged with

brown ; lores and all round the eye white ; ear coverts pale

gray, streaked with white; primaries ash-gray, s3cond to

sixth quills blackish-brown towards the ends, the bases of all

the quills white ; upper tail coverts darker gray barred with

white ; central tail feathers gray, outer feathers white with

irregular gray bars. Lower parts white, with a gray tinge on

throat, neck, and breast.

Female : Upper surface brown ; feathers of head and hind-

neck with pale rufous margins; forehead, eyebrow, and a

patch below the eye buffy-white ; ear coverts and a broad

moustache-stripe brown ; a well-marked ruff of white, or buff,

with brown shaft-stripes runs right round the neck ; smaller

wing coverts with tawny edges; wing quills smoke-brown

above, whitish underneath, with ends and broad bars of

black-brown ; upper tail coverts white, with brown shaft-

stripes ; central tail feathers smoke-brown, outer feathers

tawny, all with dark brown bands. Lower parts white with

rufous shaft-stripes which are broadest on the breast. In old

birds these stripes become very narrow.

Young birds resemble females in their upper plumage, but

the feathers have tawny margins, the ruff is pale tawny all

round the neck and stands out very conspicuously. The

upper tail coverts are white and the lower parts buff with

faint shaft-stripes. The adult plumage is assumed gradually.

Bill blue-black ; cere greenish-yellow ; iris yellow in adults,

brown in young ; legs yellow.

Males: length 18; wing 13°5; tail 9°25; tarsus 2°7;

mid-toe without claw 1°25: bill from gape 1°10.

Females rather larger : length 19°5 ; wing 14:5.

Distribution.—Fairly common throughout the Island during

the north-east monsoon. A few stray and probably im-

mature specimens remain with us all the year round, chiefly

OWLS AND DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY. 359

up-country. The species ranges over Eastern Europe, and

practically the whole of Asia and Africa, breeding in the north

and wintering in the south.

Habits, d&:¢—All our Harriers have much the same habits,

which are described in my remarks on the group. The present

species frequents swamps, paddy fields, and stretches of grass

land near water. At times large numbers of these birds and

the next species congregate and roost in some favourite spot

ina swamp. It does not appear to breed in the Island.

CIRCUS CINERACEUS (Blanford, Vol. III., p. 383 ;

Legge, p. 12).

Montagu’s Harrier.

Description. — Male: Head, neck, breast, and upper

plumage dark ash-gray, with a bluish tinge ; back, scapulars,

and tertiaries, except in old birds, tinged with brown ; upper

tail coverts white at the base, ashy-gray at the ends, and

sometimes with bands of the same colour ; first six primaries

almost black with slight gray tips, which increase in size on

the inner primaries ; secondaries gray with two black cross

bands ; middle tail feathers unbarred frosted gray, remainder

whitish with bars of dusky gray, which become rufous brown

on the outermost feathers. Abdomen, under tail coverts, and

thighs whitish with rufous shaft-stripes ; wing lining white

with a few chestnut patches.

Females resemble those of the preceding species, only the

ruff is not so distinct, the upper parts are darker, and the

lower parts are dull rufous, or buff, with rufous brown shaft-

stripes.

In young birds the ruff is streaked, and is less distinct than

the conspicuous, clear-coloured ruff of the young Pale Harrier.

At all stages the present species may be distinguished by the

characters noted in the key.

Bill black ; cere greenish-yellow ; iris yellow in the male,

brownish-yellow in the female ; legs and feet yellow.

Male: length 17; wing 14°75; tail 9; tarsus 2°25;

mid-toe without claw 1-1; bill from gape 1:05.

Females larger: length 19; wing 15-25

360 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Distribution—Appears in considerable numbers in the

north of the Island during the north-east monsoon and

spreads down the coast on both sides. It is not so common

in the interior as the last species. In winter it is met with

locally throughout India, but is very rare in Burma. It

occurs over the greater part of Europe, Asia, and Africa.

Habits, &c.—Much the same as those of other Harriers. It

is largely crepuscular, and appears to be rather dazzled

in broad daylight. It haunts swamps, marshes, and open

country, and feeds mainly on frogs and lizards. It does not

appear to breed south of the Himalayas.

CIRCUS MELANOLEUCUS (Blanford, Vol. III., p. 385 ;

Legge, p. 9).

The Pied Harrier.

Description.—Male : Head, neck, breast, back, and median

wing coverts black, glossy above, but duller on the breast ;

smaller wing coverts almost white ; the first six primaries and

the tertiaries black, remainder of wing quills silver-gray, the

secondaries with tips and inside borders of white ; rump

white ; upper tail coverts white shaded with gray towards the

ends ; tail feathers gray, the outer feathers paler, and with a

considerable amount of white on the inner web ; lower parts

from breast downwards clear white.

Female : Upper plumage dark brown ; the feathers of the

crown and neck edged with rufous ; nape feathers with broad

white borders and bases; a distinct ruff of small whitish

feathers with dark brown shaft-stripes; cheeks and ear

coverts dirty-white, streaked with brown ; the smaller wing

coverts along the bend of the wing white with brown streaks ;

greater wing coverts and secondaries with broad brown bands ;

primaries blackish-brown ; upper tail coverts white with some

rufous markings ; tail smoky-gray with brown bands. The

lower parts from the ruff downwards white with brown stripes,

which are very broad on the neck and breast, but narrower

and tending to disappear on the abdomen.

Young birds are like females, but are more uniformly brown

above and have no gray on the wings and tail, which are

OWLS AND DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY. 361

brown with darker bands, while the lower parts are rufous

brown with slightly darker streaks.

Bill black, bluish at the gape ; cere greenish-yellow ; iris

bright yellow ; legs yellow.

Male: length 17°5; wing 14; tail 8°5; tarsus 3:1;

mid-toe without claw 1:3; bill from gape 1:10.

Females are larger : length 18-5; wing 14:5.

Distribution.—A rare migrant during the north-east: mon-

soon, recorded from a few localities on the coast, also from

Ratnapura and the North-Western Province. It occurs in

Burma and the eastern half of India during the winter,

and ranges throughout Eastern Asia, breeding mainly in

the north.

Habits, &c.—Found quartering over grassy jungles as well

as over paddy fields and swamps. It has been found breeding

in Northern India, but is not likely to nest in Ceylon.

CIRCUS ASRUGINOSUS (Blanford, Vol. ILI., p. 387;

Legge, p. 5).

The Marsh Harrier.

Description.—Adult : Head and neck buff, or rufous, with

dark brown shaft-stripes ; the back, with the smaller and

median wing coverts, and at times the tertiaries, dark brown,

some of the feathers tipped with rufous ; the lesser coverts

along the bend of the wing are buff with dark shaft-stripes :

the first six primaries blackish, the remaining wing quills and

the greater wing coverts silver-gray ; the concealed basal

portion of all wing quills white ; upper tail coverts white,

mixed with gray and rufous-brown; tail pale gray. The

breast is buff with broad brown shaft-stripes ; abdomen and

lower tail coverts rather streaky rufous-brown.

In immature birds the plumage is mainly dark brown ; the

crown, nape, and chin buff with narrow brown stripes ;

the tail coverts, wing coverts, back, and lower parts

may have rufous tips to the feathers. In some cases the

bird is dark brown all over. The adult plumage is gradually

assumed.

362 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Bill black ; cere greenish-yellow ; iris yellow, brownish in

young birds ; legs and feet yellow.

Length 21; wing 16; tail 9°5; tarsus about 3-4; mid-toe

without claw 1:75; bill from gape 1°35. Females are

generally slightly larger.

Distribution.—A migrant visiting the Island in fair numbers

during the north-east monsoon ; more plentiful in some years

than in others, and always rather locally distributed, mainly

round the coastal swamps and lagoons. It occurs in winter in

suitable localities throughout India and Burma, and its range

extends over most of the Old World.

Habits, &c.—lt frequents marshes, paddy fields, and some-

times dry grass lands. It lives on frogs, fish, and insects, but,

being a far more powerful species than our other Harriers, it

can also tackle birds, and will occasionally carry off a wounded

snipe or teal. A few birds breed in India, so a stray nest may,

perhaps, be found in Ceylon. The nest is made of straw or

grass placed among reeds or on the ground. The four or five

eggs are white, at times slightly spotted with bright reddish-

brown. Size about 2 by 1°50.

Group V.— Buzzards.

The Buzzards, structurally, are closely allied to the Eagles,

differing from them mainly in their less powerful beaks and

claws, and in their partially naked tarsi. Another distinctive

characteristic is that, though the colouration varies enormously

in different specimens, there is no distinct immature plumage.

Only one species occurs in Ceylon, and that species as an

exceedingly rare straggler. It is of about the same size and

general colour as an immature Brahminy Kite, but may be

distinguished by the tarsus, which is about twice as long as

the measurement in a straight line from the gape to the tip of

the bill, and is feathered in front to halfway down or more ;

the naked portion both in front and behind is covered mainly

by transverse plates. The bill is moderate, and curves from

the cere, the festoon is but slight. The wings are ample, long,

and pointed ; the tail is moderately Jong and rounded at the

end; the toes are short.

OWLS AND DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY. 363

Burro DESERTORUM (Blanford, Vol. III., p. 393).

BuTEO PLUMIPES (Legge, p. 31).

The Common Buzzard.

Description.—Colour variable, either dark or pale brown,

with more or less noticeable shaft-streaks ; the feathers of the

crown, nape, and hind-neck with white bases ; sides of the

neck whitish with dark brown streaks, including a dark

moustache-stripe and a band running backwards from the

eye ; the primaries have black-brown ends. a large portion of

the inner web is white, the under surface of the quills is also

white, except at the tip; secondaries brown above, with the

inner webs partly white or rufous, underneath whitish with

dark gray ends and cross bands ; tail brown or rufous above,

whitish below, with more or less distinct bars. Lower parts

white or buff, the throat streaked with brown, the breast and

abdomen also broadly streaked, or at times almost covered

with brown.

Some birds are brown almost throughout.

Bill black, bluish-gray at the base ; cere yellow ; iris brown;

legs and feet yellow.

Females: length about 20; wing 15; tail 8-9; tarsus

about 2°8, but rather variable ; mid-toe without claw 1:5:

bill from gape 1:40. Males smaller ; wing about 14.

Distribution.—An extremely rare straggler to the Island,

only recorded twice or thrice. It occurs throughout the

greater part of Europe, Asia, and Africa, and is resident in the

Himalayas, visiting the peninsula of India in the winter.

Habits, &c.—Rather like those of a Harrier. It quarters

over marshes and bare lands hunting for mice, frogs, lizards,

and insects. It is rather sluggish and solitary, and during the

heat of the day generally perches on a low tree or bush, or on

the ground.

Group V1I.—Hawks.

The three typical Hawks found in Ceylon are all of small

size. They are to be met with mainly in forest or in well-

wooded localities. As a group they are distinguished by their

short, rounded wings and long tarsi. The bill is short and

364 SPOLIA ZEYLANIGA,

stout, and curves sharply from the cere ; the festoon is well

marked. The tarsus is feathered in front only at the base ;

the naked portion is covered in front and behind with trans-

verse shields, and on the sides with reticulated scales. The

tail is fairly long and square at the ends. The lower plumage

is transversely barred in adults and spotted in the young.

The females in all three species are much larger than the males.

Rough Key to Group.

A.—Tarsus fairly stout; toes moderate ; bill from gape

about three-fifths of mid-toe without claw.

(1) No crest ; wing up to 7°5; central tail feathers

in adults not completely barred.

Astur badius (The Shikra).

(2) A small crest ; wing 7°5 or over; central tail

feathers in adults fully barred.

Lophospizias trivirgatus (Crested Goshawk).

B.—Tarsus slender ; toes long ; bill from gape half mid-toe

without claw.

Accipiter virgatus (Besra Sparrow Hawk).

Asrur BapIus (Blanford, Vol. III., p. 398; Legge, p 23).

The Shikra.

Description.—Adult male: Upper plumage bluish-ashy ;

the hind-neck generally tinged with rufous; wing quills

blackish towards the ends, the inner webs below the notch

white, or buff, with blackish bars ; in the tail the middle and

outermost feathers are not barred, or have only traces of bars,

the remainder have four or five broad dark bars. The sides

of the head and neck and a narrow streak down the chin are

ashy-gray ; chin and throat otherwise whitish ; breast some

shade of rufous with narrow white bars, which vary consider-

ably in regularity and distinctness ; on the abdomen the colour

gradually fades into the buff or white of the vent, thighs, and

tail coverts.

Females are darker and browner.above, and more boldly

barred on the under surface,

OWLS AND DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY. 365

Young birds are brown above, with rufous edges to the

feathers ; all the tail feathers are barred, the bars on the outer

feathers being narrower and more numerous ; lower parts

white with large brown drop-shaped markings, which are

largest on the breast ; there is generally a brown stripe down

the centre of the throat.

Bill bluish, darker at the tip; cere greenish-yellow ; iris

yellow or orange, darkening to red in old birds ; legs and feet

yellow.

