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TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

WISCONSIN ACADEMY

OF

SCIENCES, ARTS AND LETTERS

VOL. XL

PART 1

NATURAE SPECIES RATIOQUE

MADISON, WISCONSIN

1950

TRANSACTIONS

OF T

WISCONSIN ACADEMY

OF

SCIENCES, ARTS AND LETTERS

VOL. XL

PART 1

MATURAE SPECIES RATiOQUE

MADISON, WISCONSIN

1950

The publication date of Volume 40, Part I (1950) is

August 15, 1950

OFFICERS OF THE WISCujnSIN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES,

ARTS AND LETTERS

President

Otto Kowalke, University of Wisconsin

Presidents

Science: E. L Bolender, Superior

grp g— 1350 In^Arts: Don Anderson, Madison

iNiLETTERs: R. K. Richardson, Beloit

Secretary-Treasurer

Janner Bill Morgan, University of Wisconsin

Librarian

Halvor 0. Teisberg, University of Wisconsin

O ^ j D Council

The President

The Vice-Presidents

The Secretary-Treasurer

The Librarian

Charles E. Allen, past president

Paul W. Boutwell, past president

A. W. Schorger, past president

H. A. Schuette, past president

L. E. Noland, past president

Committee on Publications

The President

The Secretary-Treasurer

Merritt Y. Hughes, University of Wisconsin

Committee on Library

The Librarian

W. H. Barber, Ripon

E. S. McDonough, Milwaukee

W. E. Rogers, Appleton

W. B. Sarles, Madison

Committee on Membership

The Secretary-Treasurer

Arthur D. Hasler, University of Wisconsin

Robert Esser, Racine Extension Center

Katherine Greacen, Milwaukee-D owner College

Representative on the Council of the American Association

for the Advancement of Science

L. E. Noland

TABLE OF CUi^OTENTS

Page

A Brief History of the Development of Botany and of the Department

of Botany at the University of Wisconsin to 1900. Geo. S. Bryan 1

Secondary Successions on the Peat Lands of Glacial Lake Wisconsin.

John Catenhusen _ 29

Some Morphological and Cultural Studies on Lake Strains of Micro-

monosporae. Arthur R. Colmer and Elizabeth McCoy - 49

Recent Additions to the Records of the Distribution of the Reptiles in

Wisconsin. W. E. Dickinson _ 71

Effect of Ground Water on the Growth of Red Pine and White Pine in

Central Wisconsin. R. C. Dosen, S. F. Peterson and D. T. Pronin 79

Preliminary Reports on the Flora of Wisconsin. XXXV. N. C. Fassett

AND H. J. Elser _ _ _ 83

Parasites of Northwest Wisconsin Fishes. II. The 1945 Survey. Jacob

H. Fischthal _ _ 87

The Male Genitalia of Syrphus, Epistrophe and Related Genera

(Diptera, Syrphidae). C. L. Fluke - 115

The Ridges Wild Flower Sanctuary at Baileys Harbor, Wisconsin.

Albert M. Fuller _ 149

Ecological Composition of High Prairie Relics in Rock County, Wis¬

consin. Phoebe Ann Green _ 159

Publications of Louis Kahlenberg and Associates. Norris F. Hall - 173

Notes on the Distribution of Wisconsin Ticks. Paul A. Knipping,

Banner Bill Morgan and Robert J. Dicke _ 185

Preliminary List of Some Fleas from Wisconsin. Paul A. Knipping,

Banner Bill Morgan and Robert J. Dicke _ 199

Morphology and Specific Conductance of Forest Humus and Their

Relation to the Rate of Forest Growth in Wisconsin. Andr6

Lafond _ 207

Availability to Human Subjects of Pure Riboflavin Ingested with Live

Yeast. Mona M. Marquette, Betty M. Noble and Helen T.

Parsons _ 213

Preliminary Reports on the Flora of Wisconsin. XXXIV. Joan A.

McIntosh _ _ 215

Pine Stands in Southwestern Wisconsin. Robert P. McIntosh _ 243

Nutrition of Rainbow Trout; Further Studies with Practical Rations.

Barbara A. McLaren, Elizabeth Keller, D. John O’Donnell

and C. a. Elvehjem _ 259

The Availability of Thiamine in Dried Yeasts. Helen T. Ness, Echo

L. Price and Helen T. Parsons _ 267

A BRIEF HISTORY

OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF BOTANY

AND OF

THE DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY

AT THE

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN TO 1900

Geo. S. Bryan

Part I

Wisconsin entered the Union in 1848. A clause in the state

constitution, approved by its citizens that same year, provided

for the ‘"establishment of a state university at or near the seat

of state government.’' Promptly in the early summer of 1848

the state legislature passed an act incorporating the Univer¬

sity and vesting its government and control in a Board of

Regents. In an official sense the University was born on July

26, 1848, when Governor Nelson Dewey signed this legislative

act.

The Board of Regents met first in Madison on October 7,

1848, and again on January 16, 1849, At these meetings the

following preliminary steps were taken toward the organization

of the University: (1) The selection of a site for the Univer¬

sity; (2) The establishment of a preparatory school in connec¬

tion with the university department of science, literature and

the arts, manifestly a necessary step, because, as yet, there were

few secondary schools in the state capable of qualifying stu¬

dents to enter classes to be established at the University; (3)

The election of a Chancellor; and (4) The regents deemed it

“expedient and important” that efforts should he made at once

to begin the fof'mwtion of a cabinet of natural history. To this

end the board accepted the offer of Mr. Horace A. Tenney, a

young journalist and public-spirited citizen of Madison, to

undertake such a collection, and empowered him to spend a

limited sum of money for this purpose. Early in 1849 Tenney

was able to report to the board that he had collected : “50 speci¬

men of minerals; 46 fossils; and 12 natural curiosities, chiefly

Indian arrow heads and axes.”

1

2

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

At the same time he submitted to the board the following

letter from Increase A. Lapham, a young civil engineer of Mil¬

waukee, and an enthusiastic naturalist: have sent you by

Mr. Z. A. Cotton, representative from this part of our city,

a box of specimens for the proposed cabinet of the University

of Wisconsin.

'‘I propose further to present the University a pretty

extensive Herbarium or collection of dried plants — about one

thousand or fifteen hundred species — embracing nearly all those

heretofore found in Wisconsin, together with others from the

United States, and from Europe, provided the Regents will pay

the expenses of the paper and portfolios necessary to contain

the plants. This will not exceed ten cents for each plant.''

It becomes evident from the foregoing that even in the earli¬

est infancy of the University, the Board of Regents had an

active interest in, and corncern for, the development of the var¬

ious branches of natural history. Nor was the newly appointed

Chancellor Lathrop unmindful. In his report for the year 1850

he made an impassioned plea for a '‘Department of the Prac¬

tical Applications of Science" and particularly as related to

agriculture. “It is impossible that the annual yield of land and

labor should not be greatly increased in quantity and improved

in quality by the universal diffusion among cultivators of a

knowledge of the analysis of the soils, of the action of manures,

of the elements which enter in the composition of grasses, grains

and other agricultural products severally, of the Natural His¬

tory of plants and animals, and the relation of light, heat, mois¬

ture, gravity, etc., to the processes of organic life . . . Agricul¬

tural Science, like all other sciences, can only be acquired by

study and research. The discipline of the school is essential to

its acquisition. Without it the farming processes fall to the

low level of routine and drudgery. With it Agriculture rises

to the dignity of a profession." In his report for the next year

(1851) Chancellor Lathrop again urged the endowment of a

chair of the “Applications of Science to Agriculture and the Use¬

ful Arts." And among the “Ordinances ordained by the regents"

this same year there occurs the following: “6. That there be

hereby constituted a Professorship of Chemistry and Natural

History; and that it be the duty of the chair to render courses

of instruction in Chemistry and its applications, in Mineralogy,

Bryan — Botany at the University of Wisconsin

3

Geology, the Natural History of plants and animals, and Human

Physiology . .

Although the Chancellor and the regents were anxious to

fill such a chair, money was lacking to pay the salary. The

young institution was having a desperate struggle to make ends

meet. Its income was derived wholly from student fees and from

the interest on moneys received from the sale of lands donated

by the Federal Government. From this income the regents had

had to find funds for the purchase of sufficient land for the

campus and to begin the construction of suitable buildings.

As early as January, 1850, the building committee of the

regents had fixed upon the following plan in laying out the

buildings and grounds:

“1. A main edifice fronting toward the capitol, three stories

high, surmounted by an observatory for astronomical observa¬

tions; . . . containing thirteen rooms for public recitation, lec¬

ture, library, cabinet, etc., and also two dwelling houses for

officers of the Institution.

''2. An avenue two hundred fifty feet wide, extending from

the main edifice to the east line of the grounds and bordered

by double rows of trees.

“3. Four dormitory buildings, two on each side of the above

mentioned avenue, lower down the hill— each building four

stories high — and containing thirty-two studies for the use of

students — ^two students to be assigned to each study.

<‘4. Two carriage ways fifty feet wide, bordered with trees,

flanking each of the extreme dormitory buildings and both

parallel to the wide avenue.^'

This ambitious and artistic building plan was of necessity

carried out slowly and was never completely realized. The first

of the dormitories. North Hall, was finished in 1851 and, oppo¬

site it across the “wide avenue,'' South Hall was not ready for

occupancy until the fall of 1855. The “main edifice," now the

much changed and rebuilt central part of Bascom Hall, was

brought to completion in the summer of 1859.

These building activities constituted a heavy drain on the

slender resources of the young institution, and left little in the

way of funds for the expansion of the staff.

It was not until 1853 that the regents had what seemed to

be sufficient funds in hand to pay the salary of someone to

4

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

occupy the “Chair of Chemistry and Natural History.” They

elected Ezra S. Carr, M. D. of Vermont. He promptly declined

the invitation and in a letter to Chancellor Lathrop said: “It

would have gratified me had the income of the chair . . . been

sufficient to enable me to remove at once to Madison.” In a report

to the Board of Regents that year the Chancellor comments:

“It is quite obvious that this maximum salary of a Professor

in our University, $1000 per annum, will not secure to this

chair the desired usefulness and distinction.”

The board continued its search and early in 1854 announced

that S. P. Lathrop, M. D. of Beloit had accepted the position.

Prof. Lathrop came to the University for the spring term “in

order that scientific instruction might be supplied to the first

graduating class.” (8) It is also related that he gave the first

lectures in chemistry with the aid of apparatus borrowed from

Beloit College.

The Report of the Board of Regents for 1854 states that the

Senior Class had had in the spring term of that year a course

in “Botany and Philosophy.” This is the .first reference to a

course in Botany offered at the University and, apparently, it

was given by Lathrop. But the new Professor of Chemistry

and Natural History was not a well man. His health rapidly

failed and he died in December having held his position for

less than a year.

The vacancy v/as not filled at once. After a delay of nearly

a year the board announced that Professor Carr had again been

offered the chair and this time had accepted. In the Report of

the Board of Regents we find this quaint notation, “Ezra S.

Carr, M. D. Inaugurated January 16, 1856. The Faculty is now

full.” (6 professors — 148 students.)

Ezra S. Carr was born in Steppentown, N. Y., March, 1819.

He was graduated from the Rensselaer Polytechnic School in

Troy and was immediately appointed an assistant in the geolog¬

ical survey of New York. When not actively engaged in the

field he continued scientific and medical studies at the University

of Albany. He removed to Vermont and in 1842 received the

degree of doctor of medicine from Castleton Medical College,

Vermont, and was immediately appointed Professor of Chem¬

istry and Natural History in the institution. From 1846 to 1850

he divided his time, giving lectures at both Castleton and the

Bryan — Botany at the University of Wisconsin 5

medical school at Philadelphia. In 1853 he became Professor

of Chemistry and Pharmacy at the University of Albany, and,

as we have seen, came to Madison in January 1856 to occupy

the chair of Chemistry and Natural History.

When Dr. Carr arrived there were but two buildings on the

campus, the North and the South dormitories, the latter having

just been completed and occupied. Both buildings also provided

a certain amount of classroom space. In the Report of the Board

of Regents for 1856 we learn that in the south half of South

Hall there are four “public rooms” : a lecture room on the first

and on the third floor; the cabinet of Natural History on the

second ; and the embryo library on the fourth floor. “One of the

lecture rooms has been seated and furnished for the use of the

Professor of Chemistry and Natural History.”

In the same report Professor Carr, describing the work he

expects to do, states: “Instruction will be rendered in this

department mainly by a regular series of lectures with inter¬

mediate examinations. The lectures will be attended by ample

experiments and demonstrations illustrative of the general rea¬

sonings in each science. The course . . . will occupy one year

. . . fall term. Geology and Mineralogy ; winter term. Chemistry ;

spring and summer term, Botany and Zoology, etc.,” This

instruction was given only to members of the senior class.

Professor Carr seems to have been interested primarily in chem¬

istry and geology and as a result botany and zoology were given

rather scant attention. In 1858 Professor Carr thus describes

the content of the botany course offered in the spring semester:

“Botany — the Plant being first considered as an individual in

reference to the nature and processes of vegetable life; second,

its relation to other plants, or the Vegetable Kingdom; third,

its uses.” As textbooks the following are listed : “Wood’s, Grey’s

Works*, Lindley’s Vegetable Kingdom.'' It may seem surprising

that, at a time when instruction in botany in the United States

was chiefly a matter of naming and describing plants and in

making local herbaria, Carr appears to have given so little

attention to this phase of the subject. The answer is probably

to be found in the nature of the course that the Board of Regents

expected Professor Carr would give. Just prior to his arrival

* This error in spelling: Asa Gray’s name occurs in several subsequent

reports.

6 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

at Wisconsin the board stated ‘‘he will lecture on Agricultural

chemistry and the applications of science to the useful arts. This

course of instruction is expressly designed for young farmers

and artisans of the State.’' The emphasis, it will be noted, is

upon the practical aspects of the sciences taught. Without doubt

Professor Carr’s “course” was intended to become the nucleus

about which an agricultural department could be built.

An interesting sidelight is thrown upon Professor Carr’s

methods of teaching by the following excerpt taken from the

Report of the Regents for 1857 : “The instruction in this depart¬

ment is given by lectures and demonstrations on the part of

the Professor . . . The recitation of the student consists in his

giving a lecture, illustrated with experiments and demonstra¬

tions on the same subject and after the manner of the Professor.”

One of the interesting aspects of these early days in the

history of the University is to be found in the eager and at times

reckless financial support of the Cabinet of Natural History.

Starting with the modest collection begun by H. A. Tenney in

1849, to which reference has already been made, the cabinet

grew rapidly both in numbers and in types of specimens. In

1851 we learn from the Report of the Board of Regents that

“The Herbarium furnished to the University by Dr. Lapham

is in a state of careful preservation and will be of very great

value to the future student as illustrative of the natural produc¬

tion of Wisconsin.” In 1856 the Board of Regents made the

rather astonishing appropriation of $1200 to purchase a collec¬

tion of fossils owned by Dr. Carr, and in 1857 reported as

folows : “The Cabinet has been greatly enlarged by the purchase

of the valuable collection of Professor Carr made at Albany, etc.

Containing full suits of New York fossils, it will afford means

for the solution of questions which may arise in the prosecution

of the geological survey of our State without the necessity of

going abroad for the purposes of comparison and classification.”

In that same year ex-Governor Farwell presented to Uni¬

versity “a collection in Natural History comprising the fauna

of Wisconsin and the Northwest, and enriched by specimens

from other portions of this Continent and from the Old World.”

In 1865 the following inventory of the Cabinet was made by

Professor Carr who was responsible for its care:

Bryan — Botany at the University of Wisconsin

7

6450 specimens of minerals, fossils, etc.

50

‘‘ corals

50

75

2000

11

54

65

332

50

3000

marine shells

‘‘ fish

‘‘ reptiles

quadrupeds

birds

miscellaneous

Herbarium

Curiosities

“ Seeds and Woods

Professor Carr was proud of the Cabinet and declared it

to be, with the exception of that at the University of Michigan,

the ‘'finest collection in the Northwest.” It was valued by him at

not less than $15,000.”

At the same time Professor Carr lists among the meager

items of class equipment and apparatus for which he is respon¬

sible — one microscope valued at $100! It must be remembered,’

however, that Cabinets were among the institutional fads of the

day. No first-class college, or university was supposed to be

without one. That they were expected to play an important role

in state universities is clearly set forth, for example, in the

following letter to Chancellor Lathrop from I. A. Lapham of

Milwaukee dated November 29, 1851:

‘T send you a systematic catalogue of animals, so far as

they have been observed, or their existence clearly ascertained,

in this State. It is presumed . . . that it will have its use in form¬

ing the Cabinet of the University, which, it is understood, is

intended to embrace and exhibit, at one view, the natural

resources of the State. Such a Cabinet would be of inestimable

value not only to the officers and students of the institution but

to citizens generally and to strangers, who, in great numbers

visit our State to view and examine for themselves her natural

productions. It should have for its object the illustration of the

principles of science rather than unmeaning display of showy

articles.”

One may well question whether the Cabinet ever met the

high ideals set forth in this letter from Lapham. That all persons

were not equally enthusiastic over the Cabinet is apparent from

other references w'hich rather decry the “moth eaten” animals

and the “dusty specimens.”

8 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

The Civil War brought added difficulties to an institution

which had already been hampered by political conditions in the

state, by powerful adverse criticisms concerning the types of

instruction offered, and the manner in which university affairs

had been handled. By the close of 1862 most of the students

had gone to the war, and, although salaries had been slashed,

the institution virtually faced bankruptcy.

In this emergency the authorities put into effect a long-

considered plan of establishing a Normal Department open to

women as well as to men. Co-education, beginning as a war-time

emergency, was destined to remain as a fixed policy of the

University.

A three-year course was established for the Normal Depart¬

ment, and in the '‘middle year’' zoology was offered in the sec¬

ond term and botany in the third. The students in both courses

were taught by Professor Carr.

With the close of the war and the return of men to classes,

Wisconsin entered upon a new period ushered in by the reor¬

ganization of 1866. In 1862 President Lincoln had signed the

Morrill Act, under which the state of Wisconsin would be granted

240,000 acres of public land, “thirty thousand acres for each

senator and representative in Congress.”

The purpose of the gift was to provide endowment for “at

least one college where the leading objective should be, without

excluding other scientific and classical studies, and including mil¬

itary tactics, to teach such branches of learning as are related

to agriculture and mechanical arts ... in order to promote the

liberal and practical education of industrial classes in the pur¬

suits and professions of life.”

In order to qualify for the benefits of the Morrill Act the

State Legislature, in 1866, passed an act reorganizing the Uni¬

versity. Some of the provisions of this state law were: (1) that

there should be a college of arts ; a college of letters ; and such

professional and other colleges as might from time to time be

added; (2) that there should be a President with certain limited

powers instead of a Chancellor; (3) that the regents should

“make arrangements for securing without expense to the state,

or to the funds of the University, suitable lands in the immediate

vicinity of the University, not less than two hundred acres,

including the University grounds, for an experimental farm”;

Bryan— Botany at the University of Wisconsin 9

and (4) that Dane County is authorized to issue forty thousand

dollars worth of bonds, the proceeds of their sale to be applied

to the purchase and improvement of the aforesaid experimental

farm.

In a report to Governor Fairchild in 1866 Edward Solomon,

President of the Board of Regents, emphasizes the requirement

of the reorganization act, namely, '*that an experimental farm

is to be provided/^ It is to be '^an experimental rather than a

model farm.'' Agriculture is to be studied through experimenta¬

tion, In this manner was laid deep and strong the foundation

plan of the College of Agriculture.

In the shakeup that followed this reorganization, Professor

Carr resigned in the year 1867 ; and the regents, on recommenda¬

tion of the newly chosen President Chadbourne, elected John E.

Davies to be Professor of Chemistry and Natural History, and

William W. Daniells Professor of Analytical Chemistry and

Agriculture.

John E. Davies was born at Llanidloes, Wales, in 1839, and

at an early age came with his parents to this country. In 1855

the family removed to Wisconsin, and in 1862 young Davies

was graduated from Lawrence College with the A. B. degree.

He immediately enlisted in the army and served until the close

of the war. Returning to Wisconsin he taught for two years

at Lawrence as Professor of Physics and Chemistry, and one

year at the Chicago Medical School (now the medical depart¬

ment of Northwestern University) as lecturer in chemistry.

In 1868 he received the degree M. D. from the Medical School,

and in the summer of that same year returned to Wisconsin

to enter upon his duties at the University.

William W. Daniells was born in Michigan in 1840. In 1860

he entered the Michigan Agricultural College and, having grad¬

uated with the degree of B. S. in 1864, was immediately

appointed as instructor in chemistry in the same institution.

Later he spent two years at the Lawrence Scientific School at

Harvard, and early in 1868 came to Madison.

The University now had three men who were capable of

giving instruction in the botany of that day, since the new

President Chadbourne had himself held the Chair of Botany

and Chemistry at Williams College and later at Bowdoin.

10 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

As a matter of fact, Davies was primarily interested in

physics and mathematics ; while Daniells leaned strongly in the

direction of chemistry. It is to the great credit of the latter that

on his arrival he at once established a chemical laboratory, in the

basement of the south wing of Main Hall, ‘'the first laboratory

possessed by the University.’’ (4) Daniells however was not very

popular with his colleagues who also had classes in Main Hall.

There were some bitter comments on the “horrible smells” and

“stinks” that emanated from the basement and pervaded the

building !

The establishment of laboratory work in biology did not

begin, as we shall see, for another decade. As for President

Chadbourne, “he was known to have confessed that he thought

he could teach any subject in the curriculum better than it was

generally taught.” (8) The reorganization of the University

brought about a new curriculum in which botany, at first

offered in the sophomore year of the College of Arts and in the

College of Letters, was later (1873) transferred to the fresh¬

man year. That this course was actually given by President

Chadbourne in 1869 is indicated by the following excerpt from

the regents’ Reports for that year: “The following are the

regular courses of lectures: ... To the Sophomore Class on

Structural and Systematic Botany, by the President; on Prac¬

tical Botany and Agriculture, by Prof. Daniells.”

On Chadbourne’s departure in 1870, Davies is listed as

taking over the lectures on structural and systematic botany,

which embraced a discussion of “the microscopical examination

of tissues and minute structures; germination and growth of

plants ; general principles of plant classification ; limitations of

species and varieties; and exercises in botanical analysis.”

Daniells’ lectures in practical botany and agriculture covered

the following topics: “Botanical characteristics and geograph¬

ical distribution of natural orders and their relative importance ;

the genera and species having agricultural, commercial, med¬

ical, or ornamental value ; noxious plants . . . weeds or poisonous

plants.”

Not only did Professor Daniells offer the above course but

several electives such as : Horticulture, History of Useful Plants,

Forestry, etc., which appear in the list of studies. It seems that

Bryan — Botany at the University of Wisconsin 11

these electives were not actually given because of a lack of

students and they eventually disappeared from the catalogue.

The course in Agriculture somehow did not strike a respon¬

sive chord among the students of the eighteen seventies. Even

as late as 1880 the Board of Visitors reported that they could

find no students in the agricultural department, nor anyone who

had graduated from the course. That this was a slight error

has been pointed out by Pyre. (8) It appears that one student

did graduate as Bachelor of Agriculture in 1878!

The causes for the failure of the course are undoubtedly

to be attributed to the general conditions of the time. Daniells

himself is said to have been a “loveable, conscientious and dili¬

gent'' man. His were pioneer labors which helped to pave the

way for the success of later workers.

Part II

With the arrival of President Bascom in 1874 the institution

began to move slowly into a new period of its existence — ^the

gradual evolution toward a university through specialization in

subject matter. In this process John Bascom played a distin¬

guished role. He was himself a superlative teacher; a man of

vision who realized that “all important teaching should be in

the hands of men of specific learning" ; furthermore, he appre¬

ciated the necessity of affording staff members time for private

study and research in order to vitalize their teaching and

activity.

In his last report to the Board of Regents (1885) occurs

this significant paragraph: “The smallness of salaries begins

to be felt, and the most ready remedy is to reduce the instruc¬

tional force, increase the recitation work of each professor and

enlarge his pay. This policy will, in the end, be found very

ruinous to higher attainments as a University. Men of original

powers and desirous of fresh resarch in their own departments

will not seek an institution of this character and will leave it

when a more free field is offered them. Those who are content

simply to give instruction in familiar things and take their pay

for it will form the governing power of the University and this

means the decay of all large incentives in teacher and student

alike."

12 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

A first step toward specialization in teaching occurred in

1874 when Davies moved from the Chair of Chemistry and

Natural History to that of Physics and Astronomy and President

Bascom brought to the University in the next year a young

man, (destined to play an outstanding role in the history of

the institution), Edward A. Birge, to be Instructor in Natural

History and Assistant Curator of the Cabinet.

Birge was born at Troy, New York, in 1851. He studied at

Williams College, receiving his A. B. degree in 1873. Bascom

was one of his teachers and observed at once the keen and

penetrating mind of this student. On leaving Williams, Birge

began graduate work at Harvard under Agassiz, who unfortu¬

nately died a few months later. After completing two years of

graduate study he accepted Bascom’s offer and came to Wiscon¬

sin in 1875.

The new instructor in natural history apparently continued

to offer, for a year or two, the same type of botany as that

given by his predecessor. But the catalogue for the year 1877-78

contains, for the first time, a brief description of the courses

taught in each department. From this account we learn that

Mr. Birge was giving all the work in natural history; and that

there were two courses being offered in Botany.

“The preparatory course is given in the third term (spring)

of the year. The subject is studied by the Scientific, and Modern

Classical sub-freshmen ; and by the Ancient Classical Freshmen.

The text-book used is Gray’s Manual with Lessons. After the

appearance of flowers two recitations in the week are devoted

CO careful analysis and description of plants : one plant occupy¬

ing an hour. The students are required to mount and name an

herbarium of 35 specimens.

“The advanced course in Botany consists of Lectures given

to the Modern Classical, and Scientific Freshmen. The subjects

of Vegetable Anatomy and Physiology are treated of in the

Lectures, and two days in the week are given to analyses. The

students are required to hand in an herbarium of 50 specimens

and write descriptions of 12 plants.”

Assuming that this excerpt from the catalogue is trustworthy,

it becomes evident that instruction in botany at this time was

chiefly by means of recitations supplemented by lectures; but

Bryan — Botany at the University of Wisconsin 13

the germ of laboratory work appears in the careful analysis of

plants in flower.

In the scholastic year 1878-79 an additional and optional

course in analyses of plants was offered in the first term (fall)

to sophomores. “It begins with the opening of the term and

lasts usually about six weeks. Practice in identification of flowers

is thus secured and an acquaintance with fall flowers gained.”

Meanwhile there had been progress in the physical plant and

equipment of the University. In 1877 a desperately needed

Science Hall (now remembered as Old Science Hall) had been

completed and occupied. The main portion of the building was

a massive, four-storied, rectangular structure, 136 feet long

and 60 feet in depth. Two wings, each 78 feet long and 42 feet

wide, extended from the rear. This building is said to have

housed “the laboratories, the lecture rooms and the ‘studies’

of all of the professors of science,” a statement not entirely

accurate. Proof will be given presently that classes in botany

and in agriculture were held elsewhere. Much of the University

Cabinet which had been located in South Hall was transferred

to and occupied a large portion of the fourth floor of the new

building. We learn that the Cabinet had been “greatly enriched”

by a legislative act in 1876 authorizing the governor to pur¬

chase for $10,000 and turn over to the University the library

and Cabinet of I, A. Lapham, recently deceased. In this newly

purchased Lapham Cabinet there was said to be an herbarium

of 20,000 specimens. Fortunately the herbarium of the Cabinet

was never stored in the new Science Hall. For seven years that

building was the show place and pride of the University. On

the night of December 1, 1884 the structure was wrecked by

fire and its contents destroyed.

In 1879 President Bascom was able to make further progress

toward his ideal of specialization respecting subjects taught.

Reporting to the Board of Regents that year he writes, “If a

professor is to do really superior work his entire labor must be

confined to a single department, or to closely allied departments.”

Apparently the regents were agreeable, for Daniells gave up his

attempts at agriculture and was assigned to chemistry alone;

Edward A. Birge, who had just received the degree of Ph. D.

14 Wiscomin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

at Harvard, was appointed Professor of Zoology; and J. C.

Arthur was named Instructor in Botany.

Arthur was bom at Lowville, New York, in 1850. In 1870

he was a student in Prof. C. E. Bessey's first botany class at

Ames, Iowa. Emphasis in the course was on anlysis and descrip¬

tion of cultivated and native plants. Each member of the class

was required to collect, press, mount and accurately name 100

different species of plants. Arthur developed into a keen tax¬

onomist. It is narrated that at examination time he was able

to give the Latin names of the 50 required specimens ‘'by. the

shadow seen through the mounting paper when the sheets of

dried plants were held at the window with the backs turned

toward the students.^'

In 1872 Arthur graduated from Ames with the B. S. degree.

In the scholastic year 1878-79 he was appointed honorary fellow

at Johns Hopkins, working there under Farlow who was on leave

of absence from Harvard ; and during the summer of that year

he studied at Harvard under Dr. Goodale.

Arthur came to Wisconsin at the close of the summer of

1879 well versed in many of the newer aspects of the botany of

his day. However he remained only a year. What changes he

made, if any, in the courses are not clear.

“In June, 1880, W. A. Henry was appointed Professor of

Botany and Agriculture. He was required to give all the botan¬

ical instruction offered in the University.^’ The above quotation

is taken from the 20th Annual Report of the Agricultural

Experiment Station and was written by Henry himself. He was

born in Ohio in 1850 ; studied at Ohio Wesleyan, 1868-69 ; taught

school for several years, and finally entered Cornell University

from which he was graduated in 1880 with the degree of

Bachelor of Agriculture.

On coming to Wisconsin, Henry was faced with a heavy

task. He was not only responsible for the work of the Experi¬

mental Farm but, as previously noted, was required to give all

of the botanical instruction then offered in the University. It

must have been, therefore, with great pleasure that in the early

spring of 1881 he greeted William Trelease who had been

appointed Instructor in Botany.

Trelease was born in Mount Vernon, New York, in 1857.

As a young man he showed a strong bent for natural history

Bryan — Botany at the University of Wisconsin 15

and was graduated from Cornell University with the degree of

B. S. in 1880, specializing in entomology as well as botany. In

these early years he was particularly interested in the subjects

of the secretion of nectar, and in the cross-pollination of flowers

by insects.

In 1883 Trelease was promoted to Professor of Botany and

Henry’s title was changed to Professor of Agriculture. It was

in this year, also, that the Agricultural Experiment Station

was organized. Henry had succeeded in getting a small appro¬

priation from the State Legislature for the study of sorghum

in the making of sugar, and for the construction of silos in the

formation of ensilage. This work had been so successful that

Governor Rusk recommended in his message to the legislature

that an Experimental Station be founded, which was done in

1883, with the following personnel :

W. A. Henry, Professor of Agriculture

Wm. Trelease, Professor of Botany

H. P. Armsby, Professor of Agricultural Chemistry

Professor Henry was clear in his own mind as to the basic

work of the Experiment Station. 'Tts purpose,” he states, ‘‘is to

investigate questions of special interest to the farmers of the

state. It is to be expected also that the results will not only

have general value but may be real contributions to agricul¬

tural science.” The people of the state were requested to send

to the Experiment Station : specimens of weeds and introduced

plants of questionable value ; cultivated and other plants attacked

by fungi (rusts, smuts, mildews), and noxious insects. Professor

Henry further states that, “The names of unknown plants will be

furnished if specimens are sent in, and seeds will be examined as

to purity and vitality. All work of general interest will be free

of charge in so far as facilities of the Station permit.”

Henry’s ideal of service to the agricultural interests of the

state proved to be not only of inestimable value to the farmers

of Wisconsin but also to the University itself as it eventually

moved into an era of rapid expansion.

The year 1883 also saw the beginning of courses in pharmacy

under the newly appointed Frederick B. Power, Professor of

Pharmacy and Materia Medica.

16 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Meanwhile, under Trelease and Henry, the inherited courses

in botany had been modified and expanded and new courses

established. One notable feature was the introduction of labo¬

ratory work in one or more of the advanced courses.

Two short, i. e. single term, courses were offered in the

spring: an elementary course for freshmen consisting of reci¬

tations from Gray’s Lessons supplemented by lectures; the

second, a more advanced course for sophomores, embraced

recitations from Bessey’s Botany accompanied by lectures on

physiology and systematic botany, the latter dealing particu¬

larly with plants of economic importance. Microscopic demon¬

strations were given as an important feature of this pourse.

Students in both courses were required to form an herbarium

of 35 specimens correctly named and properly mounted.

A different course was required of all sophomores in agricul¬

ture and covered two terms. In the fall the students began the

study of the structure and development of the Cryptogams,

especially the fungi injurious to higher plants. The course con¬

sisted largely of laboratory tvork using compound microscopes

and supplemented by lectures and field excursions. In the winter

term the students continued with a study of Phanerogams,

particularly grasses, weeds and forage or other useful plants.

In addition to these courses Trelease offered horticulture to

juniors, and forestry to seniors, in agriculture. The Course in

Horticulture covered two terms. The v/ork of the first term

combined “Economic Entomology” and “Cross-Fertilization of

Plants” and involved laboratory, lectures and field experiments.

The study was continued in the second term “by recitations

from Bindley ’s Horticulture and Darwin’s Animals and Plants

under Domestication accompanied by lectures on the physiology

of plants and laboratory work in their cell structure.”

As to forestry we learn from the catalogue that “The class

recites from Hough’s Forestry and lectures are given on fungi

and insects which attack forest trees.”

The modification and expansion of courses in botany during

these years was not peculiar to Wisconsin. In fact, the decade

from 1875 to 1885 roughly marks out a turning point in the

development of botany in American institutions.

It should be remembered that in 1865 there were only two

men in the United States who earned their living as professors

Bryan — Botany at the University of Wisconsin 17

of botany — Asa Gray at Harvard and D. C. Eaton at Yale. It

is true that Torrey taught botany at Columbia, but he had to

spend much of his time in assay work in order to eke out a

meager salary.

The study of botany, at least in most college classes of this

period, was carried on chiefly as an adjunct to the course in

medicine. It will be recalled, for example, that S. P. Lathrop,

Carr, and Davies, Professors of Natural History at Wisconsin,

all held the degree of M. D. But the times are changing. Already

in 1872 Farlow, who was then at work with de Bary at Strass-

burg, wrote, apparently with some surprise, that he was the

only botanical student there at the time who had studied

medicine.

By 1885 botany was becoming well established in the United

States as a profession in its own right.

Another change within the decade is to be noted in the

content of the course of study. Taxonomy had dominated Amer¬

ican botany to the practical exclusion of other phases of the

subject. On the other hand such was not the case in Europe

and particularly in Germany, where, during the ’sixties and

’seventies, the researches and publications of Hofmeister, Sachs,

deBary and others had opened great new fields of botanical

study.

This new work had, however, received little attention from

American botanists because few of them could read German,

and further, with the slim budgets available, books and period¬

icals from that country vv^ere not readily available.

A distinct turning point came in 1880 when C. E. Bessey

published his epoch-making Botany for High Schools and Col¬

leges. The importance of this book is admirably set forth in

the following review written by John M. Coulter for the

Botanical Gazette, September 1880.

“The question may naturally arise in the minds of many

teachers, what need is there of another botany? We have Gray’s,

Wood’s, Youman’s, etc., almost every publishing house being

represented by a botany ; surely it is but publishers’ rivalry that

is throwing this new book upon the market. Even a casual

glance will show, however, that we have no stereotyped repeti¬

tion of books gone before, but a new departure in American

botanical text books . . . Once the study of a little morphology.

18 WiscoTisin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

the learning of a few terms in the glossary, and the analysis of

a few flowers was thought to be all the profitable study that

botany could furnish students. But this state of thought has

entirely changed and plants are getting to be recognized as

living organisms that have life histories, that have digestion,

nutrition, assimilation, respiration, reproduction, and other

functions just as remarkably performed as in animals ... It is

evident that we can study plant physiology as well as anatomy,

and it is this very thing that has so long been neglected in our

schools . . . Our great botanists have been systematists, as is

perfectly natural in a country just developing its flora, hence

all botanical work in the schools has followed the same bent.

Such work is not to be decried, — but it is not all of botany.''

‘‘Of necessity the book could not be entirely or even mostly

original, but rather in Part I a following of that done in German

laboratories, and, based chiefly upon Sach's great Lehrbuch.

In Part II the higher plants, of course, conform to the system

of Bentham and Hooker. The classification and treatment of the

lower plants seems to be the author's own work and is probably

the part of the book that is most original."

A third change within the decade is to be noted in the slowly

increasing employment of the laboratory system in connection

with the teaching of botany.

Prior to 1870 laboratory work in botany was almost unknown.

At Harvard, for example. Dr. Wm. P. Beal who studied there

between 1862 and 1865 writes: ''During one spring Dr. Gray

met three of us for lessons in this text book (Gray's Botanical

Text Book) freely illustrated by fresh specimens. The botanical

department at Harvard did not own a compound microscope

but had the use of a thousand-dollar instrument belonging to

the Lowell Institute. A little crude work was done, such as view¬

ing the streaming motion of granules of chlorophyll in leaf

section of Valisneria, looking at grains of pollen, sections of

ovules, etc."

By 1884, according to J. C. Arthur, more than a dozen

prominent institutions of learning in this country had estab¬

lished laboratory work in some, if not all, of their courses in

botany; and two institutions, Cornell University and Michigan

Agricultural College, had progressed to the point that each had

erected a building exclusively for botany.

Bryan — Botany at the University of Wisconsin

19

The manner in which textbooks were used in the earlier days

apparently varied but little from institution to institution. Too

often so many pages of the given text would be assigned for

each lesson, and the nearer the recitation of the student corre¬

sponded word for word with the text the more highly was his

knowledge and grasp of the subject supposed to be.

The slowness in developing laboratory work in botany at

Wisconsin is undoubtedly to be attributed in part to a lack of

suitable rooms for the course. Dr. L. H. Pammel who began

his botanical studies at Wisconsin in 1881 wrote, 'T had my

first botanical instruction in the old main building on the hill.

The lectures were given in what was then the chapel and now

(1927) is the office of the President or, at least, was his office

at the last time I visited the University. It may be of interest

to state that we used Bessey's textbook then just issued by

Holt. The following fall the quarters of the department were

in Old South Hall. Prof. Trelease had his office on the second

floor at the south end, and the lecture room was on the first

floor and the laboratory on the second floor. Here we received

our first instruction in cryptogamic botany, as it was called,

which was followed by courses on flower ecology, systematic

botany, etc. . . . Prof. Henry was the agricultural department,

and under him we had a variety of courses in agriculture, live

stock, and farm crops.’'

Further valuable information concerning classrooms and

equipment in botany is recorded in the report of Professor

Trelease, to the Hon. George H. Paul, President, Board of

Regents, dated October 1, 1884.

‘'When I was called to the University to give instruction in

Botany in the spring of 1881 I found it the minor part of a

composite department — agriculture and botany — with few facil¬

ities for instruction and no rooms except those of other depart¬

ments which could be used only when not required for other

purposes.

“At present (1884) the department occupies the greater

part of the first and second floors of the renovated south build¬

ing (South Hall) containing a lecture room, a reagent room,

laboratory, museum and herbarium, while there is the possi¬

bility of further addition when this shall become necessary.

20 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts and Letters

“The lecture room is capable of seating 100 students and

is on the ground floor. The reagent room is furnished with good

chemical desks and a set of chemicals needed in the preparation

of such reagents as are used in vegetable histology and micro¬

chemistry. In it all operations attended by the evolution of gases

likely to injure the microscopes and other laboratory apparatus

can be performed.

“The laboratory is sufficiently large to accommodate 20

tables and is equipped with six dissecting microscopes and ten

good compound microscopes giving a range of magnifying

power from 20-2000 diameters, besides other instruments use¬

ful in the microscopic study of plants.

“The museum is a room of equal size adjoining the labora¬

tory. Some of the more interesting fungi of the state, and a

collection representing the wood of several hundred species of

trees are now being arranged in it. Collections of Wisconsin

weeds and grasses and a seh of models of the varieties of fruits

recommended for growth in the state will shortly be added.

These are intended for agricultural students and farmers who

visit the University.

“The University herbarium, which is located in the room

devoted to my original work, is based on the Lapham herbarium

estimated to contain between 10 and 12 thousand species, which

has been thoroughly poisoned -and is being properly mounted as

rapidly as possible. Since it came into my charge it has been

augmented by donations of several hundred species from the

Department of Agriculture at Washington, by a set of exotic

forms from Cornell University, and by between 3 to 5 thousand

specimens from Professor Henry's herbarium and my own. The

specimens donated by Professor Henry include a valuable set

of alpine plants from the Rocky Mountains and many California

species.

“The lectures are illustrated by a set of 60 Veny's Botanische

Wandtafeln representing the minute anatomy and development

of plants; and both actual specimens and fresh and mounted

preparations under the microscope are employed in demonstra¬

tions whenever it is practical to use them.

“A practical familiarity with the common plants of the

state is secured by requiring each student to form a small

herbarium. In the systematic laboratory courses constant ref-

Bryan — Botany at the University of Wisconsin 21

erence is made to the University herbarium which is supple¬

mented by the private collection of the professor containing

several thousand species of parasitic fungi, including all that are

known to occur in the state of Wisconsin. The collection is con¬

stantly being added to from all parts of the world.''

In regard to the fungi mentioned in the above paragraph it

should be stated that Professor Trelease, during his stay at

Wisconsin, devoted much time to a study of bacteria and fungi,

and made the first comprehensive survey of the parasitic fungi

of the state. In 1884 Trelease received the Ph. D. degree from

Harvard, his thesis being on the subject, “Zoogloeae and Related

Forms." This paper was published in the studies from the Bio¬

logical Laboratory of Johns Hopkins University, Vol. 3, 1885,

and is notable as being probably the first doctor's thesis written

in this country in the field of bacteriology. Under the stimulus

of this work the University authorized Professor Trelease. to

order, in the spring of 1885, special bacteriological equipment

from Europe. Shortly afterwards, however. Professor Trelease

was offered and accepted an appointment as Englemann Pro¬

fessor of Botany at Washington University, St. Louis. He left

Wisconsin at the close of the summer at 1885.

An interesting development centered about this bacteriolog¬

ical equipment. Since Professor Trelease had departed, it fell

to Dr. Birge to unpack the apparatus on its arrival. In an address

on the beginnings of the pre-medical course in the University

delivered in 1935, Dr. Birge stated: ^Tt was quite unthinkable

that an equipment so large and valuable should stand idle, so

I was told to get busy and teach bacteriology, which accordingly

I proceeded to do. My course was regularly given but it was not

announced in the catalog for the first two years, for I regarded

my part in it as a temporary affair and expected to turn it over

to the botanist who would succeed Dr. Trelease. But the first

appointments were temporary matters, and then Professor

Charles R. Barnes came as botanist in 1887 it turned out that he

knew little and cared less about bacteria, so I, who meanwhile

learned a little about them, was obliged to continue the course."

Later on we shall note further progress in bacteriology at

Wisconsin.

By the summer of 1883 the renovation of South Hall had

afforded space not only for classes in botany, but the courses in

22 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

pharmacy had taken over a part of the fourth floor, while Pro¬

fessor Henry had finally been able to secure a laboratory and

office on the third floor. For more than a decade after this time

South Hall was designated as Agricultural Hall! Students were

slowly being attracted to Henry’s classes. But experimental

work on the farm was not progressing well. The reasons are

clearly set forth in one of Professor Henry’s early reports.

“Many persons seem to regard the farm as a mere pleasure

ground. Plots of grain have been trampled down, labels mis¬

placed or destroyed. Fruit is taken from the orchard when

scarcely half grown, and this season all the grapes were stolen

before some of them had time to color . . . Experiments that

have cost much time and labor have been brought to naught

until thoroughly discouraged we are really doing nothing on

the experimental farm to advance horticulture ... It would

require two watchmen, day and night, a part of the season to

secure immunity from these depredations. As our work seems

to be shut off in these directions we shall turn toivard dairying

and stock feeding experiments for which we will soon be pre¬

pared and which cannot be harmed by marauders ” In this man¬

ner was Professor Henry literaly driven into a special line of

research v/hich later brought him national fame.

With the departure of Trelease in 1885, and upon his recom¬

mendation, Arthur B. Seymour came to Wisconsin as Instructor

in Botany, but remained only for the academic year 1885-1886.

Seymour was born at Moline, Illinois in 1859; graduated

with the B. S. degree from University of Illinois in 1881 ; served

as botanist, Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History 1881-

1883; and spent the two years before coming to Wisconsin at

the cryptogamic herbarium, Harvard.

He was succeeded during the academic year 1886-87 by

Frederick L. Sargent.

Sargent was born at Boston, Massachusetts, in 1863 ; studied

at the College of the City of New York from 1879-82; and at

the Lawrence Scientific School, Harvard, 1883-86. He also re¬

mained at Wisconsin only a year.

In the winter of 1886 an important development occurred

in the opening of the Short Course in Agriculture, which was

ordered established by the Board of Regents over the doubts

and fears of Professor Henry. The distinctive features of this

Bryan— Botany at the University of Wisconsin

23

development were as follows: any person of suitable age with

common-school education could enroll ; the term should embrace

12 weeks beginning in January when farmers' sons have most

leisure; the subject matter should be practical and have a direct

bearing upon every day matters on the farm.

Twenty young men enrolled the first year and attended

daily lectures in chemistry, botany, and applied agricultural

practices, with occasional lectures by the state veterinary

officer on the diseases of animals.

The Short Course in Agriculture has undergone, in the 60

years of its existence, a variety of modifications, but it remains

today as one of the important contributions of the Agricultural

College to farming interests of the state.

In the summer of 1887 Charles R. Barnes was called to

Wisconsin as Professor of Botany.

Barnes was born in Indiana in 1858. He attended Hanover

College and graduated with the A. B. degree in 1877. While at

Hanover he studied botany under John M. Coulter, and from

that time dated their life-long friendship and scientific collabo¬

ration^ — ^first in taxonomic studies, then as joint editors of the

Botanical Gazette, and, finally, as colleagues at the University

of Chicago.

After graduation, Barnes taught high school and during the

summers of 1879 and 1880 studied at Harvard under Asa Gray.

He was teacher of Biology at Ford High School at Lafayette,

Indiana, when Professor Hussey, biologist at Purdue, suffered

a sudden stroke. Barnes was called upon to take over the work

and in 1882, his ability having been proved, was appointed

Professor of Botany. In 1885 he was granted a year's leave of

absence to study plant physiology at Harvard under Goodale.

Barnes came to Wisconsin just as the new Science Hall was

being occupied. The catalogue of 1887--88 gives a full descrip¬

tion of the building and emphasizes the fact of its fire-proof

construction— no wood being used except for floors, doors and

window frames. The staircases are of iron with slate treads.

This building housed at first : the various branches of engineer¬

ing; physics; geology; mineralogy, botany, and zoology. Botany

and zoology shared together an elementary laboratory on the

third floor— a large room arranged to accommodate 72 students.

The laboratory was fitted with both dissecting and compound

24 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

microscopes. A smaller adjoining laboratory was used for

advanced work. Important pieces of botanical apparatus were

listed as : a sliding microtome, and a direct vision auxanometer.

For illustrating the lectures there were specimens especially

provided in a case in the lecture room. Considerable space on

the third floor was occupied by the herbarium which is described

as being chiefly composed of the Lapham Herbarium purchased

by the state and said to contain about 8,000 species of flowering

plants.

On coming to Wisconsin Professor Barnes began to broaden

the types of courses offered by the department of botany. In

the catalogue of 1888-89 he is listed as offering the following:

Morphology of Flowering Plants — an elementary course

involving lectures, laboratory and field work. Naming a consid¬

erable number of common plants is regarded as an important

feature of the course.

General Morphology — a year course for advanced students.

The features stressed are : a study of the cell ; and the life his¬

tories of important types in the plant kingdom.

Histology — a study of the tissues of phanerogams and ferns.

Imbedding, section cutting, staining, mounting, etc.

Embryology and Physiology — a year course involving a study

of embryo development, but much time given to experimental

physiology.

Applied Botany — a course of 30 lectures given to students

taking the short course in Agriculture. The lectures deal with

the following topics: principles of nutrition and grov/th; rela¬

tions of plants to light temperature, moisture, etc. ; forests and

timber; propagation of plants; wounds and diseases.

In the academic year 1891-92 Professor Barnes discontinued

the elementary course in botany and shared with Dr. Birge a

year's course in General Biology. We learn from the catalogue

that the course required 12 hours a week on the part of the

student, and that in the first semester general principles of

biology were studied for the first month, the remainder of the

semester being devoted to botany. The second semester was

given over entirely to zoology. Assisting in this course the

catalogue lists Dr. Hodge as Instructor in Biology, and L. S.

Cheney and R. H, True as Fellows in Botany. Several years

later Cheney was appointed Assistant Professor of Pharma-

Bryan — Botany at the University of Wisconsin 25

ceutical Botany, and True Assistant Professor of Pharma¬

cognosy.

In 1893 Dean Henry of the Agricultural College took a very

important step when he brought back to the University, with

the rank of Assistant Professor, Dr. Harry L. Russell to take

over the work in Bacteriology. Russell was born at Poynette

Wisconsin, in 1866, entered Wisconsin in 1884, and received the

B. S. degree in 1888. He majored in biology and, having his

interest strongly aroused by Dr. Birge’s course in bacteriology^

decided to make that subject his life work. From 1888 to 1890

Russell held a fellowship at Wisconsin and continued graduate

work, receiving the M. S. degree in 1890. There followed studies

abroad at Koch's laboratory in Berlin, LTnstitut Pasteur in

Paris, and at the Zoological Station in Naples. He then returned

to the United States and, completing the work for the Ph. D.

degree at Johns Hopkins in 1892, accepted a fellowship in bac¬

teriology at the newly formed University of Chicago. As has

already been stated, in 1893 Dean Henry persuaded Dr. Russell

to return to Wisconsin and take charge of the new department

of bacteriology to be organized in the College of Agriculture,

and also to carry on the courses in bacteriology in the College

of Letters and Science which some years before had been started

by Dr. Birge. In this manner began Dr. Russell's long and dis¬

tinguished service to the people of Wisconsin and to the scien¬

tific world.

Professor Barnes remained at Wisconsin until 1898. In the

latter year of his stay he offered an advanced year course,

experimental in nature, in plant physiology for which chemistry

and physics were listed as prerequisites. In the first semester

the subject was ‘‘plant physics" ; in the second semester, “plant

chemics." It was in this field of plant physiology that he was

destined later to win distinction at the University of Chicago.

Barnes has been described by those who knew him as a

scholar, an oustanding lecturer and teacher, and a man of high

principles. Like many of his contemporaries he was broadly

trained and one of his hobbies was the taxonomy of the mosses,

a field in which he won national recognition. He served for

several years as secretary of the faculty at its meetings, and

played an important part in the discussions. It was an event

at one of the faculty meetings that lead to his decision to leave

26 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Wisconsin.* It seems that President Charles K. Adams was

strongly interested in student athletics and a particularly

zealous supporter of football. One spring, serious efforts were

made by many of the faculty to get rid of an indolent football

player whose sole interest was in athletics rather than study.

A stringent resolution was passed which, if enforced, would

prohibit the playing of any man whose standing was not up to

grade. For some reason these resolutions were not presented

by the President to the Board of Regents and hence did not

have the force of law.

In November of that year a crucial game was to be played

with Northwestern. One of the most important Wisconsin play¬

ers was very delinquent in his studies. At a faculty meeting

prior to this game the President explained that the faculty had

enacted legislation that would bar the delinquent from playing,

but that the resolutions had never been presented to the regents

and, consequently, had no legal force; that he had talked with

one of the regents who agreed there was no way to keep the

man from playing; and that therefore he, the President, would

assume all responsibilities and allow the man to play. He then

attempted to dismiss the faculty saying, ‘'That is all, gentlemen.”

But Professor C. R. Barnes, secretary of the faculty, was on his

feet in an instant, and, pointing his finger directly at the Presi¬

dent said, “Mr. President, did I not take those resolutions to

you before the April meeting and ask you to present them to

the board of regents? You did not do it. Did I not take them

back to you and ask you to present them to the June meeting of

the board? I want to know why this matter was not attended

to!” The President replied, “Doubtless the superior memory of

the Professor of Botany is correct.” But the matter did not end

there. Professors Turner, Parkinson and others deplored the

situation and criticized the President's position. When the meet¬

ing finally broke up, it was evident that many members of the

faculty had lost confidence in the President.

This incident lead to a permanent break between Adams and

Barnes, and years later the latter told Professor Skinner that

it was one of the chief reasons why he left Wisconsin. In 1898

Barnes went to the University of Chicago as Professor of Plant

♦Condensed from recollection of Prof. E. B. Skinner as related to Charles

Forster Smith. (10)

Bryan — Botany at the University of Wisconsin 27

Physiology and was succeeded in the same year by Robert A.

Harper.

Harper was born at Leclaire, Iowa, in 1862. He received

the B, A. degree from Oberlin in 1886, and was Professor of

Greek and Latin at Gates College, Nebraska, 1886-88. He spent

the year 1888-89 as a graduate student at Johns Hopkins ; and

at the close of that year went to Lake Forest Academy, Illinois

as Instructor in Science. In 1891 he received an M. A. degree

from Oberlin and became Professor of Botany and Geology at

Lake Forest College. He continued graduate work at Bonn from

1894 to 1896, and in the latter year received a Ph. D. degree.

He returned to his position at Lake Forest College until his call

to Wisconsin. On arriving at Wisconsin, Harper carried on much

of the work of his predecessor, but added new and important

fields, such as cytology, mycology and plant pathology. He was

aided by Assistant Professor Cheney who gave courses in

anatomy and histology, trees and shrubs, and bryology; and by

Instructor Timberlake who gave work on flowering plants.

Harper was a scholar, a stimulating lecturer, and an active

research worker. Under his leadership graduate students were

attracted to Wisconsin, various lines of research were begun,

and the department entered upon a period of growth and

prosperity.

A Partial Bibliography

1. Arthur, J. C. Some Botanical Laboratories in the United States. Bot.

Gaz. 10:395-406. 1885.

2. BadJ:, W. F., The Life and Letters of John Muir. Houghton Mifflin

Co., 1924.

3. Bessey, Ernest A., The Teaching of Botany Sixty-Five years ago.

Iowa State Coll. Jour, of Sc. IX:227-233. 1934-35.

4. Butterfield, C. W. History of the University of Wisconsin. Madison,

Wis., 1879.

5. Farlow, Vv^. G., The Change from the Old to the New Botany in the

United States. Science, m. s. XXXVII :79-86. 1913.

6. Pike, F. A. A Student at Wisconsin Fifty Years Ago. Madison, Wis.,

1935.

7. Poole, R. J. Evolution and Differentiation of Laboratory Teaching in

Botanical Science. Iowa State Coll. Jour, of Sci. IX:235-242. 1934-35.

8. Pyre, J. F. A., Wisconsin. Oxford University Press. N. Y. 1920.

9. Regents’ Report, University of Wisconsin. Annual to 1882; biennially

from 1883 on.

10. Smith, Charles F., Charles Kendall Adams, University of Wiscon¬

sin, Madison, Wis., 1924.

SECONDARY SUCCESSIONS ON THE PEAT LANDS

OF GLACIAL LAKE WISCONSIN

John Catenhusen

INTUODUCTION

The purpose of this paper is to present the results of studies

of the effects of drought, drainage, fire, a restored or rising

water table, and flooding upon the plant successions on the peat

lands in the bed of Glacial Lake Wisconsin (Fig. 1). Approxi¬

mately 300,000 acres of peat land lie in central Wisconsin within

the boundary of this extinct lake.

The field work was done during portions of the summers of

1937, 1938, 1939, and 1940, and was made possible by grants

from the Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation. Grateful

acknowledgment is made to Dr. N. C. Fassett for many helpful

suggestions made during the study, and to my wife, Carolyn W.

Catenhusen, for assistance in the preparation of this paper.

The classifications are those of Weaver and Clements (1938) .

The term bog community refers to a mature tamarack-spruce

bog and is analogous to the tamarack-spruce associes.

Geology and Physiography

The underlying rocks of the region belong to the Cambrian

series of sandstones, which have contributed most of the surface

deposits. The northern edge of the Cambrian sandstones forms

an escarpment, v/hich has been retreating southward, leaving

behind it outliers on the surface of a broad plain. Friendship

Mound, Bear Bluff, and Saddle Mound are such outliers. At

Necedah, however, is a mound of quartzite, a partly exhumed

monadnock of the pre-Cambrian rock which underlies the Cam¬

brian series. The sandstone outliers occur in the form of towers,

crags, and buttes, and are scattered about on the fiat plain

which stretches to the north and east of the escarpment.

Glaciation

Although most of the bed of Glacial Lake Wisconsin lies

within the Driftless Area (Fig. 1) and therefore was not glaci-

29

30 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Figure 1. Glacial Lake Wisconsin.

ated (Martin, 1932), glaciation nevertheless has had a consid¬

erable effect on the region. Glaciation to the east of the glacial

lake was accomplished by the Green Bay lobe of the Lake Mich¬

igan glacier. The ice moved southward and westward across

the central plain as far as the eastern part of Adams County

(Fig. 2) and the Baraboo Range, damming the preglacial Wis¬

consin River, whose backed-up waters formed Glacial Lake

Wisconsin. Towers, crags, and buttes, outliers of the Cambrian

sandstones that have an escarpment to the southwest, existed

as islands in the lake, and many of these now carry beach

deposits, or other evidences of former shorelines. Deposits of

Catenhusen — Peat Lands of Glacial Lake Wisconsin 31

erratic material are found in the valley of the East Fork of

the Black River which indicate that it formed the outlet of

Glacial Lake Wisconsin during the time that the preglacial

Wisconsin River was blocked by glacial ice. After the disappear^

ance of the ice, the Wisconsin River completed the cutting of

a new outlet southeastward through what is now the Dells of

the Wisconsin, completely draining the lake and leaving an

essentially level plain.

Considerable deposits were made by the lake during its

existence. In the southern part of the basin are reddish silts

and sandy clays, while in the north the principal deposit is

white quartz sand. Additional deposits include boulders of gran-

Figure 2. Peat areas of Glacial Lake Wisconsin.

32 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

ite and other rocks, rafted in by floating ice. The lake deposits

are covered in many places by glacial outwash, dune sand, or

river-laid silt. In addition, peat and muck have developed over

much of the area as a result of the existence of marshes and

bogs.

Soils

The soils of the region (Whitson, 1927 ; Bordner, 1934) are

of two general types : sand and peat. The sandy soils are mainly

derived from the Cambrian sandstones. Erosional forces of var¬

ious types have acted upon this material and redeposited it.

The peat occupies low places in the very gently undulating plain,

and varies in depth from a few inches to fifteen feet. In many

places it is perfectly preserved and unoxidized, but elsewhere

Figure 3. Location of principal towns.

Catenhusen — Peat Lands of Glacial Lake Wisconsin 33

various stages of decomposition exist, brought about by drain¬

age, fire, and cultivation. While various plant nutrients are tied

up and unavailable in undecomposed peat, nitrogenous and

other compounds are made available by bacterial and fungal

action v^hen disturbance takes place. High acidity usually hinders

such action, but low acidity or slight alkalinity favors it. The

peat, therefore, which occurs over a large portion of the lake

bed, represents a series of soil types and conditions within itself.

The results of studies made near City Point and Warrens

(Fig. 3) by Dachnowski (1925), and near Babcock by Huels

(1915) indicate that in these areas there are three types of peat

from the standpoint of botanical composition. The surface is

composed of a layer of Sphagnum peat a foot thick, underlain

by a layer of woody material varying in thickness, and this in

turn by a layer of fibrous and matted material of sedge origin,

which varies in thickness from five to eight feet. At Warrens,

roots and stumps of tamarack and spruce exist below the thick

layer of sedge peat. Underlying the organic deposits is a min¬

eral soil of gray, siliceous sand. Where deep burns have occurred,

the sphagnum and woody peat have been destroyed, and fires

have often burned into sedge peat.

The peat underlying relic bogs ranges from six to fifteen

feet in depth and is quite acid (pH 4 to 5). Where drainage

and fires have taken place, the acidity ranges between pH 5.5

and pH 7. Generally areas of deeper peat were not as success¬

fully drained as were the more shallow ones.

Climate

The average annual precipitation in this region is approxi¬

mately thirty inches. About half of the total comes during May,

June, July, and August. June, with 4.1 inches, has the heaviest

rainfall; July has 4 inches, and May 3.2 inches. Precipitation

during the winter is light; December, January, and February

average 1 to 1.5 inches. Short periods of drought are frequent,

but serious droughts have occurred at least four times since

1890 (Fig. 4).

The mean temperature for the growing season is about 66°

F. The growing season as determined by temperature readings

at Wisconsin Rapids in Wood County (Fig. 3), at an elevation

of 1,021 feet, is 126 days, with the first killing frost about

34

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

September 26. However, Wisconsin Rapids is not located on the

low peat lands, where the temperatures reported have been con¬

sistently lower, and where frosts may occur throughout the

year.

History of the Peat Land

Pre-settlement period. Descriptions of the early vegetation

are given in reports of government land surveys of 1839 to 1855

(manuscripts now deposited at the State Capitol in Madison).

These reports describe extensive areas of ‘‘open marshes” and

‘‘moss marshes.” Areas similar to these except for scattered

individuals or small stands of tamarack, spruce, and white pine

were equally extensive. Dense stands of tamarack and spruce

were reported less frequently. Occasional wild cranberry bogs

were also reported by the surveyors. “White maple” (probably

red maple), aspen, white birch, and alder were infrequently

associated with the scattered stands of tamarack, spruce, and

white pine.

Frequent complaints about the difficulties encountered in

surveying are recorded in the surveyors’ field notes, and often

add valuable information concerning the nature of the country.

Catenhusen — Peat Lands of Glacial Lake Wisconsin 35

Many of the **moss marshes” and ''open marshes” as well as

those with scattered trees were quite wet or even under water,

so that surveying was exceedingly difficult. Section lines and

section corners were established with difficulty in the extensive

and treeless marshes. In addition the marshes were often under¬

lain by an infirm substrate or were so inundated that it was

impossible to dig pits for the purpose of marking section corners.

Drainage period. Previous to 1890, the peat areas were

exploited for nothing more than the natural crops which they

produced. Cranberries, sphagnum moss, wire-grass, and marsh

hay were the chief products. Agricultural expansion, which led

many farmers into submarginal regions throughout the coun¬

try, brought a few settlers to the sand areas associated with the

peat lands in the 1880's. When local fires laid bare small areas

of peat, farmers immediately cultivated them also, and often

harvested good crops. These occasional successes led to the

establishment of an elaborate system for draining the peat and

allowing it to be cultivated. Construction of the ditches was

begun and continued until about 1920. The porosity of the peat

soil and sandy subsoil was such that good underdrainage devel¬

oped when the ditches were from six to nine feet deep with

an adequate fall, and were placed from to % mile apart. In

sections where drainage was successfully accomplished, the peat

became dry enough to be cultivated. Most of the farmers,

however, soon met with failure. Early frosts, poor soil soon

depleted of nutrients, high drainage expenses, and repeated

crop failures compelled most of the farmers to abandon their

land. Of those who hung on, some were moved during the nine-

teen-thirties by the Resettlement Administration. Despite this

momentary expansion of agriculture, there still remained thou¬

sands of acres of uncultivated peat, some of which had been

successfully drained, while the rest remained undamaged.

Fires during the pre-settlement period. Drought, drainage,

and fire have been important factors affecting the peat land

and the plant successions on it. While drainage did not become

a factor until the period of 1902 to 1920, drought and fire have

probably always been influential.

Records of fires previous to settlement are inaccurate and

inconclusive. Extensive fires occurred in 1864 along the Wis¬

consin and Black rivers (Grange, 1942), but it is not known

36 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

how far these fires spread into the peat land. Surveyors in 1851

reported a burned area just north of Babcock. That other fires

occurred previous to settlement can be deduced from the vege¬

tation record. Aspen was recorded on peat areas in 1851. Wild

cranberry bogs, which were exploited in the early days of settle¬

ment, were probably created by hot, rapid fires (Grange, 1942)

which burned off the trees, but did not penetrate the peat. It is

purely conjectural, but highly probable, that the “open marshes''

dotted with scattered individuals or small stands of tamarack,

represent superficially burned areas. Many such areas exist today

as the result of recent superficial fires.

That the peat lands generally were considerably wetter dur¬

ing the 60-year period preceding drainage is shown by the

records of the surveyors. Their complaints about the difficulties

encountered because of wetness and flooding have already been

mentioned. During the years of settlement previous to ditching,

horses used in harvesting wire-grass were shod with large

wooden shoes to keep them from becoming mired. Though direct

information is lacking, it can probably be safely assumed that

when fires occurred in the period before settlement, they came

during periods of severe drought.

Fires in the settlement period. Four severe fires have

occurred since settlement: in 1893, 1910, 1920, and 1930. Only

the first took place prior to drainage. Severe drought (cf. Fig.

4) was evidently primarily responsible. The fires of 1910, 1920,

and 1930 occurred after the inauguration of drainage, and like

the one of 1893, took place during or after severe drought

periods. The cumulative effects of drainage, combined with

excessive drought, made possible these widespread fires, the

last of which was by far the most extensive and destructive.

Indicative of the most recent of these fires are large pure stands

of aspen (Fig. 13) which today are encountered along many

of the roads in the region. Such destructive burns had not been

possible under conditions described by the surveyors, nor do their

records show extensive areas of aspen. The scattered admix¬

tures of aspen described by them could have been only the result

of superficial fires upon an undrained peat soil. The vegetation

of the peat land in the pre-settlement period consisted of various

stages of bog succession, with possibly only the final tree associes

held in check by fire. It is highly probable that at this time fires

SCIRPUS CONSOCfES

oaoocii

i3A<

LARIX'PICEA ASSOC I ES

Figure 6. A relic tamarack-spruce bog.

Figure 7. Quasi-mesophytic climax following continued desiccation of a bog.

Figure 8. Tamarack and spruce invading a Ledum-Chamaedaphne associes,

Figure 9. Relic tamarack in a

Ledum-Chamaedaphne asso¬

cies. The plants near the

vasculum are Ledum and

Chamaedaphne. In the back¬

ground is a pure stand of

Betula,

Figure 10. Tamarack and spruce invading a Calamagrostis-Carex meadow.

Figure 11. A Calamagrostis-Carex meadow following medium or repeated

superficial burning. In the background is a relic tamarack-spruce bog.

Figure 12. Wool grass meadow (Scirpus cyperinus var. pelius).

Figure 13. A pure stand of aspen on deeply burned peat.

Figure 14. Shallow flooding which in some places has followed the installa¬

tion of dams. Aspen tolerates such flooding if it is not continuous.

Figure 15. Aspen killed by continuous flooding.

Figure 16. A flowage created by a dike.

Figure 17. A drainage ditch with aquatic and subaquatic plants. Invasion

of flooded areas and deep flowages is taking place by plants from ditches

like the one above.

Figure 18. A drainage ditch. To the right of it is a Calamagrostis meadow.

Catenhusen—Peat Lands of Glacial Lake Wisconsin 37

periodically destroyed some of the trees, while the excessive

inundation in some places hindered their reestablishment.

By contrast, the cumulative effects of drought, ditching, and

fires since drainage have resulted in progressive oxidation of

the peat and the destruction of greater and greater amounts of

it. In many instances, because of the repetition of fires, most

' successional stages from the tamarack-spruce stage downward

have been returned again and again, or have been forced still

lower, while many have been wiped out entirely and have been

replaced by aspen stands. However, for reasons which will be

discussed later, some areas escaped drainage. These relics have

maintained their original vegetation (Fig. 6) and raw peat,

and in some instances are now progressing to more advanced

stages in the bog succession.

As a result of unequal drainage and fires, all stages of the

bog succession, from the lowest to the final tamarack-spruce

stage, exist at one place or another, presenting simultaneously

all the stages in the developmental procession.

Period of dams and dikes. In 1933 and in several years fol¬

lowing, a series of dams was installed, which led to complica¬

tions in the successional stages. In many instances, dikes were

constructed in conjunction with the dams, creating fio wages

(Fig. 16).

Secondary Successions

The following conclusions regarding secondary successions

and the factors which initiated them are based chiefly upon

observations made during the period of field study, 1937-1940.

Analysis of such successions was greatly aided by information

received from cranberry operators, local hunters, and several

early settlers, concerning the conditions of certain of the areas

before and after drainage and fire.

Relic areas of bog communities consist of tamarack (Larix

laricina), black spruce (Picea mariana), and occasional individ¬

uals of white pine (Pinus Strohus), Of the two dominant trees,

tamarack seems to be much more fire resistant. This is demon¬

strated where there have been superficial fires. In such cases,

black spruce has been killed, while tamarack has persisted (Fig.

9). To a limited extent, spruce has been cut for pulp and for

local Christmas-tree markets. A few white pine occur, but they

38 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

are usually retarded in growth. On shallow peat, however, they

have attained considerable size.

The following members of the heath family typically form

distinct shrub socies in the above community: bog rosemary

(Andromeda glaucophylla) , leatherleaf (Chamaedaphne caly-

culata), Labrador tea (Ledum groenlandicum) , blueberries (Vac-

cinium canadense and F. angustifolium) , large cranberry (Vac-

cinium macro carpon) , small cranberry (Vaccinium Oxycoccos) ,

and huckleberry (Gaylussacia haccata). Of primary importance

are Chamaedaphne, Andromeda, and Ledum, Ledum is the most

shade-tolerant and persists in greater numbers in the mature bog

com.munity where a dense canopy has developed. Andromeda is

the most water-tolerant and dominates the more highly satu¬

rated areas. In treeless sphagnum-heath meadows, where a ris¬

ing water table has brought about an extremely saturated con¬

dition, Andromeda tends to become the dominant shrub. Chamae¬

daphne, on the other hand, prefers drier peat, and grows in

profusion where fires have destroyed much of the vegetation

but have not burned into the peat (Fig. 9). Little is known of

the pioneering efficiency of these shrubs by means of seeding

(Stallard, 1929), but the fact that they are proficient in prop¬

agating and spreading by means of rootstocks may explain their

abundance on superficially burned areas.

Cranberry, like Labrador tea, tolerates shade, and persists

in fairly considerable numbers under a dense tree canopy.

Huckleberry and blueberry are secondary shrub species occurring

infrequently in the bog community.

Conspicuous areas of pitcher plant (Sarracenia purpurea)

occur in the sphagnum mat while pink lady’s slipper ( Cypripe-

dium acaule) occurs less frequently. Periodical harvesting of

sphagnum by raking results in the fragmentation of plants of

Cypripedium and their consequent increase by far greater num¬

bers than normal reproduction would bring about. This practice

also does not seem to reduce the sphagnum materially. Scattered

plants of creeping snowberry (Chiogenes hispidula), Indian pipe

(Monotropa uniflora) and sundew (Drosera rotundifolia) are

found in the dense sphagnum mat. Cotton grass (Eriophorum

virginicum) is restricted to open places, and Osmunda cinnamo-

mea often occurs around the edges of such areas.

Those scattered relics of the bog community (Fig. 6) which

still persist escaped destruction for various reasons. Some of

Catenhusen—Peat Lands of Glacial Lake Wisconsin 39

the ditches were ineffective in draining the peat because they

were too shallow, or soon became so through silting. In several

instances very large peat areas were more resistant to drainage

because of their size, while still others were associated with

reservoirs for cranberry bogs. In addition, several tamarack-

spruce areas exist today in places where the surveyors recorded

open marsh. They are presumably the result of recent

development.

Carnes of secondary successions:

1. Desiccation of the peat by drought and drainage.

2. Fire after desiccation, the intensity of the fire being

dependent on the severity of the desiccating factors.

3. Rise of the water table as a result of damming the ditches,

which has killed mesophytic vegetation on destroyed bogs

and aided bog communities where they still survived.

4. Flooding of large areas by impounded water inside dikes,

which has destroyed existing vegetation and initiated

aquatic successions.

5. Cultivation and later abandonment of the peat, resulting

in weedy successions, some of which have been obliterated

by the 1930 fire and by the rising water table, or by actual

flooding.

Secondary Successions Initiated by Desiccation : Succes¬

sions resulting from desiccation after drainage were almost

entirely wiped out by the subsequent v/idespread fires. Where

such areas do occur, the following quasi-mesophytic climax

(Fig. 7) results: white pine, jack pine, oak, maple, white birch,

alder, bracken fern, and dewberry.

Secondary Successions Initiated by Fires : Three degrees

of burning are distinguishable: (1) superficial burning, in

which a rapid hot fire destroys many or all of the trees without

seriously affecting the ground-cover plants or the peat; (2)

medium burning, in which the ground-cover and surface peat

have been destroyed; (3) deep burning, in which the bog vege¬

tation is completely wiped out and the peat is burned to a con¬

siderable depth. A summary of the typical secondary successions

resulting from drainage, fire, and later flooding are sketched in

Figure 5.

40 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

(1) Successions following superficial burning

(a) The Larix-Picea associes. The most favorable places for

the establishment of Picea mariana and Larix laricina are com¬

paratively dry peat areas where the Ledum-Chamaedaphne

associes occurs. While the latter associes is usually the fore¬

runner of an invasion by tamarack and spruce (Fig. 8), these

trees may occasionally invade a Calamagrostis-Carex associes

(Fig. 10) before or simultaneously with the shrub invasion.

Typical situations for the invasion of tamarack and spruce,

however, are sites on which a superficial fire has killed most of

the trees, but has not seriously affected the peat or the ground

cover. Here the heath shrubs quickly recover by means of root-

stock propagation, and sphagnum readily invades any burned-

out patches. Where seed stock is present (Fig. 8), reestablish¬

ment of tamarack and spruce takes place rapidly.

In some cases spruce, because it is more vulnerable to fire,

is entirely wiped out, and reestablishment of tamarack alone

proceeds, resulting in a Larix consocies. However, it is possible

for a Larix-Picea associes to develop eventually into a Picea

consocies. Since spruce is more shade-tolerant than tamarack,

its seedlings can develop in the shade of the latter. As individ¬

uals of tamarack mature and die, establishment of spruce

seedlings in spaces left by their death is more likely to occur

(Stallard, 1929). This procedure may continue until the final

result in a Picea consocies. In this region, no bogs occur which

are mature enough to present a stage so late in the bog

succession.

(b) The Ledumr-Chamaedaphne associes. The following heath

shrubs are members of this associes : Chamaedaphne calyculata,

Ledum groenlandicum, Andromeda glaucophylla, Vaccinium

macrocarpon, V, Oxycoccos, F. canadense, V, angustifolium,

Gaylussacia baccata and Nemopanthes mucronata occasionally

occur as secondary species. A sphagnum mat is the character¬

istic ground cover.

This associes is the typical stage existing on peat areas

where a superficial, hot, rapid fire has wiped out the trees. In

such instances the heaths are also affected by the fire, but recover

rapidly by rootstock propagation and become more numerous

than before. Where such fires have occurred, the surface peat

is generally somewhat dry. Under these conditions, Chamae^

Catenhusen — Peat Lands of Glacial Lake Wisconsin 41

daphne readily propagates from rootstocks and tends to dom¬

inate. If relic plants of bog birch (Betula pumila var. glandulif-

era) are present, dense stands of it often develop. Like Chamae-

daphne, it does not produce thick stands where loose sphagnum

or saturated peat are present, but where the peat is dry, dense

stands are likel5^ to appear. Alder (Alnus rugosa) also develops

some stands on the same situations. Scattered stands of aspen

(Populus tremuloides) often develop on rather dry peat surfaces

where superficial fires have occurred, but do not produce hardy

individuals where the water table is high. Continued high water

level invariably kills the aspen (Fig. 15). Where the peat

becomes saturated or slightly flooded after a superficial Are,

Andromeda reinvades and becomes the dominant shrub.

Where the water table is close to the surface, sphagnum

remnants easily regenerate typical hummocks which eventually

enlarge and coalesce. Of the herbaceous plants, Sarracenia pur¬

purea is the most likely to escape complete destruction, and if

the Are has not been too severe, it may regenerate communities

in the sphagnum mat. In the open heath stage, it often occurs

in depressions between the sphagnum hummocks where there

is likely to be more moisture and shade. Monotropa uniflora,

Cypripedium acaule, and other herbaceous plants of the sphag¬

num mat are less hardy and are easily destroyed by superficial

fires.

Summary: Where a superficial fire has killed most of the

tamarack and spruce, but has not seriously affected the ground

cover or peat, a rapid invasion of these trees follows. In such

instances the heaths are also affected by the Are but recover

quickly by means of rootstock propagation.

(2) Successions following medium burning or repeated

superficial fires

(a) The BetulOr- Alnus associes. This appears on medium burns

where the water table is well below the surface, since the seeds

of Betula, Alnus, Cornus, and Salix, which are the predominant

members of the associes, germinate above the water. Here Betula

pumila var. glandulifera usually appears flrst. Vegetative prop¬

agation by means of root shoots, as well as the production of

large amounts of mobile seeds produced early in the life of the

plant, often bring about the formation of pure stands (Fig. 9).

Alnus rugosa, which produces fairly mobile seeds, may also

42 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

appear, though usually in less abundance. Where relic plants of

Chamaedaphne exist, vegetative propagation leads to a fair

representation of it. Other plants often occurring as secondary

species are red-osier dogwood (Cornus stolonifera), poison

sumac (Rhus Vernix), paper birch (Betula papyri f era) , willows

(Salix spp.) and aspen (Populus tremuhides) . Sphagnum is

usually replaced in varying amounts by Polytrichum commune,

Repeated superficial fires on a Ledum-Chamaedaphne area

may also result in a Betula- Alnus associes, or in widespread

stands of Betula with an admixture of Chamaedaphne where the

surface peat is fairly dry.

Where open places exist, various herbaceous species or

combinations of them may occur. The most prominent include

Scirpus cyperinus var. pelius, Calamagrostis canadensis, SoUdago

gigantea, S, uliginosa, Eupatorium perfoliatum, Cirsium muti-

cum, and Helianthus giganteus. These open areas are eventu¬

ally invaded by woody species and the herbaceous plants are

shaded out.

Considerable variation in the makeup of these associes may

be found, depending on the condition of the peat, proximity of

parent plants, and particular characteristics of component spe¬

cies, such as tolerance of water, ability to propagate vegetatively,

abundance and mobility of seeds produced, and germination

requirements of seeds.

(b) The Salix- Alnus associes. The members of the Betulor- Alnus

associes develop their best stands where the surface of the peat

is dry following burns and the water table is fairly low, though

the majority can grow with their bases submerged in water

for considerable periods of time. This is especially true of

willows, which often are found in considerable depths of

water. A Salix- Alnus associes develops where high water levels

follow the initial stage of dry peat and a low water table. Other

water-tolerant shrubs of the Betula-Alnus associes may occur

as secondary species, or a pure stand of willows may develop,

forming a characteristic Salix consocies.

(c) The Calamagrostis-Carex associes. According to old settlers

of the region, many of the “open marshes” were covered with

a dense stand of blue joint and sedge, some of which may have

been the original “prairies” described by the surveyors; others

probably were the result of medium fires which removed the

Catenhusen — Peat Lands of Glacial Lake Wisconsin 43

woody species and allowed an invasion of the Calamagrostis-

Carex associes. These ''open marshes'' or "prairies" were the

wire-grass meadows which furnished raw materials for a thriv¬

ing weaving industry at the turn of the century. The dominant

sedges of this associes were Carex oUgosperma and C. fUiformis,

while Calamagrostis was considerably less abundant. With the

advent of drainage, however, Calamagrostis became the dom¬

inant species.

Open areas in the Ledum-Chamaedaphne, Betula-Alnus, and

Salix-Alnus associes were often invaded and occupied by Cala-

magrostis. Similarly, large areas of Calamagrostis (Fig. 11)

may develop where medium fires have burned the peat uniformly

and removed the woody species. Where adequate water is sup¬

plied at a constant level, relic patches of sphagnum eventually

produce a typical mat. In such instances, the Carex species

increase also, especially where Calamagrostis does not form a

closed stand very rapidly. Both Carex and Calamagrostis are

aided in spreading and invading by the blowing of seeds. Once

established, they solidify the stand by means of root shoots.

The Calamagrostis-Carex associes (Fig. 11) also becomes

established on areas where repeated superficial burns have pro¬

gressively reduced stands of Ledum-Chamaedaphne. With each

successive fire, closing in of stands by the bog heaths becomes

more difficult, and where the water table is sufficiently high, the

Calamagrostis-Carex associes finally replaces them.

After reinvasion by sphagnum, establishment of a Ledum-

Chamaedaphne associes may begin. Where relics of these heaths

exist, the process is considerably hastened. Relatively drier situ¬

ations where sphagnum does not readily reinvade may be

invaded by Betula, Alnus, Salix, or similar plants. In such

instances, the kind of species and the stage of succession which

follow depend on the proximity of parent plants as well as

mobility of the seed.

Typical Calamagrostis-Carex associes have associated with

them a living sphagnum mat. However, sphagnum may be

destroyed by drouth or by flooding. Stallard (1929) observes

that sphagnum cannot survive or develop in flooded areas or

in places where the water table fluctuates. In the latter case an

elevation of the water level perches the plants on the culms of

grasses and sedges, where they are left when the water recedes,

and readily dry out and die. While sphagnum in a saturated

44 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

condition holds water up to 20 times its own weight (Dach-

nowski, 1935), it is incapable of drawing up water efficiently

by capillarity, so a prolonged and decided drop in the water level

results in the death of the sphagnum. Where drought kills the

sphagnum, it eliminates many of the sedges of the associes as

well.

Wool grass (Scirpns cyperinus var. pelius) (Fig. 12) is much

more tolerant of fluctuating water levels as well as of periods

of drought or flooding than are the primary members of the

Calamagrostis-Carex associes. When such disturbances take

place, invasion by Scirpus follows (Fig. 12). Where water levels

permit, the following secondary species may also be present:

Spiraea tomentosa var. rosea, Solidago spp.. Aster paniculatus,

Eupatorium perfoliatum, Helianthus giganteus, Bidens spp.,

Cirsium muticum. Periods of drought may result in invasion by

Alnus, Betula, Salix, and other woody species.

Summary: Medium burns result in earlier retrogressive

successions than do superflcial bums and involve either various

woody plants not typical of the bog community or plants of the

sedge-meadow stage. Most of these associes, however, are merely

preliminary to invasion by the typical bog associes.

(3) Successions following deep burning

(a) The Populus tremuloides consocies. Where drainage was

entirely successful, the fires burned deeply into the peat, often

burning down to the underlying substratum. A pure stand of

aspen (Populus tremuloides) follows deep burning of desiccated

peat (Fig. 13).

In many instances the aspen seedlings are arranged in groups

around burned-out stumps of tamarack and spruce. Where

cracks occur in the peat as a result of drying, the seedlings

appear in a reticulate pattern which may still be apparent in

mature trees. Probably seed germination is more successful in

these cracks because of the moisture v/hich is held there. Burns

on established stands of aspen result in the reestablishment of

the consocies by sprouts from the burned trees. Repeated burn¬

ing, however, may eventually destroy the plants completely and

wipe out the stand.

Admixtures of aspen often are found with various of the

associes resulting from less severe fires. Growth of these aspen

is retarded by the less favorable environment, and their ultimate

Catenhusen — Peat Lands of Glacial Lake Wisconsin 45

destruction is assured where high water levels exist and they

must compete with other more water-tolerant woody plants.

In many instances drainage has been successful, and the

consequent fires have severely burned vast areas of peat land,

leading to the establishment of solid stands of aspen (Fig. 13).

At present no conclusion can be drawn regarding the successions

following the aspen monotype. What happens will depend on

the level at which the water table becomes stabilized. If they

remain dry, it is quite possible that white pine may follow. Many

of the aspen areas are already, as a result of rising water levels,

too wet to permit further development (Fig. 14), while still

others have been flooded for several years, with resulting death

of the trees (Fig. 15). Amphibious and aquatic plants are

invading such areas.

Summary: Deep burns not only completely destroy the bog

plants, but initiate a succession which neither involves bog

species nor tends toward the reestablishment of the bog

community.

Secondary Successions Initiated by a Rising Water

Table and by Flooding: Damming of the ditches, which was

begun in 1933, has brought about a steadily rising water table,

with the result that the water is near or at the surface. How¬

ever, where deeply burned peat basins occur, shallow flooding

has been the result (Fig. 14).

A rising water table retards the growth of the aspen, while

flooding, if it continues, kills them. Comparatively deep flowages

(Fig. 16) were created v/here the water was mpounded behind

constructed dikes and allowed to flood natural basins.

Large sources of sub-aquatic plants in the ditches (Figs. 17

and 18) and cranberry reservoirs (Catenhusen 1944) are aiding

the invasion of the wet and flooded areas.

(1) Successions folloiving shallow flooding

(a) The Typha-Phragmites associes. Following shallow flooding,

the typical associes consists of cat-tail (Typha latifolia) and reed

(Phragmites communis). Often socies are formed by several

species of Alisma, Sagittaria, and Sparganium. Scirpus validus

occurs infrequently, as do Polygonum natans forma genuinum,

P. Careyi, and P. coccineum var. pratincola,

Typha and Phragmites are the most aggressive because of

the speed with which they reproduce vegetatively. While most

46 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts and Letters

of the other species propagate similarly, their efficiency is con¬

siderably lower ; in addition their seeds occur in smaller numbers

and are not easily disseminated by wind.

The seeds of Typha are produced in abundance and are easily

scattered by the wind. Unlike Phragmites, it will develop in a

variety of situations just as long as there is sufficient moisture

to bring about seed germination. Phragmites does not produce a

large number of viable seeds and it is much more restricted in

its requirements for seed germination and successful establish¬

ment.

Because of the ease with which Typha and Phragmites

reproduce vegetatively, it is likely that they will eventually

replace the secondary species. At present, no conclusion can be

drawn regarding successions which might follow. It is likely,

however, that enough debris will be deposited by them to raise

the surface above the water level and allow an invasion of a

Salix-Alnus or a Calamagrostis-Carex associes.

(2) Successions following establishment of flowages

Plants of the Typha-Phragmites associes often form a zone

along wet shores. Other herbaceous plants occurring on wet

shores or in shallow water are Eleocharis obtusa, Pontederia cor-

data, and Ludwigia palustris var. americana. Several grasses

often appear on wet shores as well: Glyceria canadensis, Echi-

nochloa pungens, and Leersia orzyoides.

Various floating plants growing in the ditches have been

washed into these flowages and are becoming established there ;

the following are usual ones observed in such instances : Lemna

minor, L. trisulca, Utricularia vulgaris var. americana, and

Potamogeton epihydrus var. Nuttallii.

Fairly constant water levels in these flowages have existed

for only the past few years, so that natural revegetation of

such areas has only just begun. The normal succession of aquatic

plants in these flowages has probably been upset by the intro¬

duction of numerous aquatic plants, planted there for the pur¬

pose of increasing the wildlife potentialities of the flowages.

Summary

U. S. government surveyors in 1839-1855 found extensive

treeless areas of ‘^open marshes’ ' and ‘‘moss marshes” as well

as “marshes” with scattered individuals or small stands of

Catenhusen — Peat Lands of Glacial Lake Wisconsin 47

tamarack, spruce, and white pine, and other less extensive areas

of the tamarack-spruce community. Occasional admixtures of

maple, aspen, white birch, and alder were also reported.

Because of the extremely wet condition of the peat land

previous to drainage, fires were probably of a superficial nature,

arresting the stages of the bog succession but never completely

destroying them.

The combined effects of several severe drought periods and

drainage resulted in more severe fires. During the drainage

period, fires of various intensity occurred, depending upon the

degree of desiccation.

A superficial burn on a bog results in retrogressive succes¬

sions. Where no later interference takes place, a progressive

recovery occurs, tending toward the reestablishment of the bog

community. Tamarack and spruce readily reestablish themselves

after superficial fires from any seed stock which has escaped

destruction, and the bog heaths recover by means of rootstock

propagation of relic plants. Sphagnum, provided the peat is wet,

rapidly regenerates a typical mat.

A medium burn or frequent superficial burns result in a

lower stage of retrogressive succession than does a superficial

burn and make possible an invasion by bog birch, dogwood,

willow, and alder, where the surface of the peat is dry. If shal¬

low flooding follows, willow, and to a lesser extent alder, become

the dominant plants. Open areas betwen stands of these woody

species are often invaded by blue joint and sedge if the peat is

wet and by wool grass where fluctuations of water levels or

alternating periods of drought and flooding occur.

A deep burn not only completely destroys the bog species,

but initiates a succession which neither involves bog species

nor tends toward the reestablishment of the bog community.

Such deep burns are followed by a pure stand of aspen. A rising

water table retards the growth of aspen, while flooding, if it

continues, kills them. It is not known what successions will fol¬

low the aspen stands which are established on dry peat, but it

is possible that white pine may follow. Where flooding has killed

the aspen, wool grass invades.

The aquatic plants which survived the drainage period in

protected cranberry reservoirs, natural streams, and in the

ditches themselves, are spreading into the flooded areas. The

48 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Typha-Phragmites associes often forms a zone along wet shores.

Several grasses often appear on wet shores as well: Glyceria

canadensis, Echinochloa pnngens, and Leersia oryzoides. Float¬

ing plants, such as Lemna minor, L. trisulca, Utricularia vul¬

garis var. americana, Potamogeton epihydrus var. Nuttallii form

zones in the water.

References

Bordner, John S., et at. Land economic inventory of Juneau County,

Wisconsin. State of Wisconsin, Division of Land Economic Inventory.

Bulletin No. 1. 1934.

Catenhusen, John. Some aquatic and sub-aquatic plants from the region

of Glacial Lake Wisconsin. Transactions of Wisconsin Academy of

Sciences, Arts and Letters: 36:163-169. 1944. Issued January, 1946.

Dachnowski, Alfred P. Profiles of peat lands within the limits of extinct

Glacial Lakes Agassiz and Wisconsin. Botanical Gazette: 80:345-366.

December, 1925.

Dachnowski-Stokes, a. P. Peat land as a conserver of rainfall and water

supplies. Ecology: 16:173-177. April, 1935.

Frolik, a. L. Vegetation on the peat lands of Dane County, Wisconsin.

Ecological Monographs: 11:117-140. January, 1941.

Gates, Frank C. The bogs of northern lower Michigan. Ecological Mono¬

graphs: 12:213-254. July, 1942.

Grange, Wallace. Chronological table. An ecological history of the town

of Remington, Wood County, Wisconsin. Wildlife Research: 2:30-34.

July, 1942.

Hansen, Henry P. The tamarack bogs of the Driftless Area of Wisconsin.

Milwaukee Public Museum Bulletin: 7:231-304. June, 1933.

Huels, Frederick William. The peat resources of Wisconsin. Wisconsin

Geological and Natural History Survey. Bulletin No. 45. (Economic

Series Number 20.) 1915.

Martin, Lawrence. The physical geography of Wisconsin. 2nd edition.

Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey. Bulletin No. 36.

(Educational Series No. 4.) 1932.

Rhodes, Joseph. An ecological comparison of two Wisconsin peat bogs.

Milwaukee Public Museum Bulletin: 7:305-362. October, 1933.

Stallard, Harvey. Secondary successions in the climax forest formations

of northern Minnesota. Part 6: Subseres in bogs. Ecology: 10:522-534.

October, 1929.

Weaver, J. E. and F. E. Clements. Plant Ecology. McGraw-Hill Book Co.,

Inc. York, Pa. 1938.

Whitson, A. R. Soils of Wisconsin. Wisconsin Geological and Natural His¬

tory Survey. Bulletin No. 68. (Soil Series No. 49.) 1927.

SOME MORPHOLOGICAL AND CULTURAL STUDIES ON

LAKE STRAINS OF MICROMONOSPORAE*

Arthur R. Colmer^ and Elizabeth McCoy

Department of Agricultural Bacteriology,

University of Wisconsin

Introduction

The classification of the Actinomycetaceae, the parent family

of the genus Micromonospora, has interested many investigators,

Breed and Conn (1919), Drechsler (1919), Jensen (1931),

Krainsky (1914), Krassilnikov (1940), Lehmann and Neumann

(1912), Lieske (1921), Orskov (1923), Stainer and Van Niel

(1941), Waksman and Curtis (1916), Waksman (1940). Two

later workers, Waksman and Henrici (1943), have given one of

the newer classifications for the family, with a marked revision

of new genera for some of the members. It is interesting to note,

however, that with all of the altering in position of the other

actinomycetes the original genus Micromonospora has not been

subjected to much change in its placement since Orskov (1923)

proposed it. While it is true that the genus itself has not been

subject to change, the classification framework for the organ¬

isms within the genus has not met with such uniform acceptance

by the workers with the group.

Colmer and McCoy (1943) have shown that micromonosporae

are found in the waters and muds of some Wisconsin lakes. Dur¬

ing the course of the survey of these lakes a pure culture col¬

lection of 538 representatives of the group was obtained. In

view of the present status of the classification of the genus, it

was thought to be of interest to study the correlation of these

lake strains of micromonosporae with the speciation as has been

proposed in the classifications based on known soil forms. Too,

a study of the organisms from both a morphological and cultural

approach is desirable because the genus does comprise a little-

known group of organisms.

♦ This investig'ation was supported in part by a grant from the Wis¬

consin Alumni Research Foundation.

1 At present in the Department of Botany, Bacteriology and Plant Path¬

ology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.

49

50 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Probable micromonsporae of thermophilic nature. In some of

the early work on thermophilic actinomycetes there is reason to

believe that organisms now named Micromonospora were in¬

volved. Kedzior (1896) found in sewer water a thermophilic

organism considered by him a Cladothrix. His statement about

it (“einige Kurze Faden mit ganz deutlichen Endanschwellungen

versehen sind’') and his illustrations indicate that his organism

was probably a Micromonospora. Tsiklinsky (1899) isolated a

thermophilic actinomycete from such varied sources as potatoes,

manure, soil, etc. She named it Thermoactinomyces vulgaris.

Her photomicrographs might well represent work done in 1950

on a member of the Micromonospora rather than pictures made

in 1899 on Thermoactinomyces vulgaris. Her statement is of

interest: “Les spores apparaissent au bout des filaments sous

forme de renflements ronds ou ovoides.'’ The cultural character¬

istics, as well as the morphological properties, of Thermoactino¬

myces vulgaris agree well with those of Micromonospora.

In 1907 Miehe, studying the self-heating of hays, described

an organism with the name of Actinomyces thermophilus which,

when the manner of spore formation is considered, indicates its

relation to Micromonospora. Additional work on the self -heating

of hays, particularly that of clover, was done by Schiitze (1908)

who isolated another thermophile which he named Actinomyces

monosporus. His drawings show a typical Micromonospora, and

his description of spore formation might well apply to those

forms to be reported in this work.

Probable micromono sporae of pathologic significance. Wil¬

liams (1912) must have been working with a Micromonospora,

although he terms the organism a Streptothrix, since his organ¬

ism had ‘'single oval spores at the end of threads.^’ It was

isolated from a case of tuberculous pericarditis. Acton and

McGuire (1931) found a Micromonospora-like organism con¬

cerned with pathologic processes on the feet of rice workers in

India when suffering from a disease caused by an organism

termed Actinomyces keralolytica. Erikson (1935, 1940) made a

study of some aerobic and anaerobic pathogenic Actinomyces.

One of the aerobic cultures, N. C. T. C. #4582, had been isolated

from a case of Banti’s disease. Although this organism produced

a sparse aerial mycelium she regarded it as a micromonospora

resembling M. pdrva Jensen. An anaerobic strain, N. C. T. C.

Colmer and McCoy — Lake Strains of Micromonosporae 51

>•

#5779, had been isolated from diseased hair; its characteristics

were those of a micromonospora resembling M. fusca Jensen.

Other reports of the occurrence of micromonosporae. In 1932

Bredemann and Werner demonstrated a rather common Acti¬

nomyces species which was a powerful butyrate decomposer.

Their illustration indicated that their organism was a micro¬

monospora.

Kriss (1939), a Russian worker, studied eight mesophilic,

saprophytic strains of micromonosporae isolated from semi-arid

soils. He named his organism Micromonospora globosa and

termed all his organisms strains of the one species. Waksman,

Umbreit, and Cordon (1939) have given the results of their

study of soils and composts in relation to thermophilic actinomy-

cetes and fungi, and it is in this late report that reference was

made to an aerial mycelium being a morphological attribute of

the thermophilic members of this genus. Waksman, Cordon, and

Hulpoi (1939) amplified the findings reported in the first paper.

Hungate (1946) has reported finding a Micromonospora sp. in

the alimentary tract of the wood-eating termite, Amitermes

minimus. It was obligately anaerobic and was of interest due

to its possible evolutionary relationship to the propionic bacteria

and the actinomycetes.

Suggested Schemes for Classification of Micromonosporae

Although it was Orskov (1923) who, in his scheme for the

classification of that group of microorganisms previously known

as Actinomyces, put the genus Micromonospora in Group III and

based the definition of the genus upon the characters possessed

by the one strain which he had received from a culture collec¬

tion, it was Jensen (1932) who gave the genus a firm footing

with his study of the mesophilic, saprophytic forms. His find¬

ings will be used in later discussions; his scheme of classifica¬

tion is given below:

I. Vigorously growing organisms, typically with copious

spore formation on dextrose-asparagin agar.

A. Vegetative mycelium pale pink to deep orange, no

typical soluble pigment Micromonospora chalceae.

B. Vegetative mycelium orange changing to brown¬

ish-black, brown soluble pigment

. Micromonospora fusca.

52 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

II. Slowly and feebly growing organisms, with scant spore

formation on dextrose-asparagin agar, no soluble

pigment.

A. Vegetative mycelium pale pink to pale orange

. . Micromonaspora parva.

B. Vegetative mycelium blue

. Micromono spor a coernlea.

In 1940 Krassilnikov published a short report on the classi¬

fication of the actinomycetes. He set up two co-ordinate families,

the Actinomycetaceae and the Micromonosporaceae. The latter

had but one genus. Micromono spor a. His description of this genus

again gave the outstanding characteristics of the group : ''Micro-

monospora, unlike the species of the genus Actinomyces, forms

conidia on the branches of its aerial mycelium, — one at the end

of each conidiophore.''

Waksman (1940) gave impetus to the subdivision of the

genus into subgroups. This was an outgrowth of the earlier

work of Jensen (1932) which had been directed toward such a

subdivision. The findings of Waksman and his co-workers in

their work with micromonosporae of composts aided in the

classification. Because of the discussion that will be undertaken

upon the placement of the lake strains of this genus, the Waks¬

man classification of these organisms is given in toto.

Family MICROMONOSPORACEAE Krassilnikov

Well developed, fine, non-septated mycelium, 0.3-0.6 jw, in

diameter. Grows well into the substrate. Not forming at any

time a true aerial mycelium. Multiplies by means of conidia,

produced singly at end of special conidiophores, on surface

of substrate mycelium. Conidiophores short and either

simple, branched or produced in clusters. Strongly pro¬

teolytic and diastatic. Comprises mostly saprophytic forms.

These organisms occur mostly in manure, aerial dust and

soil ; many are thermophilic and can grow at 65 degrees C.

I. Genus Micromonospora Orskov

Type species — Micromonospora chalceae (Foulerton)

Orskov

This genus could be subdivided on the basis of the rela¬

tions of the organisms to temperature, since it includes a

number of thermophilic forms which grow readily at 55-65

degrees C, and mesophilic forms having their optimum

temperature at 30 degrees C. Each of these groups is

divided into three subgroups, based on the structure of the

Colmer and McCoy— Lake Strains of Micromonosporae 53

spore-bearing hyphae. Among the thermophilic forms only

representatives of the first group have so far been isolated

in pure culture although the existence of the other two

groups has definitely been demonstrated in microscopic

preparations.

Subgroup 1. Simple spore-bearing hyphae.

Type species— M. vulgaris (Tsiklinski) Waksman

Subgroup 2, Branching spore-bearing hyphae.

Type species— M. chalceae (Foulerton) Orskov

Subgroup 3. Spore-bearing hyphae in clusters.

Type species— M. fusca Jensen

The available information does not justify as yet the

separation of the thermophilic forms into separate species.

However, this may have to be done later when more infor¬

mation has accumulated concerning these organisms.

Experimental

Culture sources and designations. Of the 49 cultures finally

selected for more intensive study, 32 came from Lake Mendota.

With the exception of culture S 1932-5 and the two cultures,

J 301 and J 405, all of the remainder were from the lakes

reported on before (Colmer and McCoy 1943). J 301 and J 405

were from the culture collection of Jansky (1936), who secured

them from the “Highland lake district of northeastern

Wisconsin.”

The following cultures were from Lake Mendota:

Each is designated by a letter follov^ed by two numbers. This

scheme permitted a type of bookkeeping which facilitated tracing

the date of collection and the location in the lake from which

the sample was taken. Culture S 1932-5 came from Lake Men¬

dota also, but singularly, it was isolated from a sample of

shallow mud which had been collected in 1932, dried in a 37 °C

incubator, and then held at room temperature. All of the cultures

54 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

except N3-5 were from muds at the 15 to 18 meter depth of

Lake Mendota. N3-5 came from the sandy bottom of the Univer¬

sity Bay area.

The cultures chosen from the other lakes are:

TL 190 (Trout

Lake)

TL 200-1

TL 215

TL 217

TL 220-2

J 301 (Jansky, thesis R 1 (Ripley)

culture)

J 405 R 18

LJ 41-2 (Little John) N 6 (Nebish)

LJ 51-3 C 91 (Crystal)

W 24 (Weber) M 2 (Monona)

Bog (Unnamed bog)

Some techniques used for actinomycete study, Waksman

(1919) quotes Nadson as indicating that the term colony is

incorrect for designating a mass of growth of an actinomyces

because '‘it is not true to nature to call a mass of mycelium

developing out of a spore a colony, as in the sense of a bacterial

colony.’' This statement may be applied as well to the mass of

mycelium of Micrdmonospora species. However, since in bac¬

teriological terminology the word “colony” carries concomit¬

antly so much other than the idea that it is the resulting progeny

of a single cell or spore or small aggregate of these, colony will

be used in this report to mean that resulting mass of filaments

and spores which might have resulted from the growth of a

single spore or closely lying cluster of them or possibly from a

small segment of mycelium.

Both Drechsler (1919) with Actinomyces species and Kriss

(1939) with Micromono spor a species used impression techniques

to study the morphology of their organisms. An adhesive-coated

glass cover slip was pressed down upon the organism to be

studied, carefully raised, and then stained. The procedure

revealed the structure of the surface of the colony. Waksman

Umbreit, and Cordon (1939) made use of contact slides in their

compost work. Orskov (1923) developed an agar block technique

for the study of members of the actinomycetes.

Two tests were devised to study the possibility of using

contact slides in this investigation. One test made use of lake

deposits known to have about 300,000 micromonosporae per

gram. Glass tumblers were filled with the mud and then sterile

glass slides were placed upright in them. The glasses were cov¬

ered to prevent excessive evaporation and were then incubated

Colmer and McCoy — Lake Strains of Micromonosporae 55

at room temperature. After times varying from five to 30 days,

the slides were carefully removed and stained with phenolic

rose bengal for 12-15 minutes over a steam bath. The second

test was made on pure cultures of the organisms, since in many

instances it had been noticed that they grew attached to the

sides of the tubes of broth. To investigate the possibility of using

this property as a means of attachment to slides for microscopic

work, glass slides were submerged in nutrose broth containing

growing cultures.

Use of liquid and solid substrates. The primary liquid medium

used was nutrose broth (Henrici and McCoy, 1938) . The ‘"milky”

sheen of this broth disappeared under the diastatic and proteo¬

lytic action of the organisms, and the liquid, as a result, became

water clear. Thus any turbidity of the liquid could be regarded

with suspicion as having been caused by a contaminant.

Wet mounts made from the broth did not allow proper

focusing with the oil immersion lens, and, because of the minute

size of the growth, it was obligatory that the magnification fur¬

nished by this lens system be used. Care had to be taken, too,

in observing the mass of filaments and interpreting the observa¬

tions since a refraction could be caused by the crossing of fila¬

ments to give a minute, dense area of high refractivity which

had the appearance of a spore. This condition also could be

caused by the turns of the filaments being at such an angle that

the refraction of the added protoplasm at the spot gave a dense

area resembling that caused by a spore. However, when aqueous

methylene blue was permitted to flow under the cover slip, the

slide being still mounted under the oil immersion lens, the pro¬

gressively staining portions of the basal hyphae, branchlets, and

spores permitted a more detailed study of these microscopic

structures.

The solid media commonly used with actinomycetes by Conn,

(1921) ; Krainsky, (1914) ; Waksman, (1919) ; Jensen, (1930) ;

were used in the study of the morphology and cultural charac¬

teristics of the micromonosporae. Such work was found to be

standardized by the use of the starch casein and dextrose casein

media of Jensen (1930). For morphological studies, colonies of

different ages were dug from the agar slants and crushed upon

slides to free the growth of agar. When such, masses were

observed, as in a wet mount or by the use of the conventionally

56 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

stained slide, it was found that the agar debris and the frag¬

mentation of the growth resulting from the preparation of such

slides did not permit a satisfactory study of the organisms.

Stained agar slide technique. Because of the deficiencies

shown in the other procedures, an agar-slide technique was devel¬

oped to permit the observation of an undisturbed growth. To

prepare for these slides, petri dishes were selected so that two

slides could be placed in them abreast. Glass tubing in the bottom

of the dishes held the slides level and kept them above the

moistened blotting paper in the bottom of the dish. The whole

assembly was autoclaved at 15| steam pressure for 30 minutes,

and, upon cooling, each slide had a streak of dextrose casein

agar layered along each lengthwise edge. This gave, as a result,

a central area the length of the slide where the expressed fluid

from the hardened agar streaks lay in a film. Growth from the

liquid culture to be examined v/as inoculated upon the agar and

this thin nutrient layer. For some cultures a loop carried suffi¬

cient growth to serve, but for organisms which grew as fine

granules and could not be handled effectively by the loop, a

pipette was used. In this case as little of the substrate was

carried over as was possible. In some tests the inoculants were

five to eight days old, whereas with others, v/hen a spore sus¬

pension was desired, they were approximately 30 days old.

The petri plates containing the inoculated slides were incu¬

bated at 30 °C. in cans saturated with water vapor. Under such

conditions of moisture, both within and without the petri dishes,

the agar slides did not dry out even when held for a month.

Slides were taken from the petri dishes at varying lengths of

time to observe the growth, and when it was seen by macro¬

scopic observation that this was satisfactory, the agar was

rapidly dried over a steaming water bath. Usually the time of

incubation was from five to 10 days with the longer period

needed for the slower growing strains. The agar on the slides

had but little tendency to crack in drying and when slides were

kept in a dried-down, unstained condition for weeks, there was

no deterioration in their usefulness.

The staining technique devised by Frost (1921) for the

“little plate” culture was tried. With either methylene blue or

thionine the agar was too deeply stained to permit good defini¬

tion of the organisms, and the filaments and spores of the organ-

Colmer and McCoy — Lake Strains of Micromonosporae 57

isms were not dyed intensively enough. Carbol fuchsin and

crystal violet stains were used but were not satisfactory. The

final staining technique made use of the Hucker Gram stain

as given in the Manual for Pure Culture Study (1939).

Sectioned agar colonies. Both starch casein and dextrose

casein agars were used as the substrates for the organisms in

this portion of the cultural study. Decimal dilutions made pos¬

sible well isolated colonies and the spore inoculant ensured a

colonial grov^th derived most probably from a single spore.

Incubation v/as at 30°C. and samples of the colonies were taken

at ages varying from two to six weeks. Both sub-surface colonies

and colonies with a surface exposure were used.

Greene (1938) used an agar-paraffin embedding technique

to study colony organization of certain bacteria; Erikson (1941)

used a similar method for her study. In the present work a

paraffin with a high melting point, approximately 55 °C. was

used. It supported the agar-colony complex better under the

action of the microtome than did the softer paraffins. Formalin-

acetic acid-alcohol and the solution of Karpechenko proved most

satisfactory as fixing solutions for the agar-embedded colony.

The dehydration of the preparations was accomplished by the

usual alcohol-cedar oil technique.

The embedded colonies were serially cut by means of a rotary

microtome. Sectionings were made so as to give both cross sec¬

tional and tangential preparations. Different thicknesses of sec¬

tions were tried; those of five micra had less tendency to tear

than did those of less thickness, and at the same time permitted

more observation on colonial structure than the sections of

greater thickness. Differential staining was attempted, but the

best results were secured by the use of Delafield's hematoxylin

or crystal violet.

Results

Morphological findings:

Kriss (1939) did not stress the information gained by his

‘‘Klatsch'' procedure for the surface study of the colonies of

Micromonospora. A similar technique used so well by Drechsler

(1919) in his Actinomyces work failed to give fruitful results

in the present study. Only detached, isolated spore-masses

58 , Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

resulted from the pressure put on the surface colonies, and little

information was gained of the conidiophore structure. No pro¬

cedure was utilized in this work which was comparable to that

of Orskov (1923), since it was found that the use of unstained

mycelia posed problems which the stained-slide technique over¬

came.

The attempts to use glass slides for contact preparations in

the lake muds ended in failure. Possibly this was due to too low

a number of micromonsporae per unit area of the glass slide

exposed, or it might have been that the area exposed by the

colloidal mud particles and the nature of the growth of the

micromonosporae in such a substrate prevented their attachment

to the slides. When pure cultures were used with glass slides

submerged in the broth, the attachment of the growth to the

slides was very insecure and the type of the growth present

made its use inadvisable for detailed morphological study. Hen-

rici and McCoy (1938) reported that filamentous forms were

seldom seen in direct staining of mud samples.

It was the stained agar slides which made detailed observa¬

tions possible upon the composition and arrangement of the

growth of the micromonosporae. The mycelial masses which

were produced upon the agar strips of the slides were dense,

bore few spores, and, because of the lack of sharp definition,

were hard to study. Since the center areas of the slides were

free of the agar, there was a clear background and observations

were facilitated.

When a spore suspension of a fast-growing strain was used

for inoculation, germination occurred, the germ tubes elongated,

side branchlets appeared, and the conidiophores bore their singly

placed spores. With some of the slow-growing strains this com¬

plete cycle was not completed before growth stopped.

With organisms which had to be pipetted onto the agar slide

due to their granular type of growth, few filamentous strands

were seen on the stained slide and the organisms appeared, in

the main, in dense colonies. These colonies (clumps) were those

which had been in the inoculation and thus had grown but

little in proportion to the mass of mycelium introduced. Only

the peripheral portions had continued growing as was demon¬

strated by a deeply stained fringe about the original clump.

The center of the clump appeared to have disintegrated; it

Colmer and McCoy — Lake Strains of Micromono sporae 59

remained unstained and it seemed to have undergone dissolution

leaving but a circular fringe of viable filament ends with deeply

staining protoplasm.

Mature spores were round or elliptical in shape varying from

0.7 to 1.0 micron in size. Spores about to germinate were larger,

averaging about 1.5 micra in diameter. The germ tubes were

smaller in diameter than the spore body from whence they

came, and there appeared to be no characteristic number of

these tubes which might arise from a spore. Usually one to three

tubes were seen coming from the spore body. In some instances

side branchlets appeared within three days upon these young

hyphae, and with the fast-growing strains a well developed

mycelium was evident in five days. Very frequently with the

slower-growing strains the growth from the spore failed to

develop a dense mycelium ; only young hyphae were seen about

the spore.

Hyphae of the micromonosporae were small in diameter;

most, as measured by a filar micrometer, ranged about the mean

of 0.5 micron. With some of the strains there seemed to be a

heavier axial strand from which filaments of lesser diameter

arose. No dichotomous branching was observed.

The formation of conidiophores or, in the case of some

strains, the branchlets which in turn bear conidiophores, began

with bud-like swellings on the side of the hyphae. Where this

bud was to serve for the reproductive unit, there was an elonga¬

tion of the conidiophore followed by a terminal swelling which,

after assuming a spherical or oval shape, had a final septum

formation which subtended the formed spore. The conidiophore,

bearing its single conidium, varied in length. In some slide prep¬

arations, the conidiophore was so short that the spore appeared

to rest on the hypha ; in other instances the conidia were at the

end of conidiophores varying from 1.0 to 2.0 micra in length.

A single microscopic field of some preparations gave all grada¬

tions in conidiophore lengths.

Usually the spores appeared back in the mass of the mycelium

rather than at the periphery of the colony. No definite portion

of the colony could be determined as the area for this repro¬

ductive process until the protrusion of the buds on the hyphae

became evident. In wet mounts made from broth cultures

approximately a month old, ripe spores were easily loosened

60 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

from the conidiophores. These old spores did not retain the

dye well ; only the membrane held the stain while the remainder

of the spore remained unstained. In like preparations of younger

cultures of some strains, spore clusters were seen in which the

short branchlets still held the conidiophores and the whole mass

strikingly resembled a cluster of grapes or a fruiting head of

Botrytis,

The fragmentation of the mycelium, so often reported as

characteristic of the Actinomyces, was never observed in the

Micromonospora, On old agar slides ‘‘ghost’^ hyphae were often

seen which had not retained the stain. In some preparations

granules were observed in the hyphae but true cross-walled

mycelia were never encountered. The rudimentary serial mycel¬

ium reported for some of the thermophilic members of this genus

and for some of the other specimens reported in the literature

was never seen in this work.

No morphological character or set of characters were found

in these lake strains of micromonosporae which could serve for

distinguishing the microorganisms.

Cultural findings:

By making use of their growth characteristics as shown in

liquid culture, particularly the standard nutrose broth, three

arbitrary divisions of these lake strains were made possible.

The strains belonging to these divisions are grouped as follows :

Cultural traits of micromonosporae of Division /. The strains

of micromonosporae which composed this division were grouped

Colmer and McCoy — Lake Strains of Micromonosporae 61

under the descriptive term “fluffy/' In this, the major division

of the 49 cultures, the growth of the organisms did not present

a uniform and constant set of characters which would permit a

hard and fast separation from the other divisions. This was

true because the growth traits of some strains of the division

varied from the characteristics displayed by the majority of the

strains into a gradation of those displayed by the next grouping.

One of the cultural characteristics was rapidity of growth.

A fine, filamentous growth in nutrose broth was apparent within

two days after the inoculation of either a crushed colony from

agar or a bit of mycelium from a liquid culture. If the inocula¬

tion of the new liquid was made in such a fashion that portions

of the inoculant were placed on the surface of the liquid, a

typical growth trait was demonstrated by most members of this

division. Floating surface colonies grew upon the liquid. In some

instances a circular confluent ring developed around the top of

the liquid in the tube. When the growth became so heavy that

the adhesive force was unable to support it, the whole mass

would settle to the bottom of the tube.

Another common trait was shown when colonies developed

on the surface of the liquid. There was then a copious develop¬

ment of fluffy streamers extending down into the liquid from

the under surface of these colonies. The appearance was similar

to that of a floating jelly-fish. When the weight of this growth

overcame the buoyancy of the floating mass it, too, settled to

the bottom. A marked difference in appearance was then pre¬

sented between the surface of either the floating or the ring type

with the fluffy growth of the bottom portions. The growth of

the surface colonies was dense, compact and more colored than

that shown by the fluffy, filamentous growth of the bottom. If

the weight of the mass of the floating colonies did not cause

the rapid sinking of it, the surface colonies would show marked

sporulation. Many times this sport crust was so dense that the

colony appeared as a floating mass of black spores.

Cultural traits of micromonosporae of Division IL There

was no sharp delineation between the fluffy characteristics of

Division I and the “lumpy" growth traits of Division II. There

were no surface rings nor surface colonies with streamers

observed in this group. The major distinguishing mark of this

group was the large lumpy growth of its organisms ; the surfaces

62 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

of the bottom growths were dome-shaped with a hollow appear¬

ing center to the mass. The growth in this group was good but

the initiation of growth after transfer was slower and the total

volume of mycelia produced was less than that of the members

of Division I. Usually the mycelium was uncolored and even

those possessing color did not have deep shades. It was in this

group that the tendency for the colonies to be formed in stellate

clumps on the sides of the tubes appeared to be accentuated.

When these colonies formed, the growth was flattened, had a

dense center and a mass of growth radiated from it. Sporula-

tion was delayed with the majority of the members of the

division.

Cultural traits of micromonosporae of Division III. The

most distinguishing cultural mark of this group was the pellet

or granular method of growing at the bottom of the tubes of

liquid. There was no surface ring, no hanging filamentous

growths and no tendency to form stellate colonies on the sides

of the tubes. Growth was extremely slow and when transfers

were to be made, pipettes had to be employed to be sure of

adequate inoculation into the new media. Inoculating loops with

the usual orifice would not hold the small pellets. With but few

exceptions the strains lacked colored growth. Sporulation was

very slow; the typical olive-green cast given to the strains of

Division I by the surface spore layer was never seen on the

cultures of this group.

Cultural Characteristics as Affected by Groivth upon

Varied Substrates

Amount of growth. The amount of growth produced by the

organisms with an agar substrate depended in large measure

upon the position of the colony in relation to the agar, i. e., upon

the agar surface or embedded. In the original dilution plates

made from lake muds, embedded colonies belonging to Division

III were very small and their detection was made possible only

by careful scrutiny of the plates under the Quebec counting

device. Colonies of Division I and II were much larger on all

solid media and it was noted that the starch casein agar, which

was used for the original isolation of the lake strains, gave

increased chromogenesis and size to the colonies of micromono-

sporae grown upon it.

Colmer and McCoy — Lake Strains of Micromonosporae 63

Types of growth. Strains of Division III did not spread over

the surface of the agar slopes. The colonies were small, approxi¬

mately one millimeter in size, of little color and changed little

with age. The strains of Division I produced colonies ranging

from three to five millimeters in diameter, and there was a

tendency for a confluent growth of the colonies. It was with

the members of Division I that there was a trait which caused

the older surface colonies to give a ‘‘burst-through” picture.

Certain portions of the peripheral mycelium grew faster than

neighboring areas and, as a result, those sectors were markedly

larger in size than the remainder of the colony. Members of

both Divisions I and II placed on agar slopes or grown on agar

plates grew down into the agar to an appreciable extent; this

characteristic growth trait made their removal quite difficult.

When a colony of a strain from either Division I or II was

formed just under the surface of an agar, a typical growth trait

occurred. The pressure of the growing globular colony upon the

surrounding agar would cause the overlying portion to give way

and allow an umbonate colony to be produced. Upon the tip of

this mycelial protrusion then exposed to air, a spore crust would

be formed. The final picture would be a round, sub-surface col¬

ony with a short extension which was subtended by a black spore

mass.

Consistency of grotvth. The cartilaginous character of the

growth of so many actinomycetes upon agar was not observed

with these lake mud micromonosporae, but rather a granular

type of growth was typical. With the faster growing strains

this property was pronounced, but the members of Division III

were not marked in this character. Starch casein agar, rather

than the other agars tried, gave this growth property. The

shaft-strengthened, spatula-shaped inoculating needle used

throughout the study was a necessity because of this hard

mycelial growth. Surprising pressure was required at times

before the globular growth could be crushed.

Effect of age on growth. All strains, no matter of what group,

which possessed color at maturity, showed color in early growth

on agar, but the color changed, in many instances, as the colonies

grew older. With some of the strains of Division II a growth

characteristic, increasing with age, was a rugose, pleated

appearance to the surface of the colony. The edges were split

64 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

and the surface of the whole colony looked like crumpled foil.

Kriss (1939) noted a similar surface change in his strains. This

phenomenon was never seen in the case of members of Division

III, and was not detected in strains of Division I due probably

to their rapid sporulation and the tendency of their sport crust

to be moist. Thus this character of rugose surface at least goes

with some strains of Division II. Where the media were of such

nature that the growth of the colony was limited, this split

surface was never seen. The starch casein medium was the most

productive of this condition.

With sub-surface colonies in nutrose agar there was a char¬

acteristic fringe about the colonies ; the lighter colored filaments

of the growing points of the mycelia were in marked contrast

with the sporulated blackened colonies. The strains of Division

III were not seen to display this property.

Sporulation of agar colonies. One of the macroscopically

distinguishing marks of the strains of Divisions I and II was

their early sporulation. The formation of a moist, olive-black

spore layer over the top of the colony began to be evident in

about five days when starch casein agar was the substrate.

Strains E2-2b and J7-15 were outstanding in this respect. Upon

transfer of large masses of mycelia from liquid medium to an

agar slope the rate of sporulation was enhanced. The strains of

Division III were slower in forming spores and they failed to

give the macroscopically prominent spore crust.

The effect of the substrate upon sporulation was marked.

Nutrient agar did not support rapid or abundant spore forma¬

tion. The mycelia of the colonies remained in their typical col¬

ored form; shades of orange predominated in these, and the

surface spore layer was lacking. The use of less rich media

changed this situation. The amount of growth, the rapidity of

sporulation and the color of the mycelia varied on the different

substrates, but none of these media gave results which were

so predominately diagnostic that they were capable of being

used in species determination of the strains. The citrate, glycerol

asparaginate, and malate media were the poorest of the sub¬

strates used in supporting growth of the lake strains.

Colonial structure as shown by agar sectioning. Erikson

(1941) reported the zonation of hyphae bearing spores in micro-

monosporae colonies, a finding confirmed in this study. Plate 1

Nutrose agar; 8

Plate I. Cross section of agar colony of strain

weeks old colony; Delafield’s hematoxylin strain.

I

A

f'

rV

%

Plate II. Strain E2-2b showing copious spore formation. Dextrose casein

ag'ar slide ; growth 7 days old ; Gram stain.

4k.&

Colmer and McCoy— Lake Strains of Micromonosporae 65

gives a cross sectional view of a sub-surface agar colony which

shows an “onion slice” semblance that is characteristic of the

organisms. In cultures of approximately 30 days of age, the

center of the colony seemed to have disappeared. No hyphae

were evident in this area, and only scattered spores were present.

Bounding this empty space was a dense spore layer ; alternating

with the spores was another circular sector rather devoid of

hyphae. Such an area of hyphal dissolution alternating with a

dense spore layer varied with the colonies depending upon their

age, the richness of the medium and the position of the colony

in the agar. This hollow-center phenomenon also could be

observed by lightly crushing a colony upon a slide, adding a

drop of water to the mass, covering with a cover slip and lightly

staining with methylene blue drawn under the cover slip. The

colony resembled the testa of the protozoan Arcella.

Discussion

Jensen (1932) stated, after the study of his mesophilic soil

strains of Micromono sp ora, that “morphological differences

were found to be too slight to allow any real differentiation

between the strains.” However, Kriss (1939) used morphology,

in the main, to identify his new species, Micromonospora glob-

osa. His eight strains all belonged to this species and their place¬

ment was predicated upon their globular conidia. The type of

conidiophore was not emphasized.

It is interesting to note that the classification as proposed

by Waksman (1940) made use of a characteristic minimized

in importance by the former worker, Jensen. Waksman based

his classification on the types of conidiophore present. Only one

of the type species of the subgroups listed, Micromonospora

vulgaris having simple spore-bearing hyphae, had been studied

in pure culture. The other two subgroups listed in the elassiff

cation, the type species M. chalceae with its branching spore¬

bearing hyphae, and M. fusca of the clustered spore-bearing

hyphae, had not been isolated and studied in pure culture. Atten¬

tion has been called to the fact that the work which served as

the background for this scheme was done on thermophilic repre¬

sentatives of the genus. Erikson (1941) evidently favored the

findings of Jensen because she did not find her 10 lake strains

eliciting a constant picture of spore formation.

66 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

The present study showed that the lake mud strains did not

possess a constancy in structure in this important characteristic

of the genus. While there were spore structures possessed by

some strains which greatly predominated in slide preparations,

it was possible to find microscopic fields on the same slide which,

if taken as the criterion for the culture, might give an entirely

different classification to the strain. Many microscopic fields

could be seen where single, branched and cluster type conidi-

ophores were all present. It is doubtful if any strict criterion,

such as conidiophore structure or shape of conidium, would

serve to separate and classify the lake-mud strains studied.