Females : length 13:50; wing 7°5; tail 6°53; tarsus 2;

mid-toe without claw 1°25; bill from gape ° 75.

Males are smaller: length about 12 ; wing 6: 75.

Distribution.—Found all over the Island in considerable

numbers. It oecurs throughout India and Burma, extending

westwards into Southern Persia and eastwards as far as China.

Habits, &¢.—May be seen almost anywhere, except in thick

forest. According to Legge, it is a partial migrant, the

majority of the birds seen near the sea during the north-east

monsoon retiring inland to breed during the south-west. It

feeds largely on lizards, but will also take small birds, rats,

mice, grasshoppers, &c. The call is a two-syllabled whistle.

The breeding season appears to last from April till about .

August. The nest is rather a loose structure of twigs, about

a foot across, and lined with grass. It is generally placed

near the top of a tree. The three eggs are plain bluish-white ;

the texture is smooth, but glossless. Average size 1°55

by 1°22.

LOPHOSPIZIAS TRIVIRGATUS (Blanford, Vol. IIT., p. 401).

ASTUR TRIVIRGATUS (Legge, p. 20).

The Crested Goshawk.

Description.—Adult : Forehead, crown, and short crest

blackish, shading into ashy on the sides of the head and neck,

the shafts of the feathers darker ; upper parts from nape to tail

coverts dark glossy-brown ; upper tail coverts tipped with

white ; wing quills with blackish bars, much more distinct on

the underside of the feathers than above ; tail smoky-brown

with four broad blackish bands. Chin and throat white with

8 6(21)20

566 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

a long black stripe down the centre and one on each side on the

border of the gray cheek; breast rufous brown with white

margins, which vary in width ; abdomen and thighs barred

chocolate-brown and white, the bars becoming narrower on the

thighs ; under tail coverts white ; wing lining whitish with

brown patches.

Young birds are brown above with pale edges to the feathers

and buff bases which show on the nape and hind-neck ; under

parts whitish-buff with traces of black stripes on the throat,

some deep rusty spots on the flanks and abdomen and some

brown bars on the thighs.

Bill bluish-brown at the base, black at the tip ; cere, eyelids,

and gape of bill greenish-yellow ; iris golden-yellow ; legs and

feet pale yellow.

Females: length about 15°5; wing 8; tail 7; tarsus

2°25; mid-toe without claw 1:25; bill from gape 1-1.

Males are smaller: length about 14; wing 7°5.

Distribution._-Not very common, but fairly widely distri-

bated in the forests of the low-country and up to about 3,500

feet in the hills. It is found in similar country throughout

India, Burma, and South-eastern Asia, including the islands

from the Malay Archipelago to the Philippines. Himalayan

birds are much larger than our Ceylon form.

Habits, &c.—Entirely a forest bird, generally seen in tall

trees. The cry is a shrill note of one syllable. It feeds

chiefly on lizards, but also on small birds.

The breeding season in Ceylon is probably during the south-

west monsoon. The nest is rather like that of the preceding

species, and is placed in a high tree. The two eggs are pale

ereenish-white, and measure about 2 by 1:4.

ACCTIPITER VIRGATUS (Blanford, Vol. III., p. 404 ; -

Legge, p. 26).

The Besra Sparrow Hawk.

Description.—Adult male: Head, hind-neck, back, and

wings very dark ash colour, deepest on the head ; the back

often tinged with brown ; the feathers on the nape and the

seapulars white at the base ; wing quills brownish-gray above,

OWLS AND DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY. 367

whitish below, with broad dark crossbars (the fourth quill has

seven or eight such bars, including the tip) ; secondaries and

tertiaries barred on the inner web with white ; tail dark ash-

gray above, whitish below, with four dark bands on the inner

feathers and five or six on the outermost ; the latter disappear

in old birds. Throat white, generally with a dark stripe

down the middle ; upper breast rufous, the central feathers

with white edges and dark shafts ; lower breast, abdomen, and

thighs barred white and rufous brown, but the breast and

flanks are so tinged with rufous as to conceal the bars ; vent

and lower tail coverts white.

Females are dark brown above; the crown and nape

blackish ; wings and tail browner than in males; throat and

fore-neck white with a broad dark central stripe ; the centre

of the chest boldly striped with dark brown ; sides of chest,

breast, abdomen, and thigh coverts banded rufous brown and

white, the white bands growing narrower in old birds.

Young birds are brown above with rufous margins to the

feathers ; the under parts are buff or brownish-white, with a

broad dark band down the centre of the throat, and large

brown spots on the breast, abdomen, and thigh coverts, The

spots turn to bars as the birds grow older,

Bill lead-gray, blackish at the tip ; cere pale lemon-yellow ; —

iris bright yellow, orange in old birds ; legs and feet yellow.

Males : length about 10°5; wing 6°25; tail 5; tarsus 2 ;

mid-toe without claw 1-25; bill from gape ° 62.

Females considerably larger : length about 13°5 ; wing 7°5;

mid-toe 1-4; bill from gape ° 7.

Distribution.—Blanford unites under one head (1) A. affinis,

a large form resident from the Himalayas to the Shan States,

Siam, and possibly Malaya ; and (2) A. wrgatus, of which the

typical sub-species A. virgatus virgatus occurs as a resident in

Southern India and Ceylon. It is fairly widely distributed

over the Island wherever there is jungle.

Habits, &c.—Like the Crested Goshawk, this is a jungle bird

and rather shy. The cry is a loud shrill squeal. It feeds on

small birds, lizards, &c.

The breeding season appears to be about May ; the nest is a

rough structure of twigs placed in a tree. The clutch varies

368 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

from two to four, three being the usual number of eggs. The

eggs are white, tinged with a faint bluish tinge when fresh,

and more or less brightly marked with blotches of reddish-

brown. Average size 1°46 by 1°18.

Note.—Accipiter nisus—The Sparrow Hawk—may possibly

occur in the Island. Kelaart in his Prodromus (p. 96) states

that he saw a single live specimen. Legge (p. 29, footnote)

shows that the authenticity of this record is doubtful. The

species, however, is a winter migrant as far south as the

Nilgiris, and may possibly turn up one day in the Ceylon hills.

It is a larger bird than the Besra Sparrow Hawk ; males

measuring about 8 and females 9°5 in the wing. It may be

recognized by the fourth primary quill, which in adults has

only five or six dark bars, and by the lack of the dark throat-

stripe, which is generally present in Accipiter virgatus.

Group VII.—Honey Buzzards.

The Honey Buzzards differ from all other Birds of Prey by

having the sides of the head, the lores, and even the eyelids

covered with close overlapping scale-like feathers. As the

birds feed largely on the combs and larvz of bees and wasps,

the close feathering of the head is doubtless a protection

against the stings of these insects. The bill is weak, rather

long, not very hooked, and has little or no festoon. ‘The wings

are long and rather rounded. The tail is moderate in length.

The tarsus is short and feathered halfway down in front. The

toes are long, the middle toe being as long as the tarsus, and

are covered with conspicuous bony scales. Honey Buzzards

are found throughout most parts of the Old World. One

species occurs throughout the Indian Empire.

PgrRNIS cRistTaTuS (Blanford, Vol. III., p. 406).

PERNIS PTILONORHYNCHUS (Legge, p. 89).

The Crested Honey Buzzard.

Description.—Plumage extremely variable. A fairly typical

specimen is coloured as follows :—Forehead and crown iron-

gray, deepening on the back of the head to light brown, with

dark shaft-stripes ; the small crest is black ; nape and sides

OWLS AND DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY. 369

of neck light brown with dark shaft-stripes ; back and rump

sepia-brown ; upper tail coverts lighter brown with some

white bars ; wing coverts brown, lighter at the tip ; primaries

gray-brown with black tips and two black bars ; secondaries

grayer with light tips ; innermost quills almost tawny- brown ;

tail brownish-black with a broad band ot gray-brown on the

outer half and a similar narrower band towards the base.

Lores, sides of head, ear coverts, eyelids, and chin gray ;

throat tawny-brown with darker shaft-stripes; a faint black

streak down the centre of the throat and on each side ; rest

of lower parts, with the wing lining, brown, more or less

mottled with white ; under surface of wing and tail grayish-

white with black bars.

Some, probably quite old birds, are darker, and have the

throat and whole under surface chocolate-brown.

Young birds are much lighter. The feathers of the crown

and nape and sometimes of the whole head and neck are pale

tawny with dark shaft-stripes and white bases ; the rest of

the upper parts are brown with pale edges to the feathers ;

the wing coverts and upper tail coverts are a good deal mixed

with white; wing quills and tail brown, narrowly tipped with

white and irregularly barred and mottled with lighter grayish- _

brown. . The lower parts are white, or buff, more or less

marked with long dark shaft-stripes, which are sometimes

drop-shaped.

Mature birds may be told by the tail. In the adult stage

the broad pale cross band, though it may be mottled, is never

barred as in younger birds.

Bill black, whitish-blue at the gape; cere hard and horny,

and of a deep lead colour: iris golden or brownish-yellow ;

legs and feet yellow.

Females : length about 26; wing 16°5; tail 10°5; tarsus

2; mid-toe without claw 2; bill from gape 1°65.

Males : length about 25 ; wing 16.

Distribution.—Found during the north-east monsoon,

inainly in the northern half of the Island. Some birds appear

to be resident. It occurs throughout the Indian Empire and

South-eastern Asia.

370 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Habits, &c.—Generally seen near water and in well-wooded

country, but on its first arrival it may be met with near the

coast. The flight is straight and rather hurried, but seldom

long-sustained. It feeds largely on the combs of bees, eating

both honey and brood-comb. It will also eat white ants,

various insects, and small reptiles. Some birds may breed in

the northern forest tract, probably during the south-west

monsoon. Indian nests are the usual structure of twigs

placed in a tree. One or two eggs are laid. They are white

or buff mottled and blotched with blood red or reddish, and

measure about 2°03 by 1°72. 3

Group VIIL-—Bazas.

The Bazas form a genus which differs from all the preceding

groups, in having the upper mandible of the bill furnished

with two saw-like teeth on each side, just opposite the end of

the lower mandible. In young birds there is often but one

tooth, as in the Falcons, but whereas in the present genus the

nostril is an oblique slit, in the Falcons it is a circular opening.

There is a long crest’ on the crown. The wings are only

moderate in length, and the first primary is much shorter

than the fourth. The tail is fairly long and square at the

ends. The tarsus is short and feathered halfway down in

front ; the toes are fairly long. .

Bazas are forest birds, of smallish or medium size, found

in Africa, Madagascar, the Oriental region, and part of

Australia. Two rare species occur in Ceylon.

Rough Key to Species.

A.—Plumage mainly black ; length about 13.

Baza lophotes (Black-crested Baza).

B.—Plumage mainly brown ; length about 17.

Baza ceylonensis (Legge’s Baza).

Baza LOPHOTES (Blanford, Vol. II., p. 409 ;

Legge, p. 98).

The Black-crested Baza.

Descriplion.—Adult : General colour of upper plumage,

wings, and tail black with a slight grayish bloom ; the bases

of all body feathers white ; the longer scapulars white with

broad margins of black washed with ferruginous red ; the

OWLS AND DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY. 371

exposed portions of the longer wing coverts and the last few

wing quills largely white, irregularly pied with black and

ferruginous red ; the outer webs of the inner primaries and

some secondaries washed with reddish-chestnut ; wing lining .

black, the greater under coverts and the under surface of wing

quills and tail ashy-white, darkening to blackish towards the

tips of the wing quills, and with blackish patches towards the

end of the tail feathers.

Chin and throat black ; a broad white gorget on the lower

fore-neck ; below this is an indefinite black band tinged with

chestnut ; breast and long flank plumes whitish-buff, banded

with chestnut ; abdomen, thighs, and lower tail coverts

erayish-black, the abdomen fringed with pale reddish-white,

and the tail coverts with whitish.

Young birds have the ferruginous and white markings on

the scapulars and quills more developed, the black of the

plumage is duller, and the red banding on the flank is fainter

or wanting.

Bill, in a fresh specimen, pale grayish-blue, black at the tip ;

cere, legs, and feet pale grayish-blue ; iris purple-brown.

Males : length 13; wing 9°25; tail 5°25; tarsus 1°1;

mid-toe without claw 1-1; bill from gape 1.

Females slightly larger ; wing 9° 9.

Distribution.—A rare bird, which appears to have its head-

quarters at the base of the Himalayas, from Nepal eastwards.

It also ranges through Burma to Uochin-China and the Malay

Peninsula. In Ceylon it is a rare migrant during the north-

east monsoon. Specimens have been recorded from various

widely-scattered localities in the low-country.

Habits, &:c.—This species may be found in fairly wild jungle

or forest, generally at no great elevation. It occasionally goes

about in little troops, and is said to feed mainly on insects.

The ery is sharp and Kite-like.

BazA CRYLONENSTS (Blanford, Vol. II[., p. 409 ;

Legge, p. 94).

Leqge’s Baza.