Plate II shows the structure of strain E2-2b after seven days

of growth on a dextrose casein agar slide.

The results of the cultural studies showed that substrates

markedly affect the manner of growth of the micromonosporae.

On a solid substrate of proteinaceous material such as nutrient

agar they grew vigorously, but their growth was of such char¬

acter that very little variation was noted between the strains,

and, as a result, such media would not serve for distinguishing

between them. The color of the mycelia when growing on nutri¬

ent agar was generally a shade of orange. When an inorganic

nitrogen source was present, e. g., sodium nitrate or ammonium

sulfate, colonial formation and chromogenesis were often strik¬

ing. With Actinomyces this chromogenesis might be found in

the aerial hyphae or in the vegetative hyphae or diffused into

the substrate ; with the Micromonospora only the two latter loca¬

tions might serve for the detection of this property. Jensen used

chromogenesis as a means of separating his Micromonospora,

The chromogenesis of the lake strains studied was not so con¬

stantly demonstrated that it was possible to use the character¬

istic for a separation of the organisms into species. Only one

strain gave a pigment which could be constantly detected when

diffused into the liquid or solid substrates. This character was

possessed by strain Ml-G. Later physiological studies showed

that this strain also possessed the enzyme tyrosinase.

Conn and Conn (1941) studied the value of color classifying

Actinomyces. They felt that, although these organisms often

show striking color formation, the property had such variability

that it could not be used successfully in classification. Their work

indicated, however, that pigmentation might be a feature suffi¬

ciently constant to be of diagnostic value.

Colmer and McCoy — Lake Strains of Micromonosporae 67

The cultural properties displayed by the lake strains on

solid media were dependent upon many factors. The growth of

the colony was a resultant of the factors of kind and amount

of inoculum used, the composition of the medium; and the

appearance of the colony varied in relation to its surface or

sub-surface position and the age of the colony at the time of

observation. Since many variables rendered solid media less

useful for macroscopic cultural study, a liquid medium, nutrose

broth, was used to group the strains. While admittedly the

cultural properties displayed by these organisms in nutrose

broth were not ideally uniform and distinct, features of such

constancy were demonstrated that three divisions of the organ¬

isms were made possible. These divisions are tentative and

based on evidence of the cultures studied. It is felt that members

of Division I are similar to the “vigorously growing organisms,

typically with copious spore formation on dextrose-asparagin

agar^^ which Jensen (1932) described. The members of Division

III are similar to those described as “slowly and feebly growing

organisms, with scant spore formation on dextrose-asparagin

agar, no soluble pigment'' while members of Division II might

be considered as intermediates.

Man has an inordinate desire to label and to classify the find¬

ings which his curiosity has gained for him. He likes to apply

yardsticks of his own choosing and by sundry bendings and turn¬

ings adapt the organisms and his yardstick so that some concrete

results will be obtained. In bacteriology this bent has had free

reign. It is well that such a tendency toward labeling and the

putting of labeled parts into a coherent picture exists. To a

known mass of facts one can bring his findings for comparison

with those which are uncovered by the preceding workers, and

in turn, perchance, add to the store so that the sequence of

passing knowledge from one worker to another is not hindered

by a labeling error. Frequently new bacteria are found and are

studied, and one wishes labeled organisms to flow from these

studies which will make a picture with such completeness that

any scheme of classification of it will be of a nature that all who

see it later can be sure of their own starting point for their

endeavors should they be interested in the organisms or the

genus which contains it.

But Nature, with the prodigal lavishness of its forms, is

none too anxious to aid and abet the worker in his labeling. Many

68 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

are the characteristics borne by organisms, so that although the

mosaic, the over-all result, appears clear, a closer observation

brings out intergrading characters which then give a blurred

picture. So one must make compromises ; one must use the yard¬

sticks most suitable and fit the parts together making use of

these guides in such a fashion that an end product is produced.

Then, although the results might leave much to be desired, the

attempt was made and by making it there was initiated an effort

which in the future might yield results to complete the picture.

The placement of the micromonosporae into a classification

which would satisfy ail workers has not been accomplished.

This follows as a result of differences in emphasis that workers

assign to properties displayed by the organisms. The moropho-

logical structures and the cultural properties are not stable

within the group. The literature on Micromonospora attests to

the fact that variability is the common rather than the uncom¬

mon occurrence. While some investigators claim that rigidly

controlled techniques will occasion reproducible results, other

workers of comparable ability present data which indicate that

this might be questionable.

Summary

The findings of the morphological and cultural studies made

on some lake strains of the genus Micromonospora may be sum¬

marized as follows:

1. A characteristic unicellular, monopodially branched basic

mycelium was formed. No evidence of an aerial mycelium was

found.

2. A single spore was borne at the end of a single conidio-

phore. The length of the conidiophore varied within a given

strain; there appeared to be no definite type of conidiophore

which could serve as a criterion for a separation of the strains.

3. Evidence has been secured which suggests that the whole

mycelial mass of a colony of Micromonospora is not viable. The

central portion of the colonial ball is often degenerating, while

the periphery is stilL actively growing.

4. The chromogenesis of the organisms studied was not found

to be a constant trait. Its strict use in classification is, therefore,

of doubtful value.

Colmer and McCoy— -Lake Strains of Micromonosporae 69

5. The cultural traits displayed in nutrose broth served to

divide the lake strains into three divisions. The divisional bound¬

aries were not rigid and an intergradation was found in the

growth characteristics displayed by the strains of a division.

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University of Wisconsin.

Jensen, H. L. 1930. The genus Micromonospora 0rskov, a little known

group of soil microorganisms. Proc. Linn. Soc. New S. Wales, AO:

231-248.

70 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Jensen, H. L. 1931. Contributions to our knowledge of the Actinomycetales

II. Proc. Linn. Soc., New S. Wales, 56: 345-370.

Jensen, H. L. 1932, Contributions to our knowledge of the Actinomycetales

III. Proc. Linn. Soc. New S. Wales, 173-180.

Kedzior. 1896. tiber eine thermophile Cladothrix. Archiv. Hyg., 27 : 328-338.

Krainsky, a. 1914. Die Aktinomyceten und ihre Bedeutung in der Natur.

Zentr. Bakt. Parasitenk., II, Al : 649-688.

Krassilnikov, N. 1940. The structure, development and classification of

Actinomycetales. Proc. Third Int. Cong. Microbiol., 190.

Kriss, a. E. 1939. The Micromonospore — an actinomycete-like organism.

Microbiology, U. S. S. R., 8: 178-185.

Lehmann, K. W., and Neumann, R. O. 1912. Atlas und Grundriss der Bak-

teriology und Lehrbook der spezielen bakteriologischen Diagnostik.

Munchen.

Lieske, R. 1921. Morphologic und Biologic der Strahlenpilze (Aktinomyze-

ten). Gebr. Bomtraeger, Berlin.

Miehe, H. 1907. Die Selbsterhitzung des Heues. G. Fischer, Jena.

0RSKOV, J. 1923. Investigations into the morphology of the ray fungi. Levin

and Munksgaard, Copenhagen.

ScHUTZE, H. 1908. Beitrage zur Kenntnis der thermophilen Aktinomyceten

und ihrer Sporenbildung. Arch. Hyg., 67 : 35-56.

Society of American Bacteriologists. 1939. Manual of Methods for Pure

Culture Study of Bacteria. 7th Ed. Leaflet IV.

Stanier, R. Y., and Van Niel, C. B. 1941. The main outlines of bacterial

classification. Jour. Bact., A2: 437-466.

Tsiklinsky, P. 1899. Sur les mucedinees thermophiles. Ann. Inst. Past.,

13: 500-505.

Waksman, S. a. 1919. Cultural studies of species of actinomycetes. Soil

Sci., 8: 71-207.

Waksman, S. A. 1940. On the classification of actinomycetes. Jour. Bact.,

39: 549-558.

Waksman, S. A., Cordon, T. C., and Hulpoi, N. 1939. Influence of temper¬

ature upon the microbiological population and decomposition processes

in composts of stable manure. Soil Sci., If7 : 83-114.

Waksman, S. A., and Curtis, R. E. 1916. The Actinomyces of the soil.

Soil Sci., 1 : 99-134.

Waksman, S. A., and Henrici, A. T. 1943. The nomenclature and classifi¬

cation of the actinomycetes. Jour. Bact., Jf6: 337-341.

Waksman, S. A., Umbreit, W. W., and Cordon, T. C. 1939. Thermophilic

actinomycetes and fungi in soils and in composts. Soil Sci., A7 : 37-61.

Williams, H. U. 1912. A pleomorphic bacillus growing in association with

a streptothrix. Jour. Med. Research, 27 : 157-161.

RECENT ADDITIONS TO THE RECORDS OF THE

DISTRIBUTION OF THE REPTILES IN WISCONSIN

W. E. Dickinson

Department of Lower Zoology, Milwaukee Public Museum

It has been nearly twenty years since the last of T. E. B.

Pope's^ ‘Wisconsin Herpetological Notes/' Among his papers

left at the Milwaukee Public Museum on retirement was one

entitled “Notes IV" which had been tendered to the Wisconsin

Academy for publication in 1936. Due to the curtailment of

publications at that time it was not included in the Transactions,

so with that manuscript as a basis the writer has appended all

subsequent notes and records to bring the state faunal lists up

to date.

Mr. Howard Suzuki of Marquette University has assumed

the task of writing up the amphibians which will comprise a

separate paper.

All species represented in the list are believed to constitute

new county distributional records. For the sake of uniformity

the arrangement of these notes will follow the pattern of Mr.

Pope's papers, listing first the actual preserved specimens, then

observations, and finally species listed in publications but where

no actual catalog numbers appear.

A. Specimens in Institutional collections:

SAURIA

Ophisaurus ventralis (Linne)

Glass-snake

Green Lake County, Green Lake; MPM 2448; July 1933;

Coll. A. Johnson

Sauk County, Reedsburg; MPM 2385-86; Sept. 1931; Coll.

R. D. Adams

'Curator Emeritus, Milwaukee Public Museum.

71

72 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Eumeces fasciatus (Linn4)

Blue-tailed Skink

Shawano County, Shawano Lake; MPM 2424; Sept. 1932;

Coll. E. G. Meyer

Washburn County; MPM 2651, 2664-66; June 1948; Coll.

C. L. Strelitzer

Juneau County, Necedah; U. Wisconsin; May 1949; Coll.

H. Levi

Jackson County, Knapp Twp. ; U. Wisconsin; May 1949;

Coll. H. Levi

Eumeces septentrionalis septentrionalis (Baird)

Northern Skin

Washburn County; MPM 2618; Coll. A. G. Johnson

Douglas County, Brule; U. Wisconsin coll.; July 1949; Coll.

H. Levi

OPHIDIA

Heterodon contortrix contortrix (Linne)

Hog-nosed Snake

Monroe County, Sparta; MPM 2519; September 1935; Coll.

R. Herin

Marinette County Goodman; MPM 2606; Coll. W. Pelzer

This is an unusually dark form considering the general

sandy conformation of the area.

Opheodrys vernalis vernalis (Harlin)

Smooth Green Snake

Sawyer County, Birchwood; MPM 2449; August 1933; Coll.

T. T. Rodgers

Washburn County; MPM 2662; June 1948; Coll. C. L.

Strelitzer

Price County; MPM 2582; Coll. E. Voelker

Florence County, Tipler; U. Wisconsin; July 1949

Coluber constrictor flaviventris (Say)

Blue Racer

Sauk County; MPM 2595; Coll. W. Pelzer

Dickinson — Distribution of Reptiles in Wisconsin 73

Elaphe vulpina vulpina (Baird & Girard)

Fox Snake

Marinette County, Lake Noquebay; MPM 2435-37; Nov.

1932; Coll. R. F. Grow

Marquette County, Montello; MPM 2458; Sept. 1933; Coll.

H. B. Flavelling

Monroe County, Tomah; MPM 2509; May 1935; Coll. R.

Riechl

Shawano County; MPM 2595; Coll. R. Barnes

Lampropeltis triangulum triangulum (Lacepede)

Common Milk Snake

Racine County, Brown Lake; MPM 2452; Aug. 1933; Coll.

M. Reingang

Walworth County, Delavan; Chicago Academy 526; May

1932; Coll. E. G. Wright

Storeia dekayi (Holbrook)

Dekay’s Snake

Walworth County, Lake Benlab; Oct. 1932; Coll. G. Kiritz

Grant County, Potosi; U. of Michigan Museum. Zool. 69642

Storeia occipitomaculata (Storer)

Red-bellied Snake

Fond du Lac County, Ripon; MPM 2388; Oct. 1931; Coll.

H. P. Gordon

Shawano County, Shawano Lake; MPM 2460; Nov. 1933;

Coll. P. F. Dick

Price County, Fifield; MPM 2508; May 1935; Coll. C. F.

Johnson

Washburn County; MPM 2663; Coll. C. L. Strelitzer

Taylor County, Medford ; U. of Mich. Mus. Zool. 69625

Haldea valeriae valeriae (Baird & Girard)

Brown Snake

La Crosse County, Wisconsin; MPM 2648; Coll. G. Barclay

and D. M. Devine

Stejneger & Barbour (1943) reported the western range

of this species as Ohio and Tennessee ; consequently, this rep¬

resents quite an extension in its original range.

74 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Dickinson (1949) stated that its introduction did not

seem to be accidental because of its secretive habits.

Thamnophis butleri (Cope)

Butler’s Garter Snake

Kenosha County, Wheatland; U. Mich. Mus. Zool. 67883

Thamnophis sirtalis sirtalis (Linne)

Common Garter Snake

Milwaukee County; MPM 2600; Coll. Mr. Vierden. (Albino

mutant)

Milwaukee County; MPM 2605; Coll. W. Gawrysiak. (Melan-

istic phase)

Thamnophis sirtalis parietalis (Say)

Red-sided Garter Snake

Marquette County, Neskara; MPM 2530; Oct. 1935; Coll. H.

Dettman

Sistrurus catenatns catenatus (Ratinesque)

Massasauga

Sauk County, Prairie du Sac; MPM 2425; September 1932;

Coll. E. D. Ochsner

Juneau County, Necedah; Carroll College; September 1933;

Coll. H. A. Blank

La Crosse County, La Crosse; MPM 2650; Coll. Wise. Cons.

Comm.

CHELONIA

Chelydra serpentina serpentina (Linn^)

Common Snapping Turtle

Burnett County; U. Mich. Mus. Zool. 72510

Fond du Lac County, Mauthe Lake ; U. Wisconsin ; July 1949 ;

Coll. H. Levi

Clemmys insculpta (Le Conte)

Wood Turtle

Forest County ; MPM 5686 ; Coll. Edw. Johnson

Dickinson — Distribution of Reptiles in Wisconsin

75

Emijs blandingii (Holbrook)

Blanding’s Turtle

Marquette County, Westfield; MPM 2511; June 1935; Coll.

W. D. Kline

G7’aptemys geographica (Le Sueur)

Map Turtle

Winnebago County, Oneton Creek; MPM 2377; July 1928;

Coll. Geo. Overton

Graptemys pseud^o geo graphic a pseudo geographica (Gray)

Le Sueur's Turtle

St. Croix County, Hudson; U. Michigan Mus. Zool. 72505-07

Amy da spinifera spinifera (Le Sueur)

Spiny Soft-shelled Turtle

Jefferson County, Lake Mills; MPM 2414; June 1932; Coll.

E. E. McCarthy

Walworth County, Lake Beulah; MPM 2417 ; July 1932; Coll.

Stuart Heath

Winnebago County, Wolfe River; MPM 2441; July 1932;

Coll. R. N. Buckkaff

B. Observations:

OPHIDIA

Elaphe vulpina vulpina (Baird and Girard)

Fox Snake

Marinette County, Crivitz ; August 1949 ; H. K. Suzuki

Opheodrys veryialis vemalis (Harlan)

Smooth Green Snake

Marinette County, Bass Lake, Sand Lake; Sept. 1949; H. K.

Suzuki

Natrix sipedon sipedon (Linne)

Common Water Snake

Marinette County, Sand Lake ; August 1949 ; H. K. Suzuki

76 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Storeia dekayi (Holbrook)

Dekay’s Snake

Marinette County, Bass Lake ; September 1949 ; H. K. Suzuki

Washington County, Hubertus; July 1948; H. K. Suzuki

Storeia occipitomaculata (Storer)

Red-bellied Snake

Marinette County, Sand Lake ; August 1949 ; H. K. Suzuki

Thamnophis butleri (Cope)

Butler's Garter Snake

Sheboygan County, Terry Andrae Park; September 1933;

W. E. Dickinson

Thamnophis sauritis sauritis (Linne)

Ribbon Snake

Marinette County Bass Lake ; September 1949 ; H. K. Suzuki

Thamnophis sirtalis sirtalis (Linne)

Common Garter Snake

Marinette County, Sand Lake ; September 1949 ; H. K. Suzuki

CHELONIA

Sternotherus odoratus (Latreille)

Common Musk Turtle

Washington County, Hubertus; July 1947; H. K. Suzuki

Chelydra serpentina serpentina (Linne)

Common Snapping Turtle

Marinette County, Sand Lake ; August 1949 ; H. K. Suzuki

Amy da spinifera spinifera (Le Sueur)

Spiny Soft-shelled Turtle

Dane County, Lake Waubesa; July 1944; A. Suckow

Kenosha County, Silver Lake ; May 1948 ; H. K. Suzuki

C. Species listed in published faunal records not previously

mentioned in this series:

Dickinson — Distribution of Reptiles in Wisconsin 77

OPHIDIA

Lampropeltis triangulum triangulum (Lacepede)

Common Milk Snake

Richland County, Sylvan; C. E. Burt (1935)

Matrix sipedon sipedon (Linne)

Common Water Snake

Dane County; A. R. Cahn (1915)

CHELONIA

Chelydra serpentina serpentina (Linne)

Snapping Turtle

Dane County; Cahn (1915)

Chrysemys bellii bellii (Gray)

BelFs Turtle

Winnebago County; 0. V. Andrews (1915)

Literature Cited

Andrews, G. V. 1915. An ecological survey of the Lake Butte des Morts

bog, Oshkosh, Wisconsin. Bull. TFzs. Nat. His. Soc., Vol. 13, No. 4.

Burt, C. E. 1935. Further records of the ecological and distribution of

amphibians and reptiles in the middle west. Am. Midi. Nat., Vol. 10,

No. 3..

Cahn, A. R. 1915. Ecological survey of the Wingra spring region near

Madison with special reference to its ornithology. Bull. Wis. Nat. His.

Soc., Vol. 13, No. 3.

Dickinson, W. E. 1949. Field guide to the lizards and snakes of Wiscon¬

sin. Popular Science Handbook Ser. No. 2. Milwaukee Public Museum.

Stejneger, L., and Barbour, T. 1943. A checklist of North American rep¬

tiles and amphibians. 5th Edition, pp. 1-xix, 1-260.

EFFECT OF GROUND WATER ON THE GROWTH OF RED

PINE AND WHITE PINE IN CENTRAL WISCONSIN"

R. C. Dosen, S. F. Peterson and D. T. Pronin^

The sandy plain of central Wisconsin represents in its major

part the bottom of a shallow glacial lake. Originally this enor¬

mous area supported valuable stands of pines, but during the

past hundred years its productivity was drastically reduced by

the ax, plow, dredging shovel, fire, and grazing livestock. A

quarter century ago Nekoosa-Edwards Paper Company initiated

the reclamation of depleted sandy soils by artificial reforesta¬

tion. At present, the combined efforts of state and private

agencies have returned much of the unproductive land to timber

growth.

As it is well known, highland sandy soils impoverished in

humus retain a small amount of moisture which is sufficient to

produce only mediocre yields of timber. More rapid forest

growth, and hence higher returns on reforestation investments,

however, are usually attained on soils underlain at a suitable

depth by ground water which supplies the trees with additional

moisture. In order to evaluate the effect of this factor in concrete

figures, a mensuration analysis was made of red and white pine

grown at different levels of ground water.

The investigated stand was established twenty years ago by

Mr. F. G. Kilp on the shore of artificial Nepco Lake by planting

two-year-old seedlings of red and white pine. In the course of

the first twelve years part of the plantation attained an average

height of about 20 feet, and produced some trees of merchantable

pulpwood size. This was particularly true on the depressed areas.

The topography of the plantation area was carefully surveyed

by means of a level. Then, trenches were dug to the ground-

water table along the surveyed transects, and samples of soil

and ground water were collected for analysis. The height and

1 Contribution from the Nekoosa-Edwards Paper Company, Port Edwards,

Wisconsin in cooperation with the Soils Department, University, Madison,

Wisconsin.

® Forester, Nekoosa-Edwards Paper Co., and assistants in Soils, UW,

respectively.

79

1

80

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Figure 1. Effect of ground water on the growth of 22 year old plantation of red and white pine on sandy shore of

Nepco Lake, Wood County, Wisconsin. Position of ground water during the middle of July, 1948.

: WP — ^white pine; RP — red pine; H — average ■ height ; D— average diameter breast height. ^ _

Dosen, et aL — Ejfect of Ground Water on Growth of Pine 81

diameter of the trees were determined in the plantation and in

adjoining second growth stands. The results are graphically

presented in Figure 1.

The growth of both red pine and white pine illustrates the

greatly beneficial influence of the ground-water table. At the

present age of the plantation, the trees underlain by ground

water at a suitable depth show more than double-height growth

and nearly double-diameter growth as compared with trees on

excessively drained uplands. The difference in the yield growth

is, of course, much greater and will become especially pronounced

when the trees attain economic maturity.

The analyses of soil samples collected on the study area

disclosed that surface layers of land contribute little to varia¬

tion in tree growth (Table 1). The analyses of ground water,

however, indicated that the unusually rapid growth of this

plantation was due not only to the physical effects of ground

water, but also to its chemical composition. Specific conductivity,

content of free dissolved oxygen, and oxidation-reduction poten¬

tial, are at a much higher level than usually found in sandy

soils of central Wisconsin (Table 2).

The considerable depth of the ground water and the prox¬

imity of a large lake were other beneficial factors which stabil¬

ized the ground-water table. As observation throughout the

growing season of 1948 showed, the fluctuations of the ground-

water table under the plantation did not exceed 17 inches, even

though this period included prolonged drought and a consider¬

able lowering of the water table on the plain of central

Wisconsin.

This study suggests that ground water at a suitable depth

is a factor of far-reaching silvicultural importance. It is a con¬

cealed natural resource which in many instances can be utilized

most economically by growing trees ; i. e., plants endowed with

deep-reaching root systems. The small fluctuation of a reason¬

ably deep ground-water table in the proximity of water basins

or floating bogs deserves the special attention of foresters.

82

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

TABLE 1

State of Fertility of the Surface Layers of Soil (7 Inches)

Supporting White and Red Pine Plantation at Nepco Lake

TABLE 2

Comparison of Chemical Properties of Well Water and Ground Water

Underlying Nepco Lake Plantation and Aspen Stands in

THE Vicinity of Wisconsin Rapids

PRELIMINARY REPORTS

ON THE FLORA OF WISCONSIN. XXXV

ARALIACEAE

N. C. Fassett and H. J. Elser

The station records used in this study were taken from the

herbaria of the University of Wisconsin and the Milwaukee

Public Museum.

Our five species of this family may be keyed as follows:

a. Leaves scattered on the stem or rising singly from a woody rootstalk

b. Leaves and umbels borne on the same stem; upper pair of leaflets

stalked

c. Plants without bristles; umbels in racemes from the axils of

the leaves; leaflets mostly heart-shaped at base, 6 to 10 cm.

wide, with a tapered point about 2 cm. long. . .Aralia racemosa.

cc. Plants bristly toward the base; umbels terminating the upper

branch; leaflets scarcely heart-shaped at base, 2 to 5 cm. wide,

with a short tapering point or none . A. hispida.

bb. Umbels on naked stems coming from a rootstalk and opening beside

a compound leaf; upper pair of leaflets sessile . A. nudicaulis.

aa. Leaves whorled near the summit of the stem; rootstocks absent

d. Plant arising from a spherical tuber; leaflets 3, 6 cm. or less long

. Panax tri folium.

dd. Plant arising from a thickened vertical root; leaflets commonly 5

or 7, 7 to 15 cm. long . P. quinquifolium.

ARALIA Sarsaparilla

l. A. racemosa L. Spikenard.

In rich woods throughout the state. Map 1.

2. A. HISPIDA Vent. Bristly Sarasaparilla.

Mostly northward, southward in the Driftless Area, and

along the Lake Michigan shore. Map 2.

3. A. NUDICAULIS L. Wild Sarsaparilla.

Common in woods, essentially throughout the state. Since

it is more common northward, it is less collected than in the

southern part of the state, where the collector is apt to recog¬

nize it as a little unusual and so take it. Hence, the map prob¬

ably shows the relative abundance northward and southward

as reversed. Map 3.

83

••

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Arelia racetnosa

Pan ax trl folium

Fassett and Elser — Flora of Wisconsin. XXXV

85

PANAX Ginseng

1. P. TRIFOLIUM L. Groundnut.

Probably fairly abundant northward, and of local occur¬

rence southward in the eastern counties and in the Driftless

Area. Map 4.

2. P. QUINQUIFOLIUM L. American Ginseng.

In rich woods, mostly in southern Wisconsin. Formerly

extensively collected for a medicine and now rarely seen

except where cultivated in some parts of the Driftless Area.

■ Map 5.

PARASITES OF NORTHWEST WISCONSIN FISHES

II. THE 1945 SURVEY^

Jacob H. Fischthal^

Abstract

In a survey of fish parasites during 1945 from 27 lakes and

streams in northwest Wisconsin, 926 fishes representing 40 dif¬

ferent species and subspecies were examined and 808 or approx¬

imately 87.2 per cent were infected with at least one species

of parasite. The number of fish infected with each parasite from

each water as well as the intensity of infection is presented for

each species of fish examined. The larval parasites occurred

most frequently and in more species of fishes than did the other

developmental stages. The bass tapeworm, Proteocephalus amhlo-

plitis, was in 9 species of fishes ; the black spot parasites, Neascus

spp., in 25 species; the larval yellow grub, Clinostomum margi¬

natum, in 15 species; and the gill flukes (Gyrodactyloidea) in 18

species.

Introduction

The present paper covering the year 1945 is the second in

a series of annual reports by the author on a parasite survey

of northwest Wisconsin fishes, and is in continuation of the

desire for more knowledge on the distribution, incidence and

intensity of parasitism in fishes from the many lakes and

streams of Wisconsin. The first report in this series by Fischthal

(1947) recorded the parasite survey data for 1944.

The 1945 survey was started March 1 and was terminated

November 20. During this period fresh fishes were examined

from 27 different lakes and streams as shown in Table 1. These

fishes were collected for the most part by the use of fyke nets

in lakes and an electric shocking device in streams. Other means

1 Contribution from the Fish Management Division, Wisconsin Conserva¬

tion Department.

2 Department of Biology, Triple Cities College of Syracuse University,

Endicott, New York.

87

88 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

used for collecting fishes were a common-sense minnow seine

and a dip net in lakes in which a fish mortality was occurring.

A total of 926 fishes, representing 40 different species and

subspecies, were examined for parasites and 808 or approxi¬

mately 87.2 per cent were infected with at least one species of

parasite. This percentage of infection is somewhat low when

compared to other northern Wisconsin parasite surveys. Per¬

haps, this lower percentage of infection may be explained in

part by the greater proportion of fishes from streams contained

in this report, namely, 60.5 per cent of the total number of 926

fishes examined. In a survey of northern Wisconsin, covering

mainly the northeastern section of the state, Bangham (1946)

found 93.2 per cent of 1,330 fishes infected with parasites. Only

8.7 per cent of these 1,330 fishes were from streams. Fischthal

(1947) found parasites in 96.4 per cent of 2,059 fishes surveyed

from northwest Wisconsin during 1944. Of these 2,059 fishes,

only 32.5 per cent were from streams. If the figures for the 1944

parasite survey by Fischthal (1947) are combined with those

contained in this report, both surveys covering the same region,

it is seen that 2,985 fishes were examined over a two-year period

and that 2,792 of the total number were parasitized. This is a

93.5 per cent infection and, therefore, still shows a relatively

high percentage of parasitism in northwest Wisconsin fishes.

Surveys elsewhere in the United States showed either com¬

parable or lower percentages of infections than herein recorded

for the 1945 survey. Bangham (1940) found 88 per cent of

1,380 freshwater fishes from southern Florida infected. Fishes

from Algonquin Park (Ontario) lakes studied by Bangham

(1941) showed 84.3 per cent of 560 parasitized. Hunter (1941)

found parasites in 72.5 per cent of 598 Connecticut fishes exam¬

ined. In a survey of Lake Erie, Bangham and Hunter ( 1939) found

58.3 per cent of 2,156 fishes infected with parasites. Essex and

Hunter (1926) obtained parasites from 39 per cent of 652 fishes

from lakes and streams of the Central States.

In Table 1 the locations given for streams are those points

at which collections were made. In collecting from lakes fyke

nets were set in varying aquatic environments in order to obtain

as representative a sample of fishes as possible and under varied

ecological conditions. The figures for total alkalinity, also shown

in Table 1, were secured from water analyses by Mr. N. H.

Fischthal — Parasites of Northwest Wisconsin Fishes 89

Boortz and Mr. D. A. White (unpublished researches) ; the

remaining information on water condition was obtained from

lake surveys by Bordner (1942). In Tables 2 to 10, no mark

preceding the names of the parasites indicates an adult stage;

an inverted T (1) before the parasite denotes the presence of

both adult and immature stages in the same fish; two asterisks

(**) preceding the parasite indicates an immature stage; a

single asterisk (*) preceding the parasite indicates a larval

stage; the superior figure one following the number of infected

fish or a light infection as indicated in the text denotes an infec¬

tion with one to ten specimens of that species ; the superior fig¬

ure two or a moderate infection indicates the presence of

11-50 specimens ; the superior figure three or a heavy infec¬

tion indicates an infection with 51 or more specimens. The use

of sp. after a generic name or a broader classification than genus

indicates that the specimens could not be identified more com¬

pletely. The notations (1) and (2) following Spring creek are

used to designate that two different Spring creeks in Washburn

County are being considered.

Appreciation is due Dr. Reeve M. Bailey, University of Mich¬

igan, for aid in identifying several of the minnow hosts; also,

to several of the Fish Management personnel at Spooner for

their aid in collecting some of the fishes used in this survey.

Amia calva Linn., Bowfin: Seven fish were examined from

Big McKenzie lake and all were infected. Four were lightly

parasitized with Azygia augusticauda, 6 with immature Contra^-

caecum sp., 4 with Haplobothrium globuliforme, 2 with Lepto-

rhynchoides thecatus, 2 with Neoechinorhynchus cylindratus, 1

with Spinitectus carolini, and 1 with immature Triaenophorus

nodulosus. Adult Proteocephalus per'plexus occurred moderately

in 1, immature and adult in 4 others (2 moderately, 2 heavily),

and immature only lightly in still 2 others. They were all infected

with Macroderoides parvus, 6 moderately and 1 heavily.

Salmo trutta fario Linn., Brown trout: Six (40 per cent)

of the 15 examined were infected. The 1 Beaver brook fish was

negative. Three of the 11 from Crystal brook were parasitized,

1 harboring a light infection of immature Contracaecum sp., 2

(1 lightly, 1 moderately) with Epistylis sp. on the body surfaces,

and 1 lightly with immature Proteocephalus pinguis. The 2

Willow river trout harbored larval Neascus sp., 1 lightly and 1

Lakes and Streams Surveyed for Parasites

90

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

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TABLE 1 — (Continued)

Lakes and Streams Surveyed for Parasites

Fischthcd — Parasites of Northwest Wisconsin Fishes

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TABLE 2

Catostomus e. commersonnii (Lacepede) — Common White Sucker

92

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

TABLE 2 — (Continued)

Catostomus c. commersonii (Lacepede) — Common White Sucker

Fischthal— Parasites of Northwest Wisconsin Fishes 93

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94 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

moderately. One fish from the Yellow river was lightly infected

with immature Contracaecum sp., larval Divlostomulum scheur-

ingi, glochidia, and immature Proteocephalus sp. which did not

have an apical sucker on its scolex. Fischthal (1947) examined

1 brown trout from Crystal brook, but found no parasites.

Salvelinus f. fontinalis (Mitchill), Common brook trout;

Only 11 (30.5 per cent) of the 36 examined harbored parasites.

The 5 from McKenzie creek, 9 from Montgomery creek, and 10

from Spring creek (2) were negative. These were all fingerling

fish. The 2 from Crystal brook were lightly infected with larval

Diplostomulum sp. in the lens of the eye. The 1 from Stuntz

brook was moderately parasitized by immature and adult Crepi-

dostomum cooperL Eight of the 9 Yellow river trout were lightly

infected, 1 with immature Azygia augnsticauda, 4 each with

immature Contracaecum sp. and Proteocephalus pinguis, and

with larval glochidia ; 2 harbored Leptorhynchoides thecatus,

Hypentelium nigricans (LeS.), Hog sucker: Sixteen (88.9

per cent) of the 18 fish were parasitized. The 2 from Spring

creek (1) harbored light infections, having larval Bucephalus

elegans in both, and larval Trematoda in the mesenteries of 1.

Only 14 of the 16 from the Yellow river were infected. Five

were lightly infected with larval Clinostomum marginatum, 1

with glochidia, 1 with larval Leptorhynchoides thecatus, and 1

with Pomphorhynchus bulhocolli. Ten fish harbored larval

Diplostomulum sp. in the lens of the eye, 9 lightly and 1 mod¬

erately. One was parsitized lightly with adult Glaridacris catos-

tomi, 1 moderately with both immature and adult forms, and

2 lightly with only immature worms. Gyrodactyloidea occurred

lightly in 3 and moderately in 2. Two fish were heavily infected

with Trichodina sp. on the gillls.

Catostomus c. commersonnii (Lac.), Common white sucker:

Seventy (97.2 per cent) of the 72 suckers were infected (Table

2). The larval Contracaecum sp. and Tetracotyle sp. occurred

in the mesenteries. The larval Diplostomulum sp. was recovered

from the lens of the eye. The glochidia and Myxosporidia were

observed on the gills. The 4 Yellow river fish were taken below

the dam at Spooner lake outlet. Bangham (1946) examined 2

suckers from the Yellow river flowage at Spooner, finding both

heavily infected with Pomphorhynchus bulhocolli, Fischthal

(1947) found 10 of 11 fish from the Yellow river below the

Spooner power dam infected with similar parasites as herein

Fischthal— Parasites of Northwest Wisconsin Fishes 95

recorded, with the exceptions of larval P, bulboeoili and Tetra-

cotyle sp. which he did not find. In addition to those mentioned

in common he also recorded larval Diplostomulum sp., immature

and adult Glaridaeris catostomi, Myxosporidia, Phyllodistomum

lyster% larval Spiroxys sp., and immature and adult Trigano-

distomum attenmbtum,

Campostoma anomalum pullum (Agassiz), Central stone-

roller: Seven (87.5 per cent) of the 8 examined from 2 waters

were parasitized. The 4 collected from Beaver brook were all

infected. Larval Clinostomum marginatum occurred lightly in

1, and Rhabdoehona cascadilla in the 4, The 4 were also infected

with Neaseus sp., 3 lightly and 1 moderately. Only 3 of the 4

fish from Sawyer creek harbored parasites. Neaseus sp. was

found lightly in 2, and R. cascadilla in 2.

Rhinichthys c. cataraetae (VaL), Great Lake longnose dace:

Only 4 (57.1 per cent) of the 7 examined were infected. The 1

from the Yellow river was negative. Of the 4 from Spring creek

(2) only 2 were lightly infected with a single species, Rhabdo¬

ehona cascadilla. The 2 from the Willow river were heavily

parasitized with Neaseus sp.

Rhinichthys atratulus meleagris Agassiz, Western blacknose

dace : Only one fish was examined from the Willow river. It was

moderately infected with Myxosporidia in the gills, and lightly

with Neaseus sp.

Semotilus a. atromaculatus (Mitchill), Northern creek chub:

Of the 48 examined, 42 (91 per cent) were infected (Table 3).

The immature Contracaecum sp. occurred in the intestine and

liver. The larval Proteocephahis sp. and Trematoda were taken

from the mesenteries. The immature Proteocephalus sp, from

Spring creek did not possess an apical sucker on its scolex,

whereas the species from Bashaw creek did.

Margariscus margarita nachtriebi (Cox), Northern pearl

dace: All 13 collected from Bashaw creek harbored parasites.

All were infected with Neaseus sp., 12 lightly and 1 moderately.

Immature Rhabdoehona cascadilla was recovered from 11, 8

being lightly infected and 3 moderately,

Chrosomus eos Cope, Northern redbelly dace : Only 1 of the

10 fish from the Willow river was parasitized, harboring a light

infection of N emeus sp.

96 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

TABLE 3

Semotilus a. atromaculatus (Mitchill) — Northern Creek Chub

Notemigonus crysoleucas auratus (Raf.), Western golden

shiner : Four of the 5 examined from Beaver brook were lightly

infected. Immature and adult Caryophyllaeidae were taken from

1, immature Contracaecum sp. from 1, Gyrodactyloidea from 3,

larval Posthodiplostomum minimum from 2, and immature

Proteocephalns pearsei from 2.

Pipiephales p, promelas Raf., Northern fathead minnow:

The 20 fish examined from 2 waters were all parasitized. The 5

from Beaver brook harbored 8 species of parasites. Immature

Biacetabulum sp. occurred lightly in 1, immature Contracaecum

sp. in 1, glochodia in 1, larval Hymenolepis sp. in the intestine

of 1, Myxosporidia in the liver of 1, Neascus sp. in 3, and imma¬

ture Proteocephalus pearsei in 1. Larval Posthodiplostomum

minimum occurred lightly in 3, moderately in 1. The 15 fish

Fischthal — Parasites of Northwest Wisconsin Fishes 97

from the Willow river had only 3 species of parasites. Myxo-

sporidia occurred lightly in the liver of 1, and larval P. mini¬

mum in 9. Neascus sp. was observed moderately in 13, heavily

in 2. Van Cleave and Mueller (1934), in their survey of Oneida

lake (New York) fish, found a larval Hymenolepis sp. in the

intestine of the largemouth bass (Huro salmoides) and stated

that ‘'all evidence seems to point to this as an abnormal host

and location. It is highly possible that the larva is carried nor¬

mally by some crustacean through whose agency the tapeworm

enters a natural bird host.'’ Fischthal (1947) found a larval

Hymenolepis sp. in the intestine of the western golden shiner

(Notemigonus crysoleucas auratus) from Crooked lake, Burnett

county, Wisconsin.

Hyborhynchus notatus (Raf.), Bluntnose minnow: Seven¬

teen (89.5 per cent) of the 19 fish examined were infected.

The 1 fish from Shell creek was negative. Only 1 of the 2 fish

from Dunn lake was parasitized, being lightly infected with

larval Contracaecum sp. in the mesenteries. All 15 of the fish

from Little Sand lake were infected. Immature Bothriocephalus

cuspidatus occurred lightly in 1, adult Caryophyllaeidae in 3, im¬

mature and adult forms in 2 others, Neascus sp. in 2, and larval

Tetracotyle sp. from the mesenteries of 2. Larval Diplostomulum

scheuringi was lightly present in 14, moderately in 1. The 1 fish

from the Yellow river harbored a heavy infection of Trichodina

sp. on the gills.

Notropis comutus frontalis (Agassiz), Northern common

shiner: Only 51 (88 per cent) of the 58 fish were infected (Table

4). The larval Bucephalus elegans were encysted in the mesen¬

teries of a Hay creek fish and in the mesenteries and gills of

2 Spring creek fish. The immature Contracaecum sp. occurred in

the body cavity of 1 Sawyer creek fish, and in the liver of 2

Yellow river fish. The larval Diplostomulum sp. was observed in

the lens of the eye. The Microsporidia occurred in the flesh of

the body. The Myxosporidia were encountered on the gills. The

immature Proteocephalus sp. from the Willow river did not pos¬

sess an apical sucker on its scolex.

Hyhognathus hankinsoni Hubbs, Brassy minnow: All 8 fish

from the Willow river harbored parasites. Neascus sp. was pres¬

ent heavily in the 8, and larval PosthodAplostomum minimum

lightly in 6, moderately in 2.

98 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

TABLE 4

Notropis comutus frontalis (Agassiz) — Northern Common Shiner

Notropis heterodon (Cope), Blackchin shiner: The 1 fish

from Beaver brook harbored a light infection with larval

Contracaecum sp.

Notropis h. heterolepis Eig. & Eig., Northern blacknose

shiner: Nineteen (90.5 per cent) of the 21 fish examined were

parasitized. All 6 from Beaver brook were lightly infected, 1

with glochidia, 3 with Gyrodactyloidea, 3 with larval Posthodi-

plostomum minimum, and 2 with immature Proteocephalus

pears ei. Only 13 of the 15 fish from Little Sand lake harbored a

single species of parasite, namely, larval P. minimum; 12 were

lightly infected, 1 moderately.

Fischthal — Parasites of Northwest Wisconsin Fishes 99

Ameiurus n, natalis (LeS.), Northern yellow bullhead:

Twenty two (91.7 per cent) of 24 fish were parasitized. The 2

from Hay creek were negative. All 10 from Big McKenzie lake

were infected, 2 lightly with Alloglossidium cortiy 1 with imma¬

ture Azygia augnsticauda, 2 with larval Clinostomum margina-

tuMy 4 with Corallobothrium fimbriaturriy 2 with larval Proteo-

cephalus ambloplitiSy 5 with Dichelyne robustay 1 with larval

Diplosotomulum scheuringiy 4 with Gyrodactyloidea, 3 with

Phyllodistomum staffordiy 1 with immature Proteocephalus

pearseiy 1 with larval Proteocephalus sp.y and 2 with Spinitectus

gracilis, Alloglossidium geminus occurred lightly in 4, moder¬

ately in 2; immature Contracaecum sp. lightly in 5, moderately

in 3; larval Diplostomulum sp. in the lens of the eye lightly in

8, moderately in 1 ; and larval Spiroxys sp. lightly in 5, moder¬

ately in 2. One was lightly infected with adult Leptorhynchoides

thecatuSy while the larval stage occurred lightly in 4, moderately

in 1. Adult Pdmphorhynchus bulbocolli occurred lightly in 1,

while the larval stage was present lightly in 4, moderately in 5.

All 12 fish from the Yellow river harbored parasites. Four were

lightly infected with A. cortiy 1 with immature Contracaecum

sp., 12 with larval Diplostomulum sp., 3 with Gyroractyloidea,

2 with adult and 6 with larval L. thecatuSy 4 with adult and 8

with larval P. bulbocolli, 1 with immature P, pearseiy and 10

with larval Spiroxys sp.

Ameiurus n. nebulosus (LeS.), Northern brown bullhead:

All 14 of the fish harbored parasites. The 4 from Beaver brook

were infected. Four were lightly infected with larval Diplosto¬

mulum sp., and 3 with Phyllodistomum staff or di. One was para¬

sitized lightly and 1 moderately with Alloglossidium cortiy 2

lightly and 2 moderately with larval Clinostomum marginatumy

2 moderately and 2 heavily with immature Contracaecum sp.,

and 2 lightly and 2 moderately with Gyrodactyloidea. Adult

Alloglossidium geminus occurred lightly in 1 and moderately in

1, while the immature stage was light in 1. The 8 fish from Big

McKenzie lake had 13 species of parasites. Two were lightly

parasitized with larval C, margirwitum, 6 with immature Con¬

tracaecum sp., 4 with Corallobothrium fimbriatumy 5 with Diche¬

lyne robustay 6 with larval Diplostomulum sp., 3 with Gyrodacty¬

loidea, 2 with P, staffordiy and 2 with larval Proteocephalus

ambloplitis. Two were infected lightly and 1 moderately with

100 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences ^ Arts and Letters

A, cortiy 4 lightly and 2 moderately with A. geminuSy and 3

lightly and 4 moderately with larval Spiroxys sp. Adult Lepto-

rhynchoides thecatus occurred lightly in 1, while 3 were lightly

and 1 moderately infected with the larval stage. One was lightly

parasitized with adult Pomphorhynchiis bulbocolli, while the

larval stage occurred lightly in 4 and moderately in 3. The 2

brown bullheads from Birch lake were heavily infected with

larval P. ambloplitis. They were lightly infected with immature

A, cortiy larval Diplostomulum sp., and L. thecatus. Only 1 of

the 2 were lightly parasitized with immature Azygia augusti-

cauda, immature Bothriocephalus cuspidatuSy D. robusta, and

Spinitectus gracilis. Immature and adult C. fimbriatum was

observed lightly in 1, while the other had only immature forms.

Ameiurus m. melas (Raf.), Northern black bullhead: One

fish was examined from Stuntz brook, but was free from

parasites.

Noturus flavus (Raf.), Stonecat: Three specimens were

examined from Hay creek. Adult AUoglossidium corti occurred

lightly in 1, while immature forms were taken from the other

2. All 3 were lightly parasitized with larval Pomphorhynchus

bulbocolli.

Umbra limi (Kirtland), Western mudminnow: Only 23

(79.3 per cent) of the 29 fish examined were parasitized. One

from Shell creek and 2 from Spring creek (2) were negative.

The 7 from Bashaw creek were lightly infected, 1 with larval

Contracaecum sp., 4 with Phyllodistomum brevicecum, 1 with

larval Spiroxys sp., and 2 with larval Trematoda in the stomach

wall. Five of the 6 fish from Dahlstrom brook were lightly

infected, 4 with Bunoderina eucaliae, and 2 with P. brevicecum.

From Hay creek, 4 of the 5 fish harbored parasites, 1 lightly

with larval Contracaecum sp., 3 with P. brevicecum, and 2 with

larval Spiroxys sp. The 3 McKenzie creek fish were lightly para¬

sitized, 1 with immature B. eucaliae, 1 with Gyrodactyloidea,

and 3 with P. brevicecum. Four of the 5 Willow river fish were

lightly infected, 1 with B. eucaliae, 2 with P. brevicecum, 1 with

larval Proteocephalus sp., and 2 with larval Spiroxys sp.

Esox lucius Linn., Northern pike: The 11 fish examined from

5 waters were all infected. From Big McKenzie lake, 3 fish were

parasitized, 2 lightly with Azygia augusticauda, and 1 with

immature Triaenophorus nodulosus. Immature Proteocephalus

Fischthal — Parasites of Northwest Wisconsin Fishes 101

pinguis occurred moderately in 1, while both the immature and

adult stages were present lightly in 1 and moderately in 1.

Two were moderately and 1 heavily infected with both immature

and adult Contracaecum brachyurum, Gyrodactyloidea occurred

moderately in 1, heavily in 2. Neascus sp. was present lightly in

2, heavily in 1. Two fish were taken from Birch lake. Both were

lightly parasitized by immature A, augusticauda, larval Diplo-

stomulum scheuringi, and Neoechinorhynehus tenellus. Immature

Camallanus oxycephalus and Leptorhynchoides thecatus were

present lightly in only 1. Both pike were moderately infected

with Gyrodactyloidea and Neascus sp., while both immature and

adult P. pinguis was present heavily. Four fish were examined

from Rice lake. One was lightly infected with A, augusticauda,

while 4 were moderately parasitized with larval D. schueringi,

Gyrodactyloidea occurred lightly in 1, moderately in 3. Neascus

sp. was present moderately in 3, heavily in 1. P, pinguis was

recovered lightly from 3 fish, 1 with adults only, 1 with both

adult and immature worms, and 1 with immature worms only.

The 1 fish from Stuntz brook was lightly infected with Gyro¬

dactyloidea, and heavily with immature P, pinguis. The 1 pike

from the Yellow river was parasitized lightly with glochidia,

and immature Macroderoides fiavus; moderately with immature

C, brachyurum, Gyrodactyloidea, and immature and adult P.

pinguis; and heavily with Neascus sp. Bangham (1946) found

all 4 northern pike from the Yellow river flowage at Spooner

infected, recording A, augusticauda, Crepidostomum cooperi,

larval Diplostomulum sp., Gyrodactyloidea, Neascus sp., P, pin¬

guis, and Spinitectus gracilis. Fischthal (1947) examined 11

fish from the Yellow river, finding similar parasites as herein

recorded with the exception of glochidia which he did not find.

In addition to those in common he recorded A. augusticaudxi,

larval D. scheuringi, L. thecatus, N. tenellus, Phyllodistomum

sp., and Trichodina sp.

Esox m. masquinongy Mitchill, Great Lakes muskellunge:

All 7 muskellunge examined harbored parasites. The 1 fish from

Teal lake was lightly infected with Philometra sp., and immature

Triaenophorus nodulosus, but moderately with Macroderoides

spiniferus. The Philometra sp. consisted of 2 large specimens

recovered from the body cavity, and measuring 185 and 201 mm.

in length, respectively. During the summer of 1944 the author

had observed Dr. Ralph V. Bangham recover this same parasite

102 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

TABLE 5

Perea flavescens (Mitchill) — Yellow Perch

Fischthal — Parasites of Northwest Wisconsin Fishes 103

from muskellunge from northeast Wisconsin lakes which meas¬

ured approximately 2 feet in length. The 6 fish from the Yellow

river were parasitized, all being lightly infected with immature

Contracaecum brachyurur/i, 3 with glochidia, 2 with Lepto-

rhynchoides thecatus, 2 with N eoechinorhynchns tenellus, 1 with

Phyllodistomum sp., 1 with Pomphorhynchus bulbocolli, and 1

with larval Spiroxys sp. One was lightly and 2 moderately

infected with both immature and adult Proteocephalus pinguis,

while 3 were lightly parasitized with immature forms only.

Trichodina sp. occurred heavily on the gills of 1 fish.

Perea flavescens (Mitchill), Yellow perch: All 55 perch

examined were parasitized (Table 5). The fish from Little Sand

lake, Hay and Spring creeks, and Yellow river were fingerlings.

The 2 species of Arguhis, catostomi and versicolor , were recov¬

ered from the body surfaces of Birch lake perch. The larval

Diplostomulum sp. (probably Z). huronense) occurred in the

humors of the eye. The glochidia were observed in the gills. The

larval Leptorhynchoides thecatus was encysted in the mesent¬

eries. The larval Tetracotyle sp. were encysted around the heart

of 2 Shell lake fish. The 12 Yellow river perch were collected

from below the dam at Spooner lake. Bangham (1946) in his

examination of one perch from the Yellow river flowage at

Spooner recorded larval CUnostomum marginatum, Crepidosto-

mum cooperi, larval Diplostomulum sp. (1), Gyrodactyloidea,

L. thecatus, larval Neascus sp., and Proteocephalus pearsei,

Fischthal (1947) found all 12 perch from the Yellow river below

the Spooner power dam infected with similar parasites as herein

recorded, with the exception of Bunodera sacculata which he did

not find. In addition to those mentioned in common he recorded

Bunodera leudopercae, larval 'Contracaecum sp., C. cooperi,

larval and adult L. thecatus, N eoechinorhynchus cylindratus,

Pomphorhynchus bulbocolli, larval Spiroxys sp., and Trichodina

sp.

Stizostedion v, vitreum (Mitchill), Walleye: Fourteen fish

were examined from 2 waters and all harbored parasites. The

1 fish from Conners lake was lightly infected with Capillaria

catenata, Neascus sp., immature Proteocephalus stizostethi, and

Spinitectus carolinL It was heavily parasitized with both imma¬

ture and adult Bothriocephalus cuspidatus. The 13 fish from

Shell lake were lightly parasitized, 1 with Bucephalopsis pusilla,

2 with larval CUnostomum marginatum, 6 with larval Diplosto-

104 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

mulum scheuringi, and 12 with P. stizostethi. All 13 had B. cus-

pidatus, 1 moderately and 9 heavily with both immature and

adult forms, and 3 heavily with immature forms only. Gyro-

dactyloidea occurred lightly in 7 and moderately in 2. Lepto-

rhynchoides thecatus lightly parasitized 7 and moderately 6.

Six fish were lightly infected with Spinitectus gracilis, while 4

were moderately infected. Bangham (1946) examined 12 fish

from Shell lake, finding similar parasites as herein recorded,

with the exceptions of larval C, marginatum and Gyrodactyloidea

which he did not observe. In addition to those in common he

found N eoechinorhynchus tenellus and UvuUfer amhloplites,

Percina caprodes semifasciata (DeKay), Northern logperch:

Three logperch were examined from the Yellow river and found

to be infected. One was lightly parasitized with immature CamaU

lanus oxycephalus, 1 with immature Contracaecum sp., 3 with

larval Diplostomulum scheuringi, 1 with adult Leptorhynchoides

thecatus and 2 with the larval stage, 3 with adult Pomphor-

hynchus bulbocolli and 1 of these also with the larval stage, and

2 with larval Tetracotyle sp. in the mesenteries. Neascus sp.

occurred lightly in one and moderately in 2. One was heavily

parasitized with Trichodina sp. on the gills.

Boleosoma nigrum eulepis Hubbs and Greene, Scaly Johnny

darter: Only 25 (86.2 per cent) of the 29 fish examined har¬

bored parasites. Ten of the 13 from Bashaw creek were infected.

Adult Bothriocephalus formosus occurred lightly in 1, while in

another both immature and adult forms were present. Light

infections with larval Clinostomum marginatum were recovered

from 2, immature Contracaecum sp. from 8, Neascus sp. from

4, and larval Tetracotyle sp. from 1. Only 1 of the 2 Little Sand

lake fish was parasitized, having a light infection with larval

Diplostomulum scheuringi. All 14 from the Yellow river con¬

tained parasites. Two were lightly infected with larval C, mar¬

ginatum, 9 with immature Contracaecum sp., 1 with larval

Contracaecum sp., 5 with larval D. scheuringi, 2 with adult and

1 with larval Leptorhynchoides thecatus, 1 with adult and 1 with

larval Pomphorhynchus bulbocolli, and 1 with larval Proteo-

cephalus sp. encysted in the mesenteries. Epistylis sp. occurred

heavily on the gill rakers and bars of 2 fish. Glochidia were

lightly present on the gills and fins of 1 and moderately on

another. Six were lightly parasitized with Neascus sp., while 5

were moderately infected.

Fischthal — Parasites of Northwest Wisconsin Fishes 105

Boleosoma n, nigrum (Raf.), Central Johnny darter: Only

4 (44.4 per cent) of the 9 fish harbored parasites. Three of the

8 Shell creek fish harbored light infections, 1 with larval Diplos-

tomulum scheuringi, 2 with Leptorhynchoides thecatus, and 1

with Pomphorhynchus bulbocolli; 1 was moderately infected

with Neascus sp. The 1 fish from the Yellow river was lightly

infected with larval Clinostomum marginatum, immature Con-

tracaecum sp., larval D. scheuringi, and Neascus sp. ; 1 was

heavily parasitized with Epistylis sp. on the gill rakers and bars.

Fischthal (1947) recorded similar parasites from 7 Yellow river

fish as herein recorded, with the exception of Epistylis sp. which

he did not observe. In addition to those parasites mentioned he

recovered Bothriocephalus formosus, larval and adult L. the-

catus, Phyllodistomum etheostomae, P, bulbocolli, and larval

Proteocephalus sp.

Boleosoma n, nigrum x B, n. eulepis. Central x Scaly Johnny

darter hybrid: Twenty one (84 per cent) of the 25 hybrid

darters harbored parasites. The 1 fish from Spring creek (2)

and the 2 from Stuntz brook were negative. Two of the 3 fish

from Hay creek were lightly infected with immature Contra-

caecum sp., and with larval Proteocephalus sp. in the mesen¬

teries. All 8 from Spring creek (1) were parasitized, 1 lightly

with Bothriocephalus formosus, 1 with larval Clinostomum mar¬

ginatum, 1 with larval Leptorhynchoides thecatus, 3 with larval

Tetracotyle sp., and 2 with Pomphorhynchus bulbocolli. Six were

lightly and 2 moderately infected with Neascus sp. All 11 fish

from the Willow river were infected, 1 lightly with adult B,

formosus and 2 with immature forms, 1 with larval C. margi¬

natum, 6 with larval Contracaecum sp., 2 with Phyllodistomum

etheostomae, and 1 with larval Tetracotyle sp. Neascus sp.

occurred lightly in 3, moderately in 7, and heavily in 1.

Poecilichthys exilis (Girard), Iowa darter: The 9 fish

examined were all parasitized. The 1 from Beaver brook was

lightly infected with Myxosporidia, and Neascus sp. The 1 from

the Willow river was lightly parasitized with larval Contracae¬

cum sp., and Neascus sp. Seven Yellow river fish were parasitized,

2 lightly with immature Contracaecum sp., 2 with larval Diplosto-

mulum scheuringi, 4 with larval Leptorhynchoides thecatus, 3

with Neascus sp., 1 with adult and 3 with larval Pomphorhynchus

bulbocolli, 2 with larval Proteocephalus sp., 1 with larval SpL

106 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

roxys sp., and 2 with Trichodina sp. on the gills. Three were

heavily infected with Epistylis sp. on the gill rakers and bars,

which is similar to those found on the scaly and central Johnny

darters. Fischthal (1947) observed similar parsites in 3 of 6

Yellow river fish as herein recorded, with the exception of

Epistylis sp., larval L. thecatus and P. hulhocolli, larval Pro-

teocephalus sp., and Trichodina sp. which he did not observe.

In addition to those in common he found adult L. thecatns.

Huro salmoides (Lac.), Largemouth bass: Twenty-two fish

were examined from 7 waters and all were parasitized (Table 6) .

The larval Contracaecum sp. and Proteocephalus sp. occurred

in cysts in the mesenteries. Sanguinicola sp. was recovered from

the mesenteries blood vessels and is similar to the species

observed by Fischthal (1947) in the smallmouth and largemouth

basses. The Myxosporidia was found in cysts in the mouth

region.

Lepomis gihhosus (Linn.), Pumpkinseed: The 33 fish

examined from 7 waters were infected. The larval Diplostomu-

lum sp. from Big McKenzie lake occurred in the lens of the eye

(Table 7). The larval Contracaecum sp. and Acanthocephala

were encysted in the mesenteries. The Myxosporidia occurred

on the heart and mesenteries of two Yellow river fish. The larval

Triaenophorus nodulosus were encysted in the liver. Bangham

(1946) in his examination of 9 pumpkinseeds from the Yellow

river fiowage at Spooner recorded similar parasites as herein

recorded, with the exceptions of immature Contracaecum sp.,

larval Leptorhynchoides thecatus and Myxosporidia which he

did not observe. In addition to those in common he found a

larval nematode, Azygia augusticauda and Crepidostomum cor-

nutum. Fischthal (1947) also found similar parasites as given

in this report for the Yellow river with the exception of Myxo¬

sporidia which he did not record. In addition to those found in

common he listed immature Azygia auagusticauda, Bothrioceph-

alus claviceps, larval Contracaecum sp., glochidia, Phyllodisto-

mum pearsei, Pomphorhynchus bulhocolli and larval Spiroxys sp.

Lepomis m. macrochirus Raf., Common bluegill: All 71 fish

examined from 9 waters were infected (Table 8). The larval

Dichelyne sp. was encysted in the mesenteries. The larval

Diplostomulum sp. was found in the lens of the eye. The Myxo¬

sporidia was on the gills. Bangham (1946) examined 2 Shell

Fischthal — Parasites of Northwest Wisconsin Fishes 107

TABLE 6

Huro salmoides (Lacepede) — Largemouth Bass

108 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

TABLE 7

Lepomis gibbosiLS (Linnaeus)— -Pumpkinseed

FischthcU — Parasites of Northwest Wisconsin Fishes 109

TABLE 8

Lepomis m, macrochirus Rafinesque—COMMON Bluegill,

110 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

lake bluegills, recording Crepidostomum cooperi, larval Diplosto-

mulum scheuringi, Gyrodactyloidea, Neascus sp., larval Pos~

thodipostomum minimum, and Spinitectus carolini.

Ambloplites r. rupestris (Raf.), Northern rock bass: The

52 fish examined from 7 waters all harbored parasites (Table

9). The larval Bucephalus elegans and Leptorhynchoides the-

catus were encysted in the mesenteries. The larval Diplostomu-

lum sp. occurred in the lens of the eye. The Myxosporidia was

observed in the mouth region. Bangham (1946) examined 5

rock bass from Shell lake, recovering similar parasites as herein

recorded. In addition he found immature Bothriocephalus sp.,

Camallanus sp., and Proteocephalus pearsei, Crepidostomum

cooperi, Cryptogonimus chyli, Dichelyne cotylophora, Ergasilus

caeruleus, Leptorhynchoides thecatus, Neoechinorhynchus cylin-

dratus, larval Proteocephalus ambloplitis, Spinitectus carolini,

and Spinitectus sp. Bangham also examined 6 fish from the Yel¬

low river fiowage at Spooner, finding larval CUnostomum mar¬

ginatum, Diplostomulum scheuringi, Neascus sp., and Postho-

diplostomum minimum, larval and adult Proteocephalus amhlo-

plitis, adult Crepidostomum cooperi, Cryptogonimus chyli, Gyro¬

dactyloidea, IlUnobdella sp., Leptorhynchoides thecatus, and

Proteocephalus pearsei. Fischthal (1947) also examined 11 rock

bass taken from the Yellow river below the Spooner power dam,

observing similar parasites as recorded in this report, with the

exceptions of immature Contracaecum sp., and larval Diplosto¬

mulum sp. which he did not observe. In addition to those in

common he found Azygia augusticaudd, Crepidostomum cooperi,

Gyrodactyloidea, Myxosporidia, Neoechinorhynchus cylindratus,

larval Pomphorhynchus bulbocolU, and Trichodina sp.

Pomoxis nigro-maculatus (LeS.), Black crappie: The 64 fish

from 6 waters were all parasitized (Table 10). The Myxospor¬

idia occurred in the gills and intestinal wall of 2 Big McKenzie

lake crappies, and in the intestinal wall of Callahan, Conners,

and Pokegama lakes fish.

Cottus b. bairdii Girard, Northern muddler: Only 27 (58.7

per cent) of the 46 muddlers harbored parasites. One of the 12

McKenzie creek fish was lightly infected with larval Contracae¬

cum sp. encysted in the intestinal wall, and larval Tetracotyle

sp. in the mesenteries. Seven of the 10 Montgomery creek fish

were lightly infected, 4 with Gyrodactyloidea, 2 with immature

Fischthal- — Parasites of Northwest Wisconsin Fishes 111

TABLE 9

Ambloplites r, rupestris (Rafinesque) — Northern Rock Bass

112 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

Proteocephalus pearsei, and 1 with Rhabdochona cascadilla. The

3 Shell creek fish were lightly parasitized, all with Leptorhynch-

oides thecatus, 1 with larval Pomphorhynchus bulbocolli, 2 with

immature P. pearsei, and 1 with E. cascadilla. Eleven of the 15

Spring creek (2) fish were infected, 6 lightly and 1 moderately

with adult Crepidostomum cooperi, 1 moderately with both

immature and adult forms, and 1 lightly with immature forms

only; 3 were lightly infected with immature P. pearsei. Imma¬

ture P. pearsei occurred lightly in the 1 fish from Stuntz brook.

Four of the 5 fish from the Willow river were lightly parasitized,

1 with immature Bothriocephalus sp.; 2 were lightly infected

with Bucephalus sp., 1 with both immature and adult forms and

1 with immature forms only.

TABLE 10

Pomoxis nigro-maculatus (LeSueur) — Black Crappie

Examined 68

Infected 68

Camallanus oxycephalus

± Camallanus oxycephalus .

**Camallanus oxycephalus .

*Contracaecum sp .

** Crepidostomum cooperi.

*Diplostomulum scheuringi

Ergasilus caeruleus.

Gyrodactyloidea. . .

Leptorhynchoides thecatus.

'‘Leptorhynchoides thecatus.

Myxosporidia .

*Neascus sp.

** Proteocephalus pearsei

** Proteocephalus sp .

Spinitectus carolini. . .

Spinitectus gracilis . . .

Big

Mc¬

Kenzie

L.

14

81

22

31

1 1

12

61

81

Birch

L.

101

32

41

12

71

52

31

111

Calla¬

han

L.

12

31

61

12

71

22

21

22

p

91

32

71

62

Con¬

ners

L.

14

71

22

11

81

1 2

1 3

61

11

22

81

12

21

i'l'

POKEG

AMA

L

11

81

1 2

91

12

21

P

i'l’

Rice

L

1 1

P

32

Fischthal — Parasites of Northwest Wisconsin Fishes 113

Eucalia ineonstans (Kirtland), Brook stickleback: Only 18

(66.7 per cent) of the 27 fish were parasitized. The 1 Spring

creek (2) specimen was negative. Two of the 3 from Bashaw

creek were lightly infected, 1 with immature Contracaecum sp.,

and 1 with immature Rhabdochona cascadilla. Three of the 4

fish from Sawyer creek were lightly parasitized with immature

Bunoderina eucaliae. Three of the 4 fish from Dahlstrom brook

were lightly infected, 1 with B, eucaliae, and 2 with Gyrodocty-

loidea. Ten of the 15 from the Willow river were lightly infected,

3 with B, eucaliae, 1 with Myxosporidia on the gills, 3 with

N eoechinorhynchus rutili, 3 with larval Proteocephalus sp., and

1 with larval Spiroxys sp.

Lota lota maculosa (LeS.), Eastern burbot: Eight (88.9

per cent) of the 9 burbot were infected. The 3 from Hay creek

were all parasitized, 2 lightly with larval Diplostomulum sp.

in the humors of the eye, 1 lightly and 1 heavily with Myxo¬

sporidia on the gills, 1 lightly with N eoechinorhynchus cylin-

dratus, and 2 with immature Proteocephalus pearsei. Five of the

6 from Stuntz brook were infected, 2 lightly, 1 moderately, and

2 heavily with glochidia.

Literature Cited

Bangham, R. V. 1940. Parasites of fresh-water fish of southern Florida.

Proc. Fla. Acad. Sc. 5: 289-307.

- - 1941. Parasites of fish of Algonquin Park lakes. Tr. Am. Fish. Soc.

- 70: 161-171.

- 1946. Parasites of northern Wisconsin fish. Tr. Wis. Acad. Sc.,

Arts & Let. 36: 291-325.

Bangham, R. V., and Hunter, G. W., III. 1939. Studies on fish parasites

of Lake Erie. Distribution studies. Zoologica 24: 385-448.

Bordner, J. S. 1942. Inventory of northern Wisconsin lakes. Bull. Wis.

Dept. Agric. No. 228: 1-104.

Essex, H. E., and Hunter, G. W., III. 1926. A biological survey of fish

parasites from the Central States. Tr. Ill. Acad. Sc. 19: 151-181.

Fischthal, J. H. 1947. Parasites of northwest Wisconsin fishes. I. The

1944 survey. Tr. Wis. Acad. Sc., Arts & Let. 37 : 157-220.

Hunter, G. W., III. 1941. Studies on the parasites of fresh-water fishes of

Connecticut. In “A fishery survey of important Connecticut lakes*^

Bull. Conn. Geol. & Nat. Hist. Surv. No. 63: 228-288.

Van Cleave, H. J., and Mueller, J. F. 1934. Parasites of Oneida lake

fishes. Part III. A biological and ecological survey of the worm para¬

sites. Roosevelt Wild Life Ann. 3 : 161-334.

THE MALE GENITALIA OF SYRPHUS, EPISTROPHE

AND RELATED GENERA (DIPTERA, SYRPHIDAE)

C. L. Fluke

University of Wisconsin

During the past thirty-five years there have been several

papers dealing with generic and subgeneric concepts in the

Syrphini. Matsumura in 1917 split up the genera Syrphtts Fabr.

and Epistrophe Wk. and his paper has been followed in part

by more recent contributions: Curran (1924), Fluke (1983),

Goffe (1943, 44, 46), Frey (1945), and Hull (1949). Most

workers agree that these two basic genera need to be divided,

but there is some disagreement on just how this should be done.

The study of the male genitalia of these genera began about

three years ago, and since then all species in my collection, in

which males are represented, from Europe and the Americas,

have been dissected and a drawing prepared. These studies have

been enlightening and have suggested several changes that

appear to show a true relationship among the many species

of Syrphus Fabr. Matasyrphus Mats. Epistrophe Wk., Allograpta

0. S. etc.

Methods of Preparing the Specimens for Study

Metcalf (1921) has explained fully the process of relaxing,

clearing, and mounting of specimens for study. I have followed

in general his methods and have used his terminology. After first

relaxing a pinned specimen in a desiccator using ethyl acetate

one part, 95% ethyl alcohol one part, and distilled water one

part for two days the genitalia were carefully removed with a

dissecting needle. They were cleared in 10 per cent caustic potash

in small vials for 24 to 48 hours. They were then removed to

glycerine in a spot dish where they were manipulated with fine

needles into the proper position, spreading the dorsal and ventral

parts so that they could all be seen and sketched. In those species

belonging to Allograpta, it was extremely difficult to spread them

without separating the penis sheath from tergite ten.

115

116

Wisconsin Academy of ScienceSy Arts and Letters

Explanation of Plates

All drawings are genitalia made with the aid of the camera lucida and

all are drawn to the same scale, e.h. = ejaculatory hood; s.l. = superior

lobes; x = tenth tergite. Except where indicated ventral views are penis

sheath only.

Plate I

Figure

1. — Syrphus ribesii, lateral view.

2. — S. ribesii, dorsal view.

3. — S. torvus, lateral view.

4. — S. torvus, entire ventral view.

5. — S. ribesii-vittafrons, lateral view.

6. — S. knabi, lateral view.

7. — S. opinator, lateral view.

8. — S. bigelowi, lateral view.

9. — S. attenuatus, lateral view.

10. — S. currani, lateral view.

11. — S. vitripennis, lateral view.

12. — S. rectus, lateral view.

13. — S. transversalis, lateral view.

14. — S. willistoni, entire ventral view.

15. — S. phaeostigma, lateral view.

Fluke — The Male Genetalia of Syrphus and Epistrophe 117

SyrphiJde,

7> op/hafot'

fa curra/ti

8. S/^e/ow/

ft v/fr/pe/inis

9- aifenaafus

fZ. ir^cfus

IS ftons versa/is 14-. wt I h'stonJ / S

118 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Plate II

Figure

16. — Syrphus (Epistrophe) emarginatus, lateral view.

17. — S. divisus, lateral view.

18. — S. felix, lateral view.

19. — S. invigorus, lateral view.

20. — S. grossulariae, lateral view.

21. — S. xanthostomus, lateral view.

22. — S. nitidicollis, lateral view.

23. — S. hunteri, lateral view.

24. — S. metcalfi, lateral view.

25. — S. melanostomus, lateral view.

26. — S. bifasciatus, lateral view.

27. — S. weborgi, lateral view.

28. — S. bifasciatus, ventral view.

29. — S. grossulariae, ventral view.

30. — S. xanthostomus, ventral view.

31. — S. hunteri, ventral view.

32. — S. metcalfi, ventral view.

33. — S. nitidicollis, ventral view.

34. — S. melanostomus, ventral view.

35. — S. felix, ventral view.

36. — S. divisus, ventral view.

37. — S. invigorus, ventral view.

38. — S. emarginatus, ventral view.

39. — S. weborgi, ventral view.

Fluke — The Male Genetalia of Syrphus and Epistrophe 119

J6.emr^inahs 17. divisa /A 19./v/gorus

ZO- grossu/aHae z /. Xanfhosfomus z Z .nifidicoZ/is

Z3.hunf^ri ZA^tn^fcal-FI 2S-me/anosfomus Z6.6/faschta

27. weborg/

3LhunfeH

ZS-tifasmta Z9.gmssulariaz 50.7CQhihos1bm$

(g^ 0 ^

3S. 'fzZ/X 36, cZ/v/sa 37, f/r/tgorus

3$, effKtrginahts 39- weborgi

120 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences y Arts and Letters

Plate III

Figure

40. — Stenosyrphus albipunctatus, lateral view.

41. — S. barbifrons, lateral view.

42. — S. cherokeenensis, lateral view.

43. — S. columbiae, lateral view.

44. — S. compositarum, lateral view.

45. — S. diversipunctatus, lateral view.

46. — S. fisheri, lateral view.

47. — S. garretti, lateral view.

48. — S. labiatarum, lateral view.

49. — S. lasiophthalmus, lateral view.

50. — S. mentalis, lateral view.

51. — S. pullulus.

52. — S. albipunctatus, ventral view.

53. — S. barbifrons, ventral view.

54. — S. cherokeenensis, ventral view.

55. — S. columbiae, ventral view.

56. — S. diversipunctatus, ventral view.

57. — S. compositarum, ventral view.

58. — S. pullulus, ventral view.

59. — S. mentalis, ventral view.

60. — S. lasiophthalmus, ventral view.

61. — S. labiatarum, ventral view.

62. — S. garretti, ventral view.

63. — S. fisheri, ventral view.

Fluke — The Male Genetalia of Syrphus and Epistrophe 121

44-compositarum 45.clivers/pidnctitKS 46^ "fisheri 47

48^/a6/ataram 4-4Jcisiopt/)a//?7Us SO.me^ta^/s SJ.pullt4/us

52.albipuncfafusSSbQrbift‘onsS4^^>'*>^^^n^ff^sSS> Cotumbiae SS.d'ver'sipanctalus SJ.Composi'kiritm

SSpfMus S9.m&nfalis Sohs/opf^ms 6lJ3hiaihrutn 6Z.garreffi du.fbh&ri

122 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Plate IV

Figure

64. — Stenosyrphus punctulatus, lateral view.

65. — S. umbellatarum, lateral view.

66. — S. vittafacies, lateral view.

67. — S. punctulatus, ventral view.

68. — S. umbellatarum, ventral view.

69. — S. vittafacies, ventral view.

70. — S. arcticus, lateral view.

71. — S. genualis, lateral view.

72. — S. insolitus, lateral view.

73. — S. lineola, lateral view.

74. — S. 5-limbatus, lateral view.

75. — S. rectoides, lateral view.

76. — S. semiinterruptus, lateral view.

77. — S. arcticus, ventral view.

78. — S. genualis, ventral view.

79. — S. insolitus, ventral view.

80. — S. lineola, ventral view.

81. — S. 5-limbatus, ventral view.

82. — S. rectoides, ventral view.

83. — S. semiinterruptus, ventral vieAv.

84. -— S. cinctus, lateral view.

85. — S. cinctus, ventral view.

86. — S. nigrifacies, lateral view.

87. — S. nigrifacies, ventral view.

88. — S. subfasciatus, lateral view.

Fluke — The Male Genetalia of Syrphus and Epistrophe 123

6ApuncfulafUs 6S. umhe/htarum 66. v/ f fa fa c/e s ^T.panchkfus

6Q.urril)elhfaca/n 69\//tfafac/es JO.a/'cf/cas lt.genua//s 7ZJ/?so/ifas

73. UneoJa 74..S-‘//mbatus 7S yecfo/des 76. semi Infer rapfus

JZareffCus le.genualis 77 'mol/fus 60.//neola Ql.S-limhatus QZ.i^ecfoides 35.semi infer

64-^C/ncflis SS.cmcfus 86.nl^n facies ein/gr/facies 6d.sa/6 fascia f/s

124 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Plate V

Figure

Fluke— The Male Genetalia of Syrphus and Epistrophe 125

^td/flssimas

lOl aurieopis lOZMmcellis JQShaifeafus JO^ia/teotis ICS. divek^^ifusdafus.: 1(X).

lOjcmcteHus IO$.pfm^oms M frabie tlO.hermo^us

126 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Plate VI

Figure

111. — Stenosyrphus (Episyrphus) laxus, lateral view.

112. — S. laxus, ventral view.

113. — S. annulipes, lateral view.

114. ^ — S. nigricornis, lateral view.

115. — S. vittiger, lateral view.

116. — S. vittiger, ventral view.

117. — Stenosyrphus (Meligramma) guttata, lateral view.

118. — S. triangulifer, lateral view.

119. — S. tenuis, lateral view.

120. — S. triangulifer, ventral view.

121. — S. guttata, ventral view.

122. — S. tenuis, ventral view.

123. — Stenosyrphus (Ischyrosyrphus) velutinus, ventral view.

124. — Stenosyrphus (Metepistrophe) remigis, ventral view.

125. — Claraplumula latifacies, ventral view.

126. — Stenosyrphus (Ischyrosyrphus) velutinus, lateral view.

127. — Claraplumula latifacies, lateral view.

128. — Fazia roburoris, lateral view.

129. — F. roburoris, ventral view.

130. — Stenosyrphus (Metepistrophe) remigis, lateral view.

131. — S. argentipila, lateral view.

132. — Stenosyrphus (Mercurymyia) caldus, lateral view.

133. — S. jactator, lateral view.

Fluke~~The Male Genetalia of Syrphus and Epistrophe 127

Jfl/axas JllJax&s JlJ.amaiipes IM^/^r/cor/f/s

lZO.trmn^aiifet 12! fZJvehtfms IZ^remigk JZS.Mfacies,

lZ6,velufmi4s fZJMf/fac/es zze.y’oburons

l50,tQmigis ■ Blargeffffpik BZ.caidus JSSjocf^toK

128 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences y Arts and Letters

Plate VII

Figure

184. — Allograpta alta, lateral view.

135. — A. Colombia, lateral view.

136. — A. exotica, lateral view.

137. — A. fasciata, lateral view.

138. — A. obliqua, ventral view.

139. — A. luna, lateral view.

140. — A. micrura, lateral view.

141. — A. neotropica, lateral view.

142. — A. obliqua, lateral view.

143. — A. piurana, lateral view.

144. — A. similis, lateral view.

145. — A. tectiforma, lateral view.

146. — Metasyrphus corollae, ventral view.

147. — M. corollae, lateral view.

148. — Metasyrphus (Posthosyrphus) aberrantis, lateral view.

149. — M. canadensis, lateral view.

150. — M. depressus, lateral view.

151. — M. flukei, lateral view.

152. — M. fumipennis, lateral view.

153. — M. lapponicus, lateral view.

154. — M, latifasciatus, lateral view.

Fluke — -The Male Genetalia of Syrphus and Epistrophe 129

ISl flukzi ISZfumlpenms 153, UpponicuB /S41difm€iafm

130 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Plate VIII

Figure

Fluke — The Male Genetalia of Syrphus and Epistrophe 131

JS9. maryinafus 160. meadii 16lmonfiwigu3 162.nei>perplexus

■lilJapponkui MBaberr antis- !6f.CQmd^nsis ITQekpr^ssus JTlf/akei /72./e^ifoens/s

PSi&fify$mfus i74hn^b^ J7Skm§^r IJSmarfmfus 'IJlMmdii //SMonAms

132

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Figure

179. —

180. —

181.—

182.-

183. -

184. —

185. -

186. -

187. -

188. -

189. -

190. -

191. -

192. -

193. -

194. -

195. -

196. -

197. -

198. -

199. -

200. -

201.-

202.-

203.-

Plate IX

-Metasyrphus (Posthosyrphus) snowi, lateral view.

■M. venablesi, lateral view.

■M. vinelandi, lateral view.

■M. ochrostomus, ventral view.

-M. talus, lateral view.

-M. wiedemanni, lateral view.

-M. wiedemanni, dorsal view.

-M. wiedemanni, ventral view.

■M. fumipennis, ventral view.

■M. montivagus, ventral view.

-M. neoperplexus, ventral view.

-M. nitens, ventral view.

-M. perplexus, ventral view.

-M. pingreensis, ventral view.

-M. venablesi, ventral view.

-M. vinelandi, ventral view.

-Dasysyrphus laticaudus, ventral view.

-D. pacificus, ventral view.

-D. creper, ventral view.

-D. amalopis, ventral view.

-D. pacificus, dorsal view.

-D. pauxillus, ventral view.

-D. lotus, ventral view.

-D. disgregus, ventral view.

-D. lunulatus, ventral view.

Fluke— The Male Genetalia of Syrphus and Epistrophe 133

J 79- snow f I&O.venabhsi /&/. vm^iandi /8Z.o^hrvstonfas

I8S fa! us I 6 4-. Yuedemnnni ISSwQJ&manni JSS wieJemanm

Mlfum/pemis Idd.montivaffus /89/mopetpkM^ /VOM/fens If/.perplexas /fBp^preemis

If f pad ficus ZOO. pauxiHus ZOUofus ZOZ.dis^te^us Z03Jmu!aius

134

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Plate X

Figure

204. — Dasysyrphus amalopis, lateral view.

205. — D. arcuatus (-venustus), lateral view.

206. — D. lotus, lateral view.

207. — D. lunulatus, lateral view.

208. — D. pacificus, lateral view.

209. — D. disgregus, lateral view.

210. — D. albostriatus, lateral view.

211. — D. limatus, lateral view.

212. — D. tricinctus, lateral view.

213. — D. creper, lateral view.

214. — D. pauxillus, lateral view.

215. — D. laticaudus, lateral view.

216. — D. laticaudus, dorsal view.

217. — Metasyrphus (Posthosyrphus) snowi, ventral view.

218. — Dasysyrphus arcuatus, ventral view.

219. — D. albostriatus, ventral view.

220. — D. tricinctus, ventral view.

Fluke— The Male Genetalia of Syrphus and Epistrophe 135

ZOlJunuldfUiS 208.p^ci ficus ZQ9.c/igrcga6 ZiO.Q/bostriafas

zilJimafus ziz.Mcincfus Zt5.ct8p8r

Zi4.pauxillas

Zlt snowi

ZIS, hficaudas

ZtB. Qrcuatus 2 1 9.ofbostria fus

ZlSJaficaadus

ZZO frictncfus

136 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

The drawings were made with the aid of the camera lucida

and all were made to the same scale. A binocular microscope was

used with a number 3 objective and number 15 ocular.

After a sketch was made, the genital parts were placed in a

tiny shell vial of glycerine which was in turn pinned to the orig¬

inal specimen for proper association with the adult.

Bean (1949) has made a study of the male genitalia of Tuhi-

fera Meig. (= Eristalis Latr.) in which he describes several

methods of handling the specimens. His third method which he

used most is not readily applicable for very small parts found in

many species of Allograpta and smaller specimens of Stenosyr-

phus. Metcalf's techniques have proved -satisfactory for the

SyrphinL

Definitions

Cerci — attached to the tenth tergite (this tergite appears

ventral in natural position).

Styli or Styles (S.) — attached apically to the tenth tergite,

often called surstyli.

Penis sheath — it surrounds the aedeagus and forms an im¬

portant character in these studies.

Lingula — an extension, round or flat, and an integral part of

the penis sheath, called the ninth sternite by Crampton.

Superior lobes (S. 1.) — heavily chitinized structures, paired,

that surround the penis, attached to the penis sheath, sometimes

with teeth or spine-like setae, but maybe entirely without orna¬

mentation.

Aedeagus — the penis proper, including the ejaculatory hood.

Ejaculatory hood (e. h.) -—apical end of the aedeagus, often

flared into a thin horn-like opening, may be difficult to observe

after clearing in caustic potash.

The reader is referred to Crampton (1942) for a very thor¬

ough discussion of the male genitalia of Diptera in which the

Syrphidae are frequently referred to.

European material was determined by several workers, in¬

cluding the British Museum, Oldenburg and Lindner in Ger¬

many, and Von Doesburg in Holland. The American species are

my own determinations although many have been confirmed by

other North American workers.

Fluke — The Male Genetalia of Syrphus and Epistrophe 137

There is no intention here to insist on a classification based

entirely on genitalia. It is believed however that these studies

should help to more properly group the many species belonging

to the Syrphini. Baccha Fabr., Sphaerophoria St. F. & S., Meso-

gramma Lw., Eupeodes 0. S., Didea Macq. s. s., and Scaeva

Fabr. are not considered in this work.

Some important changes are indicated but before attempting

to make final judgment, I am offering the proposals here and

inviting correspondence from foreign and American workers

with the thought that eventually some agreement may be

reached.

The most important changes suggested are : ( 1 ) Epistrophe

Wk. type grossulariae Meig. is very little different from Syrphus

Fabr. type ribesii L. and Epistrophe^ therefore, ranks only at

most a subgenus. In this group would go the close relatives of

grossulariae Meig. and members of the emarginatus Say group

in Metasyrphus Mats, (see Fluke 1933). I would use Stenosyr-

phus Mats, for the large group of slender forms now generally

placed in Epistrophe Wk. This is in line with Goffe's splendid

contribution (1944a) although Curran (1924) was the first to

recognize Stenosyrphus Mats. (2) Metasyrphus Mats. s. s. would

be limited to corollae Fabr. The rest of the species would be

placed in Posthosyrphus End. type wiedemanni John (— amer-

icanus Wd.). Most of the species in this group are recognized by

corrugations on the penis sheath. I believe, however, he refers to

what we in America know as wiedemanni John, one of the com¬

monest of syrphids in Eastern North America. Goffe (1946) has

already pointed out the indefiniteness of Enderlein's work.

The development and form of the lingula appears to be an

important character. It is cylindrical and always present in

Syrphus Fabr., also present in N. American Epistrophe Wk.,

but nearly always absent in Metasyrphus Mats., Allograpta 0. S.

and many species of Epistrophe Wk., especially those from South

America. The styles have many variations, from broad oval

forms (Syrphus) to narrow elongate forms (Epistrophe etc.)

and some are very triangular or ridged. The superior lobes

appear to offer a good character for species differentiation ; size,

shape, ornamentation. The ejaculatory hood is also quite vari¬

able, sometimes very inconspicuous, at other times extremely

long and even with spines on the outer flaring envelope, or with

138 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

prominent teeth-like spines as in Stenosyrphus caldus Wk. and

jactator Lw. In all the drawings the ejaculatory hood has been

left unshaded. ^

In order to show the width of the lingula a ventral drawing

of the penis sheath has frequently been included. Care should be

taken to interpret these since it was not always possible to place

all specimens in exact relative positions for the drawings. A few |

drawings of the ‘*cercus” side (dorsal) have been made, but rela¬

tively few character differences can be noted in this view. I|

Discussion of the Generic Groupings

Syrphus Fabr. 1776 (= Syrphidis Goffe 1934)

Fourteen species or varieties have been examined in this

group, and they are all of a similar type: large broad styles,

large prominent superior lobes, elongate, cylindrical lingula and

a short non-prominent ejaculatory hood. Some of the species

have shorter lingula than others (torvus 0. S. and bigelowi

Curr.) and in some the superior lobes appear larger in relative

proportions (currani Fluke, knabi Shan., ribesii L.). Other dif¬

ferences are very minor and species characterization by genitalia

in this group is generally difficult.

The genitalia of S. similis Blan. are not illustrated but were

examined and found to be indistinguishable from S, phaeo-

stigma Wd.

Epistrophe Walker

The genitalia of these differ from Syrphus Fabr. s. s. by the

shorter, broader lingula and more irregularly shaped superior

lobe, but the styles are quite similar to Syrphus.

The Metasyrphus species in North America belonging to the

emarginatus group differ very little from grossulariae Wk. and

while the adults have a beaded abdomen, I still think they belong

with grossulariae Wk. This beading is often not too definite as

has been noted by Curran (1924) when he keyed invigorus Curr.

as a Stenosyrphus.

Stenosyrphus Matsumura 1917

This is one of the larger groups and includes most of the

slender forms currently recognized in Epistrophe Wk. There are

four lines of development when based upon the formation of the

Fluke-— The Male Genetalia of Syrphus and Epistrophe 139

lingula and superior lobes. The styles and ejaculatory hood of

all groups are quite similar.

The first group (lasiophthalmus) has a slender lingula and

with prominent, outwardly projecting (dorsally in drawings)

spines on the superior lobes. Four species included in this group

are not typical, they have a broader lingula: barbifrons Fall.,

punctulatum Verr., umbellatarum Fabr., and vittafacies Curr.

The second group (lineola) has a spatulate lingula and usu¬

ally inwardly projecting spine-like structures on the superior

lobes.

The third group (tarsatus) has a very large broad lingula

and inwardly projecting spine-like structures on the superior

lobes. Enderlein (1937) has proposed Phalacrodira type tarsatus

Zett. for this group.

The fourth group contains three species which are somewhat

irregular since they are difficult to place.

If group two were to be recognized with a name, Matsu-

mura’s proposal of Mesosyrphus 1917 (type constrictus Mats.)

should be the logical choice since lineola Zett. was one of the

species placed in this genus. He also included punetulatus Verr.,

annulatus Zett. and vittiger Zett. These studies would indicate

that punetulatus belongs with Group 1 and vittiger with Epi-

syrphus Mats.

Stenosyrphus subgenus Episyrphus Mats.

Matsumura erected Episyrphus for several species and

named balteatus Zett. as the type. This appears to be a logical

group, but I would remove all that he included to other groups

except the genotype and auricollis Meig.

There is no lingula and a ventral view of the penis sheath

shows the complete absence of this structure. The superior lobes

have been added to the ventral drawings of this group. There

are a few aberrant species included : armillata FL, a species from

Ecuador with very broad styles, and altissima FL, a species also

from Ecuador with a row of spine-like setae on the superior

lobes— -a character I also found on Fazia roburoris FI. Judging

by the genitalia, Syrphus laxus 0. S. and Syrphus annulipes

Zett. also belong here.

Frey's genus Meliscaeva with cinetella Zett. as genotype thus

becomes a synonym of Episyrphus Mats.

140 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Stenosyrphus subgenus Meligramma Frey 1945

I would limit this group to the three species studied : guttatus

Fall., tenuis Osburn, and triangulifer Zett. The genitalia are

small, have round, spiny superior lobes and an elongate narrow

lingula, narrower than in typical Epistrophe Wk. I strongly

suspect that tenuis is a synonym of triangulifer,

Stenosyrphus subgenus Metepistrophe Hull 1949

Hull erected this subgenus for remigis FI. The superior lobes

are quite slender and the styles are semi-rectangular with a saw¬

like outer edge; argentipila FI. has similar genitalia and prob¬

ably belongs here.

Stenosyrphus subgenus Ischyrosyrphus Bigot 1882

The only species I have studied (velutinus Will.) has geni¬

talia similar to species in Stenosyrphus Mats, as indicated in the

drawings. Males of the European species were not available for

dissection.

Stenosyrphus subgenus Mercury my ia N. subgenus

The very peculiar spinose ejaculatory hood places caldus Wk.

and jactator Lw. in a group by themselves. For these two species

I propose the name Mercury my ia with caldus Wk. the genotype

{Epistrophe hiarcuata Fluke = caldus Wk.) .

Claraplumula Shannon 1927

Only one species, C, latifacies has been described for this

genus, and while the adult characters appear quite distinct, the

genitalia indicate a close relationship to species in Episyrphus

Mats., with genitalia most similar to laxus 0. S. but with broader

superior lobes. Hull (1949) recognizes it as a subgenus of

Epistrophe Wk.

Fazia Shannon 1927

Hull (1949) recognized this as a subgenus of Epistrophe Wk.,

but this study indicates that Fazia is a valid genus. However, I

have males available for only one species {rohuroris FI.) and the

spiny superior lobe, long slender styles, and bulbous ejaculatory

hood may not appear in the other species.

Fluke — The Male Genetalia of Syrphus and Epistrophe 141

Allograpta Osten Sacken 1876

The adult characters of this genus are not clearly differen¬

tiated from related Epistrophe of authors but the genitalia offer,

I believe, good characters for separation. The styles are angu-

lated and grooved, the superior lobes and penis sheath quite

small ; therefore I believe they form a natural and distinct group.

The genitalia of this group were so small and difficult to

spread that they were often pulled apart for the drawings. Hull

proposes Metallograpta for Colombia Curr., but in this I cannot

agree.

Metasyrphus Matsumura 1917

Matsumura erected this genus in 1917 and named corollae

Fab. as the genotype. The name has since come into rather gen¬

eral use in North America for a very large number of species

usually placed in Syrphus y see Fluke (1933). Corollae Fabr. is

so distinctive and different that I think all others studied should

be placed in Posthosyrphus End. with wiedemanni John as the

type. At present it seems best to use Enderlein^s name as a sub¬

genus only.

Metasyrphus corollae Fab. has large genitalia; unusually

large, irregularly shaped styles, small superior lobes, no lingula,

bulbous ejaculatory hood and no rough ridges on the penis

sheath. Species in Posthosyrphus End. have smaller, more slen¬

der styles, larger (in proportion) superior lobes, also no lingula

(except in four species listed below), smaller hood, and with the

exception of lapponicus Zett. the penis sheath is rough and

corregated.

The majority of the species studied are American and the

group is one of the most difficult of the Syrphini to separate into

species, many almost impossible to determine except by a study

of the genitalia.

These studies show four off-type species but I do not believe

they are enough different to propose subgeneric names for them ;

they have definite beginnings of a lingula and one of them {lap¬

ponicus Zett.) lacks the roughened penis sheath which 1 believe

is so characteristic of the group. The other three are aherrantis

Curr., tylus FI. and ochrostomus Zett., but Fm not at all sure of

my identification of the last named. Specimens of lapponicus

Zett. were examined from many localities, American and Euro¬

pean, and I could detect no differences in the genitalia.

142 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Dasysyrphus Enderlein 1937

(= Syrphella Goffe 1944)

This genus, often called the o.malopis group in North Amer¬

ica, has a large ejaculatory hood and a broad lingula which is

very short in some and quite long in others. There are two rather

distinct lines of development in genitalia, one with large broad

styles and spines on the tip of the hood, the other with triangular

styles and no spines on the hood. The lingula is usually quite

small and broad in this latter group although more elongate in

tricinctus Fall. In the first group, pauxillus Will, has outwardly

turning superior lobes as seen in Figure 200.

In group one are the following :

amalopis 0. S., arcuatus Fall., venustus Meig., disgregus

Sn., and lottos Will.

In group two are the following :

lunulatus Verr., tricinctus Fall., albostriatus Fall.,

creper Sn., pad ficus Lov., pauxillus Will., laticaudus

Curr., and limatus Hine.

There are several other proposed genera that I am not in a

position at present to discuss: Chasmia End. 1937, type Mans

End.; Allograptina End. 1937, type octomaculata End.; and

Miogramma Frey 1945, type javana Wd.

The proposal of any more new names would appear only to

add to the confusion. Enough generic and subgeneric categories

have probably been proposed to catalogue nearly all the Euro¬

pean and American SyrpMni. The main task is to secure proper

associations and groupings. I have therefore prepared the fol¬

lowing list of the species studied, placing them in generic or

subgeneric groupings based largely on the genitalia.

The species are arranged alphabetically in each genus. It

will be noted under Stenosyrphus that there are four groups,

each group arranged alphabetically. With each species is the

locality of the specimens dissected, the original genus with date,

and reference to the figures in the drawings.

Fluke — The Male Genetalia of Syrphus and Epistrophe 143

I-— Genus Syrphus Fabricius 1776, genotype ribesii L.

A. Subgenus Syrphus s. s.

Syrphus attenuatus Hine 1922 — Wisconsin. Figure 9

Syrphus bigelowi Curran 1924 — Canada. Figure 8

Syrphus currani Fluke 1924-~California. Figure 10

Syrphus knabi Shannon 1916 — Wisconsin. Figure 6

Syrphus opinator Osten Sacken 1877 — Oregon. Figure 7

Syrphus phaeostigma Wiedemann 1830 — Brazil. Figure 15

Syrphus rectus Osten Sacken 1875 — Wisconsin. Figure 12

Musca ribesii Linnaeus 1758 — ^Colorado. Figures 1 and 2

Syrphus ribesii var. vittafrons Shannon 1916 -- Wisconsin.

Figure 5

Syrphus similis Blanchard 1852 — Chili

Syrphus torvus Osten Sacken 1875 — Wisconsin. Figures 3 and 4

Syrphus transversalis Curran 1921 — Wisconsin. Figure 13

Syrphus vitripennis Meigen 1882 — Europe. Figure 11

Syrphus willistoni Fluke 1942 — Ecuador. Figure 14

B. Subgenus Epistrophe Walker 1852, subgenotype

grossulariae Meigen

Scaeva bifasciata Fabricius 1794 — Holland. Figures 25 and 28

Syrphus divisa Williston 1882 — Michigan. Figures 17 and 36

Scaeva emarginata Say 1823 — Arkansas. Figures 16 and 38

Xanthogramma felix Osten Sacken 1875 — Wisconsin. Figures 18

and 35

Syrphus grossulariae Meigen 1822 — ^Vermont. Figures 20 and 29

Stenosyrphus hunteri Curran 1924 — Alaska. Figures 23 and 31

Syrphus invigorus Curran’ 1921 — Wisconsin. Figures 19 and 37

Scaeva melanostoma Zetterstedt 1843 — Lappland. Figures 25

and 34

Metasyrphus metcalfi Fluke 1933 — Wisconsin. Figures 24 and 32

Syrphus nitidicollis Meigen 1822 — France. Figures 22 and 33

Syrphus weborgi Fluke 1931 — Michigan. Figures 27 and 39

Syrphus xanthostomus Williston 1886 — Wisconsin. Figures 21

and 30

144 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

II — Genus Stenosyrphus Matsumura 1917, genotype

lasiophthalmus Zetterstedt

A. Subgenus Stenosyrphus s. s.

Group 1

Stenosyrphus albipunctatus Curran 1924 — Utah. Figures 40 and

52

Scaeva barbifrons Fallen 1817 — Germany. Figures 41 and 53

Melanostoma cherokeenensis Jones 1917 — Colorado. Figures 42

and 54

Stenosyrphus columbiae Curran 1924 — Washington. Figures 43

and 55

Syrphus compositarum Verrall 1873 — Scotland. Figures 44 and

57

Stenosyrphus diversipunctatus Curran 1924 — New Hampshire.

Figures 45 and 56

Syrphus fisheri Walton 1911 — Wisconsin. Figures 46 and 63

Stenosyrphus garretti Curran 1924 — Oregon. Figures 47 and 62

Syrphus labiatarum Verrall 1901 — England. Figures 48 and 61

Scaeva lasiophthalma Zetterstedt 1843 — England. Figures 49

and 60

Syrphus mentalis Williston 1886 — New Hampshire. Figures 50

and 59

Syrphus pullulus Snow 1895 — Colorado. Figures 51 and 58

Syrphus punctulatus Verrall 1873 — Holland. Figures 64 and 67

Syrphus umbellatarum Fabricius 1776 — Germany. Figures 65

and 68

Stenosyrphus vittafacies Curran 1923 — Pennsylvania. Figures

66 and 69

Group 2

Scaeva arctica Zetterstedt 1838 — Alaska. Figures 70 and 77

Syrphus genualis Williston 1886 — Wisconsin. Figures 71 and 78

Syrphus insolitus Osburn 1908 — Oregon. Figures 72 and 79

Scaeva lineola Zetterstedt 1847 — Holland. Figures 73 and 80

Syrphus quinquelimbatus Bigot 1884™-Washington. Figures 74

and 81

Syrphus rectoides Curran 1921— Washington. Figures 75 and 82

Epistrophe semiinterruptus Fluke 1935 — New Hampshire.

Figures 76 and 83

Fluke- — The Male Genetalia of Syrphus and Epistrophe 145

Group 3

Scaeva cincta Fallen 1817 — Holland. Figures 84 and 85

Stenosyrplius nigrifacies Curran 1923 — British Columbia.

Figures 86 and 87

Stenosyrplius subfasciatus Curran 1924 — Washington. Figure 88

Group 4

Scaeva macularis Zetterstedt 1843 — Germany. Figures 93 and 96

Syrphus mallochi Curran 1923 — Washington. Figures 94 and 95

Syrphus sodalis Williston 1886 — Colorado. Figures 91 and 92

Scaeva tarsata Zetterstedt 1838 — Alaska. Figures 89 and 90

B. Subgenus Meligramma Frey 1945, subgenotype guttata Fallen

Scaeva guttata Fallen 1817 — Colorado. Figures 117 and 121

Xanthogramma tenuis Osburn 1908— Colorado. Figures 119 and

122

Scaeva triangulifer Zetterstedt 1843 — Minnesota. Figures 118

and 120

C. Subgenus Episyrphus Matsumura 1917, subgenotype

balteatus DeGeer

Epistrophe altissimus Fluke 1942 — Ecuador. Figure 97

Epistrophe amplus Fluke 1942— Brazil. Figure 98

Scaeva annulipes Zetterstedt 1838— Europe. Figure 113

Epistrophe armillatus Fluke 1942 — Ecuador. Figure 99

Syrphus auricollis Meigen 18'22 — Holland. Figures 101 and 102

Musca balteata DeGeer 1776— Holland. Figures 103 and 104

Scaeva cinctella Zetterstedt 1843 — Tennessee. Figures 100 and

107

Syrphus diversifasciatus Knab 1914 — Oregon. Figures 105 and

106

Epistrophe hermosa Hull 1941— Brazil. Figure 110

Didea laxa Osten Sacken 1875 — Washington. Figures 111 and

112

Syrphus nigricornis Verrall 1898— Europe. Figure 114

Epistrophe pteronis Fluke 1942 — Ecuador. Figure 108

Epistrophe trabis Fluke 1942 — Ecuador. Figure 109

Scaeva vittiger Zetterstedt 1843 — England. Figures 115 and 116

D. Subgenus Metepistrophe Hull 1949, subgenotype

remigis Fluke

Epistrophe argentipila Fluke 1942 — Ecuador. Figure 131

Epistrophe remigis Fluke 1942 — Ecuador. Figures 124 and 130

146 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

E. Subgenus Ischyrosyrphus Bigot 1882, subgenotype ^

glaucius Linnaeus

Syrphus velutinus Williston 1882 — Washington. Figures 123 and

126

F. Subgenus Mercurymyia new subgenus, type caldus Walker I

Epistrophe caldus Walker 1852 — Brazil. Figure 132 i j!

Syrphus jactator Loew 1861 — Cuba. Figure 133 ^

III — Claraplumula Shannon 1927, genotype latifascies Shannon |

Claraplumula latifascies Shannon 1927 — Ecuador. Figures 125

and 127 ^ J

IV — Fazia Shannon 1927, genotype bullaeophora Shannon i

Fazia roburoris Fluke 1942 — Ecuador. Figures 128 and 129 1 1

V — Allograpta Osten Sacken 1876, genotype obliqua Say ||:

Allograpta alta Curran 1936 — Ecuador. Figure 134 il

Allograpta Colombia Curran 1925 — Ecuador. Figure 135

Syrphus exoticus Wiedemann 1830 — Ecuador. Figure 136

Allograpta fasciata Curran 1932 — Ecuador. Figure 137 ;

Epistrophe luna Fluke 1942 — Ecuador. Figure 139

Sphaerophoria micrura Osten Sacken 1877 — California. Figure

140

Allograpta neotropica Curran 1936 — Brazil. Figure 141

Scaeva obliqua Say 1823 — Missouri. Figures 138 and 142

Allograpta piurana Shannon 1927 — Peru. Figure 143

Allograpta similis Curran 1925 — Brazil. Figure 144

Allograpta tectiforma Fluke 1942 — Ecuador. Figure 145

VI — Metasyrphus Matsumura 1917, genotype corollae Fabricius

A. Subgenus Metasyrphus s. s.

Syrphus corollae Fabricius 1776 — Holland. Figures 146 and 147

B. Subgenus Posthosyrphus Enderlein 1937, genotype

wiedemanni Johnson

Syrphus aberrantis Curran 1924 — Colorado. Figures 148 and 168

Syrphus canadensis Curran 1926 — Wisconsin. Figures 149 and

169

Fluke — The Male Genetalia of Syrphus and Epistrophe 147

Metasyrphus depressus Fluke 1933 — Oregon. Figures 150 and

170

Syrphus flukei Curran 1917 — Colorado. Figures 151 and 171

Syrphus fumipennis Thompson 1868 — California. Figures 152

and 187

Scaeva lapponica Zetterstedt 1838 — Colorado. Figures 153 and

167

Syrphus latifasciatus Macquart 1827— Wisconsin. Figures 154

and 173

Syrphus lebanoensis Fluke 1930 — Colorado. Figures 155 and 172

Syrphus lundbecki Soot-Ryen 1946— Oregon. Figures 156 and

174

Syrphus luniger Meigen 1822 — Germany. Figures 157 and 175

Syrphus marginatus Jones 1917 — Oregon. Figures 159 and 176

Syrphus meadii Jones 1917— Colorado. Figures 160 and 177

Syrphus montanus Curran 1924 — Colorado. Figures 158 and 178

Syrphus montivagus Snow 1895 — Utah. Figures 161 and 188

Syrphus neoperplexus Curran 1924 — Alaska. Figures 162 and

189

Scaeva nitens Zetterstedt 1843 — Holland. Figures 163 and 190

Scaeva ochrostoma Zetterstedt 1849 — New York. Figures 164

and 182

Scaeva perplexus Osburn — 1910 — Colorado. Figures 165 and 191

Syrphus pingreensis Fluke 1930 — Colorado. Figures 166 and

192

Syrphus snowi Wehr 1922 — Colorado. Figures 179 and 217

Metasyrphus talus Fluke 1933 — Oregon. Figure 183

Syrphus venablesi Curran 1929 — Oregon. Figures 180 and 193

Syrphus vinelandi Curran 1921 — Wisconsin. Figures 181 and

194

Syrphus wiedemanni Johnson 1919 — Wisconsin. Figures 184,

185 and 186

VII — Genus Dasysyrphus Enderlein 1937, genotype

albostriatus Fallen

(= Syrphella Goffe 1944, genotype tricincta Fallen)

Scaeva albostriata Fallen 1817 — Holland. Figures 210 and 219

Syrphus amalopis Osten Sacken 1875 — Alaska. Figures 198 and

204

148 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Scaeva arcuatus Fallen 1817 — Holland. Figures 205 and 218 I

Syrphus creper Snow 1895 — Colorado. Figures 197 and 213 |

Syrphus disgregus Snow 1895 — New Mexico. Figures 202 and |

209

Syrphus laticaudus Curran 1924 — New Hampshire. Figures 195, 1

215 and 216

Syrphus limatus Hine 1922 — Utah. Figure 211

Syrphus lotus Williston 1886 — California. Figures 201 and 206 3

Syrphus lunulatus Meigen 1822 — Germany. Figures 203 and 207

Syrphus paciiicus Lovett 1919 — Idaho. Figures 196, 199 and 208 ;

Syrphus pauxillus Williston 1886 — Colorado. Figures 200 and

214

Scaeva tricincta Fallen 1817 — Holland. Figures 212 and 220

References

1. Bean, J. L. 1949. Can. Ent. LXXXI, pp. 140-152.

2. Crampton, G. C. 1942. Conn. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey, Bulletin No.

64, pp. 10-165.

3. Curran, C. H. 1924. Kans. Univ. Sci. Bui. XV (1) pp. 94-112.

4. Enderlein, G. 1937. Sitzung, der Gesell. Natur. Freunde zu Berlin

(4-7) pp. 192-237.

5. Fluke, C. L. 1933. Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci., Arts and Let. XXVIII, pp.

63-127.

6. Fluke, C. L. 1935. Entom. Americana XV N. Ser. (1) pp. 1-57.

7. Frey, Richard. 1945. Notulae Entomologicae, XXV, pp. 152-172.

8. Goffe, E. R. 1943. Ent. Monthly Mag., LXXIX, pp. 202-3.

9. Goffe, E. R. 1944. (A) The Entomologist LXXVII, pp. 135-140.

10. Goffe, E. R. 1944. (B) Ent. Monthly Mag., LXXX, p. 129.

11. Goffe, E. R. 1946. Jour. Brit. Ent. Ill (1) pp. 23-26.

12. Hull, F. M. 1949. Trans. Zool. Soc. XXVI (4) pp. 280-294.

13. Matsumura, S., and Adachi, J. 1916-17. Ent. Mag., Kyota, 1916, II:

pp. 1-36; 1917, II: pp. 133-156; 1917, III: pp. 14-46.

14. Metcalf, C. L. 1921. Ann. Entom. Soc. Amer. XIV, pp. 169-214.

15. SziLADY, Z. 1940. Ann. Mus. Nat. Hungarici (Zool.) XXXIII, pp. 54-70.

THE RIDGES WILD FLOWER SANCTUARY AT

BAILEYS HARBOR, WISCONSIN

Albert M. Fuller

Curator of Botany, Milwaukee Public Museum

Wild flower sanctuaries are areas where wild flowers and

their habitats are given protection. Refuge areas, natural areas,

and nature reserves are other names which have been used to

designate such areas. In modern conservation practices it is rec¬

ognized that in order to conserve plant and animal life it is

absolutely necessary to conserve the conditions necessary for

their survival. The only way to give permanent protection to the

wild flowers of Wisconsin is through the establishment of sanc¬

tuaries in all parts of the state.

In 1937, a wild flower sanctuary was established at Baileys

Harbor, Door County, Wisconsin. It is the outstanding wild

flower sanctuary in Wisconsin at present, so it seems worth

while to make a written record of this sanctuary and its growth.

The village of Baileys Harbor is situated on Lake Michigan,

172 miles north of Milwaukee. Northeast of the village is a series

of sand ridges alternating with low and often water-filled hol¬

lows or sloughs, collectively known as the Bailey Harbor Bog or

The Ridges. Plate I shows one of the ridges. Because of the cli¬

mate, the wide range of types of habitats, and geological history,

more rare and local plants occur here than in any other locality

in Wisconsin.

Many years ago the Federal Government had established a

range light reserve, consisting of forty acres, on the southwest

portion of the area known as The Ridges. A considerable number

of private individuals owned the remaining forties which com¬

prised The Ridges area. Most of the private owners were holding

their “forties'" for woodlots. Several of the owners had clean-cut

their forties. Only a few inhabitants of Baileys Harbor realized

the value of their wild flowers. They had grown up with them,

so they did not consider them anything rare or unusual.

In 1936 the Federal Government gave its land to Door County

to be used as a park. Some of the inhabitants of Baileys Harbor

requested the Door County Park Commission to build a rather

149

150 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

extensive campsite for tourists. The campsite project had been

approved and work on the project had actually commenced in

1936. The land was being cleared of trees and sloughs were being i

filled.

In early February, 1937, Mr. H. R. Holand of Ephraim, Wis¬

consin, Chairman of the Door County Park Commission, visited

the writer in Milwaukee. As a result of Mr. Holand's visit, the

writer addressed the following letter to the Door County

Advocate.

February 10, 1937

Editor,

Door County Advocate

Sturgeon Bay, Wisconsin

Dear Sir :

My friend, H. R. Holand of Ephraim, was in this morning to

have a short visit. He knows that I am a Door County enthusiast.

In the course of our visit, I asked as to just how the Door County

Park Commission was going to use that land just north of

Baileys Harbor that was given to Door County by the Federal

Government.

Mr. Holand replied that they were planning to have it set

aside for a tourist camp. Immediately I set up a strong protest,

as this area is one of the most interesting locations in Wisconsin

from a botanical angle.

After I got through voicing my protests, Mr. Holand said

that he sympathized with my viewpoint, but as Chairman of the

Door County Park Commission, he would be more or less obli¬

gated to do what the majority of people in Door County wanted

done with this piece of land. He suggested that I write an article

about the area under discussion and send it to you for publica¬

tion in the Door County Advocate.

I have studied the plants of Door County for twelve years.

I know all other parts of Wisconsin and have also been on the

Pacific Coast, as well as in the Rocky Mountains and in the east¬

ern states. Without any exaggeration, I honestly believe that

there is no part of this country which I have seen which is more

interesting than Door County, especially the region just north of

Baileys Harbor. The County Park Commission should set it aside

as a permanent wildlife sanctuary so it can be preserved for

posterity.

The following article was published in the Door County

Advocate, February 19, 1937 :

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Plate III. The showy lady’s-slipper, queen of our native plants, is frequent in

the bogs and on the wooded portions of the various ridges. Late June and early

July is the flowering time of this orchid.

Plate IV. Ram’s-head lady’s-slipper. Late May and early June finds this rare

orchid in flower. It grows in moist, raw humus under the arborvitae, and balsam

fir, and the spruces.

i

Plate V. Calypso. This beautiful and rare orchid grows under balsam fir

arborvitae, and hemlock in the vicinity of The Ridges Sanctuary.

Plate VI. Bog plants. The plants shown in the illustration are the pitcher plant, Labrador tea, creeping

snowberry, and cotton grass. These plants grow in peat moss in bogs or under bog-like conditions on the

margins of the sloughs.

Plate VII. Bunchberry. This dwarf relative of the flowering dogwood always attracts attention. It is

plentiful in The Ridges.

Fuller — The Ridges Wild Flower Sanctuary 151

“It would be a sacrilege that the people of Door County would

always regret if The Ridges area at Baileys Harbor were per¬

mitted to be made into a campsite, because campers and rare

plants are incompatible,'' states A. M. Fuller, curator of botany

of the Milwaukee Public Museum, in a letter to The Advocate,

asking the Door County citizens urge the county park commis¬

sion to make the place a refuge. The land consists of the 40 acres

north of Baileys Harbor given to Door County by the govern¬

ment.

“This area consists of boggy sloughs running more or less

parallel with the lake shore, alternating with sandy ridges,

finally ending at the present like shore," Mr. Fuller explains.

“The sandy ridges and sloughs provide habitats for more species

of plants than any other one locality in Wisconsin.

“Forty-five species of orchids are found in Wisconsin. Of this

number, at least thirty species are found in Door County.

Twenty-five native species are found in the region of Baileys

Harbor, particularly in the area under discussion.

“It is almost spectacular that twenty-five species of orchids

should be found in a space of less than forty acres. This makes

it a veritable outdoor museum. The orchids alone should be a

strong enough reason for preserving this area. A year ago an

amateur botanist from Berlin, Germany, made a trip to Door

County to see some the native orchids at home.

“The people of Door County should take great civic pride in

localities that are rich in orchids, and other rare plants, and see

that they are adequately protected. Every school child in Door

County should be taught to love and protect all the plants and

trees of the county.

“It seems as if Mother Nature was not satisfied with giving

Door County the largest number of native orchids, but also she

gave this peninsula county the greatest number of other rare

plants that are to be found in Wisconsin. Around Decoration

Day, the area resembles a gigantic flower garden with a riot of

color.

“Mother Nature did just as well with the trees as she did

with the herbaceous plants. All of the conifers to be found in

Wisconsin grow here with the exception of the red cedar and

jack pine.

“Many of our large cities have spent millions of dollars to

reproduce what Mother Nature has given Door County free of

charge. It would probably cost at least a million dollars to repro¬

duce the area at Baileys Harbor elsewhere. This area not only

belongs to Door County but it also belongs to the people of Wis¬

consin, and above all it belongs to future generations. The past

generations have nearly wrecked the natural beauty that the

state once possessed.

152 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

''Every civic-minded, loyal resident of Door County should

urge the county park commission to set the forty acres at I

Baileys Harbor aside as a permanent wildlife sanctuary and

leave the trees, shrubs, and all other vegetation in their natural

condition. Surely an area suitable for campsites can be found in

the vicinity of Baileys Harbor without encroaching on the rights

of the choicest flowers that we have in Wisconsin. ^

"Door County is famous throughout the Midwest for its f

matchless scenery and climate, and for the kindly folk that in- 1

habit this peninsula county. Surely Door County will not allow «

any of its natural shrines to be desecrated.’’

On March 5, 1937, the writer gave a talk, "Preserving The

Ridges at Baileys Harbor” before the Woman’s Club of Sturgeon

Bay. Members of the Door County Park Commission were pres¬

ent as well as a few residents of Baileys Harbor. The Park Com¬

mission, not long after this meeting, decided to have the Baileys

Harbor area set aside as a wild flower sanctuary.

It was realized that, in order to give the Range Light Forty

permanent protection, adjacent forties should be added to the

area. On October 4th, a group of people from Baileys Harbor,

Ephraim, and Ellison Bay, interested in a permanent wildlife

conservation program for Door County, met at Baileys Harbor

for the purpose of forming a corporation under the name The

Ridges Sanctuary. The purposes of The Ridges Sanctuary were

stated as follows:

1. To acquire by gift, purchase or otherwise, part or all of the

real estate in the area in the town of Baileys Harbor, Wiscon¬

sin, known as "The Ridges” or "The Bog” and to protect the

native plant and animal life on the same and to preserve the

same in its natural or aboriginal state ; to erect fences, place

signs and make other improvements necessary to protect the

property of or deemed desirable to advance the purposes of

the corporation.

2. To acquire and hold other pieces of real estate in Wisconsin

and elsewhere, and to protect and preserve the native plant

and animal life found thereon.

3. To carry on educational and scientific activities which will

promote the cause of the conservation and preservation of

wild plant and animal life and natural scenery, and to use

and transfer its moneys and properties for these purposes.

Fuller — The Ridges Wild Flower Sanctuary 153

The Articles of Incorporation were signed by the following

persons :

Jens Jensen, Ellison Bay, Wisconsin

Frank Oldenburg, Baileys Harbor, Wisconsin

John Matter, Ephraim, Wisconsin

Emma Toft, Baileys Harbor, Wisconsin

Mrs. James J. McArdle, Baileys Harbor, Wisconsin

William E. Sieker, Baileys Harbor, Wisconsin

Mrs. W. C. Sieker, Baileys Harbor, Wisconsin

Martha Fulkerson, Ellison Bay, Wisconsin

Olivia Traven, Baileys Harbor, Wisconsin

A. B. Gochenour, Baileys Harbor, Wisconsin

The organization of The Ridges Sanctuary, a corporation

whose sole purpose is to preserve the habitats of plants, received

wide publicity. The Milwaukee Journal published the following

editorial about The Ridges Sanctuary in its issue of October 18,

1937:

Forty Acres in Door County

There isn’t much limit to what people can do if they have

enthusiasm and care enough. Witness the movement now grow¬

ing to make a park in Door county that will preserve a living,

growing record of geologic ages.

The peninsula that is Door county, with the rugged and beau¬

tiful islands around it, is so attractive and and so '‘different”

that yearly it attracts more and more visitors. The casual visitor

would say that it is good enough as it is. And that is true. But

things don’t stay as they are — not in these days of gasoline.

Near Baileys Harbor is a region of lowland and highland

which has plant and flower and tree varieties seldom found

together— a natural museum, a natural botanical garden, a

natural arboretum. The federal government relinquished 40

acres of this; the county kept it going a few years as a park.

And then it was proposed to make a tourists’ campsite of it.

Whereupon a few persons who knew about it began to tell

what they knew. A. M. Fuller, botanical expert of the Milwaukee

Public Museum, said that in this region are 30 of Wisconsin’s

45 kinds of native orchids. Here are the birdseye primrose and

the fringed gentian that has so nearly disappeared from this

state. Here are all except two of Wisconsin’s varieties of ever¬

green trees.

“Some counties in the nation,” Mr. Fuller said, “would spend

millions of dollars to reproduce artificially what nature has

formed at Baileys Harbor.”

154 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Others listened and helped, among them Jens Jensen, famous

creator of natural landscapes in Chicago's west parks and in

many other cities of the country. ‘‘Here is something we have,”

they said. “Let's save it, instead of leaving it to future genera¬

tions to spend 50 years trying to re-create it.” So there is a

corporation known as “Ridges Sanctuary, Inc.” Its members are

giving their time and effort and some of their dollars.

Not wealthy, not “influential,” but lovers of the beautiful,

wanting those who come after them to find such beauty to enrich

their lives, these “people who care” have not waited for wealth

to make their start. And others who care will help them. Once

this project becomes known, we cannot imagine that any garden

club or nature-lover group will fail to help. And some who have

the means and would like to give something intelligently must

be attracted. We spend hundreds of millions trying to “restore”

what could have been saved for very little, as this Door county

park can be saved, if it is done now.

The Ridges Sanctuary has had from its beginning the gen¬

erous support of people and organizations throughout Wiscon¬

sin and from other states. The garden clubs, especially, have

been interested in The Ridges. Mrs. Alfred J. Kieckhefer of

Milwaukee, past president of the Green Tree Garden Club of

Milwaukee, was extremely active on behalf of The Ridges. She

gave numerous illustrated lectures on The Ridges Sanctuary

before garden groups in various parts of the Country. Mrs.

Kieckhefer, in 1940 and 1941, submitted The Ridges Sanctuary

as a conservation project to the Garden Club of America. At

the annual meeting of the Garden Club of America in New

York, in March, 1942, The Ridges Sanctuary was voted the

founders' fund award of twelve hundred dollars.

The land acquisition program of The Ridges Sanctuary began

in January, 1938, when the late Ferdinand Hotz of Chicago,

Illinois, gave forty acres. In 1944 Mr. Hotz gave an additional

two hundred acres to The Ridges Sanctuary. Money raised by

the local Baileys Harbor folk, in addition to donations from

individuals and clubs outside Door County, have made possible

the purchase of over three hundred acres of land. At the present

time The Ridges consists of six hundred acres. It is hoped that

eventually the acreage will be increased to a thousand acres.

One of the purposes of The Ridges Sanctuary organization

is to promote conservation education. For the last ten years The

Ridges Sanctuary has sponsored a series of summer conserva¬

tion lectures. These lectures have been well attended and have

Fuller — The Ridges Wild Flower Sanctuary 155

I been very effective in stimulating interest in conservation.

I Conservation essay contests have been sponsored by the group

in the schools of Baileys Harbor. Conservation books and peri-

! odicals have been placed in the local library and in the schools

of the township.

During the summers of 1932 and 1933, George F. Sieker of

Milwaukee, a student at the University of Wisconsin, collected

extensively in the Baileys Harbor area, and in 1934 wrote his

bachelor's thesis, '‘The Flora of the Baileys Harbor Bog." Mr.

Sieker has been very active in the work of The Ridges Sanc¬

tuary. The following list of the more interesting plants which

grow in the general region of The Ridges is based partially on

Mr. Sieker's unpublished thesis.

Of the trees which occur on The Ridges, the conifers are

the most interesting. The following native species occur on The

Ridges :

Balsam Fir (Abies balsamea)

Common Juniper (Juniperus communis var. depressa)

Prostrate Juniper (Juniperus horizontalis)

Tamarack (Larix laricina)

White Spruce (Picea glauca)

Black Spruce (Picea mariana)

Red Pine (Pinus resinosa)

White Pine (Pinus Strobus)

American Yew (Taxus canadensis)

Arborvitae (Thuja occidentalis)

Hemlock (Tsuga canadensis)

The following orchids grow in the vicinity of Baileys Harbor :

Arethusa (Arethusa bulbosa)

Grass Pink (Calopogon pulchellus)

Calypso (Calypso bulbosa), Plate 5.

Spotted Coralroot (Corallorhiza maculata)

Striped Coralroot (Corallorhiza striata)

Early Coralroot (Corallorhiza trifida var. verna)

Pink Moccasin Flower (Cypripedium acaule)

Ram's-head Lady's-slipper (Cypnpedium arietinum), Plate

4,

Large Yellow Lady's-slipper (Cypripedium Catceolus var.

pubescens), Plate 2.

Showy Lady's-slipper (Cypripedium reginae), Plate 3.

Giant Rattlesnake Plantain (Goodyera oblongifolia)

Dwarf Rattlesnake Plantain (Goodyear repens var. ophi-

oides)

156 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Intermediate Rattlesnake Plantain (Goody era tesselata)

Tall White Bog Orchid (Hahenaria dilatwta)

Tall Leafy Green Orchid (Hahenaria hyperborea)

Blunt-leaved Orchid (Hahenaria obtusata)

Large Round-leaved Orchid (Hahenaria orhiculata)

Smaller Purple Fringed Orchid (Hahenaria psy codes)

Long-bracted Orchid (Hahenaria viridis var, hracteata)

Heart-leaved Twayblade (Listera cor data)

White Adder’s-mouth Orchid (Malaxis hrachypoda)

Rose Pogonia (Pogonia ophioglossoides)

Nodding Lady's-tresses (Spiranthes cernua)

Slender Lady's-tresses (Spiranthes lacera)

Hooded Lady's-tresses (Spiranthes Romanzoffiana)

The following plants, members of the Heath Family, occur

rather abundantly in The Ridges:

Bog-Rosemary (Andromeda glaucophylla)

Bearberry ( Arctostaphylos Uva-ursi var. coactilis)

Leather-leaf (Chamaedaphne calyculata var. angustifolia)

Pipsissewa (Chimaphila umhellata wsly. cisatlantica)

Creeping Snowberry ( Gaultheria hispidula)

Trailing Arbutus (Epigaea repens var. glahrifolia)

Wintergreen (Gaultheria procumhens)

Huckleberry (Gaylussacia haccata)

Pale Laurel (Kalmia polifolia)

Labrador Tea (Ledum groenlandicum)

Indian Pipe (Monotropa uni flora)

Pine Drops (Pterospora andromedea). Collected at North

Bay.

Pink-flowered Sh inleaf (Pyrola asarifoUa)

Shinleaf (Pyrola elliptica)

One-sided Shinleaf (Pyrola secundM var. obtusata)

Green-flowered Shinleaf (Pyrola virens)

Velvet-leaved Blueberry (Vaccinium canadense)

Small Cranberry (Vaccinium Oxycoccos)

Other plants that are rare or local in many parts of Wis¬

consin but frequent here are listed below :

Dwarf Mistletoe (Arceuthohium pusilhim). Parasitic on

black spruce.

Clintonia (Clintonia borealis)

Bastard Toad-flax (Comandra umbellata)

Goldthread ( Coptis groenlandica)

Bunchberry (Cornus canadensis) , Plate 7.

Round-leaved Sundew (Drosera rotundifolia)

Smaller Fringed Gentian ( Gentiana procera)

Spurred Gentian (Halenia deflexa)

Fuller— The Ridges Wild Flower Sanctuary

157

Shrubby St. John’s-wort (Hypericum Kalmianum)

Dwarf Lake Iris (Iris lacustris)

Beach Pea (Lathyrus japonicus var. glaber)

Midland Lily (Lilium michiganense)

Wood Lily (Lilium philadelphicum)

Twinflower (Linnaea borealis var. americana)

Brook Lobelia (Lobelia Kalmii)

Buckbean (Menyanthes trifoUata var. minor)

Partridge-berry (Mitchella repens)

Yellow Pond Lily (Nuphar variegatum)

One-flowered Broomrape (Orobanche uniflora)

Gay-wings (Poly gala paucifolia)

Silverweed (Potentilla Anserina)

Marsh Five-finger (Potentilla palustris)

Dwarf Canadian Primrose (Primula mistassinica)

Pitcher Plant (Sarracenia purpurea). Plate 6.

Meadow Spikemoss (Selaginella apoda)

Northern Spikemoss (Selaginella selaginoides)

Canadian Buffalo-berry (Sheperdia canadensis)

The Ridges Sanctuary is especially noteworthy because it is

the result of a community's endeavor to protect a part of its

natural heritage.

ECOLOGICAL COMPOSITION OF HIGH PRAIRIE RELICS

IN ROCK COUNTY, WISCONSIN

Phoebe Ann Green

The eastern tongue of the tail-grass prairie association of

North America extends from western and southern Minnesota

through central Missouri and Illinois into Indiana and Ohio.

Southern Wisconsin has a number of outliers of the prairie

peninsula forming more or less isolated communities with a

typical prairie flora. An attempt has been made to determine the

composition of the prairies in the ecotone region of southern

Wisconsin as exemplified by Rock County.

The prairie formation as it appears west of the Mississippi

River has been investigated quite thoroughly, but relatively little

study has been made of prairies to the east with the exception

of some in Illinois and Ohio. East of the Mississippi the prairie

has been largely eliminated by white man. In Wisconsin, agri¬

cultural operations and pasturing have either destroyed or

greatly altered the original vegetation of all prairie locations,

thus making very difficult a reconstruction of the prairie as it

appeared at the time of arrival of early settlers. There are some

remnants of prairie vegetation along roadsides and railroad

rights-of-way, in abandoned cemeteries and in similar non-

agricultural situations. An analysis of these areas as they exist

today should give some indication of the original composition

of the prairies.

The U. S. Government Land Surveys of 1833-34 (12) and

early reports of settlers, such as those compiled by Guernsey and

Willard for a “History of Rock County,’' 1856 (1), show that the

original vegetation of Rock County was about 15% in timber,

20% in oak openings and 60% in prairies, with marshes found

along the streams. The true prairie formations merged into oak¬

opening regions along the borders.

A close correlation is found between the distribution of the

original prairies as mapped by the Land Survey of 1833-34 and

the large level outwash plains from the Third Wisconsin and

159

160 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

earlier glaciers, Martin, (3). The distribution of certain soil

types, especially of the Carrington and Waukesha series as

mapped by Whitson et al, for the Soil Survey of Rock County,

1922 (10) are also closely correlated with the geologic and vege-

tational history of the county.

Originally the main prairies of the county were the Rock

Prairie extending almost through the county from east to west,

varying in width from six to 18 miles ; the Jefferson, in the town

of Clinton; the Turtle, extending into Rock township; Du Lac

mostly in Milton ; Ramsey's and Morse's in Fulton ; and the Cat¬

fish lying in the towns of Fulton, Porter and Union. In addition

there were a number of smaller prairies scattered throughout

the county.

Methods

In studying the composition of the high prairies in Rock

County a series of five stations was selected. These relics were

located along railroad rights-of-way. Four of the stations were

located on the Rock Prairie which was developed on the deep out-

wash deposits of the late Wisconsin glaciers. Three of these were

in La Prairie township which, as the name implies, was orig¬

inally an unbroken prairie. One was in Janesville township on

an extension of the main Rock Prairie. The soil underlying the

Rock Prairie is primarily the deep phase of the Waukesha silt

loam with adjoining soils of the Carrington series. One of the

stations was in Milton township in the oak-opening region just

south of Milton Junction. This is a gently rolling region, with

typical prairies developed on outwash from the Milton Moraine,

a section of the terminal moraine of the Third Wisconsin sub¬

stage of glaciation.

The field work was done in the latter part of June and July,

1947, so many of the early spring-blooming species found on the

prairies do not appear in the data. Thirty quadrats, each one

meter square, were studied in Station I. This was located along

the Chicago & Northwestern railroad about one half mile west

of Tiffany, (Section 34, Town 2 North, Range 13 East). The soil

type was Waukesha silt loam with a pH of 7.0. Station II was

near the South Janesville yards of the Chicago & Northwestern

railroad, (S. 18, T. 2 N., R. 13 E.). Twenty-nine quadrats were

laid out here. The underlying Waukesha silt loam had a pH of

6.9. Station III was a mile north of Janesville along the Chicago,

Green — Ecological Composition of High Prairie Relics 161

Milwaukee, & St. Paul railroad, (S. 13, T. 3 N., R. 12 E.). Thirty-

two quadrats were studied. The soil, with a pH of 7.5, was the

deep phase of the Waukesha silt loam. Station IV, with twenty-

five quadrats, was located along the Chicago & Northwestern

railroad about a mile and a half northwest of Tiffany, (S. 28,

T. 2 N., R. 13 E.). The soil type was Waukesha silt loam with a

pH of 7.0. Station V was in the oak-opening region where the

deep phase of the Waukesha silt loam showed a pH of 6.5. This

station was along the Chicago & Northwestern railroad about

two miles south of Milton Junction, (S. 32, T. 4 N., R. 13 E.).

A total of 141 one-meter quadrats was studied. The species

found therein were noted and the number of individuals counted,

except for the grasses. From the data gathered, the frequency,

the density, and the abundance of each species were determined.

Frequency is the number of quadrats in which a species is

found, expressed as a percentage of the total number of quadrats

examined. Abundance, as it has been used in this paper, refers

to the average number of plants in the quadrats in which the

species occurred. Density refers to the average number of plants

per quadrat based on the total number of quadrats studied.

Results

From the data obtained an attempt has been made to deter

mine the composition of the Rock County prairies and to com¬

pare these prairies with the associations found in other areas in

the eastward extension of the true prairie, the Prairie Peninsula

as described by Transeau (7) .

A total of 108 species in 36 families was found. A list with

total frequency, abundance and density of the native species

occurring in the quadrats studied can be found at the end of this

paper, (Table 6). Species of Compositae were the most numerous

with 34 species in 21 genera. Leguminosae came second among

the forbs with 10 species. The Gramineae had 10 species. Thirty-

three other families were represented.

Table 1 shows the ranking of the prairie grasses in the vari¬

ous stations and in the total stations studied. Stipa spartea is the

most prevalent prairie grass. It has a frequency of 48.37% in

the total stations and as high as 73.33% in one. Species of Pani-

cum, including P, virgatum, P. Leibergii, and P. Scribnerianum,

rank next with a total frequency of 40.4%. These species have

162 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

TABLE 1

Frequency Percentages for Species of Gramineae

Total and Individual Stations

been grouped in the summaries. Sporobolus heterolepsis follows

with a total of 24.82% occurrance. The Andropogons, both

A, furcatus and A, scoparius, assume positions of somewhat

lesser importance, 19.8%. A, scoparius is a little more prevalent

than A, furcatus. The occurrence of Elymus canadensis varies

considerably, but on the whole, is of rather minor importance.

Sorghastrum nutans and Koeleria cristata are of minor impor¬

tance in this region, with frequencies of only 2.12% and 2.8%,

respectively. In three stations, I, II, and III, all of which were

located on the Rock Prairie, the total frequency of the prairie

grasses was above 90% in all cases and reached a value of

96.55% in one.

The frequency percentage for all species appearing in the

quadrats was calculated and has been used to determine the rela¬

tive importance of the species in the prairie association. The

species with a frequency percentage of 20% or more in any sta¬

tion or in the total of all stations are considered to be most typ¬

ical of the Rock County prairies as a whole. These species are

Greerir—E cological Composition of High Prairie Relics 163

TABLE 2

Frequency Percentages for Typical Species of High Prairie Relics

Total and Individual Stations

164 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts and Letters

shown in Table 2. Many of the species with 20% frequency or

above in one station have a high-frequency percentage in other

stations. Of the 47 typical species, 25 occurred in at least four of

the five stations, although the frequency of occurrence varied.

Eight species were absent from two stations but had a high fre¬

quency in each of the other three. Nine species were present in

only two stations, and five were in only one.

The importance of species in individual stations varied from

station to station as would be expected considering the rather

extreme variations normally found in any prairie area. The

greatest deviation occurred in the relic in the oak-opening

region, (Station V). The composition of this relic was markedly

different from those on the Rock Prairie. Stipa was still the dom¬

inant grass, but Sporobolus surpassed the Panicum species in

frequency of occurrence. There was a definite invasion of the

site by woody species such as Corylns americanus, Quercus

macrocarpa and Salix species, A number of typical prairie spe¬

cies were missing, among them Cirsium discolor, Brauneria pal¬

lida, Fragaria virginiana, Helianthus occidentalis, Heliopsis

scabra. Phlox pilosa and Zizia aptera.

Some of the species with high frequency in the Rock Prairie

stations were as high or higher in the oak-opening station, e.g.,

Aster ericoides. Coreopsis palmata, Eryngium yuccaefolium,

Euphorbia corollata, Rosa species, and Helianthus rigidus, A

number of species with rather high frequency in the oak-opening

station were very low or absent in the open prairie areas. These

species included Amorpha canescens, Apocynum androsaemi-

folium, Galium boreale. Geranium maculatum, Lespedeza capv-

tata, Solidago rigida, Tradescantia canaliculata. Polytaenia Nut-

tallii, Salix sp., Silphium terebinthinaceum, and Vida americana.

The latter four of these were found in only this station.

The variations here are mainly due to the development in an

oak-opening region where succession is toward the formation of

oak woods. Since all Rock County prairies are bordered by oak

openings the occurrence and distribution of the flora in relics of

oak-opening regions must be considered as part of the typical

high-prairie flora in southern Wisconsin.

Green — Ecological Composition of High Prairie Relics 165

Variability of Floral Composition in the High

Prairie Stations

Variability in the floral composition in any localized area is

one of the prime features of prairie associations. An indication

of this can be found among the grasses and is noticeable among

the minor grasses where some species are found in some stations

and not in others. Variability is especially pronounced among the

forbs. Examination of frequency, abundance and density figures

clearly demonstrate this. Forbs are widely but not necessarily

continuously distributed throughout the prairie. Flowers are

abundant and there is a profusion of individuals rather than

species. Some species are often found in rather dense local soci¬

eties scattered here and there through the association. Some of

these are found in the low frequency-high abundance table,

Table 3. Solidago missouriensis is included in this group

TABLE 8

Species With Low Frequency Percentages (Under 10%) and High

Abundance Figures (Over 10)

Total Stations

although the frequency percentage and density are noticeably

higher than the other species listed. Some species, although few

in number of individuals, occur frequently in the quadrats.

These would have high frequency and low abundance, and are

listed in Table 4. Three of these, Brauneria pallida, Euphorbia

corollata, and Tradescantia canaliculata, show significantly high

density figures and could be grouped with the species having

high frequency and high abundance figures. A few species

(seven of the 108 species in the total stations) have both rela¬

tively high frequency and high abundance figures. These also

have very high density figures. Table 5 shows the frequency,

abundance, and density figures for these seven species. A few

species are rare and have both low frequency and low abundance

166 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

TABLE 4

Species With High Frequency Percentages (Over 10%) and Low

Abundance Figures (Under 6)

Total Stations

TABLE 5

Species With High Frequency Percentages (Over 10%) and High

Abundance Figures (Over 10)

Total Stations

Green — Ecological Composition of High Prairie Relics 167

figures. These are not considered to be important prairie species.

Sometimes a single plant occupies as much area as a whole soci¬

ety. Here low abundance and high abundance figures must be

compared with variations in size of plants before conclusions

regarding the importance of certain species can be made.

Of the 95 forbs found in the stations studied, a number

showed relatively constant high frequency percentages and these

appeared among the important species in all stations. Ranking

of any species based on frequency percentages varied but the

most important species in most of the stations were found to be

important in the other stations. Only nine of the forbs showed a

frequency percentage of 25% or above. These species were Aster

ericoides, Aster laevis, Brauneria pallida, Coreopsis palmata,

Euphorbia corollata, Helianthus rigidus, Ratibidd pinnata, Rosa

species, and Tradescantia canaliculata. Of the seven forbs with

both high frequency and high abundance in the total stations,

most have both high frequency and high abundance in the indi¬

vidual stations. Constancy of the figures varies from station to

station and some species show both high frequency and high

abundance figures in one or two stations but not in others.

Although some species do show high frequency percentages,

when all species are considered, frequency figures are rather low

and abundance figures rather high for about 46 of the most out¬

standing species. This is about 43 % of the total species found.

Variation in prairie-flora lists from different locations are to

be expected, due to variations in ranges of plants, seed sources,

and the like, yet the major part of the flora of all tail-grass

prairie types is similar. This uniformity constitutes one of the

most distinctive characteristics of the prairie. No single prairie

would be expected to contain all the species listed among typical

prairie plants for any state, but a number of important varia¬

tions occur when Rock County prairies are compared with some

of those found in Ohio and Illinois. Many of the species found in

these states are typical of Rock County also, but some of the

most characteristic species of Ohio and Illinois prairies are not

found in the relics studied in Wisconsin.

The dominants of both Ohio and Illinois prairies as listed by

Jones (2) and Sears (6) in Ohio; and Vestal (8), Sampson (5),

and Paintin (4) in Illinois include Andropogon furcatus, A.

scoparius, Sorghastrum nutans and Spartina michauxiana. In

168 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

TABLE 6

List of Native Fores Found in 141 Quadrats Studied in Rock County

Green — -Ecological Composition of High Prairie Relics 169

TABLE 6 (Continued)

List of Native Forbs Found in 141 Quadrats Studied in Rock County

*Plant names have been standardized, for the most part using FLORA OF

INDIANA, C. C. Deam. 1940.

the Rock County prairies Sorghastrum occupies a position of

only minor importance; Spartina is not found in high-prairie

associations; and the Andropogons are overshadowed by the

dominance of Stipa and Panicum species. Of the 20 most com¬

mon species in Rock County prairies 14 are found in Ohio

prairies. On the whole the Ohio prairies do not seem to be as

comparable in floral composition with those of Rock County as

do some of those in Illinois.

In Illinois, the prairie association that is most nearly like the

type found in Rock County is the ‘'xerophytic prairie grass,'' the

Andropogan scoparius association, as studied by Vestal. Vestal

states that this association is not extensively developed in tho

170 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters 1

upper Wisconsin glaciation of northeastern Illinois, but can be|

found locally. Good comparisons of this type and the Rock|

County types cannot be made as comparable data are lacking.

One of the biggest factors preventing closer relationships |

with Illinois and Ohio prairies in general probably lies in the ^

poor drainage of prairie sites in those regions. The gray or gray- 1

brown silt loam is underlain with an impervious clay subsoil, |

according to Woodard (11), which efficiently prevents drainage ;;

of the sites. In Rock County the drainage is good since the area «!

is underlain by beds of sand and gravel outwash.

S'

In their studies of the prairies west of the Mississippi River, j

Weaver and Fitzpatrick (9) analyzed the types of prairie in six f

states. The areas included grasslands in the western i% of Iowa i

and the eastern 1.3 of Nebraska. They extended southward into

Missouri and Kansas to the Kansas River, and northward into

southwestern Minnesota and southeastern South Dakota. These

investigators found that the Stipa spartea consociation is of

practically no importance in the Kansas and Missouri section

and is of minor importance in the southeastern portion of the

prairie area, where environmental conditions approximate those

found in Illinois. The Stipa consociation gradually increases

northward and becomes well developed. Although comparable

data were not given, it is sufficiently evident that the high-

prairie relics in Rock County approximate more closely the Stipa

spartea consociation of southeastern South Dakota and south¬

western Minnesota than they do the prairie associations to the

south and east in Illinois and Ohio.

In all the high prairies west of the Mississippi River, drain¬

age of the soil is of little consequence in determining the species

growing there as lack of adequate precipitation is one of the

most important environmental factors. Soil reaction is nearly

neutral or slightly alkaline. The drainage and soil pH factors of

western prairies approximate those of the high prairies of Rock

County, and although ranges of many of the western prairie

species do not extend into Wisconsin, which limits closer correla¬

tion of prairie types, these two factors help to explain the closer

relationship of Rock County prairies with the western Stipa

spartea consociation than with the prairies to the south and east

in Illinois and Ohio.

Green — Ecological Composition of High Prairie Relics 171

Summary

A study of high-prairie relics on deep soil in Rock County,

Wisconsin, has been made. Five stations were studied; four

occurring in the Rock Prairie area and one in an oak-opening

region south of Milton Junction. A total of 141 one-meter-square

quadrats were studied. The 108 species with frequency of occur¬

rence, abundance and density have been listed. The plants typical

of high prairies in this region have been determined. Stipa

spartea is the dominant prairie grass and occurs in 48% of the

quadrats studied. Panicum species are the most important asso¬

ciates found and occur in 40.4% of the quadrats. Sporobolus

heterolepiis occurs in 24.8% of the quadrats, and Andropogon

furcatus and A, scoparius in only 19.8%. A few forbs show high

frequency percentages (25% or more), but for most outstanding

species frequency of occurrence is rather low and abundance

figures are rather high.

Soil types on which most of the Rock County prairies have

developed are the Waukesha silt loam and its deep phase show¬

ing almost neutral reaction under the prairie vegetation.

Floral composition of the high prairies of Rock County is

more similar to that of prairie formations in southwestern Min¬

nesota and southeastern South Dakota than that of prairies in

the adjacent state of Illinois.

The list of species from these small relic areas is not meant

to be complete or to represent absolutely the composition of the

more extensive prairie associations before advent of civilization,

but will give some idea of the composition of prairie formations

in the ecotone region of southern Wisconsin.

Bibliography

1. Guernsey, 0., and J. F. Willard. History of Rock county. Pub. Rock

Co. Ag. Soc., & Mech. Inst., Janesville, Wis. 1856.

2. Jones, C. H. Studies in Ohio floristics. III. Vegetation of Ohio prairies.

Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 71:536-548. 1944.

3. Martin, L. Physical geography of Wisconsin. 2nd Ed. 1932.

4. Paintin, R. D. The morphology and nature of a prairie in Cook Co.,

Ill. Trans. Ill. State Acad. Sci. 21 ;152-175. 1928.

5. Sampson, H. C. An ecological survey of the prairie vegetation of Illi¬

nois. Ill. Nat. Hist. Surv. lJ:523-577. 1921.

6. Sears, Paul B. Natural vegetation of Ohio. II. Prairies. Ohio Jour.

Sci. ^tf;128-146. 1926.

172 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

7. Transeau, E. N. The prairie peninsula. Ecology 7^:423-437. 1935.

8. Vestal, A. G. The black soil station in northeastern Illinois. Bull. Torr.

Bot. Club A1 :351-363. 1914.

9. Weaver, J. E., and T. J. Fitzpatrick. The prairie. Ecol. Monog. -4:111-

295. 1934.

10. Whitson et al. Soil survey of Rock county, Wis. Geol. & Nat. Hist.

Survey Bull. 53B. 1922.

11. Woodard, I. Origin of prairies in Illinois. Bot. Gaz. 77:241-261. 1924.

12. Records on file at the Land Office of Wisconsin at Madison, including

records of original land surveys. 1833-1834.

PUBLICATIONS

OF

LOUIS KAHLENBERG AND ASSOCIATES*

1903-41^

Norris F. Hall

University of Wisconsin, Madison

Scientific Papers

— 1903 —

49. Louis Kahlenberg

The theory of electrolytic dissociation.

School Science, 2, 395-400.

50. Louis Kahlenberg

The alloying of metals as a factor in electroplating.

Electrochem. Met. Ind., 1, 201-202.

51. Louis Kahlenberg and Otto E. Ruhoff

On the electrical conductivity of solutions in amylamine.

J. Phys. Chem., 7, 254-258.

52. Louis Kahlenberg

Action of metallic magnesium upon aqueous solutions.

J. Am. Chem. Soc., 25, 380-392; Trans. Wisconsin Acad. Sci., H,

299-312.

53. Louis Kahlenberg

The teaching of physical chemistry to beginning students.

School Science, 3, 160-161.

54. Harrison Eastman Patten and William Roy Mott

Experimental determination of the single potentials of the alkali

metals, sodium and potassium.

Electrochem. Industry, 1, 450-451.

55. Harrison Eastman Patten

Action upon metals of solutions of hydrochloric acid in various

solvents.

Trans. Wisconsin Acad. Sci., 14, 316-352.

56. Louis Kahlenberg

On the electrical conductivity of solutions in sulphocyanates and

mustard oils.

Z. physik. Chem., 46, 64-69.

* The completion of this bibliography, as well as the part previously pub¬

lished, is due entirely to the initiative and interest of Professor Henry L.

Shuette.

1 Supplement to “A Wisconsin Chemical Pioneer”, Trans. Wisconsin Acad. Sci.

39, 83-96 (1949).

173

174 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

57. Gustave Fernekes

Action of sodium and potassium amalgams on various aqueous

solutions.

J. Phys. Chem., 7, 611-639.

58. Harold Everett Eggers

On the dielectric constants of solvents and solutions.

J. Phys. Chem., 8, 14-86.

59. Louis Kahlenberg

The electrochemical series of the metals.

Trans. Am. Electrochem. Soc., 6, 53.

— 1905 —

60. Louis Kahlenberg and Herman Schlundt

On the liberation of hydrogen during the action of sodium on

mercury.

J. Phys. Chem., 9, 257-259.

61. Louis Kahlenberg

On the specific inductive capacity of oleic acid and its salts.

Trans. Am. Electrochem. Soc., 7, 167-169.

62. Louis Kahlenberg

Uber das Problem der Loesungen.

Chem. Ztg., 29, 1081-1083.

63. Joseph Howard Mathews

On the relation between electrolytic conduction, specific inductive

capacity and chemical activity of certain liquids (with a bibliog¬

raphy of dielectric constants).

J. Phys. Chem., 9, 641-680.

64. Louis Kahlenberg

Recent investigations bearing on the theory of electrolytic disso¬

ciation.

Trans. Faraday Soc., 1, 42-53.

65. Joseph Gerard Holty

Solubility and specific rotatory power of carbohydrates and certain

organic acids and bases in pyridine and other solvents.

J. Phys. Chem., 9, 764-779.

66. Louis Kahlenberg

The theory of electrolytic dissociation.

(A rectification of the “correction’* by Professor Harry Jones.)

Phil. Mag., (6) 10, 662-664.

67. Louis Kahlenberg

On the nature of the process of osmosis and osmotic pressure with

observations concerning dialysis.

Trans. Wisconsin Acad. Sci., 15, 209-272; J. Phys. Chem., 10, 141-

209 (1906).

Hall — Publications of Louis Kahlenberg

175

— 1906 —

68. Joseph Howard Mathews

On the relation between electrolytic conduction, specific inductive

capacity and chemical activity of certain liquids. A correction.

J. Phys. Chem., 10, 216.

69. Louis Kahlenberg and A. S. McDaniel

Differences of potential between manganese and lead peroxides and

various aqueous and non-aqueous solutions.

Trans. Am. Electrochem. Soc., 9, 365-374.

70. Louis Kahlenberg and Poland B. Anthony

Sur le Pouvoir inducteur specifique de solutions des oleates de divers

metaux lourds.

J. chim. phys., 358-364.

71. John Langley Sammis

On the relation of chemical activity to electrolytic conductivity.

J. Phys. Chem., 10, 593-625.

— 1907 —

72. Frederick Lafayette Shinn

On the optical rotatory power of salts in dilute solutions.

J. Phys. Chem., 11, 201-224.

73. Louis Kahlenberg

Osmotic pressure. The bearing of actual osmotic experiments upon

the conception of the nature of solutions.

Trans. Faraday Soc., 3, 11-15.

— 1908 —

74. Louis Kahlenberg and Robert K. Brewer

Equilibrium in the system : silver nitrate and pyridine.

J. Phys. Chem., 12, 283-289.

75. Louis Kahlenberg and Robert Koenig

Latent heat of vaporization and specific heat of methyl silicate.

J. Phys. Chem., 12, 290-292.

76. Louis Kahlenberg

On the nature of electrolytic conductors.

Trans. Am. Electrochem. Soc., 13, 265-272.

77. Louis Kahlenberg and Francis C. Krauskopf

A new method of separating lithium chloride from the chlorines of

the other alkalies, and from the chloride of barium.

J. Am. Chem. Soc., 30, 1104-1115.

78. Louis Kahlenberg

The metals in electrochemistry.

Science, 74, 79-82.

— 1909 —

79. Louis Kahlenberg

Osmotic studies.

J. Phys. Chem., 13, 93-113.

176 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts and Letters

80. Wendell B. Wilcox

The validity of Faraday’s law at low temperatures.

J. Phys. Chem., 13, 383-387.

81. Arden R. Johnson

Electrolytic production of iodoform.

Trans. Wisconsin Acad. Sci., 16, 253--257.

82. Louis Kahlenberg and Walter J. Wittich

Equilibrium in the system, silver chloride and pyridine.

J, Phys. Chem., 13, 421-425.

— 1910 —

83. Louis Kahlenberg

The past and future of the study of solutions.

Science, 31, 41-52,

84. Francis C. Krauskopf

The vapor pressure of water and aqueous solutions of sodium chlo¬

ride, potassium chloride, and sugar.

J. Phys. Chem., IJf, 489-508.

85. David Klein

On the eifect of water in causing chemical reactions.

Trans. Am. Electrochem. Soc., 18, 113-116.

86. Louis Kahlenberg

On the relative basicity of the metals as shown by their power to

replace one another in chemical compounds.

Trans. Am. Electrochem. Soc., 18, 103-107.

87. Louis Kahlenberg

Some factors in the progress of scientific research.

Trans. Wisconsin Acad. Sci., 16, 1289-1304.

88. Herman Schlundt

The radioactivity of some spring waters of Madison, Wisconsin.

Trans, Wisconsin Acad. Sci., 16, 1245-1251.

— 1911 —

89. David Klein

The influence of organic liquids upon the interaction of hydrogen

sulphide and sulphur dioxide.

J. Phys. Chem., 15, 1-19.

90. Charles Baldwin Gates

The replacement of the metals in non-aqueous liquids and the solu¬

bility of metals in oleic acid.

J. Phys. Chem., 15, 97-146.

91. Louis Kahlenberg and David Klein

On the interaction of sodium and mercury.

J. Phys, Chem., 15, 471-473.

92. Francis C. Krauskopf

Action of the oxides of lead on potassium tartrate.

J. Am. Chem. Soc., 33, 943-947.

Hall — Publications of Louis Kahlenberg

177

93. Horace G. Deming

Some new solvents for cellulose and their action on this substance.

J. Am. Chem. Soc., 33, 1515-1525.

94. Alonzo Simpson McDaniel

The absorption of hydrocarbon bases by non-aqueous liquids.

J. Phys. Chem., 15, 587-610.

95. Arden R. Johnson

On the dissolution of a metal in a binary solution, one component

acid.

Physical Review, JJ, 27-42.

— 1912 —

96. Arden Richard Johnson

A study of organic boro-nitrogen compounds.

J. Phys. Chem., 16, 1-28.

97. George W. Heise

Equilibrium in systems consisting of lead halides and pyridine.

J. Phys. Chem., 1 6, 373-381.

— 1913 —

98. Leon I. Shaw

Studies of the electrical conductance of non-aqueous solutions.

J. Phys. Chem., 17, 162-178.

99. C. Ferdinand Nelson

Studies on osmosis.

J. Am. Chem. Soc., 35, 658-671.

— 1914 —

100. Emil Oscar Ellingson

On abietic acid and some of its salts.

J. Am. Chem. Soc., 36, 325-335.

101. Alfred E. Koenig

On the stearates and palmitates of the heavy metals with remarks

concerning instantaneous precipitations in insulating solutions.

J. Am. Chem. Soc., 36, 951-961.

102. A. F. McLeod

The Walden inversion— A critical review.

Trans. Wisconsin Acad. Sci., 17, 503-527.

103. A. R. Johnson

The chemistry of boron and some new organic-boron compounds.

Trans. Wisconsin Acad. Sci., 17, 528-532.

— 1918 —

104. Alfred E. Koenig

The osmotic action of solutions of cane sugar, silver nitrate, and

lithium chloride in pyridine when separated from pyridine by a

rubber membrane.

J. Phys. Chem., 22, 461-479.

178 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

— 1919 —

105. Louis Kahlenberg and John A. Montgomery

The effect of amalgamation upon the single potential of aluminum.

Trans. Am. Electrochem. Soc., 36, 277-288.

106. Louis Kahlenberg and John Montgomery

The effect of amalgamation upon the single potentials of the binary

alloys of aluminum with copper, zinc and nickel.

Trans. Am. Electrochem. Soc., 36, 289-322.

107. Chester A. Pierle

The electrochemistry of uranium and the single potentials of some

oxides of uranium.

J. Phys. Chem., 23, 517-558.

— 1920 —

108. Louis Kahlenberg

The teaching of chemistry. Chapter V, 110-125 of “College Teach¬

ing, Studies in Methods of Teaching in the College”. Paul Klapper,

editor. World Book Co., N. Y.

— 1921 —

109. Louis Kahlenberg and George J. Ritter

On the catalytic hydrogenation of cottonseed oil.

J. Phys. Chem., 25, 89-114.

110. Louis Kahlenberg and William J. Trautman

Reduction by means of silicon.

Trans. Am. Electrochem. Soc., 39, 377-416.

— 1922 —

111. Louis Kahlenberg

On some new color reactions of cholesterol.

J. Biol. Chem., 52, 217-225.

— 1923 —

112. Louis Kahlenberg and John Vernon Steinle

On the single potential of arsenic and its power to replace other

metals in solutions.

Trans. Am. Electrochem. Soc., H, 493-518.

— 1924 —

113. Louis Kahlenberg and Tsu Pei Pi

On the catalytic hydrogenation of certain oils.

J. Phys. Chem., 28, 59-70.

114. Louis Kahlenberg and Herman H. Kahlenberg

The preparation of metallic tungsten and some of its alloys.

Trans. Am. Electrochem. Soc., If6, 181-195.

115. Louis Kahlenberg

Stephen Moulton Babcock.

Ind. Eng. Chem., 16, 1087-1088.

Hall — Publications of Louis Kahlenberg

179

116. Louis Kahlenberg

On the passage of boric acid through the skin by osmosis.

J. Biol. Chem., 62, 149-156.

— 1925 —

117. Herman Heald Kahlenberg

Boron and boron suboxide.

Trans. Am. Electrochem. Soc., 47, 23-63.

— 1926 —

118. John Vernon Steinle and Louis Kahlenberg

A new method for the identification and estimation of cholesterol

and certain other compounds.

J. Biol. Chem., 67, 425-467.

119. Louis Kahlenberg

On the separation of crystalloids from one another by dialysis.

Phil. Mag., (7) J, 385-394.

120. Harvey D. Boyce and Louis Kahlenberg

The electrode potential and replacing power of manganese.

Trans. Am. Electrochem. Soc., 50, 281-300.

— 1927 —

121. Louis Kahlenberg and Ralph Traxler

On the passage of boric acid and certain salts into fruits and vege¬

tables.

Plant physiology, 2, 39-54.

122. Louis Kahlenberg

The American Electrochemical Society: A retrospect and a look into

the future.

Trans. Am. Electrochem. Soc., 51, 41-48.

123. Louis Kahlenberg and Sidney J. French

On the potentials of aluminum in aqueous solutions.

Trans. Am. Electrochem. Soc., 52, 355-363.

— 1928 —

124. Sidney J. French and Louis Kahlenberg

The nature of gas-metal electrodes.

Trans. Am. Electrochem. Soc., 54, 163-199.

125. John 0. Gloss and Louis Kahlenberg

The use of simple metallic electrodes in the potentiometric titration

of acids and bases.

Trans. Am. Electrochem. Soc., 54, 369-396.

126. Louis Kahlenberg and Norbert Barwasser

On the time of absorption and excretion of boric acid in man.

J. Biol. Chem., 79, 405-408.

180 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

— 1929 —

127. Louis Kahlenberg and John 0. Gloss

On the presence of aluminum in plant and animal matter.

J. Biol. Chem., 83, 261-264.

128, Louis Kahlenberg and Albert C. Krueger

On simple methods of potentiometric titration of acids and bases.

Trans. Am. Electrochem. Soc., 56, 75-85.

— 1930 —

129. Louis Kahlenberg

On the teaching of electrochemistry.

J. Chem. Education, 7, 28-32.

130. Louis Kahlenberg and John O. Gloss

Presence of aluminum in animal and plant matter.

J. Biol. Chem., 85, 783-784.

131. M. Leslie Holt and Louis Kahlenberg

Couples in the titration of acids and bases.

Trans. Am. Electrochem. Soc., 57, 361-381.

132. Albert C. Krueger and Louis Kahlenberg

Gas electrodes.

Trans. Am. Electrochem. Soc., 58, 107-152.

— 1931 —

133. M. Leslie Holt and Louis Kahlenberg

Potentiometric titration of alkaloids with bimetallic electrodes.

J. Am. Pharm. Assoc., 20, 11-15.

134. Louis Kahlenberg

The metals in electrochemistry.

Trans. Electrochem. Soc., 59, 29-34.

135. H. D. Boyce and Louis Kahlenberg

The composition of manganese amalgam and manganese-silver alloys

in relation to the electrode potential of manganese.

Trans. Electrochem. Soc., 59, 121-133.

136. Charles R. Glass and Louis Kahlenberg

The effects of supports on the catalytic activity of nickel.

Trans. Electrochem. Soc., 59, 135-156.

— 1932 —

137. Louis Kahlenberg

The relationship between electrical potentials and chemical reac¬

tivity.

Science, 76, 353-358.

— 1933 —

138. M. Leslie Holt and Louis Kahlenberg

The electrodeposition of tungsten from aqueous alkaline solutions.

Metal Ind., (N. Y.) 31, 94.

Hall — Publications of Louis Kahlenberg

181

139. Alfred W. Downes and Louis Kahlenberg

Chemistry of indium.

Trans. Electrochem. Soc., 63, 163-166.

140. Harry N. Huntzicker and Louis Kahlenberg

The relation of hydrogen to nickel with special reference to the

catalytic power of the latter.

Trans. Electrochem. Soc., 63, 335-353.

141. Louis Kahlenberg and Ralph N. Traxler

The osmotic permeability of living plant membranes.

Trans. Wisconsin Acad. Sci., 28, 275-290.

— 1934 —

142. John Steiner and Louis Kahlenberg

Potentiometric studies of passivity.

Trans. Electrochem. Soc., 68, 205-212.

143. M. Leslie Holt

The co-deposition of tungsten and iron from aqueous solutions.

Trans. Electrochem. Soc., 66, 453-460.

144. Louis Kahlenberg, Neal J. Johnson and Alfred W. Downes

The activation of gases by metals.

J. Am. Chem. Soc., 56, 2218-2221.

— 1935 —

145. William Krause and Louis Kahlenberg

On palladium-hydrogen.

Trans. Electrochem. Soc., 68, 449-470.

Books

— 1907 —

1. Louis Kahlenberg

Laboratorj^ exercises in general chemistry.

Cantwell Printing Company, Madison, Wisconsin.

— 1909 —

2. Louis Kahlenberg

Outlines of chemistry. A textbook for college students.

The Macmillan Company, New York, 1909. 548 pp.

— 1911 —

3. Louis Kahlenberg and James H. Walton, Jr.

Qualitative chemical analysis. A manual for college students.

Cantwell Printing Company, Madison, Wisconsin.

4. Louis Kahlenberg and Edwin B. Hart

Chemistry and its relation to daily life.

The Macmillan Company, New York. vii. 395 pp.

182 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Book Reviews^

— 1903 —

20. W. Ostwald

Lehrbuch der allgemeinen chemie, 2 ed., Pt. 2, 1902.

Pharm. Rev., 21, 84.

21. C. Arnold

Abriss der allgemeinen orde physikalischen chemie, 1903.

Pharm. Rev., 21, 341.

22. R. Hoeber

Physikalische chemie der zelle und der gewebe, 1902.

J. Phys. Chem., 7, 302-303.

— 1907 —

23. John V. V. Booraem

Internal energy. A method for the calculation of energy stored in

Matter, 1908.

J. Am. Chem. Soc., 29, 243.

24. Oscar Loew

Die chemische energie der lebenden zellen, 1906.

J. Phys. Chem., 11, 349.

— 1909 —

25. Alexander Classen

Quantitative analyse durch elektrolyse, 1908.

J. Am. Chem. Soc., 31, 513-514.

— 1910 —

26. Edward Thorpe

History qf chemistry.

J. Am. Chem. Soc., 82, 1693-1694.

— 1911 —

27. Charles Baskerville and W. L. Estabrooke

Progressive problems in general chemistry.

J. Am. Chem. Soc., 33, 85-86.

28. T. P. Hilditch

A concise history of chemistry, 1911.

J. Am. Chem. Soc., 33, 1418-1419.

— 1912 —

29. George Senter

A textbook of inorganic chemistry, 1911.

J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1113-1114.

^ The list of books reviewed is probably not complete.

Hall — Publications of Louis Kahlenberg

183

— 1914 —

30. de Leon Foucault

Mesure de la vitesse de la lumiere, etude optique des surfaces.

J. Am. Chem. Soc., 36, 609.

31. Thenar d Schoenbein

Eau oxygenee et ozone.

J. Am. Chem. Soc., 36, 610.

— 1915 —

32. Annual reports of the progress of chemistry for 1915, Chemical Soci¬

ety of London.

J. Am. Chem. Soc., 37, 2787.

— 1916 —

33. A. F. Holleman and Herman C. Cooper

A textbook of inorganic chemistry.

J. Am. Chem. Soc., 39, 529.

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NOTES ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF WISCONSIN TICKS*

Paul A. Knipping, Banner Bill Morgan and Robert J. Dicke

Departments of Veterinary Science and Economic Entomology

University of Wisconsin, Madison

The following collections of ticks listed below were made

from several counties throughout the State of Wisconsin from

June 1948 to June 1949. The list also includes the occurrence of

Wisconsin ticks previously mentioned in the literature by other

workers. Since there is very little published information regard¬

ing the distribution of Wisconsin ticks this survey appears

worthy of record.

Hosts were trapped or shot during the course of this study

and taken to the laboratory for examination. The distributions

of the various ticks are indicated by Figures 1 and 2.

Banks (1908) apparently reported the first tick identification

from Wisconsin. Dermacentor nigrolineatus = D, alhipictus was

collected by Mr. H. S. Barber from a deer at Crab Lake, Vilas

County. No further reports were located until 1930 when Gross

recorded Haemaphysalis leporis-palustrus from prairie chickens,

short-tailed grouse and ruffed grouse. This tick was reported on

Wisconsin cottontail rabbits, jackrabbits and snowshoe hares by

the Minnesota Wildlife Disease Investigations (1933-1936).

The first occurrence of Ornithodorus kelleyi (0. talajae) in

Wisconsin was noted by Herrick (1935). A complete monograph

on the soft ticks including O. kelleyi was published by Cooley and

Kohls (1944). Peters (1936) listed D. alhipictus from the Amer¬

ican woodcock from Wisconsin in his collection of external para¬

sites of birds.

Bishopp and Smith (1938), Cooley (1938) and Smith et al,

(1946) presented the distribution of the American dog tick

(D, variahilis) in North America. Collections from Wisconsin

^ A paper by Knipping submitted to the graduate faculty, University of Wis¬

consin, in partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of Master of Science.

Published with the approval of the Director of the Wisconsin Agricultural Experi¬

ment Station. Supported in part by the Research Committee of the Graduate School

from funds supplied by the Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation and a grant

from the American Association for the Advancement of Science through the Wis¬

consin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters.

185

186 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Ornithodqrqo kelle^l aan^ilneug

Figure 1.

Knipping, et al. — Distribution of Wisconsin Ticks 187

Dermacentor varlabllis

Haemaphyaallfl leporle palustrls Haemaphyaalls chordeilla

Figure 2.

188 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

were included. Later, Cole (1947) and King (1948) reported

further collections of this tick in northern Wisconsin.

In a comprehensive review of the distribution and hosts of

certain North American ticks Bishopp and Trembley (1945)

listed D. albipictus, D. variabilis, H, leporis-palustris, Ixodes

cookei, L texanus and Rhipicephalus sanguineus as occurring in

Wisconsin. Later, Cooley and Kohls (1945) in their monograph

on the genus Ixodes recorded 7. cookei from Wisconsin. Rhipi¬

cephalus sanguineus and H, chordeilis were recorded from Wis¬

consin hosts by Cooley (1946).

Host List of Wisconsin Ticks

^Dermacentor albipictus (Packard, 1869)

(Moose or winter tick)

1. American woodcock (Philohela minor) location in Wiscon¬

sin not given (Peters, 1936). Door County, 8/4/34 (Collected by

P. W. Hoppman) .

2. Porcupine (Erethizon d. dorsatum) 4 collected, 1 infested,

Oneida County, 6/27/48, 1 engorged female.

3. White tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus borealis) 1 col¬

lected, 1 infested. Bayfield County, 10/17/48, 1 nymph; Oconto

County, 11/28/45, 1 male (Collected by K. Mac Arthur) ; deer,

Vilas County, collected by H. S. Barber (Banks, 1908) ; Columbia

County, 11/12/43 (Collected by E. M. Searls) ; deer bed, Lodi,

Columbia County, 11/12/43, 4 engorged females.

4. Cow (Bos taurus) Oneida County, 11/2/48, 12 engorged

females, 1 male; Marathon County, 9/27/43, 1 female, 1 male;

Waupaca County, 11/24/48, 6 engorged females (Collected by

G. Sevan); Bayfield County, 12/2/47, 1 engorged female; Rusk

County, 10/20/42 (Collected by R. A. Omalden).

5. Horse (Equus caballus) Price County, 12/14/25 (Col¬

lected by A. Prather).

Dermacentor variabilis (Say, 1821)

(American dog tick, wood tick)

1. Dog (Canis familaris) 6 examined, 2 infested. Douglas

County, 7/15/48 (Collected by George Halazon), 1 male; Dane

County, no date record, 1 male, 1 female; 6/1/41; 7/6/41;

D. nigrolineatua is considered a synonym of D. albipictus.

Knipping, et al. — Distribution of Wisconsin Ticks 189

6/28/41 (Collected by 0. Andregg) ; Monroe County, 7/20/30

(Collected by C. L. Fluke) ; Rock County, 6/13/49, 2 females;

Price County, 5/8/49, 1 male.

2. Raccoon (Procyon lotor) Juneau County, 6/21/49, 1

female.

3. Black bear (Euarctos a. americanm) Lakewood, Oconto

County, 7/1/47, 331 males, 515 females; 7/16/47, 139 males,

105 females (Cole, 1947).

4. Cow (Bos taurus) Price County, 7/20/25 (Collected by

A. Prather).

5. Red squirrel (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus) 16 collected, 3 in¬

fested. Manitowoc County, 6/17/48, 1 male, 1 female; Forest

County, 7/20/48, 1 nymph, 2 nymphs.

6. Woodchuck (Marmota monax) Eagle River, Oconto

County, 6/12/47, 1 male, 3 females (Cole, 1947).

7. White footed mouse (Peromyscus sp.) 156 collected, 1 in¬

fested. Sheboygan County, 7/14/48, 1 nymph; Oconto County,

7/6/47, 3 larvae; 7/12/47, 6 larvae, 1 nymph (Cole, 1947).

8. Meadow vole (Microtus spp.) Lakewood, Oconto County,

6/18/47, 2 larvae, 3 nymphs ; 7/9/47 ; 6/18/47 ; 6/25/47 ; 7/9/47,

9 larvae, 38 nymphs; 7/6/47, 3 nymphs; 7/6/47, 2 larvae, 16

nymphs (Cole, 1947).

9. Porcupine (Erethizon d. dorsatum) 5 collected, 2 infested.

Oneida County, 6/27/48, 8 females, 3 males; Forest County,

5/1/49; Oconto County, 6/12/47, 1 male, 2 females; 6/12/47,

1 male, 9 females ; 6/24/47, 9 males, 8 females ; 6/24/47, 2 males,

1 female ; 7/9/47, 1 male, 4 females ; 3 males, 3 females ; 7/12/47,

1 male, 1 female; 7/14/47, 1 female; 7/14/47, 5 males, 8 females

(Cole, 1947) ; Sawyer County, 6/20/34 (Collected by T. M.

Frison) ; Columbia County, 5/9/39.

10. Snov/shoe hare (Lepus americanus) 2 collected, 1 in¬

fested. Vilas County, 7/23/48, 4 engorged nymphs; Lakewood,

Oconto County, 6/23/47, 19 larvae, 1 nymph (Cole, 1947).

11. Cottontail rabbit (Sylvilagus floridanis mearnsi) Lake-

wood, Oconto County, 7/15/47, 2 nymphs (Cole, 1947) ; Dane

County, 6/30/49, 1 female (Collected by C. Hawkinson).

12. Man (Homo sapiens) Sauk County, 5/23/48, 1 male (Col¬

lected by Frank Grether) ; Vilas County, 6/12/48, 19 adults;

6/14/48, 7 females, 8 males (Collected by James Hamilton) ;

5/31/48, 2 females, (Collected by K. MacArthur) ; 6/10/48, 3

190 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

males; 6/12/48, 2 males, 2 females; Shawano County, 6/5/48,

2 females; Bayfield County, 6/15/48, 1 female; 6/1/49 (Col¬

lected by H. Bergseng) ; Rusk County, 7/13/48, 26 adults (Col¬

lected by Elmer Herman) ; Marinette County, 7/19/48, 1 male;

Forest County, 7/20/48, 3 males; Price County, 7/20/25 (Col¬

lected by A. Prather) ; 5/12/49; Douglas County, 5/26/37 (Col¬

lected by E. Stringham) ; Dane County, 5/1/49 ; 5/17/49 ;

5/22/48 (Collected by H. Levi) ; Washburn County, 7/8/47, 3

males; 7/3/47, 1 female; Ashland County, 5/1/49; 6/1/49; Bur¬

nett County, 6/6/49; Wood County, 6/21/49; Sawyer County,

6/20/34 (Collected by C. D. Mohr) ; Walworth County, 6/18/49,

1 female (Collected by J. A. Carroll) ; Crawford County, 6/1/49

(Collected by L. Smethurst) ; Grant County, 6/17/49 (Collected

by H. Levi) .

Hosts not recorded, location in Wisconsin not given (Cooley,

1938 ; Smith, Cole and Gouck, 1946) .

Dermacentor sp. (Larva)

1. Short-tailed shrew (Blarina brevicauda) 71 collected, 1

infested. Dane County (near Madison), 8/7/49, 1 larva.

Haemaphy satis chordeilis (Packard, 1869)

(Bird tick)

1. Prairie chicken (Tympamuchus cupido americanus) Wau¬

shara County, 5/15/40, location in Wisconsin not given (Cooley,

1946).

Haemaphy satis teporis-palustris (Packard, 1869)

(Rabbit tick)

1. Sharp-tailed grouse (Pediaecetes phasianetlus campestris)

Wood County, 9/23/29 (Collected by A. D, Grass), location in

Wisconsin not given (Peters, 1936) ; 9/23/29; 9/24/29 (Gross,

1930).

2. Prairie chicken (Tympamuchns cupido americanus) Wood

County, 4/25/31 (Collected by F. W. Schmidt) ; Marathon

County, 7/14/29 (Gross, 1930).

3. Ruffed grouse (Bonasa umhettus) Lakewood, Oconto

County, 7/16/47, 76 larvae, 9 nymphs (Cole, 1947).

Knipping, et ah — Distribution of Wisconsin Ticks 191

4. Snowshoe hare (Lepus americanus) 3 collected, 3 infested.

Vilas County, 7/23/48, 141 nymphs, 22 larvae, 2 males, 3 en¬

gorged females ; 7/23/48, 7 larvae, 62 nymphs, 1 male, 1 female ;

8/21/40; Iron County, Oct. 1933, 903 ticks (Collected by

Rheave) ; Douglas County (Brule State Forest), May 1934, 59

hares, 3 to 453 ticks (Collected by W. Grange) ; Forest County,

June 1934, 2102 ticks, 4920 ticks, 366 ticks; July 1934, 973 ticks;

Burnett County, June 1934, 3268 ticks, 1722 ticks, 1013 ticks,

833 ticks, 962 ticks, 707 ticks; Douglas County, Oct., Nov. and

Dec. 1935, 200 ticks, 102 ticks, 421 ticks, 37 ticks, 405 ticks, 156

ticks, 73 ticks, 111 ticks (Collected by W. Grange), 419 ticks,

141 ticks, 52 ticks, 198 ticks, 44 ticks, 116 ticks, 134 ticks, 412

ticks, 27 ticks, 98 ticks, .29 ticks, 47 ticks, 69 ticks, 52 ticks, 44

ticks, 258 ticks, 249 ticks, 249 ticks, 443 ticks (Collected by

Greig, Nov. 1935); 256 ticks, 19 ticks, 102 ticks, 15 ticks, 18

ticks (Collected by Swanson, Nov. 1935) ; Oneida County, 33

ticks (Collected by W. Grange) (Minnesota Wildlife Disease In¬

vestigation) ; Lakewood, Oconto County, 6/23/47, 653 larvae,

64 nymphs, 94 males, 57 females (Cole, 1947); Door County,

8/14/40 (Collected by F. C. Bishopp).

5. Cottontail rabbit (Sylvilagus floridanus mearnsi) 103 ex¬

amined, 21 infested. Dane County (University of Wisconsin

Arboretum), 4/1/39, 20 larvae; 4/3/49, 3 larvae; 4/8/39, 2

larvae, 6 larvae; 4/13/39, 6 larvae, 16 larvae, 2 larvae; 5/4/39,

1 larva ; 4/3/40, 6 larvae ; 4/20/40, 8 larvae ; 5/3/40, 408 larvae ;

6/1/40, 1 male; 6/2/40, 8 females; 6/8/40, 2 females; 6/13/40,

7 females, 1 male; 6/18/40, 2 females, 1 female, 3 females;

5/21/49; 6/1/49; Juneau County, 6/23/49; Lakewood, Oconto

County, 7/15/47, 1 larva, 9 nymphs, 1 male, 3 females (Cole,

1947) ; Burnett County, June 1934, 3 ticks, 1 tick, 2 ticks (Min¬

nesota Wildlife Disease Investigation) ; Door County, June 1934,

218 ticks (Collected by W. Grange) (Minnesota Wildlife Disease

Investigation).

6. Meadow vole (Microtus sp.) Lakewood, Oconto County,

6/25/47, 6 larvae, 1 male (Cole, 1947).

Haemaphysalis sp.

1. Ruffed grouse (Bonasa umhellus) Iron County, Oct. 1933,

264 ticks, 234 ticks (Collected by Rheave) ; Oneida County, Oct.

1933, 7 ticks (Collected by Oshesky) ; Sawyer County, Oct. 1933,

192 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

174 ticks, 96 ticks, 306 ticks, 110 ticks, 106 ticks (Collected by

Schmidt) ; 200 ticks, 218 ticks (Collected by Moreland) ; Price

County, Oct. 1933, 78 ticks (Collected by Schmidt) ; Ashland

County, Oct. 1933, 698 ticks (Collected by Schmidt) ; Bayfield

County, Oct. 1933, 656 ticks, 982 ticks (Collected by Minor) ; 23

ticks, 66 ticks (Collected by Jones) ; 123 ticks (Collected by

Schmidt) ; Lincoln County, Oct. 1933, 403 ticks (Collected by

Fosnot) ; Douglas County, Oct. 1933, 40 ticks (Collected by Mc-

Naughton) ; Oct., Nov. and Dec. 1935, 847 ticks (Collected by

Greig) ; 704 ticks (Collected by Simmons) ; 222 ticks, 172 ticks,

12 ticks, 35 ticks, 14 ticks (Collected by Grange) ; 13 ticks (Col¬

lected by Swanson) ; Sept. 1934, 611 ticks; Forest County, Nov.

1935, 15 ticks (Collected by Sanders) ; July 1934, 60 ticks, 949

ticks, 1894 ticks.

2. Pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) St. Croix County, Oct.

1934, 1 tick.

3. Sharp-tailed grouse (Pediaecetes phasianellus campestris)

Douglas County, 10/1/34; 11/1/34; 12/1/34, 71 ticks (Collected

by Swanson) .

Ixodes angustus Neumann, 1899

1. Red squirrel (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus) 16 collected, 1 in¬

fested. Forest County, 7/20/48, 1 nymph.

2. White footed mouse (Peromyscus sp.' 156 collected, 1 in¬

fested. Vilas County, 7/23/48, 1 engorged female.

Ixodes hrunneus Koch, 1844

1. Sparrow (Passerella i. iliaca) Sauk County, 4/17/47, 1

engorged female (Collected by Robert Rausch).

Ixodes cookei Packard, 1869

(American castor bean tick)

1. Common opossum (Didelphis virginiana) Milwaukee

County, 4/16/40 ; Dane County, 5/14/49.

2. Common shrew (Sorex cinereus) 215 collected, 1 infested.

Dane County (near Madison), 8/17/48, 1 nymph.

3. Mink (Mnstela vison) 2 collected, 2 infested. Dane County

(near Madison), 1947, 1 female; 3/14/47, 7 engorged nymphs

(Collected by Robert Rausch) ; Door County, 11/16/40 (Col¬

lected by H. F. Johnson).

Knipping, et al. — Distribution of Wisconsin Ticks 193

4. Weasel, Douglas County, 11/30/45, 1 female (Collected by

W. Pelzer) ; Jefferson County, 5/4/49.

5. Badger (Taxidae t, taxus) 3 collected, 3 infested. Craw¬

ford County, 11/30/48, 2 nymphs, 3 larvae; Sauk County,

4/29/48, 1 nymph (Collected by Robert Rausch) ; Dane County,

11/2/47, 1 engorged female.

6. Skunk (Mephitis sp.) Ozaukee County, 8/12/38, 11

females, many nymphs, collected by C. L. Larson (Cooley and

Kohls, 1945).

7. Dog (Canis familaris) Dane County, 6/28/41 (Collected

by 0. Andregg).

8. Grey fox (Urocyon cinervargenteus) Dane County, 7/1/41

(Collected by 0. Andregg).

9. Cat (Felis domestica) Fond du Lac County, 4/29/48, 1

female.

10. Woodchuck (Marmota monax) 1 collected, 1 infested.

Crawford County, 4/2/48, 1 engorged female, 1 nymph (Col¬

lected by Robert Rausch) ; Vilas County, 8/8/40 ; Dane County,

5/26/49.

11. White footed mouse (Peromyscus sp.) 156 collected, 1 in¬

fested. Manitowoc County, 7/16/48, 1 nymph.

12. Meadow jumping mouse (Zapus hudsonius) 46 collected,

1 infested, Dane County, 8/24/48, 1 nymph.

13. Porcupine (Erethizon d, dorsatum) Lakewood, Oconto

County, 7/14/47, 1 female (Cole, 1947).

Ixodes marxi Banks, 1908

(Squirrel tick)

1. Red squirrel (Tarniasciurus hudsonicus) 16 collected, 1 in¬

fested. Manitowoc County, 7/17/48, 4 females.

Ixodes sculptus Neuman, 1904

1. Weasel, Door County, 8/25/31 (Collected by H. F. John¬

son).

2. Long tail weasel (Mustela longicauda) Jefferson County,

5/4/49.

3. Thirteen lined ground squirrel (Citellus t. tridecemlinea-

tus) 9 collected, 1 infested. Dane County (near Madison),

8/7/48, engorged female.

194 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

4. White footed mouse (Peromyscus sp.) Lakewood, Oconto

County, 7/12/47, 1 nymph (Cole, 1947).

5. Dog (Canis f amiliar is ) Baxie County, 4/1/48 (Collected

by H. Levi).

No host recorded, Jackson County, 7/14/31 (Collected by

C. L. Fluke).

Ixodes texanus Banks, 1908

1. Weasel, 1 collected, 1 infested. Bayfield County, ll/28/-_,

1 engorged female.

No host recorded, location in Wisconsin not given (Bishopp

and Trembly, 1945).

Ixodes sp. (Larvae)

1. Common shrew (Sorex cinereus) 215 collected, 39 in¬

fested. Dane County (near Madison), 8/5/48, 3 larvae; 8/6/48,

3 larvae; 8/7/48, 2 larvae; 8/12/48, 4 larvae; 5/17/48, 1 larvae;

8/18/48, 3 larvae; 8/19/48, 2 larvae, 1 larva, 6 larvae, 1 larva;

8/20/48, 1 larva, 1 larva, 2 larvae, 3 larvae; 8/24/48, 1 larva,

1 larva, 5 larvae ; 8/25/48, 3 larvae, 1 larvae, 2 larvae ; 8/26/48,

1 larva, 1 larva ; 8/27 /48, 5 larvae ; 4 larvae, 3 larvae, 2 larvae,

2 larvae, 1 larva, 1 larva; 9/3/48, 1 larva; 9/4/48, 1 larva, 2

larvae, 2 larvae; 9/9/48, 4 larvae, 1 larva, 1 larva, 2 larvae;

9/17/48, 1 larva ; 9/18/48, 4 larvae.

2. Short-tailed shrew (Blarina brevicauda) 71 collected, 4

infested. Dane County (near Madison), 8/7/48, 1 larva;

8/12/48, 1 larva; 8/17/48, 1 larva ; 9/1/48, 1 larva.

3. Meadow vole (Microtus p. pennsylvanicus) 208 collected,

6 infested. Dane County (near Madison), 8/11/48, 1 larva;

8/13/48, 2 larvae, 1 larva; 8/17/48, 1 larva; 8/28/48, 4 larvae;

9/1/48, 1 larva.

4. Meadow jumping mouse (Zapus hudsonius) 46 collected,

3 infested. Dane County (near Madison), 8/25/48, 2 larvae, 2

larvae; 8/26/48, 1 larva.

Ornithodoros kelleyi Cooley and Kohls, 1941

1. Little brown bat (Myotis lucifugus) Grant County,

6/8/49; Grant County, rooming house, 5/4/49; Dane County,

residence (bathtub of rooming house), 10/21/48, 1 nymph, 1

female (Collected by W. 0. Haberman) ; 2 females (Collected by

Otto Manthey) ; private home, 4/1/49 ; Jefferson County, 3/3/49,

Knipping, et al.-— Distribution of Wisconsin Ticks 195

2 ticks from walls of private home (Collected by Mr. Kiesling) ;

La Crosse County, no date, 1 nymph (Collected by E. Young) ;

Pierce County, residence, 10/17/45 (Collected by Steiner and

E. L. Chambers) ; old hotel, men's club, private house, 4 rooming

houses (Herrick, 1935; Cooley and Kohls, 1944; Cooley, 194__).

Rhipicephalus sanguineus (Latreille, 1806)

1. Dog (Canis familaris) 6 examined, 1 infested. Dane

County, no date record, 108 larvae, -2 males, 1 female ; Milwau¬

kee County, 1/1/46, 2 males, 1 female (Collected by K. Mac-

Arthur) ; 1/24/40; 8/10/43; Fond du Lac County, 10/25/40

(Collected by W. P. Hammond).

No host recorded, location in Wisconsin not given (Cooley,

1946).

Summary

A preliminary survey revealed the occurrence of the follow¬

ing species of ticks in Wisconsin: (1) Ixodes sp. (larvae) from

common shrew, short tailed shrew, meadow vole and jumping

mouse. (2)7. angustus from red squirrel and white footed mouse.

(3) 7. brunneus from sparrow. (4) 7. cookei from common

shrew, mink, badger, skunk, woodchuck, porcupine, white footed

mouse and jumping mouse. (5) 7. marxi from red squirrel. (6)

7. sculptus from ground squirrel and white footed mouse. (7) 7.

texanus from weasel. (8) Dermacentor albipictus (moose or

winter tick) from American woodcock, porcupine, white tailed

deer, cow and horse. (9)7). variabilis (American dog tick) from

dog, cat, black bear, red squirrel, woodchuck, white footed

mouse, meadow vole, porcupine, snowshoe hare, cottontail rabbit

and man. (10) Haemaphy satis chordeilis from prairie chicken.

(11) H. leporis-palustrus (rabbit tick) from cottontail rabbit,

snowshoe hare, sharp-tailed grouse and ruffed grouse. (12)

Ornithodorus kelleyi from little brown bat, walls, ceilings of

private homes, rooming houses. (13) Rhipicephalus sanguinius

(brown dog tick) from dog.

Acknowledgments

The writers are indebted to Dr. G. M. Kohls, Rocky Mountain

Laboratory, Hamilton, Montana, who checked and verified all of

the tick identifications; Dr. F. C. Bishopp, Bureau of Entomol-

196 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

ogy and Plant Quarantine, Washington, D. C., who kindly sup¬

plied the Wisconsin tick records from the Bureau files. Thanks

are also due to Mr. Kenneth MacArthur, Milwaukee Public

Museum, Dr. C. A. Herrick and Herbert Levi, Department of

Zoology, University of Wisconsin, for loan of certain specimens.

The writers wish to thank all of those persons too numerous to

name who aided in these collections.

References

Banks, N. 1908. A revision of the Ixodoidea, or ticks, of the United States.

United States Dept. Agric., Tech. Series No. 15. 61 pp.

Bishopp, F. C. and C. N. Smith. 1938. The American dog tick, eastern

carrier of Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever. United States Dept. Agric.

Circular No. 578. 26 pp.

Bishopp, F. C. and H. L. Trembley. 1945. Distribution and hosts of cer¬

tain North American ticks. Jour. Parasitol. 31:1-54.

Cole, M. M. 1947. Report on tick investigations in Wisconsin during 1947.

Report of work conducted under contract with Office of the Surgeon

General War Department. United States Dept. Agric. Bur. Ent. and

Plant Quarantine, Division of Insects Affecting Man and Animals.

Interim Report No. 0-126. (Mimeographed) 7 pp.

Cooley, R. A. 1941. Determination of Ornithodoros species. Publication

No. 18. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Science. 77-84.

Cooley, R. A. 1938. The genera Dermacentor and Octocenter (Ixodidae) in

the United States with studies in variation. National Institute Health.

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Cooley, R. A. 1946. The genera Boophilus, Rhipicephalus and Haemaphy-

salts (Ixodidae) of the New World. National Institute of Health.

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Cooley, R. A. and G. M. Kohls. 1944. The Argasidae of North America,

Central America and Cuba. Amer. Mid. Nat. Monograph No. 1. The

University Press, Notre Dame, Indiana. 152 pp.

Cooley, R. A. and G. M. Kohls. 1945. The genus Ixodes in North America.

National Institute of Health. United States Treasury Dept. Bulletin

No. 184. 246 pp.

Green, R. G. and J. E. Shillinger. 1933-1934; 1935-1936. Minnesota Wild¬

life Disease Investigations. United States Dept. Agric., Bur. Biological

Survey, Washington, D. C. (Mimeographed). Monthly reports on in¬

vestigations conducted by the University of Minnesota and the Bureau

of Biological Survey in cooperation with the Minnesota Department of

Conservation.

Gross, A. 0. 1930. Progress Report of the Wisconsin Prairie Chicken In¬

vestigation. Wisconsin Conservation Commission Report. 112 pp.

Knipping, et aL — Distribution of Wisconsin Ticks 197

Herrick, C. A. 1935. The tick Ornithodores talaje in Wisconsin homes.

Jour. Parasitol. 21:216-217.

King, W. V. 1948. Some results of recent work on the newer insecticides.

Amer. Jour. Trop. Med. 28:487-497.

Peters, H. S. 1936. A list of external parasites from birds of the Eastern

part of the United States. Bird-Banding 7 :9-27.

Smith, C. N., M. M. Cole and H. K. Gouck. 1946. Biology and control of

the American dog tick. United States Dept. Agric. Technical Bulletin

No. 905. 74 pp.

:s;i-

/; ,■ »•, ;

PRELIMINARY LIST OF SOME FLEAS FROM

WISCONSIN*^

Paul A. Knipping, Banner Bill Morgan and Robert J. Dicke

Department of Veterinary Science and Economic Entomology,

University of Wisconsin, Madison

In the course of investigations on the distribution of ticks in

Wisconsin a large number of fleas was collected and identified.

Prior to this compilation on examination of the literature indi¬

cated a paucity of information available to Wisconsin scientists.

The purpose of this paper is to stimulate interest in certain eco¬

nomically important groups and to demonstrate the potentialities

of the field for future students. Since there is a lack of informa¬

tion on Wisconsin fleas, a compilation of our records with those

of the literature seemed desirable.

The following list includes all of the collections made during

the years 1948-1949. Supplementary collections are also in¬

cluded. Reports taken from the literature on fleas occurring in

Wisconsin are preceded by an asterisk (*) .

The writers are indebted to Dr. G. M. Kohls and Dr. W. L.

Jellison, Rocky Mountain Laboratory, U. S. Public Health

Service, Hamilton, Montana, who kindly checked and verified all

specific identifications.

PARASITE HOST LIST OF WISCONSIN FLEAS

Family: Pulicidae

Cediopsylla simplex (Baker, 1895)

1. Dog (Canis familaris) Dane County, 11/10/48, 1 male.

2. Red fox (Vulpes regalis)^ Adams County, 11/7/41, 2

females, 2 males.

3. Cat (Felis domestica) Dane County, 4/4/49, 1 male;

6/27/49, 5 females.

4. Cottontail rabbit (Sylvilagns fioridanus) Dane County,

1/10/41, 3 males, 2 females ; 12/12/48, 3 males, 6 females ;

* Published with the approval of the Director of the Wisconsin Agricultural

Experiment Station. Supported in part by the Research Committee of the Graduate

School from funds supplied by the Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation.

199

200 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts and Letters

12/15/48, 2 males; 12/16/48, 1 male, 9 females; 12/20/48, 1

male, 4 females ; 12/24/48, 5 males, 10 females ; 1/3/49, 2 males,

1 female; 5/21/49, 1 male; 11/30/48, 3 males, 2 females; Pierce

County, 7/1/41, 1 male.

*5. Coyote (€anis latrans) Wood County, 10/10/32 (Col¬

lected by J. W. Schmidt) ; Fox, 1940.

6. Raccoon (Procyon lotor) Juneau County, 2/22/48, 1 male.

Hoplopsyllus affinis (Baker, 1904)

1. Jack rabbit (Lepus americanm) Pierce County, 7/1/41,

4 males, 4 females.

Xenopsylla cheopis (Rothschild, 1903)

1. House rat (Rattus norvegicus) Dane County, 4/25/47, 2

females; 4/20/41, 1 male, 1 female.

2. House mouse (Mus musculus) Dane County, 9/9/48, 1

male, 2 females ; 9/15/48, 3 males, 5 females ; 5/1/49, 9 females,

5 males.

3. Golden hamster (Cricetus auratus) Dane County, 9/11/48,

1 male (accidental laboratory infestation).

Ctenocephalides felis (Bouche, 1835)

1, Cat (Felis domestica) Dane County, 7/1/49, 1 male, 4

females.

Ctenocephalides canis (Curtis, 1826)

*1. Dog (Canis familiaris) Dane County, 8/5/49, 4 males,

12 females; Rock County, 9/20/49. Listed by Trembley and

Bishopp, 1940 ; host not given, Milwaukee.

Family : Dolichopsyllidae

Ctenopthalmus pseudagyrtes Baker, 1904

1. Masked shrew (Sorex cinereus) Dane County, 8/13/48, 1

female.

2, Short-tailed shrew (Blarina brevicauda) Dane County,

8/17/48, 1 female; 8/28/48, 1 female; 9/1/48, 1 female; 9/4/48,

1 female ; 10/5/48, 1 male ; 10/5/48, 3 males, 1 female ; 10/6/48,

2 females ; 12/21/48, 2 females.

Knipping, et aL — Preliminary List of Fleas

201

3. Least chipmunk (Eutamias minimus) Bayfield County,

10/17/48, 1 female.

4. White-footed mouse (Peromyscus sp.) Dane County,

10/9/48, 1 female.

5. Meadow mouse (Microtus p. pennsylvanicus) Dane

County, 8/18/48, 1 male; 8/19/48, 1 male, 1 female; 10/27/48,

1 female; 11/17/48, 1 male; 11/23/48, 1 male; 4/2/49, 1 male.

6. Long-tailed weasel (Mustela frenata) Jefferson County,

5/21/49, 1 female.

Ceratophyllus garei Rothschild, 1902

1. Marsh hawk (Circus hudsonius) Dane County, 8/18/43,

1 male, 4 females.

Ceratophyllus gallinae (Schrank, 1803)

1. Host not recorded, Manitowoc County, 4/1/48, 1 male, 1

female (Collected by T. Torgerson).

Ceratophyllus riparius Jordan and Rothschild, 1920

*1. Bank swallow (Riparia riparia) Milwaukee County. Fox,

1940.

Megahothris acerbus (Jordan, 1925)

1. Red squirrel (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus) Vilas County,

9/7/48, 2 females.

Megahothris asio (Baker, 1904)

1. Meadow mouse (Microtus p. pennsylvanicus) Dane

County, 7/8/48, 1 male, 1 female; 8/12/48, 1 male, 1 female;

8/17/48, 1 male; 8/28/48, 1 female; 10/9/48, 1 female;

10/27/48,1 female; 10/29/48, 1 male; 11/17/48, 2 females,

1 male; 11/23/48, 2 males; 4/2/49, 1 male.

2. Mink (Mustela vison) Dane County, 5/1/41, 1 female.

Megahothris quirini (Rothschild, 1905)

1. Meadow mouse (Microtus p, pennsylvanicus) Bayfield

County, 10/16/48, 2 males.

202 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

' Meg ahothris wagneri (Baker, 1904)

1. Short-tailed shrew (Blarina brevicauda) Dane County,^

8/24/48, 1 female; 10/5/48, 1 female; 10/48, 1 female.

2. White-footed mouse (Peromyscus sp.) Dane County,

9/4/48, 1 female; 5/26/49, 1 male, 1 female; Juneau County,

6/21/47, 1 female; Sheboygan County, 7/14/48, 1 female.

Nosopsylla fasciata (Bose, 1801)

*1. Fox, 1940 ; listed this flea from Wisconsin.

Odontopsyllus multispinosus (Baker, 1898)

1. Cottontail rabbit (Sylvilagus floridanus) Dane County,

11/30/48, 2 females; 5/21/49, 1 male, 1 female.

Opisocrostis brunneri (Baker, 1895)

1. Striped ground squirrel (Citellus tridecemlineatus) Dane

County, 4/21/27, 2 males; Waukesha County, 7/28/48, 1 male,

1 female; Juneau County, 6/23/49, 3 females; *Kenosha County,

10/8/36 (Collected by R. Komarek). Fox, 1940.

2. Franklin ground squirrel (Citellus franklini) Dane

County, 4/20/41, 2 males, 1 female.

Orchopeas cadens (Jordan, 1925)

1. Red squirrel (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus) Dane County,

12/1/48, 1 female; Manitowoc County, 7/20/48, 1 female.

2. Gray squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis) Dane County,

10/1/46, 1 female.

3. White-footed mouse (Peromyscus sp.) Sheboygan County,

7/14/48, 1 male.

Orchopeas leucopus (Baker, 1904)

1. White-footed mouse (Peromyscus sp.) Sheboygan County,

7/14/48, 2 females; Dane County, 8/7/48, 1 female; 8/26/48,

1 male ; 9/4/48, 3 females ; 10/1/48, 1 female, 1 male ; 10/20/48,

1 male; 10/27/48, 1 female, 2 males; 3/27/49, 1 female;

3/27/49, 1 female; 4/2/49, 1 female.

*2. White-footed mouse (Peromyscus leucopus noveboracen-

sis) Door County, 9/14/30 (Collected by F. J. Schmidt). Fox,

1940.

Knipping, et al. —Preliminary List of Fleas

203

3. Meadow mouse (Microtus p, pennsylv aniens) Bayfield

County, 10/16/48, 1 female.

4. Jumping mouse (Zapus hudsonius) Dane County, 8/25/48,

1 female.

5. Cottontail rabbit (Sylvilagus floridanus) Dane County,

8/1/48, 1 female.

6. Weasel (Mustela frenata) Jefferson County, 5/21/49, 1

male.

7. Muskrat (Ondatra zibethica) Dodge County, 5/26/49, 1

male.

Orchopeas wickhami (Baker, 1895)

1. Opossum (Didelphis virginiana) Dane County, 5/14/49,

1 male, 1 female.

2. Golden hamster (Cricetus auratus) Dane County, 4/1/48,

2 females (accidental laboratory infestation).

3. Grey squirrel (Scuirus carolinensis) Dane County,

10/1/46, 1 male.

Orchopeas howardi (Baker, 1895)

1. Northern flying squirrel (Glaucomys volans) Jackson

County, 2/3/45, 2 females.

Orchopeas sp.

1. Weasel (Mustela frenata) Jefferson County, 5/21/49, 4

females.

2. White-footed mouse (Peromyscus sp.) Sheboygan County,

7/14/48, 1 male.

Oropsylla arcotomys (Baker, 1904)

1. Woodchuck (Marmota monax) Dane County, 1947, 1

female.

2. Badger (Taxidea t. taxus) Crawford County, 11/30/48,

4 males.

3. Opossum (Didelphis virginiana) Dane County, 5/14/49,

1 male.

Rectofrontia fraterna (Baker, 1895)

1. Masked shrew (Sorex cinereus) Dane County, 8/9/48, 1

female; 8/24/48, 1 male; 8/25/48, 1 female; 8/27/48, 1 male.

204 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

2. Short-tailed shrew (Blarina brevicauda) Dane County,

8/11/48, 1 male; 8/12/48, 1 male; 8/17/48, 1 male; 8/18/48,

2 males ; 8/20/48, 2 males ; 8/24/48, 1 male ; 10/6/48, 1 female ;

10/9/48, 1 male; 12/7/48, 1 male.

Monosopsyllus wagneri (Baker, 1904)

1. White-footed mouse (Peromyscus sp.) Dane County,

9/1/48, 1 male ; 8/26/48, 1 male.

Monosopsyllus vison (Baker, 1904)

1. White-footed mouse (Peromyscus sp.) Sheboygan County,

7/14/48, 1 male.

2. Franklin ground squirrel (Citellus franklini) Dane

County, 1947, 1 female.

3. Red squirrel (Tamiasciurus sp.) Dane County, 12/1/48,

1 male.

Monosopsyllus eumolpi (Rothschild, 1905)

1. Least chipmunk (Eutamias minimus) Bayfield County,

10/17/48, 6 females, 4 males.

T hr as sis sp.

1. Mink (Mustela vison) Dane County, 3/14/47, 2 females.

2. Striped-ground squirrel (Citellus tridecemlineatus) Dane

County, 4/22/47, 1 female.

Family : Hystrichopsyllidae

Epitedia wenmani (Rothschild, 1904)

1. Short-tailed shrew (Blarina brevicauda) Dane County,

12/21/48, 1 male.

2. White-footed mouse (Peromyscus sp.) Dane County,

12/7/48, 1 male; 4/8/49, 1 female.

3. Meadow mouse (Microtus p. pennsylvanicus) Dane

County, 12/26/47, 1 male; 8/17/48, 1 male; 11/23/48, 1 male;

12/7/48, 1 male ; 12/7/48, 1 male.

Nearctopsylla genalis (Baker, 1904)

1. Masked shrew (Sorex cinereus) Bayfield County,

10/16/48, 2 females.

2. Short-tailed shrew (Blarina brevicauda) Bayfield County,

10/16/48, 1 male, 1 female.

Knipping, et aL — Preliminary List of Fleas 205

Peromyscopsylla catatina (Jordan, 1928)

1. Meadow mouse (Microtus p. pennsylvanicns) Bayfield

County, 10/16/48, 1 female; 10/16/48, 3 females.

Doratopsylla curvata Rothschild, 1915

1. Masked shrew (Sorex cinereiis) Dane County, 8/19/48,

1 male.

2. Short-tailed shrew (Blarina brevieauda) Dane County,

8/28/48, 1 male; 11/9/48, 1 male.

Family : Ischnopsyllidae

Myodopsylla insignis (Rothschild, 1903)

1. Little brown bat (Myotis lucifugus) Dane County,

11/25/40, 1 female, 1 male; 11/1/41, 14 females, 9 males.

HOST PARASITE LIST

Opossum

Orchopeas wickhami

Oropsylla arcotomys

Masked Shrew

Ctenopthalmus pseudagyrtes

Rectofrontia fraterrm

Nearctopsylla genalis

Doratopsylla curvata

Short-Tailed Shrew

Ctenopthalmus pseudagyrtes

Megabothris wagneri

Rectofrontia fraterna

Epitedia wenmani

Nearctopsylla genalis

Doratopsylla curvata

Little Brown Bat

Myodopsylla insignis

Eastern Raccoon

Cediopsylla simplex

Badger

Oropsylla arcotomys

OF WISCONSIN FLEAS

Weasel

Orchopeas leucopus

Ctenopthalmus pseudagyrtes

Common Mink

Megabothris asio

Thrassis sp.

Red Fox

Cediopsylla simplex

Coyote

Cediopsylla simplex

Dog

Cediopsylla simplex

Ctenocephalides canis

Cat

Ctenocephalides felis

Cediopsylla simplex

Woodchuck

Oropsylla arcotomys

Thirteen-Striped Ground Squirrel

Opisocrostis brunneri

Thrassis sp.

206 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Franklin Ground Squirrel

Opisoerostis brunneri

Monosopsylla vis on

Least Chipmunk

Ctenopthalmus pseudagyrtes

Monosopsyllus eumolpi

Northern Flying Squirrel

Orchopeas hoivardi

Red Squirrel

Megabothris acerhus

Orchopeas cadens

Monosopsylla vison

Gray Squirrel

Orchopeas cadens

Orchopeas wickhami

Muskrat

Orchopeas leucopus

Jumping Mouse

Orchopeas leucopus

White-Footed Mouse

Ctenopthalmus pseudagyrtes

Megabothris wagneri

Orchopeas cadens

Orchopeas leucopus

Monosopsyllus wagneri

Epitedia wenmani

Meadow Mouse

Ctenopthalmus pseudagyrtes

Megabothris asio

Megabothris quirini

Orchopeas leucopus

Epitedia wenmani

Peromyscopsylla catatina

House Mouse

Xenopsylla cheopis

House Rat

Xenopsylla cheopis

Golden Hamster

Xenopsylla cheopis

Orchopeas wickhami

Cottontail Rabbit

Cediopsylla simplex

Odontopsylla multispinosus

Orchopeas leucopus

Jack Rabbit

Hoplopsyllus affimis

Marsh Hawk

Ceratophyllus garei

Bank Swallow

Ceratophyllus riparius

References

FoXj I. 1940. Fleas of eastern United States. Iowa State College Press,

Ames, Iowa. 191 pp.

Trembley, H. L. and F. C. Bishopp. 1940. Distribution and hosts of some

fleas of economic importance. Jour, Econ. Ent, 33:701-703.

Ewing, H. E. and I. Fox. 1943. The fleas of North America. U. S. Dept.

Agric. Misc. Publ. No. 500. 143 pp.

MORPHOLOGY AND SPECIFIC CONDUCTANCE OF

FOREST HUMUS AND THEIR RELATION TO THE

RATE OF FOREST GROWTH IN WISCONSIN^

Andr^: Lafond^

Soils Department, University of Wisconsin

One of the vital functions of the forest is to serve as a trans¬

former of energy of radiation. Every day, the sun transmits

more than four hundred million of millions of horse power to the

earth. A portion of this vast quantity of energy is trapped by

the photosynthetic processes, and is stored away in the form of

forest litter. Aside from being a storehouse of energy materials,

forest humus is the chief carrier of mineral nutrients in forest

soils and has a high fertilizing value. Humus is a gift of Nature,

and man fails to appreciate its monetary equivalent. It has been

estimated that organic debris on a single acre, supporting a

mature forest in northern Wisconsin, is worth more than one

hundred dollars, if evaluated in terms of commercial fertilizers.

Under the influence of environmental factors, forest litter

attains a peculiar morphology which is often indicative of both

microbiological and chemical properties of the humus layers.

The principal morphological groups of humus which are found

in the State of Wisconsin are as follows :

Earth Mull Group. This group is characterized by rapid

decomposition of litter under the influence of actinomycetes,

other microorganisms, insects, millipods, and often earthworms,

particularly Lumhriem terrestris. As a result, the soil profile

exhibits organic matter thoroughly incorporated with the min¬

eral soil. Morphologically, this group is related to prairie soils

which accumulate humus due to the retarded decomposition of

grass roots.

True Mor Group. This group is distinguished by an accumu¬

lation of raw organic remains whose decomposition is retarded

by cold climate, strong acidity, impeded drainage or other con¬

ditions unfavorable for microbiological activity. The soil profile

^This study was carried on with partial support of the Quebec Forest Service.

Publication authorized by the Director of the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment

Station.

® The author is indebted to Dr. S. A. Wilde for his helpful suggestions, and to

Mr. R. Wittenkamp for assistance in laboratory determinations.

207

208 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences y Arts and Letters

of this group includes a thick layer of raw organic matter, but

no incorporated humus. This is because the humified fraction is

nearly instantly removed by percolating water.

Duff Mull Group. This group is a transitional form between

earth mull and true mor. It is characterized by the presence of

a layer of free organic matter, not exceeding 3 inches, and a

horizon with incorporated humus. The principal agents employed

in the decomposition of organic matter are fungi and insects.

Infiltrated Mor Group. This group is morphologically sim¬

ilar to the true mor, except the raw humus layer is underlain by

a dark horizon with infiltrated humus. The latter develops due

to influence of ground water or a high content of free carbonates.

The results of this study indicate, that in many instances, the

morphology of humus serves as an expression of the suitability

of soil to support different species and its potential productivity.

Table 1 presents a brief description of the more important mor¬

phological types of forest humus occurring in the state of Wis¬

consin and their relation to fioristic cover and rate of forest

growth. The terminology of humus is after Wilde (5).

The present investigation was concerned primarily with the

specific conductance of different humus types. The ability of a

suspension to conduct electric current is directly related to the

content of dissociated electrolytes; hence, specific conductance

may serve as an index of soil fertility. Moreover, it is known that

specific conductance is lowered by the resistive substances pres¬

ent in the suspension. Therefore, the determination of specific

conductance on samples subjected to centrifuging provides a

measure of readily dispersible colloids.

The following analytical procedure was employed. Air-dried

samples of humus were passed through a 2 mm. mesh sieve, and

a 50 ml. sample was measured, using a standard scoop. A sus¬

pension was prepared by shaking humus on a rotary agitator for

1 hour with 200 ml. of distilled water. The suspension was

allowed to settle for 10 minutes and 50 ml. were decanted into

a 1 X 6 inch test tube. The temperature of the sample was

brought to about 77° F. and the conductivity determined by

platinum electrodes connected with a Solu bridge, i.e., a type of

Wheatstone bridge provided with a cathode-ray tube (magic

eye) . The reading was taken instantly (2, 4) .

For the determination of the non-conductives, the suspension

was centrifuged for 30 minutes at a speed of 2,500 r.p.m., and

Lafond — -Forest Humus

209

TABLE 1

Morphological Features of Important Types of Wisconsin Forest

Humus and Their Relation to Floristic Cover and

Rate of Forest Growth

(Estimated Yields per Acre are Given Either in Board Feet, Scribner

Rule, at 100 Years, or in Standard Cords at 40 Years)

Type of Humus

Earth Mull Types

Prairie humus. . .

Prairie humus .

Oak grain mull .

Oak granular mull. . . .

Hardwood crumb mull

Hardwood lean mull . .

Duff Mull Types

Hardwood duff mull . .

Red pine duff mull ....

Ba. fir-Birch duff mull

Heml. -Birch duff mull

True Mor Types

Pine matted mor .

Aspen-Birch root mor.

Ba. fir fibrous mor. . . .

Bl. spruce matted mor

Infiltrated Mor

Types

Wh. cedar alk. mor. . .

Swamp hardw. sedge

mor .

Hardw. infiltrated mor

Hardw. conif. greasy

mor .

Type of Soil

Sparta sand

Parr silt loam

Miami loam

Miami silt loam

Almena silt loam

Bellefontaine loam

Milaca loam

Dubuque silt loam

Vilas sandy loam

Omega sandy loam

Kennan f. s. loam

Ontonagon clay

Nekoosa sandy loam

Rubicon sand

Longrie loam

Auburndale silt loam

Adolph silt loam

Floristic Type

Bouteloua hirsuta

Andropogon-Sorghastrum

Parthenocissus-Circaea

Hydrophyllum-Arisaema

Undetermined

Adiantum-Thalictrum

Polygonatum-Mitella

Gaultheria-Maianthemum

Vaccinium-Rubus

Clintonia-Ly CO podium

Vaccinium-Rubus

Hylocomium

Hypnum-Cornus

Nudum

Thalictrum-Galium

Carex-Equ isetum

Approx.

Yield

PER Acre

8.5 Mbf

5.0 Mbf

7.0 Mbf

8.5 Mbf

10.0 Mbf

12.0 Mbf

18.0 Mbf

12 cords

12.0 Mbf

7.0 Mbf

10 cords

18 cords

8 cords

12 cords

7.0 Mbf

4.0 Mbf

14 cords

210 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

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Lafond — Forest Humus

211

conductance determined as previously described. The analyses

were supplemented by determinations of reaction, volume

weight, and loss on ignition (1) .

The results, presented in Table 2, indicate that earth mull

types and true mor types have a low specific conductance and a

low content of dispersible resistive colloids. On the other hand,

duff mull types, as well as infiltrated mor types, have a high spe¬

cific conductance and show a greater fraction of dispersible col¬

loids. The differences in electro-kinetic properties of these types

would be much more pronounced if analysis were carried on a

weight, rather than a volume basis. It was felt, however, that

treatment of humus on a volume basis has a much greater im¬

portance in regard to the establishment of natural reproduction

and the early growth of young seedlings.

True mor types are notorious for their low state of fertility

and ill effects on both soils and forest growth (3). This is in

agreement with the low mhos-value of this type. The latter,

moreover, is largely due to hydrogen ions, rather than nutrient

elements. Earth mull is usually considered to be an indicator of

high soil fertility. Actually, this type of humus shows a moderate

content of electrolytes. The highest conductance, as well as the

highest content of dispersible colloids was found in duff mull

types. The occurrence of these types coincides with the highest

rate of forest growth in Wisconsin, which sometimes exceeded a

level of 600 board feet per acre, per year. The group of infil¬

trated mor is also characterized by a high specific conductance.

However, the high potential fertility of this group is often offset

by the hydrolytic and reducing effects of non-capillary water.

References

1. A. O. A. C. 1945. Official and tentative methods of analysis. Ed. 6.

Washington, D. C.

2. Gortner, R. a. 1947. Outlines of biochemistry. Ed. 2. Wiley and Sons,

New York.

3. Lafond, Andre. 1947. La Classification ecologique des forets. La Foret

Quebequoise. 8:463-473.

4. Richards, L. A. (Editor) 1947. Diagnosis and improvement of saline

and alkali soils. U. S. Regional Salinity Laboratory, Riverside, Cal.

5. Wilde, S, A. 1946. Forest soils and forest growth. Chronica Botanica,

Waltham, Mass.

1.

■ . ' ■ ■

LW'X' .''' .'

V ■ • •?> v'*" >

•r\>‘

■<‘ , ,• '/ '(*1 v!-* r

AVAILABILITY TO HUMAN SUBJECTS OF PURE

RIBOFLAVIN INGESTED WITH LIVE YEAST

Mona M. Marquette% Betty M. Noble^ and Helen T. Parsons

Department of Home Economics , University of Wisconsin

Riboflavin from fresh unfortified compressed yeasts has pre¬

viously been found to be essentially unavailable for human sub¬

jects. Destruction of viability of the yeast cells by heating or by

certain drying processes prior to ingestion released the vitamin

for absorption. Live yeasts, however, did not interfere with the

utilization of riboflavin contained in food mixtures as they did

with food thiamine.

The effect of live yeast upon the availability of riboflavin in

pure solution is here reported. The human bioassay technic of

Melnick’s laboratory for availability of vitamins was used.

Fifty-five grams of yeast were ingested in one dose between

meals followed immediately by the test vitamins in pure solution.

Fifteen grams of yeast with each meal covered the riboflavin of

the basal foods.®

Viable fresh yeast did not interfere with the absorption of

riboflavin in pure solution ; urinary returns were not lower than

those which were obtained when the pure vitamin alone was

added. Comparable results were obtained when yeasts killed by

drying in alcohol were given with the pure riboflavin. A com¬

parison of these results with the effects of live and dead yeasts

upon the availability of thiamine in pure solution will be dis¬

cussed.

1 Research assistant and ® senior apprentice supported by the Wisconsin Alumni

Research Foundation.

3 Pineapple was generously supplied by the Pineapple Research Institute of

Hawaii.

Published with the approval of the Director of the Wisconsin Agricultural

Experiment Station.

213

1

•1

a

PRELIMINARY REPORTS

ON THE FLORA OF WISCONSIN. XXXIV

LILIALES

Joan A. McIntosh

The following report is based on a study of herbarium speci¬

mens in the University of Wisconsin and the Milwaukee Public

Museum. The author is most appreciative of the information and

suggestions given by Professor Norman C. Fassett, and of loans

of material from the Milwaukee Public Museum by Mr. A. M.

Fuller. This paper is incidental to the work of the writer as a

research assistant under a grant from the Wisconsin Alumni

Research Foundation.

Key to the Families

A. Plants mostly rush-like; perianth small (2-5 mm.), greenish or

brown, often bristle-like . Juncaceae.

AA. Plants not rush-like

B. Plant a trailing vine with small axillary panicles or racemes.

. Dioscoreaceae.

BB. Plant not as above

C. Perianth borne at the base of the ovary . Liliaceae,

CC. Perianth borne at the summit of the ovary

D. Stamens 6 . Amaryllidaceae.

DD. Stamens 3 . Iridaceae.

LILIACEAE

A. Leaves basal or nearly so

B. Flowers in umbels

C. Rootstock creeping; umbel 3~6-flowered; leaves 2-5, 4-10

cm. wide, 14-25 cm. long, oblong or oval, ciliate. .Clintonia borealis.

CC. Base of plant bulbous; flowers usually many in an umbel

and sometimes replaced by bulblets; leaves mostly linear;

strong onion-scented herbs

D. Leaves flat, elliptic, usually 3-10 cm. wide, 15-20 cm. long,

not present at flowering time . Allium tricoccum.

215

216 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

DD. Leaves linear, present at flowering time

E. Umbel erect, usually bulblet-bearing ; capsule not

crested . A Ilium canadense.

EE. Umbel not bulblet-bearing

F. Umbel drooping; capsule 6-crested; leaves flattened

and sharply keeled . Allium cemuum,

FF. Umbel erect

G. Leaves nearly flat; umbel open with pedicels ex¬

ceeding perianth; capsule prominently 6-crested.

. Allium stellatum.

GG. Leaves awl-shaped and hollow; umbel subcapitate

with pedicels shorter than or barely exceeding

perianth; capsule not crested . Allium Schoenoprasum.

BB. Flowers not in umbels

C. Plants with solitary flowers

D. Flowers light yellow; style club-shaped with united

stigmas ; leaves mottled with purplish or whitish.

. Erythronium americanum.

DD. Flowers white or pinkish; style elongate with 8 short,

spreading stigmas; leaves less mottled or not at all.

. Erythronium albidum.

CC. Flowers several in a spike or a raceme

D. Stems and pedicels glandular; leaves grasslike.

. Tofieldia glutinosa.

DD. Stems and pedicels not glandular

E. Plant without bulbous base; raceme spike-like; flowers

many, yellowish-white, tubular; leaves noticeably

yellowish-green, spreading and flat . Aletris farinosa.

EE. Plant with bulbous base; inflorescence a raceme or

slightly panicled ; leaves not yellowish-green

F. Flowers blue to white; raceme compact with pedicels

never more than 1 cm. long, and 10-17 cm. in length

with 35-50 flowers . Camassia scilliodes.

FF. Flowers greenish-yellow to greenish-white; raceme

loose, with pedicels often more than a cm. long,

sometimes compound toward the base

G. Middle and upper bracts of inflorescence herba¬

ceous, tapering to firm subulate tips; sepals and

petals strongly suffused on the back with green,

bronze, or purple; capsule ovoid-conic, 1-1.4 cm.

long, 5-8 mm. in diameter, barely exceeding the

finally connivent perianth ; leaves coriaceous, mostly

blunt or subacute; inflorescence a few-forked,

elongate-lanceolate to open-ovoid panicle, (rarely a

simple raceme) . Zigadenus glaums.

GG. Middle and upper bracts of the inflorescence with

scarious margins and summits; sepals and petals

paler, with or without a darkened area at base or

McIntosh — Flora of Wisconsin, XXXIV

217

middle on the outside; capsule lance-conic, 1. 3-2.2

cm. long, 4-6 mm. in diameter, twice as long as the

perianth; leaves thinner, usually sharply pointed;

inflorescence a slender, loosely cylindric raceme,

(rarely a panicle) . Zigadenus elegans.

AA. Leaves cauline

B. Flowers large and showy, 4-10 cm. in diameter, orange to

reddish-orange with purple spots ; sepals colored like the

petals ; fruit a large, cylindric capsule, 2-5 cm. long

C. Flowers open bell-shaped with perianth segments not re¬

curved; segments of perianth clawed; bulbs not rhizomatous

D. Leaves chiefly whorled . Lilium philadelphicum.

DD. Leaves chiefly scattered except for one whorl at summit.

. Lilium philadelphicum var. andidum.

CC. Flowers with perianth segments strongly recurved; seg¬

ments of perianth not clawed ; bulbs rhizomatous

D. Leaves chiefly whorled, not bulblet-bearing in upper

axils . Lilium michiganense.

DD. Leaves scattered and bulblet-bearing in upper axils.

. Lilium tigrinum.

BB. Flowers smaller or if large with green sepals; fruit a short,

elliptic to globose capsule, 1-2 cm. long, or a berry

C. Leaves in one or two whorls

D. Flowers not more than 1.5 cm. in diameter and in a ses¬

sile umbel; leaves in two (rarely 3) whorls, a whorl of

7-9 leaves at the middle of stem and a smaller whorl of

3-5 leaves at the top. . . Medeola virginiana.

DD. Flowers 2 to several cm. in diameter, showy with green

sepals, solitary and terminal; leaves 3, in one whorl

E. Flower sessile; petals dark purple and narrowed to a

claw at the base . Trillium recurvatum.

EE. Flower peduncled

F. Leaves short-petioled, (petiole 4-8 mm. long).

. ‘ . Trillium nivale.

FF. Leaves sessile, or rarely one short-petioled one,

(petiole 2 mm. long)

G. Anthers exceeding the stigmas; petals large (4-8

cm. long) and white, turning rose color when old;

peduncle erect or nearly so . Trillium grandiflorum.

GG. Anthers not exceeding the stigmas; peduncle hori¬

zontal, recurved or reflexed

H. Filaments very short, about a third as long as

the anthers or less; anthers 6-15 mm. long, usu¬

ally yellow . Trillium flexipes.

HH. Filaments nearly as long or equalling anthers

I. Anthers 2.5-4.5 mm. long; petals 5-10 mm.

broad . Trillium ceimiium.

II. Anthers 4-6.5 mm. long; petals 9-17 mm. broad.

. . Trillium cernuum var. macranthum.

218 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

CC. Leaves alternate

D. Plant feathery in appearance with leaves reduced to

scales and the filiform branches in alternate clusters;

flowers axillary . Asparagus officinalis.

DD. Plant with flat leaves

E. Flowers axillary or terminal, solitary or several, or in

umbels, not racemose

F. Flowers one to several in each axil, or terminal, not

umbellate

G. Peduncles fused partway up the internodes and

appearing under the leaf above

H. Nodes fringed; leaves sessile, not clasping, with

strongly ciliate margins (20-30 cilia per cm.) ;

perianth segments not recurved except at tip;

flowers pink . Streptopus roseus var. longipes.

HH. Nodes glabrous; leaves cordate-clasping with

weakly to strongly ciliate margins ; perianth

segments widely spreading or recurved; flowers

yellow

I. Leaf margins entire or with up to about 6 teeth

per cm . Streptopus amplexif olius var. americanus.

11. Leaf margins with 10-25 minute teeth per cm.

. Streptopus amplexif olius var. denticulatus.

GG. Peduncles not fused with internodes, directly above

leaves from whose axils they come.

H. Flowers small and greenish (10-20 cm. long) ;

pedicel jointed near flower; fruit a berry

I. Leaves puberulent beneath at least on minor

nerves, glaucous, usually with 3-9 prominent

nerves . Polygonatum pubescens.

11. Leaves glabrous beneath but glaucous, with 1-7

prominent nerves . Polygonatum commutatum.

HH. Flowers mostly larger and yellowish (12-45 mm.

long) ; pedicel not jointed; fruit a capsule

I. Leaves perfoliate; capsule 3-lobed, truncate.

. Uvularia grandiflora.

II. Leaves sessile, not perfoliate; capsule sharply

3-angled . . . . . Uvularia sessilifolia.

FF. Flowers in umbels in axils of leaves; dioecious

G. Stem with long, blackish bristles, woody. .Smilax hispida.

GG. Stem without bristles, herbaceous

H. Mature leaves pale and glabrous beneath ; umbels

of both staminate and pistillate plants with

25-80 flowers . . . . Smilax herbacea.

McIntosh — Flora of Wisconsin, XXXIV

219

HH. Leaves pale and pubescent beneath

I. Plant tendril-bearing; umbels of both staminate

and pistillate flowers with 30-110 flowers.

. Smilax herbacea var. lasioneura.

II. Plant not tendril-bearing or only upper petioles;

staminate plants with fewer than 25 flowers

and pistillate with fewer than 20. . . .Smilax ecirrhata.

EE. Flowers racemose

F. Stem leaves 2-3 in number and less than 9 cm. long,

cordate at the base, the lower one usually short-

petioled; perianth 4-parted

G. Lower leaf surface glabrous, margins merely papil¬

late or crenulate . . . Maianthemum eanadense.

GG. Lower leaf surface pubescent at least on the veins,

margins abundantly ciliate.

. Maianthemum eanadense var. interius.

FF. Stem leaves usually more than 3 and usually longer

than 9 cm., not cordate, generally all sessile; perianth

6-parted

G. Leaves 2-4; inflorescence a peduncled raceme.

. Smilacina trifolia.

GG. Leaves more than 6

H. Inflorescence a raceme, sessile or nearly so;

plant 2-5 dm. high; leaves oblong-lanceolate and

slightly clasping, 7-12 in number. . .Smilacina stellata.

HH. Inflorescence a peduncled panicle, (rarely ses¬

sile) ; plant 4-10 dm. high; leaves oblong or

oval-lanceolate, short petioled, 7-many in num¬

ber . . Smilacina racemosa.

Clintonia Raf.

Clintonia borealis (Ait.) Raf. Map 1.

Following cool, moist rich woods, cedar swamps, spruce

woods, and tamarack bogs; abundant northward and locally

southward in bogs, at Wisconsin Dells and along Lake Michigan.

Allium L. Onion

Allium tricoccum Ait. Wild Leek. Map 2.

A good indicator of rich, moist woods, often being found in

maple-basswood associations throughout the state.

Both races of A. tricoccum recognized by Hanes and Ownbey,

Rhodora 48:61-63. 1946, appear in Wisconsin. There is no geo¬

graphical distinction however; both are scattered across the

state.

220 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Allium canadense L. Wild Garlic. Map 3.

Confined largely to glacial drift in the southeastern part of

the state from Brown and Waupaca counties down through

Lafayette and Racine counties. Also in the northwest in Polk

County. Rich woods, wet or dry prairie, and river bottoms.

Allium cernuum Roth. Wild Onion. Map 4.

Four southeastern counties of this state, Kenosha, Racine,

Milwaukee, and Walworth with one specimen from Lafayette

County. The habitat is prairie, sunny with sandy loam. Poa, SiU

phium, and Tradescantia spp. are common associates of this

plant.

Allium stellatum Ker. Map 5.

Occurs in northwestern Wisconsin from Douglas to St. Croix

and Dunn counties. Found along railroads, on sand barrens, on

rocky ground.

Allium Schoenoprasum L. Chives. Map 6.

Introduced from Europe. Not common.

Erythronium L. Dog's Tooth Violet

Erythronium americanum Ker. Yellow Adder's Tongue. Map 7.

Rich maple-basswood woods, damp thickets, and wooded

banks. Local and apparently absent from much of southern Wis¬

consin. Forma Bachii (Farwell) Dole is found at Two Rivers,

Manitowoc County. It is a color form based on the fact that the

lower half of the perianth segments and the stamens are

purplish-brown or magenta.

Erythronium albidum Nutt. White Dog's Tooth Violet. Map 8.

Common southward, local northward, in rich damp woods.

It appears to avoid the large area of granite in northeastern

Wisconsin which is part of the Laurentian Shield.

Tofieldia Huds. False Asphodel

Tofieldia GLUTINOSA (Michx.) Pers. Map 9.

Recorded from only five counties in Wisconsin: Milwaukee,

Waukesha, Green Lake, Manitowoc, and Door. Wisconsin speci¬

mens are all subsp. typica, Hitchcock, C. L., Am. Mid. Nat.

31:487-498. 1944.

McIntosh — Flora of Wisconsin, XXXIV 221

Aletris L.

Aletris farinosa L. Map 10.

Local in Wisconsin, being found in sandy places in the central

part of the state or southward. Wet or moist prairies or open

woods with prairie habitats.

Camassia Lindl.

Camassia sciLLOiDES (Raf.) Cory. Map 11.

On relic prairies along railroads on the southern border of

the state. Not very common.

ZiGADENUS Michx.

The characters used in the key to distinguish the eastern

Z. GLAUCUS Nutt, from the western Z. elegans are quoted from

that of Fernald, Rhodora 37 :256-258. 1985.

Our material appears to consist of both species with many

intermediates. Zigadenus occurs in a variety of habitats in Wis¬

consin from rocky and sandy hillsides to dunes, fields, swamps,

and lake shore. Map 12.

Lilium L. Lily

Lilium philadelphicum L. Wood Lily. Map 13, crosses.

The typical form of this species is found only in Door County,

probably coming in from the northeast on the Niagara limestone

that follows down the Lake Michigan shore.

Lilium philadelphicum L. var. andidum (Nutt.) Ker. Map 13,

dots.

Found on sand flats, low prairies and in bogs. It appears to

be granite-avoiding in this state.

Lilium michiganense Farwell. Turk's Cap Lily. Map 14.

Low prairie, marsh, or low woods, preferring heavy, mucky

soils. Abundant throughout the state.

Lilium tigrinum Ker. Tiger Lily.

Introduced from eastern Asia. A garden escape.

Medeola L.

Medeola virginiana L. Indian Cucumber Root. Map 15.

Found in rich, damp woods along the Lake Michigan shore

and up into Oconto County. Beam mentions its preference for

222 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

deep, wooded ravines or beech woods. This is of significance in

Wisconsin since beech woods are found in the same range as

Medeola — the broken line on the map indicates the western limit

of beech.

Trillium L.

Trillium recurvatum Beck. Map 16.

Found in southern Wisconsin in rich, moist woods. It appears

to have entered the state by two routes, one following Lake

Michigan and the other up the Pecatonica River.

Trillium nivale Riddell. Map 17.

Rather rare on limestone slopes and cliffs on the two main

regions of limestone in the state, along the eastern border of the

state and in the northwest around Pierce and St. Croix counties.

Trillium grandiflorum (Michx.) Salis. Map 18.

Found in rich, moist woods throughout the state. Many freak

forms of this species have been found with odd numbers of

leaves, petals, and sepals.

Trillium flexipes Raf. T. Gleasoni Fern., T. declinatum (Gray)

Gleason. Map 19.

Anderson, W. A., Rhodora 36:121. 1934; Fernald, M. L.,

Rhodora 46:16-17. 1944; Fernald, M. L., Rhodora 34:21-22,

1932.

Rich woods in southern Wisconsin. There are two specimens

of doubtful identification from Pierce and Outagamie counties.

They are probably T, cernuum rather than T. flexipes since they

are definitely out of the latter’s range.

Trillium cernuum L. Map 20.

Fames, A. J., and Wiegand, K. M., Rhodora 25:191. 1923.

Uncommon in this state, found mostly in eastern Wisconsin

down to Sheboygan County and in the northern part of Wiscon¬

sin in Douglas, Washburn, Ashland and Price counties. Fames

and Wiegand say this species is only east of the Alleghanies but

several Wisconsin species resemble the var. typicum exactly. It

is quite rare, however as, compared with var. macranthum,

Trillium cernuum var. macranthum Fames & Wiegand.

Map 21.

In wet woods throughout Wisconsin ; local southward.

McIntosh— Flora of Wisconsin. XXXIV 223

Asparagus (Tourn.) L.

Asparagus officinalis L. Garden Asparagus. Map 22.

Introduced from Europe ; common.

Streptopus Michx. Twisted Stalk

Streptopus roseus var. longipes (Fernald) Fassett. Map 23.

Fassett, N. C., Rhodora 37 :110. 1935.

Abundant northward and eastward in rich woods; local in

the Driftless Area in sphagnum bogs and woods.

Streptopus amplexifolius var. denticulatus Fassett. Map 24.

Ibid., 98,

Local in wet woods in the Lake Superior region. Interme¬

diates between it and var. americanus sometimes are found.

POLYGONATUM [Tourn.] Hill. Solomon’s Seal

Bush, B. F., Am. Mid. Nat. 10 :385-400. 1927 ; Farwell, 0. A.,

Bull. Torrey Bot. Cl. 42 :247“”257. 1915 ; Fernald, M. L., Rhodora

46:9-11. 1944; Gates, R. R., Bull. Torrey Bot. Cl. 44:117-125.

1917; Ownbey, Ruth Peck, Ann. Mo. Bot. Card. 31:373-413.

1944.

POLYGONATUM PUBESCENS (Willd.) Pursh. Map 25.

Distributed nearly throughout Wisconsin in low, rich woods ;

local southward.

POLYGONATUM COMMUTATUM (R. & S.) Dietr. Map 26.

Quite common in Wisconsin in a variety of habitats from oak

woods to dry sand banks and river bottoms. In the latest work

done on P. commutatum it was found to be a tetraploid, small

individuals to be separated from the diploid P. biflorum only by

the chromosome number. Chromosome counts of the following

specimens, many of them small and biflorum-like, were made by

Mr. J. G. Ross ; all were found to be tetraploid (n = 20) . Vernon

Co. : Bakelein Church, Coon Valley, May 11, 1946, Fassett 26100;

oak woods 3 mi. southeast of Coon Valley, Sec. 22, T, 14 N.,

R. 5 W., May 12, 1946, Fassett 26100; ibid., Fassett 26112; Sec.

4, T. 14 N., R. 5 W., May 12, 1946, Fassett 26115; ibid., Fassett

26116. Sauk Co.: Ableman Gap, May 12, 1946, Fassett 26124^;

ibid., Fassett 26127. Dodge Co.: oak woods near Clyman, Sec.

30, T. 10 N., R. 15 E., May 25, 1946, Fassett 26189.

224 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

• Allium tricoccum

If reddish race

Allivun cernuum

Allium Schoenoprasum

McIntosh— Flora of Wisconsin, XXXIV

Tafieldia glutinosa Aletris farinosa

• Zlgadenus aXegans

©Intermadlate

jfZlgadenus glaucus

226 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

XLilium philadelphicum

♦ L.p, var* andiduia

Lilium michiganense

Medeola virginiana

Dotted line is western

Trilliiam recurvatum

Trillliffl grandiflor\iii

Mclntoshr — Flora of Wisconsin, XXXIV

227

cernuum var.

uLacranthum

var* lOQglpes

Streptopus amplexifolius

var. denticulatus

228 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

• ¥ar. lasloneiura

McIntosh — Flora of Wisconsin, XXXIV

229

•Smilaclna racemosa var.t/plca

Jfyar. cylindrata

•intermediate

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Iris lacustris

Iris virginlca var,

Shrevei

©Iris versicolor

^Intermediate between it and

McIntosh — Flora of Wisconsin, XXXIV

♦ Sisyrinchium montanum

XS. montanum var, crebrum

littoralis

»f, dissltiflorus

Juncus filiformis

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

June us margins tus

Juncus bufonius

Juncus Garardi

Juncus Greenei

Juncus Vaseyi

• Juncus tanuis

JCf. anthelatus

Williamsii

McIntosh — Flora of Wisconsin. XXXIV

233

0 ^

234 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Juncus alpinus

var, rariflorus

• Luzula raultiflora

if var, bulbosa

McIntosh— Flora of Wisconsin. XXXIV 235

Smilax [Tourn.] L. Green Briar

Pennell, F. W, Bull. Torrey Bot. CL 43 :409-421. 1916.

Smilax hispida Muhl. Map 29.

Generally distributed in the north, rare southward.

Smilax herbacea L. Map 30, crosses.

Only found in Juneau and Oneida counties.

Smilax herbacea var. lasioneura (Hook) A. DC. Map 30, dots.

Scattered throughout Wisconsin on dry ground, although the

habitat may vary from meadow or open woods to limestone cliff

or steep sand slope.

Smilax EciRRHATA (Engelm.) Wats. Map 31.

Woods, usually low woods. Mostly in the southern half of the

state although a few plants have been found in Barron, Pepin,

and Pierce counties.

UvuLARiA L. Bellwort

UVULARIA GRANDIFLORA J. E. Smith. Map 27.

Common in woods throughout Wisconsin.

UVULARIA SESSILIFOLIA (L.) Wats. Map 28.

Woods south to Dane County and rarely Grant County in

Wisconsin.

Maianthemum Wiggers

Butters, F. K., Minn. Studies in PL Sc. 5:429-444. 1927;

Fernald, M. L., Rhodora 16:210-211, 1914.

Maianthemum canadense Desf. Map 32.

Most common in northern Wisconsin, although found in Rock

County, along the Wisconsin River valley, and Lake Michigan

shore. It is found chiefly in moist places but some specimens

have been collected from dry cliffs and wooded talus slopes.

Maianthemum canadense (L.) Desf. var. interius Fernald.

Map 33.

A similar range as the typical phase of the species and also

in moist woods and bogs. Its most abundant distribution seems

to be in southern Wisconsin but it is scattered all through the

state.

236 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Smilacina Desf.

Smilacina trifolia (L.) Desf. Map 34.

In northern Wisconsin south to Jackson County, and east in

Sheboygan, Ozaukee, and Milwaukee counties.

Smilacina stellata (L.) Desf. Map 35.

A fairly common species, particularly in the southern part of

the state. Found in both dry and moist habitats.

Smilacina racemosa (L.) Desf. False Solomon's Seal. Map 36.

Fernald, M. L., Rhodora 40:404-407. 1938; Galway, Desma

H., Am. Mid. Nat, 33 : 644-666. 1945.

Common in woods. Fernald separated this into var. typica

and var. cylindrata which he considered a southern variety. Both

may be found in almost any colony of S. racemosa in Wisconsin.

DIOSCORACEAE

Dioscorea villosa L. Wild Yam Root. Map 37.

Found in rich woods throughout. Wisconsin as far north as

Lincoln and Polk counties.

AMARYLLIDACEAE

Hypoxis hirsuta (L.) Coville. Yellow Star Grass. Map 38.

Open woods and prairies throughout southern Wisconsin and

as far north as Brown, Chippewa, and Pierce counties.

IRIDACEAE

a. Leaves usually over 1 cm. wide; flowers several cm. long;

stigmas petal-like

B. Plant short with stem 0.5-1.5 dm. high; perianth tube 1 cm.

or more in length . Iris lacustris,

BB. Plant taller with stem 1.5-5 dm. high; perianth tube 5 mm.

or less in length

C. Petals shorter than the styles; ovary less than 2 cm. in

length; outermost bracts of inflorescence darker and some¬

what vernicose along the margins ; sepals with a dull

greenish-yellow spot at base of blade. . . Iris versicolor.

CC. Petals slightly longer than styles; ovary 2 cm. or more in

length; outermost bracts of the inflorescence with undiffer¬

entiated margins; sepals with a bright yellow spot at base

of blade . Iris virginica var. Shrevei.

McIntosh — Flora of Wisconsin, XXXIV

237

A A. Leaves less than 1 cm. wide; flowers about 1 cm. long; stigmas

thread-like

B. Spathes 2, with a single outer leaf-like bract. . Sisyrinchium albidum.

BB. Spathes solitary, enclosed by two green bracts

C. Outer, longer bract with margins free to base.

. Sisyrinchium campestre.

CC. Outer bract with margins united for a short distance above

the base.

D. Spathe terminating the culm (rarely a peduncled spathe

present)

E. Leaves and stems whitish-green with whitish-brown or

straw colored capsules . Sisyrinchium montanum.

EE. Leaves and stems dark green with green or purple-

suffused capsules which become almost black when

ripe . Sisyrinchium montanum var. crebrum.

• DD. Spathes peduncled from the axils of a leaf-like bract.

. . . Sisyrinchium angusti folium.

Iris [Tourn.] L. Fleur-de-lis

Iris lacustris Nutt. Lake Dwarf Iris. Map 39.

Found along shore in Door and Milwaukee counties in this

state. Those inland in Milwaukee County are on the abandoned

beaches of Lake Michigan, relics of a time when the lake was

higher. (Shinners, L. H., Vegetation of the Milwaukee Region,

B. A. thesis, U. of Wis., 1940.)

Iris VERSICOLOR L. Map 40.

Wet places in northern Wisconsin. A few individuals are

intermediate with the next.

Iris virginica var. Shrevei (Small) Anderson. Map 41.

Anderson, Edgar, Ann. Mo. Bot. Garden 23:459-469. 1936.

Scattered in wet places throughout Wisconsin.

Sisyrinchium L. Blue-eyed Grass

Sisyrinchium albidum Raf . Map 42.

Sunny fields in southern Wisconsin. Not common.

Sisyrinchium campestre Bick. Map 43.

Common in sunny fields as far north as Washburn and

Sawyer counties. Particularly abundant in southwestern Wis¬

consin.

Sisyrinchium montanum Greene. Map 44, dots.

angustifolium sensu Bicknell in Bull. Torrey Club 26 :336.

1889, in part only.

238 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Found in northwestern Wisconsin and northeastern Wiscon¬

sin along the lake shore.

SISYRINCHIUM MONTANUM var. CREBRUM Fernald. Map 44,

crosses.

This variety is considered as a more eastern plant by Fer¬

nald, Rhodora 48:159. 1946, but there are several specimens

from Wisconsin that resemble this darker variety of S, mon-

tanum.

SISYRINCHIUM ANGUSTIFOLIUM Mill. Map 45.

S. gramineum Curtis, 7th ed. Gray; S, anceps Man. ed. 6;

S. graminoides Bick.

Wet meadows and damp woods. New Hampshire to Minne¬

sota and southward. Not frequent in Wisconsin.

JUNCACEAE

A. Capsule 3-celled, many seeded ; plant not hairy

B. Inflorescence apparently borne on the side of the stem

C. Rootstocks short-creeping with inconspicuous internodes;

culms caespitose; stamens 3 . Juncus effusus.

CC. Rootstocks long-creeping with conspicuous internodes; culms

usually well separated, arising in a single row; stamens 6

D. Flowers brown, 3.5-5. 0 mm. long; involucral leaf much

shorter than the stem

E. Inflorescence not diffuse, 1.5-3.5 cm. long; flowers ap¬

proximate or subapproximate. .JwncMs halticus var. littoralis.

EE. Inflorescence diffuse, 4-12 cm. long; flowers widely

separated . J. halticus var. littoralis f. dissitiflorus.

DD. Flowers green, 2-3 mm. long; involucral leaf nearly or

quite as long as the stem below the inflorescence.

. . Juncus filiformis.

BB. Inflorescence obviously terminating the stem

C. Leaves flat, or in age involute, not septate (terete in

J. Greenei)

D. Flowers in heads . Juncus marginatus-

DD. Flowers borne singly on the branches of the inflorescence

E. Inflorescence more than half the height of the plant;

flowers scattered along the loose, forking branches;

annual . . . Juncus hufonius.

EE. Inflorescence much less than half the height of the

plant; perennial

F. Leaf sheaths covering half of the stem or more.

. Juncus Gera/rdi.

FF. Leaf sheaths covering of stem or less

G. Leaves terete; capsule much exceeding perianth,

reddish or castaneous . Juncus GreeneL

McIntosh — Flora of Wisconsin. XXXIV

239

GG. Leaves involute or flat.

H. Leaves nearly involute, channeled on one side;

seeds with long caudate appendages. . . .J uncus Vaseyi.

HH. Leaves mostly flat or involute in age; seeds

short-pointed or blunt

I. Auricles at summit of sheath very thin, white,

and scarious, conspicuously produced beyond the

point of insertion (1.0-3.5 mm. long)

J. Flowers clustered mostly at the tips of the

branches . . .Juncus tenuis.

JJ. Flowers scattered or somewhat secund along

the branches

K. Ultimate floriferous branches elongate

and ascending up to 4 cm. long.

. . . . . . . J. tenuis f. anthelatus.

KK. Ultimate floriferous branches widely

spreading, 0.5-2.0 cm. long.

. J. tenuis f. WilUamsii.

II. Auricles at summit of sheath firm

J. Bracteoles blunt to acute; auricles cartilagi¬

nous, yellow, becoming brown with age, very

rigid and glossy, especially the short pro¬

duced portion; inflorescence generally com¬

pact; perianth widely spreading. . Dudley i.

JJ. Bracteoles acuminate to aristate; auricles

with the very slightly produced portion mem¬

branaceous, not rigid (easily broken), stra¬

mineous, often tinged with brown or light

red, occasionally somewhat cartilaginous

along the sides below the summit; inflores¬

cence generally loose; perianth from ap-

pressed to slightly spreading . Juncus interior.

CC. Leaves hollow, septate

D. Seeds with tails

E. Seeds with conspicuous tails, their total length 1-1.8 mm.;

capsule equalling or moderately exceeding calyx; heads

few to many with 5-50 flowers in a head. . .Juncus canadensis.

EE. Seeds with total length of 1 mm. or less; capsule usu¬

ally much exceeding calyx; heads numerous with 3-7

flowers in a head

F. Mature fruit about 2.5 mm. long; seeds very short¬

tailed, total length usually less than 1 mm.; heads

numerous in diifuse panicle, 3-5 flowers in a head.

. Juncus hrachycephalus.

FF. Mature fruit about 4 mm. long; seeds with longer

tails, total length about 1 mm.; heads numerous on a

fairly erect cyme, 3-7 flowers in a head.

. Juncus hrevicaudatus.

240 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

DD. Seeds without tails

E. Stamens 3, one behind each sepal . Juncus acuminatus,

EE. Stamens 6, behind each sepal and petal

F. Flowers solitary or in pairs, often reduced to fas¬

cicles of small leaves . Juncus peloca/irpus,

FF. Flowers more numerous, in glomerules

G. Flowers in hemispherical heads; involucral bract

much shorter than the inflorescence

H. None of the flowers stalked within the heads.

. Juncus alpinus.

HH. One or more flowers within each head stalked.

. Juncus alpinus var. rariflorus.

GG. Flowers in spherical heads; involucral bract usu¬

ally exceeding inflorescence

. H. Plant 1-4 dm. high; flowers 3-4 mm. long;

petals equalling or exceeding sepals. . .Juncus nodosus.

HH. Plant 4-10 dm. high; flowers 4-5 mm. long;

petals shorter than sepals . Juncus Torreyi,

A A. Capsule 1-celled, 3-seeded ; plant often hairy

B. Flowers solitary at tips of branches of inflorescence.

. Luzula acuminata.

BB. Flowers crowded in spikes or glomerules

C. Cauline leaves large, (7-) 9-14 cm. long, (4-6)-9 mm. wide;

filaments equalling the anthers; perianth averaging 3 mm.

long, usually slightly exceeding the capsule; base of plant

rarely producing bulbs . Luzula multiflora.

CC. Cauline leaves small, 3-5.5 cm. long, 2-3 mm. wide; fila¬

ments shorter than the anthers ; perianth averaging 2.5 mm.

long, shorter than the capsule; base of plant commonly pro¬

ducing bulbs . Luzula multiflora var. bulbosa.

Juncus [Tourn.] L.

Juncus effusus L. Map 46.

Juncus effusus is very variable in Wisconsin. Var. Pylaei

seems to be common in the north, while several sheets from

Arena in Iowa County are clearly var. solutus. But many col¬

lections cannot be placed by use of the revision of Fernald and

Wiegand, Rhodora 12:90-92. 1910. Some plants of the north

approach var. solutus in their robust culms, but have smaller

flowers with more spreading sepals. Several other combinations

of characters suggest that a revision of this species in the Middle

West would be in order.

Juncus balticus Willd. var. littoralis Engelm. Map 47, dots.

J. balticus has come into Wisconsin along the Lake Michigan

shore and the shores of three former glacial lakes, namely, Lake

McIntosh — Flora of Wisconsin. XXXIV

241

Wisconsin, L. Oshkosh, and Barrens Lake. Distribution in the

state is centered around those four areas.

JUNCUS BALTicus var. LiTTORALis f. DissiTiFLORUS Engelm. Map

47, crosses.

Rhodora 25:208, 1923.

Same range as variety but less frequent.

JUNCUS FILIFORMIS L. Map 48.

Wet places along lakes and rivers, south to Portage County.

JUNCUS MARGINATUS Rostk. Map 49.

Moist sandy places. Not common.

JUNCUS BUFONIUS L. Map 50.

Moist sandy shores, ditches. Centered around northwestern

Wisconsin, along the Wisconsin River, and along the Lake

Michigan shore.

JUNCUS Gerardi Loisel. Map 51.

Only in Milwaukee and Sheboygan counties on low ground

and beach, respectively, near railroad yards.

JUNCUS Greenei Oakes & Tuckerm. Map 52.

On dry sandy hills, fields, and in dry oak woods.

JUNCUS Vaseyi Engelm. Map 53.

Damp thickets and shores. Not common.

JUNCUS TENUIS Wilid. Map 54, dots.

Common throughout the state, particularly in bare places,

roadsides, ditches, rather than lake shores or marshes.

JUNCUS TENUIS f. ANTHELATUS (Wieg.) Hermann. Map 54,

crosses.

Rhodora 40:81, 1938.

Same distribution as /. tenuis but not as frequent.

JUNCUS TENUIS f. WiLLiAMSli (Fern.) Hermann. Map 54, circles.

Rhodora 40:82, 1938.

Also with a similar distribution to the typical but not as

frequent.

JUNCUS Dudleyi Wieg. Map 55.