Description.—Adult : Feathers of crown and nape dark

brown, deepening to black on the shafts and towards the end,

Sie SPOLIA ZEYLANIGCA.

and with pale margins ; the long crest blackish with white

tips ; the feathers from the hind-neck to the rump earthy

brown with narrow pale tips ; greater s condary coverts and

tertiaries rather paler and with more white ; primaries,

secondaries, and tail smoky-brown above, grayish-white below,

with darker brown bars ; the inner primaries, the secondaries,

and outer tail feathers with narrow white tips. The lores and

a stripe behind the eye blackish-brown ; cheeks and ear coverts

gray with dark shaft-stripes ; chin and throat buff, also with

dark shafts ; the sides of the neck and of the breast more

tawny ; rest of lower surface white with broad crossbars of

pale rust colour, which are less conspicuous on the under tail

coverts.

Young birds are paler ; the dark bars on the tail are five in

number, as against four in adults ; the lower surface is whiter,

and the rusty cross bands are paler and less perfect.

Bill blackish lead colour ; cere brownish-black ; iris orange-

yellow ; legs and feet yellowish.

Length about 17; wing 12; tail 8; tarsus 1°5; mid-toe

without claw 1°5; bill from gape 1: 25.

Distribution.—An extremely rare resident in the hills. It

has also been obtained in India in the Wynaad. Itis. perhaps,

only a sub-species of Bb. jerdont, which occurs in Sikkhim,

Tenasserim, the Malay Peninsula, and Sumatra.

Habits, &c.—Little is known of its habits. It occurs on

wooded hill slopes and in the jungles scattered over the

patanas. The nidification is as yet unknown, but probably its

nesting habits resemble those of B. lophotes, which makes a

nest like that of a small Kite in a high tree and lays three

chalky white eggs.

troup [X.—Faleons.

The Falcons and their allies are a world-wide group noted

for their speed and courage. Many of the species have long

been trained by Falconers.

The typical Falcons prey on birds, swooping down on their

quarry while in flight, and killing it with a powerful ripping

stroke of the hind claw. Kestrels, however, hover over the

ground hunting for small mammals, upon which they drop

OWLS AND DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY. 373

quietly from above. The members of the group vary from

medium to small size. They are all neatly built with long

pointed wings. The second quill-may be the longest, as in the

genera Falco and Erythropus, or the second and third quills

may be almost equal, thus giving the wing a slightly more

rounded appearance, as in salon and Tinnunculus. The

bill is stout, shortish, and well hooked, with one conspicuous

tooth on each side of the upper mandible, and with more or

less of a festoon further back. The nostril is circular with a

central tubercle. The tarsus is fairly short, with the upper

half plumed in front; the toes are long; the claws curved

and sharp. The tail is of moderate length, and is slightly

rounded in all our genera, except the Kestrel, in which it

is more fan-shaped, the outer tail feathers being markedly

shorter than the central pair.

Rough Key to Group.

A.—Second primary longest ; first primary much longer

than fourth.

(a) Sexes similar ; legs yellow. Genus Falco.

(1) Length 16-19; crown dark gray; breast only

slightly rufous.

F’. peregrinus (Peregrine Falcon).

(2) Length 15-18; crown blackish; breast gene-

rally dark rufous.

F’, peregrinator (Shahin Falcon).

(3) Length 10°5-11°5.

F.. severus (Indian Hobby).

(6) Sexes dissimilar ; legs deep orange-red ; length

about 12.

Erythropus amurensis (Kastern Red-legged

Falcon).

B.—Second and third primaries longest ; first primary

about equal to fourth.

(1) Tail only slightly rounded.

Asalon chicquera (Red-headed Merlin).

(2) Tail graduated, outer feathers distinctly shorter

than inner pair.

Tinnunculus alaudarius (Kestrel).

9 6(21)20

374 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

FALcO PEREGRINUS (Blanford Vol. III., p. 413 ;

Legge, p. 101).

The Peregrine Falcon.

Description.—Adult : Above blue-gray with dark shaft-

stripes and bars, the rump and upper tail coverts paler ;

hind-nsck, upper part of mantle, and wing coverts largely

dusky ; forehead whitish ; there is a black moustache band,

which expands into a patch on the cheeks and ear coverts ;

primary quills brown-black, the inner webs barred with white

or pale rufous, except near the tip ; secondaries ash-gray with

indistinct darker crossbars; tail dusky gray, with many

ash-gray crossbars and a whitish tip. Lower parts white

tinged with rufous ; lower breast and centre of abdomen with

a few brown or black spots and bars; flanks, wing lining,

thigh coverts, and under tail coverts with more regular

narrow black bars.

Young: Above dark brown with rufous edges to the

feathers ; the white bases of the feathers are exposed on the

nape ; the tail feathers have pale rufous oval spots ; the black

cheek-stripe is narrower than in adults ; lower parts white

tinged with buff or rufous and with long fairly wide dark

brown. shaft-stripes ; wings as in adults. The slaty-gray

back of the adult is gradually attained, while the dark markings

on the breast slowly become smaller, and in old birds practi-

cally disappear, save for a few specks on the abdomen and

three-cornered marks on the thighs.

Bill bluish, black at the tip; cere and orbital skin yellow ;

iris brown ; legs and feet yellow.

Females : length about 19; wing 14°5; tail 7°5; tarsus

2-2; mid-toe without claw 2°25 ; bill from gape 1°35.

Males are smaller : length about 16; wing 12:5.

Distribution.—A very rare migrant during the north-east

monsoon, keeping mainly to the coast, but specimens have

been met with inland as far as the bases of the main central hill

ranges. It is found all over the world, breeding in the north

and visiting the tropics in winter.

Habits, &c.—This species in Ceylon generally frequents

cliffs and marshes near the sea, preying largely on Wild-fowl and

OWLS AND DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY. 375

aders. From its bold nature, its swift flight, and powerful

stroke it has long been a favourite with Falconers, who train

it to fly at Herons, Storks, Cranes, &c. Though usually

breeding in the far north, there seems no doubt (wide Legge.

p. 104) that Layard shot a pair breeding in the Jafina peninsula.

The nest was a rough structure of twigs in the top of a pal-

myra. In temperate regions the nest is usually placed on a

cliff ledge. The three or four eggs are reddish-white, freckled

with brick-red or reddish-brown, and measure about 2°2

by 1°65.

FALcO PEREGRINATOR (Blanford, Vol. III., p. 415;

Legge, p. 106).

The Shahin Falcon.

Description.—Darker than the last species ; at all ages the

head, nape, and hind-neck are almost charcoal-black, and the

lower surface from the chest to the tail coverts is a deep

ferruginous brown.

In young birds almost the whole upper plumage is black

with rufous edges which soon wear off; the nape is tinged

with rufous and the tail marked with oval spots, as in the

young of the last species. The chin and throat are pale and —

unspotted ; the breast and abdomen marked with long dark

drops. In old birds these markings on the breast and

abdomen almost entirely disappear.

Bill slate-blue, dark at the tip; cere and orbital skin

yellow ; iris deep brown ; legs yellow.

Females: length about 17°5; wing 12°75; tail 6°25;

tarsus 2; mid-toe without claw 2; bill from gape 1°25.

Males: length about 15; wing 11°5. Ceylon birds are

smaller than those from Northern India.

Distribution.—A resident species closely allied to the true

Peregrine, which is migrant. Exceedingly rare in Ceylon,

where it is found occasionally in the mountain zone, and

round isolated hills or sea cliffs in the low-country. It

occurs in rocky hills in or near forest throughout India and

Burma, and perhaps in Afghanistan, but it is nowhere

common.

376 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Habits, &c.—A shy bird, which frequents inaccessible

ledges of rocky cliffs. It hunts chiefly in the early morning

and evening, and feeds exclusively on birds, chiefly pigeons,

parroquets, swallows, and swifts. In its swoop it is as swift

and bold as the larger Peregrine, and for this reason is a great

favourite with Indian Falconers. It has been found breeding

at Sigiriya in June. The nest is a mass of sticks placed on the

ledge of a cliff. The three eggs are brownish-yellow, pinkish,

or brick-red, speckled and blotched with reddish-brown.

The ground colour may vary greatly in a single clutch. They

are broad oval in shape, and measure about 2°05 by 1°65.

Fatco sEveRus (Blantord Vol. ILI., p. 423 ;

Regger ps to):

The Indian Hobby.

Description.—Adult : Cheeks, sides of head, crown, and

hind-neck black, shading into dark slate-gray with black

shafts on the remainder of the upper parts ; wing quills and

larger coverts black, the inner webs of the quills deep brown

with some rufous bars or spots ; tail slate-gray with a darker

bar near the tip. Chin, throat, and sides of neck white,

washed with rufous ; rest of lower parts deep rusty red.

Young birds: Upper plumage. brownish-black with light

rufous edges to the feathers; the inner webs of the tail

feathers, except the central pair, banded with rufous ; breast,

abdomen, wing lining, and tail coverts with long drop-shaped

black markings.

Bill lead colour ; cere and orbital skin pale lemon-yellow ;

iris deep brown ; legs yellow.

Females : length 11°5 ; wing 9°75; tail4°5 ;. tarsus 1°36 ;

mid-toe without claw 1°35; bill from gape °9. -

Males : length 10°5; wing 8°5.

Distribution.—A very rare straggler, recorded from two or

three up-country localities during the north-east monsoon.

It occurs on the lower Himalayas eastwards of Kulu, in

Assam, and Manipur, and occasionally during winter in the

Indian Peninsula. It is also met with in the Malay Archi-

pelago and New Guinea.

OWLS AND DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY. 377

Habits, &c.—A mountain species frequenting wooded hills.

It is crepuscular in its habits, and appears to feed on dragon

flies, small birds, and lizards.

ERYTHROPUS AMURENSIS (Blanford, Vol. III., p. 424).

CERCHNEIS AMURENSIS (Legge, p. 119).

The Eastern Red-legged Falcon.

Description —Adult male: Upper parts and tail dark

slaty-gray ; head, nape, back, and scapulars blackish ; quills

washed externally with silvery-gray ; cheeks sooty-black ;

ear coverts paler. Lower surface ashy-gray ; lower abdomen

and under tail coverts deep ferruginous red; wing lining

white.

Adult female: Upper parts slate-gray; head, neck, and

upper back brownish ; rump and tail paler ; teathers of head

and neck with dark shafts ; rest of upper surface barred with

black ; the cheek-stripe, the feathers below the eye, and a

band running back from the eye black ; primaries blackish,

the inner webs with many large oval white patches, except

near the tips. Lower parts creamy-white or pale rufous, the

breast with long black spots passing into arrowhead marks

on the flanks and upper abdomen ; lower abdomen and lower.

tail coverts unspotted ; wing lining white with brown spots.

Young: Brownish, the feathers with indistinct pale tips ;

lower scapulars, inner secondaries, rump, and upper tail

coverts grayish with pale tips and bars of dull black ; tail

gray with black bars; sides of face and throat white ; nape

mixed with white ; lores and an indistinct moustache-stripe

brown ; under parts white ; the breast with blackish central

streaks to the feathers ; thighs and under tail coverts buffy-

white, the former tinged with rufous.

Bill fleshy red with a dusky tip; cere deep orange ; iris

hazel ; legs orange-red.

Length 11°5; wing 9; tail5; tarsus 1-1; mid-toe without

claw 1; bill from gape *75. Females a little larger.

Distribution.—Immature stragglers have once or twice been

procured in Ceylon. It is a migrant breeding in Northern

China, and wintering chiefly in East Africa, but occasionally

in India and Burma.

378 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Habits, &c.—An insectivorous species, which hawks over

grass lands mainly at dusk. A specimen shot by Legge at

Trincomalee was busy feeding on grasshoppers. In its usual

haunts it is rather gregarious.

AESALON CHICQUERA (Blanford, Vol. III., p. 427).

FALCO CHICQUERA (Legge, p. 110).

The Red-headed Merlin.

Description.—Crown, nape, sides of neck, ear coverts, and

a narrow cheek-stripe chestnut ; lores and a narrow forehead

whitish ; a few bristly feathers round the eye black ; upper

parts from the neck ash-gray ; scapulars, secondaries, and

wing coverts more or less barred with brown ; primaries

blackish-brown closely barred on the inner webs, except at the

tip, with white ; tail gray, with narrow black bars, a broad

black band near the end, and a narrow white tip, lower parts

white, with a few short blackish streaks on the breast, and

black bars on the flanks and abdomen.

In old birds the dark bars on both the upper and lower

plumage become narrow and tend to disappear. In young

birds the gray feathers of the upper parts are barred with

black, the crown and nape are dusky rufous with dark shaft-

stripes, and the lower parts have a rusty tinge.

Bill bluish-black, greenish-yellow at the base ; cere, eyelids,

and legs yellow ; iris lightish-brown.

Male: length 11°25; wing 8°25; tail 6; tarsus 1°5;

mid-toe without claw 1:3; bill from gape °80.

Females are rather larger : length 14 ; wing 9.

Distribution.—The inclusion of this bird in the Ceylon list

tests on the authority of Layard, who watched a specimen at

Point Pedro, but failed to secure it. It is found throughout

India, being common in many parts.

Habits, &c.—Found chiefly in gardens, groves of trees in

cultivated districts, or on the edges of isolated woods. It

feeds mainly on small birds. A good lookout should be kept

for it in the north of the Island, as it is quite possible that

stray specimens occasionally wander across from India. It

breeds in trees, making a neat nest of twigs lined with fibres.

Four eggs are laid. They are brownish-red, mottled and

blotched with darker red, and measure about 1°66 by 1:27.

OWLS AND DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY. 379

TINNUNCULUS ALAUDARIUS (Blanford, Vol. IIT., p. 428).

CERCHNEIS TINNUNCULUS (Legge, p. 114).

The Kestrel.

Description.—Adult male : The head, the back and sides of

the neck and a moustache-stripe bluish-ashy with dark shafts ;

back, scapulars, and wing coverts brick-red, tinged with

vinous, and scattered over with triangular black spots ; rump

and upper tail coverts ashy-gray; tail ashy-gray above,

whitish beneath, with a broad black band near the end and

a narrow white tip; wing quills dark brown barred with

whitish on the inner webs; cheeks and ear coverts whitish

with darker streaks ; lower parts pale or buff with brown

streaks on the breast, which pass into spots on the lower

breast and flanks ; lower abdomen and tail coverts unspotted ;

wing lining white with some large black spots.

Female: Ground colour of upper plumage more brownish-

rufous, with black streaks on the head and hind-neck, and

with conspicuous black bands on the remainder of the upper

parts and tail. The black band at the end of the tail is

narrower than in the male. Wings and lower parts as in the

male, but the latter are more heavily streaked and spotted. .

Tn old females the rump, upper tail coverts, and tail are more

or less tinged with blue-gray.

Young males resemble females ; the tail turns blue-gray

earlier than the head.

Bill bluish-black ; cere and eyelids yellow ; iris brown ; legs

orange-yellow ; claws black.

Length about 14; wing 9°75; tail 6°75; tarsus 1:5;

mid-toe without claw 1:10; bill from gape +85. Females, as

a rule, are slightly larger.

Distribution.—Found all over the Island during the north-

east monsoon. Some birds appear to breed in the hills. The

species occurs over the whole of Europe and Asia, breeding

mainly in temperate climates and migrating southwards in

winter, when it spreads over Northern Africa as well.

Habits, &ce—The Kestrel mainly frequents open plains,

cultivated tracts, dry paddy fields, &c., flying over the ground

with rapid beats of its wings. Every now and then it hovers

880 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

and then drops suddenly on its prey, which consists mainly of

insects, lizards, frogs, and mice. A small dark resident form

undoubtedly breeds in the Travancore hills, and may probably

be found nesting up-country from April to June.

The nest is generally placed on ledges, or in the crevices of

cliffs, occasionally in trees. The eggs usually number four or

five. They are broad ovals, generally rather pointed at one

end. The colour is brick- or blood-red, with deeper mottlings

and blotches. Average size about 1:57 by 1:21.

Note.—It is possible that a Faleconet—probably Microhierax

fringillarius (The Black-legged Falconet)—may be found in

Ceylon. These birds belong to a group which has a toothed

bill like the Falcons. They are, however, extremely small,

with a wing measurement of under 5inches. They also differ

from other birds of prey in their nidification, as they lay white

eggs in a hole in the branch or trunk of a tree.

The species mentioned above has a total length of 6°5;

wing 4; tail 2°25; tarsus °75; bill from gape ° 55.

In general appearance it is black, glossed with metallic-green

on the upper parts ; the flanks and thigh coverts are black ;

the lower parts white, more or less tinged with rusty-red ; the

forehead and a broad stripe from behind the eye down the

sides of the neck are white.

This species is found in the Malay Peninsula, Southern

Tenasserim, Sumatra, Java, and Borneo. Its presence in

Ceylon was suspected by E. E. Green (vide Spolia Zeylanica,

Vol. VIII., p. 287). He once saw a tiny Hawk pounce ona

Bulbul and fly away with it. On another occasion a planter

described to him how he had seen in Hewaheta two “ black

birds ”’ fighting, and how one of them killed the other and flew

away with it.

Fie,

Hie, 4.

Fig. 1.—Photodilus assimilis.

Fic. 2.—Haliastur indus.

Fic.

Fic. 3.—Falco peregrinator.

Fig. 4.—Lophospizias trivirgatus.

5.—Tinnuneulus alaudarius.

NEW CEYLON DIPTERA. 381

NEW CEYLON DIPTERA.

By R. A. Sentor-Wuire, F.E.S.

(With two Plates.)

Mycetophilide.

PLATYURA TALAROCEROIDES n. sp. (PL. I., Fig. 4.)

Male—Head : Vertex brownish, face and palpi yellowish.

Antenne yellow, apparently only fifteen-jointed, the two scapal

joints somewhat broader than those of the flagellum, and very

small. The first twelve flagellar joints each bear a finger-like

pectination, nearly as long as the whole flagellum, the first

nine joints closely sessile and very small, gradually lengthen-

ing from tenth to twelfth, the latter as long as the two preceding

joints. The pectinations of the first five joints are decumbent,

the rest gradually arise to nearly porrect in the last three,

though the apices of these bend slightly downwards. Apical

joint simple, as long as preceding three together. The pecti-

nations closely set with fine hairs, and bearing a terminal

black bristle.

Thorax.—Dorsum brown, unmarked, with minute black

bristles, pleuree concolorous, metapleuron with black bristles.

Scutellum small, with marginal row of chetz, longer than

width of scutellum.

Abdomen.—Slender, eight-segmented, bristly, especially

apically. Tergal plates of hypopygium twice the length of

the sternal. First segment wholly yellow, second to sixth

with basal half black and apical yellow, seventh and eighth

and genitalia wholly black. Venter banded similarly.

Legs.—Yellow. Tibiz and tarsi closely set with minute

black sete. Spines of mid-tibiz much longer than those of

front pair.

Wings.—A_ little longer than the abdomen, venation

normal. Basal section of fourth vein about one-third length

of fork, sixth vein not quite reaching wing margin. Colour

10 6(21)20

382 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

pale smoky-yellow, apex slightly darker, only markedly so

from upper branch of third vein to upper branch of fourth.

Halteres paler yellow than thorax.

Long : 3 mm.

Described from unique male in perfect condition, except for

loss of both hind legs beyond trochanters, taken on window.

Suduganga, Matale, Ceylon, August 30, 1918.

Type in my own collection.

The fifteen-jointed antenna is a doubtful point ; it may

possibly consist of sixteen joints, as in the remainder of the

genus, the appearance of the first flagellar joint indicating

that it possibly consists of a fused first simple with pectinate

second joint. This is the second species of the genus to be

described with an eight-segmented abdomen.

EXXECHIA ARGENTEOFASCIATA hn. Sp.

Female-—Head wholly orange-yellow, frons and vertex

with fine golden hairs, a few black bristles along upper interior

orbit. Eyes minutely pale pubescent. Middle ocellus absent.

Antenne arising from lower margin of an elliptical depression,

of which the upper margins extend to halfway between root

of antenne and the ocelli, yellow, the apical six or seven joints

of the flagellum very slightly darker, the whole flagellum with

minute whitish pubescence. Palpi brown, the apical joint

slender.

Thorax—Dorsum orange, minutely golden pubescent.

Above the dorsopleural suture a broad silvery stripe width

about one-third of orange area), which appears black, with

only a fine silvery lower margin viewed from front or side.

Pleure yellow. A row of stiff dark bristles around dorso-

pleural suture, weaker on anterior margin. Humerus with

three strong bristles, a strong one on each posterior corner of

thorax, and a prescutellar pair. The dorsopleural fascia has

some bristles along its upper margin, and a few on the silvery

area, irregularly placed. Scutellum concolorous with dorsum,

very small, with traces of silvery pubescence, in certain lights,

along its apical margin, above which is a row of small bristles:

M>tanotum steep, carinate. Metapleure with a few dark

bristly hairs.

NEW. CEYLON DIPTERA. 383

Abdomen yellow, laterally strongly compressed, with short

yellow hairs. Segments slightly darker at base, a black

median line on basal half of third to sixth segments. Hind

margin of first segment dark. Belly pale. Genitalia consist

of a pair of small lamelle, below which is a conical organ with

darker ovipositor at tip.

Legs yellow, except tarsi, which are blackish.

Wings slightly shorter than abdomen, pale yellow. Halteres

slightly darker.

Long : 3 mm.

Described trom a single female, taken flying round Lantana

scrub in shade. Suduganga, Matale, Ceylon, May 4, 1919.

Type in my own collection.

EXECHIA CRISTATA Nl. Sp.

Female—Head: Frons black, covered with somewhat

widely separated silvery-yellow pubescence. A transverse row

of short black bristles over root of antenne. Hyes minutely

black pubescent. Antenne, scape yellow, flagellum black,

with minute pale pubescence.

Thorax yellow, with pale pubescence. Posterior half of

dorsum with a dark brown circular patch, reaching nearly to

wing roots, into which extends from in front a V-shaped.

yellow patch, the apex of which is nearly in a line with the

wing roots. At posterior corners of thorax are small yellow

patches extending inwards for about one-third the dorsal

breadth, medianly the brown colour reaches the root of the

scutellum. Pleurze yellow, except ptero- and meta-pleure,

which are grayish-brown. A row of small black bristles on

anterior margin, five long dorso-centrals from anterior margin.

to base of V-mark, each row erect, but inwardly inclined,

forming a dorsal crest. The two rows are continued, inwardly

converging, by smaller, posteriorly directed bristles, along the

margins of the yellow V-mark. Many irregularly placed

small black bristles on the remainder of the dorsal area.

Humerus with four strong bristles, a strong one above root of

wings and on posterior corners. Scutellum large, dark brown,

with two long parallel apical dark bristles reaching to middle

of second abdominal segment. Meta-pleure with two strong

black bristles. Metanotum dark.

384 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

Abdomen laterally compressed, tergum black, sternum

yellow, except the last two segments, which are all black,

the whole with pale pubescence. First segment with apical

yellow dorsal band, segments two to five with apical black

bands extending somewhat indefinitely into yellow sternal

area,

Legs, coxee and femora pale yellow, tibize appear darker

from more closely set setule. Tarsi black.

Wings pale gray. Halteres yellow.

Long : 24 mm.

Described from a single female, taken on window at dusk.

Suduganga, Matale, Ceylon, January 19, 1920.

Type in my own collection.

EXECHIA AMPULLATA n. Sp.

Female.—Head : Frons black, with thick silvery pubes-

cence. Eyes very minutely pubescent. Antenne and palpi

pale yellowish, apical half of flagellum slightly darker.

Thorax white, the dorsal surface occupied by a black ovoid

mark with a short anterior narrower extension (on extremity of

which the colour fades to brown), the pattern resembling an

earthenware vessel. Pro-, meso-, and ptero-pleurzee dark

brown, remainder of pleural area white. A small brown patch

at costal root of wing. Some strong setz on anterior and

lateral margins and on propleuron. Scutellum black, barely

separated by a paler area from the thoracic pattern, apically

two long erect set, interior to which is a pair of smaller

porrect setz, apically crossed.

Abdomen yellow, dorsally the whole of the first and second

and posterior half of third to sixth segments black. Venter

yellowish.

Legs.—Coxa and femora whitish, extreme tips of posterior

femora darkened. Tibiz slightly darker, tarsi blackish.

Wings slightly yellowish. Fork of fifth vein, short, occur-

ring slightly exterior to origin of third vein. Halteres pale.

Long : 34mm.

Described from a female in good condition taken on a

window. Suduganga, Matale, Ceylon, March 15, 1920.

Type in my own collection.

NEW CEYLON DIPTERA. 385

HXECHIA ZEYLANICA Nn. Sp. .

Male.—Head : Frons very dark brown, a paler yellowish

margin to upper orbits. A transverse line of black bristles

above antenne. Antennae with scape yellow, flagellum

blackish. Eyes minutely pale pubescent.

Thorax yellowish-brown, with minute black dorsal pubes-

cence. <A row of stiff bristles along anterior margin, five on

each humerus, the two lower declinate, the upper reclinate,

the two uppermost smaller. A few bristles along dorso-

pleural suture, a strong supra-alar and two postalar bristles,

and some, irregularly placed, on dorsum. Scutellum darker

brown, with a pair of small, erect, subapical bristles. Pleurze

pale yellow, meso- and meta-pleure darker, the latter with

stiff hairs.

Abdomen strongly laterally compressed, yellow, with basal

black bands, narrow ventrally, but broadening dorsally to

reach anterior margins of the segments. Fifth and sixth

segments wholly black. First segment with narrow apical

pale band, conspicuous viewed against the otherwise wholly

black dorsal surface. Genitalia swollen, conspicuous, con-

sisting of a pair of large, at least two-jointed, claspers, the basal |

jomt the larger, brown, the apical blackish. Beneath the

claspers are a pair of blackish, horny processes, from the

underside of which, near tip of each, arises a yellow, arcuate

spine, black tipped. Abdomen and genitalia bristly.

Legs.—Cox and femora pale yellow, tibiz pale blackish-

yellow, tarsi blackish.