Wet fields, shores, marshes, low woods. Quite common. (The

key to this and the next species is taken from Hermann in

Deam’s Flora of Indiana, 1940.)

JUNCUS INTERIOR Wieg. Map 56.

Sandy bluffs, fields.

242 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

JUNCUS CANADENSIS J. Gay. Map 57.

Central and northwestern Wisconsin. Marshes, bogs, and

ditches. The f. conglobatus Fern, does not appear distinct enough

in Wisconsin material to warrant use of the name.

JUNCUS BRACHYCEPHALUS (Engelm.) Buch. Map 58.

Shores, marshes. Infrequent in Wisconsin.

JUNCUS BREVicAUDATUS (Engelm.) Fern. Map 59.

Mostly in northwestern Wisconsin coming as far south as

Adams and Sheboygan counties.

JUNCUS ACUMINATUS Michx. Map 60.

Sandy places, central Wisconsin and Ozaukee County.

JUNCUS ALPINUS Vill. Map 61, dots.

J. alpinus var. fuscescens Fern.

Moist sand. Lake Michigan shore and following old glacial

lake shores in central and northwestern Wisconsin.

JUNCUS ALPINUS var. RARIFLORUS (Fries.) Hartm. Map 61, circles.

Same habitat and distribution as the typical.

JUNCUS PELOCARPUS Mey. Map 62.

Sandy shores, northwestern Wisconsin and scattered south¬

ward to Sauk County. F. submersus Fassett, a sterile submersed

form with the cross-markings of the leaves scattered and incom¬

plete, has the same range.

JUNCUS NODOSUS L. Map 63.

Sandy or muddy banks. Common.

JUNCUS Torreyi Coville. Map 64.

Marly shores, mostly along Lake Michigan.

Luzula DC. Wood Rush

Luzula acuminata Ref. Fernald, Rhodora 46:4. 1944. Map 65.

Damp woods throughout the state.

Luzula multiflora (Ehrh.) Lejeune. Map 66, dots.

Hermann, F. J., Rhodora 40 : 83-84, 1938. Luzula campestris

var. multiflora (Ehrh.) Celak. ; Luzula intermedia (Thuill.)

A. Nels. ; Juncoides campestre of Britton and Brown, Ulus.

Flora, ed. 2, in part; Juncoides intermedia (Thuill.) Rydb.

Found in both woods and prairies.

Luzula multiflora var. bulbosa Wood. Map 66, crosses.

Only one specimen has been found that appears to be this

variety. It was collected in the Apostle Islands in extreme north¬

ern Wisconsin.

PINE STANDS IN SOUTHWESTERN WISCONSIN

Robert P. McIntosh

I. Introduction

Scattered about in southwestern Wisconsin and in the adja¬

cent sectors of northwestern Illinois and northeastern Iowa are

numerous areas, usually small in extent, in which pine trees com¬

prise a conspicuous, if not predominant, element of the vegeta¬

tion. A study was undertaken, primarily as a survey, to deter¬

mine the species present in as many of these stations in Wiscon¬

sin as time and distance would permit. This was done with a

view to clarifying their ecological status and suggesting some of

the factors involved in the presence and maintenance of pine

stands well south of the normal range of pine.

The stations to be studied were chosen by the presence of

pine trees, ^ the margins being delimited by the extent of the

pines or in some instances of pine stumps. Such stations are not

difficult to locate as the conifers are quite distinct among the

open fields and deciduous woods covering most of this area of

the state. (Plates I and II)

As the photographs show, the stations are not precisely

identical in so far as their successional status is concerned.

Several of the stations are nearly pure stands of pine trees while

others are mixed pine-hardwood stands with the pines appear¬

ing as the largest and tallest trees in the stand.

The distribution of coniferous forest in Wisconsin is dis¬

tinctly northern. This fact is well illustrated by maps of the dis¬

tribution of the pines and of other species commonly found with

them. (Fig. 1) The presence of the pines and other northern

species in southwestern Wisconsin, where they are not wide¬

spread, is an indication of some ecological peculiarity of the

areas which they occupy. It is with the basis, extent, and pos¬

sible implications of this peculiarity that this paper is concerned.

iQne exception, number 11, was selected and is included althoug-h no living-

pines are present. The occurrence of species normally associated with pines and

information from the owner of the property that pines had been cut from this

station form the basis on which it is included.

243

244 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Figure 1. Ranges of several species found on the stands studied, showing

northern distribution in Wisconsin. A includes Pinus resinosa, Pinus strobus,

Betula lutea, and Tsuga canadensis. B includes Chimaphila umbellata,

Corylus cornuta, Pyrola rotundifolia var. americana and Vaccinium cana-

dense. Based on Preliminary Reports on Wisconsin Flora, Trans, Wis. Acad,

Sci., Arts and Letters.

11. Summary of Literature

The occurrence of pine stands and northern species south of

their normal range has been the subject of a number of studies.

Potzger and Freisner ('39) studied plant migration in the area

of Wisconsin glaciation in Indiana. They regarded the coniferous

stands as relics maintained by microclimates and proceeding

toward extinction. These same authors ('36) found that in Indi¬

ana the soil moisture content in summer is less in Tsuga and

Pinus stands than in adjacent beech-maple stands. In addition

they found that the number of weeks during which the soil mois¬

ture was below the wilting coefficient was greater in Tsuga and

Pinus stands than in adjacent areas. The same authors ('34)

summarized the ecological status of Pinus, Tsuga, and Taxus

relics in Indiana.

Daubenmire ('30), in a study of the factors inhibiting the

advent of forest herbs under hemlock, assigned major impor¬

tance to the lack of water in July and late summer and ascribed

lesser importance to the highly acid soil maintained by the

needles falling from the hemlocks.

Welch ('35), studying peculiar plant distributions in Indiana,

found certain plants restricted to acid sandstone outcrops. She

Plate II.

>

''/fv-rC .' ».?#J'

.,. ;■ B^'

I

ff}^->,X

McIntosh — Pine Stands in Wisconsin

245

noted that the presence of limestone inhibited these plants unless

the limestone was leached and eroded.

Shimek (’04), in Iowa, found northern species on steep bluffs

of St. Peters sandstone. They were mixed with prairie species,

particularly at the crests and bases of the slopes.

An aspect of considerable interest as regards the distribution

of northern species is brought out in papers by Hansen (’39) in

Wisconsin, Waterman (’23) in Illinois and Lindsey (’32) in Indi¬

ana. In each case these papers involved studies of bogs. The bog

flora evidenced considerable similarity with that of the bluff

relics. Significantly mentioned as factors in maintaining the bogs

as pine stands are acidity, lack of aeration and low soil tem¬

perature.

III. Methods

Each station selected for study was thoroughly surveyed and

a list made of all species found. The terminology follows Beam’s

Flora of Indiana in most cases. In the case of some species Fas-

sett’s Spring Flora of Wisconsin or Gray’s Manual of Botany ,

Seventh Edition is followed. It would have been desirable to visit

each station more than once to insure the inclusion of those spe¬

cies appearing early and late in the season. Distances involved

and limitations of time and money did not permit of this, how¬

ever, and in all likelihood some species were omitted from any

one station. Since each station has been surveyed with compar¬

able intensity the data on each may be compared with reasonable

accuracy. A point-quadrat study was made of one of the stands

to study the composition of an individual stand.

In addition to the above, measurements were made of the

soil and air temperatures both within and on the margin of most

stations. The soil temperature measurements were made at the

depth of 4-6 inches where the soil was that deep, or if less, at

the underlying rock surface.

Measurements of pH were made by the Truog colorimetric

method, in each instance in the region of maximum coniferous

growth in the station.

IV. Location and Description

The twenty-two stations included in the study are located in

the following counties: Sauk (2), Columbia (2), Iowa (13),

246 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Figure 2. A graphic distribution of each station according to the direction

which it faces, plotted on a series of concentric circles which represent the

approximate angle of the slope. Thus the station indicated by an asterisk

faces southwest and has a slope of between 40 and 45 degrees. This method

was adopted from a paper by Dr. Hugo Boyko which is discussed by Dr.

Paul B. Sears in Ecology 28, 1947. It is particularly valuable in showing

concisely the relation of slope and direction to the presence of a particular

cover.

Dane (3), Lafayette (1), and Green (1). With three exceptions

all of these stations lie within the Driftless Area. By far the

greatest group is located in the valley of the Pecatonica River, in

the southeastern corner of Iowa County. All but two of the sta¬

tions border streams.

The stations evidence considerable similarity as to topog¬

raphy and geology. The pine stands are found upon steep slopes

having a considerable amount of rock exposure. In each case the

exposure is St. Peters sandstone except in stations 4, 8, and 16

McIntosh — Pine Stands in Wisconsin

247

in which it is Franconia sandstone. The stations found on Fran¬

conia are those north of the Wisconsin River where the erosion

of the uppermost layers has exposed the Cambrian (Potsdam)

rock of which the Franconian is a part.

The St. Peters sandstone is of the Ordovician period over-

lying the earlier Cambrian sandstones and separated from them

by the Lower Magnesian limestones. The St. Peters is covered,

in this area, by a layer of Galena-Black River limestone and is

exposed only in areas where this is eroded deeply enough to

expose the underlying St. Peters. These rock layers dip slightly

southward and the St. Peters is buried more deeply under

Galena-Black River limestone as one proceeds southward.

One station is found on an island of St. Peters in an other¬

wise Cambrian sandstone outcrop. This St. Peters rises as a

bluff, capped by limestone, well above the surrounding country.

Presumably the resistant limestone cap retarded the erosion of

the bluff to the level of the surrounding area.

The St. Peters sandstone is largely silica with a slight iron

content. It is extremely friable and porous, thus permitting ex¬

treme run-off and leaching. In a few instances there are minute

clay particles cementing the silica grains . The Franconia is

coarse-grained, loosely cemented together, and usually shaley.

The soils are thin and poorly developed varying from virtu¬

ally none, except for that formed in niches in the rock, to shal¬

low, sandy coverings, 3-10 inches deep, over the sandstone out¬

crop. The pH of the soils ranged from 5.5-6.8. In most instances

it was around 6.0.

The distribution varies from station to station but in general

the conifers center upon the steep outcrops, merging with hard¬

woods, cleared fields, pastureland, or a combination of these. In

many stations bordering small streams the crest may be occupied

by an open field, the slopes on either side of the conifer center

giving way to deciduous woods and the base merging with low¬

land hardwoods or meadow. Typically, in this area, the crests of

hills are prairie; woods are found in the sheltered valleys and

stream beds.

Usually the bluff is an open face overlooking a rather broad

valley, although in two instances it may be better described as a

small gorge on either side of which are steep slopes. In these

248 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts and Letters

latter instances pines are found on both slopes although more

prevalent on one. Many of the trees are large and ring counts

indicating ages up to 110 years were obtained. Several of the

better stations show a wide range of tree sizes with younger

trees and seedlings well represented. In these instances, the pines

promise to hold their own indefinitely and possibly accomplish

local extension of the area occupied.

Although each station is marked by the presence of conifers,

the same species are not common to all of the stations studied.

Generally the white pine (Finns Strobus) is the species present.

In several instances hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) is found as a

considerable admixture with the white pine and may occupy

rather extensive areas exclusively. Usually the hemlock is found

on the most extreme slopes. One station is largely red cedar

(Juniperus virginiana) with some white pine. In still other in¬

stances the white pine is absent, as in two stations where the

coniferous element is red pine (Finns resinosa), while one sta¬

tion contains jack pine (Finns Banksiana) ,

V. Results

In collating the results of the study a very diverse floristic

list was accumulated, comprising species usually considered to

be representative of different plant communities. Prairie species

were prevalent (e.g., Dodecatheon Meadia, Amorpha canescens,

Coreopsis palmata, and Erigeron ramosns were present in more

than 25% of the stands studied) as were representative species

of the deciduous forest community (e.g., Tilia americana^ Ostrya

virginiana, Sangninaria canadensis, and Arisaema triphyllnm

were present in more than 25% of the stands studied). Repre¬

sentative pine woods species were more frequently found, how¬

ever, than representative species of the prairie or deciduous

forest.

For purposes of comparison with northern conifer stands a

list of species was established by examining the literature for

papers which give lists of species found in pine stands. Those

species which were present in 25% or more of the twenty lists

used are shown in Table 1 in comparison with their percent

presence in the twenty-two stations studied.

McIntosh — Pine Stands in Wisconsin

249

TABLE 1

It can be seen in Table 1 that only six of twenty-eight species

or less than 25 percent are absent from the stations studied.

Thus 75 percent of the characteristic species appear on one or

more of the stations studied. If the small area of most of the

stands is considered it is not surprising that many character¬

istic species are absent from any one. The total area of all 22

stands probably represents no more acreage than one of the

stands cited in the literature. Actually if this total were taken

as a composite stand it would compare favorably with most of

the stands cited as regards the number of species present.

A detailed study was made of one stand using the point-

quadrat method (Cottam and Curtis '49). Forty-six points and

46 one-meter square quadrats were established. Table 2 shows

the results of this study.

250 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts and Letters

TABLE 2

B. Herbs (over 20 per cent freq.)

Per Cent

Freq.

Cystopteris fragilis .

Diervilla lonicera .

Fragaria sp .

Gaylussacia baccatta .

Maianthemum canadense

Poly podium vulgare .

Rubus sp. .

24

20

28

60

35

40

Representative species of pine stands were also present in lesser frequencies:

Cornus candensis — 6, Epigaea repens — 2, Gaultheria procumbens — 6, Mitchella

repens — 2, Pyrola rotundifolia — 4, and Vaccinium canadense — 16.

McIntosh — Pine Stands in Wisconsin

251

TABLE 3

Air and Soil Temperature Measurements

Table 3 is a tabulation of the soil and air temperature measurements. Column 1

gives the differences of the air temperature between crest and slope, column 2 the

differences between base and slope. Column 3 shows the differences in soil tem¬

perature between crest and slope, column 4 the differences between base and slope.

In each case the mean is calculated. The air temperature shows little difference,

being negligibly cooler on the slopes. The soil temperatures on the slopes are

markedly cooler than on either crest or base.

252 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts and Letters

VI. Discussion

The presence of coniferous stands and of plants representa¬

tive of coniferous stands south of the area in which they are

normally found presents something of a problem to ecologists.

These stands may be regarded in two ways: (1) as recent (post¬

glacial) extensions of the range of coniferous stands by migra¬

tion southward of individual species which become established

upon restricted habitats; (2) as relics of a more general south¬

ward extension of northern coniferous forests in past history

which at present may be either a) proceeding towards extinc¬

tion, b) holding their own, or c) spreading locally from these

relic centers. The first possibility is difficult to maintain for sev¬

eral reasons. Many of the species found on the stations in south¬

western Wisconsin are separated from their normal ranges by

considerable expanses of other plant communities, mostly decid¬

uous forest. It is improbable that these northern species

migrated through this intervening area recently by gradual ex¬

tension of their range when the habitat distinctly favors another

type of vegetation. It is equally unlikely to presume that seeds

were carried by wind, birds, animals, etc. and dropped upon the

small areas in which the habitat factors do allow them to exist.

This assumption in many cases would involve transportation of

seeds many miles and their deposition upon areas small in sur¬

face extent as they are almost vertical in most instances. To

presume chance movement of seeds of such plants as Corylus

cornuta or Trientalis borealis is stretching probability.

Considerable evidence is at hand to support the second pos¬

sibility. The pollen analysis studies of bogs in this area (Hansen

'39) indicate that during the glacial period southward migra¬

tions of northern species covered this area with a northern coni¬

ferous type, and that recession of the glaciers was accompanied

by the influx of a more temperate vegetation from refuges south

of the glacier or within the Driftless Area. This influx has re¬

duced the northern forest to isolated relics.

Similar stations in Indiana, Illinois, and Iowa (Welch '23)

(Pepoon '16) (Pammel '23) indicate that the migration extended

south of Wisconsin. These stations, although in general aspect

similar to those in southwestern Wisconsin, do not show as many

of the species representative of the pine community. They were

perhaps never as well established or have been more rapidly sup-

McIntosh — Fine Stands in Wisconsm

253

planted by other flora. The presence of occasional northern spe¬

cies in oak-hickory woods in southwestern Wisconsin also indi¬

cates the likelihood of a more widespread coniferous forest area

at one time as characteristic herbaceous species usually appear

only where the dominant species are present, although they may

persist after the dominants disappear.

It seems that the pine stations studied were more extensive

even recently than they are today. In two instances the owners

of the property indicated that cutting since settlement has re¬

duced the area in coniferous woods. Current demand for timber

and the resultant high prices threaten to reduce them even more

drastically, and in at least one area the pines are being virtually

extinguished by cutting.

The survey of many of these stations in southwestern Wis¬

consin indicates certain of the factors involved in the mainte¬

nance of these northern relics. The stations are restricted to

steep sandstone bluffs which are comparatively dry due to run¬

off and rapid percolation of water through the porous sandstone.

This is consistent with the results of Friesner and Potzger ('36 )

and of Daubenmire ('30).

The marked acidity seems to favor coniferous stands and

Welch ('23) indicates that certain species found here are what

she terms acid indicators. Daubenmire ('30) ascribes only sec¬

ondary importance to acidity, regarding soil moisture of greater

import.

The steepness of these slopes prevents accumulation of

humus or building up of the soil. Falling trees frequently lay

bare the rock face. This destroys any soil development which

may have been accomplished and tends further to retard any

change in the environment which would permit succession. The

steepness of the slopes allows greater amounts of light to pene¬

trate the cover enhancing the possibility of the conifers seeding

and maintaining themselves. Falling trees open up the canopy

favoring the coniferous seedlings.

Other factors likely involved are direction of exposure and

temperature. Figure 4 shows the direction of the exposure of

each station and indicates that most face north and west. How¬

ever, the presence of several facing southwest and northeast pre¬

cludes assigning major importance to exposure. The complete

absence of any stations from the southeast quarter of Figure 4 is

254 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

interesting. In this region northern slopes are usually cooler and

westerly slopes drier, both of which conditions would favor the

coniferous cover. However, as some stands are found facing

northeast and others southwest apparently neither factor is in¬

dispensable. The lack of stations in the southeast quarter would

indicate that at least one of the advantageous exposure factors

is necessary and that other factors cannot compensate and main¬

tain coniferous stands lacking either the colder north slope or

the drier west slope.

Table 3 indicates little difference in air temperature between

the coniferous stands and surrounding areas but shows some

difference in soil temperature. The soil temperature on conifer

covered slopes was cooler on an average than the base

or crest. This may well be a result of the coniferous cover rather

than a cause, but its effect on the ground vegetation may be none

the less important.

Temperature may be a more important factor in the main¬

tenance of pine stands than the data on the stations studied

would indicate. The region in which most of the stations are

found possesses a markedly lower mean summer temperature

than surrounding areas. Whitson and Baker ('12) show most of

Iowa County, northeastern Lafayette County, southwestern

Dane and northwestern Green County to be in a cool spot as

compared with the surrounding area. The growing season in this

area is three to five weeks shorter than the rest of southwestern

Wisconsin, the steep-sided valleys having the shortest growing

season. This cooler area, particularly in the summer when the

stress on the conifers is greatest, would favor the maintenance

of conifers. Coupled with this, the deep valleys of the much-

branched Pecatonica River exposing sandstone cliffs in an other¬

wise limestone outcrop may serve to explain the clustering of

pine stands in this vicinity.

The stations studied are, as suggested previously, in one of

three possible conditions: shrinking, holding their own, or ex¬

panding. In many of the areas observed the absence of coniferous

seedlings and younger conifers and the prevalence of seedlings

and young hardwood trees clearly indicates the trend toward

extinction. In a few instances, however, the conifers seem to be

at least holding their own if not making local extensions as indi-

McIntosh — Pine Stands in Wisconsin

255

cated by large numbers of seedlings and the presence of younger

trees which in some instances lie outside the canopy of the larger

conifers.

The vegetation of these stations is comprised of varying pro¬

portions of species which are commonly regarded as representa¬

tive of distinctly different plant communities. The reason for this

admixture must be sought in the location and history of this

region. This area of Wisconsin lies in an ecotone in which several

major plant communities are now competing and have been com¬

peting over a long period of time. Nowhere is this competition

more intense than on the stations under discussion which are

located near the margins of the prairie, conifer forest and hard¬

wood forest. The probable history of this region involves glacia¬

tion and climatic changes which permitted the northern coni¬

ferous forest to encroach southward into the deciduous forest.

The deciduous forest retreated south and perhaps itself was

maintained in the Driftless Area as relics surrounded by coni¬

ferous forests. Climatic changes and eventual recession of the

glaciers reversed this trend. A warm, dry period subsequent to

these occurrences permitted the spread eastward of the prairie

at the expense of the more mesophytic deciduous forest and pre¬

sumably a reversal of this situation brought about its recession

leaving relics behind.

The occurrence of a considerable number of species represent¬

ing a plant community distinctively northern in character in the

face of the improbability of separate migration of individual

species indicates that the entire community migrated together

and must at one time have occupied most of southwestern Wis¬

consin. The dissection of this northern cover by inroads of the

deciduous forest and prairie resulted in a group of relics all con¬

taining some of the representative species of the northern flora

but none containing all of them. All of the representative species

of pine are not present in the sum total of all stations. Clintonia

borealis is missing from all stands. It may be that this species is

less vigorous and disappears quickly in a period of stress. Lack¬

ing any data to that effect it seems as reasonable to assume that

this species just was not present in the few spots where condi¬

tions enabled the coniferous vegetation to hang on, or was

present in such low concentrations that it quickly disappeared.

The type of coniferous elements does not seem to affect the pat-

256 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

tern of succession markedly, as mixed white pine-hemlock

stands, white pine, red pine or jack pine stands all appear sus¬

ceptible to invasion by the deciduous forest species. The white

pine stands, however, seem most successful in competition with

invading species.

One possibility suggested but not explored is the existence of

a physiological difference in the white pine occurring in this

area. The white pine seems vigorous in its growth and repro¬

duction and is the most widespread of any of the northern

species.

VII. Acknowledgments

Sincere appreciation is expressed to all whose knowledge and

time have been drawn upon in the preparation of this paper. To

Dr. J. T. Curtis who suggested the problem and many of the

approaches to it, especial thanks are expressed. Others whose

data have been incorporated into the paper are Philip Whitford

and Dr. H. C. Greene. Finally, I am indebted to my wife for her

invaluable assistance in all phases of the work.

Bibliography

Clements, F. E., “The Kelict Method in Dynamic Ecology”, Journ. of

Ecology 22:39-68, 1934.

COTTAM, G. and Curtis, J. T., “A Method for Making Rapid Surveys of

Woodlands by Means of Pairs of Randomly Selected Trees”, Ecology

30:101-104, 1949.

Daubenmire, R., “The Relation of Certain Ecological Factors to the Inhi¬

bition of Forest Floor Herbs Under Hemlock”, Butler U. Studies Vol.

1:661-675, 1930.

Deam, C. C., ''Flora of Indiana'’, Indiana Dept, of Conservation, 1940.

Fassett, N. C., Spring Flora of Wisconsin, 1948.

Friesner, R. C. and Potzger, J. E., “Survival of Hemlock Seedlings in a

Relic Colony Under Forest Conditions”, Butler U. Studies 6:102-115,

1939.

Ibid., “Soil Moisture and the Tsuga and Tsuga-Pinus Forest Associations

in Indiana”, Butler U. Studies 3:207—209, 1936.

Ibid., “Climax Conditions and the Ecological Status of Pinus Strobus,

Taxus canadensis, and Tsuga canadensis in the Pine Hills Region of

Indiana”, Butler U. Studies 3:65-82, 1934.

Gray, A., New Manual of Botany, Seventh Edition, American Book Co.,

1908.

McIntosh — Pine Stands in Wisconsin

257

Hansen, H. P., “Postglacial Vegetation of the Driftless Area of Wiscon¬

sin”, Am. Mid. Nat. 21:752-762, 1939.

Lindsey, A. J., “The Merrilville White Pine Bog, Lake County, Indiana”,

Butler U. Studies 2:167-179, 1932.

Pammel, L. H., “The Flora of Pine Hollow, Dubuque County, Iowa”, Proc.

Iowa Acad. Sci. 30, 1923.

Pepoon, H. S., “Peculiar Plant Distribution in Jo Davis, Fulton, and Cook

Counties”, III. State Acad. Sci. Trans. 9:128-137, 1916.

POTZGER, J. E., “Phytosociology of the Primeval Forest in Central Northern

Wisconsin and Upper Michigan and a Brief Postglacial History of the

Lake Forest Formations”, Ecol. Mono. 16:1-212, 1946.

PoTZGER, J. E. and Friesner, R. C., “Plant Migration in the Southern

Limits of Wisconsin Glaciation in Indiana”, Am. Mid. Nat. 22:351-367,

1939.

Shimek, B., **The Flora of St. Peter Sandstone’^ U. of Iowa, Bull, from

Nat. Hist. Lab. #5:225-229, 1904.

Waterman, W. G., “Bogs of Illinois”, III. State Acad. Sci. 16:214-225, 1923.

Welch, Winona, “Phytoecology of Southern Indiana”, Ind. Acad, of Sci.

38:65-83, 1923.

Welch, Winona, “Boreal Plant Relics in Indiana”, Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci.

45:78, 1935.

Whitson, A. R. and Baker, 0. E., “The Climate of Wisconsin and Its Rela¬

tion to Agriculture”, U. of Wis., Exp. Sta. Bull. 223, 1912.

NUTRITION OF RAINBOW TROUT; FURTHER

STUDIES WITH PRACTICAL RATIONS*

Barbara A. McLaren, Elizabeth Keller, D. John O’Donnell

AND C. A. Elvehjem

From the Department of Biochemistry, College of Agriculture,

University of Wisconsin, Madison, and the

Wisconsin Conservation Department

Introduction

Large scale nutrition experiments with a practical ration (4)

carried out in several trout hatcheries in the state, indicated that

the meatless ration, though adequate for yearling or older trout,

was unable to maintain growth in fingerlings. Fair growth and

low mortality rates could be obtained by supplementing it with

20% fresh liver or with 50% of a spleen-carp mixture. Labora¬

tory experiments were planned, therefore, in which trout fry

(newly hatched) were to be used for the development of a meat¬

less ration.

Experimental

During two successive years 44,000 newly hatched rainbow

trout ( Salmo gairdnerii irideus ) were used to study the value of

the practical diets listed in Table 1. Two groups of 12,000 fish

were used during the first year. One group was fed fresh liver;

the other received a meatless ration. During the second year

20,000 were divided into two groups and handled in the same

way. In order to prevent overcrowding as the fish grew older,

the larger fish were removed and placed in separate tanks and

fed a modification of the dry ration. In this way it was thought

possible to determine the age at which trout could be transferred

from fresh liver to a dry diet.

* Published with the approval of the Director of the Wisconsin Agricultural

Experiment Station. We are indebted to Dr. Gertrude Beckwith, Philip R. Park,

Inc., San Pedro, California, for the kelp and B-G plus and to Mr. C. A. Sandell,

Seaboard Supply Company, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, for the crab meal.

259

Composition of Rations

260

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

w

O

C

McLaren, et aL — Nutrition of Rainbow Trout 261

Results

Two months after the first series was started an epidemic of

Octomitiasis occurred. The losses were heavy in both groups but

more so in those receiving the meatless ration (Diet 100) . At the

same time, however, fry of the same age in the hatchery stock

were badly affected by the parasite. Both groups v/ere then main¬

tained on liver and treated with Carbarsone (1) .

The failure of Diet 100 and the heavy losses due to disease

left only the group which had started on the liver diet and a

comparatively few ‘‘retarded'' fish which had received the meat¬

less ration. The latter fish were divided into two groups, one of

which was fed fresh liver and the other Diet 101 and 20% fresh

liver.

TABLE 2

Effect of Feeding B~G Plus and Kelp in Practical Ration

TO Rainbow Fry

*Fry started on dry diet — “retarded fish,"

The faster growing liver-fed fish were divided into four

groups, three of which were given Diets 101, 102 and 103 and

the fourth received liver. The experiment lasted for two months.

In Table 2 the results for the slower growing fish and the groups

described above, as measured by percentage gain and mortality,

are summarized.

These fish were then sorted into three sizes: “small,"

“medium" and “large." The size distribution is indicated in

Table 3. It is evident that the liver diet produced the greatest

number of “large" fish.

Since Diet 103 appeared to be the best of this series, all the

large fish from each of the groups were maintained in separate

tanks and were fed this diet. All the “medium" fish were main-

262 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

tained on their respective diets. Despite the wide differences in

the diets, another epidemic of Octomitiasis involving heavy

losses occurred in all the experimental groups as well as in the

hatchery stock fish. Rather than change all the fish over to a

meat diet, since there were appreciable losses also among those

receiving liver, attempts were made to improve the practical

ration.

TABLE 3

Size Distribution in Rainbow Fry

*Retarded fish.

Diets 104, 105, 106, 107 and 108 were devised, and of these

only Diet 107 which contained 15% corn oil and Diet 108 which

contained increased amounts of skim milk powder reduced the

losses. A further decrease of the losses occurred with Diet 109

which contained the favorable factors of Diets 107 and 108.

Because the fish were still infected with the parasite, each of

three groups in which the losses were heavy were fed Phemerol

(0.006 gm./lOO gm. ration) or S. T. 37 (Hexylresorcinol) (0.1

cc./lOO gm. ration) or Carbarsone (0.25 gm./lOO gm. ration).

Only Phemerol was effective in eliminating the parasite with a

consequent sharp drop in the losses. Five tanks were available

at this time to continue the experiment so the fish were placed in

five groups, one of which received liver, one, Diet 109 supple¬

mented with 20% fresh liver, and the other three, Diets 109,

110, 111.

The results of this short term experiment (6 weeks) are

given in Table 4. It is apparent that, although the dry diets were

still inferior to a diet of fresh liver, this series showed some

promise as compared with the earlier attempts. Supplementing

the dry diet with 20% fresh liver produced growth that almost

equaled that of the fish on the whole liver diet.

McLaren^ et at, — Nutrition of Rainbow Trout

263

TABLE 4

Effect of Varying the Protein in Practical Rations

In the second year experiments, it was thought advisable to

start feeding one group 100% fresh liver and the other the dry

ration (Diet 110) supplemented with 20% fresh liver. During

the first two months, the usual epidemic of Octomitiasis occurred

which was quickly eliminated with Phemerol. At the end of two

months, the group receiving fresh liver gained 300% (by

weight) and the other group on the dry ration supplemented

with 20% fresh liver gained 231%. The losses were 13% and

19% respectively. When the groups were hand sorted into

*‘smalF^ and ''large'' sized fish, the results as shown in Table 5

indicate that the difference between the two groups was less

marked than in the previous year's work.

TABLE 5

Size Distribution of Rainbow Fry

The "medium" sized fish were maintained on their respective

diets. The "large" fish from both groups were given Diet 110 and

Diet 111. After one month the group receiving Diet 111 devel¬

oped edema and the mortality rate increased. The presence of

parasites in the intestinal tract could not be demonstrated in

microscopic preparations.

264 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts and Letters

Although the mineral content of the dietary constituents,

especially the skim milk powder, was fairly high, the effect of

the addition of 6% Salts IV (6) was investigated by Diet 114.

In a few days, improvement (i.e., loss of edema and lessened

mortality rate) was observed. The effects of the minerals were

studied further by the use of Diet 114 and its modifications 115-

120 inclusive. The results are presented in Table 6. Of the min¬

eral sources CaCOg (Diet 117), crab meal (Diet 118) and Salts

IV with the trace elements omitted, gave the best results.

TABLE 6

Effect of Minerals in Practical Rations

*M.E. = Major elements of salts.

= Trace elements of salts.

During the last two months the four remaining groups were

fed Diets 121, 122, 123 and 124, in which various combinations

of the minerals were tried. The results of this series are pre¬

sented in Table 7. It was noted that crab meal and the major

elements of Salts IV (Diet 124) and crab meal plus CaCOg (Diet

122) gave very promising results. The fish receiving these diets

grew as well as those receiving the fresh liver supplemented diet.

Discussion

For a number of years, meat has been considered essential as

a food for young trout — a fact emphasized by the work of McCay

and Dilley (2). Recently Tunison, et al. (8) and others (7) have

demonstrated the lack of scientific basis for this belief. This

knowledge, the meat shortage during the food rationing period

and the subsequent high prices of the commodity have made it

McLaren, et al. — Nutrition of Rainbow Trout 265

TABLE 7

Effect of Minerals on Practical Rations

*M.E. = Major elements of Salts IV.

important to investigate the possibility of developing an ade¬

quate meatless ration.

These goals were approximated in the experiments reported

in this paper. The results obtained are comparable to those of

Tunison et al. (8) who found average gains of 30-40% in finger-

ling trout using a diet of 50% meat and 50% dry mixture. It is

questionable whether very young fry could grow on this prac¬

tical ration but it appears to be adequate for fingerlings four

months or older.

Summary

1. Nutrition experiments concerned with the development of

a practical ration for rainbow trout fry have been discussed.

2. An epidemic of Octomitiasis was brought under control by

the use of Phemerol in the diet.

3. The most successful ration contained the following ingre¬

dients : skim milk powder, 35 ; liver A, 5 ; gelatin, 10 ; soybean oil

meal, 20.5 ; alfalfa leaf meal, 10 ; corn oil, 13 ; crab meal, 3 ; the

major elements of Salts IV, 3; iodized NaCl, 0.5; and ascorbic

acid, 1 part per thousand.

References

%

1. Davis, H. S. U. S. Dept, of Interior Fish and Wildlife Service Res. Rpt.

No. 12 (1946)

2. McCay, C. M., and Dilley, W. E. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 57.* 250 (1927).

266 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

3. McLaren, B. A., Herman, E. F., and Elvehjem, C. A. Arch. Biochem.

10: 433 (1946).

4. McLaren, B. A., Herman, E. F., and Elvehjem, C. A. (In press).

5. McLaren, B. A., Keller, E., O'Donnell, D. J., and Elvehjem, C. A.

(In press).

6. Phillips, P. H., and Hart, E. B. J. Biol. Chem. 109: S57 (1936).

7. Simmons, R. W., and Norris, E. R. J. Biol. Chem. 140: 679 (1941).

8. Tunison, a. V., Phillips, A. N., Shaffer, H. B., Maxwell, J. N., j

Brockway, D. R., and McCay, C. M. N. Y. Conservation Dept. Cort- I

land Hatchery Rpt. No. 13 (1944). j

THE AVAILABILITY OF THIAMINE IN DRIED YEASTS*

Helen T. Ness, Echo L. Price and Helen T. Parsons

The vitamins, thiamine and riboflavin, which are important

essential constituents of a good nutritious diet have been shown

in this and other laboratories to be only partially available from

certain food products. Fresh compressed yeast is one of these

foods and is not so good a source of thiamine and riboflavin as

has been widely believed.

It has been shown in this laboratory that fresh bakers' yeast

as it is usually obtained contains live yeast cells which are

capable of holding these two B-vitamins so the body can not use

them. The fresh yeast does not yield its thiamine and riboflavin

for absorption and, in addition, there is a positive interference

with the absorption of some thiamine from other foods eaten.

There is reason to think that this interference may be due to the

live yeast cell taking some of the thiamine released from the

other foods into its own live cell. Thus it would be possible for a

person to consume enough raw compressed yeast with meals to

measurably lower thiamine storage in the body. If the yeast

cells are killed by boiling, the thiamine and riboflavin escape

from the cell and are absorbed by the body.

The killing of the yeast cell may be done not only by boiling

but also by a commercial process in the preparation of dried

yeast; this particular type of dried yeast is called nutritional

dried yeast because the dead yeast is truly a source of thiamine

and riboflavin as well as other factors.

In contrast to the nutritional yeast, we have fed to human

diet squads three especially prepared samples of dried yeasts.

In these yeasts the drying had not measurably injured their

effectiveness for breadmaking as the cells were still living. None

of these three samples furnished any thiamine for absorption,

although their interference with thiamine from other food

sources was not so evident as with compressed yeast.

* This work was supported in part by a grant from the Wisconsin Alumni

Research Foundation, Purnell funds and a grrant from the Red Star Yeast and

Products Company.

Published with the approval of the Director of the Wisconsin Agricultural

Experiment Station.

267

/, V • '-1^ 'W'r{\ ■ ■ ' ■ ■ ’

'-^VrWv’dl '

. v-;." ■ ■

•' ' , .?,.!■'.'’■■.'■■•■■■'■• ■ ' . . '■ ■/ ■' ' ■ ' '. ' ■

• ‘ ■•■v;, Cy,: ' ■ ■ ■■ -

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

WISCONSIN ACADEMY

OF

SCIENCES, ARTS AND LETTERS

VOL. XL

PART 2

NATURAE SPECIES RATIOQUE

MADISON, WISCONSIN

1951

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

WISCONSIN ACADEMY

OF

SCIENCES, ARTS AND LETTERS

VOL. XL

PART 2

MADISON, WISCONSIN

1951

The publication date of Volume 40, Part 2, is

April 27, 1951

OFFICERS OF THE WISCONSIN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES,

ARTS AND LETTERS

President

William C. McKern, Milwaukee Public Museum

Vice Presidents

In Science: Katherine Greacen Nelson, Milwaukee-D owner College

In Arts : Alfred Hornigold, Wisconsin Rapids High School

In Letters: Carl Welty, Beloit College

Secretary-Treasurer

Aaron J. Ihde, University of Wisconsin

Librarian

Halvor 0. Teisberg*, University of Wisconsin

Council

The President

The Vice Presidents

The Secretary-Treasurer

The Librarian

Charles E. Allen, past president

Paul W. Boutwell, past president

A. W. Schorger, past president

H. A. Schuette, past president

L. E. Noland, past president

Otto Kowalke, past president

Robert K. Richardson, past president

Committee on Publications

The President

The Secretary-Treasurer

Ira L. Baldwin, Madison

Committee on Library

The Librarian

W. H. Barber, Ripon

E. S. McDonough, Milwaukee

W. E. Rogers, Appleton

W. B. Sarles, Madison

Committee on Membership

The Secretary-Treasurer

Arthur D. Hasler, University of Wisconsin

Katherine Greacen, Milwaukee-D owner College

Robert Esser, Racine Extension Center

Representative on the Council of the American Association

for the Advancement of Science

L. E. Noland

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

The Hydrography, Fish, and Turtle Population of Lake Wingra.

Wayland E. Noland . 5

A Cytological Study of the Anterior Lobe of the Pituitary in Relation

to the Estrous Cycle in Virgin Heifers. Ferdinand Paredis,

Banner Bill Morgan and Samuel H. McNutt . 59

History and Plato’s Medicinal Lie. Robert K. Richardson . . 67

Functional Housing in the Middle Ages. Svend Riemer . 77

Preliminary Reports on the Flora of Wisconsin. XXXIII. Najadaceae.

James G. Ross and Barbara M. Calhoun . 93

Preliminary Reports on the Flora of Wisconsin. XXXVI. Scrophularia-

ceae. Peter J. Salamun . Ill

Problems, Principles, and Policies in Wildlife-Conservation Journalism.

Clarence A. Schoenfeld . 139

A Brief History of the Steel Trap and its Use in North America.

A. W. SCHORGER . 171

Methods and Aims of a Survey of the German Spoken in Wisconsin.

Lester W. J. Seifert . 201

Acidity of Soil and Water Used in Cranberry Culture. Neil E. Stevens 211

Recent Additions to the Records of the Distribution of the Amphibians

in Wisconsin. Howard K. Suzuki . 215

Notes on Some Wisconsin Fungi. M. J. Thirumalachar and Marvin

D. Whitehead . 235

Causes of Injury to Conifers During the Winter of 1947-1948 in Wis¬

consin. Garth K. Voigt . 241

Rate of Growth and Composition of Wood of Quaking and Largetooth

Aspen in Relation to Soil Fertility. S. A. Wilde and Benson H.

Paul . 245

Chemical Characteristics of Ground Water in Forest and Marsh Soils

of Wisconsin. S. A. Wilde and G. W. Randall . 251

Electrostatic Effects Produced in Dust Clouds Made with Finely

Ground Minerals of Various Composition. H. F. Wilson and

M. L. Jackson . 261

Evolution of Prairie-Forest Soils Under Cover of Invading Northern

Hardwoods in the Driftless Area of Southwestern Wisconsin.

C, T. Youngberg . 285

Report of the Junior Academy Committee . . . 291

Proceedings of the Academy . 297

Financial Reports . 308

Constitution of the Academy . 317

List of Active Members . 321

THE HYDROGRAPHY, FISH, AND TURTLE POPULATION

OF LAKE WINGRA*

Wayland E. Noland

Introduction

Work on this paper was carried out in 1948 and 1949. It

started as a paper dealing with a few of the aspects treated here

when the writer was enrolled during the spring of 1948 in a

one-credit course at the University of Wisconsin called ‘‘Zoology

224, Limnology Journal Club,” given by Professor Arthur D.

Hasler. Each student was expected to deliver a talk reviewing

some publication in the field of limnology or discussing some

original contribution in the field. The present writer, a native of

Madison who has spent many pleasant hours fishing on Lake

Wingra, chose it as his subject for discussion.

Lake Wingra is of particular interest because it is a small

but heavily fished lake located at a population center (Madison)

and is at the same time an integral part of the large outdoor

laboratory known as the University of Wisconsin Arboretum.

For these reasons it was felt that a detailed study and compila¬

tion of records of the lake, such as this paper, would be worth

while.

In addition to the encouragement and large amount of data

provided by Professor Hasler, a number of other persons have

been very helpful in providing valuable data and the writer

wishes to express his appreciation to Professors G. William

Longenecker (Director of the Arboretum), the late Aldo Leopold,

Lowell E. Noland, and Ernest F. Bean (State Geologist), all of

the University of Wisconsin; Madison Park Superintendent

James G. Marshall; Edward Schneberger, Lyle E. Dye, Elmer F.

Herman, Charles Lloyd, and Clarence L. Cline of the Wisconsin

Conservation Department; John C. Neess, Joseph W. Jackson,

and to the many others whose assistance is acknowledged in the

list of references. Furthermore, the writer would like to express

his appreciation to his father and mother, Professor and Mrs.

* This paper is dated September 20, 1949 and has been amended to October

1, 1950,

5

JUL to 1951

6 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Lowell E. Noland, and to his grandfather, Professor Wayland J.

Chase, for reading and criticizing parts of the manuscript.

1. The Hydrography of Lake Wingra

A. Hydrographic History

The first hydrographic survey of Lake Wingra was made by

E. A. Moritz in 1904 (M12). His map shows the lake in approx¬

imately its original contours, before any dredging or filling had

been carried out. The map shows a maximum depth of 14 feet

in the depression located south of what is now the center of the

island shoreline of Vilas Park. South of the area of maximum

depth and in the southeastern part of the dear-water area of the

lake is a shoal which reaches a minimum depth of eight feet.

A large part of the central portion of this dear-water area,

lying along an approximately east-west axis, is within the

10-foot contour line, including the depression and shoal previ¬

ously mentioned. Toward the western end of this large area are

two more depressions, having east-west elongation and sepa¬

rated by a slight bar with a minimum depth of 12 feet. The

northern depression has a maximum of 13.5 feet and the south¬

ern depression a maximum depth of 13 feet. The descent from

the 2- to the 10-foot contour is relatively rapid on all sides of the

lake, particularly on the northern and southern sides. All sides

of the clear water are surrounded by marsh, particularly on the

eastern and southeastern sides, where the marsh extends all the

way to the bridge on the Fitchburg Road (also called the Fish

Hatchery Road) from where it drains through Murphy's Creek

into Lake Monona (S3), and on the northeastern side, where an

extensive marsh covers what is now the lower part of Vilas

Park.

The 1901 “Hydrographic Map of Lake Monona” by L. S.

Smith (S3) shows a channel for Murphy’s Creek originating

along the southern part of the eastern side of the dear-water

area of Lake Wingra and running in a rather direct line through

the marsh to the bridge on the Fitchburg Road. Other refer¬

ences, however, refer to the lake prior to the dredging of

Murphy’s Creek as an undrained lake (H3) or as having no

natural outlet (D2). Although a well-defined channel through

the marsh was probably lacking prior to the dredging of

Murphy’s Creek, it is certain that Murphy’s Creek served as the

Noland— Hydrography of Lake Wingra

7

drainage outlet for Lake Wingra. Even the present shoreline has

an appreciable indentation along the southern part of the eastern

shore where the principal flow through the marsh to the begin¬

ning of the channel of Murphy's Creek must have occurred.

Beginning in 1905 and continuing in 1906 extensive dredging

and filling operations were carried out in the northeastern marsh

area in order to create Vilas Park (M3, M4) . Edgewood Bay and

Northeast Bay were created during the construction of the park

(H5). Further dredging and filling operations were carried out

there in 1913 (M6, M7). In 1905 the dredging of a channel for

Murphy's Creek was begun through the eastern marsh, proceed¬

ing in an arc, concave southwestward, from the bridge on the

Fitchburg Road northwestward to what was then the southern

end of Warren Street (now called Randall Avenue, but no longer

continuing to the lake as did Warren Street) (M2, M3, M12).

Plans for the dredging of Murphy's Creek are shown on the 1904

“Hydrographic Map of Lake Wingra," previously described. In

1906 the dredging of this portion of Murphy's Creek was com¬

pleted and a wooden lock was constructed a short distance above

the bridge on the Fitchburg Road to maintain the lake at its

original level (H5, M2, M3, M4, M5) . The remaining dredging of

Murphy's Creek, from the bridge to Lake Monona, was carried

out in 1907 and 1908 (M4, M5). Previous to the dredging of

Murphy's Creek, the water level dropped only a few inches

between Warren Street and the bridge on the Fitchburg Road

but fell about four feet between there and Lake Monona (M2).

The changes in the shoreline of the northeastern part of the

lake as a result of the Vilas Park dredging and filling and the

dredging of a new channel for Murphy's Creek are shown in the

1916 “Map of Lake Wingra" by P. H. Hintze (H5). In this map

the 1916 shoreline appears to have been superimposed on the

lake-depth contour lines of the 1904 “Hydrographic Map of Lake

Wingra."

During the period from about 1914-1920 the Lake Forest

Land Company undertook to drain and fill, with sediment

dredged from the lake, the extensive areas of marsh and lowland

east and southeast of the lake in order to develop residential land

(B3, Cl, Jl, Kl, M8, M9). A. S. Pearse refers to a hole about 30

feet deep, probably in the area of present maximum depth,

present during the spring of 1917 and formed by the working

of a hydraulic dredge during the preceding summer (P3). Drain-

8

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

age canals were constructed, one of which passed near the south¬

eastern corner of the lake and was separated from it merely by

a dike (H5, M8). During the summer of 1917 this dike was

opened to permit the passage of a Lake Forest Land Company

dredging barge which had been constructed on Lake Wingra

(M8). Since the drainage canals emptied into Murphy’s Creek

between the lock and the bridge on the Fitchburg Road (H5),

once the dike was opened, there was little to hold back the water

of Lake Wingra and the level fell to 12-15 inches above the

'‘normal level” of Lake Monona, which had been established by

the Railroad Commission on June 28, 1917, as 844.65 feet above

sea level (M8). On July 19, 1918, the Railroad Commission re¬

quired the maintenance of a lock and spillway at the outlet of

Lake Wingra, with the spillway level to be 847.68 feet above sea

level (M8). The new lock and spillway were constructed in 1919

(M9) at their present location a short distance southeast of

South Orchard Street, and the dike in the southeastern corner of

the lake closed (M9). The construction of the new lock permitted

the lowering of the entire length of Murphy’s Creek to approx¬

imately the level of Lake Monona, facilitating the drainage of

the marsh without maintaining Lake Wingra at the low level to

which it had been temporarily reduced by the opening of the

southeast dike. To provide fill for the newly drained marsh large

quantities of sediment were dredged from Lake Wingra, particu¬

larly from along the eastern part of the south shore and from

the area just above the new lock, producing Outlet Bay, as well

as just below the lock, producing the Murphy’s Creek wide¬

spread. In spite of the extensive drainage, dredging, and filling

operations, the project failed to produce sufficiently dry land for

residential use and the former marshland soon became known as

the “Lost City.”

In 1919 A. S. Pearse (P3) reported the following hydro-

graphic data in English units and in 1920 A. S. Pearse and

H. Achtenberg (P5) reported the same data in both English and

metric units for Lake Wingra, except that the mean depth was

listed as 5.3 feet:

Maximum

Depth Length

4.25 m. 2.6 km.

14 ft. 1.6 mi.

Width Shoreline Area

1.4 km. 7.3 km. 2.17 sq.km.

.8 mi. 4.5 mi. .79 sq.mi.

Mean

Depth

(1.6 m.)

5.5 ft. (5.3 ft.)

Noland— Hydrography of Lake Wingra

9

In 1921 A. S. Pearse reported Lake Wingra to have a volume

of 2,761,000 cubic meters (P4).

In 1926 B. P. Domogalla and E. B, Fred (D4) reported the

following hydrographic data in metric units and in 1935 B. P.

Domogalla (D3) reported the same figures in English units for

Lake Wingra:

With the exception of the figures for maximum depth for which

there is close agreement and the figures for shoreline and area

for which direct comparison is lacking, these data do not agree

at all with those reported in the preceding paragraph. The fact

that the figures of 14 and 14.1 feet, respectively, for the maxi¬

mum depth are in close agreement with the maximum depth of

14 feet shown on the 1904 ‘'Hydrographic Map of Lake Wingra,’"

and that they do not reflect the considerably greater maximum

depth resulting from the dredging of 1914-1920 leads to the be¬

lief that the figures for maximum depth, at least, were obtained

in both cases from the 1904 map. Furthermore, in 1938 C. Juday

stated (J2) that Lake Wingra had a maximum depth of 14 feet

and an area of 200 acres.

The second hydrographic survey of Lake Wingra appears to

have been made by W. L. Tressler since the map appears in his

Ph. D. thesis (Tla), which was written in 1930. The contour

interval is 1 meter (3.3 feet) but the map is not drawn to scale.

The two depressions in the western part of the lake which

appeared in the 1904 map are also present in this map within

4-meter (13.1 foot) contour lines. The shoal in the southeastern

part of the lake is missing and the depression south of the cen¬

tral portion of Vilas Park is shown within the 4-meter (13.1

foot) contour line to the east of where it should be because Vilas

Park is drawn out of proportion to its size. The significantly new

features of this map are the depth of Edgewood Bay, which has

a 4-meter (13.1 foot) depression in the outer part of the bay,

the 1-meter (3.3 foot) depth of Northeast Bay with the 2-meter

(6.6 foot) and 3-meter (9.8 foot) contour lines bent in toward

the bay, and the depth of Outlet Bay, which contains a 4-meter

(13.1 foot) depression. This map cannot represent the result of

10

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

a survey of the entire lake because it does not show the deep

dredging channels present along the eastern part of the south

shore at the time the map was made. It probably represents a

redrawing of the 1904 map, embodying the results of soundings

of Edgewood Bay, Northeast Bay, and Outlet Bay, which did not

exist at the time the 1904 map was made.

During the winter of 1933-34 rocks were carried out on the

ice in the western part of Lake Wingra where the water was

about four feet deep with the intention of creating a bar where

migratory geese could rest undisturbed (L3, P6). The first day

after the ice went out in the spring the rocks had settled so that

a bar remained about a foot above the water (P6). By the next

morning the bar had disappeared completely into the soft bottom

sediment (P6). A sounding made by the engineer, John F. Icke,

where the bar had been, revealed solid bottom at a depth of 70

feet (P6).

In 1941 the Vilas Park Lagoons were redredged to restore

the hve-foot center depth (MIO). The depth at the shore was

made 15 inches with a slope of one foot downward for every

four feet on the horizontal (MIO,). These operations did not

affect Lake Wingra, since the dredging was confined solely to

the lagoons, and the dredged sediment was deposited on the large

island in the center of the lagoons.

It was reported in 1946 that Lake Wingra had received no

treatment with copper compounds (N2). This fact was substan¬

tiated by chemical analyses of samples of bottom mud taken at

three different points in the lake (N2) .

The third hydrographic survey of Lake Wingra and the

second survey of the entire lake was carried out in 1948 and the

results are embodied in the “Hydrographic Map of Lake

Wingra’’ by W. E. Noland, a full report of which appears below.

The former area of maximum depth in the lake, 14 feet, south

of the central portion of Vilas Park, now has a maximum depth

of only 11 feet 10 inches at a point directly south of the small

point at the center of the Vilas Park shoreline and is no longer

the deepest area in the lake. The eight-foot shoal is still present

in the southeastern part of the lake. The two east-west elongated

depressions in the western part which formerly had a maximum

depth of 13.5 feet on the north and 13 feet on the south now

appear as a very large area along the axis of the lake within the

Noland — Hydrography of Lake Wingra

11

10-foot contour line. This area slopes gradually to a maximum

depth of 12 feet 2 inches in the southern part of the area.

The dredging operations of the Lake Forest Land Company,

which have already been referred to, have produced profound

changes in the bottom contours along the south shore. A new

area of maximum depth for the lake, 20 feet 8 inches, has been

created in a dredging channel along the eastern part of the south

shore. At one point along the Lake Forest shore a narrow bar

lies between two dredging channels. The descent from the point

of minimum depth, 5 feet 4 inches, at the eastern end of the

small bar to the 16-foot depth of the shoreward dredging

channel is extremely rapid.

Another area of relatively great depth for Lake Wingra was

created by the dredging of Outlet Bay, which now has a max¬

imum depth of 14 feet 8 inches, corresponding with the area of

4-meter (13.1 foot) depth in the map of W. L. Tressler (Tla).

There is a second small depression just east of the western

entrance to Outlet Bay, which has a maximum depth of 10 feet

1 inch. Northeast Bay is rather shallow, as was also shown on

Tressler's map, since it is entered only by the 4-foot contour line.

In Edgewood Bay only a vestige remains of the deep area shown

on Tressler’s map to have a depth of 4 meters (13.1 feet), since

the 4-foot contour line enters the bay only for a short distance

where the 4-meter (13.1 foot) depth used to be. Most of Edge-

wood Bay is, however, very shallow, and rapidly filling in with

sediment eroded from the steep hill at the foot of which it lies.

The Knickerbocker Street and Bickford Street storm sewers

have scoured out beyond their outlets small but relatively deep

depressions, which at the time of the soundings were 7 feet

2 inches and 8 feet 5 inches in depth, respectively. The mud at

the bottom of these depressions was heavily charged with sewer

gases, particularly in the case of the Bickford Street storm

sewer.

The depression just out from and to the west of East Spring

Creek outlet was probably formed by pumping. Circumstantial

evidence for this belief is the presence of a sizeable iron pipe

lying on shore and projecting into the lake in the area.

12 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

B. Report of the Hydrographic Survey of Lake Wingra

(To accompany the hydrographic map of Lake Wingra)

A cknowledgments

The sounding was carried out by Wayland E. Noland, with

the assistance of Professor Lowell E. Noland, Thomas L. Finch,

and James P. Telford, using a round-bottom rowboat provided

by the University of Wisconsin Department of Zoology. Thanks

are due to John E. Bardach for assistance in providing the boat.

The mapping was carried out by Wayland E. Noland, with the

advice and assistance of Professor Lowell E. Noland. Financial

support for the project was provided by the University of Wis¬

consin Arboretum Committee, arranged by Professor Arthur D.

Hasler.

Procedure

The shore outline for the hydrographic map was obtained

from a tracing drawn from an aerial photograph of the area

taken on August 8, 1940. The aerial photograph is on file at the

Dane County office of the United States Department of Agricul¬

ture Production and Marketing Administration, 353 West John¬

son Street, in Madison. The tracing was enlarged to provide a

map of convenient size with a scale of 1 inch = 246 feet. The

shore outline was slightly modified in a few cases to fit present

conditions. The area of Lake Wingra, as determined from the

map with the use of a planimeter, was found to be 328 acres, or

.513 square mile.

The soundings were carried out from a boat on calm or quiet

days in late June and the first half of July, 1948. The period

from dawn until 7 :30-8:00 a.m. generally proved to be the best

time from the standpoint of least wind and least disturbance to

fishermen on the lake, since there were few at that time of day.

The method of sounding was similar to that used by W. J. Chase

and L. E. Noland in their hydrographic survey of Lake Ripley

(C3). Landmarks were located on the map at various points

along the shoreline. The sounding runs were made by starting at

one of these points and heading across the area to be sounded

toward another landmark. Two persons were always present on

these sounding runs. One person was responsible for rowing and

keeping the boat lined up on the landmark to the rear, and the

other person was responsible at the beginning of the run for

Noland — Hydrography of Lake Wingra 13

keeping the rower headed toward the forward landmark and for

taking and recording the soundings. The rower kept his oar

strokes as nearly uniform as possible, and stops were made for

soundings at intervals of five or ten strokes. Immediately after

the fifth or tenth stroke, as the case happened to be, the rower

backwatered to bring the boat to a complete stop, or nearly so,

so that the sounding line was vertical at the time of sounding.

The sounding operations were carried out as quickly as pos¬

sible in order to keep the error caused by drifting of the boat off

its course at a minimum. As soon as a sounding operation was

well under way, no attempt was made to head the boat back

toward the forward landmark if it had been blown off course,

but at all times the boat was kept in line with the rear land¬

mark, since the maintenance of as nearly straight a course as

possible was more important than ending up at a given land¬

mark. In a case where the end of the sounding run was not at

the intended landmark, the distance to that landmark was

measured in oar strokes taken in exactly the same manner as the

strokes on the sounding run, with stops at five or ten stroke

intervals. The sounding runs were plotted on the map as straight

lines. The assumption was made that the lengths of the strokes

on any one sounding run were all the same. This assumption

permitted the location on the map of the sounding points and

the endpoint of each run. The lengths of the strokes varied some

from run to run depending on the rower and the presence of a

breeze. From this description of the procedure it is evident that

as nearly calm conditions as possible were required since a

breeze blowing in any direction except parallel to the course

would tend to make the course an arc instead of a straight line

as depicted on the map, and a breeze of irregular velocity from

any direction would cause the stroke lengths to be irregular

rather than equal for a given run, as depicted on the map. In

the presence of calm conditions, however, and over relatively

short distances such as are found on a small lake like Lake

Wingra this method of operation appears quite satisfactory, and

has the advantage that a very large number of soundings can be

made in a relatively short time. A total of 60 sounding runs

were made across the various parts of the lake.

The plumb used for all of the soundings was made by pour¬

ing molten lead into a muffin tin which served as a mold. A

rubber tube clamp was set in the lead to provide a place for

14 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

attachment of the sounding line. The plumb weighed 1 pound

2^2 ounces and had a bottom diameter of 1% inches.

The sounding line was made of strong wrapping twine which

had been waterproofed by soaking in melted paraffin. It was

calibrated by attaching markers of colored string to it at six-

inch intervals. The calibrations were checked periodically

against a steel tape, but the errors were so slight that correc¬

tions of the data were found to be unnecessary. The measure¬

ments were made in feet rather than in the scientifically pre¬

ferred metric units in order to encourage greater popular use

of the map.

The level of the western edge of the spillway outlet was used

as the datum plane. Since the lake level varied from one-half

inch below at the beginning of the sounding period to two inches

below the datum plane at the end of the period, the values for

the deepest soundings in the depressions and the shallowest

soundings on the bars were corrected to the level of the datum

plane. Since the variations in lake level below the datum plane

were considered within the limits of error in making and plot¬

ting the soundings, however, the values for the soundings used

only for drawing the contour lines were ordinarily not corrected

to the level of the datum plane.

Because of the presence of numerous offshore bars, often

covered with bulrushes, and of marsh growth in the southeastern

corner of the lake, and because of the generally very irregular

and probably rather temporary contour of the bottom area at a

depth of less than four feet, the shallowest, or 2-foot, contour

is not shown. Aside from surface run-off, all of the known tribu¬

tary water sources of Lake Wingra are shown on the map.

In the dredging channels along the south shore of the lake

the actual rate of drop-off is frequently much greater than the

position of the contour lines would indicate, since the dredging

channels are characterized by relatively flat, deep channels with

very steep sides. In order to avoid the confusion resulting from

allowing the contour lines to run together they have been allowed

to encroach on the deeper parts of the channels. The shallowest

part of the small Lake Forest Bar is very irregular, and in some

places nearly vertical drops of as much as two feet were

encountered.

Blackline copies of the map are now available for a nominal

fee at the office of the State Geologist, Professor Ernest F. Bean.

Noland — Hydrography of Lake Wingra

15

C. Water Sources of Lake Wingra

Many of the springs which formerly provided Lake Wingra

with a steady flow of water throughout the year no longer exist.

Those which have ceased to flow were located on the north shore

in the city of Madison. Many of these springs have been replaced

as sources of water by storm sewers. Since the drainage from

these storm sewers is dependent directly on rain or melting

snow, their flow into the lake is very irregular, varying from

none to a torrent, depending on the weather. Much of the rain

water falling on the north shore of the Lake Wingra basin,

which formerly in all likelihood reached the lake by percolating

through the ground and then flowing along subsurface strata to

reappear in the form of springs, now reaches the lake as direct

runoff carried by storm sewers. To the extent that this change

has occurred the character of the water supply of Lake Wingra

has also changed. A fairly constant flow of clear, relatively hard,

spring water has in considerable measure been replaced by a

very irregular flow of soft rain water containing the dissolved

and suspended dirt and oil of city streets.

1. V/ater Sources Which No Longer Exist

The list of such sources and their detailed description is as

follows :

a. The Reynolds Spring

This spring (or springs) was located near the present Lake

Wingra outlet at the edge of the marsh just south of the old

Dividing Ridge on the north side of the lake (B4, B6c) and was

probably on the east side of South Orchard Street just below the

residence at 717 South Orchard Street. The creek which served

as its outlet to Lake Wingra has been obliterated by Ailing (B6c).

b. Marsh Spring 1

This spring was located in the marsh which is now Vilas

Park, about 225 feet south of the old lake bank and on a line

extended midway between and parallel to Harrison and Van

Buren Streets (MlOa). The spring was obliterated in 1905 by

the filling which was carried out to create Vilas Park (S2).

c. Marsh Springs 2 and 3

This pair of springs was located in the marsh which is now

Vilas Park, about 100 feet out from the old lake bank and mid-

16

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

way between lines continued from Van Buren and Lincoln

Streets (MlOa, S2). The springs were obliterated in 1906 either

by the additional filling or by the landscaping which was carried

out in Vilas Park (M4a).

d. Marsh Springs U and 5

These springs were located in the marsh which is now Vilas

Park. They were, respectively, about 125 and 200 feet southwest

of Marsh Spring 3 and about 100 feet out from the old lake bank

(MlOa). The westernmost of the two. Marsh Spring 5, was

directly out from the foot of Lincoln Street. The springs were

obliterated in 1905 by the filling which was carried out to create

Vilas Park (S2) .

e. Edgewood Bay Springs

This pair of springs was located in the old marsh, about 50

feet out from the old lake bank, and about 120 and 180 feet,

respectively, southwest of a line continued from the center of

Edgewood Avenue (MlOa). This area was later dredged to form

Edgewood Bay so that the spring which remained was located in

open water. This spring was last reported in 1931 (T2).

f. Big Fish Spring

According to George J. Behrnd, this large spring was located

at the border between the cattails and open water in a small bay

about 300 feet southwest of Edgewood Point. The spring was

about six feet deep and was a good fishing spot. It stopped flow¬

ing at least 15 years ago and rapidly filled in.

g. East Edgewood Spring

This small spring was located about 45 feet out from the old

lake bank and about 210 feet northeastward along it from the

big (eastern) gully on the Edgewood property (MlOa).

h. Edgewood Big Spring

This large spring, also known as the Deep Hole (B4), was

located by some large willow trees about 65 feet out from the old

lake bank and about 75 feet southwest along it from the big

(eastern) gully (B3, MlOa). Two artificial rock-walled pools,

which are still to be seen, were supplied by water from the

spring (B4). As late as January 1924 there was sufficient seep¬

age at the site of the old spring to keep one of the pools perma¬

nently filled with water (N4) .

Noland — Hydrography of Lake Wingra

17

i. West Edgewood Springs

These four springs were located along the western part of

the Edgewood shore about 60 feet out from the old lake bank

and, respectively, 350 feet, 450 feet, 550 feet, and 730 feet south¬

west along the bank from the big (eastern) gully (MlOa). Two

artificial rock-walled pools which were supplied by water from

at least two of these springs are still to be seen.

j. The Chase Springs

According to Dr. Samuel L. Chase there were once eight

small springs on the old Chase property, which lies along the

Lake Wingra shore between Woodrow Street and Conklin Park.

As late as January, 1924, there was sufficient seepage from two

of the old springs to maintain two small pools during the spring

and much of the summer (N4) .

k. The White Rock Spring (B4)

This spring, which was also known as the Willow Spring and

the White Cross Spring (B3), was located on the southeast side

of Monroe Street near the present site of the William Wolf and

Son Hardware Company at 2611 Monroe Street. Its water was

carried several hundred feet to the lake by a ditch.

As the result of draining and filling operations carried out

from about 1914-1920 by the Lake Forest Land Company, the

marsh south of the eastern part of Lake Wingra has been con¬

verted into land which now drains through a series of canals

into Murphy's Creek. Consequently, a number of springs (Vilas

Spring, Cow Spring, Gay Spring, and Silver Spring (B4)),

which formerly flowed into the marsh, and which could then be

considered a part of Lake Wingra, now flow directly to Murphy's

Creek, and can no longer be considered as water sources of Lake

Wingra.

The question as to what caused the springs in the area be¬

tween Edgewood Avenue and Conklin Park to stop flowing is

difficult to answer with certainty. One factor which undoubtedly

contributed, and may have been the sole cause, is the construc¬

tion of buildings, streets, and sidewalks, which has greatly in¬

creased the amount of surface run-off and correspondingly re¬

duced the amount of water which can soak into the ground and

replenish the ground water in the area which formerly supplied

the springs.

18 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Another possible cause which has been suggested is the drill¬

ing of Madison Unit Well No. 1 at 817 Knickerbocker Street.

This well was completed on December 7, 1923, and put into oper¬

ation on May 5, 1924. The shaft of the well is insulated to a

depth of 126.5 feet below the surface so that no water can be

drawn off above this level. It seems possible that the ‘‘cone” of

this well might have taken in the water which formerly appeared

in the form of springs in this region, but several facts oppose

this argument. With the exceptions of the Edgewood Bay Spring

and Big Fish Spring, all of the springs in this area appear to

have been reduced to at best a seepage status before the city

well was put into operation. Furthermore, because of an ineffi¬

cient pump, the well has been only on an emergency standby

basis for the past 10 years and the present water level in the

well is only 3 feet below the level of 1924 (N6) .

2. Present Water Sources

The present water supply of Lake Wingra is provided by

surface drainage from the Lake Wingra watershed, from

springs, and, along the City of Madison shore, from storm

sewers. The water sources (listed in counterclockwise order

starting from the Lake Wingra outlet at the northeastern corner

of the lake) are listed below:

a. South Orchard Street storm sewer

b. Vilas Park Zoo drain pipe

c. Vilas Park Lagoons

1 ) Campbell Street storm sewer

2) Van Buren Street storm sewer

d. Edgewood Avenue storm sewer

e. Woodrow Street storm sewer

f . Knickerbocker Street storm sewer

g. Pickford Street storm sewer

h. Honeeum Pond

1 ) Chapman Street storm sewer

2) Council Ring Spring

Sy Honeeum Spring

i. Glenway Street storm sewer

j. Gorham Creek

1) Gorham Spring and the Duck Pond

2) Stevens Pond and Stevens Creek

k. Cherokee Drive storm sewer

Noland — Hydrography of Lake Wingra

19

1. Nakoma Creek

1) Nakoma Golf Course Lagoons

2) Nakoma Spring

3) Manitou Way drainage ditch

a) 3900 Manitou Way storm sewer

b) 3910 Manitou Way storm sewer

m. Big Spring Creek

1) Big Spring

2) West Spring and West Spring Creek

n. East Spring and East Spring Creek

0. Marshland Creek

1) Teal Marsh

2) Marsh Springlets

A detailed description of these water sources follows :

A storm sewer outlet enters the lake at the foot of South

Orchard Street.

A drain pipe, which runs along the eastern edge of the

buffalo pen in the Vilas Park Zoo, drains part of the zoo yards,

passes under the park drive, and enters the lake just opposite

the point on the south shore at the western entrance to Outlet

Bay.

The Vilas Park Lagoons, which were originally created by

dredging in 1905-1906 (M3, M4), connect with Lake Wingra by

outlets that lie beneath stone bridges at the eastern and western

ends of the park outer drive. Two storm sewers drain into the

lagoons. The first extends from the foot of Campbell Street

south southwestward, passing under Vilas Park and beneath a

large drinking fountain in the park, and emptying into the

lagoons in the bay east of the big island. The second storm sewer

continues from the foot of Van Buren Street southeastward

under Vilas Park a short distance east of the tennis courts and

enters the lagoons opposite the western edge of the big island.

A storm sewer outlet enters Edgewood Bay near the foot of

Edgewood Avenue.

A storm sewer outlet enters the marsh at the foot of Wood-

row Street.

A storm sewer which runs parallel to and just west of

Knickerbocker Street enters the lake a few feet west of the

Aberle Boat Livery.

20 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

A storm sewer continues southeastward underground from

the intersection of Arbor Drive and Pickford Street and drains

into Lake Wingra a short distance east of Honeeum Pond.

Honeeum Pond is an artificial pond in the University of Wis¬

consin Arboretum southeast of Monroe Street in an area

bounded by lines continued from Pickford Street and Western

Avenue. Work on the pond was started on March 15, 1938 and

finished in October, 1939 (L3). The pond empties into Lake

Wingra over two small dams about a foot above the lake level

at each end of the pond. Honeeum Pond is supplied by water

from one storm sev/er and two springs. The storm sewer con¬

tinues from the foot of Chapman Street under Monroe Street

and a short distance along Arbor Drive from where it passes on

and empties into the pond along the central part of the north

shore. The Council Ring Spring and the Honeeum Spring, which

are also known collectively as the Marston (B4), Topp (Bl), or

Lime Kiln Springs (B4, B5), are also located along the central

part of the north shore of the pond a short distance west of the

storm sewer outlet. The Council Ring Spring flows out from the

base of the Kenneth Jensen Wheeler Memorial Council Ring.

Honeeum Spring is located about 70 feet below and southwest of

the Council Ring Spring and nearer to the pond.

A storm sewer outlet emerges from beneath the southeast

side of Monroe Street a short distance southwest of Glenway

Street and drains through an open ditch into the marsh.

The Gorham Spring is located in the University of Wisconsin

Arboretum at the bend in Nakoma Road south of the intersec¬

tion where Monroe Street becomes Nakoma Road. This spring,

which really consists of five springs, is located on the southeast

side of the street. The springs flow into a widespread known as

the Duck Pond, which flows over a small dam into Gorham

Creek, which then flows out through the marsh and into Lake

Wingra. Stevens Pond is an artificial pond located in the Arbo¬

retum a few feet southwest of Gorham Spring. Work on the

pond was started in 1935 and finished in the spring of 1936 (L3).

The water supply of Stevens Pond is derived from springlets

located near the western corner of the pond and from spring

seepage, which, like the springlets, was opened up when the pond

was dug, making it unnecessary to divert water into Stevens

Pond from the Duck Pond as originally planned (L3) . The water

level of Stevens Pond is now above that of the Duck Pond (L3).

Noland — Hydrography of Lake Wingra 21

Stevens Pond empties over a dam into Stevens Creek, which

joins Gorham Creek a short distance below the Duck Pond.

A ravine which runs along the southeast side of Cherokee

Drive empties into the storm sewer at the intersection of Man-

itou Way, Nakoma Road, Cherokee Drive, and Huron Hill. This

storm sewer emerges a short distance south of the intersection

and drains through a meandering channel into the marsh south

of Stevens Pond.

Nakoma Creek rises in two lagoons in the Nakoma Golf

Course near Manitou Way. The lagoons are artificial, having

been dug when the golf course was filled and developed about

1925 (Dl). Their sources of water are numerous springlets

located along their shores. A short distance downstream from

where the lagoons join to form Nakoma Creek an underground

pipe carries part of the water directly across the golf course to

the northeastern corner where it drains into another small

lagoon, which was dug in 1948. The remaining water of Nakoma

Creek is augmented a few feet farther on by a sizable spring

which rises in the stream bed. (It seems possible that this spring

comes from the water source which formerly supplied VialFs

Spring.) This spring was formerly located behind (southeast of)

the residence at 3865 Nakoma Road (the rebuilt Viall home) on

the marshy Lake Wingra flat (B4). The spring was obliterated

by the grading of the land on which it was located and of the

adjoining land now occupied by the Nakoma Golf Course (B5).

Its water supply replenished by the spring rising in its stream

bed, Nakoma Creek flows on northeastward to the edge of the

golf course. There it is joined by a drainage ditch flowing east¬

ward from Manitou Way. This drainage ditch originates near

the intersection of Manitou Way and Iroquis Drive and runs

along Manitou Way to a point across the street from 3910 Man¬

itou Way. Here a pipe from a storm sewer across the street

empties into the ditch at the point where the ditch makes a

right-angle turn. Another storm sewer originating opposite

3900 Manitou Way empties into the ditch a short distance east

of the right-angle turn. The ditch then continues eastward along

the edge of the golf course and empties into Nakoma Creek.

Nakoma Creek flows along the edge of the golf course to the

northeastern corner where it is rejoined by the water from the

small lagoon. Here Nakoma Creek turns to the northeast and

meanders out through the marsh into Lake Wingra.

22 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

There are three large springs originating at the base of a

hill along the western part of the southern shore of Lake

Wingra. Arboretum West Spring, also known as Rowe’s Spring

(B4, B5), the westernmost of these three springs, is located near

the western edge of the hill. Its water flows through a small

creek northeastward to its junction with Big Spring Creek.

Arboretum Big Spring, the largest spring tributary to Lake

Wingra, is the middle one of the springs. Its waters are carried

northward through a sizable creek into Lake Wingra. Just to

the east of Big Spring is a very small spring, commonly consid¬

ered as a part of Big Spring.

Arboretum East Spring, also known as White Clay Spring

(B4, B5) because of the prevalence of small white fossil clam

shells in the marl through which it flows, drains through a small

creek out into Lake Wingra.

Farther to the east, near the bend in the Arboretum Drive

before it enters Lake Forest, is Marshland Creek. It originates

in Teal Marsh, a large marsh fed by drainage, which lies a con¬

siderable distance to the south. Marshland Creek flows north¬

eastward from Teal Marsh and passes through a culvert under

the Arboretum Drive. Then it flows northwestward through a

very marshy region. Between the point where the Arboretum

footpath crosses the creek and about 100 feet upstream the

marsh is fllled with numerous springlets which provide most of

the volume of the creek. Before entering Lake Wingra, Marsh¬

land Creek swings a considerable distance to the northwest.

D. Ice Season Records

The records of the closing and opening dates for the ice on

Lake Wingra are incomplete but enough records are available to

make their compilation worth while. All of the earlier records,

which are not referred to by a reference mark, are taken from

the journal (LI) of Walter H. Chase, who lived on the shore of

Lake Wingra for many years.

Number of

Season Closed Opened Days Closed#

1877- 78 _ Dec. 29 Mar. 9 70

1878- 79 _ Dec. 6 Mar. 29 113

1879- 80 _ Nov. 19 Mar. 23 125

# A number of the values in the freezing- and thawing record of Lake

Wingra presented by L. Wing in Table 3, page 156 of his paper (Wl) are in

error since they do not check with the paper (LI) from which he obtained

the closing and opening dates. For the winter 1888-89 the number of the day

after October 31 on which the fall freeze occurred should be 42, not 32. For

the winter 1885-86 the number of the day after February 28-29 on which the

spring- thaw occurred should be 46, not 45. The values for the length of the

frozen period during the years 1877-1896, with the exception of the winter

1877-78, are all too low by the number of days in the month of February (28

or 29), with additional errors introduced by the two errors previously men¬

tioned. Consequently, all new values obtained by smoothing processes involv¬

ing these incorrect values, or by interpolation from them, are also in error.

^ It seems doubtful that this date represents the final closing date for the

season. Lake Monona did not close until December 27 and Lake Mendota

closed on January 12 (Ul). The monthly mean temperatures in Madison were

42° for November, 1913, and 32° for December, 1913 (Ul). It appears quite

probable from the daily temperature data for November and December, 1913,

that Lake Wingra opened sometime in November and then reclosed on Decem¬

ber 7 or 8 during a period of cold weather.

date maximum (Ul) minimum (Ul)

Dec. 6, 1913 _ 43° 37°

Dec. 7, 1913 _ 37° 14°

Dec. 8, 1913 _ 31° 18°

Consequently, the closing date of November 2, 1913, has not been included in

the calculation of the average closing date.

♦Another paper by A, S. Pearse (P3) records the date as March 26. The

date of March 20 has been arbitrarily chosen since it appeared in the more

recent of the two publications.

^ For use in calculating the average closing date November 27 has been

taken as the closing date since this is the date obtained by adding the early

13-day closed period to the final closing date, December 10. The 13-day closed

period has not, of course, been used in the calculation of the average number

of days closed, nor has the opening date of the 13-day closed period, Novem¬

ber 28, been used in the calculation of the average opening date.

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

24

Number of

The long term averages for the much larger nearby lakes,

Monona and Mendota, are presented for comparison :

Averages Number of

1855-1949 (Ul) Closed Opened Days Closed

Lake Monona - Dec. 14 Apr. 4 111

Lake Mendota _ Dec. 19 Apr. 6 108

II. Fish Population

A. Fish Population Data

1, Carp Seining Data

The most complete data on the present fish population of

Lake Wingra, particularly with regard to the larger species, was

obtained from the seinings conducted as a carp control measure

by the Wisconsin Conservation Department. With the exception

y Calculated from the averag'e opening' and closing dates.

Noland — Hydrography of Lake Wingra 25

of the most recent seining on March 29, 1949, which was carried

out by a commercial fisherman, S. M. Kernan, all of the seinings

were conducted by the Wisconsin Conservation Department. The

seinings comprised single hauls extending over most of the main

part of the lake. The dates of the seinings and the reported sizes

of the seines used are presented in the table below :

a30 ft. depth (B2).

bl5 ft. depth. (HI).

In the 1936-1 seining, difficulties in operation of the net, such

as bogging down in the marl, made it necessary to leave the net

in the water overnight so that the fish were not removed until

November 15, 1936 (W2). Because of adverse weather the

1945-1 seining also required two days, resulting in the escape of

most panfish as well as many larger fish (B2) .

All of the carp and bowfin caught in each of the seinings

were removed from the lake. In the first seining all of the

buffalofish were also removed, but in all subsequent seinings the

few which remained were returned to the lake. In the first three

seinings all of the garfish were removed from the lake but in all

subsequent seinings the garfish were turned over to Professor

Arthur D. Hasler for study. The majority of them were tagged

and returned to the lake. Except where otherwise noted, all other

fish were returned to the lake except for the relatively small

numbers which died during the seinings or were kept for scien¬

tific study.

26

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

It is evident from the records which follow that the estimated

number and average weight of the fish vary widely in the vari¬

ous hauls. This appears to have been due primarily to differences

in the mesh sizes of the seines used, apparently not always cor¬

responding to the figures previously given, and secondarily to

variations in the fish population.

The following records include all fish reported in the various

seine hauls, except perhaps for the 1944 haul. With respect to

the 1944 haul Professors Arthur D. Hasler and Aldo Leopold

stated on October 30, 1944, in a letter to E. J. Vanderwall, then

Director of the Wisconsin Conservation Department, ‘The sein¬

ing was very carefully done until the onset of evening made it

evident that the haul could not be finished during daylight. Up

to that time Dr. Black had the opportunity to make a careful

tally of all fish gilled in the net or released around the ends.

With the onset of darkness, large groups of fish other than carp

were allowed to go over the net, making continuation of the tally

impossible. The haul was completed in darkness, with the net

result that no census data were obtained except on carp.’' E. J.

Vanderwall replied on November 4, 1944, “Had it not been for

a tremendous population of crappies and game fish which was

totally unexpected in such amounts, the haul could easily have

been completed (in one) day.”

Abbreviations : est. = estimated, av. = average.

Carp (Cyprinus carpio)

1936-1 1936-11 1944 1945-1 1945-11 1949

Est. no. _ 4,850 1,150 5,275 3,000 1,200

(B2) (B2) (HI)

Est. av. wt. lb _ 7 7 <8 5 5 _ ^

(J2) (J2) (B2) (HI)

Est. wt. lb. _ 33,851 8,000 40,000 15,000 6,000 13,685

(W2) (W2) (W2) (W2) (W2) (HI, W2)

Total est. wt. removed from the lake = 116,536 lb.

Bigmouth Buffalofish ( Megastomatobus cyprinella)

1936-1 1936-11 1944 1945-1 1945-11 1949

Est. no. _ 326’’ none 3 24 19 5

(B2) (B2) (W2) (HI)

Est. av. wt. lb. _ 2 _ 15 15 15 large

(J2) (B2) (HI) (HI)

Est. wt. lb. _ 652” _ 45 360 285

(W2) (W2)

Total est. wt. removed from the lake = 652 lb.

Noland — Hydrography of Lake Wingra

27

Northern Longnose Gar (Lepisosteus osseus oxyurus)

Goldfish (Carassius auratus)

One specimen having a weight estimated at 1 lb. was caught and

removed from the lake in the 1944 seining (B2).

Trout

Two specimens, not further identified, were reported in the 1936-11

seining (W2).

Common White Sucker (Catostomus commersonii commersonii)

An estimated 75 specimens (B2, W2) with an average weight of 2.35 lb.

(B2) were reported in the 1944 seining.

Sucker

An estimated 120 specimens (W2), not further identified, with an

average weight of 2 lb. (HI) were reported in the 1945-11 seining.

Spotted Sucker (Minytrema melanops)

One specimen was reported in the 1944 seining (B2).

Channel Catfish (Ictalurus lacustris punctatus)

28 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Northern Pike (Esox lucius)

Muskalonge-Northern Pike Hybrid (Esox masquinongy immaculatus x

Esox lucius)

White Bass (Lepibema chrysops)

1936-1

Est. no _ 500"

(W2)

Est. av. wt. lb. _ 1.26

(J2)

Yellow Bass (Morone interrupta)

Perch (Perea flavescens)

Two specimens having an average weight of 33 grams (1.2 oz.) were

taken from the stomachs of walleyes caught in the 1944 seining (B2).

Walleye ( Stizostedion vitreum vitreum)

Northern Sm allmouth Bass (Micropterus dolomieu dolomieu)

Both largemouth and smallmouth bass were reported in the 1936 sein-

ings but the former were a little more abundant than the latter (J2).

Unfortunately, in the figures for the 1936 seinings the two species are

grouped together under the term “black bass” (W2). No smallmouth bass

were reported in the later seinings.

Noland — Hyd7^ography of Lake Wingra

29

Largemouth Bass (Huro salmoides)

1936-1 1936-11 1944 1945-1

(see above) 100 70

(B2,W2) (H1,W2)

2.89 2.89

(B2) (B2)

Est. no _

Est. av. wt. lb. _

1945-11 1949

127 10

(H1,W2) (HI)

SUNFISH (Lepomis gibbosus)

No figures are available for this species alone. When the term “sun-

fish” is used in the records, it also includes bluegills. In the 1936 seinings

1949

none

Bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus macrochirus)

1936-1 1936-11 1944 1945-1 1945-11 1949

Est. no _ (see sunfish) 50,000 5,319 (see sunfish) none

(W2) (W2)

Est. av. wt. lb. _ _ _ .23 .23 - -

(B2) (B2)

White Crappie (Pomoxis annularis) and Black Crappie (Pomoxis nigro-

maculatus)

With the exception of the 1944 seining no distinction is made between

the two species in the records. For 1944 Dr. John D. Black broke the total

estimated number down into 350,000 white crappies and 100,000 black

crappies (B2).

Est. no.

Est. av. wt. lb. _ .33

a The catch was reported to be confined almost entirely to two sizes: 10 lb. or

more and around 1% lb. (P7).

In a letter to Professor Chancey Juday, dated December 9, 1936, Robert A.

Gray, then Superintendent of Contract and Commercial Fishing-, Wisconsin Con¬

servation Department, stated that the fig-ures which he was presenting for the two

1936 seinings were for numbers of fish. This was true in the case of all fish except

carp, buffalofish, and garfish. Unfortunately, however, the reports of the super¬

vising warden for the two seinings indicate that in the latter three cases the

figures were for 'pounds of fish removed, not numbers of fish (W2). When Professor

Juday correctly assumed in the case of carp that the figures represented pounds

but failed to do so in the cases of buffalofish and garfish he introduced an error In

the figures given in his paper for buffalofish and garfish (J2).

Furthermore, since all kinds of fish except carp, buffalofish, and garfish appear

to have been returned to the lake after each seining (W2), it appears unjustifiable

to use the combined total figures for both seinings as was done in Professor Juday’s

30 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

2, Small Net Operations

a. By A, S. Pearse and H, Achtenberg in 1916

In 1916 A. S. Pearse and H. Achtenberg carried out 194 gill-

net sets at various depths in Lake Wingra, using nets varying

between 1% and 4 inches in stretch measure and 60 and 75 feet

in length (P5). The numbers of fish of the different kinds listed

were separately computed from Table 4 of their paper (P5).

In order of abundance (the most numerous being listed first)

they were:

1) perch 7)

2) bluegill 8)

3) northern pike 9)

4) black crappie 10)

5) sunfish 11)

6) largemouth bass 12)

carp

western golden shiner

bowfin

northern longnose gar

northern smallmouth bass

northern brown bullhead

b. Recent Test Nettings

Some information on the recent fish population of Lake

Wingra is provided by the fyke net studies by Elmer F. Herman

and Clarence Hageman of the Wisconsin Conservation Depart¬

ment (H4), and by the small gill-net operations of University

of Wisconsin students.

Two fyke nets, each having a 75-foot lead and 4-foot depth,

were set near the south shore of Lake Wingra on June 14, 1945.

One net was lifted on June 15 and the other on June 16. The

two catches were reported collectively as follows :

252 crappies

75 bluegills

6 sunfish

3 bullheads

3 white bass

3 snapping turtles

2 walleyes

1 redhorse

1 bowfin

1 golden shiner

1 yellow bass

1 perch

From scale sample records made available by Dr. John C,

Neess of fish caught in 17 small gill-net sets the present writer

has compiled the summary which follows. All but the first haul

were made by Dr. Neess as part of a scientific study. He used

paper (J2), since a large proportion of the fish returned to the lake after the first

seining may be assumed to have reappeared in the net during the second seining.

If this is true, duplication is present in the figures given in Professor Juday’s paper

(J2) for the numbers of fish caught, and the figures for pounds of fish per acre

which he then arrives at are much too high, both for this reason and because

the figure used for the area was too low — 200 acres, instead of the correct

value of 328 acres.

Noland — Hydrography of Lake Wingra

31

the same gill net throughout. Its dimensions were 1% inches

stretch measure, 300-foot length, and 4-foot depth. Sets were

made in several locations in the lake. Northern pike and large-

mouth bass were returned to the water immediately whenever

alive, without scale samples being taken, so that figures for these

two species are incomplete. The records are useful in supple¬

menting the data from the carp seinings, particularly in the case

of small or elongated fish such as perch, western golden shiner,

or yellow bass. The January 4, 1944, haul must have been made

at the outlet of one of the spring streams, perhaps Big Spring

Creek, because the main lake was frozen over.

3, Ice-Fishing Census

Beginning with the winter of 1945-1946 ice fishing for pan¬

fish has been permitted on Lake Wingra. In connection with

their duties in patrolling the University Arboretum, Mr. Joseph

Hammersley and other University policemen have stopped fre¬

quently and asked the ice fishermen what kinds of fish they

32 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

caught, how many, and at what time of day they caught the most

fish. This census was conducted from January 29-March 13,

1946, and from January 26-March 12, 1947. Since the census

was not conducted every day, nor for the entire ice-fishing sea¬

son, nor did it always include every ice fisherman on the lake, it

does not indicate the total catch, but a tabulated summary of the

results is significant in indicating the relative numbers of the

different kinds of panfish taken from the lake during the ice¬

fishing season.

Season “Crappies” Perch Bluegills “Bullheads”

1945- 1946 _ 947 22 4 2

1946- 1947 _ 528 3 none none

The great predominance of crappies (both the white and

black species) can be explained not only by the fact that they

were among the most abundant panfish in the lake, and like

perch are more active in the winter than other panfish, but by

the fact that minnows, which, as well as some fish eyes, were

ordinarily used for bait, are rarely taken by sunfish, bluegills, or

bullheads. The fact that the catches contained both black and

white crappies is not in agreement with the observation by A. S.

Pearse in 1919 that adult black crappies do not appear to feed in

the winter (P3). A. S. Pearse and H. Achtenberg observed in

1920 that Lake Wingra perch move about very little in the

winter and hence feed less than those in Lake Mendota (P5),

and this is in agreement with the small catches of perch reported

here. The absence of yellow and white bass is difficult to explain,

but probably can be ascribed to winter inactivity or to a greater

wariness on their part.

J. Personal Observations

The personal fishing experiences of the writer provide con¬

siderable information on the fish population of Lake Wingra,

particularly in the shallow, weedy portions. During the late

summer and early fall of 1947 in the course of 16 trips to Lake

Wingra some fish were caught on each occasion. The location

was the same in each case : A stretch of shoreline about 60 feet

wide on the north shore of Northeast Bay, opposite the small

point which separates Northeast Bay from Outlet Bay, and

opposite the bulrush bed just west of the point. The bottom was

composed of rock fill and marl for a distance of about 10 feet

from shore, and beyond that distance was entirely marl. The

Noland — Hydrography of Lake Wingra 33

depth of the water fished was l%“3i/4 feet. During the earlier

part of the period weeds were abundant and formed several

large patches which reached the surface. The fishing was done

entirely from shore with one or two cane poles, using on each

line a small (|5) snelled hook and a cork and sinker balanced

with respect to weight to give a high sensitivity to bites. Worms

or nightcrawlers were used for bait throughout, except that on

September 19 two of the yellow bullheads were caught on raw

beef. Large worms or halves of nightcrawlers were found to be

the best bait since it was easier to prevent ''bait stealing'’ with

the larger worms. Because there were no legal size limits on

panfish and all fish were kept, regardless of size, the results give

a fair estimate of the relative numbers of the kinds of fish

present in the shallow, weedy areas which will take a worm bait.

It should be added that the proportion of fish caught to those

which took the bait was very small indeed.

Results of 16 Fishing Trips to Lake Wingra in 1947

*Does not include 6 sunfish returned to the water.

The fishing on September 20 and November 1 was carried on

less than one hour, not sufficient time to make a representative

catch. September 28 was one of those days when the weather

34 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

conditions at the time, and probably those preceding, give the

fish a stimulus causing them to bite far more vigorously and to

be caught much more readily than on other days in the same

period. Thirty-six panfish were caught in 21/2 hours but since

the legal mixed daily bag limit of 30 had been accidentally ex¬

ceeded, it was necessary to return six sunfish, which were still

alive, to the water. On this occasion the fishing was carried on

from 2:00-4:30 P.M. It had rained the night before and that

morning there had been a thunderstorm, but the rain ended in

time to permit fishing. The sky was cloudy and during the time

of fishing the wind was shifting from light southerly to moderate

northwesterly and the barometer was beginning to rise slowly.

Evidently a cold front had passed. The U. S. Weather Bureau

office at North Hall in Madison reported temperature extremes

of 63° and 47° with .64 inches of rain for the day.

Size Ranges of the Fish Listed in the Preceding Table

Kind of Fish

Sunfish _

Perch _

Yellow Bullhead _

Bluegill _

Carp _

Sunfish-Bluegill Hybrid

Mirror Carp _

Length in

Inches

. 4-6

- 6-10

. 6-12

- 5-7

. 12-17

. 5-6

14

Greatest

Weight

3 oz.

6 oz.

14 oz.

5 oz.

2 lb. 11 oz.

3 oz.

1 lb. 3 oz.

Times of Fish Activity

Except for the yellow bullheads all of the fish listed on the

preceding page were caught during daylight hours, which sug¬

gests that they become inactive at dusk, the perch being the last

to become inactive. With two exceptions all of the yellow bull¬

heads were caught at dusk or later, and on every occasion when

the fishing was carried on after dusk, at least one yellow bull¬

head was caught. The yellow bullheads suddenly became active

with noticeable regularity just after the other fish had stopped

biting. An 11-inch yellow bullhead was caught at noon on Sep¬

tember 17, a hot, sunny day, and on November 1 the yellow

bullhead was caught at 4:30 P.M. v/hen a thick cloud cover

greatly reduced the light intensity. It may be concluded that

yellow bullheads are inactive when the light intensity is equiv¬

alent to normal daylight at a depth of about two feet in Lake

Noland — Hydrography of Lake Wingra

35

Wingra, except when there is a tempting odor, such as that of a

nightcrawler, in the vicinity of the spot where they are resting.

At dusk, when the activity of the other panfish has ceased, the

yellow bullheads become active with such regularity that the

start of their biting is a measure of the decrease of light inten¬

sity to a certain point.

The larger predatory fish appeared to increase their activity

about one hour before sunset, as indicated by the splashes they

made when jumping at the surface of the water, probably in

pursuit of other fish. The individual paths which some fish, pre¬

sumed to be largemouth bass, took could be followed by noting

the location of their successive splashes, which occurred every

few minutes. When fishing was continued long after dark, a

number of resounding splashes caused by very large fish were

always observed, usually some distance off the south shore in

the deeper portions of Outlet Bay. These splashes were taken to

indicate that large fish, probably walleyes, did their feeding at

night since these heavy splashes occurred only well after dark.

General Discussion by Species

Carp (Cyprinus carpio)

Except for the one mirror carp, the carp were caught in

pairs, the second right after the first, and also from other char¬

acteristic carp bites it was evident that the carp travel in groups

or schools and move very rapidly.

Northern Yellow Bullhead (Ameiurus natalis natalis)

Yellow bullheads are evidently abundant in Lake Wingra.

No other species of bullhead has been seen in the lake by the

present writer. There are apparently two color phases. The

darker variety-“the shade may be due simply to exposure to the

air — -is difficult to distinguish on the basis of color alone from the

brown bullhead. The distinction is readily made, however, using

as a criterion the characteristic white barbels under the jaw of

the yellow bullhead (El).

Northern Pike (Esox lucius)

Two specimens were seen, v/hich appeared to be about 20 and

23 inches long, caught on what looked like a ‘^Johnson Silver

Minnow” in the bulrush bed about 200 feet south of the fishing

location to which reference has already been made.

36 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Perch (Perea flavescens)

Prior to September 26 the perch were caught by fishing near

the bottom as far out as a cane pole would conveniently reach,

and they were all small, ranging from 6-7 inches. When placed

in a tub of water they would rest characteristically on the bottom

supported on their pectoral fins, and, when disturbed, would

dart around in a manner similar to that of a Johnny darter. As

will be noted from the table, beginning on September 26 there

was a marked increase in the ratio of perch to sunfish caught.

At the same time the average size of the perch increased. The

change was evidently due to the presence of perch around the

fishing location which had not been present there before. The

perch came in closer to shore than before and the fishing pro¬

ceeded in ‘"spells” with a constant succession of perch bites for

15-30 minutes followed by a slack period of equal or greater

length when only sunfish and occasionally bluegills were present.

The first heavy frost of the season occurred on September 25 and

another on September 26 (Ula) . From these observations it may

be concluded that perch definitely prefer cool water and that the

majority of them, particularly the larger ones, remain in the

deeper portions of the lake where, except on very windy days,

slight thermal stratification provides them with cooler water.

[A. S. Pearse and H. Achtenberg reported (P5) that because of

high water temperatures Lake Wingra perch pass through a

period during August and September when little food is taken.]

In the fall, as soon as the surface and shallow water is cooled to

a more tolerable temperature, the perch enter shallow water in

large, rapidly moving schools. Starting with September 26 there

appeared to be a peak of activity on sunny days in late afternoon

but on cloudy days, such as September 28, great activity of the

schools was evident as early as 2 : 00 P.M.

Largemouth Bass (Huro salmoides)

On most of the 16 fishing days one and often more large-

mouth bass were caught which ranged in size from 3-9 inches

but since the legal size limit was 10 inches, they were all re¬

turned to the water. If it had been permissible to keep the large-

mouth bass, they would have ranked in abundance in the catches

between the yellow bullhead and the bluegill. Since two large-

mouth bass, estimated at 14 inches in length, were seen to be

caught on what resembled an “Hawaiian Wiggler |1” spoon in

Noland — Hydrography of Lake Wingra

37

the bulrush bed not over 200 feet to the south, it was evident

that segregation according to size existed and the writer

happened to be on the side where the “nursery school” bass

gathered.

Sunhsh (Lepomis gibbosus)

During the time of the year when weeds are abundant in the

lake, sunfish are found in the shallow weed beds and immediately

adjacent shallow areas, where they are very abundant and will¬

ing to bite. The main problem encountered in the fishing sum¬

marized in tabular form in the section on “Results of 16 Fishing

Trips ...” was to get the first bite, to attract the fish to the

particular location where the fishing was being carried on. The

location was usually chosen because there was a comfortable

place to sit on the shoreline. It took anywhere from half an hour

to an hour to get the first bite, but from then on there was little

difficulty in keeping the fish around since a focus of activity had

been created. The more lines in the water in a given area, the

easier it was to keep the fish in that area. Sunfish are evidently

gregarious and it seemed that the underwater commotion caused

by the sunfish milling around the bait served to attract other fish

to the area, probably by hastening the spread of the worm odor

through the water. It is a curious fact that, in spite of consider¬

able fishing in both areas, the writer has never seen a sunfish in

the Vilas Park Lagoons or in Murphy’s Creek just below the

Lake Wingra outlet. This leads to the conclusion that sunfish

constitute a stable resident population and are slow to populate

new areas or to repopulate shallow areas with abundant organic

decomposition where a probable oxygen deficiency under the ice

has forced a migration away from the area.

Bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus macrochirus)

The habits of the bluegill contrast rather sharply with those

of the sunfish in that they prefer the deeper portions of the lake

and are much more migratory in nature. These facts are well

borne out since they constitute the major and often the sole catch

of worm fishermen using boats and they are generally caught by

slow trolling. The bluegills which appeared in the catches sum¬

marized in tabular form in “Results of 16 Fishing Trips . . .”

seemed to be on the shoreward edges of schools which did not

long remain in the area at the fishing station, as is indicated by

38 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

the fact that the catch on any one day never exceeded two. The

bluegills were all caught by fishing as far out as a cane pole

would conveniently reach. Earlier observations indicate that the

place of the sunfish in such places as Murphy’s Creek and the

Vilas Park Lagoons is taken by small bluegills.

Sunfish-Bluegill Hybrids (Lepomis gibbosus x Lepomis macro-

chirus macrochirus)

The three specimens listed in “Results of 16 Fishing Trips

. . .” were readily recognizable as sunfish-bluegill hybrids by

their blue-black opercular flap and light olivaceous side having

the banding but not the color of bluegills. The head region had

markings resembling those of the sunfish. The hybrid designa¬

tion was confirmed by Harold Elser, who has made extensive

studies of the characteristics of natural sunfish-bluegill hybrids.

The absence in the catches of crappies, white bass, and pre¬

sumably yellow bass can be explained by the fact that they

rarely take a worm bait, except that in the spring, crappies are

more frequently caught on worms. During the period when the

fishing summarized in “Results of 16 Fishing Trips . . was

carried out large numbers of crappies were seen to be caught by

other fishermen trolling slowly with minnows in the deeper

portions of Outlet Bay.

B. Fish-Planting Records

Prior to the dredging of a channel for Murphy’s Creek in

1905-1908, free migration of fish between Lake Monona and

Lake Wingra was probably impossible because of the lack of a

well-defined channel through the marsh east of Lake Wingra, as

has already been stated. Ever since the dredging of Murphy’s

Creek a lock has been present so that upstream migration appar¬

ently could occur only on occasions when the lock was opened,

which have been rare in recent years, or when migrating fish

were lifted over the lock or southeast dike by fishermen and

game wardens. During 1917-1919, however, when the southeast

dike was open, free migration of fish was probably possible

between Lake Monona and Lake Wingra.

The earliest report of the planting of fish in Lake Wingra or

its tributaries is the building of stone-walled pools about Edge-

wood Big Spring and Edgewood West Springs and the stocking

Noland — Hydrography of Lake Wingra

39

of them with trout by Cadwallader C. Washburn, Governor of

Wisconsin from 1872-1874, during the time when he owned and

lived at Edgewood before giving the property to the Order of

Dominican Sisters in 1881 (B3, B4, Ml, Rl) . The pools were

commonly referred to as “Governor Washburn’s trout ponds”

(B4, Rl).

The remaining fish-planting records were provided by the

Wisconsin Conservation Department, and are as complete as

their data permit. The planting records include fish both from

rescue and transfer operations and from hatcheries. Because of

the nature of the methods used, particularly in the case of

rescued and transferred fish, but also in the case of hatchery-

raised fish, especially in earlier years, the likelihood is very great

that fish of species other than those indicated in the records may

have been accidentally planted along with the kinds recorded

(L4). Many of the rescued and transferred fish have come from

the Mississippi River (L4) and this fact probably explains the

discovery in the 1944 carp seining of four species of fish and the

discovery in the 1945 fyke-net studies of a fifth species, all found

in the Mississippi River, but not previously reported from Lake

Wingra: The spotted sucker, redhorse, channel catfish, white

crappie, and yellow bass. The latter two have become the two

most abundant species of panfish in the lake.

Prior to 1941 federal fish rescue and transfer and hatchery

operations were carried out independently and usually without

the knowledge of the Wisconsin Conservation Department. Fish

were usually shipped upon application of private individuals and

groups and the distribution of them was left to these private

parties. Consequently, there was no assurance that the fish were

actually planted in the waters for which they were designated

(L4). In 1941 agreement was reached between the Wisconsin

Conservation Department and the Federal Fish and Wildlife

Service that thereafter all federal fish would be planted by the

Wisconsin Conservation Department (H6).

Lastly it should be added that minnows have long been a pop¬

ular bait for crappies in Lake Wingra. Since practically none of

the minnows used were obtained from Lake Wingra itself, there

is no telling what may have been introduced when Lake Wingra

boat-livery operators released fish that didn’t look like minnows

40

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

found in their minnow shipments or when fishermen emptied

their minnow buckets at the end of a day.

1. Brown Trout

year

1934 _

1936 _

1937 _

adults

. 500

. 50

100

2. Rainbow Trout

year

1936 _

1937 _

adults

50

75

3. Brook Trout

year

1940 _ 6,000 fingerlings in Gorham Creek

1941 _ 400 yearlings in the Big Spring area

4. Sucker

year adults

1940 _ 6

5. Bullhead

year fingerlings yearlings adults

1930 _ ? ? ?

1939 _ _ 10,000

1942 _ _ _ 2,600

1943 _ 35,000

1945 _ 5,000

6. Northern Pike

year fry fingerlings adults

1922 _ 300,000 miscellaneous

1940 _ _ _ 5

1941 _ _ 5,000

1942 _ 546,198

7. Muskalong e-N orthern Pike Hybrids

year fingerlings 24 inches long

1940 _ 258

1945 _ 1,000

1946 _ 1,843

1947 _ ?

1948 _ — 120

8. White Bass

year fingerlings

1917 _ 900

1933 _ 1,000

1940 _ 15,000

1943 _ 6,000

Noland— Hydrography of Lake Wingra 41

9. Perch

year eyed eggs fingerlings adults

1915 _ 960

1917 _ 300

1938 _ 2,903,040*

1939 - 16,000

1940 - 15,000 30

10. Walleye

year miscellaneous fry adults

1900 _ 350,000

1901 _ 600,000

1902 _ 375,000

1903 _ 150,000

1905 _ 300,000

1906 _ 480,000

1907 _ 400,000

1908 _ 300,000

1909 _ 420,000

1912 _ 400,000

1916 _ 320,000

1921 _ ___ 972,000

1922 _ 650,000

1928 _ 690,000

1929 _ ___ 902,500

1930 _ ___ 873,550

1940 _ _ _ 15

1943 _ 7,000,000

11. Black Bass

year fry advanced fry fingerlings

1908 _ 4,000 _ 3,000

1910 _ 7,500 _ 400

1911 _ 5,000 400

1913 _ 22,000

1914 _ 25,000

1916 _ — 10,000

1930 _ _ _ “bass miscellaneous’'

11a. Largemouth Bass

year fingerlings yearlings adults

1937 _ 2,000

1938 _ 1,250

1939 _ 8,600

1940 _ 15,000 77

1941 _ _ _ 10,000 1,000

1942 _ 10,000

1943 _ 12,000

1944 _ 1,500

♦ Large quantities of perch eggs were transferred from Lac Vieux

Desert and several other northern Wisconsin lakes to southern Wis¬

consin (L4).

42 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

12. Sun fish '

year

1930 - “sunfish miscellaneous”

1940 - 10 adults

13. Bluegill

year fingerlings yearlings adults

1939 _ 4,000

1940 _ 10,000 _ 30

1941 _ 10,000 4,800 400

1943 _ 2,000 _ 1,200

1944 _ _ 3,000

H. Crappie

year fingerlings yearlings adults

1940 _ 15

1941 _ _ 100 150

1943 _ _ _ 200

C. Maximum Size Records

In the case of the common white sucker, carp, mirror carp,

and walleye the information found does not give a fair indication

of the largest specimens to be found in Lake Wingra. No size

records were found for the spotted sucker or smallmouth bass.

Unless otherwise stated, the measurements of length refer to

total length, measured from the tip of the mouth to the tip of

the tail fin. When the original measurements were taken in

English units, the values have been converted into metric units,

and conversely, to aid in comparison. The calculated values are

included in parentheses.

1. Northern Longnose Gar (Lepisosteus osseus oxyurus)

length 122.0 cm. (48.0 in.) ; weight (5.0 kg.) 11 lb.

Taken in the carp seine of S. M. Kernan on Mar. 29, 1949 (Nl).

2. Bowfin (Amia calva)

length 74 cm. (29 in.) ; weight (3.9 kg.) 8 lb. 10 oz.

sex female.

Taken in the carp seine of S. M. Kernan on Mar. 29, 1949 (SI).

3. Bigmouth Buffalofish (Megastomatobus cyprinella)

The specimens taken in the Wisconsin Conservation Department carp |

seine in 1944 and 1945 were estimated to have had an average j

weight of 15 lb. (B2, HI, W2). No exact size records were found.

4. Common White Sucker (Catostomus commersonii commersonii)

The specimens taken in the Wisconsin Conservation Department carp

seine in 1944 were estimated to have had an average weight of

2.35 lb. (B2). No exact size records were found. |

Noland — Hydrography of Lake Wingra

43

5. Redhorse (Species not determined)

length 47.4 cm. (18.6 in.); weight 1.585 kg. (3 lb. 8 oz.).

age 7.

Taken in a Wisconsin Conservation Department fyke net on June 15

or 16, 1945 (H4).

6. Carp (Cyprinus carpio)

Unfortunately, exact size records for the large specimens taken in

the Wisconsin Conservation Department carp seines are lacking. It

can be said, however, that many of the carp fell into the class known

commercially as jumbos, i.e., greater than 7 lb. (W2).

Many of the carp in the 1949 haul were estimated to have had a

weight of 10 lb. or more (P7). The best exact size record which was

found is:

length (48 cm.) 17 in.; weight (1.22 kg.) 2 lb. 11 oz.

Caught by still-fishing with worms by Wayland E. Noland on Oct. 3,

1947 (N5).

7. Mirror Carp (Cyprinus carpio, mirror variety)

As in the preceding case, exact size records for the large specimens

taken in the Wisconsin Conservation Department carp seines are

lacking. The best exact size record which was found is :

length (36 cm.) 14 in.; weight (.54 kg.) 1 lb. 3 oz.

Caught by still-fishing with worms by Wayland E. Noland on Oct. 5,

1947 (N5).

8. Goldfish (Carassius auratus)

The one specimen taken in the Wisconsin Conservation Department

carp seine in 1944 had an estimated weight of 1 lb. (B2).

9. Western Golden Shiner (Notemigonus chrysoleucas auratus)

length 19.8 cm. (7.8 in.) ; weight .094 kg. (3.3 oz.).

Taken in a gill net by John C. Neess on July 5, 1946 (Nl).

10. Northern Channel Catfish (Ictalurus lacustris punctatus)

The specimen taken in the Wisconsin Conservation Department carp

seine in 1945-1 had an estimated weight of 6 lb. (B2). No exact size

records were found.

11. Northern Yellow Bullhead (Ameiurus natalis natalis)

length 33.7 cm. (13.3 in.); weight .508 kg. (1 lb. 1.8 oz.).

Taken in a gill net by John C. Neess on July 25, 1945 (Nl).

12. Western Mudminnow (Umbra limi)

“standard” length (does not include tail fin) 17.9 cm. (7.1 in.).

Collected by A. S. Pearse in Marshland Creek on June 12, 1915 (P2).

44 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

13. Northern Pike (Esox lucius)

A specimen reported to weigh 19% lb., dressed, was caught on a frog

bait about 1902 by James A,. Keynolds when he was 10 years old

(B6a). The best exact size record which was found is:

length (104 cm.) 41 in.; weight (7.7 kg.) 17 lb.

Caught by bait-casting with a Johnson Silver Minnow spoon and pork

rind by M. E. Weed on July 27, 1948 (W4).

14. Muskalonge-Northern Pike Hybrid (Esox masquinongy immacu-

latus X Esox lucius)

length (100 cm.) 39.5 in.; weight (4.45 kg.) 15.7 lb.

Taken in the Wisconsin Conservation Department carp seine on Oct.

26, 1944 (HI).

15. Western Banded Killifish (Fundulus diaphanus menona)

‘‘standard’’ length (does not include tail fin) 4.6 cm. (1.8 in.).

Collected by A. S. Pearse in Marshland Creek on April 28, 1915 (P2).

16. White Bass (Lepibema chrysops)

length 37.1 cm. (14.6 in.); weight .483 kg. (1 lb. 1.0 oz.).

age 5.

Taken in a Wisconsin Conservation Department fyke net on June 15

or 16, 1945 (H4).

17. Yellow Bass (Morone interrupta)

length 25.6 cm. (10.1 in.) ; weight .280 kg. (9.8 oz.).

sex male.

Taken in a gill net by John C. Neess on Nov. 1, 1946 (Nl).

18. Perch (Perea flavescens)

length (25 cm.) 10 in.; weight (.17 kg.) 6 oz.

Caught by still-fishing with a nightcrawler by Wayland E. Noland

on Oct. 10, 1947 (N5).

19. Walleye ( Stizostedion vitreum vitreum)

The specimens taken in the Wisconsin Conservation Department carp

seine in 1944 and 1945-11 were estimated to have had an average

weight of 3.8 lb. (B2, HI). The best exact size record which was

found is:

length 39.7 cm. (15.6 in.) ; weight .543 kg. (1 lb. 3.2 oz.).

age 5.

Taken in a Wisconsin Conservation Department fyke net on June 15

or 16, 1945 (H4).

20. Largemouth Bass (Huro salmoides)

Gilson Glasier is reported to have caught two or more bass in about

1914-1915 which weighed about 10 lb. (B6b). The best exact size

record which was found is :

length (76 cm.) 24.9 in.; weight (3.29 kg.) 7 lb. 4 oz.

Caught by bait-casting with a Johnson Caper spoon by William

Aberle on July 20, 1947 (W3).

Noland- — Hydrography of Lake Wingra

45

21. SUNFISH (Lepomis gibbosus)

length 17.0 cm. (6.7 in.) ; weight .145 kg. (5.1 oz.).

Taken in a Wisconsin Conservation Department fyke net on June 15

or 16, 1945 (H4).

22. Bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus macrochirus)

length 22.0 cm. (8.7 in.) ; weight .296 kg. (10.4 oz.).

sex female (Nl).

Taken in the Wisconsin Conservation Department carp seine on Nov.

14, 1945 (HI).

23. Sunfish-Bluegill Hybrid (Lepomis gibbosus x Lepomis macrochirus

macrochirus)

length (15 cm.) 6 in.; weight (.085 kg.) 3 oz.

Caught by still-fishing with worms by Wayland E. Noland on Sept.

11, 1947 (N5).

24. White Crappie (Pomoxis annularis)

length 30.0 cm. (11.8 in.) ; weight .344 kg. (12.0 oz.).

Taken in the Wisconsin Conservation Department carp seine on Nov.

14, 1945 (HI).

25. Black Crappie (Pomoxis nigro-maculatus)

length (28 cm.) 11 in.; weight (.23 kg.) 8 oz.

Caught by trolling with a T-4 frog Flatfish plug by Wayland E.

Noland on June 27, 1942 (N5).

26. Brook Stickleback (Eucalia inconstans)

length 5.87 cm. (2.3 in.).

Taken in a dip net by A. S. Pearse in Marshland Creek on Oct. 6,

1914 (PI).

D. Summary of the Fish Population by Species

All references in this discussion to the plantings of fish refer

to plantings made by the Wisconsin Conservation Department.

Northern Longnose Gar (Lepisosteus osseus oxyurus)

C. E. Brown reports that this species was very abundant in

Lake Wingra about 1914 (B6b). An estimated ll^ tons were

removed from the lake in the two 1936 carp seinings. In the

eight years intervening between 1936 and 1944 it appears to

have made a complete recovery, since an estimated li/^ tons were

removed from the lake in the 1944 carp seining and destroyed.

Although the majority of the specimens caught in the carp sein¬

ings subsequent to 1944 were tagged and returned to the lake,

this species does not yet appear to have returned to its former

position of overwhelming abundance among the large predatory

fish. Because of its elusiveness and the extreme difficulty of set-

46 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

ting the hook in its long bony snout, this species is infrequently

caught by fishermen.

Bowfin (Amia calva)

This species does not appear abundant but exists as a stable

population whose members reach a large size. All of the bowfin

caught in the carp seinings, an estimated total of 89 lb., were

removed from the lake.

Trout

Although repeated attempts have been made to stock brown,

rainbow, and brook trout in Lake Wingra and its tributary

spring streams, none of these species has become established,

but a number of the planted fish did survive (J3, L3). Any

future attempts at establishing these fish may be similarly

expected to end in failure because of the small size of the tribu¬

tary streams and the lack of a suitable environment for natural

reproduction.

Bigmouth Buffalofish (Megastomatobus cyprinella)

In 1936 this fish was fairly abundant and the 2-lb. average

weight of the estimated 326 specimens removed from the lake

in the 1936-1 carp seining indicates that there had been a rather

recent successful hatch. The 15-lb. average weight of the rela¬

tively few specimens taken in the subsequent carp seinings, all

of which were returned to the lake, indicates that there has not

been a successful hatch since before 1936. Apparently as far as

reproductive potential is concerned this native species is unable

to meet the competition of its close rival, the exotic carp, and is

headed for ultimate extinction in Lake Wingra.

Common White Sucker (Catostomus commersonii commersonii)

No record of this species from Lake Wingra was found prior

to the 1944 carp seining but it appeared then to be well estab¬

lished. Whether or not this is the result of the planting of six

adult suckers (species unknown) in 1940 is interesting to

speculate.

Spotted Sucker (Minytrema melanops)

This rather rare Mississippi River fish was reported from

Lake Wingra only in the 1944 carp seining when one specimen

was seen. It was probably introduced from fish rescue and

transfer operations.

Noland — Hydrography of Lake Wingra

47

Redhorse (species not determined)

A single specimen was taken in a Wisconsin Conservation

Department fyke net in 1945. It was probably also introduced

from fish rescue and transfer operations.

Carp (Cyprinus carpio)

This is now by far the predominant large fish in Lake

Wingra and an estimated total of 58l^ tons have been removed

from the lake in the six carp seinings since 1936. Periodic crop¬

ping of the huge carp population by seining appears to be eco¬

nomically desirable as well as beneficial to other species of fish

in the lake and to plants used as food by ducks. Carp are occa¬

sionally caught by fishermen using worms or nightcrawlers for

bait.

Carp were first introduced into Wisconsin about 1879 (C4),

but Dr. Samuel H. Chase did not notice them in Lake Wingra

until the late 1890s (LI). A. R. Cahn reported that in 1913-1914

they abounded in Lake Wingra (Cl) .

Goldfish (Carassius auratus)

The only specimen reported was taken in the 1944 carp sein¬

ing and removed from the lake. It probably was someone’s pet

which had been released and evidently had thrived on its Lake

Wingra diet.

Western Golden Shiner (Notemigonus chrysoleucas auratus)

This large native minnow is and has been present in appre¬

ciable numbers in Lake Wingra. On account of its relatively

small size and elongated shape, however, it has been completely

missed in all of the carp seinings.

Channel Catfish (Ictalurus lacustris punctatus)

A specimen estimated at 6 lb. was seen in the 1945-1 carp

seining and three were seen in the 1949 carp seining. They were

probably introduced from fish rescue and transfer operations.

Northern Black Bullhead (Ameiurus melas melas)

No reports of this species having been taken from Lake

Wingra were found.*

* A. S. Pearse, in giving- a summary (P3) of data presented in a subse¬

quent paper (P5), reported the black bullhead, but this is obviously an error

since the latter paper reports only the brown bullhead.

48 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Northern Brown Bullhead (Ameiurus nebulosus nebulosus)

This species was reported by A. R. Cahn as one of the most

common in the lake during 1913-1914 (Cl). It was again re¬

ported as being caught in 1916 by A. S. Pearse and H. Achten-

berg (P5). It is probable that both of these reports are the

result of misidentification since the yellow bullhead and the

brown bullhead are fairly easily confused when the white barbels

under the lower jaw, which are the most prominent distinguish¬

ing characteristic of the yellow bullhead (El), are overlooked.

The present writer has never seen a brown bullhead from Lake

Wingra.

Northern Yellow Bullhead (Ameiurus natalis natalis)

Around 1920 “big yellow bellies’’ were reported very common

above and below the outlet of Lake Wingra and a lot of them

were brought up with the marl in the dipper dredge when that

area was being dredged (B6a). The personal fishing observa¬

tions of the present writer indicate that yellow bullheads are also

abundant at present. Their bottom feeding habits and shape

probably account for the fact that they have usually escaped

being caught in very great numbers in nets. In view of the

excellent native population of yellow bullheads, planting of any

species of bullhead appears unnecessary and undesirable.

Northern Pike (Esox lucius)

As far back as the records go Lake Wingra has supported an

excellent population of this large predator, which was sought

after by both commercial and sport fishermen (B6, B7). As the

maximum-size records indicate, this fish reaches the largest size

of any species in Lake Wingra. A limited amount of planting of

this fish was carried out in 1922 and from 1940-1942. The most

recent plantings may have had some influence on the great in¬

crease in the number of northern pike caught in the 1944 and

1945 carp seinings over the number caught in the 1936 carp

seinings. The population of this fish seems to be somewhat de¬

pleted at present, probably as the result of the extremely heavy

fishing pressure to which Lake Wingra is subjected. Continuous

stocking of northern pike hngerlings seems desirable, both as a

panfish and carp control measure, and to improve the game

fishing.

Noland — Hydrography of Lake Wingra

49

Muskalonge-Northern Pike Hybrid (Esox masquinongy immacu-

latus X Esox lucius)

Beginning in 1940 and continuing through 1948 these hybrids

have been planted in Lake Wingra as an experimental measure.

Many have been caught by fishermen but those v^hich were not

immediately caught reached a large size, as indicated by the

estimated sizes of those caught in the carp seinings beginning

in 1944.

White Bass (Lepibema chrysops)

No evidence was found that white bass were present in Lake

Wingra prior to the first planting of 900 fingerlings in 1917.

Although no further plantings were made until 1933, W. L.

Tressler reported in 1930 that perch and white bass were

numerous in the waters of Lake Wingra (Tl). The 1936 carp

seinings revealed a substantial population of white bass.

Yellow Bass (Morone interrupta)

This Mississippi River species was reported from Lake

Wingra for the first time in the 1944 carp seining where it

ranked fourth in abundance among the panfish caught. It was

probably introduced as the result of fish rescue and transfer

operations. It rose rapidly in abundance and became by far the

commonest panfish in Lake Wingra, although hook and line

catches by fishermen give no indication of this fact.

Perch (Perea flavescens)

The extensive gill-net catches made by A. S. Pearse and

H. Achtenberg in 1916 indicate that perch were then by far the

most abundant panfish in the lake (P5). The perch were small

in size, however, since the average “standard'^ length (does not

include tail fin) was 14.16 cm. (5.6 in.) and the maximum was

18.0 cm. (7.1 in.) (P5). Again in 1930 W. L. Tressler reported

that perch and white bass were numerous in the waters of Lake

Wingra (Tl). As in the case of the golden shiner, the far more

abundant perch were also completely missed in all of the carp

seinings on account of their relatively small size and elongated

shape. Perch have now declined to the position of third most

abundant panfish but the personal observations of the present

writer indicate that the maximum size has increased above that

reported by A. S. Pearse and H. Achtenberg for 1916. Whether

or not this increase in size is due to the introduction of genetic

50 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

‘‘new blood’’ by the plantings made from 1938-1940 is interest¬

ing to speculate.

Walleye ( Stizostedion vitreum vitreum)

This species was probably present in Lake Wingra before

planting was started in 1900 (Rl). A number of large plantings

listed as “miscellaneous” walleyes were made from 1900-1907.

Judging from the numbers of fish planted, “miscellaneous” must

refer to fry, since a total of 2,655,000 were planted. From 1908-

1943, 12,528,050 fry were planted, the most recent planting being

of 7,000,000 in 1943. Fifteen adults were planted in 1940. The

carp-seining data indicate that the walleye is one of the prin¬

cipal game fish in Lake Wingra and that it has been most abun¬

dant at times of northern pike scarcity, and conversely. Consid¬

ering the substantial numbers of walleyes present, they are

rather rarely encountered by fishermen.

Northern Smallmouth Bass (Micropterus dolomieu dolomieu)

This species is mentioned once in the early records under the

local name of “yellow bass” (Rl). It was reported from the gill-

net catches of A. S. Pearse and H. Achtenberg in 1916 (P5). It

was reported as a little less abundant than the largemouth bass

in the 1936 carp seinings (J2), which indicates that it was

present in fair abundance. None were reported in the 1944 carp

seining or in any subsequent net hauls. Smallmouth bass may be

considered absent from Lake Wingra at present.

What has caused the decline of the smallmouth bass is not

clear. Flagrant law violations in the removal of bass during

their spawning season from above the Lake Wingra lock, ob¬

served by the present writer, may have been a contributing

factor. Since the planting records prior to 1937 refer only to

“black bass” it is not known whether any smallmouth bass were

planted under that designation. None have been planted since.

The frequent presence of crayfish in the stomachs of the yellow

bullheads caught by the writer indicates that the main source of

food of adult smallmouths is not lacking. Consequently, it might

be worthwhile to attempt to re-establish this popular game fish

by a trial planting of fingerlings.

Largemouth Bass (Huro salmoides)

As far back as the records go Lake Wingra has, as in the

case of the northern pike, supported an excellent population of

Noland — Hydrography of Lake Wingra

51

this large predator, which was sought after by both commercial

and sport fishermen (B6, B7). It has appeared in good numbers

in all of the carp seinings and small specimens under the legal

size of 10 inches have been abundant in the past few years.

From 1937-1944 the lake was well stocked with fingerlings, as

well as 1,000 yearlings in 1941 and 77 adults in 1940. If the

present rate of natural reproduction continues, as evidenced by

large numbers of small largemouth bass, further stocking seems

unnecessary.

Sunfish (Lepomis gibbosus)

The sunfish is and has been one of the most abundant inhab¬

itants of the shallow weedy areas of Lake Wingra and is fre¬

quently caught by fishermen. A. R. Cahn reports it as one of the

most common species during 1913-1914 (Cl) and A. S. Pearse

and H. Achtenberg caught it rather frequently in their gill nets

in 1916 (P5). In view of its small size and presence chiefly in the

shore areas, it is understandable that it has not appeared abun¬

dant from the carp-seining data. The limited amount of sunfish-

bluegill hybridization which occurs, as indicated by the three

hybrids in the catches of the writer, is not surprising in view of

the abundance of both parent species in the lake.

Bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus macrochirus)

This popular panfish is and has been the fish most sought

after and most frequently caught by the majority of worm fish¬

ermen. It was reported in 1905 (Mil) and A. R. Cahn described

it as one of the commonest fish in the lake during 1913-1914

(Cl). It was caught frequently in the gill nets of A. S. Pearse

and H. Achtenberg in 1916 (P5). It has been well represented in

the carp seinings. According to the most recent data it was the

fourth most abundant species of panfish. From 1939-1944 the

lake was well stocked with bluegills. There seems to be no indi¬

cation at present of an overpopulation of bluegills.

Rock Bass (Ambloplites rupestris rupestris)

The only report of rock bass from Lake Wingra is that of

A. R. Cahn for 1913-1914 (Cl). A. S. Pearse reported in 1921

that the rock bass was absent from Lake Wingra (P4). It also

appears to be completely absent at present. It might be re¬

established by planting along the rocky part of the Edgewood

shore and along the Vilas Park shore where the shore has been

52

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

formed by an artificial rock fill. The frequent presence of cray¬

fish in the stomachs of the yellow bullheads caught by the

present writer indicates that the principal food of adult rock

bass is not lacking, and in addition rock bass seem able to

tolerate rather high temperatures.

White Crappie (Pomoxis annularis)

No evidence was found that the white crappie is native to

Lake Wingra. A. S. Pearse devoted an entire paper (P3) to the

black crappie in Lake Wingra but gave no indication of the

presence of the white crappie during 1916-1917, and no white

crappies were reported in the extensive gill net catches made by

A. S. Pearse and H. Achtenberg in 1916 (P5). The first report

of the white crappie was in the 1944 carp seining, where it

appeared in tremendous numbers, indicating it to be the most

abundant panfish in the lake, which position it continued to hold

at least through 1946, as indicated by the gill-net catches of Dr.

John C. Neess. It was probably introduced as the result of fish

rescue and transfer operations.

Black Crappie (Pomoxis nigro-maculatus)

This popular panfish, frequently referred to locally as the

' ‘silver bass,’’ is the native crappie of Lake Wingra. It was re¬

ported for 1902-1903 (M11‘) and A. R. Cahn described it as one

of the commonest species during 1913-1914 (Cl). A. S. Pearse

described it as among the dominant species during 1916-1917

(P3)'. It ranked second in abundance among the panfish in the

1944 carp seining, overshadowed in a 31/2 to 1 ratio by the white

crappie. It ranked fifth in abundance among the panfish in the

1945-1947 gill-net catches of Dr. John C. Neess, overshadowed

in a 10 to 1 ratio by the white crappie.

Forage Fish

In addition to the fish previously discussed in detail it should

be mentioned that the following species have been reported from

Lake Wingra or its tributaries :

Blackchin Shiner (Notropis heterodon)

Reported as one of the commonest species during 1913-1914

(Cl).

(Notropis cayuga)

Reported during 1913-1914 (Cl).

Noland — Hydrography of Lake Wingra

53

Blunt-Nosed Minnow (Hyborhynchus notatus)

Reported during 1916-1917 (P3).

Western Mudminnow (Umbra limi)

Reported during 1913-1914 (Cl), 1914 (PI), and 1915 (P2).

Western Banded Killifish (Fundulus diaphanus menona)

Reported during 1913-1914 (Cl), 1915 (P2), and 1916-1917

(P3).

Central Johnny Darter (Boleosoma nigrum nigrum)

Reported during 1913-1914 (Cl).

Northern Silverside (Labidesthes sicculus sicculus)

Reported during 1913-1914 (Cl) and 1916-1917 (P3).

Brook Stickleback (Eucalia inconstans)

Reported during 1913-1914 (Cl), 1914 (PI), 1915 (P2), and

1916-1917 (P3).

E. Conclusion

In spite of its large carp population Lake Wingra is a good

panfish lake. In the opinion of the present writer it might be

even better if yellow bass and white bass, which are not caught

by the majority of fishermen, had never been introduced, since

they presumably compete directly for food with other more-

sought-after panfish. Certainly it can be said that there is plenty

of variety to be had among the species of panfish. The principal

management problems seem to be (1) carp control and (2)

encouragement of predation by all possible means as a carp- and

panfish-control measure and to improve the game fishing. Carp

control can be effected by frequent large-scale seinings and it is

to be hoped that this measure will be used even more in the

future than it has been in the past. Predation has been encour¬

aged by the planting of muskalonge-northern pike hybrids, and

this is to be commended, but it is suggested that the same effect

might be created more economically by the planting of finger-

lings of either or both species alone. The rate of natural repro¬

duction of largemouth bass seems to be satisfactory.

III. The Turtle Population of Lake Wingra

In 1915 A. R. Cahn wrote (Cl, p. 135), “The reptiles (of

Lake Wingrai) are represented by the painted turtle and the

54

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

snapping turtle; the former is found quite often in the swamp,

while the latter is more strictly limnetic, yet both may be said to

be characteristically aquatic.” The situation has changed little

since that time because the present turtle population of Lake

Wingra is predominantly composed of painted turtles (Chry-

semys picta marginata) and snapping turtles (Chelydra ser¬

pentina serpentina). Professor Arthur D. Hasler reports that

specimens of Blanding’s turtle (Emys blandingii) have been

collected by members of his field zoology classes in the Arbo¬

retum within one-half mile of Lake Wingra, and in June, 1947,

the present writer observed a very large specimen two miles

southwest of Lake Wingra at the pond along the Chicago and

Northwestern Railway. The soft-shelled turtle (Amyda spinifera

spinifera) is sparingly present in Lake Wingra. Dr. John C.

Neess reports that two specimens, one a large one, were caught

in the Wisconsin Conservation Department carp seine on Octo¬

ber 26, 1944, and that the larger specimen is preserved in the

University of Wisconsin Zoology Department collection. George

J. Behrnd, who has fished the lake for many years, also told the

writer that on a few occasions he has seen soft-shelled turtles

in Lake Wingra.

On a number of occasions when fishing with worms in Lake

Wingra, the writer has had a series of unexplained “bites” only

to see the head of a painted turtle appear a minute later a foot

or two away from the cork. This turtle is apparently quite cau¬

tious about taking the hook in its mouth since it is rather rarely

caught by fishermen.

The snapping turtle, which reaches a large size in Lake

Wingra, is frequently caught by fishermen. It serves as a very

useful scavenger by consuming dead fish, which would otherwise

rot along the shoreline and give off bad odors. Several times, just

after dusk, the writer has observed a large snapping turtle,

swimming slowly along the shoreline, removing dead fish, includ¬

ing some which were not freshly dead. The disappearance of

quite a few fish from stringers left unattended in the water can

be ascribed to similar causes, and occasionally the “snapper” has

been caught in the act. When a fisherman realizes he has on his

line a snapping turtle, which has not already swallowed the hook,

he can usually avoid hooking it by not pulling too hard and by

letting the turtle swim around until it gets tired or runs out of

Noland — Hydrography of Lake Wingra

55

breath and lets go. The destruction of this splendid scavenger

by thoughtless fishermen, or by drowning in nets, is indeed

unfortunate.

IV. References

(Bl) Information provided by George J. Behrnd.

(B2) J. D. Black, “The Fish Population of Lake Wingra as Revealed by

Commercial Seining Operations/’ Ms.

(B3) C. E. Brown, “Lake Wingra,” Wisconsin Archeologist, IJ/., 75, 78,

104, and Plate 9 opposite 104 (1915).

(B4) C. E. Brown, “The Springs of Lake Wingra,” Wisconsin Magazine

of History, 10, 298-301 (1927).

(B5) C. E. Brown, section entitled, “The Arboretum Springs,” in L. C.

Brown, “History of the University of Wisconsin Arboretum,” Ms., 1934.

(B6) C. E. Brown, “Additional Arboretum History,” Ms., 1935.

(B6a) Ihid., section entitled, “A Big Lake Wingra Fish,” May 20, 1935.

(B6b) Ihid., section entitled, “Lake Wingra Fish.”

(B6c) Ihid., section entitled, “Lake Wingra Boat Livery.”

(B7) L. C. Brown, “History of the University of Wisconsin Arboretum,”

Ms., 1934.

(Cl) A. R. Cahn, “An Ecological Survey of the Wingra Springs Region,”

Bulletin of the Wisconsin Natural History Society, 13, 123-177 (1915).

(C2) The Capital Times, Mar. 22, 1946, p. 1.

(C3) W. J. Chase and L. E. Noland, “The History and Hydrography of

Lake Ripley,” Transactions of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences,

Arts, and Letters, 23, 179-186 (1928).

(C4) L. J. Cole, “The German Carp in the United States,” Annual Report

of the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries (1904), p. 547.

(Dl) Information provided by Mrs. Farrington Daniels.

(D2) H. E. Davis, “An Ecological Study of the Southern Shore of Lake

Wingra,” B. A. thesis. University of Wisconsin Department of Botany,

1910, pp. 34-35.

(D3) B. P. Domogalla, “Eleven Years of Chemical Treatment of the Madi¬

son Lakes: Its Effect on Fish and Fish Foods,” Transactions of the

American Fisheries Society, 65, 116 (1935).

(D4) B. P. Domogalla and E. B. Fred, “Ammonia and Nitrate Studies of

Lakes Near Madison, Wis.,” Journal of the American Society of

Agronomy, 18, 899 (1926).

(D5) Estimate provided by Lyle E. Dye, Supervisor of Rough Fish Con¬

trol, Wisconsin Conservation Department.

(El) S. Eddy and T. Surber, “Northern Fishes,” University of Minnesota

Press, Minneapolis, 2nd ed., 1947, p. 178.

(HI) Information provided by Prof. Arthur D. Hasler.

(H2) A. D. Hasler and J. C. Neess, “Life History and Ecology of the

Gar,” Ms., 1946, p. 1.

(H3) M. H’Doubler, “An Ecological Study of the Flora of the Southern

Bank of Lake Wingra,” B. A. thesis. University of Wisconsin Depart¬

ment of Botany, 1910, pp. 27-28.

56 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

(H4) E. F. Herman and C. Hageman, Report of the 1945 fyke net studies

on Lake Wingra, Wisconsin Conservation Department, Ms.

(H5) P. H. Hintze, “Map of Lake Wingra,” Sept. 26, 1916, contour in¬

terval 2 ft., scale 1 in. = 300 ft. (A blueprint is now in the files of the

University of Wisconsin Arboretum Committee.)

(H6) Information provided by Elmer F. Herman, Fisheries Biologist,

Southern Area Headquarters, Wisconsin Conservation Department.

(Jl) C. JuDAY, section entitled “Lake Wingra” in “The Hydrography and

Morphometry of the Inland Lakes of Wisconsin,” Bulletin 27 of the

Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey, 1914, p. 28.

(J2) C. JuDAY, Fish Records for Lake Wingra,” Transactions of the Wis¬

consin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters, 81, 533-534 (1938).

(J3) Information provided by Joseph W. Jackson.

(Kl) J. Kendall, “Notes on the Flora of Lake Wingra,” B. A. thesis.

University of Wisconsin Department of Botany, 1928, p. 3.

(K2) Information provided by S. M. Kernan.

(LI) A. Leopold, “The Chase Journal: An Early Record of Wisconsin

Wildlife,” Transactions of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts,

and Letters, 30, 69-76 (1937).

(L2) A. Leopold and S. E. Jones, “A Phenological Record for Sauk and

Dane Counties, Wisconsin, 1935-1945,” Ecological Monographs, 17,

81-122 (1947).

(L3) Information provided by Prof. G. Wm. Longenecker, Director of the

University of Wisconsin Arboretum.

(L4) Information provided by Charles Lloyd, Assistant Superintendent of

Fish Management, Wisconsin Conservation Department.

(Ml) Annual Report of the Madison Park and Pleasure Drive Association

(1904), p. 46.

(M2) Ihid. (1905), pp. 36, 39.

(M3) Ihid. (1906), pp. 39-42.

(M4) Ihid. (1907), pp. 32, 35-36.

(M4a) Ihid. (1907), “General Plan of Henry Vilas Park,” Oct. 1906, map

opposite p. 32.

(M5) Ihid. (1908), pp. 29-30.

(M6) Ihid. (1913), pp. 16-17.

(M7) Ihid. (1914),pp. 9, 53.

(M8) Ihid. (1917-1918), pp. 26-29.

(M9) Ihid. (1919-1920), pp. 11, 23.

(MIO) Information provided by Madison Park Superintendent James G.

Marshall.

(MlOa) “Contour Map of Proposed Wingra Lake Park,” contour interval

2 ft., scale 1 in. = 100 ft.. May 20, 1904. Blueprint provided by Mad¬

ison Park Superintendent James G. Marshall. (Now in the files of the

University of Wisconsin Arboretum Committee.)

(Mil) W. iS. Marshall and N. C. Gilbert, “Notes on the Food and Para¬

sites of Some Fresh-Water Fishes from the Lakes at Madison, Wis.,”

Appendix to the Report of the U. S. Commissioner of Fisheries for

1904, 513-522 (1905).

Noland — Hydrography of Lake Wingra

57

(M12) E. A. Moritz, “Hydrographic Map of Lake Wingra,” contour in¬

terval 2 ft., scale 1 in. ,^=3 300 ft. A blackline copy, % original size, was

provided by Madison Park Superintendent James G. Marshall. (Now

in the files of the University of Wisconsin Arboretum Committee.)

(Nl) Information provided by Dr. John C. Neess.

(N2) M. S. Nichols, T. Henkel, and D. McNall, “Copper in Lake Muds

from Lakes of the Madison Area,” Transactions of the Wisconsin

Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters, 28, 333-350 (1946).

(N3) Information provided by Prof. Lowell E. Noland.

(N4) L. E. Noland, “Factors Influencing the Distribution of Freshwater

Ciliates,” Ph. D. thesis. University of Wisconsin Department of Zool¬

ogy, 1924, pp. 9, 20-21.

(N5) Personal Fishing Records of Wayland E. Noland, Ms.

(N6) Information provided by Madison Assistant Water Superintendent

Elmer L. Nordness.

(PI) A. S. Pearse, “On the Food of the Small Shore Fishes in the Waters

Near Madison, Wis.,” Bulletin of the Wisconsin Natural History

Society, 13, 7-22 (1915).

(P2) A. B. Pearse, “The Food of the Shore Fishes of Certain Wisconsin

Lakes,” Bulletin of the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, 35, 247-292 (1915-

1916, issued in 1918).

(P3) A. S. Pearse, “Habits of the Black Crappie in Inland Lakes of Wis¬

consin,” Appendix 3 to the Report of the U. S. Commissioner of Fish¬

eries for 1918, 1-16 (1919).

(P4) A. S. Pearse, “The Distribution and Food of the Fishes of Three

Wisconsin Lakes in 'Summer,” University of Wisconsin Studies in

Science, Madison, no. 3, 27 (1921).

(P5) A. S. Pearse and H. Achtenberg, “Habits of Yellow Perch in Wis¬

consin Lakes,” Bulletin of the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, 36, 295-366

(1917-1918, issued in 1920).

(P6) R. B. Pyre, Wisconsin State Journal, Dec. 11, 1938, p. 7.

(P7) R. B. Pyre, Wisconsin State Journal, April 3, 1949, p. 32.

(Rl) L. B. Rowley, “Lake Wingra and its Borders in the Seventies,” Ms.,

1934.

(51) Information provided by Edgar A. Schlueter.

(52) 0. C. SiMONDS, “Plan of Henry Vilas Park,” Oct. 1906, Annual Re¬

port of the Madison Park and Pleasure Drive Association (1906), map

opposite p. 38.

(53) L. S. Smith, “Hydrographic Map of Lake Monona,” Wisconsin Geo¬

logical and Natural History Survey, 1901, contour interval 5 ft., scale

1 in. 1= ^ mi.

(Tl) W. L. Tressler, “Limnological Studies on Lake Wingra,” Ph. D.

thesis, University of Wisconsin Department of Zoology, 1930, p. 5.

(Tla) Ibid., Fig. 1, “Lake Wingra,” contour interval 1 meter, map between

pp. 2-3.

(T2) W. L. Tressler and B. P. Domogalla, “Limnological Studies of Lake

Wingra,” Transactions of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts,

and Letters, 26, 331-351 (1931).

58 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

(Ul) From the records of the U. S. Weather Bureau, North Hall, Madison

6, Wis.

(Ula) “Sept. 1947 Monthly Meteorological Summary,’’ U. S. Weather

Bureau, North Hall, Madison 6, Wis.

(Wl) L. Wing, “Freezing and Thawing Dates of Lakes and Rivers as

Phenological Indicators,” Monthly Weather Review, 71, 149-158 (1943).

(W2) From the daily reports of the supervising wardens in the records of

the Wisconsin Conservation Department.

(W3) The Wisconsin State Journal, July 27, 1947, p. 5.

(W4) Ibid., July 29, 1948, p. 8.

(W5) S. Wright, “A Chemical and Plankton Study of Lake Wingra,”

Ph. D. thesis. University of Wisconsin Department of Zoology, 1928,

p. 9.

A CYTOLOGICAL STUDY OF THE ANTERIOR LOBE OF

THE PITUITARY IN RELATION TO THE ESTROUS

CYCLE IN VIRGIN HEIFERS*

Ferdinand Paredis/ Banner Bill Morgan and

Samuel H. McNutt

Department of Veterinary Science, University of

Wisconsin, Madison

Introduction

The pituitary gland of the cow lies in the hypophyseal fossa

and is bounded dorsally by the presphenoid cartilage of the

basi-sphenoid bone. The gland is connected by the stalk or in¬

fundibulum to the brain. It is ovoid in shape and measures from

15 to 26 mm. long by 10 to 20 mm. wide by 8 to 16 mm. thick.

The weight of the fresh gland ranges from 1.5 to 3 grams. The

hypophysis consists of distinct anterior, intermediate and poste¬

rior lobes. The residual lumen or cleft separates the gland into

two portions, one containing the anterior lobe and one contain¬

ing the intermediate and posterior lobes. The anterior lobe with

which we are concerned in this study is the largest portion of

the gland and constitutes 70 per cent of the total weight. The

anterior lobe ranges in weight in dairy breeds from 1.3 to 2.6

grams. Very little detailed information concerning the cytolog-

ical picture of this gland in the cow in relation to the estrous

cycle is available.

The present study was undertaken to consider critically the

gross anatomy, histology and cytology of the anterior lobe of the

pituitary gland during the estrous cycle in young virgin heifers.

Information so derived may be of value in the further under¬

standing of pathological changes of the pituitary induced by

various causes and should represent a basic contribution to the

knowledge of the physiology of bovine reproduction. This paper

* Published with the approval of the Director of the Wisconsin Ag-ricul-

tural Experiment Station. Project No. 622-V; Trichomoniasis and other repro¬

ductive diseases of cattle.

1 State University of Gent, Belgium, Department of Veterinary Obstetrics

and Gynecology. Aided by a grant from the Institute for Research in Industry

and Agriculture, Brussels, Belgium.

59

60 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

reports a continuation of research by Weber et at. (1948) and

Reutner and Morgan (1948) on the histology of the bovine

reproductive tract.

Review of the Literature

There is little information on the weight and measurements

of the anterior lobe in virgin heifers. Peremenschko (1868),

Dostojewsky (1886), Herring (1908), Trautman (1909), Lewis

and Turner (1939) reported that the anterior lobe definitely

constituted the larger portion of the gland. Although Gilmore

et al. (1941) weighed a series of anterior lobes, the age range of

the animals involved was not comparable to those represented in

our study. In a group of 18 females and 1 male the average

weight of the anterior lobe was 1.442 grams.

The histological structures of the bovine pituitary gland

apparently was described first by Dostojewsky (1886) who ob¬

served acidophilic cells along the periphery, basophiles and

chromophobes in the center of the gland. Trautman (1909) clas¬

sified the cell types of the bovine pituitary gland which included

strongly staining chromophile cells (acidophiles and basophiles),

weakly staining chromophile cells (acidophiles and basophiles)

and chromophobe cells. These findings were confirmed by other

workers including Wulzen (1914), Herring (1914), Bell (1919),

De Beer (1926), Cermak (1932), Soos (1934), Biickenstabb

(1934), Beato (1935), Gilmore et al. (1941) and House (1942).

Wittek (1913), Schonberg and Sakaguchi (1917) and Beato

(1935) noted large numbers of eosinophiles and/or the low

number of basophiles in the anterior lobe of the bovine pituitary.

The differentiation of the basophilic cells was studied by Hall

and Hunt (1938) and Hall (1938).

Confirmation of the occurrence of chromophobe cells in the

bovine pituitary was made by Schonberg and Sakaguchi (1917),

Smith and Smith (1923), Howes (1929,) and Spaul and Howes

(1930). In general, these cells are found to be more numerous

in the central areas of the gland. Gilmore et al. (1941) were the

first to make differential cell counts in the anterior lobe of the

bovine pituitary. Their data were based on 12 cows of various

ages and sexual stages. The average showed 44.27 per cent acido¬

philes (ranging from 17.69 to 60.4 per cent), 6.98 basophiles

(ranging from 2.24 to 10.82 per cent) and 48.74 chromophobes

(ranging from 33.36 to 72.69 per cent) .

Paredis, et al. — Anterior Pituitary during Estrous 61

Although a considerable amount of work has been done on

the cytological changes in the anterior lobe in relation to the

estrous cycle in other species, especially in laboratory animals

(guinea pig, rat, rabbit, pig, dog and cat) little information is

available concerning the bovine. In the guinea pig Chadwick

(1936) found that during the luteal phase of the estrous cycle

there was a low level of chromophiles. After regression of the

corpora lutea a rapid elevation of the levels of chromophile cells

occurred while the degranulation of the basophiles took place in

early estrus and that of the eosinophiles in late estrus. Hagquist

(1938) noticed that the variations in the number of cells of the

different types in relation to the cycle in the guinea pig were not

statistically significant. He found the degree of granulation in

basophiles and acidophiles increased during the first part of the

cycle and decreased during heat. Kirkman (1937,) observed a

drop in the percentage of basophiles at the time of estrus in the

guinea pig.

Charipper and Haterius (1930) found eosinophiles and baso¬

philes in the rat pituitary during late diestrus; basophiles and

a few faintly staining eosinophiles during late estrus. Reese

(1932) observed in the rat that the eosinophilic cells were filled

with intensively staining granules during estrus, while they were

lightly stained during diestrus. Wolfe (1935) found no varia¬

tions in the percentage of the different cell types in rat pitui-

taries during the various phases of the estrous cycle. During

estrus the eosinophiles were filled with granules, in diestrus they

were often stained lightly. The basophiles showed more definite

variations; heavily granulated basophiles were at their highest

level during proestrus. At the beginning of estrus and during

estrus and metaestrus, they showed a marked loss of granules.

Granulation was restored during diestrus.

Wolfe, Cleveland and Campbell (1932) studied the gland in

the dog and found two differential staining types of cells instead

of the single basophilic type. One type showed an increase in

granulation, size and number during proestrus. The number of

cells decreased before ovulation but became scarce during the

luteal phase. The acidophile cells followed about the same pat¬

tern of behavior. Wolfe and Cleveland (1933) noticed in the

albino rat a constant number of acidophiles throughout the cycle,

the amount of granulation, however, being highest at the time

of estrus. When the corpora lutea were active as in pseudo-

62 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

pregnancy a drop occurred in the number of these cells. The

basophilic cells became degranulated during diestrus.

Wolfe, Phelps and Cleveland (1934) found the percentage of

chromophiles quite high in the rabbit at the time of estrus.

When the doe was mated, a distinct drop in the number of baso-

philes followed and this figure was lowest point 5 days after

copulation. Severinghaus (1939) noted the beginning of the de¬

granulation of basophiles and increased secretory activity at one

hour after coitus. In a comprehensive review of the subject he

discussed the hypophyseal cytology in relation to the reproduc¬

tive hormones.

Cleveland and Wolfe (1933) observed that the basophiles

were maximal at proestrus and low during the luteal phase in

the sow.

Materials and Methods

Fourteen clinically normal virgin heifers (Holstein-Friesian

breed) ranging from 14 to 20 months of age were used in this

study. All of the animals were obtained as calves and when used

in the experiment were negative to the tuberculin tests and bru¬

cellosis agglutination tests. They were kept in ideal quarters,

fed an adequate balanced ration and allowed to exercise. The

animals were observed carefully for external signs of estrus.

In addition, rectal palpations were made daily on each animal

during at least three estrous cycles. The animals were slaugh¬

tered at various intervals (Table 1) .

The pituitaries were removed as soon as possible and placed

in Mossman’s, Helly’s or Regaud's fixative. The latter gave the

most satisfactory results. Sections were cut at 5 microns begin¬

ning at the median sagittal plane proceeding toward the lateral

sides of the gland. Approximately each 50th section was

mounted and three slides were selected for study from each

gland, including the first section obtained and one at each third

of the distance from the middle to the side of the gland. Sections

were stained with Ehrlich's hematoxylin, blued, postchromated

and counterstained with erythrosin, orange G and aniline blue

according to the method of Cleveland and Wolfe (1932).

Results

In general, the findings of others regarding the distribution

of the several main cell types has been confirmed. The acido-

Paredis, et al. — Anterior Pituitary during Estrous 63

philic cells were most numerous although the incidence of baso¬

philic cells often equaled and sometimes surpassed that of the

acidophilic cells in number. The nucleus showed a vesicular

structure with a distinct nuclear membrane, 2 to 3 nucleoli and,

except for chromatin masses and a fine network, a colorless

nucleoplasm in most cells. The nucleus was slightly eccentric in

position. The cytoplasm was closely packed with deep yellow

staining granules. When less granules appeared a faint coloring

developed and occasionally some cells were more orange-red

rather than yellow. The acidophilic cells were ovoid in shape

and varied in diameter from 8 to 14 microns.

TABLE 1

Proportion of the Different Cell Types of the Anterior Lobe of the

Pituitary Gland of 14 Virgin Heifers Sacrificed at

Various Intervals of the Estrous Cycle

The basophilic cells were of two forms or types. The cyto¬

plasm of the smallest type measured 4 to 9 microns, was filled

with blue staining material and the small nucleus appeared

mostly as an eosinophilic mass. The cytoplasm of the larger cells,

ranging from 9 to 14 microns, was more granular, the nucleus

was of the vesicular type.

The chromophobe cells measured 10.17 microns, with a gray

to faint blue staining cytoplasm. The nucleus was similar in size

64 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

to that of the eosinophiles and larger basophiles, although some¬

times a little larger and more irregular. The cell border could

hardly be distinguished.

Mitosis of pituitary cells could not be observed in this work.

Three slides from each gland were studied, including every fifth

field in every fifth row, thus covering an area equivalent to about

one-seventh of the section. Every cell with eosinophilic inclusions

was considered to be an eosinophile and cells with the nucleus

inside the area were counted. Results of these cell counts are

given in Table 1.

The average for the 14 glands was 50.0 per cent acidophiles,

8.1 per cent basophiles and 41.9 per cent chromophobes. The

amount of colloidal substance in the glands varied greatly. In

two glands a few cavities were found, ranging from 50 to 450

microns in diameter, the lumen of which was covered with cili¬

ated epithelium. Filling the lumen was an aniline blue staining

colloidal material. According to Dostojewsky (1886) this struc¬

ture was probably first observed by Luschka in 1860.

A study of Table 1 indicates a wide variation in the percent¬

ages of the different cell types in the glands studied. No correla¬

tion with cellular activity of the anterior lobe of the pituitary

gland with the estrous cycle could be detected.

Summary

Counts of the cells of the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland

of 14 virgin heifers showed an average percentage of 50.0 for

the acidophiles, 8.1 per cent for the basophiles, 41.9 per cent for

the chromophobes. A relationship of relative cell numbers to the

stage of ovarian activity was not apparent.

Acknowledgments

The authors are indebted to Dr. Alvin F. Weber, Department

of Veterinary Science, University of Wisconsin for technical aid

throughout these studies. Thanks are due to Dr. M. Vande-

plassche. Department of Veterinary Obstetrics and Gynecology,

State University of Gent, Belgium, for his liberal encouragement

in this work.

Paredis, et at.-— -Anterior Pituitary during Estrous 65

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Bell, W. B. 1919. The Pituitary. Wm. Wood and Co., N. Y. 368 pp.

Blickenstaff, P. H. 1934. Some studies on the hypophysis cerebri of

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Cermak, H. 1932. Das Verhalten der Hypophysen bei einigen Rindern.

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Chadwick, C. S. 1936. Cyclic morphologic variations in the anterior hypo¬

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Charipper, H. a. and H. O. Haterius. 1930. The histology of the anterior

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Cleveland, R. and J. M. Wolfe. 1932. A differential stain for the anterior

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hanges. Arch. Mikr. Anat., 26 : 592-598.

Gilmore, L. O., W. E. Petersen and A. T. Rasmussen. 1941. Some mor¬

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Hall, S. R. 1938. Possible evidence for a second type of basophile in the

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Howes, N. H. 1929. A histological study of the ox pituitary gland after

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Kirkman, H. 1937. A cytological study of the anterior hypophysis of the

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61 : 233-287.

Lewis, A. A. and C. W. Turner. 1939. The mamogenic hormones of the

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Anat. Rec., 52 : 74.

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ScHONBERG, G. and Y. Sakaguchi. 1917. Der Einfluss der Kastration auf

die Hypophyse des Rindes. Frankfurter Zeitschraft f. Path., 20 : 231-

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Severinghaus, a. E. 1939. Anterior hypophyseal cytology in relation to

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bovine anterior hypophysis of the principle reacting with the endocrine

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Topographie und die Bedeutung der basophilen Zellen der Hypophyse.

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the anterior pituitary of the ox. J. Exp. Biol., 7 : 154-164.

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schiedenen Geschlechtern in der Graviditat und nach der Kastration.

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changes in the anterior hypophysis of the dog. Anat. Rec., 52 : 44.

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anterior hypophysis of the albino rat. Anat. Rec., 55 : 233-249.

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Anat. Rec., 8 : 403-414.

HISTORY AND PLATO’S MEDICINAL LIE

Robert K. Richardson

In a collection of Mark Twain’s pieces entitled The Stolen

White Elephant, copyrighted 1882, is an essay “On the Decay of

the Art of Lying.” The subtitle indicates that it was read “at a

meeting of the Historical and Antiquarian Club of Hartford, and

offered for the Thirty-dollar Prize.” A footnote facetiously adds :

“Did not take the prize.”

The essayist explained that he was not speaking about the

“custom of lying,” for, said he, “the Lie, as a Virtue, a Prin¬

ciple, is eternal,” and drove home his point with the further

words: “The Lie, as a recreation, a solace, a refuge in time of

need, the fourth Grace, the tenth Muse, man’s best and surest

friend, is immortal, and cannot perish from the earth while this

Club remains.” He summarized his position early in the Address

in the remark : ^'Judicious lying is what the world needs. I some¬

times think it were even better and safer not to lie at all than to

lie injudiciously. An awkward, unscientific lie is often as ineffec¬

tual as the truth.” The sermonette ended with the exordium:

“Joking aside, I think there is much need of wise examination

into what sorts of lies are best and wholesomest to be indulged,

seeing we must all lie and do all lie, and what sorts it may be

best to avoid, — and this is a thing which I feel I can confidently

put into the hands of this experienced Club, — a ripe body, who

may be termed, in this regard, and without undue flattery. Old

Masters.”

Mark was, of course, jesting about what he called minor

“deflections from the truth,” and particularly about those asso¬

ciated, and still associated, with the social amenities. And yet

what the humorist said about the lie as an eternal principle,

what he dropped about the need of the world for judicious lying,

were notably close to the content of one of Plato’s most famous

pages! Having, in the earlier part of the Republic, imagined a

state, governed, doubtless, by the best for the good of all, but a

state in which governors and soldiers alike are deprived of pri¬

vate property and are regimented in, or rather out of, family

life like dogs in breeding kennels, while the masses take orders

67

68 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

from the managing classes as Russian peasants accept the rule

of commissars and soviets, Plato must at length raise and

answer the question: How get this thing started? How induce

these graded classes to accept their assigned roles? His solution

is the famous ‘‘medicinal lie,’' a well-begotten fiction.

By what artifice then [says Socrates] may we devise one

of those opportune falsehoods of which we were speaking a

while back, something noble, whereby we may, above all,

deceive the rulers and, in any case, the rest of the city?

Urged to explain himself he continues :

Well, then, I will speak: and yet I really do not know

how to muster the recklessness to begin or what words to

use. I will try first to persuade the rulers themselves, and

the soldiers, and then the rest of the city, that the education

and training already received from us were illusions; they

were but fancying, as in dreams, that they actually experi¬

enced these things, whereas, in reality, they were all that

time being fashioned and nourished in the Earth, where

they themselves, their weapons, and the rest of their equip¬

ment, were manufactured. And when everything was done,

their mother, the Earth, sent them up: and so they must

take thought for the country in which they live as for their

mother and nurse, and must defend her if attacked, and

must look upon the rest of the citizens as earth-born

brothers. . . . “no doubt, all of you who dwell in the state

are brothers,” we shall say to them, keeping up the fiction,

“but when the god formed you, he mingled gold in the com¬

position of such of you as were suitable for ruling, where¬

fore they are most honored; and silver in those fit to be

auxiliaries ; and iron and brass in the farmers and the rest

of the workers. As you are originally all of the same stock,

you will commonly have children like yourselves.”

Socrates concludes his imagined propaganda — which, like the

Athenian in The Laws, he relates to the ancient tale of Cadmus

and the Dragon’s Teeth — by providing for a certain “circula¬

tion” from and into the elite in any instances where the gold and

the brass are occasionally found misplaced, and by explaining

that though an existing generation were beyond persuasion of

these fictions, the belief might gradually lay hold of later gen¬

erations.

Plato’s is, of course, a magnificent lie, a lie, however artfully

simple in tecture, of eminently wider scope than any associated

with the afternoon calls of Mark Twain’s Hartford ladies: but

Richardson — History and Plato's Medicinal Lie 69

it does have this in common with its Connecticut kinsmen — it

belongs to the class designated by the humorist as ''judicious

lying/' Does it share the other characteristics of Twain's lie,

necessity and eternity? Is it like those "impossible falsities"

which Sir Thomas Browne declared "include wholesome moral¬

ities, and such as expiate the trespass of their absurdities?"^

Professor Fite, in his Platonic Legend, speaks ill of Socrates'

device :

And Plato [he writes] was not the last, nor probably the

first, to think of the creation of a myth of "brotherhood"

when policies of state call for a general sacrifice on the part

of the people. Behind the words of the dialogue we can hear

both Socrates and Glaucon laughing heartily at the thought

of fooling the people by a device so transparently audacious.

The universal kinship may at first be viewed with suspicion,

Socrates explains, but with the lapse of a generation it will

pass as gospel.^

Fite's criticism is compounded of dislike for the regime insti¬

tuted and of contempt for the method of the institution. In this

paper it is Plato's method of initiating his state that is under

examination, not the quality of the proposed commonwealth.

Was Plato in the passage referred to baldly proposing and

approving falsehood in any ordinary sense of that term today?

He may receive interpretation both from the context of his

own works and from the course of recorded history. It seems

entirely congruous with his habit of thought elsewhere — his

comment on his own myth at the end of the Phaedo; his con¬

tempt for matter-of-factness in the inspiring passage at the close

of the Ninth Book of the Republic; the place assigned "fiction"

in implanting sound suggestion in the mind of childhood in the

Second Book of the Laws; the Charioteer myth of the Phaedrus;

and the vision of judgment, predestination, free will and the

moral blamelessness of God in the tale of Er, son of Armenius,

in the Tenth Book of the Republic — ^to view the "medicinal lie"

of the Republic's Third Book as ancillary to the same high pur¬

pose with respect to the realization of a social and political ideal

as was served with regard to problems such as reality, life.

^ Apud Bergen Evans, The Natural History of Nonsense (1946), p. 29.

2W. Fite, op. cit. (1934), p. 29.

70

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

death, freedom, predestination, values and immortality by his

enchantments, accepted hazards and myths, in other passages.

But the “medicinal lie’' may receive interpretation and justi¬

fication from outside Plato’s writings. Despite his apparent

naivete and simplicity — his shadows and reflections, for ex¬

ample, in pools of water in the story of the Den — he is but sug¬

gesting methods of the influencing of conduct, and modes of the

rise and evolution of ideas, known to experience before and since

his time. Four historical processes, at least, are comparable to

the famous “lie” — and none involve deceit in any usual sense.

After allowance for over-lapping of categories in specific cases,

these processes may roughly be delimited as follows :

(I) The creation, or rise, of states of mind and opinion favor¬

able to a given ethic or a desired social condition.

(II) The perpetuation or employment of a previously exist¬

ent opinion.

(III) The rationalizing of opinion, old or new, a phase of

(II).

(IV) The avoidance of the effect of some state of opinion for

the time-being ineradicable — ^the legal fiction.

I. The Creation or Rise of States of Mind and Opinion

Favorable to a Given Ethic or a Desired

Social Condition

In this category, and closely akin to Plato’s “lie,” may be

placed theories of government and society such as the “social

contract”; self-evident “rights of man”; the “economic man”;

the assumption that kings are, ipso facto, tyrants — or, contrari¬

wise, doctrines of divine right and divine entail; in early cul¬

tures the identification of the virility and felicity of the chief or

Pharoah with the welfare of the tribe or state; the psychology

of the ordeal in times and places marked by a certain efficacious¬

ness in that superstition. Vox populi, vox Dei may join the

group, as also the mediaeval, and even surviving, doctrine that

“law is found” and 17th and 18th century attempts, in England

by parliamentarians and in France by judges, to give concrete

meaning to the doctrine in the form of statements of “funda¬

mental laws.” Locke, Hobbes, Rousseau, Dante, Marsiglio, Hitler,

all, however variant in purpose or morality, are associated in

Richardson — History and Plato's Medicinal Lie

71

this same genus. Montesquieu's teachings, on the other hand,

fall without the type.®

History and contemporary life abound in numerous minor

illustrations. Polybius is quoted in a book of some years since on

Scipio Africanus as maintaining that Lycurgus made his scheme

of laws '‘more easily believed in" by the Spartans by asserting

that he had been assisted in their compilation by the oracle ; and

as holding that “Scipio similarly made the men under his com¬

mand more sanguine and more ready to face perilous enter¬

prises by instilling into them the belief that his projects were

divinely inspired." “But," adds Polybius, “that he invariably

acted on calculation and foresight, and that the successful issue

of his plans was always in accord with rational expectation, will

be evident."^

Cicero, in his second book On the Republic, half apologizes

for stating that Romulus was the son of Mars by saying that

“we may grant that much to the popular tradition, especially as

it is not only very ancient, but has been widely handed down by

our ancestors, who desired that those who have deserved well of

the commonwealth should be deemed actual descendents of the

gods, as well as endowed with godlike qualities."® This is prac¬

tically a case of Plato's “lie" become effective.

The rousing effects upon the knights of the First Crusade of

finding the “holy lance" beneath a church pavement at Antioch

—an obvious case of “planting" — is familiar. Well known, too,

is the Conqueror's stretching out of his arms on stumbling at

his landing in England and saving important appearances before

his followers by declaring himself thus invested by God with the

kingdom he had come to seize. Havelock Ellis, in his Dance of

Life, relates how Foch, quoting De Maistre, lays down in his

s Current “functional” propaganda in secondary schools, and creeping up into

the collegiate level — in the latter case with more questionable justification — in the

interest of democracy, seems to the writer to belong in the same list. Ideas planted

so early that the mind can form no opposing judgments are dogmas, and dogmas,

unsupported, play the part of Plato’s myths and fictions. The point is that so far

as these programs go behind the demonstrable, and especially beyond verifiability

by those instructed, they are akin to Plato’s enchantments and myths and fictions,

and are, at the appropriate levels, neither to be more nor less condemned.

On the negative side, the veiling of unwanted attitudes, examples are to be

found in any censureship, the best known being the Index of the Roman Church ;

and, in contrast and protest, the Areopagitica. On the other hand, how should be

classified the practice of those who leave their children without religious instruc¬

tion until, as the saying goes, “they can grow up and decide for themselves”?

^ B. H. Liddell Hart, A Greater Than Napoleon, Scipio Africanus (1928), p. 6.

5 Cicero, op, cit., tr. Keyes (Loeb Clas. Lib.), II, p. 113.

72 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Principes de guere the doctrine that “a lost battle is a battle one

thinks one has lost.” '‘The battle/' comments Ellis, “is won by

the fiction that it is won.”® Virgil had been ahead of De Maistre

and Foch by nineteen centuries : Possunt, quia posse videnturd

All these incidents and sayings, like many more that might

be cited, have this in common with the “medicinal lie” that, like

Plato's audacious fiction, they tend to the creation of a state of

mind or of opinion favorable to a given ethic and morale or a

desired social and political condition.

II. The Perpetuation or Employment of a Previously

Existent Opinion

Medicinal fiction has also been at work in the perpetuation of

previously existent opinions or institutions. One form is the

“catchy” slogan — such, for example, as “Rally round the Flag,

boys, rally round the Flag!” The eagle-standard played a similar

part for the legionary. “For King and Country” is an instance

where the second half of the slogan appeals more to the reason

while the first instills emotional punch. Thornton Wilder’s Our

Town furnishes a fine case in point.

Over there [recites the Stage Director] are some Civil

War veterans. Iron flags on their graves — New Hampshire

boys — had a notion that the Union ought to be kept to¬

gether, though they'd never seen fifty miles of it themselves.

All they knew was the name, friends — the United States of

America. The United States of America. And they went and

died about it.

Other examples of the use of ancient states of opinion to

buttress existing institutions have been the dogmas of the divine

origin of the Japanese dynasty; of the deity of the Pharoahs

and, later, of the Roman Emperors; of the springing of the

Brahmins from the head of Brahma ; of the mandate of Heaven

granted to, or withdrawn from, the Emperors of China. Parson

Weem's tales of the young Washington perhaps fall into an

humble corner of the same ideology.

Far more important, as things appear to the writer, was the

taking over by early Christianity of the Jewish apocalytical

eschatology whence it so largely sprang and the subsequent

«H. Ellis, ov. cit. (Houghton, Mifflin, 1923), p. 103. Cf. chap, on “The Art of

Living,” in toto.

Aeneid, V, 231.

Richardson — History and Platons Medicinal Lie 73

adoption by this same Christianity, now become Gentile, of those

Hellenistic viewpoints and attitudes that gave birth to the ven¬

eration of saints, the rise of a doctrine of Purgatory (quite

Greek and Orphic) and, indeed, to not a little of that schema

salvationis common to most Protestants and Catholics alike. The

enlarging body of converts, attracted to the spiritual beauty of

Jesus, took Him to themselves as certain of the Gnostics, even

before Jesus' day, had taken Jewish Messianism to themselves;

but they adopted Him because they could wrap Him in layers of

fictional lore as old as, and older than, history itself. If this view

of Christian history be sound, the perpetuation of the ancient as

the price of the introduction and maintenance of the new, illus¬

trates another angle of Plato’s fiction : it is a mode of exhibiting

the eternal tension of the stable and the flux, of inheritance and

mutation.

III. The Rationalizing of Opinion, Old or New,

A Phase of II

There have been occasions when men have deemed it desir¬

able to defend old ways against new, or, on the other hand, to

defend the new as not differing from the old or as developing

out of the old.

Edmund Burke, a ‘Traditionalist,” “a Whig of the Revolu¬

tion,” was one who wanted to keep the old and who vented his

fear and detestation of the French Revolution in his famous

Reflections. In these he not only gives a quite fictional picture of

the past, but goes further and defends fiction in itself. He loved

the past and wrote of “all the pleasing illusions” whereby it had

“made power gentle, and obedience liberal,” — “illusions,” which,

he feared, were “to be dissolved by this new conquering empire

of light and reason” wherein “the decent drapery of life” itself

was rudely to be torn off. The “drapery” is, of course, fiction.®

“You see. Sir,” he wrote the young Frenchman in the letter of

which his book assumed the form.

You see. Sir, that in this enlightened age I am bold

enough to confess, that we [the English] are generally men

of untaught feelings: that instead of casting away all our

old prejudices, we cherish them to a very considerable de¬

gree, and, to take more shame to ourselves, we cherish them

8 Reflections on the Revolution in France, in Works, II (London, 1894), p. 349.

74 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

because they are prejudices; and the longer they have

lasted, and the more generally they have prevailed, the more

we cherish them. We are afraid to put men to live and trade

each on his own private stock of reason ; because we suspect

that this stock in each man is small, and that the individuals

would do better to avail themselves of the general bank and

capital of nations, and of ages. Many of our men of specula¬

tion, instead of exploding general prejudices, employ their

sagacity to discover the latent reason which prevails in

them. If they find what they seek (and they seldom fail),

they think it more wise to continue the prejudice, with the

reason involved, than to cast away the coat of prejudice,

and to leave nothing but the naked reason: because preju¬

dice, with its reason, has a motive to give action to that

reason and an affection which will give it permanence. . . .

Prejudice renders a man’s virtue his habit; and not a series

of unconnected acts. Through just prejudice, his duty be¬

comes a part of his nature.®

And here Plato and Burke are alike: each wishes men’s

duties to become parts of their natures, their habits ! The differ¬

ence is merely that in this instance Burke defends the “illu¬

sions,” the “prejudices,” of the past because he is nostalgic for

the old, whereas Plato, with a playfulness quite superficial, cre¬

ates fresh illusions, based on an ancient tale, because he is nos¬

talgic for the new. Rousseau, in his paradoxical fashion, though

really, in a way, on Plato’s side, was doing much the same with

his noble, never existent, naturally compassionate savage.

An instance, on the other hand, of what amounts to a medi¬

cinal lie to save the new from imputation of hostility to the old,

a rationalizing method, is the allegory, a manner not of writing

but of reading and interpretation. Popular among the Greeks,

though meeting the disfavor of Plato (as in the Phaedrus), it

enabled them to reconcile an improving moral sense with their

Hesiod and Homer. From the Greeks this method of interpreting

sacred writings passed to the Jews and the Christians, enabling

men like Philo and Augustine to square their classical meta¬

physics with their Judaism or Christianity, and furnishing the

Church a method of evading Jewish copyright on the Old Testa¬

ment. What the “historical approach” to Scripture is today in

the matter of resolving difficulties incident to higher criticism

and a more advanced ethical sense, the “allegorical approach”

was yesterday.

® Burke, op. cit., p. 359.

Richardson — History and Platons Medicinal Lie

75

IV. The Avoidance of the Effect of Some State of Opinion

FOR THE Time-Being, at Least, Ineradicable —

The Legal Fiction

A fourth type of historical medicinal lie is first cousin to

Plato’s, the conscious legal fiction, the pretense by the courts

that something is objectively true which all parties concerned,

surely all legalists concerned, know to be false. It differs from

Plato’s fiction only in its naked and avowed contempt for fact.

Legal fiction has, in historic times, been a chief means of equat¬

ing the administration of law with developing equitable stand¬

ards while at the same time conserving wholesome reverence for

stability. Examples are liberalization of the jus civile under the

influence of jus gentium through the channel of the praetorian

edict; the allegation of breach of the king’s peace in private

accusations or grand jury presentments, and the partial avoid¬

ance of restraints on free trade in land by the procedure known

as ^‘suffering a recovery.” A renowned and most happy illustra¬

tion is the open contempt for logic and legal fact in the obvious

subterfuge which enabled the Whigs and Tories to combine

(each remaining true to their differentiating principles) in oust¬

ing the Stuarts from the throne of England — the agreement of

both parties to the formula : “the said late King James the Sec¬

ond having abdicated the government, and the throne being

thereby vacant.” And a still more famous instance is that judi¬

cial, fictional interpretation of Magna Carta which makes its

39th article guarantee jury trial at a date before the petty crim¬

inal jury had even come into existence.^®

It may be just worth while, in bringing this paper to a close,

and as a friendly gesture in Plato’s direction, to point out that

more than once the lack of some mediating device has put a

check on sound reforms. Three instances come to mind off-hand :

the frailty of the parliamentary achievements of the 14th and

15th centuries incident to their slight grip on contemporary

mindedness and their failure to have developed a parliamentary

“habit” or “prejudice”; the premature radicalism of the ecclesi¬

astical policies of Edward VI ; and the failure of the too unsym¬

pathetically pressed reforms of the Emperor Joseph II. In our

own time the non-enforcement and fate of the Eighteenth

“In Wisconsin history the judicial interpretation of the State Constitution in

the Edgerton School Ease falls within the type.

76 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters |

Amendment may perhaps point a moral. A favorable state of;|

opinion, however arrived at, is requisite to the successful launch- i

ing of reforms and of institutions. Gestation must precede birth. |

So, putting two and two together, Mark Twain may really |

have ‘'said something’^ when he spoke of the lie as an “eternal v

principle,” and of “judicious lying being what the world needs”! ;

And we may perhaps credit Plato as dealing, after his whimsical '

fashion, not with demagogic and Fascistic deceit of the unsus¬

pecting masses, but with those enchantments, those fictions,

those unverifiable presuppositions and intuitions, those ultimate i

mental foundations on which the life of man, individually and in ;

society, has so largely rested. Plato was not concocting a lie: he. I

was taking account of an ever-living fact.

FUNCTIONAL HOUSING IN THE MIDDLE AGES

SVEND RIEMER

Housing conditions of the Middle Ages were just about close

enough to the contemporary scene to be referred to by planners

and architects with either envy or contempt. The city of the

Middle Ages has been glorified by the architect from the esthetic

point of view. Its so-called organic qualities have been praised.

But the city of the Middle Ages has also been sneered at by the

engineer who contemplates with bewilderment a street pattern

that seems to have been laid out by cows being driven home from

pasture.

Neither envy nor contempt, however, can do justice to the

historical past. We must try to give a functional interpretation

to medieval construction and city planning, understand the pur¬

poses for which these medieval cities and homes were built. We

cannot remain satisfied with off-hand remarks explaining that

medieval cities were placed on mountain peaks, on islands or

peninsulae for defensive purposes etc. We must consider the

peculiar medieval needs for family living. We must realize that

the city, the residence, and the furniture of the Middle Ages can

be fully appreciated only if we abstract our own ideas of comfort

and propriety. We must realize, particularly, that our way of

life is set apart from that of the Middle Ages by an increased

emphasis upon the desire for privacy.

Such functional analysis must get at the core of medieval

housing attitudes. The home life of the early Middle Ages lacked

privacy to an extent unimaginable to even the poorer classes in

modern society. What is more remarkable, this lack of privacy

did not cause much suffering or frustration since the desire for

it was highly undeveloped. There was no indication in that world

of the ''invisible walk' which in our present civilization separates

human beings from each others which makes them shrink at

close bodily contact and turn from observation of intimate bodily

functions.

Eating habits can be used to illustrate the point. It was quite

customary, up to the 15th century, to dine from a limited num-

iNorbert Elias. Ueber den Prozess der Zivilization. Basel, 1939, p. 89.

77

78 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

ber of table settings, with several people using the same plate,

the same cup, and the same knife. This sharing of the same table

setting was not induced by the lack of utensils. On the contrary,

the late Middle Ages displayed a considerable amount of luxury

at the table in the use of various bowls, vessels of all sorts, plates

and service dishes. There was simply no attempt to provide for

nicety in eating habits. The wealthy merchants of the 13th cen¬

tury, for example, used different knives and spoons at different

seasons ; they used ebony handles at Fast, ivory work at Easter,

and inlay work at Lent. These tools then were obviously supplied

up to the level of luxurious consumption. But the possibility of

providing separate tools for the individual guests at the dinner

table did not even dawn upon a people adapted to a low threshold

of shame, a people with little desire for immaculate privacy. ^

This trait had its implications in the housing and city plan¬

ning of the Middle Ages. Bedroom behavior was free from

shame. Nightgowns came into use only as late as the 15th and

16th centuries. People slept in the nude or in their clothes. The

display of the naked body was not frowned upon. Sleeping quar¬

ters were not isolated but were readily shared by all members of

the family as well as their servants and their guests. Beds were

shared at all ages by non-mar ried members of the two sexes.

Matters of intimate hygiene, moreover, were to a large extent

transferred from the individual home to the community bath¬

house. With regard to requirements for tub bath and steam bath,

the standard of living in the Middle Ages was by no means low.

But at the occasion of the weekly bath the entire family might

have been seen parading through the city streets in a state of

almost complete undress protected possibly by only a loin cloth.

The frank manner in which Erasmus of Rotterdam, at the

very end of the Middle Ages, discussed matters of sex in a book

of manners designed for an eight-year-old school boy indicates

an absence of shame and protective secrecy as far as all elemen¬

tary bodily functions were concerned.^

This desire for privacy, unique to our modern civilization,

first appeared with the development of the small family which

threw a circle of in-group out-group relations around parents

and off-spring. It was unknown to a pattern of family life which

^lUd., p. 85.

8 /bid., pp. 230 ft.

Riemer — Functional Housing in the Middle Ages 79

overflowed into a wider circle of servants, friends, relatives, and

members of the community.

The sex mores of the Middle Ages were ''up to the point''

they were naive and free from that refined stimulation of the

sex drive which has permeated our culture since the days of the

Renaissance. Illegitimate children, to be sure, were in abundance,

and there was a definite place for them in society. There was

prestige in being the bastard child of a high-ranking father.

Sex activities were considered the normal share of any adult's

life. As far as women were concerned, presupposing a possible

later marriage, only the premium upon virginity which guaran¬

teed to the father the legitimate birth of his own children put a

barrier to sexual relations. Bachelors were more or less expected

to take advantage of the brothel. At the same time, the married

man had to sneak into the Red Light district of the medieval

city ; his sexual adventures outside marriage were frowned upon

or even punished because they infringed upon the right of his

spouse to marital relations.

Weddings were community affairs ; and the visual participa¬

tion of friends and relatives did not stop at the threshold of the

bridal chamber. Dances and games were occasions for frank

sexual solicitation. They were aimed at physical contact and

occasions for denudements. Sexual stimulation, on the other

hand, was more strictly limited to such definite occasions than

in our own times.

We may ask whether we are at all entitled to talk about the

"private lives" of the Middle Ages. The life of the family flowed

over its boundaries and mingled with that of the wider commu¬

nity. The portals of the private houses in the medieval cities

were thrown open. In the narrow streets of the residential sec¬

tions practically all traffic was barred. These streets were not

designed for traffic; they were merely extensions of the family

abode and the workshops of the different craftsmen. In fact,

there was no separation between a man's place of work and his

private dwelling; nor was there any clear-cut distinction be¬

tween leisure time and time for gainful employment.

It is wrong, furthermore, to assume that the lives of the

citizens were more or less confined to the "residential" sections

of town. We carry a false image in our minds if we visualize

* Louis Mumford. The Condition of Man. New York, 1944. p. 114.

80 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

these old cities as a composite of primarily church and cathedral,

and then private dwellings. This is the picture of many of these

cities which has come to us in our times. Actually, the civic

center — as we might call it today — formed a small town of its

own, located adjacent to or in the immediate vicinity of the

central market place. Later, as the private lives withdrew within

the small family circle and more and more activities were taken

out of public circulation, many of these public buildings lost

their functions. They were turned into private homes, or they

stood unused, or they were entirely torn down and replaced by

residential construction.

The citizens of the Middle Ages participated in a never-

ending round of social occasions. They were well provided for

with the necessary community facilities. They had not one,

but many, buildings available for a rampant club life and

for active leisure-time activities. Leisure, to be sure, was not

indulged in every single day or for definitely set hours as in our

culture. The allotment of leisure time followed a different prin¬

ciple. Some one hundred days or so of the year were dedicated

to different saints and set apart for rest and merry-making.

Needless to say, there were also public buildings designed for

administrative and commercial functions, and in the late Middle

Ages, perhaps even to industrial functions. But these buildings,

in one form or another, were made available to all citizens by

the fusion of work and play, of informal social gatherings and

purposeful occupational endeavors, and by the lack of distinction

between different types of activities which later were to become

clearly segregated from each other with the spread of division

of labor. They constituted truly a part of the living space of the

entire urban population. They were places in which to walk

around and meet friends for a chat or, possibly, a business deal.

Then, there was the city hall, equipped for administrative

and judiciary purposes as well as for dances and festivals.

There was the market place into which, in the more agreeable

seasons, intra-mural activities easily overflowed. These activities

were facilitated by galleries and colonnades crowded with

peddlers and farmers and urbanites selling their goods. The

spectacle of public punishments took place in front of the city

hall. Here also, celebrated visitors were entertained with food

and drink. Frequently, city halls were extended in size to accom¬

modate the increasing amount of community activities. Special

Riemer- — Functional Housing in the Middle Ages 81

dance houses were built and made available for private wed¬

dings, for citizen groups, or, on special occasions, for the entire

citizenry. The bath-houses also served as places of entertain¬

ment, as did the brothels where the unmarried male population

spent the evening.

There were the armories, the store houses ; there were special

buildings for the various guilds equipped for trade as well as

drinking and club activities. There were the cloth-houses, the

cheese-houses, the wine-houses, the butcher-markets, and the

exchange. There were the saloons for wine and beer; and there

were inns where the transients crowded, washed their clothes,

bathed and dressed, and ate and drank in one large living space

on the ground floor, retiring for the night into large, barrack¬

like bedrooms.

There were hospitals for different types of diseases, many of

them charitable foundations sponsored by the nobility or

wealthy merchants. Ball-houses were available for the games of

the time. Homes for the aged accommodated those without

family assistance at a time of need. An entire subsidized “hous¬

ing project’’ with rent-free private dwellings as well as commu¬

nity facilities was donated by the Fuggers, a wealthy merchant

family in Augsburg.

An appraisal of housing conditions in the Middle Ages has

to consider this emphasis upon communal living. The entire city,

with all its private as well as public buildings, must be the unit

of observation for any attempt at a truly functional analysis.

We know very little about the individual dwelling unit of the

Middle Ages. Information about residential housing of the early

Middle Ages is distorted by repeated processes of remodeling

which were carried out to accommodate changing needs and to

house the population increase which thronged the limited space

available inside the city fortifications. Although we know more

about the late than about the early Middle Ages, documentary

materials lend us some help in the reconstruction of the early

dwelling units. These m.aterials, however, are available not in

the form of floor plans but in the form of descriptive statements.

And even these are rare because the private lives of the era did

not hold the center of the stage. The interest in objective envi¬

ronmental description arose much later, possibly during the late

Middle Ages and the Renaissance; and for earlier information,

therefore, we have to remain satisfied with passing remarks.

82 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

The early burghs of the Middle Ages — dwelling units and

defensive shelters of the feudal nobility — contained many fea¬

tures that were to influence the urban residence for centuries to

come. The choice of location, naturally, was entirely dominated

by the need for defense against enemy raids. They towered on

mountain cliffs or were protected by island or peninsular posi¬

tions. They nestled in swamps or selected open spaces where a

minimum of protection was offered to the approaching enemy.

The differentiation between shelter inside the moat or behind

protective walls was not devoted to the needs arising in connec¬

tion with the private lives of the noble family, but rather to the

many special requirements for the defense and sustenance of the

large feudal household which included servants, knights, pages,

managers, clerks, cooks, stable grooms, and others. Between the

inner and the outer wall, if two defensive walls were provided to

increase the safety of the burgh, were the stables for the horses,

the chicken coops, and the various other structures necessary to

retain suflficient livestock in case of a siege. In the main building

there was an armory, cellar, and a grain house. There was a

chapel also where services were held for the servants and the

noble family alike. Clerk, manager, and cellar official might have

been provided for with special rooms of their own. There was,

of course, a kitchen, and frequently a special baking room as

well. It is only when we come to a consideration of the general

living space and the rooms which held the private or social lives

of the noble family and its entourage that we are struck by an

amazing lack of differentiation.

If we glance at the floor plan of a medieval burgh^ we are

bewildered by the complete lack of any system of communication

which we have learned to consider a necessary prerequisite of

even the most modest family dwelling of the present ages. There

were no halls which made the individual rooms directly acces¬

sible without passing through other rooms located closer to the

entrance door or to the stairway. As a matter of fact, the flight

of rooms on the second floor — which generally contained the liv¬

ing quarters — was strung up in a row very similar to the

arrangement of the railroad flats in cheap tenement houses in

our metropolitan centers. The galleries which appeared in the

later Middle Ages — viewed as an element of esthetic embellish-

®Alwin Schultz. Deutches Leben im XIV. und XV. Jahrhundert, Wien, 1892.

p. 11.

Riemer — Functional Housing in the Middle Ages 83

ment or as a stand for spectators engaged in watching the tour¬

naments in the court of burgh or castle — may have been even

more important at the time of their introduction because of the

privacy which they provided. They were the forerunners of inte¬

rior halls and corridors. Originally, there was only a directly

interconnected sequence of rooms.®

Privacy was obtainable, under these conditions, only in those

rooms most remote from either entrance or stairs. Thus, there

entered into the assignment of the available rooms for specific

purposes a hierarchical arrangement which, very naturally, re¬

served the remote quarters for the most privileged inhabitants,

i.e., the lord of the burgh, his family, and especially honored

guests. Adjacent rooms served as anti-chambers, such as the

knight-chamber, and as general living space or possibly servants'

quarters. Those rooms closer to the entrance or stairs were in¬

creasingly public in character. Alcoves and bay-windows, which

we associate with life in burgh or castle or even the medieval

city residence, may not have held, for the contemporaries, what

seems to us the primary advantage of a pleasant view on the sur¬

rounding landscape, but may have served, rather, as a refuge

from the humdrum of the social life to which small groups might

retire for purposes of at least relative privacy^

Life in the burghs of the Middle Ages was far from solitary.

There was a constant coming and going, and while there were

few complaints that these roaming strangers interfered with the

privacy of the residents of the burgh, we find comments about

the actual danger involved in the penetration of the fortifications

by unknown men who might easily defeat the purpose of defense

against the outside world. Under ordinary circumstances, the

feudal residence was open to anybody. Thieves and robbers as

well as hold-up men might enter. And they could remain unob¬

served in the turmoil of various activities which continuously

linked the open spaces, the court of the castle, and the residence

proper. The burgh was filled with all the noises of the farmyard.

There were cattle in the stables as well as sheep, horses, and

other livestock. Riders went out to supervise the peasants, and

they returned to report to the feudal lord in his private cham¬

bers. Wagons with supplies crossed the drawbridge and rattled

8Alwin Schultz. Das haeusliche Leben der Europaeischen Kulturvoelker.

Berlin, 1903. p. 10.

’Ibid., pp. 12, 13.

84 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters i

into the court. There was little occasion, indeed, for quiet ^

solitude. '

Nor was the need for it felt. The active life was spent in the

open spaces. The burgh provided a refuge only, against the >

enemy as well as against the extremities of an unfriendly cli¬

mate. Winters, needless to say, inflicted severe suffering. The 1

heating facilities were totally inadequate. The open fireplace I

provided relief only to those seated in its immediate vicinity I

while the less-honored guests, knights, pages and servants, froze 1

in the expanse of the wide rooms or halls. There was no window |

glass in the early Middle Ages, and wind, rain, sleet, and snow I

were kept out by wooden shutters which left the interior in com-

plete darkness. Winter was a time for hibernation. Life literally ' =

stood still and was awakened only when the spring breezes in- I

vited a closer relationship with the out-doors. We have to realize

that certain wants — requirements which seem indispensible to |

us — were not even experienced as such in the Middle Ages. It !

would be wrong to try to understand through our perspective

of the 20th century the functional relationship between technical

means for providing them and the demand for improvements.

The desire for privacy, particularly, is a late flower in the

progress of our civilization. We are not as much astonished at

the fact that the citizen of the Middle Ages was technically and ,

economically limited in his ability to satisfy his demands for

privacy, for separate rooms to accommodate activities that were j

apt to interfere with each other, or for secluded chambers to |

shelter the intimate life of the family in retirement, as we are :

at the fact that he did not take full advantage of even the limited !

resources available to him. Life, in the Middle Ages, organized ^

itself in a qualitatively different pattern. Ambitions and feelings

of achievement took a different turn and became established

within a different system of satisfactions.

The floor plan without a system of communications is one of

the most striking symptoms to indicate the presence of a quali¬

tatively different pattern of needs. There is no doubt that

arrangements could have been made for connecting halls or for

the grouping of individual rooms around the general entrance

on each floor. Yet, the ''railroad’" or "shotgun” arrangement of |

rooms was obviously not considered a nuisance. Moreover, there i

was a feeling of comfort connected with close human crowding,

the comfort that went with the assurance of safety within a |

Riemer — Functional Housing in the Middle Ages 85

group held together by bonds of loyalty or solidarity. The feudal

lord and his family, in particular, were stowed away behind bar¬

riers of various categories of subjects committed to the defense

of life and safety of their superiors. Even outside the remote

private chambers, the feudal lord was continuously surrounded

by a bodyguard of servants, pages and knights which, under the

circumstances of a hazardous struggle for survival, could

scarcely be resented as an infringement upon his privacy. The

times were not safe for relaxed leisure in isolated quarters.

Privacy can be enjoyed only where the intimate life of the

small family is inviolate by taboos that pervade the entire cul¬

ture. Only where a feeling of shame is internalized by all mem¬

bers of a civilization, and where the intruder is just as much

pained by the disturbance he causes as the one that is intruded

upon, is there any meaning in staking out clearly the realm of

our intimate and private lives against the sphere of social inter¬

action.

Life in a medieval burgh, thus, was quite similar to that in

a temporary camp where the call to arms might sound at any

minute. At night, only a privileged few were able to withdraw

to separate quarters. The rest prepared their beds wherever a

suitable bench could be found. They made themselves comfort¬

able with furs or blankets or pillows, but frequently refrained

from undressing completely. Usually, they arranged themselves

in status groups for the night, guarding the line of attack

against the sanctum of the private chambers of the ruling

family.

Under the circumstances, the differentiation of rooms in the

burgh made very little progress. All rooms were used as ''double¬

purpose’ ' rooms. Furniture was carried in and out according to

the demands of the immediate situation. The dining table was

carried into the largest hall or room whenever the entire house¬

hold assembled at meal times. It frequently consisted of boards

placed on supports, barrels or similar contraptions. Benches and

chairs were arranged to accommodate a social gathering around

the open fireplace. A rearrangement, again, had to be made when

the armed guard or the servants prepared themselves for a

night’s rest.

The housing investment went into the crude shell of the

structure itself, with a flight of rooms available alternately for

different purposes. It went further into the utensils required

86 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

both for everyday living and for the luxury of special entertain¬

ing. The furniture was modest, however, and there was not very

much of it. There were curtained beds with canopies to provide

a semblance of privacy in rooms otherwise easily accessible to

outsiders. There was a decided lack, on the other hand, of per¬

manent installments or fixtures which would have assigned a

room to a more or less definite purpose.

It was an easy task, therefore, to prepare an empty burgh

rapidly for a princely visit or for occupancy after years of aban¬

donment. Whatever comforts the times provided were quickly

moved into the crude shell of a shelter. The burgh, as such, pre¬

sented itself as an advantageous camping ground, safe against

hostile attacks, and relatively protected against the extreme

vicissitudes of the climate.

In the medieval cities the private family was sheltered in a

great variety of structures. There was a close relationship, par¬

ticularly in the earlier days, between the house of the peasant

and the house of the city dweller. Within the expanse enclosed

by the city walls, soon after the foundation and the first layout

of the city plan, peasant dwelling and urban residence must, in

fact, have been identical in many instances. Farmsteads were

part of the urban community. But even the houses of the

peasants varied greatly, from simple one-room straw-thatched

dirt huts to elevations of several floors, with an entrance door

wide and high enough to permit horse-drawn wagons to drive

right into the building for purposes of unloading.

This latter feature was retained in the merchant’s house of

the late Middle Ages. The main entrance, however, which for¬

merly opened sideways to the farmyard, was shifted around to

the street front. This was essential to aid transportation in a

growing urban environment.®

In addition to the isolated structures, we have to consider the

typical row house of the late Middle Ages which allowed for

efficient utilization of valuable land. By means of vertical parti¬

tion, many isolated structures were converted to half-houses,

some of which were still retained after complete deterioration

or demolition of the other half. These half -houses deserve some

further comment.^ That dwelling units should have been divided

® Rudolf Eberstadt. Handbuch des Wohnungswesens und der Wohnungs-

frage. Jena, 1910. p. 87.

p. 39.

Riemer — Functional Housing in the Middle Ages 87

under the pressure of continuous population increase is well

understandable. With modern conditions in mind, however, it

will appear to us that a horizontal division should have been

preferred, separating different floors from each other and mak¬

ing flats or apartments available to different renters just as in

the tenement house of the industrialization period.

For an explanation, we must consider, first, the complex role

of the family house in medieval urban society. Inhabited by

independent craftsmen, it served in most cases simultaneously

as a workshop and domicile. The workshop required direct access

to the street for purposes of trade, barter, and transportation.

One or several upper floors would never have provided for these

needs. Where upper floors were made available for a separate

household, they accommodated families of married apprentices.

Due to severe restrictions on apprentice marriages, these were

exceedingly rare.

We must also consider another reason for the avoidance of

house partitions by different floor levels. The medieval house com¬

pletely lacked any unified system of stairs connecting clearly

separated floors from each other. The height of individual rooms

was not standardized. Ceilings might have been arbitrarily high

or low according to the preference of either builder or owner.

Thus, floor levels were not nearly as apparent as they are in our

modern structures. Nor was access to the higher levels of the

house gained by a system of stairs running through the entire

structure. From the ground floor to the room on top there might

have been some simple steps in one part of the building. The

uppermost rooms, however, might just as well have been reached

from a room on the middle level not directly connected with the

ground floor. Vertical communications wound somewhat awk¬

wardly through various rooms on different levels of the entire

structure. Thus, any horizontal division of the structure would

have meant an intolerable impasse upon family privacy.

Needless to say, the floor plan of the medieval city house was

characterized by a crude and elementary set of interior subdivi¬

sions. The floor plans of one one-story and one two-story house

show these houses to have been about 17 feet wide at the street

front.^® The two-story house extended deeper into the backyard.

The most striking feature of the plan was the hall-kitchen com-

p. 91.

88 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

bination into which one entered directly from the outside. The

kitchen was indicated only by the open fireplace which was con¬

tained in an alcove-like arrangement off a long hall which ex¬

tended through the entire length of the building. Later on, there

was a tendency to close off the kitchen from the relatively spa¬

cious entrance hall. Apart from kitchen and hall, there was one |

large room on the ground floor, available for general living pur-

poses (Stube), and a smaller room (Kammer), used primarily |

for sleeping purposes. While these floor plans constituted a first |

improvement beyond the one-room shacks of poor city dwellers k

in the early phases of the Middle Ages, they did not measure up i, '

to the more intricate and elaborate arrangements of the patri-

clan homes which were located closer to the center of town, and [

which came into their prime toward the end of medieval urban -j

culture. :

These simple abodes extended the institution of home owner¬

ship through wide strata of the city population. While ownership

was confined, in most cases, to ownership of the building and

other improvements, the rent to be paid for the ‘‘eternal” lease

of the land never attained the exploitative character of apart¬

ment rentals in the cities of late antiquity. There was, of course,

a class of servants ^nd apprentices and other individuals without

property. They were deprived of the privilege of forming house¬

holds and had to live as best they could in the anti-chambers,

the attic rooms, or the special wings given to the servants in the

homes of full-fledged citizens.

The wealthy merchants owned the most luxurious city resi- i

dences. Through a huge portal, large enough to let wagons laden

with goods pass, one entered into a tremendous hall which served

as a temporary storage space for various commodities which

were piled high awaiting either distribution into cellars or spe¬

cial storerooms or preparation for shipment to other cities or the

market place. The ground floor, furthermore, contained office

space. A counter separated the entrance hall from both store¬

room and office, and here goods were checked in or out. The

living quarters were confined to the upper floors.

A special wing of the house might have been projected into

the courtyard. Here, the ground floor was taken up by the

stables. Otherwise, the “back-house” contained the servants’ I

quarters, possibly kitchen or bath-house. The toilet also, if we j

want to apply this term to the so-called “stink-hole” frequently S

Riemer — Functional Housing in the Middle Ages 89

not emptied for a decade or more, was often located in the rear

of the main house. The living quarters proper consisted of

smaller or larger rooms, connected with each other in a some¬

what haphazard manner, and assigned to specific uses by the

scanty furniture of the period. There were no fixtures which

committed individual rooms to specific purposes, however, and

the entire problem of communications was not systematically

planned so as to provide a maximum of privacy where such

might have been needed. Rearrangements in the use of rooms

easily accommodated changes in family composition.

Domestic luxury of the Middle Ages led to the installment of

a bathroom and an adjacent dressing room. These rooms, accord¬

ing to the customs of the times, had a relatively public rather

than a private character. Thus we find them frequently on the

ground floor where the problem of drainage could be solved more

easily. The wine cellar, also, formed an important part of the

house. It was accessible through a special entrance from the out¬

side rather than by stairs in the interior of the building. The

kitchen, generally, faced the yard and was located on the ground

floor at the back of the main structure.

In these patrician mansions, then, we observe some differen¬

tiation. The assignment of specific rooms to specific purposes,

however, was limited to those parts of the house that provided

some sort of public service, in either work or recreation. The

living quarters offered an undifferentiated shell^ — so many rooms

of varying size that could be used, like the living space in the

early burghs — for different needs.

It is not possible to overemphasize the lack of internalized

controls guarding the intimate aspects of family life. The avoid¬

ance of cross-traflic through rooms was rarely a matter of

serious concern. Genre pictures of the times show us congrega¬

tions of family members, guests and servants, all in a more or

less advanced stage of undress. Doors were flung wide open to

any possible intruder. Through the master bedroom one could

look into the hall and other chambers. Outsiders could enter the

room where the family members were asleep, and, naturally, the

simple beds of the servants were frequently located at the foot

of the family bedstead.

The furniture was scanty and of a very modest type. Com¬

pared with modern conditions, only the beds were more elabo¬

rately equipped. This was due to the lack of shelter against in-

90 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

trusions. In bed, at least, the curtains kept the sleeping family

out of sight. The canopy had the additional function of protect¬

ing the bed against stucco, or possibly vermin, falling from the

ceiling. A wash-stand, a low chest, and possibly a chair or two

were frequently all the furniture provided in the bedroom.

Clothing and linen were stored in a large chest in the hall.

Wood panelling tended to be replaced, toward the end of the

Middle Ages, by tapestry for mainly sanitary reasons. While

tapestry could be removed and cleaned from time to time, the

wood panelling served as a refuge for vermin unless it was

ripped out and completely replaced. Glass windows, also, were

introduced in the late Middle Ages, but were an expensive luxury

item even then. Only shutters, with possibly parchment or paper

or oiled linen windows, were available as a protection against

the cold. The inadequate heat from the open fireplace was grad¬

ually replaced by tile stoves which kept the house comfortably

warm even during winter time. In study and library, chairs and

desks made their appearance. An important storage space for

small utensils was the mantel of the wood panelling. In the win¬

dow nooks there were bookshelves and simple benches covered

with pillows for comfort. All in all, however, the housing lux¬

uries of the times were not aimed at increasing the comforts and

conveniences for everyday living; they were dedicated rather to

artistic display, to elaborate ornamentation of the limited stock

of available furniture, and to the embellishment of plates,

utensils, and vessels.

Where wealth permitted, the city dweller provided the family

with a garden house outside the walls of the city. There the

summers were spent in a relatively pleasant environment far

from the heat as well as the stench and the filth of the congested

city street.

Progress in living standards advanced all through the

course of the Middle Ages, but more so with regard to public

rather than to the private aspects of life. To be sure, public

needs may have been more urgent. The population pressure of

the late Middle Ages, combined with inadequate provisions for

sanitary water supply and for the elimination of waste products,

caused blatantly intolerable conditions. Thus, from the gradual

paving of the streets to restrictions of sewage disposal, to the

installment of public toilets, to the elimination of pig-stys from

the narrow city streets, to the installment of a plumbing system

Riemer — Functional Housing in the Middle Ages 91

that piped running water into the individual dwellings, to city

ordinances which safeguarded the need for sunlight in the side

alleys and to the installation, furthermore, of a system of street

lighting, and to the organization of a more efficient machinery

for the fighting of fires, the citizenry at least kept in step with

some of the needs growing out of the cumulative process of

congestion.

We venture to suggest, however, that the direction of im¬

provements was influenced more by the emphasis on public

relations rather than the protection of private family inter¬

action. We are confronted with a different culture than our

own. Its system of shelter can be fully appreciated only by the

consideration of preferences that show a surprising disregard

of modern "‘essentials.’’ The individual arranged himself and his

way of life under technological, economic, and social conditions

so remote from the contemporary scene as to furnish the founda¬

tion of a personality structure that must appear as “strange” to

the superficial observer.

PRELIMINARY REPORTS

ON THE FLORA OF WISCONSIN. XXXIIL

NAJADACEAE

James G. Ross and Barbara M. Calhoun

This report is based on specimens from the herbaria of the

University of Wisconsin and of the Milwaukee Museum, and

from collections by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service

as reported by Mr. Neil Hotchkiss. Reports by Mr. Hotchkiss,

not supported by specimens, are indicated on the maps by open

circles. The authors acknowledge the kindness of Mr. A. M.

Fuller of the Milwaukee Museum and Mr. Neil Hotchkiss of the

United States Fish and Wildlife Service in providing specimens

and data and also express their gratitude to Dr. N. C. Fassett

for his help and supervision. Notes on water preference were

taken from the ‘'Land Economic Inventory of Northern Wiscon¬

sin, Sawyer County,” Wisconsin Department of Agriculture and

Markets Bulletin, No. 138. 1932. The treatment of linear-leaved

and broad-leaved species of Potamogeton follow that of Fernald^

and Ogden^ respectively.

Physiographic features controlling distribution of aquatic

plants are indicated on Map 22. The solid line encloses the Drift¬

less Area where little standing water occurs except along the

Mississippi and the Wisconsin Rivers. The stippled area is the

bed of Glacial Lake Wisconsin, where are found many slow

streams, reservoirs, etc. The rest of Wisconsin is glaciated, and

therefore abounds with small lakes, especially in areas centering

on Waukesha County, Vilas County, and Washburn County.

Some of these lakes are very limy while others contain very soft

water. Therefore a great diversity of species occurs in these

areas.

1 Fernald, M. L. Mem. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sci. 17 : 1-183. 1932.

2 0g-den, E. C. Rhodora 45 : 57-105, 119-163, 171-214. 1943.

93

94

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Key to Genera

1. Leaves alternate, except the uppermost; flowers and fruits in

spikes or heads . . . Potamogeton,

1. Leaves opposite; flowers not in spikes or heads.

2. Seeds tapered to each end and enclosed in a papery envelope. . . .Najas,

2. Seeds enclosed in a fruit coat which is narrowed to a stipe at

one end and a slender style at the other end is toothed down

one side . Zannichellia.

POTAMOGETON

1. Floating leaves usually heart-shaped at base, jointed at attach¬

ment to petiole so that they lie flat on the water surface; sub¬

mersed leaves thickened, semi-terete, narrowly linear

2. Submersed leaves 0.8-2 mm. wide; fruits with concave sides;

spikes 3-6 cm. long; floating leaves mostly 3-10 cm. long.

. 23. P. natans.

2. Submersed leaves 0.3-1 mm. wide; fruits with plane sides;

spikes 1-3 cm. long; floating leaves 2-5 cm. long. . . .24. P. Oakesianus.

1. Floating leaves tapered or rounded at base or absent; submersed

leaves flattened or thread-like

3. Submersed leaves with parallel edges

4. Stipules fused with the lower part of the leaf to form a sheath

5. Leaves auricled at base, 3-7 mm. wide and arranged in two

ranks as a rigid, flat spray . 4. P. Rohbinsii,

5. Leaves not auricled at base, 0.2-3.0 mm. wide, and arranged

in a lax, diffuse, branched spray

6. Sheath formed by fused stipule and leaf at least 1 cm.

long; fruit without dorsal keel, the outline of the embryo

not visible

7. Leaves not filiform, 1.0-3.0 mm. wide . 2. P. vaginatus.

7. Leaves filiform, 0.2-1.0 mm. wide

8. Leaf tips of lower leaves with long tapering points;

fruits with a short beak . 3. P. pectinatus.

8. Leaf tips of lower leaves blunt or rounded; fruits

without beaks

9. Stems 0.5-1.5 mm. thick; sheaths tight around

stem; leaves 3-6 cm. long; flowers in 2-5 whorls

. . . .1. P. filiformis.

9. Stems 2-3 mm. thick; sheaths large, loose, inflated;

leaves 8-18 cm. long; flowers in 4-12 whorls

. 2. P. vaginatus.

6. Sheath formed by fused stipule and leaf base not more

* than 5 mm. long; fruit with more or less prominent

dorsal keel, the outline of the embryo plainly visible

Ross and Calhoun — -Flora of Wisconsin, XXXIII

95

10. Submersed leaves linear, 0.5-2 mm, wide, obtuse or

acute

11. Adnate leaf sheath longer than free stipular end

. . . 15. P. Spirillus.

11. Adnate leaf sheath about half the length of free

stipular end ......................... 16. P. diver si folius.

10. Submersed leaves setaceous or linear-filiform, 0.1-0. 6

mm. wide; adnate leaf sheath less than half the length

of the free stipular end, ................ .17. P. capillaceus.

4. Stipules free from the leaf

12. Submersed leaves 0.1-5.0 mm. wide, with cellular-reticula¬

tion between inner nerves absent or inconspicuous

13. Leaves flaccid, linear-setaceous

14. Stem arising from delicate and branching rootstocks,

filiform or slightly compressed, very low and bushy-

branched or elongating to 1 m. or more and then re¬

motely branched chiefly below the middle; dimorphic;

dilated leaves (when present) coriaceous, from lance-

to oval-elliptic in shape. . . 17. P. capillaceus.

14. Stem arising from filiform extensively creeping root-

stock, filiform, freely and repeatedly forking, 1-8 dm.

long; not dimorphic. .................... 6. P, confervoides.

13. Leaves not flaccid, though sometimes linear-setaceous

15. Submersed leaves 9-35-nerved; stem strongly flat¬

tened, 0. 7-3.2 mm. broad; stipules 1.5-3. 5 cm. long.

....................................... 7. P. zosteriformis.

15. Submersed leaves 1-7-nerved

16. Basal glands 0.6~1.2 mm. broad; fruit 2. 0-2.3 mm.

broad ; leaves 2-5 mm. wide, rounded at tip.

..................................... 12. P. obtusifolius.

16. Basal glands, if present, 0.2-0.4 mm. broad; fruit

1.2-2.0 mm. broad, leaves 0.1-2.4 mm. wide

17. Stipules strongly fibrous, becoming whitish

18. Leaves thin, 5-7-nerved, 1.5-3. 5 mm. broad,

obtuse or rounded and mucronate at tip ;

stipules 7-11 mm. long; peduncles flattened,

1.5-5 cm. long. ........................ 9. P. Friesii.

18, Leaves firm, often revolute, 3 (rarely 5) -nerved,

0.5-2. 5 mm. broad, obtuse to sharply attenuate;

stipules 0.8-2 cm. long; peduncles filiform,

enlarged at tip, 1-9 cm. long

19, Leaves mostly rigid, obtuse or abruptly con¬

tracted to mucronate tips

................... 10. P. strictifolius var, typicus.

19. Leaves firm, scarcely rigid, very gradually

tapering to a slender tip ; stipules less

strongly fibrous.. 10. P. strictifolius var. rutiloides.

96

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

17. Stipules soft, greenish, membraneous to sub-

herbaceous

20. Primary submersed leaves 0.1-0.5 mm. wide,

without lacunae bordering midrib, the two lat¬

eral nerves visible only under high magnifica¬

tion; plants dimorphic; fruiting plants with

upper floating dilated leaves elliptic or nar¬

rowly obovate; sterile plants with only linear-

filiform submersed leaves . 14. P. Vaseyi.

20. Primary submersed leaves 0. 3-2.4 mm. wide,

with one or more rows of lacunae bordering the

midrib, except in P. foliosus, 1-3 nerves plainly

visible; plants not dimorphic

21. Leaf bases usually without glands; leaves

without lacunae bordering the midrib, except

sometimes near the base; sepaloid connectives

0.4-1.0 mm. long; fruit with rather coarse

dentate sometimes prominent keels

22. Stems 0.2-1 m. long, subsimple to loosely

branched; leaves deep green to bronze; the

primary leaves 4-10 cm. long, 1.4-2. 8 mm.

broad, 3-5 nerved .... 8. P. foliosus var. genuinus.

22. Stems 0.6-6 dm. long, commonly bush-

branched; leaves bright green, the primary

leaves 1-8 cm. long, 0.3-1.5 mm. broad,

1- 3 nerved . 8. P. foliosus var. macellus.

21. Leaf bases commonly with a pair of glands;

the leaves usually with 1-several rows of

lacunae bordering the midrib; sepaloid con¬

nectives 1-2 mm. long; fruit rounded on the

back or obscurely keeled

23. Stipules connate, forming cylinders with

margins united at least below the middle,

in age rupturing and often shredded at tip ;

lacunae absent or nearly so in all but

upper leaves; spikes interrupted, 6-12 mm,

long with 3-5 whorls; winter buds both

axillary and terminal . 11. P. pitsillus.

23. Stipules not connate, tending to be flat to¬

ward tip, convolute; lacunae bordering

midrib well-developed; spike continuous,

2- 8 mm. long, of 1-3 whorls; winter buds

all at the tips of branches

24. Leaf tips subacute to sharply pointed

25. Midrib of principal leaves (below the

involucral leaves) bordered on each

side by 1 or 2 rows of lacunae

Ross and Calhoun — Flora of Wisconsin, XXXIII

97

26. Primary leaves of the principal

stems 0.5-1.5 mm. wide, with well-

defined lacunae often in rows each

side of the midrib in the lower half

of the leaf . 13. P. Berchtoldi.

26. Primary leaves 0.3-1 mm. wide, with

a single row of frequently eva¬

nescent lacunae each side of the

midrib . .13. P. Berchtoldi var. tenuissimus.

25. Midrib of principal leaves bordered on

each side by 3-5 bands of coarse

lacunae . 13. P. Berchtoldi var. lacunatus.

24. Leaf tips mostly rounded or obtuse, mid¬

rib bordered on each side by 1 row

(sometimes 2 at base) of lacunae; foli¬

age mostly dark to light green

27. Principal leaves 3-7 cm. long.

. 13. P. Berchtoldi var. mucronatus.

27. Principal leaves 0.8-2. 5 cm. long.

. 13. P. Berchtoldi var. polyphyllus.

12. Submersed leaves 1-10 mm. wide, delicate and ribbon-like,

more or less distichous, the broad space between the inner

nerves conspicuously cellular-reticulate

28. Submersed leaves 0.5-10 mm. wide, 7-13-nerved, not

conspicuously distichous . 18. P. epihydrus var. typicus.

28. Submersed leaves 0.2-0.8 mm. wide, (3-) 5-7-nerved,

strongly distichous and rather crowded on new shoots.

. 18. P. epihydrus var. Nuttallii.

3. Submersed leaves lanceolate, elliptical to ovate

29. Floating leaves with 30-50 nerves, or rarely absent; sub¬

mersed leaves arcuate, 0.8-2 dm. long and 2.5-7 cm. broad;

petioles of submersed leaves 1-6 cm. long; endodermis of

0-cells . . . 21. P. amplifolius.

29. Floating leaves with less than 30 nerves, or absent; sub¬

mersed leaves smaller

30. Margins of leaves dentate . 5. P. crispus.

30. Margins of leaves entire

31. Base of leaf clasping stem; endocarp loop with cavity;

leaves all submersed

32. Stipules whitish, inconspicuous, disintegrating to

stringy fibers; endodermis of 0-cells - 28. P. Richardsonii.

32. Stipules whitish, conspicuous, persistent, rounded at

tip; endodermis of U-cells . 27. P. praelongus.

31. Base of submersed leaf not clasping stem; endocarp loop

solid ; leaves both floating and submersed

98

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

33. Flowers on short pedicels 0.5-1 mm. long; apex of

submersed leaves obtuse, never sharp-pointed, usually

with 7 prominent nerves; endodermis of 0-cells; float¬

ing leaves tapering to petioles 1-3 cm. long; stipules

of submersed leaves thin and membranous, becoming

shredded, although base is quite persistent; dorsal

keel of fruit thin, well-developed upward, and lateral

keel none or very low

34. Submersed leaves oblong-linear to linear-lanceolate,

7-25 cm. long, usually more than 8 times as long as

broad, tapering to an obtuse or acutish apex

. 19. P. alpinus var. tenuifolius.

34. Submersed leaves oblong to ovate-oblong, 4-10 cm.

long, usually less than 8 times as long as broad,

apex rounded and sometimes slightly cucullate

. 19. P. alpinus var. subellipticus.

33. Flowers sessile; apex of submersed leaves usually

acute, sharp-pointed to mucronate; bases of floating

leaves rounded or cuneate; keel of fruit strongly

prominent grey-green to olive-green

35. Stipules of submersed leaves firm, persistent; endo¬

dermis of U-cells

36. Petioles of floating leaves 2-9 cm. long, shorter

than blade; submersed leaves 9-17-nerved, with

lacunae in 2-5 rows along midrib . 25. P. illinoensis.

36. Petioles of floating leaves 2-10 (-15) cm. long,

mostly longer than blade; submersed leaves with

3-9 nerves, with lacunae in 1-2 rows, mostly

obscure

37. Principal submersed leaves narrowly elliptic to

oblanceolate, (1-) 1.5-9 (-13) cm. long, 0.2-1

(-1.5) cm. wide, 5-10 times as long as broad,

or if more than 10 times, then not less than 6

cm. long, sides not parallel; nerves (3-) 5-9

38. Principal submersed leaves (1-) 1. 5-4.5

(6.5) cm. long, 0.2-0.6 (-0.8) cm. wide;

5-7-nerved . 26. P. gramineus var. typicus.

38. Principal submersed leaves (3-) 6-9 (-13)

cm. long, 0.6-1 (-1.5) cm. wide; nerves 7-9

(-11) . 26. P. gramineus var. maximus.

37. Principal submersed leaves linear, (1-) 1.5-3. 5

(-5.5) cm. long, 0.1-0.25 (-0.3) cm. wide, 10-20

(-30) times as long as broad, sides essentially

parallel for most of their length, tapering at

apex to an acute tip ; nerves 3

. 26. P. gramineus var. myriophyllus.

Ross and Calhoun — Flora of Wisconsin. XXXIII

99

35. Stipules of submersed leaves decaying early, except

sometimes semi-persistent in P. nodosus; endo-

dermis of 0-cells

39. Stem without conspicuous spots; floating leaves

elliptical; submersed leaves 7-15-nerved, with

lacunae of 2-5 rows along midrib, petioles 2-13

cm. long; stipules brown and linear . 22. P. nodosus.

39. Stem conspicuously spotted; floating leaves more

rotund and ovate; submersed leaves (9-) 11-21-

nerved with petioles up to 1.5 cm. long; stipules

of floating leaves persistent, triangular. .20. P. pulcher.

1. P. FiLiFORMis Pers. var. borealis (Raf.) St. J. Map 1.

Collected in Wisconsin at only three stations always in very

shallow water: near Oconomowoc in Waukesha County, Kan¬

garoo Lake in Door County, and Trout Lake in Vilas County.

2. P. VAGINATUS Turcz. Map 2.

Collected in shallow water of Lake Mendota in University

Bay and also in Marquette County near Montello.

3. P. PECTINATUS L. Map 3.

Widely distributed in southeastern, eastern central, and in

the northwestern parts of the state, in shallow water of medium-

hard and hard-water lakes and streams. Its abundant fruits

form a valuable food for water-fowl.

4. P. Robbinsii Oakes. Map 4, dots.

Abundant in the northern part of the state and occurring

occasionally in the eastern half in either hard or soft water.

P. Robbinsii Oakes, f. cultellatus Fassett. Map 4, crosses.

Collected at only two points, in Douglas and Waukesha Coun¬

ties. This form differs from P. Robbinsii in having non-serrate

leaf margins. See Fassett, Rhodora 35 : 388-389. 1933.

5. P. CRISPUS L. Map 5.

Introduced from Europe, found only in Walworth, Dane, and

Trempealeau counties in Wisconsin, collected first in 1905.

6. P. confervoides Reichenb. Map 5, cross.

Collected once in Wisconsin, in Langlade County in a lake

lying in drift of Fourth Wisconsin glaciation.® It occurs other-

8 Fassett, N. C. Rhodora 36 : 349. 1934,

100 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

wise only in the area extending from Newfoundland south to

New York, New Jersey and Pennsylvania. See Fernald, Rhodora

33 : 44-46. 1931, and Mem. Gray Herbarium 3 : 32-36, 1932.

7. P. ZOSTERIFORMIS Fern. Map 6.

Locally abundant in ponds and quiet streams of eastern and

northern Wisconsin.

8. P. FOLiosus Raf. var. genuinus Fern. Map 7, crosses.

In medium hard, fresh or brackish water, occurring sparsely

in eastern and northern Wisconsin.

P. FOLIOSUS Raf. var. macellus Fern. Map 7, dots.

Chiefly in calcareous waters, abundant in the south-central

area and sparsely in the north.

9. P. Friesii Rupr. Map 8.

Fairly frequently found in calcareous or brackish water in

southeastern Wisconsin ; also collected in Brown and Door coun¬

ties as well as northwestward in Forest and Douglas counties.

10. P. STRICTIFOLIUS Ar. Benn. var. typicus Fern. Map 9, dots.

In calcareous waters ; collected only once in each of Douglas,

Bayfield and Door counties.

P. STRICTIFOLIUS Ar. Benn. var. RUTILOIDES Fern. Map 9,

crosses.

Rare throughout southeastern and northeastern Wisconsin,

mainly in alkaline waters.

11. P. PUSILLUS L. P. panormitanus Biv. ; see Dandy and Taylor,

Journ. Bot. 76 : 90-92. 1938. Map 10.

Prefers slightly alkaline waters ; occurs occasionally in

eastern and northern Wisconsin.

12. P. OBTUSIFOLIUS Mert. and Koch. Map 11, dots.

In cold streams and lakes of northeastern Wisconsin. Col¬

lected in Oneida, Sawyer, Douglas and Bayfield counties.

13. P. Berchtoldi Fieber. P. pusillus of authors; see Fernald,

Rhodora 42 : 246. 1940. Map 13.

Occurs throughout northern Wisconsin, occasionally in hard-

water lakes.

Ross and Calhoun — Flora of Wisconsin, XXXIII 101

P. Berchtoldi var. tenuissimus (Mert. and Koch) Fern.

Map 14.

Grows in soft to hard water; occurs in Lake Mendota, Dane

County, and occasionally northward through the middle of Wis¬

consin, also in the northwest.

P. Berchtoldi var. lacunatus (Hagstrom) Fern. Map 15.

Collected at three points in northern Wisconsin.

P. Berchtoldi var. mucronatus Fieber, Map 16.

Fairly abundant in the northwestern area, collected once in

Crawford County in the southwest.

P. Berchtoldi var. polyphyllus (Morong) Fern. Map 17.

Rare, collected only in Douglas, Washburn, Langlade and in

Jefferson counties. These varieties of P. Berchtoldi have the

essentially same range in Wisconsin and very similar general

ranges.

14. P. Vaseyi Robbins. Map 11, crosses.

Rare, along the Wisconsin River basin in lakes whose waters

flow into that river or were at one time connected with it. A

species closely related to P. Vaseyi occurs both in Michigan and

in Minnesota but is not known in Wisconsin. This is P. lateralis

Morong, differing from P. Vaseyi in having fruiting plants with

linear submersed leaves and sterile (but often flowering) plants

with floating leaves, the opposite of the case in P. Vaseyi, The

leaves of P. lateralis are 0.4-1 mm. wide while the leaf width of

P. Vaseyi varies from 0.3-0.5 mm. More detailed differences are

given by Fernald in his monograph of linear-leaved species.

15. P. Spirillus Tuckerm. Map 18, dots.

Along the Wisconsin River in Portage and Lincoln Counties

and northwestward in shallow waters of ponds, lakes, and quiet

streams.

16. P. DIVERSIFOLIUS Raf. Map 18, crosses.

A southern species, found chiefly along the Mississippi and

Chippewa rivers.

17. P. CAPiLLACEOUS Poir. Map 12.

A coastal plain, shallow-water species. Rare in Wisconsin,

found occasionally in soft water lakes of Adams, Juneau, Jack-

son and Sawyer counties.

102 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Potaraogeton pectinatas

® Potaraogeton Robbinsii

Potaraogeton Robbinsii

Ross and Calhoun — Flora of Wisconsin. XXXIII 103

® Potamogeton strictif olius var. typicus Potamogeton pusillus

4.Potamogeton strictif olius var. rutiloides

104 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Potaaogeton ^rchtoldi

var. lacuna tus

Potaaogeton Barchtoldi

var. polyphyllus

Potamogeton Berchtoldi

var. tenuissiraus

Potamogeton Berchtoldi

var. Hucronatus

4* Potaaogeton diversif olius

# Potamogeton Spirillua

Ross and Calhoun — Flora of Wisconsin. XXXIII

Potamogeton epihydms var. typicus

Potamogaton epihydrus

var* Nutallii

® Potamogaton alpinus var, tenuifolius Potamogaton pulchar

•I* Potamogaton alpinus var.subellipticus

Potamogetoa nodosus

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Potmaogoton grasdneus

var. maximu.8

Potaiaogeton gramineus

var* njyTiophyllus

Ross and Calhoun — Flora of Wisconsin. XXXIII 107

Potamogeton praelongus

A, Najas olivacea

ZannictoHia palustri® vare®aj®r

108 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts and Letters

18. P. EPIHYDRUS Raf. var. typicus Fern. Map 19.

Common in the north and occasionally in the east near the

Lake Michigan shore, also collected in Sauk and Buffalo counties.

This species grows both in soft and hard water lakes.

P. EPIHYDRUS Raf. var. Nutallii (C. and S.) Fern. Map 20.

Common in north and occasionally in central Wisconsin.

19. P. ALPINUS var. tenuifolius Raf. Map 21, dots.

Sparsely distributed in northwestern and southeastern parts

of the state.

P. ALPINUS var. SUBELLIPTICUS (Fern.) Ogden. Map 21,

crosses.

Collected only in Florence and Manitowoc counties.

20. P. PULCHER Tuckerm. Map 22.

This species is not cited from Wisconsin by Ogden, Rhodora

45 : 121-122. 1943, although the dot on Map 6 of his paper (page

127) representing Taylors Falls, Minnesota, appears as if in

Wisconsin. This station is indicated on our Map 22 just east of

Polk County.

The range of P, pulcher in Wisconsin (and in eastern Minne¬

sota) appears to be related in some way to preglacial and early

post glacial history. Its occurrence in company with other un¬

common species in Holly Lake, Sawyer County has already been

discussed.^ It occurs in Sauk County in the bed of Glacial Lake

Wisconsin, in a stream in Baxter's Hollow, in the unglaciated

portion of the Baraboo Hills. In Juneau County it is found in the

bed of Glacial Lake Wisconsin, in reservoirs maintained for

cranberry culture.® The possibility of its introduction with cran¬

berry stock from the east appears remote in light of the rest of

its distribution in Wisconsin.

21. P. AMPLiFOLius Tuckerm. Map 23.

Usually in deep, hard water, common and abundant in east¬

ern and northern Wisconsin.

22. P. NODOSUS Poir. Map 24.

Also known as P. americanus C. and S. Usually in flowing

water ; common along the Mississippi and Wisconsin Rivers and

occasionally elsewhere throughout the state.

^Fassett, N. C. Rhodora 36 : 350-351. 1934.

^Catenhusen, John. Trans. Wis. Acad. 36 : 165. 1944.

Ross and Calhoun — Flora of Wisconsin. XXXIII 109

23. P. NATANS L. Map 25.

Tolerant of waters with a large range of pH; abundant in

shallow waters of lakes and streams throughout eastern and

northern Wisconsin, also at two points near the Mississippi, at

La Crosse and near the mouth of the Chippewa River. Because

of its tendency to fruit freely it is one of the primary foods for

water-fowl.

24. P. Oakesianus Robbins. Map 26.

Not widely distributed, found in shallow water of stream

iiear Madison, Dane County and at one point in each of Wood,

Juneau, Portage and Langlade counties.

25. P. ILLINOENSIS Morong. Map 27.

Including P. lucens and P. angustifolia of American authors.

Sparsely scattered throughout eastern and northern Wisconsin.

26. P. GRAMINEUS L. var. TYPICUS Ogden. Map 28.

Fairly abundant in the north but very rare elsewhere.

P. GRAMINEUS var. MAXIMUS Robbins. Map 29.

Very rare in northern Wisconsin.

P. GRAMINEUS var. MYRIOPHYLLUS Robbins. Map 30.

Moderately abundant in some areas in the north but found

only at one station in each of Marquette, Sauk, Dane and

Ozaukee counties in the south.

27. P. PRAELONGUS Wulfen. Map 31.

Usually in medium-hard water; fairly common in eastern

and northern Wisconsin.

28. P. Richardsonii Ar. Benn. Map 32.

Commonly found in medium-hard-water lakes in eastern and

northern Wisconsin. P. bupleuroides was reported from north¬

ern Wisconsin by Fassett, Rhodora 29 : 228. 1927, but the mate¬

rial seems rather to belong with P. Richardsonii.

Najas

1. Leaves coarsely toothed, the teeth visible to the naked eye; backs

of leaves often spiny; fruits 4-5 mm. long . N. marina.

1. Leaves with fine teeth, usually visible only under a lens; backs of

leaves not spiny; fruits 2-3.5 (-4.5) mm. long

2. Widenings of leaf bases tapered

110 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

3. Style 1 mm. or more long; seed very finely and obscurely

marked with 30-40 rows of pits across the middle, usually

shining

4. Leaves 1.5-4 cm. long, 0.5-1 mm. wide at base above the

lobes, gradually tapered to the tip; seed shining . N, flexilis.

4. Leaves 9-18 mm. long, 1.2-2 mm. wide, abruptly pointed;

seed dull . N. olivacea.

3. Style 0.5 mm. or less long; seed dull, coarsely and deeply

pitted with 10-20 rows of pits across the middle. . .N. guadalupensis.

2. Widenings of leaf bases lobe-like, wedge-shaped and coarsely

jagged, leaf blades thread-like, finely toothed . N. gracillima.

1. N. MARINA L. Map 34, X.

Collected at one station in Wisconsin, Random Lake, She¬

boygan County.

2. N. FLEXILIS (Willd.) Rostk. and Schmidt. Map 33.

Common in the shallows of medium to hard water lakes in

the eastern and northern areas of Wisconsin.

3. N. OLIVACEA Rosendahl and Butters. Map 34.

Two collections in Wisconsin have been identified by Pro¬

fessor Rosendahl as probably belonging to this species. Since

mature fruit is not present, identification could not be made with

certainty.

4. N. guadalupensis (Spreng.) Morong. Map 34, dots.

In Wisconsin this species has been collected at only three

stations along the Mississippi River. These are either in the

shallows or in adjacent lakes.

5. N. GRACILLIMA (A. Br.) Morong. Map 34, crosses.

Collected near Wisconsin Dells and once in Sawyer County.

See Fassett, Rhodora 38 : 348-350. 1934.

Zannichellia

1. Z. PALUSTRIS L. Map 35.

Stems numerous and thread-like, from extensively creeping

root-stocks; fruits in bunches of 2-5, scarcely stalked, the body

2-2.5 mm. long. Hard to brackish water; along the Mississippi

and Wisconsin river basins, not common.

2. Z. PALUSTRIS var. major (Boenn.) Koch. Map 36.

Fruit longer stalked, the body 2.5-3 mm. long. Though found

chiefly along the Atlantic Coast, it has been collected in Adams,

Marquette, and Dane counties in Wisconsin.

PRELIMINARY REPORTS

ON THE FLORA OF WISCONSIN. XXXVL

SCROPHULARIACEAE

Peter J. Salamun

The following maps were compiled from the material in the

herbaria of the Milwaukee Public Museum and the University

of Wisconsin, together with supplementary specimens collected

during the past year. Grateful acknowledgment is made to Mr.

Albert M. Fuller, curator of the herbarium of the Milwaukee

Public Museum ; to Mr. James H. Zimmerman and Mr. Robert S.

Ellarson for their contributions of flowering specimens; to Mr.

James G. Ross for his assistance in the fleld ; to Mrs. Margaret S.

Bergseng for her criticisms and suggestions regarding the re¬

port; and to Dr. N. C. Fassett for his assistance and advice in

the preparation of this report as well as for his critical reading

of the manuscript. This paper is incidental to the work of the

writer as a research assistant under a grant from the Wisconsin

Alumni Research Foundation.

The nomenclature of genera and species is, with few excep¬

tions, that of the Scrophulariaceae of Eastern Temperate North

America, by Dr. Francis W. Pennell.^ Although Dr. PennelFs

monograph has been used extensively in the preparation of this

report, it has seemed preferable to use the term “variety'^ for

a geographic subdivision of a species rather than the term “sub¬

species.” Where authorities other than those mentioned in this

book are used, reference to them has been included in the text.

Additional specimens which were cited by Dr. Pennell are also

included in the maps, but the symbols used are plotted in outline

only. Also included are habitats and the dates of flowering in

Wisconsin.

1 The Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. Monographs Number

1. 1935.

Ill

112 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

KEY TO GENERA

(Specimens with Flowers)

a. Fertile stamens 5 . 1. Verhascum.

a. Fertile stamens ^ or ^

b. Corolla spurred on lower side at the base

c. Leaves narrowly linear to lanceolate or spatulate-linear,

entire; plants erect

d. Leaves narrowly linear to lanceolate, alternate, sessile;

pedicels 2-6 mm. long . 2. Linaria,

d. Leaves spatulate-linear, opposite, with short petioles; pedi¬

cels about 1 cm. long . 4. Chaenorrhinum,

c. Leaves reniform-orbicular, toothed or lobed; plant climbing

or trailing . 3. Cymbalaria.

b. Corolla not spurred on lower side at the base

e. Fertile stamens 2

f. Stamens exserted; corolla rotate or salver-form; capsule

somewhat flattened

g. Corolla-lobes much shorter than the tube; capsule acute,

much longer than wide; leaves in whorls of 3-6.

. 12. Veronicastrum.

g. Corolla-lobes nearly as long or longer than the tube;

capsule rounded or notched, slightly if at all longer than

wide; leaves opposite, rarely ternate, or alternate

h. Plants with a basal rosette of large, long-petioled

leaves; corolla yellow, lobes projecting; cauline leaves

alternate . 14. Besseya.

h. Plants without a basal rosette of long-petioled leaves;

corolla purplish or white, lobes spreading; cauline

leaves opposite (bract-leaves in upper portion of stem

sometimes alternate) . 13. Veronica.

f. Stamens included; corolla definitely 2-lipped; capsule not

flattened

i. Sterile filaments short or lacking; calyx usually subtended

by 2 bracts, exceeding in length the calyx-lobes; leaves

lanceolate, narrowed to the base, or if broad at the base,

with minute dots . 11. Gratiola.

i. Sterile filaments nearly equalling the fertile pair in

length; calyx not subtended by long bracts; leaves mostly

ovate, broadest usually at the base and without minute

dots . 10. Lindernia.

e. Fertile stamens 4

j. Leaves alternate

k. Galea short or absent ; cauline leaves sessile

1. Stem-leaves bract-like; basal leaves oval to orbicular,

on long petioles . 14. Besseya.

1. Stem-leaves with long ribbon-like lobes; basal leaves, if

present, lobed, sessile . 19. Castilleja.

Salamun — Flora of Wisconsin. XXXVI

113

k. Lateral lobes of corolla fused into a galea, exceeding in

length the lower lobes; cauline leaves petioled. .21. Pedicularis.

j. Leaves opposite or whorled

m. Leaves and bracts narrowly linear or linear-lanceolate

to filiform, entire . . . 17. Gerardia.

m. Leaves broad and flat, toothed or lobed

n. Calyx prismatic, 5-angled . . . 9. Mimulus.

n. Calyx not as above

0. Margins of leaves serrate, toothed, or sometimes

entire to slightly fringed at the base, never pin-

natifid or lobed

p. At least the uppermost stem-leaves sessile and

clasping by a broad base

q. Sterile stamen conspicuous, as long or longer

than the fertile ones; bearded; all stem-leaves

sessile and clasping . 7. Penstemon.

q. Sterile stamen inconspicuous, not bearded; low¬

ermost stem-leaves narrowed to the base or

petioled . . . 5. Collinsia.

p. All stem-leaves petioled, or, if sessile, narrowed to

the base

r. Leaves and bracts entire or with a few bristly

teeth at the base . 20. Melampyrum.

r. Leaves toothed

s. Corolla maroon; leaves ovate-lanceolate,

coarsely toothed . 6. Scrophularia.

s. Corolla white or rose-purple; leaves lanceolate,

serrate; corolla imbricated with rounded over¬

lapping concave bracts . 8. Chelone.

o. At least some of the cauline leaves lobed

t. Lateral lobes of the corolla fused into a galea, ex¬

ceeding in length the lower lobes . 21. Pedicularis.

t. Corolla-lobes not as above, or if a galea present,

not exceeding the lower lobes

u. Upper stem-leaves with a few basal lobes

V. Corolla purple; leaves sessile, with lobes

oblong-lanceolate . 18. Tomanthera.

V. Corolla white with yellow palate; leaves

petioled, with lobes tooth-like or long-pointed.

. 20. Melampyrum.

u. Upper stem-leaves without lobes, or all pin-

nately lobed

w. Anthers glabrous; both anterior and posterior

stamens of nearly equal length; upper stem-

leaves ovate-lanceolate, entire to serrate,

lower ones lobed . 16. Dasistoma.

w. Anthers villose; posterior stamens exceeding

anterior stamens in length; upper and lower

stem-leaves more or less pinnately lobed.

. 15. Aureolaria.

114 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

KEY TO GENERA

(Based on Vegetative Characters)

a. Cauline leaves alternate

b. Leaves narrowly linear to lanceolate, entire . 2. Linaria.

b. Leaves lanceolate to oblong-lanceolate, toothed or lobed, or if

entire more than 1 cm. wide

c. Cauline leaves sessile (basal leaves sometimes petioled)

d. Leaves with ribbon-like lobes . 19. Castilleja.

d. Leaves toothed or shallowly lobed

e. Plants usually 1-4 dm. tall; cauline leaves bract-like, less

than 2.5 cm. long . 14. Besscya.

e. Plants usually 0.5-1.5 m. tall; cauline leaves lanceolate to

oblong-lanceolate, usually more than 3 cm. long..l. Verbascum.

c. Cauline leaves petioled

f. Plants erect; leaves lanceolate . 21. Pedicularis.

f. Plants climbing or trailing; leaves renifoiTn-orbicular.

. 3. Cymbalaria.

a. Cauline leaves opposite or whorled (upper bract-leaves sometimes

alternate)

g. Leaves narrowly linear to spatulate-linear, entire, usually less

than 5 mm. wide

h. Leaves with short petioles, spatulate-linear; stem with gland-

tipped hairs . 4. Chaenorrhinum.

h. Leaves sessile, narrowly linear to linear-lanceolate or tapered

toward the tip ; stem glabrous to scabrous

i. Leaves usually less than 5 mm. long, clasping by a broad

base and tapered toward the tip; plants wholly submersed.

. 11. Gratiola.

i. Leaves usually 1 cm. or more long, linear to linear-lanceo¬

late, not clasping; plants emersed or terrestrial . 17. Gerardia.

g. Leaves linear-lanceolate, sometimes ribbon-like, to orbicular,

toothed or lobed, or if entire more than 5 mm. wide

j. Cauline leaves toothed, sometimes entire or undulate, but

never lobed

k. Leaves 3-6 in a whorl . 12. Veronicastrum.

k. Leaves opposite or rarely ternate

1. Upper bract-leaves alternate . 13. Veronica.

1. Upper bract-leaves opposite

m. Stems prostrate except near the tip; leaves oval to

nearly reniform, wavy-margined . 9. Mimuhis.

m. Stems erect; leaves usually linear-lanceolate to ovate,

remotely toothed

n. Leaves sessile at least in the upper portion of the

stem, sometimes petioled or nearly so in the lower

portion

Salamun — Flora of Wisconsin. XXXV I

115

0. Leaves, at least in the lower portion of the stem,

with narrow bases or petioled; those in the upper

portion sometimes with broad clasping bases

p. Upper stem-leaves with broad and more or less

clasping bases

q. Lowermost leaves, including the petioles, usu¬

ally more than 2.0 cm. long, ovate, long-

petioled, to cuneate. . . 5. Collinsia.

q. Lowermost leaves, including the petioles, usu¬

ally less than 2.0 cm. long, ovate, short-

petioled . 10. Lindemia.

p. Upper and lower stem-leaves with narrow bases

r. Leaves lanceolate, less than 5 times as long as

broad . 11. Gratiola.

r. Leaves narrowly linear or linear-lanceolate,

more than 5 times as long as broad. . . .13. Veronica.

o. All stem-leaves with broad and more or less clasp¬

ing bases

s. Leaves covered with minute glandular dots.

. 11. Gratiola.

s. Leaves without glandular dots

t. Leaves ovate, usually less than 2.5 cm. long.

. 10. Lindemia.

t. Leaves lanceolate to lanceolate ovate, usually

more than 3 cm. long

u. Stems 4-angled . 9. Mimulus.

u. Stems terete

V. Basal leaves present, with long petioles;

plants terrestrial . 7. Penstemon.

V. Basal leaves usually absent, or if present

sessile; plants partially or wholly sub¬

mersed . 13. Veronica.

n. Leaves petioled throughout the stem

w. Leaves evidently toothed throughout

X. Leaves acuminate at the tip

y. Leaves linear-lanceolate or lanceolate, bases

narrow . 8. Chelone.

y. Leaves lanceolate ovate to ovate, bases broad.

. 6. Scrophularia.

X. Leaves acute to obtuse at the tip . 13. Veronica.

w. Leaves and bracts entire, uppermost sometimes

with a few bristly teeth at the base, . .20. Melampyrum.

At least some of the cauline leaves lobed

z. Upper stem-leaves slightly lobed at the base

aa. Leaves sessile; lobes oblong-lanceolate . 18. Tomanthera.

aa. Leaves petioled; lobes tooth-like, or long-pointed.

. 20. Melampyrum.

116 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

z. Lower stem-leaves more evidently lobed

bb. Lower stem-leaves lobed, upper leaves entire or serrate.

. 16. Dasistoma.

bb. Stem-leaves all lobed

cc. Leaves oblong-lanceolate; lobes cut less than half the

distance to the mid-rib . 21. Pedicularis.

cc. Leaves ovate-lanceolate; lobes cut more than half the

distance to the mid-rib . 15. Aureolaria.

1. Verbascum [Bauhin] L. Mullein

a. Plants pubescent with gland-tipped hairs; leaves only slightly

pubescent; pedicels 1-2.5 cm. long . 1. V. Blattaria.

a. Plants with branching glandless pubescence; leaves tomentose at

least beneath ; pedicels usually less than 1 cm. long

b. Filaments of the two longest stamens twice as long as the

anthers; at least the lower clusters of the inflorescence some¬

what remote; leaves only slightly decurrent on the stem; leaves

of winter rosette with short petioles which are hidden at the

base of the rosette, and acute tips; pubescence silvery. .2. V. phlomoides.

b. Filaments of the two longest stamens four times as long as the

anthers; inflorescence densely crowded; leaves long-decurrent

on the stem; leaves of winter rosette with more evident petioles,

and more nearly obtuse at the tip; pubescence yellowish. . .2. V, Thapsus.

1. V. Blattaria L. Moth Mullein. Map 1.

Naturalized from Europe and found only occasionally in the

state in dry fields, roadsides, and waste places ; collected to date

only from Dane, Jefferson and Milwaukee counties. Flowering

June to September.

A white-flowered form has been described as f. albiflora

(Don) House, but as yet has not been reported in the state.

2. V. PHLOMOIDES L., including V, thapsiforme Schrader; see

Rhodora 49 : 67-68. 1947.

Collected only from La Crosse and Dane counties where it

was reported growing in disturbed fields. Introduced from

Europe, and now spreading in waste places, waysides and dis¬

turbed areas. Flowering J uly to September.

3. V. Thapsus L. Common Mullein.

Common everywhere in the state, especially in disturbed

fields, waysides, along railroad tracks and waste places. Intro¬

duced from Europe. Flowering July to November.

Salamun — Flora of Wisconsin. XXXVI

117

2. Linaria [Bauhin] Miller Toadflax

a. Corolla yellow; leaves usually 2-5 cm. long, 2-10 mm. broad

b. Corolla 16-22 mm. long excluding spur, pale sulfur-yellow with

orange-yellow palate; leaves linear to linear-lanceolate; capsule

greatly exceeding the calyx lobes . 1. L. vulgaris.

b. Corolla 6-8 mm. long excluding spur, lemon-yellow with darker

palate; leaves lanceolate to ovate-lanceolate; capsule equalling

or slightly exceeding the calyx lobes . 2. L. genistifolia.

a. Corolla blue; leaves usually 1-3.5 cm. long, and less than 2 mm.

broad . 3. L. canadensis.

1. L. VULGARIS Hill. Butter and Eggs. Map 2.

Common in pastures, waste fields, and roadsides throughout

the state. Flowering May to September. Introduced from

Europe.

2. L. GENISTIFOLIA (L.|) Mill. Broom-leaved Toadflax.

Introduced from Europe, and occasionally escaping from

gardens. One specimen was collected adjacent to the sidewalk on

the northeast corner of Agricultural Hall, University of Wiscon¬

sin, July, 1947.

3. L. CANADENSIS (L.) Dumont. Blue Toadflax. Map 3.

Prefers sandy plains, bars, bluffs and hillsides ; Green County

to Outagamie County, westward. Dr. Pennell suggests that this

species may have survived glaciation in the Driftless Area, and

since has migrated outward slightly on sandy soils. Flowering

May to August.

3. Cymbalaria [Bauhin] Hill

1. C. MURALis Gaertn., Mey. & Scherb. Kenilworth or Coliseum

Ivy

Collected only from Dane and Milwaukee counties where it

has probably escaped from cultivation. Introduced from Europe.

4. Chaenorrhinum Reichenb.

1. C. MINUS (L.|) Lange. Small Snap-dragon. Map 4.

Locally abundant in cinders along railroad tracks ; largely in

the eastern part of the state from Brown County to Walworth

County, westward to Outagamie, Winnebago and Dane counties.

Introduced from Europe.

118 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

5. COLLINSIA Nutt.

1. C. VERNA Nutt. Blue-eyed Mary.

This species reaches the northern limits of its range in south¬

ern Wisconsin, having been collected near Janesville, Rock

County, on a wooded hillside. Collected in May.

6. ScROPHULARiA [Bauhin] L. Figwort

a. Sterile stamen greenish; panicle narrowly elongate, 4-8 cm. wide,

its branches relatively stout and ascending; capsules dull, 6-9 mm.

long . 1. S, lanceolata.

a. Sterile stamen purplish; panicle usually broad, 5-18 cm. wide, its

branches usually spreading; capsules usually glossy, 4-7 mm. long.

. 2. jS. marilandica.

1. S. LANCEOLATA Pursh. Map 5.

Locally abundant in open woods, dry meadows, pastured

areas and along railroad tracks throughout the state. Flowering

mid-May to early August.

2. S. MARILANDICA L. Map 6, dots.

Locally abundant in open woods, along wooded river banks

and at the foot of bluffs, largely in the southern half of the state,

with one reported as far north as Oneida County. Flowering

early July to late August.

There is considerable variation in the pubescence of the

leaves; the most pubescent type is designated f. neglecta

(Rydb.)^ Pennell. Reported only from Grant County. Map 6,

crosses.

7. Penstemon Mitchell Beard-tongue

a. Stem-leaves toothed

b. Lower lobes of the corolla scarcely exceeding the upper; middle

and lower portions of the stem glabrous, glaucous . 1. P. Digitalis.

b. Lower lobes of the corolla considerably exceeding the upper;

middle and lower portions of the stem more or less pubescent

c. Lower lip of the corolla projecting forward; middle and lower

portion of the stem minutely granular-pubescent; corolla

15-25 mm. long

d. All stem-leaves except the uppermost pair glabrous . . 2. P. gracilis.

d. All stem- and basal leaves minutely pubescent on under

side . 3. P. gracilis var. wisconsinensis.

Salamun — Flora of Wisconsin. XXXVI

119

c. Lower lip of the corolla upcurved so as to close the orifice to

the throat; middle and lower portions of the stem and the

leaves loosely pubescent with long crinkly hairs ; corolla 20-30

mm. long . 4. P. hirsutus.

а. Stem-leaves entire or obscurely undulate

e. Corolla white, 15-20 mm. long, glandular-puberulent within on

all sides; stem-leaves ovate to lanceolate . 5. P. tubaeflorus.

e. Corolla purplish, 35-50 mm. long, glandless-pubescent within;

stem-leaves oval to orbicular, acute to acuminate at the tip.

. . . 6. P. grandiflorus.

1. P. Digitalis Nutt. Map 7.

Occurs in open woodlands, fields and occasionally roadsides,

mostly in the southern half of the state, but extends northeast¬

ward to Marinette and Door counties. Flowering early June to

July.

2. P. GRACILIS Nutt. Map 8.

This species in its typical phase has been most frequently

collected in the western portion of the state, from Columbia

County northwestward and westward, in open fields on prairie

and sandy soils. Flowering late May to August.

3. P. GRACILIS var. WISCONSINENSIS (Pennell) Fassett, Rhodora

49 : 293. 1947. Map 9.

This variety is confined almost entirely to the Driftless Area,

in open woods, fields and occasionally roadsides. Sometimes

grows with typical P. gracilis and grades into it. Flowering late

May to August.

4. P. HIRSUTUS (L.) Willd. Map 10.

Confined largely to the eastern portion of the state, extending

westward to Green Lake and Rock counties. Occurrence usually

in open areas on sandy and gravelly soils, along railroad tracks

and slopes of ravines. Flowering late May to July.

5. P. TUBAEFLORUS Nutt. Map 11.

Rare in Wisconsin; collected only in Burnett, Crawford and

Dane counties, where it is reported in fallow fields, roadsides

and along river banks. Flowering early June to August.

б. P. GRANDIFLORUS Nutt. Map 12.

A prairie species entering the state from the west and ex¬

tending to Wood and Juneau counties, with a single specimen

from Sheboygan County. Confined largely to prairies, sandy

soils and barrens. Flowering early June to July.

120 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Salamun — Flora of Wisconsin. XXXVI

121

Penstemon gracilis var* wisconsinensis Penstemon hirsutus

122 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

® Chelone glabra var. typica ® Chelone glabra var. linlfolia

•f f, tomentosa -f f, velutina

Mimulus glabratus var. Fremontii & Miniulus ringena

+ f. roseus

Salamun — Flora of Wisconsin, XXXVI

123

® Veronicastmia virginicum

4- £• villosum

♦ Veronica serpyllif olia o Veronica peregrina

+ Veronica humifusa var* typica

-f- Veronica peregrina

var. xalapensi®

124 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences y Arts and Letters

® Veronica connate var. typica 9 Veronica scutellata

Veronica connate var. glaberrima + f . villosa

Salamun — Flora of Wisconsin. XXXVI

125

Aureolaria grandiflora

var. pulchra

0 Aureolaria flava var. typica Aureolaria pedicularia

a Aureolaria p>edicularia var. typica var. ambigens

126 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Gerardia paupercula

var, borealis

Gerardia tenuifolia

var. parviflora

Gerardia tenuifolia

var. macrophylla

Gerardia Gattingeri

Salamun— Flora of Wisconsin, XXXVI

127

+ Gerardia Skinneriam

^ Tomanthera auriculata

« Castilleja coccinea

4. f . pallens

» Pediciilaris canadensis

4. f» pra@ Clara

128 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

8. Chelone [Tourn.] L. Turtlehead

a. Corolla externally white, lips rose-purplish within; leaves lanceo¬

late or elliptic, 2-4 cm. wide . 1. C. glabra var. typica.

a. Corolla externally greenish yellow, lips white within; leaves linear

to narrowly lanceolate, mostly 1-2 cm. wide. . .2. C, glabra var. linifolia.