Wings extending to tip of abdomen, grayish. Fork of the

fifth vein short, commencing somewhat distal of the origin of

third vein. Halteres, scape pale, capitellum black.

Long : 23mm.

Described from a unique male, in good condition, taken

on window, at dusk. Suduganga, Matale, Ceylon, April 15,

1920.

Type in my own collection.

This species differs from H#. basilinea (Brunetti) in the much

shorter fork of the fifth vein.

386 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA,

Tipulide.

'TEUCHOLABIS ANNULOABDOMINALIS N. Sp.

Male, Female—Head: Frons very wide, shining black.

Cheeks brownish to yellowish. Nasus and palpi dark brown,

the latter with a few scattered hairs.. Antenne, first scapal

joint cylindrical, second subglobular, both brownish-yellow, ~

darker apically. First flagellar joint more robust than the

remainder, which are elongate-oval, brownish, paler basally,

each joint with a whorl of a few hairs about as long as the

joint itself. Flagellum distinctly fourteen-jointed, apical

joint very small.

Thorax.—Neck and anterior portion entirely pale yellowish.

Mesonotum pale yellowish, a broad presutural black band

with a median broad extension forward to collare, along each

side of which is a line of dark hairs, and a pair of black circular

supra-alar patches. Scutellum pale yellow, metanotum black.

Anterior pleurz pale yellow, with large black mesopleural spot

divided from mesonotal black band by a yellow line along

dorsopleural suture. Metapleura black. Thorax shining,

naked, except for the above-mentioned median presutural

rows of hairs and a few scattered hairs postsuturally and on

scutellar margin.

Abdomen black, the segments with prominent yellow apical

dorsal bands, venter yellowish, except sixth segment in male,

which bears a tuft of black hairs arising from a dark patch.

Male genitalia dark, female yellowish-brown.

Legs.—Coxe to tibiz pale yellowish, the tips of femora and

tibie broadly black, tarsi black, the whole thickly dark

pubescent.

Wings.—Membrane slightly smoky, costal cell more

yellowish. An indefinite dark patch at origin of second vein.

Stigmt-dark, from which an indefinite brownish suffusion

extends over the cross veins to fifth vein. Venation as in

normal 7’. fenestrata. Halteres, scape black, capitellum

elongate, very pale yellow.

Long : 5-6 mm.

Described from five males and one female, all from Sudu-

ganga, Matale, Ceylon.

NEW CEYLON DIPTERA. 387

Type male and female taken on December 19, 1918, resting

on Cajanus indicus bush.

Types and other specimens in my own collection.

Tabanide.

H@MATOPOTA RHIZOPHORA! n. sp. (Pl. I., Fig. 1).

Female.—Face grayish, with white pubescence, a black band

between the eyes below the antennz. Palpi yellowish-gray,with

basal pale hairs and black pubescence. Antenne dark brown,

the first joint very large, incrassate, shining, viewed laterally

as broad as third joint at its widest, with black pubescence.

Second joint very small, with thick black pubescence. Third

joint broad and flattened on its basal annulation, the last

three annulations forming a small apex. Apical annulation

paler. rons gray with sparce whitish decumbent pubescence,

mixed with black erect pubescence, also sparce, but somewhat

thicker posteriorly. Paired spots sub-triangular, touching

eyes posteriorly, widely separated from frontal callus. Frontal

callus dark brown, shining, almost straight on both borders,

reaching eyes on lower border, slightly downward produced at

angle between eyes and base of antenne. Space between

antenne black, base of antenne ringed yellowish above

exteriorly.

Thorax brown with short pale whitish pubescence on

dorsum, the three gray stripes distinct, narrow, the lateral

ones ending in a gray spot at the suture. At base of thorax

two slightly larger gray spots, above which the pale pubescence

is thickened on each side of median stripe up to.twe-thirds of

distance to suture. Pleure gray, darker below, with long

whitish pubescence above sternopleural suture. Scutellum

concolorous with mesonotum, with similar pale pubescence,

except apically.

Abdomen brown, first three segments lighter reddish-brown,

posterior margins of segments with pale pubescence, broader

laterally. Underside dark brown.

Legs black. Femora slightly black pubescent. Fore tibiz

slightly incrassate, basally yellowish-white. Posterior tibiz

388 SPOLIA ZEYLANIGA.

with two yellow-white rings each, basal three-quarters of

posterior meta-tarsi yellowish-white. Tibiz without hair

fringes.

Wings brownish-gray, veins brownish, paler anteriorly.

Stigma very dark brown and prominent, as in H. sinensis.

Apical band double, the outer row of four spots, of which the

lowest is widely separated from the other three ; the inner line

confluent with the outer at topmost spot just below second

vein, continuous to lower branch of third vein, concave

towards apex. The white spot exterior to stigma with dark

centre. First rosette containing a white spot on each side

of erect portion of anterior branch of third vein. Second

rosette distinct, centered over the outer side of discal cell.

Third rosette distinct, oval, centered over the cross-veins.

Outer side of fourth rosette fairly distinct. A double marginal

line of lunules in each posterior cell, and a double zig-zag line

from base of third rosette to axillary angle.

Long (with antennze) : 12 mm.

Described from a unique female in perfect condition

captured on Beach road through mangroves, Trincomalee

Harbour, on October 7, 1919.

Types in my own collection.

Very close to A. literalis Ricardo, but differing in

abdominal colour and pattern.

Drosophilide.

PHORTICA XYLEBORTPHAGA n. sp. (PI. IT.).

Male, Female.—Head : Back of head gray. Frons yellow,

ocellar triangle dark. Paratrontalia narrow, silvery. Face

silvery gray, epistome dark at sides, centre white, with more

or less defined very narrow black median line. Proboscis dark

brown, palpi yellow-brown. Antenne yellow, third joint

with fine pale pubescence. Arista with the small basal joint

yellow, remainder black. In mals the arista is bare, with only

vestiges of rays, expanded apically into a leaf-like process.

Female arista with weak short rays, no apical process,

Cephalic bristles black ; verticals strong ; postverticals weak,

parallel ; ocellar strong ; fronto-orbitals, superior two pairs,

NEW CEYLON DIPTERA. 389

inferior one pair, strong. Occipital row present. Central

area of frons below ocellar triangle with many short bristles

(generic character).

Thorax brownish-gray, thickly covered with short black

bristles (generic character). A median and dorso-central

dark bars, varying in intensity in various specimens, from

anterior margin to level of wing roots. Scutellum con-

colorous bare. Pleurz silvery. Dorso-central bristles, two

pairs on hind margin, the anterior weak, posterior long and

strong. Prescutellars shorter than the posterior dorso-

centrals. Anterior to prescutellars a pair of the short

thoracic bristles are almost sufficiently strong to be differen-

tiated as macrochete. Humeral and both notopleurals

strong, supra-alar two, sternopleurals strong, two. Remaining

bristles absent. Scutellum with four strong bristles, the apical

pair crossed. All bristies black, and more strongly developed

in the female.

Abdomen.—First two segments yellowish-white, the central

and anterior marginal areas of the second more or less brown.

Remaining segments very dark brown, the hind margin of the

third (and in the female of fourth and fifth) narrowly edged

pale. The whole with short dark bristles, more numerous |

posteriorly. Male genitalia concealed, in one specimen a pair

of small black-tipped thorn-like processes are visible.

Legs.—Entirely yellow, with fine black sete. Fore tarsi of

male not dilated.

Wings——Unmarked, veins yellow, venation normal.

Halteres pale yellow.

Long : 14-2.mm.

Described from four males and one female. One male

(type) in fair condition from Narangalla estate, Badulla

district, Ceylon, November 28, 1919 (F. P. Jepson) ; the

others in poor condition from Hunasgiriya Group, Wattegama

district, Ceylon, March, 1920 (F. P. Jepson). The female

(type), from Diyaluma estate, Koslanda district, Ceylon,

June 10, 1915 (EK. R. Speyer). The female in good condition,

but gummed on card.

Type male in my own collection. Type female in collection

Department of Agriculture, Peradeniya, No. 5,091 B.

11 6(21)20

390 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

There is nothing in Schiner’s generic description of Phortica

to prevent this species being included therein. Williston’s

figs. (“ North American Diptera,” fig. 118, 1 and 2) show a

much greater marginal convergence of veins 3 and 4

than in the species now described, but his note on page 301 of

the same work shows that there are species included in the

genus with the first posterior cell wide open. (Schiner says

“thence parallel to each other to the wing margin.”) As

regards the dilated front tarsi of Ph. scutellaris referred to by

Williston (td. loc. cit.), this would appear to be contrary to a

generic character, which states “legs simple.” The genus

will probably have to be divided up when overhauled by a

specialist.

The species described above is almost certainly that referred

to by Rutherford (Trop. Agric., XLII., p. 220), but his

specimens are not to be found. When he wrote, the habits

of the insect were in doubt, but recently Mr. F. P. Jepson

(Entomologist in charge of Shot-hole Borer Investigations)

informs me (in litt.) that he has seen the larva eat a pupa of

the beetle, tunnelling completely inside, and sucking it dry in

about 20 minutes. The specific name suggested is proposed,

therefore, on account of this.

Trypetide.

RIoxA MAGNIFICA n. sp. (Pl. I., Fig. 2).

Female-——Head: Frons yellow, a brown median stripe,

expanding indefinitely below lower superior orbital. Face

yellow. Parafacialia with silvery pubescence, epistomal

margin black. Antenne yellow, arista plumose, but basal

third of underside nearly bare. Palpi black, proboscis yellow.

Cephalic bristles all black. Interior orbitals two, lower weak.

Between superior and inferior orbitals on each side a pair of

very small bristles. Ocellar nil, outer vertical wanting, genal

strong, occipital row well-developed. Back of head yellow,

bristly, a noticeable tuft of short bristles above junction of

neck,

Thorax.—Yellow, scutellum concolorous. A black stripe

dorso-centrally from anterior margin to root of scutellum,

another along dorso-pleural suture to wing root, a third from

NEW CEYLON DIPTERA. 391

propleuron to slightly beyond mesopleural bristles, a fourth

along sternopleural suture, broadening on to whole of meta-

pleuron and metanotum, thus ringing lower and hind margins

of thorax with black. All bristles black, preesutural wanting,

pteropleural and sternopleural weak. Intermediate scutellar

weak. Halteres pale yellow.

Abdomen.—Broadest at junction of second and_ third

‘segments. Yellow, with slight concolorous pubescence dor-

sally. A black transverse band occupying basal half of

second segment and a broad black longitudinal stripe along

dorsal margins of third to sixth segments, leaving only the

median area yellow. Venter yellowish throughout. Ovi-

positor as Jong as whole abdomen, yellow, darkening apically.

Short black bristles along sides of segments two to six.

Legs yallow, posterior tibiz black, except apices. Front

femora with seven bristles beneath, basal three weak. Mid

tibize without bristles.

Wings.—Ground colour yellow, stigma wholly black.

Beyond stigma a marginal black band graduaiiy broadening

from end of first vein to middle of third posterior cell, where

its width is nearly half that of the wing, extending into discal

cell. Along third vein this band is broadly and rectangularly

extended as far inwards as a point in line with extremity of

first vein. A hyaline marginal lunule in second posterior cell.

From stigma a broad black band extends basally to sixth vein

beyond anal cell, apex of which alone is infuscated. There is

an outward extension of this band over the anterior cross-vein

almost to join the inner margin of apical band in discal cell, the

area of separation being itself faintly infuscated. Axillary

and second basal cells slightly infuscated.

First vein ending in the middle between the auxiliary

and second veins. Anal cell prolonged to a point hardly in

advance of second basal cell. No costal bristle.

Long (with ovipositor) : 9 mm.

Described from a unique female in good condition taken on

window. Suduganga, Matale, Ceylon, March 4, 1920.

Type in my own collection.

This species apparently comes in Rioxa, though the absence

of the presutural bristle is contrary to a generic character.

392 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

STAURELLA ZEYLANICA n. sp. (PI. L., Fig. 3).

Female.—Head yellow-gray. Occiput slightly raised, ocellar

triangle brownish-orange, from whence a very indefinite

darker band down centre of frons to frontal lunule, which is

pale yellow, and prominent. All bristles black, lower orbitals

three (there is also a smaller bristle between the two lower ones

on right side); the superior orbital not inserted upon a

prominent tubercle. Ocellar bristles present. Postverticals

strong, crossed. Antenne yellow, the third joint with pale

pollination. Arista darker yellow, long, pectinate on both

sides. Proboscis and palpi yellow.

Thorax yellow-brown, with short black pubescence.

Humeral calli pale yellow. All bristles black, three meso-

pleural. Pleurze concolorous with dorsum, but black pubes-

cence somewhat sparce. Pteropleure very pale yellow

between root of wings and pteropleural bristle. Metanotum

concolorous, shining, with pale pollination. Scutellum pale

yellow, triangular, with slight black pubescence, stronger

towards outer margins, the four bristles strong and long,

the median pair crossed at apex. Halteres slightly paler than

pleure.