1. C. GLABRA L. var. TYPICA (Pennell) Beam, FI. Ind. 838. 1940.

Balmony. Map 13, dots.

Occurs throughout the state along river bottoms, sv^amps

and other moist places, but is less abundant than var. linifolia.

Flowering early J uly to September.

Plants with leaves densely tomentose on the under side have

been described as f. tomentosa Pennell. Map 13, crosses.

2. C. GLABRA var. LINIFOLIA Coleman. Map 14, dots.

Locally abundant in swamps, bogs and moist shores of lakes

and streams throughout the state. Flowering mid- July to early

October.

Plants with leaves densely pubescent beneath have been des¬

ignated f. VELUTINA Pennell & Wherry. Map 14, crosses.

9. Mimulus L. Monkey Flower

a. Corolla lemon-yellow; leaves reniform, nearly sessile to petioled.

. 1. M. glabratus var. Fremontii.

a. Corolla purplish; leaves oblong to lanceolate, sessile, clasping by

a heart-shaped base . 2. M. ringens.

1. M. GLABRATUS HBK. var. Fremontii (Benth,) Grant. Map 15.

Moist places about springs, shores of lakes, cold streams and

ponds throughout the state. Flowering June to September.

2. M. RINGENS L. Map 16.

Common along moist banks of streams, in swales and marshy

meadows throughout the state. Flowering June to September.

An individual with a pink corolla has been collected in Bur¬

nett county and has been described as f. ROSEUS Fassett, Torreya

42 : 181. 1943. Map 16, cross.

10. Lindernia All. False Pimpernel

a. Lower pedicels shorter than the subtending leaves; upper pedicels

shorter or only slightly exceeding the subtending leaves; leaf

blades 1-3 cm. long, lower ones obviously narrowed at the base

b. Pedicels in upper portion of stem shorter than the subtending

bract-leaves, ascending . 1. L. dubia.

Salamun — Flora of Wisconsin. XXXVI

129

b. Pedicels in upper portion of the stem exceeding the subtending

leaves, more or less divaricately spreading - 2. L. dubia var. riparia.

a. Both lower and upper pedicels obviously exceeding their subtend¬

ing leaves; leaves 0.5-1. 5 cm. long, nearly all widest near the base

and somewhat clasping . 3. L. anagallidea.

1. L. DUBIA (L.) Pennell. L. dubia subsp. major Pennell; see

Rhodora 44 : 441-446. 1942. Map 17.

Locally common along sandy and muddy shores and banks of

rivers, lakes and ditches throughout the state. Flowering July

to September.

2. L. DUBIA var. riparia (Raf.) Fern., Rhodora 44 : 444. 1942.

L. dubia subsp. typica Pennell. Map 18.

Sandy and muddy shores of lakes, streams ; moist ditches and

sandy places, largely in the southern half of the state, extending

northward to St. Croix and Marathon counties. Flowering July

to September.

3. L. ANAGALLIDEA (Michx.) Pennell. Map 19.

Edges of streams, ponds and moist places, usually on sandy

soil; Dane, Iowa, Sauk, Columbia and Eau Claire counties.

Flowering July to September.

11. Gratiola [Bauhin] L. Hedge Hyssop

a. Corolla golden-yellow; leaves clasping stem by a broad base, with

many dark glandular dots (submersed form lacks the glandular

dots) . . . 1. G. lutea.

a. Corolla greenish-yellow; leaves narrowed to a sessile or scarcely

clasping base, without glandular dots . 2. G. neglecta.

1. G. LUTEA Raf.2 Map 20, dots.

Collected only in the north-part of the state, in Barron,

Washburn, Price, Oneida and Vilas counties, where it is re¬

ported along sandy, peaty and muddy lake shores. Flowering

July to September.

Forma PUSILLA (Fassett) Pennell, a submersed sterile state,

occurs in soft water lakes with sandy bottoms at depths of 1-4

meters. Map 20, crosses.

2. G. NEGLECTA Torr. Map 21.

Frequently occurring along margins of lakes, ponds, kettle-

holes, ditches and drying depressions, mostly throughout the

2 (?. aurea Muhl. in Gray’s Man. ed. 8, p. 1276. 1950.

130 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

western half of the state, extending eastward to Oconto and

Fond du Lac counties. Flowering June to September.

12. Veronicastrum [Heister] Fabr.

1. V. VIRGINICUM (L.) Farw. Culver’s Root; Culver’s Physic.

Veronica virginica L. Gray’s Manual, ed. 7. Map 22, dots.

Fairly common along roadsides and railroad right-of-ways,

wet meadows, prairies, sandy places and open woods throughout

the state, except in the northernmost tier of counties. Flowering

late June to August.

There is considerable variation in the pubescence of the lower

surfaces of the leaves, and the most hairy form has been de¬

scribed as f. VILLOSUM Pennell. Map 22, crosses. Distribution as

above.

13. Veronica [Bauhin] L. Speedwell

a. Main stem terminating in an inflorescence, its flowers either

densely crowded in the terminal portion or remote and axillary;

upper bract-leaves alternate

b. Stem leaves lanceolate, at least twice as long as broad

c. Plants 0.5-2 m. tall; leaves evidently dentate-serrate, acute to

acuminate, short-petioled; inflorescence in a dense terminal

raceme . 1. V. longifolia.

c. Plants less than 0.5 m. tall; leaves remotely flnely serrate to

nearly entire, obtuse, sessile; flowers more remote, in axils of

upper bract-leaves

d. Plants glabrous . 4. V. peregrina var. typica.

d. Plants with gland-tipped hairs... 5. V. peregrina var. xalapensis.

b. Stem leaves ovate, only slightly longer than broad

e. Pedicels 1-2 cm. long, usually exceeding the leaves .... 7. V. persica.

e. Pedicels less than 1 cm. long, usually shorter than the leaves

f. Pedicels shorter than the sepals, less than 2 mm. long.

. 6. V. arvensis.

f. Pedicels mostly equalling or longer than the sepals, usually

2 mm. or more long

g. Corolla 3-4 mm. broad, whitish or pale blue with darker

stripes; pedicels and rhachis appressed-puberulent; cap¬

sule 3-4 mm. broad . . . 2. V. serpy Hi folia.

g. Corolla 0.5-1 cm. broad, deep blue; pedicels and rhachis

pubescent with spreading viscid or gland-tipped hairs;

capsule 4-6 mm. broad . 3. V, humifusa.

Salamun — Flora of Wisconsin, XXXVI

131

a. Flowers in axillary racemes; main stem never terminating in an

inflorescence; stem-leaves all opposite

h. Stem-leaves with short petioles, or if sessile narrowed to the

base

i. Leaves ribbon-like, very long and narrowed to the base, sessile,

remotely toothed; sepals rarely more than half the length of

the capsule . . . 13. V, scutellatd.

i. Leaves lanceolate to ovate, more closely serrate, evidently

petioled ; sepals nearly equal in length to the capsule

j. Plants glabrous or with a few gland-tipped hairs; capsules

glabrous . 9. V. americana,

j. Plants densely pubescent; capsules pubescent . 8. V. officinalis.

h. Stem leaves sessile and clasping by a broad base

k. Racemes 30-60-flowered at maturity; pedicels 4-8 mm. long,

with a few gland-tipped hairs; racemes and pedicels strongly

ascending; sepals acute to acuminate; plants wholly or par¬

tially emergent aquatics . 10. V. Anagallis-aquatiea.

k. Racemes mostly 5-35-flowered at maturity; pedicels 3-6 mm.

long; racemes and pedicels more loose and divergent; sepals

more nearly acute; pedicels and distal portions of the stem

evidently glandular-pubescent or wholly glabrous; plants fre¬

quently wholly submerged

1. Distal portions of stem and pedicels with gland- tipped hairs.

. . . . . 11. V. connata var. typica.

1. Distal portion of stem and pedicels wholly glabrous.

. 12. V. connata var. glaherrima.

1. V. LONGIFOLIA L.

Introduced from Europe, but occasionally escaping from cul¬

tivation to waste places, roadsides and along railroad tracks.

Collected only from Dane and Milwaukee counties.

2. V. SERPYLLIFOLIA L. Thyme-leaved Speedwell. Map 23, dots.

Occurs throughout the state in pastures, waysides, open

woods and along river bottoms. Introduced from Eurasia.

Flowering May to July.

3. V. HUMIFUSA Dickson. Map 23, crosses.

An alpine species that is found occasionally in the northern

part of the state, especially in moist springy places. Collected

only from Lincoln and Marathon counties.

4. V. PEREGRINA L. var. TYPICA (Pennell) Deam, FI. Ind., 847.

1940. Neckweed; Purslane Speedwell. Map 24, dots.

Fairly common in the southern part of the state, frequenting

cultivated gardens, abandoned fields and moist open places

where it usually occurs with the next. Flowering May to June.

132 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

5. V. PEREGRINA var. XALAPENSIS (HBK.j) St. John & Warren,

Northwest Sci. 2, No. 3 : 90. 1928. Map 24, crosses.

A more widespread variety than the typical, especially in the

western U. S. In the state it occurs in moist places, usually along

streams, depressions, along railroad embankments and especially

cultivated and pastured areas; becoming quite an aggressive

weed. Flowering May to June.

6. V. ARVENSIS L. Corn Speedwell. Map 25.

Locally common in dry fields, pastures and cultivated areas ;

Vernon County to Door County, southward. Flowering May to

June. Introduced from Europe.

7. V. PERSICA Poir. V. Tournefortii C.C. Gmel; V, Buxbaumii

Tenore; and V. Byzantina (Smith) BSP.

Introduced from Europe, and now occurring along roadsides,

fields and other waste places. Collected in Marathon, Sheboygan

and Milwaukee counties.

8. V. OFFICINALIS L. Common Speedwell. Map 26.

This species is confined to the Lake Michigan shore from

Kenosha to Door County, where it occurs in ravines, open woods

and dry places. Introduced from Europe. Flowering late May to

August.

9. V. AMERICANA (Raf.) Schwein. American Brooklime. Map 27.

Occurs in stream beds, roadside ditches, along ponds, swamps

and other moist places throughout most of the state, except in

the southern and southeastern portions. Flowering late May to

early September.

10. V. Anagallis-aQUATica L. Water Speedwell. Map 28.

Collected only from Sheboygan and Door counties. Inhabits

ditches, ponds and slow moving streams. Flowering June to

September. Naturalized from Europe.

11. V. CONNATA Raf. var. typica (Pennell) Deam,^ FI. Ind., 849.

1940. Map 29, dots.

Frequent in slow moving streams, shaded ditches, sloughs

and brooks, largely in the limestone areas. Flowering late May

to October.

s V. comosa Richter, ibid., p. 1284.

Salamun — Flora of Wisconsin, XXXVI

133

12. V. CONNATA var. GLABERRIMA (Pennell) Fassett, Rhodora

41 : 525. 1939. Map 29, crosses.

Apparently much more local along the eastern border of the

Driftless Area and in Door County. This variety and the typical

are often wholly submersed and cannot be distinguished except

by a comparison with emersed plants of the region.

13. V. SCUTELLATA L. Marsh Speedwell. Map 30, dots.

Locally common throughout the state in marshy places, river

bottoms, roadside ditches and depressions. Flowering late May

to September.

Plants with white hairs throughout the stem and leaves have

been described as f. villosa (Schumacher) Pennell. Map 30,

crosses.

14. Besseya Rydberg^

1. B. Bullii (Eaton) Rydb. Synthris Bullii (Eaton) Heller,

Gray's Manual, ed. 7. Map 31.

Locally common on sandy and gravelly ridges, knolls, open

woods and prairies; southernmost counties, northward to Dane

and Milwaukee counties; along St. Croix River, Pierce to Polk

counties. The two apparently separated regions are shown by

Dr. Pennell's map actually to be connected by stations in Iowa

and Minnesota. Flowering May to August.

15. Aureolaria Rafinesque® Foxglove

a. Stems glabrous, more or less glaucous . 1. A. fiava var. typica.

a. Stems more or less puberulent or pubescent

b. Pubescence glandless . 2. A. grandiftora var, pulchra.

b. Pubescence more or less glandular

c. Distal portion of stem closely pubescent, only slightly gland¬

ular; pubescence of leaves scarcely or not glandular; capsule

usually 9-11 mm. long . 3. A. pedicularia var. typica.

c. Distal portion of stem glandular-pubescent to hirsute;

pubescence of leaves more evidently glandular; capsule usu¬

ally 11-15 mm. long

d. Glands scattered throughout the distal portions of the stem.

. 4. A. pedicularia var. inter cedens.

d. Glands crowded throughout the distal portions of the stem.

. 5. A. pedicularia var. amhigens.

^ Wulfenia Jacq., ibid., p. 1280.

® Considered with Tomanthera under Gerardia, ibid., p. 1285.

134 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

1. A. FLAVA (L.) Farw. var. typica (Pennell) Beam, FI. Ind.,

854. 1940. Smooth Foxglove. Map 33, diamond.

Open oak woods on sandy or light loam soils. Reported by

Pennell from southern Wisconsin, presumably Walworth County.

Flowering late July to late September.

2. A. GRANDIFLORA (Benth.) Pennell var. pulchra Pennell.

Map 32.

Largely in the southern part of the state, northeastward to

Waupaca and Brown counties. Prefers open oak woods. Flower¬

ing late July to mid-October.

3. A. PEDICULARIA (L.) Raf. var. typica (Pennell) Beam, FI.

Ind., 855. 1940. Map 33, dots.

Reported by Pennell as collected in Trempealeau and Pierce

counties. Occurs in dry oak woods. Flowering mid-August to

late September.

4. A. PEDICULARIA var. INTERCEDENS Pennell. Map 33, crosses.

Collected in Bunn and Green counties; growing in sandy

open oak woods. Flowering early August to late September.

5. A. PEDICULARIA var. AMBIGENS (Fern,) Farw. Map 34.

Occurs largely in the sandstone areas of the central and

northeastern portion of the state, and along rivers northwest¬

ward to Polk County, and southeastward to Walworth County.

Bry sandy oak woods and wooded sand dunes. Flowering late

July to early October.

16. Basistoma Rafinesque'^

1. B. MACROPHYLLA (Nutt.) Raf. Map 35.

This species seems to be entering the state from the south¬

west along rivers and streams, known in Wisconsin only from

Grant County, occurring on lightly wooded hillsides. Flowering

late June to early September.

17. Gerardia L. Gerardia

a. Pedicels short, slightly if at all exceeding the calyx and capsule

b. Upper lobes of corolla only slightly spreading; capsule cylin-

dric, decidedly longer than wide; upper surface of leaves and

stem very scabrous; branches and pedicels strongly ascending.

. 1. G. aspera.

Seymeria Pnrsh, ihid.

Salamun — Flora of Wisconsin. XXXVI

135

b. Corolla-lobes reflexed spreading; capsule globose to globose-

ovoid; upper surface of leaves less scabrous and stem smooth;

pedicels and branches more spreading

c. Corolla 20-35 mm. long . 2. G. purpurea.

c. Corolla 10-20 mm. long

d. Corolla 15-20 mm. long, campanulate; anthers rather

densely white-villose . . .3. G. paupercula var. typica.

d. Corolla 10-17 mm. long, tubular-campanulate; anthers

sparingly villose-pubescent with pale brownish or white

hairs. . . 4. G. paupercula var. borealis.

a. Pedicels long, usually exceeding the corolla, at least longer than

the calyx and capsule

e. Stem-leaves usually 2-4 mm. broad; plants relatively dark green

or purplish, tending to blacken in drying; seeds dark brown or

blackish

f. Anthers densely villose; leaves and branches spreading; axil¬

lary fascicles not or only slightly developed.

. 5. (t. tenuifolia var. macrophylla.

f. Anthers sparingly villose; leaves and branches ascending;

axillary fascicles usually conspicuously developed.

. 6. G. tenuifolia var. parviflora.

e. Stem-leaves usually less than 2 mm. broad, narrowly linear to

filiform; plants yellowish green, not tending to blacken in dry¬

ing; seeds yellow or yellowish brown

g. Stem-leaves narrowly linear, 2-3 cm. long; stem terete, only

slightly striate, much branched; corolla-lobes somewhat emar-

ginate; calyx-lobes not whitened at tip . 7. G. Gattingeri.

g. Stem-leaves linear to nearly filiform, 1-2.5 cm. long; stem

conspicuously striate-angled, simple or moderately branched;

corolla-lobes truncate ; calyx-lobes whitened at tip .. 8. G. Skinneriana.

1. G. ASPERA Dougl. Map 36.

Locally common on prairies, dry sandy hills and southerly

exposed bluffs; Sheboygan County to St. Croix County, and

southward. Flowering mid- July to mid-September.

2. G. PURPUREA L. Map 37.

Mostly in the southern part of the state, extending north¬

ward to Monroe and Waushara counties, and northeastward to

Oconto County. Prefers moist sandy areas, frequently along the

edges of streams, rivers and lakes, and occasionally on dry soil.

Flowering early August to September.

3. G. PAUPERCULA (Gray) Britt, var. typica (Pennell) Beam,

FI. Ind., 852. 1940. Map 38.

Occurs usually along shores of lakes, rivers, moist ditches,

marshes and infrequently on prairies and bluffs, largely in the

136 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

southern half of the state, extending northward to Polk County

along the Mississippi and St. Croix rivers. Flowering late July

to September.

4. G. PAUPERCULA var. BOREALIS (Pennell) Beam, FI. Ind., 852.

1940. Map 39.

Distribution appears to be wholly within the glaciated por¬

tion of the state, occurring along sandy shores of lakes and

streams in the northern part, and in bogs and marshy places in

the southern part. Extensive collections have been made in the

northwestern part of the state, and Mr. W. T. McLaughlin, in

Ecol. Mono. 2 : 344, 1932, has described the probable reasons for

its presence along the shores of practically all the sandy lakes in

this area. Flowering July to September.

5. G. TENUIFOLIA Vahl var. macrophylla Benth. Map 40.

Habits loam or clay soils along river bottoms, swales and

ditches. Largely in the southern portion of the state, extending

northeastward to Oconto County and northwestward to Dunn

County. Flowering mid- August to mid-October.

6. G. TENUIFOLIA var. PARVIFLORA Nutt. Map 41.

Locally common along river banks, lake shores, moist fields

and depressions, usually on sandy soil. Appears to be largely

absent from the granitic rocks of the north central portion of

the state. An apparent exception is a specimen in the Milwaukee

Public Museum which was collected near Wausau, Marathon

County. However a geological map of the region discloses an out¬

crop of basic igneous rock in this area which may explain this

occurrence. It is suggested that a watch be kept for this plant

on similar outcrops in this area. Flowering mid-August to

October.

7. G. Gattingeri Small. Map 42.

Occurs on dry knolls, bluffs and open oak woods ; Marquette

and Green Lake counties southward, with a collection from Polk

County. These two apparently separate areas are probably con¬

nected through Iowa and Minnesota. Flowering mid-August to

early October.

8. G. Skinneriana Wood. Map 43, cross.

Rare in the state, having been collected only from the vicinity

of Arena, Iowa County. Prefers open sandy areas, bluffs, dunes

and prairies. Flowering mid-August to September.

Salamun — Flora of Wisconsin, XXXVI

137

18. Tomanthera Rafinesque

1. T. AURICULATA (Michx.) Raf. Map 43, dots.

Collected in Dane, Lafayette and Racine counties where it

occurs in prairies, old fields or rarely open woodlands. Flower¬

ing August to September.

19. Castilleja Mutis Painted Cup

a. Bracts and leaves pale green, numerous; corolla 3-4 cm. long.

. . . 1. C. sessiliflora,

a. Bracts scarlet, yellow or whitish-tipped; corolla 1.5-2.5 cm. long.

. 2. C. coccinea.

1. C. SESSILIFLORA Pursh. Map 44.

Locally common in prairies, and sandy and limestone ridges

and knolls, from Milwaukee County diagonally across the state

to Pierce County, thence southward and westward; often an

indicator of undisturbed high prairie. Flowering May to late

July.

2. C. COCCINEA (L.) Spreng. Scarlet Painted Cup. Map 45, dots.

Locally abundant throughout the state, but largely absent

from the north central portion. Usually occurring in moist

meadows, sandy areas and moist open woods and roadsides.

Flowering May to early September.

Plants with whitish or yellowish-tipped bracts have been

described as f. fallens (Michx.) Pennell (including both f. alha

Farw. and f. lutescens Far. in Amer. Midi. Nat. 8 : 276. 1923).

Map 45, crosses.

20. Melampyrum [Bauhin] L. Cow Wheat

a. Foliage leaves and bracts linear, 1-4 (-6) mm. broad, all entire or

the uppermost bracts rarely toothed at the base; stem simple, or

loosely few-branched, 0.5-2 dm. high, the simple branches only

1-10 cm. long; mature capsules 3-5 mm. broad ... 1. M. linear e var. linear e.

a. Foliage leaves linear to lanceolate, 2-10 mm. wide; larger bracts

linear-lanceolate to lanceolate-ovate, 3-20 mm. broad, some or all

of them sharply toothed at the base ; stem usually bushy branched

(exceptionally unbranched), 2-5 dm. high; branches in well devel¬

oped plants 0.2-2.5 dm. long; mature capsules 3.5-6 mm. broad.

. 2. M. linear e var. americannm.

138 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

j

1. M. LINEARE Desr. var. lineare (Desr.) Beauv. ; Fernald, I

Rhodora 44 : 450. 1942. Map 46, crosses.

Occurs in bogs and in sandy areas beneath coniferous trees

in the northernmost tier of counties, including the tip of Door i

County. Flowering June to August. I

I

2. M. LINEARE var. americanum (Michx.i) Beauv.; Fernald, I

Rhodora 44 : 451. 1942. Map 46, dots. J

Collected largely in the northern portion of the state, extend- j

ing southward in the central part to Juneau County, and in the

eastern part to Milwaukee County; occurs in bogs. Jack Pine

barrens and open sandy areas. Prefers acid conditions. Flower- j

ing June to August. i;

21. Pedicularis [Bauhin] L. Lousewort; Wood Betony

a. Stem-leaves alternate, with long petioles, deeply lobed; galea with f

two short spurs . 1. P. canadensis. ?

a. Stem-leaves opposite, with short petioles, pinnatifid; galea with- , |

out spurs . 2. P. lanceolata. ^

■i'!

1. P. CANADENSIS L. Wood Betony; Woolly Lousewort. Map 47, |

dots. I

Locally abundant throughout the state in dry open woods j

and fields, usually on sandy soils, and occasionally on light loam j

soils. Flowering May to June. j

The red-flowered plant, f. praeclara A. H. Moore, Rhodora |

16 : 128. 1914, has been collected in red clay along the bluff |

sides of Lake Michigan near the town of Mequon, Ozaukee

County. This form has been reported as being locally abundant |

in some areas of the New England States. Map 47, cross.

Var. Dobbsii Fern., Rhodora 48 : 59, 1946, has been described |

as having a stoloniferous habit and an apparently less cespitose '

tendency. An examination of the specimens in the two herbaria, |

as well as extensive collections during the past summer has i

failed to distinguish any appreciable differences to warrant dis- j

tinction at this time. i

2. P. LANCEOLATA Michx. Betony. Map 48. |

Distributed mostly in the southern portion of the state, ex¬

tending northward to Polk, Langlade and Marinette counties, j

Prefers moist woods, tamarack bogs and low places, usually on

loam soils. Flowering early August to October. i

PROBLEMS, PRINCIPLES, AND POLICIES IN

WILDLIFE-CONSERVATION JOURNALISM

Clarence A. Schoenfeld

PART I

WILDLIFE CONSERVATION AS A

JOURNALISTIC PROBLEM

Introduction

The area in which wildlife conservation and journalism

impinge upon each other is the subject of this paper. It is largely

a frontier area which has only recently been discovered in all its

ramifications, which is occupied by numerous savages and only

a handful of skilled pioneers, and which is waiting to be explored

by such expeditions as this thesis represents.

Were the subject-area to be classified in a biological fashion,

its taxonomy would appear to be something like this :

Phylum: Communications

Order: Education

Family: Science Education

Genus: Science Journalism

Species: Conservation Journalism

Variety: Wildlife Management Reporting

While the overtones of this study involve fundamental con¬

siderations in the broad fields of journalism, public relations,

public administration, education, and scientific investigation, the

focus of the study itself is limited to the interpretation of wild¬

life conservation (with special emphasis, where applicable, to

the state of Wisconsin). There are two reasons for this trun¬

cated approach. First, the interpretation of the science of wild¬

life management presents a clear and present problem in itself.

Second, it is probable that in journalism, as in ecology, the

mechanisms of a complex society will become understandable

only when the mechanics of a relatively simple segment is fully

analyzed.

139

140 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Discussion

For purposes of this study, the Webster's definition of ‘"jour¬

nalism” will suffice : “The business of managing, editing, or writ¬

ing for journals or newspapers.”^ “Wildlife management,” or

“wildlife conservation,” needs more documentation.

Narrowly applied, it means “the art of making land produce

sustained animal crops of wild game for recreational use.”^

Used more broadly, it involves man-to-land conduct, and “put¬

ting the sciences and arts together for the purpose of under¬

standing our environment.”^’ ^ The term is conveniently, if not

correctly, used herein to include fish as well as game.

And the point might as well be made here and now, that one

cannot rightfully separate wildlife from the land, or them from

people. We are all of one piece.® This fact has long had its bio¬

logical implications and will be seen to be the very basis of the

problems — and the possibilities — in wildlife-conservation jour¬

nalism.

It is not the purpose, nor should it be necessary, for this

study to do anything more than mention the importance of all

natural-resources conservation today in general and the impor¬

tance of wildlife conservation in particular.® One timely and

pertinent statement will be sufficient — from the preamble to the

program for a conference on “Conservation of Wisconsin's Nat-

1 N. Webster, Collegiate Dictionary (Springfield, Mass., V, 1947), 545.

2 Aldo Leopold, Game Management (New York, 1933), 4.

3 Ihid.

4 “Twenty centuries of ‘progress’ have brought the average citizen a vote, a

national anthem, a Ford, a bank account, and a high opinion of himself, but not

the capacity to live in high density without befouling and denuding his environ¬

ment, nor a conviction that such capacity, rather than such density, is the true

test of whether he is civilized. The practice of game management may be one of

the means of developing a culture which will meet this test.” — Ihid., 416.

® ‘‘We find that we cannot produce much to shoot until the landowner changes

his ways of using land, and he in turn cannot change his ways until his teachers,

bankers, customers, editors, governors, and trespassers change their ideas about

what land is for. To change ideas about what land is for is to change ideas about

what anything is for. Thus we started to move a straw, and end up with the job

of moving a mountain.” — Aldo Leopold, ‘‘The State of the Profession,” The Journal

of Wildlife Management, Vol. 4, No. 3, July, 1940. 346.

« ‘‘Conservation is not just something it would be nice to have. It is not just

something that would make life a little more pleasant and perhaps a bit more

profitable. Conservation is a matter of life and death. In spite of civilization, in

spite of great material achievements, like the release of atomic energy, people are

today more than ever faced with elemental demands, such as the need for food,

water, and shelter.” — Edward H. Graham, ‘‘Flashbacks from the St. Louis Con*

ference,” Outdoors Unlimited, June, 1948. 1.

Schoenfeld — Wildlife-Conservation Journalism

141

ural Resources” held on the University of Wisconsin campus,

June 30-July 1, 1949:

Conservation has been defined broadly as the efficient

and intelligent use of natural resources. Conservation means

not hoarding, but wise utilization, both in peace and war,

without exploitation of either the physical resources them¬

selves or of the human elements involved. The record of the

past hundred years shows wasteful practices that should be

corrected. It shows an alarming depletion of resources, not

all necessarily wasteful. It calls for intensified study of the

possibilities of utilizing marginal nonrenewable resources,

as well as conservation of renewable heritages. The deple¬

tion of Wisconsin's natural wealth is a matter of public

knowledge. Its great pineries have been replaced by aspen

scrub ; its superb rivers have been silted and polluted ; many

of its fauna have been extinguished or converted into pests ;

six million of its acres have lost five inches or more of top

soil. Our aspirations to wiser resource use, collectively called

conservation, have been slow to stem destructive forces.’^

The calling of such a conference itself is indicative of the

importance of the subject. As is the fact that two of the most

popular and — fortunately — most-discussed postwar non-fiction

books are Fairfield Osborn's Our Plundered Planet and William

Vogt's Road to Survival, both of them trumpeting the call for

more and better conservation.

Of course, neither such conferences nor such books are either

new or necessarily worthwhile. Conservation has been, by com¬

mon consent, a good thing for a good many years. Barring love

and war, few enterprises are talked about or toyed with in so

many diverse ways and places, by such a mixture of groups and

persons, as conservation. But the net total of all this effort has

been something only slightly more than zero. We have accumu¬

lated pledges and societies, but v/e have not conserved.

As the late Aldo Leopold put it :

Everyone ought to be dissatisfied with the slow spread

of conservation to the land. Our “programs” still consist

largely of letterhead pieties and convention oratory. The

only progress that counts is that on the actual landscape of

the back forty, and here we are still slipping two steps

backward for each forward stride.®

University of Wisconsin, “An Introduction,” Preliminary Progmm, Centen¬

nial Conference on Conservation of Wisconsin’s Natural Resources, (Madison,

1949), 2.

® Aldo Leopold, “The Ecological Conscience,” Wisconsin Consey'vation Bulletin,

Vol, XII, No. 12, December, 1947, 7.

142 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

But, as we have said, it is not the purpose of this study to

document either the necessity for all types of conservation or

the current lack of it. It is the purpose of this study to recon-

noiter the journalistic no-man’s-land where wildlife conservation

falters.

A generation ago, wildlife managers began with the job of

producing something to shoot or catch. It seemed to them that

once they collected a body of scientific knowledge about wildlife

crops and cropping, all would be well. They initially reckoned

not with the land nor, more important, with the landowner. Now

they are face to face with the fact that wildlife conservation is

not so much management of game as management of public

opinion.^

The realization is catching on.

Seth Gordon, for many years executive director of the Penn¬

sylvania Game Commission, is on record as saying that ‘‘the

human element — ^the public relations problem — is always more

difficult to handle than is the management of wild creatures.”^®

Something of the same sentiment is voiced by Ira N. Gabriel-

son, president of the Wildlife Management Institute, in his book,

Wildlife Conservation:

The most uncertain factor is not management (of game)

itself but public support for a suitable and effective pro¬

gram that may be neither a spectacular performance nor a

crusade.^^

I take it that the late Professor Leopold of the University of

Wisconsin (and the Wisconsin Conservation Commission) had a

similar idea in mind when he told the 1946 Midwest Wildlife

Conference at Columbia, Mo.:

A conservation commission can operate up to the level

of public opinion, but finds a drag when it attempts to pro¬

ceed beyond that point. A commission cannot build a pro¬

gram without public support.

® “Quite as necessary as research is education. . . . Effective conservation has

been made impossible in many parts of the world by man’s failure to recognize

the indispensability of scientific treatment. . . . The education of conservation

workers is not enough. The leaders in all countries must understand the ecological

imperative, and in the democracies this understanding should reach all the people.”

— William Vogt, Road to Survival, New York, 1948, 175.

Seth Gordon, “Pennsylvania Bags 700,000 Deer in Ten Years,” Our Deer —

Past, Present and Future, Harrisburg, 1944, 22.

11 Ira N. Gabrielson, Wildlife Conservation, (New York, 1941), 313.

Schoenfeld — Wildlife-Conservation Journalism 143

To borrow a term from the game managers themselves,

public opinion constitutes a threshold which effectively controls

the application of game-management techniques to public con¬

servation problems. The woods are strewn with the skeletons of

conservation projects which have died, not because of any

genetic flaw, but through lack of sufficient discriminating public

interest and support.^^

Biologists, in short, once dreamed of solving wildlife prob¬

lems while the galleries cheered. Wiser now, they see need for

'‘human engineering'’ as well as better research. So it was that

H. Albert Hochbaum of the Delta (Manitoba) Waterfowl Re¬

search Station, speaking at the Ninth Midwest Wildlife Confer¬

ence at Purdue University in December, 1947, addressed his

fellow ecologists, not on the management of wildlife, but on "The

Management of Man." It is becoming increasingly apparent, he

said, that the knowledge and co-operation of the public is of

fundamental importance in carrying out a well-rounded conser¬

vation program^^.

Mr. Hochbaum's thesis was echoed by Frank H. King,

regional co-operative wildlife manager, Horicon, Wis., in a

recent issue of the Wisconsin Conservation Bulletin:

The real core of the trouble seems to be that the public

does not understand our program and so is not ready to

adopt it.^^

This low public-opinion threshold has been responsible, in

the words of Ira N. Gabrielson, "for an appalling waste of con¬

servation funds and effort."^^

The most common form of this waste is sportsmen's pressure

for greater and more liberal harvesting privileges than the con-

12 A National Conservation Education Workshop, held June 14 through June 17,

1948, at the Cook County Forest Preserve District, Illinois, under the auspices of

the National Committee on Policies in Conservation Education, could come only

to this conclusion : “At the present time there is failure on the part of the average

citizen to understand the basic facts concerning the wise use of our natural re¬

sources, coupled with an individual sense of futility and consequent irresponsibility.

This constitutes a serious threat to individual welfare and national survival.”

Proceedings of the National Conservation Education Workshop, Chicago, 1948, 17.

12 “Most of the resistance to intelligent game conservation programs has come

from those who hunt and fish.” — Gabrielson, Wildlife Conservation, 227.

1* Frank King, “The Management of Man,” Wisconsin Conservation Bulletin,

August, 1948, 9.

1® Ira N. Gabrielson, “What Is Wrong With Wildlife Administration?”, Sports

Afield, July, 1948, 40.

144 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

dition of the stock will allow or, contrariwise, sportsmen’s

opposition to more liberal cropping when ranges become patently

over-stocked with ungulates.^^

Another great waste has come from sportsmen’s pressure for

indiscriminate artificial propagation and restocking programs

which wildlife science has shown in many cases to be uneconom¬

ical if not downright dangerous.^® Wanton predator control is

another favorite phobia of sportsmen.^® Tolerance of incompe¬

tent state conservation commissions is another shortcoming.^®

E. Sydney Stephens, late chairman of the Missouri Conserva¬

tion Commission, once charged :

Conservation is a sissy, with ruffled pantalettes, a May

basket in her hand, and a yellow ribbon in her hair. The

weakness lies primarily with state administration. It’s not

a pretty picture ; in too many cases it’s ugly as hell ! Of 65

departments in 48 states, only five have a ''passing” grade.^^

The Wisconsin situation was highlighted recently by Gordon

MacQuarrie, outdoor editor of the Milwaukee Journal, in these

words :

We do wondrous things in Wisconsin. We’ve got a con¬

servation director responsible for a $6,000,000 budget whom

we pay $6,500 a year, less than the salaries of his two

“ “A difficulty in the proper handling and utilization of wildlife is often found

in the attitude of hunters and fishermen who desire to take more game or fish

than the crop available for harvest, regardless of the condition of the breeding

stock. ... It is too common in the abstract to be all for conservation and wise

use but in practice to be only for self at the other fellow’s expense.” — Gabrielson,

Wildlife Conservation, 126.

“It is my considered opinion that excess deer have, during the past decade,

cancelled out all the forestry program of all ag'encies working in Wisconsin.” —

Aldo Leopold, “The Deer Dilema,” Wisconsin Conservation Bulletin, September,

1947, 3.

18 “All evidence leads to the conclusion that much stocking is unnecessary,

uneconomical, or even harmful if the species suited to the environment are already

present.” — F. A. Westerman and Albert S. Hazzard, For Better Fishing, (East

Lansing, Mich., 1945), 7.

1® "Unless the predator scourge and its effect on present game conditions is

recognized, we will never again see good hunting. Predator control, and especially

a drastic reduction of the fox horde, is the prime factor in any game restoration

program. Without it all efforts will fail miserably.” — Leo A. Wincowski, “Are Our

Wildlife Sanctuaries Simply Free Lunch Counters?”, Outdoors Unlimited, January,

1949, 1.

20 “The citizen makes increasing demands for services from his government to

help him exist in a 20th century world, and yet his connection with and interest in

that same government tends to recede more and more into apathetic separation.” —

Fred E. Merwin, Public Relations in Selected Wisconsin Administrative Depart¬

ments, unpublished thesis, (Library, University of Wisconsin, 1937), 4.

21 E. Sydney Stephens, “Where Are We and What Time Is It?”, Address, North

American Wildlife Conference, St. Louis, 1946.

Schoenfeld — Wildlife-Conservation Journalism

145

assistants. We are losing bright young men in forestry and

biology departments of the state because private industry

pays them better. We were the last important fishing state

in the Union to pass a universal fishing license law. We, the

people, persist in a kibitzing program of advising expert

game managers that is comparable with a sick person in¬

dulging in self-medication. We spend around $50,000 a year

trying to feed deer artificially, despite the fact that every

other important deer state found out years ago it was

money wasted, and quit it. We decline to learn from the

experiences of other states. We set up our conservation com¬

mission and its department as a convenient whipping boy.

We pay bounties amounting in some years (county and state)

to about a quarter million dollars on predatory animals,

when the truth is that no reputable game man in the coun¬

try will endorse such expenditure. They all know it is no

good. ... It comes down to this : There are too many self-

avowed experts in the Wisconsin conservation picture and

the real experts, the trained men, are doing things they do

not want to do but are forced to do.^^

To summarize, it is virtually self-evident that the bottleneck

in the conservation of American wildlife today is increasingly

less an insufficient research base for operations and increasingly

more an insufficient public support of sound management prac¬

tices.

Fortunately, the public-opinion threshold is not so static as

the many thresholds in nature. It is conditioned by the emotion

and intelligence of the public.^^ Consequently the opinion thresh¬

old can be raised by stimulating the public’s awareness and

increasing the public’s fund of information. In short, by edu-

cation.2^

As Chester S. Wilson of the Minnesota Conservation Depart¬

ment has said :

22 Gordon MacQuarrie, “Right Off the Reel,” Milwaukee Journal, January 6,

1948, 34.

23 “Behind every human act lies an ‘emotion’ that sets the act going ; and

behind the ‘emotion’ lies a ‘thought’ or an ‘idea’. If such survival-emotions as the

desire for conservation are to become part of our daily existence, they must be

based on knowledge and the thought that stems from it. If we are to make peace

with the forces of the earth, that peace must begin in our minds — and we must

seek, and accept, many new ideas. We must reject many old ones.’’ — William Vogt,

Road to Survival, (New York, 1948), 210.

2^ “ ‘Conservation’ has been so long sterilized by isolation from ‘education’ —

when they are in reality inseparable — that many Ph.D.’s are ignoramuses in ques¬

tions having to do with the land ; and a shocking proportion of our State Con¬

servation Commissions are guided by traditions that should have disappeared with

the Model 313.

146 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Conservation education will get more results per dollar

spent than any other conservation activity.^®

But what kind of education? The teaching of wildlife con¬

servation in every grade from first to 16th is of course an

obvious necessity. Such a course of action will, however, bring

results only in the next generation. For results in the present it

is the adult population which must be educated, and this can

primarily be done only through the public press.

It was E. W. Scripps who wrote :

It is only through the press — mainly the daily press — of

the country that the vast majority of the people of this

country receive any information or education at all. It is,

therefore, only through the press that the public can be

quickly and well instructed on matters of its greatest

interest.^®

The daily newspaper, in other words, is a main channel to

the public's thought stream. Stimulation of public awareness and

increase of public information through the newspaper — and its

attendant magazines and journals — presupposes an ability to

write about significant subjects in terms which the public can

understand. Unfortunately the situation today in conservation

journalism seems to be one in which we have a plethora of jour¬

nalists with nothing to write about and a paucity of technicians

who can write in the popular vein.

On the one hand are the so-called ‘'outdoor writers." E. Syd¬

ney Stephens bitingly characterized “98 per cent of them" in

these words:

They apparently don't know what it's all about. They

either clip or paste, or they write glowing accounts and pub¬

lish pictures of what Joe Doakes killed or caught last week¬

end, which only invites and incites millions of others to go

and do likewise. But nary a word about what it takes to put

fish in streams or birds in fields.^^

G. G. Simpson of the American Museum of Natural History

has documented the case history of a scientific news story which

originated in his office.

25 Chester S. Wilson, “New Step in Conservation Education,” Eighth Biennial

Report of the Minnesota Department of 'Conservation, (Minneapolis, 1948), 32.

29 E. W. Scripps, quoted in “The Rise of Science Understanding,” Science, Vol.

108, September 3, 1948, 243.

27 E. Sydney Stephens, “Where Are We and What Time Is It?”, Address, North

American Wildlife Conference, St. Louis. 1946.

Schoenfeld-Wildlife-Conservation Journalism 147

Out of nearly 100 papers whose stories finally come back to

him, only about one-tenth had reports that were neither seri¬

ously wrong scientifically nor obnoxious to him personally.^®

He comments:

In view of the great need for popular presentation of

the results of research, and in view of the mechanisms set

up for this purpose and used in this case, this is a serious

matter despite its humorous side. It is fairly typical of what

still happens to scientific news.

On the other hand are the conservation experts, most of

whom, according to Russell Lord, editor of The Land, write in

“a rather spurious or pretended jargon of objectivity which they

impose upon themselves as a mark of scientific respectability.’’^®

Clarence Cottam of the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service put it

this way at a recent Midwest Wildlife Conference:

Research reports are too often written in a lingo the

public cannot understand and in such a manner that they

are worthless unless interpreted by someone else capable of

writing and speaking to the public. . . . We need better

public appreciation of the importance of research as a foun¬

dation for practical information and management. The re¬

sults of technical research should be popularized.®®

Perhaps one telling example of what Mr. Cottam is talking

about might well be cited. Prof. Paul L. Errington of Iowa State

College last year wrote a prize-winning learned paper on ‘‘Pre¬

dation and Vertebrate Populations.” Mr. Errington’s theme

should come to the immediate attention of the sporting public,

since he pooh-poohs the popular conception that predator control

is the alpha and omega of game management. Yet here is the

conclusion of Errington’s essay, couched in such diverse termi¬

nology that I suspect even some experts are probably hard-

pressed to follow it:

On the whole, in view of the human tendencies to over¬

estimate the population effects of conspicuous or demon¬

strably heavy predation, something of a scaling down of

emphasis should well be in order, notably in appraising the

28 G. G. Simpson, “The Case History of a Scientific News Story,” Science, Vol.

92, August 16, 1940, 150.

29 Russell Lord, quoted in “Technical Journalists Wanted, Survey Shows,” The

Quill, September-October, 1946, 10.

89 Clarence Cottam, quoted in “The Management of Man,” Wisconsin Conserva¬

tion Bulletin, August, 1948, 9.

148 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

role of direct predation in the population mechanics of

higher vertebrates. Thresholds of security and their asso¬

ciated inverse relationships between the numbers of adults

resident and the numbers of young produced or tolerated

are frequently suggested by the published data, and these in

turn quite evidently operate in conjunction with character¬

istics of habitat and with “cyclic'' and other depression

phases ; but the patterns revealed may look remarkably little

influenced by variations in kinds and numbers of predators.

Even in equations depicting predator-prey interactions in

lower vertebrates, loss types may substitute naturally for

each other instead of pyramiding, and compensatory repro¬

duction should not be ignored when a resilient instead of a

rigid fecundity is indicated.^^

Dr. Errington, in other words, needs a translator just as

much as if he were writing in Arabic. And it would not be amiss

to point out here that Dr. Errington does have a translator. The

Conservation Commission with which he works, through illus¬

trated weekly releases and spot news stories to the press, reaches

thousands of people daily. The Iowa Conservationist, a monthly

magazine with an issue of 22,000 copies, is sent free to all county

superintendents of public schools for distribution to rural

schools, free to many libraries and other public places, and by

cost-subscription to many citizens. Certainly this program of

public education has had a part in making possible a unique

Iowa legislative act embodying the principle of biological balance

as applied to wildlife.^^

What is here implied is that the key public support for wild¬

life conservation can be enhanced by a combination of bringing

the ideas of the experts down to the level of the sportsman's

grasp and bringing the sentiments of the sportsman up to the

plane of management's possibilities. This meeting of minds can

be substantially aided by a wildlife story translator, he being

either a journalist with a technical background or a biologist

with a flair for popular writing.^^

81 Paul L. Errington, “Predation and Vertebrate Populations,” The Quarterly

Review of Biology, Vol. 24, No. 2, June, 1946, 177.

82 George Hendrickson, “Some Accomplishments of Conservation Education in

an Intensively Agricultural State,” Transactions of the Ninth North American

Wildlife Conference, (Washington, 1944), 345.

88 “Is there a great need for writers who have both journalistic ability and the

proper training in the technical fields? An emphatic ‘yes’ was given by the editors

of 31 of the nation’s leading agricultural and conservation magazines in their

answer to this question in a survey of 50 periodicals made by the author last

summer.” — Robert W. Shaw, “Technical Journalists Wanted, Survey Shows,” The

Quill, September-October, 1946, 10.

Schoenfeld — Wildlife-Conservation Journalism 149

That such combinations are within the realm of possibility is

testified by present evidences in the public prints. Certainly

Harold Titus^ ''Old Warden” series in past Field & Streams and

the "Running Sores on the Land” series in 1948 issues of Sports

Afield are prime examples of the journalist turned scientist. On

the other hand, in the profession of wildlife management, and

on its fringes, are a growing number of scientists with literary

bents; Frazier Darling, Durward Allen, D. C. Peattie, Albert

Hazzard, for instance.

"These intergrades in human taxonomy,” wrote Aldo Leo¬

pold, "are perhaps more important than those which so perplex

the mammalogists and ornithologists. Their skulls are not yet

available to the museums, but even a layman can see that their

brains are distinctive.”^^

Summary

If, then, wildlife conservation is in large measure a problem

in the management of man,^® and if the management of man

involves the successful translation of the message of wildlife

science into the jargon of the sportsman, what are some of the

fundamental problems in wildlife-conservation journalism?

They seem to me to include these two :

First, what are some of the principles which should underly

the interpretation of wildlife science?

Second, what is a sound wildlife-conservation journalism

policy for the future?

To the answering of these questions this paper is devoted.

Leopold, “The State of the Profession,” The Journal of Wildlife Manage¬

ment, 233.

8s This is not to say, of course, that all wildlife research knots are tied. For

example :

“We patrol the air and the earth, but we do not keep filth out of our creeks

and rivers. We stand guard over works of art, but species representing the work

of aeons are stolen under our noses. In a certain sense we know more about the

fires that burn in the spiral nebulae than those that burn in our forests. We aspire

to build a mechanical cow before we know how to build a fishway, or control a

flood, or handle a woodlot so it will produce a covey of grouse.” — Leopold, Game

Management, 7.

150 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

PART II

WILDLIFE-CONSERVATION JOURNALISM PRINCIPLES

Introduction

Newspapers of Friday, January 10, 1947, carried a United

Press dispatch datelined Washington, D. C., which read in part:

An army of more than 12,000,000 hunters and fishermen

is rapidly depleting some species of wildlife, the Fish and

Wildlife Service warned today. In its annual report on wild¬

life conditions, the Service called for ‘"the most careful plan¬

ning and the most unremitting effort,” to prevent serious

damage to the nation’s fish, fowl and wild animals.^

Thus are we of the '‘enlightened” 20th century well on the

way to seeing repeated on a grand and terrible scale the mass

murder of bison and passenger pigeons.

There is only one thing that will save American wildlife as

we know it and that is nothing less fundamental than a revolu¬

tion in the spirit of the American outdoorman, a revolution

which will change every American hunter and fisherman from

a consumer of wildlife goods to a producer of wildlife apprecia¬

tion, a revolution which increases his perception and decreases

his trigger-itch.2

This job of remaking the American sportsman is a tough

assignment. It is a job in which the wildlife-conservation jour¬

nalist must play an important part. Because it is such a grass¬

roots proposition, it involves more than a mere facility with the

techniques of interpretation.^ It involves at least a vague idea

of what the mission is all about; a conservation philosophy, if

you please.^

i(Madison), Wisconsin State Journal, Jan. 10, 1947, 1.

2 “Conservation must exist in the mind before it exists on the land.” — Ollie E.

Fink, The Gateway to Conservation, (Columbus, Ohio, 1946), 9.

* “In self-education, in the schools, in the public forum, and in the whole com¬

munication process of our time it is essential that the wise use of natural resources

becomes more than a catch-phrase, more than a byword, more than a ‘subject’ of

study. . . . Conservation must now enter the required core of human experience.”

— Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development of the National Educa¬

tion Assn., Large Was Our Bounty, 1948 Yearbook, (Washington, D. C.), 146.

^ “Uses to which man puts the environment are determined not alone by his

skills. Even more those uses are determined by what he believes, and thinks, to be

valuable. If we consider that our own generation is the ultimate value, we will

have little concern for the future, even for the future of our own children. If we

consider that our own individual good is the chief good, we shall attempt to

Schoenfeld — Wildlife-Conservation Journalism 151

What are the principles which must motivate and make up

any real conservation journalism program? To the answering of

that question this chapter is devoted.

Discussion

Conservation Perspective. Conservation has three prime

facets — public administration, biology, journalism. Conservation

has a history. For the wildlife-conservation journalist in Wis¬

consin, for instance, these facts should shape up into the follow¬

ing outline:

I. Conservation history as a political scientist sees it.

1838 Fishways required in all dams “except mill dams.” Probably first

conservation law.

1851 First closed seasons (on deer, prairie chicken, quail, woodcock, and

ruffed grouse).

1867 Commission appointed to investigate forestry conditions.

1891 Office of State Game Warden established.

1893 Prohibition of spring shooting made conditional upon like action

by adjacent states (which was never taken).

1895 Office of Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries established.

1897 Eesident and non-resident licenses required.

1901 First state park purchased in Polk County.

1901 Passed Audubon Society “model law” protecting non-game birds.

1907 State Park Board established.

1911 First Conservation Commission established.

1912 Buck law passed.

1915 Federal migratory bird regulations in effect.

1927 Commission reorganized on “commissioner-director” plan.

1927 First national forest purchase area set up in Wisconsin.

1933 Commission given power to set all game open season dates.

1934 Conservation Congress organized.

1938 Federal aid for wildlife becomes available through Pittman-

Robertson Act.

1939 State Planning Board issues study on Horicon Marsh.®

II. Conservation history as a biologist sees it.

1832 Last buffalo east of Mississippi killed in Trempealeau County.

1840 Sharptails “extremely abundant” in southern Wisconsin.

accumulate wealth, or money, and therefore power clear beyond any needs of our

own, largely for the purpose of satisfying our urge for dominance by controlling

the destiny and lives of others. Ultimately, the wise use of resources depends upon

the creed we live by, the ethics that guide our conduct, our essential sense of

stewardship.” — Edward G. Olson, “Educating for Social Perspective,” NEA Journal,

Vol. 31, No. 9, December, 1942, 277.

®Aldo Leopold, “Wisconsin Wildlife Chronology,” Puhlication SOI, Wisconsin

Conservation Department, (Madison, 1940).

152 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

1856 Last Wisconsin turkey killed in Grant County.

1871 Last great Wisconsin meeting of passenger pigeon; covered 850

square miles and contained 136 million pigeons.

1875 First state fish hatchery.

1876 Barbed wire fencing first available in quantity.

1878 Dr. E. A. Birge started his study of Wisconsin lakes.

1879 Carp introduced into Wisconsin by U. S. Fish Commission.

1897 Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey established.

1899 Last Wisconsin passenger pigeon shot in Wood County.

1910 Gustav Pabst began planting pheasants and Hungarian partridge

in Waukesha County.

1921 H. L. Stoddard employed by Milwaukee Public Museum.

1928 Conservation Commission started game farm and began statewide

public planting of pheasants.

1928 Research committee appointed by Conservation Commission and

prairie chicken investigation gets underway.

1929 Sporting Arms and Ammunition Institute started game survey of

Wisconsin.

1933 AAA and CCC start soil conservation and stream improvement

work.

1933 Chair of game management established at University of Wis¬

consin.

1940 State takes 95-year lease on Central Wisconsin Conservation Area.

1941 Conservation Department, with federal-aid funds, begins research

projects on deer, pheasant, grouse, and waterfowl.®

III. Conservation history as a journalist sees it.

1867 Statute requiring county treasurers to publish the game laws

yearly in local papers.

1873 First state association for preservation of game.

1910 Van Hise published Conservation of Natural Resources.

1910 Dean Russell instituted forestry-game course in University of

Wisconsin short course.

1920 Friends of Our Native Landscape organized.

1922 First Izaak Walton League chapters founded at Milwaukee and

Fond du Lac.

1929 State Federation of Women’s Clubs start conservation work.

1935 Teaching of conservation made compulsory in public schools.

1936 Wisconsin Conservation Bulletin first published by Conservation

Department.

1939 Wisconsin Society of Ornithology organized.

1946 Four-year conservation course for teachers set up at Central State

Teachers College, Stevens Point.

1947 Conservation major established at University of Wisconsin."^

One-World Conservation. The subject of conservation means

one thing here and another thing there. To the hunter it means

® Aldo Leopold, op. cit.

Aldo Leopold, op. cit.

Schoenfeld — Wildlife-Conservation Journalism 153

simply stocking pheasants on barren uplands. To the farmer it

means drawing a check for not planting corn on a slope. To the

botanist it means protecting a last stand of ladyslippers.

Actually, conservation is one of the all-embracing words in

the richest of all languages, and a crying need in wildlife-

conservation journalism is to get across the universal one-world

concept of conservation.®

Let us see how the National Committee on Policies in Con¬

servation Education defines the term.

“Conservation,’' says the Committee, “is the use of natural

resources in such a way as to contribute to the best possible

future welfare of mankind. Essentially it is good citizenship

applied to the use of natural resources. It must deal with soil,

water, forests, grasses and other vegetation, all wild animals,

minerals, and scenic resources.”^

Conservation was at one time synonymous with preservation

— ^“thou shalt not.” Then it came to mean planting a tree on

4rbor Day or hatching fish to be placed in muddy and polluted

streams. Today conservation means predominantly “wise use.”

It means the “preservation and restoration of our forests, con¬

trol and augmentation of our water supply, and the preservation

and restoration of our soil,” according to Louis Bromfield.^®

The soil is basic. Sportsmen, particularly, are prone to ignore

this fact. Yet hunting and fishing, as such, are strictly secondary.

“We know that if we are to have a strong, healthy, and pros¬

perous America,” says William Voight, Jr., of the Izaak League,

“we must take proper care of our soil, its beneficial vegetation,

water, and other renewable resources. Without these, the whole

country will be reduced to helplessness in no time. With them in

good shape, we will also have decent hunting and fishing as

welcome by-products.”^^

8 “The whole meaning of the American problem will be missed unless all re¬

sources are studied, and then not only as separate areas but also in their func¬

tional interflow. That is why the integrated approaches of both science and social

studies are essential to the development of social perspective in children and adults

alike.”-— Edward G. Olson, “Educating for Social Perspective,” NEA Journal, Vol.

31. No. 9, December, 1942, 278.

® National Committee on Policies in Conservation Education, Report, (Chicago,

1948), 2.

10 Louis Bromfleld, “A Primer of Conservation,” Bulletin of the Garden Club of

America, November, 1942, 7.

11 William Voight, Jr., Personal Communication to Author, November 12, 1948.

154 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

To say that wildlife cannot be managed properly except as it

relates to land use is but another way of stressing the depend¬

ence of wildlife upon environment. The way we manage the land

determines whether wildlife shall have a place.

In the words of the Soil Conservation Service's Edward H.

Graham, ‘‘When we have accomplished land conservation, we

shall have gone a long way toward achieving wildlife conserva-

tion."i2

This is the Number One conservation lesson for America’s

sportsmen to learn.

The cause needs a discussion and analysis of what constitutes

whole conservation, not in terms of duck hunters, or fishermen,

or bird lovers, or foresters, but in simple, general terms of man’s

existence in relation to soil, water, and vegetation.

The editor of the Journal of Forestry writes in a recent edi¬

torial of “One Forest World.”^^ But our world is not alone “One

Forest World;” it is also “One Wildlife World,” “One Soils

World,” or better than all of these simply “One World,” having

regard for all resources, organic and inorganic, and all the

people.

Even the Congress of the United States has had this uni¬

versal aspect of conservation called to its attention in 1948 by

Bill HR 6054, introduced by Chairman Clifford R. Hope of the

House Committee on Agriculture.^^

The bill would centralize and integrate all federal conser¬

vation activities.

“The economy of nature,” declares Representative Hope, “is

not divided into parts labeled ‘soil conservation,’ ‘forestation,’

‘watershed protection’ and ‘agricultural production’. It is one

big proposition.”

What this means in terms of conservation journalism is that

the subject should be presented in terms of its total and not in

terms of its details. The objective is to teach the reader to see

the land, to understand what he sees, and enjoy what he under¬

stands. Wildlife, for instance, cannot be understood without

understanding the landscape as a whole. The sciences and arts

of conservation must not be discussed as if they were separate.

12 Edward H. Graham, Dand and Wildlife, (New York, 1943), p. 219.

12 Editorial, "One Forest World,” Journal of Forestry, 43, 1945, 469.

1^ "Bill HR 6054,” Outdoors UnUmited, April, 1948, 7.

Schoenfeld — Wildlife-Conservation Journalism 155

The one-world nature of conservation also means that the

subject cannot be presented in a vacuum. It should be integrated

throughout other news, not presented as a separate package.^^

Conservation Citizenship, A basic defect in current conser¬

vation journalism is that we have not asked the citizen to assume

any real responsibility, to display any personal code of ethics.

We have told him that if he will vote right, obey the law, join

some organizations, and practice what conservation is profitable

on his own land, that everything will be lovely; the government

will do the rest.

This formula is too easy to accomplish anything worth while.

It calls for no effort or sacrifice, no change in our philosophy of

values.

Leopold called what is lacking 'The ecological conscience.'’^®

Biology is the science of communities, he said, and the ecological

conscience is the ethics of community life. It is citizenship

applied to conservation.

This simply means that the practice of conservation must

spring from a conviction of what is ethically and esthetically

right, as well as what is economically expedient. A thing is right

only when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability, and beauty

of the community, and the community includes the soil, waters,

fauna, and flora, as well as people.

Simply put, we need a code of decency for man-to-land

conduct.

"We must cease being intimidated,” declared Leopold, "by

the argument that a right action is impossible because it does

not yield maximum profits, or that a wrong action is to be con¬

doned because it pays. That philosophy is dead in human rela¬

tions, and its funeral in land-relations is overdue.”^^

Thus, agrees Professor Howard Michaud of Purdue, the pri¬

mary objective of conservation education is to develop "a con¬

servation consciousness” that will safeguard the resources upon

which this nation depends for its high standards of democratic

living.^^ )

15 Izaak Walton League of America, Education in Conservation, (Chicago,

1944), 9.

16 Aldo Leopold, “The Ecological Conscience,” Wisconsin Conservation Bulletin,

Vol, XII, No. 12, December, 1947, 15.

11 Aldo Leopold, op. cit.

18 Howard H. Michaud, “The Indiana Conservation Education Camp for

Teachers,” School Science and Mathematics, Feb. 1947, 141.

156 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

In other words, the end purpose of conservation journalism

must be to show the citizen that conservation is impossible so

long as land-utility is given blanket priority over land-integrity.

It will be his personal philosophy of land use, as well as his vote

and his dollar, which will ultimately determine the degree to

which the conservation idea is converted from preachment into

practice.

Vital Nature of Conservation, '‘Conservation,” says E. Syd¬

ney Stephens of Missouri, “is a sissy, with ruffled pantalettes, a

May basket in her hand, and a yellow ribbon in her hair.”^®

We must begin to emphasize the life-and-death nature of

conservation. Against a background of war, we must prove that

democracy can use its land decently.

The high standard of living that exists in the United States

today is based on an unparalleled abundance of natural resources

and partly on their irrational and irresponsible exploitation.

These capital assets are being dissipated at an alarming rate.

History records many peoples that have been reduced to poverty

or obliterated because of exploitation of natural resources.

Nature does not issue a blank check.

These are the hard facts of life that must be presented as

conservation. Milk-and-water bird studies, flower-pressing, and

hunting and fishing chit-chat are not enough.

“The public has been misled by constant emphasis on the

inexhaustible magnitude of the riches of our continent and the

wisdom of getting a share at once,” says the National Wildlife

Federation. “The folly of such a policy is already demonstrated

by the rapid exhaustion of valuable resources and by the waste

due to lack of proper management.”^®

“Go and use carefully” must replace “Come and get it” as

our national motto.

Conservation Simplicity, Conservation, at heart, is not tech¬

nically complicated. Any attempt to make it so defeats the

purpose of conservative journalism. Conservation should be

presented in terms of simple interests, skills, morals, and

psychology.

i»E. Sydney Stephens, “Where Are We and What Time Is It?”, Address, North

American Wildlife Conference, St. Louis, 1946.

2® National Wildlife Federation, Conference on Education in Conservation,

(Washington, D. C., 1939), Foreword.

Schoenfeld — Wildlife-Conservation Journalism 157

Conservation is best born of curiosity and pride. The 4-H boy

who becomes curious about why red pines need more acid than

white is closer to conservation than he who writes a prize essay

on the dangers of timber famine.^^

Conservation journalism must deal with local situations.

John Caldwell of the Tennessee Department of Conservation

tells this story:

Here is a picture which I wish all of you could see. It is

a little country schoolhouse with three rooms, and in the

front you see the land cut up with gullies. One day not long

ago I stopped by that school and asked the teacher if she

taught conservation. She was rather apologetic. She replied

in the negative, saying that she did not teach it as she did

not have any materials. Yet there were the materials right

outside the school door, a whole laboratory for the children.^^

Indiana provides another example of the laboratory-at-hand.

It is the Wabash Valley. Any child can understand that the song,

‘‘On the Banks of the Wabash,’’ must have been written long ago

when the cornfield and the pasture and the pig pen did not crowd

the very underbrush off the banks and spill earth and manure

into the water itself.^^

Conservation education must deal with living nature. The

great naturalist Agassiz was fond of admonishing his students

to “study nature and not books.” In too many schools today, stu¬

dents learn from picture books of plants and animals, or in labs

from dead and distorted specimens. The need is to turn back to

the outdoors.

Professor E. Lawrence Palmer of Cornell tells of a young

man who had been offered a position as a biology teacher in a

normal school and came back thoroughly disgusted because the

school had only nineteen compound microscopes. The young

Ph.D. was appalled by the suggestion that the students might get

better training in practical biology if the whole nineteen micro¬

scopes were thrown out the window and the students went out¬

side, too.^^

21 Aldo Leopold, “The Role of Wildlife in a Liberal Education,” Transactions

of the Seventh North American Wildlife Conference, (Washington, D, C., 1942), 485.

22 John Caldwell, “Conservation Education in Tennessee,” Conference on Edu¬

cation in Conservation, (Washington, D. C., 1939), 28.

23 Clement T. Malan, Conservation of Water, (Lafayette, Ind., 1946), Foreword.

24 E. Lawrence Palmer, More Outdoor Education, (Ithaca, N. Y., 1947), 39.

158 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Conservation journalism must be liberal as well as technical.

We have about enough conservation experts. We need many

more conservation laymen.

Conservation journalism ought to begin at the bottom. The

chances are almost one hundred to one that even today’s experts

arrived at their present stage through a long, slow process start¬

ing from a casual acquaintance with some minor, non-technical

phase of conservation. The next decade’s conservationists are

seeded with scrapbooks and cane poles, and not with graphs and

high-powered binoculars. The difference between the hunter

and the ecologist is one of degree and not of kind. Trigger-itch

is the raw material out of which outdoor perception is built.

The Wisconsin teacher’s guide to conservation has summed

these principles of elementary ecology up very nicely :

Conservation is not a single subject. It is an area of

learning, and a way of living. Its facts are found in the

sciences, and its applications extend into all fields of study.

That instruction which contributes to good citizenship will

contribute most to conservation. The involved and special¬

ized aspects of such a vast area of learning cannot be

grasped by children. The teacher must so present the work

that the pupils will see in their communities and their daily

living the facts for the principles of conservation. They

must so teach that the pupils will see the effects of soil ero¬

sion in the muddy water of the stream, and the gully on the

hillside. Here is an opportunity to develop an appreciation

and an understanding of national problems from the local

experiences of the pupils.^®

Conservation Facts. Here are some of the formulas which

must take precedence in any conservation arithmetic lessons:

1. An understanding of the fundamental concepts of the

conservation movement.^^

a. That, as we have already said, soil, water, forest, and

wildlife conservation are all parts of one inseparable

program.

b. That wildlife must have an environment suited to its

needs if it is to survive.

25 Curtis L. Newcombe, “The Study of Conservation,” The Journal of Higher

Education, Vol. XVI, No. 6, June, 1945, 299.

26 Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction, Helps in Teaching 'Conservation

in Wisconsin Schools, (Madison, 1938), 11.

27 Michigan State College Extension Division, Wildlife Conservation, (East

Lansing, 1942), 7.

Schoenfeld — Wildlife-Conservation J ournalism

159

c. That any use that is made of any living resource must

be limited to not more than the net annual increase if

the essential seed stock is to be continually available.

2. A knowledge of the conservation program in general.^®

a. That these facts are self-evident — (1) primitive

America was richly endowed with natural resources;

(2) in the process of economic development, a part of

this great stockpile is being destroyed.

b. That these facts are demonstrable — (1) many kinds

of wildlife, for instance, can be made to thrive on land

in economic use; (2) many more can be accommodated

on land not needed for economic use; (3) the ways to

dovetail economic use with conservation can be found

by research and made known by education; (4) the

time for action is now.

3. An appreciation of the fact that the primitive conditions

of the America of 1500 cannot be restored and that the

job now is to repair the damage as far as possible and

put natural constructive processes back to work.^®

4. A belief that to promote perception is the only truly cre¬

ative part of recreational development in America.^®

5. A realization that we can only co-operate with nature,

not conquer, if we are to survive in a world where the

land is the most precious and most fundamental basis of

our economy.®^ Civilization is not an enslavement of a

constant and stable earth. We cannot pacify the earth.

She will not be “occupied. We can only strive to enter

into harmonious relationship with her.

The natural resources of our country are like money in

the bank. They may be :

a. Hoarded without benefit to commerce.

b. Expended unwisely, resulting in economic chaos.

c. Used to enrich a few at the expense of many.

d. The primary cause of national and international

strife.

Or:

a. “Developed’’ for the benefit of commerce.

b. “Distributed” equitably and carefully.

^ University of Wisconsin, Conservation of Wisconsin Wildlife, (Madison,

1937), 5.

20 Ibid.

®>Aldo Leopold, "Conservation Esthetic," Bird-Lore, March-April, 1938, 101.

81 U. S. Office of Education, Conservation in the Education Program, (Wash¬

ington, 1937), 18, 19.

160 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences y Arts and Letters

c. Considered, as far as possible, the heritage of all the

people.

d. Used in such a way as to alleviate, if not abolish,

national and international strife.

Upon the solution of these problems depends the spiritual

as well as the material welfare of the people of the

United States.

6. A conviction that conservation is not alone something we

do ; it is something we feel. When conservation becomes a

kind of thinking, a way of life, it takes on real and sub¬

stantial meaning.

‘'Conservation education,’’ wrote Aldo Leopold shortly before

his death, “reminds me of my dog when he faces another dog too

big for him. Instead of dealing with the dog, he deals with a tree

bearing his trade-mark. Thus he assuages his ego without expos¬

ing himself to danger.

“Just so we deal with bureaus, policies, laws, and programs,

which are the symbols of our problem, instead of with resources,

products, and land-uses which are the problems.”®^

Conservation journalism is a matter of survival. Humanity

must produce and conserve, or starve. It is conservation or

catastrophe.

Conservation journalism is a matter of the good life. Wise

use of natural resources is essential to the health, wealth, and

happiness of people everywhere.

Conservation journalism is a matter of our natural heritage.

Our duty is to repair, maintain, and improve the natural endow¬

ment intended for future generations.

Time is running out. For educators, scientists, clergymen,

writers, sportsmen, businessmen, politicians, and laymen every¬

where, conservation journalism in sufficient volume and of dis¬

criminating content is a “must” project.^^

Summary

The real future of American wildlife lies not in patching up

an ailing environment, in mammoth restocking enterprises, nor

in helter-skelter game laws, but in so reshaping the American

82 Fairfield Osborn, Our Plundered Planet, (New York, 1948), 256.

38 Aldo Leopold, “Land-Use and Democracy,” Audubon Magazine, September-

October, 1942, 313.

31 Clay Schoenfeld, “Reading-, Writing-, and Resources,” Huntmg and Fishing,

March, 1949, 13.

Schoenfeld — Wildlife-Conservation Journalism 161

sportsman’s sense of values that he will go afield to give instead

of take, to produce a new perception of his surroundings rather

than to consume its crops. Conventional conservation techniques

can be only a stop-gap. They will not long withstand the on¬

slaught of 12,000,000 gunners and anglers. Only a reorientation

of the sporting spirit will save our wildlife.^® To say that such a

reorientation involves a whole change in the American approach

to life does not erase the necessity of the revolution. The immen¬

sity of the job is equalled only by the need.

Only the wildlife-conservation journalist motivated by a

sound philosophy can make a worthwhile contribution to con¬

servation. He should see that the net purpose of all conservation

writing is not the bulging creel nor the motorized conquest of

the corners of the country, but is a veritable revolution which

will change every American hunter and fisherman from a con¬

sumer of wildlife goods to a producer of wildlife appreciation —

a revolution which increases his perception and decreases his

trigger-itch.

PART III

WILDLIFE-CONSERVATION JOURNALISM POLICIES

Introduction

So far, we have seen wildlife conservation defined as in large

part a journalistic problem. We have outlined principles for

wildlife-conservation journalism. What is the upshot? What

course of action does this situation-estimate suggest? This chap¬

ter presents a point-by-point recapitulation of the case to date

and a list of recommended policies for the future.

Discussion

1. Wildlife conservation, wise wildlife-resource use, fish and

game management — call it what you will — is essentially the art-

science of growing wildlife crops for recreational purposes.^

2. Wildlife conservation techniques differ widely in detail,

but all are bent to two ends: the preservation of an adequate

®®Fallsburgh Central Schools, A Course in Angling (Fallsburg-h, N. Y., 1948), 3.

lAldo Leopold, “Game Management,” Encyclopaedia Britannica, (New York,

1947), reprinted.

162 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

breeding stock, and the creation of a favorable habitat in which

the stock may multiply.^

3. Since favorable wildlife habitat naturally involves soil,

water, flora, and other fauna, all renewable natural resources

must here be considered in unity rather than as entirely separate

categories.^

4. Man is also a part of the wildlife environment, and since

his role is anything but passive, the management of fish and

game inevitably involves the management of man.

5. In the era in which wildlife conservation was limited

largely to the restriction of take of naturally propagated fish

and game, this management of man consisted almost entirely of

laws prohibiting excessive hunting and fishing. As wildlife con¬

servation moved into the stage of artificial propagation, the

management of man came to include the encouragement of vari¬

ous stocking enterprises. Today the wildlife conservation scien¬

tists know that laws and restocking are either without funda¬

mental value or are in themselves not enough to conserve fish

and game.

6. Consequently, the management of man must now take on

new ramifications. It must develop (a) a deep sense of wildlife

husbandry on the part of the landowner and/or the land-

controller, (b) the perceptive faculty in all Americans and par¬

ticularly in consuming sportsmen,^ and (q) the receptivity of

landowners and land-users alike to scientifically sound, albeit at

times traditionally puzzling, techniques of wildlife management.®

7. Hence the conservation of wildlife and its attendant man¬

agement of man have passed to a considerable extent out of the

exclusive realm of the law courts and the laboratory and into the

realm of education.

2 Ihid.

3 Fairfield Osborn, Our Plundered Planet, (New York, 1948), 60.

^ “The only true development of American . . . resources is the development of

the perceptive faculty in Americans. . . . Let no man jump to the conclusion that

Babbitt must take his Ph.D. in ecology before he can ‘see’ his country. On the

contrary, the Ph.D. may become as callous as an undertaker to the mysteries at

which he officiates. . . . The farmer may see in his cow-pasture what may not be

vouchsafed to the scientist adventuring in the South Seas.” — Aldo Leopold, “Con¬

servation Esthetic,” Bird Lore, March-April, 1938, 103.

6 “There is need for wider diffusion of scientific knowledge, scientific apprecia¬

tions, and scientific attitudes among all classes of the population. . . . The need is

to sell science to the public, to convince the public that science is important and

valuable, and to help people assimilate whatever benefits scientific attitudes and

practices may yield, through the acceptance and use of science in daily thinking.”

— Benjamin G. Gruenberg, Science and the Public Mind, (New York, 1935), 180.

Schoenfeld — Wildlife-Conservation J ournalism

163

8. Wildlife-conservation education can be conducted at the

youth level principally in school and college classrooms and at

the adult level principally through the public prints.

9. In both cases, although particularly in the latter, there is

a transcendant need for the interpreter, who can translate the

message of wildlife science into the idiom of the layman,® and

for abundant vehicles for his output.'^

10. It is apparent from past experiences that this successful

wildlife-conservation translator cannot, except in rare cases,

himself be a practicing scientist with no training or prior experi¬

ence in the techniques and demands of popular writing.®* ®

11. It is equally apparent from past experience that this suc¬

cessful wildlife-conservation translator cannot, again except in

rare cases, himself be a practicing journalist with no technical

background.

12. There is, however, evidence that, by what might be called

natural propagation in the wild, it has been possible to produce

educators (using the term broadly) possessing that happy com¬

bination of scientific knowledge and journalistic proficiency.

13. But such purely fortuitous production of wildlife-conser¬

vation interpreters is not sufficient to meet modern needs. How,

then, are we, by what might be termed artificial propagation in

® . . The preparation of information for popular use requires the services of

a trained specialist — a specialist not only with a facility for explaining scientific

facts in plain readable, accurate language, but with breadth of view, an aptitude

for organization, and a keen and accurate understanding of human nature.” —

C. W. Warburton, ‘‘The Agricultural College Editor,” Extension Service Circular

131, (Washington, D. C., 1930), 1.

Of the 32 articles on science in Saturday Evening Post issues for the year

1947, not one had even the remotest connection wdth wildlife science.

® ‘‘The proper appreciation and application of new discoveries is being hindered

at present by increasing specialization, employing a terminology and a mathematic

apparatus which are intelligible only to a few specialists in some one subject. Any¬

one who has completed a piece of research may think it necessary to set out his

facts for the use of the expert who is working in the same subject, and is familiar

with the technical term.s and hidden difficulties. Yet such writings make dull and

difficult reading for the great majority of those who are interested in scientific

study.” — Sir William Bragg, ‘‘The Unity of Knowledge,” Nature, March, 1939, 392.

9 ‘‘The failings of scientists in regard to the effective popularization of science

are these :

‘‘1. Most investigators do not write effectively, either because they cannot or

because for various reasons they will not use a style that appeals to the masses.

‘‘2, Scientists as a class regard with anxiety and distrust the efforts of laymen

to present the findings of science in popular fashion, and some go so far as to

refuse altogether to co-operate with newspapermen.

‘‘3. A minority of researchers care little what the public thinks of their work,

have no faith that the masses can be instilled with appreciation for science, and

consequently are out of sympathy with efforts to popularize it,” — Nieman Hoveland,

Popularising Science, unpublished thesis. Library, University of Wisconsin, 1947, 18.

164 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts ani Letters

confinement, to produce wildlife-conservation interpreters in

adequate volume and quality?

14. The possibilities, it seems to me, are fourfold :

a. For going outdoor writers, we can set up in strategic

spots around the country special institutes, seminars, and

conferences which will offer — in capsule form, it is true —

courses in the basic and applied sciences of fish and game

management.

b. For going wildlife scientists and administrators, we can

likewise offer introductory courses in journalism and

public relations.

c. For student journalists, we can provide both general cur¬

ricula in conservation sciences and specific courses or

phases of courses in science reporting.

d. For student biologists, we can provide custom-built

courses in popular writing and public administration.

15. The net effect of such a dual approach should be to

develop journalists with something scientific to write about and

scientists with at least some ability to write in the popular vein ;

and who can co-operate with each other.^®

A g-ood summary of the matters that must be borne in mind in order to

achieve co-operation between journalists and scientists is made by the managing

editor of the Buffalo Evening News (who undeniably is somewhat biased in favor

of the press) :

“The first thing we must recognize is that, in spite of the progress which has

been made in more accurate reporting of scientific, educational, and allied activ¬

ities, there are many in these fields who give little or no credit to the newspapers

for what has been accomplished, and by their critical attitude toward newspapers

as a whole, without being specific in their objections, make for misunderstanding

rather than the co-operation which is essential to still more accurate and sympa¬

thetic reflection of the view-points of the specialists,

“It is equally true that, under the sting of some of this lament and criticism,

there are newspapermen who demonstrate their impatience by an aloof attitude, so

that the net result is to create an atmosphere in which it is impossible to carry

on constructive work. We must have tolerance, patience, and understanding on each

side, I am certain that you will find newspapermen ready to respond to any reason¬

able overtures, I think there is work to be done in both fields to bring about a

clearer understanding of our respective view-points and aspirations, as well as

limitations.

“Many, if not most, newspapermen are socially minded ; they sympathize

keenly with the scientist who wants his work and that of his associates intelli¬

gently interpreted to the public, but in making that possible the scientific group

must come out of their shells ; they must take a human as well as a scientific

view-point ; they should have some insight into the newspaper outlook and at least

give the newspaper credit, until he proves otherwise, for knowing something about

his own job.

“The scientist frequently would appear just as ridiculous if he attempted

either to write a newspaper story or operate a paper as the newspaperman often

appears to him, when he attempts to explain for the benefit of the lay reader some

of the things which even scientists do not understand or about which they disagree.

Nevertheless, I observe that some scientists think they know all about newspaper

Schoenfeld — Wildlife-Conservation Journalism

165

16. The number of American institutions where such a pro¬

gram could be effectively initiated is limited in all probability to

those which have on one campus a reputable school of journalism

and a recognized department of wildlife management. The Uni¬

versity of Wisconsin is a convenient example.

17. To be specific, I propose the following wildlife-conserva¬

tion journalism policy for the University of Wisconsin:

a. An annual two-week summer institute for outdoor writers

of the Middlewest (possibly in conjunction with an insti¬

tution for teachers), staffed by experts in the fields of soil,

water, flora, forest, fish, and game conservation.

b. A continuing series of late-afternoon or night conferences

for the professors in the conservation sciences, conducted

by experts in the fields of science reporting and public

relations.

c. A double-major sequence leading to the degree of B.S. in

Science-Journalism for a select number of students, com¬

bining the present journalism curriculum with the present

major in the biological aspects of conservation,^^ to include

an undergraduate seminar in wildlife-science reporting.

d. A share of the journalism course in advanced feature

writing (Journalism 105b) devoted to science interpreta¬

tion.

e. A share of the journalism courses in public relations

(Journalism 125 and 221) devoted to science public rela¬

tions.

f. A share of the journalism course-phase in sports writing

(Journalism 2) devoted to outdoor writing.

g. A share of a projected course in advanced reporting

devoted to science writing.

h. A share of the journalism course in trade journals and

house organs (Journalism 117) devoted to the federal and

state bulletin.

work as well as their own. My experience has indicated that the man who is will¬

ing to take time and patience to explain a story to a reporter, who is not a spe-

<"ialist in the same field, usually fares very well in having it reported as he would

like to have it presented to the public.

“Too often the scientific man thinks wholly in terms unrelated to those in

which he is approached by a reporter who wants a story about the matter in hand.

The problem is to reconcile divergent view-points ; to force both from a high-horse

attitude ; to bring about mutual respect. Surely, the scientist knows his subject

better than the reporter. On the other hand, the reporter knows his limitations of

time and space under which he has to work, and should have a clearer idea of

how to explain what he has learned to the public.” — A. H. Kirchofer, Science, 76 :

1964, Aug. 19, 1932.

“ University of Wisconsin, Bulletin, “College of Letters and Science, Announce¬

ment of Courses, 1948-1950,” (Madison, 1948), 62.

166 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

i. A continuation of the present School of Journalism fellow¬

ship in science reporting with occasional encouragement

given to the applicant who wishes to specialize in the

interpretation of wildlife conservation.

j. Encouragement of continued graduate research in the field

of wildlife-conservation journalism.^^

k. A course in popular writing and public relations for

majors in the biological sciences.

l. A series of publications, suitable for school, press, library,

and controlled distribution, on the conservation of Wis-

sin’s natural resources.

m. An expansion of the wildlife-management section in the

semi-annual report of the Agricultural Experiment Sta-

tion.^^

18. Undergirding such a strictly wildlife-conservation jour¬

nalism policy would of course be an expansion of teaching,

research, and public service in all lines of the conservation

sciences.

19. Underlying the instruction in all conservation- journalism

courses should be this philosophy : that there is no such thing as

good English in the abstract, but that there are kinds of English

that are good for specific occasions, and that the prime require¬

ment of writing is that it be understood and that it provoke

action. The test of every word or phrase in an article should be :

'‘Does this word or phrase give the clearest meaning and set the

most appropriate tone for the purpose of the communication?”^'^

20. Underlying the instruction in all conservation-science

courses should be this philosophy: that there is an “I” in con¬

servation; that we must hitch conservation directly to the

producer-consumer relationship, instead of to the government;

that we must cease being intimidated by the argument that a

right action is impossible because it doesn’t yield maximum

“I quarrel with the uniform dullness of American scholarly writing today.

I quarrel with the system that enslaves the scholarly author and prevents him

from being an individual, writing- for other than his professional colleagues. And

the system that forces scholars into frequently meaningless research projects and

further compels the scholar to write of the results, if he is to have promotion and

pay, is not only stultifying but a real danger to our intellectual life.” — Joseph A.

Brandt, “Intellectual Slave Market,” The Saturday Review of Literature, June 5,

1948, 20.

18 University of Wisconsin, What’s New in Farm Science.

14 “Our task is to develop a sensitivity to the appropriateness of language in

various types of social and personal situations.” — Robert C. Pooley, “The Language

of Adults,” Chicago Schools Journal, Vol. XXX, Nos. 5 and 6, January— February,

1949, 136.

Schoenfeld — Wildlife-Conservation J ournalism

167

profits, or that a wrong action is because it pays ; that it

is conscience, in the end, that is the beginning of real conserva¬

tion.

Summary

No more fitting nor more succinct parable of the problems,

principles, and policies in wildlife-conservation journalism could

be set down than these words of the late Aldo Leopold :

The (passenger) pigeon lived by his desire for clustered

grape and bursting beechnut, and by his contempt of miles

and seasons. Things that Wisconsin did not offer him today

he sought and found tomorrow in Michigan, or Labrador,

or Tennessee; to find them required only the free sky, and

the will to ply his wings. But there are fruits in this land

unknown to pigeons, and as yet to most men. Perhaps we

too can live by our desires to find them, and by a contempt

for miles and seasons, a love of free sky, and a will to ply

our wings.^^

Bibliography

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168 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts and Letters

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Leopold, Aldo. “Conservation Esthetic.” Bird-Lore. March-April, 1938.

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- . “(The) Ecological Conscience.” Wisconsin Conservation Bulletin.

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Osborn, Fairfield, Our Plundered Planet. New York, 1948.

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Palmer, E. Lawrence. More Outdoor Education. Ithaca, N. Y., 1947.

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A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE STEEL TRAP AND ITS

USE IN NORTH AMERICA

A. W. SCHORGER

All this is pleasure; but a Man of Sense,

Looks to his Traps; His they bring in the Pence.

The Otter-seasonH short; and soon the frost

Will freeze your Traps, then all your Labours lost.

— Capt. Cartwright (1784)

The exploration and development of North America were due

primarily to the activities of trappers. Furs were easily trans¬

ported great distances and had high value for the weight repre¬

sented. Of these, beaver pelts were the most desirable in the

European markets. The Indians took the beaver by netting,

shooting, spearing, and with deadfalls. The Colonials of Vir¬

ginia and the Carolinas used steel traps rather extensively from

1700 onwards; however, until the beginning of the nineteenth

century, the bulk of the furs were taken by the Indians by primi¬

tive means. The use of steel traps did not become important

until about 1750 when white trappers began taking beaver west

of the Alleghanies, and eventually on the Missouri and the shore

of the Pacific.

There is a paucity of information on the development of the

steel trap and its use in the fur trade in North America in spite

of its importance. Much useful data must rest in the records of

the early fur companies, particularly the Hudson's Bay Com¬

pany, London, which were not examined.

There is general agreement that the steel trap was a refine¬

ment on the various types of torsion traps, some of which are

of ancient origin.^* According to Larouse^ the modern steel trap

was developed from the traquenard, a trap used preeminently

for taking beasts of prey. This trap was in use in the Middle

Ages and is mentioned by even more ancient writers. It con¬

sisted essentially of two boards with teeth on one edge, kept

apart by a stick serving as a trigger, and held under high ten-

* All numbered references are listed at the end of this article starting on page

196.

171

172 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

sion by means of a spring, or more often twisted double cords.

The animal in trying to reach the bait stepped on a treadle which

displaced the stick and allowed the two boards to close firmly

over the neck of the victim. Some of the early steel traps were

also designed to catch the animal by the neck rather than by the

foot (Fig. 6). In some traps the tension was supplied by a strong

bow made of holly or whalebone.®

Steel traps were long in coming into common use. Aside from

torsion traps, pens, deadfalls, and pits were used for taking

wolves and other animals. The monks of Melrose, during the

reign of William I (1165-1175), had a provision in their charter

permitting the trapping of wolves.^ There is nothing in the

grant* * to indicate that steel traps were used. The piege of du

Fouilloux® for taking wolves was a pit. Nor are steel traps men¬

tioned for the taking of wolves in Ireland in 1584.®

Early Designs

Traps made in whole or in part from iron may be very old.

Crescentiis^ describes an iron trap as follows :

Foxes and wolves are captured especially with an iron

trap, which has about it many sharp barbs, and these have

about them a ring on which they are hinged, to which is

attached a piece of meat. Everything is firmly fastened to

the ground except the meat. Whenever the wolf lifts the

attached meat with his teeth, the ring lifts the barbs around

the head and neck of the wolf and the more strongly he

tries to get away, the more strongly he is held. Also they

make other traps by which, by the feet or legs, all sorts of

animals generally may be taken, which are hidden in the

paths which they use. These traps are of such a shape or

form that unless they have been seen they cannot be under¬

stood.*

The trap described by Crescentiis does not contain a spring.

The description indicates that the mechanism (Fig. 2) consists

* Excepto quod non venabuntur ibi cum motis et cordis nec alios ducent ad

venandum nec pedicas ibi ponent nec ad capiendos lupos neque accipient infra has

divisas accipitrum et spervariorum nidos.

* Uvlpes et lupi precipue capiuntur quadam taiola ferrea. que circa se multas

habet rampones acutos. et ipsi habent circa se annulum. prope se vbi annexi

voluuntur. ad quern annectitur frustum carnis. omniaque occultata preter carnem

in terra firmata iacent, Cum autem lupus carnem dentibus captam eleuat annulus

eleuat rampiones circa caput et collum lupi qui cum forcius trahit. et recidere

nititur forcius stringitur et tentur. Item fiunt alie taiole quibus in pedibus siue

cruribus omnes generaliter bestie capi possunt que occultantur in itineribus quibus

vtuntur. que sunt talis figure aut forme quod non nisi oculata fide intelligi posset.

Schorger—The Steel Trap in North America

173

of a ring, pinned or otherwise securely anchored to the ground,

on which are hinged a number of iron rods barbed at the tip.

These rods radiate like the spokes of a wheel. Surrounding the

base ring is a second ring on which the rods rest. The second

ring has cross bars to which the bait is attached. The trap when

set lies flat on the ground and is easily concealed with crumbled

a

Figure 1. Spring trap after Mascall (1590). The letters have been added.

earth. When the wolf jerks the bait, the outer ring rises carry¬

ing with it the barbed rods which quickly surround the head of

the wolf.

The first dated edition of the work of Crescentiis, of Bologna,

was published in 1471 ; however, it was completed about 1305.

A cut (Fig. 1) of a steel trap with springs was published by

MascalP in 1590. His description follows :

174 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

The griping trappe made all of yrne, the lowest barre,

and the ring or hoope, with two clickets, and a turning

pinne, which ring is set fast to the sides of the lowest barre.

More unto it is, a plate round in the middest, with five

holes cut out, and a sharpe yrne pinne in the middest, which

plate hath a spring on both sides under the edge of the plate,

and they stirre not of joyntes up and down, as the other

doth but standes fast in touching the crosse pinne under the

plate.

Here is more with two springs untylde on both sides, in

holding together the two hoopes with nayles.

Now when the two springes are opened abroade and

holde downe, here it is to be shewed as hee standeth tyled

with the two springes, downe flat to the long barre on both

sides, which springes are made of good steele, and as soone

as the clickets which holde them downe under the plate

when both the outward clickets be stirde. The two springes

shuts them suddenly together and there is in the two shut¬

ting hoopes sharpe pinnes of yrne set one contrary to the

other, with holes made for those pinnes to goe thorough and

shut close together, that it will holde any thing, if it be but

a rush or straw, so close they shut together. The two hoopes

on both sides outward are made bigger and bigger upwarde,

to hold more close when they come together, as ye may per¬

ceive by the hoopes within the springs, on both sides. Then

there is at the ends of the long barres two square holes,

which holes are made to pinne the long barre fast to the

ground, when yee set or tyle him in any place at your

pleasure. His clickets may so be made, that if any Otter,

Foxe, or other, doe but tread thereon he shall be soone

taken. This ye must binde a piece of meate in the middest,

and put it on the pricke, and so binde it fast, and in pulling

the baite, the clickets will slippe and the springes will rise,

and so will take him. Thus much for this kind of trappe

shall be sufficient to understand the order thereof.

The figures and description do not explain adequately the

construction of the trap and its operation. Apparently the plate

with the “pricke” fastened rigidly to it was free. Probably the

trap (Fig. 2, B and D) functioned as follows: the springs c were

pressed against the “turning pinne” h by forcing the set screw d

against the edge of the plate. The more the screw was turned the

more the springs were forced outward so that eventually one or

both “clickets,” resting over the jaws of the trap, would be held

by the tip under the small springs. A slight displacement of the

plate would cause it to slip above or below the end of the set

screw. This would release the pressure on the small springs

Schorger — The Steel Trap in North America 175

which would move toward the plate, thus releasing the ‘‘clicket^^

a and permitting the jaws of the trap to close. It will be noted

that in C and D the springs of the plate are on the opposite side

of the “turning pinne^^ to that in B, in which case it would be

impossible to hold the plate against the “pinne” by means of the

set screw.

A single spring trap of simpler design (Fig. 3) is given by

Fortin^^ (1660). That shown by Liger® (1709) seems to be

identical.

It is stated by Lagercrantz^o that jaw traps are first men¬

tioned in the Swedish hunting literature by Risingh^^ (1671).

A steel trap of the “hoop'' type, designed to catch the animal by

the neck, was in use in Finland by 1642. The Statens Historika

Museet, Stockholm, contains a manuscript dating from 1642

which has a drawing of a Lappish drum on which are various

figures including a trap and a fox. A version of 1645 in the

library of Upsala University lacks the drawing. The drawing as

well as both manuscripts have been published.^^ A photograph

of the drum was obtained through the courtesy of Dr. Ernst

Manker, Stockholm. Only that portion showing the trap and the

fox is reproduced (Fig. 5). The manuscripts state that figure

number twelve represents a “fox-iron" (rafjern). A more de¬

tailed drawing of a similar fox trap is given by Fleming^^

(1724) (Fig. 6). Various designs are figured and described by

Doebeh" (1754).

The design of the traps used by the English at the beginning

of the eighteenth century is not known. Worlidge^^ (1704)

wrote: “Pole-cats, Wheasels, &c. these Animals are very injuri¬

ous to Warrens, Dove-houses, Hen-roosts, &c. but the method to

take them in Hatches and small Iron-gins like those made for

Foxes, are so very well known, that nothing need be said of

them." The same statement of the common knowledge of iron

traps is made by MortimeU® (1707), who recommends the steel

trap for taking the fox and badger. At this time the use of a

steel trap for taking rats is not mentioned.

It is of interest that while the inhabitants of northern Europe

had such cumbersome and inefficient traps, the English, at least

by 1768, had developed a model (Fig. 4) that does not differ

essentially from that in use today. Robert Smith, late rat¬

catcher to the Princess Amelia, warns against the use of too

176 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

wide a pan (bridge) as a fox may spring it without being caught.

He continues:

But in order to prevent any such disappointment, I

would advise that your steel traps for the Fox should be

square in the jaw, and not round as the common traps are

usually made, and strike but five inches high, and seven

inches long in the jaw, with saw-teeth, and let the tail of

the trap be two feet from the tail end of the spring, for

they are generally made too short, from whence this incon¬

venience arises, that when a trap stands for some time in

warrens or parks, the spring gives out, the purchase being

so quick, whereas, were the traps formed on the principle

above laid down, the spring would remain for a consider¬

able time without giving way; and lastly, let the bridge of

the trap be four square inches.

The identity of the springing mechanism with that of the

modern trap is shown clearly by Cartwright’s description of the

“tongue” of a trap :

A small bar of iron, which is placed on one-side of the

bed of a trap, and turns upon a pin: it passes over one of

the jaws and the end of it is fixed under the heel of the

bridge, which it supports until that is pressed upon ; when,

being set at liberty, the jaws fly up.^®

A trap in Newfoundland was called a “slip.” Rev. Anspach,

who lived on the island from 1799-1812, wrote: “Another sort of

trap or snare used chiefly for catching deer, bear, or other large

animals, is the slip, which is composed of different materials,

according to the circumstances of the hunter, but mostly of

iron.”^® The remainder of the description is an almost verbatim

copy of the above quotation from Cartwright.

There are some differences between present American termi¬

nology and that of Cartwright.^®*^ He uses bridge for pan, and

tongue for dog. It is explained that to “tail a trap” is to fix it

properly for catching an animal. This harks back to MascalP

who uses the expression “set or tyle.”

The similarity of the steel trap used by the Indians in Canada

to the English rat trap, with the exception that the former had

smooth jaws and double springs, is mentioned by Ballantyne,^®

and Milton.21 It should not be inferred in consequence that the

beaver and similar traps were developed from the rat trap. All

the information available shows that the steel trap was designed

Figure 2. Model of trap after Crescentiis. Upper figure represents the trap

set and lower figure the trap closed.

M

a.

Figure 3. (Top) Spring trap after Fortin (1660).

- Tlie Fox Trap itruck

- The Cube for

Winged Vermin.

Figure 4. English trap after Smith (1768)

Figure 5. (Top) Lappish trap with approaching fox (1642)

Figure 6. Fox trap after Fleming (1724).

Figure 7. (Top) Trap alleged to have been used by Daniel Boone. Photo¬

graph by George H. Breiding.

Figure 8. Trap of native manufacture from the Tangier Zone, Morocco,

owned by William D. Schorger.

Schorger — The Steel Trap in North America 177

and used for large predators, e.g., the fox, before being made

sufficiently small to take the rat.

There are over a hundred United States patents covering

“freak’' traps and modifications of the ordinary steel trap. The

first important departure from the design of the English trap

was the “jump” trap, for which Dr. A. S. Blake of Waterbury,

Connecticut, was granted U. S. patent number 23,750 on April

26, 1859. In this trap the springs are placed in the base, making

the trap short and compact. The name of the trap is derived

from the tendency of the trap to jump when sprung. This style

is still preferred for small mammals by many trappers. The

advantages, according to Woodcock,^^ are ease of concealment

and the ability to set it in certain places where the trap with

long springs is impracticable.

A trap of native manufacture, purchased in the Tangier

Zone, Morocco, on March 25, 1949, by William D. Schorger, is

shown in Figure 8. The rectangular base is 6.25 by 4.5 inches;

length of jaws 5.9 inches; and length of spring 6.6 inches. The

weight is 1.58 pounds. A piece of burlap is sewed over the base

with palmetto fiber. In the middle is attached a strip of cane

3.75 inches in length that serves as a pan, but potentially a large

portion of the area of the burlap may function in this capacity.

The dog consists of a twig with a flattened tip which is attached

to the base by a palmetto cord 1.25 inches in length. In setting

the trap the “dog” is placed over a jaw and the tip inserted

beneath the cane. The spring is attached at a right angle to the

jaws. The trap is obviously copied from a European model. The

crude springing mechanism may be due to economy or to the

smith’s lack of skill in making the finer parts of metal.

Use in the United States

The early literature contains numerous references to the

making of “traps” to take wolves and other animals. These were

usually pits or deadfalls, and it is unsafe to assume that they

were made of iron or steel. The records of Massachusetts Bay

and New Plymouth Colonies contain ordinances governing the

taking of wolves in “traps or other engines.”^® In 1642 a law was

passed that the various towns should make, bait, and attend daily

a total of 27 traps.^^^ The scarcity and value of iron in the colo¬

nies precludes the probability that these traps were made of

178 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

metal. Iron traps, however, were in use, for it was enacted in

1633 that no ‘‘guns or Iron traps’" could be set unless protected

by an enclosure and not placed near any highway.^^’^

The settlers in Virginia and the Carolinas were more ven¬

turesome than the other colonists and competed with the Indians

in the taking of furs. It was in this region that the use of steel

traps became common, and from whence it spread northward to

Canada and down the Ohio Valley through the agency of “Ken¬

tucky” hunters. They seem to have been in wide use at the begin¬

ning of the eighteenth century. Byrd^^ wrote in 1728 that the

Indians had scarcely any other way of taking the beaver than

with snares, but the English used a steel trap. He remarked also :

“Both Beavers and Wolves, we know, when one of their Legs is

caught in a Steel Trap, will bite it off, and they may escape with

the rest.”

The loose terminology of the time makes it impossible in

many cases to determine the nature of the mechanism employed

in capturing animals. A snare was not only a noose, but a “trap,”

or “gin.” Lawson^® in 1700 visited the Saponas in North Carolina

when the King “went to look after his Beaver-Traps.” It is not

certain that these were steel traps. However, BrickelP® wrote in

1737:

They [beavers] are sometimes shot, but are taken most

commonly after the following manner. The Planters break

down part of their Dams, and lay Traps in those places,

which the Beavers attempting to repair and mend at Night,

are caught in them.

Only a steel trap could have been used in the swift water

with any degree of success. The Moravians “set” traps and

caught beaver near Salem, North Carolina, in 1753.

The use of steel traps by both whites and Indians was exten¬

sive after 1750. Smith, a captive of the Indians, wrote that in

the winter of 1756-57 in eastern Ohio: “Near this pond, beaver

was the principal game. Before the waters froze up, we caught

a great many with wooden and steel traps: but after that, we

hunted the beaver on the ice.”^®

In 1794 LoskieP® wrote that the Indians captured beaver in

iron traps. Still earlier, 1779, Zeisberger®® stated that since the

Indians had learned the use of the steel trap from the whites, the

beaver had been almost exterminated along the Muskingum

River in Ohio.

Schorger — The Steel Trap in North America 179

A curious use of beaver traps was made by Captain Simeon

Ecuyer at the siege of Fort Pitt by the Indians in 1763. On June

2 of that year he wrote to Colonel Henry Boquet: “I have dis¬

tributed tomahawks to the inhabitants; I have also gathered up

all of their beaver traps which are arranged along the rampart

that is not finished.’' His misplaced confidence in the power of

the beaver trap is shown in his letter of June 16: ‘'I have col¬

lected all the beaver traps which could be found with our mer¬

chants and they were placed in the evening outside the palisades.

I would be pleased to send you one with the leg of a savage, but

they have not given me this satisfaction.”^^

The ‘‘Long Hunters” who went into Kentucky in 1770 were

equipped with steel traps.®^ Daniel Boone returned to North

Carolina during the year to obtain additional traps.®^ William

Sudduth set his beaver traps in Saltlick Creek, Kentucky, in

March, 1788;®^ and in 1792 James Miller of Knoxville, Tennessee,

advertised steel traps for sale.^®

The West Virginia Historical Society has a trap (Fig. 7)

which is stated to have been used by Daniel Boone to take

beaver. It was presented by the Huddlestone family.^® Bakeless®^

says that Boone gave the trap to the Huddlestones. Boone settled

at Point Pleasant about 1788-89 and about 1790 stopped over

night at the home of Daniel Huddlestone below Kanawha Falls,

near the present site of Boone, West Virginia. The original

account is by Hale^® who obtained his information about 1840

from Jared Huddlestone, son of John Paddy Huddlestone (1771-

1862). Boone having noticed fresh beaver sign in the river in¬

quired for beaver traps. When informed that they had a steel

trap for taking foxes, but no beaver traps, Boone set the fox

trap in the stream in the presence of Paddy. Five beavers were

caught the first day and the colony was soon exterminated. The

taking of five beavers in one day with one trap using the custo¬

mary set would be little short of miraculous.

I am indebted to Mr. George H. Breiding for the photograph

of this old, hand-made trap and the following data: weight 5

pounds and 10 ounces ; total length 31 inches ; and length of jaws

9% inches.

Just when the New York Indians began to use steel traps is

uncertain. On February 12, 1761, Sir William Johnson®^ wrote

to Jeffrey Amherst that “Beaver & Fox Traps” were commonly

180 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

sold to the Indians. He estimated on October 8, 1764, that the

Indian Trade would require 5000 beaver traps annually.®®"^

Steel traps were used in the Indian trade in New England in

1747. On November 28 of this year J. Bradbury was credited by

the province of Maine for the payment for three wolf traps at

fifty shillings each. The provinces licensed the traders and fur¬

nished goods. On October 27, 1749, John Popkins was paid

£9-13-0 for “cleansing’’ traps and on May 15, 1750, William

Lithgow was given credit for seven beaver traps returned.^®

Alexander Henry spent the winter of 1763-64 in Michigan

hunting with the Indians. He wrote : “The usual method of tak¬

ing these [beavers] is by traps, formed of iron or logs, and

baited with branches of poplar.”^^ The Indians of the Michigan

area were supplied in part with traps from New York by Sir

William Johnson. The inventory of goods for Indian presents in

the King’s Store at Detroit on July 17, 1781, mentions 38 beaver

traps, and it was estimated that 60 traps would be required to

August 20, 1782.^2 The estimate for the year ending August 20,

1783, was 100 traps.^^''

On July 6, 1774, Richard Wright of Detroit wrote to Hayman

Levy regarding an order of trade goods which included 20

beaver traps.^^^ It was stated by Thomas Ainslie in 1788 that

most of the furs were collected at Mackinac where the Indians

exchanged them for goods such as “Traps for catching the

Animals.”^^

The Philadelphia firm of Baynton and Wharton began trad¬

ing with the Indians in 1754. In the fall of 1763 George Morgan

became a partner. The new firm of Baynton, Wharton, and Mor¬

gan continued in operation until 1776. Samuel Wharton and

George Croghan in 1764 concocted the plan of sending goods to

Illinois.^^ Morgan went to a post at Kaskaskia from which he

wrote in February, 1768, that too great a quantity of beaver

traps could not be sent.^^

The French-Canadian literature is almost completely silent

on steel traps, but there appears to be one example of use.

Beauharnois, Governor of New France, gave permission in 1727

to a party of traders to build a fort in the Sioux country. In the

fall of this year Fort Beauharnois was built on the Mississippi

on the western shore of Lake Pepin. One of the signators to the

articles of agreement was Francois Campeau, a blacksmith. It

was stipulated that he was at liberty to work at his trade for

Schorger — The Steel Trap in North America

181

anyone who wished to employ and pay him, in consideration of

which he was to fulfill certain obligations to the Company.^® In

September, 1729, Beauharnois sent to the French Minister a

report on the fort which contained the following :

Some days later a Chief Pliant came to the fort of the

French to see a man named Gigner who was there; he in¬

vited him to come and see him at his lodge, which he did, in

spite of the representations of the other Frenchmen, where

he was hardly come with a trap which he had with him

when the Piiants seized it, when he would have run at the

risk of his life if some Foxes had not hindered him. Finally

he had to make a bargain and give presents to get it back.^^

It is inconceivable that so much value would be placed on a trap

by both Frenchman and Indian unless it were made of steel.

The manufacture of traps by French smiths in Wisconsin is

first mentioned by Augustin Grignon.^® According to his earliest

recollections (c. 1785) his father always employed a blacksmith

at Green Bay to make traps and do other smith work. The trader

Jacob Franks had a blacksmith shop at Green Bay prior to 1798

but it is not definitely stated that traps were made. In 1818 he

obtained traps from Canada. He wrote to John Lawe from Mon¬

treal on March 11 : “I have already 300 Beavor Traps Baled up

... so that you see some Exertion must be made next fall to

get the Followines up to the Missisipii.’’^®

CuroP® was in charge of a trading post on the Yellow River,

Wisconsin, the winter of 1803-04, where the Indians were using

traps. Evidently the traps were provided by the post since there

was a threat to take them from one Corbeau. The winter of

1804-05, Malhiot®^ had twelve traps among the goods to be

traded with the Indians at Lac du Flambeau. Dubuque,^^ in the

fall of 1806, sent an outfit to trap on the Missouri. The men

squandered their time on the Des Moines River and when they

returned in the spring he refused to accept what remained of

their "‘guns, traps, and Kettles.'’

Among the goods taken by Perrault’s^^ party to Fond du Lac

(Duluth-Superior region) the summer of 1790 were ''some traps

and kettles." Anderson®^ was in charge of a post on the Minne¬

sota River the winter of 1807-08, at which time he outwitted a

fox by the use of six steel traps. At this time, if not long before,

steel traps were in common use in Minnesota. Pike“® states that

182 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

the Northwest Company bartered a beaver trap for four beaver

skins, the equivalent of $8.00 in money.

The earliest use of the steel trap on the Missouri and west¬

ward has not been determined. It is known that traps were car¬

ried in stock in southern Illinois in 1768. Before this time Ken¬

tucky trappers were active across the Mississippi. Daniel Boone

moved to Missouri in 1799 and was soon engaged in trapping

beaver. One cold day the winter of 1802-03 Boone had his hand

caught in a trap and had to return with it to camp where he was

released by his negro Deny.®^^

Traps formed part of the equipment of the Lewis and Clark

Expedition of 1804-06.^® In North Dakota on April 10, 1805, they

overtook three Frenchmen trapping beaver. Lewis in a footnote

expresses the opinion that they were the first trappers on the

river.®®^ This is doubtful since the French had been exploring

the Missouri River region for over half a century. Again in

North Dakota on August 12, 1806, they met two American

trappers going up the Missouri with '‘20 odd good traps.''®®^

The early trading companies depended on the Indians for

their furs and do not seem to have included traps in their mer¬

chandise. Truteau^^ was stopped on the Missouri in 1794 by the

importunate Sioux. Traps are not mentioned among the articles

which he was forced to give as presents.

The Indians were so troublesome and unreliable that at the

turn of the century it became customary for the traders to hire

white "hunters."’ Pierre Menard, writing from the Three Forks

of the Missouri on April 21, 1810, informed Pierre Chouteau

that a party of their hunters had been defeated by the Blackfoot.

Many of their traps were lost but 40 had been recovered,®®

Most of the subsequent expeditions mention traps as part of

the equipment. Luttig®® states that on May 11, 1812, some traps

were taken on board at St. Charles, Missouri ; and that on Sep¬

tember 24, at the post on the boundary between North and South

Dakota, four men went hunting taking with them ten traps.

Loaning Traps

The fur companies found that there were advantages in loan¬

ing traps to the Indians. This was a lien on their furs and the

traps had a recovery value. Godman says :

The Indians inhabiting the countries watered by the

tributaries of the Missouri and Mississippi, take the beavers

Schorger — The Steel Trap in North America 183

principally by trapping, and are generally supplied with

steel-traps by the traders, who do not sell, but lend or hire

them, in order to keep the Indians dependent upon them¬

selves, and also to lay claim to the furs which they may pro¬

cure. The name of the trader being stamped on the trap, it

is equal to a certificate of enlistment, and indicates, when an

Indian carries his furs to another trading establishment,

that the individual wishes to avoid the payment of his

debts.®®

The custom of loaning or leasing traps may have originated

in the rivalry between trading companies. The X Y Company

was founded in 1801 by dissenters from the North West Com¬

pany. Curot, who was in charge of the X Y post on the Yellow

River, wrote on March 4, 1804: “Smith arrived at one Oclock

this afternoon with 3 Men that Mr. Sayer had sent off This

morning For Corbeau’s lodge, in order to take away His traps

and skinning knives, in case Corbeau should give any plus to

Smith. . . John Sayer was with the North West Company.

Used traps appear frequently in the inventories of the American

Fur Company. The practise was followed by the United States

Factories. Manuel Lisa, sub-agent for the Indians, wrote to Gov¬

ernor Clark at St. Louis on July 1, 1817: “I lend them traps,

only demanding preference in their trade.’’®^

Loaning was not confined to the Indians. Daniel Boone and

Matthias Van Bibber were trapping on the Grand River, Mis¬

souri, the fall of 1804, when they were robbed of their traps and

pelts by the Osage Indians. When the Indians were shown that

the marks on the traps and pelts proved that they belonged to

Chouteau, a St. Louis trader, they said that Chouteau must send

to their towns to get possession.®^^

Use in Canada

General use of the steel trap in Canada came considerably

later than in the United States. This was due in part to the con¬

finement of transportation in Canada mainly to water. Traps

were bulky, heavy, and expensive. The American trapper could

use horses for carrying his equipment in nearly all sections of

the country. None of the numerous early lists of trade goods

examined mentions traps. As late as 1772 Cocking®^ was “build¬

ing traps for wolves.’'

184 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

The beginning of the use of the steel trap for taking beaver

is discussed by Thompson: “Some three years ago [1794] the

Indians of Canada and New Brunswick, on seeing the Steel

Traps so successful in catching Foxes and other animals, thought

of applying it to the Beaver, instead of the awkward traps they

made, which often failed.”®^

Some steel traps were in use by 1762 for on June 5 of that

year traders going to Toronto were given a pass permitting them

to take, among other goods, 41 steel traps.®®^ Steel traps, some of

which were double-spring, were used almost exclusively by Cart¬

wright^®^ who in 1770 began a long period of trapping in Labra¬

dor. Some of his traps were sufficiently large to be used for bear.

He informs us that the Esqimaux did not have traps. On May

28, 1779, he mentions that 96 foxes were caught during the

season, and

. . . had the traps not been so very old and bad we should

nearly have doubled the above number. What I have now,

are only the worst of my old stock; for the [American]

privateer not only carried away six dozen of new ones,

which had never been opened, but also what good ones they

found in use.^®*^

The Sauteaux Indians, about 1804, were using steel traps and

the Indians of Labrador had them in 1808.®^ Innis®® has ex¬

pressed the opinion that the use of steel traps spread slowly in

western Canada and stated as an example that only two pieces

of traps (180 pounds) were sent to the Northern districts in

1818. However, Harmon wrote in 1820 : “The greater part of the

Indians, on the east side of the Rocky Mountain, now take the

beaver in steel traps, which we sell them.’’®® According to Mil-

ton2ia the steel trap for taking small mammals was still some¬

what of a luxury as late as 1862. The trapper, “if he is rich,”

has some steel traps.

Number of Traps Used

It is not possible to give statistics on the growth in use of

steel traps. Sir William Johnson®®^ in 1764 estimated that 5000

beaver traps would be required annually.

The records of the American Fur Company do not show

clearly how many traps were traded annually. On April 22, 1820,

Ramsay Crooks wrote to Robert Stuart at Mackinac that he was

Schorger — The Steel Trap in North America

185

obtaining 300 beaver traps from Canada.®^ Crooks on December

22, 1821, ordered from W. W. Matthews, Montreal, 320 beaver

traps to be sent to New York, and 350 beaver and 240 muskrat

traps for the Mackinac post for the trade of 1822, Again on

October 20, 1823, Stuart ordered from Montreal 600 beaver and

450 muskrat traps for Mackinac.®^

An estimate of the number of traps required by the Outfits

(Great Lakes) of 1835, sent on December 4, 1834, to R. Crooks

by S, Abbott of Mackinac, is given below

Traps

Outfit Beaver Muskrat

Grand River . 40 400

Chicago and Milwaukee . . . . . . 20 400

Green Bay . 40 130

Biddle and Drews . 20 100

Fond du Lac . 240 250

Warrens . 60

Lac du Flambeau . 20

Ance . 40 20

Chippewa . 20

500 1300

On hand 1st. December . . . 153 382

To be made by blacksmiths at Mackinac prior

to June 1 . . . 347 600

500 982

Have made at Detroit for safety . . . 100 318

Total . 600 1800

The inventory of 1833 shows that the Upper Mississippi Out¬

fit had at St. Peters, Minnesota, 378 beaver and 1099 rat traps.®’’

The equipment of a trapper of the Missouri Fur Company in

1809 included six beaver traps.^® This also is the number given

by Osborne’'^ for the period 1834-43. Irving^^ states that each

man had seven traps, while Ross^® mentions that though six was

the usual number, ten were frequently taken to guard against

wear.

On June 22, 1833, Wyeth^^ wrote to Bonneville suggesting a

joint trapping expedition in which the former would furnish 20

traps and the latter 40 for a party of twelve men.

186 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts and Letters

Manufacture

It is probable that a considerable number of the traps used

in colonial times was imported from England. The latter coun¬

try’s main interest in the colonies was a market for its manu¬

factures. However, no information on imports was found. The

greater number of the traps was made by local smiths. The

blacksmith was one of the important persons at the trading

posts and one of the requirements for employment was that he

be skilful in making traps. Mass production did not begin until

the middle of the nineteenth century. Ignatius Wetzel began to

work as a smith on the Menominee Indian Reservation, Keshena,

Wisconsin, in 1854. As late as 1859 he reported that he had made

'Trom 60 to 70 spring traps.”^^ Woodcock^^'' had muskrat traps

made by a smith in Potter County, Pennsylvania, in the 1850’s

and bear traps in 1871 or 1872.

The names of the individuals manufacturing traps are some¬

times given. The firm of Baynton, Wharton, and Morgan^® pur¬

chased beaver traps in 1768 from Baltzer Geer, whose residence

has not been discovered. At this time trappers and traders were

furnished with guns and other iron articles from Philadelphia

and Lancaster.

Following arrival in Missouri, Daniel Boone^^"" built a shop

and secured a set of blacksmith’s tools. Here he made and

repaired traps.

The trade west of the Mississippi after 1800 was supplied

largely from St. Louis, the goods being obtained from Philadel¬

phia. Leber Pepin was sent from St. Louis to Philadelphia to

learn their methods of making guns and hardware.®^^ In 1817

Lewis Newell arrived in St. Louis and began the manufacture of

edge tools and other hardware. The quality of his work was so

good that he acquired a great reputation for his wolf and beaver

traps, and squaw axes.”^^

The Missouri Fur Company’s agent, Joshua Pilcher, testified

in 1824 that his company always maintained blacksmith shops

on the Missouri for making traps and other hardware. At that

time it had two shops in the neighborhood of Council Bluffs, one

at the Big Bend of the Missouri, and another among the

Mandans.”^®

The Newhouse trap was the first in America to be standard¬

ized and manufactured on an extensive scale.^® Sewell Newhouse

Schorger — The Steel Trap in North America 187

was born at Brattleboro, Vermont, in 1806. In 1820 his family

moved from Colerain, Massachusetts, to Oneida County, New

York. He began making traps for his own use at the age of

seventeen. The springs were forged from the blades of old axes.

These traps after a season's use were sold to the Indians at $.62

apiece.

The Newhouse family in 1849 joined the Oneida Community

which had been founded the year previously at Oneida. New¬

house made only a small number of traps during the next few

years. In 1855, due to requests for traps from Chicago and New

York, he established a shop for making them. Three men were

employed using the customary blacksmith's tools. This was fol¬

lowed by the installation of power machinery.

The plant in 1872 employed nearly one hundred people and

made six sizes of traps.®® Three years later the annual capacity

was stated to be 300,000 traps.®^ However, during the eight years

ending in 1874, only about 750,000 traps were made.^®^ Over

800,000 pounds of iron and steel were used annually.

The Newhouse traps established and maintained an excellent

reputation. The tale is related that Newhouse set and sprung his

traps in ice-water to demonstrate their quality to the Indians.

They were astonished that the springs did not break. When the

Oneida Indians removed to Green Bay, Wisconsin, in 1846, they

are reputed to have taken Newhouse traps with them and spread

their fame in the West.®^

The manufacture of traps by the Oneida Community was

discontinued in 1925 and certain assets were acquired by the

Animal Trap Company, Lititz, Pennsylvania.

The firm of Blake, Lamb, and Company was organized in

Waterbury, Connecticut, in 1865 to make the Blake ‘‘jump"

trap.®® It was incorporated in 1867. The founders were Dr. Amos

S. Blake, born in Vermont in 1812, and William Lamb, born in

Jewett City, Connecticut, in 1805. The business is at present

conducted by the Hawkins Company, South Britain, Connecticut.

Steel Used

A constant difficulty in the manufacture of traps in the early

days was the quality of the steel. Most of the steel was obtained

from England, but some from Sweden and Germany. On Febru¬

ary 27, 1820, R. Crooks wrote to W. W. Matthews, Montreal :

188 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

The 7 Cwt. Steel we want is (Sylvester says) Crawley or

Crawley No. 1 — ^the bars are perhaps rather over % inch

wide by inch thick.— It is the kind Magon the Trapmaker

always used, and I dare say you know the article well. There

is plenty of German Steel in New York, but none of the

description we require.®^

Also Stuart wrote from Mackinac to Crooks on November 19,

1820: “The steel you sent will not answer for the traps. . . .

The Steel wanted is Crawley No. 1, % in. and in. thick.

Some domestic material was used. Crooks on December 27,

1822, objected to paying $140 per ton for iron from the Juniata

Works.®^

A cheaper but undivulged method of making traps was devel¬

oped at Mackinac. Stuart wrote to J. J. Astor on March 11, 1827 :

Have the goodness to add to the general order for this

place lOOOJ nail plate Iron 2% inches wide (if not to be had

exactly of this dimension, better a little wider than nar¬

rower) it is for Rat-Traps which we have devised a way of

making at % the labor heretofore attending them but it can

be effected only by having this Iron . . . want of it would

be a most serious disappointment.®^

The quantity and quality of the metal used at Mackinac is

given in the letter of June 29, 1827, from Stuart to Astor:

Have the goodness to send up at your early convenience

800J Millington-Crawley steel No. ll^ by % Inch for

Beaver Traps — 1000} half inch square Iron — 2 bunches

faggot Iron (1 inch) 300} nail rod Iron % In: 400} Mill¬

ington-Crawley steel No. 1 2/8 by % ii^ch for Rat Traps —

These articles we must have before the close of the naviga¬

tion — ^for I must get our traps made here, else we shall I am

afraid be always imposed upon.®^

Nail rods were used to make the jaws. Stuart wrote to John

Lawe at Green Bay on September 8, 1826, regarding a shipment

of iron and steel : “The Hoop Iron is for the plates of the Traps

— & the Horse Nail Rods for the Jaws.''®^

The German steel caused difficulty. Abbott wrote to Crooks

on December 4, 1834 : “Our German Steel turns out very bad, in

making 200 Beaver trap Springs the loss was 44. would it not

therefore be well to have made in New York this winter 200

Pairs Beaver Trap Springs & 100 Pairs Rat trap Springs?''®®

Schorger — The Steel Trap in North America

189

Quality and Specifications of Traps

The quality of the early hand-made traps was generally poor.

In 1811 MacdonelP® complained that in England the manufac¬

ture of edged tools for cold countries was not understood. The

great defect in traps was the snapping of the springs when set

at low temperatures. Simpson wrote on May 18, 1821 :

The supplies of this Department [Athabasca] generally

speaking are of good quality, the Ironmongery excepted,

which is really a disgrace to the Tradesmen who furnish it.

On our Axes Beaver Traps and Guns the existence of the

people and Trade in a great measure depends, therefore the

utmost attention should be paid to the manufacture of those

articles. The Beaver Traps (marked MS on the Bait plate)

are too weak and made of the worst British Iron, whereas

they should be the best Swedish : the Cross plate is too slight

and should be fastened by a Screw and Nut instead of a

Clenched Nail. The Traps are now packed up as required

for use whereas the pieces should be packed up seperately

in order to be put together at pleasure, which would prevent

breakage in the transport hither : the Indians complain that

the Traps are altogether too slight, so weak as not to hold a

full grown Beaver. The NW traps are much stronger, and

the Indians frequently retain part of their hunts for the

purpose of trading their Traps with our opponents.^®

On January 11, 1834, John Rowand, Fort Des Prairies, wrote

to James Hargrave, York Factory, in the same vein:

. . . and while I think of it allow me to remind you that

the Beaver & Rat Trap springs we got from you are the

worst articles you can imagine every one we got this last

summer cannot endure the cold weather & less the cold

water before they broke in two & the Natives bring them all

back to us in pieces do my friend give your Blacksmiths a

lesson we lose a great deal by UN

The objective of our government to protect the Indians from

the rapacity of the traders by the establishment of factories was

never realized. This was due in part to the poor quality of the

trade goods. On September 30, 1810, J. B. Varnum, U. S. Factor

at Mackinac, wrote to Gen. John Mason, Superintendent of

Indian Trade:

Our Steel Traps are also an article so miserably made

that they never will sell for one half what they first cost;

I have offered them at that, and have not been able to vend

190 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

one of them ; in fact they are not worth any thing more than

so many pounds of old Iron Hoops; of which they are in

part manufactured.^®

The correspondence of the American Fur Company contains

an occasional letter of commendation, but mainly lamentations,

on the quality of the traps. Ramsay Crooks wrote to W. W.

Matthews on January 10, 1818, that '‘Jean Baptiste Magon is

the Trapmaker’’; and on February 14 of this year: "Magon’s

Beaver Traps of last year were so good that we would have pre¬

ferred getting them of him again but by Superintending occa¬

sionally the persons you now employ, we will get work nearly if

not quite as good.’’®^

The Company showed constant solicitude over the quality of

its ironware. On December 5, 1821, Crooks wrote to Russell

Farnham, Des Moines River : “. . . care will be taken that both

your Axes & Traps are good, for I feel very anxious that the

Indians learn to pay their credits — and we can at least try to do

away [with] the usual pretence of the articles being bad.”®’'

Anxiety over the traps continued. Stuart wrote to Crooks on

October 17, 1822: "Some complaints have reached me of the

Montreal traps: I hope Mr. Matthews will look well after old

square toes, who makes them.”®’’ On the same date he wrote to

Matthews to improve the quality of the springs. The following

year, December 14, 1823, Matthews was again reminded that

the traps were "very bad.”

Miles Standish, a trapmaker of Montreal, rose and fell in

grace. Stuart wrote to Crooks at St. Louis on May 16, 1822:

"You did not ask for Beaver Traps, but I send you 25 to show

you the Superior Style of Standish's work, a few of them are

made large and almost square, this I had done to see which are

preferred in that quarter.”®^

The work of Standish may have been satisfactory for the

next few years, but on June 29, 1827, Stuart wrote to Astor :

We have just examined the Traps you had made by

Standish and I am sorry to say that they are literally good

for nothing, which will be of most serious consequence to

our next year’s business — his conduct in imposing such

trumpery on the Company, is most disgraceful, — after hav¬

ing charged about 50 cts too much, we certainly had reason

to expect good and faithful work if I could now purchase

other Traps, I would not send one of his into the Indian

Country.®^

Schorger — The Steel Trap in North America 191

Stuart continued devastatingly on August 10, 1827 :

In consequence of what Mr. Clapp remarked about

Standish's Traps, I re-examined them, but I found them no

better than before — indeed some of the Traders preferred

going without, than to take them, what they required. Mr.

Clapp seems to think it is with the filing & polishing we

quarrel, but that altho* desirable is of minor consideration

—The Springs are so bad and weak, that some of the Traps

can be opened by drawing the Jaws apart with the Fingers

— ^the Jaws of all come very badly together ; and as conclu¬

sive evidence of their want of Strength and Solidity, they

weigh but from 1% @ 2 lbs — whereas Mr. Standish must

recollect that the Contract I entered into with him fall of

1823 required that each should weigh 3 lbs. — ^this with good

workmanship would prevent their having the rickets, as

they now have. . .