Abdomen narrow and elongated, broadening from base to

junction of the fused first and second segments with the third

segment, thence tapering uniformly. First and second

segments, and median area of third, yellowish, fourth and

fifth blackish. Third segment with median dark lunule, and

a large brown oval mark at edge of dorsal margin. Bristles

black, prominent at sides of first, second, fourth, and fifth

segments. Venter yellowish. Ovipositor circular in section,

longer than abdomen, narrow and truncate apically, shining

black, covered with dense black pubescence, which appears

gray against ovipositor in certain lights.

Legs.—Uniformly pale yellow.

Wings without costal bristle, veins brownish. Stigma

brownish, the colour continued below to third vein, Apical

half of wing very dark brown. There are three narrow nyaline

areas along outer margin in submargzinal and first and second

posterior cells respectively. A very small lighter patch in

NEW CEYLON DIPTERA. 393

first posterior cell in angle made by junction of third vein with

the anterior cross-vein, and another, somewhat larger, and

sagittiform, in outer half of discal cell. The dark colouration

is prolonged inwards in first basal and discal cells nearly to the

anterior basal cross-vein. As in S. nigripeda the anterior

cross-vein is slightly beyond the middle of the discal cell.

There are two small bristles on third vein immediately beyond

its separation from second vein.

Long: 7 mm.

Described from a unique female in good condition taken on

Lantana scrub. Suduganga, Matale, Ceylon, March 30, 1919.

Type in my own collection.

The crossed postvertical bristles are contrary to a family

character, whilst Bezzi, in his generic description (Mem. Ind.

Mus., I1., p. 121), says nothing of their direction, from which

it may be assumed that they are normal, 7.e., parallel or

diverging. In the species here described they would appear

to be stronger than the generic character lays down. The

three mesopleural bristles are abnormal, but in all other

respects the species agrees well with Bezzi’s genus, wherein [

leave it for the present.

Sciomyzidz.

TRIGONOMETOPUS ZEYLANICUS Nn. sp.

Male.—Head frons flattened, horizontal (generic character),

at its narrowest (opposite fronto-orbital bristles) about one-

third width of head; widened at vertex, brownish-yellow,

paler along eye margins. Ocellar triangle well below vertex,

situated in the anterior half of an ovoid slightly darker area

extending to behind vertex, the area between the actual ocelli

very dark brown. Verticals two, interior converging, exterior

diverging. Postverticals crossed. Ocellar small. Fronto-

orbitals two pairs, occipital row strong. The central area of

frons, below ocelli, with a double row of small bristles, and on

anterior border, between lower fronto-orbitals and antenne,

the whole area bristly. All cephalic bristles black. Face

very retreating (generic character), carinate below antenne,

wholly yellow. A small cuneiform dark brown spot extends

from anterior ey2 margin to root of antennae. <A row of black

394 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

bristles from lower edge of facial carina to back of head.

Postocular area laterally blue dusted, sharply defined from

yellow genal area below. Proboscis yellow, geniculate.

Antenne brownish-yellow, second joint spinulose at tip, with

an upper and two lower erect bristles apically. Third joint

twice as long as first and second together, microscopically pale

pubescent. Arista long, minutely pubescent, black except for

extreme base, yellowish.

Thorax dark brown-yellow, violet-gray dusted. A median

and two dorso-central somewhat ill-defined narrow yellow

stripes, the median continued to tip of concolorous scutellum.

Pleure concolorous, a yellow line along dorso- and sterno-

pleural sutures, widened posteriorly over most of ptero- and

hypo-pleure. Przscutellar present, dorso-centrals three, the

anterior at about one-third from front margin of thorax,

humeral and posthumerals (2) strong, presutural weak.

Meso-pleural and sterno-pleural strong, ptero-pleural wanting.

Anterior supra-alar strong. Scutellum with four strong

bristles, apicals parallel. All thoracic bristles black.

Abdomen.—Dark or pale brown, paler ventrally, black

pubescent. Genitalia consist of a broad brown-yeliow plate

bearing apically a pair of prominent bristiy black lamelle.

Legs.—Pale yellowish, except apical four joints of fore tarsi,

which are dark. Fore femora with a number of stiff hairs

above and below, posterior femora nearly bare, and with a

small bristle before tip. Fore and hind tibize with pre-apical

bristle, mid tibize with extensor surface bristle much nearer

tip and thicker.

Wings.—Pale gray, a dark suffusion above second vein,

behind which it gradually merges into ground colour of wing.

Cross-veins, especially posterior, somewhat suffused. Auxi-

liary vein distinct throughout from first vein, which ends a

little beyond it at about one-third of wing. Second, third,

and fourth veins approximately parallel, third ending at wing

tip. Anterior cross-vein at middle of discal cell, posterior

cross-vein at less than its own length from tip of fifth vein.

Anal cell as long as second posterior. :

Long: 34mm.

Plate I.

Fic. I.—Hematopota rhizophore, wing.

Fic. 2.—Rioxa magnifica, wing.

Fic. 3.—Staurella zeylanica, wing.

Fic. 4.—Platyura talaroceroides, g antenna.

Plate IT.

Fia. 1.—Phortica xyleboriphaga, 3.

Fie. 2. Do. ¢ head from the side.

Fig. 3. Do. terminal process of jf arista ( 1000).

Fia. 5. Do. g antenna.

5 \

2 ‘@™

‘ Ay

‘ =

3 S

qureccer =

NEW CEYLON DIPTERA. 395

Described from three males, all in pertect condition, taken

on Hibiscus rosa-sinensis hedge on January 16 and 18 (type)

and on Lantana scrub, February 6, 1920. Suduganga, Matale,

Ceylon.

Type and other specimens in my own collection.

Mimics a Jassid in appearance and movements very closely.

This is the first species of the genus to be described from

India south of the Himalaya.

396 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

NOTES ON SOME CEYLON SNAKES.

By Lieut.-Colonel F. Watt, C.M.G., C.M.Z.S., F.L.8., IMLS.

R. PEARSON has submitted me for examination two

2 collections of snakes, one from Anasigalla Estate,

Matugama, Kalutara District, at about 50 feet elevation

above sea level, made by Mr. W. W. H. Phillips, and the

other from Vavuniya, in the Northern Province, made by the

District Mudaliyar.

Both collections are of unusual interest, as they were made

during the months July to September, during a period when

many snakes are breeding, and the fact that the collectors

affixed dates to their captures makes both collections excep-

tionally valuable. If others would collect with similar care,

a very great deal of information would soon be available

regarding the diet, breeding, distribution, &c., of Ceylon

snakes, about which we now know very little or nothing.

Family TYPHLOPIDA.,

TYPHLOPS BRAMINUS (Daudin).

A specimen 140 mm, (53 inches) long was extracted from

the stomach of an Ancistrodon hypnale from Anasigalla. The

head is semi-digested, but the scale rows 20, a tail ending in

a caudal spine, and the colour all agree with braminus.

Family ILYSHDA,

CYLINDROPHIS MACULATUS (Linné).

Five Specimens. AI] from Anasigalla.

a | Costals. |

=n Pee eta

Bye lps ee sf

= Sirens ro | ema ees Remarks.

| Oa o| = ==} L le =

& tw |osM| = |ose |] B | S

= aia sy 2) ie Ne eas

Pe ae ae aetna

1920. | or eee | af | ; a 7

July 19} 311 19 21) 19; 200) +4, Last ventral 3-fid.

Aug. 4 343 19) 19) 19 197 4° Last ventral 3-fid.

Aug. 6 330 19) ZL Lo SLOG 5| Last 2 ventrals 3 fid.

Aug. 1] 305 19) 2] 19 201) 4 Last ventral 3 fid.

Aug. 11 202 ON S21 19| 191) 5| Last ventral 3-fid.

NOTES ON SOME CRYLON SNAKES. 397

Family UROPELTIDA.

RHINOPHIS OXYRHYNCHUS (Schneider).

A very fine specimen 520 mm. (1 foot 83 inches) long was

killed at Vavuniya on August 10. The costals two heads-

lengths behind the head are 19, at midbody 17, and two

heads-lengths before the vent 17. Ventrals 211. Subcaudals

5 (the last 4 entire). This proved to be gravid, and contained

ten eggs about 16 by 9mm. No trace of embryos could be

discovered.

Family COLUBRIDA,

POLYODONTOPHIS SUBPUNCTATUS (Dumeril & Bibron).

Two specimens from Anasigalla.

“A 2 324 mm. (122 inches) long killed on July 14 has 170

ventrals and 50 subcaudals. A ¢* 317 mm. (123 inches)

long, date uncertain, has 171 ventrals and 56 subcaudals. In

both the supralabials are 10, the 8th cuneate and not reaching

the margin of the lip, the 4th, 5th, and 6th touching the eye.

NEROpIA pIscator (Schneider).

One variety asperrimus from Anasigalla.

One variety typica from Vavuniya is uniform brown

dorsally in the posterior two-thirds of the body. Anteriorly

there are four series of smallish, black, rather indistinct,

quincunciate spots, the outer row almost obsolescent. In

both these specimens the keels are exactly alike, being absent

in the last row only in the anterior part of the body, but

present and rather feeble before the vent.

AMPHIESMA STOLATUS (Linné).

Two specimens from Anasigalla and one from Vavuniya.

A 2 628 mm. (2 feet 2 inch) long, killed at Anasigalla on

August 17, is gravid and contains five eggs. Both the Anasigalla

specimens have unusually large, black, well-defined, lateral,

ventral spots, especially anteriorly.

12 6(21)20

398 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

ASPIDURA GUENTHERI Ferguson.

Nine specimens were collected from Anasigalla, details of

which are shown below :—

Costals. |

| ey | |

2 | ie. |

: 7) | | =) |

El) es) | ee

a | a0 7 a | 2 Remarks.

«| gH | ZS a

Slee eas =

2\83\ 2 /88| 3 | 2

3 See) Sole Ses

~ Ab oo =) oD q 2

a SS Pisa usk edo fe

A m\ A) A a a < ZR

| | } |

1920.

| |

¥ ~ ~ . :

Sept. 18 |g |140, 17| 17) 17; 105) 28) Gravid. Two small eggs

| {alta | | | in abdomen.

2 oO 07. 07) 7 OSiee 21 =

Sept. 18 Q [145] 17) 17) 17| 115] 21) An earthworm in stomach.

Second subcaudal divided.

152| 17; 17) 17) 114 211 te

ie}

Do. 63) 17 4 17) 108 29 a

Do. |g| 69) 17 u 17] 106] 25 a

Do 63 17| 17| 17| 1041 26 s

The gravid 2 may have been killed between July and

September, but the label was unfortunately detached. The

last five specimens were all found together, and evidently

constitute a brood just hatched or born. This is the most

diminutive of all the Colubrine species known to me, being

mature as shown by the gravid 9, when only 127 mm. (5

inches) long. All the other four species of the genus are

up-country snakes.

NOTES ON SOME CEYLON SNAKES. 399

_ CERCASPIS CARINATUS (Kuhl).

Three specimens of this little-known snake were collected at

Anasigalla, the details of which are below :—

| Costals.

| —— ——

| é P

eet a a,

q| oe By Remarks.

| | el ge] . | ge E

| A | ac a Sw as

. | |sifs] Bins!) 2 | 3

. op | o a} 25

g HW} e123) 2/8] a | s

a ala je | = |e > | a

i: UN i re Ne

July 15 |3 \635| 17 21) 19! 192} 58] 15 white indistinct bands

| on body.

Ang. 11 |g 349} 17; 19) 17 193] 57| 17 + 6 white more or less

| | | distinct bands. A skink

| (Acontias burtoni) in

| stomach.

| tinct white bars. Gravid.

| | Contained seven eggs

about 9 by 12 mm.

DRYOCALAMUS NYMPHA (Daudin).

One very nice little specimen was obtained at Vavuniya

298 mm. (11} inches) long on August 10. The ventrals are

210, subcaudals 78, and the costals 13 in the whole body

length. There are 22 whitish bands on the body, and 18 on

the tail. The anterior bands have brown spots arranged

transversely, and the posterior are divided into pairs by

irregular, transverse, brown cross bands.

ZAocys Mucosus (Linné).

A juvenile specimen from Anasigalla.

COLUBER HELENA Daudin.

One small specimen from Anasigalla 355 mm. (14 inches)

long killed on October 17.

DENDROPHIS BIFRENALIS Boulenger.

A fine 2 920 mm. (3 feet and + inch) long was killed

at Vavuniya on August 10. The ventrals are 162, and

400 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

subcaudals 146. The stomach contained a much-digested,

large, tree frog with dilated toes (Rhacophorus spec 7).

DENDRELAPHIS TRISTIS (Daudin).

A single 3 specimen from Anasigalla 983 mm. (3 feet

24 inches) long was killed on September 18. Ventrals 165.

Subcaudals 120. It contained a much-digested skink (? Acon-

tias) in the stomach. As in all the other Ceylon specimens

I have seen, there is a conspicuous yellow vertebral stripe

for a limited extent anteriorly.

OLIGODON ARNENSIS (Shaw).

A juvenile specimen 209 mm. (8} inches) long is from

Anasigalla, killed on July 13. The ventrals are 164, and

subcaudals 50. It has 13 blackish bars on the body, and 6

on the tail.

OLIGODON jrEMPLETONI |Giinther.

A good 3 specimen of this uncommon snake is from Anasi-

galla. It was killed on September 16, and measures 209 mm.

(8; inches). The ventrals are 128, and the subcaudals 33.

OLIGODON SUBLINEATUS Dumeril & Bibron.

The first four referred to below were obtained at Anasigalla,

and the two last from Vavuniya :—

| Costals. J

| = = |

. (ad Ee |

5 ze | ais vi Remarks.

Snedecor blige

a\leq| ¢\e2\4 |z

Sle eo Saag 3

s eet See) exey [eesctelp ese aylice

a jzja je | Sle |e | a, : eo

1920 |

Aug. 15 |3.)241) 15) 15 15) 136) 3 _

Aug. 23 |? 234) 15) 15, 15; 149) 30) =

Aug. 23 {2 |266) 15; 15 15; 148] 32) Contained two soft-shelled

eggs in the stomach

(anguine or lacertine)

| 17 mm. long.

Sept. 21 |g |228] 15] 15/15-13] 136) 37 a!

Aug. 10 |g 238) 15) 15 15} 137) 35 —

2 “|O%241) 17) 15) 15) 144, 26) aS

}

NOTES ON SOME CEYLON SNAKES. 401

DRYOPHIS MYCTERIZANS (Linné).

Two from Anasigalla :—

————— a eS

| Costals. |

| a <a BR eae |

| im] i | }

hate |. ted eee

| a | & oe 33 |

| A) oe ne | Nee Remarks.

| a Sc re ees ~ 3 |

eave @iety (ae oil ae pee al

& |} @|/2e| 8 |Fel eg | 3

Mera (oats | ears Oise) et lana

eee te te ee

eee ae i —— — = A Ne ee

1920. | | |

July 18 |g} 857) 15} 15) 13) 179) 165 <==

July 13 9 |1054) 15) 15; 13) 178) 125) Tail deficient. Gravid.

| | | | Contained two sacs 35

| mm. long.

Do. {2

298} 15| 15] 13) 184] 151) Foetus of above folded nine

| times.

[Diy IES | 324' 15) 15; 11 179) 171 Feetus of above folded ten

times. Genitalia not

| | | exserted.

DRYOPHIS PULVERULENTUS (Dumeril & Bibron).

One ¢ specimen from Anasigalla killed on September 23 is

1.007 mm. (3 feet 114 inches) long. Ventrals 187. Sub-

caudals 182. A lizard (Calotes spec ?) in stomach.

CHRYSOPELEA ORNATA (Shaw),

A $ specimen from Vavuniya killed on August 10 measures

(tail slightly deficient) 755 mm. (2 feet 53? inches). Ventrals

206. Subcaudals 113? Unlike every other specimen of this

species I have seen the last ventral is not bifid.

This constitutes a colour variety quite new to me. The

ground colour dorsally is olive-brown. The body is crossed

by black zig-zag bars narrowing in the flanks, and most

conspicuous in the anterior part of the body. Ventrally

yellowish-gray, most ventrals with a black spot in the suture

just outside the keel. Head with the usual double crossbars.

402 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

BUNGARUS CEYLONICUS Giinther.

Seven specimens, all from Anasigalla :—

Costals.

nm m

| & a |

| =

a: on

; SD

q Be os

Sp] ey ty é R k

oe TH) |) 2 emarks.

qg |s f ae | =

= Cho) bm Sq | 5 s

a og o of 2B £

. 3 || 6 2= BC) s 3

£ y}a |esis | 23 = | 8

- Kl OD AS 5 =

=) mi) | A = a > n

—— ————_ | EE ee |= ee = = tel

1920S ee | |

Aug. 2 |g |489) 15) 15) 15) 222) 39) 19 + 5 white bands.

Aug. 3 |g |666) 15 15) 15) 222) 36} 20 + 4 white bands.

Aug. 3 |¢?/432) 15) 15) 15) 224) 34! 164+ 4 white bands. A

| | | snake (Aspidura guen-

| ther?) in stomach.

Aug. 6 |§2/482) 15) 15) 15| 224) 34| 17 -- 3 white bands. A

fae snake (Aspidura guen-

Aug. 6 |g |495; 15: 15) 15) 226) 35! 18 + 3 white bands.

Aug. 9 |97/425] 15) 15) 15} 230) 36] 18 + 4 white bands. A

| | | skink (Acontias burton?)

| | in stomach.

Sept. 16 |g |445}) 15) 15] 15) 227) 36) 18 + 3 white bands. A

| | snake (Aspidura guen-

| theri) in stomach.

——SS=_ EE Eee eee ee

NAIA TRIPUDIANS Merrem.

A single specimen from Anasigalla killed on September 22

measures 523 mm. (1 foot 83 inches). This is a very distinct

variety new to me. Dorsally it is brown, finely but distinctly

mottled with darker tones, with a tendency to form transverse

barring. Ventrally pale brown with 19 well-defined black

bars before the vent, the most anterior beneath the hood

involving 5 ventrals, the succeeding bars involving fewer

ventrals till only one is involved posteriorly, A binocellus

on the hood. Head sutures blackish.

NOTES ON SOME CEYLON SNAKES. 403

Family VIPERIDA,

ANCISTRODON HYPNALE (Merrem).

Hight specimens, the first six detailed below from Anasigalla,

the last two from Vavuniya :—

| Costals. |

monies ieee |

a): | 80 |

= | ar a:

st || Secs | 2S

2 oe a2 3 Remarks.

qa ; Se re Pet | Be 3B

a iles| @iee| 2s

es | Je) 2e| 2\BS| 2 ts

= 4! a 28 orf iS = 2

Sr eA pe Riis aS es

1920. | |

July 13 |? |292| 17) 17) 17/146] 2 | A snake (Typhlops obra-

| minus) in a convoluted

| mass in stomach.

uly LON S56) Li LT ee as —_

July 20 | |311}° 17) 17] 17/ 145] 36

Aug. 3 |¢ |305) a Ay eA) Ufsys 4) 22 -

Aug. 7 |2 |400} 17) 17) 17] 149] 37 ~—

Aug. 9 |$ [361/ 17) 17| 17] 151] 47 as

Aug. 10 |g Pa Ne UTA ial) alee Ea) ---

Aug. 10 |4 |345| 17) 17) 17) 152] 40) —

The lepidosis in all these agrees in the following respects.

There is a small boss on the snout involving from 8 to 5 scales.

The supraoculars are as long as the parietals, and distinctly

broader than the frontal. The second supralabial does not

enter the loreal pit.

In addition to the above snakes, two specimens of the

anguine, tridactyle lizard Acontias burtoni, were included in

the collection from Anasigalla.

404 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

NOTES.

Notes on the vertebre of Cercaspis carinatus vel Lycodon

carinatus (Kuhl).—For many years I have had a firm conviction

that the snake now known as Lycodon carinatus should not

be placed in that genus. My view was based, however, on

lepidosis alone, and until quite recently I have not been able

to acquire a specimen that I could study osteologically.

Thanks to Mr. Drummond-Hay, who gave me a very large

example recently, I have been able to add cranial and vertebral

specimens to my cabinet collection. The skull, including

dentition, is so extremely like that of Lycodon aulicus, that

one readily grasps the justification for its inclusion in the

genus Lycodon, but the vertebra of the two species are so

remarkably different that I have no hesitation in placing

carinatus in a genus of its own, thus supporting the views of

Kuhl, Dumeril and Bibron, Gunther, and Jan. Dumeril and

Bibron’s name is retained to denote the genus.

— 3,

(a) (b)

A. Lycodon aulicus. B. Cercaspis carinatus.

(a) Dorsal aspect ; (b) lateral aspect ; (c) ventral aspect.

(1) Condyle for articulation with vertebra behind ; (2) condyles

for articulation with rib; (3) hypapophysis ; (4) neural spine ;

(5) postzygapophysis ; (6) prozygapophysis; (7) zygosphene

articulating with the zygantrum of the vertebra in front,

NOTES. 405

Tt will be seen from the attached figures that the prozygapo-

physes are very remarkably developed, expanding terminally

into large laminew, a condition I have only seen in one other

genus of the Family Colubride, viz.. Bungarus. These

lamin are oblique, so that the anterior edge overlaps the

posterior edge of the lamina of the preceding vertebra. The

neural spine is slightly bifid, each lateral plate being everted

so as to leave a shallow groove between.

Bangalore, July 20, 1920. Hs WiAGiE:

Notes on some Ceylon Snakes recently acquired by the Colombo

Museum.—Among a collection of Ceylon snakes recently

submitted to me for identification by Dr. Pearson, I find the

following that are worthy of note :—

Rhinophis trevelyanus ? (Kelaart)—A specimen of this

genus that I feel much tempted to pronounce a new species

was obtained at Mullaittivu in the low-country of the

Northern Province in April this year. It does not accord with

any species in Mr. Boulenger’s Catalogue (Vol. I., 1890), and

it is noteworthy that all the Ceylon representatives cited in

the work referred to are up-country snakes known from the

Central Province. The fact that there is only a single speci-

men upon which to base an opinion deters me from describing

this as new, and I therefor : refer it provisionally to trevelyanus,

to which it appears to me most closely related. It is a male

specimen 248 mm. in length. The costals are in 19 rows

anteriorly and 17 in midbody and posteriorly. The ventrals

number 205, and the subcaudals 8 (paired). The rostral is

acutely-pointed, obtusely-keeled above, and measures just

half the shielded part of the head. The frontal is as long as

broad, and its length equals that of the parietals. The eye

is less than half, but more than one-third the horizontal

diameter of the ocular. The supralabials number four. The

caudal shield is about three-fourths the length of the shielded

part of the head. In colour it is blackish, with the margins

of the scales whitish, those on the ventral aspect being more

13 6(21)20

406 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

broadly margined than those on the dorsal aspect. There is

an irregular white patch before the anal shield. The rostral

is reddish,

Polyodontophis subpunctatus (D. & 6B.) —One female speci-

men 413 mm. in length from Niroodamunai (Hastern Province)

killed in January, 1920, proved to be gravid, and contained six

eggs measuring 18 by 9 mm. with no trace of embryo. The

loreal is confluent with the prefrontal on both sides. The

ventrals number 178 and the subcaudals 58.

Dendrophis bifrenalis Boulenger—One adult from Mullait-

tivu (Northern Province). Theanterior loreal isconfluent with

the posterior nasal on the left side, but normal on the right.

Ventrals 166, and subeaudals 153.

Oligodon subgrisens D. & B.—One from Mullaittivu variety

typica. The ventrals are 175, and subcaudals 44.

Dipsadomorphus forsteni (D. &. B.).—One juvenile specimen

measuring 502 mm. was killed at Mullaittivu in April this year.

Ventrals 261. Subcaudals 113. Costals in 27 rows in midbody.

Dipsadomorphus beddomi Wall.—A juvenile specimen from

Mullaittivu. The costals are in 19 rows in midbody.

Ventrals 258 (7). Subcaudals 92 (7), Tail slightly deficient.

Hydrus platurus (Linné).—An adult from the pearl banks.

It is peculiar in that it is pale yellow ventrally, and has a

series of grayish rhombs dorsally. The anterior rhombs are

confluent, and the posterior discrete.

Enhydris curtus (Shaw).—Two adult specimens from the

pearl banks. The female measuring 635 mm. was killed in

February this year, and proves to be gravid. It contained

four eggs 32 by 13 mm., with no trace of embryo.

Ancistrodon hypnale (Merrem).—Two from Mullaittivu

(Northern Province). Ventrals 152 and 142 (7). Subcaudals

40 and 42,

Bangalore, June 22, 1920. BP WALI

Occurrence of Hypolais caligata (The Booted Tree Warbler in

Ceylon).—A few months ago, while examining the duplicate

skins of the Warblers in the Colombo Museum collection, I

came across two birds labelled Phylloscopus nitidus, which had

NOTES. 407

evidently been wrongly classified. They appeared to be some

species of Hypolais. I sent them home to Mr. E. C. Stuart

Baker, who has kindly authenticated them as Hypolais caligata,

This species breeds in Turkestan and Southern Siberia, winter-

ing in Northern and Central India, and seldom penetrating to

the very south of the peninsula. No member of the genus has

hitherto been recorded from Ceylon. Both specimens were,

I believe, obtained by the Museum collector in the Mannar

District on the same day: February 15, 1905, one near

Mannar and one at Murungan, 14 miles south-east of that

town. From the distance apart of the two localities it would

seem as if there had been a small invasion of this species at

that time.

August 23, 1920. W. EB. WALT.

Preliminary Note on some Fossiliferous Beds in Ceylon.—It

has long been known that fossil shells occur in the Jaffna

peninsula and neighbouring parts of Ceylon ; but, until quite

recently, no serious attempt was made to determine the age of

the beds and to correlate them with any similar beds which

may occur in India and elsewhere. .

On various occasions during the last two years of research

in the Island (1914-1916), as Assistant Mineral Surveyor, the

writer had occasion to study these, and other sedimentary beds,

discovered during that time, and to make a collection of

fossils, which Dr. Arthur Morley Davies, Palzeontologist at the

Imperial College of Science and Technology, has kindly under-

taken to describe. Dr. Davies’ army work arising out of the

great war has prevented him, until quite recently, from paying

as much attention to his paleontological labours as he could

have wished ; thus, the description of the Ceylon fossils is

of necessity belated. Enough has been done, however, to

justify certain general conclusions. These will be set down

below.

Apart from the generally known occurrences of fossiliferous

beds in Jaffna and Kalpentyn, others of similar age were

discovered in the interior of the Puttalam District and along

408 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

the south-eastern shore of the Southern Province at Miniha-

galkanda ; while another totally distinct and older set of

sedimentary rocks was investigated in the neighbourhood of

Tabbowa (North-Western Province). The rocks of the first

group form a series of little disturbed lime stones and sandy

beds of marine origin containing molluscan shells, echinoderm

tests, corals and foraminifera, &c., while those of the latter are

fresh-water sandstones, grits, and pipe clays containing

fossil plants. These beds have been much affected by earth

movements.

The general resemblance of some of the molluscan types to

those of the Paris basin suggested a possible Eocene age for

the Ceylon beds, while the entire absence of typical mesozoic

forms, the general assemblage of genera present, and the main

lines of the geology in general, pointed unmistakably to the

conclusion that the limestones and associated sediments were

not older than Eocene. In the absence of paleontological

literature of value for comparative purposes, it was im-

possible to determine anything more than some of the genera

present ; thus, while it was apparent that the beds were to be

placed somewhere in the Kainozoic (Tertiary) group, nothing

could be said with confidence of their exact position within it :

but the writer was inclined to regard them as Eocene. Dr.

Davies’ researches have shown this assumption to be incorrect ;

for he says in a letter to the writer: “I have been able to

make more exact determinations of some of the species. The

similar fossils described by Sowerby over eighty years ago, and

by Archiac and Haime over sixty, are in the Natural History

Museum, and I have been able to compare yours with them.

Altogether a great many interesting points will be raised.

There can be no question about the Miocene age.”

It is interesting to note in this connection that while the

fossil faunas of the three districts represented (Jaffna, Putta-

lam, and Minihagalkanda) are practically contemporaneous,

only one species in the collections is common to all, and only

two well-defined species are common to any pair. Jt is further

to be remarked, as Dr. Davies points out, that inasmuch as

some of the Ceylon fossils are related to Paris Eocene forms,

the general assemblage seems to bear out Dr. Noethling’s

NOTES. 409

conclusion (drawn from a study of the Burma Miocene), that

there has been an easterly migration of molluscan forms in

tertiary times. He puts it diagrammatically thus :—

Europe. India. | Pacific.

Recent | BoC! ee. A

Miocene | B | MG

Eocene | A vg |

With regard to the fossil plants ot the Tabbowa beds, we may

count ourselves very fortunate, in that Professor Seward, of

Cambridg2, has kindly consented to deal with them. His

pronouncements will be awaited with interest. The writer’s

tentative opinion was that the Tabbowa plants belonged to

the Glossopteris or some other closely related flora. If this

view proves correct, it must follow that the beds containing

them owe their origin to the destruction of part of the lost

continent (Gondwanaland), which, according to Stiess and his

followers, extended from Brazil on the west to Australia on

the east, and included parts of Africa and India.

May 26, 1920. EK. J. WAYLAND.

Notes on the Natural History of the Tic-Polonga.—While

occupying the post of Superintendent of an estate at

Ambalangoda, a cooly brought me a tic-polonga, whose head

had been crushed by blows from a stick.

The snake, its mouth full of blood and eyes protruding from

their sockets, showed no signs of life. It was a fine specimen,

3 feet long. Knowing the vitality of these reptiles, I placed

it in a cage to see if the snake would survive its injuries.

For some days the tic-polonga showed no signs of life,

though there was no smell of putrefaction, a sure sign that

death had not occurred. Notwithstanding this, I had to

wait three or four weeks before I could detect definite signs

410 SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

of life in my prisoner. After this the moribund snake quickly

recovered and very soon resumed its old habits, devouring

with pleasure rats and squirrels, its two favourite dishes.

In January, 1912, anticipating a move, I sent my wonderful

friend to the Colombo Museum, asking the Director to look

after it. He consented, and the tic-polonga became a pensioner

of the State, and was exhibited to the public in the Museum

Gardens.

In December of that year the Director, Dr. Pearson, sent

the snake to a Russian lady naturalisé (a friend of mine), who

had expressed a desire to study reptiles. The box bearing

the marks “Caution, poisonous snake ” arrived while this

lady was away on a visit up-country. It was, therefore,

decided not to open the box until her return, and in con-

sequence the unfortunate prisoner spent a miserable two

months without food or drink. In the end my friend gave

up the idea of reptile study, and the box containing the

tic-polonga was returned unopened to my residence at

Talgaswella.

Having had a cage made, I proceeded with all necessary

caution to take off the lid of the box in which the snake was

sent to me and to empty the contents into the cage. Imagine

my astonishment on seeing, instead of a half dead snake, one

full of life disporting itself in its prison.

I immediately decided to feed it. A squirrel which I had

just shot was swallowed in a flash. I saw the jaws of the

snake open, and the squirrel, seized by the head, disappeared

bit by bit. Afterwards the snake had a drink of water. This

happened on February 23, and on the 24th a second squirrel

was given and consumed in the same way, a third on the 25th,

a fourth on the 26th, and a fifth on the 27th. It was only

when the sixth one was given to the reptile on the 28th that

its appetite seemed to be satisfied, and it then appeared to be

filled to repletion.

These observations, it will be seen, are of more than ordinary

interest. First, in recording the unexpected revival and

recovery of the snake after having sustained such serious

injuries to its head that the reptile showed no signs of life for

several days ; and further, in proving that the tic-polonga is

NOTES. 411

able to maintain its health after a fast of two months. Finally,

it is worthy of note that the snake has such an extraordinary

capacity for food after a long fast.

The snake lived for several years after the above incidents,

but it has now been killed.

Talgaswella, June 30, 1920. EK. NICOLLIER.

Disappearance of Butterflies from certain Localities —The

disappearance is mainly due to three causes: (1) Disease ;

(2) parasites ; and (3) extinction of the food plant. Of these,

the first two are usually only temporary in their effect, while

the third is generally permanent.

In my notes on butterflies published in the last issue of the

‘* Spolia, > Mr. Mackwood writes that Callosune limbata was

“particularly abundant in Fort Frederick, Trincomalee.”

Colonel Manders also gave this locality in his notes. I have

only visited Fort Frederick in October, November, and

December (1917 and 1918), so may have missed the best

season, but I have never seen a single specimen of this insect

there. A few years ago a few spotted deer were loosed in the

Fort, and there is now a big herd there. Can the disappear

ance of C. limbata be due to the destruction of the food plants

by the deer ”

In my notes I mention that the activities of the Forest

Department have caused the disappearance of R. benjamini

from the jungle above Haputale. Lethe daretis has also

disappeared from this jungle from the same cause.

Surendra discalis was formerly very plentiful at Haldum-

mulla, but its food plant, Acacia cxsia, has become almost

extinct, and the butterfly is now very rare. I believe the

Acacia was killed out by Lantana.

Appiz taprobana was common at Galle in 1918, especially

round its food plant, Crotera roxburghi, but I have not seen

a single specimen in 1919. In this case I believe the disappear-

ance was due to parasites, but I have no direct evidence.

W. ORMISTON. ~

412 SPOLIA ZEYLANIGA.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CEYLON NATURAL

HISTORY SOCIETY.

Thirtieth General Meeting

Tar Thirtieth General Meeting of the Society was held in the

Colombo Museum Library on Friday, May 7, 1920, at 5.30 P.m.,

Dr. A. Nell in the Chair.

A lecture entitled “The Work of a Local Natural History

Society’? was given by Mr. W. L. Sclater, F.Z.S., the Editor of

the ‘ Ibis.” ee

Eighth Annual General Meeting.

The Kighth Annual General Meeting of the Society was held in

the Colombo Museum Library on July 16, 1920, at 5.30 p.m.,

Dr. A. Nell, Vice-President, in the Chair.

The accounts and reports of the Honorary Secretaries and

Treasurers for 1919 were read and confirmed.

The following office-bearers were elected for the ensuing year ;—

Patron: His Excellency the Governor.

President: Sir Graeme Thomson.

Vice-Presidents.

F. M. Mackwood, Esq. | Dr. Joseph Pearson.

Dr, A. Nell. W. E. Wait, Esq.

Council.

The Ven. the Archdeacon of K. Evans, Esq.

Colombo. G. A. Joseph, Esq.

R. A. Senior-White, Esq. C. T. Symons, Esq.

Rev. Father M. J. Le Goe, O.M.T. F. Lewis, Esq.

Joint Honorary Secretaries and Treasurers.

Dr. Joseph Pearson and Mr. C. T. Symons (Acting),

New Members :—Messrs. R. Somasundaram, E. van Rooyen.

S. T. Jeevaratnam, C. T, Chelliah, C.M. Mohamed,G, Amaratunga,

R. Caldera, G. Jayawardene, M. A. Paul, W. M. Ramasamy,

H. J. Fernando, 8. P. Selvadurai, G. M. Direkze, Mr. and Mrs.

G, P. Madden, and Mr. G. K. Pippet.

Rev. Father Le Goce, O.M.L., gave a lecture on

Seashore.”’

Some exhibits were explained by Dr. Pearson.

‘ Plants on the

Thirty-Second General Meeting.

The Thirty-second General Meeting of the Society was held in

the Colombo Museum Library on October 14, 1920, at 5.15 P.M.,

Dr. A. Nell in the Chair.

New Members :—Messrs. A. H. Malpas and A. J. Wickwar.

A paper on “‘ Notes on a Collection of some Wayside Plants

made in Nuwara Eliya ’’ was given by Mr. E, C. T. Holsinger.

Dr. Pearson read a note sent by Dr. Hutson of Peradeniya on

Glow-worms attacking the “* Kalutara Snail” (Achatina fultca).

Dr, Pearson explained a number of interesting exhibits,

SPOLTA ZEYLANICA,

ISSUED FROM

THE COLOMBO MUSEUM,

CEYLON.

EDITED BY

JOSEPH PEARSON, D.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.L.S.,

Director of the Colombo Museum

and Marine Biologist to the Ceylon Government ;

ASSISTED BY

C.. T.-SYMONS, B.A. F.R.GS

Jes

Assistant Government Analyst,

Joint Honorary Secretary, Ceylon Natural History Society ;

AND

W. A. CAVE,

Joint Honorary Secretary, Ceylon Natural History Society.

Vol. XI.—Part 41.

COLOMBO:

. COTTLE, ACTING GOVERNMENT PRINTER, CEYLON.

1919.

MEMOIRS OF THE COLOMBO MUSEUM.

SERIES A, No. 1.

BRONZES FROM CEYLON, CHIEFLY

IN THE COLOMBO MUSEUM.

ANANDA K. COOMARASWAMY, D.Sc.,

Fellow of University College, London,

4to., 31 pages and 28 plates.

To be obtained from the Director, Colombo Museum,

Price Rs. 10.

1914,

SERIES A, No. 2.

SINHALESE BANNERS AND STANDARDS,

EDWARD W. PERERA,

Barrister-at-law, Middle Temple ; Advocate of the Ceylon Bar ; Member

of the Council of the Royal Asiatic Society (Ceylon Branch).

4to., 42 pages, 37 plates, and 2 text figures,

To be obtained from the Director, Colombo Museum,

Price Rs. 12.

1916,

CATALOGUE OF COINS

COLOMBO MUSEUM.

PART I.

MUHAMMADAN AND KUROQPEAN

(EXCLUSIVE OF ROMAN),

H.-W. CODRINGTON, M.R.A.S., F.R.N.S..

Ceylon Civil Service.

8vo., 61 pages and 4 plates.

To be obtained from the DirEctToR, Colombo Museum,

Price Re, 1°50.

1914.

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

A Journal dealing with Ceylon Zoology and Natural History.

Vol. I., Part 1, to Vol. XI., Part 41, can be obtained from the

Director of the Colombo Museum. Price Rs. 5 per volume.

The following Parts are out of print :—Parts 2, 3, 30, and 32.

SPOLIA ZEYLANICA.

A Quarterly Publication designed to promote a knowledge of the

Natural History of Ceylon (exclusive of Botany), for the infor-

mation of residents in the Island, and also for the advancement

of Science.

It will contain Records and Contributions, together with Notes,

Abstracts, and Reviews, relating to the economic and systematic

knowledge of the natural resources (Zoology, Topography, Geology)

of the Island and of the surrounding seas.

Each Volume will consist of four Parts, the size of which will

depend on circumstances, and the Parts will be published as near to

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The Journal will be illustrated by line-blocks, half-tone blocks,

and lithographic plates.

Authors will receive 25 copies of their contributions gratis, or

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Subscription, Rs. 5 per volume; single parts, Re. 1-25; post free.

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