Stuart on August 18, 1827, informed Astor that he was send¬

ing him one of the worst and one of the best of Standish's traps,

between which there was little difference. He also forwarded a

trap of the kind desired and such as Standish used to make when

employed at Mackinac. In addition there was included a trap

sent by Standish the year preceding as a sample for fulfillment

of the contract. Stuart adds : ‘The trap I send you as sample, is

not filed at all, because I wish to show it in the natural state —

but those you may contract for should be filed because it gives

them a handsome polish &c, which much pleases the eye of the

Indians.’^®^

The purchase of traps was based usually on a sample sub¬

mitted to the smith. The American Fur Company had specifica¬

tions but a copy could not be located.

In preparation for his western expedition, Capt. Wyeth^^''

on February 13, 1832, ordered from Davenport and Byron, New

York, “20 Doz of the traps such as you name and such as used

by Mr. Astor.” Prior to this time, January 28, he inquired of his

brother Leonard if beaver traps could be purchased in New

York. The trap should have double springs, jaws without teeth,

a chain six feet long with two swivels, and weigh five pounds.

Samuel Abbott, Mackinac, specified on April 9, 1835, that

the springs for beaver traps should be 8l^ inches in length and

those for muskrat traps 6 inches in length “to the bend of the

Spring.”®*^

192 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Wyeth's letter of February 4, 1834, to Tucker and Williams,

Boston, contains the method of testing a trap :

I do not think the traps will be according to sample

therefore it will be requisite to examine them carefully and

compare them with the patern, which is in Brainerds pos¬

session. They should be equally well finished with the patern

and by contract are to be set for one week and then rejected

if the springs do not come up fair or are broken. I have

agreed, if he would have all of them finished by 7th Feb. to

give him $15 over and above the contract. If Brainerd will

not agree to have them set on board the Packett and take

back all that do not prove good on their arrival in Balti¬

more, it will be requisite to retain them in Boston one week

in order to try them by setting at the end of which time, if

the springs are unbroken and come up fair and they are as

well finished as the sample he will be entitled to $165 for

one Hundred traps, this provided they are delivered to you

on the 7th inst but if delivered after that time he is only

entitled to 150$.'^^'’

Chief Factor John Lee Lewes, Cumberland House, Saskat¬

chewan River, on February 5, 1839, ordered ten large beaver

traps to be used in taking foxes. They were to be

... of the following dimentions extreme length of the

jaws' of the trap when open 10 Inches, the Iron supporter

on which the bait plate works 2 Inches high, the plates to be

very light, and nearly to fill the whole interior of the trap

when sett, the springs' strong, with good swivel chains 3

feet long.^^^

An old beaver trap found near the site of Fort Hall, Idaho,

an early Hudson's Bay post, has been described by Young.®®

It has a length of 231/2 inches. The length of each spring is 71/3

inches and the spread of the jaws is 6 inches. In its present con¬

dition the weight is 2% pounds. Allowing for the missing chain

and pan, and loss by rusting, the original weight was probably

about 4 pounds.

Cost

The cost of traps varied considerably. Their value increased

with the distance from the source of manufacture due to the

expense of transportation. In 1764 and 1769 Sir William John-

son,^®^ Johnson Hall, New York, purchased beaver traps at 10

shillings New York currency or 6s/8d sterling. This is $1.42

Schorger — The Steel Trap in North America 193

based on sterling. A bill to him from Duncan, Phyn, and Ellice,

Schenectady, dated July 2, 1766, covers 57 steel traps at 9s.*

The invoice book^® of Baynton, Morgan, and Wharton shows

payment of 50 pounds to Geer on July 20, 1768, for 100 beaver

traps. The cost per trap was therefore $1.30. A wolf trap in

Maine^®‘‘^ in 1747 was valued at 50s ($8.05) .

The inventories of two estates in J efferson County, Kentucky,

in 1782 list one “steel trap” at 25 shillings and three at 3 pounds

15 shillings.®®

A requisition for presents to the Indians at Amherstburg,

Canada, in 1798 called for 50 beaver traps at 10s. Another from

the Indian Department, La Chine, dated October 2, 1799, listed

100 beaver traps with chains at 6s. The 20 beaver traps wanted

in 1809, in case of war with the United States, were priced at

8s/6d.^®‘^

The traps purchased by the Indian Office of the United States

were not only poor in quality but very high in price. Varnum at

Mackinac, on September 12, 1810, made this complaint: “The

price of a first rate Trap in Montreal is generally seven to eight

shillings Halifax currency; more than one hundred per cent less

than ours cost in the States, consequently they would not sell

even if they were of good quality, much less in their present

state. ”®^ An inventory of goods on hand at the Mackinac Factory

on December 31, 1809, has an entry of 110 beaver traps valued

at $342.10, or $3.11 each. There remained in stock on September

30, 1811, 12 “superior beaver traps” valued at $66.00, or $5.50

each.®^

The traps carried at the Fort Wayne, Indiana, Factory of the

Indian Office showed considerable differences in value. In 1803,

1805, and 1806 beaver and other traps were carried in the in-

* It is very difficult to follow the g-yrations of the colonial currencies and that

of the United States, and give the value of the traps based on the purchasing

power of the present-day dollar. There is lack of agreement among scholars on

the values of the colonial currencies. Taking the table given by J. Wright (The

American Negotiator, 2nd ed., London, 1763 : p, vi), the values of the various

shillings would be :

One shilling sterling . 21,4 cts,

“ “ New England . 16.1 "

“ “ New York . 12.2 “

“ “ Pennsylvania . 13.0

The Halifax currency was the same as New York. The above values w^ere calcu¬

lated to the Spanish dollar on which our currency was subsequently based. It was

worth 4s/8d (Z.c. p. 7). Johnson’s traps cost accordingly $1.22 New York currency

and $1.42 sterling, a considerable discrepancy.

194 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

ventory at $1.67 each. However, the prices of beaver traps from

1806-09 ranged from $2.25 to $3.00.®^ In 1820, Lewis Cass, Gov¬

ernor of Michigan, as Superintendent of Indian Affairs dis¬

bursed four beaver traps at $2.50 each and one at $4.12V^.^®^

The American Fur Company secured beaver traps at a very

low cost. On October 20, 1823, Robert Stuart, Mackinac, wrote

to Ramsay Crooks:

I have entered into a contract with Mr. Standish to fur¬

nish us here 600 Beaver Traps (in Boxes of 20) at $1.00

and 450 rat traps viz. 300 with two Springs at $1 & 150 of

one Spring at 75 cents, also 50 prs. Beaver Trap Springs at

50 cents — the Rat Traps are to be in Boxes of 40 — & no

charge for Boxes, — terms of payment 60 days from 1 Oct.

after delivery — We are to furnish him say the 1100 lb. Steel

ordered in General order, at cost and charges — He is bound

to come up in the spring to deliver the Traps . . . and the

terms are I think so favorable, that you will probably add

what traps will be required at St. Louis and Detroit.®^

On June 20, 1826, Stuart asked James Abbott, Detroit, to

procure and forward 150 muskrat traps at a cost not to exceed

80 cents; and on July 24 of this year he wrote that he was in¬

formed that rat traps could be obtained in Detroit for 4s/6d.®^

Costs were watched in a miserly fashion. Stuart wrote to

Astor on June 15, 1827 :

By the invoice I perceive that you pay Mr. Standish

$1.85 for Beaver traps, and 85 cts. for Rat traps, this is

entirely too much, the most he should get for Beaver traps

is $1.50, and for Rat traps of two springs 75 cts. Two years

ago when everything was much higher than it is now he

delivered me the Beaver traps here (in Boxes free of every

charge) at $1.60 payable say in 6 mos. and last year he

made them in Montreal at $1. and we could have got them

made at 80 cts. — Please let me know if your arrangement

with him is for any definite period or quantity of work.®^

One reason for the cheapness of these beaver traps was that

they weighed only two pounds or less. Stuart wrote to Astor on

August 10, 1827, that $1.25 was a fair price for a beaver trap.

A rat trap with one spring should cost 50 cents and one with

two springs 75 cents. In 1834 the cost of making a beaver trap

at Mackinac was a little over $2.00 ;®® and in April, 1835, it was

$1.58.

Schorger — The Steel Trap in North America

195

The inventory of the blacksmith shop at Mackinac in 1834

showed the following articles and their values:®®

61 lbs. German steel for beaver trap springs (3)... .12^2 $ 7.62

170 lbs. blistered steel . . . 14% 24.65

12 pr. beaver trap springs . . . . . 65 7.80

1% pr. rat trap springs . 44 .66

381 beaver traps . 2.00 762.00

401 rat traps, one spring . 81 324.81

121 beaver traps, unfinished, % price . 1.00 120.00 (?)

4 trap swaging (?) moulds . 1.00 4.00

The inventory of the Upper Mississippi Outfit of 1833 re¬

maining at St. Peters includes the novel item of 18 house rat

traps at 50 cents each.

An entry dated July 19, 1822, St. Louis, records the shipment

of 30 beaver traps at $2.72 each to George Davenport at Fort

Armstrong on the Mississippi. In September of this year Louis

Penconneau, Sr. was charged for 19 beaver traps at $2.80 each,®®

On November 10, 1835, Joseph Villandre purchased 6 beaver

traps at $10.00 each.®^ In view of the price this transaction must

have occurred on the Upper Missouri.

The contract between Capt. Wyeth and Mr. Brainerd, a

blacksmith of Boston, in 1834 called for beaver traps at $1.50.'^^’’

The cost of a trap to the Indians was high even after taking

into consideration the expense of transportation and the risk.

In 1805, in Minnesota, the North West Company charged $8.00

for a beaver trap. The price was the same in 1820.®®

The winter of 1843-44 an Indian took from Bunnell’s store

at La Crosse, Wisconsin, 'Ten good otter traps, worth in those

times, in choice furs, at least two dollars and a half apiece.”®®

A trap became very valuable when it reached the Rockies.

A party of trappers belonging to the Missouri Fur Company was

defeated in battle with the Indians in 1810. Menard wrote that

the thirty men being sent to the place of the defeat would be

given "only three traps each, not deeming it prudent to risk

more. . . .”®®

While at a Gros Ventres village in 1810, Gen. James^®^ pur¬

chased from the famous mountain man, John Colter, a set of six

beaver traps for the price of $120.00, Gen. William Ashley trans¬

ferred his outfit near present Salt Lake City, to the firm of

Smith, Jackson, and Sublette on July 18, 1826. Beaver traps

were entered on the bill of sale at $9.00 each.®®^ The accounts of

196 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

the American Fur Company for 1832 and 1833 at Fort Union

show that beaver traps were carried at $12.00 and the springs

at $2.00 each."®^

The winters of 1879-80 and 1880-81 were spent by Baillie-

Grohman in the Rockies. He remarks that though beaver traps

could be purchased for about eighty shillings a dozen in the

western towns, they were “worth five or ten times that in the

wilds.’^"^

I wish to express my thanks to the State Historical Society

of Wisconsin and the New- York Historical Society for permis¬

sion to use the papers of the American Fur Company.

References

1. I. Manninen. Die nord-eurasischian Torsionfallen. Eurasia septentri-

onalis antiqua (Helsinki). No. 6 (1931) 1-14; Sture Lagercrantz.

Contributions to the question of the origin of torsion traps. Acta

ethnologica (Copenhagen). (1937) 105-30.

2. Pierre Larouse. Grande dictionnaire universel . . . Paris, Vol. 15,

“Traquenard”.

3. Francois Fortin. Les ruses innocentes . . . Paris, (1660) Livr. 4, Tab.

9 ; 3a, Livr. 4, Tab. 4.

4. Liber Sancte Marie de Melros. Edinburgh, Vol. 1 (1837) p. 31.

5. Jacques du Fouilloux. La venerie. Paris, (1573) pp. 121-121a.

6. James E. Harting. British animals extinct within historic times.

Boston, (1880) p. 191.

7. Petrus de Crescentiis. Ruralium commodorum. Augsburg, (1571)

Fol. 190a.

8. Leonard Mascall. A booke of fishing with hooke & line . . . Another

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9. L. Liger. Amusemens de la campagne ou nouvelles ruses innocentes.

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10. Sture Lagercrantz. Vide Ref. 1, p. 112.

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14. Heinrich Wilhelm Doebel. Neueroffnete Jager-Practica . . . Leipzig,

(1754) plate op. p. 150.

15. [John Worlidge]. Dictionarium rusticum & urbanicum. London, (1704)

under Pole-cats. (Authorship formerly attributed to Nathan Bailey).

16. John Mortimer. The whole art of husbandry. London, (1707) p. 243.

17. Robert Smith. The universal directory for taking alive and destroying

rats, and all other kinds of four-footed and winged vermin . . .

London, (1768) plates 1 and 7.

Schorger — The Steel Trap in North America

197

18. Capt. George Cartwright. Labrador journal. Townsend ed. Boston,

(1911) p. 380; 18a, pp. 373 and 379-80; 18b, pp. 46 and 89; 18c, p.

265.

19. Rev. Lewis A. Anspach. A history of the Island of Newfoundland.

London, (1819), p. 378.

20. R. M. Ballantye. Hudson’s Bay: or every-day life in the wilds of

North America. 3rd ed London, (1857) p. 69. 1st ed (1848).

21. Viscount Milton [William Fitzwilliam] and W. B. Cheadle. The

northwest passage by land. 4th ed London, [1865] p. 102; 21a, p. 101.

22. E. N. Woodcock. Fifty years a hunter and trapper. Columbus, [cl913]

pp. 193-4; 22a, pp. 22 and 35.

23. Records of New Plymouth. Vol. 1 (1855) p. 23; 23a, Vol. 11 (1861)

p. 38; 23b, Vol. 11 (1861) p. 17.

24. William Byrd. Histories of the dividing line betwixt Virginia and

North Carolina. Raleigh, (1929) pp. 292-4.

25. John Lawson. History of North Carolina. Richmond, (1937) p. 45.

26. John Brickell. The natural history of North-Carolina. Dublin, (1737)

p. 122.

27. Adelaide L. Fries. Records of the Moravians in North Carolina.

Raleigh, Vol. 1 (1922) p. 86.

28. Col. James Smith. An account of the remarkable occurrences in the

life and travels of Col. James Smith during his captivity with the

Indians, in the years 1755, ’56, ’57, ’58, and ’59. Cincinnati, (1907)

p. 61.

29. G. H. Loskiel. History of the mission of the United Brethren . . .

London, (1794) p. 81.

30. A. B. Hulburt. David Zeisberger’s history of the northern American

Indians. Ohio Arch. Hist. Soc., Columbus, [1910] p. 61.

31. [Mary C. Darlington]. Fort Pitt and letters from the frontier. Pitts¬

burg, (1892) pp. 128 and 130.

32. H. Marshall. The history of Kentucky. Frankfort, Vol. 1 (1824) p. 9;

R. G. Thwaites. Daniel Boone. New York, (1902) p. 92.

33. Draper MS 6S, p. 66, Wis. Hist. Soc.: 33a, pp. 229-31; 33b, p. 233;

33c, p. 243.

34. William Sudduth. Filson Club Hist. Quart. 2 (1928) 54.

35. Knoxville Gazette. Feb. 11, 1792.

36. W. S. Laidley. History of Charleston and Kanawha County, West Vir¬

ginia. Chicago, (1911) p. 66. Cf. Ruth W. Dayton. Pioneers and their

homes on the Upper Kanawha. Charleston, (1947) p. 56.

37. John Bakeless. Daniel Boone. New York, (1939) p. 335.

38. John P. Hale. Trans-Allegheny pioneers. Cincinnati, (1886) pp. 169-70.

39. Sir William Johnson Papers. Albany, Vol. 3 (1921) 335; 39a, Vol. 4

(1925) 559; 39b, Vol. 3 (1921) 755; 39c, Vol. 4 (1925) 559 and Vol. 7

(1931) 31; 39d, Vol. 5 (1927) 297.

40. Maine Hist. Soc. Colls. 2nd ser., 12 (1908) pp. 112, 113 and 120;

40a, ibid. p. 120.

41. Alexander Henry. Travels and adventures. Chicago, (1921) p. 127.

198 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

42. Mich. Hist. Soc. Colls. 10 (1886) 496 and 632; 42a, 11 (1888) 382;

42b, 28 (1900) 560; 42c, 12 (1887) 275, 20 (1893) 660, and 23 (1895)

70,

43. G. C. Davidson. The North West Company. Berkeley, (1918) p. 267.

44. M. K. Turner. The Baynton, Wharton, and Morgan manuscripts. Miss.

Valley Hist. Eev. 9 (1922) 236-41; Max Savelle. George Morgan,

colony builder. Columbia Unv. Press, New York, (1932) p. 7.

45. George Morgan. Ill. Hist. Colls. 16 (1921) 163 and 231.

46. Wis. Hist. Colls. 17 (1906) 14,

47. Ihid. p. 69.

48. Augustin Grignon. Wis. Hist. Colls. 3 (1857) 252-3.

49. Jacob Franks. Ibid. 20 (1911) 35.

50. Michel Curot. Ihid. 20 (1911) 405 and 449; 50a, ihid. p. 449.

51. F. V. Malhiot. Ihid. 19 (1910) 167.

52. JuLiEN Dubuque. Ihid. 19 (1910) 319.

53. Jean B. Perrault. Mich. Hist. Colls. 37 (1910) 557.

54. Thomas G. Anderson. Wis. Hist. Colls. 9 (1882) 160.

55. E. CoUES. The expeditions of Zebulon Montgomery Pike. New York,

Vol. 1 (1895) p. 283.

56. M. M. Quaife. The journals of Lewis and Ordway. Madison, (1916) pp.

104, 130, 192, 195, 197, and 230; 56a, p. 193; 56b, p. 388.

57. J. B. Truteau. Am. Hist. Rev. 19 (1914) 313.

58. H. M. Chittenden. The American fur trade of the far west. New

York, Vol. 3 (1902) p. 897; 58a, Vol. 1, p. 4; 58b, Vol. 3, pp. 943 and

945.

59. John C. Luttig. Journal of a fur-trading expedition on the Upper Mis¬

souri: 1812-1813. St. Louis, (1920) pp. 29 and 81; 59a, n. p. 53.

60. John D. Godman. American natural history. Philadelphia, Vol. 2 (1826)

p. 35.

61. Manuel Lisa. S. Dakota Hist. Colls. 4 (1908) 132.

62. Matthew Cocking. Roy. Soc. Canada, Ser. 3, Vol. 2, Sec. 2 (1908) 106.

63. J, B. Tyrell. David Thompson’s narrative of his explorations in west¬

ern America, 1784-1812. Champlain Soc. Toronto, (1916) p. 204;

Cf. H. T. Martin. Castrologia. Montreal and London, (1892) p. 145.

64. L. M. Masson. Les bourgeois de la Compagnie du Nord-Ouest. Quebec,

Vol. 2 (1890) pp. 342 and 427.

65. H. A. Innis. The fur trade in Canada. New Haven, (1930) p. 266.

66. D. W. Harmon. A journal of voyages and travels in the interior of

North America. Andover, (1820) p. 330.

67. Letter Books, Amer. Fur Co., US MSS B. Photostat Wis. Hist. Soc.

68. Calendar No. 80, Amer. Fur Co. Papers, N. Y. Hist. Soc.; 68a, Cal¬

endar No. 373.

69. Calendar No. 16, 404.

70. Gen. Thomas James. Three years among the Indians and Mexicans.

St. Louis, (1916) p, 17; 70a, p. 35.

71. Russell Osborne. Journal of a trapper or nine years in the Rocky

Mountains: 1834-1843. Boise, (1914) p. 64.

72. Washington Irving. Adventures of Captain Bonneville. London, Vol. 3

(1837) p. 180.

Schorger — The Steel Trap in North America

199

73. Alexander Ross. The fur hunters of the far west. Chicago^ (1924) p.

219. 1st ed (1855).

74. F. G. Young. The correspondence and journals of Captain Nathaniel J.

Wyeth: 1831-6. Sources of Oregon Hist. Vol. 1, Parts 3-6 (1899)

p. 59; 74a, pp. 39 and 27 ; 74b, pp. 107 and 110.

75. Ignatius Wetzel. Report of the Com. of Indian Affairs for 1859.

Washington, (1860) p. 49.

76. Baynton, Morgan, and Wharton Journal for 1767-74, p, 200. State

Archives, Harrisburg, Pa.

77. J. T. SCHARF. History of Saint Louis City and County. Philadelphia,

Vol. 2 (1883) p. 1258.

78. American State Papers, Indian Affairs. Washington, Vol. 2 (1834)

p. 457; 78a, ihid> p. 310.

79. Sewell Newhouse. The trapper’s guide. 6th ed. New York, (1874) pp.

208-11; 79a, p. 211.

80. Mrs. L. M. Hammond. History of Madison County, State of New York.

Syracuse, (1872) p. 535.

81. Charles Nordhoff. The communistic societies of the United States.

New York, (1875) p. 278.

82. A. R. Harding. Steel traps. Columbus, [cl907] p. 23.

83. Joseph Anderson. The town and city of Waterbury, Connecticut. New

Haven, Vol. 2 (1896) p. 416.

84. Grigon, Lawe, and Porlier Letterbooks. Wis. Hist. Soc.

85. Miles Macdonell. Canadian Archives, 1886. (1887) p. cxciv.

86. E. E, Rich. Journal of occurrences in the Athabasca Department by

George Simpson, 1820 and 1821, and report. Champlain Soc. Toronto,

(1938) p. 407.

87. G. P. De T. Glazebrook. The Hargrave correspondence, 1821-1843.

Champlain Soc. Toronto, (1938) p. 134; 87a, p. 288.

88. J. B. Varnum. Photostat Wis. Hist. Soc.

89. S. P. Young. The wolf in North America. Caldwell, (1946) p. 50.

90. Filson Club Hist. Quart. 3 (1928) 72 and 126.

91. Office of Indian Trade, National Archives. Washington.

92. Indiana Hist. Colls. 15 (1927) 418, 447, and 458.

93. Amer. Fur Co. Account Book A, pp. 6 and 29. Mo. Hist. Soc., St. Louis.

94. Amer. Fur Co. Account Book W, p. 337. Mo. Hist. ,Soc.

95. James D. Doty. Wis. Hist. Colls, 7 (1876) 205.

96. L, H. Bunnell. Winona and its environs. Winona, (1897) p. 245.

97. W. A. Baillie-Grohman. Camps in the Rockies. 3rd ed. New York,

(1882) p. 258.

METHODS AND AIMS OF A SURVEY OF THE GERMAN

SPOKEN IN WISCONSIN

Lester W. J. Seifert

Department of German, University of Wisconsin

Some of you remember that I read a paper on “The Problem

of Speech-Mixture in the German Spoken in Northwestern Dane

County, Wisconsin” at last year's meeting of the Academy.

Since that time, a number of people have asked for a more de¬

tailed exposition of the methods I use in collecting speech-

specimens. Usually there is a query coupled with this request, a

query about the ultimate aims of this entire project, taking for

granted that there are any aims beyond the joy of merely col¬

lecting material. Since it seemed that the reactions and criti¬

cisms of a group composed largely of non-linguists might be

helpful, I shall briefly state what I have so far done and what I

hope to do. I therefore want to thank the Program Committee

of the Academy for giving me this opportunity. A few things

presented in last year's paper will necessarily be repeated here

in order to give the complete picture.

Before we proceed with this paper, another word of thanks

must be expressed. This survey of the German spoken in Wis¬

consin would have been impossible without the encouragement

and very liberal financial aid of the University of Wisconsin

through its Committee on Research and the Department of

German, especially Professor R-M. S. Heffner. The University

granted me a Post-Doctoral Research Fellowship plus an

expense-fund from November 1945 to September 1946, then

research leave of absence from teaching duties plus a travel-fund

from September 1947 to February 1948, and another research

grant plus a travel-fund has been given for this coming summer.

Any gratitude that I can express must of necessity be quite

inadequate.

The survey of the German spoken in Wisconsin has proceeded

according to the following plan. The first step is the collection

of a body of linguistic data; such collections are here called

speech-records or simply records. The second step consists of the

201

202 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

analysis of the records. In the third step, conclusions are then

drawn from the collected data. As in any scientific research, the

more extensive the data, the more precise, the more certain are

the conclusions. Frequently the analysis of the records is carried

on simultaneously with the collecting, but the analysis is in all

cases a much more time-consuming task. At times also, prelimi¬

nary conclusions may be drawn not from the entire body of lin¬

guistic data but only from a selected list of records.

Accordingly, I have gone to different bilingual communities

in Wisconsin and have recorded specimens of the German spoken

by certain individuals who shall be referred to hereafter as in¬

formants. Speech-specimens of 62 such informants have so far

been recorded, chiefly in Dane, Jefferson, Milwaukee, Sauk,

Columbia, Dodge, Washington, Sheboygan and Manitowoc coun¬

ties. It is hoped that the usage of more informants can be re¬

corded in the near future (some will definitely be done this com¬

ing summer), especially in such important German areas as

Green, Ozaukee, Fond du Lac, Shawano, Marathon and Buffalo

counties. But even in some parts of the counties first mentioned

additional records ought to be made, especially in such key

centers as Watertown, Milwaukee and Sheboygan.

Since it is impossible to record the speech of all the people of

a given locality, the choice of informants is of prime importance.

The fundamental requisite, of course, is that the informant speak

German or a German dialect natively, not as a language acquired

in school, but this does not mean that the informant had to be

born in Germany. In order to find out whether or not there is a

definable rate of progression in speech-mixture, records were

made of some first-generation German-born informants and of

some second-, third- and even fourth-generation Wisconsin-born

informants. This inevitably leads to a check on differences in

usage for the different age groups. The oldest informant was 83

years of age, the youngest only 17 years. In the selection of in¬

formants, care must be exercised to secure individuals who are

truly representative of the locality in which they live. This

means that they must have spent most of their lives in the local¬

ity and that they have a certain amount of communication with

the other members of their community.

The good informant has certain other qualifications. He

should have at least average native intelligence, but not neces¬

sarily much formal education. He should be interested in things

Seifert — Survey of German Spoken in Wisconsin 203

beyond the sphere of his everyday activities. He should have the

power of sustained mental concentration for extended periods of

time. He should be friendly, frank, open-minded, easy to meet

and not too self-conscious ; and last, but hardly least, he should

hear well and speak clearly. Women are often excellent inform¬

ants, if their initial suspicion and reticence can be overcome. On

the whole, it is not easy to find people who are such paragons of

virtue.

It is well known that the Germans who settled in Wisconsin

came from all parts of Germany, though not in equal numbers.

It was therefore necessary to choose some informants who speak

different German dialects, especially in those Wisconsin commu¬

nities which were predominantly settled by people from one

specific part of Germany; an example is Dodge County with its

predominance of settlers from Pommerania and Brandenburg.

Thus records have been made not only of several varieties of

Standard German but also of the following dialects with

sub-varieties : Pommeranian, Brandenburger, Mecklenburger,

Cologne and Bernese. To omit these dialects would convey an

entirely false picture of the status of the German language in

Wisconsin. It will also be interesting to see whether or not the

processes of speech-mixture follow the same patterns in all these

dialects, but the records have not yet been analyzed from this

viewpoint.

After an informant has been chosen and has consented to

serve, it is still impossible to record the totality of his speech.

Even if it were possible, no one would consent to it. Since we can

hope to record only a relatively small part of each informant’s

entire speech, it seems sensible to get the most important ele¬

ments of his speech, elements which by their very nature, and by

the very nature of the fact that the informant is speaking Ger¬

man, occur again and again in the totality of his speech. More¬

over, we are interested not in the speech of a single informant

but of many informants. In order to have comparable material

for all the informants, the course of each interview must in large

part be rigidly directed. There is only one practical way to meet

all these conditions : a questionnaire must be used.

This is not the place, nor do we have the time, to discuss the

way in which my questionnaire was built up. Let it be enough

to say that it contains better than a thousand items — I have

never counted the exact number. There are items to cover all the

204 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

significant sounds of German ; items to exemplify the grammat¬

ical and syntactical structure ; and a very considerable sampling

of the most common vocabulary, since almost all the items deal

with situations out of everyday life. In the choice of items, rural

life was rather heavily accented, first because German has re¬

tained greater vigor in rural communities and secondly because

it is usually easier to get rural people to serve as informants.

The items finally chosen were then arranged topically. This

arrangement makes it somewhat easier for the informant in that

it gives a certain continuity of thought; it also makes the re¬

sponses more reliable in that it directs the informant's attention

away from purely linguistic matters to the situations themselves.

By and large, the topical arrangement used by the Linguistic

Atlas of the United States and Canada was followed :

House and Home

Dishes and Utensils

Farm and Buildings

Crops and Implements

Animals and Fowl

Vegetables and Fruits

Meals and Meats

Foods and Drinks

Trees and Flowers

Small Life

Topography

Store and Business

The Body

Clothing

Sickness

Personal Attributes

The Family

Social Affairs

The Emotions

The Weather

Time

Numerals

Miscellany

The interview proper is begun with an introductory state¬

ment, such as : ‘‘How do you say in German ‘This is the kitchen',

‘Our house has two kitchens', ‘The stove is in the kitchen'?" and

goes on in this way. It takes from four to eight hours to go

through the entire questionnaire, depending upon the quickness

of the informant and the frequency with which he goes off into

discussions of other matters. With one informant the question¬

naire was finished in one sitting, but usually it is better to stop

after two or three hours, for the informant then gets tired, even

cranky, and his responses are slower and less natural.

This is, of course, a translation method which has certain

inherent weaknesses. First, it presupposes that the informant

has a fairly good knowledge of English and this is not always a

valid supposition. Secondly, the possibility of suggestion through

the use of English is undeniable. Certainly some of the infor¬

mants used the English word beef instead of the German Rind-

fleisch because of the English influence of the way in which this

item was posed: “This is good beef". Others may have used

Feuerfiiege for fire-fly because they could not think of one of the

Seifert — Survey of German Spoken in Wisconsin 205

German names for this insect and therefore merely translated

the components of the English name. The practiced ear is usually

able to spot the difference between natural and unnatural

responses.

Nevertheless, the use of English seemed unavoidable. With

informants who give their responses in Standard German, I

could use German in the interview and elicit the responses by the

somewhat tedious methods of circumlocution and description and

in part by using pictures, for the field-worker must be careful

not to put words into the informant’s mouth. With speakers of

certain North German dialects I could use the dialect we speak

at home. But no one would be able to use all the different German

dialects spoken in Wisconsin, and in such cases the use of Stand¬

ard German by the field-worker would lead the informant

farther away from his dialect than the use of English.

To check the over-all reliability of the responses, I have tried

to record a considerable piece of free conversation for each in¬

formant. This attempt was not always successful, because some

informants were either not talkative enough to keep on speaking

of their own accord, even for a couple of minutes, or else they

closed up tightly, when the direct stimulus of specific questions

was lacking. But the amount of free conversation recorded is

still very considerable and more than enough to convince me of

the reliability of the method used.

Two methods of recording were used— the one by hand in a

rather close phonetic transcription, the other by machine with a

small but good portable recording device made by the Sound-

Scriber Company of New Haven, Conn. The attempt was made

to do both hand and machine recording with each informant, but

for various reasons was not always successful. In the beginning

of the project a machine was not always available, but later the

Research Committee authorized the purchase of one. The voices

of a few otherwise good informants were not suitable for mak¬

ing good, clear machine records. A couple of informants were

also averse to having machine records made of themselves. For

recording free conversation the machine is indispensable and I

also use it for recording part of the questionnaire in conjunction

with hand-recording. There is no better check on one’s accuracy

of transcription. On the whole, the two methods of recording can

be used very successfully in conjunction, as complementary and

supplementary to each other.

206 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

And now the question: What is the purpose of all this work?

The sociological, historical and folkloristic value of this collec¬

tion is fairly evident and I hope to discuss these matters upon

another occasion. But since I am primarily a linguist, I shall

today deal only with the linguistic aspects of the collection.

The chief aim of the entire project is to throw light upon the

problems of speech-mixture. A good deal has been written about

these problems, much of it anecdotal and dilletante in nature,

but some of it has true scientific worth. Even in the latter, the

conclusions reached are at times contradictory, at times open to

serious question, and at times merely insufficient. A couple of

examples will make this clear. The late Professor A. W. Aron

said that “Every English noun is a potential loan-word in collo¬

quial American German” (Curme Volume of Linguistic Studies

— Language Monograph No. VII, 1930, p. 11). In the light of

my material, this is certainly an overstatement, for certain

German nouns are never replaced by English nouns. At the same

time this is then an insufficient conclusion, because it gives us

no insight into what type of nouns are actually borrowed from

English. Or again, when Professor Aron ascribed the assignment

of grammatical gender to English loan-words chiefly to mechan¬

ical reasons (ibid., pp. 11-28) and Professor 0. Springer, on the

other hand, chiefly to psychological reasons {Journal of English

and Germanic Philology, vol. 42, 1943, pp. 22-25), we are here

confronted with a contradiction which is hard to reconcile. The

cause for this state of affairs perhaps lies in the fact that schol¬

ars have drawn conclusions from an insufficient body of lingu¬

istic data or from data which are in some way biased.

Our first task, then, is to establish what lexical, morpholog¬

ical, syntactical and phonological features are taken over from

English. Next we must establish which English words and

speech-patterns are used frequently, perhaps even exclusively,

and which only sporadically. Thus of my 62 informants all use

der Pie and die Car for the well-known pastry and vehicle re¬

spectively. Most of the informants use the English word die or

der Floor instead of the German words die Diele (dialect) or

der Fussboden; or the English die or der Box instead of the

German die Kiste, die Schachtel or der Fasten. Use of English

der Keg and German das Pass is about evenly divided ; the same

holds for English der Suit and German der Anzug. In other in¬

stances the English word is used only sporadically, even rarely.

Seifert~~Su7'vey of Gei^man Spoken in Wisconsin 207

instead of the corresponding German word, e.g., English der

Rooster versus German der Hahn, And finally, it is of equal im¬

portance to establish the fact that with certain concepts the

English words never substitute for the German; e.g., horse is

never used for the German words Pferd, Gaul and Ross.

This brings us face to face with the question : Why are cer¬

tain words (as well as other linguistic features) borrowed from

English whereas others are not? It is this question which rises

like a spectre in the night and disturbs the usual calm of my

spirits. The best answer so far has been given by Professor

Leonard Bloomfield in his book Language, pp. 444-475. He

speaks of cultural borrowings, intimate borrowings and aberrant

mixture. Cultural borrowings occur when the speakers of one

language suddenly come into contact with the cultural objects

and habits of a different language group. This process goes on

continuously and is multi-lateral. Intimate borrowings occur

when two languages are spoken in the same community, in which

case the one language is usually dominant, the other lower. Such

a situation arises either through conquest or migration. This

process is largely uni-lateral in that the lower language usually

borrows from the dominant. Whatever does not fit into these two

categories is aberrant mixture; extreme cases of such mixture

result in the various ‘"pidgins” spoken in different parts of the

world.

Valuable and valid as the above classifications are, we run

into trouble when we apply them to the material in our records.

We find some clear-cut examples of cultural borrowing in the

following English nouns now commonly used in Wisconsin

German; they are taken from my records, but the list is not

complete :

der Pie

der Cake

der Renter

der Pasture

der Counter (in the store)

die Condensery

die Creamery

die Fence

die Car

die, der or das Sink (in the

kitchen)

das Loghaus

das Framehaus

These words symbolize items which were new to the Germans

when they came to Wisconsin, or at least the American item was

somewhat different from the corresponding item in Germany*

It was therefore a simple matter to take over the English name

208 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

together with the object. But in applying this principle we soon

run into doubtful cases.

The sphere of intimate borrowing is more extensive. Despite

the great number of Germans who settled in Wisconsin, English

always has been the dominant language in the state as a whole,

although this was not the case in a good number of communities

some decades ago, and in a few communities the struggle is not

ended even today. Thus even in German-speaking families, Eng¬

lish personal names have largely replaced the German; Henry,

John and William have crowded out Heinrich, Johann and Wil¬

helm. In my records there are many English words used which

can safely be classed as intimate borrowings, e.g. :

die or der Box

die or der Candy

die or der Handle

der or das Buggy

der, die or das Waist (of the

dress)

der, die or das Match

der, die or das Heifer

der Pail (and compounds)

der Bug (and compounds)

der Boar

der Suit (of clothes)

die Whip

die Ceiling

das Baby

One thing strikes us immediately about these words. All of them

refer to common, everyday things with which the speakers are

(or were) in constant contact and which are therefore apt to

have emotional connotations, but for which there also are good,

native, German words which are usually used side by side with

the borrowed words. Originally the use of these English words

may have been playful or emphatic and only with much use did

they become habitual. We sometimes find German words used in

the same way by our bilingual speakers when using English, e.g.,

speaking of the old Hengst instead of the old stallion or Pm all

ausgespielt instead of Pm all worn out. But again, and in a very

high percentage of the total borrowings, it is hard to decide

whether or not they are the result of intimate borrowing. Just a

few examples will make this clear :

die or der Marsh der Depot

die or der Station der River

die or der Lake die Print

der or das Butcher-shop die Cornice

Or are all such words to be looked upon as aberrant borrowings ?

And here too we would have to put almost all the borrowings in

Seifert — Survey of German Spoken in Wisconsin 209

the fields of pronunciation^ morphology and syntax. In the last

analysis this, of course, is no solution of the problem.

The concept of intimate borrowing also fails to answer the

question: How are we to account for the existence of loan-

translations, such as:

der Fettkuchen Tat-cake' (dialect)

der Fussstuhl Toot-stooF

der Pferdsrettich ‘horse-radish’

die Butterfliege ‘butter-fly’

Or of hybrid compounds, such as :

der Ueber-coat ‘over-coat’

die Vieh-yard ‘cattle-yard’

der Dish-lappen ‘dish-cloth’

die Smoke-wurst ‘smoke-sausage’

These are evidently forms of borrowing, but neither cultural nor

intimate.

On the whole, it is fairly clear that we run into difficulties in

applying the two principles of cultural and intimate borrowings.

It therefore seems necessary to make an entirely different attack

upon the problem. To indicate this new approach, I have decided

to use two descriptive terms which still do not entirely satisfy

me : mechanical borrowing and psychological borrowing. Mechan¬

ical borrowing includes Bloomfield’s classification of cultural

borrowing but also embraces a good deal more. Wisconsin Ger¬

man has no word for an hitherto unknown object and mechan¬

ically accepts the English name of the object. Or Wisconsin

German mechanically follows the patterns of English in pronun¬

ciation, word-formation (e.g., loan-translations), morphology

and syntax. Psychological borrowing includes Bloomfield’s inti¬

mate borrowing but again is more inclusive. It is not only opera¬

tive in the case of the nouns and verbs referring to things and

actions close to the speaker; we must rather take into account

the entire scale of man’s emotions with all his likes and dislikes ;

yes, we must even investigate the entire psychological motivation

of speech. In psychological borrowings it will hardly be possible

to decide precisely what factor was operative in each single in¬

stance, but a very careful examination of the informants’ back¬

ground may solve many doubtful cases. A fuller presentation of

these two complex types of borrowing, supported by more mate¬

rial from my records, must wait for another occasion, but I did

210 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

want to indicate the lines along which I have been working and

along which I propose to continue working, if for no other rea¬

son than to find out where they lead us.

One other purpose of this survey of the German spoken in

Wisconsin must be mentioned : To ascertain the extent of dialect

borrowing. It seems safe to assume that the German language

will not survive long enough for complete dialect-leveling to take

place or for the emergence of a new, rather homogeneous Wis¬

consin German dialect as was the case with Pennsylvania Ger¬

man. The beginnings of this process are certainly here; I have

noticed it especially in the Sheboygan-Manitowoc area, where

the different dialects are no longer very active and where those

who speak German use a variety of Standard German with many

dialect remnants. But we do want to find out before it is too late,

exactly how far this process has gone, how much influence the

dialects have exerted upon Standard German and vice versa in

areas where dialects are still active, and finally what influence

the dialects have had upon each other in areas where more than

one dialect is spoken.

In the last analysis, all the problems of speech-mixture and

of dialect-mixture can be subsumed under one head: To throw

light upon the problems of linguistic structure and linguistic

change and thereby to advance linguistic science.

ACIDITY OF SOIL AND WATER USED IN

CRANBERRY CULTURE

Neil E. Stevens

Department of Botany, University of Illinois

That cranberries are grown in Wisconsin under a much

wider variety of conditions than in the eastern states has long

been recognized. In no way is this more strikingly evidenced

than by the range in the acidity of the soil and water used in

their culture. This is clearly shown in Figure 1 which is based

in part on data assembled by L. M. Rogers. The readings given

are averages of all those made in each location. The marshes

represented on this chart comprised over three fourths of the

acreage in production during the years 1930-1944. It will be

noted that the pH of soil planted to cranberries ranges from 3.6

to 6.8 and that of the water used in flooding from 5.0 to 8.3. The

chart also shows that while in general acid soil and acid water

tend to be found together, there are some exceptions. In one case

a marsh having soil of pH 4.0 used water with pH 7.8. Another

marsh (only a few years old) having soil with pH slightly over

5.0 uses water with a pH above 7.5.

In striking contrast to this C. S. Beckwith, who was for

many years in charge of the Cranberry Substation of the New

Jersey Experiment Station, informed me in a personal conversa¬

tion in April, 1943, that the pH of 90 per cent of New Jersey’s

cranberry soils is between 4.0 and 5.0 with a maximum of about

5.5 and that the water used for flooding cranberries in that state

is very uniform at about 4.5.

As yet no comparable information is available regarding the

soils of southeastern Massachusetts, by far the most important

cranberry producing region in the world. Readings on pH and

alkalinity of many water supplies used in flooding cranberries in

Massachusetts were made during July and August, 1945 and

1946. Through the generous assistance of the workers at the

Cranberry Station, H. F. Bergman, H. J. Franklin, and J. L.

Kelley, and of the oflScers of the New England Cranberry Sales

Company, it was possible to reach bogs widely scattered through-

211

o in

212 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

I

L

pH

water pH

4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5

3.5

4

4.5

5

55

6

6.5

7

29

9

58

Figure 1. Each dot represents a single cultivated Wisconsin cranberry marsh.

Stevens— Cranberry Culture

213

6.5

water P H

7 7.5 8

8.5

3.5

4

4.5

55

6

6.5

I

L

p H

(/) o

214 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

out the cranberry growing area. In all, water from at least 200

sources was tested. The number of cranberry bogs on which the

water is used would be much larger since water from certain

ponds and streams is used on several different bogs.

The contrast in water between eastern Massachusetts and

Wisconsin is striking. All but four of the samples of water used

in flooding cranberries in Massachusetts had a pH of 7.0 or

below. It is also obvious that all the flooding water thus far

tested in southeastern Massachusetts is very low in carbonates.

Exactly one half of the first 100 water supplies on which these

Massachusetts data are based showed a bound carbon dioxide

content of three parts or less per million. All except 11 had five

parts per million or less and would thus fall in the category

'‘very soft’' as set up by Birge and Juday^ and widely used in

Wisconsin. The highest reading for any cranberry water supply

in Plymouth or Barnstable counties was 6.5 p.p.m. bound COg.

Water sources falling in Juday’s classes “medium hard” and

“hard” were found in southern Vermont as well as in western

Massachusetts and Connecticut, but so far as could be learned

these have never been used in cranberry culture. The foregoing

information tends to show why none of the cranberry problems

which are believed to be associated with the use of hard water

in Wisconsin have been recognized in Massachusetts.

1 Birge, E. A. and Chancey Juday. 1911. The Inland Lakes of Wisconsin.

Wisconsin Geological & Natural History Survey. Bull. 22, 259 pp.

RECENT ADDITIONS TO THE RECORDS OF THE

DISTRIBUTION OF THE AMPHIBIANS

IN WISCONSIN*

Howard K. Suzuki

Department of Biology, Marquette University

Milwaukee, Wisconsin

Introduction

In recent years there has been an increasingly large amount

of work done on the herpetofauna of various states. Although

there has been a few scattered regional Wisconsin notes on the

subject, no comprehensive v^ork has been done since Pope and

Dickinson’s monograph (1928). However, their publication was

restricted to the taxonomy and distribution of the amphibians

and reptiles of the state. A need for an up-to-date report on the

herpetology of Wisconsin was recognized. To meet this need, a

handbook on the Wisconsin lizards and snakes by Mr. W. E.

Dickinson of the Milwaukee Public Museum has recently been

published. In order to help complete the herpetological studies, a

survey on the amphibians was started some three years ago. The

final objective of the survey is to publish a treatise on the nat¬

ural history of the amphibians of the state.

The purpose of this paper, however, is to set forth the

present status of the distribution of the amphibians in Wiscon¬

sin. In addition, problems concerning subspecies ar» discussed.

The distribution of eighteen species is tabulated. Furthermore,

one new subspecies identification has been changed, and six

species mentioned by Pope and Dickinson (1928) have been

placed in a supplementary list.

Acknowledgments

I wish to express my appreciation to the Rev. R. H. Reis, S. J.

of the Marquette Univ., Mr. W. E. Dickinson of the Milwaukee

* This investig-ation was carried out with a 1946 grant-in-aid from the

AAAS received through the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters,

215

216 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Public Museum, Dr. C. W. Greaser of Wayne University, and

Dr. Norman Hartweg of the U. of Mich, for their suggestions

in preparing this manuscript ; to the many school teachers, espe¬

cially Catholic school sisters, who aided me in procuring speci¬

mens; and finally to Dr. W. J. Breckenridge of the Minn. Mus.

of Nat. Hist., Dr. D. M. Cochran of the U. S. Nat. Mus., Mr.

R. A. Edgren, Jr. of the Northwestern University, Dr. C. H.

Pope of Chicago Nat. Hist. Mus., Dr. H. Smith of the U. of

Illinois and Drs. H. Levi and H. R. Wolfe of the U. of Wise, for

making available the loan or list of Wisconsin amphibians in

their respective museums.

Materials and Method

Specimen records were obtained by personal field trips, aid

solicited from schools and other interested people, by listing,

and actual specimens of Wisconsin amphibians procured from

various museums and universities in the adjacent states. The

compilation of the maps are based on previous published records,

unpublished records, and 877 specimens obtained during the past

three years as a result of the survey. The amphibians collected

for the present study have been deposited with the Marquette

University Museum.

New County Records

The following abbreviations are being used to indicate in the

species tabulation the various universities, museums, or indi¬

viduals who have new records of Wisconsin amphibians.

CCM . Carroll College Museum

CNHM . Chicago Natural History Museum

RE . Richard A. Edgren, Jr. of Northwestern University

MMNH . Minnesota Museum of Natural History

MPM . Milwaukee Public Museum

MU . Marquette University

UI . University of Illinois

UMMZ . University of Michigan Museum of Zoology

UW . University of Wisconsin

USNM . United States National Museum

Suzuki — Amphibians in Wisconsin

217

ORDER CAUDATA (URODELA)

Family Proteidae

Neeturus maculosus maculosus (Rafinesqiie)

Common Mudpuppy

Map 1

Neeturus maculosus stictus Bishop

Wisconsin Mudpuppy

Map 1

Bishop (1941) described a new subspecies which he called

the N,m. stictus. The range given by Bishop (1943), extends

from Lake Winnebago to Mackinac County on the upper penin¬

sula of Michigan. In the present study no additional specimens

have been caught.

Family Salamandridae

Triturus viridescens louisianensis (Wolterstorff)

Louisiana Newt

Map 2

Pope and Dickinson (1928) listed the newt found in Wiscon¬

sin as T.v, viridescens (Rafinesque), Fifty-one specimen records

218 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

were examined and it was found that all of the salamanders fit

the description of the T,v. louisianensis. The sizes of all of the

aquatic newts ranged from 47 to 90 mm. in length with the

average size of 64.5 mm. Seventeen red efts varied in length

from 42 to 60 mm. with an average length of 51.5 mm. Of the

seventeen efts, 2 red land newts have been found near Bristol in

Kenosha County. This is a further verification of William's

report (1947).

Family Ambystomidae

Amhy stoma jeffersonianum (Green)

Jefferson’s Salamander

Map 3

Breckenridge (1944) states that '‘Minnesota specimens of this

salamander are definitely smaller than those from farther east.”

Bishop (1943y gives the average eastern form size as 162 mm.

The largest Wisconsin specimen examined is 119 mm.; the

average size is 86 mm.

Suzuki — Aiwphibians in Wisconsin

219

Amby stoma maculatum (ShaWj)

Spotted Salamander

Map 4

County Locality Source and Cat. No.

Oconto . ? UMMZ 85569

Manitowoc . Point Beach State Forest .... MU 1316

A salamander only occasionally found in the state. Not enough

specimens of this form have been found to make any evaluation

of its distribution in Wisconsin. Only one representative of this

species has been caught by me; it was discovered under a de¬

cayed coniferous log in the south end of Point Beach State

Forest. Several Plethodon cinereus cinereus (Green) were found

in close proximity to the Amhystoma maculatum, yet they did

not seem to disturb each other. It should be added, however, that

the lack of records of this species does not necessarily imply that

it is rare in the state.

Amhystoma tigrinum tigrinum (Green)

Eastern Tiger Salamander

Map 5

County

Dodge ....

Eau Claire

Marathon

Pierce ....

Waushara

Locality Source and Cat. No.

Beaver Dam . UI 271-73, 275,

1412-18

Eau Claire . MU 1619

Hatley . MU 1611

Hager City . MMNH 963-65

Silver Lake . RE 873

Wild Rose . UW 9916

These salamanders have been caught during the spring breed¬

ing season in a dirty drainage ditch in one of the industrial areas

of Milwaukee. In 1949, however, a modern drainage system was

installed; consequently, the water in the ditch was no longer

present. Therefore, it seems likely that in several years the

present population will die off, and with no prospect of the pro¬

creation of further progeny in that area.

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

AMBYSTOMA JEFFER SONIA NIIM

• e

AMBYSTOMA TIGRINUN

Al'fBYSTOMA iAACULATOl

Suzuki — Amphibians in Wisconsin

221

HEMIBAGTYLIUIJ SCUTATUM

ACRIS GRYLLUS

BUFO TERRESTRIS AMERICANUS

222 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

RANA SYLVATICA

Suzuki — Amphibians in Wisconsin

223

Family Plethodontidae

Plethodon cinereus cinereus (Green)

Redbacked Salamander

County

Bayfield . ,

Chippewa

Door . . . . .

Douglas . .

Forest . . .

Manitowoc

Marathon

Marinette

Oconto . . .

Polk .

Price .

Vilas ....

Taylor . . .

Locality Source and Cat. No.

Calbe . . . . UW uncatalogued

Brunet Is. State Park . UW uncatalogued

Garrett Bay, Bartlet Lake .... MPM 2593-94

Brule . UW uncatalogued

Pattison State Park . . UW uncatalogued

Metonga Lake . MPM 2569

Point Beach State Park . MU 1788-89

Rib Mountain State Park . RE 874-75

Lake Hilbert . MPM 2667

? UMMZ 85567

St. Croix Falls . MMNH 386-90

Chequamegon National Forest US uncatalogued

Phelps . MU 1268-69

Chequamegon National Forest UW uncatalogued

During the past twenty years, no specimens have been found

south of Manitowoc County. Many of these salamanders were

found within and under rotten logs in the Point Beach State

Forest. In the early part of June 1948, we found five females

encircled around their individual clusters of eggs within rotten

logs. No eggs were found underneath the logs.

Hemidactylium scutatum (Schlegel)

Four-toed Salamander

Map 7

At the present time three records have been added to the

reports of previous investigators. On May 8, 1949, two speci¬

mens were caught by Dr. Herbert Levi of the University of Wis¬

consin in Madison. These salamanders were found in Baxter’s

Hollow, which is near the Badger Village, in Sauk County. Upon

corresponding with Dr. Levi, he wrote, “They were found in logs

in relatively dry places in a maple-yellow birch forest and some

were seen in a stand of witchhazel.” The second specimen record

was found by Dr. Levi in the Interstate Park in Polk County on

July 18, 1949. These specimens are now placed in the University

of Wisconsin Museum of Zoology. The third specimen was found

224 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

by me near Stiles in Oconto County on August 26, 1949. It was

found in a log in a beech-maple forest.

The salamander found in the Interstate Park extends this

species to a probable state-wide distribution. Previously Bishop

(1943) reported that the most northwesternly distribution ex¬

tended from Vernon to Lincoln Counties in Wisconsin. The new

Wisconsin record extends the distribution approximately 130

miles west of Lincoln County. Pope and Dickinson (1928) stated

that the occurrence of this species was rare in this state. The

probable reason for their conclusion is its secretive habits ; how¬

ever, I do not believe that they are as rare as previously believed.

ORDER ANURA (SALIENTIA)

Family Bufonidae

Bufo terrestris americanus (Holbrook)

American Toad

Map 8

This is the only representative of the Family Bufonidae now

known to be found in Wisconsin. It is one of the most common

species of woodland amphibians in the state, and it has a state¬

wide distribution,

Suzuki — Amphibians in Wisconsin

225

Family Hylidae

County

Crawford . . .

Dodge .

Juneau .....

Kenosha ....

Manitowoc ..

Sheboygan ..

Washington .

Waupaca . . .

Acris crepitans Baird

Swamp Cricket Frog

Map 9

Locality

Prairie du Chien .

Beaver Dam .

Mauston . .

Wheatland .

Point Beach State Park

Little Elkart Lake ....

Hubertus .

St. Lawrence .

Source and Cat. No.

MU 1329-32

UI 1447-48

MPM uncatalogued

UMMZ 67882

MU 1043

CCM uncatalogued

MU 1013

CNHM 14729-30

This is a small rough skinned tree frog found near quiet ponds

and lakes in the southern half of the state. Although Wright and

Wright (1949) report that this species is distributed throughout

most of Wisconsin, the present records show that they are lim¬

ited to the southern half of the state. However, Greaser (1944)

reports this amphibian as being taken in the northern part of

the lower peninsula and also in Delta County in the upper penin¬

sula of Michigan. Upon corresponding with Dr. Norman Hart-

weg of the UMMZ, he informed me that the Delta County record

was a misidentification and should be disregarded. Breckenridge

(1944) states that it is found in the SW and SE corner of Min¬

nesota, and this corresponds to the northern limits of the Wis¬

consin records. The status of a new subspecies A.g. blanchardii

(Harper) in Wisconsin described by Harper (1947,) will be

reserved for another paper.

Pseudacris nigrita triseriata (Wied)

Striped Tree Frog

Map 10

County Locality Source and Cat. No.

Adams . . . Friendship . UW 3856-62

Clark-Marathon .... Dorchester . MU 1200

Dane . Madison . UW 6505

Dodge . Beaver Dam . UI 1452-71

Manitowoc . Two Rivers . MU 1016

Oneida . Bradley . UW 6755-67

Rock . Milton . UW 9514

226 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Suzuki — Amphibians in Wisconsin

227

Family Ranidae

Rana catesbeiana Shaw

Bullfrog

County

Barron . .

Kenosha

Marinette

Map 13

Locality Source and Cat. No,

Barronett . RE 916-26

Bristol . MU 1260-61

Crivitz . . . . . . MU 1272

County

Barron . , .

Calumet ..

Kewaunee

La Crosse

Lafayette .

Manitowoc

Marinette

Outagamie

Price . . . . .

Rusk .

St. Croix .

Sheboygan

Taylor . . .

Vernon .. .

Waupaca .

Waushara

Rana clamitans Latreille

Green Frog-

Map 14

Locality

Source and Cat. No.

Rice Lake .

near Kiel .

Kewaunee .

La Crosse .

Darlington .

Kiel and Cleveland . . . .

Crivitz .

Bear Creek .

Phillips .

Glena Flora, Bruce . . . .

Willow River, Hudson .

Sheboygan .

Medford .

Wildcat Mtn. Sta. Park

Waupaca .

Silver Lake .

MU 1621-28

MU 1066

MU 1639

MU uncatalogued

MU 1678-79

MU 1600, 1755

MU 1312-13

MU 1756-61

UMMZ 69588

UMMZ 69592-96

MMNH 843-53

UW 1976-77

UMMZ 1976-77

UW uncatalogued

MU 1284-88, 1309

RE 462-6, 365-66,

897-905

Rana palustris Le Conte

Pickerel-Frog

Map 15

County Locality Source and Cat. No.

Chippewa . Cadott . MU 1480

Chippewa . Jim Falls . UMMZ 69605

Columbia . Poynette . UW uncatalogued

Marinette . Crivitz . . MU 1273-74

Washington . . Hartford . MU 1723-26

Waupaca . Waupaca . . . MU 1289-95

Waushara . Silver Lake . . . RE 460-61

228 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Breckenridge (1944) states that there are two mutant strains,

R,p. hurnsi and R.p, kandiyohi, found in Minnesota and which

extend to the Wisconsin border. Wright and Wright’s (1949)

general distributional map shows these strains extending into

Wisconsin between Pierce and La Crosse Counties. Recently,

Moore (1942) made extensive studies on the genetics of R.p.

hurnsi and he concluded that ‘'Rana hurnsi differs from Rana

pipiens by one dominant gene that influences pigmentation. . . .

Rana hurnsi should not have the status of a species or subspecies

but should be reduced to synonymy with Rana pipiens and be

referred to as the ‘burnsi mutant.’ ” Furthermore, Moore (1944)

investigated the taxonomy of R. pipiens Schreber, R. spheno-

cephala (Cope), and R. hrachycephala (Cope), and he concluded

that “it does not appear possible to recognize the three species

or subspecies of meadow frogs on the basis of differences in body

proportions or pigmentation.” Therefore, he stated they “should

be reduced to synonyms of Rana pipiens Schreber.” Since in the

Suzuki — Amphibians in Wisconsin

229

present survey no mutant forms were caught in Wisconsin, and

because of the complexity of this species, all of our forms will be

referred to as Rana pipiens Schreber.

Rana septentrionalis Baird

Mink Frog

Map 17

Wright and Wright (1949) divide the Wood Frog into two

subspecies, R,s. cantabrigensis Baird, which is a variety dis¬

tributed in the northern half of the state (44 to 47 degrees N.

Lat.), and R.s. sylvatica (Le Conte), which is a variety distrib¬

uted in the southern half of the state (42.2 to 44 degrees N. Lat,).

288 specimens placed in the Marquette University Museum,

Milwaukee Public Museum, and University of Wisconsin

Museum of Zoology were measured for the body/tibia ratio. I

arbitrarily classified as immature all frogs with body lengths

less than 30 mm. ; consequently, 61 specimens of the total number

were placed in this category. Moore (1944) defined the body

length as that distance from the snout to the cloacal opening,

and tibia length as that distance between the knee and ankle

joints when the leg of the frog was flexed. His definitions were

230 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts an l Letters

followed. Wright and Wright (1949) designated the body/tibia

ratio range of 1.93-2.30 for R.s. cantabrigensis, and 1.60-1.88

for R.s. sylvatica.

TABLE 1

Rana sylvatica sylvatica (Le Conte)

TABLE 2

Rana sylvatica cantabrigensis Baird

Of the 124 mature specimens from the northern part of the

state, 83 appeared to be R.s. sylvatica, the “southern form’',

while 41 fit the description of R.s. cantabrigensis, the “northern

form.” Of the 73 mature southern specimens, 68 were found to

fit R.s. sylvatica characteristics, while only 5 fit R.s. cantabri¬

gensis characteristics. (See Tables 1 and 2). In general, the tibia

in immature specimens was shorter in proportion to the body

than in the mature frogs. Those with R.s. sylvatica character¬

istics are widely distributed throughout the state ; whereas, those

characteristic of R.s. cantabrigensis are more prevalent in the

northern half of the state. However, a complication arises when

one considers that Wisconsin is probably in an area of inter¬

gradation of the two subspecies.

Supplementary List

The following group of amphibians have been included in the

Wisconsin herpetofauna in other publications, but since no fur-

Suzuki — Amphihians in Wisconsin

231

ther specimen records have been found, it was decided to put

them in a supplementary list.

A. A species that may be present in Wisconsin.

Bufo woodhousii fowleri (Hinckley)

One doubtful record is in the University of Wisconsin

Museum of Zoology. Of the several hundred toads caught in the

recent study, none of them fit the description of the Fowler’s

Toad. Edgren and Stille (1948), however, reported the presence

of this species in Cook, Grundy, Kankakee, and Lake Counties in

Illinois. Creaser (1944) states that the most northern record of

the B.w. fowleri in Michigan is along Lake Michigan sand dunes

in Mason County. Therefore, there is a possibility that this spe¬

cies may be found in the sand dune areas along the Wisconsin

shores of Lake Michigan.

B. Species that should be omitted from the Wisconsin herpeto-

fauna.

1. Amby stoma opacum (Gravenhorst)

Hoy (1883) reported finding this species under logs a few

miles from Racine. Furthermore, Cahn (1929) noted, “Rare.

Two specimens both from under rotten logs are all I have seen ;

one from near Oconomowoc Lake, the other near Dutchman’s

lake.”

2. Plethodon glutinosus glutinosus (Green)

The National Museum has in their possession five specimens

of P. glutinosus (USNM 3789) caught by some unknown person

or persons. Hoy (1883) reported the presence of this species in

Racine. Higley (1889) stated that this salamander was “not

common in Wisconsin.” Cahn (1929) also found “five specimens

taken from under moist logs in swamps. Rare.” Stille and

Edgren (1948) reported what “seems to be the first authentic

record for the slimy salamander in the Chicago Region.” It was

caught in Indiana in 1939.

3. Pseudotriton ruber ruber (Sonnini)

Higley (1889) reported that this salamander was found “in

damp and unfrequented swamps in southern half of state; not

rare.” Hoy (1883) also noted its presence near Racine.

232 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

4. Eurycea hislineata hislineata (Green)

Higley (1889) stated '‘two or three specimens have been re¬

ported from southern Wisconsin. Racine, Hoy, rare.” Upon cor¬

responding with Dr. Doris M. Cochran of the U. S. National

Museum, she informed me that the only specimen recorded

(USNM 3747) was destroyed.

5. Eurycea longicauda longicauda (Green)

Hoy (1883) reported this species is “found at Racine.” Hig-

ley (1889) stated that it was also found in Walworth County

and was considered rare.

Discussion

The development of suburban areas of cities and the cultiva¬

tion of lands which were previously not affected by man have

radically changed the natural habitations of many animals. As a

consequence some species have become isolated, others may have

increased in population due to man’s influence. The urbanization

of Milwaukee County can serve to illustrate the isolation of

amphibians in a particular area. The example of Ambystoma

tigrinum was cited previously in this article. Necturus maculo-

sus, Rana catesbeiana, Rana sylvatica, and Triturus viridescens

can be found only in a few isolated areas in Milwaukee County,

although they were once widely distributed in that area.

On the other hand, specimen records caught in the present

survey have shown that certain species are not as rare as previ¬

ously reported. In recent years studies in the life histories of

various species of amphibians have clarified possible habitats of

these animals. With this in mind, new records of formerly rare

amphibians have been found. Both Triturus viridescens and

Hemidactylium scutatum belong in this category. In the past

nine years five new widely scattered county records of Triturus

have been found. Of Hemidactylium, three out of a total of seven

county records have been found in 1949.

The problem of subspecies complex in the state should be

more thoroughly studied. At the present time, the problem con¬

cerns Necturus maculosus, Acris crepitans, Rana pipiens, and

Rana sylvatica complex. In those species, Wisconsin is in the

intergradation area.

Suzuki — Amphibians in Wisconsin

233

Summary

Many new county distributional records have been added.

Bufo terrestris, Rana clamitanSf and Eanxi pipiens have been

recorded in all but a few counties, and there is little doubt that

they are found in those areas also. Hemidactylium scutatum and

Triturus viridescens have been found to be more common than

previously believed. Necturus maculosus is probably found in

most of the larger lakes and waterways of the state, but due to

its aquatic habitat has not been easily caught. On the other hand,

certain salamanders have not been found for a number of years

and may have disappeared in this area.

Literature Cited

Bishop, S. C. 1943. Handbook of Salamanders. Ithaca, N. Y. Comstock

Publ. Co. pp. i-xi, 1-640.

- . 1941. Notes on salamanders, with descriptions of several new

forms. Occ. Pap. Mus. Zool. U. of Mich. 451 : 1-27.

Breckenridge, W. J. 1944. Reptiles and Amphibians of Minnesota. Minne¬

apolis, Minn. : The U. of Minn. Press, pp. i-xiii, 1-202.

Cahn, a. R. 1929. The herpetology of Waukesha County, Wisconsin. Copeia.

No. 170 : pp. 4-8.

Greaser, C. W. 1944. The Amphibians and Reptiles of the University of

Michigan Biological Station area in Northern Michigan. Pap. Mich.

Acad. Sci. 29 : 229-249.

Edgren, R. a., Jr. 1944. Notes on amphibians from Wisconsin. Amer. Midi.

Nat. 32 (2) : 495-498.

- and W. T. Stille. 1948. Checklist of Chicago Area Amphibians and

Reptiles. Nat. Hist. Misc. No. 26 : 1-27.

Harper, Francis. 1947. A New Cricket Frog {Acris) from Middle Western

States. Proc. Biol. Soo. Wash. Vol. 60 : 39-40.

Higley, W. K. 1889. Reptilia and Batrachia of Wisconsin. Trans. Wise.

Acad. Sci. 7 : 165-176.

Hoy, P. R. 1883. Catalogue of the cold-blooded vertebrates of Wisconsin.

Geol. Surv. Wise., 1873-79. 1 : 422-475.

Moore, J. A. 1942. An Embryological and genetical study of Rana burnsi

Weed. Genetics. 27 : 408-416.

— - — . 1944. Geographic Variations in Rana pipiens Schreber Eastern

North America. Bull. Amer. Mus, Nat. Hist. 82 (8) : 349-369.

Necker, W. L. 1939. Records of Amphibians & Reptiles in the Chicago

Area, 1935-1938, Bull. Chi. Acad, of Sci. 6 (1) : 1-10.

Pope, T. E. B. 1930. Wisconsin Herpetological Notes, HI. Yearbook Pub.

Mus. City Milw. 10 : 266-268.

- . 1930. Wisconsin Herpetological Notes, I. Trans. Wise. Acad. Sci.

25 : 273-284.

234 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

- . 1931. Wisconsin Herpetological Notes, II. Trans, Wise. Acad. Sci.

26 : 321-329.

- . 1936. Wisconsin Herpetological Notes, IV. unpublished paper.

- and W. E. Dickinson. 1928. The Amphibians and Reptiles of Wis¬

consin. Bull. Pub. Mus. City of Milw. 8 (1) : 1-138, pis. 1-21.

Schmidt, K. P. and W. L. Necker. 1935. Amphibians & Reptiles in the

Chicago Region. Bull. Chi. Acad, of Sci. 5 (4) : 58-77.

Stille, W. T. and R. A. Edgren, Jr. 1948. New Records for Amphibians

and Reptiles in the Chicago Area, 1939-1947. Bull. Chicago Acad. Sci.

8 (2) : 195-202.

Stejneger, L. and Thomas Barbour. 1943. A Check List of North Ameri¬

can Amphibians and Reptiles. 5th ed. pp. i-xix, 1-260.

Williams, E. C. 1947. The Terrestrial Form of the Newt, Triturus viri-

descens in the Chicago Region. Nat. Hist. Misc. No. 5, pp. 1-4.

Wright, A. H. and A. A. Wright. 1949. Handbook of Frogs and Toads.

Ithaca, N. Y. Comstock Publ. Co. pp. i-xii, 1-640.

NOTES ON SOME WISCONSIN FUNGI

M. J. Thirumalachar and Marvin D. Whitehead

Dept, of Plant Pathology y University of Wisconsin

During the course of studies of the parasitic fungi of Wis¬

consin as represented around Madison and Sturgeon Bay, several

forms were collected which proved to be of special interest either

because they had not been collected previously in Wisconsin, or

they were collected on new sucepts for Wisconsin. Cultural

studies of two of the fungi were made and are presented briefly

in this paper.

(I) Venturia Clintonii Peck.

On the leaves of Cornus sp., leg. J. S. Boyle, Sturgeon Bay,

Wis. Sept. 30, 1947 and April 25, 1948.

A leaf spot fungus on Cornus sp. was collected near Sturgeon

Bay in the fall of 1947. The infection spots were circular, 3 to

5 mm. in diameter, brownish-black and often coalescing (Fig. 1) .

The center in each infection spot was jet-black, giving a char¬

acteristic frog-eye appearance. Microscopic examination revealed

yellowish-brown hyphae massed in a stromatic layer beneath the

cuticle. The strands of hyphae pushed between the epidermis

and the intercellular spaces of the leaf tissue. In sections through

the dark center portion of the infection spot, the hyphae were

yellowish-brown, grouped in large masses as swollen hyphal cells,

giving the appearance of chlamydospore-like structures (Fig. 3).

No conidial stages were observed on leaves collected in the fall.

In the spring of 1948, leaves with infection spots produced the

previous season were collected on the ground to secure the over¬

wintering stages of the fungus. The infection spots with their

dark centers were clearly demarcated in the old leaves, with the

perithecial stage of a Venturia sp. apparent in the light coloured

area (Fig. 2). The perithecia were superficial, developing from

the mass of hyphae in the leaf tissue (Fig. 3). The ascospores

were uniseriate, yellowish-brown, ovate-ellipsoid, with the apical

cell the larger of the two (Figs. 4 and 5).

The ascospores germinated readily when placed on water

agar, and developed long germ tubes. Some of the germinating

235

236 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Explanation of Figures

Fig. 1. Leaf of Cornus sp. showing infection spots x V2 nat. size.

Fig. 2. Enlarged view of infection spot x 5.

Fig. 3. Perithecium of Venturia Clintonii x 300.

Fig. 4. Ascospores x 1500.

Fig. 5. Ascus with ascospores x 800.

Fig. 6. Conidia of the Cladosporium stage x 1500.

Fig. 7. Showing the catenations of the conidia x 1320.

Fig. 8. Showing infection of Dilophospora alopecuri x 2.

Fig. 9. Spores of the same.

Fig. 10. Pycnidium of Dilophospora alopecuri x 300.

Fig. 11. (Showing infection spots of Ovularia pulchella on red top, x 1.

Fig. 12. Conidiophores and conidia of same x 1320.

Fig. 13. Showing tufts of conidiophores x 1320.

Fig. 14. Sclerotia and sporophores of Typhula phacorrhiza x V2 nat. size.

Fig. 15. Showing the sclerotia on the overwintered culms of sudan grass

X 1.

Thirumalaeher and Whitehead— Wisconsin Fungi 237

238 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

ascospores were picked out aseptically and transferred to potato

dextrose agar. Colonies developing from the single ascospores

were olive-green with a blackish tinge. The mycelium was creep¬

ing and branched, the conidiophores were erect and septate.

Mature conidia were olive-green in mass, borne on the conidio¬

phores in chains, of variable shape, sub-cylindric, ovate or ellip¬

soid, 0 to 1-septate and measuring 8-12 by 4-5 ii. Detailed exam¬

ination of the imperfect stage of the fungus revealed it to be a

species of Cladosporium (Figs. 6 and 7).

The Venturia species under study was similar to Venturia

Clintonii Peck, described by Peck (1874) on Cornus circinata

collected near Buffalo, New York. The ascospores were stated to

measure 10 long and arranged in an uniseriate manner within

the ascus. In the Venturia species under study, collected on

Cornus sp., the ascospores were uniseriate and measured 10 x

5-5.5 ja. Since we had no authentic specimen of V. Clintonii for

comparison, the identification of the fungus under study was

based upon the description given by Peck.

The development of the Cladosporium stage of the fungus in

culture from the ascosporic cultures of Venturia adds another

instance of the connection of species in these genera, although

the conidial stage has not been observed in nature. Aderhold

(1901) showed that the conidial stage of Venturia cerasi

(Rabenh.) Aderh., inciting the cherry scab, was a Cladosporium

and not a Fusicladium as was originally assumed. Plakidas

(1942) showed that Cladosporium humile Davis, described by

J. J. Davis in Wisconsin on Acer rubrum L. and A. saccha-

rinum L. was the conidial stage of Venturia acerina Plakidas.

(II) Dilophospora alopecuri (Fr.) Fr.

On the leaves and inflorescence of Festuca ovina L., leg. M. J.

Thirumalachar, Columbus County, Wis. May 8, 1948.

Dilophospora alopecuri was first recorded in the United States

by Bessey (1906) on the basis of material collected on Calamo-

grostis canadensis (Michx.) Beauv. by J. J. Davis in Wisconsin.

The fungus was recorded on Poa secunda Preal. by Fisher

(1940), on Sitanion juhatum J. G. Smith by Sprague (1942),

and Greene (1948) collected the fungus on Leersia oryzoides L.

and Phalaris arundinacea L. in Wisconsin. Atanasoff (1925),

who studied the fungus in detail, showed the role of nematodes

in the transport of the disease. The fungus has been recorded on

T hirumalacher and Whitehead — Wisconsin Fungi 239

a large number of hosts in Europe which includes species of

Festuca,

(III) Ovularia pulchella (Ces,) Sacc.

On the leaves of Agrostis gigantea Roth., leg. M. J. Thirum-

lachar and J. S. Boyle, Aug. 7, 1948. Madison, Wis.

The fungus was described by Saccardo as parasitising

orchard grass in Italy. Davis (1919) collected the fungus near

Hixton, Wisconsin on Agropyron tenerum Vasey and described

it as var. Agropyri Davis. The conidiophores of O. pulchella were

stated to be simple or rarely branched, geniculate, bearing ovate,

hyaline conidia which measured 8-12 u long. In 0, pulchella var.

Agropyri, Davis (1919) described the conidiophores as straight

or geniculate, 40-65 x 2-3 ja, and conidia 9-12 x 6-9 /x.

The infection spots on Agrostis gigantea were ovate to oblong,

reddish-brown, surrounded by a pale margin, often coalescing to

form large patches of 15 to 20 mm. long and 2-3 mm. broad

(Fig. 11) . Tufts of hyaline conidiophores, 40-50 x 3-4 bearing

terminally ovate, hyaline conidia measuring 10-13.5 x 6-8.5 /x

were abundant on the material. Conidia were borne successively

by sympodial branching of the conidiophore (Figs. 12 and 13).

The older conidia, therefore, were pushed aside and appeared to

be borne laterally on short branches. This conidiophore branch¬

ing was similar to that described in 0. pulchella. In the absence

of any detailed comparative studies, we propose to place the

Ovularia species on Agrostis gigantea under O. pulchella rather

than assigning varietal status.

(IV) Typhula phacorrhiza Reichard ex Fries.

On the overwintered culms of oats, leg. M. D. Whitehead,

Cross Plains, Wis,, May 1, 1948, on culms of sudan grass, leg.

M. J. Thirumalachar, Madison, Wis., April 10, 1948.

Cinnamon-brown sclerotia of Typhula were collected on over¬

wintering stalks of oats and sudan grass in the early spring of

1948 (Fig. 15). The sclerotia were surface sterilized, plated on

potato dextrose agar and incubated at temperatures between 8

and 12 degrees C. The mycelium developed rapidly from the

sclerotia and produced more sclerotia on the surface of the

medium. Sporophores were formed from the sclerotia which

elongated rapidly as filiform structures. The sporophores were

twanny in color and 100 to 180 mm. long (Fig. 14). The struc-

240 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

ture of the sclerotium and the characters of the sporophores of

the Typhula under study compared very well with T, phacorrhiza

given by Remsberg (1940).

(V) Claviceps fund Adams.

On Juncus sp., Lake Wingra, Madison, Wis., leg. M. J. Thir-

umlachar, Sept. 15th, 1946.

The ergot on Juncus nodosus L. was reported in Wisconsin

by Davis on a single collection of the fungus comprising sclerotia.

In the present collection several infloresences of Juncus sp. with

ergot sclerotia were secured.

(VI) Entyloma crastophilum Sacc.

On the leaves of Agrostis gigantea Roth., leg. James G. Dick¬

son et al, Aug. 8th, 1948.

The leaf smut on red top incited by Entyloma crastophilum

was recorded for Wisconsin by Clinton (1906) but was not in¬

cluded by Davis (1942) in the '‘Parasitic Fungi of Wisconsin.'’

The sori were minute and black and incited the yellowing and

browning of the leaf tissue.

In conclusion the authors wish to acknowledge their indebt¬

edness to Dr. James G. Dickson, Professor of Plant Pathology,

University of Wisconsin, for the benefit of valuable advice and

suggestions.

Literature Cited

Aderhold, R. 1901. Arbeiten der botanischen Abteilung der Vesuchhstation

des Kgl. pomologischen Institutes zu Proskau III. Bericht. in Centralb.

Bakt. (Etc.) Bd. 7 654-662.

Atanasoff, D. 1925. The Dilophospora disease of cereals. Phytopathology

15 : 11-40.

Bessey, Ernst. 1906. Dilophospora Alopecuri. Jour. Mycol. 12 : 57-58.

Clinton, G. P. 1906. “Ustilaginales” in North American Flora 7 : 1-82.

Davis, J. J. 1919. Notes on parasitic fungi in Wisconsin VI. Trans. Wis.

Acad. S.A.L. 19 : 705-715.

- . 1942. Parasitic fungi of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. Pp. 157.

Fischer, G. W. 1940. Grass diseases in the Pacific Northwest in 1940.

Plant Dis. Rptr. 24 : 481-497.

Greene, H. C. 1948. Notes on Wisconsin parasitic fungi X. Amer. Midland

Naturalist 39 : 444-456.

Peck, C. H. 1874. Ann. Rept. of State Botantist, N. Y. No. 28. 22-25.

Plakidas, a. G. 1942. Venturia acerina the perfect stage of Cladosporium

humile. Mycologia 34 : 27-37.

Remsberg, R. 1940. Studies in the genus Typhula. Mycologia 32 : 52-96.

Sprague, R. 1942. An annotated list of the parasitic fungi on cereals and

other grasses in Klicktat county. Wash. Plant Dis. Rptr. 26 ; 228-240.

CAUSES lOF INJURY TO CONIFERS DURING THE

WINTER OF 1947-1948 IN WISCONSIN^

Garth K. Voigt^

Department of Soils, University of Wisconsin

During the winter of 1947-1948 many conifers in the Lake

States region were severely damaged by adverse climatic condi¬

tions. The injury affected native stands, plantations, nurseries,

and ornamental stock. A survey revealed that losses in Wiscon¬

sin alone amounted to several hundreds of thousands of dollars.

While the injury was sustained by nearly all species of conifers,

it was most prominent on Scotch pine (Finns silvestris), red pine

(P. resinosa), and jack pine (P. hanksiana), in order of decreas¬

ing severity.

The needles of damaged trees showed a complete or partial

characteristic browning. The injury was largely confined to the

exposed portion of the crown. On some smaller trees, there was

a sharp line of demarcation, indicating the depth to which snow

had covered the needles. Complete defoliation as well as death

of the buds occurred in many instances.

The event was preceded by a prolonged fall drought in which

fairly high temperatures prevailed. In January, when the injury

took place, there occurred several bright, unseasonably warm,

days with strong southerly winds followed by very cold nights.

The injury has been generally attributed to three different

causes: frost, sunscald, and drought or ‘Vinterkill.'' The term

“frost injury’’ implies either intracellular or extracellular forma¬

tion of ice crystals which causes the death of the protoplasm (5) .

Sunscald is a temperature effect in which the heat of direct sun¬

light leads to a dehydration of the tissues and irreversible coagu¬

lation of the protoplasm. The effect of the sunlight is often re¬

enforced by reflection from the snow. Winter drought is the

direct result of transpiration at a time when water is not avail¬

able because of the frozen soil. The present investigation pro-

1 The study was supported in part by the Wisconsin Conservation Department.

Publication was approved by the director of the Wisconsin Agricultural Experi¬

ment Station.

“The author is indebted to Dr. S. A. Wilde for his helpful suggestions.

241

242 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

vided strong evidence that winter drought was the cause of the

injury.

Observations throughout central and northern Wisconsin in¬

dicated that the damage was prevalent on the dry uplands, but

not on lowlands with an accessible ground- water table. This dis¬

favors the likelihood of damage by frost, which is more apt to

occur on the sheltered lowlands. Moreover, the injury was con¬

fined to the portions of the trees most exposed to the warm

southerly winds, and hence subject to increased transpiration.

This also contradicts the probability of frost injury. In several

instances, trees were injured which had been covered with burlap

wrapping, which excludes damage by direct sunscald.

Examination of soil in several injured plantations in central

Wisconsin revealed that fall drought had brought about a pro¬

nounced deficiency of soil moisture to a depth of nearly five feet.

This deficiency was undoubtedly amplified by the effect of freez¬

ing. On the other hand, it is known that conifers lose about 8 per

cent of their total annual transpirational water during the winter

months. The winter consumption of water was greatly increased

by the unusually high temperatures and southerly winds which

occurred in January. The combination of all these conditions

suggests that the trees were damaged by winter drought (2, 3, 7) .

From a silvicultural standpoint, the greatest puzzle in the

entire event was the damage of Scotch pine to an extent which

far exceeded that of jack pine and red pine. Scotch pine is a

species noted for its hardiness or frost resistance. In order to

determine whether there were any differences in the anatomic

characteristics of the injured pine species, specimens were col¬

lected from various areas. Cross sections of damaged and un¬

damaged needles were made for a microscopic study (Plate I).

This investigation showed there was no marked correlation be¬

tween the degree of injury and the structural features of the

needles. In general, however, jack and red pine had a slightly

thicker cuticular layer which might have retarded the transpira¬

tional loss (6). Moreover, jack pine had the fewest stomatal

openings per cross section, and red pine showed the greatest

degree of thickening of the endodermal cell walls. These char¬

acteristics of leaf structure may also be of importance in the

drought resistance of a species (4). There was no apparent dif¬

ference in structure between the damaged and undamaged

needles, other than the breakdown of mesophyll in the discolored

Plate I. Cross sections of normal and injured pine needles: (A) Finns

resinosa; (B) P. banksiana; (C) P. silvestris. The left column presents

uninjured needles; the right column, needles with damaged mesophyll.

Voigt — Conifer Injury 243

needles. No sign of tissue destruction by ice formation was

detected.

A survey of the literature brought to light one important

condition which may be responsible for Scotch pine sustaining

much greater injury than native species. It has long been known

by European foresters that the roots of Scotch pine have a very

restricted ability to penetrate soils of cut-over lands in which

root channels have undergone deterioration (1). This shallow¬

ness of the root system of Scotch pine was substantiated by occa¬

sional observations, and most likely was the major cause for its

extensive damage by winter drought.

References

1. Burger, H. Physikalische Eigenschaften der Wald und Freilandboden.

Mitt. Schweiz. Zantralanst. forstl. Versuchswes. Zurich. 1922.

2. Felt, E. P. Delayed winter injury. Proc. Nineteenth Nat. Shade Tree

Conf. 1943.

3. Hartig, R. Textbook of the diseases of trees. Translated by Wm. Somer¬

ville and H. M. Ward. London. 1894.

4. Larsen, J. A. Relation of leaf structure of conifers to light and moisture.

Ecol. 8 : 371-377. 1927.

5. Levitt, J. Frost killing and hardiness of plants. Burgess Publishing Co.,

Minneapolis, Minn. 1941.

6. Mittmeyer, G. Studien uber die Abhangigkeit der Transpiration ver-

schiedener Blattypen vom Licht und Sattigungsdefizit der Luft. Jahrb.

wiss. Bot. 74 : 364-428. 1931.

7. Pirone, P. P. Freak weather damages trees and shrubs. New Jersey

Agriculture 23 (3). 1941.

RATE OF growth AND COMPOSITION OF WOOD OF

QUAKING AND LARGETOOTH ASPEN IN

RELATION TO SOIL FERTILITY^

S. A. Wilde and Benson H. Paul^

The growing shortage of wood has recently created consid¬

erable interest in the silvicultural possibilities of aspen species.

Both Populus tremuloides and Populus grandidentata show defi¬

nite preference for the moist soils of lowlands and swamp bor¬

ders. Therefore, it has been repeatedly suggested that these

trees may serve as a suitable crop for the immense acreage of

poorly drained deforested lands of central Wisconsin. The mate¬

rialization of such a plan, however, requires knowledge of the

minimum soil-fertility level which would assure a reasonably

high rate of growth of aspen and the production of pulpwood of

satisfactory quality. This problem was investigated during the

summer of 1948 in Adams and Wood counties, Wisconsin. The

unusual uniformity of siliceous substratum and the frequent

occurrence of a favorably located ground-water table in this area

provided conditions ideal for study of the growth effects of soil

nutrients. In order to minimize the modifying influence of light,

the investigation was confined largely to well-stocked semi-

mature stands ranging in age from 20 to 29 years. In view of

previously gained experience (6), particular attention in this

study was devoted to the determination of alpha-cellulose in wood

and trace elements in soils.

Eight sample plots of quaking aspen were located on soils

which exhibited different degrees of depletion by fire and culti¬

vation, and hence promised to have a wide range of fertility.

1 Contribution from the U, S. Forest Products Laboratory in cooperation with

the Soils Department, U. W., Wisconsin Conservation Department, and the Institute

of Paper Chemistry, Appleton, Wis. The study was supported in part by the

Nekoosa-Edwards Paper Company, Port Edwards, Wisconsin.

2 Professor of Soils, University of Wisconsin, and Chief, Division of Silvicul¬

tural Relations, U. S. Forest Products Laboratory, respectively. The writers

acknowledge the wholehearted cooperation of Mr. F. G. Kilp and Dr. T. A. Pascoe

of the Nekoosa-Edwards Paper Company. Credit is due to the Institute of Paper

Chemistry for the determination of alpha-cellulose in wood samples. Messrs. D. T.

Pronin, S. F. Peterson and R. Wittenkamp were engaged In field and laboratory

investigations.

245

246 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Only two sample plots were taken in stands of largetooth aspen

because of the scarcity of this species in the area studied. For

the same reason, one of the plots was located in a mature (40

years) stand. The size of sample plots varied between %

of an acre.

Soils investigated were derived from siliceous sandy deposits

which originally formed the bottom of the extinct glacial Lake

Wisconsin. These soils genetically belong to the type of gley-

podzolic sands, and are underlain by a ground-water table acces¬

sible to the roots of trees. Because of the nutrient uniformity of

siliceous substrata, the analyses were confined to the surface

seven-inch layers, sampled by means of a tube. Two compound

samples were collected from each plot and determinations were

made in duplicate. The methods of Muensell (4), Ouellette (5),

A. 0. A. C. (2), and the Wisconsin State Soils Laboratory were

used. Results of determinations of fertility factors are given in

Table 1. The analyses for trace elements were limited to boron

and manganese, the important representatives of this group of

plant nutrients.

On the basis of nutrient content, the soils studied were

roughly classified into three groups : “reasonably fertile,’' “mar¬

ginal,” and “infertile.” The latter group included soils whose

content of nutrients did not exceed the following levels: total

nitrogen — 0.052 per cent; available P^Og — 46 pounds per acre;

available K2O — 80 pounds per acre ; replaceable bases — 1.8 m. e.

per 100 g. ; available Mn — 2.0 pounds per acre; and available

B — 0.34 pound per acre.

The determination of the average age, height, and diameter

of stands was greatly facilitated by the simultaneous origin and

uniformity of the young stands investigated. The site index was

established on the basis of a nomograph constructed for young

aspen stands of central Wisconsin by Wilde and Pronin (7).

The study of wood properties was limited to five codominant trees

on each sample plot. From these, one-foot sections between five

and six feet above the ground were taken for analyses. Deter¬

minations of specific gravity were made on oven-dry weight and

green-volume basis, using the Bruil volumeter (1). The content

of alpha-cellulose was determined on chlorite holo-cellulose by the

Institute of Paper Chemistry Methods (3), and crude protein by

the standard Kjeldahl method. The results representing average

of five determinations are given in Table 2.

Wilde and Paul — Aspen and Soil Fertility

247

TABLE 1

Growth of Aspen and State of Fertility in the 7 Inch Surface Layers

OF Supporting Sandy Soils in Central Wisconsin

248 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

TABLE 2

Rate of Growth and Properties of Wood of Aspen Produced on Sandy

Soils of Different Fertility Levels in Central Wisconsin

Wilde and Paul — Aspen and Soil Fertility

249

Conclusions

Results of investigations reveal a close correlation between

the rate of growth of quaking aspen and nutrient content of

supporting soils. Reasonably fertile soils were found to support

stands of site index 65 to 70 plus, corresponding to an average

annual height growth of about 24 inches. Marginal soils sup¬

ported stands of site index 60, growing in height at an approxi¬

mate annual rate of 20 inches. Infertile soils produced trembling

aspen of site index 50 or 45 with average height growth of about

16 inches per year.

Quaking aspen on reasonably fertile soils produced wood

having a rather high content of protein (0.72 per cent) and

alpha-cellulose (48 per cent). The same species on infertile soils

produced wood with a low content of protein (0.44 per cent) and

alpha-cellulose (44 per cent). The inferior quality of wood pro¬

duced on infertile soils was still further lowered by activity of

parasitic fungi, particularly Hypoxylon.

The results of wood analyses were not free from erratic

values which may have been caused by local variations in the

composition of soil or wood (knots, decay, one-sided growth).

In agreement with previous observations (6), specific grav¬

ity of quaking aspen was found to be the highest on reasonably

fertile soils (average 0.41), and the lowest on soils deficient in

nutrients (average 0.38). However, this relationship did not

hold true in all instances.

In spite of a comparatively high content of soil nutrients,

largetooth aspen showed a low site index of 55, corresponding to

average annual height growth of 19 inches. Moreover, it pro¬

duced wood of the lowest specific gravity (.37) and of the lowest

content of alpha-cellulose (43 per cent). These results, though

limited, strongly suggest that largetooth aspen is by far more

exacting in respect to soil fertility than quaking aspen.

Because of the purely reconnaissance nature of the study and

insufficient number of samples, no attempt is made to attach

statistical significance to the results of wood analyses.

Summary

The growth and composition of wood of semi-mature aspen

stands were investigated on sandy soils in central Wisconsin.

The growth of quaking aspen on soils with a reasonably high

250 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

level of fertility was found to vary within site indexes 65 and 70 ;

on such sites the specific gravity of wood and the content of alpha

cellulose averaged .41 and 48.3 per cent, respectively. In spite of

the accessible ground-water table, aspen growth on impoverished

soils varied within site indexes 45 and 55, and trees showed a

high percentage of decay caused by Hypoxylon. The low rate of

growth was paralleled by an average specific gravity of .38 and

content of alpha cellulose of 44.2 per cent. The pronounced defi¬

ciency of manganese and boron may have been partly responsible

for deterioration of aspen on these sites. Because of good stock¬

ing of stands and uniform conditions of light, the wood of semi-

mature stands was found to be much less heterogenous than that

of the old stands. Therefore, the analysis of younger stands is

suggested for all investigations dealing with the influence of

environmental factors on the quantitative and qualitative pro¬

ductivity of the forest. The study indicated that on similar sites,

largetooth aspen produces wood of a lower specific gravity and

content of alpha cellulose than does quaking aspen. Moreover,

largetooth aspen was found to be more exacting in respect to soil

nutrients than quaking aspen.

References

1. Amsler, a. J., Co. Working instructions for Bruil mercury-volumeter

for small wooden blocks. Schalfouse, Switzerland.

2. Association of Official Agriculture Chemists, 1945. Official and ten¬

tative methods of analysis. Ed. 6. Washington, D. C.

3. Institute of Paper Chemistry, 1948. Analytical methods. Appleton,

Wisconsin.

4. Meunsell, P. W., 1940. Determination of boron. New Zealand J. Sci.

Techn. 22 : lOOB-lllB.

5. Ouellette, G. J., 1947. Manganese determination by colorimetric method.

In E. Truog’s “Soil Analysis” (Mimeo.). Soils Department, University

of Wisconsin.

6. Wilde, S. A. and B. H. Paul, 1948. Growth, specific gravity, and chem¬

ical composition of quaking aspen on different soil types. Memorandum

of 7, 26, 1948. U. S. Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, Wisconsin.

7. Wilde, S. A. and D. T. Pronin, 1949. Relation of the rate of growth of

quaking aspen to the depth of the ground water and the content of

soil organic matter in central Wisconsin. Technical Notes No. 33, Wis¬

consin Conservation Department in cooperation with Soils Department,

University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin.

CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF GROUND WATER IN

FOREST AND MARSH SOILS OF WISCONSIN^

S. A. WILDE AND G. W. Randall^

Soils Department, University of Wisconsin

The chemical composition of ground water is a growth factor

that has received in the past little attention from students of

environment. Several reports have mentioned the ecological

effects of “hard'' or minerally rich, and “stagnant" or deoxidized

ground water, but only in few instances were these terms sup¬

ported by data of chemical analysis (Hesselman, 1910; Kopecky,

1928; Hartmann, 1928; Feher, 1933; Laatsch, 1944).

During recent studies of poorly drained soils in central Wis¬

consin (Wilde and Zicker, 1948), markedly different growth of

aspen and pine stands was observed on sites with seemingly

identical conditions of soil profile and water table. Further in¬

vestigations disclosed that the unexpectedly high rate of tree

growth was due to the presence of ground water which was

enriched in nutrients through its contact with lenses of lacustrine

clay. These observations served as an impulse for a general

survey of the chemical properties of ground water in four geo¬

logical regions of Wisconsin: namely, northern granitic moraine,

northeastern drift enriched in calcareous material, fluvial sili¬

ceous deposits of the central area, and southwestern eroded pene¬

plain of residual limestone (Martin, 1932). The analyses were

limited to the following five characteristics which appeared to be

of greatest significance : reaction, specific conductivity, total alka¬

linity, content of dissolved oxygen, and oxidation-reduction po¬

tential. The determinations of total acidity, hydrogen sulfide,

ferrous iron, nitrogen, and phosphorus, provided information of

dubious importance and were discontinued.

Since the investigation of chemical properties of ground

water in soils is a pioneering effort, the adapted methods of

analysis are described in detail.

1 This study was carried on in cooperation with the State Conservation Depart¬

ment. Publication approved by the director of the Wisconsin Agricultural Experi¬

ment Station.

* The writers owe a debt of gratitude to Dr. A. D. Hasler, Dept, of Zoology,

and Drs. G. A. Rohlich and W. L. Lea, Hydraulics Laboratory, University of Wis¬

consin, for their help in working out suitable methods for analysis of ground water.

251

252 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letter^

Methods of Analysis

Sampling: The water was allowed to accumulate at the bot¬

tom of the excavated trench in a sheet exceeding 4 inches. The

sampling was accomplished by means of a foot suction pump

connected with a double flask receiver, including a 200 ml. con¬

tainer (A) and a 900 ml. container (B). The rubber tube of the

receiving 200 ml. vessel terminated in a weighted metal tube

with a screened slit (Figure 1) . After both flasks were filled with

Figure 1. Apparatus for sampling ground water: A — 200 ml. receiver;

B — 900 ml. receiver; C — foot suction pump; D — weighted metal tube with

a screened slit shown in detail.

water, the water in receptacle ''A’’ was used for instant deter¬

mination of oxygen. The water in receptacle ‘‘B” was transferred

into a 600 ml. flask to be taken to the laboratory for other anal¬

yses. Because of the great difference in temperature during the

summer period, flasks with water samples often crack in trans¬

portation. Therefore, particular care should be used in both the

selection of reliable containers and in careful preservation of

water samples at a reasonably low temperature. The latter can

be best accomplished by packing the containers in wet Sphagnum

moss.

Determination of Reaction: The pH value of ground water

was determined by means of the Beckman Potentiometer with a

Wilde and Randall — Ground Water in Wisconsin Soils 253

sleeve-type calomel and glass electrode unit. A standard buffer¬

ing solution was used to calibrate the meter at pH 7.0, and the

calibration was checked every fifth determination. The deter¬

minations were made on 200 ml. aliquots placed in a 250 ml.

beaker. After each determination, the electrode unit was care¬

fully washed with distilled water.

Determination of Specific Conductivity : Ground water was

allowed to settle overnight, and a sample of 50 ml. was placed in

a 1 X 6 inch test tube. The temperature of the sample was

brought to about 77° F, and the conductivity determined by

platinum electrodes connected with the Solu bridge, i.e., a type of

Wheatstone bridge provided with a cathode-ray tube (magic

eye). The reading of conductivity, expressing the total content

of electrolytes, was taken instantly.

Determination of Total Alkalinity: A 100 ml. water sample

was placed into a white casserole with three drops of brom cresol

green indicator. The contents were titrated with .02 N sulphuric

acid with constant stirring until the blue color was changed to

yellow. Milliliters of HgSO^ used in titration, multiplied by 1,000

and divided by the milliliters of the titrated sample, give the

total alkalinity in parts per million.

Reagents:

.02 N sulfuric acid: Approximately 1 N H2SO4 is prepared by

diluting 27 ml. of acid with distilled water to 1 liter volume.

Then 20 ml. of the stock solution are diluted with distilled water

to 1 liter volume and solution is standardized against .02 N

Na^COa.

.02 N sodium carbonate: 1.060 g. of oven-dry NagCOg are

dissolved in 1 liter of distilled water.

Brom cresol green indicator: .1 g. of indicator is dissolved in

100 ml. of distilled water.

Determination of Dissolved Oxygen: This was accomplished

by using Winkler’s method. The water sample in receptacle '‘A”

was treated with 1 ml. of magnesium sulfate and 1 ml. of potas¬

sium hydroxide and potassium iodide mixture, using calibrated

pipettes. The contents of the flask were shaken a dozen times.

After the precipitate was settled, 1 ml. of concentrated sulfuric

acid was added, thereby fixing the oxygen in an insoluble form.

The sample was transferred into a white casserole. A few drops

of starch solution were added and the sample was titrated with

sodium thiosulfate until the blue color disappeared. The content

of dissolved oxygen (O2) is equal to milliliters of sodium thio¬

sulfate used in titration.

254 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Reagents:

Solution of magnesium sulfate: 480 g. of MnSO^ • 4H2O, c.p.

grade are dissolved in 1 liter of distilled water.

Solution of potassium hydroxide and potassium iodide: 700 g.

of KOH and 150 g. of KI, c.p. grade are dissolved in 1 liter of

distilled water.

Sulphuric acid: Concentrated H2SO4 c.p. grade.

Starch indicator: 2 g. of starch are dissolved in 1 liter of dis¬

tilled water, and 2 ml. of CH3CI are added.

N/40 sodium thiosulfate: 6.205 g. of NaaSgOg • 5H2O are dis¬

solved in 1 liter of freshly boiled distilled water, and 5 ml. of

CHCI3 are added. Solution is standardized against N/40 K2Cr207.

N/40 potassium dichromate: 1.226 g. of K2Cr207 are dis¬

solved in 1 liter of distilled water.

The determination of oxygen in ground water by the de¬

scribed standard Winkler's method provides data which have

only relative significance. For the determination of oxygen in

the presence of reducing substances, modifications of the stand¬

ard procedure should be used (1). It should be pointed out that

occasional slight contamination of the sample by oxygen is diffi¬

cult to avoid in work with ground water.

Determination of Oxidation-Reduction Potential: A water

sample of 200 ml. was placed in a 250 ml. beaker and brought in

contact with a calomel and platinum electrode unit of Beckman

Potentiometer. After 30 seconds the system attained equilibrium,

and the reading was taken. The results were recalculated to the

same level of pH 7.0, using the formula: Eh = (Eo — 0.246) +

0.06 (R — ^7.0), where Eh is oxidation-reduction potential in

volts at pH 7.0, Eo is positive or negative value of potential

determined, and R is pH of water samples.

The negative values of Eh indicate that the water has a tend¬

ency to reduce dissolved or suspended compounds to a lower

valence than has the calomel electrode. If Eh is positive, the

water has an oxidizing tendency. It should be noted that the

calomel cell has a potential of — .285 ; therefore, the determina¬

tions made with a N hydrogen gas cell give results that are .285

volt lower. Essentials of oxidation-reduction potential and im¬

portant analjrtical precautions are discussed by Hood (1948) and

Rohlich (1948).

Soil-Vegetation Types Investigated and Results Obtained

The diversified geology of the areas studied allowed observa¬

tion of the extremes in the composition of ground water pro¬

duced by its contact with residual limestone, calcareous lacus-

Wilde and Randall — Ground Water in Wisconsin Soils 255

trine clays, strongly podzolized granitic drift, and deposits of

pure siliceous sand. Within these geological regions, ground

water was analyzed in seven broad types of poorly drained soils,

as follows :

1. Moss peat, supporting open and slow-growing stands of

black spruce and tamarack with ground cover of Ledum-Chamae-

daphne type.

2. Wood peat, formed under dense stands of white cedar,

balsam fir, and white spruce, characterized by a fair rate of

growth and ground cover of Oxalis-Coptis type.

3. Sedge peat, occupied by marsh vegetation, predominantly

of Carex spp.

4. Muck, i.e., semi-organic soils formed by sedimentation of

clay and humus in the areas subject to overflow, and supporting

largely tag alder, willows, and shrubs common to Alnetum and

Salicetum types.

5. Alluvial soils, humus-enriched deposits in inundated areas,

occupied by elm, black ash, river birch, oaks, red or silver maple,

other lowland hardwoods, and occasionally white pine, with

ground cover of Urtica-Thalictrum or Urtica-Vernonia-Cepha-

lanthus types ; the growth of stands on these soils varies greatly

depending upon the depth to the ground water table and the

proximity of the stream.

6. Insufficiently drained non-alluvial sandy soils, supporting

mixed stands of pines, paper birch, and aspen, with ground cover

of Vaccinium-Cornus-Rubus type, of either very good or very

poor growth.

7. Insufficiently drained non-alluvial loam soils, supporting

mixed hardwoods, hemlock, balsam fir, and white spruce in north¬

ern Wisconsin, or stands of lowland hardwoods in southern Wis¬

consin, with ground cover characterized by the presence of

Galium, Equisetum, Impatiens, and Ranunculus spp. The rate of

growth of these stands is subject to wide variation.

The results of analyses of ground water underlying these soils

are presented in Table 1.

Relation Between the Chemical Properties of Ground

Water and Vegetative Cover

The analyses of randomly selected samples indicated that a

close correlation exists between the chemical properties of ground

water and growth of vegetative cover. This is especially true of

forest swamps and alluvial lowlands.

TABLE 1

Chemical Properties of Surface and Ground Waters in Forest Soils of Wisconsin

256

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

TABLE 1 — (Continued)

Chemical Properties of Surface and Ground Waters in Forest Soils of Wisconsin

Wilde and Randall — Ground Water in Wisconsin Soils 257

^erage of three or more determinations.

258 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Ground water of moss peat bogs, or “muskegs,'' presents an

extreme condition of deoxidation and impoverishment; such

water is characterized by a strongly acid reaction, an absence

of oxygen and carbonates, a low specific conductivity, and a very

low negative oxidation-reduction potential.

In comparison, water of wood peat shows a striking drop in

acidity resulting from an increased supply of electrolytes; the

frequent presence of free oxygen and a positive oxidation-

reduction potential indicate that ground water of these sites is

in a state of constant horizontal movement. Ground water of

sedge peat has a nearly neutral reaction, high specific conductiv¬

ity, and usually an appreciable content of free oxygen ; the posi¬

tive oxidation-reduction potential occasionally reaches a very

high level.

Muck soils are underlain by water which reflects conspicu¬

ously the fertilizing effect of inundation ; alkaline reaction, high

content of carbonates, and high specific conductivity are out¬

standing features. In the proximity of the stream, ground water

of muck soils shows a high content of free oxygen and a high

oxidation-reduction potential. With certain variations, the same

characteristics are observed in ground water of all alluvial de¬

posits, provided the water is not sampled from the distant

borders of the inundated zone where internal drainage is

sluggish.

The ground water of poorly drained sandy soils, outside of

the alluvial zone, is generally characterized by acid reaction, low

content of carbonates, and low specific conductivity; its content

of oxygen and oxidation-reduction potential vary considerably

depending upon the depth of well-aerated soil and internal relief.

Ground water underlying heavy gley soils possesses slightly alka¬

line reaction; other properties vary within wide limits. Con¬

trary to expectations, the content of carbonates and conductivity

of ground water underlying heavy gley soils outside of the

alluvial zone proved to be at a low level.

The results suggest that a poor growth of both deciduous

and coniferous trees is correlated with ground water which is

deficient in oxygen and shows a very low negative oxidation-

reduction potential. The very high content of carbonates, as

found in water of some alluvial deposits, also appears to be

responsible for a depressed growth of hardwood stands and their

premature deterioration. The rapid growth of pine and aspen

Wilde and Randall — Ground Water in Wisconsin Soils 259

stands on sandy soils coincides with the presence of circum-

neutral ground water enriched in electrolytes and oxygen and

possessing a high oxidation-reduction potential. A fair supply of

electrolytes, expressed by a reasonably high specific conductivity,

is likely to be a condition associated with a satisfactory growth

of exacting climax species.

The results of further studies should formulate the relation¬

ship between the chemical properties of ground water and forest

growth in more specific terms.

Literature Cited

1. American Public Health Association. 1946. Standard methods for

examination of water and sewage. Ed. 9, New York.

2. Feher, D. 1933. Untersuchungen uber die Mikrobiologie des Wald-

bodens. Berlin.

3. Hartmann, F. K. 1928. Kiefernbestandestypen des nordostdeutschen

Diluviums. Neudamm.

4. Hesselman, H. 1910. Concerning the oxygen content of soil water and

its influence on the formation of peat and forest growth. Meddel.

Statens Skogsfors. 7 : 91-125 (In Swedish).

5. Hood, J. W. 1948. Measurement and control of sewage treatment process

efficiency by oxidation- reduction potential. Sewage Works Jour. 20 :

640-650.

6. Kopecky, J. 1928. Soil Science (Agrophysical part). Min. Zem. C.S.R.,

Praha. (In Czech).

7. Laatsch, W. 1944. Dynamik der deutschen Acker- und Waldboden.

Ed. 2. Th. Steinkopff, Dresden.

8. Martin, L. 1932. The physical geography of Wisconsin. Ed. 2. Wis.

Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Bull. 36. Madison, Wis.

9. Rohlich, G. a. 1948. Measurement and control of sewage treatment

process efficiency by oxidation-reduction potential. Sewage Works

Jour., 20 : 650-653.

10. Wilde, S. A. and E. L. Zicker. 1948. Influence of the ground water

table on the distribution and growth of aspen and jack pine in cen¬

tral Wisconsin. Techn. Notes, No. 30. Wis. Sta. Cons. Dept, in coop.

with Soils Dept., Univ. of Wis., Madison, Wis.

ELECTROSTATIC EFFECTS PRODUCED IN DUST CLOUDS

MADE WITH FINELY GROUND MINERALS

OF VARIOUS COMPOSITION^

H. F. WILSON AND M, L. Jackson^

During an investigation of rotenone dusts at this Station for

control of the pea aphid, it was found that there was a wide

variation in the results obtained in field experiments with dusts

containing similar concentrations of rotenone. One of the causes

for these variations has been traced to differences in the char¬

acteristics of different mineral dispersants used. One difference

seemed to be related to dust dispersion on plants and insects

which, in turn, seemed to be influenced by electrostatic charge

effects produced in applying rotenone-bearing dusts.

When pea plants infested with aphids were dusted in the

greenhouse with dusts producing variable charges, it was found

that a wide difference in the dispersion of dust particles occurred

which could be correlated with electrostatic charges. In testing

the electrostatic effects, standard quantities (0.5 gms.) of dust

were blown through an insulated copper tube connected to an

electrostatic voltmeter. The total electrical capacity of the sys¬

tem employed was 17 MMF, so that each 1,000 volts registered

on the voltmeter was equivalent to a net charge on the dust cloud

of 1.7 X 10“^ coulombs or 5 e.s.u. of charge. On the basis of pre¬

liminary observations, a hypothesis was established to the effect

that the net electrostatic charge in the dust cloud has the com¬

bined effect of (a) preventing flocculation of particles and (b)

promoting dispersion onto the stems and underleaf as well as on

the upper leaf surfaces. In applying this hypothesis, three gen¬

eral conditions developed: (1) If the average size of the particles

of the dispersant was approximately 2 microns or less, as fre-

1 Contribution from Wis. Agr. Exp. Sta. Published by permission of the

Director.

2 Professor of Economic Entomology, and Professor of Soils, respectively.

Acknowledgments : We wish to express our thanks to O. C. Ralston, Principal

Chemical Engineer, U. S. Bureau of Mines, and to Dr. Ed. Miller, Physics Con¬

sultant of the Agricultural College for a critical reading of the manuscript and

helpful suggestions. Dr. Miller measured the capacity of the dust-blower unit and

also of the electrostatic voltmeter.

261

262 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

quently happens with materials ground to a clay fineness, a

hanging cloud was produced with most of the particles forming

as aggregates on the upper leaf surface, and electrostatic charges

varied from 0 to 500 volts. Little or no dust settled on the under

leaf surface and the control was poor; (2) If the average particle

size was 50 to 100 microns, no dust cloud developed. Charges of

3,000 to 4,000 volts were produced if the mineral composition of

the sample was satisfactory but, because of too few particles in

a given amount of dust, there were few particles on the under

leaf surface and the control was poor; (3) When the average

particle size was from 10 to 30 microns, charges from 1,500 to

3,000 volts were developed and the dispersion on both the upper

and lower leaf surfaces was approximately equal with from 5 to

10 particles per square millimeter of leaf surface and the control

was good.

A similar variation in dust coverage was found with aphids

on the dusted plants. Under some conditions the aphids would

have many dust particles on them, while under other conditions

some aphids would not be touched with a single particle. In the

case of clay dispersants (fine particles), aphids in exposed posi¬

tions might be heavily covered with a deposit of dust, but the

dust did not seem to be highly effective. Therefore, two questions

had to be answered :

(a) Can particles of rotenone be so thickly covered with

minute particles of a dispersant that it does not come in contact

with the insect?

(b) Are electrostatic charge effects important in causing a

separation and wide dispersion of dust particles to all parts of

the plant and to insects on the under leaf surfaces?

In a preliminary study of a few dispersants it was observed

that, when two chemically different dispersants of opposite

charge were mixed, the charge for the combined materials was

less than that of each material taken separately. When different

materials were tested for sign of charge it was found that ( + )

or ( — ) charges were developed according to the mineral com¬

position of the material. Additional observations led to the con¬

clusion that the mineral composition of a dust determines the

sign of the charge and that the magnitude of the net charge per

gram of material developed is determined largely by particle

size. Preliminary observations have been reported from this

Station (15, 16) .

Wilson and Jackson — Electrostatic Effects

263

Review of Literature

A number of investigators report observations on the be¬

havior of electrostatic effects in dust clouds which indicate that

electrostatic charge effects might have an important influence

on the dispersion of insecticidal and fungicidal dusts and sprays.

As early as 1776 (8) Lichtenberg discovered that dust shaken

through a cloth bag became charged with ( + ) or ( — ) elec¬

tricity, depending upon the nature of the dust. In 1806, Davy (3)

found that dry solid acids in contact with metal plates charged

the latter ( + ) and that alkaline substances charged them ( — ).

According to Guest (5) little if any additional information

was added until Knoblauch (7) made a report in 1901 on a series

of some 2,500 tests made in the same direction. He obtained re¬

sults similar to those of Davy but decided that sulphur was nega¬

tively charged from contact with most materials with the excep¬

tion of a few acids which were able to impart a positive charge

to it. Glass was usually (-f-) but with a few alkalies ( — ).

Rudge (10), through a series of observations on the electrifica¬

tion of dust storms, determined that in South Africa, where

observations on atmospheric electricity were suitable because of

the dryness of the air, the normal positive potential gradient of

the atmosphere ( 100-200 volts per meter) might be reversed

during storms and display negative values exceeding 500 volts

per meter ( — ) . Contrary to expectations, both the dust particles

and the earth's surface at the place were charged ( — ) . In Eng¬

land (11) he found that the dust, usually of a calcareous nature,

imparted an additional (-t-) charge to the atmosphere.

Boning (2) found that ‘'charges could be produced by like

particles striking against each other when the particles differed

in size." His experiments showed that regardless of the material

used, collision between particles of the same material imparted

a positive charge to the smaller particles. He attributed this to

the fact that in a collision between two particles of different

mass, the change of velocity of the smaller particle is greater

than that of the larger particle, so that inertia would tend to

transfer a few free electrons from the smaller to the larger

particle.

Rudge (12) also concluded that the charge was carried by the

dust particles and not by the air and that no charges were devel¬

oped by the air. He further observed that the nature of the

264 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

material from which, or upon which, the dust was blown did not

affect the charge.

Stager (13), studying the electrification of dust clouds, de¬

cided that the distribution of the charges, at least in part, varies

with the distribution of particle size.

Whitman (14) in 1926, with the use of a particle “polarity

recorder,'' photographed individual particles in a dust cloud as

they fell between electrically charged plates. These photographs

showed the presence of positive, negative and neutral particles in

all dust clouds even of very pure substances.

McLeod and Smith (9) constructed a unit with which they

were able to study the effect of electrostatic charges of insecti¬

cidal dusts when blown through the unit. They determined the

amount of dust deposited on electrodes charged ( — ) and ( + )

for a series of common insecticides and dispersants. Their find¬

ings summarized are:

“In general, powders of plant origin gave heavy deposits on

the negatively charged plate." Dust particles ( + )•

“Diatomites and clays gave heavy deposits on the positively

charged plate." Dust particles ( — )•

“All other materials were variously distributed, a feature

which was apparently influenced by the composition of the par¬

ticular dust." A variable combination of neutral, ( + ) and ( — )

dust particles.

“An addition of 1 per cent of one powder to another increased

the major deposit in four out of eight cases studied."

Johnson (6), who was interested in commercial separation

of ground minerals by selective electrostatic methods, undertook

to study what he called the electrostatic conductivity of a series

of minerals in terms of voltage — or, as he added, “the relative

susceptibility of the minerals to being affected by a static charge

or field."

Without going into the details of Johnson's method, it can

be said that many of the minerals tested showed an intrinsic

sign of charge. These particular materials were interesting to

us because, using an entirely different technique, we observed

that the sign of charge obtained for minerals of similar com¬

position were in agreement with those obtained by Johnson.

Only two exceptions were noted; bauxite (Al^Og . 2 HgO,) and

Smithsonite (ZnCOg). These were found to respond in reverse

order. Quartz and minerals relatively high in silica were at-

Wilson and Jackson — Electrostatic Effects

265

tracted with a positive charge and repelled with a negative

charge, showing these minerals to be ( — ) . Calcite was affected

in reverse order, as were most minerals not high in SiOg thus

showing a ( + ) charge.

Fraas and Ralston (3a), working with several types of elec¬

trostatic separators employing purely frictive or contact charg¬

ing, have obtained results which should be quite comparable to

ours, except that there is little overlap in the materials. Fraas

and Ralston were able to reverse the sign of charge in certain

cases by changing the material against which the dust was con¬

tacted, but in our tests so far, changing the material of the

nozzle has failed to change the sign of charge on any dust.

In the main, the observations reported by various workers

were in agreement with those found in this laboratory, and, on

the basis of these observations, the following theory on the dis¬

persion of dust particles on plants is advanced by the authors.

Effect of Electrostatics in Obtaining Fine Dispersion of

Insecticidal Dusts on Plants and Insects

If an insecticidal dust produces or acquires an electrostatic

charge when blown through a dust blower, it is to be expected

that each dust particle having the same charge will tend to be

repelled from all particles of the same charge. When the dust

cloud first breaks from the nozzle end of the dust blower, the

momentum of the air stream will tend to hold the dust cloud

together. But as the velocity of the air stream diminishes, the

particles separate or disperse and move more independently. If

the developed charge is weak, the repulsion between particles will

be small and little or no dispersion of dust particles occurs. If

the charge is strong, dispersion will be increased and the dust

particles are made to strike a plant or insect singly rather than

in aggregates. Theoretically, as the dust cloud approaches a

plant, a charge opposite that of the dust cloud is induced on the

plants and insects. This in turn causes the dust particles to be

attracted to both plants and insects and causes the particles to

cling more closely after contact. A diagrammatic representation

of this phenomenon is shown in Figure 1. The passage of elec¬

trons down the plant stem during the dusting of its upper leaves

was verified by registration of charges on an electrostatic volt¬

meter attached to the base of the plant (insulated from ground) .

266 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

To study the factors involved in the production of electro¬

static charge effects in dust streams, it seemed necessary to de¬

termine the behavior of different minerals and combinations of

minerals. A collection of samples containing the materials com¬

monly found in insecticidal and fungicidal dusts was then

obtained and examined for electrostatic effects.

Figure 1. Showing the action of electrostatics in dispersing insecticidal

dusts on plants and insects.

In making this study, it was found that each mineral or com¬

bination of minerals always produced characteristic measurable

electrostatic charge effects in dust clouds when blown through a

dust blower unit.

With standardized conditions of measurement employed, the

magnitude of charges obtained depended upon the material, the

size of grinding, and upon the conditioning treatment. The poten¬

tials registered varied from 0 to an estimated 50,000 volts or

more (0 to 5,000 e.s.u. of charge per gram of dust).

Source of Samples

The materials tested were in part purchased from Ward's

Natural Science Establishment and others came from depart¬

mental collections. A few standard U.S.P. chemicals are included

as indicated.

Wilson and Jackson — Electrostatic Effects

267

Equipment and MeMod of Procedure

In studying the electrostatic effects of the different materials

tested, the same equipment and method of procedure were used

as described by Wilson, Janes, and Campau (17). The method

consists of blowing a standardized volume of dust through a

specially constructed copper dust blower shown in Figure 2. The

charges imparted to the blower were determined by the readings

of an electrostatic voltmeter recording from 0 to approximately

14,000 volts.® Humidity of the air was found to affect the degree

of electrification to such an extent that samples giving readings

up to 8,000 volts might produce only 4,000 volts at 50 per cent

relative humidity and drop to zero when the humidity increased

to 75 per cent. Blactin and Eobinson (2) in a study of electric

charges in coal dust found that their apparatus became com¬

pletely dead if the relative humidity rose above about 65 per cent.

All readings reported were made with room temperatures be¬

tween 80 and 85° F. and relative humidity between 30 and 40 per

cent. In most cases readings were obtained with samples ground

to pass through a 325-mesh screen. In a few cases where charges

could not be obtained with 325-mesh samples, somewhat larger

particles were used.

Fine powdered materials, for which the sign of charge had

been previously established, were used as reference materials,

namely: an impure pyrophyllite (commercially known as Py-

rax),^ quartz (SiOg crystals), and pure talc (Mgg Si40io (OH) 2)

all with (— ) charges, and calcite, CaCOs and a micaceous min¬

eral designated commercially as '‘AA Mica’' both with ( + )

charges.

In the apparatus used, it was possible to hold the charge on

the voltmeter after a dust charge measurement, and then to place

an additional charge on the dust tube by dispersing a second

sample and transmit it additively to the voltmeter. If the second

sample gave the same sign of charge as the first, the charge on

- ,

3 As previously noted, all voltage readings quoted in this paper refer to 0.5 gm.

samples and a 17 MMF system. If V is voltmeter reading (volts), the equivalent

charge per gram of dust is therefore (34 x lO-^* y) coul£mb£_^^ ^2 ^ ^o-s V.)

gm.

e.s.u. , . i , 1 , e.s.u. .

- —(approximately — — V ( - ).

gm. 10 gm.

4 Mineralogical characterization reported by Wilson, H. P., and Jackson, M. L.

“Mineral Composition and Particle Size of Insecticidal Dispersants and Their Influ¬

ence on Toxicity of Rotenone Dusts.” Jour. Econ, Ent. S9^ pp. 290-295, 1946,

268 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

the voltmeter was increased. But if the charge on the second

material was of the opposite sign as the first, the charge on the

voltmeter was reduced. By alternating one or several of the five

reference dusts with the test sample, it was possible to determine

the sign of charge for a wide variety of materials tested.

Experimental Observations and Results

Electrostatic Charge of Different Minerals and

Mechanical Mixtures

A list of the minerals acquiring the sign of charge (— ) or

( + ) and the amount obtained with the samples tested is shown

in Table 1 and the electrostatic charges obtained with mechanical

mixtures of two components are recorded in Table 2. As a gen¬

eral trend, when two minerals displaying the same sign of charge

were mixed together the accumulation of charge for the mixture

was higher than for either material alone.^ If two materials dis¬

playing opposite sign were mixed, then the charge was reduced

because of a neutralizing effect ; with suitable proportions of the

two materials, the charges of both were completely neutralized.

By changing the proportions of two materials of unlike charging

tendency, the sign of charge generated by the mixture could be

varied from ( — ) to ( + ) or ( + ) to ( — ) , Table 2. However, as

exceptions, peculiarities developed with albite, almandite, horn¬

blende, and rhodenite. These materials singly all became posi¬

tively charged, but when combined with Pyrax they actually aug¬

mented its ( — ) charge. Likewise, when mixed with “AA Mica”

they reduced the ( + ) charge of ‘‘AA Mica.”

Trends which appear rather definitely established by the data

in Tables 1 and 2 may be summarized as follows:

®Mr. Ralston suggests a possible explanation of how additive effect of two

minerals taking the same sign of charge is greater than the potential of either.

“Under the conditions of operation of the nozzle one mineral can be charged to

potential the other to Pg by impact and separation from the nozzle wall. The

effects average up to an arithmetic summation. However, if both particles are

dielectrics they also impact each other in a turbulent stream of air and one will

be charged ( + ) and the other ( — ). Assuming that the two minerals each took on

( — ) from impact with the nozzle walls, the ( + ) charged particles are a minority

in the mixture and quickly meet and neutralize ( — ) particles of both minerals.

These neutrals have new opportunities to impact the wall and become ( — ) again.

Also, ( — ) charged particles of each mineral on impact may part with one higher

in negative potential and the other much lower (equivalent to becoming ( + ) to

the average atmosphere in the nozzle). By whatever mechanism, the additional

potential is that added by impact of the two minerals against each other.”

Figure 2. Apparatus for recording electrostatic charge effects of finely

ground substances, A — Dust blower tube with indentations. B — Dust

hopper. C — Air source. D—Electrostatic voltmeter. E — Dust collecting

chamber. F — Tube fitted over hopper in cleansing operation by back

pressure.

Wilson and Jackson — Electrostatic Effects

269

1. Three native ores common to insecticide dispersants developed

( + ) charges.

2. Three sulphides of metals used in insecticidal dusts as carriers

for toxic metals developed no charges on the dust but were

shown to be ( + ) in reaction because they depressed the nega¬

tive reference material, quartz. One mineral sphalerite (ZnS)

developed (— ) charges.

3. Six minerals of the haloid group in which the fluoride com¬

pounds occur were found to be weakly positive in reaction.

Cuprichloride appeared in additive tests to be ( — ) in reaction.

4. Carbonates and oxides of metals all became positively charged.

5. The oxides of silicon were found to be the main source of ( — )

charges in minerals. However, with the silicates, the charge

developed was ( + ) or ( — ) , probably depending upon crystal

lattice factors and the balance between the silica component

and the basic components NagO, CaO, MaO, MgO, and other

oxides. The micas in highly pure forms, muscovite and biotite,

were weakly ( + ) but a sample of commercial mica which

may have contained small amounts of impurities was strongly

( + ) as was the micaceous reference material ''AA Mica.’'

6. The sulphate group was found difficult to characterize because

no direct charges could be obtained except for gypsum. The

charge for this material was definitely ( + ). A sample of

Glauber’s salts gave no sign in itself but appeared to be nega¬

tive in mixtures with calcite or quartz.

7. The acidic materials tend to develop ( — ) charge, as exempli¬

fied by the two alums, the two types of organic acid crystals,

and by silicon dioxide as already mentioned.

Mineral samples of a same general composition consistently

produced the same sign of charge even though the proportions

of the different components in different samples varied as much

as 20 per cent or more. For example, Pyrax has three component

minerals, pyrophyllite, quartz, and mica. The mica content varies

only to a slight degree, varying from 10 to 15 per cent but the

pyrophyllite may range from 30 to 90 per cent and the quartz

from 10 to 60 per cent, yet the charge in the dust cloud is always

( — ). While the charge per gram for various samples varied

considerably, it was found that any particular sample gave about

the same average charge under similar conditions in tests extend¬

ing over a period of three years.

270 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Samples of different types of talc showed a wide variation in

the development of charge, some samples developing ( — )

charges, and others ( + ), possibly owing to a widely varying

crystal structure in different members of the talc group, and also

to content of mineral impurities, especially chlorites. Samples of

steatite talc (soapstone) were quite variable, some samples pro¬

duced ( — ) charges while the charge produced by the sample

reported here was distinctly ( + ) as shown by the data obtained

when mixed in different proportions with Wisconsin talc which

is distinctly negative (Table 2). The sample of serpentine (mag¬

nesium analogue of kaolinite, sometimes included with the com¬

mercial talcs) was weakly ( + ).

A sample of tremolite talc (fibrous) did not produce a charge

when tested alone; in equal portions with Pyrax or “AA Mica”

this material completely neutralized the respective ( — ) or ( + )

materials. Table 2. Smithsonite (zinc carbonate) was shown to

be strongly ( + ) because only one part in fifty greatly reduced

the charge of Pyrax and the ( + ) charge was maintained when

equal parts of this material were combined with “AA Mica.”

Sulphur which generates no charge, markedly depressed the ( — )

charge of Pyrax. Manganite, sulphur, and barium carbonate all

had particles of very small size.

Repeated tests showed that, when some samples of material

giving high charges were ground and reground, the charge poten¬

tial decreased as the particle size was reduced by each succeeding

grinding. When all materials were ground to clay fineness the

charges were comparatively low and in some cases reduced to

zero. Where tests were made with different particle sizes as

obtained by screening it was found, even when a relatively lim¬

ited size range is considered, that particle size greatly affected

the magnitude (but not the sign) of the dust charge. Table 3.

It will be noted that some materials gave increased charges while

other materials gave markedly decreased charges as the particle

size was reduced. These conditions may offer a partial explana¬

tion of the variable control obtained with insecticidal dusts com¬

pounded with the same minerals. It is interesting to note that

in a similar relationship the coercive force of magnetic powders

also increases with decrease of particle size (4).

Electrostatic Properties of Various Finely Powdered Materials Which Have Been Included

IN Insecticidal Dust Mixtures

Wilson and Jackson— Electrostatic Effects

271

H hJ H

g S £

4-

' c5

03 3

u a

±

W N W

in*

CO 3 CO

u au

CO '

3

a

CO '

3

a

4-

S' * ia

3 CO

a u

i ±i

N W N

u. * TC 1-. -

CO ' CO '

3 CO 3

a ua

+

4-4-4-

o o

oo

O fO

vtn O

4-4-

8

o

O O O

oo ooo

rci O

4-4- 4-4-4-

00X0

oo'^.o

O O O

I I I I

CD 0)

00

Ll.

3 _

UDuUhN

>lL

CO

tu-g-S

a,

|8

-5 2-3 b-c

■fcjua?!^

to

E.5

-8-2o

. o

OOOO

COCC^CO

2’^

'3 3

o .tJ

CDQ

gs

_j3 £j2J2

u Q- CQ to w

>>

a) a) ^

OQ 4j ij o cj

^ 3 ‘n n n

t! ti u

gcocdcoco

•^cQuutLXc^ ^ac/ao

:i: o

»rMr\ Vn

CA 4*

T^'f T

iTv vrs O

(<3

rs

TABLE 1 — (Continued)

Electrostatic Properties of Various Finely Powdered Materials Which Have Been Included

IN Insecticidal Dust Mixtures

272

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

TABLE 1 — (Continued)

Electrostatic Properties of Various Finely Powdered Materials Which Have Been Included

IN Insecticidal Dust Mixtures

Wilson and Jackson — Electrostatic Effects

273

Ui

H H ^ I

U > <CJ

h ^

U C U oi

O

4-) CJ

2 E?

<

WD

CO

^ Sri

ax

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+

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2 *

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c

CO

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CD

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CO

a

c

o

a

£

o

§

a

3

bJO

C

(U

a

<u

T>

CO

bJD

CO

X

o

+

o

o o § o §

o o o

OOOOurs O

00 X — X O — '

+

o o

o o o

++°

OOO

+ + + +

QQQPOOP

:5

=ox

^c;5.r

Nl

(333f.^(Sd

...oil-

o^Qo j:r'^§<<

^ O p

zu.

2

CO CO c

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c c

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ss^S-sSs

l,i.i.l|liR

c o o o Sb.w.s g

133511(3(3

O

2

2 a

£ £

C0<

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X c

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^5 w CX

x 2 ^

qx £ ^

:^<<i

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^3

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c «

£'c

CO O

336

ur\ io\

r<% »r^ r<^

ITS

ir\ ra

2rv X

Jci

X v^

s!p <S

>rs X

I I I

« lr^ vr\

TABLE 1 — (Continued)

Electrostatic Properties of Various Finely Powdered Materials Which Have Been Included

IN Insecticidal Dust Mixtures

274

Wiscomin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

d)

cd bB

2 w

CO •

D

c/

CO

D

o

+

d)

'o

5

±1+

W N W

6&3

T+T

COi^ CO

3 CO 3

aua

o oo o oo o oo

o oo oooo o oo

O nO o O Vrs O fS o

n'O00'>t'O'-^00irs'^O(X)O'^t\

+ ++ ++ I + 1 ++

+ 1 +

oo

3:^

’.”o~

c

JO 03

Ig

s

OO

CO

S<“2f2

d>

.ti d) w

O— '

^ —

;sco<

X -

20

qtcS

j-rt ^

zzy

=■3 8

C3

•Q,

o

-c

Q.

~e

c

Q

CO

"D

M

>>

O ^

c a

C i/j

3 o

'c-C

^ a

^-sil

CQ

iTN vD 0

I T I I II

<N tr. nD urs t—i ITS trs <— I

urv o) vO rr — <

Til

(PO4)

Wilson and Jackson — Electrostatic Effects

276

1

I

Q

a

Q

P

O

'A

pq

;>

K

w

o

3

a

« H

S g M

O 0^3

P

Y (2 j

>< Q

W ag

J 2 H

p5 M o

fa w

H ^

tu

H t;

S: Q 5

tS S

^

H

H J ^

oSfei

sis

00

to

ti <33

2 2^

ia ^

(U

or 3

ax

2 Q ,

O 2 Eu

w < ^ 2 ^

§ UJ Z

< 2 S>

c52'"2-

+ I

CO '

3

a

5' ' ' ja* '

3 CO

a u

++

I I

o o

rv>

O O O' o o o

++

q

X

ora

Q q?^

qq^x'".^

►tH m X O O

"CO

rp (N

lr^ lr^

o o

oo

o ^

Xo

cJo

&56^z^^ XX

w I J

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x^Ss 4?

s 2.2 i sill

^■nxaOT^si

|2c3i5’t&52l

CO

o

‘5 2 g

|)0o

o

276 Wisconsin Academy of Sciencesy Arts and Letters

TABLE 2

Electrostatic Charge Resulting from Mechanical Mixtures

OF Finely Ground Minerals

Wilson and Jackson — Electrostatic Effects

277

TABLE 3

The Effect of Screen Size on the Development of Electrostatic

Charges in Dust Clouds

Limonite Ala.

Limonite N.C.

Screen Size

100

200

325

100

200

325

Charge

0

+ 3500

+ 3800?

+ 2000

+ 4850

+ 5000

Goethite ,

100

200

325

+ 500

+ 1500

+ 2200

Steatite Talc.

100

200

325

+ 4500

+ 4200

0

Brucite.

60

100

200

325

+ 2700

+ 2200

0

Wisconsin Talc.

Pyrophyllite .

Silica Crystals,

60

100

200

325

100

200

325

Over 60

60

100

140

200

300

325

14,000

■ 9100

• 7560

5800

-14,000

-10,000

- 5500

0

— 200

— 2500

— 4000

— 9600

— 14,000

278 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

FACTORS Controlling the Development of

Electrostatic Charge

The generation of the electrostatic charge of the dusts prob¬

ably lies in the friction and impact between dust particles, as

shown by the development of electrical charges in dust storms.

However, it may arise in part also by striking of the dust par¬

ticles against the walls of a dust blower, because the dust blower

always has a charge opposite to that produced in the dust cloud,

as illustrated in Figure 2.

Particle-size factor. From the foregoing data there appears to

be a particle-size factor which requires for generation of a

charge, whether { — ) or (4-)> that the particle size (extent of

frictional sweep across any one crystal) be commensurate with

the physical conditions of the apparatus (size, air velocity, etc.).

Little if any charge was registered when the particle size became

relatively smalF (under 2 microns). Using some iron ores or

pure silica crystals and starting with a sample of coarse powder

(60 mesh), the charge usually increases with further grinding

(limonite, goethite, and quartz. Table 3) . However, after a maxi¬

mum charge is reached with these materials, the charge declines

with further grinding (illustrated with quartz. Table 3). Other

minerals, brucite and steatite, showed high charges with coarse

powder and declined immediately on grinding to smaller particle

size, probably owing to the presence of an excessive number of

particles which were much smaller than the screen-mesh sizes

indicated. These smaller particles may become distributed over

the surfaces of the larger particles and thus interfere with the

normal frictional sweep and charge development by the larger

particles (mechanical buffer effect). This mechanical buffer

effect was produced even when the excessively fine particles are

composed of materials which in themselves seemed to be electro¬

statically rather inactive, as noted with manganite, sulphur, and

barium carbonate (Table 2) .

Origin of negative charge. The materials found to give rise

to negative electrostatic charges were predominantly acid in

character. It was noted that the silicate minerals which gave

marked negative charges (quartz, talc, and pyrophyllite) shared

« With larger apparatus, greater velocities, etc., a different size range of

particles might be found to be electrostatically active and a different order of

magnitude of voltages be found (active volcanic cone as an extreme example).

Wilson and Jackson — Electrostatic Effects

279

the common crystal lattice property of exposing silica tetrahedra

at surfaces as a result of cleavage (in the latter two minerals by

fracture along the basal 001 planes of perfect cleavage). This

gives rise to exposure of oxygen ions (negative) at the surfaces

of these materials, while the silicon ions (positive) are enclosed

within the tetrahedral units. The presence of negative ions at

surfaces (negative dipolar effect) does not, however, explain the

observed negative electrostatic charge observed with thess min¬

erals ; an actual accumulation of excess negative charge is neces¬

sary to produce the negative electrostatic charge measured.

The most tenable postulate as to the factor which gives rise

to the ( — ) charge is in the presence of H+ ions at surfaces of

these acidic materials. A few scattered protons (H+) are swept

off the acid surfaces during charge development by frictional

contact, thus giving rise to a negative residual charge on these

materials. This explanation extends to the various types of nega¬

tive materials including the alums and organic acids. Table 1.^

Origin of positive charge. Materials found to give rise to

positive electrostatic charge are predominantly alkaline materials

or materials which expose lattice OH- groups on fracture. The

most plausible explanation of the origin of the positive charge is

frictional loss of OH- groups and thus an accumulation of a

residual ( + ) charge. An alternative postulate that a few scat¬

tered electrons are lost by frictional contact which would give

rise to a positive charge is not considered tenable.

The positive charge is associated with such materials as

hematite, goethite, gypsum, and epsom salt which are not par¬

ticularly alkaline, but which may carry alkaline impurities or

expose OH- or 0 = ions in their lattices which are capable of

being swept off. A positive charge is also associated with various

ground and dried vegetable tissues. Several of the positively

charged materials tested are known to yield alkali cations at sur¬

faces on fracture, for example, Na+ exposed in ground albite,

and K+ in ground mica (AA talc). These cations may act as

alkalies by being supplied with OH- ions through a hydrolysis

reaction with moisture from the atmosphere.

These postulates agree with the findings of Davy (3) that

acid powders produce a ( + ) charge on a metal plate, if the

metal plate ( + ) is considered to act as a condenser plate and

“^In accord with modern theory of the solid state. See L. B. Loeb, “The basic

mechanisms of static electrification,” Science 102 : 573-576. 1945.

280 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts and Letters

bear a charge opposite to that of the acid powder ( — ) ; and con¬

versely for the ( — ) plate charge found with alkaline powders

( + ). It also agrees with Rudge (10) who found CaCOg (alka¬

line) to be ( + ) and silica (acid) to be ( — ).

Discussion

The electrostatic charge of quartz crystals and its effective¬

ness in insecticidal dust mixtures were usually greater when the

material was freshly ground than after aging for a period of a

few months. For example, one quartz dust with a charge, when

fresh, of 14,000 volts showed a charge, after aging, of only 5,000

volts. The surfaces freshly formed by fracture bear active

silicon-oxygen bonds which probably undergo hydrolysis in con¬

tact with air with its usual moisture content, according to the

following reactions, wherein the 0= and OH- ions are freshly

exposed by crystal fracture :

/ \

\ /

0 + HgO

\ /

2 SI — OH

SI

\

AND

(PARTIAL HYDRATION)

OH

(SILICIC ACID)

Freshly ground quartz is distinctly acidic in reaction, thus

indicating some dissociation of H+ ions from these surfaces. At

this early stage the quartz normally is electrostatically very

active, and is an efficient dispersant. Gradual further hydration

of the quartz surface, to form a gelatinous film of colloidal silicic

acid is considered the probable cause of decreased electrostatic

activity of the aged material. This silicic acid film, probably ex¬

tending to a depth of a few atomic layers, would be expected to

have a mechanical masking effect comparable to that of coatings

by fine particles already mentioned. In addition, this colloidal

silicic acid may cause some deactivation of the toxic constituents

of the dusts by chemical action or physical adsorption. Such

action is well illustrated with bentonite dusts which, though

somewhat active electrostatically, bring about almost total de¬

activation of rotenone and certain other toxic agents. The pres¬

ence of certain kinds of impurities may lead to variable results

with powdered quartz; one sample did not produce measurable

charges with any particle size.

Wilson and Jackson — Electrostatic Effects

281

With talc and pyrophyllite (and Pyrax) powders, basal cleav¬

age and exposure of siliceous surfaces predominate with 100-

mesh particles and high negative charges are found (Table 3).

The pyrophyllite (--™) charge passes through a maximum at 200-

mesh size. Further grinding of these minerals may involve

breakage through the crystal plates and exposure of the central

brucite-like layer containing basic cations and OH- groups.

These materials then show a marked decline in charge such as

would be expected with a physical admixture of brucite (4).

These minerals thus are “silica-like’' at first but show a break¬

down of charge much more quickly than quartz with a given

mesh size.

Chlorites and micas have structures fundamentally analogous

to pyrophyllite and talc except for the presence of the basic

constituents [Mg^AUOH) J + and K+, respectively between the

crystal plates. On grinding they give rise to alkaline reactions

immediately and do not go through the initial stage of ( — )

charge. Considerable variability occurs in the degree of ( + )

charge obtained from different mica samples, but a charge up to

( + ) 7600 volts was found with one mica. Chlorites are so easily

fractured that an excess of fine particles prevents the develop¬

ment of an appreciable charge at any stage of preparation. How¬

ever, talcs even though containing appreciable chlorite impurity

often give a (-— ) charge with an optimum amount of grinding

(and primary cleavage along 001 planes of talc).

The reversal of the silicates albite, almandite, hornblende,

and rhodenite from slight ( + ) charge when used alone to a ( — )

charge when mixed with Pyrax ( — ) seems to indicate neutrali¬

zation of their alkalinity and an uptake of the basic surface

cations by the silicic acid surfaces of the quartz particles con¬

tained in the Pyrax powder.

Summary

A mechanism involving electrostatic induction of a charge on

the plant is postulated to explain the way in which the electro¬

static charge on the dust particles of insecticidal dusts influences

the distribution and adherence of the dusts to plants and insects.

To obtain further information on the charge of insecticidal dusts,

a study was made of a wide variety of materials which have been

included in these dusts.

282 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

It appears that electrostatic properties are controlled by two

general sets of factors : first, are the mineralogical characteristics

such as hardness, type of cleavage, ease of fracture, and type of

crystal habit (whether fibrous, prismatic, etc.) which affect the

particle-size distribution; and second, the chemical constitution

and lattice structural arrangements which determine the acid or

alkaline reaction. Excessive coarseness (> 60 mesh) or fineness

(< 2ja) was found to reduce or prevent charge development.

Within the favorable size range, negative electrostatic charges

were found with acidic materials, especially the silicates (quartz,

talc, and pyrophyllite) which on cleavage or fracture expose

Si02 tetrahedral structures. Positive electrostatic charges were

found with alkaline materials or those silicates which on cleavage

or fracture yield alkaline cations or hydroxyl lattice structural

groups at surfaces. This relationship may be viewed as a loss of

protons from acidic, and loss of hydroxyl ions from alkaline sur¬

faces. The electrostatic charge found with the various minerals

agrees well with that expected from the above generalizations

coupled with a knowledge of their crystal lattice constituents,

arrangements, and cleavage characteristics. It is believed that

information on the electrostatic behavior of minerals Will aid in

proper selection of effective materials for use in insecticidal

dusts, and place the selection on a less empirical basis.

Literature Cited

1. Blactin, S. C., and Robinson, H. 1931. Spontaneous electrification in

coal-dust clouds. Safety in Mines Research Board Paper 71, Lon¬

don, 17.

2. Boning, P. 1927. Dust electricity, possible explanations. Ztsehr, tech.

Phys. 8, 385-398.

3. Davy, H. 1808. The chemical effects of electricity — Ann. Phys. 28,

397-402.

3a. Fraas, F., and Ralston, 0. C. Nov. 1942. Contact potential in electro¬

static separation. R. I. 3667, U. S. Dept. Int. Bur. Mines. 17 pp.

4. Gottschak, V. H. 1935. The coercive force of magnetite powders.

Physics 6, 127-132.

5. Guest, P. G. 1939. Static electricity in Nature and Industry. U. S.

Bureau Mines, Washington, 98.

6. Johnson, H. B. 1938. Selective electrostatic separation. A. I. M. E. T. P.,

877, 852.

6a. - . 1939 Reprinted Trans. A. I. M. & M. E. 134, 409-423.

7. Knoblauch, O. 1901. Experiments in contact electricity. Ztsehr, Phy¬

sical Chem. 39, 225-244.

Wilson and Jackson — Electrostatic Effects

283

8. Liciitenberg — Encyclopedia Britannica — 11th Ed. 1910-11. Cambridge

University Press, England, 2, 591; 9, 183, 190, 191, 192; 12, 9;

16, 528, 587.

9. MacLeod, G. F., and Smith, L. M. 1943. Deposits of insecticidal dusts

and diluents on charged plates. Jour. Ag. Res. 66, 87-95.

10. Rudge, W. a. D. 1912. A note on the electrification of the atmosphere

and surface of the earth. Phil. Mag. 24, 852-855.

11. - . 1913. On the electrification associated with dust clouds. Phil.

Mag. 25, 481-494.

12. - . 1914. The electrification produced during the raising of a cloud

of dust. Proc. Roy-Soc. 90, 256-272.

13. Stager, A. 1925. Experimental investigations of contact electrification

of dust and storm clouds. Ann. Phys., 76, 49-70.

14. Whitman, V. E. 1926. Studies in the electrification of dust clouds.

Phys. Rev., Ser. 2, 28, 1287-1301.

15. Wilson, H. F., Dieter, C. E., and Burdick, H. L. 1941. Insecticidal

dusts. Soap and Sanitary Chemicals, XVII, 99, 101, 121.

16. Wilson, H. F., and Janes, R. L. 1942. Lower concentrations of rotenone.

Soap and Sanitary Chemicals, XVIII, 93-95.

17. Wilson, H. F., Janes, R. L., and Campau, E. J. 1944. Electrostatic

charge effects produced by insecticidal dusts. Jour. Econ. Ent. 87,

651-655.

EVOLUTION OF PRAIRIE-FOREST SOILS UNDER COVER

OF INVADING NORTHERN HARDWOODS IN THE

DRIFTLESS AREA OF SOUTHWESTERN

WISCONSIN^

C. T. Youngberg^

Soils Department, University of Wisconsin

The occurrence of the northern hardwood type in Richland

and Vernon Counties, i.e., in the heart of the Wisconsin prairie-

forest region, is a somewhat puzzling phenomenon. Some ecol¬

ogists consider stands of hard maple, basswood, and yellow birch

as relicts which survived fires due to the protective effect of

rivers. Others attribute the presence of northern hardwoods to

climatic factors ; the area in question has a somewhat lower mean

annual temperature and higher annual precipitation than the

surrounding territory (3) . Still others are inclined to regard the

phenomenon as a part of the general succession in which north¬

ern hardwoods are encroaching upon the entire prairie-forest

region of Wisconsin (1, 2).

It was felt that the study of soils under the two basic types

of the region, i.e., mixed oak and maple-basswood, might give

some clues to the solution of this problem. Moreover, a knowl¬

edge of the changes which soils undergo under the influence of

either type is of importance for practical silviculture (4).

The areas chosen for investigation were selected in the Cham¬

pion Valley Timber Harvest Forest, in eastern Vernon County.

The total of twelve sample plots in both forest types were located

within the study area of the Lake States Experiment Station. A

complete tally of tree species for these plots was prepared by

station personnel. The ground cover vegetation was determined

by quadrat analysis. On each plot the soil was excavated to an

approximate depth of three feet, or to the depth of the limestone

substratum. Samples of soils were collected from the surface

horizons (Ao, A^, and Ag). Sampling was conflned to areas of

1 Publication authorized by the director of the Wisconsin Agricultural Experi¬

ment station. This work was supported in part by the Wisconsin State Conserva¬

tion Department.

a The writer is indebted to Mr. H. F. Scholz, Lake States Experimental Station,

and Mr. E. L. Vinton, Wisconsin Conservation Department for their advice during

the field work and for information furnished for use in this paper.

285

286 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

nearly level topography. Analyses of soils were made using

standard procedures of the Wisconsin State Soils Laboratory.

The results of the study of the forest cover and soil follow.

The typical composition of mixed oak and northern hardwood

stands is presented in Table 1. The tally indicates that the par¬

ticipation of oak species in the northern hardwood type is re¬

duced to 15 per cent as compared to 85 per cent in the mixed

oak type.

TABLE 1

Composition of Mixed Oak and Northern Hardwood Types

Mixed Oak

Northern Hardwood

Species

Per cent of

Total Stand

Species

Per cent of

Total Stand

Quercus borealis .

Quercus alba .

Cary a spp .

Acer saccharum, Fraxinus

americana, Populus

grandidentata,

Ulmus spp .

72

13

6

9

Acer saccharum . .

Tilia glabra .

Quercus borealis .

Quercus alba .

Ulmus, spp., Fraxinus

americana, Ostrya

virginiana .

69

11

10

4

6

TABLE 2

Ground Cover Species Occurring in Champion Valley Forest

(Numbers represent the relative estimated density of species in four classes

as follows: 1 — rare; 2 — occasional; 3 — common; 4 — abundant.)

Species

Maple- Mixed

Basswood Oak

Oak

Openings

Prairie

M itchella repens .

Maianthemum candense.

Polygonatum pubescens.

Mitella diphylla .

Hepatica spp .

Uvular ia grandiflora. . . .

Circaea latifolia .

Desmodium acuminatum

Phryma leptostachya. . . .

Geranium maculatum. . .

Lactuca spicata .

Lathyrus ochroleucus . . .

Panicum spp .

Campanula americana. .

Dodecatheon media .

Oxybaphus nyctagineus . .

3

4

3

1

2

1

2

4

3

4

1

2

1

2

3

4

3

2

1

4

Y oungherg — Prairie-Forest Soils

287

The outstanding features of ground cover are summarized

in Table 2. The nature of lesser vegetation in mixed oak stands

and northern hardwood stands reveals a well-arranged spectre

of species connecting two floristic extremes, i.e., tall grass prairie

and boreal forest. The representatives of the former are by far

more common in the mixed oak type than in the northern hard¬

wood type. The conspicuous members of the northern flora par¬

ticularly deserving mention are Mitchella reverts, Polygonatum

puhescens, and Maianthemum canadense.

TABLE 3

Analyses of the Surface Horizons of Dubuque Silt Loam Soils

Supporting Stands of Mixed Oak Type and Maple-Basswood Type

The soil suppoiting the investigated stands (Dubuque silt

loam) consists of a two- to three-foot layer of loess over residual

limestone. To the casual observer the soil profiles developed un¬

der the mixed oak and maple-basswood types may appear to be

essentially the same. However, more careful observation reveals

pronounced differences, particularly in the surface horizons. The

most obvious profile peculiarity under the northern hardwood

type is the accumulation of raw organic matter or mor-like

humus. Also, the horizon in this type shows a better develop¬

ment of granular structure than the A^ horizon in the mixed oak

stand. This is the normal result of a higher content of organic

matter and bases. No conspicuous difference in the degree of

leaching or morphological features of the horizons were re¬

vealed by ocular observations.

The results of soil analyses (Table 3) indicated that the base-

enriched litter of maple and basswood moderates acidity and

288 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences ^ Arts and Letters

raises the fertility level of the soil. The most significant improve¬

ment brought about by the presence of the maple-basswood type

is the increase in cation-exchange capacity of soil. The rise in

exchange capacity is accompanied by a higher content of re¬

placeable bases. Great increases were also revealed in the con¬

tents of total nitrogen, available phosphorus, and available potas¬

sium. Thus, the analytical data strikingly illustrate the

“nutrient-pumping’’ ability of sugar maple and basswood.

In order to appraise the biological activities of investigated

soils, samples of humus were subjected to nitrification tests at

optimum moisture content and temperature at 28° C. The results

are given in Figure 1. The near neutral reaction and high level

of fertility of the maple-basswood type proved to be more favor¬

able for the activity of nitrifying organisms.

Figure 1. Nitrification capacity of humus layers from northern hardwood

and mixed oak forest types.

Yonngh erg— Prairie-Forest Soils

289

The study in its entirety indicates that the occurrence of the

northern hardwood type is associated with a more advanced

stage in soil development. Hence, it should be regarded as the

initial stage of either soil or vegetational climax. The soil under

the northern hardwood type undergoes a process of pronounced

podzolization. The latter, however, is partly suppressed by simul¬

taneous enrichment of the soil in bases and moderation of acidity.

On the basis of observation of northern stands, it could be pre¬

dicted that in time the soil profile under the northern hardwood

type will obtain the morphology of a mildly podzolized ''mull”

soil. It was noted that the ground cover plants of the northern

hardwood type, especially rhizome geophytes, contribute consid¬

erably to the changes in soil composition.

The enrichment of the soil under maple and basswood signi¬

fies appreciable improvement of site conditions for silvicultural

use. This makes the soils suitable not only to northern hard¬

woods, but also to the most exacting native species of the region,

including black walnut and white ash. Moreover, indications

were obtained that the rise in soil fertility, particularly the in¬

crease of exchangeable bases, is correlated with a higher site

index of stands. Therefore, from the viewpoint of either soil

conservationists or silviculturists, the occurrence of northern

hardwood types is a highly desirable phenomenon. Aside from

direct beneficial effects on soils, hard maple and basswood appear

to be highly desirable buffering species which may serve to retard

the continuous deterioration of pure oak stands.

Bibliography

1. Chavannes, E. a. 1940. The steep prairies of southern Wisconsin and

their invasion by forest. Doctor’s Thesis, University of Wisconsin.

2. Daubenmire, K. F. 1936, The “Big Woods” of Minnesota: its structure

and relation to climate, fire, and soils. Ecol. Monog. 6 : 233-268.

3. Whitson, A. R. 1928. The climate of Wisconsin and its relation to agri¬

culture. Wis. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 223, Madison, Wis.

4. Wilde, S. A., Philip B. Whitford, and C. T. Youngberg. 1948. Relation

of soils and forest growth in the driftless area of southwestern Wis¬

consin. Ecol. 29 : 173“180.

REPORT OF THE JUNIOR ACADEMY COMMITTEE, 1946

Last year the Senior Academy of Science met “on paper” and the

papers and committee reports which ordinarily would have been given at

the meetings were submitted for publication in the transactions. Among

these reports is a description of the founding and the first year’s activities

of the Wisconsin Junior Academy of Science. Several of the hopes of last

year have been realized, others remain to come to fruition, and still others

spring anew from the activities and ideas of the second year of growth of

the “teen-aged” affiliate of the Senior Academy.

With the addition of new science clubs as charter members of the

Junior Academy, it became apparent that an additional district meeting

would be necessary, so that two district meetings were held as preliminaries

to the statewide meeting. On March 23, a district meeting was sponsored

by the Sigma Zeta chapter of Central State Teachers College, Stevens

Point. Clubs in the central part of the state were invited to participate in

the meeting which was attended by 55 persons. Following the official pro¬

gram, our hosts of Sigma Zeta served some much appreciated refreshments.

On the following programs, the papers starred were chosen by the club

sponsors to be invited to be presented to the Junior Academy Section at the

Academy meeting on April 13.

PROGRAM OF THE STEVENS POINT DISTRICT MEETING

Central State Teachers College, Stevens Point, Saturday,

March 23, 1:30 P. M,

Welcome, Ed Nigbor, President, and Betty Habercorn, Historian, Sigma

Zeta, Central State Teachers College.

Address of Welcome — Professor H. A. Schuette, President, Wisconsin

Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters, 5 minutes.

“The Analysis of Water for iSoluble Oxygen and CO2, pH, and Biochemical

Demand and Alkalinity” — Donald Kaubisiak, James Kruger and Jack

Molsberry, Chemistry Club, Lincoln High School, Wisconsin Rapids,

20 minutes.

*“Soil Analysis” — Anita Kaufman, Chemistry Club, Lincoln High School,

Wisconsin Rapids, 15 minutes.

*“Lift and Drag Coefficients of Airfoil Sections” — James Check, Science

Club, P. J. Jacobs High School, Stevens Point, 10 minutes.

* “Applications of Atomic Energy” — Kathryn Masterson, Science Club, P. J.

Jacobs High School, 10 minutes.

*“Astronomy Hobby” — Robert Bard, Nature Club, Appleton High School,

10 minutes.

“Museum Project”— -Dudley Pierce, Nature Club, Appleton High School,

8 minutes.

29X

292 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

‘‘Plants as Chemical Indicators” — Molly Hack and Kenneth Beilke, Bios

Explorers, Marathon High iSchool, 10 minutes.

“Electrolysis — The Lead Tree” — John Bartlet and LaVerne Seubert,

Superchargers, Marathon High School, 10 minutes.

The second district meeting held for the clubs of the Milwaukee area

produced the following program:

PROGRAM OF THE MILWAUKEE DISTRICT MEETING

100 Science Hall, Marquette University, Sunday, March 31, 2 P. M.

Address of Welcome — Professor H. A. Schuette, President, Wisconsin

Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters, 5 minutes.

“Soil Analysis” — Sylvia Griffin, Bunsen Burners, Holy Angels Academy,

20 minutes.

*“Blood Will Tell” — Patricia Kasper, Dolores Demski, Mercedes Ironside,

Mercy Science Club, Mercy High (School, 15 minutes.

*“Backyard Insect Collecting” — Robert Zusy, St. John Cathedral High

School, 10 minutes.

“Science Articles in the Milwaukee Journal for the Month of February” —

Rose Mary Taylor, The Searchers, Girls' Tech High School, 5

minutes.

“Test of Soaps” — Mary Klein and other club members, Albertus-Magnus

Math Science Club, St. Mary's Academy, 15 minutes.

“Organic Chemistry Demonstration” — Bob Mathes, Atom-Smashers, Boys'

Tech High School, 15 minutes.

“Qualitative Analysis” — William Ewert, Lyle Fenski, and James Mintner,

Atom-Smashers, Boys' Tech High School, 15 minutes.

*“Cold Light” — Melbourne Rabideau, Seminar Club, Mary D. Bradford

High School, 15 minutes.

“Assembling a Model Airplane” — Theresa Lukomski, Albertus-Magnus

Math Science Club, St. Mary's Academy, 15 minutes.

“Rockets” — Alfred Neumann, Nature Study Club, Washington High

School, 15 minutes.

*“ Hydroponics” — Lawrence Maurer, Seminar Club, Mary D. Bradford High

School, 15 minutes.

“Giant Oudin Coil” — Jerome Pietrowski and Gerald Baykowski, Stan-Sci

Club, St. (Stanislaus High School, 10 minutes.

“Shortwave Walkie-Talkie” — Bernard Wright and Norman Krohn, Tesla

Marconi, Central High School, West Allis, 15 minutes.

“Experiments with Polarized Light” — Clayton Miller and Roland Meyer,

West High Science Club, West High School, Madison, 15 minutes.

“Rocks I Have Found in Wisconsin” — Stanley Kulakow, Phi-Bi-Chem Club,

Steuben Junior High School, 15 minutes.

From the eight papers chosen by the club sponsors to represent their

areas at the Junior Academy Section meeting were chosen the recipients of

the honorary memberships in the American Association for the Advance¬

ment of Science and the Wisconsin Academy. An impartial committee rep re-

Junior Academy

293

senting various fields of science judged the merits of the papers and demon¬

strations. Dr. A. W. Schorger, Dr. E. F. Bean, Dr. H. A. Schuette, Dr. L. E.

Noland and Dr. J. G. Winans served on this committee. The prize of a war

bond for the best paper was awarded to James Check for his paper on “Lift

and Drag Coefficients of Airfoil Sections”; second prize of $6.25 in war

savings stamps was awarded to Lawrence Maurer for his project on

“Hydroponics.” The generosity of an anonymous member of the Academy

made these awards possible. The Gamma Alpha award of $10.00 for the

most original work was presented to Eobert Bard for his discussion of his

“Astronomy Hobby.” The A.A.A.S. memberships were awarded to Mel¬

bourne Rabideau of Mary D. Bradford High School, Kenosha and jointly

to Mercedes Ironside, Dolores Demski, and Patricia Kasper of Mercy High

School, Milwaukee.

Academy memberships were awarded to Eobert Zusy of St. John

Cathedral High School, Milwaukee, Anita Kaufman, Lincoln High School,

Wisconsin Rapids, Kathryn Masterson, P. J. Jacobs High School, Stevens

Point, Robert Bard, Appleton High School, Lawrence Maurer, Mary D.

Bradford High School, Kenosha, and James Check, Jacobs High School,

Stevens Point.

Memberships in the A.A.A.S. and in the Academy entitle the recipients

to publications and other privileges of these scientific organizations.

A.A.A.S. memberships are limited to juniors and the Academy memberships

are open to all participants in the state-wide meetings.

There were about 75 persons present at the annual meeting this year.

Clubs which sent delegates include: Seminar Club, Kenosha; Chemistry

Club, Wisconsin Rapids; Mercy Science Club, St. John Cathedral Science

Club, St. Stanislaus Science Club, Milwaukee; Tesla Marconi Club, West

Allis; Nature Club, Appleton; Science Club, Jacobs High iSchool, Stevens

Point; West High Science Club, Madison; and Bios-explorers, Marathon.

At the meeting the club delegates voted to have co-presidents, Mercedes

Ironside of Mercy Science Club, Mercy High School, Milwaukee, and Mel¬

bourne Rabideau of the Seminar Club, Mary D. Bradford High School,

Kenosha being elected to serve for 1946-1947.

Services to the Clubs

To advise with the club sponsors and the club members, the Chairman

of the Junior Academy Committee travels over the state visiting clubs and

sponsors for conferences on Junior Academy activities. Thirteen schools in

Milwaukee and schools in Wisconsin Rapids, Eau Claire, Wausau and Black

River Falls have been visited during the past year for this purpose.

To help provide programs and suggest projects for the club members,

lectures by Mr. Thomson on Wildflowers and on Bird Songs, illustrated by

kodachrome and phonograph records were made available free of charge

to the clubs. Fifteen clubs availed themselves of these services during the

spring.

Newsletters are sent out at irregular intervals to keep the clubs in¬

formed on events in the Junior Academy. Five have been issued this year.

The first, (No. 4) announced the winners of the awards at the Milwaukee

District last spring, the acquisition of lantern slides from the collection of

294 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

the late E. R. Downing for loan collections for the schools, two free lectures

for schools, the plans for a news bulletin by the schools and a list of the

first 15 charter members. No. 5 announced the spring meeting dates and

the start of the club publication. No. 6 gave the programs of the spring

meetings, announced a co-operative project with the Soil Conservation

Service, the readiness of a set of the Downing slides and the gift of a war

bond by a member of the Academy to be presented at the annual meeting.

No. 7 announced the state-wide meeting, the publication of the “Test Tube

Times,” the availability of a list of projects in forestry and offered Dr.

Thomson’s talks to the clubs. No. 8 described the state-wide meeting, the

awards presented, the officers elected and the free materials available from

the Junior Academy.

The first issues of the “Test Tube Times” appeared in March and

April. Mercy Science Club, Mercy High School, Milwaukee prepared the

first issue; Appleton High School Nature Club prepared the second. A third

is expected to be prepared by West Allis High School Science Club. It is

planned that the editing and production of this publication be rotated

among the member clubs.

A further means of keeping the clubs in touch with each other’s activ¬

ities is the issuance of a list of all of the science clubs of the state. This

list states the interests of the clubs, the meeting time, the principal activ¬

ities, the nature of the membership (boys or girls or both) and the sponsor’s

name. Sixty-nine science clubs are active in Wisconsin.

Co-operative projects are another means of motivation of high-school

science work. Two projects are at present offered by the Junior Academy,

one on Distribution of Wisconsin Trees, and one on Phenology. Clubs co¬

operating in this program are located in Milwaukee, Appleton, Neenah,

Black River Falls, Marathon and Superior. More are needed to make this

project a satisfactory one and every effort is being made to include more

individuals and clubs in the project. A co-project with the U. S. Soil Con¬

servation Service in this state also makes it possible for clubs interested in

this phase of science to obtain much help. Other co-projects with federal

agencies are also available through the efforts of Science Clubs of America.

Other services made available to the clubs included a bibliography of

books and pamphlets dealing with science club projects; a bibliography of

plays on science and scientists; a descriptive instruction list of projects on

forestry for conservation clubs; and lantern slides from the collection of

the late E. R. Downing, one set thus far being ready with a prepared talk

to accompany a set on “Forestry.”

Publicity

An important factor in the development of any young and growing

organization is the attempt to acquaint as broad a public as possible with

the aims and activities of the organization. At the convention of two of the

locals of the W. E. A., the Southern Wisconsin Education Association on

February 8, 1946, and the Northwestern Wisconsin Education Association

on October 12, 1945, talks were given on the activities of the W. J. A. S.

At the meeting of the Milwaiikee Archdiocesan Science Teachers’ Associa-

Junior Acadeniy

295

tion, opportunity was given to present the aims and activities of the W. J.

A. S. to a large group of Catholic science teachers.

Radio broadcasts have also been used to obtain publicity. On October

8, 1945, Mr. McNeel, “Ranger Mac,” very kindly devoted his broadcast to

the W. J. A. S. so as to acquaint the young people ready to enter high school

with the possibilities of science work in high school. On April 2, 1946, the

opportunity was taken on the Homemakers program to acquaint that group

with the phenology project of the W. J. A. S.

Much has been written in the newspapers this year about the activities

of the Junior Academy and it has not been possible to obtain all of the

references about which we have heard. Known articles have appeared in the

University Press Bulletin for February 20, 1946; The Wisconsin State

Journal for February 20, 1946; The Capital Times, March 17, 1946 and

March 23, 1946; The Milwaukee Journal, April 1, 1946; The Milwaukee

Sentinel, April 1, 1946; and The Appleton Post Crescent, April 1946. Addi¬

tional articles which we have not seen but which were reported to us

appeared in The Appleton Post Crescent and The Minneapolis Herald

Tribune. The Wisconsin Journal of Education carried two notes on the

W. J. A. S. activities in the December 1945 and March 1946 issues. A fine

series of pictures taken by Phil Harrington at the Annual Meeting

appeared in The Milwaukee Journal for May 12, 1946.

Membership

Growth of the organization has been very satisfactory. Twenty-nine

clubs were enrolled by May 1946 with a total of about 1,100 boys and girls

as Junior Academy members. Those clubs which are new charter members

this year are:

Nature Club, Appleton High School, Appleton.

Students of Science, Cochrane High School, Cochrane.

Science Club, Eau Claire High School, Eau Claire.

Seminar Club, Mary D. Bradford High School, Kenosha.

Phy-Chem Science Club, Central High School, Madison.

Science Club, West High School, Madison.

Super Chargers Club and Bios-Explorers Club, Marathon High School,

Marathon.

Atom Smashers, Boys Trades and Technical High School, Milwaukee.

The Searchers, Girls Trades and Technical High School, Milwaukee.

Albertus-Magnus Club, St. Robert School, Shorewood.

Nature Study Club, Washington High School, Milwaukee.

Conservation Club, Neenah Senior High School, Neenah.

Science Club, Wauwatosa High School, Wauwatosa.

Chi-Rho-Beta Science Club, Cathedral High iSchool, Superior.

Science Club, P. J. Jacobs High School, Stevens Point.

Science Club, North Division High School, Milwaukee.

Our Hopes

What are our aims for the following year? Of course we expect to con¬

tinue the activities initiated during the past two years, but we hope to

expand the services offered to the clubs and to the high-school youth.

296 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

(1) Our most important objective is a science talent search for those

of scientific ability in Wisconsin. We need to have scholarships offered by

the colleges of this state to \vorthy boys and girls, and we need to organize

a search for these students.

(2) We need to enlarge the list of speakers available to the science

clubs. Will some of the Academy members offer their services here?

(3) If the organization continues to grow, more district meetings will

have to be held and more areas in the state covered.

(4) More co-operative projects with state scientists need to be in

operation. The fields of physics and chemistry especially need encourage¬

ment. Can the Academy members help with such suggestions?

(5) Circulating loan collections need to be obtained and started.

(6) More sets of slides from the Downing Memorial collection will be

made ready with prepared lectures for loan to the clubs.

(7) We still need an advertising folder.

(8) Radio programs.

Signed :

John W. Thomson, Jr.

Chairman, Junior Academy Committee

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY

The Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters held its 77th

annual meeting on the 11th and 12th of April, 1947, at the Milwaukee Public

Museum. The Academy section met in the Conference Room for the Friday

session and in the Lecture Hall for the Saturday morning session. The

Junior Academy held its meeting in Room 100, Science Hall, Marquette

University, Milwaukee. More than 100 persons attended the various meet¬

ings. The annual business meeting and election of officers was held on

Friday afternoon. The following program of scientific papers and a sym¬

posium was presented.

Academy Section

April 11, 1947

E. S. McDonough, Marquette University. A cytological study of devel¬

opment of the oospore of Sclerospora macrospora; Herbert W. Levi, Uni¬

versity of Wisconsin. The life history of the pseudoscorpion, Chelifer can-

croides (Linn.) ; Raymond H. Reis, S. J., Marquette University. Factors

affecting change of form in Pelmatohydra oligactic. I. Presence of food in

the enteron; James C. Perry, Marquette University. Manifestations of the

alarm reaction in spermatogenesis; Alvine F. Weber, University of Wis¬

consin. Metrorrhagia in the virgin bovine; Lester W. J. Seifert, University

of Wisconsin, The problem of speech-mixture in the German spoken in

northwestern Dane County, Wisconsin; Hisako O. Yokoyama, University of

Wisconsin. Hematology of the perch; Mona M. Marquette, Betty M. Noble,

Helen T. Parsons, University of Wisconsin. Availability to human subjects

of pure riboflavin ingested with live yeast; Joan A. Wright, University of

Wisconsin. (Introduced by Norman C. Fassett.) Distribution of species of

Liliales in Wisconsin. (By title) ; Theodore J. Walker, University of Wis¬

consin. (Introduced by Arthur D. Hasler.) Methods for testing the chem¬

ical senses of the bottom-feeding fishes — especially the blunt-nosed minnow,

Hyborhynchus notgtus. (By title) ; Harold J. Elser, University of Wiscon¬

sin. (Introduced by Norman C. Fassett.) Some peripheral phenomena as

revealed by tree rings, (By title) ; William H. Hobbs, University of Mich¬

igan. North American glacial deposits interpreted on the basis of studies

of existing continental glaciers. (By title) ; E. David Le Cren, University

of Wisconsin. (Introduced by Arthur D. Hasler.) An experiment with fish

populations. (By title) ; John C. Neess, University of Wisconsin. (Intro¬

duced by Arthur D. Hasler.) Some basic aspects of fish-pond fertilization.

(By title.) H. A. Schuette, University of Wisconsin. Grandfather-Botanist.

(By title.)

297

298 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Academy Section

April 11, 1947

Peter J. Salamun, University of Wisconsin. Botanizing in the Aleutian

Islands; Robert S. Ellarson, University of Wisconsin. The vegetation of

Dane County, Wisconsin, in 1835; Banner Bill Morgan, University of Wis¬

consin. Tularemia (Rabbit Fever) in Wisconsin; B. L. von Jarchow, M. D.,

Racine, Wisconsin. Notes on predation; Robert K. Richardson, Beloit Col¬

lege. Plato’s medicinal lie in history; Rev. John P. O’Brien, Marquette

University. Irradiation injury and trauma as factors in the regression of

irradiated non-regenerating limb stumps of Urodele largae; Aaron J. Ihde

and H. A. Schuette, University of Wisconsin. Early days of chemistry at

the University of Wisconsin; S. D. Beck and J. H. Lilly, University of

Wisconsin. Progress report on European com-borer resistance investiga¬

tions.

Academy Section

April 12, 1947

Kenneth M. Mackenthun and Elmer F. Herman, Wisconsin Conserva¬

tion Department. A preliminary creel census of perch fishermen on Lake

Mendota, Wisconsin; Deam Ferris, University of Wisconsin. Phase micro¬

scopy; Donald R. Thompson, University of Wisconsin. Vitamin A in wild

pheasants and quails; Robert A. McCabe, University of Wisconsin. Re¬

establishing a local breeding stock of wood ducks at the University of

Wisconsin Arboretum.

Symposium on Safeguarding the Purity of Wisconsin’s

Natural Waters

Willis M. Van Horn, Institute of Paper Chemistry, Appleton. (Stream

pollution abatement studies in the pulp and paper industry; Victor H.

Kadish, Sewerage Commission of the City of Milwaukee. Milwaukee’s

activated-sludge sewage-disposal project; Arthur D. Hasler, University of

Wisconsin. Biological implications of the use of copper for the control of

algae scums in lakes; Louis F. Warrick, State Sanitary Engineer. The

work of the State Board of Health in safeguarding the purity of Wis¬

consin’s natural waters.

Junior Academy Section

April 12, 1947

John Casida, West High Science Club, West High School, Madison.

Lady bugs in evolution; George Koehler, West High Science Club, Madison.

Bird study in a Madison cemetery; Melbourne Rabedeau, Seminar Club,

Mary D. Bradford High School, Kenosha. Chemiluminescense ; Fred Lind-

Proceedings of the Academy

299

strom, Seminar Club, Mary D. Bradford High School, Kenosha. Potentio-

metric titration; Eugene Haugh, Reedsburg High iSchool. Semi-micro

methods for the home chemist; Kenneth McCabe, Science Club, Aquinas

High School, La Crosse. Radio and radio tubes; Ted Taylor, West High

Science Club, West High School, Madison. Anesthetics; Carl Stapel, Nature

Club, Appleton. The Optiphone in action.

Junior High Papers

Roy Gromme, Phi-Bi-Chem Club, Steuben Junior High School, Mil¬

waukee. Some birds of prey that I have known; Peter Jansen, Lincoln

Junior High School, Kenosha. Fish as a hobby.

Annual Academy Lecture

The annual Academy dinner was held on Friday evening, April 11, in

the East Room, Pfister Hotel. President L. E. Noland of Madison presented

his presidential talk, the title of which was “For the Sake of the Record.”

Academy Business Meeting

The annual business meeting was held in the Conference Room of the

Milwaukee Public Museum.

The nomination committee with A. W. Schorger as chairman presented

the following slate of officers for the next Academy year :

President: L. E. Noland, Department of Zoology, University of Wis¬

consin.

Vice-President in Science: E. L. Bolender, Superior State Teachers

College, Superior, Wisconsin.

Vice-President in Arts: Don Anderson, Madison, Wisconsin.

Vice-President in Letters: Robert K. Richardson, Beloit College, Beloit,

Wisconsin.

Secretary-Treasurer : Banner Bill Morgan, Department of Veterinary

Science, University of Wisconsin.

Librarian: H. 0. Teisberg, Historical Library, Madison, Wisconsin.

300 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY

The Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters held its 78th

annual meeting on the 23rd and 24th of April, 1948, at Central State

Teachers College, Stevens Point, Wisconsin. The Academy sections were

held in Room 116, Main Building. More than 100 persons attended the

various meetings. The annual business meeting and election of officers was

held April 24th. The following program of scientific papers was presented.

Academy Section

April 23, 1948

Harold R. Wolfe and Eleanor Dilks, University of Wisconsin. The vari¬

ation in antibody response among birds; Eleanor Springer, Stata Norton,

H. R. Wolfe and C. A. Herrick, University of Wisconsin. The route of

injection correlated with precipitin production in chickens; Stata Norton,

H. R. Wolfe and C. A. Herrick, University of Wisconsin. Effect of injection

of a soluble antigen on spleen size in chickens; Lester W. J. Seifert, Uni¬

versity of Wisconsin. Methods and aims of a survey of the German spoken

in Wisconsin; Kenneth MacArthur, Milwaukee Public Museum. Contribu¬

tions to the knowledge of the Hippoboscidae (Diptera) ; John W. Thomson,

Jr., University of Wisconsin. Experiments upon the regeneration of certain

species of the lichen genus Peltigera; D. R. Lincicome, W. H. Thiede and

E. Carpenter, University of Wisconsin. Occurrence of Endamoeba histo¬

lytica and related organisms in Wisconsin. Preliminary report.

Academy Section

April 24, 1948

Albert M. Fuller, Milwaukee Public Museum. Nature reserves and the

permanent protection of wild flowers in Wisconsin; C. A. Herrick, Univer¬

sity of Wisconsin. The value of the ceca of birds as a source of energy;

Warren O. Haberman, University of Wisconsin. Bionomics of the warble fly

(Hypoderma) under Wisconsin conditions; Lowell E. Noland, University

of Wisconsin. Highlights in the history of the Department of Zoology at the

University of Wisconsin; Aaron J. Ihde, University of Wisconsin. The

inevitability of scientific discovery; Fung-haan Fung, Ruth Aaness and

Helen T. Parsons, University of Wisconsin. The availability to the pig of

dietary thiamine in the presence of fresh, viable yeast.

Read by Title

Robert Rausch and Everett Schiller, University of Wisconsin. Studies

on cestodes of the genus Paranoplocephala Luhe, 1910; Robert Rausch,

Everett Schiller and Banner Bill Morgan, University of Wisconsin. The

helminth fauna of Wisconsin birds and mammals; A. D. Hasler and W. G.

Einsele, University of Wisconsin. Fertilization for increasing the produc¬

tivity of inland waters; A. D. Hasler and J. E. Bardach, University of

Wisconsin. Daily migrations of perch in Lake Mendota, Wisconsin (from

direct and indirect observations) ; T. J. Walker and A. D. Hasler, Univer-

Proceedings of the Academy

301

sity of Wisconsin. Olfactory discrimination of aquatic plants by Hyhor-

hynchus notatus (Raf.) ; H. Neuenschwander, University of Wisconsin.

(Introduced by A. D. Easier). The history of the cisco in Lake Mendota,

Wisconsin; Rev. Raymond H. Reis, Marquette University. Congenital uni¬

lateral urogenital agenesis with unilateral pregnancy and accompanying

vascular modifications in a domestic cat; Louis Scherger, University of

Wisconsin. Histology of the bovine oviduct.

Junior Academy Section

April 24, 1948

Robert Bertelson, Science Club, Washington High School, Milwaukee.

An interesting derivative of phenolphthalein ; George Koehler, West High

Science Club, Madison. Bird study in a cemetery; Jane Morton, West High

Science Club, Madison. The substitution of crude casein for alcohol ex¬

tracted casein in the semi-synthetic diet for rats; James Chapel, Seminar

Club, Mary D. Bradford High School, Kenosha. The oscilloscope; Peter

Bunde, Chemistry Club, Lincoln High School, Wisconsin Rapids. Three-

stage bleaching of sulfite pulp; Carl Stapel, Nature Club, Appleton Senior

High School, Appleton. The seeing ear; James Pearse, Aquinas Science

Club, Aquinas High School, La Crosse. Air conditioning; Robert Koehler,

Nature Club, Appleton Senior High School, Appleton. Raising orchids as

a hobby.

Junior High Papers

Carol Zabel, Mercy Science Club, Mercy High School, Milwaukee.

Guinea pigs in shells; Ronald Rabedeau, St. Thomas Junior High School,

Kenosha. Telescopes.

Annual Academy Lecture

The annual Academy dinner was held April 23, 1948 in the Club Room,

Hotel Whiting, after the afternoon tea which was held in the Home Eco¬

nomics Parlor, Central State Teachers College. President L. E. Noland of

Madison, presented his presidential address, the title of which was “The

Problems and Opportunities of a State Academy in These Times of

Increasing Specialization.”

Academy Business Meeting

The annual business meeting was held in Room 116, Main Building,

Central State Teachers College.

The nomination committee presented the following slate of officers for

the next Academy year:

President: Otto L. Kowalke, University of Wisconsin.

Vice-President in Science: E. L. Bolender, Superior State Teachers

College.

Vice-President in Art : Don Anderson, Madison.

Vice-President in Letters: Robert K. Richardson, Beloit College.

Secretary-Treasurer : Banner Bill Morgan, University of Wisconsin.

Librarian: H. 0. Teisberg, State Historical Society, University of

Wisconsin,

302 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY

The Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters held its 79th

annual meeting April 19 and 20, 1949 at the University of Wisconsin

(Memorial Union, Play Circle) as part of the University’s centennial pro¬

gram. The Junior Academy held its meeting in the Auditorium, Biology

Building, University of Wisconsin, Madison. Approximately 150 persons

attended the various sessions. The following program of papers was pre¬

sented.

Academy Section

April 19, 1949

Arlan C. Helgeson, Madison, Wisconsin. Athens, Wisconsin: the early

history of a cut-over village; Clarence A. Brown, Marquette University.

Emily and God; Einar Haugen, University of Wisconsin. The Bilingual’s

dilemma: a study of the Norwegian language in Wisconsin; Lester W. J.

Seifert, University of Wisconsin. The types of English loans in Wisconsin

German; Aaron J. Ihde, University of Wisconsin. A Wisconsin chemical

genealogy; Heinrich Henel, University of Wisconsin. Goethe’s studies of

nature; Victor M. Hamm, Marquette University. Form and the ambiva¬

lence of literature; Philip Whitehead, Beloit College. Art, science and

poetry; Svend Riemer, University of Wisconsin. Functional housing in the

middle ages; Rev. Francis Bloodgood, St. Francis House. Is eastern Ortho¬

doxy to have a passive or active role in our time?

Academy Section

April 20, 1949

George H. Conant, Triarch Botanical Products. Some correlations be¬

tween sporophyte development and gametogenesis in Lilium michiganense;

Howard K. Suzuki, Marquette University. Some notes on the distribution of

the Wisconsin amphibians; Paul A. Knipping, University of Wisconsin.

A report on some ticks known to occur in Wisconsin; Clarence A. Schoen-

feld. University of Wisconsin. Interpreting the science of wildlife manage¬

ment; Walter R. iSylvester, Central State Teachers College. Improving the

public’s attitude toward conservation; R. C. Dosen, S. F. Peterson and

D. T. Pronin, Nekoosa-Edwards Paper Company, University of Wisconsin.

Effect of ground water on the rate of growth of red and white pine in

central Wisconsin; Andre Lafond, University of Wisconsin. Relation to

morphological and chemical composition of humus to the rate of forest

growth in Wisconsin; Benson H. Paul and S. A. Wilde, University of Wis¬

consin. Rate of growth and composition of wood of aspen in relation to soil

fertility; Garth K. Voigt, University of Wisconsin. Causes of winter injury

to coniferous plantations during the winter of 1947--1948; S. A. Wilde and

G. W. Randall, University of Wisconsin. Chemical characteristics of ground

Proceedings of the Academy

303

water in forest and marsh soils of Wisconsin; Chester T. Youngberg, Uni¬

versity of Wisconsin. Evolution of prairie-forest soils under cover of invad¬

ing northern hardwoods in the driftless areas of southwestern Wisconsin.

Junior Academy Section

April 20, 1949

Ann Furminger, Nature Club, Appleton High School President, Wis¬

consin Junior Academy of Science, presiding; Thomas Krueger, Nature

Club, Appleton High School, Appleton. Fundamentals of Television; Peter

Bunde, Chemistry Club, Lincoln High School, Wisconsin Rapids. Vitamin C,

Assay; Harold Leland, Radio Club, Wausau Senior High School, Wausau.

Ultra-High Frequency Oscilator; Jack Ramlo, La Crosse Central Science

Club, Central High School, La Crosse. Duplication of the castner process

of making sodium; Robert J. Blattner, Shorewood High School, Shorewood.

On general invariants; Thomas B. Norton, Science Club, Washington High

School, Milwaukee. A new antibiotic substance; Elmer Waldschmidt, Sci¬

ence and Camera Club, Messmer High School, Milwaukee. Antimony elec¬

trode pH meter; Ralph Burnett, Seminar Club, Mary D. Bradford High

School, Kenosha. Study of protein deficiency in albino rat.

Junior High Papers

Wallace Nelson, Lincoln High School, Wisconsin Rapids. Bacteriology;

Edward Oakes, Lincoln High School, Wisconsin Rapids. Ultraviolet light

and its uses.

Annual Academy Lecture

The annual Academy dinner was held on April 19, 1949 in the Round

Table Room, Memorial Union, University of Wisconsin. President Otto

Kowalke of Madison gave the presidential address on “The Problems Facing

the Academy Today.”

Academy Business Meeting

The annual business meeting was held in the Play Circle of the

Memorial Union.

The Academy awarded the 1949 A.A.A;S. grant-in-aid of $86.50 to

Mr. Lester W. J. Seifert, Department of German, University of Wisconsin,

to help in continuing his work on a “(Survey of German Spoken in Wis¬

consin.”

Through the generosity of the Milwaukee Public Museum, $2,000 was

made available for publication of our Transactions. The specifications were

drawn up and let out on bids in the city of Milwaukee. The contract was

awarded to the Arrow Press for $2,562.00. All of the costs over $2,000 will

be paid by the Academy.

304 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Your Secretary and President Kowalke appeared before the legislature,

joint finance committee and education committee to present the Academy’s

request for financial support to aid in publication of the Transactions.

Through the continual and thorough efforts of Prof. Kowalke, it appears

that the $5,000 request to the Wisconsin Legislature for aid in publishing

V olume 40 of the Transactions will be a reality.

The following were elected to life membership for long and meritorious

service to the Academy: Prof. Otto L. Kowalke, Madison; Dr. Arlow B.

Stout, New York Botanical Garden; Prof. Edward M. Gilbert, Madison;

Prof. Wayland Chase, Madison and Dr. Harold C. Bradley, Madison.

The following persons were elected to office for the 1949-1950 Academy

year :

President: Robert K. Richardson, Professor of History, Emeritus,

Beloit College, Beloit.

Vice-President in Science: Allen Abrams, Marathon Paper Company,

Rothschild.

Vice-President in Arts: Lucia R. Briggs, Milwaukee-Downer College,

Milwaukee.

Vice-President in Letters: R.-M. S. Heffner, Professor of German,

University of Wisconsin, Madison.

Librarian: H. 0. Teisberg, State Historical Society, Madison.

Secretary-Treasurer: Banner Bill Morgan, Associate Professor of

Veterinary Science, University of Wisconsin, Madison.

Committee members elected were as follows :

Library Committee : W. H. Barber, Department of Physics, Ripon Col¬

lege, Ripon, Wisconsin; E. S. McDonough, Department of Biology,

Marquette University, Milwaukee, Wisconsin; W. E. Rogers, De¬

partment of Botany, Lawrence College, Appleton, Wisconsin;

W. B. Sarles, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin.

Membership Committee: Arthur D. Hasler, Department of Zoology,

University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin; Katherine Greacen,

Department of Geology, Milwaukee-Downer College, Milwaukee,

Wisconsin and Robert Esser, Racine Extension Center, Racine,

Wisconsin.

ComwAttee on Publications: Merritt Y. Hughes, Department of Eng¬

lish, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin.

Proceedings of the Academy

305

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY

The 1950 meeting of the Academy was held at Beloit College, Beloit,

Wisconsin, on Friday and Saturday, April 21 and 22, 1950.

Academy Section

April 21, 1950

Dr. Carey Croneis, President of Beloit College, gave the Address of

Welcome; Sylvester Ludington, Jr., Northwestern University, Sedimentary

analysis of the Pleistocene sediments on the bottom of Lake Geneva, Wis¬

consin; Robert H. Irrmann, Beloit College, Admiral Edward Russel and

the Mediterranean Campaign of 1694-1695; Otto L. Kowalke, University

of Wisconsin, Location of drumlins in Town of Liberty Grove, Door County,

Wisconsin; John W. Saunders, Jr., Marquette University, An experimental

analysis of the development of tract-specific characteristics in the humeral

feather area of the chick embryo; Robert Siegfried and Aaron J. Ihde,

University of Wisconsin, Beginnings of chemical education in Wisconsin

Colleges, Beloit, Lawrence, Ripon; Paul W. Boutwell, Beloit College, An

early chemical society at Beloit College, 1863-1866.

Friday afternoon

Cyril C. O’Brien, Marquette University, Alcoholism as an industrial

problem in Milwaukee County; Donald B. King, Beloit College, The Greek

translation of Augustus’ Res Gestae; James C. Perry, Marquette Univer¬

sity, Experimentally induced spermatogenic damage in frogs; David M.

Stocking (Introduced by Robert K. Richardson), Beloit College, The eccen¬

tric vision of John Jay Chapman; Rev. Raymond H. Reis, Marquette Uni¬

versity, Rhythmical change of form in Pelmatohydra oligactis (fresh water

polyp); Gustav E. Johnson (Introduced by Robert K. Richardson), Beloit

College, Some aspects of the United States military and political policy in

the China-Burma-India Theater, 1942-1945; John P. O’Brien, Marquette

University, Some factors influencing post-irradiation regression (Dissolu¬

tion) of larval Urodele cartilage.

Academy Section

April 22, 1950

Henry A. Schuette, University of Wisconsin, Maple sugar in Wiscon¬

sin. I. The fur trade era and thereafter; Lois Bell and E. S. McDonough,

Marquette University, A study of wood and bark in relation to the growth

of Schizophyllum commune Fries; Arthur D. Hasler and Warren J. Wisby,

University of Wisconsin, Discrimination of stream odors by fishes and its

relation to the parent stream theory; Gerard A. Rohlich and William L.

Lea, University of Wisconsin, Origin and quantities of plant nutrients

306 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

tributary to Lake Mendota; Fulmer Mood, University of Wisconsin, William

F. Allen and historical studies at the University of Wisconsin, 1867-1889

(By title).

Junior Academy Section

April 22, 1950

Frank Niesen, Science and Camera Club, Messmer High School, Mil¬

waukee, pH measurement of enzyme activity; Thomas Koerber, Science and

Camera Club, Messmer High School, Milwaukee, Experiments in ento¬

mology and hibernation of small vertebrates; John Bloxdorf, Seminar Club,

Mary D. Bradford High School, Kenosha, Photomicrography in black and

white; Gordon Greenblatt, Shorewood High School, Shorewood, The phe¬

nomena accompanying an electrical discharge through a vacuum.

Saturday afternoon

Nancy Oakes, Chemistry Club, Lincoln High School, Wisconsin Rapids,

Chemistry of cosmetics; Edward Oakes, Chemistry Club, Lincoln High

School, Wisconsin Rapids, Ultra violet light in analysis; Paul Kroening,

Science Club, Wausau Senior High School, Wausau, Ozonator; Thomas

Krueger, Nature Club, Appleton High School, Appleton, Radio astronomy;

James Rudolph, Science Club, Aquinas High School, La Crosse, Some eifects

of magnetism; Dick Gullickson, Science Club, Central High School, La

Crosse, Photographic observation of the planets; Charles Huber, Science

Club, Central High School, La Crosse, Flurochemistry ; Herbert Virnig,

Science Club, Aquinas High School, La Crosse, The potential reversibility

of rheumatoid arthritis and its reaction to Compound E.

Annual Academy Lecture

The annual Academy dinner was held Friday evening, April 21, 1950

at the First Congregation Church, Beloit, Wisconsin. Prof. R. C. Huffer,

Department of Mathematics and Astronomy, Beloit College, announced the

winners of the Wisconsin Science Talent Search. Members of the Wisconsin

Science Talent Search Committee include the following persons: Aaron J.

Ihde, Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin; Roy J. Christoph,

Department of Biology, Carroll College; Jack B. Greene, Department of

Physics, Marquette University; Katherine F. Greacen, Departments of

Geography and Geology, Milwaukee Downer College; S. F. Darling, Depart¬

ment of Chemistry, Lawrence College; Henry Meyer, Department of Biol¬

ogy, Ripon College; William Link, Department of Chemistry, Northland

College; R. C. Huffer (chairman). Department of Mathematics and Astron¬

omy, Beloit College.

This was followed by a short talk by Prof. Moreau Maxwell, Depart¬

ment of Anthropology, Beloit College. His topic was “The Wisconsin Arche¬

ological Survey”. Professor Robert K. Richardson, Department of History,

Beloit College, presented his presidential speech on “A Beloit Episode in

the Life of Carl Schurz”.

Proceedings of the Academy

307

Annual Academy Business Meeting

The annual business meeting was held in Theodore Lyman Wright Art

Hall, Beloit College, Friday, April 21, 1950.

The committee on nominations: H. A. Schuette (chmn), Otto L.

Kowalke, L. E. Noland, Luther Zellmer, and C. A. Brown presented the

slate of officers for the next Academy year. The following persons were

elected :

President: W. C. McKern, Milwaukee Public Museum.

Vice-President in Science: Katherine Greacen, Milwaukee-Downer

College.

Vice-President in Arts: Alfred Hornigold, Wisconsin Rapids.

Vice-President in Letters: Carl Welty, Beloit College.

Librarian: H. 0. Teisberg, State Historical Society.

Publications Committee: Ira L. Baldwin, University of Wisconsin.

Secretary-Treasurer : Banner Bill Morgan, University of Wisconsin.

The following members were elected to life membership for long and

meritorious service in the Academy: William G. Marquette, Pleasantville,

New York; Hartley H. T, Jackson, Washington, D. C.; Walter Gloyer,

Geneva, New York; W. O. Hotchkiss, Scarsdale, New York.

308 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

WISCONSIN ACADEMY TREASURER’S REPORT

April 1, 1947

Receipts

Carried forward in Treasury, April 1, 1946 . $1,152.09

Receipts from Junior Academy . 65.00

Receipts from dues April 1, 1946-April 1, 1947 . 719.88

Sale of publications . 565.37

Interest on endowment . 86.50

Grant-in-aid for research from AAAS . 86.00

Total Receipts . $2,674.79

Disbursements

Safe deposit box . $ 3.60

Prizes for Junior Academy winners . 35.00

Printing for Junior Academy . 44.00

Dinners for winners of the Junior Academy . 7.20

Printing programs, stationery, etc . 71.50

Cuts for the Transactions . 27.46

Reprints from the Transactions . 10.97

Allowance for Secretary-Treasurer . 200.00

Rubber stamp . 1.80

Grant-in-aid from AAAS to Emil Kruschke . 86.00

Stamps, envelopes, post cards, materials for Newsletter 95.00

Defraying expenses of the Council . 3.90

Total Disbursements . 586.43

Balance, April 1, 1947 . $2,088.36

Banner Bill Morgan

Secretary-Treasurer

The accounts of the Academy were found to be in order as reported

above for the date April 1, 1947.

Auditing Committee

Harold R. Wolfe

Richard I. Evans

Financial Reports

309

ENDOWMENTS AND ASSETS OF THE WISCONSIN ACADEMY OF

SCIENCES, ARTS AND LETTERS

April 1, 1947

1. U. iS. Treasury Coupon Bond 1692B . $1,000.00

2. U. S. Treasury Coupon Bond 12894D . 500.00

3. U. S. Savings Bond Registered iSeries G-M1696059G 1,000.00

4. U. S. iSavings Bond Registered Series G-C1563347G 100.00

5. U. S. Savings Bond Registered Series G-C1563348G 100.00

6. U. S. Savings Bond Series F-D494206F . 500.00

7. U. S. Savings Bond Series F-M989457F . 1,000.00

8. U. S. Savings Bond Series G-C3389339G . 100.00

9. U. S. Savings Bond Series G-C3457898G . 100.00

10. U. S. Savings Bond Series G-C3512841G . 100.00

11. U. S. Savings Bond Series G-C3560656G . 100.00

12. U. S. 'Savings Bond Series G-C3564110G . 100.00

13. U. S. Savings Bond Series G-C4154481G . 100.00

Total Amount of Endowment . . . $4,800.00

14. U. S. Savings Bond Series G-C2386504G . 100.00

15. U. S. Savings Bond Series G-C2386505G . 100.00

16. U. S. ISavings Bond Series G-C2386506G . 100.00

17. U. S. iSavings Bond Series G-C2386507G . 100.00

Current Assets Invested in U. S. Bonds . 400.00

18. Savings Account No. 3262 (3/14/47) . 1,020.10

Total . $6,220.10

The contents of the safety deposit box and the savings account were

found in order as reported above for the date April 1, 1947.

Auditing Committee

Harold R. Wolfe

Richard I. Evans

310 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

WISCONSIN ACADEMY TREASURER’S REPORT

April 1, 1948

Receipts

Carried forward in Treasury, April 1, 1947 . $2,088.36

Receipts from Junior Academy . 44.00

Receipts for lapel pins from Junior Academy . 70.80

Sale of publications . 237.77

Sale of reprints . 621.20

Receipts from dues April 1, 1947 to April 1, 1948 . 774.50

Receipts from Life Membership . . . 400.00

Interest from Endowment . 127.50

Grant-in-aid for research from A.A^A.S . 86.00

Gifts for Publication Fund . 276.00

Transferred from Savings Account . 830.00

Total Receipts . . . $5,556.13

Disbursements

Junior Academy Printing Certificates . $ 12.00

Junior Academy Prizes . 35.00

Junior Academy Dinners . 10.50

Junior Academy Reprints of Articles . 20.60

Junior Academy Printing of Letterheads . 17.00

Junior Academy Loan for purchase of lapel buttons - 204.71

Safe deposit box . 3.60

Printing Programs, Prospectus . 87.00

Student help in wrapping Transactions . 76.00

Grant-in-aid from A.A.A.S. to Howard Suzuki . 86.00

Allowance to Secretary-Treasurer . 200.00

Postage and supplies for Newsletter . 35.00

Purchase of 4 Bonds for Endowment Fund . 400.00

Cost of Volume 37 of Transactions not covered by appro¬

priation . 481.86

Cost of reprints from Volume 37 of Transactions . 450.00

Cost of Volume 38 of Transactions . 2,613.50

Cost of reprints from Volume 38 of Transactions . 283.00

Cost of mailing Volume 38 of Transactions . 25.00

Total Disbursements . 5,140.77

Balance, April 1, 1948 . . . $ 415.86

Banner Bill Morgan

Secretary-Treasurer

The accounts of the Academy were found to be in order and as above

for the date, April 1, 1948.

Auditing Committee

Philip G. Fox

Ernest F. Bean

Financial Reports

311

ENDOWMENTS AND ASSETS OF THE WISCONSIN ACADEMY OF

SCIENCES, ARTS AND LETTERS

April 1, 1948

1. U. S. Treasury Coupon Bond 1682B . .$1,000.00

2. U. S. Treasury Coupon Bond 12894D . 500.00

3. U. S. Savings Bond Registered ISeries G~-M1696059G 1,000.00

4. U. S. Savings Bond Registered Series G-C1563347G 100.00

5. U. S. Savings Bond Registered Series G-C1563348G 100.00

6. U. S. Savings Bond Series F-D494206F ........... 500.00

7. U. S. Savings Bond Series F-M989457F. . 1,000.00

8. U. S, iSavings Bond Series G“-C3389339G ..... _ 100.00

9. U. S. Savings Bond Series G-C3457898G .......... 100.00

10. U. S. Savings Bond Series G--CS512841G .......... 100.00

11. U. S. Savings Bond Series G-C3560656G . 100.00

12. U. S, 'Savings Bond Series G-C3564110G . 100.00

13. U. S. Savings Bond Series G“C4154481G . 100.00

14. U. S. Savings Bond Series G-C5044011G . . . 100.00

15. U. S, Savings Bond Series G-C5044012G . 100.00

16. U. S. Savings Bond Series G-C5074307G .......... 100.00

17. U. S. Savings Bond Series G-C5074308G .......... 100.00

Total Amount of Endowment ...................... $5,200.00

18. U. S. Savings Bond Series G--C2386504G . . . . . . 100.00

19. U. S. 'Savings Bond Series G-C2386505G. . . 100.00

20. U. S, Savings Bond Series G--C2386506G. . . 100.00

21. U. S. iSavings Bond Series G-C2386507G ........ 100.00

Current Assets Invested in U. S. Bonds . . 400.00

22. Savings Account No. 3262 (2/3, /48) . . . 200,30

Total . . . $5,800.30

Banner Bill Morgan

Secretary-Treasurer

The contents of the safety deposit box and the savings account were

found in order as reported above for the date April 1, 1948.

Auditing Committee

Philip G, Fox

Ernest F, Bean

312 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

WISCONSIN ACADEMY TREASURER'S REPORT

April 1, 1949

Receipts

Carried forward in Treasury, April 1, 1948 . $415.36

Receipts from Junior Academy . 57.00

Receipts for lapel pins from Junior Academy . 14.20

Sale of reprints (at cost) . 70.00

Sale of publications . 206.13

Interest from Endowment . 108.50

Grant-in-aid for research from A.A.A.S . 113.50

Receipts from dues April 1, 1948 to March 31, 1949 . 667.25

Receipts from Life Membership . 100.00

Total Receipts . $1,751.94

Disbursements

Safe deposit box . $ 3.60

Printing of letterheads, envelopes . 80.00

Printing Annual Program . 63.00

Printing Certificates . 20.00

Junior Academy Prizes . 35.00

Junior Academy Dinners . 10.50

Junior Academy Printing . 2.00

Stamps, stamped envelopes . 57.60

Salary allowance to Secretary-Treasurer . 200.00

Office supplies . 37.11

Grant-in-aid from A.A.A.S. to Paul Knipping . 113.50

Miscellaneous supplies . 20.29

Cost of copper half-tones, zinc plates, Vol. 39 . 100.92

Cost of color-plate for Volume 39 . 22.64

Purchase of one bond for Endowment Fund . 100.00

Total Disbursements . 866.16

Balance, April 1, 1949 . $ 885.78

Banner Bill Morgan

S ecre ta7'y- Treasurer

The accounts of the Academy were found to be in order and as reported

above for the date April 1, 1949.

Auditing Committee

Ernest F. Bean

Norman C. Fassett

Financial Reports

313

ENDOWMENTS AND ASSETS OF THE WISCONSIN ACADEMY OF

SCIENCES, ARTS AND LETTERS

April 1, 1949

1. U. S. Treasury Coupon Bond 1692B . $1,000.00

2. U. S. Treasury Coupon Bond 12894D . 500.00

3. U. S. Savings Bond Registered Series G-M1696059G 1,000.00

4. U, S. iSavings Bond Registered Series G-C1563347G 100.00

5. U. S. Savings Bond Registered Series G-C1563348G 100.00

6. U. S. Savings Bond Series F-D494206F . 500.00

7. U. S. Savings Bond Series F-M989457F . 1,000.00

8. U. S. Savings Bond Series G--C3389339G . 100.00

9. U. S. Savings Bond Series G--C3457898G . 100.00

10. U. S. Savings Bond Series G-C3512841G . 100.00

11. U. S. Savings Bond Series G-C3560656G . 100.00

12. U. S. Savings Bond Series G-C3564110G . 100.00

13. U. S. Savings Bond Series G-C4154481G . 100.00

14. U. S. Savings Bond Series G-C5044011G . 100.00

15. U. S. Savings Bond Series G-C5044012G . 100.00

16. U. S. Savings Bond Series G-C5074307G . 100.00

17. U. S. Savings Bond Series G-C5074308G . 100.00

18. U. S. Savings Bond Series G-C5463975G . 100.00

Total Amount of Endowment . $5,300.00

19. U. S. Savings Bond Series G-C2386504G . 100.00

20. U. S. Savings Bond Series G-C2386505G . 100.00

21. U. S. Savings Bond Series G-C2386506G . 100.00

22. U. S. Savings Bond Series G--C2386507G . 100.00

Current Assets Invested in U. S. Bonds . . 400.00

23. Savings Account No. 3262 (4/1/49) . 202.30

Grand Total . . . . . $5,902.30

Banner Bill Morgan

Secretary -Treasurer

The contents of the safe deposit box and the savings account were

found in order as reported above for the date April 1, 1949.

Auditing Committee

Ernest F. Bean

Norman C. Fassett

314 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

WISCONSIN ACADEMY TREASURER’S REPORT

April 1, 1950

Receipts

Carried forward in Treasury, March 31, 1949 . $885.78

Receipts from dues April 1, 1949 to April 1, 1950 . 830.00

Sale of reprints . 782.16

Sale of publications . 387.82

Interest on endowments . 110.00

Grant-in-aids for research from AAAS . 189.50

Receipts from Junior Academy . 48.60

Total Receipts . $3,233.86

Disbursements

Safe deposit box rental . $ 4.80

Cost of mailing Transactions (Volume 39) . 50.00

Office supplies, incidentals . 110.00

Junior Academy Prizes . 35.00

Junior Academy (Cost of Test Tube Times) . 13.80

AAAS grant in aid to L. J. Seifert . . . 86.50

Expenses of Academy Teas (Annual Meeting) . 12.90

Junior Academy (Cost of dinners for winners) . 21.25

Cost of printing Academy Program . 67.50

Cost of printing membership cards, letter heads . 23.00

Cost of making certificates . 34.00

Allowance for iSecretary-Treasurer . 200.00

Cost of cuts for Volume 39 Transactions . . . 129.70

Cost of printing Volume 39 Transactions not covered by

Museum . 472.87

AAAS grant in aid to Deam Ferris . 103.00

Cost of author reprints . 724.00

Total Disbursements . 2,089.22

Balance, April 1, 1950 . $1,144.64

Banner Bill Morgan

Secretary-Treasurer

The auditing committee has examined the accounts of the Treasurer

and has found them in order for the date April 1, 1950.

Auditing Committee

Louis W. Busse

Norman C. Fassett

Financial Reports

315

ENDOWMENTS AND ASSETS OF THE WISCONSIN ACADEMY OF

SCIENCES, ARTS AND LETTERS

April 1, 1950

1. U. S. Treasury Coupon Bond 1692B . $1,000.00

2. U. S. Treasury Coupon Bond 12894D . 500.00

3. U. S. Savings Bond Registered Series G-M1696059G 1,000.00

4. U. S. Savings Bond Registered Series G-C1563347G 100.00

5. U. S. Savings Bond Registered Series G~C1563348G 100.00

6. U. S. Savings Bond Series F-D494206F . 500.00

7. U. S. Savings Bond Series F-M989457F . 1,000.00

8. U. S. iSavings Bond Series G-C33893S9G . 100.00

9. U. S. Savings Bond Series G-C3457898G . 100.00

10. U. S. Savings Bond Series G-C3512841G . . 100.00

11. U. S. Savings Bond Series G-C3560656G . 100.00

12. U. S. Savings Bond Series G-C3564110G . 100.00

13. U. S. Savings Bond Series G-C4154481G . 100.00

14. U. S. Savings Bond Series G-C5044011G . 100.00

15. U. S. Savings Bond Series G-C5044012G . 100.00

16. U. S. Savings Bond Series G-C5074307G . 100.00

17. U. S. Savings Bond Series G-C5074308G . 100.00

18. U. S. Savings Bond Series G-C5463975G . 100.00

Total Amount of Endowment . $5,300.00

19. U. S. Savings Bond Series G-C2386504G . 100.00

20. U. S. Savings Bond Series G-C2386505G . 100.00

21. U. S. Savings Bond Series G-C2386506G . 100.00

22. U. S. Savings Bond Series G-C2386507G . 100.00

Current Assets Invested in U. S. Bonds . 400.00

23. Savings Account No. 3262 (4/1/50) . 204.32

Grand Total . $5,904.32

Banner Bill Morgan

S eere tary- Treasurer

The contents of the safe deposit box and the savings account were

found in order as reported above for the date April 1, 1950.

Auditing Committee

Louis W. Busse

Norman C. Fassett

316 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

FINANCIAL STATEMENT ON VOLUME 39 TRANSACTIONS

At the Council Meeting held April 23, 1948, the Milwaukee Public

Museum through their generosity offered to make available $2,000 for aid

in the publication of the Transactions since the legislature failed to appro¬

priate funds for this purpose at the last session. This money was formally

accepted at the annual business meeting held April 23, 1948 at Central

State Teachers College, Stevens Point, Wisconsin.

Cost of Volume 39

Transactions of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts

AND Letters (1200 Copies)

From the Milwaukee Public Museum . $1,999.43

From Academy Funds (Printing) . 472.87

From Academy Funds (Cuts and Plates) . 129.70

Total Cost . $2,602.00

It was stipulated that any copies of Volume 39 which were sold, the

proceeds were to go to the Milwaukee Public Museum.

The Council on October 29, 1949 passed a motion instructing the Secre¬

tary to keep a separate account for the receipts obtained from the sale of

Volume 39. Consequently, a separate account was established at the First

National Bank on November 4, 1949 (Special Account Number 498).

Deposits have been made as follows :

November 4, 1949 . $15.00

November 8, 1949 . 3.00

November 15, 1949 . 3.00

November 29, 1949 . 3.00

December 15, 1949 . 3.00

February 23, 1950 . 3.00

March 7, 1950 . 15.00

$45.00

Banner Bill Morgan

Secre tary-Treasurer

THE CONSTITUTION OF THE WISCONSIN ACADEMY

OF SCIENCES, ARTS AND LETTERS

(April 23, 1948)

Article I — Name and Location

This association shall be known as the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences,

Arts and Letters, and shall be located at the city of Madison.

Article II — Object

The object of the Academy shall be the promotion of sciences, arts and

letters in the state of Wisconsin. Among the special objects shall be the

publication of the results of investigation and the formation of a library.

Article III — Membership

The Academy shall include six classes 'of members, viz. : life members,

honorary members, sustaining members, patrons, corresponding members

and active members, to be elected by ballot.

1. Life members shall be elected on account of special services ren¬

dered the Academy. Life membership may also be obtained by the payment

of one hundred dollars and election by the Academy. Life members shall

be allowed to vote and to hold office.

2. Honorary members shall be elected by the Academy and shall be

men who have rendered conspicuous services to science, arts or letters.

3. Sustaining members shall be elected by the Academy or the Council

and shall pay annual dues of $10. They shall have the same rights and

privileges as active members, and shall be specially listed in the member¬

ship roll in recognition of their support of the Academy’s work.

4. Patrons shall be elected by the Academy in recognition of special

services or contributions. An account of such contributions shall be pub¬

lished to the membership in the minutes of the meeting at which the patron

is elected. Patrons shall have the rights and privileges of active members

during the year following their election.

5. Corresponding members shall be elected from those who have been

active members of the Academy, but who have removed from the state.

By special vote of the Academy men of attainments in science or letters

may be elected corresponding members. They shall have no vote in the

meetings of the Academy.

6. Active members shall be elected by the Academy or by the council,

and shall enter upon membership on payment of the first annual dues.

317

318 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Article IV — Officers

The officers of the Academy shall be a president, a vice-president for

each of the three departments, sciences, arts and letters, a secretary, a

librarian and a treasurer. These officers shall be chosen by ballot, on recom¬

mendation of the committee on nomination of officers, by the Academy at

an annual meeting and shall hold office for one year. Their duties shall be

those usually performed by officers thus named in scientific societies. It

shall be one of the duties of the president to prepare an address which shall

be delivered before the Academy at the annual meeting at which his term

of office expires.

Article V — Council

The council of the Academy shall be entrusted with the management of

its affairs during the intervals between regular meetings, and shall consist

of the president, the three vice-presidents, the secretary, the treasurer, the

librarian, and the past presidents who retain their residence in Wisconsin.

Three members of the council shall constitute a quorum for the transaction

of business, provided the secretary and one of the presiding officers be

included in the number.

Article VI — Committees

The standing committees of the Academy shall be a committee on pub¬

lication, a library committee, and a membership committee. These com¬

mittees shall be elected at the annual meeting of the Academy in the same

manner as the other officers of the Academy, and shall hold office for the

same term.

1. The committee on publication shall consist of the president and

secretary and a third member elected by the Academy. They shall determine

the matter which shall be printed in the publications of the Academy.

They may at their discretion refer papers of a doubtful character to spe¬

cialists for their opinion as to scientific value and relevancy.

2. The library committee shall consist of five members, of which the

librarian shall be ex-officio chairman, and of which a majority shall not be

from the same city.

3. The membership committee shall consist of five members, one of

whom shall be the secretary of the Academy.

Article VII — Meetings

The annual meeting of the Academy shall be held at such time and

place as the council may designate. Summer field meetings shall be held at

such times and places as the Academy or the council may decide. Special

meetings may be called by the council.

Article VIII — Publications

The regular publication of the Academy shall be known as its Trans¬

actions, and shall include suitable papers, a record of its proceedings, and

Constitution

319

any other matter pertaining to the Academy. This shall be printed by the

state as provided in the statutes of Wisconsin.

Article IX — Amendments

Amendments to this constitution may be made at any annual meeting

by a vote of three-fourths of all members present; provided, that the

amendment has been proposed by five members, and that notice has been

sent to all the members at least one month before the meeting.

BY-LAWS OF THE WISCONSIN ACADEMY OF

SCIENCES, ARTS AND LETTERS

1. The annual dues shall be three dollars for each active member, to be

charged to his account on the first day of January of each year.

2. The annual dues shall be remitted for the secretary-treasurer and

librarian during their term of office.

3. As soon as possible after January first of each year the secretary-

treasurer shall send to members statements of dues payable, and in case

of non-payment shall, within the succeeding four months, send a second

and, if necessary, a third notice.

4. The secretary-treasurer shall strike from the list of members the

names of those who are one year or more in arrears in the payment of

their dues, and shall notify such members of this action offering at the

same time to reinstate them upon receipt of the dues in arrears plus the

dues for the current year.

5. Each member of the Academy shall receive the current issue of the

Transactions provided that his dues are paid. Any member in arrears at

the time the Transactions are published shall receive his copy as soon as

his dues are paid.

6. The fee received from life members shall be set apart as a perma¬

nent endowment fund to be invested exclusively in securities which are

legal as investments for Wisconsin trust companies or savings banks. The

income alone from such fund may be used for the general purposes of the

Academy.

7. The secretary-treasurer shall receive annually an allowance of three

hundred dollars for services. (1950)

8. The secretary-treasurer shall be charged with the special duty of

editing and overseeing the publication of the Transactions. In the perform¬

ance of this duty he shall be advised by the committee on publication.

9. The Transactions shall contain in each volume: (a) a list of the

officers of the Academy, (b) the minutes of the annual meeting and (c)

such papers as are accepted under the provisions of Section 10 of these

By-Laws and no others.

10. Papers to be published in the Transactions must be approved as

to content and form by the committee on publication. They must represent

320 Wisconsm Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

genuine original contributions to the knowledge of the subject discussed.

Preference shall be given to papers of special interest to the state of Wis¬

consin and to papers presented at a regular meeting of the Academy. The

privilege of publishing in the Transactions shall be reserved for the mem¬

bers of the Academy.

11. The Constitution and By-Laws and the names and addresses of the

members of the Academy shall be published every third year in the Trans¬

actions. The Constitution and By-Laws shall also be available in reprint

form from the secretary-treasurer at any time.

12. Amendments to these By-Laws may be made at any annual meeting

by vote of three-fourths of all the members present.

WISCONSIN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, ARTS

AND LETTERS

List of Active Members

Corrected to Nov. 1, 1950

1. Aberg, Wm. J. P - 3401 Lake Mendota Dr., Madison, Wis.

2. Abrams, Allen _ _ Rothschild, Wis.

3. Alcorn, Paul _ _ _ Univ. of Conn., Storrs, Conn.

4. Allen, T. C _ _ _ King Hall, Univ. of Wis., Madison

5. Allison, Leonard N _ State Fish Hatchery, Grayling, Mich.

6. Andrews, Jay D _ Virginia Fisheries Lab., Yorktown, Va.

7. Baier, Joseph, Jr _ 623 W. State St., Milwaukee, Wis.

8. Baldwin, Ira L _ Bascom Hall, Madison, Wis.

9. Barber, W. H. _ _ _ Dept. Physics, Ripon Coll., Ripon, Wis.

10. Barta, E. F., Dr _ _ _ ^_425 E. Wis. Ave., Milwaukee, Wis.

11. Bartsch, A. P. _ U.S.P.H.S., Swan Island Bldg. 24, Portland 18, Oregon

12. Bassett, N. D _ 714 Farwell Dr., Madison, Wis.

13. Baumann, Carl A _ Biochem. Bldg., Madison, Wis.

14. Bean, E. F _ Science Hall, Madison, Wis.

15. Becker, George C _ 86C, Badger Wis.

16. Bender, Paul _ 58 Chem. Bldg., Madison, Wis.

17. Bennett, Edward _ 208 Elec. Engr. Bldg., Madison, Wis.

18. Berger, K. C _ Soils Bldg., Madison, Wis.

19. Bemauer, George _ 713 Chapman St., Madison, Wis.

20. Bertrand, Kenneth C _ Catholic Univ., Washington, D. C.

21. Black, J. D - Northeast Mo. State Teach. Coll., Kirksville

22. Boutwell, Paul W _ Dept. Chem., Beloit Coll., Beloit, Wis.

23. Bolender, E. L _ 92 Maple Ave., Superior, Wis.

24. Brauns, Fritz E _ 306 S. River St., Appleton, Wis.

25. Briggs, Lucia R _ Holton Hall, Milw.-Downer Coll., Milwaukee

26. Brink, R. A _ Genetics Bldg., Madison, Wis.

27. Brown, Bruce K _ 1608 Mirabeau Ave., New Orleans, La.

28. Brown, Robert M _ 624 Central Ave., Beloit, Wis.

29. Brown, C. A., Dr _ Marquette Univ., Dept. English, Milwaukee

30. Browne, Frederick L _ Forest Prod, hah., Madison, Wis.

31. Browning, Harold W _ R. I. State Coll., Kingston, R. I.

32. Bryan, George S _ Birge Hall, Madison, Wis.

33. Bubbert, Walter _ 1516 N. 37th St., Milwaukee, Wis.

34. Buck, Philo M., Jr _ Bascom Hall, Madison, Wis.

35. Buckstaif, Ralph N _ 256 Algoma Blvd., Oshkosh, Wis.

36. Buss, Irven 0.

_ Dept. Wildlife Management, Wash. State Coll., Pullman, Wash.

37. Busse, L. W _ ,_Chem. Bldg., Madison, Wis.

38. Cameron, Donald H _ % B. D. Eisendrath Tanning Co., Racine, Wis.

39. Carbine, W. F _ _ _ Fish and Wildlife Serv., Washington 25, D. C.

40. Carriker, M. R. _ Zoology Dept., Rutgers Univ., New Brunswick, N. J.

41. Carroll College _ Waukesha, Wis.

42. Carroll, Rev. Paul _ Creighton Univ., Omaha, Nebraska

43. Catenhusen, John _ Rt. 2, Mendota Beach Heights, Madison, Wis.

44. Churchill, W. S _ Box 168, Minocqua, Wis.

45. Clark, Harry H _ 356 Bascom Hall, Madison, Wis.

46. Clark, 0. H _ Univ. Museums Bldg., Ann Arbor, Mich.

47. Clark, Paul F _ 421 Serv. Mem. Inst., Madison, Wis.

48. Clarke, Herbert M _ Birge Hall, Madison, Wis.

49. Coleman, Thomas E _ 735 Farwell Drive, Madison, Wis.

321

322 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

50. Colmer, Arthur R - Dept. Bact., La. State Univ., Baton Rouge, La.

51. Conant, Geo. H - 719 Watson St., Ripon, Wis.

52. Cooper, Berenice - 1123 N. 17th St., Superior, Wis.

53. Cooper, Delmar C - 103 Genetics Bldg., Madison, Wis.

54. Cox, Eleanor H - Stout Inst., Menomonie, Wis,

55. Cull, Irene M - 3005 Western Ave., Peoria, Ill.

56. Curtis, John T - Birge Hall, Madison, Wis.

57. Daniels, Eugene - 521 N. Henry, Madison, Wis.

58. Daniels, Farrington _ Chem. Bldg., Madison, Wis.

59. Davies, Ithel B - 325 Racine St., Delavan, Wis.

60. Deason, Hilary J - Fish and Wildlife Serv., U.S.D.I., Wash, D. C.

61. De Cleene, Rev. L.A.V _ 1015 S. Monroe Ave., Green Bay, Wis.

62. Derleth, August W - Sauk City, Wis.

63. Deutch, Harold F - 202 Serv. Mem. Inst., Madison, Wis.

64. Devitt, Andrew B _ 2318-A N. 5th St., Milwaukee, Wis.

65. de Weerdt, Ole N _ Beloit Coll., 808 Park Ave., Beloit, Wis.

66. Dicke, B. C - 5112 W. Starke St, Milwaukee 9, Wis.

67. Dicke, Robert - King Hall, Madison, Wis.

68. Dickinson, W. E _ Milwaukee Pub. Museum, Milwaukee, Wis.

69. Doane, Gilbert H _ 220 Univ. Library, Madison, Wis.

70. Dodge, B. O _ N. Y. Bot. Garden, New York, N. Y.

71. Dogger, James R _ Dept. Entom. Oklahoma A. M., Stillwater

72. Doherty, Mary A _ 5922 10th Ave., Kenosha, Wis.

73. Domagalla, Bernhard P _ 723 W. Johnson, Madison, Wis.

74. Doolittle, Sears P _ 1519 44th St., N.W., Wash. 7, D. C.

75. Dosen, Robert C _ 31 1st Ave. S., Port Edwards, Wis.

76. Dreschler, Charles

_ Bur. Plant Ind. Sta., Div. Fruit and Veg. Crops, Beltsville, Md.

77. Drescher, Milton A _ 2811 N. 73rd St., Milwaukee 10, Wis.

78. Dunlop, Douglas W _ 623 W. State St., Milwaukee, Wis.

79. Durand, Loyal, Jr _ Dept. Geography, U. Tenn., Knoxville, Tenn.

80. Dyson, Helen C. _ 1815 King St., La Crosse, Wis.

81. Eager, Leonard P _ 228 W. Main, Evansville, Wis.

82. Eells, John S., Jr _ 757 Milw. Rd., Beloit, Wis.

83. Eggleston, F. E _ Dept. Zook, U. Mich., Ann Arbor, Mich.

84. Ekern, Paul C., Jr _ 1824 Vilas Ave., Madison, Wis.

85. Ellarson, Robert S _ Old Entomology Bldg., Madison, Wis.

86. Ellis, C. W _ 122 Lakewood Blvd., Madison, Wis.

87. Elvehjem, Conrad A _ Biochem. Bldg., Madison, Wis.

88. Emielity, J. G _ Milw. Pub. Museum, Milwaukee, Wis.

89. Engel, Martha S _ 1111 Rutledge St., Madison, Wis.

90. Englerth, Geo. H _ Forest Prod. Lab., Madison, Wis.

91. Errington, Paul _ Zool. Dept., la. State Coll., Ames, Iowa

92. Esser, Robert E _ Dept. Biol., Racine Ext. Center, Racine

93. Evans, Clarence T _ 2626 Lefeber Ave., Wauwatosa 13, Wis.

94. Evans, Lucille _ 2129 E. Kenwood Blvd., Milwaukee, Wis.

95. Evans, Richard _ Birge Hall, Madison, Wis.

96. Everest, D. C _ Rothschild, Wis.

97. Fassett, N. C _ Birge Hall, Madison, Wis.

98. Ferris, Deam _ Graceland Coll., Lamonie, Iowa

99. Finch, Vernor C _ 301 Science Hall, Madison, Wis.

100. Fischthal, J. H.

_ Dept. Biol., Triple Cities Coll., Syracuse Univ., Endicott, N. Y.

101. Fisk, Emma L _ Birge Hall, Madison, Wis.

102. Fluke, Charles L., Jr _ 105 King Hall, Madison, Wis.

103. Foley, F. C _ 115 Science Hall, Madison, Wis.

104. Fowlkes, John Guy _ Education Bldg., Madison, Wis.

105. Fox, Philip G _ 403 Sterling Hall, Madison, Wis,

106. Frasche, Dean F _ 1830 Plymouth St., N. W., Wash. 12, D. C.

107. Frazier, Wm. C._- _ Ag. Hall, Madison, Wis.

108. Fred, Edwin B _ 158 Bascom, Madison, Wis.

List of Members

323

109. Frey, Charles N - 45 Cambridge Rd., Scarsdale, N. Y.

110. Friesner, R. C - Dept. Botany, Butler Univ., Indianapolis, Ind.

111. Fulcher, John S - Beloit Coll., Beloit, Wis.

112. Fuller, Albert M - Milw. Pub. Museum, Milwaukee, Wis.

113. Gates, Charles B - 2501 E. Stratford Ct., Milwaukee, Wis.

114. Gerry, Eloise _ Forest Prod. Lab., Madison, Wis.

115. Gillan, A. Joseph - 4638A W. Medford, Milwaukee, Wis.

116. Gottlieb, H. L - 305 Lathrop, Madison, Wis.

117. Graber, L. F - Moore Hall, Madison, Wis.

118. Grace, Harriett M _ 613 Howard PL, Madison, Wis.

119. Greco, Jennie _ 5519-25th Ave., Kenosha, Wis.

120. Greene, H. C - Birge Hall, Madison, Wis.

121. Greene, Howard T - Genesee Depot, Wis.

122. Greene, John M - Genesee Depot, Wis.

123. Guyer, Michael F - Birge Hall, Madison, Wis.

124. Haberman, W. 0 - Ralston-Purina Co., St. Louis, Mo.

125. Halbert, Charles A _ Shorewood Hills, Madison, Wis.

126. Hall, Norris F _ .205 Chem. Bldg., Madison, Wis.

127. Hanawalt, Ella M _ Milw. Downer Coll., Milwaukee, Wis.

128. Hanley, Wilber M _ 107 Extension Bldg., Madison, Wis.

129. Hansen, Arthur C. _ 2565 N. 84th St., Wauwatosa, Wis.

180. Hasler, Arthur D _ Birge Hall, Madison, Wis.

131. Hawley, John C _ —The Evergreens, R. No. 4, Madison, Wis.

132. Hayes, Merlin L _ 623 W. State St., Milwaukee, Wis.

133. Heffner, R. M. S _ Dept. German, 84 Bascom Hall

134. Herman, Elmer F _ Southern Fisheries Area Hdqts., Madison

135. Herrick, C. A _ Birge Hall, Madison, Wis.

136. Heun, Alphonse L _ 1611 N. 33rd St., Milwaukee, Wis.

137. Hickey, J. J _ Old Entomology Bldg., Madison, Wis.

138. Higuchi, Takeru _ Chemistry Bldg., Madison, Wis.

139. Hile, Ralph

_ Univ. Museums Bldg., 1307 W. Madison St., Ann Arbor, Mich.

140. Hirschfelder, J. 0 _ Dept. Chem., Madison, Wis.

141. Hoffman, Carl E _ Dept. ZooL, Univ. Arkansas, Fayetteville

142. Holmes, G. William _ 705 Woodward, Beloit, Wis.

143. Hornigold, Alfred _ 510 9th St., S., Wis. Rapids, Wis.

144. Hougan, O. A _ Chem. Engr. Bldg., Madison, Wis.

145. Howells, W. W _ Sterling Hall, Madison, Wis,

146. Hrubesky, C. E._L _ Forest Prod. Lab., Madison, Wis.

147. Huffer, Ralph C _ 729 Hubart Place, Beloit, Wis.

148. Hughes, Merritt Y _ Bascom Hall, Madison, Wis.

149. Huskins, C. L _ Birge Hall, Madison, Wis.

150. Ihde, A. J _ Chemistry Bldg., Madison, Wis.

151. Ingraham, Mark H _ 102 South Hall, Madison, Wis.

152. Irrmann, Robert H _ 817 Bushnell St., Beloit, Wis.

153. Jackson, M. L _ Soils Bldg., Madison, Wis.

154. Jacobson, J. R _ 1118 Harrison St., Superior, Wis.

155. Jannke, Paul J _ Univ. Conn., Coll. Pharmacy, New Haven, Conn.

156. Jeserich, Marguerite W _ Midland Coll., Fremont, Nebraska

157. Johansson, K. R _ Univ. Minn., Dept. Med. Bact., Minneapolis

158. Johnson, Gustav E _ 448 Wis. Ave., Beloit, Wis.

159. Johnson, Raymond E.

_ Bur. Fisheries Res., 633 State Office Bldg., St. Paul 1, Minn.

160. Jones, Fred Reuel _ ._214 Hort. Bldg., Madison, Wis.

161. Jung, Clarence S _ 6383 N. Port Wash. Rd., Milwaukee, Wis.

162. Kant, Fritz _ _ _ 515 E. Gorham, Madison, Wis.

163. Keitt, Geo. W _ 207 Hort. Bldg., Madison, Wis.

164. Keller, Sister Mary Anthony

_ Marion Coll., 390 E. Division, Fond du Lac

165. Kesselman, Wm _ 3061 N. Downer, Milwaukee, Wis.

166. Kiekhofer, Wm. H _ 308 Sterling Hall, Madison, Wis.

324 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

167. King, Donald B - 726 Milw. Rd., Beloit, Wis.

168. Kirchoff, Roger C - 1908 Arlington PL, Madison, Wis.

169. Kittsley, Helen J - 917 N. Milw. St. No. 1, Milwaukee 2, Wis.

170. Kittsley, Scott Loren - 810 E. Mason St., Milwaukee, Wis.

171. Kivela, Henry V. Jr - 5917 Cornflower Lane, Greendale, Wis.

172. Klak, Geo. E.

- — - Head, Dept. Biol., Coll. William and Mary, Norfolk 8, Va.

173. Knipping, P. A - Route 3, Mission House Coll., Plymouth, Wis.

174. Kohl, E. J._ - Lakeside Biol. Prod., Ripon, Wis.

175. Kopf, Kenneth - Hawaiian Pineapple Co., Ltd., Honolulu, T. H.

176. Krause, Dr. H. - 511 W. Government St., Pensacola, Fla.

177. Kruschke, Emil P - Milw. Pub. Museum, Milw., Wis.

178. Lafond, Andre-Maurice - 2922 Monroe St,, Madison, Wis. (Soils)

179. Earners, Wm - 7832 Warren Ave., Wauwatosa, Wis.

180. Larsen, Edwin M - Chem. Bldg., Madison, Wis.

181. Law, J. R - - - 2011 Univ. Ave., Madison, Wis.

182. Leonard, Clifford S _ 87 Oxford Rd., Longmeadow, Springfield, Mass.

183. Levi, Herbert-, - U, W. Ext. Center, Wausau, Wis.

184. Limbach, John P - Triarch Botanic Prod., Ripon, Wis.

185. Lincicome, D. R. _ Vet. Chem. Lab., Route 2, Newark, Delaware

186. Lindsay, Ruth H _ Crawford House, Wellesley Coll., Wellesley, Mass,

187. Link, Karl Paul _ Dept. Biochem., Madison, Wis.

188. Lord, C. L _ Historical Library, Madison, Wis.

189. Loughborough, W. Karl _ Forest Prod. Lab., Madison, Wis.

190. Loy, Anne B. (Mrs.) _ Milw. Downer Coll., Milwaukee, Wis.

191. Ludington, Sylvester - 1724 N. 74th St., Wauwatosa, Wis.

192. McCalmont, Mary M _ Stout Inst., Menomonie, Wis.

193. McCoy, Elizabeth F _ 21 Ag. Hall, Madison, Wis.

194. McDonough, Eugene S._Dept. Biol., Marquette Univ., Milwaukee, Wis.

195. McGranahan, Mrs. Floyd _ 811 Clary St., Beloit, Wis.

196. McElvain, S. M _ 308 Chem. Bldg., Madison, Wis.

197. McKern, W. C - Milw. Pub. Mus., Milwaukee, Wis.

198. McLaren, Barbara - Div. Home Econ., Wash. State Coll., Pullman

199. MacLean, J. D _ Forest Prod. Lab., Madison, Wis.

200. McNeel, W _ Ag. Hall, Madison, Wis.

201. McNutt, S. H., _ - _ Genetics Bldg., Madison, Wis.

202. MacArthur, Kenneth _ Milw, Museum, Milwaukee, Wis.

203. Mackenthun, Kenneth M _ 3717 Ross St., Madison, Wis.

204. Main, Angie Kumlien _ R. No. 1, Fort Atkinson, Wis.

205. March, Herman W _ _ _ __North Hall, Madison, Wis.

206. Marschall, A. J _ 14 Proudfit St., Madison, Wis. (515 N. Pinckney)

207. Marshall, Anne _ —902 7th St., Menomonie, Wis.

208. Martin, Dr. Ella - - - - - 27 S. Elm St., Platteville, Wis.

209. Marts, Ralph 0 _ —420 W. Gorham, Madison, Wis.

210. Mason, Arnold C _ 8036 Watkins Dr., St, Louis 5, Mo.

211. Mathews, Frederick J. _ _ _ _ _ _ — .Beloit Coll., Beloit, Wis.

212. Mathews, Joseph H _ .-111 Chem. Bldg., Madison, Wis.

213. Mead, Warren J._. _ 77 Mass. Ave., Cambridge 39, Mass. (M.I.T.)

214. Meloche, Villiers W _ _ _ 269 Chem, Bldg,, Madison, Wis.

215. Meyer, Henry, Dr _ _ _ — - - 307 Spaulding Ave., Ripon, Wis.

216. Middleton, W. S _ ———Wis. Gen. Hosp., Madison, Wis.

217. Mielcarek, Henry A _ Allis-Chalmers Manufacturing Co., Milwaukee

218. Miles, Philip E. _ 1900 Arlington PL, Madison, Wis.

219. Moeck, Arthur H _ 301 E, Armour Ave., Milwaukee, Wis.

220. Mossman, Harland W _ —417 Science Hall, Madison, Wis.

221. Muckenhirn, Robert J _ ^———303 Soils Bldg., Madison, Wis.

222. Muegge, 0. J _ _ _ _ _ 656 Crandall St., Madison, Wis.

223. Neidhoefer, J. R. _ _ _ _ _ 2443 N. 68th St., Milwaukee, Wis.

224. Nelson, Glenn H _ Univ. Arizona, Coll. Ed., Tucson, Ariz,

225. Nelson, Katherine Greacen— — Milw.-Downer College, Milwaukee, Wis.

226. Neumyer, W. J _ _ _ 2522 N. 1st St., Milwaukee 12, Wis,

List of Members

325

227. Nevins, Beatrice I - Ga. State Women’s Coll., Valdosta, Ga.

228. Newlun, C. O _ 126 Rountree Ct., Platteville, Wis.

229. Nichols, Charles - - - 206 Hall St., Ripon, Wis.

230. Nichols, M. Starr - 423 Serv. Mem. Inst., Madison, Wis.

231. Noland, Wayland E - 1723 Summit, Madison, Wis.

232. O’Brien, Cyril C _ 2531 N. Oakland Ave., Milwaukee, Wis.

233. O’Brien, John P _ Dept. Biol., Marquette Univ., Milwaukee

234. Oehlenschlaeger, Eliz. A. _ _ _ _3245 N. Shepard Ave., Milwaukee, Wis.

235. Ordway, John G _ Crane Mfg. Co., Bdwy. at Fifth, St. Paul 1, Minn.

236. Palmer, C. Lewis _ 131 W. Gilman St., Madison, Wis.

237. Parsons, Helen T _ 219 Home Econ. Bldg., Madison, Wis.

238. Paul, Benson H _ _ Forest Prod. Lab., Madison, Wis.

239. Peppier, H. J _ 2344 N. Oakland, Milwaukee, Wis.

240. Perry, James C _ Dept. Zool., Marquette Univ., Milwaukee, Wis.

241. Peterson, Marie _ Marathon Pub. Schools, Marathon, Wis.

242. Pfefferkorn, K. B.

_ Oshkosh Clinic Bldg., 19 Jefferson Ave., Oshkosh, Wis.

243. Pinney, Mary E. _ Johnston Hall, Milw. Downer Coll., Milwaukee, Wis.

244. Potzger, J. E _ _ _ Dept. Botany, Butler U., Indianapolis, Ind.

245. Pratt, Clarence H _ _ _ 727 Thome St., Ripon, Wis.

246. Pritzel, Rev. Peter P _ St. Norbert Coll., West DePere, Wis.

247. Reese, Hans H _ Wis. Gen. Hosp., Madison, Wis.

248. Rehwaldt, Aug. C _ 929 N. 31st St., Milwaukee, Wis.

249. Reis, Rev. Raymond _ Marquette Univ., Milwaukee, Wis.

250. Reith, Allan F _ 924 E. Sylvan Ave., Milwaukee, Wis.

251. Retzer, John P _ Rt. No. 1, Box 145, Waukesha, Wis.

252. Reyer, H. B _ 7525 Oak Hill Ave., Wauwatosa, Wis.

253. Reynolds, B. S _ 1015 E, Wash. Ave., Madison, Wis.

254. Richards, C. Audrey - Forest Prod. Lab., Madison, Wis.

255. Richardson, Robert K - __„_829 Church St., Beloit, Wis.

256. Riemer, Svend H _ 330 Sterling Hall, Madison, Wis.

257. Riker, Mrs. A. J. _ 212 Horticulture Bldg., Madison, Wis.

258. Ritter, Geo. J - 310 Vista Rd., Madison, Wis.

259. Roark, Raymond J _ Engineering Bldg., Madison, Wis.

260. Rogers, Walter E _ Box 385, Appleton, Wis.

261. Rohlich, G. A _ _ 9 Hydraulics Lab., Madison, Wis.

262. Rosenberry, Hon, Marvin B _ 81 Cambridge Rd., Madison, Wis.

263. Ross, Frank A _ Shorewood Hills, Madison, Wis.

264. Ryan, Joseph G _ 918 Division St., Green Bay, Wis.

265. Salamun, P. J._, _ State Teach. Coll., Milwaukee, Wis.

266. Sarles, Wm. B _ 310 Ag. Hall, Madison, Wis.

267. Saunders, John W.— _ Dept. Biol., Marquette Univ., Milwaukee, Wis.

268. Schiller, E. L _ U.S.P.H.S., Box 960, Anchorage, Alaska

269. Schlaeger, Albert J _ 2336 Putnam St., Toledo, Ohio

270. Schmidt, Erwin R _ —Wis. Gen. Hosp., Madison, Wis.

271. Schneberger, Edward _ Wis. Cons. Dept., State Office Bldg., Madison

272. Schoenfeld, C. A _ Apt. 23C, Univ. Houses, Madison, Wis.

273. Schubring, E. J. B._, _ 122 W. Wash. Ave., Madison, Wis.

274. Schubring, Dr. Selma L - - 410 N. Pinckney St., Madison, Wis.

275. Schuette, H. A. _ _ _ _ _ 253 Chem. Bldg., Madison, Wis.

276. Schwartz, Sidney L. _ _ _ _ _ Forest Prod. Lab., Madison, Wis.

277. Scott, R. H _ _ _ 619 Eugenia Ave., Madison, Wis.

278. Scott, Walter E _ _ _ Mendota Beach Heights, Madison, Wis.

279. Searles, Clarence A _ _ _ Wis. Rapids, Wis.

280. Seguin, Hazel A _ State Teach. Coll., Superior, Wis.

281. Seifert, Lester W. J _ _ _ 84 Bascom, Madison, Wis.

282. Seymour, F. C. _ _ _ Tomahawk, Wis.

283. Shackelford, R. Max _ Genetics Bldg., Madison, Wis.

284. Shenefelt, Roy D.-.^ _ _ _ King Hall, Madison, Wis.

285. Shoemaker, Milton J _ 3433 Sunset Dr., Madison, Wis.

286. Shively, S. B.__ _ Nebraska Wesleyan Univ., Lincoln 4, Nebraska

326 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

287. Sister Mary Audrey - 1000 Edgewood Ave., Madison, Wis.

288. Sister M. Anthony Keller _ Marion Coll., 390 E. Div. St., Fond du Lac

289. Sister Mary Lauretta - Messmer High School, Milwaukee, Wis.

290. Sister M. Mira Studer _ Alvemo Coll., 1413 S. Layton Blvd., Milw. 4

291. Slidell, Kemper - 1811 Kendall Ave., Madison, Wis.

292. Smith, Lloyd

Div. Ent. and Econ. ZooL, Univ. Minn., Univ. Farm, St. Paul 1, Minn.

293. Smith, W. N - 121 Bayley Ave., Platteville, Wis.

294. Snell, Walter H - 21 Laurel Ct., Brown Univ., Providence 12, R. I.

295. Sorum, C. H - Chemistry Bldg., Madison, Wis.

296. Sperry, Theo. M - Kansas State Teach. Coll., Pittsburgh, Kans.

297. Spohn, Wm. H - 221 Lakewood Blvd., Madison, Wis.

298. Squier, Theo. L - 425 E. Wis. Ave., Milw., Wis. (2619 Eastwood PL)

299. Stauffer, John F _ 55 Birge Hall, Madison, Wis.

300. Steenbock, Harry _ 258 Biochem. Bldg., Madison, Wis.

301. Steil, Wm. N - 1926 N. 53rd St., Milwaukee, Wis.

302. Steiner, Gotthold _ 4117 29th St., Mt. Ranier, Md.

303. Stephenson, R. G - Western Ave., Cedarburg, Wis.

304. Stewart, Duncan J _ % Barber-Colman Co., Drawer 99, Rockford, Ill.

305. Stock, Kurt _ Fish Creek, Wis.

306. Stocking, David M - 821% College St., Beloit, Wis.

307. Stoddard, Herbert L _ R. No. 5, Thomasville, Ga.

308. Storey, O. W _ 180 N. Wabash Ave., Chicago, Ill.

309. Stovall, Wm. D _ 438 Mem. Inst. Bldg.

310. Strehlow, Elmer W _ 520 E. Montana St., Milwaukee 7, Wis.

311. Supemaw, Jack S _ 818 Prospect PL, Madison, Wis.

312. Suzuki, Howard _ 1682 N. Marshall St., Milwaukee, Wis.

313. Sweet, Carroll V _ Forest Prod. Lab., Madison, Wis.

314. Sylvester, W. R _ 208 Viertal Ave., Stevens Point, Wis.

315. Talbot, H. W _ 54 West Custer St., Oshkosh, Wis.

316. Teisberg, Halvor 0 _ 120 Historical Library, Madison, Wis.

317. Thomson, J. W., Jr _ Birge Hall, Madison, Wis.

318. Throne, Alvin L _ State Teach. Coll., Milwaukee, Wis.

319. Thwaites, Fredrik T _ _ _ 207 Science Hall, Madison, Wis.

320. Topetzes, James _ 5910 N. Hopkins St., Milwaukee 9, Wis.

321. Topetzes, Nick John _ 5910 N. Hopkins St., Milwaukee 9, Wis.

322. Trask, P. D _ 491 Crescent St., Oakland, Calif.

323. Tressler, W. L _ 4608 Amherst Rd., College Park, Md.

324. Trewartha, Glenn T _ 313 Science Hall, Madison, Wis.

325. Truog, Emil _ 204 Soils Bldg., Madison, Wis.

326. Twenhofel, Wm. H _ 208 Science Hall, Madison, Wis.

327. Tyler, Stanley _ Science Hall, Madison, Wis.

328. Urdang, Geo _ 457 Chem. Bldg., Madison, Wis.

329. Van Biesbroeck, Geo _ Yerkes Observatory, Williams Bay, Wis.

330. Vanderwall, E. J _ 2324 Eton Ridge, Madison, Wis.

331. Van Engel, Willard _ Va. Fisheries Lab., Gloucester Point, Va.

332. Van Vleck, J. H _ 55 Fayweather St., Cambridge, Mass.

333. Vaughn, C. M _ Dept. Zool. Miami Univ., Oxford, Ohio

334. Voight, Garth K _ 1662 Monroe St., Madison, Wis.

335. Walker, J. Chas _ 206 Horticulture Bldg., Madison, Wis.

336. Walker, Ruth I _ U. W. Ext. Bldg., 623 W. State, Milwaukee, Wis.

337. Warner, Eldon _ 623 W. State St., Milwaukee, Wis.

338. Washburn, Robert G _ 425 E. Wis. Ave., Milwaukee, Wis.

339. Watson, Kenneth M _ 3501 Blackhawk Dr., Madison, Wis.

340. Wellman, Frederick L.

_ Inter American Inst., Apt. 14, Turrialba, Costa Rica

341. Wells, Sidney D _ Box 1, Combined Locks, Wis.

342. Welty, Carl _ 819 College St., Beloit, Wis.

343. Wenstrand, David E. W _ 720 E. Wis. Ave., Milwaukee, Wis.

344. Westenberger, Rev. E. J _ 131 S. Monroe St., Green Bay, Wis.

345. White, Helen C. _ 321 Bascom Hall, Madison, Wis.

List of Members

327

346. Whitehead, Marvin D _ P. 0. Box 1773, College Station, Texas

347. Whitford, Philip B _ 623 W. State St., Milwaukee 2, Wis.

348. Wilde, Sergious A.__ _ _ _ 202 Soils Bldg., Madison, Wis.

349. Wilds, Alfred L — - - - - Chem. Bldg., Madison, Wis.

350. Williams, H. F _ P. 0. Box 1190, Madison, Wis.

351. Winans, J. G _ _ _ Sterling Hall, Madison, Wis.

352. Wing, M. E - __1736 N. Rhodes, Arlington, Va.

353. Wingert, E. L. _ _ _ _ 117 N. Prospect Ave., Madison, Wis.

354. Winslow, Carlile P _ % B. Peterson, 3620 Odana Rd., Madison, Wis.

355. Wise, Louis Elsberg _ Inst. Paper Chem., Appleton, Wis.

356. Wisniewski, T. F _ _ _ ; _ 4341 Hillcrest Dr., Madison, Wis.

357. Wolfe, Harold R _ Birge Hall, Madison, Wis.

358. Wright, Stillman

- - - .Fish and Wildlife Serv., Dept. Interior, Wash. 25, D. C.

359. Youngberg, Chester T _ 2037 Helena St., Madison, Wis.

360. Zdanowicz, Casimer _ 207 Bascom, Madison, Wis.

361. Zellmer, Luther - - - State Teach. Coll., Platteville, Wis.

362. Zens, Rev. Claude P.

_ _ _ ,_„St. Anthony at the Lake, 2246 Auer Park, Pewaukee, Wis.

363. Zimmerman, Fred R _ 4110 Birch Ave., Madison, Wis.

364. Zirrer, Francis _ _ _ _ _ Route 3, Hayward, Wis.

Life Members

1. Allen, Charles E _ Birge Hall, Madison, Wis.

2. Anderson, Don _ 801 Magdeline Dr., Madison, Wis.

3. Bradley, Dr. H. C _ 2639 Durant Ave., Berkeley 4, Calif.

4. Brandenburg, F. S _ 711 Farwell Dr., Madison, Wis.

5. Burgess, Jackson _ _ _ 180 N. Wabash Ave., Chicago, Ill.

6. Davis, E. W - 1590 Edgcomb Rd., St. Paul 5, Minn.

7. Denniston, Rollin H _ _ _ Birge Hall, Madison, Wis.

8. Ekern, H. L _ _ _ Shorewood Hills, Madison, Wis.

9. Fischer, Richard _ 1 Langdon St., Madison, Wis.

10. Ford, J. C _ _ _ 500 Farwell Dr., Madison, Wis.

11. Frautschi, Walter S _ _ 33 Fuller Dr., Madison, Wis.

12. Gilbert, E. M.__ _ Birge Hall, Madison, Wis.

13. Gloyer, Walter O _ 106 Lyceum St., Geneva, New York

14. Gunlogson, G. B _ _ _ 1815 Coll., Racine, Wis.

15. Hobbs, Wm.- _ 1005 Berkshire Rd., Ann Arbor, Mich.

16. Hotchkiss, W. O _ _ _ 2 Tudor Lane, Scarsdale, N. Y.

17. Jackson, Hartley H. T _ Fish and Wildlife Serv., Washington, D. C.

18. Kowalke, Otto L _ 104 Chem. Engr. Bldg., Madison, Wis.

19. Leith, B. D _ 108 Moore Hall, Madison, Wis.

20. Marquette, Wm. G _ 59 Broadway, Pleasantville, N. Y.

21. Marshall, Ruth__„ _ Wis. Dells, Wis.

22. Noland, L. E _ _ _ Birge Hall, Madison, Wis.

23. Reed, Geo. M - 25 S. Linwood Ave., Pittsburg 5, Pa.

24. Rennebohm, Oscar _ _ _ 550 W. Wash. Ave., Madison, Wis.

25. Rohde, H. W _ _ _ 235 W. Galena St., Milwaukee, Wis.

26. Schorger, A. W _ 168 N. Prospect Ave., Madison 5, Wis.

27. Stout, Arlow B - N. Y. Bot. Gardens, New York, N. Y.

28. Thorkelson, H. J. B _ Univ. Club, 803 State St., Madison, Wis.

29. Tomlinson, C. W._ _ 509 Simpson Bldg., Ardmore, Oklahoma

30. Tumeaure, Frederick R _ ___166 N. Prospect Ave., Madison 5, Wis.

31. Wadmond, S. C _ 3859 Columbus Ave., Minneapolis 7, Minn.

32. Wagner, Geo.__ _ _ _ 7215 Shore Road, Brooklyn (20), N. Y.

328 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letter's

Honorary Members

1. Forbes, Esther _ 23 Trowbridge Rd., Worcester, Mass.

2. Hart, E. B _ Biochem. Bldg., Madison, Wis.

3. Wetmore, Alexander _ Smithsonian Inst,, Wash., D. C.

4. Wright, Frank Lloyd _ Spring Green, Wis.

5. Lenroot, Katherine _ Children’s Bureau, Wash. D. C.

Corresponding Members

1. Alexander, Edward P _ Colonial Williamsburg, Virginia

2. Bunting, Charles H _ 139 Armory St., Hamden, Conn.

3. Dillon, Myles _ Univ. Edinburgh, Scotland

4. Heuser, Emil _ 339 Vista de la Playa, La Jolla, Calif.

5. Hiestand, W. A. _ Dept. Biol., Purdue Univ., Lafayette, Ind.

6. Honey, E. E _ 145 Waupelani Dr., State College, Pa.

7. Jasper, Thomas M _ Union League Club, 65 W. Jackson, Chicago

8. Miller, Eric _ P. O. Box 957, La Jolla, Calif.

9. Severinghaus, Dr. E. L.

_ Med. Dept., Hoffman-LaRoche Inc., Nutley, New Jersey

10. Stebbins, Joel _ Washburn Observatory, Madison, Wis.

11. Oberholser, Harry C _ Cleveland Mus. Nat. Hist., 2933 Bershire Rd.,

Cleveland Heights, Cleveland 8, Ohio

12. Paredis, F _ Vet. Coll., Ghent, Belgium

13. Petermann, Mary L _ 444 E. 68th St., New York 21, N. Y.

14. Pierce, A. E _ Min. Agric., Weyb ridge, Surrey, England

15. Struve, Otto _ Dept. Astronomy, U. Calif., Berkeley

16. Wales, Julia G _ St. Andrews E., % Argenteiril, P. Q., Canada

17. Wilson, H. F.

_ Pickett V. Eckel, Ind., Ill S. Freemont Ave., Alhambra, Calif.

f: