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TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

WISCONSIN ACADEMY

OF

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WlWia.3

Sciences, ^rts # Letters.

VOL. VIII _ 1888-1891.

PUBLISHED BY AUTHORITY OF LAW.

COUNCIL

(Term expires December, 1893.)

President,

GEO. W. PECKHAM, Milwaukee.

Vice-Presidents,

ROLLIN D. SALISBURY. Madison.

A. H. TOLMAN, Ripon.

FREDERICK B. POWER, Madison.

Secretary,

WM. H. HOBBS, Madison.

Treasurer,

SAMUEL D. HASTINGS, Madison.

<5

ft

CONTENTS.

Page.

The Sectional Feature in American Politics, by Humphrey J. Des¬

mond . 1

Artificial Keys to the Genera and Species of Mosses Recognized in

Lesquereux and James’s Manual of the Mosses of North America,

by Charles R. Barnes . „ . 11

Some Additional Evidences Bearing on the Interval Between the

Glacial Epochs, by T. C. Chamberlin . 82

On the Appendages of the First Abdominal Segment of Embryo In¬

sects (with Plates I-III), by Wm, M. Wheeler . 87

Some New Theories of the Greek Id-Perfect, by Chas. E. Bennett. . Ill

On Some Metamorphosed Eruptives in the Crystalline Rocks of

Maryland (with Plate IV), by Wm. H. Hobbs . 156

Notes and a Query Concerning the Ericaceae, by Chas. H. Chandler. 161

Artificial Keys to the Genera and Species of Mosses Recognized in

Lesquereux and James’s Manual of the Mosses of North America

— Additions and Corrections, by Charles R. Barnes . . . 163

The Science of the English Language in the Light of the Gothic, by

G. H. Balg . 167

Aristotle’s Physics (Physike Akroensis) Reviewed by John J. Elmen-

dorf . 169

The Defective Classes, by A. O. Wright . . . 176

Notes on a Little Known Region of Northwestern Montana (with

Plate V), by G. E. Culver . 187

On a New Occurrence of Olivine Diabase in Minnehaha County,

South Dakota, by G. E. Culver and Wm. H. Hobbs . 206

On the Deep Water Crustacea of Green Lake, by C. Dwight Marsh. . 211

Notes on the Depth and Temperature of Green Lake (with Plate VI),

by C. Dwight Marsh . 214

Origin of the Iron Ores of the Lake Superior Region (with Plate

VII), by C. R. Van Hise . 219

The Present Condition of the Latitude Problem, by G. C. Comstock. 229

On the Correllation of Moraines with Raised Beaches of Lake Erie

(with Plate VIII), by Frank Leverett . 233

The Cuneiform Inscriptions on the Monuments of the Achgemenides

(with Plates IX and X) Translated by H. C. Tolman . 241

The Effect of Changes of Temperature on the Distribution of Mag¬

netism (with Plate XI), by H. B. Loomis . 273

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

Page.

Early Lutheran Immigration to Wisconsin by Kate A. Everest . 288

The Clan Centers and Clan Habitat of the Effigy Builders, by S. D.

Peet (with Plate XII) . 299

The Limonene Group of Terpenes, by Edward Kremers . 300

The Pseudo-Gregorian Drama Xpi6ro<i nddx0Dy in its Relation to

the Text of Euripides, by P. L. Van Cleef . 363

List of Crustacea Cladocera from Madison, Wisconsin, by Edward

A. Birge (with Plate XIII) . 379

PROCEEDINGS.

Report of the Secretary —

Ninteenth Regular Meeting, 1888 . 403

Twentieth Regular Meeting, 1889 . . . 406

Twenty-first Regular Meeting, 1890 . 409

Twenty-second Regular Meeting, 1891 . 412

Report of Treasurer . 417

Report of Librarian . 420

List of Officers and Members of the Academy . . 423

In Memoriam —

Roland Duer Irving, by T. C. Chamberlin . . 433

William Francis Allen, by J. D. Butler . 439

Lucius Heritage, by H. D. Maxson . 442

Henry Doty Maxson, by J. W. Stearns . . 445

Authors’ Index . 447

APPENDIX.

List of Corresponding Societies, Institutions, etc . iii

Charter . xi

Constitution and By-Laws . xiii

List of Papers in Volumes I to VIII, Inclusive, of the Transactions

of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters . xx

ILLUSTRATIONS.

Plate I-III. Appendages of the First Abdominal

Segment of Embryo Insects . opposite page 140

Plate IV. Passage of Gabbro-Diorite into Horn¬

blende Gneiss at Ilchester, Md . opposite page 160

Plate V. Map of a Region in Northwestern Mon¬

tana . opposite page 187

Plate VI. Map and Profiles of Green Lake . opposite page 218

Plate VII. Sections from Ore Deposits of the Lake

Superior Region . opposite page 228

Plate VIII. Map of the Western Erie Basin and

Adjacent Territory . opposite page 235

Plate IX. The Behist an Mountain . opposite page 242

Plate X. The Tomb of Darius . opposite page 261

Plate XI. Diagram Showing Effect of Temperature

in the Distribution of Magnetism .... opposite page 288

Plate XII. Effigy Mounds in Wisconsin . opposite page 300

Plate XIII. Crustacea Cladocera from Madison, Wis. opposite page 398

Portrait of Roland Duer Irving . opposite page 433

Portrait of William Francis Allen . opposite page 439

a

THE SECTIONAL FEATURE IN AMERICAN POLITICS.

By HUMPHREY J. DESMOND.

4'

It is not always easy to determine the main threads of political history?

but in the' century of American Presidents, ending with the month of

April, 1889, one intermittent and ever recurring question has been that of

sectionalism. And the question waits among the perplexities of the new

century.

There are grounds for regarding it as thus far the controlling fact

in American politics. It was an overshadowing issue long before the

slavery agitation was launched, and it continues a problem of to-day, long

after slavery has ceased, and the irrepressible conflict has been fought out.

All the larger events of the constitutional epoch carry a significance to the

fact of sectionalism, gain an interest and importance from their relation

to that fact, and may be grouped along its length as off-shoots from th&

main stem.

The theory which regards the constitution as a “ compact between the

states” may have been true in a formal way, and on that account plausible

among the doctrinaires; the essential condition, however, was not a union

of states, but a treaty of alliance between two great sections having oppo¬

site civilizations and diverse interests. And it is this condition, and not a .

theory, that confronts us in our survey of the first century in American

politics.

The theory figured on both sides of Mason's and Dixon’s line — the Hart¬

ford Convention being no less extreme a manifestation of states’ rights-

than the episode of nullification. But the condition never fluctuated nor-

lost its consistency or purpose. It continued from the first to

“ Divert and crack, rend and deracinate

The unity and married* calm of states.”

New issues were sought from time to time, but they were merely tempo*-

rarv aberrations. There was the trivial controversy, which for many days,,

went on in the convention of 1787, between the larger and the smaller

states. Even then, the greater question was waiting. The absurd fear of

the smaller states that a closer union would result in their absorption by the

larger commonwealths being allayed, Madison admonished his colleagues

that the ^states were divided into different interests, “not by their differ¬

ence in size, but by other circumstances; the most material of which

resulted partly from climate, but principally from the effect of their hav~

2 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

ing or not having slaves. It did not lay between the large and small states.

It lay bet’ween north and south.”

Having satisfied the smaller states with equality in the senate, the con¬

vention proceeded to its vital act of compromise, by establishing equilib¬

rium between the sections — equalizing their strength in congress and in

the electoral college.

No explanation has ever been offered as to how the particular fraction,

was selected in determining what weight the number of slaves should

have in the apportionment of representation. The motion came from a

New England member. Many years afterward, the question was put to

Madison in a Virginian assemblage, but he preserved silence. It remains

among the curious mysteries of that historic convention which have never

been cleared up. A plausible explanation is furnished in a pamphlet en¬

titled, “ The Lost Principle,” published at Richmond on the eve of the

Civil war.1 The anonymous writer argues that “f ” was chosen in order

to preserve the equilibrium of the sections; that the South would never

have consented to it on any other plea. If the negro at the south were

counted as a whole man and not as three- fifths of a man, the slave-holding

states would possess a clear majority in the first electoral college.

The balance became apparent in the census of 1790. The population of

the northern states was found to be 1,977,000; that of the southern states,

1,952,000. The admission of Vermont, Kentucky and Tennessee established

a perfect balance in the senate — eight slave-holding states and eight free

states, making up the union at the beginning of the century.

Federalism and Anti-Federalism proved a transitory issue — the great

fact of sectionalism asserting itself with a dominant earnestness, after

Hamilton had broken with Madison; and after the pregnant controversy

of the Secretary of State with the Secretary of the Treasury, across the

council boards of Washington’s first cabinet. It had cropped out even in

the selection of that cabinet; it came forth aroused at Hamilton’s fiscal

proposals; it manifested itself in southern objection to the admission of

Vermont, and in northern objection to the admission of Kentucky. By

the end of Washington’s term, the lines were fully and sharply drawn;

much to the distaste and displeasure of the father of his country, too. In

his farewell address, he expresses serious concern that “ground should

have been furnished for characterizing parties by geographical discrimi¬

nations,” regarding it as a serious disturbance to the union. Such dis¬

criminations appeared in a marked degree when the task of choosing his

successor was reached. New England gave her solid vote to John Adams.

The South cast six sevenths of her vote for Thomas Jefferson. Down to

1840, the same sectional proceeding was rehearsed in every presidential

contest.

1 The Lost Principle, by Barbarrossa. Richmond, 1860. The author is supposed to be

JRobert Scott, of Virginia.

The Sectional Feature in American Politics.

3

II.

It would be merely repeating familiar history to describe the frequent

sectional clashes that ensued down to the eve of secession. Both north and

south were thoroughly alive to the sectional bearing of every important

question. Nobody doubts the statesmanship of the Louisiana purchase;

yet that broad and praiseworthy stroke of patriotism was bitterly misliked

at the time 1 and the hostility came wholly from New England, jealous of

the chance for increased prestige which this new territory gave the south.

The Hartford Convention of 1812, was the culmination of New England’s

anti-national feeling; open threats to “ cut the connection” with the major

part of the union and secret plottings to invite Canadian and British alliance

are evidences of the rampant disunionism there prevalent. The South and

the West never forgot the disloyalty of New England, during the war of

1812; and we see the force of reproach which that record had, in Haynes’

debate with Webster, twenty years later. That famous debate, and the

strained relation smoothed by the Missouri compromise in 1820, indicated

how irrepressible a fact sectionalism had become.

Up to 1850, we have the phenomenon in our political history, which has

been spoken of as “ the twin birth of states.” Every additional free state

was followed by the admission of a slave state in order “ to preserve the

balance.” The sectional leaders began looking anxiously to the future,

and as the contest grew in intensity, the south bitterly chided itself for ac¬

quiescing in the ordinance of 1787, which forbade slavery in the northwest

territory, and in the Missouri compromise of 1820, which shut out slavery

north of the thirty-sixth parallel. The annexation of Texas and the Mexi¬

can war were distinctively southern measures, planned by the soured states¬

manship of Calhoun, to redress the balance and gi^e the south new room

for more state-making. The northern Democracy came into the party con¬

vention of 1844, with a candidate and a platform adverse to the Texas

policy of the south; but the south had its way. And at the same time, with

the deliberate connivance of Calhoun, the United States receded from its

position in the Oregon dispute with England. The forty-ninth parallel was

accepted as our north-most boundary instead of 54° 40' ; territory sufficient

to carve out three northern states was needlessly surrendered to Great

Britain in order to propitiate southern sectionalism. At the end Calhoun

was badly deceived in the results expected from the Mexican war. These

results eventually strengthened the free states, and gave them their final

preponderance in the United States senate. The admission of California

in 1850, placed the north one state in the lead for the first time since the

d ays of Washington. The southern leaders began to perceive that the

1 “Twenty Years of Congress,” by James G. Blaine, ch. 1, p. 14.

4 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

equilibrium of the sections was to be an impossibility in the future, and

the plan of secession was broached as the ultimate sequel 1

Webster, in his “ 7th of March speech,” alleges that up to 1859, three-

fourths of the places of honor under the United States government were

held by southerners. Alexander Stevens, in his famous appeal against

secession in 1860, drew the attention of his countrymen to the fact that

since the beginning of the government the South had eighteen out of the

twenty-nine justices of the Supreme court; sixty years of southern presi¬

dents to twenty-four of northern presidents; twenty- three out of thirty-

five speakers of the House of Representatives; and eighty-six out of one

hundred and forty foreign ministers. The South, as represented in the

Senate, was thoroughly alert and determined to reject any appointees un¬

favorable to southern interests, or tainted with free soil convictions. Mr.

Stevens challenged his fellow southerners to answer whether they could re¬

ceive better treatment under any other government than they had under the

Union, and whether they could compensate themselves for the loss of an

advantageous partnership in any greater degree of influence and patronage*

III.

The South went out of the Union in 1860 not to preserve slavery, but in

the disappointment of sectional defeat. It was not the institution of

slavery that was threatened, but its extension as an element in the increase

of the southern system. Even upon the threshold of his administration,

Abraham Lincoln wanted the south to understand that the national gov¬

ernment did not propose to interfere with slavery where that condition

was established; but he stood for the policy, that slavery was an evil which

should be isolated and not extended. When Lincoln declared that the na¬

tion could not go on existing, half slave and half free, his meaning was

against the strife of slave sectionalism and free soil sectionalism, competing

for the new states, and maintaining an equilibrium of liberty and servitude.

Secession was the southern alternative to sectional-equilibrium-destroyed .

As soon as the south lost an equal share in the political partnership, she

made up her mind to go out. Her proportional importance might be re¬

spected, and slavery might be let alone. But when fate had ordained that

proportion to be less than an equal one, the traditional political self-esteem

of the south rebelled.

1 Mr. Calhoun, in his speech of March 4, 1850, argues that the union was endangered by

reason of a widespread discontent among the people of the southern section due to a feel¬

ing that “ they cannot remain as things now are consistently with honor and safety in

the Union-”; and the “great and primary cause of this belief is in the fact that the equi¬

librium ■ between the two sections in the government as it stood when the constitution was-

ratified and the government put in action has been destroyed.

The Sectional Feature in American Politics.

5

What had destroyed the sectional equilibrium and made all the strenuous

effort, the political finesse and the brilliant strokes of southern statesmen

nugatory and impotent ? The answer is: emigration.1 Next to the fact of

sectionalism, I conceive the phenomenon of nineteenth century emigra¬

tion to America to be the most notable circumstance in our later history.

It was greater numerically, than the vast barbarian migration that over¬

turned the Roman empire. To my mind, it has wrought in the nation

other important results besides the transformation of the sectional ques¬

tion, but if none other, that alone would have been enough. The belated

colonization of America by Ireland and Germany gave the north her nu¬

merical preponderance in the census; enlarged her relative strength in the

House of Representatives; filled the places in the east of the army of

young men going west and then followed, in renewed waves of immigra¬

tion, the western pioneers. Know-nothingism arose like the specter of the

alarmed slave master — the ghost of selfish occupancy whether vested in

human chattels or in the chattel of social, political and industrial machin¬

ery — but the hope of creating a sectarian instead of a sectional line of demar¬

cation failed. This clever expedient of the southern Whigs was futile to

withhold the inevitable end of the equilibrium. And when the task of

crushing the rebellion was upon the nation, the foreign born soldier was

also thrown into the scale against the South; thousands of naturalized cit¬

izens were drafted into a school of patriotism which made them irre¬

proachably American, and thousands of the descendants of an earlier

emigration, typified in generals like Sheridan and Rosecrans, were also

important elements in the victory of the north. Had this emigration gone

to the. South it would undoubtedly have counted in a different solution of

the problem. Historians would not be able to trace a direct connection be¬

tween the potato rot in Ireland and the Emancipation Proclamation. The

three or four million emigrants who destroyed the sectional equilibrium

were tools in the hands of Providence. Yet there was nothing accidental

in the fact that their weight was cast with the North and against the

South. It could not have been otherwise.

John C. Calhoun, in his last great speech in the senate, delivered in the

year of his death, 1850, sought to explain the waning strength of the South

by deploring the fact that slavery was shut out of the territory north of the

Ohio river and north of the 36th parallel. He also bewailed the influence

of the existing revenue system which he conceived to result in attracting

the emigrant population to the North and robbing the South of her capi¬

tal. Under other conditions he thought that the South would have re-

1 The growth in the tide of immigration will appear from the following figures:

Immigrants, 1789 to 1820 (estimated) . 250,000

“ 1821 to 1830 143,439

“ 1831 to 1840 599,125

“ 1841 to 1850 1,713,251

“ 1851 to 1860 2,598,214

Sixty per cent, of the immigration up to 1860 was Irish.

6

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

ceivecl her share of the emigration, and the census of 1850 would show a

population in the slave states equal to that in the free states. Now the

truth of the matter is that without the tariff, and with the fullest reign of

squatter sovereignty, the result would not have been different. The

North was destined to obtain the bulk of emigration in any event. The

natural repulsion and antipathy between free labor and slave labor settled

the question in advance. Slavery would have starved free labor out of the

South, even had it sought entrance there. The peculiar civilization of the

South gave the North all the advantages of development. Had southern

leadership at the start been of the style of Jefferson Davis and Robert.

Toombs, rather than of the temperament and range of Madison and Jeffer¬

son, the lead which the South gained and held for sixty years could never

have been. The natural growth of the country was against her equili¬

brium; but the traditions of a lofty statemanship kept her in the ascend¬

ant. It might have been foretold at the treaty establishing equilibrium of

the sections in 1787 that unless emigration was to be shut out, as ^well as

the importation of slaves, after 1807, the South was doomed to numerical

inferiority.1 Otherwise it was starting a nation with all the conditions of

enlargement and progress, with healthy life currents and virile institutions

in a race for the ascendancy with a nation already palsied by servitude and

mortgaged in half its energies to an effete civilization. The ship which

caught in its sails every breeze from over the Atlantic was bound, even

against odds, to outstrip the slaver becalmed in a dead sea.

IV.

A table of the sectional electoral vote in the leading Presidential contests

since 1790, will show that; the war has had no effect on the animus of the sec¬

tions. New England and the South are still at opposite poles. But a table

of the apportionment of the electoral vote under the several censuses since

1790, will illustrate important changes. Classing Delaware as a southern

rather than a middle state, our table indicates that the South cast nearly

one half of the vote of the electoral college at the beginning. She casts

thirty-eight per cent, of the electoral votes under the census of 1880. The

New England section had twenty-eight per cent, of the electoral vote in

1790; to-day she has less than ten per cent, of it. The middle section con¬

sisting of New York, Pennsylvania and New Jersey has declined much less

than New England, and rather less than the South; while the West which

cast a little more than one-fifth of the electoral vote when Abraham

Lincoln was a candidate, now casts a third of the whole vote, and bids fair

to cast almost half the vote which shall elect a president in 1924.

1 Draper (American Civil War, 1-446), puts this opinion in the mouth of the slaveholder;

“ The mistake with us has been that it was not made felony to bring in an Irishman when

it was made piracy to bring in an African.”

Electoral A pportionment by Sections from 1790 to 1890, with Percentages.

The Sectional Feature in American Politics.

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In both tables Delaware is classed as a Southern State,

•8 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

The admission of four new states to the Union will further tend to over¬

throw the old sectionalism. Dakota, with an area larger than any other

political division except Texas, with a rapidly growing population, and

with sufficient fertility to support three million people, has properly been

divided into two states. Washington and Montana having passed the re¬

quirements respecting population, have come in as growing and influential

states.

The effect of these new additions to the Union, so far as the historic sec¬

tions are concerned, may be estimated as follows: In the electoral college —

the southern system of states will have 156 votes; the northern system will

have 270 votes.

In the Senate sixteen southern states will be represented by thirty-two

seats; twenty-six states of the northern system will have fifty-two seats.

In the House of Representatives, the South will be entitled to some 120

congressmen; the North will be entitled to over 220 congressmen.

The most insurmountable political ascendancy is, of course, more prob¬

able in the United States Senate that elsewhere. Sectionalism throughout

our entire political history has nowhere been better preserved. While the.

country has been broken up irrespective of Mason and Dixon’s line in the

House of Representatives, and while great states of the North have shifted

their political allegiance with a reassuring spontaneity at Presidential elec¬

tions, the Senate has always continued in a large sense a mirror of deep

rooted geographical differences. With a brief and uncertain interval of

doubt it has now been uninterrupted possession of the preponderant party

of one section for nearly thirty years, and unless new and unforeseen events

or issues arise, it bids fair to continue that political ascendancy for many

years longer.

V.

The growth of the West has established a counter-balance to southern

sectionalism, and the overthrow of slavery has tended to remove the es¬

sential difference between northern and southern civilization . Though

the bitterness of the struggle for equilibrium has survived the war, there

has been a growing recognition of the transformed condition of the prob¬

lem. Bellicose politics have gone out, shirted in ridicule; ridicule which is

the right medicine for all earnestness that outlives its purpose. And the

imaginary danger from a solid South is apt to yield to some considerations:

1. It is perceived that the south is solid to-day rather for domestic than

for national reasons; it is not a sectional caucus solidified for the purpose

of gaining some contention against the other sections as it figured in ante¬

bellum days. It is rather a domestic problem which makes the South solid.

The white man has grappled with the black bear; and he has no choice

about letting go. The South is solid to save herself and not to domineer-

over the nation.

The Sectional Feature in American Politics.

9

2. Sectionalism of a sort we must always have. We cannot escape it.

'Sectionalism which arrays the nation into two hostile camps and main¬

tains an equilibrium of political power at the price of propagating slavery

ds deplorable; but that kind of sectionalism is fortunately destroyed; its

causes blotted out; its chance of recurrence satisfactorily removed by the

growth of the west, and the story of emigration. Sectionalism, which

does not divide the nation into two geographical camps or into hostile

civilization; but which may split it up into three or more congeries of

states at issue on matters which do not go so deep as the long standing feud

between Cavalier and Puritan is tolerable. And it is inevitable.

The sectionalism which makes the South solid to-day, or which may

make its solidity a condition in the future, is to be looked upon as of this

milder character. The west may furnish us, in the years to come, the

most conspicuous phase of such sectionalism.

In fact, the issue of the late Presidential contest was said to aim at cre¬

ating “a new sectionalism” — one that might cleave the country from

north to south, and array the states into manufacturing and agricultural

belts. A brief epoch of that kind of sectionalism might be wholesome in

getting the nation away from its old partisan moorings, and casting over¬

board the effigies of a conflict that was well ended, if it had been ended

quickly.

The questicn of Canadian annexation is a matter somewhat related to

our sectional question. Following our system of government, an independ¬

ent Canada would be a lesser United States speaking the same language,

cherishing similar institutions and one with us in race and religion. Such

a neighbor would be a powerful magnet of disintegration should the New

England and Middle States, for instance, disagree with the South and West

on any important issue, and be hopelessly out-voted in Congress. The

commercial interests of these sections might draw them into an alliance

with the Canadian Republic, ending in the setting up of a new confederacy.

This, of course, is rather problematical, but it is often the unexpected that

happens. Either we must annex Canada, or Canada will disintegrate us.

And it may be a serious question whether it is not better to take her while

she is young and tractable, rather than wait until antipathies in political

feelings are too far generated to make union easy and agreeable.

It remains to be said that if, for the sake of a perfect Union, we would

wish to have as little sectional feud in the future, as possible, we must be

observant of the strict letter of the constitution and learn to admire it as

warmly for the restraints it imposes on Federal power as for the functions

it grants.1

1 Prof. Bryce (Am. Commonwealths, II., 693) believes that “the United States are no

more likely to dissolve than if they were a unified republic like France or a unified mon¬

archy like Italy.'” He notes “the growing strength of the centripetal and unifying

orces ” — in which there is no little danger.

10 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters.

A federal government attempting to do a great many things in a great

many directions is sure to arouse warring interests and clashing influences.

And in a country which reaches from the Atlantic to the Pacific and

touches the tropics, and stretches out to the land of the midnight sun, all

such interests and influences are more or less geographical and sectional.

ARTIFICIAL KEYS

TO THE

GENERA AND SPECIES OF MOSSES

RECOGNIZED IN LESQUEREUX AND JAMES’S MANUAL OF THE MOSSES

OF NORTH AMERICA;

By CHARLES R. BARNES,

Professor of Botany in the University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.

INTRODUCTORY.

In the summer of 1886 I published a key to the genera of mosses recog¬

nized in the Manual of Lesquereux and James. From the demand which

has exhausted a large edition of that key, I have felt that the object of its

publication was reasonably attained, that it really was helpful to students

of mosses. Although much misgiving was felt as to its accuracy a con¬

siderable use of it has revealed but one serious omission, and neither time

nor its users have indicated to the author how it could be materially im¬

proved. It is therefore reprinted here with the few alterations which have

seemed desirable.

But since there are no keys to the species even of the largest genera in the

Manual, the novice, deserted after reaching the genus, is left almost as much

bewildered as if he had not been led so far. I have therefore been induced

to prepare keys to the species of all the genera.

The only plea for such work is its anticipated usefulness. I hope that it

will stimulate some to undertake the study and collection of mosses who

have heretofore been deterred by their helplessness in the determination of

them without more expensive aids than the amateur usually possesses. An

earnest student equipped with patience, some skill in dissection, a compound

microscope and the Manual, ought to be able with the additional assistance

of these keys to determine the names of most of the mosses which he can col¬

lect. Those which remain uncertain he can refer to those who possess the

illustrations and exsiccati which are often indispensable for identification. I

shall be disappointed if these keys do not encourage more to enter upon the

study of this exceedingly interesting group of plants, which, with the

Hepaticas, are more neglected than any of which we now have accessible

descriptions .

In constructing these keys, I have thought it wise to make few changes

in the nomenclature or in the rank of species. Of many in the Manual

neither the present names nor the autonomy can be maintained. The

changes I have made are, with one exception (Dicranum fuscescens), con¬

fined to the two genera which have been revised since the appearance of

the Manual in 1884, viz., Sphagnum, by M. Jules Cardot, of Stenay, France,

and Fissidens, by the author. M. Cardot is now engaged in a revision of

Fontinalis and Dichelyma, and I regret that his results have not yet been

published, that they might be included in the present keys.

I have included in the keys all the new species known to me which have

been published since the issue of the Manual and before 1890, when the

relation of these could be ascertained from the descriptions and figures.

Introductory.

13

(It is worth nothing that a considerable number of new species are about to

be published in the Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club and in the Botan¬

ical Gazette.) Two genera, Eucladium and Merceya, 1 have been indicated

as new to North America. The former has been included in the key to

genera. The relationship of the latter is so problematical that I have been

compelled to omit it.

The number in bold-face type following the name of a genus in the key to

genera refers to the page of this publication where the key to its species

may be found. The other number, in ordinary type, is that of the page in

the Manual where it is described. When there is only the latter the genus

contains but one species. The number following the species (in the keys to

species) is the same as it bears in the Manual.

It will be found in a number of cases that the keys contradict characters

assigned in the Manual. I have not knowingly permitted such contradiction

without having good reasons therefor, so that they must be considered as

corrections, and not accidental. There may be mistakes among them; it is

highly probable that there are some elsewhere. I should be glad to receive

notice of errors or omissions from any who detect them.

My thanks are due to Mrs. Elizabeth Gr. Britton, for kind assistance in

several points.

Charles R. Barnes.

University of Wisconsin, February 8, 1890.

1 Merceya latifolia Kindberg: Bull. Torr. Bot. Club xvi (1889) 94.

14

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

ANALYTIC KEY

TO THE

GENERA OE MOSSES.

Order I.— Sphagnaceae.

Oapsule dehiscing by a deciduous operculum, peristome

none, leaves composed of large hyaline cells, with

intervening rows of small chlorophyllose ones.

Genus single . Sphagnum, 12. 24.

Order II. — Andreseacese.

Capsule dehiscing by four (rarely six) longitudinal slits.

Genus single . Andre sea, 25. 20.

Order III.— Archidiacese.

Capsule bursting irregularly, spores few and very large.

Genus single . Archidium, 49. 28.

Order IV.— Bryacese.

Capsule bursting irregularly (spores numerous) or gen¬

erally dehiscing by a deciduous operculum, in the

latter case usually furnished with a peristome.

Leaves not sphagnoid.

Genera numerous as follows:

I. CLEISTOCARPI. — Capsule without a deciduous operculum.

A. Green protonema persistent.

Leaves ecostate. t

Capsule colorless . Micromitrium, 37. 26*

Capsule colored . Epliemerum, 37. 26.

Leaves costate ... . Epliemerum, 37. 26.

Analytic Key to the Gmera of Mosses.

15

B. Green protonema not persistent.

Margins of leaves flat or incurved.

Leaves lance-obovate to broad-ovate, not abruptly

pointed . Pliyscomitrella, 89.

Leaves linear- lanceolate to subulate or abruptly pointed.

Calyptra mitrate . Brueliia, 45. 2 7.

Calyptra cucullate ..... Pleuridium, 48. 27.

[Astomum may be sought here.]

Margins of leaves more or less revolute.

Capsule spherical .... Spliserangium, 40. 27.

Capsule short-pointed.

Calyptra mitrate .... Microbryum, 45.

Calyptra cucullate . Pliascum, 41. 27.

II. STEGOCARPI. — Capsule with a deciduous operculum.

A. Acrocarpi. — Flowers and fruit terminating the stem , either the

main shoot or a branch.

1 . Mouth of the capsule naked.

* Leaf -cells isodiametric , at least above the middle of the leaf, often

obscure.

Lid imperfectly formed, persistent .... Astomum, 51. 29.

Lid perfect, deciduous.

Capsule immersed.

Leaves lamellose . Pharomitrium, 100.

Leaves not lamellose, ciliate .... Hedwigia, 152.

Leaves with a hyaline hair-point . . . Grimmia, 184. 43.

Capsule exserted, ribbed when dry.

Calyptra cucullate.

Pedicel very short, strongly twisted to the left when

dry .... . . Amphoridium, 158. 46.

Pedicel long, twisted to the right when dry . Braunia, 153.

Calyptra campanulate mitrate, plicate, usually

hairy . • Macromitrium, 178. 50.

Calyptra long clavate-campanulate, not plicate nor

hairy . Encalypta, 180. 50.

Capsule exserted, not ribbed when dry.

Lid conic, beaked.

Pedicel short . Calymperes, 184. 50.

Pedicel long . Gymnostomum, 52. 29.

Lid conic, beakless, or conic-subulate . . . Pottia, 100. 37.

16 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

Lid convex or flatfish, beaked.

Plants large (2 cm. +), leaves distichous . . Eustichia, 94.

Plants large, leaves pluriseriate, papillose.

Leaves linear-lanceolate, margins plane . Auoectangium, 54.

Leaves ovate-lanceolate, margins reflexed, hyaline

at base . Barbula, 115. 31L

Leaves lingulate-lanceolate, margins revolute,

three-fourths hyaline .... Desmatodon, 110. 38,

Plants small, leaves broader, hair-pointed or cus¬

pidate or serrate, not papillose .... Pottia, 100. 37.

Plants small or minute, leaves lance-subulate . Anodus, 96.

Lid long-clavate . . Encalypta, 180. 50..

* * Leaf -cells plainly elongated , distinct.

Lid small, convex or short-conic, capsule microstome.

Leaves vertically inserted , Scliistostega, 188.

Leaves subulate, dentate .... Bartramia, 203. 53..

Leaves broad, entire, calyptra enclosing cap¬

sule . Pyramidula, 196.

Lid large (rarely small), capsule macrostome.

Capsule splitting at the middle . . . Aphanorliegma, 196.

Capsule dehiscing regularly above the middle, not

covered by calyptra .... Physcomitrium, 196. 52..

2. Mouth of the capsule furnished with a peristome.

* Peristome single.

Teeth articulate.

Teeth eight.

Leaves thick, coriaceous .... Octoblepharum, 91.

[Ortliotriclium and Ptycliomitrium (§ Notarisia) may be sought here.]

^ Teeth sixteen, calyptra mitrate.

9

= Calyptra plicate.

Teeth cribrose, purple ...... Coscinodon, 154. 46.

Teeth filiform, trifid . Ptycliomitrium, 156. 46.

Teeth approximate or connate in pairs.

Lanceolate to subulate, papillose . . . Ptycliomitrium, 156. 46.

Triangular-lanceolate, articles quadrate.

Basal leaf -cells linear, chlorophvllose . . . Ulota, 160. 46.

Basal leaf-cells hexagono-rectangular, hyaline Ortliotriclium, 164. 47..

Teeth short, pale, fragile .... Macromitrium, 178. 50..

Analytic Key to the Genera of Mosses.

17

= = Calyptra not plicate.

Aquatic, floating.

Leaves distichous . Conomitrium, 89. 34.

Leaves pluriseriate . Ciuclidotus, 134.

Terrestrial.

Very small, gregarious.

Teeth broad, erose-truncate, hyaline . . Bracliyodus, 98.

Teeth linear-lanceolate, deeply bifid . Campylostelium, 99.

Larger, above 1 cm. in height.

Leaf -cells small, quadrate or punctate, obscure.

Beak long-clavate . Encalypta, 180. 50.

Beak long or short, not clavate.

Teeth lanceolate, flat, subentire or crib-

rose or 2 — 3-fid to the middle . Grimmia, 134. 43.

Teeth linear-lanceolate, 2 — 3-fid to below

the middle, or cleft to the base into

filiform segments . . . Rliacomitrium, 147. 45.

Leaf-cells large, very distinct, pedicel with a

prominent apophysis.

Apophysis smaller than the capsule.

Leaves entire, obtuse .

Leaves serrate, acute or acuminate

Apophysis exceeding the capsule

-j-f- -e -e- Teeth sixteen , calyptra cucullate.

— Leaves distichous.

Leaves subulate .

Leaves broader, with a prominent vertical wing

= == Leaves pluriseriate.

17 Capsule unsymmetric, cernuous- inclined or arcuate.

Teeth filiform-bifid from a membranous base . Desmatodon, 110. 38.

Teeth irregularly lacerate or bifid to the middle or below.

Leaf cells not enlarged at the basal angles, roundish

or quadrate above.

Lid long-beaked, leaves serrulate, peristome equal¬

ing half the capsule .... Dichodontium, 61. 30.

Lid long-beaked, leaves crenulate or denticulate,

peristome shorter . Cynodontimn, 59. 30.

Lid short-beaked . Oreoweisia, 58.

Leaf-cells not enlarged at the basal angles, oblong

above, rectangular at base . . . Dicranella, 64. 30.

2— A. & L.

Dissodon, 189. 51.

Tayloria, 190. 51.

Splaclmum, 193. 51.

Distichium, 93. 36.

Eissidens, 81. 34.

18

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

Leaf-cells enlarged- quadrate at the basal angles, linear

at base .

Leaf -cells of two kinds, in two or three layers

Teeth bifid to near the base.

Lid conic, leaves subulate ....

Lid conic, leaves lanceolate

Lid aristate, neck very long ....

Teeth not cleft, short, irregular

Teeth not cleft, cohering by their tips .

Teeth not cleft, perforate.

Neck long, exceeding the capsule

Neck inconspicuous, plants small

Neck inconspicuous, plants large

Teeth not cleft nor perforate.

Lid with a short thick oblique beak

Lid with a short slender oblique beak

[Mieliclilioferia and Funaria may be sought here.]

Dicranum, 67. 31.

Leucobryum, 90. 36.

Trichodon, 92. 36.

Ceraiodon, 92. 36.

Tremajodon, 62. 30.

Catoscopium, 211.

Conostomum, 207.

Trematodon, 62. 30.

Discelium, 188.

Oreoweisia, 58.

CyiiodontiiSn, 59. 30.

U N Capsule symmetric , pendulous on a flexuous pedicel.

Teeth bifid to the middle . Cainpylopus, 77. 33.

Teeth bifid to the base, free .... Dicranodontium, 77.

Teeth bifid to the common membranous base.

Connivent and slightly twisted . . . Desmatodon, 110. 38.

Erect, not twisted . Trichostommn, 108. 38-

Teeth entire, short, plants minute . ■ . . Seligeria, 96. 36.

If N N Capside symmetric , erect.

Teeth bifid to the common membranous base.

Lid short, conic or beaked .... Desmatodon, 110. 38.

Lid elongated, conic . Tricliostomum, 1C8. 38.

[Barbula may be sought here.]

Teeth deeply bifid or cleft to the base, free.

Leaf-cells small, not enlarged at the angles, oblong

above . Dicranella, 64. 30.

Leaf -cells small, not enlarged at the angles, roundish

or quadrate above . Cynodontium, 59. 30.

Leaf-cells small, enlarged- quadrate at the angles . Dicranum, 67. 31.

Leaf-cells large, distinct .... Angstroemia, 68.

Teeth cribrose, perforate or slightly cleft.

Leaf-cells enlarged-quadrate at the angles.

Capsule broad-pyriform . Blindia, 98.

Capsule oval to sub-cylindric . . . Dicranoweisia, 57. 29.

Analytic Key to the Genera of Mosses.

19

Leaf-cells not enlarged at the angles.

Teeth large, mostly cribrose.

Pedicel little exceeding the often

leaves .

Pedicel long, leaves hair-pointed

Pedicel long, leaves not hair-pointed.

Leaves serrate just above sheathing base

Leaves entire or crenulate above

Teeth small, often truncate or rudimentary.

Leaf margins involute above .

Leaf -margins revolute or plane.

Leaves densely papillose in the upper part

Leaves not papillose ....

Teeth entire.

Capsule with a long, thick apophysis

Capsule oval to subcylindric.

Not ribbed when dry.

Teeth short, leaves entire, narrow

Teeth short, leaves serrate, broad

Teeth linear-filiform, connate at base

Teeth narrowly lanceolate, free

Ribbed when dry .

Capsule short-pyriform, turbinate when dry.

Teeth blunt . .

Teeth acute . .

Capsule pyriform, not turbinate when dry.

Plants gregarious or subcespitose

Plants in deep, compact tufts

Capsule ovate-globose, lid obliquely long-beaked

Capsule globose, lid beakless, small .

hair-pointed

Grimmia, 134. 43.

Desmatodon, 110. 38.

. Eucladiuin. 1

Didymodon, 104. 37.

Weisia, 55. 29.

%

Didymodon, 104. 37.

. Pottia, 100. 37.

Tetraplodon, 191. 51.

Weisia, 55.

Syrrhopodon, 185.

Didymodon, 104.

Dicranoweisia, 57.

Rhabdoweisia, 58.

Seligeria, 96.

Blimlia, 98.

Entostliodon, 199.

Mieliclihoferia, 214.

Drummondia, 160.

Bartramia, 203.

29.

50.

37.

29.

36.

52.

53.

-j — s- e- — i- -s — t- Teeth thirty-two.

Teeth cancellate . Barb ill a, 115. 39.

Teeth filiform or linear, almost terete, arising from a long

or short basilar membrane.

Short, slightly, if at all, twisted.

Leaves subulate or lance-subulate from a broader

base . Leptotriclmm, 105. 37-

Leaves broader, lid elongated-conic . . Trichostomum, 108. 38.

[Barbula rigidula will be sought here.]

Leaves broader, lid short-conic or short-beaked Desmatodon, 110. 38-

Long, twisted to the left . Barbula, 115. 39..

1 E. verticillatum, Br. and Sch,: Renauld and Cardot: Bot. Gaz., xiv, (1889), 99.

no

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

Teeth flat, not from a distinct basilar membrane.

Cells of capsule linear-oblong . . . Dicranodoiitium, 77.

Cells of capsule irregularly polygonal . . Didyinodon, 104. 87.

Teeth not articulate.

Teeth four , solid.

Capsule linear-oblong, stems long, conspicuous . . Tetraphis, 186. 51.

Capsule ovate, stems very short .... Tetrodontium, 187.

Teeth thirty -two or sixty -four.

Calyptra cucullate, capsule symmetric or nearly so.

. Leaves undulate- crisped when dry, lamellae few (2 — 8),

straight ........ Atriclmm, 255. 60.

Leaves sub-tubulose at apex, lamellae undulate or

numerous . * Olig'otriclmm, 258. 61.

Calyptra cucullate, capsule unsymmetric, arcuate in¬

curved . Psilopilum, 259.

Calyptra mitrate, densely hairy.

Capsule not angular, teeth 32 .... Pogonatum, 260. 61.

Capsule 4 — 6 angled, teeth 64 ... Polytrichum, 263. 61.

* Peristome double.

Capsule symmetric, erect.

Teeth almost none, imperfect or rudimentary . MacromitriuMi, 178. 50.

Teeth perfect, linear, revolute, capsule smooth . Schlotheimia, 179.

Teeth linear or filiform, dark red or purple, capsule ribbed

and twisted . Encalypta, 180. 50.

Teeth broadly or narrowly triangular-lanceolate, pale, cap¬

sule ribbed, not twisted.

Leaf -cells at base linear, chlorophyllose . . . Ulota, 160. 46.

Leaf- cells at base hexagono-rectangular, hyaline Orthotrichum, 164. 47.

Teeth linear, contracted at articulations, capsule smooth,

cylindric . Leptothec'a, 251.

Capsule unsymmetric, inclined or oblique or pendulous.

Inner peristome a plaited cone.

Pedicel thick, red, densely verrucose . . . Buxbaiilnia, 267.

Pedicel very short, almost none .... Diphyscium, 266.

Analytic Key to the Genera of Mosses.

21

-*-+ Inner peristome a membrane , carinate or cut into sixteen seg¬

ments; these sometimes separated by cilia.

= Cilia very short , rudimentary or none.

Membrane entire, 16-carinate. .... Cinclidimn, 249. 60.

Membrane latticed or cleft to the base into filiform, appen-

diculate segments.

Pedicel none or very short, leaves ecostate . Fontinalis, 268. 62.

Pedicel distinct, sometimes long, leaves costate . Dichelyma, 272. 63.

Membrane not cleft to the base.

Segments entire or interruptedly cleft along the middle line.

Shorter than the teeth or rudimentary . . Funaria, 200. 52.

Equaling the teeth in length.

Leaves squarrose -recurved from the middle . Paludella, 213.

Leaves not squarrose.

Pedicel long.

Leaf -cells narrowly rhombic- hexagonal, tending

to linear, leaves narrow .... Webcra, 215. 53.

Leaf-cells and leaf broader .... Brynm, 223. 55.

Pedicel short, neck long ..... Zieria, 240. 58..

Far exceeding the teeth in length.

Pedicel long, leaf-cells large, pellucid . Amblyodon, 211.

Pedicel long, leaf-cells small, rectangular, chloro-

phyllose . . Meesia, 212. 53.

Pedicel short, neck long . Zieria, 240. 58.

Segments bifid, divisions divaricate.

Leaves lanceolate to subulate, large . . . Bartramia, 203. 53.

Leaves lanceolate or broader, smaller . . Philonotis, 208. 53b

Segments filiform, united by fours at their tips . Tiiiimia, 254. 60.

= = Cilia present.

Appendiculate.

Leaves lance-subulate, cells linear . . -. Leptobryum, 215.

Leaves broader, cells rhombic-hexagonal . . . Brynm, 223. 55..

Inappendiculate.

Capsule not ribbed when dry.

Leaves lanceolate, glossy, cells narrowly rhombic-

hexagonal, inclining to linear .... Webera, 215. 53..

Leaves ample, soft, oblong, ovate to obovate or

broader, cells round-hexagonal .... Milium, 241. 58..

Leaves narrowly lanceolate, rigid . . Rliizogonium, 250.

Capsule ribbed when dry.

Oblong or elongated pyriform . . . Aulacomniiim, 252. 60.

Sub-globose . Philonotis, 208. 53

22

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

B. Pleurocarpi. Flowers and fruit lateral , in the axils of leaves.

[Fontinalis and Dichelyma may.be sought here.]

1 . Peristome single ( rarely none), teeth eight or sixteen.

[Species belonging to genera under “ B * ” infra may he sought here.]

Leaves distichous, with broad vertical wing . . Fissidens, 81. 34-.

Leaves pluriseriate.

Entire.

Ecostate, abruptly long -acuminate, cells quadrate

except in costal region, distinct . . Habrodon, 296.

Ecostate, cells linear or rhombic, obscure . . Leucodon, 287. 05.

Costate, short acuminate . . . Clasinatodon, 297.

Costate, obtuse, teeth 8, red .... Cryphaea, 275. 63.

Serrate, capsule emergent . Leptodon, 278, 04.

Serrate to ciliate-dentate, capsule long-pedicelled . Fabronia, 294. 05.

2. Peristome double , the inner often imperfect.

* Segments none or short, or obscured by adhering to teeth.

Leaves papillose.

Entire, ovate to ovate-lanceolate.

Teeth ciliate-papillose . Leskea, 301. 06,

Teeth not papillose . Anomodon, 304. 00.

Entire or cristate -serrate, obovate or spatulate Pterigynaiidriini, 288.

Spinulose -dentate to fimbriate (rarely entire) deltoid or

round-ovate . Thelia, 298. 06.

Serrate, broadly ovate . Pterogonium, 289. 65.

Leaves not papillose.

Capsule straight.

Segments bifid or adherent to the teeth.

Plants small (1-2 cm.), capsules about 2 mm. Pylaisaea, 308. 07.

Plants large (4-6 cm.), capsules about 4 mm. Cylindrothecium, 310. 07.

Segments not bifid nor adherent.

Leaves ecostate or obscurely bicostate . . Neekera, 281. 64.

Leaves costate . Antitrichia, 290. 05.

Capsule curved or arcuate .... Homalotliecium, 309. 07.

* * Segments not distinctly keeled, narrow.

*■«— Leaves costate.

Cells roundish to oval-rhombic.

Papillose [except in Leskea pulvinata].

Stem and branch-leaves similar . . . Leskea, 301. 06.

Stem-leaves much smaller than branch-leaves Anoiiiodon, 304. 06.

Analytic Key to the Genera of Mosses.

Not papillose.

Annulus large, compound . Crypheea, 275.

Annulus none, leaf-cells minute, obscure . Neckera, 281.

Annulus none, leaf-cells large, distinct Anacamptodon, 296.

Cells linear or vermicular.

Annulus none . Neckera, 281.

Annulus present . Antitrichia, 290.

[Cylindrotliecium, with leaves obscurely costate, may be sought here.]

Leaves ecostate.

Annulus none . Neckera, 281.

Annulus present.

Leaf -cells quadrate at basal angles . . Cylindrotliecium, 310.

Leaf-cells not quadrate at basal angles . . Orthotliecium, 315.

* * * Segments distinctly keeled , often broad.

Capsule symmetric , erect.

[Species of Hypnum with erect or sub-erect capsules will be sought here.]

Leaves papillose.

Plants large, branches erect, dendroid .... Alsia, 279.

Plants long, pendent from trees, branches filiform Meteorium, 286.

Plants small, branches erect, julaceous . . Myurella, 300.

Leaves not papillose.

Leaves costate or ecostate, complanate, pseudo-dis¬

tichous . Homalia, 285.

Leaves ecostate, annulus large (none in Cyl. Drummondii).

Cells quadrate at basal angles.

Teeth hyaline margined .... Platygyriiim, 307.

Teeth not hyaline margined . . Cylindrotliecium, 310.

Cells not quadrate at basal angles . . Orthotliecium, 315.

Leaves ecostate, annulus small, narrow . . . Pylaissea, 308.

Leaves costate, plants dendroid .... Climacium, 313.

— *— Capsule unsymmetric, often arcuate.

Leaf-cells large, calyptra mitrate.

Leaves mucronate or acute or acuminate . . Hookeria, 292.

Leaves obtuse . Pterigophyllum, 298.

Leaf-cells small, calyptra cucullate .... Hypnum, 316.

[Climacium Ruthenicum will be sought here.]

63.

64.

65.

64.

67.

68.

64.

65.

66.

65.

67.

68.

67.

68.

65.

68.

24

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters .

ANALYTIC KEYS

TO THE

SPECIES OE MOSSES.

SPHAGNUM,1 * p. 12.

I. Branches dimorphous , some divergent , some pendent; hyaline cells with

fibrils.

A. Chlorophyllose cells near one face of leaf, triangular, triangular-

elliptical or trapezoidal in transverse section.

1. Chlorophyllose cells on the ventral face of leaf; hyaline cells most

convex on the dorsal face.

a. Branch leaves minutely fringed all around . S. Fortoricense, 22.

I). Branch leaves not fringed.

Walls of hyaline cells adjoining chlorophyllose cells fur¬

nished with a fringe of rudimentary fibrils . . S. Austini, 21.

Walls of hyaline cells adjoining chlorophyllose cells thickly

papillose . S. papillosum, 20*

Walls smooth.

Cortical cells of stem fibrillose.

Chlorophyllose cells narrowly triangular or triangular

elliptical . S. cyniMfolium, 19*

Chlorophyllose cells very large, equilateral- triangular . S. affine

Cortical cells porose, not fibrillose.

Stem leaves broadest at base . S. acutifolium, 1.

[S. Wulfianum may be sought here.]

Stem leaves broadest in the middle .... S. molle, IS.

Stem leaves broadest at apex . S. fhnbriatum, 4.

Stem leaves of almost equal breadth throughout S. Grirgensohnii,3 3.

1 See Cardot: Revision des Sphaignes de l’Am^x’ique du Nord, in Bull. Soe. roy. de hot. d©

Belgique, XXVI.

3 Renauld & Cardot: Rev. Bryol. 1885, p. 44. See also Cardot: Sphaignes d’Europe in

Bull. Soc. roy. de hot. de Belgique, XXV, p. 51, pi. .3, fig. 9 and 10 and pi. 3, fig. 5.

8 S. strictum Lindb.

I

Analytic Keys to the Species of Mosses.

2. Chlorophyllose cells on dorsal face of leaf; hyaline cells most convex

on ventral face.

a. Cortex of stem distinct.

Stem leaves very broad above and strongly fimbriate

Stem leaves broadest below.

Branch leaves with narrow border

Branch leaves with broad border ....

Branch leaves not bordered .

S. Lindbergii, 7-

S. tenelliun, 18.

S. cuspidatum, 5.

S. Garberi, 14.

b. Cortex of two layers of small cells , indistinct ,

or wanting . S. intermedium, 6.

B. Chlorophyllose cells exposed on both faces or included , elliptic in

transverse section.

1. Free on both faces.

Cortex consisting of one layer of ceils.

Branch leaves ovate-acuminate . . . . S. subsecundum, 15.

Branch leaves round ovate . S. cyclopliyllum, 23.

Cortex of more than one layer of cells.

Stem leaves large, rounded and fimbriate at apex, with

narrow border below.

Branch leaves large, strongly squarrose . . S. squarrosum, 8.

Branch leaves smaller, slightly squarrose at tips . . $. teres, 9.

Stem leaves small, with broad border below . . S. laricinum, 16.

[S. Wulfianum may be sought here.]

2. Included.

Branches in fascicles of 7 — 12 . S. Wulfianum, 10.

Branches in fascicles of 3 — 5.

Cortex of 2 or 3 layers, with few small pores or none . S. rigidum, 11.

Cortex of 4 or 5 layers, pores numerous . . S. medium, Limpr.1.

II. Branches uniform, solitary or in pairs; hyaline cells fibrillose; cortical

cells usually in one layer, without pores.

Stem and branch leaves alike, broadly obtuse, entire or

erose at apex . S. Pylsesii, 26.

Stem leaves oblong or obovate, branch leaves narrow,

linear oblong . S. Fitzgeraldi, 25.

1 Cardot: 1. c., p. 5.

26 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

III. Branches uniform , all arcuate-divergent; hyaline cells without fibrils ,

those of the branch leaves with one or two central rows of jpores.

Hyaline cells of branch leaves with 5 — 10 pores in one row,

S. niacropliyllum, 27.

Hyaline cells of branch leaves with 40 — 60 pores in two

rows . S. Floridanum.1

Of the species enumerated the following are reduced by M. Cardot:

SS. medium, papillosum, Austini and affine are sub-species of S. cyrabi-

folium; S. laricinum of S. subsecundum; S. squarrosum of S. teres; S.

Girgensohnii of S. acutifolium. and S. cuspidatum of S. intermedium.

S. rubellum Wils. becomes a variety of S. acutifolium; S. Muelleri

Schimp. is a synonym of S. molle; S. Mendocinum S. & L. of S. cuspi¬

datum; S. sedoides Brid. of S. Pylsesii.

S. cyclophyllum is believed to be an immature state of S. subsecundum,

but is retained in the Key.

ANDREiEA, p. 25.

Costa 0.

Leaves incurved, minute, rotund- obtuse, deeply bi-ventri-

cose . A. parvifolia.*

Leaves spreading or secund, acuminate, not ventricose A. petrophila, 1.

Costate.

Costa vanishing below apex . • . . . A. rupestris, 2.

Costa excurrent . A. crassineryium, 3.

MICROMITRIUM, p. 37.

Spores 63 n diameter, leaves serrate . . . M. megalosporum, 1.

Spores 25 n diameter, nearly smooth, leaves serrate above M. Austini, 2.

Spores a little smaller, papillose, leaves nearly entire . M. synoicum, 3.

EPHEMERUM, p. 37.

Leaves not costate . E. serratum, 1.

Leaves costate.

Costa ending below or at apex . E. coliserens, 6,

1 Cardot: 1. c., p. 22.

a Muller: Flora 1887. 219.

Analytic Keys to the Species of Mosses.

27

Costa excurrent.

Seta short, capsule acutely beaked. . . E. stenophyllum, 7.

Seta 0, capsule blunt pointed.

Leaves gradually long -acuminate, slightly and irreg¬

ularly serrate at apex E. crassinervium, 2.

Leaves with a long hyaline spinulose arista . E. spinulosum, 3.

Leaves papillose both sides . . . E. papillosum, 4.

Leaves long-spinulose on both sides E. liystrix, 5.

SPH JER ANG-IUM, p. 40.

Leaves papillose on both faces S. Schimperianuih, 4.

Leaves smooth or papillose on back.

Margins reflexed, plants triquetrous S. triquetrum, 3.

Margins almost plane, plants round or tetragonal.

Lower leaves ecostate . S. rufescens, 2.

Lower leaves costate . S. muticum, 1.

PHASOUM, p. 41.

Capsule sub-globose, apiculate.

Leaf margins plane or incurved, denticulate . P. Caruiolicum, 1.

Leaf margins reflexed, quite entire ... P. cuspidatum, 2.

Capsule ovate- or oblong-lanceolate ... - P. bryoides, 3.

PLEURIDIUM, p. 43.

Inflorescence paroicous.

Costa reaching the obscurely serrate apex . . P. subulatum, 1.

Costa excurrent into a smooth awl-shaped point . P. Ravenelii, 2.

Inflorescence autoicous.

Upper leaves long subulate.

Entire except at apex . P. alteruifolium, 3.

Serrulate from middle upward .... P. Boland eri, 5.

Upper leaves abruptly short pointed . . . . P. Sullivantii, 4.

BRUCHIA, p. 45. 1

I. Collum 0.

Seta very short . B. palustris, 1.

Seta exceeding capsule . B. Beyrichiana, 5.

[B. brevicollis may be sought here.]

1 This key must be quite imperfect, since the figures are so few, descriptions so imper¬

fect and specimens so inaccessible that it is impossible to ascertain the characters in many

’ instances.

28

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

II. Collum present.

A. Equalling sporangium.

Spores papillose . B. Bolanderi, 4.

Spores pitted . B. brevifolia, 12.

B. Shorter than sporangium.

1. Calyptra papillose.

Leaves denticulate at apex . B. Ravenelii, 13.

Leaves denticulate all around . B. Hampeana, 14.

2. Calyptra smooth.

a. Leaves papillose B. Donnellii, 9.

1). Leaves smooth (subpapillose in B. Sullivantii.)

• i. Costa not filling the narrowed point.

Synoicous . B. flexnosa, 2.

Monoicous . B. Sullivantii, 3.

ii. Costa broad above, filling point.

Capsule immersed . B. brevipes, 11.

Capsule exserted.

Leaves appressed . B. Hallii, 8.

Leaves spreading.

Seta straight.

Collum more than ■§■ spore case .... B. Texana, 10.

Collum less than \ spore case B. brevicollis, 6.

Seta geniculate at middle . B. curviseta, 7.

Analytic Keys to the Species of Mosses.

29

ASTOMUM, p. 51.

Capsules often clustered (2-3), oblong-oval . . A. Ludoyicianuin, 2.

Capsules solitary.

Orange, subglobose, leaves crispate when dry . A. Sullivantii, 3.

Orange, oval, leaves not crispate ... A. nitiduliun, yar. 4.

Brown, shining, ovoid, leaves not crispate . . A. nitiduliun, 4.

Brown, globose, leaves crispate .... A. crispuin, 1.

GYMNOSTOMUM, p. 52.

Lid long remaining attached to columella, capsule thick-

walled, with 6-8 rows of transversely elongated cells

at the mouth . G. curvirostre, 3.

Lid falling early, capsule thin-walled, with 3-4 rows of transversely elon¬

gated cells at mouth.

Plants 1-2 mm. high, lid conic . G. tenue, 4.

Plants 5-10 mm. high, lid subulate, costa 24 — 35 /t wide

at base with 2 guides 1 . G. calcareum, 1.

Plants 1-7 cm. high, costa 70 ju wide at base, with 4-6

guides 1 . . . G. rupestre, 2.

. WBISIA, p. 55.

Inflorescence autoicous.

Teeth more or less perfect or none, capsule wrinkled

lengthwise when dry . W. yiridula, 1.

Inflorescence dioicous.

Teeth large, lacunose and bifid, capsule 8-sulcate . W. longiseta, 2.

Teeth truncate, capsule not sulcate .... TV. Wolfli, 3.

DIOR ANO WBISIA, p. 57.

Leaf cells at base thick- walled, linear (1 : 6-10) . . D. crispula, 1.

Leaf cells at base thin-walled, rectangular (1:2-3) . . D. cirrhata, 2.

RHABDOWEISIA, p. 58.

Leaves minutely denticulate or entire; teeth filiform,

smooth, fugacious . It. fugax, 1.

Leaves coarsely dentate; teeth linear, obliquely crossed-

striate . It. denticulata, 2.

1 See explanation under Dicranum, p. 31.

30

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

CYNODONTIUM, p. 59.

Annulus very narrow and persistent or 0.

Leaf cells conical- to spinous-mamillose.

Teeth not papillose, seta straight .... C. Scliisti, L

Teeth papillose, seta often arcuate when moist . C. gracilescens, 2*

Leaf cells not mamillose, papillose over partitions . . C. virens, 4,.

Annulus distinct, revoluble . C. polycarpum, 3.

DICHODONTIUM, p. 61.

Costa vanishing below apex, seta yellow. . . . D. pellucidum, L.

Costa percurrent, seta red . D. Canadense, 2.

TREMATODON, p. 62.

Collum equalling or somewhat exceeding the oval-oblong

sporangium . T. ambiguum, L

Collum greatly exceeding the cylindric sporangium . T. longicollis, 2.

DICRANELLA, p. 64.

I. Cells of the exothecium rectangular-quadrate; seta red ; costa usually •

broad and indistinct below.

A. Leaves not sheathing, erect-spreading.

Costa percurrent or excurrent.

Annulus 0, peristome papillose.

Capsule cernuous, curved ....

Capsule erect, symmetric ....

Annulus present, peristome not papillose

Costa ceasing within the apex, annulus large, simple

. D. varia, 6.

D. rufescens, 7.

D. parvula. !

D. debilis, 8.

B . Leaves , from a sheathing base, squarrose.

Broad, obtuse . D. squarrosa, 4.

Abruptly subulate.

Capsule striate, substrumose, leaf apex entire , D. Grrevilleana, 2.

Capsule not Striate nor strumose, leaf apex serrulate . D. Sclireberi, 3.

1 Kindberg: Bull. Torr. Bot. Club xvi (1889) 91.

Analytic Keys to the Species of Mosses.

31

II. Cells of the exothecium prosenchymatous; seta often yellow; costa nar¬

row and well defined below.

A. Seta red.

Leaves, from a sheathing base, squarrose . . . . D. crispa, 1 .

Leaves not sheathing nor squarrose.

Mostly erect, capsule cernuous . D. subulata, 9.

Secund, capsule erect . D. curvata, 11.

B. Seta yelloivish.

Capsule symmetric, erect

Capsule cernuous.

Strumose .

Not strumose .

DICRANUM, p. 67.

In this genus the structure of the costa is of diagnostic value. It is either

composed of similar cells ( homogeneous ), or composed of large parenchyma

cells and small sclerenchyma cells ( stereides ). The large parenchyma

cells (“ Deuter ” of Lorentz1 2: here translated guides) form a row (seldom

double) in the middle of the costa, touching each other tangentially. They

are comparatively large, but little thickened and either empty or starch¬

bearing.3

I. Monoicous, stems radieulose only at base; costa long excurrent , homo¬

geneous.

Capsule erect, not strumose.

Striate and furrowed when dry . . . D. hyperboreuin Mull.4

Neither striate nor furrowed when dry . . . D. fulyellum, 1.

Capsule cernuous, strumose.

Leaf cells not papillose, capsule oblong-cylindric . D. Starkei, 2 .

Leaf cells with papillae over the partitions, capsules short ovate.

Leaves falcate-secund . D. falcatum, 3.

Leaves spreading . D. Blyttii, 4„

1 Renauld & Cardot: Bot. Gaz., xiii (1888) 197. pi. XIII.

2 Pringsh. Jahrb. f. wiss. Bot., vi. 374.

3 Cf. Limpricht: Die Laubmoose, p. 23.

4 Barnes: MSS.; var. papillosum, Renauld & Cardot: Bot. Gaz. x iv. (1889). 91.

D. Fitzgeraldi.3

B. cerviculata, 5.

D. lieteromalla, iO.

32

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

II. Dioicous, stems sub-radiculose above , costa flat , equalling or broader

than the 2 — 4 -stratose lamina whose superficial cells are without

chlorophyll , capsule erect , regular.

Costa not furrowed at back, smooth . . . . D. albicans, 11.

Costa furrowed and toothed at back . . . D. longifolium, 10.

III. Dioicous, stems radiculose {often densely), costa with median guides.

A. Capsule cernuous, more or less arcuate.

1 . Leaf cells pitted.

a. Costa not reaching the apex, leaves transversely undulate.

Leaf cells above elongated, smooth.

Costa serrate on back, not lamellose.

Capsules solitary (rarely 2), annulus 0 . . D. palustre, 19.

Capsules clustered, annulus large, simple . D. Druminondii, 22.

Costa with serrate lamellae.

Capsules clustered, perichaetial leaves differentiated D. undulatum, 23.

Capsules solitary (?), perichaetial leaves like others I). dipteroneuron. 1

Leaf cells above isodiametric, irregular.

Smooth at back . D. Schraderi, 20.

Papillose at back . D. spurium, 21.

b. Costa per current or excurrent , leaves not undulate.

[D. palustre may be sought here.]

Guides in two rows . D. niajus, 18.

Guides in one row.

Perichaetial leaves abruptly subulate . . . D. scoparium, 17.

Perichaetial leaves gradually subulate . . . .3). Howellii.2

2. Leaf cells not pitted or faintly so.

a. Capsules cernuous, curved.

i. Leaves quite entire, subulate.

Points very brittle and mostly broken . . . 1). fragilifolium, 16.

Points not broken ........ B. elongatum, 12.

ii. Leaves entire, upper obtuse . D. Groenlandicum, Brid.3

Lower cells rectangular (1:2-3) .... D. Miquelonense.4

1 Muller: Flora, 1887. 221.

2Renauld & Cardot: Bot. Gaz. xiv (1889) 93, pi. XII.

3S.yn. D. tenuinerve, Zett. — Renauld & Cardot: FI. Miq. 42 (1888); Bot. Gaz. xiv.

<1889) 99.

* Renauld & Cardot: FI. Miq. 42 (1888); Bot. Gaz. xiv. (1889) 93, pi. XII.

Analytic Keys to the Species of Mosses.

33.

iii. Leaves serrulate.

Upper cells very irregular.

Weakly papillose over partitions, capsule not striped,

D. congestum, Brid.1 13.

Not papillose, capsule striped.

Inner perichaetial leaves obliquely truncate to a short

serrate subula . B. Mulilenbeckii, 14.

Inner perichaetial leaves narrowed to thong- shaped

point . B. rhabdocarpum, 15.

Inner perichaetial leaves rounded with a short subula,

B. s abide to rum. 2

Upper cells regular, quadratic . B. fuscescens,3 13.

b. Capsule erect , symmetric.

Costa without stereides . B. strictum, 5.

Costa with two stereide bands.

Lamina above of two layers.

Margin and costa serrulate . B. fidvum, 9.

Entire, apex usually broken . B. yiride, 7.

Lamina throughout of one layer.

Upper cells rectangular and mamillose . . B. montanum, 6.

Upper cells less regular, not mamilloie . . . B. flagellare, 8.

D. leioneuron and D. stenodictyon of Kindberg, Ottawa Nat. ii (1889) 155-

and Bull. Torr. Bot. Club xvi (1889) 92, are species of uncertain relations.

I have not seen authentic specimens, and the descriptions are too meager

to enable me to form any judgment.

OAMPYLOPUS, p. 77. 4

I. Costa smooth at back.

A. Auricles none.

[C. gracilicaulis may belong here.]

Upper leaves with hyaline points . C. Henrici. 5 6

Upper leaves without hyaline points . C. Leanus, 4.

1 D. fuscescens of Manual.

2Renauld & Cardot: Bot. Gaz. xiv (1889) 91, pi. XII.

3 This is var. longirostre and var. angustifolium of Manual.

4 The genus is greatly in need of revision, with a view to discovering differential struc¬

tural characters of the leaves. The few figures and meager descriptions render the key un -

certain in many points.

6 Renauld & Cardot: Bot. Gaz. xiii (1888) 197, pi. XIV.

3 - A. & L.

34 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

B. Auricles present.

Leaves spinulose serrate at apex . . . . C. Donnellii, 8.

Auricles dirty red . C. angustiretis, 11.

Perichsetial leaves with hyaline points (may include 8

and 11 above) . C. gracilicaulis, 10.

II. Costa scabrous or lamellose at back.

'Leaves with pellucid hair points . C. introflexus, 3.

Leaves not hair pointed.

Alar cells round, lamina 0 . C. frigidus, 6.

No auricles . C. Tirginicus, 9.

FISSIDEMS, p. 81 {incl. Conomitrium, p. 89. J)

I. (EUFISSIDENS.) Plants terrestrial or submersed but not floating;

leaves soft , of one layer of cells.

A. Fruit terminal.

1. Monoicous, male flowers axillary.

Leaf-cells small, densely chlorophyllose, in distinct rows F. limbatus, 5.

Leaf-cells larger, not densely chlorophyllose, nor in dis¬

tinct rows . F. bryoides, 2.

:2. Dioicous or monoicous with the male flowers terminal on a rooting

branch at the base of the female stem.

a. Leaf-cells 14-2 times as long as icide, large , distinct.

Plants less than 1 mm. high, leaves two or three pairs F. Closteri, 1.

Plants 2-4 mm. high, wholly hyaline, leaves 3-5 pairs F. hyalinus, 9.

1 See Barnes: Bot. Gaz. xii (1887) 1.

Analytic Keys to the Species of Mosses.

35

b. Leaf- cells almost or quite isodiametric, often obscure.

Leaves with a narrow border, at least on vaginant lamina.

Marginal leaf-cells not papillose . F. incurvus, 3.

Marginal leaf-cells papillose.

Costa percurrent . F. Ravenelii, 13.

Costa ceasing below apex . F. Garberi, 15.

Leaves without a border.

Acute, cells densely chlorophyllose, obscurely papillose F. Donnellii, 14.

Obtuse, cells pellucid, operculum conic . . F. obtusifolius, 17.

Apiculate, operculum with acicular beak . . F. osmxmdoides, 18.

Leaves with a thick reddish border. Plants submersed,

rigid . . F. rufulus, 8.1

B Fruit lateral.

1. Leaves without a border.

Obtuse, entire, plants 2-5 cm. high, fruit sub-terminal F. polypodioides, 23.

Rounded at apex, irregularly serrate, 1-2 cm. high, fruit

sub-basal . F. sub-basilaris, 22.

Mucronate, regularly serrulate, fruit basal or sub-basal F. taxifolius, 20.

2. Leaves bordered by several rows of paler, often incrassate, cells.

Capsule cernuous, leaf-cells minute F. Floridanus, 7.

Capsule erect or inclined, flowers dioicous, leaf-cells ob¬

scure . F. decipiens, 19.

Capsule erect or inclined, flowers monoicous, leaf-cells dis¬

tinct . F. adiantoides, 21.

II. (PACHYFISSIDENS.) Leaves rigid, composed of more than one

layer of cells, opaque.

Plants growing in water or very wet places . . F. grandifrons, 24.

III. (OCTODICERAS.)2 Plants aquatic, filiform, floating.

Plants large, much branched, pedicel shorter than the

capsule . F. Julianas, C. 1.

Plants small, little branched, pedicel longer than the cap¬

sule . F. Hallianus, C. 2.

1 F. ventricosus, Lesq.

2 Conomitrium of Manual.

36

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters.

In the Revision of N. A. species of Fissidens,1 FF. inconstans, exiguus

and minutulus were reduced to F. incur vus, the two latter forming varie¬

ties. FF. bryoides var. csespitans, crassipes, Hallii and Texanus are rel¬

egated to the list of doubtful species.

Two species have recently been named by Renauld and Cardot 2 as oc¬

curring in the U. S., FF. Bambergeri Schimp. and viridulus Wahl. The

first of these I regard as a form of F. incur vus; the second is possibly a

sub-species of the same. It may be known by its thin- walled capsule, with

the peristome inserted below the mouth. Neither are worthy of a distinct

place in the key.

LEUCOBRYUM, p. 90.

Capsule apparently lateral (by innovations), leaves erect-

spreading, oblong lanceolate . L. vulgare,3 lc

Capsule exactly terminal, leaves squarrose, very short and

very broad . . L. sediforme, 2.

CERATODON, p. 92.

Stems 2-8 (sterile often 10) cm. long, teeth articulate for f

length . C. purpureus, 1.

Stems 5 mm. long, teeth articulate to middle . . . C. minor, 2 .

TRICHODON, p. 92.

Cells of leaf base linear, above rectangular . . . T. cylindricus, 1.

Cells of leaf base rectangular (1:2-4), above quadrate . T. flexifolius.4

DISTICHITJM, p. 93.

Capsule erect, spores 17-20 ji . 1). capillaceum, 1.

Capsule cernuous, spores 80-44 ju . inclination, 2.

SELIG-ERIA, p. 96.

Seta straight when moist.

Leaves sharp pointed, cells above rectangular, spores

10-14 ju .

Leaves blunt -pointed, cells above quadratic, spores

14-18 jl .

1 See Bai’nes: Bot. Gaz. xii ("1887) 1.

2 Bot. Gaz. xiv (1889), 99.

3 L. minus cannot be separated. L. vulgare varies from 3 to 20 cm. in height and good

fruit can be found in the same tuft from December to August.

* Renauld & Cardot: Bot. Gaz , xiv, (1889) 94, pi. XIII.

8. pusilla, 1.

S. calearea, 2.

37

Analytic Keys to the Species of Mosses.

■» i

Leaves mostly blunt -pointed, cells rectangular, spores

24-82 n . S. tristicha, 4,

Seta arcuate when moist ....... S. recurvata, 3.

PGTTIA, p. 100.

I. Peristome 0 or rudimentary.

Costa with 2-4 lamellae above ..... P. cavifolia, 1.

Costa not lamellate.

Leaf -margins more or less re volute .

Lid conic obtuse, spores echinate .... P. minutula, 2.

Lid rostellate, spores papillose.

Calyptra smooth . . . , . . . P. truncata, 3.

Calyptra scabrous . P. Wilsoni, 4.

Leaf-margins plane or involute.

Lid abruptly rostrate, leaves sharply serrate above . P. Heimii, 5.

Lid conic, leaves distantly denticulate above . . P. riparia, 6.

Lid conic- subulate, leaves slightly crenulate above . P. Barb ill a, 7.

II. Peristome distinct.

Leaves oblong-lanceolate, margins revolute . . . P. Starkeana, 8.

Leaves rounded or round-spatutate, margins plane . P. latifolia, 9.

DIDYMODON, p. 104.

Leaf cells throughout quadratic . I), lurid US, 2.

Leaf cells below rectangular.

Leaf base reddish, margins above revolute D. rubcllus, 1.

Leaf base hyaline, margins plane . . . . D. cylindrieus, 8.

LEPTOTRICHTJM, p. 105.

Dioicous.

Leaves slightly twisted.

Stem leaves spreading, perichaetial leaves hardly

sheathing . L. tortile, 1.

Stem leaves imbricate, perichaetial leaves long sheath¬

ing . L. vaginalis, 2.

Leaves not twisted.

Plants short (1-2 cm.), not radiculose . . . L. Iiomomallum, 8,

Plants long (to 10 cm.) densely radiculose . . L. flexicaule, 4.

38

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

Monoicous.

Plants short (5 mm.)

Teeth cylindric, nodose-articulate, leaves spreading . L. pallidum, 5_

Teeth flattened, linear, trabeculate, perforate, leaves

secund . L. Schimperi, 6.

Plants longer (2-3 cm.), glaucous . . . L. glaucescens, 7.

TRICHQSTOMTJM, p. 108.

I. Lamina composed of one layer of cells, papillose.

Margin reflexed or undulate, entire.

Annulus 0 . T. tophaeeum, 1,

Annulus large, compound . T. pyriforme, 2.

Margin plane or incurved.

Costa reaching apex or excurrent; serrate above.

Base of leaf yellowish, with thick walled rectangular

cells . T. crispulmn, 3.

Base of leaf hyaline.

Abruptly mucronate or obtuse, with long papillae T. flavo-Yirens, 4.

Gradually acuminate, papillae low . . T. liitidiim, Sch.1

Costa ceasing far below apex; entire . . . T. Coloradense.2

II. Lamina of two layers, upper surface mamillose, lower smooth.

Peristome not twisted, seta arcuate or variously bent . T. flexipes, 5*

Peristone twisted, seta subflexuous T. anomalum, 6,

DESMATODON, p. 110.

I. Capsule erect or nearly so.

A. Leaves without a hyaline or thickened border.

1. Not papillose , 1). systilius, 2 .

2. Papillose.

a. Costa excurrent into a hair.

Capsule oblong (1: 2 or 1: 3 excl. lid), 16 teeth divided nearly or quite to base.

Plants of mountainous regions; calyptra reaching base

of capsule ........ D. latifolius, 1.

Plants of lowlands; calyptra reaching half way to base

of capsule . B .Guepini, 10,

1 Renauld and Cardot: Bot. Oaz. xiv (1889), 99.

9 Appendix, p. 413

Analytic Keys to the Species of Mosses.

30

Capsule cylindric (1:5-6); teeth divided half way or entire.

[D. obliquus may be sought here.]

Dioicous . D. plintliobius, 6.

Monoicous . 1). Neo-Mcxicauus, 7.

b. Costa vanishing at apex or forming a short point.

Leaves hyaline f of their length .... 1). obtusifolius, 9.

Leaves hyaline only at base.

Margins revolhte.

Capsule long cylindric, leaves crenulate . . I). arenaceus, 3.

Capsule elliptic, leaves entire . D. nervosus, 8..

Margins indexed above . 1). Garberi, 4.

B. Leaves with a pellucid border. . . D. Porteri, 5.

II. Capsule nodding or pendent.

Leaves with a thickened border below.

Seta straight, capsule nodding or horizontal

Seta reflexed, capsule pendent

Leaves without a border .

1). ceriums, 11.

I). Laureri, 13.

I). obliquus, 12..

BARBULA, p. 115.

I. Leaves icith jointed dichotomous filaments on the costa.

Costa broad (4 leaf) flattened, leaves thick, rigid . . § I. Aloidellse.

Costa narrow, round, leaves thin, broad . . . §11. Chlorouotae.

II. Leaves not filamentose.

Teeth from a low membrane, scarcely projecting from the

mouth [excl. B. brevipes].

Plants small.

Leaf cells distinct . § III. Cuueifolise-

Leaf cells small.

Periclisetial leaves little different from the foliage,

§ IY. XJnguiculatse.

Pericheetial leaves long sheathing or convolute . § Y. Convolute.

Plants robust [excl. B. ccespitosa ].

Leaves entire; stems radiculose .... § YI. Tortuosse.

Leaves serrate, stems not radiculose ... § YII. Squarrosse.

Teeth from a high tesselated membrane . , § YIII. Syntricliia?.

40

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

§ I. Aloidellse.

Synoicous . B. brevirostris, 1.

Dioicons.

Annulus broad, revoluble, calyptra reaching the middle

of the capsule . B. rigida, 2.

Annulus small, persistent, calyptra barely covering the

lid . B. ambigua, 3.

§ II. Chloronotse.

Leaves with hair points.

Tip of leaf hyaline . B. meinbranifolia, 4.

Tip of leaf concolorous.

Hair smooth, leaves acute or somewhat obtuse . B. chloronotos, 5.

Hair serrate, leaves rounded obtuse .... B. Henrici.1

Leaves without hair points . B. Maimise.2

§ III. Cuneifolise.

Leaves bordered by 2-4 rows of thickened cells . . B. margiuata, 8.

Leaves bordered by 1 row of round yellowish cells with

prominent papillae, aristate B. Yahliana, 7.

Leaves with a broad yellowish border, not pointed B. Egelingi Schliep.2

Leaves without a border.

Costa excurrent into a hoary hair B. nmraiis, 12.

Costa forming a short point or ceasing below apex.

Leaf cells smooth . B. cimeifolia, 6.

Leaf cells papillose [incl. B. amplexa f\

Peristome membrane long . B. brevities, 11.

Peristome membrane short.

Inner perichaetial leaves short B. Bolanderi, 9.

Inner perichaetial leaves long-sheathing, abruptly

reflexed . B. amplexa, 10.

§ IV. Unguiculatse.

[B. csespitosa may be sought here.]

I. Peristome 0. . B. rubiginosa, 28

\Rau: Bull. Washb. Coll. Lab. i (1886), 172.

2 Muller: Flora 1887, 222.

Analytic Keys to the Species of Mosses. 41

II. Peristome present.

A. Teeth straight or scarcely twisted.

Nodose, separate . B. rigidula, 22.

Cancellate ........ B. cancellata, 19.

B. Teeth plainly twisted.

1. Leaves blunt or mucronate by the excurrent costa.

Leaves short, ovate, the very apex obtuse.

Capsule cylindric, calyptra reaching middle . B. bracliyphylla, 20.

Capsule ovate, calyptra reaching base B. purpurea, 21.

Leaves longer, narrower, sharp pointed.

Cells at base rectangular and pellucid.

Capsule oblong-elliptic to sub-cylindric, sub-incurved,

B. unguiculata, 13.

Capsule oblong, small, erect . B. Jooriaua, 14.

Cells at base quadrate, chlorophyllose B. Cruegeri, 18.

2. Leaves gradually pointed.

a. Leaves not papillose [inch B. artocarpaf\

Annulus none . . . . . . . . B. gracilis, 31.

Annulus large, simple, persistent .... B. artocarpa, 30.

h. Leaves papillose.

i. Cells at base roundish , quadrate or short- rectangular.

Annulus 0.

Costa 70 p wide at base and tapering gradually . B. fallax, 15.

Costa 50 p wide, of equal breadth to middle , B. recurvifolia, 17.

Annulus pale, compound . B. elata, 27.

ii. Cells at base rectangidar , often elongated.

[B. fallax may be sought here.]

Leaves erect-incurved, imbricate when dry.

Cells above 5-7 p diameter . B. viuealis, 23.

Cells twice as large . B. yiresceus, 25.

Leaves squarrose-spreading orrellexed, twisted when dry.

Pericheetial leaves open, sheathing only at base, revolute

on edges . B. subfallax, 16.

Perichsetial leaves half sheathing.

Annulus simple, narrow, persistent . . . B. semitorta, 29 l.

1 In Lesq. & James’ Manual, p. 126, In note under B. semitorta. read “ Comparable to

B. vinealis ” instead of B. brachyphylla. See Pacif. B. R. Rept., iv, 186.

42

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

Annulus double or triple.

Cells 5-7 ii in diameter

Cells twice as large

j B. cylindrica, 2'6.

I B. flexifolia, 24.

B. yirescens, 25.

Nos. 23, 24, 25, 26, with possibly 29, are doubtless forms of one species,

so that the key will probably break down here.

§ V. Convolute©.

Leaves involute on margin.

Aristulate by excurrent costa . B. agraria , 34.

Acute or submucronate ...... B. Donnellii, 36.

Leaves plane on margin or recurved.

Capsule costate when dry . B. Rani, 35.

Capsule smooth.

Leaves acute, costa percurrent . . . . B. convoluta, 32.

Leaves with hyaline point . B. Closteri, 33.

§ VI. Tortuosee.

Leaves long linear, acute, abruptly mucronate . . B. csespitosa, 37.

Leaves very long acuminate, cuspidate.

Twisted crispate when dry, above of one layer of cells B. tortnosa, 38.

Not crispate, brittle, two layers of cells above . . B. fragilis, 39.

§ VII. Squarrosae.

Includes but one species . B. sqnarrosa, 40.

§ VIII. Syntrichiee.

[B. bi*evipes may be sought here.]

I. Leaves with a border of thickened cells.

Marginal cells elongated . . . . . . . B. subulata, 41.

Marginal cells roundish . B. lampila, 44.

. II. Leaves not bordered.

Cells smooth .

Cells papillose.

Monoicous.

Costa percurrent ....

Costa excurrent into a long (mostly

hair .

B. mncronifolia, 43.

\ B. inermis, 42.

I B. subulata var. mutica, 41.

smooth) hyaline

B. lseyipila, 44.

Analytic Keys to the Species of Mosses. 45

Polygamous, costa excurrent into a hyaline spinulose hair B. Muelleri, 48.

Dioicous.

Costa pereurrent or ceasing below apex . . . B. latifolia, 45.

Costa short-excurrent, clothed above with gemmae B. papillosa, 47.

Costa naked, excurrent into a hyaline, spinulose hair.

Hair red at base, upper leaves acute . . B. megalocarpa.1

Hair white throughout, upper leaves rounded or

emarginate ........ B. ruralis, 46.

GRIMMIA, p. 134.

Seta shorter than the capsule.

Straight, capsule symmetric.

Lid falling with columella . § I. Schistidium.

Lid persistent on columella . §11. Scouleria.

Crooked, capsule ventricose ... § III. Gasterogrimmia.

Seta longer than capsule.

Arcuate . § IT. Eugrimmia.

Straight . § Y. Guenibelia.

§ I. Schistidium.

Leaves with hyaline points (excl. vars. of 1 and 3)

Pericheetial leaves obtuse, in lower £ cells large . G. platyphylla, 4.

Perichaetial leaves hair pointed.

Capsule oblong . G. ambigua, 2.

Capsule ovate -globose.

In small dense cushions, soft, lurid green . G. conferta, 1.

In lax cushions, coarse, fuscescent G. apocarpa, 3.

Leaves muticous.

Margins plane.

Coarsely dentate at apex . G. Agassizii, 5.

Entire at apex . G. liiaritiina, 6.

Margins recurved or revolute . . . • | G* apocarpa | vars*

§ II. Soouleria.

Includes but one species . * G. Scouleri, 7.

§ III. Gasterogrimmia.

Peristome 0, lamina bistratose near apex .... G. anodon, 8.

Peristome present, lamina unistratose throughout . G. plagiopoda, 9.

J Kindberg: Bull. Torr. Bot. Chib , xvi (1889), 92.

44 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

§ IV. Eugrimmia.

•Capsule costate when dry.

Leaves homomallous-falcate when dry . . . G. hamulosa, 12.

Leaves spirally twisted on stem when dry

G. torquata, 18.

Leaves incurved-cirrhate when dry G. contorta, 11.

Leaves imbricate or slightly twisted when dry.

Hair point rough, capsule obscurely costate . G. Mulilenbeckii, 14.

Hair point smooth, capsule strongly costate.

Laxly pulvinate-cespitose, dioicous , . G. trichophylla, 16.

Densely pulvinate, monoicous . . . . G. pulyinata, 10.

Capsule not cos bate (or obscurely) when dry.

Leaves falcate-reflexed when moist G. Watsoni,15.

Leaves not reflexed.

Margins plane, capsule elliptic, collum 0 . . G. Olneyi, 17.

[G. Mulilenbeckii may be sought here].

Margins reflexed.

Capsule subpyriform, collum distinct, leaves not

gemmiferous

G. Californica, 18.

Capsule oval-oblong, upper leaves gemmiferous G. Hartmani, Sch.1

A sterile species, Gvimmia arcuatifolia, probably belonging to this section

has been described by Kindberg in Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, xvi (1889), 93.

It resembles G. Watsoni in the reflexed leaves.

Lamina above 2-4-stratose.

Calyptra cucullate.

Leaves hair pointed ...... G. cominutata, 25.

Leaves not hair pointed, rather blunt . . . G. imicolor, 28.

Calyptra mitrate.

Leaf margins plane . . G. leucophsea, 22.

Leaf margins recurved.

Walls of basal cells sinuate . . . G. Pennsylvania, 22.

Walls of basal cells smooth . G. ovata, 21.

Only the margin 2 — 4-stratose.

Leaves muticous or hyaline, apiculate . . G. Coloradensis, 20.

Leaves hair pointed.

Annulus 0.

Calyptra mitrate, covering whole capsule . G. calyptrata, 23.

Calyptra cucullate . G. montana, 26.

1 Mrs. E. G. Britton, Bull. Torr. Bot. Club , xvi (1889) , 340.

Analytic Keys to the Species of Mosses.

45

Annulus present .

Cells of leaf base elongated (1:4 to 1: 8) . . G. Donniana, 19.

Cells of leaf base short (1: 2) . . . . G. alpestris, 27.

Grimmia Mannioe , apparently of this section, is described by Muller ( Flora

1887, 228), from California. Mrs. E. G. Britton is of opinion that it is only

G. alpestris Schleich.

RHACOMITRIUM, p. 147.

I. Branches fastigiate.

Leaves with a short hyaline point R. Slide ticum, 5.

Leaves muticous.

N

Costa with 2-4 lamellse at back . R. patens, 1.

Costa not lamellose.

Leaves with large quadrate cells at the basal angles,

decurrent . R. depression, 8.

Leaves not auricled nor decurrent.

Obtuse.

Perichsetial leaves costate, seta long . R. aciculare, 2.

Pericheetial leaves ecostate, seta short . . R. Nevii, 4.

Acute . R. Macounii, \

II. Branches fasciculate.

A. Leaves muticous.

Cells elongated above. . R. fascicnlare, 7.

Cells quadratic above . R. variuin, 8.1 2

[R. canescens may be sought here.]

B. Leaves with a hyaline point.

Cells linear throughout lamina . . . . R. niicrocarpum, 9.

Cells quadratic above.

Strongly papillose both sides . R. canescens, 11.

Smooth (except at the point).

Hyaline point denticulate .... R. heterostickuni, 6.

[R. canescens var. lntescens and R. varium may be sought here.]

Hyaline point strongly erose-serrate and papillose R. laniiginosuni, 10..

1 Kindberg: Bull. Torr. Bot. Club , xvi (1889), 93.

2 R. Oreganum Renauld and Cardot: Bot. Gaz., xiii (1888), 198, pi. XV, is this species

( [fide J. Cardot in litt.'), which seems to be R. canescens , var. lutescens L. and J. ; fide

Mrs. E. G. Britton in lift.

46

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

COSCXNGDON, p. 154.

Costa not entering the hyaline point which is less than the

leaf in length.

Dioicous, leaves oblong lanceolate . . . . C. puTvinatus, 1.

Autoicous, leaves obovate . C„ Rani, 3.

Costa forming a rough hyaline point twice as long as the

leaf . C. Wriglitii, 2.

PT Y CHOMITRXTJM, p. 156.

Plants large (3 cm. + ), leaves acuminate, sharply dentate P. Gardner!, 1.

Plants small (1 cm. — ), leaves not acuminate, nearly or

quite entire.

Collum 0.

Teeth subulate (1:10), entire . P. incurvum, 2.

Teeth lanceolate (1:4), bi- or trifid . . . P„ Drummondii, 3.

Collum equalling one-third sporangium P. pygmseum, 4.

AMPHORIDIUM, p. 158.

Leaf margins plane, entire ..... A. Lapponicilin, 1.

Leaf margins recurved or re volute.

Leaves remote, recurved -spreading, serrate . A. Sulliyantii, 4.

Leaves close.

Costa excurrent, seta arcuate . . . .A. Califormcim, 3.

Costa vanishing below apex.

Entire . A. Mongeotii, 2.

Serrulate . A. csespitosmn, 5.

TJLOTA, p. 160.

I. Leaves rigid , not crispate when dry.

[U. Drummondii may be sought here.]

Costa percurrent . U. Hutcliinsise, 9.

Costa ceasing below apex . U. Barclayi, 10.

II. Leaves crispate ivhen dry.

Upper leaves tipped with gemmae

U. pliyllantha, 8.

-'V ' ■' •

' '

Analytic Keys to the Species of Mosses. 47

Upper leaves not bearing gemmae.

Dry capsule costate only at narrow mouth . . U. Ludwigii, 2.

Dry capsule costate its whole length.

Stems creeping, leaves slightly crispate, peristome

simple . U. Druininondii, 1.

Stems not creeping, leaves strongly crispate, peristome

double.

Mouth of capsule contracted .... U. Brucliii, 4,

Mouth of capsule not contracted.

Tufts brown, on rocks . U. curvifolia, 8.

Tufts green, on trees.

Capsule contracted below the mouth U. crispjL 5.

Capsule not contracted below the mouth . U. crispnla, 7.

XJ. Americana of Mitten (no. 6), is allied to the last two species, and I

am unable to see wherein it differs in any features which can be used in

a key.

ORTHOTRICHUM, p. 164.

I. Leaves obtuse.

Margins plane, stomata superficial ....(). obtusifoliuni, 81.

Margins revolute.

Peristome simple, on rocks . 0. Jamesiamnn, 82.

Peristome double, in water . 0. rivulare, 30.

II. Leaves with hyaline points.

Plants large (7-8 cm.) . 0. Pringlei, b

Plants smaller (about 1 cm.).

Teeth equidistant, cilia of 1 row of cells . . 0. diapliamim, 28.

Teeth bigeminate, cilia of 2 rows of cells ... 0. camim, 29.

III. Leaves acute , without hyaline points, margins revolute or recurved.

A. Stomata superficial.

1. Peristome simple.

[OO. Texanum and rupestre may be sought here.]

Capsule wholly exserted, smooth when dry.

Defluent into seta . 0. laevigatum, 2.

Abrupt at base . 0. Douglasii, 6.

1 Miiller: Bull. Torr. Bot. Club., xiii (1886), 120. But July 18, 1888, he writes: “Mein O.

Pringlei ist forma longifolia crispata papillosa von 0. Lyellii,xmd anderer mal O. papillosum

und 0. Pacificum Hampe ” ! — fide Mrs. E. G. Britton.

p&fp uy AAA -aKSpAA ™ C |uy- ' tf.-d'! j ,

48

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

Capsule immersed or emergent.

Leaves densely papillose . 0. Sturmii, 4,

Leaves almost smooth . . . . . . 0. bullatum, b

2. Peristome double.

[OO. laevigatum and Sturmii, may be sought here.]

a. Capsule entirely smooth.

Immersed, papillae simple . 0. leiocarpum, 25,

Exserted, papillae bifurcate . 0. Kingianum, 15,

b. Capsule strongly costate.

Leaves beset with clavate gemmae . 0. Lyellii, 83.

Leaves not gemmiferous.

Teeth erect when dry, cilia 16 . . . 0. Texanum, 5,

Teeth reflexed when dry ( O. brachytrichum ?), cilia 8.

Capsule (inch collum) subcylindric.

Leaves acute, papillae simple or bifurcate, salient . 0. affine, 10,

Leaves apiculate, minutely papillose . . 0. brachytriclmin, 18.

Capsule obovate . 0. sordidum, 14,

c. Capsule ribbed only near mouth.

Peristome opaque, very papillose, reflexed when dry 0. speciosuni, 12,

Peristome opaque, transversely lineolate, reflexed when

dry . 0. Bolanderi, 8.^

Peristome not opaque, erect when dry, papillae more or

less obliterated or reduced to sinuous lines . . 0. rupestre, 7,

B. Stomata immersed.

s. I

1. Peristome simple.

Capsule smooth when dry . 0. Douglasii, 6.&

Capsule faintly costate, bands (8, rarely 16) cinnamon -red 0. anomalum, 1.

Capsule 16-costate, bands (16, rarely 8) yellow . . 0. cupulatum, 3.

Capsule 8-costate . 0. Texanum, 5.i * 3

[O. Hallii may be sought here.]

i Muller: Flora , 1887, 223.

3 This sp. is O. rupestre , var. vulgare, forma densior according to Venturi in Husn. Muse .

Gall. 156.

3 This species is repeated here because the character of the stomata is unknown to me.

49

Analytic Keys to the Species of Mosses.

2. Peristome double.

a. Capsule smooth when dry.

Cilia wider than teeth . 0. exiguuin, 24.

Cilia narrow.

Capsule gradually narrowed to seta .... 0. pallens, 26.

Capsule abruptly contracted to seta ... 0. psilocarpum, 23

H j

b. Capsule costate when dry.

i. Abruptly contracted to seta , collum not evident.

Leaves with simple papillae.

Capsule exserted, teeth papillose , . . . 0. consiiuile, 21.

Capsule subimmersed, teeth with oblique sinuous lines . 0. Hallii, 13.

Leaves rough with very long forked papillae ... 0. Watsoni, 9.

ii. Gradually narrowed to seta with evident collum.

* Capsule exserted.

[O. tenellum may be sought here.]

Cilia 8, calyptra hairy . 0. cylindricarpum, 22.

Cilia 16, calyptra naked . 0. pulcliellum, 27.

* * Capsule immersed or nearly.

Leaves with salient furcate papillae.

Teeth papillose below, paler above, with longitudinal or

sinuous lines, rarely perforate .... 0. al pest re, 11. -

Teeth papillose throughout, often perforate along

median line.

Neck of capsule shriveling into a cup which receives the

seta, capsule contracted below mouth ... 0. fallax, 17.

Neck of capsule not becoming cupped, capsule not con¬

tracted below mouth . 0. pumilum, Sw.1-

Leaves with simple, often weak papillae.

Capsule emergent, subcylindric (long cyl. when dry),

little contracted below the mouth ... 0. tenellum, 20.

Capsule immersed, obovate, contracted below mouth.

Neck shrivelling into a cup, which receives the seta . 0. fallax, 17.

Neck not becoming cupped .... 0. strangulatum, 19.

Capsule immersed, not contracted.

Capsule straw-colored, teeth dirty -reddish . . 0. Oliioense, 16.

Capsule with yellow (not orange) bands, teeth orange,

yellow or pale . 0. pumilum Sw.1

1 Venturi: Husn. Muse. Gall. 179, pi. 49.

4 — A. & L.

<50

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

MACROMITRXUM, p. 178.

Capsule plicate at mouth and base only

Capsule costate its whole length.

Lid conic, blunt, peristome 0.

Lid subulate, peristome present

Capsule smooth .

M. Sullivantii, 1.

M. Fitzgeraldi, 2.

M. rliabdocarpuin, 8.

M. mucronifolium, 4.

ENOALYPTA, p. 180.

I. Capsule spirally striate and sulcate when dry.

Capsule twisted to the right when dry, leaves with hya¬

line hair points, teeth glabrous E. Selwyni, 7.

-Capsule twisted to the left when dry.

Leaves acute or apiculate, teeth papillose, with a median

line . E. procera, 6.

Leaves muticous. usually obtuse, teeth filiform, nodose,

minutely papillose . E. streptocarpa, 8.

II. Capsule vertically striate and sulcate when dry , or smooth.

Distinctly striate . E. rhabdocarpa, 3.

Smooth or faintly striolate.

Calyptra entire at base, peristome 0 or fugacious.

Calyptra smooth at apex . E. coiiinmtata, 1.

Calyptra scabrous at apex ..... E. vulgaris, 2.

Calyptra fringed at base, peristome present.

Leaves apiculate-acuminate . E. ciliata, 4.

Leaves muticous _ . E. Macounii, 5.

OALYMPERES, p. 184.

Leaves oblong or broad- ovate.

Upper leaves very obtuse, often filamentose at apex . C. Richardi, 1.

Upper leaves acute, often filamentose in middle . C. disciforme, 2.

Leaves narrowly panduriform, obtuse or retuse . C. (2) crispum, 3.

SYRRHOFODON, p. 185.

1 Leaf margins bilamellate upwards . . . . S. Floridanus, 1.

ILeaf margins single throughout . S. Texanus, 2.

Analytic Keys to the Species of Mosses.

51

TETRAPHIS, p. 186.

Pedicel straight . T. pellucida, 1.

Pedicel geniculate at middle . T. geniculata, 2.

DISSODON, p. 189.

Seta short (5 mm.), thick, capsule erect, chestnut brown,

D. Horuscliuchii, 1.

Seta longer (1.5 cm.), plants 1-2 cm. high, capsule often

inclined, orange . D. Froelicliianus, 2.

Seta longer (3-4 cm.), plants 4-12 cm., capsule erect,

orange . D. splaclmoides, 3.

TAYLORIA, p. 190.

Teeth i length of sporangium, strap-like, reflexed, sinuous

and twisted when dry, upper half of leaf serrate,

T. splaclmoides, 2.

Teeth much shorter, linear, recurved, upper third of leaf

serrate . T. serrata, 1.

TETRAPLODON, p. 191.

Leaves sharply serrate, narrowed to filiform point . T. angustatus, 1.

Leaves distantly incised-serrate, gradually acuminate . T. australis, 3.

Leaves entire, more or less abruptly filiform-apiculate.

Costa sub-excurrent, empty sporangium constricted in

middle . T. innioides, 2.

Costa ceasing below point, empty sporangium not con¬

stricted in middle . T. urceolatus, 4.

SPLACHNUM, p. 193.

Apophysis ovate or subglobose.

About the size of the sporangium.

Costa excurrent, apophysis red . . . . S. sphsericum, 2.

Costa ceasing below apex, apophysis at first green then

brown . S. Wonnskioldii, 1.

Greatly exceeding the sporangium ... S. vasculosum, 3.

Apophysis pyriform, exceeding the sporangium . S. ampullaceum, 4.

Apophysis campanulate.

Purple . . S. rubruin, 5.

Yellow . S. luteum, 6.

52

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

PHY SOOMITRIUM, p. 196.

Capsule immersed . P. immersum, 1,

Capsule exserted.

Leaves entire or nearly so.

Seta short, little exceeding leaves P. Hookeri, 4.

Seta much longer (5-10 mm.)

Leaves ovate-lanceolate, colium distinct . P. acuminatum, 5.

Leaves linear-lanceolate, colium 0 P. turhinatum, 6.

Leaves serrate, cells at mouth of capsule transversely

elongate.

5-7 rows . P. pygmseum, 2.

12-15 rows [P. megalocarpum ? ]

Leaves more or less acuminate, distinctly yellow-

bordered . P. megalocarpum. 1

Leaves acute, not bordered . P. pyriforme, 2.

ENTOSTHODON, p. 199.

Leaves acute, capsule short-pyriform.

Costa percurrent, teeth dark red, striolate . . E. Drummondii, L

Leaves acuminate, capsule long-pyriform.

Costa reaching middle, teeth whitish, granulose . E. Bolanderi, 2.

Costa subpercurrent, teeth red, nodose, papillose . E.^Templetoni, 3.

PUN ARIA, p. 200.

1 Kindberg: Bull. Torr. Bot. Club , xvi (1889,) 94.

Analytic Keys to the Species of Mosses.

53

BARTRAMIA, p. 203.

Capsule erect, peristome 0 or simple.

Leaves reflexed on margin below, capsule rugose when

dry . B. Menziesii, 1.

Leaves plane, capsule plicate -furrowed . . . B. subulata, 2.

Leaves plane, capsule ribbed . B. stricta, 3,

Capsule curved, lid oblique, peristome double.

Seta short (— capsule), fruit pseudo -lateral . . B. Halleriana, 7.

Seta exceeding stems.

Leaves smooth . B. (Ederiana, 5.

Leaves papillose only on upper surface . . . B. radicalis, 8.

Leaves papillose on both surfaces.

Base white, margin plane; synoicous . . B. itliyphylla, 4.

Base not white, margin revolute; autoicous . B. pomiformis, 6 .

PHILONOTIS, p. 208.

Leaf cells quadrate . P. Macounii, 2.

Leaf cells rectangular to linear.

Plants short (1-3 cm.).

Costa thick, rusty, leaves erect-spreading, capsule hor¬

izontal . P. Mulilenbeckii, 1.

Costa canaliculate, leaves closely appressed, capsule

oblique . P. Mohriana, 5.

Plants usually long (3-15 cm.).

Mouth of capsule writh 8 rows of transversely elon¬

gated cells . P. fontana, 3.

Mouth of capsule with 4 rows . P. calcarea, 4.

MEESIA, p. 212.

Leaves entire, margins reflexed or re volute.

Synoicous, costa very thick Q- leaf base) . . . M. uliginosa, 1.

Autoicous, costa narrow (-£• leaf base) . . . M. Alfcertinii, 3.

Leaves entire, margins plane . M. longiseta, 2.

Leaves serrate . . M. tristiclia, 4.

WEBER A, p. 215.

I. Leaves with a reddish border , distinct to apex

W. Tozeri, 17.

54

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

II. Leaves not bordered, or indistinctly.

A. Annulus present.

1. Segments and cilia of endostome imperfect , often only

a laciniate membrane . W. camptotracliela.1

2. Segments of endostome not widely open along the keel, cilia 0 or short

(excl. W. longicolla).

Inflorescence autoicous . W. acuminata, 1.

Inflorescence synoicous or dioicous.

Costa very broad, of leaf base .... W. Cardoti, Ren.2

Costa narrow.

Plants less than 1 cm., seta 5-8 mm., capsule wide -

mouthed when dry . W. nudieaulis, 11.

Plants small, seta longer, mouth of capsule constricted

when dry . . * . W. Bolanderi, 12.

Plants 2 cm. or more, seta 2-3 cm . W. cruda, 7.

Inflorescence paroicous.

[W. nudieaulis may be sought here.]

Neck shorter than sporangium, cilia 0 . . . W. polyniorpha, 2.

Neck equaling sporangium, cilia more or less developed.

Cilia i (or less) height of teeth W. elongata, 8.

Cilia equaling teeth . W. longicolla, 4.

3. Segments of endostome split and gaping along keel, cilia well devel¬

oped.

Inflorescence paroicous.

Capsule pendent, touching seta, not contracted under

mouth . W. cueullata, 6.

Capsule horizontal or pendent, not touching seta, con¬

tracted below mouth . W. nutans, 5.

Inflorescence dioicous.

Upper leaves lance-linear (1:8-10).

Plants loosely cespitose, in wet soil, 1 cm. high, seta

1-2 cm . W. Lescuriana, 14.

Plants solitary or gregarious, sphagnicolous, 8-6 cm. ,

seta 3-4cm . W. sphagnicola, 8.

Uppermost leaves lanceolate (1 : 4-6).

Costa reaching apex . W. annotina, 9.

Costa vanishing . W. coinnmtata, 13.

1 Renauld & Cardot: Bot. Gaz. xiii. (1888), 199, pi. XVI.

2Renauld & Cardot: Bot. Gaz. xiv (1889), 95, pi. XIII.

Analytic Keys to the Species of Mosses.

55-

B. Annulus 0.

Leaves nearly entire, cilia very short W. Drummondii, 10,

Leaves nearly entire, cilia 3 . W. Bigelovii, 19,

Leaves sharply serrate.

Stem red, leaves glaucous-green W. albicans, 18,

Stem and leaves green.

Teeth red . IV. carnea, 15.

Teeth yellow . W. pulchella, 16,

BRYUM, p. 223.

Upper leaf cells rhombic to hexagonal.

Plants not from stolons.

Cilia 0, or inappendiculate . § I. Cladodimn.

Cilia 2-4, appendiculate . § II, Eubryum.

Plants from stolons . §111. Bliodobryuin*

Upper leaf cells linear (1: 10-15) branches julaceous § IV. Anomobryum,,

§ I. Oladodium.

A. Autoicous.

Leaves broad (1 : 2), costa vanishing . . . B. calophyllum, 10.

Leaves ovate-lanceolate.

Cilia long, smooth . B. Brownii, 3.

Cilia 0, or rudimentary.

Capsule symmetric, pyriform, collum about sporangium.

Leaves faintly bordered, slightly revolute . . B. Warneuin, 6,

Leaves very distinctly bordered, broadly revolute B. Biddlecomiae, 7.

Capsule usually unsymmetric, elongate, collum = spo¬

rangium . B. ulig*inosum, 11,.

B. Synoicous, or heteroicous.

Costa long excurrent.

Endostome attached to peristome.

Spores verruculose . B. arcticum, 1.

Spores smooth, about 30 ju . B. pendulum, 4.

Spores smooth, scarcely 20 ju . B. augustirete, b

Endostome free1 2 . B. inclinatum, 5.

Costa short excurrent, or per current.

Leaves not bordered . B. Knowltoni, 3,

1 Kindberg: Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, xvi (1889), 94.

2 B. stenotriclium, Muller ( Flora 1887, 219), will be sought here and I am unable to dis¬

cover from the description alone any essential difference between it and B. inclinatum.

3 Barnes: Bot. Gaz. xiv. (1889), 44.

56 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

Leaves bordered.

Teeth very short (scarcely 200//), articles 10-12 . B. Labradorense, l.

Teeth much longer, articles about 20.

Costa excurrent, leaves reddish, margin scarcely

revolute . B. purpurascens, 2.

Costa vanishing or barely excurrent, margin strong¬

ly revolute . B. lacustre, 8.

[B, flexuosiun may be sought here.]

C. Dioieous.

Endostome adherent to peristome, cilia 0 . B. flexuosiun, 9.

Endostome free, cilia single . . . . B. Californicum, 34.

§ II. Eubryum.

A. Synoicous.

Costa not excurrent . B. Or eg' aim m, 18.

Costa excurrent into a smooth point.

Margins recurved ....... B. torquescens, 16.

Margins plane . . B. microstegium B. & S. 2.

Costa excurrent into a serrate point.

Leaves short pointed, decurrent

With a broad border ....... B. Milium, 14.

Without a border . B. lonchocaulon, 15.

Leaves long-cuspidate, not decurrent.

Not bordered, entire ..... B. intermedium, 12.

Not bordered, serrate at apex .... B, provinciate, 17.

Bordered . . B. cirrhatum, 13.

B. Autoicous.

Capsule horizontal or nodding, leaf margins revolute . B. pallescens, 19.

Capsule pendulous, leaf margins plane . . . B. subrotundum, 20.

C. Dioieous .

1. Costa not excurrent, or when excurrent forming a short point only.

a. Leaves obtuse.

Distant, broadly ovate or oblong, rounded . . B. cyclophyllum, 35.

Imbricate, narrower.

Dull olive green, margins strongly revolute .' B. Muhlenbeckii, 26.

Yellowish-green or purplish, tips of branches crimsoned.

Cells polygonal, thick-walled . . . . B. miniatum, 27.

Cells rhombic, subquadrate below . . . . B. Atwater iae, 28.

1 Philibert: Revue Bry., 1887, 55.

^Renauld and. Cardot: Bot. Gaz. xiv (1889), 99.

Analytic Keys to the Species of Mosses.

57

1). Leaves pointed , costa percurrent or excurrent.

i. Capsule short (1:2) abrupt at base . . . B. atropiirpureuni, 22.

ii. Capsule longer (1:8 + ) tapering at base.

* Blood red to dark purple.

Plant short (5-15 mm.) in small lax yellowish-green

tufts . B. erytlirocarpujn, 21.

Plants longer (3-5 cm.) in large compact shining red or

purplish tufts ........ B. alpiniun, 25.

* * Yelloivish-brown.

Slightly incurved.

Constricted below mouth ...... B. meesioides h

Not constricted . . . . v . . • . B. pallens, 30 .

Symmetric.

Strongly constricted below mouth.

Stems about 1 cm. high . B. turbinatum, 39.

Stems 4 — 10 cm. high. ..... B. Schleiclieri, 40.

Slightly constricted below mouth.

Leaf margins plane . B. Sawyeri1 2 3.

Leaf margin revolute.

Quite entire . B. acutiusciilum *.

Serrate at apex ..... B. pseudotriqiietruin, 38.

c. Leaves pointed, costa vanishing.

Leaves closely appressed, imbricate ... B. argenteum, 29.

Leaves sjireading, imbricate . B. capillare, 31.

Leaves spreading, distant . B. Duvalii, 37.

2. Costa excurrent, leaves long -cuspidate.

a. Capsule short (1:2 or less.)

Constricted between sporangium and collum . . B. versicolor, 24.

Not constricted between sporangium and collum . B. coronatum, 23.

1 Kindberg: Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, xvi (1889), 95.

3 Renauld and Car dot: Bot. Gaz., xiv (1889), 95.

3 Muller: Flora , 1887, 220.

58

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

b. Capsule longer (1:3 -{-)

i. Collum long (4 sporangium or more).

Leaves strongly twisted when dry, abruptly pointed . B. capillare, 31.

Leaves erect and straight when dry.

Collum equalling sporangium . . .. B. obconicnm, 33.

Collum one-half the sporangium.

Capsule constricted below the mouth . . B. csespiticium, 30.

Capsule not constricted .... B. Yaacoiiyeriense, b

ii. Collum short (£ sporangium or less). . B. occidental, 32.

§ III. Rhodobryum.

Costa percurrent or vanishing, margins re volute below,

collum short . B. roseum, 41.

Costa excurrent, margins revolute f to |, collum ^sporang¬

ium, curved . B. Ontariense b

§ IV. Anomobryum.

Costa sub-excurrent . . . . . . B. concinnatum, 42.

Costa vanishing below apex . B. bill latum 3.

Bryumhydrophyllum Kindberg 1 2 is a species t£ closely allied to B. pseudo¬

triquetrum,” but so imperfectly known (neither flowers nor capsule hav¬

ing been found), and so briefly characterized that I am unable to assign

it to any place in the key.

ZIERIA, p. 240.

Costa vanishing, collum twice sporangium . . . Z. julacea, 1.

Costa excurrent, collum — sporangium ... Z. demissa, 2.

MNITJM, p. 241.

I. Leaves serrate.

A. Teeth of leaves single.

Stems dendroid . M. Menziesii, 21.

1 Kindberg: Bull. Torr. Bot. Club , xvi (1889), 95.

2 Kindberg: Ottawa Nat. ii (1889), 155 and i. c., p. 96.

8 Muller: Flora 1887, 221.

59

Analytic Keys to the Species of Mosses.

Stems simple or branched, not dendroid.

Basilar branches stoloniform.

Leaves acuminate, serrate to middle, lid convex or

mamillate, membrane of endostome lacunose M. cuspidatirm, 1.

Leaves acuminate, serrate to base.

Lid apiculate . M. medium, 4.

Lid mammiform ....... M. affine, 7*-

Leaves rounded at apex, mucronate, lid rostrate . M. rostratum, 6.

Basilar branches erect, or stems simple.

Capsule warty-papillose at base •. . . . M. yenustum, 3.

Capsule smooth at base.

Perichaetial leaves entire . M. Nevii, 2.

Perichaetial leaves toothed.

Leaves nearly entire, not decurrent M. affine, var. rugicum, 7.

Leaves serrate to base, long decurrent . . M. insigne, 8..

Leaves serrate above, entire below.

Border distinct, yellowish brown . . M. Drummondii, 5.

Border 0 or faint ..... M. stellare, 16.

B. Teeth of leaves in pairs.

Costa vanishing just below apex ..... M. liornum, 9.

Costa percurrent.

Capsules solitary.

Synoicous . jffi. serratum, 10.

Dioicous.

Leaf-cells small, about 15 ju 1 . . M. orthorrhynehum, 11.

Leaf-cells larger (20-30 p ?) 2 . . . M. lycopodioides, 12.

Leaf-cells very large (50-60 p ?) 3 ... M. umbratile, 13.

Capsules clustered.

Dioicous, leaves strongly crispate, capsule horizontal or

inclined . M. spinosum, 14.

Synoicous, leaves not crispate, capsule pendent M. spinulosum, 15.

II. Leaves entire.

Upper leaf-cells with long diameters oblique to costa.

Leaves bordered .

Costate to apex, dioicous, capsule oblong . M. pnnctatum, 18.

Costa vanishing, synoicous, capsule subglobose M. subglobosum, 19.

1 Fide Husnot: Muse. Gall. 255,

2 “ Cellules un peu plus grandes,” Husnot: op. cit., 256. M. riparium Mitt. (M. lyco*

podioides Bry. Eu., sec. Mitten; M. serratum var. riparium, sec. Husnot, l. c.) has cells

half as large as M. umbratile Mitt., fide Mitten: Jour. Linn. Soc. viii (1865), 30.

8 Cells four times as large as M. orthorrhynehum, fide Mitten, l. c.

80 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

%

a

Leaves not bordered, costa vanishing, dioicous, capsule

ovate-oblong . M. cinclidioides, 17.

Upper leaf-cells isodiametric, costa vanishing M. hyin enopkylloides, 20.

CINCLIDIUM, p. 249.

Leaf margin of 4-5 rows of cells, laminal cells irregularly

disposed . C. stygium, 1.

Leaf margin of 2 rows of red cells, laminal cells in rows

oblique to costa . C. siihrotundum, 2.

AULACOMNIUM, p. 25 2.

Leaves coarsely serrate to middle, autoicous . A. heterostichum, 5.

Leaves serrulate near apex, acute or acuminate, dioicous.

Stem leaves long acuminate, very roughly papillose A. papillosum, 4.

Stem leaves acute.

Stems commonly prolonged and gemmiferous, male

flowers terminal, gemmiform . . A. aiidrogynmn, 1.

Stems not commonly gemmiferous, male flowers dis¬

coid . A. palnstre, 2.

Leaves entire, obtuse . . A. turgiduin, 3.

[The leaves of A. palustre are entire when young, but soon become erose crenulate.]

TIMMIA, p. 254.

Capsule irregularly plicate when dry, segments appendicu-

late . T. Megapolitana, 1.

Capsule costate at mouth when dry, segments not ap-

pendiculate . T. Austriaca, 2.

ATRICHUM, p. 255.

Costa lamellose on upper side only.

Lamellae 2-6, entire, lamina with teeth on surface. 1

Lamellae 4-6 cells high.

Leaves acute, serrate for f length

Leaves bluntish, serrate above middle only.

Teeth double, aculeate ....

Teeth single, short .

Lamellae 9-13 cells high .

Lamellae 4-8, serrate .

Lamellae 1-3, 1-3 cells high, lamina smooth

A. undulatum, 1.

A. augiistatum, 2.

A. xaiithopelma, 4.

A. Selwyni, 3.

. A. Lescurii, 5.

A. crispum, 6.

Costa lamellose on both sides, lamina with longitudinal

rows of teeth on back

A. parallelum, 7.

1 Excluding A. xanthopelma?

Analytic Keys to the Species of Mosses.

61

OLIGOTRICHUM, p. 258.

Lamina and costa lamellose on both surfaces ... 0. aligerum, 1.

Costa only lamellose on upper surface .... 0. Lyallii, 2 .

s

POGONATUM, p. 260.

I. Plants simple, mostly short, leaves straight when dry.

[P. alpinum var. simplex will be sought here.]

Lamellae with marginal cells smooth.

Leaves entire . P. h r acliy pliy Hum, 2.

Leaves serrate . P. brevicaule, 1.

Lamellae with marginal cells papillose.

Teeth of leaves very long, often reflexed, marginal cells

of lamellae subquadrate . P. dentatum, 4.

Teeth moderate, 2 rows of marginal cells of lamellae

transversely rectangular . P. capillare, 3.

II. Plants large (4-15 cm.), leaves tivisted when dry.

Leaves very long (1.5-2 cm.) short sheathing, lamellae

afbout 60 . . P. Macounii.1

Leaves less than 1 cm., short sheathing, lamellae about

30 (?)2, strongly contorted when dry . . . P. contortum, 5.

Leaves and lamellae as in 5 (?) subcrispate, abruptly

pointed . P. atroyirens, 6.

III. Plants usually robust (4-15 cm.), rarely small, often much branched

above, leaves straight when dry.

Capsule papillose, marginal cells of lamellae round in sec¬

tion . P. urnigerum, 7.

Capsule smooth, marginal cells of lamellae ovate in section P. alpinum, 8.

POLYTRICHUM, p. 263.

Leaves entire, margins inflexed.

Obtuse at apex . P. sexangulare,3 Florke.

1 Kindberg: Polytriehum (Pogonatum) Macounii: Bull. Torr. Bot. Club xvi (1889), 96.

2 As shown in Sull. Icon. Muse. Suppl., pi. 42, ff. 5, 6.

3 Kindberg: Bull. Torr. Bot. Club xvi. (1889), 96; Renauld & Cardot: Bot. Qaz., xiv..

(1889) 99.

<62

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

Aristate at apex.

Awn colored, short.

Leaves spreading when moist, subrecurved . P. juniperinum, 4.

Leaves erect-open, strict . P. strictum, 5.

Awn hyaline, long . P. piliferum, 3.

Leaves serrate.

Marginal cells of lamellae like rest, oval, higher than >

broad in section. *

Capsule ovate, obscurely angled, lid rostrate . . P. gracile, 1.

Capsule oblong, 4-6 angled, lid acutely conic . P. formosnm, 2.

Marginal cells of lamellae enlarged, broader than high

(3: 1) . P. Ohioense.1 2

Marginal cells of lamellae semilunar, with two promi¬

nent papillae at corners . P. commune, 6.

FONTINALIS, p. 268.

I. Perichcetial leaves abruptly pointed, entire/1

Leaves decurrent, teeth not lacunose . . . F. Neo-Mexicana, 3.

Leaves not decurrent, teeth lacunose . . . F. Dalecarlica, 4.

II. Perichcetial leaves rounded- obtuse, entire or lacerate.

A. Leaves of branches unlike stem leaves F. Howellii.3 4

B. Leaves homomorphous /

1. Leaf -cells long-linear (1: 10 +).

Alar cells very large.

Leaves acute . F. Sullivantii, 8.

Leaves with very apex blunt or denticulate . . . F. flaccida.5

1 Renauld & Cardot: Revue BryoL 1885, 11; also Bot. Gaz., xiii, (1888), 199, pi. XVII.

2 The fruit of F. Californica and F. flaccida has not yet been found. The latter will

possibly fall here. Muller has also described imperfectly a sterile species, F. maritima ,

from Neah Bay, Wash. It is distinguished at once, he says, by the rigid branches and

-deeply carinate-canaliculate leaves. Having seen neither specimens nor figures I am un¬

able to place it properly in the key.

3 Renauld & Cardot: Bot. Gaz., xiii (1888), 200, pi. XVIII.

4 In F. biformis the summer leaves are unlike the vernal, so that specimens collected

just as the vernal are falling might deceive.

5 Renauld & Cardot: 1. c., p. 201, pi. XIX.

Analytic Keys to the Species of Mosses.

63

Alar cells moderately enlarged.

Capsule ovate to oblong.

Leaves crowded ....... F. Delamarei.1

Leaves loose or scattered.

Perichsetial leaves lacerate . . . . F. kypnoides, 11.

Perichsetial leaves entire, undulate at tip . . F. Lescurii, 7.

Capsule cylindrical.

1 : 4, endostome perfect . . F. disticlia, ,10.

1: 5.5, endostome imperfect . F. filiformis, 9.

2. Leaf -cells rhombic-hexagonal (1: 6 or less.)

Plants shining with golden or coppery luster.

Stems robust, little branched . F. antipyretica var. gigantea, la.

Stems soft, much branched ..... F. Californica, 2.

Plants dull, yellowish to dirty green.

Leaves with one edge reflexed near base . . F. antipyretica, 1.

Leaves with margin plane.

Female flowers abundant, in most leaf axils . F. Novae-Anglise, 6.

Female flowers rare, at base of stems F. biformis, 5.

DICHELYMA, p. 272.

Costa percurrent or vanishing.

Capsule exceeding perichsetium ....

Capsule not exceeding perichsetium.

Seta longer than capsule ....

Seta shorter than capsule ....

[Capsule unknown] .

Costa excurrent.2

Endostome a cancellate cone.

Seta about 1 cm. long, capsule oval

Seta 2 — 2.5 cm. long, capsule cylindric

Endostome of appendiculate cilia, united only

tips . . . . :

D. falcatiun, 1.

D. pallescens, 4.

. D. subulatum, 5.

1). Swartzii, 7.

D. uncinatmn, 2.

D. cylindricarpum, 6.

at the

I). capillaceum, 3.

CRYPHiEA, p. 275.

Costa percurrent or excurrent.

Perichsetial leaves costate . C. nervosa, 3.

Perichsetial leaves ecostate . C. inundata, 5.

c Renauld & Cardot: Bot. Gaz. xiv (1889), 96, pi. XIV.

2 Here belongs a sterile species, D. longinerve of Kindberg (Bull. Torr. Bot. Club xvi

(1889), 97, which has the basal cells of leaves “ numerous, in 4-6 rows, subquadrate, the alar

greater, pellucid.'1 He is not sure whether it is a Dichelyma or a Hypnum (§ Harpidium) !

In which case it would better have been left undescribed!

64 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters.

Costa vanishing near middle.

Costa of perichaetial leaves excurrent into a thick point C. glomerata, 1,

Costa of perichaetial leaves vanishing in or below apex . C. pendula, 2.

Costa of perichaetial leaves vanishing far below apex . C. Ravenelii, 4.

LEPTODON, p. 278.

Leaves ecostate. *

Leaf cells not pitted, capsule 2 mm. long . . L. triclioinitrion, 1.

Leaf cells pitted, capsule 1 mm. long . . . L. Floridanus, la.

Leaves costate.

Leaf cells round-oval, capsule exserted, oblong-oval . L. Ohioensis, 2.

Leaf cells narrowly rhomboidal, capsule immersed, sub-

globose . Lo nitidus, 8.

ALSIA, p. 279.

Annulus 0.

Costa vanishing at middle (smooth?), margins reflexed A, Californica, 1.

Costa vanishing near apex, dentate on back, margins

plane . A. longipes, 8..

Annulus compound, revoluble, leaves papillose at back . A. abietina, 2.

NECKERA, p. 281.

Leaves very obtuse

Plants slender (shoots 2 mm. wide), leaves loosely im¬

bricate, rounded, concave . N. distich a, L

Plants robust (shoots 4 mm. wide), leaves densely im¬

bricate, truncate, not concave . N. undulata, 2.

Leaves rounded, abruptly apiculate.

Revolute at base on one side, capsule immersed . N. Menziesii, 3.

Not revolute, capsule exserted . N. complanata, 7.

Leaves acute or acuminate.

Ecostate or nearly so.

Capsule immersed or half exserted.

Shoots obtuse . N. pennata, 4.

Shoots attenuate to apex.

Segments rudimentary, capsule immersed . N. oligocarpa, 5.

Segments as long as teeth, capsule 4 exserted . N. Douglasii, 6.

Capsule exserted ........ N. puinila, 8.

Costate to the middle or beyond.

Margins broadly revolute . . . . , N. Floridana, 9.

Margins not re volute.

Alar cells fawn-color, costa thin, percurrent . N. Liidoyicise, 10.

Alar cells opaque, costa vanishing . . . N. cymbifolia, 11.

Analytic Keys to the Species of Mosses.

65

HOMALIA, p. 285.

Costa vanishing above middle, leaves serrulate.

Leaves oblong, subfalcate, apiculate . . H. tricliomanoides, 1.

Leaves Ungulate, subfalcate, apiculate ... H. Jamesii, 2.

Costa sometimes hardly perceptible, leaves obovate, ob¬

tuse, serrulate . H. obtusata, 3.

Costa double, very short, or none, leaves entire . . H. gracilis, 4.

METEORIUM, p. 286.

Leaves serrulate . M. pendulum, 1.

Leaves minutely crenulate . M. nigrescens, 2.

LEUOODON, p. 287.

Capsule exserted.

Leaves entire, open-erect, lid exactly conic . . L. sciuroides, 1.

Leaves serrulate at apex, squarrose, lid obliquely ros¬

trate . L. julaceus, 2.

Capsule surpassed by perichsetial leaves, leaves secund L. bracliypus, 3.

PTEROGONIUM, p. 289.

Leaves broadly oblong-ovate or -obovate, acute, smooth . P. gracile, 1.

Leaves broadly deltoid-ovate, narrowly acuminate, papil¬

lose . . . P. brachypterum, 2.

*

ANTITRICHIA, p. 290.

Capsule oval (1:2— -2.5), leaf cells fusiform . . A. eurtipendula, 1.

Capsule cylindric (1 : 6), leaf cells oval . . . A. Californica, 2.

HOOKERIA, p. 292.

Leaves bicostate to middle (not papillose ?)

Leaves bicostate to apex, papillose

Leaves ecostate, entire (not papillose?) .

H. varians, 1.

H. cruceana, 2.

H. Sullivantii, 3.

FABRONIA, p. 294.

Leaves ciliate-dentate.

Peristome of 16 teeth, costa 0 or very short F. pusilla, 1

Peristome 0, leaves costate to middle . . F. gynmostoma, 2.

Peristome of 8 geminate teeth, leaves costate nearly to

middle . F. octoblepharis, 3.

5 — A. & L.

66 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

Leaves serrate to subentire.

Sharply serrate, teeth orange, spores about 11 fi . F. Wriglitii, 4 „

Obscurely serrate, teeth brown, spores about 17 ju F. Ravenelii, 5.

Obscurely serrate, teeth with prominent articulations on

back . F. Donnellii, 6.

THELXA, p. 298.

Papillae of leaves simple.

Horn shaped, curved . T. hirtella, 1.

Globose . T. robusta, 3.

Papillae 2 — 4-furcate.

Usually bi- furcate, teeth 1: 17 — 20 .... T„ asprella, 2.

Usually 4-furcate, teeth 1:12 . T. Lescurii, 4.

MYURELLA, p. 300.

Leaves serrulate, obtuse (rarely short apiculate) . . M. julacea, 1.

Leaves serrulate, abruptly apiculate-acuminate . . M. apiculata, 2.

Leaves spinulose-dentate, abruptly long acuminate . M. Carey ana, 8.

LESKEA, p. 302.

I. Costa reaching to or beyond the middle.

Percurrent . L. nervosa, 3.

jNot percurrent.

Leaves entire.

Endostome divided into segments.

Cleft between articulations, leaves bluntish . . L. obscura, 2.

Not cleft, leaves acute . L. polycarpa, 1.

Endostome a short undivided membrane . . . L. Austini, 6.

Leaves crenulate . L. tristis, 5.

II. Costa very short or none.

Leaf cells linear-oblong . L. denticulata, 4 „

Leaf cells rhombic.

Leaves op. primary stems acute ..... L. pulvinata, 7.

Leaves of primary stems long acuminate L. Wollei, 8.

Leaf cells round oval ....... L. nigrescens b

AUOMODON, p. 304.

Leaves not papillose . A. Toccose, 6,

1 Kindberg: Ottawa Nat. ii (1889), 155, and Bull. Torr. Bot. Chib xvi (1889), 97.

Analytic Keys to the Species of Mosses.

67

Leaves papillose.

Base with large fimbriate-papillose auricles.

Margins reflexed near apex, replicate below middle A. Californicus, 7.

Margins not at all reflexed ..... A. apiculatus, 4.

Base not auricnlate.

Leaves filiform-acuminate . A. rostratus, 1.

Leaves obtuse or apiculate.

Branches attenuate . A. atteimatiis, 2.

Branches not attenuate.

Leaves open-erect, teeth nodose ... A. obtusifolius, 3.

Leaves secund, teeth not nodose ... A. viticulosus, 5.

PYLAISiEA, p. 308.

Segments free, sj)lit below, leaves quite entire.

Plants glossy green . P. poly an til a, b

Plants pale yellowish green ..... P. heteroinalla, 2.

Segments free, split throughout, leaves serrulate at apex,

P. subdenticulata, 3,

Segments ^-adherent to teeth, spores 19 — 20 u.

Leaves long-acuminate, margin not recurved . . P. intricata, 4.

Leaves short-acuminate, one or both edges recurved . P. Selwyni,b

Segments wholly adherent, spores 28 n . . . . P. yelutina, 5.

HOMALOTHECIUM,1 2 p. 309.

Costa short, simple or forking, vanishing below middle.

Teeth red, operculum rostrate . . . . H. subcapillatum, b.

Teeth yellow, operculum short apiculate . . . H. corticolum,3.

Costa narrow, vanishing in point H. pseudosericeum, 2~

CYLINDROTHECIUM, p. 310.

Capsules clustered (3 or 4) . C. Floridaniim, 4..

Capsules solitary.

Plants densely pinnately branched, leaves muticous C. concinnuni, 8.

Plants loosely pinnately branched, leaves pointed.

Gradually narrowly acuminate C. breyisetum, 3.

1Kindberg: Ottawa Naturalist ii (1889), 156.

2 Renauld & Cai’dot refer Hypnuvi Nevadense (30) to tais genus. Bot. Gaz. xiii (1888) 202.

3 Kindberg: 1. c.

68

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

Acute or abruptly acuminate-apiculate.

Almost entire, only alar cells quadrate or rectangular.

Leaves acuminate-apiculate, teeth with 14 — 17

articulations, capsule 1: 3.5 — 4 . . €. cladorrliizans, 1.

Leaves abruptly short apiculate, teeth with 6 — 8

articulations, capsule 1: 5 — 5.5 . . . C. seductrix, 2.

Leaves not apiculate, teeth with 22 — 26 articula¬

tions, capsule 1: 2.5— 3 .... C. coinpressmn, 5.

Distinctly serrulate, all basal cells rectangular.

Annulus 0, teeth obliquely striolate . €. Drimimondii, 6.

Annulus large, teeth vertically striolate . C. Sulliyantii, 7.

CLIMACIUM, p. 313.

»

Capsule straight, lid rostrate.

Ovate-oblong (1: 2.5— 3), leaves slightly decurrent and

hollowed at basal angles . €. dendroides, 1.

Cylindric (1:5 — 6), leaves long decurrent and broadly

auriculate . €. Ainericaimin, 2.

Capsule arcuate, lid conic . C. Rutlieiiicimi, 3.

ORTHQTHECIUM, p. 315.

Leaves lanceolate, long and narrowly acuminate . . 0. rufescens, 1.

Leaves exactly ovate, apex flexuous, not plicate . . 0. rubelluni, 2.

Leaves lanceolate to ovate lanceolate, plicate, not acumi¬

nate . 0. cliryseum, 3.

HYPNUM, p. 316. 1

I. Leaves spreading.

A. Leaf cells short (1 : 3 or less.)

1. Leaves papillose.

*

a. Par apliy Ilia present.

i. Costa obsolete . H. dimorplmm, 4.

1 Nos. 2, 17, 18, 92, 93, 91, 114, 193, 194 and 195, are not included in this key. No. 2 is not

North American, the locality cited by Schimper being York (Eng.), not New York. (Cf.

A. Gepp in Jour. Bot. xxvii (1889), 152). The remainder are characterized by Lesquereux

and James as of uncertain relationship or insufficiently known. No. 30 has been declared

Tby Renauld and Cardot (Bot. Gaz. xiii (1889), 202), to be a Homalothecium, but is still

given a place in this key.

Analytic Keys to the Species of Mosses.

69

ii. Costa strong.

* Capsule oval or oblong, operculum convex-conic.

Leaves entire . . H. atroyirens, 1.

Leaves serrulate at apex . H. radicosum, 3.

* * Capsule cylindric, or if oval- oblong then operculum long-rostrate

(excl. H. gracile.)

Plants small (to 5 cm.) delicate, creeping, 1 — 2 -pinnate.

+-e- Costa of stem-leaves wide (-| leaf-base.)

Stems papillose . H. pygmgeum, 7.

Stems radiculose-tomentose . H. miimtulum, 6.

-e-e- ■*-*• Costa of stem-leaves half as ivide.

Stem-leaves with long pellucid point, cilia 0 . H. erectum, 9.

Stem-leaves short acuminate, cilia 2 . H. scituni, 8.

Stem-leaves long acuminate, cilia 3 H. gracile, 10.

Stem-leaves long acuminate, cilia 1 H. calyptratum, 11.

-t - *— Plants large (to 10 cm.), creeping, 2—3 -pinnate, forming extensive

flat mats.

Perichaetial leaves long ciliate below.

Apical cells of branch-leaves not papillose, ovate, pro¬

jecting . H. tamariscinuin, 12.

Apical cells of branch-leaves oblong, with 2 — 3 papillae H. delicatulum, 14.

Pericheetial leaves not ciliate, apical cells of branch leaves

round . . H. recognitum, 13.

-» - « - *— Plants large (to 10 cm.), erect, 1-pinnate, in ivide tufts.

Capsule narrowly cylindric (1 : 5— 6) .... H. aMetiuum, 15.

Capsule oblong-cylindric (1:3) . H. Blandovii, 16.

b. Paraphyllia 0.

Seta smooth.

Plants in large mats, leaves serrulate at apex, costate

to middle . H. Brewerianum, 66

Plants minute, leaves serrulate all round, costate to

apex . H. leuconeurum, 19.

Seta rough.

Stem leaves with hyaline piliferous point . H. raimilosum, 21.

Stem leaves not hyaline pointed.

Perichastial leaves costate H. Whippieanum, 20.

Perichaetial leaves ecostate.

Bright green, leaves open, loosely imbricate . H. laxifolium, 23.

Dirty or yellowish green, leaves sub-falcate secund,

closely imbricate . H. crispifolium, 22.

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

2. Leaves not papillose .

a. Shortly bicostate.

Stem-leaves filiform-pointed . H. procurrens, 5.

Stem-leaves not filiform-pointed.

Obscurely denticulate at apex ... H. leucocladulum, 25.

Distinctly denticulate all around H. compressulum, 26.

1). XJnicostate or ecostate.

i. Paraphyllia numerous, eiliate H. pahulosiim, 24.

ii. Paraphyllia 0.

■x- Leaves coarsely serrate, plants dendroid.

Branch leaves apparently 2-ranked, complanate . H. Bigelovii, 97.

Branch leaves equally spreading.

Perichaetial leaves reflexed, dioicous.

Cilia of endostome equalling teeth H. Leiherg’ii h

Cilia short . H. neckeroides, 96.

Perichaetial leaves erect, heteroicous . . H. Allegiianiense, 95.

* * Leaves entire, plants creeping.

Ecostate or with obscure traces of a nerve.

Cilia 0.

Capsule constricted under mouth when dry

Capsule not constricted

Cilia 1 — 2.

Plants minute, filiform.

Leaves ovate, long acuminate

Leaves long-lanceolate . . . .

Plants large, in wide flat mats

H. subtile, 117.

H. Sprucei, 116.

H. conferyoides, 118.

H. inimitissiinum, 115.

H. adnatum, 124.

Costate.

-8-*- Leaves bordered with 4 — 5 rows of linear cells H. Lescurii, 126.

-i — s- -e-e- Leaves not bordered.

= Plants in compact tufts 2—3 cm. deep . . H. compaction, 125.

= == Plants in loose mats or tufts.

Tf Costate to apex.

Leaves acuminate.

Basal cells much enlarged . . . . H. irriguum, 122.

1 Britton: Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, xvi (1889), 111.

Analytic Keys to the Species of Mosses.

11

Basal cells not enlarged.

Annulus triple ....... H. radicale, 120.

Annulus simple . H. oigliocladon, 121.

Leaves not acuminate . H. iiuviatile, 123.

Costa ceasing above the middle.

Cells alike throughout.

Inner perichgetial leaves with a short (i length) point.

Capsule long cylindric, arcuate, annulus triple . H, serpens, 119.

Capsule oblong, oblique, annulus simple . H. KocMi Br. & Sch.1

Inner perichgetial leaves subuliform-acuminate, cells

vermicular . H. porpliyrrhizum Lindb.1

Cells enlarged, rectangular at basal angles.

Cilia appendiculate, equalling segments . . H. riparium, 127.

Cilia rugulose, shorter than segments H. vacillans, 128.

B. Leaf cells elongated (1:5 or more).

[Amblystegium spp. especially 127, 128 may be sought here.]

1. Leaves costate half way or more.

a. Seta rough.

i. Leaves deeply plicate lengthwise.

[Bracliytliecium spp. may be sought here.]

Plants regularly pinnate.

Seta scarcely equalling capsule H. Nuttallii, 29.

Seta longer than capsule.

Perichgetial leaves coarsely sinuate-dentate, cilia 0

H. Nevadense, 2 30.

Perichgetial leaves entire or serrulate.

Stems erect, stout (to 15 cm.) . . . . H. megaptilum, 34.

Stems prostrate.

Leaves with recurved, spinulose teeth . H. liamatidens, 3.

Leaves serrulate.

Capsule oblong .... H. pinnatifidum, 31.

Capsule long cylindric .... H„ Amesioe, 4.

Plants irregularly branched.

Leaves ovate-lanceolate (1:3) cilia 3, long as segments H. seneum, 28.

Leaves long-lanceolate (1:5) cilia 1 or 2, long or short H. lutescens, 27.

1 Renauld & Cardot: Bot. Gaz ., xiv (1889), 99.

2 Hovialothecium Nevadense Ren. & Card.: Bot. Gaz., xiii (1888), 202.

3 Kindberg: Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, xvi (1889), 97.

4 Renauld and Cardot: Bot. Gaz., xiii (1888), 202, pi. XX.

72

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

ii. Leaves not deeply plicate.

[Homalothecium pseudo-sericeum may be sought here.]

* Lid convex-conic to long-conic (rostellate in 59).

Leaf-cells not abruptly enlarged at base , upper usually distinct ,

elongated rhombic.

-*-8- Seta smooth above , rough below, capsule suberect.

Capsule 1: 1.5, cilia 2, equalling teeth . . . H. Hillebrandi, 46,

Capsule 1:2.5, cilia solitary, short, or none . . H. Fendleri, 47.

✓

-j-e- -< — b Seta smooth below, rough above, capside cernuous or arcuate.

Perichsetial leaves short-acuminate H. pliunosum, 58.

Perichgetial leaves abruptly long filiform-acuminate H. campestre, 54.

-j — a- -2—8- -j — e- Seta rough throughout.

— Cells of based angles scarcely different.

Leaves scarcely or abruptly acuminate, dioicous.

Leaves very short acuminate, glossy, not decurrent H. rivnlare, 56.

Leaves short acuminate, broadly and long decurrent,

H. latifolinm, Lindb.*

Leaves longer acuminate, not glossy, decurrent . H. Novse-Anglise, 55.

Leaves gradually acuminate, autoicous.

Slender, leaves lanceolate to ovate-lanceolate, capsule

* constricted under mouth when dry . . H. Telutiiiuin, 45.

Stout, leaves ovate, capsule not constricted . H. rutabulnm, 52.

— — Cells of basal angles distinctly quadratic.

Leaves long acuminate, costa entering point . . H. reflexion, 50.

Leaves acuminate, costa not reaching point.

Seta long (4 cm. +) . H. asperrinrnm, 53.

Seta shorter (2 cm. — ).

Segments split between articulations . . H. cedipodium, 51.

Segments split their whole length 1 2

Seta arcuate above . H. Bolanderi, 48.

Seta abruptly bent at base of capsule . . H. Starkii, 49.

1 Renauld and Cardot: FI. Miq. (1888) 51.

2 According to Austin Bot. Gaz., iv (1879), 162, the pedicel of H. biventrosum (40) is

©bsoletely scabrous, and it might therefore be sought here.

Analytic Keys to the Species of Mosses.

7$

Leaf -cells abruptly enlarged at base , indistinct, linear -vermicular.

Costa percurrent . H. populeum, 57-

Costa vanishing.

Seta purplish, rough throughout.

Capsule suberect, stem-leaves gradually acuminate H. ceespitosuin, 59.

Capsule abruptly horizontal, leaves abruptly short

acuminate with points recurved . . H. illecebrum, 61.

Seta reddish and rough above, yellowish and smooth

below . H. Californicnm, 60.

* * Lid (more or less long ) rostrate.

Leaves obtuse . H. obtusifolium, 169.

Leaves acute or acuminate.

-?-*• Cilia solitary or geminate at base.

Pericheetial leaves erect, serrulate . . . . H. curvisetmn, 91.

Perichaetial leaves recurved, entire . . . . H. lentum, 69.

-n- Cilia 2 — 3.

Leaves with filiform points.

Stems short, with erect fasciculate branches, stoloni-

ferous . H. Yauclieri, 73 a.

Stems long, prostrate, irregularly branched, not radicu-

lose . H. piliferum, 74-

Leaf -points not filiform.

Leaves serrulate all around.

Decurrent, excavate at basal angles.

Perichaetial leaves spreading H. Stokesii, 78.

Perichaetial leaves reflexed H. Oreganum, 79.

Not decurrent nor excavate.

Leaves ovate-lanceolate, acuminate, segments

split . . . H. Sullivantii, 76.

Leaves broad-ovate, acute, segments perforate H. pradongum, 75-

Leaves entire at base.

Lid not half as long as capsuie H. colpophylluin, 73-

Lid nearly as long as capsule . H. Ilians, 77

b. Seta smooth.

[Homalothecium pseudo-sericeum may be sought here.]

i. Lid (more or less long) rostrate.

Leaves apparently 2-ranked; plants of dry woods . H. serrulatum, 89-

'74

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters.

Leaves spreading every way.

Ovate, acute, rarely slender-pointed; in water . H. rusciforme, 90.

Deltoid, with long slender points.

Points twisted, plants golden yellow ... H, Boscii, 72.

Points straight.

Spreading, branchlets attenuate H. strigosum, 70.

Appressed, branchlets short, julaceous . H. diversifolium, 71.

ii. Lid convex to conic.

* Leaves acute or acuminate, serrulate.

Primary branches erect, dendroid to fasciculate, capsule symmetric , sub¬

erect or inclined.

•*— e- Leaves papillose on bach.

In compact tufts, dark green, branchlets not attenuate

II. Brewerianimi, 66.

In loose tufts, branchlets attenuate, stoloniferous.

Cilia solitary, margin of stem leaves reflexed . H. spiculiferum, 64.

Cilia 2 — 3, margin of stem leaves not reflexed . H. stoloniferum, 63.

+-*• Leaves smooth.

Capsule cylindrical, cilia solitary, £ segments . H. aggregating, 67.

Capsule oval- oblong, cilia 2 — 3.

Perichsetial leaves serrate .... H. myosuroides, 62.

Perichsetial leaves entire . H. aeuticuspis, 65.

Primary branching irregular or pinnate, capsule unsymmet-

tric , subarcuate, horizontal (excl. 36 and 44).

Capsule symmetric, erect.

Synoicous, small (branches 1 cm. long) . . . H. Utaliense, 44.

Dioicous, large (branches 3 — 4 cm.) . . H„ acuminatum, 36.

Capsule unsymmetric, inclined.

In loose tufts, plants stout or long. *

Leaves narrowed from lower third to apex, usually

whitish or yellowish.

Capsule short (1; 1.5), monoicous, leaves straight

when dry . H. salebrosum, 37.

Capsule short (1:1.5— 2), dioicous, leaves twisted-

flexuous when dry . H. Tliedenii, 41.

Capsule longer (1:3), dioicous, leaves straight when

dry . H. laeturn, 35.

Leaves narrowed from base to apex, bright green,

H. acutum, 38.

monoicous

Analytic Keys to the Species of Mosses.

75

In loose tufts, plants small, bright green, dioicous H. birentrosum, 40 K

In dense hemispherical bright green tufts, monoicous H. collinum, 43.

* *• Leaves acute or acuminate, entire.

Capsule strongly constricted under mouth when dry.

Leaves widest just at base, tapering equally.

Deeply plicate, cells obscure . H. nitens, 33.

Concave, smooth, cells plain . . . . H. polygamum, 132.

Leaves widest above base, long-acuminate . H. clirysopliylluni, 130.

Leaves widest above base, not acuminate H. palustre, 165.

Capsule slightly or not constricted.

Plants reddish-brown below, orange above H. badium, 183.

Plants whitish-, yellowish- or bright green.

Cilia 0, basal cells quadrate, numerous H. Domicilii, 42.

Cilia 2.

Monoicous, leaves open . H. salebrosum, 37.

Dioicous, leaves appressed-imbricate ... II. albicans, 39.

Cilia solitary.

Alar cells loosely quadrate, thin . . . H. oxycladon, 53a.

Alar cells round- quadrate, obscure. . . . H. apocladum, 68.

* * * Leaves obtuse {sometimes apiculate in 175) entire.

Cells not enlarged at basal angles.

Leaves open . H. arcticum, 168.

Leaves closely imbricate ; . H. trifarium, 181.

Cells enlarged at basal angles.

Costa subpereurrent.

Monoicous, sparingly branched, alar cells gradually

enlarged . H. cordifolium, 173.

Dioicous, profusely branched.

5 — 10 cm. long, variegated or dark purple, stolons

green . H. sarmentosnm, 175.

15 — 30 cm. long, bright- to yellowish green . II. giganteum, 174.

Costa reaching middle.

Branches irregularly pinnate, leaves spreading . H. Richardsoni, 177.

Branches few, leaves imbricate . . . H. strainineum, 180.

1 The sterile H. (Brachytheciura) Fitzgeraldi, Muller ( Flora , 1887, 224), is related to this

species and distinguished from it “by its parallel julaceous-terete branches and larger,

broader and less acuminate leaves.'’1

76

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

2. Costa very short or none or double.

a. Alar cells abruptly enlarged ( often inflated and colored). 1

i. Operculum long subidate rostrate.

Capsule horizontal, strongly constricted under mouth when

dry, leaves quite entire . H. demissum, 80.

Capsule suberect, slightly constricted, leaves serrulate at

apex . H. microcarpam, 84.

Capsule inclined, wide mouthed, leaves spinulose-dentate

at apex . H. laxepatulum, 86.

ii. Operculum short rostrate.

Leaves roundish elliptical, subacute or apiculate . H. Novse-Cesariae, 81.

Leaves filiform acuminate.

Cilia 2, annulus 0, capsule oblong (1:2 — 2.5) . . H. recuryans, 82.

Cilia 0, annulus 0, capsule cylindric (1: 3.5) . H. cylindricarpiiin, 83.

Cilia 1, annulus simple, large, capsule oblong . . H. Jamesii, 85.

Leaves acute or stoutly acuminate.

Entire . H. Haldanianiini, 163.

Sharply serrate . H. nemorosttin, 164.

ill. Operculum convex or conic.

Leaves falcate.

[H. palustre, var. liamulosum may be sought here.]

Scarcely costate, alar cells orange . . . H. eugyrium, 171.

Costa reaching middle, alar cells hyaline . . H. ocliraceum, 172.

Leaves not falcate.

Abruptly filiform apiculate, entire, alar cells not con¬

spicuous . H. trichophorum, 100.

Gradually filiform acuminate, alar cells orange.

Acute or short apiculate, alar cells few, large . H. palustre, 165.

Plants slender, 2 — 3 cm. long.

Branches erect, leaves serrate . . H. Miihlenbeckii, 111.

Branches intricate, leaves nearly entire . H. Fitzgeraldi, 112.

Plants stout, 7 — 10 cm. long, leaves quite entire H. stellatum, 131.

Obtuse, entire, alar cells hyaline . . . H. cuspidatum, 176.

1 In 81 so few as to be easily overlooked.

Analytic Keys to the Species of Mosses.

77

b. Alar cells scarcely different or quadrate, not abruptly enlarged.

1. Leaves thin, glossy, open; plants mostly small, prostrate or with as¬

cending branches.

* Leaves complanate.

Lid rostrate.

Leaves transversely undulate, serrulate at apex . H. imdulatiun, 110.

Leaves not undulate, quite entire H. sylvatieuin, 109.

Leaves not undulate, serrulate to base.

Bicostate, annulus large ..... H. geopliiliun, 87.

Uni- or ecostate, annulus 0 . H. deplanatum, 88.

Lid convex or conic.

Uapsule pendent . H. elegans, 105.

■Capsule suberect, inclined or horizontal.

Sulcate and constricted below mouth when dry . H. turfaceum, 104.

Smooth when dry.

Autoicous, plants growing on rotten wood.

Annulus 0 . H. mica us, 103.

Annulus large, triple .... H. demticnlatum, 106.

Dioicous, plants growing on stones or the ground.

Leaves quite entire, capsule obovate, campanulate

when dry . H Muelleriaimm, 107.

Leaves serrulate, capsule subcylindric . H. Sullivantlse, 108.

* * Leaves equally spreading.

Capsule suberect, smooth ivhen dry.

Dioicous, cilia 0, costa obsolete.

Inner perichaetial leaves ovate lanceolate . . H. latebricola, 98.

Inner perichaetial abruptly acuminate . . H. Passaicense, 99.

Autoicous, cilia 2 — 3, costa double.

Thick, ascending to middle . H. geiiiiniiin, 102.

Thin, reaching half way to middle . H. deiiticulatiim, var. 106.

Capside inclined , sulcate ivhen dry . EL pseiiclo-Silesiacnni, 113.

Capside inclined or horizontal, often arcuate, smooth ivhen clry.

Leaves squarrose, abruptly long acuminate . H. Mspidulum, 129.

Leaves loosely imbricate, obtuse or acute, alar cells orange.

Nearly as broad as long, obtuse or apiculate . . H. molle, 166.

Nearly twice as dong as broad, acute, point often half

twisted . IL alpestre, 167.

Leaves falcate, gradually acute .... H. montanum, 170.

78 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

ii. Leaves firm, plants very large, mostly 1-2-pinnate, erect or ascending „.

■* Paraphyllia 0.

Leaves obtuse or abruptly apiculate.

Capsule smooth when dry.

Leaves obtuse.

Olive or grayish green, 1 — 2- pinnate, leaves open H. Selireberi, 178.

Dirty green to dark brown, almost simple, leaves

closely appressed . H. trifarium, 181.

Leaves abruptly apiculate, plants pale green . H. pur tun, L.1.

Capsule plicate when dry, plants dark green to reddish

brown . H. scorpioides, 184.

Capsule unknown; plants dark yellow and greenish, branches

julaceous, few, fastigiate, leaves short apiculate H. turgescens, 182.

Leaves long acuminate.

Sulcate.

Apex blunt . H. Flemmingii, 191.

Apex very sharp.

Ecostate, leaf cells all alike . H. loreum, 192.

Bicostate, leaf cells enlarged at base . . H. triquetrum, 190.

Not sulcate . It. squarrosum, 189.

* * Paraphyllia, present.

Leaves with long double costa, leaves deeply sulcate H. umbra turn, 186.

Leaves obscurely bicostate.

Obtuse . H. Alaskan um, 179.

Acute or apiculate or long acuminate.

Paraphyllia pinnate, branches densely 2 — 8 pinnate H. splendens, 185..

Paraphyllia minute, branching irregularly pinnate H. brevirostre, 188.

Leaves unicostate to middle, coarsely serrate . . H. Oakesii, 187.

\

II. Leaves secund.

[Rapliidostegium spp. and Brachytliecium Tliedenii may be sought here.]

A. Costa single, reaching to the middle or beyond.

1. Cells short, minute . H. crispifolium, 22..

2. Cells elongated.

a. Seta rough.

Leaves serrulate . . H. Yelutinum, 45.

Leaves entire . H. pluiuosum, var. 58.

1 Renauld and Cardot: FI. Miq. 57.

Analytic Keys to the Species of Mosses.

79

It). Seta smooth.

i. Leaves transversely rugose and longitudinally plicate.

Plants slender H. adimcum yar. gracilescens, 133.

Plants very stout.

Leaves serrate at apex, alar cells quadrate . . H. rugosum, 144.

Leaves subserrate at apex, alar cells scarcely different,

H. rolnistimi, 145..

ii. Leaves not rugose , often plicate.

Alar cells much enlarged or differently colored.

Paraphyllia abundant {rarely feiv).

Leaves plicate . H. commutatum, 143.

Leaves not plicate . H. filicinum, 142.

-i — *— Paraphyllia 0.

Annulus 0.

Autoicous, leaves quite entire . H. palustre, 165.

Autoicous, leaves denticulate . H. fluitans, 136.

Dioicous, leaves entire above, serrulate below H. exannulatum, 137.

Annulus large.

Autoicous, leaves plicate, teeth orange at base, yellowish

above . H. uncinatum,1 135.

Dioicous, leaves sulcate, teeth orange with a broad hya¬

line border . H. ochraceum, 172..

Dioicous, leaves striate, teeth brown or dark orange, not

bordered.

Alar cells pellucid . H. adimcmn, 133.

Alar cells orange . H. Sendtneri, 134.

* * Alar cells small or scarcely different.

Leaves serrate . H. Thedenii, 41.

Leaves quite entire.

&

Plants very large and stout (15 — 20 cm.), leaves costate to

near apex.

Regularly pinnate H. adimcum yar. liamatum, 133.

Irregularly and dichotomously branched . H. lycopodioides,' 140.

Plants much smaller, leaves obscurely bicostate . H. Watson i, 141.

Plants much smaller, leaves costate to above middle.

Autoicous, purplish-red, red-brown or nearly black H. revolvens, 138.

Dioicous, dirty green or yellow H. vermcosum, 139.

1 Hyp. symmetricum Ren. et Card. QBot. Gaz. xiv (1889), 99, pi. xv), is a sub-species of

H. uncinatum, from which it is distinguished by the “ narrower, erect and quite symmetric

capsules, sometimes clustered by two in same perichsetium.”

so

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

B. Costa double, short, or none.

1. Alar cells enlarged, hyaline or colored.

a. Lid conic, often apiculate, capsule oval to oblong (1 : 1 — 2.5).

i. Alar cells pellucid, not conspicuously colored.

* Capside co state and arcuate when dry.

Alar cells short, yellow, thick walled H. curYifolimn, 159.

Alar cells inflated, hyaline, thin- walled . . H. arcuatnm,1 Lindb.

* * Capside not costate ivhen dry.

Vaginule short (1: 2) covered with longer hairs . H„ molluscum, 147.

Vaginule longer (1:3+)

Plants shining yellow, leaves subserrulate . H. depressulmn, 151.

Plants bright- to pale green, leaves quite entire.

Lid sharply apiculate, orange, capsule incurved when

dry . . . H. calliclirouin, 154

Lid not apiculate, capsule strongly arcuate when dry H. pratense, 161.

ii. Alar cells orange.

Leaves quite entire . H. Bamberger!, 162.

Leaves serrulate.

Ecostate . . H. circinale, 152.

Obsoletely bicostate . H. Sequoieti, 153.

b. Lid rostrate, capside cylindric (1: 3.5 +).

Leaves laterally compressed both sides, alar cells orange H. Bambergeri, 162.

Leaves not laterally compressed.

Pericliaetial leaves bicostate to middle, plicate . . H. reptile, 148.

Perichaetial leaves shortly bicostate, plicate . H. ciipressiforme, 158.

Perichaetial leaves ecostate, plicate, cilia solitary, ap-

pendiculate . . H. imponens, 155.

Perichaetial leaves ecostate, not plicate, cilia 2, inappen-

diculate . . H. subiinponens, 156.

1 Renauld and Cardot: FI. Miq. 55.

Analytic Keys to the Species of Mosses.

81

2. Alar cells not distinct, often quadrate.

a. Plants very stout (5—6 mm. thick) f leaves transversely

rugose . . H. robustuin, 145,

}). Plants much more slender (2 mm. or less thick), leaves not rugose.

H. geminum, 102,

H. plicatile, 157.

H. Yaucheri, Lesq.1

H. pulchelluin, 101.

Costae 2, thick, reaching the middle .

Ecostate or shortly bicostate.

Irregularly branched.

Leaf margins reflexed, shortly bicostate

Leaf margins plane, shortly bicostate

Leaf margins plane, ecostate ....

Regularly pinnate.

Plants very large (to 15 cm.), capsule arcuate, stem

leaves plicate . H. Crista-castrensis, 146.

Plants smaller (usually less than 5 cm.), capsule not

arcuate nor stem leaves plicate.

Pericheetial leaves plicate.

Leaves quite entire . H. complexiim, 160.

Leaves serrulate at apex.

Inner perichsetial leaves costate . . . H. fertile, 149.

Inner perichsetial leaves ecostate . . H. Iiamulosum, 150.

Perichsetial leaves not plicate H. subimponens, 156..

1 Renault! & Carclot: Bot. Gaz. xiv. (1889) 100.

6— A. & L.

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Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

SOME ADDITIONAL EVIDENCES BEARING ON THE

INTERVAL BETWEEN THE GLACIAL EPOCHS.

By PRESIDENT T. C. CHAMBERLIN.*

'Evidences bearing upon the interval between the glacial epochs may be

drawn from various parts of the glaciated field and from the various

phenomena connected with glaciation. It is not, however, my purpose to

make any approach to an exhaustive review of these evidences, or even to

touch upon the arguments that may be drawn from all the several sources.

I desire simply to bring to your attention certain specific evidences that

have an important bearing upon the length of the main interglacial inter¬

val and that lend themselves more readily to intellectual estimation than

others. The evidences that are especially additional to previous knowl¬

edge are drawn from the lower Mississippi Valley, but, in connection writh

these, I shall briefly refer to evidences drawn from other valleys that fall

into marked harmony with these.

In the lower Mississippi Valley, the sub-stratum consists of Tertiary de¬

posits. Upon these there is a thin stratum of gravel and sand, known

heretofore quite widely as the Orange Sands, although that term seems to

have been applied to different formations. This stratum has been very

considerably misunderstood. It does not contain, so far as critical investi¬

gation shows, any material that may be regarded as glacial, although I

think in some of the earlier reports Archean pebbles were cited as an indi¬

cation that these gravels were contemporaneous with the glacial deposits

of the north. They have been critically examined during the summer by

my colleague, Professor Salisbury, and during the entire season’s search he

has not found a single pebble that is referable to a glacial origin. Some

years since I examined the same formation with like result. Professor

Call has also examined some of these deposits with a similar result. The

pebbles are chiefly of chert and were derived from the chert-bearing lime¬

stones, largely Carboniferous, but reaching as far down as the Lower Mag¬

nesian limestone. They are, therefore, non-glacial. This is a matter of

some importance as these sands and gravels have been correlated with the

glacial deposits not only but referred to the Champlain epoch. They are

very far removed from the Champlain deposits in time. That correlation

is one of the great errors of Quaternary geology. They are certainly pre-

* The facts relative to the Lower Mississippi region are drawn largely from the observa¬

tions of my associate, Prof. R. D. Salisbury.

The Interval Between the Glacial Epochs. 83

glacial in the sense that they were not contemporaneous with the glacial

incursion at its earliest maximum. They may have been contemporaneous

with the very earliest stages of glaciation before the ice reached the Mis¬

sissippi Valley and was able to mingle its deposits with those of valley.

Now these gravels occupy a wide area stretching across the basin of the

lower Mississippi from some distance back in Tennessee, Kentucky and

Mississippi to the high lands upon the Arkansas side, appearing in Crow-

, ley’s ridge that bisects the present bottoms of the Mississippi. The gravel

stratum undoubtedly was originally horizontal, but it now undulates more

or less conformably with the surface. The explanation of this, it seems

to me, is found in the gradual creep of the soft material of the hills as they

were slowly carved out by erosion. The brows of the hills in some cases

have obviously crept down on the slopes, for on the summit we find the

gravels compact and firm and the constituent pebbles lying with their

maximum diameters in a horizontal position while the stratum has level

upper and lower bounding planes. On the slopes of the hills however the

gravel beds are more or less broken up, and the pebbles have been dis¬

turbed and displaced and tumbled into various attitudes, such as we

might naturally expect under the hypotheses of a creeping movement on

the slope. It seems impossible to suppose that this stratum of gravel was

originally deposited in the undulatory form in which it is now found. It

might be supposed that the silt which overlies this gravel bed was depos¬

ited as a mantle over an undulatory surface, but gravel does not lend it¬

self to such a method of distribution.

This overlying mantle, which now claims attention, consists of fine silt

and embraces the loess deposits of the lower Mississippi. It spreads out

broadly over the gravel stratum and extends somewhat beyond it, es¬

pecially on the east. This stratum is in places differentiated into two

parts and separated by a soil-like horizon. This differentiation is not com¬

mon to the entire valley. This silt mantle may be traced almost in un¬

broken continuity northward to the border of the glacial drift, whence it

spreads itself over the drift, reaching up on it some hundreds of miles to

the northward. In this northern stretch the silt mantle is correlated with

n second episode of the earlier glacial epoch. It graduates down into a

stratum of boulder clay that overlies a bed of vegetable material, which in

turn overlies another till. Both of these tills I have been accustomed to

correlate with the earlier glacial epoch. I do not wish, however, to raise

differences of opinion on that point here. It is unimportant to the main

conclusions which we desire to reach.

Besides this continuity there is a further reason for regarding these silt

deposits as contemporaneous with the ice invasions. They are made up in

part of glacial particles; that is, particles derived from the mechanical

abrasion of a glacier. These particles consist of decomposable silicates,

dolomites and limestones, and were rasped from rocks of these varieties

lying further north. Such decomposable particles do not abound in resid¬

uary clays but are abundant constituents of glacial clays.

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Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

It seems necessary to suppose that this mantle of loess and loess-like silt

was originally deposited as a horizontal stratum across the entire Missis¬

sippi bottoms. At the present time it undulates over the hills. At first

thought it would seem that the depositing waters might have been deep

and the silt laid down as an undulatory mantle; but it would seem neces¬

sary to extend the same hypothesis to the deposition of the gravels where

its application is manifestly excluded by the nature of the deposit. I feel

sure from observation in certain cases that full investigation will show

that this seeming mantling is the result of the gradual degradation of the

hills, accompanied by creep of the pliant and plastic material. This phe¬

nomenon of creep has a wide expression entirely independent of the area

uncer consideration; but upon that I cannot dwell.

During the first glacial episode the altitude and slope of the lower Mis¬

sissippi basin was so low as to permit the deposit of this silt on the bluffs

which are now 200 feet more or less above the present Mississippi bottoms.

Before the second glacial epoch, according to the division I make, there

was an elevation sufficient to permit the erosion of the great trench of the

lower Mississippi by the predecessor of the present river. This erosion

amounts in round numbers to a. trench about 300 feet in depth and about

sixty miles in width. Some of the bluffs that are crowned by these silts

are 200 or 250 feet in height, and Professor Call’s recent investigations

show 80 to 100 feet of silt in the bottom. It is, therefore, I think, safe to

say that in round numbers there was an erosion during the interval be¬

tween the two epochs of the magnitude named and reaching from Cairo

south to the gulf with corresponding erosion trenches along the upper

branches. This great erosion represents the interval between the forma¬

tion of the silts of the earlier glacial epoch and the filling in of the valley

deposits of the later glacial epoch, which now demand our attention. If

we go back on the glaciated area to the moraines which mark the limit of

the later glacial incursions, we shall find, starting from the outer side of

these moraines, valley streams of gravel formed contemporaneously with

these ice incursions. Tracing these gravel streams along their courses, we

find that they run down into the channels cut in the inter glacial interval,

and partially fill them. On the upper Mississippi, on the Chippewa, on

the Wisconsin and on other tributary rivers, we find gravel trains heading

on the outer edge of the outer moraine of the later epoch. Passing down

through the interglacial trenches, these are found represented in the lower

Mississippi valley, as I think we may safely say from recently gathered

evidence, as deposits in the Mississippi bottoms, overlaid of course by

the more recent deposits. The work of the earlier glacial epoch in the

lower Mississippi I conceive to be the deposit of the loess and loess-like

silt, that of the interglacial epoch to be the erosion of the great trench in

which the Mississippi bottoms now lie, and that of the later glacial epoch

to be the partially filling of this trench. The trenching is the measure of

the interglacial interval, or at least is a partial measure of it.

The Interval Between the Glacial Epochs.

85

If we pass to the upper Ohio and Allegheny valleys we find phenomena

that fall into close correspondence with the foregoing. There are high

shoulders and terraces at various points which bear upon themselves gla¬

cial river gravels. One of the most decisive is found in the vicinity of

Parkers, and has been described by Mr. Chance and others. Here an old

channel runs back from the present course, and curving around a group

of hills, returns, forming an “ox bow.” In this old channel glacial river

gravels are found, showing that it was occupied contemporaneously with

some stage of the glacial period. This abandoned channel is about 200

feet above the present Alleghany river. Mr. Chance tells us there is about

fifty feet of drift in the present valley bottom. So between this upper river bed

and the bottom of the present rock channel there is evidence of an erosion

of 250 feet, 200 of which, m round numbers, are cut through Carboniferous

strata. Similar and corroborative facts show themselves along the course

of the river above and below and along the Monongohela and the upper

Ohio. If we trace the old channel of the Alleghany northward by means of

remnant shoulders and terraces we find that it lies considerably above the

altitude of the terminal moraines of the later epoch; and also much above

the gravel trains that head on the outer side of these moraines and run

down through the trench above indicated. It therefore becomes a neces¬

sary inference that the trench was cut before the moraines were pushed

across it and before the moraine derived gravels could be carried down

into it. The trench therefore represents the interval between the earlier

and the later glacial epochs. I have placed in manuscript elsewhere the

fuller facts upon which these brief statements rest, and they will appear in

print in time.

If we pass over the Susquehanna valley we find like phenomena. These

have been brought out by Mr. McGee and others and I need only to refer

to them because of their connection with that which I have already pre¬

sented. Here we find old benches covered with rounded pebbles — some

of which are glaciated — reaching to a similar height of about 250 feet

above the present Susquehanna river. There are glaciated pebbles at high¬

er altitudes, but I have taken the more moderate figure because it is a safe

one. Near Sunburg glaciated stones were found by Professor Salisbury

about six hundred feet above the present river. Below these high terraces

and in the valley excavated out of the plain from which they were de¬

rived, we find a lower terrace 60 or 70 feet in height of newer and dis¬

tinguished aspect. Above Berwick this lower terrace connects itself

definitely with the terminal moraine which there crosses the river. The

terrace rises rapidly as it joins this moraine, as is the habit of moraine¬

headed terraces, and reaches an altitude of 100 to 150 feet as it merges into

the moraine. But it is still much below the old terraces from which it is

sharply distinguished by its freshness and youth and by its constituent

material.

86

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

It appears therefore that at this point a deep trench was cut in the flood-

plain of which the old terraces are the remnants before the formation of

the later moraine and of the valley deposits that sprang from it.

If we pass over to the Delaware valley we find analagous facts which

are more familiar through the writings of several geologists. Many years

ago Professor Lewis called attention to the earlier and later deposits of that

region, though he did not give them the interpretation I shall place upon

them here, which coincides essentially with that of McGee. As we follow

up the valley toward Belvidere where the moraine crosses the Delaware,

we find old terraces reaching up to about 240 or 250 feet upon which are

rounded pebbles and glaciated stones, indicating an origin in the earlier

stage of glaciation. Cutting through these old plains and the rock below

we find the deep trench in which the later deposits have been placed.

These later gravel deposits, originating with the moraine at a height of

somewhat above 150 feet, rapidly decline to about 85 feet a few miles above

Lewisburg, opposite a point where the older terrace rises to about 250

feet. The measure of the interval here is some 250 to 800 feet of rock

cutting.

It would appear therefore that while there are local variations, there is a

general correspondence between the amount of erosive work done by the

lower Mississippi, by the upper Ohio and Alleghaney, by the Susquehanna

and by the Delaware rivers respectively. The facts indicate that the alti¬

tude of the continent was low in the closing stages of the earlier glacial

epoch ; became higher in the interglacial interval, and after sufficient time

elapsed for these great erosions to take place, the glacial waters of the

later epoch poured their valley deposits down the trenches formed in the

interval. The cutting of these trenches rudely measures the length of this

interval or at least the length of the actively erosive part of it.

The First Abdominal Segment of Embryo Insects.

87

ON THE APPENDAGES OF THE FIRST ABDOMINAL

SEGMENT OF EMBRYO INSECTS.

By WM. M. WHEELER.

Much of what is contained in the following paper was presented to the

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters at its annual meeting in

December, 1888. Graber's summary [’88], embodying as it does all that

was known of the curious organs on the basal abdominal segment of em¬

bryo insects up to 1888, would seem to render superfluous a second general

contribution at so early a date. Nevertheless I have been led to undertake

the task for several reasons: First, several brief articles have appeared

since the publication of Grabev's comprehensive paper; secondly, I have

myself made some observations which fill a few of the gaps neces¬

sarily left in the German investigator’s resume, and thirdly, as I take a

very different standpoint in regard to the interpretation of the problematic

appendages, I feel in duty bound to reproduce all the facts from which my

conclusions are drawn.

This paper does not purport to be a final monograph on the subject — -

such a task can be undertaken only when the embryos of many more in¬

sects have been carefully studied — but a resume of facts and theories up

to the close of 1889. After giving an account of my own investigations in

the first part, I shall in the second portion pass to an account of the work,

of other observers, and in the last part consider the theories which have

been advanced in regard to the original function of the problematic organs.

The descriptions of the organs in Blatta and Periplaneta and the whole of

the theoretical portion are essentially the same as when presented to the

Academy in December, 1888.

For the sake of avoiding repea, ted circumlocution I shall call the appen¬

dages of the first abdominal segment pleuropodia — a name both sugges¬

tive of their origin from foot-like organs and their tendency, when

fully developed, to take up a position on the pleural wall of the embryo.

Should the theory advanced in the latter part of the paper prove to be cor¬

rect, I would suggest that the term adenopodium be substituted for

pleuropodium.

I shall not treat of the abortive and very transient appendages which

appear on some or all of the abdominal segments, since the interested

reader will find a complete resume of our fragmentary knowledge of these

structures in Grctber's paper [’88]. Nor do I propose to enter into the con¬

troversy as to whether the ancestral insects were homopod or heteropod„.

88

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

because I believe, in contradiction to Graber, that there is nothing in the

structure or evolution of the pleuropodia which throws any light whatever

on the mooted question.

These organs may be turned to quite as good account by the advocates of

homopody as by those who accept Graber' s views. Supposing the Diptera

were the only order of insects of which we had any knowledge, should we

be justified in asserting that the halteres which now function as sense

organs according to LeucJcart and Lee, had never functioned as true wings ?

Certainly not. No entomologist doubts that the immediate ancestors of

the Diptera were true insects and that they were provided with two pairs

of perfect wings. It seems to me that the advocates of homopody may

logically maintain that the pleuropodia present a strictly analogous case.

These organs originate as appendages homologous with the thoracic legs

though they subsequently differentiate into organs of problematic though

certainly not ambulatory function. Why might not the pleuropodia have

been true ambulatory appendages in ancestral forms no more remote from

the living or even Palaeozoic Ortlioptera than some four-winged insects are

from the Diptera ? *

PART FIRST.

Blatta ( Pliyllodromia ) cjermanica. L.

(Plate I, Figs. 1-9.)

The appendages of the embryo Blatta begin to appear on the tenth day

from the formation of the polar globules. The antennae and the three pairs

of thoracic limbs are the first to rise from the ectoderm of the hammer¬

shaped embryo. By the eleventh day the three pairs of oral and several

* A similar argument may be advanced in the case of the hamulate halteres of the male

Coccidce. Of deeper interest in this connection, however, are two facts recorded by

Schioedte (De Metamorphosi Eleutheratorum Observationes, Kopenhagen, 1861-1883) con¬

cerning larval Scarabceidce and Lucanidce. In the larvae of most species belonging to

these families the metathoracic legs are as long as or a little longer than the meso- and

pro thoracic pairs. The larval Geotrypes stercorarius, L., however, has the hind legs re¬

duced to only half the length of the anterior pairs. (Plate XVI, Fig. 1.) In the larval

Passalus cornutus , Fabr. the hind legs are so far reduced as to be represented by a pair

of small rudiments only. “ Pedes tertii paris valde deminuti Geotrypoe, Passalo, completi

Geotrypce, femoribus, tibiis, ungulis carentes Passalo." It is interesting to note that the

rudiments in Passalus, as shown in Schioedtes1 Figure (Plate XVIII, Fig. 12) are placed very

near and somewhat pleurad to the bases of the median legs. The position thus assumed

by the atrophied hind legs in respect of the median pair is exactly the same as that

assumed in insect embryos by the pleuropodia in respect of the hind or metathoracic pair.

The possibly unique, and certainly anomalous reduction of the hind legs in the larval

Geotrypes and Passalus is well suited to show what striking changes may occur in the

appendages within the limits of a single suborder of insects. This reduction, which is a

purely larval character, since the imagines have hind legs of the usual size and structure,

has very probably taken place within comparatively recent times.

The First Abdominal Segment of Embryo Insects.

89

pairs of rudimentary appendages on the abdominal segments have become

visible. All the appendages are merely glove- finger-shaped outgrowths of

the ectoderm into each of which extends a similar evagination of the un¬

derlying mesodermic somite. [Fig. 2.] Of the abdominal appendages all

‘except the first pair soon disappear entirely. They are nipple shaped ele¬

vations which are brought down to the general surface of the abdominal

ectoderm by the tension resulting from the lateral an 5 longitudinal growth

of the embryo. The first pair of abdominal appendages in embryos twelve

days old [Fig. 2 ap.], is twice as long as any of the succeeding evanes¬

cent appendages, and about half as long as the metatlioracic legs.

Had I figured the whole of the sagittal section, of which Fig. 2 repre¬

sents only a small portion, it would be seen that the three pairs of thoracic

appendages are of equal length, and together with the antennae, the

longest and most prominent appendages of the embryo. The abdominal

pair is longer than the mandibles in this stage, but only about two-

thirds as long as either the first or second maxillae. Like the antennae, oral

and ambulatory appendages, they are directed obliquely outward and back¬

ward. The evanescent abdominal appendages, on the other hand, are

directed forward.

The further differentiation of the antennae, mandibles, maxillae and feet

is brought about by a very rapid proliferation of the constituent ectodermic

cells, by a somewhat less rapid proliferation of the cells of the mesodermic

somites of the appendages to form muscles, and by constrictions of the sur¬

face to form the joints of the adult insect. The differentiation of the first

abdominal appendage is brought about in quite a different manner,

namely, by the modification of the individual ectodermic cells of which its

outer layer consists.

The appendage ceases to grow much in length after the tvvefth day and

its cells no longer divide. I have never seen a nucleus in any phase of

either karvokinesis or karyostenosis, notwithstanding I have examined many

sections in all stages of development. Hence the number of cells which

constitute the appendage on the twelfth day remains constant till the or¬

gan disappears. The cells which form all but its basal portion increase

enormously in size, assuming the shape of long prisms more or less attenu¬

ated in -some portion of their length. They grow inward and push the me¬

sodermic cells which at first grew forward into the appendage, back into

the body of the embryo, The cyptoplasm of these large cells consists of

finely and evenly granular protoplasm in which there are one or two spheri¬

cal or oval vacuoles at the peripheral ends. [Fig. 3, 4, u.] In surface

views the cells are polygonal. The contour of the inner ends is indistinct

in embryos fourteen days old.

Not only does the cytoplasm of each of the formerly small ectodermic

cells increase thus enormously, but also the nuclei, which assume a

centrifugal position in the fanshaped sections of the appendage. Owing to

their number the nuclei are forced to arrange themselves in several rows.

90

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

[Fig. 3.] The karyochylema of these nuclei is colorless and shows no granu¬

lation. Through it are spread what under a low power appear to be dis¬

tinct but isolated masses of chromatin.

Under a power of about 900 diameters the prismatic cells exhibit more

of their true structure. The protoplasmic reticulum of the cytoplasm is

indistinctly seen, most of its exceedingly delicate threads running parallel

with the long diameter of the cells and presenting the appearance of fine

striation. The parallel arrangement in this direction may be due to

the tension of the protoplasm during the rapid centripetal growth of the

cells. The nodes of the cytoplasmic reticulum are what appear as fine

granules under a low power. The vacuoles are colorless and are probably

only drop-like accumulations of cytochylema. In the nucleus the karyo-

chylema is perfectly colorless and through it runs a net-work of chromatin

which appears to have thickened nodes. A nucleolus, which stains but very

slightly, usually occupies a central position. By focussing the distribution

of the chromatic reticulum is distinctly seen to be peripheral and not sus¬

pended in the karyochylema. When only the equatorial plane of the nu¬

cleus is in focus the thick masses of chromatin are seen to be closely applied

to the wall of the nucleus — only a few of them running out into the limpid

karyochylema. The thin strands of chromatin connecting the irregular

masses probably also run along the inner face of the nuculear wall. Fig. 5

represents five nuclei drawn with the focus on their equatorial planes. In

the interior of the karyochylema the nuceoli stand out distinctly as bodies

which stain much less deeply than the mass of chromatin.

The nuclei retain their characteristic structure apparently without the

slightest alteration till the complete dissolution of the appendage on

about the twenty-seventh day of development. When at that time the

nuclei cease to stain, the chromatin [probably now of modified mole¬

cular structure] is still visible in glistening masses distributed as formerly.

The nucleolus, too, is still seen as a less refractive body of greater dimensions

than any of the irregular chromatin masses.

The cells of the lower part of tlie appendage in embryos fourteen days

old [Fig. 3], do not differ in form from the ectoderm cells in general.

They lengthen somewhat and clasp the inner ends of the large prismatic

cells which form the great mass of the now nearly solid pleuropodium.

These smaller ectoderm cells thus form a broad tubular peduncle, the lumen

of which is in free communication with the body cavity of the embryo.

The next changes which may be 'noticed in the appendages [in embryos

about nineteen days old] are superficial and easily described. The tubular

peduncle increases in length with a resulting decrease in the breadth of its

lumen. At the same time the portion of the segment to which the append¬

age is attached is carried upward and comes to lie somewhat dorsad to

what will be the coxa of the metathoracic leg. While this movement is

taking place a constriction appears [Fig. 6 cn.] dividing the bulbous mass

of large prismatic cells into two segments. This constriction is merely su-

The First Abdominal Segment of Embryo Inserts.

91

perficial and does not divide the cells transversely. The nuclei are seen to

have moved back from the periphery of the appendage and to lie, several

rows deep in the basal half of the apical, and in the apical half of the

basal metameres into which the organ has been constricted. The contour

of the inner ends of the prismatic cells has become more distinct and the

cavity into which the lumen of the peduncle opens has become larger.

The peripheral ends of the prismatic cells are full of oval vacuoles of about

equal size, placed side by side. They occupy the whole surface of the apic¬

al metamere. [Fig. 6 v.~\ Perhaps these vacuoles, as also tliose described

in a preceding stage, may be caused by the action of reagents, though the

regularity of their occurrence and the lack of vacuoles in other tissues of

embryo Blatter killed and prepared according to a method described in a

former paper [’89c], seems to preclude the belief that they are artefacts. Be

this as it may, their presence wrnuld seem to indicate that the cytoplasm of

the outer ends of the prismatic cells is of a different, perhaps more sensi¬

tive, structure than that in the remaining portions of the cells.

The appendage has now reached the highest point of its development and

henceforth slowly advances towards dissolution. By the twentieth day

[Fig. 7] it has become more or less irregular in outline. The peduncle \pd\

has increased in length and tenuity; the cavity [ci?.] has become irregular

owing to the basal edges of the prismatic cells becoming ragged, and the

constriction is disappearing. In the appendage figured it is still seen as a

deep indentation on one side [cn.]; on the other side no traces of it are visi¬

ble. The shape assumed by the organ is now no longer constant in any

two individuals. The vacuoles have either entirely disappeared as in Fig. 7,

or they are much elongated and usually found between the prismatic cells.

Where the lateral wTalls of the cells have disappeared their former position

is often marked by these elongate vacuoles. From being intracellular as

in Figs. 3 and 6, the vacuoles thus become intercellular just before disap¬

pearing.

On about the twenty-fourth or twenty-fifth day the cuticle covers the

whole surface of the embryo. No cuticle, however, forms on the surface of

the pleuropodium, the elongate peduncle of which is constricted off by the

developing chitinous secretion. When embryos of this age are kept for

hours or even days in hsematoxylin or borax carmine and then washed, it is

found that in perfect specimens none of the staining fluid has penetrated

the cuticule; the embryo is still yellowish white, with a brilliant violet or

red spot, visible to the naked eye just behind the base of the metathoracic

leg on either side of the body. This is the pleuropodium, the only portion

of the embryo which has been stained by such protracted immersion.

Examination with higher powers shows that the pleuropodium has now

become very irregular in outline. [Fig. 8.] The old boundaries between the

prismatic cells have disappeared. The apical part of the appendage, still

somewhat bulbous in shape, is a syncytium through which the nuclei ap¬

pear to be migrating toward the opening of what was formerly the pe-

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Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters.

duncle but which has now broken down into a mass of cells of more or less

irregular outline [Fig. 8 n.]. This mass of cells is augmented by the nuclei

which are continually leaving the bulbous mass of protoplasm, and which,

before they leave it, surround themselves with an irregular body of cyto¬

plasm cut from the large mass of protoplasm. This process continues while

the whole mass of cells takes on various forms. Finally it spreads out

between the posteriorly directed metathoracic leg and the ventral face of

the abdomen. Fig. 9 shows a section through the remains of the pleuro-

podium of an embryo twenty-six days old. The nuclei fail to stain more

deeply than the protoplasm. The mass pi seems to be the remains of the

bulbous portion marked pi in Fig. 8. In embryos a few hours older no

traces of the organ are to be found. Its remains probably become indis¬

tinguishable from the granular plasmatic secretion which is found in coag¬

ulated masses about the legs and mouth-parts of the embryo. This granular

plasma was originally the limpid fluid that filled the cavity of the amnion.

It will be seen from my description that the origin, development and dis¬

solution of the pleuropodia is comprised within the space of fifteen days —

from the twelfth t'o the twenty -seventh day of the whole period of de¬

velopment, which requires about a month. Within these fifteen days falls

the peculiar phenomenon of revolution, which begins on the fifteenth and

is concluded on the seventeenth day. Fig. 1 illustrates the lateral view of

an embryo during revolution. [Sixteen days old.] The appendage [ap.]

has reached its maximum size and already shows the constriction which

is most marked a few days later. The amnion and serosa have ruptured

and are passing back over the large mass of yolk. The serosa, s, with its

large flat nuclei is contracting away from the ventral and posterior por¬

tions of the yolk. The amnion, a, with its much smaller nuclei still covers

the ventro-lateral faces of the egg in continuity with the edge of the dorsad

growing body-wall.

For a more complete account of the revolution of the embryo I would

refer the reader to a former paper [’89c].

Periplaneta orient alls . L.

(Plate II, Fig. 10.)

So great has been the difficulty encountered in removing the large eggs

of this Blattid from the thick- walled ootheca in which they are deposited,

that I have succeeded in securing only a few advanced embryos.

As would be expected from the close systematic affinities of the insects,

the pear-shaped pleuropodia are similar to those of Blatta , though they are

somewhat more truncated at their ends and attached by much shorter and

broader peduncles than in the species dealt with above. Fig. 10 represents

a longitudinal section through one of these appendages as it appears in a

cross section through the middle of the first abdominal segment. The

The First Abdominal Segment of Embryo Insects.

93

greater portion of the body is still filled with yolk [not seen in the

figure], while a portion of the mesoderm has been converted into connective

tissue, ms. The pleuropodium is undergoing degeneration. We have seen

that in Blatta the nuclei of the huge cells so characteristic of the organ are

at first distal in position, but that they gradually wander back towards the

body during the breaking down of the appendage (Fig. 8). A like migra¬

tion of nuclei seems to occur in Periplaneta, though I cannot affirm this

with certainty as I have seen only pleuropodia in the stage figured. Cer¬

tain it is, however, that many of the nuclei lie in the proximal ends of the

cells. The shape of cells so closely applied to one another as those under

consideration must be determined to some extent by the position of

their large nuclei. Now in Fig. 10, the broad ends of the cells are

directed towards the body, while the narrow ends converge at a point [i t]

in the distal end of the appendage. This is probably not the original arrange¬

ment, which would be like that seen in Blatta [Fig. 3]. In order to reach

the condition of the advanced pleuropodial cells of Periplaneta , from the

condition seen in Blatta in a younger stage, wTe have only to suppose that

most of the nuclei migrate to the proximal ends of their respective cells

and push before them a quantity of protoplasm; in this way the cells would

become rounded off at what were originally their pointed ends, and taper

to thread like points at what were before their broad distal ends. At a? two

such cells are seen in the act of loosening themselves from the main mass

and are apparently about to pass into the body cavity through the broad

lumen of the peduncle. The cells with more deeply stained nuclei at y,

agreeing with the cells of the ectoderm, ecd, and contrasting with the

large pleuropodial cells, seem to belong to the common ectoderm; they at

first, perhaps, form the walls of the peduncle but subsequently pass up into

the appendage. This supposition is rendered more probable by their per¬

ipheral position. The ends of the large cells are frequently filled with and

separated from one another by vacuoles, some of which are very large and

conspicuous. The protoplasmic reticulum in the neighborhood of these

vacuoles has the striated appearance described above for Blatta. At the

distal end of the pleuropodium the protoplasm is less compact and in many

of my sections, like the one figured, spreads out in an irregular granular

mass which leaves the appendage and probably joins the amniotic coagulum.

If my interpretation of the few stages which I have seen is correct, the

pleuropodia of Periplaneta disappear partly by absorption into the body of

the embryo and partly by the dissolution of their outer portions be¬

tween the body walls and the egg-envelopes. In the section figured the

cuticle [ct] is formed on the pleural and ventral walls of the abdomen,

but is not continued over the surface of the pleuropodium.

'94

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts arid Letters.

Mantis Carolina , L.

(Plate II, Fig. 11.)

Mr. T. H. Morgan has kindly sent me some of the embryos of this inter¬

esting insect. All the specimens examined were in a stage just preceding

the rupture of the embryonic envelopes, hence almost corresponding with

the Blatta embryo figured (Fig. 1). The pleuropodia are distinctly visible

in surface view as a pair of narrowly pyriform evaginations, partly covered

by the metathoracic legs with which they are liomostichous. Their tips are

directed laterally, while the ends of the metathoracic appendages converge

towards the median ventral line. Each pleuropodium is very much shorter

and narrower than the legs or any of the cephalic appendages. A section [Fig.

11] shows that the organ is a solid body, perhaps best described as a narrow,

pear-shaped sack, whose thickened walls are made up of a single layer of

cells and whose cavity has been reduced so as to be represented by a line.

The cells forming the appendage have the form of curved pyramids; their

broad bases form the outer surface and their gradually tapering apices

converge from all sides towards the central line representing the obliter¬

ated cavity. These cells differ only in shape from those of the ectoderm of

the body walls and other appendages: the size and reactions of the nuclei

together with the quantities of cytoplasm surrounding them are essentially

the same in the elements of both the body walls and pleuropodia. In the

pleural wall [ecd] the nuclei are arranged in about three irregular rows;

just at the insertion of the pleuropodium, however, there is only one row,

a fact indicating that the appendage, which was very probably hollow in a

preceding stage, had its lumen shut off from the body cavity by the in¬

trusion of a layer of ectoderm cells at x. Not having studied more ad¬

vanced embryos, I am unable to state anything in regard to the manner in

which the pleuropodia degenerate. The fact that these organs are small

and solid and that their component cells differ in no way from the ecto¬

dermic elements of the body walls and other appendages, is sufficient proof

that the pleuropodia of Mantis are mere rudiments.

In Mantis Carolina there are distinct appendages on at least the second,

third and fourth abdominal segments, but none of these in my embryos

had developed beyond the mammillate stage. Graber [’88] has observed

on the second abdominal segment of an European Mantis a pair of append¬

ages shaped very much like the pleuropodia on the basal segment. As

these do not occur in all embryos of the European species, and as the embryos

of the American species examined by me, were all taken from a single

capsule and hence deposited by a single female, I cannot feel certain that

this second pair of pleuropodia is always or even normally absent.

The First Abdominal Segment of Embryo Insects.

95

Xiphidium ensiferum. Scud.

(Plate 2, Fig. 12, 13, 14.)

The ontogeny of this interesting insect presents a remarkable and ap¬

parently isolated retention of many annelid traits. Among other peculari-

ties there is developed in an early stage a large and rounded preoral disk

between the procephalic lobes, making the head of the embryo resemble a

clover leaf. This preoral disk is soon completely constricted off from the

body of the embryo proper, and, moving forward a short distance, gives

rise to two cellular envelopes. The movements of the embryo in relation to

the yolk also differ markedly from anything heretofore described in insect

development. As I shall devote a special paper to a description of

the development of the Xiphidium embryo, I will here confine my

attention to the pleuropodia which are quite as prominently developed as

in other Orthoptera.

The embryo when first formed on the convex surface of the curved

elongate- oval egg, resembles very closely the Blatta embryo which I have

figured in a corresponding stage [’89c, Plate XVII, Fig. 45]. The appendages

of the first abdominal segment arise as in Blatta , but as soon as the differen¬

tiation of their component cells sets in, a great difference between the

Blattid and Locustid pleuropodia becomes apparent. Each of the modified

appendages becomes bulbous and constricted into a peduncle at its base;

the contour, however, is not evenly rounded but somewhat angular. The

distal end of the sack terminates in a point. Sections show that the

cavity of the organ is very large [Fig. 12, cv.] while the cells forming the

walls are consequently reduced to short and broad prisms. Their cytoplasm,

though still distinctly granular, is paler than that of the ectoderm cells of

the thoracic appendages and body walls. The nuclei, too, stain much less

deeply than the much smaller nuclei of the remaining ectoderm, presum¬

ably because the quantity of cvtochylema is relatively much greater, while

the amount of chromatin in the modified and unmodified ectoderm re¬

mains approximately constant. At first the large cavity of the pleuropodium

communicates with the body cavity by means of a canal through the

peduncle; later this communication seems to be completely cut off by the

disappearance of the lumen.

While the cells of the pleuropodia are differentiating to reach the

stage figured [Fig. 12] and described, the embryo passes through the

yolk backwards and emerges tail first on the concave surface of the egg.

Here it grows considerably and then during revolution passes around the

posterior pole of the egg and again makes its appearance on the convex

surface of the yolk. During the time that the embryo is going through

these peculiar maneuvers, the pleuropodia reach their maximum size and

advance towards the pleurae. Henceforth they diminish in size while their

peduncles become thinner. The oldest embryos examined had their eyes

96 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

pigmented and were ready to escape from their envelopes. When the chorion

was removed, the serosa and first cuticle were found covering the embryo,,

the hypodermis of which had already secreted a second chitinous layer.

The shrunken but still conspicuous pleuropodia were attached to the

pleurae laterad and close to the insertion of the saltatorial leg. A

dark brown granular substance was collected in large masses over the head

of the embryo, in the spaces betweeen the legs and the envelopes and on

the surface of the pleuropodia, both of which were easily torn from the

body and left adhering to the serosa and first cuticle. To these membranes

also adhered much of the granular dark brown secretion. When I at¬

tempted to stain embryos still in possession of their pleuropodia, I made

the same observation as on Blatta embryos of the corresponding stage:

the pleuropodia were colored but the chitinous covering of the remainder

of the body prevented the stain from entering the subjacent tissues. Sec¬

tions through the first abdominal segment of embryos in this advanced

stage [Figs. 13 and 14] show that the peduncle of each pleuropodium is

much attenuated and inserted on the cuticle at the bottom of a rather deep

pit in the pleural hypodermis [eccl.]. The appendage is therefore cut off

from the living tissues of the body and, being very loosely attached, is

easily shed by the embryo during the movements preparatory to hatching.

A section through the broad portion of the organ in the present stage [Fig.

14] when compared with a section of the organ in its prime [Fig. 12] shows

the extent of dissolution. The cell boundaries, faint but still perceptible

in Fig, 12, have now disappeared and the organ has become a syncytium.

Those portions of the cytoplasm which border the central cavity [ cv. ] are

filled with numerous vacuoles of different sizes. The nuclei have lost their

regular arrangement, and in many cases also their evenly oval contours;

their cytoplasm stains more deeply and their chromation is aggregated to

form larger masses. The granular secretion [s] surrounding the organ and

filling such spaces as are left between the embryo and its envelopes stains

deeply in haematoxylin and seems to be a later formation than the homo¬

geneous secretion indicated at as in Fig. 12, between the amnion and body

of the younger embryo. The abundance of this granular substance cling¬

ing to the walls of the shrunken pleuropodia and heaped about the legs in

the immediate vicinity would seem to indicate that it is to be regarded as

a secretion of the pleuropodia or of one of the embryonic envelopes and

not as the decomposed amniotic secretion.

Cicada septemdecim. Fabr.

(Plate 3, E’igs. 19 ancl 20.)

Most entomologists are familiar with the small ova deposited by this

noxious Homopteron in short parallel rows in the twigs of our native trees.

The eggs are translucent, so that the stages of embryos killed in Carnoy’s

fluid heated to 70° C., which renders the yolk transparent and the embryo

The First Abdominal Segment of Embryo Insects.

9?

opaque white, may be readily recognized before sectioning. It is difficult

to remove the chorion without seriously damaging the egg, so that sections

are best stained on the slide. The development is very much like that of

Aphis as described by Will. [’&§.] This need not surprise us when we

stop to consider the close relationship of the Phytophthora and Homoptera.

In the earliest stage examined the embryo was found in the middle of

the yolk, with the thoracic appendages just making their appearance, and

the thin amnion so closely applied to the ventral plate as to be difficult of

detection in some sections. The embryo is quite straight, exhibiting little

of the pronounced curvature of the Aphis embryo.

In a later sta;e when the thoracic and cephalic appendages are well

established, no appendages are to be observed on the abdominal segments,

sections through which show that the ventral surface is very flat, without

even the bulgings that have frequently been mistaken for rudimental ap¬

pendages. In a cross section through the middle of the first abdominal

segment [Fig. 20] there is seen at the points corresponding with the places

of evagination of the metathoracic appendages of the preceding segment,

a pair of ectodermic thickenings [ ap ]. The cells of these thickenings as

shown by the curvature of their nuclei are aggregated somewhat like the

segments of an orange. The long axes of all the ectoderm cells are in this

stage directed dorso-ventrally. I have for the sake of emphasis repre¬

sented the thickenings, which for reasons given below, I believe to be true

homologues of the evaginated pleuropodia of other insect embryos, as

paler than the cells of the surrounding ectoderm, though in reality no such

differentiation has as yet set in. In the section figured a slight depression

marks the convergence of the outer ends of the pleuropodial cells.

During the revolution of the embryo the pleuropodium reaches its full

size and presents in section the appearance of Fig. 19 ap. It is easy to see

how this organ originates from an orange shaped cluster of cells like that

just described. The ectodermic elements increase greatly in length and

assume the form of curved pyramids with their tapering apices attaining

the surface of the body and their broadened nuclear ends projecting into

the body cavity. The outer and attenuated ends of the cells are uniformly

hyaline and stain very faintly in borax carmine. The cytoplasm of the

inner ends is granular like that of the remaining ectoderm, [ecd.] The

nuclei of the pleuropodium seem not to differ in their finer structure from

the nuclei of the general ectoderm. They are frequently triangular or vi¬

olin-shaped both in the pleuropodium and in the undifferentiated ectoderm.

The only difference is one of position: the nuclei of the body wall lie at right

angles to their former position. A granular mass, the amniotic secretion,

fills the space between the body walls and the egg membranes [ ch .] In one

place, however, this mass is replaced by one of a different nature, a glairy,

homogeneous and vacuolated substance [s] of irregular though rounded

outline, firmly attached to the attenuated tips of the pleuropodial cells.

This homogeneous mass, which stains pink in borax carmine, is often more

7— A. & L.

98

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

globular than as represented in the figure, and is often separated from the

granular amniotic secretion by a clearly defined space, proving that one or

both of the secretions contract under the influence of the reagents em¬

ployed. From the constancy of its occurrence and the manner of its adhe¬

rence to the outer surface of the pleuropodium, I do not hesitate to regard

the homogeneous mass as a secretion of the pyramidal cells. It seems

to consist of an albuminoid substance; the vacuoles which it contains may

be artefacts. Not having examined it in fresh embryos, I was unable to

learn anything more concerning its physical or chemical nature.

A somewhat more advanced embryo was examined in surface view after

'staining with Ehrlich’s haematoxvlin. The presence of the pleuropodium

xvas distincly indicated on each pleura of the first abdominal segment near

the insertion of the metatlioracic leg, by a clear circular area surrounded

by a dark ring. The clear area I take to be the cluster of hyaline cell-tips;

the appearance of a dark circle is probably due to the ectoderm cells seen

in section at o o together with the nucleated ends of the subjacent pleuro-

podial cells. .

In Cicada embryos nearly ready to hatch the pleuropodia are not to be

found. The pyramidal cells grow pale and irregular, finally fall asunder

and are probably absorbed. The ectoderm cells at o o grow over the small

area formerly occupied by the hyaline cell-tips to complete the pleural wall.

Although the pleuropodia of Cicada, being invaginated thickenings of the

ectoderm, differ considerably from the evaginated pleuropodia of the

Orthoptera, I believe that I am justified in regarding both forms as homo-

logues. The facts which make for this homology are the following:

1. The pleuropodia of Cicada are of purely ectodermic origin.

2. They appear only on the first abdominal segment.

8. They are at first homostichous with the thoracic and cephalic ap¬

pendages.

4. Their cytological structure closely resembles that of some evaginate

pleuropodia; the shapes of the component cells with reference to the sur¬

face of the body being merely reversed. Compare the pleuropodia of

Mantis Carolina. [Fig. 11.]

5. Their greatest development is attained during the revolution of the

embryo.

6. They move away from the median ventral line of the embryo and

take the same position on the pleurae as the evaginated pleuropodia of the

Orthoptera and Coleoptera.

7. They atrophy and disappear before the embryo hatches.

/

The First Abdominal Segment of Embryo Insects. 99

Zaitlia fluminea, Say. *

[Plate 3 Figs. 17 and 18.]

Of this form I have examined only embryos in the stages immediately

preceding, during, and after revolution. Just before revolution the embryo

lies on one face of the yolk with its amnion and serosa in contact and not

separated by a layer of the vitellus as in most of the Hemiptera whose on¬

togenies have been studied. Hence Zaitlia would seem to resemble the

Orthoptera and Coleoptera in its manner of embryo formation. The stages

which I have studied show only the fully developed pleuropodia; I can,

therefore, assert nothing in regard to the process whereby these organs

originate and disappear, although their resemblance when fully formed to

the pleuropodia of Cicada renders it highly probable that the beginning

and end of their development are no less similar to those observed in the

Homopteron.

In Fig. 17 I have represented half a cross-section through the first

abdominable segment of an embryo during revolution. The ectoderm

[eccZ] of the dorsal surface in the neighborhood of the heart [c6] is much

thinner than the ectoderm laterad to the large ganglion [pZ]. In one place

near the large pleural fold filled with adipose cells [acZJ the ectoderm is

greatly thickened to form a bulbous organ which is to be regarded as a

pleuropodium. The cells composing it are greatly elongated, being

three or four times as long as the thickest ectoderm cells of the ventral

body wall. It is also seen that a great number of cells take part in the

formation of the Zaitlia pleuropodium while but very few go to make up the

same organ in Cicada. In the water-bug the rounded inner face of

the pleuropodium projects as far as the yolk and presents at irregular in¬

tervals a few flattened mesodermic elements [cn]. The inner ends of the

long cells are coarsely granular, their outer ends uniformly hyaline.

Their nuclei are but little larger than the nuclei of the body walls. The

delicate hyaline cell-tips converge to form a flat surface which is covered

* The eggs of this species were given me by Dr. W . Patten as the eggs of an aquatic

Hemipteron, which from his description I took to be a Nepa, and mentioned it as such in

my preliminary notes (’89a ’89&). The species, however, can be no other than our com¬

mon Zaitha fluminea , Say, for I now remember Dr. Patten telling me that he found the

eggs attached to the hemielytra of the female. This habit, according to Uhler (article

Hemiptera , Standard Natural History Vol. II, p 258, 1884) is shared, so far as their habits

have been observed, by all the species of this exclusively American genus. The female

Nepa attaches her eggs to aquatic plants. The chorion of the egg is smooth and unorna¬

mented in Zaitha , while the egg of Nepa has at one end seven hair-like radiating pro¬

cesses, which, according to E. v. Ferrari , make the egg resemble the seed of Carduus

benedictus. (Die Hemiptcren-Gattung Nepa , Latr (sens, natur.) Annalen d. K. K. naturhist.

Hofmuseums. Bd. Ill, No. 2. Wien 1888.)

I hasten to correct my mistake, as the species of Nepa and Zaitha are not only gener-

ically distinct, but belong to different families: the former to the Nepidoe , the latter to the

Belostomatidce.

100 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

by a broad pencil of refractive threads [s] which is to be regarded as the

secretion of the pleuropodial cells. In Fig. 18 three of these curious cells

are represented as they appear under a magnification of about 900 diam¬

eters. The inner ends which stain deeply in borax carmine contain a num¬

ber of very coarse granules among which are interspersed a multitude of

finer ones; the granules diminish in number beyond the oval nuclei and

have completely disappeared in the gradually tapering outer ends of the

cells [Z], These ends are not affected by the stain. Each cell-tip is capped

by a refractive thread, which nearly or quite equals the cell in length and

may often be split into two or three branches. Usually the line which

separates the cell-tips from the threads which cap them, is distinctly

marked as in Fig. 17 and at z in Fig. 18. I have, however, found num¬

erous cases where no such line could be detected, the hyaline cell-tips pass¬

ing without interruption into the long refractive threads. The minute

structure of the nuclei resembles that of the pleuropodial nuclei of Blatta .

Through the faintly stainable caryochylema runs a chromatic reticultim,

the nodes of which are irregular and much thickened. The nucleolus has

little affinity for staining fluids and is probably to be relegated to Carnoy’s.

class of “ nucleoles plasmatiques.”

Sialis infumata, Newm.

This Neuropteron oviposits on the leaves of plants overhanging the

water. The eggs are arranged in regular rows, with their stem-shaped

micropyles directed upwards. The embryos are so small that it is diffi¬

cult to obtain good surface views; still I have been able to satisfy myself

that the first abdominaJ segment, at about the time of revolution, presents

a pair of conical evaginated pleuropodia, which lie somewhat outside of

the line of the thoracic legs. In my sections I could detect neither a dif¬

ferentiation of the cells nor diverticula of the body-cavity extending

into these appendages. The apparent solidity of the organ may have been

due to the thickness and the plane of my sections.

PART SECOND.

Gryllotalpa vulgaris. L.

The pleuropodia of the mole-cricket were observed as early as 1844 by

Batlrike [’44] who described them as mushroom-shaped bodies. Many

years later, Korotneff [’85] in his account of the general embryology

of Gryllotalpa figured and described the same organs more at length.

According to this author they arise as button-shaped prominences, not in

line with the other appendages but laterad to them. Their outline in sec¬

tion resembles that of a mushroom and they are seen to consist of succu-

0

The First Abdominal Segment of Embryo Insects. 101

lent [saftigen] cells. Later, when the back of the embryo has closed over,

these appendages atrophy [“ gehen zu Grunde”]. They fall off and disap¬

pear completely. [“ Sie fallen spurlos ab”].

It may be doubted, judging from observations on other Orthoptera,

whether the pleuropodia arise laterad to the other appendages. Probably

the earliest stages in their formation escaped Korotneff. His last observa¬

tion, viz. : that the pleuropodia fall off, is quite definite, and, if based on

observation, precludes their possible disappearance by absorption.

Oecanthus niveus, Serville.

The second insect in which pleuropodia were described was Oecanthus

niveus. Ayers [’84] while pursuing the general ontogeny of this Gryllid

was evidently impressed with the interest attaching to these organs; hence

the more complete account which I reproduce in full:

“ The respiratory function of the embryo is first indicated at the time of

revolution by the appearance of paired lateral outgrowths of the ectoderm

from the pleural region of the first abdominal segment. These gills or

respiratory organs come to lie just behind, but dorsad of the base of the

third thoracic appendage. In outline they are broadly oval or kidnev-

shaped and are united to the body by a short peduncle springing from the

center of that face of the disc which is in contact with the body of the

embryo. These folds are cellular structures and at different periods are

solid or hollow. The cells of the folds early lose their ectodermic charac¬

ters and become somewhat larger than those of the adjacent body wall.

In the fresh condition they appear enucleate and coarsely granular, but

upon treatment with osmic or acetic acid a nucleus is distinctly visible.

In surface view there is to be seen a clear central area which indicates the

position of the internal cavities of the gill. These cavities are continuous

with the body cavity and probably serve as channels through which the

vascular fluid circulates They vary in shape and relative proportions.

The relations of these appendages to the body is best seen in sections. The

outgrowing flap is here seen to project over an invagination immediately

below it and in some instances to become apposed so closely to the body

wall as to convert the open pocket into a closed canal. In its middle part,

where the fold fuses with the body, its cells are separable into two irregular

layers which correspond to the two primitive plates of the fold, but they

fuse completely, or become widely separated, in the free portion of the

pad. These appendages reach their greatest degree of development soon

after the revolution of the embryo, and then gradually atrophy, entirely

disappearing before the complete closure of the body walls. In sections of

the gill organ before its atrophy [or absorption] one finds both distinct

canals and lacunar spaces, which radiate from the point of connection of

the pad with the body, and these together with the arrangement of the

cells give the radiate structure characteristic of the fresh gill. The canals

102

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters.

are generally circular in section and pursue irregular courses throughout

the cell substance, while the spaces are developed by the separation of ad¬

jacent cell walls and are irregular in outline and occur at varying distances

from each other. The gill pad is essentially a single layered sac, with a

much constricted neck, evaginated from the pleural region of the abdomen.

The protruding organ is flattened against the body of the embryo and by

this means the cells are rendered spindle-shaped. The nucleus of each cell

lies in that part of its cell which is farthest from the constriction of the

organ. The cell wall gradually tapers to a point and ends near the neck.

The cells are bent in various ways depending upon the relations of their

nuclei to the wall of the pad.”

Ayers seems not to have recognized the identity of the abdominal ap¬

pendages and what he calls the “ gill-pads.” On plate 18 he figures [Figs.

8, 19, 20, 23, ab. p.] the first pair of abdominal appendages as digitiform

and arising in a line with the thoracic and remaining abdominal appenda¬

ges. In Fig. 20 these organs are seen with tips directed outward, while

the ends of the thoracic appendages converge. Concerning the abdominal

appendages he writes:

“ Soon after the mesoderm has extended into the hollow appendages,

there appear successively a varying number of abdominal protuberances

exactly similar to the maxillary and thoracic appendages in their earliest

stage of growth. Of these only two pairs ever reach any considerable de¬

gree of development, they are the first and the last abdominal. The for¬

mer grows to the length of the mature mandibles and then atrophies. It

varies in shape from a finger-like process [pi. 18, fig. 17] to a lobed out¬

growth, and in the later stages is covered by the last thoracic appendage.”

The last sentences imply that the organ undergoes dissolution in situ and

this is further sustained by Fig. 22, where what would seem -to be the ir¬

regular remains of the appendages are seen through the translucent rneta-

thoracic legs. Evidently Ayers lost sight of the appendages after they

had been covered by the last thoracic legs and when they passed out from

under these and made their appearance as enlarged and peculiarly modified

organs high up on the pleural wall, they were regarded as organs having

no relation to the abdominal appendages. Ayers no longer letters the ap¬

pendages withab. p., but with a new reference, A, and, what is more con¬

clusive, says that the pleuropodium “ is essentially a single-lavered sao

with a much constricted neck, evaginated from the pleural region of the

abdomen.”

The section of the “ gill” described and figured by Ayers [Figs. 13 and

14, pi. 22] “before its atrophy [or absorption]” shows the cells after the

setting in of degeneration. The figures are in every way comparable

to the figure which I have given of Periplaneta (see above, page 92, also

fig. 19, Plate II). Fig. 14 shows the dorsal wall of the embryo covered

over and the heart completed, a stage in which the pleuropodia have

passed beyond their maximum development which is attained just before

The First Abdominal Segment of Embryo Insects.

103

or during revolution. The canals and spaces alluded to in Ayers’ descrip¬

tion are exactly like those seen in Periplaneta in the corresponding stage,

and must not be regarded as delicate ramifications of the body cavity but

as irregular spaces produced by the falling asunder of the columnar cells.

They are probably identical with the intercellular vacuoles seen in the de¬

generating pleuropodia of Blatta and Periplaneta. Had Ayers passed

sections through the pleuropodia of Oecanthus before the setting in of

dissolution, his description would have been different and very probably

like what I have given for Xipliidium.

Stenobothrus.

Graber briefly described the pleuropodia of this Acridian in his paper on

polypody [’88]. In a more recent article [’89] he gives a fuller description

which I reproduce:

“ Each of the pleuropodia of Stenobothrus at the time of its greatest de¬

velopment lies on the pleural wall of the first abdominal segment about

where, in later life, the tympanal apparatus is situated. It is a flat¬

tened biscuit-shaped body about 1 mm. in diameter. While the remainder

of the body wall remains destitute of pigment till the insect hatches, the

pleuropodia acquire a brownish hue. Of the same color also is a finely

granular coagulum partly glued to the skin in the immediate neighbor¬

hood of the pleuropodia and the legs. In sections the organs present a wide

cavity which opens by means of a short and rather broad passage into the

body cavity. In some sections a few cells, probably interpretable as blood

corpuscles, are to be found in the cavity; in other sections these cells are ab¬

sent. The large cells of the outer wall, which in this insect also are enorm¬

ously developed, are especially interesting, as they are so filled with yellowish

granules that the whole outer wall of the sack presents the appearance of

a brownish yellow plate. These granules are visible even in Canada

balsam preparations. Closer observation shows that the above mentioned

coagulum in the vicinity of the pleuropodia and legs contains yellow

granules very similar to those contained in the cells and thus justifies the

conclusion that this coagulum, at least in part, is secreted by the pleuro-

podial cells, the outer surfaces of which are not covered by a chitinous

cuticle.”

Blatta germanica, L.

Patten was the first investigator to describe the pleuropodia of Blatta

germanica [’84], His observations are summed up in the following words:

“ At first a number of abdominal appendages are developed which, how¬

ever, quickly disappear again with the exception of the first pair, which

further develops into pear-shaped structures attached to the abdomen by a

stem that increases in length and finally changes into a very fine duct

leading into a small cavity in the expanded distal extremity, which owes

104

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

its size to the development of extremely high ectoderm cells. No mesodern

enters into the construction of the peculiar organ which in the later stages

of development disappears entirely.”

Cholodkovsky s paper [’89] which in respect of the pleuropodia of

Blatia adds but little to Patten's description, appeared several months after

my account of these organs was written. After describing the origin of

the different appendages, the Russian observer passes to a more detailed

description of the first abdominal pair.

“ While the ectoderm cells keep increasing in length in the first abdom¬

inal appendages, those of its constricted basal portion, on the contrary,

become somewhat shorter. As a consequence of these changes the abdom¬

inal appendage assumes the shape of a pear attached to the body by means

of a slender stem only. The greater portion of such an appendage consists

of very long and narrow, almost fusiform ectoderm cells, which with their

broadening distal ends form the surface of the appendage, while their

proximal ends narrow towards the peduncle. The cells are very closely ap¬

plied to one another, and there is no cavity in this portion of the modified

appendage, though there is a narrow canal in the axis of the peduncle

leading into the body cavity. Somewhat nearer its distal than proximal

end each long ectoderm cell contains a large oval nucleus. Focussing on

the surface of the widened portion of the pear-shaped body one observes

that it is divided into facets; each facet has slightly raised edges and a

central depression, and belongs to an ectoderm cell. During later develop¬

ment before the hatching of the embryo these appendages disappear by a

process unknown to me.”

This description is in the main correct. It is true that the outlines of

the pleuropodial cells are polygonal in surface view, but I have never seen

anything like the facets with raised edges and depressed centers described by

Cholodkovsky and depicted in his Fig. 15 This appearance is probably due

to Cholodkovsky' s method of preparing Blatta embryos by protracted im¬

mersion in Perenyi’s fluid, a method which is in all probability responsible

for the marked distortion of some of his other figures.

Mantis.

To Grdber we owe the only account of abdominal appendages in Mantis

embryos published heretofore. In his general work on insects [‘77] he

figures the anterior portion of a young Mantis embryo, in which the

pleuropodia are seen as a pair of digitiform processes, directed and shaped

like the thoracic legs, which they are far from equalling either in length or

breadth. In his later paper ['88] Graber figures another embryo Mantis in

which is seen a pair of what might be called secondary pleuropodia on the

second abdominal segment. This second pair, wliich is absent in some em¬

bryos is somewhat smaller, though in other respects exactly like the first

pair. Further stages in the development of these organs are not described.

The First Abdominal Segment of Embryo Insects. 105

It is probable that they soon disappear without ever becoming bulbous,

since a tendency thus to differentiate is distinctly manifest in other Orthop-

teran embryos that have reached the age of the Mantis embryos figured by

Graber.

Neophylax concinnus.

An isolated observation on pleuropodia in the Phryganeidae is embodied in

one of Patten’s figures of a Neophylax embryo [’84, plate 36 A, Fig 11.]

Patten notes the fact in the text [page 578] that three pairs of abdominal

appendages are developed cn the basal segments, but says nothing about a

differentiation of the most anterior pair. The figure referred to, however,

shows that the conical abdominal appendages of the first abdominal seg¬

ment are considerably larger than those of the two succeeding segments.

Dr. Patten has, at my request, kindly taken the trouble to re-examine his

sections, and informs me that the cells of the pleuropodia differ in struct¬

ure from the unmodified ectoderm cells of the other appendages and the

body wall of the embryo.

Acilius.

At my request, Dr. Patten has very kindly sent me the following de¬

scription of the pleuropodia of this Dytiscid:

As in other forms so in Acilius , the pleuropodia arise on the first abdom¬

inal segment of the young embryo, as a pair of ectodermic evaginations,

homostichous with the thoracic legs. Later, the distal end of each bul¬

bous appendage, consisting of large columnar cells, is invaginated in the

form of a cup. The nuclei are situated in the inner ends of the cells, each

of which secretes at its tip a short refractive thread, which, with those of

the neighboring cells goes to form over the invaginated area a thick,

striated, cuticula-like layer. Dr. Patten remarks that this form of secre¬

tion may be compared with the pleuropodial secretion of Zaitha, the only

difference being that the individual threads secreted are so short as to form

together a continuous sheet, instead of a penicillate bundle.

These peculiar appendages, which of all described species most closely

resemble the pleuropodia of Meloe, do not fall off during their period of

degeneration, but are pushed into the yolk and absorbed.

Hydrophilus piceus , L.

The pleuropodia of this form were first observed by Kowalevsky [71.]

They are distinctly seen in his Fig. 12, as digitiform processes, shorter than

the metathoracic legs. Nothing is said of their differentiation. In the

figure of an older embryo they are represented as a pair of smaller protuber¬

ances inserted on the pleurae near the bases of the metathoracic legs.

Heider [’89] in the first part of his beautiful monograph, figures the

pleuropodia of Hydrophilus in several places, [Figs. 2 and 3 in the text;

106 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

Fig. 9, plate 2, Figs. 10a, 10b, 11 and 12, plate 3] not as digitiform, but as

small bulbous organs with spherical contour, developed from a pair of

small mammillar prominences. At the time of the rupture of the embry¬

onic envelopes, they are but little larger than the terminal metameres of

the metathoracic legs and show but little tendency as yet to move apart

from the places where they arose in line with the metathoracic and re¬

maining abdominal appendages. In sections of the last stages described

by Heider, the beginning of a differentiation of the cells may be observed

but the pleuropodia do not attain their greatest differentiation till a later

stage of development. Heider reserves further description for the second

part of his monograph.

Melolontha vulgaris, Fabr.

In the cockchafer the pleuropodia attain a much greater size than in any

other insect heretofore studied. We are indebted to Graber for an ex¬

cellent description of these remarkable organs. [’88.]

The pleuropodia are first seen in embryos twelve days old, and do not

reach their maximum size till the twenty-second day. They are large flat¬

tened sacks attached by peduncles and, when fully developed, are much

longer than the thoracic legs and about three times as broad. Graber

thus describes the minute structure of the full-grown pleuropodium:

“In respect of histological structure, a feeble magnification shows that

the condition of the abdominal appendages differs decidedly in many, if

not in all, particulars from that of the legs. This is especially true of the

outer, or ectodermic layer. For, while this layer in the legs, like that of

the body wall and all the other appendages * * * * consists

of relatively narrow cells with relatively very small [0,006 mm] nuclei and

only sporadically inserted larger cells with large nuclei, nearly all the cells

in the abdominal appendages, and more especially those forming the outer

walls of these pocket-shaped organs, are of considerable size and are pro¬

vided with nuclei more than twice as large as those of the remaining ecto¬

derm, since they measure about 0,014 mm. Considering that, at the time

when the organ was formed, the ectoderm nuclei were 0,008 mm in diame¬

ter, it follows that during the course of further development, the nuclei of

the ordinary ectoderm become somewhat smaller, while those of the ecto¬

derm of the abdominal appendages undergo a considerable increase in size.

This increase is most pronounced in the outer wall of the appendage; a por¬

tion of the inner wall, as well as the short cervical portion, or peduncle,

formed by constriction, having typical [i. e., small] ectodermelements.”

Within the cavity of the sacks “are found numerous cells of the same

structure as those which occur in the body cavity and likewise in all the

appendages. I regard it as an open question whether these elements, origi¬

nating as they do from an evagination of the mesoderm, become wholly

The First Abdominal Segment of Embryo Insects. ”107

dissociated and are ultimately to be regarded as blood cells, or whether

they, in part at least, unite to form a loose tissue [lockeres Gewebe.] ”

Graber has also observed the atrophy of the pleuropodia of Melolontha.

Degeneration begins about eight days after the pleuropodia attain their

maximum size. “ In the embryo thirty days old, with the dorsum closed

over and the cephalic and anal ends already strongly flexed towards each

other, the organ has diminished in size, not only when compared with the

legs, but absolutely. More striking, however, is the reduction of the ab¬

dominal appendages in the thirty-four day old embryo, which in conse¬

quence of its great increase in length, is already completely coiled up and

has attained to maturity. Here the appendages in question, are nothing

but minute scales, hardly as long as a segment, and half concealed in the

aforementioned eoagulum. They separate from the body with the slight¬

est touch. Probably they are pushed off while the insect is leaving its en¬

velopes, perhaps in consequence of rubbing against the same. In the

hatched larva only the healed [verloethete] cicatrice of the peduncle is to

be found.”

Meloe proscarabceus. L.

After treating of the formation of the germ -layers of this Coleopteron

in a former paper, Nusbaum devotes a more recent article [’89] to a de¬

scription of the very interesting pleuropodia. I quote his description in

extenso:

“ The appendages of the first abdominal segment have up to the eighth

day of development the form of roundish cylindrical sacks and consist,

like the thoracic legs, of a single layer of cylindrical ectoderm cells sur¬

rounding a cavity in which may be seen a few loose mesoderm cells. On

the eighth day of development each of these appendages differentiates into

two parts: one basal and cylindrical, and one distal, which is spherical and

somewhat pointed at the pole [outer end]. In the basal part the cavity

persists as before, together with the loose mesoderm cells; in the spherical

portion, however, the cavity disappears and is replaced by large and much

lengthened cylindrical cells. These large cells arise by a kind of invagin¬

ation of a portion of the ectodermic layer at the pole of the appendage.

The cells of the invaginated portion grow very rapidly and soon take on

the appearance of very large and characteristic elements, so loosely juxta-

posited that narrow clear slits may be observed here and there between

them. The edges of the invagination approach one another till there re¬

mains only a small aperture leading into a roundish cavity closed on all

sides. On the tenth day of development the segmentation of the thoracic

legs may be seen very distinctly; in each leg three to four parts, or seg¬

ments may be distinguished, which are marked off by constrictions on the

outer surface of the ectoderm. It is interesting to note, that the append¬

ages of the first abdominal segment seem also to undergo a kind of con¬

striction, so that I cannot concur in Graber'’ s statement that “ the abdominal

108 *

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

appendages are always unsegmented.” For, in the above mentioned stage of

development a distinct constriction of the ectoderm may be observed between

the basal and distal portions; hence I believe that we are justified in regarding

as segments the two parts of the appendage thus distinctly separated. On

the twelfth day of development — sometimes even before — the plasma of

the invaginated cells, whose roundish oval nuclei lie near the basal ends,

acquire a very distinctly and finely fibrillar structure, resembling that of

the epithelium of many excretory glands. In the above described cavity is

collected a homogeneous, sticky secretion, which gradually swells out of

the aperture in considerable quantity. It is easy to detect delicate threads

of this secretion running from the large cells surrounding to the mass of

the secretion filling the cavity. The structure of these glandular ap¬

pendages reminds me somewhat of the glandular temporary appendages

[‘ dorsal organ ’] which I have described in My sis; I hasten, however, to

state expressly that I do not wish to maintain any homology between these

organs.”

Interesting as is the account just quoted, Nusbaum goes on to describe a

still more interesting condition. He says: “ I have further convinced

myseif that the remaining stub -shaped abdominal appendages of Meloe are

of a glandular nature. At the tip of each of these appendages there is also

formed an invagination, which is. however, much shallower than in the

appendages of the first abdominal segment, so that it does not form a

cavity. The invaginated cells are closely juxtaposited, long and cylin¬

drical but not as large as those of the first abdominal appendages. They

likewise secrete a sticky substance, though in less quantity than the afore

mentioned organs of the first segment. Back of these invaginated cells

lies a cavity communicating with the body cavity and filled with loose

mesoderm cells.” The further fate of these organs was not traced by

Nusbaum. “ The roundish terminal joint of the appendages of the first

abdominal segment is very probably thrown off, while the basal portion

together with the stub-shaped appendages of the other abdominal segments

gradually grow shorter, flatten out and finally disapjiear entirely.”

Before passing to a brief resume of the results recorded in the preceding

portions of my paper, I insert a table of the insects, which have been studied

with reference to abdominal appendages. In this list are included a few

forms, in which no pleuropodia have been described. I am well aware that

negative conclusions in regard to details merely read between the lines of

works on the general ontogeny of a species are of very little value, but in the

cases to which I allude, the probability of such prominent organs

as the pleuropodia being overlooked by investigators who have care¬

fully studied insect embryos by means of sections is so small, that

I do not hesitate to record their omissions as negative results.

Most of the forms enumerated as having no pleuropodia were examined

by Graber and myself with the express purpose of observing whether these

organs were present.

The First Abdominal Segment of Embryo Inserts. 109

ORDER ORTHOPTERA.

Family Gryllid^e.

Oecanthus niveus, Serville.

pleuropodia evaginate, bulbous with reniform outline.

[Ayers ’84.]

Gryllotalpa vulgaris, L.

pleuropodia evaginate, bulbiform.

[Rathke (Ai), Korotneff 85), Graber (’88).]

Family Locustid.e.

Xiphidium ensiferum, Scud.

pleuropodia evaginate, bulbiform, subreniform [Wheeler],

Family Acridiid^e.

Stenobothrus.

pleuropodia evaginate bulbiform, with yellow granular

secretion. [Graber ( ’88,) ( ’89) ].

Family Mantidje.

Mantis (European).

pleuropodia evaginate digitiform; occasionally a pair

on the second abdominal segment [secondary pleu¬

ropodia] [Graber (’77), (’88)].

Mantis Carolina, L.

pleuropodia evaginate, elongate pyriform [Wheeler].

Family Blattid^e.

Blatta germanica, L.

pleuropodia evaginate, broadly pyriform.

[Patten (’84,) Cholodkovsky, (’89,) Wheeler.]

Periplaneta orientalis, L.

pleuropodia evaginate, pyriform [Wheeler].

ORDER HEMIPTERA.

Family Aphidid^e.

No pleuropodia described for any of the following species:—

Aphis pelargonii. [Will (’88).]

“ saliceti. [Will (’88).]

“ rosce, L. [Will (’88).]

Family Cicadid^e.

Cicada septemdecim. L.

pleuropodia invaginate, solid, bulbiform, with glairy,

vacuolate secretion. [Wheeler (’89a, and ’89b)].

Family Belostomatid^e.

Zaitha flummea, Say.

pleuropodia invaginate, solid, bulbiform, with penicillate

secretion. [Wheeler (’89a and ’89b), ].

110

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

ORDER COLEOPTERA.

Family Hydrophilid^e.

Hydrophilus piceus, L,

pleuropodia evaginate, digitiform.

[. Kowalevsky (’71), Heider (' 89)].

Family Dytiscidje.

Acilius.

pleuropodia evaginate, calyculate, with a thick, striated,

cuticula like secretion. (Patten.)

Family Scarab^id^.

Melolontha vulgaris , Fabr.

pleuropodia evaginate, very large, flattened, bag-shaped

[Graber (’88)].

Family Meloidje,

Meloe pr oscar abceus, L.

pleuropodia evaginate, calyculate, with sticky homogen¬

eous secretion. [ Nusbaum ( ’89).]

Family Chrysomelhle.

Lina tremulce, Gmel.

no pleuropodia [Graber] .

Doryphora 10-lineata, Say.

no pleuropodia [Wheeler ’89].

ORDER NEUROPTERA.

Family Sialhle.

Sialis infumata, Newm.

pleuropodia evaginate, conical (Wheeler).

ORDER TRICHOPTERA.

Family Phryganeidje. *

Neophylax concinnus.

pleuropodia evaginate, conical [Patten ( ’84)].

ORDER LEPIDOPTERA.

Family Bombycid,e.

No pleuropodia have been observed in the following: —

Gastropacha quercifolia , L. [Graber ’88.]

Bombyx mori , L. [Tichomiroff ( ’82)].

Orgyia leucostigma, A. and S. [ Wheeler.]

Telea polyphemus , Cram. [Wheeler.]

Callosamiapromethea , Drury. [Wheeler.]

Platysamia cecropia, L. (Wheeler.]

Hyper chiria io , Fabr. [Wheeler J

The First Abdominal Segment of Embryo Insects .

Ill

ORDER DIPTERA.

No pleuropodia have been observed in the following: —

Family Chironomid^e.

Chironomus. [Weismann, ("63).]

Family Tabanid.e.

Tabanus at rat as, Fabr.? (Wheeler.)

Family Muscid^

Musca [ Weismann ( ’63), Voeltzkow (’89)].

ORDER HYMENOPTERA.

Family Apid.e.

Apis mellifica, L.

No pleuropodia [Buetschli (’70), Grassi (’84).]

The facts accruing from a study of the pleuropodia in the above enumer¬

ated forms, representing some of the families of most of the natural orders

of insects, may be briefly summarized as follows:

1. The pleuropodia were at one time organs of considerable functional

importance to the primitive Hexapoda. This is proved both by the size which

they attain in several cases [ Melolontha , Blatta, etc.] and by the variety of

structure which they exhibit in different species, sometimes even of the

same natural order [ Hydrophilus , Melolontha, Meloe.] The latter fact

would indicate that the organs had occurred very generally among ancient

insects and had undergone the modification to which the struggle for ex¬

istence subjects organs of very general occurrence and important function.

2. Pleuropodia seem to be of constant occurrence in insects of some

orders [Orthoptera, Trichoptera (?)], in other orders these organs are as

constantly wanting [Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera], while in still other groups

[Coleoptera, Hemiptera] they are well developed in some forms and entirely

lacking in others.

3. The pleuropodia are always derived from the ectoderm.

4. They arise as appendages serially homologous with the appendages of

the thorax and abdomen.

5. The pleuropodia described up to date belong to one of two types —

they are either formed by evagination or invagination. Those of the latter

type are subspherical and solid; those of the evaginate type appear under

two forms: the bulbous and the calyculate, the latter being distinguished

from the former by having the apical area invaginated. [ Acilius , Meloe. ]

The evaginate bulbous form undergoes some modification in different

species. Thus we may distinguish as its varieties the mushroom-shaped

[ Gryllotalpa ], thereniform [Oecanthus], the broadly pyriform [Blatta], and

the elongate pyriform pleuropodium [ Mantis Carolina]. All these varieties

112 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

are pedunculate. Undeveloped pleuropodia do not become bulbiform,

since they never pass beyond the conical or digitiform phases common to

all incipient insect appendages. \Neophylax .]

6. The cells composing the pleuropodia in all cases except where these

organs remain rudimentary or digitiform, deviate considerably in their

structure from the ectoderm cells of the body wall and the other append¬

ages. The cells and nuclei increase in size and usually become more

succulent.

7. In most pleuropodia of the evaginate type there is a larger or smaller

cavity, communicating by means of a narrow duct through the peduncle

with the body cavity [ Blatta , etc.]. In the calyculate forms there is a

second cavity, distinct from the first, opening in the opposite direction, on

the outside of the body.

8. No tracheae, nerves or muscles have been observed to enter into the

formation of the pleuropodia. A few mesoderm cells, probably blood-

corpuscles or fragments of mesenchymatous tissue, have been observed in

the cavities of some evaginate pleuropodia.

9. In some species the pleuropodia produce a secretion from the ends of

their enlarged cells. This secretion may be a glairy albuminoid substance

[ Cicada , Meloe,] a granular mass [Stenobotkrus], a bundle of threads

[, Zaitha ], or a thick, striated, cuticula-like mass ( Acilius ).

10. In some evaginate pleuropodia there appears a constriction, proba¬

bly homologous with some one of the constrictions which separate the tho¬

racic and maxillary appendages into metameres.

11. In some cases, at least, no chitinous cuticle is formed over the sur¬

face of the pleuropodial cells. [ Blatta , Stenobothrus .]

12. The pleuropodia attain their greatest size during the revolution of

the embryo. Soon after the yolk has been enclosed by the body walls and

the heart has formed, the appendages of the first abdominal segment begin

to degenerate.

13. The degeneration of an evaginate pleuropodium does not in all cases

result in a reabsorption into the body of the embryo, but in a falling assun-

der of its large cells and their subsequent dissolution outside the insect’s

body.

14. The pleuropodia in all their forms and stages are characterized by a

certain incompleteness, which, together with the brevity of their existence

even during embryonic life, stamps them as mere rudiments of what were

probably in remote ages much larger and more complex organs.

The First Abdominal Segment of Embryo Insects.

If 3

PART THIRD.

The question as to the original function of the pleuropodia must needs

have suggested itself to all investigators who have met with these conspic¬

uous organs in insect embryos. Naturally enough, each investigator has

sought an answer in the particular insect studied, in most cases never sus¬

pecting that so simple an organ as a pleuropodium could have undergone

much modification and have assumed in forms unknown to him a structure

calculated to render his narrowly based theoretical conclusions untenable.

In view of the ectodermic origin of the pleuropodia, they may be said to

have had one of three functions: they were either respiratory organs, sense

organs or glands. Hence, owing to the fact that limited observation has

precluded any general survey of the pleuropodia throughout the whole

Hexapod group, different investigators have advocated one or the other of

these functions, each being guided to his particular view by the special in¬

sect to which he devoted his attention. Thus Graber has become an advo¬

cate of the gill hypothesis from his observations on Melolontha , a form in

which the pleuropodia are in many ways singularly specialized; Cholodkov -

sky, perhaps impressed by what he supposed to be a facetted surface on the

pleuropodia of Blatta — in reality a phenomenon due to his use of reagents

— believes the pleuropodia to be sense organs; while Nusbaum has been

most naturally led to regard the modified appendages as glandular organs

by his observations on Meloe.

1 shall proceed to a consideration of the three theories advocated up to

date, briefly examining into the reasons which have influenced their ad¬

herents, and finally settling on the gland theory as to me the most probable.

With this last theory none of the observed facts are in contradiction — •

while as much cannot be said of the gill and sense organ hypotheses.

A. The Gill Hypothesis.

Ratlike, the first to find pleuropodia, was also the first to assign to them

a function [’44]. Their peripheral position, the delicacy of their surfaces,

their close adherence to the egg-membrane, which he thought due perhaps

to some sticky substance, and the further fact that they contained cavities

filled with what was very probably blood, made Rathke believe that he was

dealing with respiratory organs. He supposed, moreover, that these organs

functioned during embryonic life. The embryos of Gryllotalpa, he says,

require a great deal of air, on which account they are deposited in spacious

subterranean chambers. When simply buried in the earth, the eggs decay.

Ayers followed Rathke in his interpretation of the problematic append¬

ages. [’84], Of late Graber [’88] though dealing with these organs at

8— A. & L.

114 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

greater length, and possessing more facts than his predecessors, has adopted

their theoretical views without modification. His latest contribution, how¬

ever, seems to show a tendency to depart from the standpoint held in his

paper on polypody, a change of opinion attributable to his study of Steno -

bothrus.

The facts which have led to the assumption of the gill hypothesis are the

following:

1. The position of the pleuropodia on the pleurae near the insertion of

the metathoracic legs could not fail to suggest the respiratory organs of the

Crustacea.

2. In some insect embryos the pleuropodia are shaped like lamellar gills.

This is notably the case in Melolontha , the pleuropodia of which are so gill¬

like that Graber figures an Isopod side by side with the insect embryo for

the sake of comparison.

3. Blood has been observed to circulate in and out of the pleuropodia.

That these facts are not sufficient to sustain the hypothesis, is shown by

the following consideration:

The pleuropodia of Melolontha certainly resemble the gills of certain

Isopoda, but it is almost equally certain that the appendages of the

cock chafer have departed from the original type of pleuropodium which

is best seen in the Orthoptera [ Blatta , Stenobothrus]. As these organs

were present after hatching, in ancestral forms, it follows that in the pre¬

cursors of Melolontha , they might have been balloon-shaped after the ani¬

mal’s escape from the egg. Such large, sack -shaped organs must necessarily

become much flattened while they are confined to the narrow space be¬

tween the body-wall of the embryo and the egg envelopes.

The cell-layer forming the walls of the pleuropodia in all cases where

these organs are not rudimental, is considerably.thicker than the ectoderm

of the appendages and body walls. Now, as a gill in ultimate analysis

is merely a thin layer of cells separating the blood from the air, it becomes

very difficult to understand why the comparatively thin layer of ectoderm

cells forming the walls of the thoracic and cephalic appendages and the in¬

tegument in general should not constitute a much more efficient respiratory

organ than the thick-walled pleuropodia.

Blood has been seen to circulate in and out of the pleuropodia, but it also

circulates in and out of the legs, mandibles, anal stylets, etc., in the same

manner.

The bulbous shape of the pleuropodia iri the majority of forms is unlike

that of any known insect gills. The tracheal gills seen in the larval Ephe-

meridse, Odonata, etc., are foliaceous or filamentous; while the protrusile,

anal gills of such forms as the larval Eristalis are tubular.

Lastly, appendages shaped like the pleuropodia of Meloe, Acilius,Zaitha

and Cicada, could not have had a respiratory function. The hypothesis is

therefore insufficient to cover all the facts and must be either restricted to

a few doubtful cases or abandoned altogetner.

The First Abdominal Segment of Embryo Insects.

115

B. The Sense-organ Hypothesis.

Patten [’84] and Cholodkovsky [’89] are the only investigators, who have

maintained that the pleuropodia of embryo insects may have functioned as

sense organs. The following facts make for the probability of this supposi¬

tion:

1. The pleuropodia are composed of peculiarly modified ectoderm

cells.

2. They roughly resemble such sensory structures as the Arthropod

eye.

3. Paired sense-organs are known to occur on the abdominal segments

of many Arthropods. Cases in point are the curious Euphausia with its

pairs of eye-like sense-organs and many Orthoptera that have sensory ana

stylets.

4. In Acilius , as Dr. Patten informs me, the small rods secreted by the

pleuropodial cells are comparable to the retinal rods in the larval eye of

the same insect. That the secretion in Cicada and Meloe flows together

into one glairy mass, instead of forming bodies of like and definite shape

capping the ends of the individual cells. may be due to the fact, that the

organs are now merely rudimental structures. Dr. Patten tells me

that the large lateral sense-organs of the embryo Limulus polyphemus

produce a glairy secretion very similar to what I have described in Cicada

[’89 a and b].

5. The pleuropodia are similar in shape and manner of development to

the halteres of the Di tera and the pectinate appendages on the second

abdominal segment of Scorpions, both of which modified appendages, as

we have good evidence for believing, are functional sense-organs.

These facts are weighty. It seems to me, however, that the supposition

that the pleuropodia are sense-organs, is untenable, for the reason that no

investigator has yet observed even a trace of nervous tissue in connection

with the pleuropodial cells. In sense-organs as large as the pleuropodia we

should certainly expect to find a well- developed neural element, since in

the case of much smaller and more insignificant sense-organs it is not dif¬

ficult to detect the nervous connection. Granting that the pleuropodia are

rudimental structures, it remains none the less improbable that a nervous

connection, which in so large an organ must have been prominently devel¬

oped at one time, could have disappeared so completely while the sensory

cells themselves underwent comparatively little diminution in size. The

pleuropodia are, moreover, most conveniently located for innervation from

the large ganglion of the first abdominal segment or from one of its main

branches.

It is, of course, possible, that in some or all forms the organs under con¬

sideration may have had a sensory function; but the facts accumulated up

to the present, do not permit us to assign to the cells any other than a

secretory function.

116

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

C. The Gland Hypothesis.

Besides Patten, who claimed that the pleuropodia might be glands [’84]

no one till very recently has considered this view. In the July number of

the American Naturalist [’89a] I advocated this view in a brief note.* In

one of the August numbers of the “ Biologisches Centralblatt ” [’89] Graber

published his remarks on the pleuropodia of Stenobothrus, attributing to

these organs a glandular function. In one of the September numbers of

the “ Zoologischer Anzeiger” [’89b] a preliminary account of my observa¬

tions on the pleuropodia of Zaitha and Cicada was published. In one of

the October numbers of the “ Biologisches Centralblatt” appeared J. Nus-

baum?s description of the pleuropodia of Meloe [’89]. Nusbaum regards

these organs as glandular, but terminates his paper in a confusion of

ideas as evinced by the following remark: “ Die druesige Natur der

Bauchanhgenge bei den genannten Insekten [Meloe, Stenobothrus ] [die oline

Zweifel aucli bei anderen gefunden werden wird] spriclit dafuer, dass wil¬

es hier walirscheinlich mit rudimentaeren Organen, die nicht bloss zur

gewoehnliclien Gangfunktion bei den Insektenvorfahren, sondern vielleicht

auch noch zur Atmungsfunktion dienten, zu thun haben.”

I fail to comprehend how the glandular nature of the pleuropodia can in

any way suggest that they may have functioned simultaneously as ambu¬

latory and respiratory organs.

The following are my reasons for assigning a glandular function to the

pleuropodia:

1. The entire ectoderm of Arthropods, excepting its nervous derivatives,

is essentially a glandular layer, one of its prime functions being the secre¬

tion of the chitinous armour so characteristic of these animals. This

function is retained by the ectoderm cells, even when they are pushed into

the body as in the case of the tracheae, tentorium, oesophagus and rectum.

Looking at the compound Arthropod eye from Watase's standpoint [’89]

as a cluster of ectodermic invaginations we have a case where ectodermic

cells still retain their chitin-secreting habits though pushed below the sur¬

face of the general integument and covered by superjacent cells.

2. The pleuropodial cells closely resemble other simple ductless glands

in insects, such as the wax-glands of the Aphididae and the stinging

glands of some Lepidopterous larvae. In the embryo and young larvae of

the Bombycid Hyperchiria io, I have observed the formation of the huge

branching spines, which arranged in several parallel rows, repel the insects

enemies with their stinging secretion. The immensely enlarged ectoderm

cells which secrete the poison in the lacunae of the spines, have very

glandular cytoplasm and large nuclei, thus resembling the pleuropodial cells

of Blatta.

3. The pleuropodial cells in several insect embryos produce a secretion,

the character of which differs considerably in different forms.

* This number of the Naturalist did not appear till Nov. 18th, 1889.

The First Abdominal Segment of Embryo Insects. 117

4. In some insects at least [ Blatta , Periplcineta, Xiphidium, Stenoboth-

rus\ the chitinous cuticle does not cover the pleuropodia, even after invest¬

ing the body of the embryo. On the supposition that we are dealing with duct¬

less glandular organs, the reason for this is obvious. The secretions of cutan¬

eous glands cannot penetrate a thick and unmodified layer of cliitin, so we

find gland cells covered with a cuticle the [chemical ?] structure of which

departs from that of ordinary chitin „ This cuticle is also thinner than that

secreted by the unmodified liypodermis cells ol the general integument.

A good example of such attenuation and modification in the molecular

structure of the cuticle covering ductless cutaneous glands is furnished by

the collophore of Anurida maritima described below. Now the first cuti¬

cle shed by the embryo in the egg must be regarded as the attenuated rudi¬

ment of what was formerly a much thicker cuticle shed by the insect in

some post embryonic stage of existence. Supposing that the cuticle origin¬

ally covered the pleuropodia of such an ancient insect had been more

delicate than that covering the remainder of the body, it would cease to be

secreted in the embryos of existing insects because reduced to such exces¬

sive tenuity. There is still another possibility which might account for our

not finding a chitinous cuticle on the pleurododia: the secretion of these

organs may itself be some chemical modification of the chitin, which cov¬

ered the appendages before the peculiar differentiation of their cells set in.

5. The lack of any apparent innervation to the pleuropodia, though

adducible as a fact against the sensory nature of the organs, is just what

we should expect on the supposition that they are glandular. The difficul¬

ties encountered by histologists in tracing the innervation of glands is well

known.

6. The manner in which some pleuropodia degenerate suggests what is

known to take place in many glands that indicate their relation to epithel¬

ial structures by secreting their own broken-down cells. The milk glands

of the mammalia and other cases will suggest themselves to the reader.

7. The structure of the pleuropodia described up to the present, though

considerably diversified, is in all cases consistent with a glandular func¬

tion.

Having reached the conclusion that the pleuropodia functioned as glands

in ancestral insects, I have probably made the utmost use of the few facts at

my disposal. The word ‘ ‘ gland,” however, is so indefinite, since the special

functions of glands are so numerous, that, stopping at this point, the hypo¬

thesis is still very vague. For the sake of giving it clearer outlines, I will

elaborate still further, though aware of the dangers I incur in descending

to particulars.

What then was the special glandular function of the pleuropodia in primi¬

tive insects? In seeking an answer to this difficult question we are pursuing

the most logical course when we muster the different classes of glands ob¬

served in air-breathing Arthropods, and select for special consideration the

class that presents the greatest variation in structure and the widest dis-

118

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

tribution. On making this review we find in the first rank the odoriferous

glands. These function either as means of defense or as aphrodisiacs, or

probably in many species as both. The great importance of copulation and

protection from enemies readily explains why the odoriferous glands should

play soprepollent a role in the lives of Arthropods and even higher animals.

I will give a brief though by no means exhaustive list of forms possessing

odoriferous glands, for the sake of showing the wide distribution of these

organs among the different groups of air-breathing Arthropods and the

variety of their structure and secretions.

According to Marx [’86] the Pedipalp Thelyphonus emits a secretion

which smells like acetic acid. The Myriopod Fontaria gracilis secretes

from its series of repugnatory glands a fluid which contains free hydro¬

cyanic acid [Claus, ’8?]. I have frequently seen our common Julus [Spirobo-

lus ] marginatus, when irritated emit from its repugnatory glands a brown

liquid with a pungent odor not unlike bromine, though this element very

probably does not enter into its chemical composition.

Among the Orthoptera numerous cases might be adduced. Minchin [’88]

lately discovered in Feriplaneta orientalis a new gland, which “ consists of

two pouch-like invaginations lying close on each side of the middle line,

between the fifth and sixth terga of the dorsal surface of the abdomen.”

These pouches “ are lined by a continuation of the chitinous cuticle, which

forms within the pouches numerous stiff, branched, finely pointed hairs,

beneath which, i. e., on the side towards the body cavity, are numerous

glandular epithelial cells.” Minchin's supposition that these organs are

odoriforous glands has been proved to be correct by Haase [’89J. “ Drueckt

man naemlicli das Abdomen einer Kueclienschabe derart, dass die Leibes-

hoehlenfluessigkeit nach hinten gedraengt wird, so treten zwischen dem

5 und 6. ITinterleibessegment vor den harten Eueckenplatten des letzteren

zwei kleine, durch das eindringende Blut gelblich durclisclieinende Saeck-

chen hervor und verbreiten sofort ganz intensiv den bekannten Schaben-

gestank. Dass dieser seine Quelle in den beiden Stinkdruesen hat, wird

durch vorsichtige Ausloesung der letzteren leicht nachgewiesen.” Similar

eversible stink-glands have been observed in the Blattid Corydia by Gers-

taecker [’61] and Haase [*89].

An American Phasmid, Anisomorpha buprestoides, has well developed

repugnatory glands, which have been alluded to by Say (’59, Yol. I,

p. 84) and other writers. I quote from Maynard ('89) who has published

the latest account: “ The devil’s horses, as they are called by the negroes,

were in pairs, the females being evidently about to deposit their eggs. I

usually found them lying quietly in a fold of the saw-palmetto, with the

legs close to the body and the antennae together and pointing straight for¬

ward while the comparatively diminutive male, which is never more than

a third as large as the female lay close beside his mate, always clinging to

her whenever she moved and was thus carried by her. Both were very

sluggish, not moving until actually touched, then the female raised herself

Thd First Abdominal Segment of Embryo Insects.

119

slowiy on her hind legs and straightway there emerged two streams of a

vaporous fluid from the upper angle of the thorax near the neck. These

streams were directed forward, but at a slight angle outwardly and up¬

ward, that is when the insect was resting on a horizontal surface. When

the matter discharged first leaves the orifice from which it is expelled, it is

a milky fluid, but as it is apparently as volatile as ether, it almost instantly

assumes the form of vapor and is projected at least six inches. This fluid

has a most peculiar pungent or peppery odor and although the moisture

from it dries away very quickly from any object with which it comes in

contact, the odor is retained for a long time. The fluid when thrown

against the hand has no perceptible effect on the skin, but I have been told

repeatedly by the negroes that the effect upon the eyes is very painful.”

Odoriferous organs are well developed in the Hemiptera . Everybody is

familiar with the secretions emitted from the metathoracic pear-shaped

glands, the duct of which opens by means of the osteoles between the hind

legs.

The Neuropteran lace-wings ( Chrysopa ) are characterized by a powerful

and very unpleasant odor.

Passing to the Coleoptera, many Carabidse, that produce from their anal

glands secretions containing formic and butyric acid might be mentioned.

Every collector of our native Coleoptera must have noticed the very

powerful secretion produced by our common Chlaenius sericeus when

captured. The bombardier-beetles [Brachynus], are well known for their

habit of emitting clouds of pungent secretion accompanied by decrepita¬

tion. Loman [ ’87] has recently asserted that the gaseus secretion of the

anal glands of the Paussid Cerapterus 4- maculatus contains free iodine.

Among Cerambycids the European Aromia moschata has a powerful musky

odor and the allied Callichroma plicatum, emits a strong honey-like smell

according to the statement of my friend Mr. F. Rauterberg, who has col¬

lected numbers of these beautiful insects in Texas. The members of the

genus Meloe exude oily drops of cantliaradin from the joints of their legs

when disturbed. The Coccinelloe have a similar habit of exuding a deep

yellow liquid. The Tenebrionidae are usually supplied with some un¬

pleasant secretion.

Odoriferous glands occurs both in larval and imaginal Lepidoptera.

Fritz Mueller has studied the scent glands [Duftflecken] on the wings of

numerous South American Lepidoptera (’86 a — e). The forked protrusile

gland of Papilio larvae and the pungent odor which it diffuses is well known.

Its structure has been described by Klemensiewicz [ ’82]. One of our com¬

mon species of Pieris has redolent wings. According to Maynard [ ’89]

- the exquisite little Bombvcid Utetheisa bella “ exudes an orange colored

fluid from its thorax that has an unpleasant odor.” According to Packard

the larva of Lochmoeus tessella, Pack, when disturbed sends out from each

side of the body a shower, or spray of clear liquid. “ The opening of the

gland is in the lower anterior part of the prothoracic segment”. Poulton

120

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

[ ’86] has described the formic acid secretion ejected from the prothorax of

Dicranitra vinula. According to the same observer Dicranuro, fur cat a

everts from the same region of the prothorax a gland “ consisting of six

diverging processes of a light green color, divided into two groups of three

each.” He also mentions an eversible gland in the prothorax of the

larvae of Melitaea artemis and Catocala species.

Peculiar scent organs, resembling those of the larval Papilio and con¬

sisting of a pair of tentaculiform processes, eversible from between the

seventh and eighth ventral segments of the male imagines, have been des¬

cribed by Smith (’86) for the Bombycids Leucarctia acrcea and Pyrrharctia

Isabella. These processes, which are orange colored and fully half an inch

long in Leucarctia, but whitish and somewhat shorter in Pyrrharctia are

covered with hairs, blackish in the former and snow white in the latter

species. “In both species an intense odor, somewhat like the smell of

laudanum, is apparent when first the tentacles are exposed; and there is

no reasonable doubt but that they are odor-glands, though exactly what

purpose they serve is not so clear.” Smith says that a Mr. Morgan has

described these organs in L. acrcea and similar structures in Agrotis plecta

and Euplexia lucipara; and that similar organs have been described for

Aletia xylina by Riley.

Among the Diptera prominent cases are rare. Coenomyia ferruginea

emits an odor which reminds me of the juice of a certain species of

Hypericum, and which has often enabled me to detect the presence of the

insect in the woods when several feet distant. The odor is retained in

dried insects that have preserved for years in collections. The species of

Gastrophilus have a sharp, disagreeable smell, powerful in some species,

faint, but still perceptible in others. ( Leunis ’86, vol. II. p. 419.)

Among the Hymenoptera the formic acid secretions of the ants are well

known. The catapillar-like larvae of the species of Cimbex, both Eu¬

ropean and American, when irritated secrete a pungent green liquid from

pores arranged along the sides of the body.

The cases cited are but a few of the many that will occur to every field

entomologist. The histological structure of the glands, so different in

different forms, has not been considered, as it would lead me beyond the

confines of my subject. On a priori grounds we should expect to find that

structures so useful to their possessors as the odorifferous glands are to in¬

sects, have been profoundly modified by the action of natural selection.

Their wide occurrence in insects of all orders shows, moreover, that they

have been in use for a great length of time. The Archentoma probably

lived in damp places like those inhabited by the living species of Peripatus,

Myriopoda , Thysanura and Blattidae and, being of a harmless nature like

their modern descendants, might have made considerable use of large

odoriferous glands on the pleurae.

If I am correct in my supposition that the pleuropodia functured in the

Archentoma as odoriferous organs, they must be regarded as much less per-

The First Abdominal Segment of Embryo Insects. 121

feet structures than their modern equivalents, such as, for instance, the anal

glands of the Carabidae and the analogous metathoracic organs of the

Hemiptera.

Of the three types of pleuropodia, which I have distinguished, the evag-

inate bulbiform, calyculate, and invaginate, each had its advantages and

disadvantages, as a secretory organ. The evaginate bulbiform pleuro-

podium presents extensive~secreting surface but from its prominence and

necessarily delicate covering it would be readily injured. Situated on

the abdomen in the median ventral line, or in line with the metathoracic

legs such organs would, if prominent, be rubbed against the ground or inter¬

fere with the movements of the hind legs. This is probably why the pleu¬

ropodia move towards the pleurae and project from points outside of and

near the insertion of the metathoracic legs. This position is also most ad¬

vantageous for repugnatory organs.

The calyculate type, being a transition from the bulbiform to the invag¬

inate types, has the tips of the secreting cells protected. The secretion

may accumulate in the cavity of the organ and be expelled to more advan¬

tage when the animal is irritated. The projection of the organ beyond the

general surface of the body, however, renders it subject to the same injur¬

ies as organs of the bulbiform evaginate type.

The advantages and disadvantages of the pleuropodia of the invaginate

type are obvious. The glandular cells are efficiently projected, but in

Zaitha and Cicada the secreting surface of the cells is much reduced.

Were these glands hollow we should have much more efficient organs, re¬

sembling the stinkglands of Julus. It is probable that such hollow invag-

inated pleuropodia will yet be discovered in some insect embryos. (Hemip¬

tera?)

In the best examples of modern odoriferous glands, like the anal glands

of the Carabidae, where all the delicate secreting cells are protected by

being pushed into the body cavity, their being tubular or racemose greatly

increases the amount of secreting surface, while the presence of a reservoir

renders it easy for the insect to dispose of a great amount of its malodor¬

ous secretion at a moment’s notice. Forms like the larval Papilio with its

eversible prothoracic gland have all the advantages possessed by the bulbi¬

form pleuropodia with none of the disadvantages, since the delicate organ

can be drawn back into the integment out of the reach of injury.

The little inefficiencies exhibited by all the pleuropodia as odoriferous

glands when compared with the more perfect of their modern analogues,

probably explain why the latter have usurped their places. The pleuro¬

podia would, on this supposition, furnish an excellent example of a set of

organs that have gone down in the struggle for existence and have been re¬

placed by organs of more perfect structure though of the same general

function.

It is interesting in this connection to cast a glance at Scudder’s tables il¬

lustrating the sequence and relative importance of the different orders of

122 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

insects during geological time, [’86, p. 110 to 113]. Scudder's group of

Palaeodictyoptera extends from the Silurian to the Trias, culminating in

the Carboniferous and Permian. This group comprises the generalized pre¬

cursors of the more modern Ortlioptera, Hemiptera, Neuroptera, and Coleop-

tera. It seems not unlikely that some or all of these ancient forms may have

possessed pleuropodia throughout life, and that specimens may yet be

found perfect enough to show these organs in the adult. The Orthoptera,

Neuroptera and Coleoptera proper appear in the Trias,* while the .Hemip¬

tera are comparatively well represented in the Lias. Now these more ancient

orders, constituting the division Heterometabola (of Packard), are just the

ones, as will be seen from a glance at my table, wdiose embryos pos¬

sess pleuropodia. The Diptera, and Hvmenoptera, occurring in the Lias,

and the Lepidoptera, appearing in the Oolite, have to all appearances kept

increasing in number and variety up to the present time. In the embryos

of insects of these orders, comprising the Metabola of Packard, no pleuro¬

podia have been observed up to date.

D. Homologues of the Pleuropodia in the Lower Tracheata.

A consideration of the pleuropodia of insects embryos would be incom¬

plete without a search for their homologues among the lower Tracheata,

where there are numerous forms with abdominal appendages more or less

clearly developed. Organs of more or less interest in connection with the

pleuropodia of insects occur in scorpions, Solifugae, spider embryos, Sym-

phyla and Thysanura. These cases I will consider in order.

Cholodkovsky [’89] has called attention to the “combs” of scorpions in

connection with the pleuropodia of Blatta. These organs, according to all

accounts, develop as a pair of appendages on the second abdominal seg¬

ment and function throughout postembryonic life as sense organs. They

cannot be regarded as the homologues of the pleuropodia, since there is

no ground for maintaining a homology between the second abdominal

segment of the Arthrogastera and the first abdominal segment of the

Hexapoda.

Another case of a somewhat similar nature has been made known by

Croneberg [’87] in Galeodes araneoides . In the just hatched embryo of

this Solpugid, there is a pair of flat wing shaped appendages about 0.5 mm

long on the cephalotliorax intercalated between the first and second pairs

of legs. Their insertions are more pleural than those of the ambulatory

appendages. Like the pleuropodia of insects, they are pedunculated sacks

consisting of a single layer of ectoderm cells and contain neither tracheae,

muscles nor nerves No traces of these peculiar organs are to be found in

the adult Galeodes. It seems to me very doubtful whether these organs

* Since the publication of Scudder’s work alluded to, undoubted remains of Coleop¬

tera have been found in the Coal Measures of Silisia.

The First Abdominal Segment of Embryo Insects. 123

are to be regarded as modified cephalothoracic appendages and not rather

as outgrowths of the pleural wall out of line with the legs. The isolated,

fact, though interesting, can be of little service, till reinforced by more ob¬

servations. Of course no homology can be maintained between these wing-

lik'e organs and the pleuropodia of insect embryos.

In spider embryos the knob-sliaped appendages on the four basal ab¬

dominal segments are very distinctly defined. They have been described

by Balfour [‘80], Locy [’86], Bruce [’87] and Morin [’87]. There can be no

doubt, from the manner in which they arise, that these knob shaped ap¬

pendages are the serial homologues of the cephalothoracic appendages, but

so vague is our knowledge of the segmental homologies between the

Arachnida and Hexapoda, that it is impossible to say which of the four

pairs of appendages corresponds to the pleuropodia.

Bruce [’87], maintains that in spiders “ probably two abdominal append¬

ages are in vagin ated t.o form each lung-book.” According to Morin [’87] the

first pair of knob-sliaped appendages become the covers of the lungs which in-

vaginate at their bases; the second pair disappear completely, while the third

and fourth pairs form the spinnerets, the ectoderm on the summit of each

of the four protuberances invaginating to form the spinning glands. Bar¬

ring the question of homology, the observations on the pleuropodia of

Cicada and Zaitha, given in the first part of this paper, make it easy to see

how an appendage might invaginate to form a lung-book, as maintained

by Bruce.

As soon as we reach the Sympliyla and Thysanura, we no longer en¬

counter any difficulty in settling on the true homologue of the first abdomi¬

nal segment of insects.

The remarkable synthetic form, Scolopendrella, has twelve pairs of legs.

Ryder [’81], Packard [’81] and Haase [’87], agree that the first three pairs

are to be regarded as the homologues of the three pairs of legs of the in-

secta and that the three segments to which they belong, are to be regarded

as the homologues of the pro-, meso-and metathoracic segments respectively.

If this view be correct, and there is certainly nothing to militate against it,

then we may regard the fourth postcephalic segment of Scolopendrella

as the homologue of the first abdominal segment of insects. This being the

case, the two ambulatory legs attached to this segment in the Symphyla

are the homologues of the pleuropodia of embryo Hexapods.

From the Symphyla, we pass to the Thysanura , a group comprising sev¬

eral forms of interest in connection with the pleuropodia of embryo insects.

Appendages are known to occur on the basal abdominal segment in

Campodea , Machilis and allied species, and in the Collembola . Through¬

out the Thysanuran group the basal abdominal segment is doubtless to be

regarded as truly homologous with the first abdominal segment of the

higher, or winged Hexapod r (Pterygogenea). Hence, a pair of appendages

arising on this segment in the Thysanura as ectodermic evaginations, with

mesodermic cores, in line with and at approximately the same time as the

124

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

thoracic appendages, is to be considered as truly homologous with the

pleuropodia of embryo insects.

It has long been known that species of Campodea bear on the first ab¬

dominal segment a pair of two-jointed appendages homostichous with the

meta-thoracic legs. No such appendages appear on any of the other ab¬

dominal segments; a fact which would seem to indicate that they either

still subserve some particular function or are the rudiments of once func¬

tional organs differentiated from a pair of probably ambulatory append¬

ages. As I have been unable to obtain sx^ecimens of Campodea for study,

and can find no record in the literature to which I have access of any ob¬

servations made from sections of this pair of curious appendages, I cannot

decide which of these conjectures is the more probable. Be this, however,

as it may, Campodea is to be regarded as a form, which, so far as its append¬

ages are concerned, remains throughout life in a stage corresponding with

the Orthopteran or Coleopteran embryo just after revolution.

The second to seventh abdominal segments of Campodea present each a

pair of small unsegmented styliform appendages. These contrast in size

and shape with the pair of appendages on the basal segment. In Japyx

the differentiated basal abdominal appendages of Campodea are replaced

by styliform appendages, pairs of which also occur on the second to seventh

segments. In Nicoletia and Machilis styliform appendages occur on the

second to ninth abdominal segments. Machilis also presents similar pro¬

cesses on the coxal insertions of the meso-and metathoracic legs. The

number of these style-like organs varies in different species of Lepismina.

In Lepisma saccharina such appendages occur only on the eighth and ninth

abdominal segments. Oudemanus [’89] has found them on the seventh to

ninth abdominal segments of Thermophila furnorum.

These paired styliform processes are not regarded by Haase as homo¬

logous with the true abdominal appendages of the Symphyla and Myrio-

poda, but as homologous with the coxal spurs of the lower Tracheata.

He consequently maintains that the real appendages to which they be¬

longed have disappeared on all the abdominal segments of Machilis and

its allies and on all except the first abdominal segment of Campodea.

Haase supports this view with the following facts. In their structure the

styliform appendages resemble very closely the spines and spurs so com¬

mon on the body and legs of the Tracheata. They are unsegmented and

unlike true appendages contain no muscular core. They correspond in

structure, and in their method of insertion with the coxal spurs of Myrio-

pods, Scolopendrella , Thysanura and certain Blattce [notably South Amer¬

ican Blaberidae]. Haase, who seems to have given very careful attention

to this subject, is very probably correct in his conclusions in regard to

these styliform appendages, or “ pseudozampe,” as they are called by

Grassi; still the proof cannot be regarded as complete till their early de¬

velopment has been studied.

Though the appendages under consideration contain no muscular tissue

The First Abdominal Segment of Embryo Insects.

125

when fully developed, it is, of course, possible that they may have contained

evaginations of the mesodermic somites during the first stages of their

development. We have a case in point in the pleuropodia of insect em¬

bryos. In the younger stages, as I have shown in Blatta, each of the two

mesodermic somites of the first abdominal segment sends a papillar

process into an evaginating pleuropodium in exactly the same manner as

the mesodermic somites of the thorax send processes into the legs. Subse¬

quently, when the pleuropodia have become distinctly differentiated, the

mesodermic elements, which in the thoracic appendages persist and are

converted into muscles, are pushed back into the body cavity. Using

Haase's criterion and considering only the mature appendages, we should

not be justified in regarding the pleuropodia as true appendages.

The evidence in regard to the origin of the styliform append¬

ages, which Haase has failed to give us, is at least in part supplied by

Oudemanns [’87.] The Dutch investigator observed that of the three

pairs of styliform processes occurring on the 7th, 8th and 9th abdominal

segments in both sexes of Thermopliila furnorum, only one pair, and that

the hindmost, was to be found in the youngest specimens examined. Next

in order of time appears the pair on the eighth and finally the pair on the

seventh abdominal segment. This manner of making their appearance, as

Oudemanns suggests, is strong evidence against their being true append¬

ages. It may also be noted in this connection that the styliform append¬

ages even in those forms that possess many pairs are longest on the pos¬

terior segments and gradually diminish in length anteriorily. This is

contrary to what we expect in true appendages; for these in insect em¬

bryos usually decrease in distinctness and prominence in the opposite

direction.

In the Collembola a peculiar organ, called by Packard the collophore,

occurs in the median ventral line of the first abdominal segment. This

organ is thus described by Lubbock (’73, p. 68):

“Underneath the anterior abdominal segment is the ventral tube, or

sucker. In Podura, Lipura, and the allied genera, this organ is a simple

tubercle, divided into two halves by a central slit; in other genera, as, for

instance, in Orchesella and Tomocerus, the tubercle is enlarged, and be¬

comes a tube divided at the free end into two lobes. In the Smynthuridae

and Papiriidae the organ receives a still further and very remarkable de¬

velopment; from the end of the tube the animal can project two long, del¬

icate tubes, provided at their extremity with numerous glands.”

Lubbock makes the following remarks on the function of the collophore:

“ No one, indeed, who has watched the habits of the Collembola, can

doubt its function. If a Smynthurus is laid on its back — a position from

which it has some difficulty in recovering its feet — and if, while it is in

this attitude, a piece of glass is brought within its reach, the animal will

endeavor to seize it with the feet, but at the same time it will project one

or both of the ventral tentacles and apply it, or them, firmly to the glass,

126

Wisconsin Academy of Scieaces , Arts and Letters.

emitting at the same time a drop of fluid, which, no doubt, gives a better

hold. In the parallel case of the Poduridae , M. 1’ Abbe Bourlet supposes

that the ventral tube act as follows: “1° qu’ il sert a ces insectes a se rnain-

tenir sur les surfaces perpendiculaires en y faisant le vide; 2° que leliquide

excrete par lui sert a humecter la queue et la rainure; 3° qu’ il supplee ala

faiblessedes pattes dans les chutes qui suivent les sauts.” I am, therefore,

disposed to agree with him in so far as he denies that the adhesive power

depends altogether on the viscous fluid; but, on the other hand, I cannot

attach much importance to his two latter suggestions. De Geer well un¬

derstood the use of this curious organ. Be says: ‘ • Quand la Podure [un¬

der which name he includes the present genus Smynthurus ] marchait con-

tre les parois du poudrier, il lui arrivait souvent de glisser; c’ etait comme

si les pieds lui manquaient, de fagon qu’ elle etait sur le point de tomber;

dans F instant meme, les deux filets parurent et furent lances avec rapidite

hors de leur etui, s’ attachant dans le moment ail verre par la matiere

gluante dont ils sont enduits, en sorte qu’ alorsla Podure se trouvait comme

suspendue a ces deux filets.” Nicolet gives a similar explanation of their

function, and, like De Geer, attributes the adhesiveness to the glutinous

matter which they secrete.”

The question has presented itself to me: Is not the collophore developed

from a pair of true appendages united in the median ventral line, though seri¬

ally corresponding with the thoracic legs and hence truly homologous with

the pleuropodia of insect embryos? Although I have been unable to give

the subject the careful study which it deserves, I believe that I have un¬

earthed a few facts calculated to answer the question in the affirmative.

The only embryological observations made up to date on the origin of the

collophore are recorded in Byder's brief account of the development of

Anurida maritima [’86]. His figures [Figs. (5, 9 and 10, plate 15] show

clearly that the collophore consists of a pair of true appendages applied to

each other in the median ventral line, even if he had not expressly stated

that during the earlier stages the limbs, antennae, collophore, etc., had the

form of mere blunt, paired papillae, or of blunt, clavate, tentacle-like

paired outgrowths from the lateral surfaces of the ventral plate or elong¬

ated germinal area.”

I can supplement this embryological evidence by a few observations on

the collophore of Anurida maritima. This maritime species was found

in great numbers clinging to the under surfaces of stones between

tides at Woods Holl, Mass. Its collophore is less complicated than that of

our common inland forms, and therefore better calculated to give a cor¬

rect idea of the fundamental pattern underlying its structure. Specimens

were killed by being placed for a minute in Carnoy’s fluid heated almost

to boiling and were then preserved in 80 per cent, alcohol.

The collophore is quite prominent in surface view (Fig. 16 c.) appearing

as a heart-shaped tubercle on the middle of the ventral face of the basal

abdominal segment. The lateral edges are raised to form distinct rims,

The First Abdominal Segment of Embryo Insects.

127

crowned with a few feeble hairs. The portion included between the lateral

rims is flat and of a much paler color than the remainder of the integument,

which is provided with an abundance of blue pigment. A very distinct

slit divides^the organ into two symmetrical halves. This is all that can be

seen from the surface; for further details recourse must be had to cross

sections. (Fig. 15.) Here it is seen that the projection of the organ above

the general surface of the segment is about equal to its diameter. The

cuticle (ct.) is rather thick and externally very finely papillose. This un¬

evenness of surface is continued over the lateral rims, but where the

center is depressed and paler the papillose cuticle is replaced by a smooth

and more delicate layer (ct.), which stains pink in lithium carmine. This

portion of the cuticle, deeply induplicated at the median slit that divides

the organ into two symmetrical halves, evidently differs considerably in

its chemical structure from the unstainable papillose cuticle covering the

remainder of the body. The hypodermis forming the sides of the collo-

phore has very large flattened nuclei ( hy .), which are almost concealed in

the dense layer of pigment. Beneath it lies a mass of connective tissue

(cn). At the inner boundary of the rim of the ventral face of the organ,

where the papillose cuticle is replaced by the delicate and stainable layer,

the hypodermis also undergoes a marked change. From being a rather

thin, deeply pigmented layer with huge flattened nuclei it becomes a

thicker layer of evenly granular, unpigmented protoplasm, smooth on its

external face but raised into numerous rounded protuberances on its inner

surface, (gl.) A spherical nucleus considerably smaller than those of the

pigmented hypodermis, is lodged in each of these protuberances, which

thus represent the different cells. These are not, however, separated by

perceptible boundary lines; hence this modified portion of the hypodermis,

and perhaps also the unmodified portion, is to be regarded as a syncytium.

The whole of the hypodermis underlying the modified cuticle is peculiarly

and symmetrically folded. In its center it presents a broad induplication

corresponding with the narrower one of the superjacent cuticle. The cells

forming this median portion are small and flat. On either side there is

another rather deep infolding, to the inner angle of which a delicate muscle

is attached, (ms.) The ventral nerve chain, indicated at n, runs beneath

the median induplication. As may be seen from the figure, there is a wide

space between the modified hypodermis and its cuticle. I have seen no

traces of blood in this cavity, which in some specimens contains small

masses of a granular and very deeply stainable secretion, (s.) Larger

masses of the same substance are frequently seen clinging to the outer

surface of the modified cuticle. I regard the modified hypodermis as the

gland that secretes this granular substance. The cavity of the organ

bounded on the outside by the hypodermis is filled with blood ( bl .) which,

when the organ is called into action, is probably forced against the glandu¬

lar hypodermis, the two retractor muscles relaxing. Probably the infold¬

ing of the cuticle is pushed out simultaneously with the three infoldings

128

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

of the glandular hypodermis. The great extent of surface of the hypoder-

mis compared with that of its cuticle may indicate that during protrusion

the latter is stretched and attenuated, thus allowing the secretion of the

glandular cells to transude more readily.

I have made no observations on the use to which the organ is put by the

living animal. The observations of Lubbock and De Geer quoted above,

render it probable that Anurida maritima uses its collophore as a sucker

wherewith to fasten itself to the surface of the stone while the water is

rising and falling. It probably does not leave its place of concealment

during high tide to move about on the surface of the water like some of

our inland species. As its body, like that of most other species, is not

readily wetted, the layer of air that would cover it when emersed might

be sufficient for respiration till the returning ebb.

The collophore of Anurida , may be readily reduced to a pair of append¬

ages applied to each other in the median ventral line. The median in¬

duplication of the hypodermis and the corresponding single infolding of the

cuticle I take to represent all that remains of the originally wide sternal area

separating the two appendages. Sections through the more complicated

collophores of a few of our common Podurids have convinced me that

these organs are also reducible to the simple pattern of a pair of appenda¬

ges more or less closely united in the median line. I have not, however,

made a sufficiently extended study of the more complicated types to be

able to explain the manner in which their different parts originated. It is

to be hoped that some investigator will in the near future subject these

interesting organs to a rigid comparative examination, from both an ana¬

tomical and physiological standpoint. Ryder's observations on the embryos

of Anurida maritima , together with the observations I have presented on

the adult of the same species, render it very probable that the Collembolan

collophore is to be regarded as a pair of appendages homologous with the

pleuropodia of the lieterometabolous insects.

It seems, moreover, not improbable that the collophore of the Collem-

bola may have been derived directly from the pleuropodia of primitive in¬

sects. Originally a pair of protuberances, covered with a sticky, perhaps

malodorous secretion, these appendages may have come to be of assistance

as adhesive organs in such leaping species as had rather weak limbs and

lived where they found it of advantage to alight on surfaces of different

inclinations.

Milwaukee, December 20th, 1889.

The First Abdominal Segment of Embryo Insects. 129

While my manuscript was being copied for the printer, E. Haase's re-

cent paper entitled “ Die Abdominalanhange der InseHen, mit Beriick-

sichtigung der Myriopoden ” (Morph. Jahrb. Bd XV 3. Heft. p. 831-435,

1889) came to my notice. This treatise, by far the most complete and

accurate ever published on the subject, contains, besides a mass of other

observations, so many interesting facts and considerations bearing on

what has been set forth in my more special contribution, that I seize the

opportunity to append a few paragraphs on the points of most importance

in connection with the pleuropodia of insect embryos.

Haase has made a study of the pair of appendages on the first abdom¬

inal segment of Campodea staphylinus and finds that they are specialized

to form glandular organs (p. 378-380). These two-jointed appendages do not

stand off at right angles to the body but are applied to its surface. The

inner face of the broadly oval distal joint, i. e., the face turned to the

ventral surface of the abdomen is beset with 20-30 peculiar hairs (Haaran-

hange) arranged in rows. The two outer rows are composed of longer

and thicker setae, arranged like the teeth of a comb. Each bristle is in¬

serted on a rounded follicle (Balg) which is surrounded by a ridge. A

gland- cell terminates in each follicle. This pair of appendages is regarded

by Haase as “ rudimentare, in der Entwicklung zurtickgebliebene

Beine,” and hence as in no sense homologous with the ventral stylets

(Ventralgriffel) occurring on the 2nd to 7th abdominal segments. As evi¬

dence in favor of this view he adduces the fact that the appendages of the

first abdominal segment are largest in young Campodece and that their

relative size diminishes with the growth of the insect.

Haase makes a somewhat similar observation on Iapyx gigas and

solifugus. In these Thysanurans no appendages are developed on the first

abdominal segment, but in their stead six peculiar glands which are de¬

scribed as follows:

“Bex Japyx gigas Brauer aus Cypern, einer Art von 23-28 mm Lange,

tritt an der ganzen Bauchplatte des ersten Abdominalsegmentes jederseits

des schmalen, etwas eingesenkten Mittelschildes eine flache Vorwolbung

der Seitentheile auf . Am Hinterrande liegen jederseits des nur 0,125 mm

breiten mittelsten Stiickes, das eine einfache diinne Duplikatur der Ven-

tralhaut darstellt, drei scliarfbegrenzte, von einer bindegewebigen Mem-

bran umschlossene Drusenzellmassen, welche selbst in zuriickgezogeneni

Zustande den Plattenrand nocli iiberragen und von einer schmalen

Ringfalte eingeschlossen sind. Die ausserste Drusenmasse isf bei 0,25 mm

Lange 0,135 mm hoch und an den Vorderecken abgerundet. Die mittlere

bildet einen eher abgerundet rechteckigen Korper von 0,13 mm Lange

und 0,13 mm Ilohe; die innerste ist flach und quer gestreckt, 0.26 mm

lang und nur 0,09 mm hoch. Die beiden ausseren Driisenmassen sind an

ihrer freien Hinterfiache sehr dicht, die innerste sparlicher mit starren,

spitzen, gelben Borstchen besetzt, die bis 0,03 mm lang werden und deren

9— A. & L.

130 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

an der mittleren Masse gegen 100, an der aussersten fiber 200 vorkommen.

Die Drfisenzellen sind trfibe durchsheinend, von gelblicher Farbe.”

i( Der Bau der Drfisenmassen am ersten Hinterleibsringe von J. gigas

wurdean Langschnittenuntersucht. Die auf der Cuticnla stehenden Har-

chen sind gelblich und bis zur Spitze von einem weiten Kanal durchzogen,

der scheinbar direkt in den langen Hals einer einzelligon Drfisenzelle fiber -

geht. Die Ausffihrgange sind in der Mitte oft stark aufgeblasen, wahrend

sie sich am Ende wieder bis zu 0,001 mm Durchmesser verschmalern.

Aehnlich lasst sich auch bei J. solifugus der Uebergang des die hohlen

jkurzen Haarstacheln durchziehenden Kanals in den dfinnen 0,02 — 0,03 mm

langen Ausffihrungsgang einzelliger rundlicher Hautdrfisen von 0,005—

0,008 mm Durchmesser erkennen.”

These observations on Campodea and Japyx are of considerable interest

in connection with the hypothesis advanced in the concluding paragraphs

of my paper. Notwithstanding the glandular portion of the first abdom¬

inal segment in Japyx is broken into six clearly defined masses, it may

still be true that originally the three glands on either side of the median

sternal line formed only one mass. The pair of glands which might thus

have given rise to the six separate masses mav be traced back through

structures like the pleuropodia of Cicada to a pair of true glandular ap¬

pendages like those on the first abdominal segment of Campodea. Haase's

Fig. 17, Plate XV, representing a section through the glandular mass in

Japyx , calls to mind the pleuropodium of Zaitha.

Haase also gives a very interesting account of the eversible sacks,

which have long been known to occur in pairs on the ventral faces of the

abdominal segments in many Thysanura. He has subjected both literature

and insects to a painstaking examination, with results that I here very

briefly summarize: In the Myriopod Lysiopetalum (two species) pairs of

eversible sacks occur on the coxee of the 8rd-16th pairs of legs; in Poly-

zonium germanicum and a Moluccan Siphonophora there is a pair of these

sacks on nearly every segment caudad from the third. Scolopendrella has

10 pairs of eversible sacks, a pair on each segment from the 3d to the 12th.

In Campodea they are present on the 2nd to 7th abdominal segments; in

Japyx on the 2nd abdominal segment. In Macliilis maritima and M.

polypoda pairs of eversible sacks occur on the 1st to 7th abdominal

segments; one large pair on the first and two smaller pairs on each

segment from the 2nd to the 5th; the 6th and 7th segments are

each provided with but a single pair of small sacks. Experimental

evidence is adduced to prove that the eversion of these sacks is a voluntary

act on the part of the insect, brought about by blood pressure, and that

when everted these organs subserve a respiratory function. To distinguish

them from tracheal and vascular gills Haase designates them “ Blutkiemen.”

The study of these peculiar organs naturally leads to a consideration of

the Collembolan collophore, to which Haase also ascribes a respiratory

function. Since he has not yet completed his study of this organ, his

The First Abdominal Segment of Embryo Insects.

131

remarks are meagre, and, I believe, open to some objection. Thus, in

disregard of Ryder's observation on the embryo Anurida, he supposes the

bifurcate, protrusible and glandular portion of the collophore to be derived

from a pair of eversible sacks apposed in the median ventral line. On

page 373 he remarks: “ Wie zuerst J. Wood-Mason hervorhob, ist die

Entstehung des Ventraltubus der Collembola auf die Verschmelzung eines

Abdominalsackpaares, wiesiebei Thvsanuren auftreten, zuriickzufiihren,

und in Uebereinstimmung damit ist auch bei den weniger rtickgebildeten

Formen die Bilateralitat der Endsackchen noch deutlicher ausgepragt.”

He is careful not to maintain an homology between the pleuropodia of

insect embryos and the eversible sacks of the Thysanura, though he agrees

with Graber in ascribing to the pleuropodia a respiratory function. The

wish to homologize the collophore with a pair of eversible sacks seems to

have prevented Haase from seeing the at least equally probable homology

between the collophore and the pair of appendages on the first abdominal

segment of Campodea and between these last appendages and the pleuropo¬

dia of insect embryos — an homology which 1 could only surmise, but which

Haase's own observations now render very probable.

Though Haase regards both the Ventralsackchen and the collophore as

respiratory organs, he nevertheless believes them to have arisen from what

were originally glandular structures. This is very clearly expressed in the

following paragraphs, quoted because they make to a certain extent for

my theoretical conclusions in regard to the pleuropodia.

“ In der That ist es wahrscheinlicli, dass die Ventralsacke der Symphylen,

Chilognathen und Thysanuren auf weit verbreitete driisige Bildungen zu¬

riickzufiihren sind. Um nur die Antennaten zu beriihren, so liegen die

verschiedenen Organe alle nahe der Beinwurzel an der Unterseite order

an entsprechenden Stellen der Bauchplatten, auch .scheint ihr Bau auf ein

Schema zuriickfiihrbar, auf eine Einstiilpung der Chitinliaut, die fiber

driisigem Epithel liegt und entweder als Coxal-order Cruraldriise dem

Beine fest eingefiigt ist order als Ventralsackchen willkiirlich durch Blut-

fiillung vorgestiilpt und durch Muskeln zuriickgezogen werden kann.”

After mentioning the coxal and crural glands of Peripatus and the Myrio-

poda, and describing the peculiar coxal secretion of Lithobiids, Haase con¬

tinues: “ Es ist nun sehr wahrscheinlich, dass diese (the eversible sacks)

als Derivate von Driisen aufzufassen sind, welche ihre secernirende

Funktion mit der respiratorischen vertauschten, wie dies ahnlich von ler

Umwandlung von Hautdriisen zu Tracheen augenommen wird. Auf die

urspriinglicli driisige Natur der Hiiftsackchen deuten wohl noch die

Riesenkerne in der Matrix derselben bei Scolopendretla und Campodea.

“ Die rein driisige Natur homologer Gebilde tritt uns, vielleicht sekundar

unter den Thysanuren bei Japyx entgegen, wo bei J. gigas und J. solifur-

gus kompakte Driisenzellhaufen auftreten, deren Sekret sich in feine Hohl-

haare ergiesst. Dass ahnliche Organe, wie die von Japyx anch die

Vorlaufer der respiratorischen Sackchen sein konnten, ergiebt sich schon

132 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

daraus, dass letztere bei J. gigas an derselben Stelle, wenn aucfa. in

nnvollkommener Form, am zweiten Abdominalsegment auftreten.

Die urspriinglich driisige Natur der Bauchsacke von Machilis scheint,

wie durcli die eigenartige Matrixlage, so auch durch die lan gen gereihten

Haare an der Dorsalseite der eingestiilpten S&ckchen bezeichnet zu sein,

die mit verkiimmerten einzelligen Hautdriisen in Yerbindung stehen.”

The First Abdominal Segment of Embryo Insects.

133

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The First Abdominal Segment of Embryo Insects.

135

’80 Marx, Geo.

Notes on Thelyphonus.

Entomologica Americana Vol. 2, 1886-1887.

’80 Maynard, C. J.

The defensive plands of a species of Phasma, Anisomorpha bupre -

stoides , from Florida.

Contributions to Science Vol. 1, No. 1, April, 1889.

’88 Minchin, E. A.

Note on a New Organ and on the Structure of the Hypodermis in

Periplaneta orientalis.

Quart. Journ. Micr. Science. New Series No. 115, Vol. 29, part 3,

1888.

’87 Morin, J. .

Zur Entwicklungsgeschiclite der Spinnen.

Biolog. Centralbl. Bd. 6, 1887.

’80a Mueller, F.

As maculas sexuaes dos individuos masculinos das especias Danais

erippus e D. Gilippus.

Arch. Mus. Nac. Rio Janeiro. Vol. 2, 1879, page 25-29. (1886.)

80b Mueller, E.

Os orgaos odoriferos dos especias Epicalia Acontius , Lin, e de

Myscelia Orsis, Dru.

Arch. Mus. Nac. Rio Janeiro. Vol. 2, 1879. page 31-35. (1886.)

’80c Mueller F.

Os orgaos odoriferos nas pernas de certos Lepidopteres.

Arch. Mus. Nac. Rio Janeiro. Vol. 2. 1879. page 37-46. (1886.)

’80d Mueller, F.

Os orgaos odoriferos da Antirrhoea archaea.

Arch. Mus. Nac. Rio Janeiro. Vol. 3, 1880, page 1-7. (1886.)

’86e Mueller, F.

A prega costal das Hesperideas.

Arch. Mus. Nac. Rio Janeiro. Vol. 3, 1880, page 41-50. (1886.)

’89 Nusbaum. J.

Zur Frage der Segmentirung des Keimstreifens und der Bauchan-

haenge der Insectenembryonen.

Biol. Centralbl. Bd 9 No. 17, Nov. 1 , 1889, page 516-522.

’87 Oudemans, J. T.

Bijdrage to de Kennis der Thvsanura en Collembola.

Academische Proefschrift, Amsterdam. 1887.

136

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

’89 Oudemans, J. T.

Ueberdie Abdominalanhaenge einer Lepismide {Thermophila fumo-

rum, Rovelli.)

Zoolog. Anzeig. No. 311. Juli, 1889.

’8.1 Packard, A S. ,

Scolopendrella and its position in nature.

American Naturalist. Vol. 15 No. 9. September, 1881.

''86 Packard, A. S.

The fluid ejected by Notodontian Catterpillars.

American Naturalist. Vol. 20, 1886.

*84 Patten, W.

The development of Phryganids with a Preliminary Note on the

Development of Blatta germanica.

Quart. Journ. Micr. Science. Vol. 24, 1884.

’86 Poulton, E. B.

Notes in 1885 upon Lepidopterous larvae and pupae, including an ac¬

count of the loss of weight in the freshly formed Lepidopterous

pupae, etc.

Trans. Ent. Soc. London, page 137-179. 1888.

'44 Ratlike, H.

Zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der Maulwurfsgrille ( Gryllotalpa vul¬

garis.)

Muller’s Archiv fur Anat. und Phys. Jahrg. 1844.

’81 Ryder, J. A.

The structure, affinities and species of Scolopendrella.

Proc. Acad. Nat. Science. Philadelphia, 1881.

’86 Ryder, J. A.

The development of Anurida maritima, Guerin.

American Naturalist. Vol. 20, 1886 page 299-302.

’59 Say, Thos.

Complete Writings. Edited by John L. Leconte. 2 vols. 1859.

page 84, Vol I.

’86 Scudder, S. H.

A systematic Review of our Present Knowledge of Fossil Insects, in¬

cluding Myriopods and Arachnids.

Bulletin of the U. S. Geol. Survey. No. 31. 1886.

’86 Smith, J B.

Scent organs in some Bombycid Moths. Entomologica Americana,

Vol. 2, No. 4, page 79-80, 1886

The First Abdominal Segment of Embryo Insects.

137

*82 Tichoiuiroff, A.

On the development of the silk -worm (. Bonibi/x mori ) in the egg.

(In Russian) Contrib. from the Laboratory of the Zool. Museum.

Moskau 1 Vol. 1882.

’89 Watase, S.

On the Morphology of the Compound Eyes of Arthropods.

Studies from Biolog. Laboratory, Johns Hopkins University.

Vol. 4, No. 6, 1889.

’63 Weismaim, A.

Die Entwicklung der Dipteren im Ei nach Beobachtungen an Chir-

onomus spec. Musca vomitoria und Pulex canis.

Zeitschrift fur wiss. Zoolog. Bd. 13, 1863.

’89 Yoeltzkow, A.

Entwicklung im Ei von Musca vomitoria.

Arbeiten aus dem zoolog. zootom. Institut in Wuerzburg.

Bd. 9, Heft 1, 1889.

’89a Wheeler, Wr. M.

Homologues in Embryo Hemiptera of the Appendages of the First

Abdominal Segment of other Insect Embryos.

American Naturalist Vol. 33, July, 1^89.

’89b Wheeler, W. M.

Ueber drusenartige Gebilde im ersten Abdominalsegment der

Hemipterenembryonen .

Zoolog. Anzeiger No. 317, September 30, 1889.

’89c Wheeler, W. M.

The Embryology of Blatta germauica and Doryphora decemlineata.

Journal of Morphology, Vol. 3, No. 2, Sept., 1589.

’88 Will, L.

Entwicklungsgeschichte der viviparen Aphiden.

Zoolog. Jahrb. Bd. 3, Heft 2, 1888.

138 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

EXPLANATIONS OP THE PLATES.

PLATE 1.

Pig. 1. Lateral view of a Blatta embryo 16 days old [during revolution]

a, amnion; sr, serosa; lb, labrum; md, mandible; mx,x first

maxilla; ma?2, second maxilla; at, antenna; px, p2, _p3, thoracic

limbs; ap, pleuropodium, or appendage of the first abdominal

segment.

Fig. 2. Longitudinal section through the metathoracic and first three

abdominal appendages of a Blatta embryo 12 days old; ps,

metathoracic leg; ap, ap 2, ap3, first, second and third abdo¬

minal appendages; ms, mesodermic somite; ecd, ectoderm.

Fig. 3. Longitudinal section through the pleuropodium of a Blatta em¬

bryo 14 days old; ecd, ectoderm; ms, mesoderm; v, vacuole.

Fig. 4. Three cells from the same series of sections as Fig. 3. Zeiss horn,

immers., A oc. II. v, vacuole; ne , plastine nucleolus.

Fig. 5. Five nuclei from a longitudinal section of the pleuropodium of a

Blatta embryo 20 days old; drawn with focus on the equator-

ial plane. Magnification same as in Fig. 4.

Fig. 6. Longitudinal section of a pleuropodium of a Blatta embryo 19

days old. pd, peduncle; cv, cavity; cn, constriction; v, series

of vacuoles.

Fig. 7. Longitudinal section from a pleuropodium of a Blatta embryo 20

days old. Reference letters same as in Fig. 6.

Fig. 8. Longitudinal section ot a pleuropodium from a Blatta embryo

about 25 days old. n, nuclei; pi, protoplasm.

Fig. 9. Section through a pleuropodium of a Blatta embryo 26 days old.

n, nuclei; pi, protoplasm.

PLATE 2.

Fig. 10. Longitudinal section through a pleuropodium of an embryo

Periplaneta orientalis , in a late stage; after the closure of the

body walls in the median dorsal line and the secretion of the

first cuticle, ecd, ectoderm; ms, mesoderm [connective tissue];

pi, protoplasm issuing from the distal end of the organ; t, tips

of pleuropodial cells; v, vacuole; x, two pleuropodial cells

about to pass through the peduncle into the body cavity of

the embryo.

The First Abdominal Segment of Embryo Insects. 139

Fig. 11. Longitudinal sections through a pleuropodium of an embryo

Mantis Carolina before revolution; ecd , ectoderm; ms, meso¬

derm; x, point where the ectoderm is comparatively thin; p,

one of the thoracic appendages; ap, pleuropodium.

Fig. 12. Cross section through one of the pleuropodia of an embryo

Xiphidium ensiferum during revolution; sr, serosa; as, am-

niotic secretion; ct, chitinous cuticle; ap, pleuropodium; cv,

cavity; p, one of the thoracic appendages; ecd, ectoderm; ms,

mesoderm.

Fig. 13. Section through the base of one of the pleuropodia of Xiphidium

ensiferum just before hatching; ap, pleuropodium; pd, pedun¬

cle, inserted in a pit of the hypodermis ecd, which has secreted

its second cuticle, ct; s, granular secretion.

Fig. 14. Cross section through the same pleuropodium; s, granular secre¬

tion; cv, cavity.

Fig. 15. Cross section through the coilophore of Anurida maritima [adult] ;

ct, cuticle; hy, large nucleus of the hypodermis; pg, hypoder¬

mic pigment; ct, delicate cuticle covering the glandular part

of the organ; s, granular secretion; gl, gland cells; ms, retrac¬

tor muscles of the glandular hypodermis; cn, connective

tissue; st, sternum; hi, blood.

Fig. 16. Surface view of the collophoral (first abdominal) segment of the

adult Anurida maritima. p 3, metathoracic legs; ah, first ab¬

dominal segment; c, coilophore.

PLATE 8.

Kg. 17. Half of a transverse section through the first abdominal segment

of the embryo Zaitha fluminea during revolution, ap, pleuro¬

podium; s, penicillate secretion; ecd, ectoderm; ent, ento¬

derm; vt, yolk; vp, vitellophag; cn, connective tissue; ms,

muscle; ad, corpus adiposum; cb, cardioblast; gl, ganglion of

the first abdominal segment.

Kg. 18. Three cells from a pleuropodium of Zaitha fluminea enlarged.

x, granular and widened inner ends of cells; h, hyaline and

attenuated outer ends of cells; s, threads of secretion. Zeiss,

homog. immers. ^ Oc. II.

Kg. 19. Longitudinal section of a pleuropodium of the embryo Cicada

septemdeoim during revolution, ap, pleuropodium; s, secretion ;

140

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

as, amniotic secretion; p , one of the thoracic appendages; ch,

chorion; ecd , ectoderm; ms, mesoderm; ct, connective tissue;

vt , yolk.

Fig. 20. Portion of a transverse section through the ventral plate of a

Cicada embryo before revolution, a, amnion; ecd, ectoderm;

ap, pleuropodium forming as an apple -shaped thickening of

the ectoderm; gl, ganglion of the first abdominal segment;

ms, mesodermic tissue.

Trans. Wis. Acad. Vol. VIII. Pla te I.

Wheeler, Del

Trans. Wis. Acad. Voi, VTTT. Prate II.

Wheeler, Del

Trans. Wis. Acad

Vol. VIII. Plate 111

Wheeler, Del.

SOME NEW THEORIES OF THE GREEK KA-PERFECT .

By CHAS. E. BENNETT.

In spite of all that comparative grammar has done to throw light upon

the morphology of the different Indo-European languages, there yet re¬

main in the individual languages a goodly number of formations without

correspondence in any other language. As examples of such isolated for¬

mations may be cited the Greek passive aorists in -rjv and -27 jv, the so-

called *72- or weak declension of the Germanic languages, and the gerundive

of the Latin.

With regard to these and similar formations two theories might at first

suggest themselves:

First, that we have to do with primitive Indo-European formations,

the traces of which have disappeared in the other languages and are pre¬

served in one alone, or

Secondly, that the formation does not go back to the Indo-European

Ursprache, but is a new creation of the particular language in which it is

found.

As a matter of fact we at once discard the theory that any formation of

the nature in question existed as such in the Indo-European Ursprache .

Unless we have the combined testimony of at least two groups of lan¬

guages as to the primitive character of a formation we shall not be justi¬

fied in attributing it to the Ursprache. We must rather view such a for¬

mation as due to the specific agency of the particular language in which it

is found, as produced by way of analogy or association with other forma¬

tions of the same language, by the use of inflectional material already at

hand.

It is in this way that we explain the origin of the weak or -n- declension

in the Germanic group. The -n- declension arose simply from a wider ex¬

tension and more frequent application of endings which were originally

peculiar to -72-stems, such as Latin nomen, Greek Saip.Gov, etc. So in Greek

the so-called 1st and 2nd aorists passive in -r/v and -Srjv were originally

nothing more than intransitive 2nd aorists active of the -pi form, i. e.,

constructed after the analogy of forms like efiXrjv e6rrjv, etc. The for¬

mation in -r]v was the earlier, as in k-rtXdnpv, kdraXrfv , kcpdvrjr, etc.,

while the so-called first aorists in -Sr/v are formed after the analogy of

those in -rfv, under the influence of such presents as dxs 2 go, 7t\r/%Go, <p2z'2(»,

fiifiddSco, rejus^GO, dx^ojuai, vi j$GQ, pirv^oo, 7tpr/%GD, kv?'/^go, etc.

The above are cited simply as examples to illustrate the methods by

which we may expect to explain similar formations peculiar to a single

142

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and- Letters.

language, and which therefore cannot be referred to the Ursprache for

their origin. Such a formation is the Greek perfect in -xa. No other Indo-

European language presents any trace of it, and we therefore assume that

we have to deal with a formation which has developed itself on Greek

ground by way of association or analogy with some other inflectional form

of the Greek language.

There have lately appeared several new theories in explanation of the -xa-

perfect. The two most important of these have emanated from the school

of the so-called “ Junggrammatiker,” and have been propounded by the

heads of the school, one by Prof. Brugmann of Leipsic, the other by Prof.

Osthoff of Heidelberg. A third is that of Felix Hartmann.

Before taking up the consideration of these theories, let us state more

precisely the problem to be solved. The oldest formation of the Greek

perfect, was unquestionably by the suffix -a, appended to the strong form

of the root, with the reduplication prefixed, e. g.,

root Xeitc-, perf. Xe -X ont-a.

root 7t£i$-, perf. Tte-rtoi'S-a.

root psvy-, perf. Tte-cpEvy-a , earlier ^ ite-cpovy-a .

The Sanskrit formed its perfect in the same way, and there can be no

doubt that the formation goes back to the Ursprache , for its origin. But

by the side of this Greek perfect in -or we find in the oldest monuments

of the language also a considerable number of perfects in -xa. As time

goes on this number increases, and in the Attic of the 4th century B. C.

the -xa perfect is the regular formation for all verbs except stems in

labial and palatal mutes and a few others, which have retained the old

-a- formation.

The problem before us is to explain this -xa; why we have -xa in¬

stead of -a.

BRUGMANN’ S THEORY.

Brugmann’s theory appeared first in Yol. XXV. of Kuhn's Zeitschrift

fur Vergleichende Sprachforschung, p. 212 ff., 1879.

As he omits some of the earlier theories we may mention them here.

An examination of the perfects used by Homer discloses the fact that

but an extremely small number of -xa- forms occurs. While perfects in

-a, as TtertoiSa, Ei'Xr/xa, EiXr/pa, xexpaya, etc., are very numerous, the - xa -

perfects found in the Iliad and Odyssey together number only twenty. As

examples may be mentioned, ftefir/xa, ftefiXrjxa, SeSvxa , sdrr/xa, 7tepvxa,

reSr/xa, rsrXr/xa. All the Homeric -%<n-perfects, moreover, are from

vowel stems. There are no Homeric -%<n-perfects from consonant stems,

such as the later Attic TtsrtEixa , sdraXxa spSapxa, rticpayxa.

This circumstance led Thiersch and subsequently Ahrens to explain the

x as inserted between two vowels for the purpose of avoiding hiatus, so

that according to this theory fi£(dr/xa would be explained as arising from

* fie (dr/a, by the insertion of x; so Edrr/xa from an imaginary *£drr/a. As

143

Some New Theories of the Greek Ka-Perfect.

/

a ground for this explanation Thiersch and Ahrens cited ovxen and

firfKsri. But the x here belonged originally to the ovx in all probability ,

so that ovxsri is for ovx-en (not for an earlier ^ov-eri), while prfxeri is

formed after the analogy of ovxen.

It is scarcely necessary to add that a theory involving such an extraor¬

dinary phonetic phenomenon as the bodily insertion of x, a change not

only not elsewhere exemplified in Greek, but also without analogy in other

languages, is unworthy of further consideration to-day, when the inviola¬

bility of phonetic laws is so insisted upon by even the less rigid inves¬

tigators.

Curtius, in his earlier work, the Tempora und Modi, followed Thiersch

and Ahrens, but in his Verbum der Griechischen Sprache , he propounds the

following explanation of the -hoc- perfect. He designates the -hoc as a

“ stammbildendes Element.'’'’ He further assumes that nominal stems were

first formed with this suffix; and from these nominal stems verb-stems, just

as the verb-stems in -va-9 - rv -ro-,-avo~, -to-, -6xo~, are, by Curtius, in their

origin, assumed to be nominal stems . Curtius further says, ‘ ‘ Assuming that

there was a nominal stem *fia-xa (Ion. *(3rj-xa) then from this we might

have a reduplicated (3e-f3a-xa (Ion. (3s-ftr)-xa ), and such reduplicated

stems might, in the period when the verbal forms were still undetermined,

establish themselves here and there in the perfect by the side of the shorter

forms in -a”

To this theory of Curtius Brugmann presents the following objections:

1. Where are these nominal stems in -xa? The language does not seem

to have had them. We should expect them to exist in some abundance;

but we find only a very few. We may cite ^ijxr/ and 6coxby, but from

%r}nV we could hardly directly explain the form re-Seixa as the vocalism

of the two words is different, one having rj the other ei. Nor can we satis¬

factorily explain the aorist eSrjxa from ^rjKV. For Srjxr] means £ chest,

vessel,’ and the testimony of the Sanskrit dha-ka, which has the same

meaning, seems to indicate that in the Ursprache the word had this spe¬

cialized sense of the root dhe -. It is difficult to comprehend how a

denominative aorist or perfect in the sense of ‘ put’ should be formed from

a’noun meaning ‘ holder.’

2. Curtius speaks of a form /3e0jxa establishing itself by the side of a

form * /3s(j?ja at a time when the verbal inflections were still undeter¬

mined. Brugmann with propriety inquires when Curtius conceived this

to have been. Was it subsequent to the period of the Ursprache? If so,

he should remember that the verbal inflections were then no longer un¬

determined. The substantial unity of the verbal inflection of the separate

languages shows this. Or does Curtius mean the period of the Ursprache?

If so he should consider that we can not pretend to explain a formation

which has confessedly developed upon specific Greek ground, by referring

to the Ursprache, or any conditions which may have prevailed in it.

To these two leading objections of Brugmann might be added another,

144 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

viz.: Is it conceivable that denominative verbs in simple -go should be

formed from stems in -a (Ion., Attic -rf) e. g., a */3?}xgo from *fifixrj? Could

we expect anything else from ^fiffxrj than ^fipxdco or * (irjxs go f Would not

the overwhelming abundance of denominatives like rijudco, dpaojucn,

< piXeco , etc., be a sufficient assurance that, even admitting the existence of

fgKT], we should never have had a form ^figxco from it, from which to

produce a perfect fie- firjx-a?

In view of the objections which Curtius’s theory raises against itself Brug-

mann thinks we must try in another way to solve the problem of the -xa-

perfect. From an examination of verbal formations in -k- Brugmann

finds six which are pre Homeric. These are:

oXsXGO

Sgoxoi (on the Idalian Bronze Tablet, line 16.)

dsididdopai (for SsiSixiojuai.)

The three aorists sdcoxa, efbrjxa, pxa.

To all of these forms correspond perfects in -xa, which likewise seem to

belong to the primitive stages of the language. These are 6A.GoA.sxa, Ssdooxa ,

SsiSoixa (i. e., *8sSFoixa), rsSr/xa (reSeixa), sixa.

Brugmann subjects each of these verbs to a careful examination with

reference to determining whether their -x- not only is pre-Homeric but pos¬

sibly even dates from the Ursprache. He arrives at a negative conclusion

with reference to the forms rjxa , eSrjxa, Seididdopai, with their corres¬

ponding perfects sixa, rsPr/xa (re P sixa), 8 eiS oixa.)

With reference to o’A.sxgo and its perfect oAoddexa, he finds it impossible

to reach a decision, owing to its obscure etymology, s8coxa with its perfect

8 sdcoxa and its present optative d goxoi is the only one of the -^-formations

which Brugmann concedes goes back to the Ursprache for its origin.

This form Ssdooxa Brugmann derives from the root 8 cox- and identifies

with the Sanscrit da-ddg-a. The correspondence in form between the

two is exact. The signification also of the Sanskrit da-ddg-a is the same

as that of 8 sdcoxa. For the Sanskrit root dag- means ‘give, vouchsafe,

offer,’ just as does the root da- = Greek Sgo -.

The so called aorist active sdcoxa Brugmann also derives from this same

root 8 cox- (Sanskrit dag-). This sdcoxa is for an original ^eSoox-m, m rep¬

resenting the vocalic nasal or “ nasalis sonans,” which when unaccented

regularly develops in Greek as a; just as the Rhenish Germans say gegange

for ge-gang-n (i. e., gegangen ), geriite for gerittn(i. e., geritten), obe for obm

(i. e., oben). Other examples in Greek of the development of the vocalic

v ,, „ r

nasal or “nasalis sonans” are s\v6a (for * sAivdm ), ysypacparai

rerpdqoarai (for *yeypdcp-nrai, etc.; cf. fis-fiovXsv-rrai).

According to the above view of the forms s8Goxa and 8s8coxa we have,

in the different systems of the Greek verb didcopi, to deal with two roots,

one root 8 go- corresponding to the Skrt. da- and another 8 cox- corres¬

ponding to Skrt. dac- Both roots are nearly identical in meaning and

Some New Theories of the Greek Ka-Perfeet. 14&

hence have become united in one verb; just as frequently the same thing

occurs where the different roots are clearly distinct, e. g.,

opaGo, oipojuai, eiSov

q)spcj, ol'6gd, rjveyxov.

deSooxa therefore is de-Saw-a, i. e., a regularly formed perfect from the-

root 8gox- with the ending -a, the regular ending of the perfect both in

Greek and Sanskrit, as seen in 7t£itoi%a, XeXonta, Tticpevya and numer¬

ous other similar forms; and it is from this one form that Brugmann con¬

ceives the entire category of -xa- perfects to have arisen, and in the fol¬

lowing way. After eSooxa and deSooxa had become part and parcel of

the verbal system of 8l-8gq-jui they were mentally referred to the root 8go-

also, and the ending -xa was felt as a tense-suffix.

As soon as it was felt as such it began to be employed in the formation

of other perfects with long vowel roots, e. g., s6n/xa {6rp-), f5s(3pxa

(fii)-), Ttecpvxa ( cpv -).

Brugmann thinks he discovers a particular reason why the -xa- forma¬

tion was so readily adopted by the long vowel stems. The original inflec¬

tion of the singular of the perfect indicative of the root 8 go-, for example*

must have been:

* 8s- 8 go- a

* 8s- 8gj- ? (-Sd)

* 8£- 8go- £

By contraction this must have early given:

* 8 £8 GO

* 8£8gd$

* 8 £8 go

These forms were felt to lack the distinctive perfect character and were

likewise identical in the 1st and 3rd singular. Hence it was that the lan¬

guage readily availed itself of such formations as £dr? -/xa, fisfirjxa-

Ttscpvxa. It is at about this stage in the history of the perfect that th

Homeric poems belong. The -^-perfects in Homer are almost exclusively

from long vowel roots; but short vowel roots are also just beginning to

adopt the -xa- formation, e. g., fi£0ir/xa, 8£8£i7tvr/xa, etc. Still later and

subsequent to Homer are the formations from consonant stems, such as

£6raXxa, Gcp^apxa, 7t£7t£ixa, pyy £Xxa, rG^avyaxa.

The theory that one form like 8 £8 coua should have been the type that

has called hundreds of others into existence seems at first, perhaps, too

remarkable to be lightly credited; yet similar phenomena are well attested

for other languages. Thus in Old Bulgarian the first singular of the verb

in the present indicative ended almost always in a— original Indoger-

_ r

manic o. Only four verbs had the ending -mi, viz:jesmi, vemi, dami, jami.

Yet these four verbs have been the type from which all verbs in the modern

Slovenian and Servian languages form their 1st person singular present

indicative in -m. So we have hundreds of forms from four alone. So also

10— A. & L.

146 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

in German we have in the nominal inflections the frequent plural ending -er

producing Umlaut of the root syllable, e. g. , Thai, Thaler; Buck , Bucher;

Grab, Grdber; Irrthum , Irrthumer; Kalb, Kalber, and very many others.

All of these are modern except Kalb, Kalber, which must be considered as

having furnished the starting point for the whole category. The plural

Kalber therefore in the number of forms it has called into existence would

furnish an exact parallel to SeSooxa.

An interesting and instructive illustration is furnished also by the Italian.

The Latin steti, stiti became in Italian stetti. This form was felt as

consisting of st- as root and -etti as the ending. So by the analogy sto,

stare, stetti, we got in Italian from do, dare, the perfect detti instead of

diedi (Latin dedi). The ending - etti was then applied to other verbs, such

as vendetti, fremetti, credetti, dovetti and many others. I have not been

able to determine the exact extent of the application of this ending, from

lack of the requisite books of reference, but am convinced that it is quite

extensive.

The example is at all events a striking one of how even one single form

can furnish the model after which innumerable others may be constructed.

Stetti, therefore, would furnish a complete analogy of what we have

claimed for SsSGoxa. It is historically certain for stetti', ifc is therefore

very possible for 8s 8 coxa.

The, objection then to one form’s being the starting point for many

would seem to be met by the above considerations.

Hermann von der Pfordten in his Geschichte des griechischen Perfects

calls attention further to the fact that the other perfects from stems in

-x- as:

8sSopx-a (root 8rpx-)

jue-juvx-a (root juvx-)

TE-TT/K-a (root T7/X-)

/ isjUT/K-Go 5 (root ppx-)

TC£-(ppiK-CX (root ppiK-)

soix-a (root Feik-)

may have contributed to the illusion that -xa was a tense suffix and so

have assisted in its application to other roots.

In fact von der Pfordten thinks that even the so-called -xa- aorists

EdGoxa, E^pxa, i/xa may have contributed their share in the same direc¬

tion, especially when one considers the great frequency of these words

(some 500 times) in the Homeric poems, the very stage of the language at

which we find the -xa- formation just beginning to assume greater propor¬

tions.

Brugmann’s theory then may be summed up in the following words:

There was in Greek an early confusion of two roots of the same meaning,

dca-and 8 cox- , da?- being used for the present and future, 8 cox- for the aorist

and perfect. By reason of this confusion the ending of SeScoxa was felt

as -xa instead of -a, as it really was; and being once felt as a tense suffix, it

Some New Theories of the Greek Ka-Perfect.

14?

was given a wider application, being appended first to other long vowel

stems as r/~> dry- afterward to short vowel stems, and eventually

to some mute and all liquid stems.

This theory, it will be observed, explains the reason why we find the

ending -xa applied first to long vowel stems; it is because it originated with

such a stem, Sao-. It explains further the origin of the aorists e^pxa,

rjxa, and two others not usually given in the grammars, e6ryxa and

'iepprjxa. These aorists were formed after the analogy of eSaoxa just as

'idrrjxa after the analogy of Sedooxa,

It might seem strange, in view of this fact, that we do not find a similar

wide extension of the -xa- aorist, just as of the -xa- perfect. The reason of

course is plain. The same time suffix could not clo duty for both tenses.

The analogy might have taken its development in the line of the aorist,

just as well as of the perfect, and if that had occurred, we should have

looked upon it as perfectly natural; but it could not do double duty, serv¬

ing both as a perfect and an aorist suffix.

As it is, the -xa- suffix developed in the perfect, and beyond a few -xa-

aorists formed before the suffix had come to be felt as peculiar to the per¬

fect, it took no further development in the line of the aorist.

Such is Brugmann’s theory of the -xa- perfect. It is really less

fanciful than one might be at first inclined to consider it. His theory

is worked out with rigid method, nothing Ijeing assumed, which is incon¬

sistent with known phonetic laws or unsupported by the analogy of the

Greek itself and other languages. A demonstration, however, it can not

be held to be. It is simply an extremely clever hypothesis supported by

striking analogies.

It has met with recognition from German scholars such as von der

Pfordten in his Geschichte des griechischen Perfects, as well as from Gus¬

tav Meyer in his Griechische Grammatik. While therefore we may not

call it a proof vve must admit that it suggests a plausible method by which

the -xa- perfect may have developed.

We consider next

osthoff’s theory.

For several years after Brugmann propounded his theory it enjoyed gen¬

eral repute as the only plausible explanation yet given of the problem, un¬

til the appearance in 1884, of Osthoff’s Geschichte des Perfects im Indo-

germanischen. Herman Osthoff, the author of this work is professor of

Sanskrit and comparative philology at Heidelberg, and a man of astound¬

ing ingenuity in solving the riddles of Indo-European grammar. His

mind is constantly evolving a new solution of some knotty point of

morphology, worked out with an elaborateness which anticipates every ob¬

jection that can be raised against it. Although an intimate friend of

Brugmann and with him the head of the school of “ Junggrammatiker ”,

yet he never could feel quite satisfied with Brugmann’s theory of the origin

of the -xa- perfect, which we have just considered above.

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Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and' Letters.

He consequently set to work to find some explanation which should be

more satisfactory, and the result of his lucubrations is given us in a

lengthy chapter of the work above cited, pp. B24-890.

Osthoff’s theory is that we have in the Greek -xa- perfect the particle

xsv; that SeScoxa is dedoo + xsv.

Let us proceed to the details. And first a few words on roots and the

different forms they assume under different circumstances.

It is a generally accepted theory that roots appear under different forms

in consequence of accentual conditions. Thus we explain

Skrt. as- mi

as- i

as- ti

as having the full form of the root as- because accented on the root sylla¬

ble; whereas the dual and plural forms

svds smas

sthds stha

stds santi

take the weakened form of the root -s because the accent is on the personal

ending. So also in Greek we had origin ally *8i-8g5-jui, *dz- da?- 61, * Si-doo-ri

*8i-do-r6v} *8i-6o-tov9 *di-8o-ju£v, etc., with the strong form of the root

Sod- in the singular, because the accent stands on the root syllable,

and the weak form do- in the dual and plural, because the accent is on

the personal ending. Of course this primitive accentuation was lost in

Greek, before we know it historically as an independent language; the

primitive accentual conditions disappeared with the rise of the three sylla¬

ble law and of the recessive accent of the verb.

So also in the inflection of the noun in Greek. In words of the type of

Ttarpp, prjTrjp, etc., we have the strong form of the stem Ttarep-, pprep-

where the stem syllable is accented, as in the accusative singular nave pa;

nominative plural Ttarepe^; but we have the weak form of the stem itarp-

where the accent falls upon the case ending, as Ttarp- 65, Ttarp-i ; %a-

rpd6i{r) also is formed from the weak stem Ttarp-.

This variation of the form of the root in two, three and sometimes even

four ways (called by the Germans Stammabstufung ) extends to all parts of

speech. It is not limited to nouns and verbs, in which the accent origin¬

ally shifted, standing now upon the root syllable, now upon the ending,

but may occur also in monosyllables, which by their varying force some¬

times receive a decided stress and at other times are enclitic.

All parts of speech are equally liable to this change of form dependent

upon stress- accent. The phenomenon is witnessed most frequently incase

of nouns, adjectives and verbs; yet it occurs also (and this is at present the

important point for us) in the case of particles; and we shall soon see that

in xa we have simply another form of xev, a form bearing the same relation

to xsv, as our unaccented “ the ” does to our accented “ the or as “ come ”

in “ cm in” to our “come” in the phrase “ you come.”

Some New Theories of the Greek Ka-Perfect.

149

The demonstration of this relationship depends upon the principles of

the nasalis sonans theory, which was alluded to above in connection with

Ikv6a for * sXv6m\ and eSaoxa for * e'S aoxm. We there saw that this

sonant nasal developed in Greek, when unaccented, into a; just as in

many dialects in Germany the ending -n (i. e. - en ) when unaccented be¬

comes a short e- vowel, through the medium of the sonant nasal.

The full or strong form of the particle kev is hey. When unaccented

it sinks to x + the sonant nasal or *xn. This sonant nasal then regularly

develops to a giving us xa\ just as we have raro 5, verbal from reive*)

(root rev-), for *rn-ro5.

The Sanskrit, it maybe mentioned, develops the sonant nasal in the same

way; thus we have ta-tds for tn-tas, corresponding to Greek ra-ro$; and

ta-no-mi in the 5th Sanskrit class (acc. to Bopp) for tn-nd-mi.

Nor is kev the only illustration, among particles, of this variation of

weak and strong form, this Stammabstufung.

We have another striking illustration in the case of the particle ocv,

which has for its weak or unaccented form -v. This unaccented form is

seen in 7 tdv-v ( cf . rear) and further probably in ovros , ro-v-rov, etc. It

is doubtless the same as the Sanskrit particle -u and the Gothic -u, seen in

the passive forms of the optative and imperative, as nimada-u and

nimainda-u.

The same Abstufung holds similarly for many other particles, to which

Osthoff has devoted some exhaustive consideration in the fourth volume

of Morpliologische Untersuchungen , pp. 222-277, in his consideration of

what he calls the “ Tiefstufe im Indog ermanischen Vocalismus .” It is un¬

necessary to consider this matter further here.

We may now return to kev. We have seen that we have to deal with

two forms, kev and xa. There are to be sure two other forms of our

particle viz. ke and xa, but as they do not concern our present purpose,

we omit any consideration of the question of their special origin, inter¬

esting as that might be. The form xa is confined pretty nearly to the

Doric and Lesbic- Aeolic dialects in the historical period; yet this does not

constitute any objection against its antiquity, or against its having at some

time been in frequent use in all dialects.

So much for the morphological side of the particle. Let us now look at

its probable signification.

The tradititional etymology of kev has connected the word with the

Skrt. Mm, which means 4 well, indeed, to be sure’; and even the latest

scholars have signified their acceptance of this view, including among the

latter Delbrtick in his Syntaktische Forschungen, vols. I. , and IY. ; Ascoli,

Studj Critici II., 231 ff; and Gustav Meyer in his Greek Grammar. Osthoff

is the first to raise objections to this etymology; not, as he admits,

because it is phonetically inadmissible, though he mentions one or two

weak spots (which we shall have to omit here), but because he thinks he

has a better etymology to propose. He thinks kev identical with Skrt,

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Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

gam, an indeclinable adjective signifying “ beneficent, advantageous, whole¬

some, good.” This word, which has not yet become a particle in Sanskrit,

Osthoff thinks became one in Greek and in the signification of the German

wol united itself in its weak or unaccented form xa with the primitive

inflection of the perfect: e. g., SeSed-, to form the -net- perfect, Sedaoxa.

SeSaoxa would therefore mean “ I have indeed given,” or as Osthoff puts

it in German, “ ich habe wol gegeben .”

It is in fact this very correspondence in meaning between the Sanskrit

gam and the German wol that leads Osthoff so decidedly to prefer the ety¬

mology of xev which he proposes and advocates. He traces the develop¬

ment of the German wol from its Old High German force of “ well,”

through the Middle High German, where it takes on the additional mean¬

ing of “quite, very, thoroughly, certainly,” until it reaches that force,

untranslatable in English, which it exercises with such frequency in the

German of to-day, as for example in such expressions as “Sie sindwol

krank; das haben Sie wol gesehen.,'> Osthoff believes xev or xa has gone

through the same course of development. The Sanskrit gam he considers

to represent the original signification of xev , namely “excellently,” while

in the historical period of the Greek language he thinks he finds clear

traces of xev in the same sense as Germam wol in its weak, almost pleon¬

astic force.

The question that naturally first presents itself is: Does xev actually

have this force ?

Delbrtick, Syntaktische Forschungen, I., 90, expresses the opinion that

while xev, dv “ begleiten den conjunctiv und optativ durch alle inner en

wandlungen , sie erzeugen dieselben nicht. Sie sind nar ein beredter aus -

druck dessen , was auch durch den blossen conjunctiv und optativ ausge-

druckt wird;” i. e., the force of the subjunctive and optative does not de¬

pend upon the xev or dv but the xev or dv simply adds a more eloquent

expression to tbe force already inherent in the subjunctive or optative

themselves. If this be true, it accords excellently with the signification

which Osthoff wishes to attach to xev, and we shall then not be surprised

if we find xev joining itself freely with any mode and tense.

Thus in Homer we find xev with the future indicative as A 139 6 8e xev

KExoXoodErai uv xev ixcojuai, which Osthoff would render “ der wird wol

zurnen, zu dem ich kommen werde;” or A 176 xai xe ri$ (08' epssi Tpoocov

“so wird wol mancher unter den Troern sprechen ,” and a number of similar

instances.

The present indicative also occurs, though rarely, as 484 rep xai xe

tv, s svxerai dvrjp “ darum wunscht sich ivolil auch mancher A

Faesi, in his edition of the Iliad, in commenting upon these and similar

passages says that xev with the future and present indicative does not ex¬

press any doubt or uncertainty, but a calm confidence, equivalent to that

expressed by 7 tov, oipai. Cf. his notes on W 102, 484. In this sense xev

corresponds exactly to the German wol in such expression as “ das ist wol

Some New Theories of the Greek Ka-Perfect.

151

zwanzig jahre her; ich bin wol zu beneiden ,” where wol is quite equivalent

to the Greek rtov, oijuai, “forsooth, I think, in my opinion.”

It is doubtful whether we have any example of the imperfect with kev,

as the reading of 104 is uncertain. Only one manuscript reads: svSa

kev rjfxariT] jjev vqxxivEdxev jusyav idrov. The others give evSa uai; but

of the aorist indicative we have at least one instance, viz. S 546.

7/ yap fu.iv Zgdqv ys KiygdEai, r) kev ’ Opsdrr/s

hteIvev v7toq)SdfJ£vo$.

Here again we may translate “ you will find him alive or (it may be as¬

sumed) Orestes has killed him,” the kev being equivalent to wol. In Ger¬

man we might translate “ oder es hat ihn wol Orestes getodtet .”

In German wol is used with the perfect indicative with great freedom in

popular poetry, e. g.,

“ Es ging ein Muller wol uber's Feld.”

“ Es zogen drei Burschen wol uber den Rhein.”

“ Ein Knablein ging spazieren wol um die Abendstund.”

That no example of the perfect indicative with kev in Homer is found,

Osthoff regards a matter of chance, to be explained by the rarity of the

perfect indicative in the epic or narrative style.

So much for the form and signification in which kev , Ka has attached

itself to the primitive perfect to produce the -Ka- perfect. Let us now note

the successive stages of the process by which the -Ka- inflection became es¬

tablished throughout the whole perfect indicative and subsequently

throughout the whole perfect system. First let us set clearly before our

eyes the original inflection of the perfect indicative active of a Greek verb,

such as those among which we know the -Ka- perfect to have arisen, viz. ,

long vowel stems. Let us take the stem dr a- (Ion., Att. drrj-). The early

Greek inflection of this perfect (though not the earliest) was probably

Singular.

*Edv7f (for *e- dr rj- a; cf. XE-Xgnca)

^edrifC, (for ^E-drg-a^,; cf. A.£A.oi7taS )

*Zdrrf (for *£-drrj-£; cf. XeXontE)

Dual.

edrarov

Edrarov

Plural.

tdrauEv

e dr are

edradiv

The stages of development are as follows:

1. By the union of the Ka with the original 1st singular *sdr g we get

Edrr/Ka. Further illustrations of this perfect from long vowel stems are:

Ss-Sif-Ka (Segd ‘bind ’) Aeschylus, Andocides.

rs-Sy-Ka, later rs-SsiKa, after the analogy of EiKa.

de-Sco-Ka.

*yE-yvoj-Kat later s-yvco-Ka.

2. In the second stage we find that the -Ka- perfect has extended its in¬

flection from the first singular in -Ka- to the second singular in -Kaf> and

152

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters.

the third singular in -xe(v). In this step it has, of course, simply adopted

the regular perfect inflection as already existing in the language and ex¬

hibited in such words as -itEcpEvya, i'ppooya, etc. The -not inflec¬

tion, however, has not yet strayed beyond the limits of the singular. The

dual and plural show no traces yet of the -xa, as seen in such words as

This second stage is characterized further by the formation of new -xa-

perfects, but only from long vowel stems; and these new formations have,

like their models, the -xa- inflection only in the singular. This is about the

stage represented in the Homeric epics. For out of the hundreds of instances

of the -xa- perfect in Homer, all formed from long vowel stems, we have

•only five instances of a plural -xa- perfect, viz:

kdrpxadiv A 434

xararE'Avpxadiv 0 664

TtEpvxadir ?/ 114

TE^apdpxadiv 1 420,687

'3. The -xa- inflection extends itself throughout the entire indicative,

and also throughout the rest of the perfect system, i. e., the subjunctive,

optative, infinitive and participle. This stage is represented in general by

the post-Homeric Greek, though an incipient tendency of the - xa - forms to

oxtend themselves is seen in Homer, in the sporadic occurrence of a few

plural indicatives and a few perfect participles.

With this the development of the -xa- perfect may be considered complete.

•Some interesting changes in the Ablaut occurred, which may be left

anmentioned.

Osthoff finds in certain Sanskrit forms what he considers a powerful

support of his theory of the Greek -xa- perfect. These forms are the Sans¬

krit perfects:

daddu , dadhau, papau, tasthau.

Osthoff thinks that here we have original perfect forms with the added

particle -u.

da-dau is therefore simply da dd-u, etc., this u being the same particle

that we have already noticed as occurring in the Gothic nimadau, nim -

aidau.

Any one familiar with the Sanskrit sandhi -rules will see at once an ob¬

jection to this theory, since pa-pd-u, da-dd-u, etc., ought, according to the

laws of Sanskrit phonology, to give not pa-pdu , daddu but papo da-do.

Some New Theories of the Greek Ka-Perfect.

153

Osthoff, however, maintains that the composition of the root with the

particle antedates the historical period of the Indian language and that we

have in da-ddu, etc., the legitimate successors of an Indo-European de-do-u.

Whitney in his Sanskrit Grammar (§ 800 c of the German ed.) cites two

forms from the Rig Veda of perfects from d-stems in simple a, not -du,

viz.: papr a, jaha ( pra-9 , hd- “follow”), instead of paprau, jahdu. This

would seem to indicate that roots in - d originally formed the perfect in -a,

and if that is so it would be natural to see in the forms in -du traces of an

added -u as Osthoff does. If now, reasons Osthoff, the Sanskrit employs

the particle -u in a perfect formation by adding it to the 1st and 3rd singu¬

lar of long vowel stems, what more natural than that the Greek should do

the same with Tier?

Osthoff’s theory then, briefly stated, is that the particle hev in its weak or

unaccented form hoc, a form actually occurring in several Greek dialects,

became added to the original perfect forms of long vowel stems, first to

the 1st and 3rd singular, and that it afterwards extended its range over the

entire perfect system; and the analogy of the Sanskrit perfects in -du is

appealed to, to substantiate this view.

Is this a probable theory? It 3&ems to me that it does have a good deal

to commend it to our favorable consideration.

1. As to the amalgation of different words into one word in the indi¬

vidual Indo-European languages we need have no hesitation. Instances

are frequent of the union of an inflected form with a particle, or of two

inflected forms with each other, as may be seen, e. g., in the Gothic liu-

ganda-u, nimaida-u (Greek vep oiro), in the French j ’ aimer-ai , Latin veneo ,

(for venumeo), calefacio, fervefacio, etc., and, as I incline to believe, also in

Sanskrit daddu, etc. As to the form xa, it is only what we should be

compelled to assume as the weak form of hev, even did we not know of

its actual existence in seve ral of the Greek dialects. That the form xa

therefore should combine with the original perfect is not at all unlikely.

2. As to the exact etymology of hev (xa) I conceive that that really

concerns the main question very slightly. It is immaterial whether hev

be the same as the Sanskrit kam or gam, or in fine neither the one nor the

other. It is certainly an independent word of the Greek language and as

* such can unite with an already existing inflectional form to create a new

form. If it really be the same as the Sanskrit gam and has gone through the

same semasiological development as the German wol so much the better,

though neither of these facts is necessary to our theory.

3. To my mind it can hardly be fortuitous that we find the origin of

the -hoc- perfect in Greek in those very stems, which in Sanskrit we are

led to look upon as compounded in their perfect formation, with the

particle - u , viz., the long vowel stems. To be sure we find this -u in the

Sanskrit perfect only in the 1st and 3rd singular; yet we must bear in

mind that in Greek also the perfect in -xa was for a long time confined to

the singular of the indicative, and that practically only in the post-Hom-

•eric Greek did it extend its range beyond this.

154

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

It should further be borne in mind that the three identical roots which

furnish us with the earliest specimens of the Greek -xa- perfect are also

Sanskrit roots in -d, which form the perfect in -au. Thus we have side by

side the roots

6ra- (Ion., Att. 6rrj-) sthd-

Sco- dd-

3 7]-

And the perfects

s6rr/xa

Sad coxa

TeSrfxa

(re Seiko)

dhd-

tasthdu

dadau

dadhau

It would seem as though these possessed some innate tendency to join

to themselves a completing element, and if that be so what other element

can this be for the Greek than xa, and what can xa be but the particle xev

in its weak form ?

4. As to the non occurrence of xa with the perfect indicative in any

historical monuments of the Greek language, we need not feel any surprise,

such ’as Curtius does, in his critique of this theory, in his Zur KritiJc der

neuesten Sprachforschung, p. 152 f. Curtius considers in fact that the non¬

occurrence of the particle with the perfect indicative is sufficient ground

for condemning the whole theory, which he proceeds to do very summarily.

But let us consider a moment. By the very terms of the hypothesis, it

must have been at a period considerably prior to the oldest monuments of

the Greek language that the particle xa become united with the already

existing perfect inflection to form the - xa - perfect. At that time the par¬

ticles xa, ar and very likely many others enjoyed a much freer use and

wider application than later, when the language had become more stereo¬

typed. Certainly at the beginning of the historical period of the Greek

language xsv and av had become appropriated to certain distinct uses and

were confined to them. Not only do we not find either xev or civ with

the perfect indicative in Homer, but it is only with the greatest difficulty

that we succeed in gathering together a few instances of its use with the

present and future indicative. Even if we had discovered one or two in¬

stances of it with the perfect indicative it would not have materially

favored our theory.

It seems to me, therefore, that Osthoff’s theory exhibits an unusually

keen perception and fine appreciation of the principles governing linguistic

development, and that, while it cannot, any more than Brugmann’s, be

called a demonstration, yet it is as probable and even more instructive.

Hartmann’s theory.

Hartmann’s theory appeared first in Kuhn's Zeitschrift, vol. xxviii.

p. 284, in a brief article entitled Wieder einmal das x- Perfectum.

Hartmann starts with the declaration that the -xa- perfect could take its

Some New Theories of the Greek Ka-Perfect.

155

origin only from such stems as possessed a gutturallv extended form by the

side of the original one. Thus 7troo6dao for {fitTGo k-igo) which points plainly

to a stem 7 traoK-, as an extension of the stem tct- ( cf . 7Ci-7tr-ao), gives the

perfect TtaitTGau-a. This 7t£7trGOKa, being associated with 7ti-7tr-Go as its

perfect naturally gave rise to the conception of -coxa as the perfect suffix,

whence arose such forms as ol'xGoxa, possibly even kSijdoxa.

This is intended to serve only as an illustration of the method to be fol¬

lowed in seeking the origin of the -na- perfect. Hartmann admits that the

relation between tct- and TtaTCtooua could only give us -coxa as a perfect

suffix (as seen in ox^xa, oi'xGoxa), not -xa. He is consequently led to seek

further in search of some analogy which shall be more far-reaching in its

effects. He thinks he finds this in the relations existing between fiddxGo

and fdEfrjxa. He explains fiafirjxa as the perfect of fdddxco properly, not

of fiaivao, and as arising by proportional analogy. Just as Xddxoo, which

is a real guttural stem (being for *Xax- Oxgo, cf. s-Xax-ov, aorist), forms its

perfect XeXrjxa, so after the same analogy fdddxai (though not really from

a guttural stem) forms the perfect fdafh/xa.

After fteftrjKa had once come into existence the analogy extended to

other presents in - dxco , e. g., Srr/dxGD, ftXddxGD, fdi/UpGodxGo, etc., whence

the perfects reSvr/xa, fiepfiXcoxa, fisfipGDxcc, then subsequently to other

stems. ,

Such in brief is Hartmann’s theory, though his own statement of it is

exceedingly unfortunate and obscure. It will be seen that it resembles

Brugmann’s theory quite closely. I hold it, however, as much less proba¬

ble than Brugmann’s for three reasons.

1. The analogy by which fiddxGo is supposed to form its perfect

/Sefirjxa, viz., from the relation existing between XddxGo and XeXrjxa is

not at all plausible. There is no similarity of meaning between the two

words which would tend to associate them together in the mind, nor is

XadKGD a common word or one which from the frequency of its use would

be expected to exercise an influence upon other word-forms.

2. There is no evidence that the form fiafipua is more recent than

XiXrjxa, as is implied by the terms of Hartmann’s theory. Both forms are

found in the oldest monuments of the Greek language, but nothing tends

to show that XdXrjxa existed before /SefdrjKcx, so as to serve as the model

for the formation of the latter.

3. It is ncft likely that a formation taking its origin from a present with

a short vowel, like fidduGo should operate immediately in affecting presents

with a long vowel as Srr/duGo, fiXoadKGo, fiifSpaodKGo, etc., while at the same

time failing to influence presents with a short vowel, such as fiodKGa,

tpddKGD, etc. On the other hand we should expect these short vowel pres¬

ents to be first affected by the analogy, and the long vowel presents later,

if at all.

156

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

ON SOME METAMORPHOSED ERUPTIVES IN THE

CRYSTALLINE ROCKS OF MARYLAND.

By WM. H. HOBBS.

Recent studies of the crystalline rocks, while they leave us still in doubt

as to the origin and much of the subsequent history of the so-called/tmda-

mental complex ( Urgeneiss or Grundgebirge of Germans), yet have been

very successful in explaining satisfactorily many areas of crystalline schis¬

tose rocks by the metamorphism of sedimentary layers or eruptive masses.

Thus many areas of rocks not to be distinguished in the hand specimen

from schists which lie below the lowest fossiliferous horizons, have been

shown to be metamorphosed sediments of Silurian, Devonian, or even

younger ages. In Norway and in western New England, Silurian beds have

been changed to crystalline schists. Schistose Devonian rocks occur in the

Ardennes and Taunus. In northern Italy, at Carrara, the Trias is repre¬

sented by marble and in other localities crystalline schists are assigned to

the Cretaceous.

In seeking to analyze more carefully the process and find analogies with

other metamorphosing agencies, the attention is directed at once to those

processes which take place within the contact -zones of eruptive masses.

Careful comparison shows that as concerns mineral decompositions and

the atomic and molecular re-arrangements, the two processes yield re¬

markably similar results. The hydrous minerals generally disappear,

certain mineral species disappear and are replaced by other species

formed from their constituents, which are more stable under the conditions

of the process. The more common metamorphic minerals are mica,

garnet, staurolite, epidote, vesuvianite, wollastonite, and certain varieties

of pyroxene and hornblende. Analyses in toto of the unaltered and met¬

amorphosed phases of the same rock yield identical results, exceptions

being noted when tourmaline, topaz, or allied species, in whose formation

gaseous material is concerned, have been developed during the process.

Mineralogically, then, the process consists in a more or less thorough re¬

arrangement, which may be mainly molecular as in the case - of hornblende

after augite, but it more frequently involves elaborate chemical decomposi¬

tions and reactions. The German expression, Umbildung, aptly describe*

this process.

If the agent be sought which affects the transformations, we are directed

to a different source in each of the two cases of Contact and Regional

Some Metamorphosed Eruptwes of Maryland. 157

metamorphism. In the first it is without question, heat, while in the

second we are forced to believe that heat, if a factor at all, is a very small

one, its place being taken by pressure, accompanied by internal movement.

Where the rocks show most disturbance in the field, there the microscope

reveals the maximum of pseudomorphic change and alteration of texture.

We see then, that much the same effect can be produced at least along

two different lines, and from what has been said about the chemical com¬

position of the rock before and after the process, it would not seem to be

impossible to produce by metamorphism from a shale and a gabbro, the

same resultant rock, provided their analyses in toto were the same.

The study of metamorphosed massive rocks has yielded perhaps the

most satisfactory results, since the original character is frequently betrayed

even after pronounced metamorphic action, by areal or structural relations,

or by the remains of rock-textures. The sending of dikes or apophyses into

surrounding rocks, the presence of included fragments of them, and

the remains of crystal boundaries now existing for some other species

known to be secondary, are valuable bits of evidence. In some re¬

gions where massive gabbro oi diabase occurs in conjunction with

hornblende gneisses, it is seen that they pass insensibly into one an¬

other, and careful study has shown that the hornblende gneiss is the

metamorphosed form of the gabbro. Geologists have further been able to

trace the steps of the process by examining the rock from parts of a

given area that have been but slightly effected, at localities where most

disturbance has taken place, and at intermediate points. It would seem

that the feldspars are the most sensitive to disturbance, a wavy extinction

between crossed Nicols being noticeable when the other minerals show no

effects. If the process is more advanced, a breaking up of this mineral

may result, and one of the decompositions to saussurite, epidote or amphi-

bole may be noticed. Pyroxene is altered to amphibole (Uralitization). A

breaking up of hornblende crystals takes place with an arrangement of the

longer axes of fragments parallel to a plane of schistosity. The details of

the process differ somewhat according to the original chemical and min-

eralogical composition of the rock, the intensity of the matamorphism,

and other conditions which we can not analyze.

A region which furnishes an example of the metamorphism of gabbro

to hornblende-gneiss is that southwest of the city of Baltimore. The

Potomac formation (Juro -Cretaceous) consists in this vicinity of unconsol¬

idated gravels which rest on the crystalline schists and gneisses of the

Pre-Cambrian belt, and their included intrusive members. To the west

and northwest of the city of Baltimore is a nearly circular area of hypers-

thene-gabbro and gabbro- diorite, which has become well known through

the beautiful studies of Dr. Geo. H. Williams. The results have been pub¬

lished in a bulletin of the U. S. Geological Survey. Professor Williams

has shown that the hypersthene-gabbro of that area passes into gabbro-

diorite by the alteration of both hypersthene and diallage to horn-

158

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

blende. The alteration begins on the surface of the pyroxene and proceeds

from there toward the center. From the same hand specimen sections

were prepared in which could be seen almost unaltered pyroxene, and the

same mineral with wide marginal fringes of hornblende. In the hand

specimen the hypersthene-gabbro possesses a bronzy lustre from the pre¬

ponderance of orthorhombic pyroxene, while the gabbro-diorite is green,

owing to the secondary hornblende derived from pyroxene.

An area five miles square immediately southwest of that just described,

I have examined in the field and studied by means of microscopic sections

and otherwise in the laboratory. The western portion of the area is occu¬

pied by the Pre-Cambrian gneisses. The remaining portion of the area

contains outcrops of gabbro, gabbro-diorite, true diorites, hornblende

gneiss, and intrusive rocks which belong to later periods of eruption. The

field study shows that the gabbro forms a continuation of the gabbro area

studied by Professor Williams. This part of the gabbro area, however,

differs in two respects from that farther north; first, in the greater differ¬

entiation of the magma, which here produced true diorites as well as

gabbro; and, second, in the greater metamorphic action, which has pro¬

duced from the gabbro first a gabbro-diorite, and then a hornblende gneiss.

The true diorites have gone over to hornblende gneiss by much the same

process as the gabbro-diorite. These several modifications are assumed to

have formed one and the same mag¬

ma from the absence of any visible

contact between them. The gabbro

and diorites have not been found in

the same outcrop, but the field evi¬

dence is such as to make it very prob¬

able that they are differentiations of

the same mass. Gabbro, gabbro dio-

rite, and hornblende gneiss on the

other hand, can be seen to pass imper¬

ceptibly into one another in the vicin¬

ity of Ilchester. The microscopic ev¬

idence is most confirmatory on this

point, slides having been prepared

from a sufficient number of speci- between feldspar and hornblende. X 50.

mens to show the steps in the pro¬

cess. To make clear, it will be necessary to give somewhat in detail

the characters of the end types, gabbro and hornblende-gneiss, and of

the intermediate varieties.

The entirely unaffected hypersthene gabbro has not been found within

the area studied, but a rock containing both hypersthene and diallage sur¬

rounded by marginal fringes of green hornblende, composes a core a few

feet in diameter enclosed in gabbro-diorite. This core occurs in the wall

of rock formed by the railroad cutting at Ilchester station, and its brown

Some Metamorphosed Eruptives of Maryland.

159

color makes it apparent in contrast with the green of the surrounding rock.

The feldspar of this rock is a basic plagioclase, corresponding closely with

bytownite. Between crossed Nicols its strained condition is apparent in

the wavy extinction. The hypersthene is strongly pleochroic, and, like

the diallage, has the usual characters except for the marginal rim of horn¬

blende.

The gabbro diorite contains neither hypersthene nor diallage, both hav¬

ing been changed completely to hornblende. This mineral is not generally

so fibrous as that of uralitized diabases, but it is a green massive variety

in crystals not many times smaller than those of the pyroxene from which

they are derived. Not infrequently the central portions contain areas,

roughly circular, of a colorless mineral of low refractive index, which is

believed to be quartz separated in the alteration process, and indicating

that its host is less acid than the original pyroxene. Similar areas occur

in the hyperite-diorites of Sweden and in the Baltimore gabbro- diorite.

The feldspar is bytownite, but here it shows more marked optical ano¬

malies than in the gabbro.*?' In the more effected specimens, hornblende

is developed in needles within the feldspar, being sometimes arranged in

bands and indicating, it would seem, lines of weakness. In certain of these

specimens a distinct reaction-rim appears between the feldspar and the

hornblende. Between crossed Nicols this rim affords high colors like those

of epidote. Epidote was found by Dr. Williams to compose reaction-rims

in the gabbro- diorite of Mount Hope, and it was at first suspected that

these aggregates might be composed largely of epidote. Prof. Rosenbusch

suggested to me that the mineral is amphibole in thin scales, the high col¬

ors resulting from intercalated films of air. (Fig. 1.)

In some specimens of this rock

rutile is present as an important ac¬

cessory constituent, associated with

ilmenite, and both are surrounded

by wide rims of titanomorphite or

sphene. (See Fig. 2.) In a few local-

ties (Ilchester R. R. cut) these min¬

erals can be seen in the hand speci¬

men, where they closely resemble

the similar association in the horn¬

blende gneiss of Lampersdorf in

Silicia. As soon as the rock takes

on the laminated character of a

gneiss, the feldspars appear broken

down or granulated peripherically

into fine mosaics ( Randliche Kata-

Fig. 2. — Section of gabbro-diorite from

Bchester, Md., showing ilmenite, rutile and

titanomorphite. X275.

klassstruktur.) Simultaneously a “fraying out” and splintering of

hornblende, and a considerable development of epidote are to be

160 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

are to be observed. The splintered fragments of hornblende and the newly-

formed minerals become roughly oriented with reference to a plane of

schistosity. (See Fig. 8.) Plate I is from

a photograph of the wall of hornblende

gneiss on the left bank of the Patapsco

river opposite Ilchester railroad station.

In the same region are found other

younger intrusive masses which cut the

rocks just described. The most import¬

ant of these is a porphyritic granite con¬

taining allanite-epidote intergrowths,

and having dioritic facies resembling the

diorites associated with gabbro. Isolated

bosses of a non-feldspathic pyroxene

rock and a coarse hornblende picrite 3- Section of Hornblende-Gneiss

r (Metamorphosed hyperstnene gabbro)

(Cortlandtite) occur. Further, a coarse from Thistle Cotton Mills, ilchester, Md.,

showing peripheral granulation of feld-

pegmatite is especially abundant in the spar, fraying out of hornblende, and

, . . . , „ . J development of epidote with zonal

neighborhood of Ilchester. structure. X50.

In the course of a hasty reconnaissance in the Odenwald in Hesse, I was

much impressed by the striking resemblance in characters of the rocks of

that region and of the one just described. The porphyritic hornblende

granites and diorites of the Birkenauerthal resemble more than any others

that I have seen the Ilchester granite. In the vicinity of Burg Franken¬

stein on the Bergstrasse occur gabbros associated with dioritic rocks bear¬

ing much resemblance to the gabbro- diorites of Ilchester. The Ilchester

Cortlandtite finds its representative in the Schillerfels of Schriesheim. The

analogy might be carried further to include a pegmatite'and a basic pyrox¬

ene rock (Wehrlite) from the same general locality in the Odenwald region.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE.

Gabbro- diorite passing into hornblende gneiss. On left bank of Patapsco

river, near highway bridge, at Ilchester, Md. The gabbro-diorite is seen

on the left, passing by insensible gradations into hornblende gneiss to¬

ward the right.

Vol. VIII

Frans. Wis. Acad.

at 'nna;

Concerning the Ericacea.

161

NOTES AND A QUERY CONCERNING THE ERICACEAE.

By OHAS. H. CHANDLER, Ripon, Wis.

Plants of the Heath Family are rarely found in regions where the soil

is calcareous. The personal search of the writer m his leisure hours for

some years, as well as inquiries made of botanists acquainted with the flora

of several states, have disclosed no examples of Ericaceae in such regions

except such as by their peculiar conditions seem to be exceptions tending

to prove the general rule of their absence.

The only vigorous growth found under such conditions has been that of

the parasitic Monotropa, reported by several observers; but since its support

is thus indirectly obtained from the soil, its growth is not inconsistent with

the statement that the Ericaceae will not tolerate compounds of lime.

Rare and feeble specimens of Pyrola rotundifolia are said to have been

found in Ripon, Wis., in a region of Trenton limestone. But, as nearly as

the two spots in which it was found can now be determined, they were

both upon knolls of drift gravel, wdiere the effects of the underlying lime¬

stone must have been very slight, if not entirely absent.

A vague account has been received of some one of the smaller species,

Vaccinium having been found in or near Waupaca county, in a region of

hard water. But here too it may be reasonably suspected that the condi¬

tions were like those mentioned in the case of the Pyrola, since the Vac¬

cinium was said to have been found in a region of knolls, and upon the

knolls rather than between them.

No other apparent exceptions have been found to the rule that calca¬

reous soils are unsuited to the growth of all members of the Heath Family,

and this to a degree which is practically prohibitive.

Several specimens of Kalmia latifolia, upon being carefully transplanted

into a soil of weathered limestone and clay in Greene county, Ohio, died at

once; and othei’s set in a black vegetable loam filling a long depression in

the same soil lingered without any growth for some months and then died

The query whether if is possible for any member of the Ericaceae to

grow in a calcareous soil may lead to broader questions which have re¬

ceived very little attention from either writers on agriculture or botany,

such as whether the non-adaptability of certain soils to certain plants may

not often be due as much to the positive presence of injurious constituent

11— A. & L.

162

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

as to the negative property that certain food elements demanded by the

plants are absent; and whether such lines of adaptability do not frequently

coincide with generic or family division lines.

Note. — After the reading of this paper cases were cited by members

present showing real exceptions to the rule suggested. Gaylusacia resinosa

is found upon Trenton limestone three miles west of Hanover, Ind., on the

high banks of the river. Both Gaylusacia and Vaccinium on hill tops of

Lower Magnesian limestone in towns of Troy, Franklin and Spring Green,

Sauk county, Wis., and other plants of this order, but the species were not

named, in Lincoln county, Ky. In none of these cases, however, did it

appear that the drainage from limestone would come to the plants; but

still the soil must be calcareous.

Analytic Keys to the Species of Mosses .

168

ARTIFICIAL KEYS TO THE GENERA AND SPECIES

OF MOSSES RECOGNIZED IN LESQUEREUX AND

TAMES’S MANUAL OF THE MOSSES OF NORTH

AMERICA. - ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS.

By CHARLES R. BARNES.

Since the separate publication of the Keys printed on pages 11-81 of this

volume, the author has discovered a number of errors, typographical and

other. He is also indebted to Mrs. E. G. Britton, Miss C. E. Cummings,

Mr. E. A. RaU, Dr. C. W. Swan and Mr. L. S. Cheney for suggestions or

corrections. The additions and corrections which have thus accumulated

are deemed of sufficient importance for publication.

Page 18, for first three lines under TT TT? substitute:

Teeth bifid to the common membranous base.

Leaves subulate to lance -subulate, from a broader

base . Lepto trichum, 105. 87.

Leaves broader.

Lid short, conic or beaked .... Desmatodon, 110. 88.

Lid elongated-conic . Trichostomum, 108. 88.

Page 23, for line 12, substitute:

Leaf cells quadrate at basal angles.

Plants small, capsules about 2mm. long . Platygyrium, 307.

Plants large, capsules about 4mm. long Cylindrothecium, 310. 67.

Page 25, below B. 1, insert:

[SS. qymbifolium and papillosum may be sought here.]

Page 28, for line 15, substitute:

Qosta broad a bove, almost or quite filling point.

164

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters .

Page 80, under DXCRANELLA, read:

L Cells of the exothecium rectangular-quadrate; seta red; costa narrow

and well defined beloio.

Page 31, line 1, read:

U. Cells of the exothecium prosenchymatous; seta often yellow; costa

usually broad and indistinct below.

Page 32, set D. palustre, 19. opposite line 11 and dele lines 12 and 13. For

line 19, substitute:

Papillose at back.

Capsules solitary . D. spnrinm, 21 .

Capsules clustered ...... D, Brummondii, 22,

Under 2, dele line a.

Page 33, line 13, for to, substitute B.

Page 43, after line 15, insert:

[G. Pennsylvanica will be sought here.]

Page 47, for last 3 lines, substitute:

Capsule wholly exserted.

Smooth when dry, defluent into seta ... 0. Isevigatum, 2.

Furrowed when dry, abrupt at base .... 0. Douglasii, 6.D

Page 48, for line 5 from bottom, substitute:

Capsule furrowed when dry . 0. Douglasii, 6. 11

Page 64, under NECKERA, in lines 2 and 4, read:

Plants slender (shoots 1 — 2 mm. wide), etc.

Plants robust (shoots 3 — 4 mm. wide), etc.

Page 65, to Hookeria Sullivan tii, add foot note:

Muller writes (July 18, 1888): “Die Hoolcerict Sullivantii mihi unterscheide ich auch

heute noch von H. lucens und ebenso von H. acutifolici aus Indien.” . Fide Mrs. E. G.

Britton.

Page 66. under THEM A, for last two lines, substitute:

Usually bi-furcate, teeth long (1:17 — 20), leaves ciliate T. asprella, 2.

Usually 4 furcate, teeth short (1:12), leaves not ciliate T. Lescurii, 4.

1 The position of the stomata of this species is still uncertain, and until it is found again

no more definite characterization of it seems possible.

165

Analytic Keys to the Species of Mosses.

Page 69, under for lines 2, 8 and 4, substitute:

Stem leaves short acuminate, cilia 2, annulus double . H. scitum, 8.

Stem leaves long acuminate, cilia 8, annulus simple . H. gracile, 10.

Stem leaves long acuminate, cilia 1, annulus 0 . H. calyptratum, 11.

Under -» — *— , for lines 4 and 5, substitute:

Apical cells of branch leaves round , papillose . H. delicatulum, 14.

Perichsetial leaves not ciliate, apical cells of branch leaves

oblong, with 2—3 papillae . . . , H. recognitum, 13.

Under b insert as line 6:

Plants minute, leaves entire (but papillae salient), costate

to the middle . H. pygmseum, 7.

Page 70, -x- * , substitute:

* * Leaves entire , or denticulate above , plants creeping.

Page 71, under ®f[ ®f[ insert, as line 1:

Leaf cells rhombic above, rectangular below H. occidentale, S. & L.a

Change the co-ordinate choices in this paragraph, lines 6 and 12, so as

to read:

Leaf cells alike throughout.

Leaf cells enlarged, rectangular at the basal angles.

Page 73, insert as line 8 from botton:

Leaves broad-ovate, acute, segments split . . H. Mans, 77.

Page 74, for line 3, substitute:

Deltoid, with long slender points (leaves of branchlets sometimes blunt).

Page 75, for line 8, substitute:

Leaves widest above base, long acuminate.

Leaf cells oblong, parenchymatous . . M. ckrysophyllum, 130.

Leaf cells fusiform, prosenchymatous . . . H. riparium, 127.

1 Sull. Icon. Muse. Suppl. 105. pi. 81.— Accidentally omitted from the Manual.

- - i . , ' - l

166 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

Page 76, for last 10 lines, substitute:

Leaves not falcate.

Abruptly filiform apiculate, alar cells not conspicu¬

ous . H. tricliopiiorum, 100,

Gradually filiform acuminate, alar cells orange.

Plants slender, 2 — 3 cm. long.

Branches erect, leaves serrate . . H. MuMenbeckii, 111.

Branches intricate, leaves nearly entire . H. Fitzgeraldi, 112.

Plants stout, 7 — 10 cm. long, leaves quite entire H. stellatiim, 131.

Acute or short apiculate, alar cells few, large . II. palustre, 165,

Obtuse, entire, alar cells hyaline . . . H. cuspidatnm, 176.

Page 78, under II, in parenthesis, dele:

and Bracliytliecium Tliedenii.

The following typographical errors should also be corrected:

Page 13, line 1, for nothing read noting.

Page 15, line 10 from bottom, for 153 read 152.

Page 22, line 4, for B * read 2 *.

Page 53, line 20, for P. Muhlenbeekii read P. Mulilenbergii.

Page 60, line 7 from bottom, for A. augustatum read A. angustatum*

Page 69, line 16 from bottom, for H. abietiuum read If, abietiimm.

Science of the English Language in the Light of Gothic . 167

THE RELATION OF OLD ENGLISH ‘REOMIG’ TO

GOTHIC ‘RIMIS.’

By G. H. BALG.

The following discussion is the concluding part of my paper on “The

Science of the English Language in the Light of Gothic,” read before the

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters, December 28th, 1888,

A number of Germanic stems in -as : is, both concrete and abstract, have

been given by Sieve rs, in his Old English Grammar, by Kluge, in a re¬

view of that grammar ( ‘ Anglia,’ vol. V, part 4), by ‘ Paul, in Paul and

Braune’s Beitraege’ (vol. IV, p. 415; VI, p. 229), by Kluge, ‘ Nominale

Stammbildungslehre ’ (§§ 84 and 145), and elsewhere. The above suffix an*

swers to Gr. 05 : £5, in neuter substantives like yeros, gen. yevov$ con¬

tracted from yevsoz, for a more ancient *y dyed 05; and to Lt. us:er, in

genus, gen. generis, for Agenesis. The accent fell on the radical syllable,

and, therefore, in Germanic the suffixal s changed into z which appears in

Gothic as s when assuming the final position, but, by leveling, there occurs

z for s, and $ for z.

The Gothic word rimis, ‘ rest, quietness,’ shows s in all cases. Its original

stem, rimiz-, answers to pre-Germanic remez-, from root rem seen in

Gr. rj-pEju-o 5, rrpEju-aio 5, ‘quiet,’ f/-p£ji-ia ‘rest.’ According to the

law that pre-Germanic unaccented e changed into i in Germanic, and pre-

Germanic accented e became i in Germanic, when the following syllable

contained i (Comp. Gr. 7t68-£$, Germanic *fot-iz, primitive Old English

fet-i, by i-umlaut of 6 and loss of -z ; later fete, Middle English fet ,

Modern English feet), pre Germanic remez- first became remiz-, and then

Wm?2(=rimis), our Gothic word in question. Furthermore, Germanic un¬

accented i after a short root syllable was first retained as i in Old English

and afterward weakened to e.

According to the above laws of development and decay, Germanic remiz

(Goth, rimis) appeared in Old English as remi : rimi : rime.

Now I claim that rime is found in Old English reomig, ‘ quiet,’ formed

by means of the Germanic adjective suffix -ag-. The dark vowel of -ag

changed the i of rime (the final vowel of which was dropped) into io, * rimag

becoming riomag, later *riomeg (by weakening). But there is another

Germanic sufh, -ig (=Goth. -eig~; -ag-- Gothic -ag-), which was likewise

168 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and, Letters .

used to form adjectives from substantives. In Old English -ig was first

shortened to -ig, and in the inflected cases weakened to -eg. In conse¬

quence of this weakening, the two suffixes -ag and -eg coincided in the in¬

flected cases, and, by the law of analogy, there occur not only nominative

cases with original -ig, but also such with -ig for -eg, from original -ag ;

an example is our Old English adjective *riomig. A similar case of con¬

fusion is that of Old English io from i, and eo from e, a fact supported by

numerous examples. It is owing to this double confusion that Old English

reomig stands for *riomeg; hence, Old English reomig is derived from

* rime = Gothic rimis.

.vV.f .i;;- . ,

Sr.'f 1

Aristotle’s Physics Reviewed.

169

ARISTOTLE’S PHYSICS (PHYSIKE AKROASIS)

REVIEWED.

By JOHN J. ELMENDORF. S. T. D.,

Professor of Mental Philosophy in Racine College.

An attempt to revivify Aristotle’s Physics, when this nineteenth century

is drawing to its close, may seem to some an absurd anachronism His mis¬

statements of facts have furnished stock quotations to those who would

illustrate the ignorance of benighted antiquity. His a priori method has

been only subject for ridicule, because in this enlightened period there is

only one secure path to true scientific knowledge, sc., the slow, but safe road

of accurate observation and careful experiment. If the critical observer,

from without the sacred precincts, remarks that empirical science mani¬

festly contains a priori assumptions which indicate the line, among an in¬

finitude of lines, which experiment shall follow, and is stated under the

form of concepts which need accurate definition, the reply may be that

advanced science is proceeding on the straight and lowly road of “ phe¬

nomenology,” and confines itself to that. The critic might reply, with Aris¬

totle, that there can be no such thing as a science of phenomena, because

they must be appearances of some thing, and cannot be thought or de¬

scribed, much less accounted for , without some assumption, true or false,

respecting that thing. But the dispute would only grow more lively, and

the end be far off. The critic will, perhaps, be safer in confining himself

to the remark, that so long as the experimenter says, “ I see that,” no

meaning can be attached to the purely phenomenal construction of his words,

to-wit. : “A chain of successive (subjective) states called, I, is at this mo¬

ment followed by the subjective state called, seeing one of co ordinate

phenomena called that” Since pure phenomenology appears to be reduced

to this, so much the worse for phenomenology.

Logic, pure mathematics, even that despised thing called metaphysics,

will have their word in the matter, and claim their place in the large do¬

main called ‘'science.”

It is, perhaps, time to call a halt; and after laughing at “ high priori”

roads to science, to consider more seriously whether or not those same a

priori methods have not some place even in the study of nature, whether

or not the analysis of reason’s fundamental concepts and necessary judg¬

ments is absolutely worthless for scientific ends.

170

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

Admitting, provisionally, the absurdities of Aristotle and his school,

cheerfully granting the necessity of verification of all deductive infer¬

ences, yet I have reason to maintain that that a priori road, where every

concept is rigidly defined, and primary truths are analyzed, truths abso¬

lutely unassailable, has proved suggestive of observations, fruitful in in¬

ferences which might have been verified, but which have been very slowly

reached, and only as hypotheses, by the empirical route.* The inquiry, it

seems to me, is not unpromising; the result may appear in a re examina¬

tion of Aristotle’s Physike Akroasis.

At a first glance, one is impressed by the glaring difference between this

treatise and, modern works bearing similar titles. It is not merely that

Aristotle cites some observations, so-called, which were reported to him, or

which he himself noted with very inaccurate observation; for the same

thing has happened since his time. Thus one of our chief contemporary

authorities in natural science, cites certain facts, so-called, which were

privately confessed to me, many years ago, to be sheer imposture, and are

now publicly so acknowledged. (M. & K. Fox.)

But, setting this aside, one sees in a modern treatise the attempt, at

least, to follow a strictly empirical method, and to attain higher and higher

generalizations by careful inductions. In the Physike Akroasis the aim is

to clear up those primary concepts which underlie all physical investiga¬

tions, and to make strict logical deduction fiom certain primary principles,

however those may have been obtained, which have the most absolute and

intuitive certainty.

This difference is of course largely due to the fact that Aristotle is aim-

ing at the philosophy of physics; to secure clear concepts and precise defin¬

itions, to determine (I. 1,) the principles, causes and elements concerned in

nature.

Aristotle first (I. 1) indicates his method, which is to proceed from what

is more familiar as coming under the observation of the senses, to what is

more fundamental, to elements, causes and principles. I suppose that we

must not call this “ Baconian induction,” but rather analysis. That which

is primarily given to us in knowledge is complex; we analyze it, using also

logical induction in order to reach remoter, but higher principles. Verifi¬

cation would of course supplement this method, but our author makes very

imperfect use of that.

Physics, in its widest sense, embraces all the sciences of nature. What

Grove, in the preface to his “ Correlation, etc.,” claims what is expressed by his title as

the latest and grandest discovery in physics. We will not dispute his assertion, if he means

experimental physics. But inasmuch as Aristotle maintains that all change in nature (and

nature is that world of beings whose characteristic mark is change, II, 1; III. 1,) is reduc¬

ible to local motion, and gives clear demonstration of his proposition, Grove’s assertion,

taken in its widest sense, seems hardly warranted by the facts. On the contrary, the a

priori method ought to have pointed out, in this case as in others, the road for experiment,

by giving anticipations from something more than “scientific imagination ” of the results

which might be expected.

Aristotle’s Physics Reviewed.

171

is nature? A collective name for those things, together with their causes,

etc., which have in themselves a principle of motion or change (kinesis).

(II. 1.) It is necessary, then, to have clear concepts of matter, form,

cause, change, including local motion, time and place or space, with their

correlated ideas, and this is the aim of the treatise now before us.

(I. 6, 7). Two principles at least, perhaps three, are necessary to ex¬

plain nature as it is known by us, viz., a passive matter, and an active

force, manifested in contrary phenomena; (attraction and repulsion, heat

and cold, etc.)

Motion, kinesis, taken in the widest sense, is the (continuous) transition

from a potential state to an actual state. It is either a change of quantity,

or of quality, or of place. But the three are reducible to one, viz. , local

motion. (VIII, 1.) If to these we add the change from potential to actual

being in generation, and its contrary, decay (phthora) we shall have the

whole sphere of changes perceived in nature.

II. 2. Applied mathematics consider the purely intelligible and un¬

changeable element which is found in nature, underlying all its changes.

II. 3. We account for any of those changes which we perceive in na¬

ture, when we assign their causes. But the word cause is very ambiguous,

and needs definition. All uses of the word are reducible to four: (1). The

material of the thing which comes into being may be called its cause, (con¬

dition), as marble of the statue; (2). The form or pattern, as the idea of

an oak is that towards which the acorn develops; (3). The efficient cause

or originator of the change which may itself be a changeable antecedent;

(4). The end, or final cause, or reason why. Why does one take exercise?

The cause is not fully given, if we name the man, describe the exercise

and account for muscular contraction; we add (II, 3), another cause; sc., the

exercise is for the sake of health.

In discussing cause, also, we must not overlook the fact (II, 7) that two

very different principles are requisite in explaining nature, sc., the sensible

antecedents, and the intelligible principle which is not physical nor subject

to change. Nature requires for its explication the supernatural.

II. 8. The discussion of final causes is of such interest in connection

with modern physics, and especially with reference to recent questions in

Natural history, that I may perhaps be allowed to present it in condensed

paraphrase. Why would it not be sufficient explanation of the expansion

of water cooled down to 40 degrees of Fahrenheit, if we could, as we can¬

not, assign its physical antecedents ? But our mind recognizes a relation

to the good of the world, an order and connection of things. And we must

assign chance, spontaneous action, or design, in accounting for that order,,

if we assign any cause for it. (Chance, here, does not mean the entire ab¬

sence of law, but a law which does not enter into the series of events in

question.)

By chance results may be obtained, indeed, as, when our guest came for

other reasons but took a bath at our house, we say that by chance he took a

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Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

bath. But neither chance nor spontaneous action will account for the in¬

variable series in nature’s work which I have illustrated in the expansion of

cooling water with its effects; therefore, final cause must be assumed. I

am not considering the value of this argument; I only note it as the first.

Secondly, each thing in nature acts as it is adapted by nature to act; and

as it acts, so it is adapted by nature. It acts for some end, therefore it was

naturally produced for that end. If a house were among natural things it

would be constituted as it now is by art. And if natural things could be

produced by art, it would constitute them and adapt them as they now

are. Art sometimes imitates nature; sometimes attempts what nature

does not; but in both cases for some end. The argument, then from art’s

having an end to final cause in nature is valid; for the relation of prior to

posterior is the same in both.

Thirdly, we have no warrant for imputing conscious art or deliberation,

to insects or to vegetables; yet there is an end, a form towards which these

work.

Here we note an objection, that if nature seeks an end, she does not al¬

ways reach it. But the same thing is true of art, wherein all admit the

existence of final cause. This principle does not exclude the principle of

necessary conditions, which are found in the matter by which all things

that are produced are conditioned. In these we must find the cause of

failure. The end of a saw is to cut wood, but iron is the necessary matter,

and may be the cause of failure. So nature requires the matter, but the

end is found in the form, the idea (eidos). If the end is to be reached, the

antecedent conditions must also exist; if these latter do not exist, then the

former cannot exist.

Without criticizing these arguments, I note the wide divergence of

method from the empirical. But as the latter can only discover antecedent

conditions existing in time, we need not allow it to interfere with our esti¬

mate of Aristotle's analysis of final cause and his attempted demonstration.

Its value seems to consist largely in its fixing attention on the necessity

of a rational explanation of nature. For who explains a watch by merely

stating its materials, and the physical antecedents of its motions? The

plan, the adaptation of part to part, the end accomplished, are still more es¬

sential. So in nature. Who explains a woodpecker’s tongue, if he de¬

scribes its anatomy and mechanism, and speculates concerning its origin,

but leaves out its relations to the bird and the conditions of its life ?

III. 6. The infinite is a physical concept which requires examination

and definition. Physics treat of body, that which has dimensions; and

whether it be known sensibly, or regarded in thought, it is necessarily lim¬

ited, finite. Potentially it exists in thought as indefinite, (apeiron) that

from which something can always be taken away, which can be always

further divided, to which something of the same kind can always be added.

Distinguish, therefore, the perfect, the completed whole, (teleion) which as

such, admits of no addition or subtraction.

Aristotle’s Physics Reviewed.

173

I pass over the proofs that the universe as a whole is finite in magnitude.

In the Fourth Book we find the well known analysis of place as a relation

existing between corporeal things, the relation of some actual finite body

to its container. The universe, as a whole is therefore not in place.

(III. 5.)

IV. 8. What then, do we mean by space? It is merely the indefinite

(apeiron) enlargement of the same idea, applied to the potential, not actual,

extension of bodies with their three dimensions. In other words, space is

no actualized entity, but the indefinite thought whose actuality is place

as a relation in actual bodies. I do not see that in this we have made any

advance from our author. Physical science can tell us whether wre need

anything more.

IV. 8. Aristotle clearly sees and points out the relations of the prob¬

lem of the existence of a vacuum to this question of space, and denies its

existence. Vacuum is unintelligible, it involves contradiction in thought;

it contradicts experience.

From this denial of a vacuum follows a mechanical theory of motion,

(kinesis) which Aristotle intimates, but does not follow out, neither was

any man then competent to do so.

IV. 10. Motion and time are co-eval. There never was a time in which

motion did not exist. Which brings us to a physical conception, as funda¬

mental as it is thoroughly established, and I believe, as fruitful as any in

Aristotle’s physics. What is time? He proves that it is not an independ¬

ent entity. It is not change, which is particular, found in this or that.

IV. 10. It is not motion, which is faster or slower; predicates which

are not applicable to time. And yet it requires motion; i. e. , change; and all

things which are immoveable, unchangeable, are not in time. Time is con¬

tinuous; it is limited by what we call “now;” which is like amoving

point describing a line.

So we reach our definition; “ Time is the number of motion (change) in

respect of prior and posterior.” This, of course, implies an intelligence to

do the numbering. In a purely material universe there would be no such

thing as time. (It may seem to us otherwise; but we put ourselves there

to do the numbering.)

IV. 11. Time is continuous, not an aggregate of instants or nows.

IV. 12. A very plain deduction is that time is either finite, actually,

or indefinite, potentially. But it can never be perfect (teleion) or what I

should call the proper infinite. When limited by two nows, like, two

points, e. g., one past and the other that moving point which we call the

present, time is finite; disregarding either of the nows, we get the poten¬

tially infinite (apeiron) in duration.

IV. 1 2. Things which are not in time (and such things there are), neither

move nor rest. For rest is the privation of motion, and is numerable in Che

same way. Those beings only are in time which are subject to motion, to

change.

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IV. 14. Is time such a relation that it would not exist if there were

no mind to number continuous change and refer it to some measure?

That seems to be necessary deduction from our definition of time.

VI. 1. Time, like every other continuous quantity, cannot consist of

indivisible units, any more than a line can consist of successive points.

L.. VI. 6. All changes, like time their number, are, potentially, divisible

ad infinitum. From this is deduced the very suggestive principle, that no

change or motion can possibly be instantaneous.

In Aristotle’s De Sens, Chapt. VI, he applies this principle to show the

progressive motion of light.

VII. 1. Wherever there is change, or motion, there must be an ante¬

cedent, efficient cause, which itself may be something moved or changed.

And so we may make a regress indefinitely; but such a series cannot be

infinite.

I do not propose to follow the metaphysical proof of this proposition,

but only to note the result, viz. , that in physics a first moving cause which

is not itself subject to change must, according to principles of reason, be

assumed to exist. We shall not reach that first cause, perhaps, by regress

through the chain of changes; for these are discovered by the senses; but

this first cause is not so discoverable, but is an intelligible principle, neces¬

sary in accounting for change, and known with absolute certainty to exist.

VIII. 1. Motion, change, cannot be annihilated. Nature is orderly, sub¬

ject to law, and the law of continuity of force canies on successive

changes in the indefinite extension of time.

VIII. 5. Let us consider further the prime mover. It may indeed, act

hrough many media, just as a man may impel a stone through the media of

his cane, his hand, etc. ; but it is impossible to recede in such a chain through

an absolute infinity of links. The first mover, then, is self -moved. It does

not constitute one of the chain of links; for those are sensible, the prime

mover is purely intelligible. It is itself immutable. Everything which

is mutable, is also divisible. But the prime mover is one and indivisible.

VIII. 6. It never changes, but the things which are moved change

their relations to it, as it does to them. Here I observe, in passing, that

the changed relations of Deity to the world of finite beings, according to

this principle, are based on changes in the things which belong to time.

This prime mover is eternal. For motion has neither beginning nor end.

It has absolute unity. There may, indeed, be many motors which are

immutable; but if they come into being, or cease to be, there must be a

cause of that, as of any other change. Thus, we are carried back again to

the eternal, primal mover. All change is, in ultimate analysis, reducible

to one continuous motion. Therefore the first cause is one only. All

living things may be called self-moved; but they are also changeable and

conditioned by external things. “

Concluding this too brief review of Aristotle’s fundamental physical

principles, I will try to state what laws of nature now empirically estab-

Aristotle’s Physics Reviewed.

175

lished, he rationally deduces from first principles of reason, by aid of his

accurately defined concepts.

1. All change is reducible to local motion.

2. Energy is an unchangeable quantum, enduring through all transmu¬

tations. Motion is never destroyed.

3. All indefinitely continuous motion (local) is in curved lines.

4. Light, and, by parity of reasoning, all changes of condition in mat¬

ter, transmitted through space, are not instantaneous, but require time for

their transmission.

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Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

THE DEFECTIVE CLASSES.

By A. O. WRIGHT,

Secretary of the State Board of Charities and Reform.

The defective classes form a series of small but very troublesome tumors

upon the body politic. For various reasons, ranging all the way from the

imperative need of protection to society up to those humane influences for

which our century is distinguished, these classes have fallen under the

more or less effective guardianship of government in all civilized coun¬

tries. Private effort is also doing much to palliate or to prevent the evils

which the defective classes bring on themselves and upon society at large.

And still there is everywhere an apparent, if not a real increase in the

number of these classes and in their ratio to the total population. It is

claimed that this increase is in many cases caused by the very efforts

which are made to care for them, and it is at least certain that these ef¬

forts bring to light many cases of evil which would have been hidden, and

preserve many miserable lives which would have been allowed to perish in

former days. In other cases it is claimed that the complex conditions of

modern society favor the increase of these classes. At any rate the subject

deserves attention and study by the philanthrophist as well as by the

statesman, by the student as well as by the man of affairs.

It seems to me that the following classification of the defective classes,

which is original wTith me, is more philosophical than any other I have

seen and also as good for practical purposes as any other. This classification

depends upon the three divisions of the mental faculties which are gener¬

ally accepted by psychologists. Insanity and idiocy are different forms of

defective intellect. Crime and vice are caused by defect of the emotions

or passions. And pauperism is caused by defect of the will. Blindness

and deafmutism are defects of the senses requiring special forms of edu¬

cation, but are not defects of the mind any more than the loss of an arm

or a leg. Blind or deaf and dumb people properly educated are not a bur¬

den or a danger to society as are criminals, insane persons or paupers.

Their defects are physical not mental, and they should not be classed with

persons who have these mental defects.

The above^classification has the advantage of starting from the center

instead of from the circumference. “The mind is the measure of the

man” andjt is the abnormal and defective mind which produces the mis¬

chief rather than the physical disability or the social conditions. Doubt-

The Defective Classes.

177

less these have their influence, but it is a more remote influence. The im¬

mediate cause is in the mind, and the cure, if there is to be a cure, must

be addressed to the mind either directly by argument and influence or in¬

directly by changing the conditions surrounding the subject, so as to

change his motives. Anything which fosters abnormal and ill regulated

thoughts or passions or which weakens the control of reason, conscience

and will over the mind tends to produce insanity, crime and pauperism.

Everything which aids self -control reduces the tendency to these abnor¬

malities.

I am speaking now of these classes as a whole and not here taking ac¬

count of the exceptions to be found in them. I know a man who was a

good average man in every respect, but who by a fall upon his head from

a load of hay, was made insane, deaf and dumb and blind, all at once, and

who is still thus triply afflicted, but is otherwise healthy. In his case the

insanity was a pure accident. The state of Georgia severely punished the

missionaries who undertook to civilize and christianize the Cherokee In¬

dians contrary to the laws of the commonwealth. They were criminals

in one sense, as violators of human law, but no one will attempt to class

them as criminal in anything more than a technical sense. I once found

an old man of good character and standing in the community in a poor-

house. He had given his farm to his son on condition of his son’s caring

for him in his old age. The father was tortured with chronic rheumatism

and was therefore some trouble to care for. The son sold the farm and

moved out of the state, leaving his poor crippled old father to die in the

poorhouse. The father was an accidental pauper and could not fairly be

included in the list of voluntary paupers. But such cases as these are ex¬

ceptions, and the rule is as I have stated it.

The distribution of the defectwe classes by nationality, education,

wealth, age, sex, occupation and the like, is interesting from a scientific

point of view and important from a practical standpoint. A study of the

distribution of insanity, crime and pauperism, may reveal the conditions

which create or foster them. And as society has more or less control over

social conditions, it may become possible to heal some of these ulcers on the

body politic, if we know where they are and what irritant produced them.

But please notice that I say may, not shall. The small success of all ef¬

fort in the past toward curing these evils, ought to make social reform¬

ers modest.

First the question of sex. Men and women are about equally afflicted

with insanity. Massachusetts has more women than men insane, because

it has more women than men in the total population. Wisconsin has more

men insane than women, because we have a preponderance of the male sex.

Either the causes are the same in men and women, which produce insanity,

or they are equivalent. Heredity, worry, over -work, under feeding, sick¬

ness and the weaknesses of old age affect women and men equally, and the

12 —A. & L.

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Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

perils of childbirth and of loneliness for solitary farmers’ wives are about

equal to the dangers from accident and the vices to which men are exposed .

But crime and pauperism are liabilities of men much more than of

women. There are generally about forty times as many men as women in

our state’s prison and in our jails and houses of correction. The dispropor¬

tion is not quite so great in some other states and is still less in Euro,

pean countries. In Europe there is no sentimental pity for a woman

on account of her sex. In this state a few years ago, a farmer was mur¬

dered by his wife and the hired man. The hired man is now in state’s,

prison, while the more guilty woman is free. But even in Europe the pro¬

portion of men to women is perhaps ten to one. Women do not commit

crime as readily as men do; it may be from principle; it may be from

cowardice; it may be from lack of temptation. 4

And women do not become paupers as readily as men. In getting out

door relief, it is true, women are a little ahead of men, but that is because it

is easier for a woman to get poor relief than for a man. And in fact,

where outdoor relief is laxly administered, though it is the women who

usually apply for it, there are often lazy men behind them sending them

for it or else drinking up all their earnings in the comfortable conscious¬

ness that the public will support their families. One case I heard of in this

state, where a man spent all his week’s wages every Saturday night and

Sunday, at a certain saloon, whose proprietor was the officer who gave pub¬

lic money to support the wife and family. That man was the real pauper,

not his wife. So that even in outdoor relief, it is probable that the men

have a good share of the pauperism. And in the poorhouse, as I said, there

are thrice as many men as women.

Second, as to age. About an equal number of each sex are born idiots

and remain so all their lives, so that the question of age in idiocy need not

be taken into account, except that idiots are not long lived. But insanity

is a defect of mature years. Out of thousands of insane whom I have seen,

I only remember two insane children. Going through an insane asylum ,

you are struck with the general age of the patients in contrast with the

youth of the attendants. This, of course, is partly caused by the fact that

insanity is not very curable. Only about one-fourth of the insane recover,

a few die, and the rest end their days as chronic insane. But it is also

caused by the fact that most insane are middle aged, or elderly before they

become insane.

Crime is rarely committed by little children, and when committed, is ex¬

cused by the law or by the judges and jury. The absurdity of hanging a

boy for murder or sending him to state’s prison for life for burglary, both

of which have been actually done in the south recently, is not allowed in

any northern state. But every visitor to a jail or state prison must notice

the comparative youthfulness of the prisoners. The average age of the

convicts in state’s prison is 27. Or, to put it in another way, the majority

The Defective Classes.

179

of convicts in state’s prison are under 25. The difference between 27 and

25 is accounted for by the difference between an average and a majority.

The direct opposite of this is the case with pauperism. The majority of

paupers are over 50 years old. Criminals are mostly young men. Paupers

are mostly old men and old women. Youth is the age of passion, and

perverted passions lead to crime. The author of the Jukes Family, the

best sociological study ever made, says that among the descendants of

Margaret, the “mother of criminals,” it is very noticeable that in youth

they were prostitutes and criminals, and in age, beggars and paupers.

The same perverted instincts which led them to prey upon the community,

took the direction of crime in the time of strength and of pauperism in the

time of weakness.

The question of tramps comes in here. A tramp is a person determined

to live without work, and who therefore is compelled to wander from

place to place in order to do so. No individual, or society, or institution,

or communitv, will support an able-bodied loafer in idleness any length of

time. But many will give a little money or bread out of mistaken sympathy

to a stranger, or as the easiest way to get rid of an annoyance. I have seen

some thousand tramps, and with very few exceptions they were young men,

I have seen two or three men fifty or sixty years old, and I have seen

two or three women tramps. But I have seen hundreds of young men

under twenty- one, and thousands under thirty, healthy able-bodied men.

Among them were a few who were ready for robbery, burglary or rape,

if a good opportunity offered. And in the judgment of skilled officers,

there are some murderers and other criminals hiding among the tramps.

But the mass of the tramps prefer to prey on society by beggary, rather

than by crime. If they were bolder they would be criminals. What be¬

comes of the old tramps? I do not believe that many of them live to be

old. They are killed on the railroads or die of exposure. Many of them

tire of tramping and get back to work again. Some drop into crime and

get into prison, and are in some cases reformed by the steady discipline of

prison life. One tramp told me that he got the opium habit through the

toothache, and was broken of it by being sent to state prison for burglary.

Other tramps break down and die in poor houses or insane asylums. We

probably have a hundred tramps in our insane asylums in this state, and

about as many in our poor houses. This is an enormous proportion to be

furnished by from 500 to 1,000 tramps, the probable number who are in

our state at any given time.

The question of education is often stated as if education favored insanity

and opposed crime and pauperism. As a fact, I do not think that educa¬

tion has so great an influence either way, as many seem to think. We

were told half a century ago that it was cheaper to build school houses

than jails and poorhouses. We have dotted the country over with school-

houses, and we find that jails and poorhouses are just as necessary as ever.

But some one may say that this is because there is no effective compulsory

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Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

education and because we have an unusual number of ignorant foreigners

coming to our shores. But this is sufficiently answered by looking at Ger¬

many, with its homogeneous population and compulsory education and

compulsory religious, as well as secular education, at that. In Germany,

crime and pauperism and insanity are increasing as they are with us.

Criminals, paupers and insane, all average a little below the rest of the

community in education. There are, of course, exceptions. In the case

of the insane and of criminals we can all of us point to conspicuous excep¬

tions. I know a few cases of educated paupers, but very few, because

their relations or friends care for them and do not let them go to the poor-

house. Inspecting a poorhouse a while ago I found in one of the rooms a

book which had been given as a prize for scholarship in a famous New

England academy. The owner had been district attorney of the county,

and was now in the poorhouse through liquor. All efforts to reform him

had proved in vain. But the fact remains that the average of the defec¬

tive classes is of a lower intellectual grade than the average of the com¬

munity. Their smaller knowledge and less natural ability makes them

break down into insanity more easily and easier drift into crime or

pauperism.

The best statistics of criminals have been kept for over half a century by

the Eastern Pennsylvania penitentiary. The results of these statistics

seem to show that idleness rather than ignorance is the mother of crime.

An investigation, which I made a few years ago by personal inquiries

from poorhouse to poorhouse in Wisconsin satisfied me that about one-

tliird of the paupers are made so by idleness, one- third by liquor and one-

third by all other causes combined. In my judgment the idleness which

makes truants from school and therefore poor scholars, leads to crime or

pauperism in many cases, and in those cases it is not ignorance which is

the cause of crime, but idleness which is the cause of both ignorance and

crime.

The question of social standing is not of as great importance in this

democratic country as in Europe. Paupers of course do not come from the

wealthy or the middle classes. Many of the laboring classes do drop into

pauperism through misfortune or vice. But many of the paupers are not

even of the laboring class, but come from the outcasts of society. The

same is the case with the criminals. They do not come very largely from

the wealthy or middle classes. Some of them come from the laboring

classes, but they are very largely from the outcasts of society. To some

extent this holds good with insanity, but only to a small degree. The in¬

sane are found in all classes in considerable numbers, but the laboring class

furnishes more than its share of insane, and the outcasts an immense pro¬

portion to their total number. Criminals and paupers frequently become

insane, I should say, ten times as many as from the same number of aver¬

age humanity.

The advantages and disadvantages of city life have often been talked of.

The Defective Classes.

181

Many people suppose that the excitement and strain of city life conduces

to insanity. Others say that thedoneliness of country life has the same

effect. An English physician has taken the pains to tabulate the statistics

of insanity for the city of London for forty years and for several purely

agricultural counties in the south of England with about the same popula¬

tion for the same period of time, and finds that there is no difference be"

tween city and country" in the amount of insanity. But for crime, all

statistics show clearly that crime is concentrated in the cities, which are

the refuge of the criminal classes and the nurseries of young criminals in

the neglected street children. Pauperism is greater in the city than in the

country, though this may arise from the corrupt municipal governments

encouraging pauperism to win votes.

Now I come to some very curious results of the United States of 1880.

According to the figures of the census, insanity is about twice as prevalent

among foreigners as among native whites, and about twice as prevalent

among native whites as among negroes. In round numbers one in a thou¬

sand of the negroes of the United States are insane, one in five hundred of

the native whites, and one in two hundred and fifty of the foreigners.

There has been a great deal of nonsense written upon this by learned men

about foreign governments shipping their insane to us to take care of. The

fact is that the ordinary immigrants are healthy young people, with less

insanity than the average, and that comparatively few cases of insanity

are shipped over here, and that in recent years a strict watch is kept at the

ports against the shipment of any of the defective classes to this country.

One observation will prick this bubble. In the census the children of for¬

eigners born here are counted as natives, properly enough; but by taking

away from the foreign population most of the children and adding them

to the native population, it makes an unfair basis on which to estimate the

proportion of insanity, as children do not become insane. The proper

basis would be what is the proportion of foreign born insane to the adult

foreign population, and of native insane to the adult native population.

On this basis there is still a slight disproportion of the foreign and native

insane, but not more than can be accounted for by the comparative ignor¬

ance and poverty of the mass of the foreigners who come here and the

trials they have to meet in adapting themselves to the conditions of life in

a strange land. But why are negroes so much less insane than white

people ? I do not pretend to say. Perhaps it may be on account of their

easy, happy dispositions, which makes them less thrifty than the whites,

but also less liable to bring themselves into insanity. Dr. Bryce, of the

Alabama State hospital, says that insanity since the war is rapidly increas¬

ing among the negroes.

There is a greater proportion of crime and pauperism among foreigners

than among natives, probably because of their greater ignorance and pov¬

erty, and because they have been accustomed to rely upon a paternal gov¬

ernment and do not get accustomed to the freedom of America. The

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Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

greater tendencies to pauperism I ascribe to the fact that in most European

countries the laboring class is on the verge of pauperism and is continually

being pushed over into it by sickness or old age. In England two per cent,

of the population are paupers and a large part of the agricultural laborers

end their days in the workhouse, for the reason that they barely get a liv¬

ing when able to work and therefore cannot save anything for old age.

The paupers in this country are a great deal less than half of one per

cent, of the population. Where the laboring classes are brought up to ex¬

pect to end their days in the poorhouse, it is not wonderful that in coming

to this country they seek relief easier than the natives do.

Negroes furnish a larger proportion of crime and a smaller proportion

of pauperism than the waites. As the negroes are mostly massed in the

southern states, we may look at the condition of society there for part of

the explanation of this. Negroes get little sympathy from whites in the

south and consequently do not easily get into poorhouses, but do easily get

into prison. Negroes do not consider petty theiving very wrong, having

learned that during slavery times. A negro will not starve as long as there

are smoke houses and chicken coops in the neighborhood, and the climate

does not require much in the way of houses, clothing or fuel. But the

penitentiaries are filled with chicken thieves. Alabama has three large

penitentiaries and Wisconsin one small one, the popalation being nearly

the same.

The effects of climate have not been much considered. But I believe it

will be found that warm climates do not have so great a proportion of in¬

sanity as cold climates. It is certain that in Europe, Greece has a much

less proportion of insanity than Norway. In this country there is less in¬

sanity in the south than in the north in proportion to population. A

part of this is due to the negroes in the south having a small proportion of

insanity, and the foreigners in the north having a large proportion. But it

is possible that climate has also something to do with it. I cannot discover

that climate has anything to do with crime. Pauperism is increased in

cold climates by the greater difficulty of getting a bare subsistence.

Much has been said about the rapid increase of the defective classes,

especially of the insane. Statistics show this both in Europe and America.

But statistics of the mere numbers of insane at any given time are very

deceptive. The greater humanity with which the insane are treated now

than a hundred or even twenty- five years ago has preserved their lives

and thereby caused an accumulation of the insane. This greatly increases

the numbers who are alive at any given time, but does not show that any

more persons become insane in any one year than ever. Careful statistics

have been kept in England with reference to the latter point and it is

found that there was an increase in the proportion of commitments to the

total population up to a recent time, but that it now seems to have reached

its highest point and become stationary. It is believed that the increase in

the commitments was caused partly by the discovery and placing in insti-

The Defective Classes.

183

tutions of cases that would otherwise have been hidden at home and

partly by calling things insanity which formerly would have been called

by some other name — such as senile dementia, epilepsy eccentricity or

primary dementia. I believe that these statistics show that insanity is not

now increasing faster in England than the population.

In the United States insanity is obviously increasing very rapidly. In

ten years in Wisconsin the insane under public care have increased from

about 1,700 to about 3,000. This is partly due to the causes discussed

above. But it is also due to another fact, to which I was the first to call

attention, now generally accepted, that the ratio of insanity to the popu¬

lation is much greater in the older states than in the newer ones and in

the older counties of Wisconsin than in the newer ones.

In 1860 there were only 200 or 300 insane in the state. In 1880 there were

2,200 including those at home. And now there are probably 3,300 including

those at home. The pioneers of Wisconsin were healthy young people,

who left their insane behind them. It has taken two generations to

reach the amount of insanity we now have. But if we had the proportion

of insanity to the population which Massachusetts now has, we should

have nearly twice the number of insane we now have. We may expect

to keep on with our increase till we reach the proportion of Massachusetts

and of England. Already some of the older counties in Wisconsin are

approaching that proportion, while those in the north have only the ratio

of our far western states and territories.

The rapid increase of crime in this country is doubtless an incident of

the rapid growth of city population. But probably the more careful

administration of the laws has increased the number of prisoners, while

the system of reformatories for boys and girls and all the good influences

of Christian civilization have been resisting the increase of crime. It is

noteworthy that a better prison system in England than we have in this

country, joined to the private reformatory work of all kinds, has brought

the increase of crime to a stop, and that there is absolutely less crime in

Great Britain now than there was fifteen years ago notwithstanding the

increase of population.

It is fair to call attention to the fact that the only reliable statistics of

crime are from the state prisons, partly for the reason that jails and police

stations do not always keep accurate registers, and for the more important

reason that officers make petty crimes appear to be less or more at their

pleasure. For the sake of fees or to get a reputation for efficiency officers

and magistrates often largely swell the number of prisoners by ‘ ‘ running

in ” tramps and drunks to suit their own notions.

The same causes have made an increase of pauperism in this country —

the growth of cities and the foolish or corrupt use of public money in aid¬

ing undeserving applicants for poor relief.

To a considerable extent these three defective classes link into one

another. It is hard to say whether a tramp is a pauper or a criminal.

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Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

Many criminals may be called insane and some are when they have money

or friends to help them, and some insane have criminal tendencies. A

very large per cent, of criminals become insane in prison or afterward.

A considerable number of paupers become insane. The children of the

one class pass easily into the other class. Street children who are the chil¬

dren of misfortune are easily drawn into crime. Here and there in our

country, and in every other one are knots of defective classes all tangled

up together, families closely related furnishing a whole population of

criminals, paupers, idiots and lunatics among themselves. Such were

the family in Ulster county, N. Y., called by Dr. Dugdale the Jukes family

to disguise their real name. Such is the “ Tribe of Ishmael” recently de¬

scribed by Rev. O. C. McCulloch in Indianapolis. The interchangeability of

these defects is very clearly shown in these cases. Another noteworthy

thing is the general physical weakness of these hereditary defectives, run¬

ning easily into consumption and similar diseases. Even in good families

with a hereditary taint of insanity it is noticable that it is interchangeable

with consumption. One generation or one brother or sister has consump¬

tion, another has insanity. Or the same person has insanity but recovers

of insanity to die of consumption.

What are we now doing with the defective classes. With some excep¬

tions all civilized nations are pursuing the following lines of policy. Pau¬

perism is relieved and discouraged. The treatment fluctuates between the

extremes of lavish relief and stringent discouragement, but is generally a

compromise between these two extremes. Insanity is cured if possible, if

not, it is usually protected in institutions of some sort. Crime is punished

in prisons and prevented in reformatories. These methods express the

average wisdom of the present generation, which is far in advance of what

has previously been done for the defective classes. It does not follow that

this is the best that can possibly be done for them. In fact here and there

experiments are in progress which I believe represent not the average wis¬

dom but the best wisdom of our times. Here and there private societies

have taken up the work of eradicating pauperism, not by relief, which

often encourages it, nor by merely repressive measures, but by carrying

out the motto of the charity organization societies, “ Not alms, but a friend.”

And Rev. J. H. Crooker, of Madison, has recently shown by a remarkable

historical investigation that this is not a new discovery, but is a century

old, when it was more fully applied to public poor relief than it has since

been. The methods of reforming criminals and these of reducing crime

have been discovered and applied in the British Isles, while in America

they have been only so applied in a few places. The methods of treating

the insane have been growing milder and more humane in Europe and

America within a few years. In my judgment the State Hospital of

Alabama and the county asylums for the chronic insane of Wisconsin, mark

the highest point yet reached in the direction of liberty for the insane. At

the rate of progress which we are now making, it will take a genera-

The Defective Classes .

185

tion for the average American treatment of the defective classes to reach

the standard set for pauperism by the charity organization societies, for

crime by Elmira and Concord, and for insanity by the Wisconsin system

of care for the chronic insane.

Our measures of treatment of the defective classes sometimes increase

the very evil we meant to cure. Poor relief, instead of relieving pauperism,

very often increases it. Insane asylums seem to increase the number of

insane, prisons of criminals. This, however, is not a necessity of the cure,

but only an incidental evil, which needs to be guarded against. We must

also allow that our humane methods of treatment, in addition to the good

effects which they have, do also tend to increase the number of defective

classes, by prolonging their lives and by making their lot a more desirable

one. I have already mentioned the accumulation of insanity by the mere

prolongation of life in the insane in civilized countries. It is still a ques¬

tion whether this does not sufficiently account for the greater number of

insane in civilized over savage countries.

Where the insane are killed as witches or executed as criminals or killed

by private vengeance or malice or allowed to die by neglect, and where

only the robust can survive the hardships and perils of life in any case, it

is not wonderful that the insane existing at any given time are few. So

also with pauperism. If no poor relief is given there will be no paupers,

for some will starve and others will steal. But crime seems to decrease

with milder punishment, whether these are the cause of the decrease or

only a result of the general civilization of society which is reducing both

crime and punishments alike. It is also true that we discover and do

something from a large number of cases now who would not be known as

defectives under a less perfect administration of government. This is one

of the causes of the increase of insanity, as I have already said. Crime is

more completely looked after and things are called crime now which

would not have been called so a few years ago.

But on the whole I believe that the measures we are taking to treat the

defective classes are really reducing the numbers. For one thing, we keep

them shut up in institutions, where they are not allowed to propagate their

kind, or to practice or teach their vices. A notable exception to this is the

county jail system, where prisoners are herded together in idleness to con¬

stitute schools of crime and vice. Our methods do also cure many of the

defectives. About one-fourth of the insane are permanently cured. From

half to two-thirds of the criminals are never convicted a second time.

Many paupers and tramps do finally drop back into society again. It is of

course a struggle which may be made to appear to be tending one way or

the other according as we are optimistic or pessimistic in the best of our

own minds. But I take the side of the optimist and believe that we are

graduall y healing up these ulcers upon society.

The best sign of the future is that public sentiment and legislation is

steadily tending in the direction of prevention as well as of cure. Some

186

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

/

measures of prevention like the various phases of child-saving work have

been already fruitful of good results. In other cases it is still doubtful

what is best to be done in the way of prevention. But I believe the time

is coming, when by the combination of public and of private effort we

shall greatly reduce, if we do not entirely eradicate the defective classes.

In my dealings with them I am sometimes tempted to despair of human¬

ity. But then I look at our churches and schools, our literature and our

industries, and best of all our happy homes, the pledge of the future; and

I take heart again, and I remember that after all the total number of pris¬

oners, paupers, insane, deaf and dumb, blind and idiots in the United States

is only one per cent, of the population, a less proportion than any other

civilized country has.

Trans. Wis Acad,

Vol. VIII, PI. V.

A Little-Known Region in Northwestern Montana . 187

NOTES ON A LITTLE KNOWN REGION IN NORTH¬

WESTERN MONTANA.

By G. E. CULVER*

CONTENTS.

Page.

Introductory . 188

The party . 188

Object of the journey . 188

Region traversed . 188

Previous Explorations . 189

Geography and General Description . 189

The plains . 189

The foot-hills . 190

The mountains . 190

Scenery . 190

Ahern Pass . 191

The western slope . * 191

A side trip . 192

Mud Creek . 193

Flathead Valley . 193

Geological Notes . 193

The plains formation . 193

The foot-hills . 194

Structure of the mountains ........ 194

Strata exposed . 195

Igneous rocks . 195

1. Location and character of outcrops . 195

2. Petrographical notes ... .... 197

Existing Glaciers . 199

Former Glaciers . 201

Western border of drift . 201

Ice tongues of eastern slope of Rocky Mountains . . . 201

Ice records west of main range . 203

*

Origin of Ice Tongues of Eastern Slope of the Rocky Moun¬

tains . 203

* The peti’ographical notes included in this paper were kindly furnished by Dr. Will¬

iam H. Hobbs, of the University of Wisconsin, to whom the writer wishes to make grate¬

ful acknowledgment for this and other favors.

188

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

INTRODUCTORY.

The party. — In August, 1890, a small party of soldiers under the com¬

mand of Lieut. George P. Ahern, of the Twenty-fifth infantry, was sent

to explore the mountainous region in northwestern Montana. The

party as finally made up consisted of two mountaineers, packer and

guide respectively, two prospectors eager to take advantage of a new

route to possible gold fields, two Indian guides, a squad of soldiers, black

as ebony, the commanding officer, and the writer. All were mounted

and well armed. Thirty days’ rations were carried. It was supposed we

would reach an outpost on the west side of the range in a month, to

which point another thirty day’s supply was sent. Owing to the assist¬

ance of various hungry natives and the keenness of mountain appetites

our rations lasted but twenty days. Game of all kind was abundant,

but the noise made by the passage of such a party prevented very fre¬

quent additions to our larder from this source. A few ducks, grouse,

and ptarmigan paid our “ cook-house ” a visit, as did numerous fine

trout. Of large game we secured one bighorn, and sixteen mountain

goats. The young of the latter are very fine eating; the old bucks taste

of musk.

The region covered by the route lies between the 49th parallel on the

north and the 47th on the south, and between 112° 30' and 114° 30' west.

It is divided naturally into the following regions: 1. The western bor¬

der of the plains, a strip 40 by 130 miles. 2. The narrow belt of foot¬

hills, four to twenty miles wide skirting the range. 3. The main range

of the Rocky mountains, and 4. The Great Flathead valley with its

tributaries. In the eastern portion of this region, well toward the na¬

tional boundary, the Piegan and Blackfeet Indian reservations are lo¬

cated. In the southwestern portion is the Flathead Indian reservation,

extending from Flathead lake down to the Northern Pacific railroad.

With the exception of these agencies lying on the outer border of the

region it is wholly uninhabited, and, so far as could be learned, almost

\yholly unexplored.

Object of the journey. — The object of the expedition was to find, if

possible, a pass over the main range farther north than any then known,

to map the course of the streams and the principal Indian trails. As

such a trip might offer some opportunity for geological observation I

accepted Lieut. Ahern’s invitation to join him.

Region traversed. — We left Fort Shaw, Montana, on the morning of

August 5th. Our route for the first ninty miles was over a rolling prai¬

rie, somwhat west of north, but gradually swinging more to the west, until

at the end of the fourth day we went into camp in the foot-hills close up

to the base of the main range on the Cut Bank Creek, thirty-five miles

from the boundary. A fairly good wagon trail leads to this point, and

A Little- Knoicn Legion in Northwestern Montana. 189

our supplies had been so far transported by wagon. They were now

transferred to the pack-mules, who entered a vigorous protest ^gainst

this return to more primitive methods.

Our course from the Cut Bank was nearly north to the national

boundary, which we touched first in longitude 113° 30' west. From this

point we moved westerly to the valley of the Belly River, crossing the

main range at the head of that stream about fifteen miles south of the

boundary, in longitude 113° 40'. From the new pass we descended by

the way of Mud Creek into the valley of the North Fork of Flathead

river, our course being very crooked, but averaging about southwest by

south. Our farthest west, 114° 45', was reached near the 48th parallel, at

which point I left the party, returning home by the way of Flathead

lake and south to the Northern Pacific railroad. We were eight days

on the plains and twenty-two days in the mountains. Side trips were

made as follows: Up the Cut Bank to the summit of the main range,

where there is an easy pass at an elevation of 7,800 feet; up the Swift

Current from the foot of St. Mary’s lakes also to the summit, but a

vertical descent on the western side, of many hundred feet barred

further progress there. Another trip was made over the divide between

MacDonald’s Creek and the head waters of the East Kootanie to Glacier

Creek. Tho whole distance traveled in saddle or on foot was estimated

at 370 miles.

PREVIOUS EXPLORATIONS.

So far as I know, the only explorations in this region previous to our

visit were by members of the Boundary Commission along the 49th

parallel, and by Dawson, McConnell, and others of the Canadian Survey

on the north side of the line. None of these, so far as I can find, trav¬

eled far south from the line in the mountains.

GEOGRAPHY AND GENERAL DESCRIPTION.

The j)lains. — The region lying east of the mountains from Fort Shaw

to the boundary is a high prairie, sloping rapidly from west to east and

traversed by occasional swift streams from the mountains. The eleva¬

tions range from 5,000 feet at the base of the mountains to 3,500 at a

distance of forty miles east. The Milk River Ridge, where we crossed

it, rises several hundred feet above the streams that unite to form the

South Fork of Milk River and over a thousand feet above the surface of

St. Mary’s Lake. This ridge has a nearly north and south trend near

the boundary, but bears a little west of south and joins the main range

on the upper waters of the Cut Bank. It is the water-shed between the

Hudson Bay basin and the Gulf of Mexico. It was followed by Lieut.

Ahern and myself to its junction with the main divide of the Rocky

Mountains, and the separation was found to be so sharp that from the

190

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

summit on the north side of the pass one might without moving from

his tracks cast three snow-balls so that one would fall on the Pacific

slope, another on the Gulf slope, and a third on that of Hudson’s Bay.

The foot-hills. — The high prairie is separated from the mountains by

a narrow belt, consisting of a somewhat confused mass of ridges and

hills. The ridges constituting the foot hills run in all directions, but

the highest are approximately at right angles to the trend of the moun¬

tains. The strata are considerably disturbed being usually tilted more,

and much more irregularly than the beds in the adjacent mountains.

The elevation of these hills is usually under 1,000 feet above the plains,

but sometimes runs up to 1,500 feet or more. The line separating the

foot-hills from the mountains is quite as sharply drawn in this region as

that between the plains and the foot-hills. The latter are usually

wooded and somewhat rounded. The mountains, on the other hand*

present a frowning battlement of bare and almost vertical walls facing

the plain and rising 3,000 to 4,000 above it.

The mountains.— -On entering the mountains by way of the valley of

the Belly River we found that the range makes makes a sharp bend to

the west about twenty miles from the boundary, so that, although we

were now traveling nearly south, we were approaching the main divide

nearly at right angles to it. The valley is over a mile wide near the

boundary, but a short distance up the stream it becomes quite canyon¬

like. The walls are very steep and rarely less than 2,000 feet high. We

went into camp just at the lower end of the canyon, in a dense fog which

shut out from view all objects a hundred yards away. In the morning

when we looked out of our tents the fog was slowly drifting away and

glimpses of the lofty peaks could be had through rifts in the fog. The

effect was quite striking. The foot of the mountains was entirely con¬

cealed, but at our camp some two miles away the air was clear. Now

and then a projecting portion of a mountain side perhaps 2,000 feet

above us would be clearly revealed, while above and below the white

fleecy veil hid all and seemed to have taken the mountain up bodily and

to be about to remove it from our pathway. In other places the upper

peaks alone rose clear and distinct above the sea of cloud and seemingly

almost over our heads. Altogether it was a picture long to be remem¬

bered by those who saw it.

Scenery. — The scenery even along the foot-hills is strikingly beauti¬

ful. The lower ridges, rounded and tree-covered, rise abruptly from the

plains, while as a background the bare rocky walls of the mountains cut

by transverse valleys rise in stately grandeur. A single glance takes in

a view of level plain, tumbled foot-hills, and lofty mountains, the latter

softened somewhat in their outline by distance. As the summit of the

main range is neared plains and foot-hills disappear and the landscape

is made up only of rocky mountains lifting their jagged summits above

A Little Known Region in Northwestern Montana . 19J

deep narrow valleys down which swift torrents, from the snow-fields and

small glaciers above, roar and tumble over their rocky beds, or plunge

from ledge to ledge in beautiful cataracts. At intervals in these valleys

the falling debris from the canyon walls has dammed the stream and

beautiful lakes are formed. The river we ascended takes its rise in one

of thesepakes, lying in a beautiful amphitheatre at the very foot of the

continental divide. The lake is about two miles long and a mile wide.

It is supplied wholly by three small glaciers which cling to the side of

the mountain 2,000 feet above it. The amphitheatre contains about

eight square miles. It is the result of a loop-like bend in the dividing

ridge. Its walls are almost vertical, save one portion on the southeast

sideband are from 2,000 to 3,500 feet high. The new pass is at the head

of this amphitheatre, 7,250 feet above sea.* The dividing ridge itself’

the backbone of the continent, is surprisingly narrow and quite sinuous

It is terminated at the summit by a thin wall varying from 50 to 300 feet

in thickness and surmounted by pinnacles and chimneys which em¬

phasize its wall-like appearance. It is in many places so narrow and

rugged that it would be impossible to travel along it without the use of

ropes and ladders. It preserves this peculiar mural character for at

least 50 miles.

Aliern Pass. — Ahern Pass is 2,000 feet above the lake at its foot, and

the summit wall on either side of the pass was estimated to be at least

1,500 feet more. The entire force had worked two days in making a

trail from the foot of the talus slope to the summit of the pass. The

assent is very steep and was made with difficulty.!

The Western Slope. — The western slope is in strong contrast with the

eastern. A gentle grassy declivity, down which we could indulge in the

rare luxury of riding, stretched away for a couple of miles, after which

it rapidly became steeper, following the changing dip of the strata, until

we were obliged to dismount and lead our horses through the thick tan¬

gle of brush with which the steeper slopes were covered. We passed the

summit in a biting wind accompanied by rain and sleet, with a tempera¬

ture of 39°. As we descended the rain increased. We marched in single

file through the dripping beech brush, halting every few yards for the

* It was here that the services of our Indian guide came in play. One of the prospectors

with us had three years before camped at this very spot with three other men and had

tried for a week to find some means of scaling the rocky wall which barred their way.

They were used to the mountains, but were obliged to give up and retrace their steps.

t “ Aug. 22. As I led the pack-train out this morning I felt extremely anxious as there

were several places on the trail where a misstep meant certain death. At the north end of

the lake the trail zig-zags up a very steep grassy slope for 800 feet and then over

loose slide-rock — talus — for 1,100 feet higher to the cut-walls, which loom up 2,000 feet

above the slide-rock. The trail now follows narrow ledges straight for the gap, which is

on the same level and 500 yards west. At one place we climbed a narrow and very steep rock

fifteen feet high, in which we had to cut steps. We led our most troublesome animals over

this. My feelings were indescribable when I started up this rock, not knowing what the horse

would’do. The ledge was about eighteen inches wide, the upside wall sloping back. On

the lower side was a fall of 1,900 feet.” — From Lieut. Ahern’s official report.

192 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

axemen to cut a trail. Sometimes we could travel for a few rods in the

bed of the stream. Then obstructions in the form of cascades or huge

rocks would compel us to cut a path up the steep banks and pursue our

course along the sloping sides of the valley. The descent grew con¬

stantly steeper and our progress correspondingly difficult and slow. For

four hours we toiled along in this fashion, every hundred yards in ad¬

vance bringing us to greater difficulties. At last, wet to the skin, our

teeth chattering with cold, and thoroughly worn out, we cleared a place

large enough to put up our tents and went into camp. What a luxury a

fire is under such circumstances! We had eaten an early breakfast at

the foot of the lake on the other side. Since that time we had been

working incessantly, most of the time in a pouring rain, until five o’clock

in the afternoon found us in the condition described, two and a half

miles down the Pacific slope in a dense tangle of fallen logs, thickly

overgrown with brush. We had our supper, warmed ourselves, and

were fairly comfortable in a couple of hours, but there was nothing for

the horses to eat and we were obliged to tie them to the trees for the

night. The next morning they were taken back a mile on the trail to

the last grass we passed, where they were pastured for a couple of days

while the men cut a trail two miles to the more open country in the val¬

ley below.

A side trip. — Leaving the main party here to rest for a few days, Lieut.

Ahern and myself with the prospector, Lewis Meyer, made a four days’

trip up MacDonald’s Creek and over the divide to the headwaters of a

branch of the East Kootanie. Our purpose was to examine the large

glacier described in another portion of this paper. The route lay across

a succession of ridges, ranging in elevation from 500 to 2,700 feet above

their respective valleys. The lower slopes are densley wooded and fallen

timber added to the work of climbing. The summits of all except the

highest ridges were quite level grassy parks, with borders and patches of

pines. From any of these summits a magnificent view was to be had of

the great backbone over which we had climbed. Fifty miles of it could

be seen at once owing to the great bend it makes to the westward.

On our return trip we endeavored to shorten our route by taking a

short cut over the summit of a spur of the main range. This took us up

8,000 feet. A rapid descent of 2,000 feet was then made, and the first

part of the cut off had been successfuly accomplished. After a couple

of miles of easy going we started on another descent of 2,000 feet into the

valley of MacDonald’s Creek. We found the descent extremely difficult.

It was so steep that we kept our feet with difficulty. Impassible ledges

were frequently in our way and multitudes of fallen trees encumbered

the less precipitous slopes. We were three hours making the first

half mile. Darkness came on while we were still three miles from camp

and we spread our blankets on the stony banks of the stream and lay

down to wait for daylight. We had eaten the last of our rations at noon,

A Little-Known Region in Northwestern Montana. 193

expecting to reach camp that evening. We started on at 6 A. M., and at

10:30 rode into camp and ordered dinner.

We were now not more than eight miles from the large glacier else¬

where mentioned, and I was eager to visit it. But travel in this region

is indescribably difficult; we had spent four days in the side trip I have

just described, onr rations were nearly gone, and we had yet nearly a

hundred miles to go before we could reach our base of supplies. It was

therefore plainly evident that we must move on and leave this most at¬

tractive region, in the hope that at some future time fortune may be

more kind.

Mud Creek. — Our route now was down the valley of Mud Creek to the

north fork of the Flathead. This stream, Mud Creek, flows between

steep rocky walls from 1,500 to 2,000 feet high. They gradually grow

less precipitous and the valley widens as we descend. The lower portion

of the valley has been covered with a thick growth of pines. In the

winter avalanches sweep down the steep slopes on either side and to¬

wards the bottom carry everything before them; not a stick or a stone

is left. The debris thus accumulated is hurled into the bed of the stream

and in some cases permanent dams have been thus made and lakes

formed. Some of these have in the lapse of time become marshes stretch¬

ing clear across the valley. These marshes are soft and miry for pack

animals, hence the name Mud Creek. The existing lakes are half full of

the slowly decaying trunks of the pines swept into them. A great mass

of trees, earth, stones and snow, the remains of an avalanche of the pre¬

vious winter still lay at the foot of one of the many wide swaths cut

through the pines, a silent but eloquent witness of the destroying work

of the snow.

Flathead Valley. — The great Flathead valley, although deeply eroded,

is not a valley of erosion, but is a good example of a synclinal valley. It

is a deep trough between the Rocky Mountain range on the east and the

high ranges to the west. Its character will be seen when it is stated

that if a line be measured from the summit of the Rockies to the Flat-

head valley, and another an equal distance out to the plains eastward,

the elevation of the point on the plains will be found to be from 1,000 to

2,500 feet higher than the corresponding point in the Flathead valley.

The same is true of the great Columbia-Kootanie valley of British Co¬

lumbia. Dense forests of pine, spruce, hemlock, etc., crowd the valley

of the Flathead and those of its tributaries on the east down nearly to

Flathead lake. Here on the prairie-like openings a few ranches have

been established.

GEOLOGICAL NOTES.

The plains formation. — A large portion of the beds forming the sur¬

face of this portion of the plains I judged to be Laramie. This conclu¬

sion is based only on the lithological character of the beds, as no fossils

13— A. & L.

194 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

were found at any point.* Beds which I refer to the Laramie were first

seen on Dry Fork, a branch of the Marias Liver, and they were traced

from there all the way to the 49th parallel. On the Two Medicine, near

the Mission, the supposed Laramie has been cut through by the stream

and black shales of presumably Cretaceous age are exposed. The Lara¬

mie has a thickness here of about 500 feet. In most of the exposures

seen it has a greenish color and the beds consist of an intimate admix¬

ture of sand and clay without the usual seams of lignite and with fewer

concretions than are commonly observed in these beds in North Dakota.

On a branch of Swift Current, near St. Mary’s Lakes, the Laramie was

again seen close up to the base of the mountains, underlain by soft

black shale, which appears to be Benton. No tertiary beds were seen

although they may exist here. The beds later than Laramie were small

local fluviatile deposits still in process of formation.

The foot-hills. — The rocks exposed in the foot-hills seem to be largely

of Cretaceous age, though there are some beds of limestone that can

hardly be so young as Cretaceous.

Structure of the mountains. — I have already ref erred to the precipitous

character of the east base of the mountains.4 This appearance is due

to the structure of this portion of the mountains. A fairly correct idea

of this structure may be obtained by imagining a long fold to be frac¬

tured along the anticlinal axis, and the eastern half to fall back to nearly

its original position, leaving the western half of the fold to stand at its

elevated position. The plane of fracture thus becomes the eastern

escarpment of the mountains and the foot-hills are the disturbed edges

of the upper strata of the down-sinking eastern half of the original fold.

I suppose it is altogether more probable that the eastern half never rose

at all, but that the faulting was accomplished by the simple elevation of

the western half. The effect is the same in either case. It will be under¬

stood I presume that the uplifted western portion does not present an

unbroken wall for hundreds of miles as might perhaps be inferred from

what I have said. I have spoken of a single fault; in reality there are

several, roughly parallel to each other and less so with the general trend

of the range. There have also been transverse fractures, or else the

streams have done valiant work in cutting through the rocky walls in

which their beds are made. The total result of all the forces at work

* At Fort Shaw the Sun River runs over shales containing fossil Inocerami, beautifully

preserved.

+ Captain Twining, of the Boundary Commission, speaking of this region, says: “ I had

been led to suppose that the ascent to the summit was a gradual slope, and was greatly

surprised to find that the rolling prairie abutted abruptly against an impassable escarp¬

ment of rocky precipices, ft was found to be impossible to carry a continuous line even so

far as the crossing of the Belly River, and the three stations at this point are connected by

traverses; the connections between the two final stations are made by a traverse of thirty-

five miles through the South Kootanie Pass.” Report of Chief Astronomer, p. 65.

A Little-Known Region in Northwestern Montana .

195

here, whatever they wer£, is this: The strata once continuous and level

have been slightly flexed and broken into huge blocks from one to two

miles in thickness, and five, ten or fifteen miles in each of the other di¬

mensions. These blocks have been heaved up to their present position.

The mountains thus formed have two features in common. The side

facing the plains has been most elevated. They thus present steep walls

to the east, with long gentle slopes to the west. In other respects they

differ. Some of them, for example, have not only steep walls on the

east, but also on the south, with a gentle slope in the other two direc¬

tions. Others reverse this, having north and east facing walls, and

slopes on the west and south. The structure here outlined is marked in

the vicinity of the 51st parallel by an additional feature. The vertical

displacement is reported by McConnell * as being over 15,000 feet, and

accompanying this is a horizontal displacement or overthrust of from

two to seven miles. This latter feature may occur south of the 49th par¬

allel, but I saw no evidence of it.

Strata exposed. — The rocks exposed in the walls of the vallej^ of the

Belly River give a practically continuous section of 5,000 or 6,000 feet of

strata. They are all rather thin bedded and the whole series seem to be

perfectly conformable. The beds consist, from below up, of yellowish

gritty limestones, red sandy shales and sandstones, and green and black

shales with more limestones at the top. The colors are quite distinct

and give a broadly banded appearance to the high walls which form the

sides of this valley, making it easy to trace the stratigraphic relations

as we ascended. The dip was slight but towards the south or away from

the plains, as it is along the range farther south. As we were climbing

somewhat rapidly in the direction of the dip we were steadily getting

higher in the series. No fossils were seen during the trip. The sand¬

stones often showed wind-drift structure and ripple-marks and the red

shales were full of mud cracks. The black shales and limestones indi¬

cated deeper water. From base to summit there is an entire absence of

crystalline rocks.

The rock exposures on the Pacific side were not so numerous, but

showed the same order of the same beds, the only difference being the

addition of several intercalated beds of diorite, and the fact that the

strata in the mountains west of the main range have been more strongly

folded. The disturbance producing this folding occurred after the in-

t

trusion of the diorite. This is shown by the fact that the latter has

shared in the folding and has been much fractured in the process.

Igneous rocks. — 1. Location and character of outcrops. The outcrops

of igneous rocks are on the headwaters of MacDonald’s Creek. The

first one observed is about two miles from the summit of Ahern Pass

(see 1 on map). The bed is about fifty feet thick, is smoothly inter-

bedded with the stratified rocks of the region, and is exposed for about

*'Annual Report Canadian Geological Survey, 1886, vol. 2, p. 33D.

196

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

four miles along the side of the val¬

ley. Five miles down the valley on

the other side another outcrop

about an eighth of a mile long oc¬

curs. (See 2 on map.) It has the

same thickness and general char¬

acter as the first mentioned.

These two exposures are on the

east fork of MacDonald’s Creek.

On the west fork of this stream, at

its source, a very extensive expos¬

ure is found. This valley is contin¬

uous with that of a stream flowing

in the opposite direction, a branch

of the East Kootanie.

The western wall of this common

valley is lined with a sheet of dio-

rite (see 3) from the bed of the

stream up to a height of a thousand

feet. The slope is about 20° from

the horizontal. For at least a half

a mile this sloping wall of rock has

been smoothed and planed by the

ice, and so enduring is the rock that

the glacial polish still shows plainly.

This bed has about the same thick¬

ness as the others.

A fourth exposure occurs a mile

down the valley on the Kootanie

side (see 4).

Other exposures seen at a dis¬

tance occur north of Mt. Euger

(see 5).

The uniformity in the character

of this rock, macroscopically at

least, over such a large area is note¬

worthy. The same may be said of

the manner of occurrence. The

sheets have been intruded between

the stratified beds so neatly as to

present the appearance of being

original members of the series. The

thickness too is remarkably uni¬

form, averaging about fifty feet.

The shales near the contact, above

and below, have been abaked and

A Little-Known Region in Northwestern Montana. 197

hardened by the heat and pressure. The diorite sheet, although in

some exposures the surface formation and in others hundreds of feet

below the surface, is nevertheless found at very nearly the same geologi¬

cal level in each of the exposures.

2. Petrographical notes.— The petrographical study of this mass of

rock has been made on four specimens, three of which are from the lo¬

cality marked 1, where a cliff almost forty feet high is capped by a green

sandy shale. Specimen 1 is from near the bottom of the cliff, perhaps

thirty feet from the contact. Specimen 2 was taken from a point about

twenty feet, and specimen 3 about ten feet below the contact, so that the

specimens show in inverse order the gradations in characters of the

rock in passing from the contact toward the center of the mass. The

sedimentary rock of the cap is well baked. The other specimen of the

eruptive rock which has been sectioned is from the contact with shale at

locality 3, and shows portions of both rocks in the section.

The rock is all cases much decomposed. Specimens 1, 2 and 3 show a

steady decrease in the coarseness of texture, the crystals in No. 1 having

average dimensions of from one to two millimeters, with occasional

hornblende crystals sometimes attaining to a half centimeter in diam¬

eter. The crystals in No. 2 will average about one-half, and those of

No. 3 about one-fourth these dimensions.

All the specimens from locality 1 have a more or less apparent gran¬

itic structure with a tendency to porphyritic development of the horn¬

blende. A dull greenish lustre so characteristic of rocks of this type is

apparent in all, but somewhat irregularly distributed. The lens reveals

in the coarser specimens feldspar, augite, hornblende, black ore material

and pyrite. When the rock was powdered a considerable portion of the

ore material was strongly attracted to the magnet, indicating magnetite.

In addition to the minerals above mentioned the microscope reveals in

all sections ilmenite, leucoxene, quartz, chlorite, zoisite, and apatite.

Section 2 contains well crystallized sphene and section 3 epidote as well

as sphene.

The more coarsely crystalline of the three shows in section a plagio-

clase which is very much decomposed and is associated with more or less

micro-pegmatite. The nature of the alteration seems to be saus-

suritization, zoisite being identified as one of the products by its moder¬

ately high index of refraction, its parallel extinction and low interference

colors. Augite and hornblende are present in about equal proportions,

but the crystals of the former are much larger than those of the latter

The hornblende is the brown variety with deep colors. The absorption

is c > b > > a. It is always well outlined and shows perfect prismatic

cleavage. It is very unstable, the initial stages in the alteration consist¬

ing apparently in a change of color to green, followed by a decomposi¬

tion to chlorite. This decomposition has in some cases proceeded so far

198 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

as wholly to replace the crystal, in other cases the chlorite occupies but

one half of the crystal or appears in inclosed areas within the crystal.

The chlorite is strongly pleochroic (yellow to green), and is often radial

(delessite.) Both hornblende and augite are frequently twinned. The

small amount of quartz not in the form of micro-pegmatite may be either

original or secondary. The black ore material shows in some cases in

square sections and is strongly attracted to the magnet in the rock powder.

Yet many grains are almost entirely changed to leucoxene, indicating

the presence of titanium, probably as ilmenite. Apatite is present though

not in great abundance.

Section 2, from a specimen taken at a point about ten feet nearer the

contact, shows besides a more finely crystalline texture than section 1,

certain differences in mineralogical composition. It contains more

quartz than micro-pegmatite. The feldspar is more altered. The mag¬

netite shows a greater tendency to appear in skeleton growths, and well

crystallized sphene, as well as considerable leucoxene is present. As in

specimen 1 the augite is but little altered, while the hornblende is in

many cases much decomposed to chlorite.

Section 3 shows very beautiful skeleton forms of magnetite, long and

slender growths running entirely across the field with a magnification of

thirty. Imperfect parallel growths of brown hornblende about augite

are seen much as they have been described in the augite diorite from

Somerville, Mass.,* with which this rock presents many analogies. Like

section 2, this section contains sphene, and epidote was made out, prob¬

ably a product of the combined alteration of feldspar and hornblende.

The characters of this rock as made out in the three sections agree well

with those of the camptonites of Rosenbusch.

In section 4, from the contact of the igneous intrusion with meta¬

morphosed green shale (locality 3 on map), the decomposition is too great

for the section to be of great interest. It can be seen, however, that the

feldspar was in lathshaped crystals with perfect outlines, oriented with¬

out reference to one another. The structure is that of a typical diabase.

Between the altered feldspar laths is a mass of decomposition products

of a greenish or dirty brown color in which chlorite is made out, and

the mass is crossed by serrated magnetite skeletons. No distinct crys¬

tals of either hornblende or augite can be made out, and it seems prob¬

able that both hornblende and augite are entirely altered.

In order to form reliable conclusions as to the dependence of the rock

characters on the distance from the contact, observations should be made

on a larger number of sections at several localities somewhat widely sep¬

arated. The evidence obtained so far as it goes, seems to be, (1) that

* there is a gradation in texture, the finest grained rock being nearest the

* Wm, H. Hobbs, on the Petrographical characters of a Dike of Diabase in the Boston

Basin: Bull. Mus. Comp. Zobl., Harv. Coll. xvii. .Plate 1, fig. 2, March, 1888.

A Little- Known Region in Northwestern Montana .

199

contact; (2) that the diabase structure is restricted to portions of the

mass which consolidated quite near the the contact; (3) that nearness

to the contact measures the tendency of the magnetite to appear in

skeleton forms; (4) that the hornblende and augite show more tendency

to crystallize in parallel growths nearer the contact.

In his study of the diabase dykes of the Rainy Lake region,* Dr. Law-

son has shown that in some cases a porphyritic structure, a diabase

structure, and an allotriomorphic-granular or granitic structure in turn

characterize the rock of a single dyke in passing from the contact toward

the center of the dyke. The conditions of consolidation of the rocks

here studied have not been such as to give rise to the formation of a

porphyrite, but with that exception the observations are quite similar.

EXISTING GLACIERS.

At the close of his interesting paper on this subject, Mr. I. C. Russell|

writes as follows: “Existing glaciers were discovered by Prof. Pumpelly

during the progress of the Transcontinental Survey, at the head of the

Flathead River in northern Montana. No scientific account of these ob¬

servations has yet been published; but I am informed by Prof. Pumpelly

that two glaciers were seen in the mountains in which the East Fork

of the Flathead rises at an elevation of about 7,000 feet. It was observed

that the glaciers broke off suddenly at the summit of precipices 2,000 feet

high and that the waters flowing from beneath the ice had the milky

color characteristic of glacial streams. The mountains in which these

glaciers were discovered extended northward into British America, and

are supposed to reach their greatest elevation north of the boundary. It

seems safe to predict that when this little known region is more fully

explored additional glaciers will be found about the peaks known as the

Crows and Mountain Head.” I am unable to determine from this ac¬

count just where the glaciers seen by Prof. Pumpelly are. Two glaciers

answering almost perfectly to the description here given are plainly visible

from the crest of the Milk River ridge, and from very many points on and

near the International Boundary. These glaciers, however, are on the

head- waters of the Belly River, a fact which could not escape Prof. Pum-

pelly’s notice had he come near enough to see the milky color of the water.

He would also have seen that there were four instead of two glaciers; hence

I conclude that these are not the ones referred to by him.J Small gla¬

ciers are numerous in all the higher mountains within twenty or thirty

* Petrographical Differentiation of certain Dykes of the Rainy Lake region: Am. Geol.,

March, 1891.

t Existing Glaciers of the United States: 5th Ann. Report U. S. Geological Survey, p. 347.

t Since the above was written I have seen Prof. Pompelly and find that the region referred

to is northwest of the Cut Bank Pass, between MacDonald’s Creek and the main divide of

the Rocky Mountains. It seems entirely probable that this glacier is in the same mountain

mass as those described in the present paper.

200 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

A

miles of the boundary, but are more numerous and larger on the north

slope of the portion of the range which bends to the west, and especially

on a spur or branch of the main range nearly parallel with this same por¬

tion of it and some miles farther south. J udging from what I saw I pre¬

sume there are twenty or thirty glaciers in this region. Several termina¬

ted at the crest of high precipices with falls varying from 500 to 2,500

feet. The thunderous roar produced by these ice falls is unlike any other

sound I have ever heard. The nearest approach to it is that of distant

thunder. In each of the cases of this kind observed save one the ice did

not again accumulate at the foot of the fall, but melted as soon as it

reached the lower level. In the single exception noted the fall was

probably not over 500 feet and the direct rays of the sun did not fall

upon the ice, wdiich accumulated and moved on down the lower slope

pushing its moraine ahead of it. One fair sized glacier on Quartz Creek

extends down into the bed of a little lake which it supplies. Most of

the glaciers were wider than long, their length being apparently deter¬

mined by the shadow of the parent mountain.

The Mt. Dana glacier, described and illustrated by Mr. Russell * is a

good type of the average glacier in this region. One somewhat larger

than that glacier was made the object of our only side trip for any such

purpose. It lies in a small amphitheatre at the head waters of the East

Kootanie near the 114th meridian, about fifteen miles from the bound¬

ary. Its width is about two miles and its length one and a half.

Although it is on the northeast side of the mountains a large part of its

surface is exposed to the sun’s rays fully two-thirds of the day . Its sur¬

face is remarkably smooth and free from crevasses. Its front is oval,

like an inverted wash-bowl, and it is so steep that it can be ascended at

only one or two points. The thickness of the ice a few hundred feet

from the edge was estimated at from 250 to 500 feet. On gaining the

summit of the glacier it was found to stretch away smooth and nearly

level to the adjoining mountain. Patches of morainic supplies and

scattered bowlders were seen here and there on the front half. There

was no dust upon the surface, nor were there any dirt bands in the ice.

The terminal moraine of this glacier is quite imposing. Approaching

its highest part from without, one must climb 100 feet to reach the sum¬

mit; from there down to the edge of the ice, forty feet at the time of my

visit. This was not, however, the bottom of the moraine. It varies at

other points down to perhaps fifteen feet in height. Its length is fully

two and one-half miles, and it varies in width from 150 to 400 feet. It is

composed wholly of somewhat subangular stones, varying in size from

tiny bits up to huge blocks weighing forty or fifty tons. Six parallel

ridges of rock-fragments on the inner slope of the central portion of the

moraine indicated as many successive advances and retreats of the ice.

*5th Annual Report U. S. Geol. Survey.

A Little-Known Region in Northwestern Montana. 201

Whether these advances and retreats were annual I could not tell. We

camped for the night near the banks of one of the milky streams flow¬

ing from the ice, and found in the morning that the volume of the

stream had fallen off about one-third, and the water was much clearer.

I concluded therefore that not only the melting, but the motion also of

this glacier depends largely on the heat of the sun. The slope on which

it lies is quite gentle. A few miles down the valley an older moraine,

some four miles in length but much lower than the present moraine, in¬

dicates a stage in the recession of the large glacier of which the present

is the shrunken remnant only. The glacier just described was the

largest seen close at hand. Indeed only one was seen in the whole

region that was larger. This, if it be a true glacier, is much the largest

in the United States, exclusive of Alaska.* We saw it from many points,

at distances varying from eight to twenty miles. It lies in a horse shoe

shaped basin or valley at an elevation of about 7,000 feet and covers, as

near as I could estimate, an area about four by six miles in extent. We

passed half way around it but did not find the stream that must flow

away from it, unless a somewhat remarkable branch of the Belly River

has its source there. This stream flows out from the foot of a precipi¬

tous wall, fully 2,000 feet high, forming the northeast face of the conti¬

nental divide. The rocky wall has not a fissure in its face from top to

bottom. The ice field lies on the opposite side of the ridge fully ten

miles away and 2,000 feet above the point where the stream comes forth.

The latter has the milky character common to glacial streams and flows

from the direction of the large ice field. The strata dip from the ice

field in the direction of the stream. Further evidence of its relation¬

ship must await future investigation.

ft

FORMER GLACIERS.

Western border of drift. — So far as my observations extended the

portion of the plains traversed by us is entirely devoid of drift material,

with exceptions hereafter noted. Dr. G. M. Dawson, | in a journey from

Fort Benton on the Missouri, to Fort McLeod, British Columbia, found

bowlders all the way. As his route was some sixty or more miles east of

mine, it would seem that the western limit of drift material lies between

these two routes, and as Dr. Dawson found undoubted Laurentian

erratics at or near the 113th meridian on the international boundary,

it is likely that the western limit of drift for 100 miles south of the

boundary is somewhere from forty to fifty miles east of the base of the

mountains.

Ice tongues of the eastern slope of Rocky Mountains. — Several ice

tongues have at some time descended from the range on the west and

* The location of the large glacier was in some way left out from the original map. Its

location on the present map is only a guess at the correct place.

t Report of Progress of Geol. Survey of Canada, 1882-84, p. 147C.

202 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

have plowed their way nearly at right angles to the range, and conse¬

quently directly in the face of the great Laurentian ice sheet for many

miles out on to the plains. The trough-shaped depressions made by

these alpine glaciers are now sometimes occupied by small lakes walled

in on all sides except towards the mountains by the old moraine. Some¬

times the water has cut through the morainic walls and completely

drained the lake. In such cases it usually happens that the swaying of

the stream from side to side has cut away the whole front portion of

the moraine, leaving two long parallel ridges on either side extend¬

ing back along the course of the stream to the mountains. In still

other cases the troughs once occupied by the ice are dry and empty.

Measured on the plains these ice tongues varied from live to forty miles

in length and from half a mile to five miles or more in width. Of their

mountain extensions I shall speak later. Their thickness can in some

cases be inferred from the appearance of the moraines. These are much

higher on the ice side than on the outer or plains side, as would be ex¬

pected, since the ice came down upon the soft Laramie beds at a steep

angle. The glacier which plowed out the beds of St. Mary’s Lakes was

the largest of all in this region and must have been of no mean propor¬

tions. These lakes, two in number, lie at nearly the same level, the one

just outside the narrow belt of foot-hills, the other extending through

the foot-hills reaches the very base of the mountains. The lower lake

is about five miles long and two wide; the upper is seven or eight miles

long, but not more than two miles wide. The stream discharging them

is 150 feet wide, three feet deep, and very swift. From our camp at the

foot of the lower lake the stream seemed to have cut through a moranic

wall about 300 feet high a few hundred yards below the foot of the lake.

I found, however, on climbing up this slope that the ice had ridden over

the seeming wall, which was not a moraine at all, but a terrace marking

the depth of post-glacial erosion of the stream. The topography of this

upper level was unmistakably that of a ground moraine, yet there was

something unfamiliar about it which I was at first unable to interpret.

There are three glacial lakes on this terrace, one a mile in diameter, and

the whole region showed unmistakable evidence of having been covered

with water since the retreat of the ice. On the sides jf the Milk River

ridge, which forms the eastern walls of St. Mary’s valley, terraces, a

dozen or more, extend up to a height of at least 800 feet above the pres¬

ent level of the lakes. These, with the peculiar outline given to the

knobs and hills, constitute the unfamiliar features spoken of. I fol¬

lowed down the valley five miles or more, but saw no signs of a terminal

moraine or barrier ridge of any sort that could have held the waters at

such a level as is indicated by the terraces. I concluded, therefore, to

adopt tentatively the hypothesis that the Laurentian ice sheet was

the barrier; that it had sent a tongue up the St. Mary’s valley far

A Little Known Legion in Northwester n Montana.

203

enough to pond back the waters and form the lake whose terraces I had

seen. The southern extension of this lake was the steep-walled fiord¬

like valley of the upper St. Mary’s Lake. On the east the water was

held in by the Milk River ridge; on the west by the mountains. How

far north it extended would depend on the position of the hypothetical

ice barrier. Lack of time prevented further investigation of this region.

Ice records west of main range. — After crossing the continental divide

the valleys on the western slope were found to give evidence of heavy

glaciation. Planed surfaces and trains of bowlders were common but

were confined to the valleys. Bowlders of undoubted glacial origin were

found at an altitude of 7,250 feet.

ORIGIN OF THE ICE-TONGUES OF THE EASTERN SLOPE OF THE ROCKY

MOUNTAINS.

In passing up along the eastern flank of the Rockies, as we came near

enough to them to begin to encounter the moraines of the ice-streams

spoken of in a previous paragraph, certain crystalline bowlders were oc¬

casionally observed. On examination they proved to be a rather fine¬

grained diorite.

As we moved up the valley of the Cut-Bank these bowlders grew quite

numerous.

In the trip to the summit of Cut-Bank Pass it was confidently ex¬

pected that the outcrop of this diorite would be found. However, al¬

though the bowlders were to be seen all the way, the rocks in place

seemed to be wholly of sedimentary origin and were very little if at all

metamorphosed.* The failure to find the igneous rock was accounted

for by supposing that it might now be hidden by debris from the cliffs

above it. A second ascent was made up the Swift Current with no better

results so far as finding the diorite was concerned. This valley is twenty

miles from that of the Cut-Bank and there is no communication between

them; but diorite bowlders occur in this valley also.

The third ascent was by way of Belly River. As before stated, the bare

walls of this valley afford no hiding place for beds of any prominence

whatever. The exposure is peactically continuous for fifteen miles from

the summit. No diorite or other eruptive or crystalline rock occurs in place

in this valley. At the head of this river on the summit of Ahern Pass, at

an altitude of 7,250 feet, bowlders of the diorite, some of them glaciated,

were quite abundant.

Some ten or twelve hundred feet below the summit, on the Pacific

slope, a mile and a half from the pass, the diorite was found in place.

The exposure is four miles in length. It occurs on both sides of the val¬

ley, which is fully a mile wide.

* Diorite bowlders were seen however within 800 feet of the summit, at 7,000 feet eleva¬

tion.

204 Wisconsin Academy of Scieaces, Arts and Letters .

There are many other exposures on the upper waters of McDonald’s

Creek, where the diorite is the surface formation and is strongly glaciated.

On the divide between the East Kootanie and McDonald’s Creek, the slop¬

ing west wall of the common valley is a bed of this diorite. It has been

planed and smoothed for a thousand feet from the bottom of the valley

by the ice stream that once flowed through this gap.

In brief, then, the evidence is this:

1. Trains of diorite bowlders were traced from the plains east of the

mountains up to the axis of the range, along three lines widely separated

from each other.

2. No outcrops of diorite could be found on the eastern slope on any

of these lines.

3. Extensive, heavily glaciated outcrops occur on the western slope

1,000 feet below the summit of Ahern Pass.

4. On the Belly Diver line, the bowlder train was followed over the

summit of Ahern Pass, down the western slope to the parent ledge.

From these facts, then, it seems clear that the ice-tongues which crept

down the valleys on the east slope of the Rockies, and plowed their way

out some miles beyond the foot-hills, did not originate on the east side

of the range; but were pushed up over the continental divide through

the gaps and passes mentioned, and probably through others not yet

examined, by some force from the west. What that force was, admits of

but little question. That it was an ice sheet of some vigor is obvious.

That it was separate and distinct from the Laurentian ice sheet, at least

to high latitudes, is equally clear. Dr. Dawson has brought forward

evidence * to show that a great ice sheet which he has called the Cordil-

leraii Glacier once occupied the region between the Coast Range and

the Rocky Mountains in British Columbia, and later he has found evi¬

dence | that the ice ran through the gaps in the Coast Range and down

to the sea.

President Chamberlin J has shown that the ice extended southwest to

the vicinity of Lake Pend d’ Oreille, Idaho. Mr. Bailey § Willis has

found similar evidences in Washington. Neither of these observers,

however, connect the ice records seen by them with the Cordilleran

Glacier.

From such observations as I was able to make, it is my impression that

the ice ran in the valleys, in streams whose courses were determined

partly by the source but mainly by the mountain topography. The re¬

gion lying between the main range on the east, the Rocky Mountains

* Quart. Joui\ Geol. Soc., vol. 31, p. 89, and Quart. Jour. G-eol. Soc., vol. 34, p. 72.

■(■ G-eol . Mag. Decade III, vol. 5, 1888, p. 347.

t Bulletin No. 40, U. S. G. S.

§Ibid.

A Little Known Region in Northwestern Montana. 205

proper, and the Cascade range is very mountainous. The ranges are

broken and irregular. Short spurs and ridges trending in various direc¬

tions give rise to a net-work of valleys. Through this labyrinth the

ice-streams made their way. Some of them found more or less direct

passage into the great Flathead valley and there died a natural death.

Others were caught by the transverse spurs and carried up over the main

range from whence they descended to the plains on the east.

The tendency toward a southerly movement may indicate a northern

origin for the ice. It is evident, however, that local supply would be

abundant, if, indeed, it might not be sufficient to account for all the

glaciation observed.

Madison, Wisconsin, December 29, 1891.

206

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters.

ON A NEW OCCURRENCE OF OLIVINE DIABASE IN

MINNEHAHA COUNTY, SOUTH DAKOTA.

By G. E. CULVER and Wm, H. HOBBS*

Field Notes. — The rock considered in this paper occurs in the south¬

eastern part of South Dakota, in Minnehaha county. The country rock

is the Sioux Quartzite, large outcrops of which occur throughout this

and adjoining counties.

The quartzite lies in gentle folds with axes approximately east and

west. In the vicinity of the diabase the dip is to the south at an angle

of 8° the outcrop being on the north of the diabase.

The surface of the latter lies somewhat below the general level of the

district, in the valley of one of the small tributaries of the Big Sioux.

The stream has cut a trench twenty-five or thirty feet deep and a mile

in length directly through the diabase. Whether this represents the

width or the length of the mass it is impossible to say, there being no

other exposures.

No actual contact with the quartzite could be found, but from the fact

that undisturbed beds of the latter occur very near the diabase, it may

be inferred that the latter is older than the quartzite, and may have

been an island in the sea in which the quartzite was deposited.

On the other hand the diabase gives no indication of having been

poured out upon the surface. Not only is it completely crystalline but

the size of the crystals indicates slow cooling. The only way in which it

seems possible to harmonize these facts is to suppose that the ancient

rock with which the diabase was once covered had been entirely removed

before the deposition of the quartzite. Such a supposition must rest on

very insufficient data at present however.

No other eruptive rock occurs in either Dakota outside of the Black

Hills, 300 miles away, but some seventy or eighty miles northeast of this

locality, in the Minnesota valley, there are many outcrops of eruptives

in the gneisses and other ancient rocks of that region. In order to com¬

pare the South Dakota diabase with these rocks, the best exposures in

the neighborhood of Granite Palls, Minnesota, were visited and speci¬

mens collected representing a dozen or more varieties. Macroscopically,

none of these bore very close resemblance to the South Dakota diabase.

* Field notes by Gr. E. Culver and petrograpliical notes by Wm. H. Hobbs.

A New Occurrence of Olivine Diabase.

207

Unfortunately the specimens were lost before sections had been made

from them so that the comparison was not carried to completion.

Perhaps the most prominent field characteristic of this rock is the

profound decomposition it has suffered. How much of it has been re¬

moved by erosion it is impossible to say, but the whole exposure from

its upper surface down to the bed of the stream, a distance of twenty to

twenty-five feet, seems to be thoroughly disintegrated. It apparently

maintains its vertical position only by the support of a net-work of thin

quartz veins which ramify through it in all directions.

The decomposition has brought out a set of lines indicating a horizon¬

tal movement in the fluid mass. Parallel with these apparent flowage

lines, a layer of bowlders of decomposition, well rounded, but still in

situ , extends for some distance along the bank of the stream. The rock

below this layer of bowlders is as much decomposed as the upper por¬

tion. The limit of decomposition seems to be marked by the position of

the stream. The rock in its bed is firm and apparently unaltered.

Just below the lower end of the diabase exposure, an excavation was

made to determine if possible the relations of the diabase to a bed of

siliceous flour which occurs there. (Another bed of this material occurs

about a mile farther down the creek resting on the quartzite.)

About two feet below the surface a layer — not continuous — of steatite

about two inches thick was encountered. Immediately below this

steatitic layer was a stratum of the same material containing hard frag¬

ments up to a quarter of an inch in diameter. Whether these were frag¬

ments of sound diabase, or pieces of the quartz veins was not determined.

Below this the rock became gradually more firm so that at a depth of

six inches a pick could be driven into it with difficulty.

It does not appear that the extensive decomposition of this rock is due

to any inherent tendency in that direction, but rather to the peculiar

circumstances of its history.

In the warmer and moister portion of our country south of the glaci¬

ated area — in fact, in any ucglaciated region where ancient crystalline

rocks occur, extensive and profound decomposition very commonly

occurs.

This rock, however, is in the more arid portion of the glaciated area.

The surface of the adjacent quartzite is planed and scratched after the

orthodox glacial fashion.

Within half a mile of the diabase outcrop, on a tabular surface of

quartzite, two distinct sets of strise occur. One set runs S. 20° E. and

the other S. 50° E., indicating at least two ice movements.

These visitations of the ice must have swept off all previously decom¬

posed material from the diabase, so that the present accumulation is in

some degree a measure of the work of the destructive agencies since the

second of the two ice invasions to which reference has been made.

208 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

Further light is thrown on this question by the fact that in its final

advance the ice did not overrun this particular region . Hence whatever

accumulation there was as a result of inter-glacial decomposition was

preserved to be added to by the same disintegrating forces in post-glacial

time.

If one were inclined to jump at conclusions, the inference would be

easy, that since rocks very similar to this, both in character and age,

within the region covered by the ice in its last advance show almost no

accumulation of decomposed material, while this rock, perhaps equally

enduring, but lying just without the area of the last advance, is so

deeply decomposed, therefore the time between the second and the last

advance of the ice is much greater than that which has elapsed since its

final retreat.

This evidence would have more value as a time measure if there were

other exposures of the same rock within the adjacent latest glaciated

area. Unfortunately none occur. Of those that do occur from the

granites near Big Stone Lake to the basic eruptives at Granite Falls no

one of them, so far as can be learned, exhibits any appreciable accumu¬

lation of decomposed material. The same is true of this class of rocks

in Wisconsin and northern Michigan and generally throughout the

northern United States and Canada.

So far as it goes, then, the testimony of this rock falls in with that

which has been derived from comparisons of the till of the earlier and

the later glacial epochs. These comparisons all go to show that inter¬

glacial time was vastly longer than post-glacial time.

Petrograpliical Notes.- — The fresher rock is a very coarse-grained

olivine diabase. The hand specimen shows lath-shaped twinned feld¬

spars over a quarter of an inch in length, sometimes with a dull green¬

ish hue as though partly changed to saussurite. Large columnar augite

crystals, penetrated in all directions by feldspar, show in some cases

cleavage faces over an inch in length. Spotting these cleavage surfaces

are small yellow-green grains of olivine. Considerable black ore ma¬

terial and a little pyrite can also be made out under the lens. After the

rock was pulverized the black ore material was strongly attracted to a

magnet and when dissolved in hydrochloric acid in presence of tin gave

no titanium reaction.

The microscopicai study was made on two sections from one of the

bowlders near the bed of the stream. In both the diabase structure is

typically developed, the lath-shape fe Idspars penetrating the other con¬

stituents in all directions. No evidences of disturbances are visible, ex_

cept such as are explained by movements in the partially consolidated

magma. There are present besides feldspar, augite, olivine, hornblende,

biotite, ilmenite, apatite and clorite.

The feldspar is poly synthetically twinned according to both the ordi¬

nary laws, and is only moderately altered. Determinations by Michel-

209

A New Occurrence of Olivine Diabase .

Levy’s or Pumpelly’s method of measuring the extinction angle in those

sections which give symmetrical extinctions (zone of b), furnished a max¬

imum value of 28°, making it probable that the feldspar is labradorite.

A tolerably fresh piece gave a specific gravity of 2.695. Some crystals

show a decided cloudiness, which is found to be due in part at least to

the formation of a colorless micaceous mineral.

The augite, which is penetrated in all directions by plagioclase laths

presents some interesting characters. The usual cleavage parallel to

the prism is well marked with good partings parallel to one or both of

the vertical pinacoids. In some basal sections all four of these are well

developed. The color of the mineral is reddish to yellowish-brown, but

with varying depth of tone, and sometimes grades into an olive near the

periphery of the section. The dichroism of basal sections is most

marked, the ray vibrating parallel to the plane of symmetry, being yel¬

low-brown with a slight tinge of red, and that vibrating in the perpen¬

dicular direction being distinctly red-brown. The monoclinic symmetry

of the mineral is evinced by the inclined optic axis always obtained in

sections which show nearly perpendicular cleavages, and by the high

extinction angles (as high as 45°) in those sections which show but one

cleavage. A brown or greenish brown hornblende is sometimes found

as a partial peripheral zone about or inclosed within augite crystals,

generally with approximately the same orientation as the augite. It

appears to be original, its position being explained by parallel growth.

The hornblende cleavage and the marked pleochroism serve to identify

it. The pleochroism is c deep blue-green or brown, b deep green or

brown, and a light green or light reddish brown. The absorption equa¬

tion is c = b > > a. In one of the two sections there is considerable

green hornblende in good crystals, grouped about areas filled with more

or less unresolvable material (probably both hornblende and chlorite

and doubtless pseudomorphs after olivine crystals).

Olivine is present in one of the sections in crystals which are identi¬

fied by their peculiar hexagonial outlines, colorless character, rough

surface, parallel extinction, imperfect cleavage, and large optical angle

in the plane perpendicular to the cleavage lines (base). In this section

the mineral is in many cases remarkably fresh, showing along cracks,

however, a small amount of a bluish green substance which is also to be

found about crystals. There are also small, more or less irregular areas

particularly abundant in the vicinity of ilmenite, which are in part red-

brown and pleochronic and in part greenish. The brown parts are

made out to be brown hornblende, and the green portions chlorite, in

part of the variety known as delessite. The chlorite sometimes shows

very marked pleochroism from intense orange to bluish green, and has

slightly inclined extinction. It is clear from the disposition of the

chlorite that it is the alteration product of the hornblende as well as of

14— A. & L.

210 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

the olivine, and it is probable that in some cases at least the hornblende

is an intermediate stage, the alumina necessary for the alteration being;

obtained from feldspar. Cores of olivine are found in some crystals

that are more than half altered. In the second of the two sections no

olivine is present, but patches of more or less opaque green or brown

substance indicate the position of the original mineral.

In both sections a little biotite is present in fresh blades which give

the marked mottled appearance just before extinction between crossed

Nichols. Apatite is abundant in crystals of moderate size, sometimes,

though rarely, broken across. Fluid inclusions in the apatite are rare.

Magnetite is quite abundant in large crystals which frequently show

skeleton forms, and there is a little pyrite.

The rock is therefore a coarse-grained and feldspathic olivine diabase..

Examination of a larger number of sections would quite likely add some

characters to those that have been mentioned. The presence of a tal-

cose mineral in the decomposed rock observed at the locality is not ex¬

plained by examination of the sections. It doubtless arises mainly from

a profound alteration of the pyroxene constituent, which in the sections

is almost unaltered.

I

The Deep Water Crustacea of Green Lake.

211

ON THE DEEP WATER CRUSTACEA OF GREEN LAKE.

By C. DWIGHT MARSH.

During the past two seasons I have become interested in the deep

water fauna of Green Lake, and have made a large number of collections.

While the results may not be particularly striking, I think they are of

sufficient interest to warrant the presentation of a short paper on the

subject. Because of its depth, Green Lake resembles, in the conditions

controlling animal life, the larger bodies of water, and might be ex¬

pected to have a fauna somewhat different from that of the shallower

lakes. My collections seem to justify this expectation.

It is only within a few years that it has been deemed worth while to

make any investigation of the fauna of deep water. Even after the ex¬

istence of a very rich pelagic fauna in the oceans was recognized, bodies

of fresh water were almost entirely neglected. Now, it is well known

that our lakes have a pelagic fauna rich in individuals, if not in species,

and a less abundant abyssal fauna. Most of the European lakes have

been explored with more or less thoroughness. Especially noticeable is

the extended work of Prof. Porel upon Lake Geneva and the smaller

Swiss Lakes.

In this country comparatively little has been done. Since the initia¬

tory work of Dr. Hoy in Lake Michigan, some twenty years ago, so far

as I know, only two persons have published anything on this subject —

Prof. S. I. Smith, and Prof. S. A. Forbes.

The bottom of Green Lake, in the deeper parts, is a fine blue clay, in

which are great numbers of ostracod shells and some few shells of mol¬

luscs. I submitted the molluscs to Mr. C. T. Simpson of the United

States National Museum, who tells me that there was nothing of especial

interest among them. They were all littoral forms, and, in most cases,

probably washed in from shallower water.

There were also several species of hydrachna, worms, and infusoria,

which I have not worked out. The crustacean fauna is extremely

abundant, although the number of species is small.

212

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

The following species were noted:

Diaptomus sicilis Forbes.

“ minutus Lillj.

Epischurci lacustris Forbes.

Limnocalanus macrurus Sars.

Cyclops fluviatilis Herrick

“ serrulatus Fischer.

Canthocamptus sp.

Cypris sp.

Daphnella brachyura Baird.

Ceriodaphnia reticulata Jnrine.

Daphnia kalbergensis Schoedler.

Bosmina sp.

Alona glacialis Birge.

Leptoclora hyalina Lillj.

Pontoporeia Hoyi Smith.

Mysis relicta Loven.

There were, besides, several forms of cy clops, which seem to differ from

any described American species. As I am now engaged in a study of this

genus, I will leave their description for a later publication. None of the

species of cyclops which I have found is peculiar to the deep water, as I

have found the same forms in the littoral zone of the lake, and in smaller

bodies of water in the vicinity.

The pelagic fauna consists mainly of the following species: Diap¬

tomus minutus Lillj; Diaptomus sicilis Forbes; Epischura lacustris

Forbes; Limnocalanus macrurus Sars; Daphnia kalbergensis Schoedler;

Leptodora hyalina Lillj. All of these, with the exception of limnocalanus

macrurus , come to the surface at night. The species of cyclops are repre¬

sented very sparingly, and canthocamptus , daphnella , ceriodaphnia , and

alona are quite rare. Evening collections showed vast numbers of

diaptomus minutus and epischura lacustris , and in some cases of lepto¬

dora hyalina. I found bosmina very abundant in November, but rather

rare in the summer months. The abyssal Crustacea are cypris , ponto¬

poreia Hoyi Smith, mysis relicta Loven, and perhaps some of the forms

of cyclops. Especial interest, perhaps, attaches to three species of the

preceding list.

Diaptomus minutus Lillj. is found in great numbers, being much

more abundant than diaptomus sicilis Forbes. My specimens corre¬

spond very closely to the description by Lilljeborg, as given in “ Envis¬

ion des Calanides d’Eau Douce,” by Guerne and Eichard, differing only

in the following particulars. The joints of the right fifth foot of the

male are shorter and stouter, and the terminal claw is longer and some¬

what more slender; the lateral spine on the last joint is blunt. The

inner ramus of the left foot is more nearly elliptical. The animal aver-

The Deep Water Crustacea of Green Lake,

213

ages somewhat smaller than the type. These differences are so minute

that I consider them only varietal, although they are constant in the

specimens I have examined.

Diaptomus minutus has been found, hitherto, only in Greenland and

Newfoundland, although it seems probable that it is widely distributed

over the northern part of North America.

Pontoporeia Hoyi Smith, has been found, hitherto, only in Lake Super¬

ior and Lake Michigan. A species almost identical with it, pontoporeia

affinis Kroyer, occurs in the abyssal fauna of the Scandinavian lakes.

My sis relicta Loven, was first found in the Scandinavian lakes. It is

so closely allied to mysis oculata Kroyer, a marine form found off the

coast of Labrador and Greenland, as to be considered only a variety of

that species. It was found in Lake Michigan by Dr. Hoy, receiving the

name of mysis diluvianus from Prof. Stimpson. Later, Prof. S. I. Smith

collected specimens in Lake Superior. I have not had an opportunity

to compare my specimens with those from the Great Lakes, or with the

original description of the Scandinavian form, but I have [little doubt

that they are identical with them.

When we compare the deep water Crustacea of Green Lake with those

of Lake Michigan and Lake Superior, as shown in the lists published

by Prof. Smith and Prof. Forbes, we find a striking similarity. That

this should be true of the pelagic fauna is not strange, for it is easy to

explain the migration of such forms from one body of water to another

through the agency of water fowl.

The presence of pontoporeia Hoyi , and mysis relicta however, is not

so easily explained. They are abyssal forms, found only in deep water,

and never coming to the surface. Their presence in the Scandinavian

lakes is explained by supposing that the bodies of water, in which they

are found, were formerly connected with the sea, and that, when the ac¬

cess of salt water was cut off, the change to fresh water was so gradual

that the animals accustomed themselves to their new conditions of exis¬

tence. They belong to the “ fauna relegata ” or “ relickten-fauna ” of

the Germans. This explanation does not seem to apply to Green Lake.

The lake is of glacial origin, a dam of drift at the western end prevent¬

ing its waters from flowing into lake Puckaway. The outlet of the lake

is a small stream flowing through the village of Dartford, and emptying

into the Fox River. So far as I know, there is no geological evidence

whatever of any connection of Green Lake with either the Mississippi

Basin or the Great Lakes, by which these deep water animals could have

migrated to their present location.

The problem is one for which I can at present offer no solution.

214 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters.

NOTES ON DEPTH AND TEMPERATURE OF GREEN

LAKE.

By C. DWIGHT MARSH.

Green Lake is situated in Green Lake county, and is something over

seven miles in length, and rather less than two miles in its greatest

breadth. It extends in a northeast and southwest direction, and is con¬

sidered by geologists, to be of glacial origin, its shores at the western

extremity being formed of drift hills.

The lake is of especial interest because of its depth, it being, I think,

the deepest lake within the limits of the state.

While at various times soundings have been made by which the deep¬

est parts of the lake were located with a fair amount of accuracy, the

only attempt at systematic soundings was made some years ago by

Prof. C.’ A. Kenaston, when he was connected with Ripon college.

Through the kindness of Mr. Henry Wolcott, of Ripon, I was enabled

to get the results of Prof. Kenaston’s work. The soundings were made

in winter through the ice and the distances between stations chained off.

Four lines of soundings were made: from Bowen’s cottage to Oak-

wood Hotel, from Sandstone Bluff to Oakwood, from Sandstone Bluff

to Sherwood Forest, and from Sandstone Bluff to Sugar Loaf. The

following tables give the results:

From Bowen’s Point to Oakwood.

Distance.

64 rds

192 44

256 “

272. “

288 “

304 “

320 “

336 “

352 “

384 “

432 “

464 “

626 44

Depth.

63 feet.

96 44

84 44

97 44

90 44

20 44

61 44

66 44

53 44

38 44

49 44

41 44

Shore,

Depth and Temperature of Green Lake.

From Sandstone to Oakwood.

From Sandstone to Sugar Loaf.

From Sandstone to Sherwood Forest.

Distance. Depth.

216 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

From these tables and the profiles derived from them, it will be seen

that the eastern part of the lake is comparatively shallow, and that

there is a bar not far from the center where the depth is only twenty

feet. The greatest depth — 195 feet — is reached between Sandstone

Bluff and Sugar Loaf.

I have made no attempt at systematic soundings, but, in connection

with dredging, have always taken the depth at the time of the haul, and

my figures agree in all respects with those of Prof. Kenaston, except

that they are uniformly somewhat less; this is easily explained by the fact

that the level of the lake has been lower than usual for the past two or

three years.

In the western part of the lake but few soundings have been made by

any one. Capt. Pierce tells me that the greatest depth he has found is

172 feet. It is popularly supposed that the deepest place is between

Sugar Loaf and the south shore, as that is the last place to freeze. I

have found there, however, only 189 feet.

It will be noticed that the littoral zone, in most parts of the lake, is

very narrow, considerable depths being reached quite near the shore.

When dredging in deep water, I also took surface and bottom tem¬

peratures. This work was done in Aug., Sept., and Oct. 1890, and July*

1891. As, so far as I know, very little work of this kind has been done

in our lakes, I have thought the results worth recording, although my

observations were too few to form a basis for any general inferences.

For bottom temperatures, I used a Miller-Casella deep sea thermom¬

eter, loaned by the United States Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries,

and for surface temperatures a common chemical thermometer. As the

thermometers were not tested, the results may not be absolutely accur¬

ate. The deep sea thermometer was attached about two meters from the

sounding lead, giving the “ bottom temperature.”

The following tables give the temperatures arranged by depths:

Depth and Temperature of Green Lake.

217

August, 1890.

July, 1891.

We notice that in August, 1890, there was a uniform temperature of

6.6° C. below a depth of 45 meters, and that up to 25 meters there was

an elevation of temperature of only one degree. In July, 1891, the bot¬

tom temperature was 5.28° C. While we cannot compare temperatures

taken in August, 1890, with those taken in July, 1891, I think we may

fairly infer that the maximum bottom temperature in Green Lake is

reached in August, and that it remains nearly the same during Septeim

ber and October. The surface temperature is nearly the same in all the

deeper parts of the lake. Swimmers, in crossing the lake, claim that

they pass through “streaks” of different temperatures, but the ther¬

mometer determinations show a practical uniformity of surface tem¬

perature.

In comparing these temperatures with those obtained by Prof, and

Mrs. Peckham in Pine Lake (Trans. Wis. Acad. V, 273), I notice that

218 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

although the surface temperatures in Pine Lake, in both July and

August, are higher than in Green Lake, the temperature of the deep

water is nearly the same. For instance, in August, 1879, at a depth of

18.28 meters, the bottom temperature was 7.23° C., while the surface

temperature at the same time was 24.44° C., and in July, at a depth of

24.38 meters, the bottom temperature was 5.56° C., and the surface tem¬

perature 26.12° C. Thus, at 24.38 meters, was reached very nearly the

minimum temperature which I found in Green Lake at 50 meters and

below.

/

Trans. Wis Acad.

Vol. VIII , PL VI.

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The Iron Ores of the Lake Superior Region.

219

THE IRON ORES OF THE LAKE SUPERIOR REGION.

By C. E. VAN HISE.

The object of the present article is to bring together in a single paper

the more important conclusions as to the iron ores of the Lake Superior

region, which have been reached in recent years by the Lake Superior

Division of the United States Geological Survey.

The iron ores are all associated with peculiar nonfragmental rocks

which have great variety, but which have the common feature of con¬

taining a considerable content of iron. The varieties include ferrugin¬

ous cherts, ferruginous slates, sideritic slates, actinolitic schists, magneti-

tic schists, hematitic schists and intermediate phases. At different times

in the past it has been suggested that the Lake Superior iron ores, like

many of those of later age, are derived from carbonate of iron. How¬

ever, Irving was the first to definitely prove this by showing that in this

region there is abundant residual iron carbonate, and that there are

actual transitions between this and other phases of the iron formations.*

Since this conclusion was announced, the evidence that these and also

the ores are derived directly or indirectly from a lean cherty and often

calcareous and magnesian siderite has been greatly augmented.

The manner of the transformation of the iron carbonates into the

other phases of rock of the iron formation have been traced out in de¬

tail in the Penokee and Animikie districts.! The work of the past two

years has given a large amount of evidence that exactly similar trans¬

formations have taken place in the Marquette, Vermilion, and Kaminis-

tiquia districts. As yet the Menominee proper and Felch Mountain

districts have not been sufficiently studied to furnish this evidence; but

the ferruginous rocks here occurring are exactly like those in the other

districts and there is no doubt as to their equivalent age, so that it is.

highly probable that the same is true.

The iron ores now mined occur in two geological series, separated by

a physical break. J These are the Lower Huronian and Upper Huronian.

* Irving, R. D., Origin of the Ferruginous Schists and Iron Ores of the Lake Superior

region: Am. Jour. Sci., 3rd ser., vol. 32, 1886, pp. 255-272.

t Irving, R. D. and Van Hise, C. R.: The Penokee Iron-Bearing Series of Michigan and

Wisconsin: Tenth Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Survey, 1890, pp. 380-422.

t Van Hise, C. R. : An attempt to harmonize some apparently conflicting Views of Lake

Superior Stratigraphy. Am. Jour. Sci., 3rd ser., vol. 41, 1891, pp. 117-137.

220 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts ancl Letters.

In each there is one main iron-bearing formation both of which were

originally of nearly the same character, ancl their subsequent trans¬

formations have been much alike. The chief differences are that hard

specular hematite, magnetite, and the actinolite-magnetite-schists are

more common in the older formation; while the soft hematites, limon-

ites and cherts are more common in the newer formation. However,

most phases of rocks and ores are found in both newer and older forma¬

tions, the main difference being that of relative proportions.

As a consequence of the likeness of original characters and subse¬

quent transformations it is possible to treat together the genesis of the

ores of these two series.

A third horizon at which ore-bodies occur is at or near the base of the

Upper Huronian. This formation is not continuous, it being present

only when the base of the Upper Huronian chances to rest upon the iron¬

bearing formation of the Lower Huronian. Here the detritus has been

largely derived from the immediately subjacent formation and is conse¬

quently rich in iron. As will be seen, a farther concentration of the iron

oxides at this horizon has occurred at the same time as the concentra¬

tion of the iron ores of the two main formations. At this third horizon

are to be placed several of the important mines and certain of the ore-

bodies of others of the mines of the Marquette district. The history of

these deposits explains why they frequently occur adjacent to the ore-

deposits of the Lower Huronian.

The Lower Huronian includes the Eastern Menominee, Felch Moun¬

tain, Lower Marquette, Vermilion, and Kaministiquia districts; and the

Upper Huronian includes the Western Menominee, Upper Marquette,

Penokee, Mesabi, and Animikie districts. It thus appears that in the

Felch Mountain and Vermilion districts only the iron-bearing formation

of the Lower Huronian is known, and in the Penokee and Mesabi dis¬

tricts only the iron-bearing formation of the Upper Huronian is known.

In the Marquette and Menominee districts the iron formations of both

series are represented, but the relations of the two are much more easily

made out in the former than in the latter. The Kaministiquia and

Animikie series also come together in a single district and the uncon-

formable relations which here obtain are as clear as in the Marquette

district.

As areas to serve as types we will first consider the Penokee and Lower

Marquette series, the first belonging to the Upper Huronian and the

second to the Lower Huronian. These are chosen because here the in¬

vestigations have gone farther.

The Penokee ores.- — In the Penokee district the iron-bearing formation

comprising all the varieties of rocks above mentioned as belonging to

this member, is on an average about 800 to 850 feet thick, but the iron

ores are mainly confined to the lower 400 feet. The formation rests upon

an argillaceous quartz-slate the uppermost horizon of which is a per-

The Iron Ores of the Lake Superior Region . 221

sistent quartzite. It is covered by a great formation of clay -slates, gray-

wacke-slates, etc. These formations constituting the Penokee series are

a simple monocline, dipping northward from 50° to 80° (PI. VII, fig. 1.)

The series has been cut before tilting by numerous basic dikes nearly at

right angles to the bedding, but in such a direction as to now make the

outcrops of a dike and the iron-bearing formation form the two sides of

an acute angle which usually faces to the east. The unaltered phase of

the iron-bearing formation, i. e., the lean cherty carbonate of iron, is

most frequently found immediatly under the overlying slate, which has

protected this material from percolating waters, while near its base rarely

is found this sideritic phase, it having here usually been decomposed.

The intersections of the dike rocks and the quartz-slates form numerous

right angled troughs tilted somewhat to the northward, (PI. VII, fig. 2.)

These generally have a pitch toward the east (PI. VII, fig. 3), consequent

upon the relations already described. But if the outcrop of the dike is

parallel to that of the ore formation the ore-deposit will have no pitch,

while if the outcrops of the dike and quartz-slate form a westward-facing

acute angle the deposit will have a pitch toward the west.

Now, with few exceptions, the ore-bodies of the entire Penokee dis¬

trict occur at the apices of these troughs (PI. VII, figs. 2 and 3), having

roughly a triangular section or a V shape the lower part of which is re¬

latively heavy and pitching with the altered underlying diabase dikes,

usually called by the miners “ soapstone.” The boundaries of the ore

formation are usually sharp along the dike-rocks and the quartz-slate, but

vary upward often by imperceptible stages into the ferruginous rocks of

the iron-bearing formation. It follows from the above that each ore-deposit

may be traced to the surface in one direction, and in the other direction will

pass deeper and deeper. It is not uncommon for one dike some distance

below another dike to also carry an ore-body. In this case a shaft will

pass through its first ore-body, its basement dike and a greater or lesser

thickness of lean ferruginous material, when another ore-body, resting

upon another dike will be found (PL VII, fig. 3). This latter body may

have been previously discovered at or near the surface at some point

east or west of where the uppermost body reaches the surface and there¬

fore ceases. In other cases the dikes may be so close together as to have

the entire space between them filled with ore. In still other cases more

than two dikes bearing ore-bodies have been found in vertical section.

Summing up, the Penokee ore-deposits are then roughly triangular in

cross section. They usually pitch to the east. They rest upon impervi¬

ous formations below, and generally grade upward into a porous ferrugin¬

ous chert or slate of the iron formation.

The Lower Marquette Ores. — In the Lower Marquette* series the ores

have somewhat greater variety of occurrence. The deposits, instead of

* Van Hise, C. R. The Iron Ores of the Marquette district of Michigan. Am. Jour. Sci.,

3d series, vol. 43, 1892, pp. 116-132.

222

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

being for the most part at the base of the iron-bearing formation, are

either within this formation or at its upper part; that is, just below the

base of the Upper Huronian. The formation above the iron-bearing for¬

mation is a quartzite grading downward into a conglomerate, the mater¬

ial of which, is largely derived from the subjacent Lower Huronian series.

The iron-bearing formation is cut by numerous dikes at various inclina¬

tions and by great bosses of basic eruptives. These latter sometimes break

across the bedding of the iron formation, at other times the intrusives

bow the bedding upward so as to make the formation dip away from the

greenstone ridges. Not in frequently a ridge of eruptives forms a more or

less complete semicircle, the iron formation constituting a valley within

it.

Now, the ore deposits are found either at the contact plane between

the Upper and Lower Huronian, or else they rest upon or along the

eruptives (PI. VII, fig. 4); when fresh called diorite, when altered called

soapstone. The dikes may be vertical or inclined. One may be alone or

two or more may be adjacent. The greenstone bosses may have a uni¬

form dip or may be folded so as to form a complete synclinal trough (PI. VII,

fig. 5). A dike may unite with a larger greenstone mass to form a trough

(PI. VII, fig. 6). Whether the ore deposit rests upon a wall, a synclinal or

an irregular trough of eruptive rock, the body is not horizontal, but fol¬

lowing the greenstone, pitches at an angle of 20° to 40° or even more. As

in the Penokee district, the ore-deposits have an abrupt termination at

the underlying eruptive rocks and grade upward somewhat gradually

into the chert and jasper. In the case of those ore-deposits which are at

the contact of the Upper and Lower Huronian, the bodies usually occur

at places where the ©reformation has been sharply shattered or bent; or

where an intersecting intrusive serves as an inpervious basement; or

where both are combined. Such deposits may terminate abruptly along

a joint or may grade into the chert or jasper (PI. VII, fig 7).

While the Marquette ore-deposits may rest upon formations of differ¬

ent characters, and may vary greatly in shape, in common with those of

the Penokee district, they lie for the most part upon impervious forma¬

tions in pitching troughs, and grade above into the broken aud porous

material of the ore formation; or, if at the contact horizon, into the re¬

composed ore formation of the Upper Huronian.

Ores at base of Upper Marquette series. — The contact deposits of the

Lower Huronian may continue upward into the Upper Huronian, a

single ore-body belonging in part to the Lower Huronian and in part to

the Upper Huronian, when the two series, although unconformable, are

welded together by subsequent infiltrations, as a consequence of which

the non-fragmental iron formation of the Lower Huronian appears to

grade up into the mechanical sediments of the Upper Huronian. In

other places the ore-deposits near the contact plane may lie wholly

within the Lower Huronian or wholly within the Upper Huronian. In

The Iron Ores of the Lake Superior Region.

223

the latter case this may be sometimes due to the fact that erosion has

removed all or nearly all of the Lower Hnronian iron-bearing formation

The ores above this contact plane, like those already considered, are

frequently adjacent to or underlain by subsequent intrusives which serve

as impervious basement formations.

The ores adjacent to the contact plane include the magnetites of the

Marquette district. Those belonging to the Lower Huronian have a some¬

what different aspect from those of the Upper Huronian. This is due

to the extraneous mechanical detritus of the latter. In thin section it

is often found that more or less mica has developed. In examining the

structure of the ore-deposits, it is seen that much of the magnetite is in

veins or cavities in finer grained and partly or wholly original material.

An examination of thin sections of the overlying magnetic quartzites

and conglomerates shows conclusively that much of the magnetite is a

secondary infiltration.

Ores of other districts. — It is unnecessary to give the details of the oc¬

currences of ores in other districts, but it may be said, while the

character of the bounding formations may be somewhat different, that

the ore-deposits as in the Penokee and in the Marquette districts rest

upon formations which are impervious. These may be fragmental

slates, contemporaneous surface volcanics, or subsequent intrusives.

Also any one of these, or two of them, may combine to form a pitching

trough. And even in the cases in which there is but a single impervious

wall upon which the ore rests, it is usually found that the deposit has a

pitch. The ore-bodies usually grade above into the other phases of

rock of the iron-bearing formation, as in the Penokee and Marquette

districts.

In the Western Menominee district the ore-bodies very extensively

rest upon surface volcanics which appear to be here the inferior forma¬

tion of the Upper Huronian series. In both the Upper Menominee and

the Upper Marquette ores are also found resting upon the slates. In

some cases these underlying slates have a monoclinal dip as in the Pen¬

okee district, and in others are folded into pitching synclinals. The

iron-bearing horizons of these districts do not appear to be continuous

belts of pure iron formation materials as is that of the Penokee. They

are often but sideritic phases of the great slate formation of the Upper

Huronian. Where this slate becomes usually sideritic and the other

conditions explained as requisite occur together the concentration

of ore-bodies has taken place.

In the Vermilion district the ore-bodies commonly rest upon im¬

pervious schists believed to be greatly modified volcanics or upon intru¬

sive massive greenstones of later age. Not infrequently one or both of

these combined form pitching troughs.

In the newly developed Mesabi range the ores, according to Mr. Mer-

riam, are near the base of the series resting upon a quartzite which

224

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

lies unconformably upon impervious green crystalline schists of the

Archean complex. They are overlain by a slate or shale of great thick¬

ness. They have a gentle dip to the southward. In certain respects they

are like the Penokee deposits. Whether the bodies will be found in

pitching troughs, it is yet too early to say.

Genesis of the ores. — The peculiar forms and relations of the Lake

Superior iron ores exclude a large number of explanations which have

been advanced for the genesis of these deposits. It is evident that in

their present position they are not eruptives. Even if it be argued that

the iron-bearing formations are igneous it would hardly be held that

these peculiar ore-bodies are of direct intrusive origin. The forms

which these bodies have are wholly unlike those of intrusive rocks. .In¬

stead of being continuous downward as such rocks should be they usu¬

ally terminate below upon igneous rocks. It is equally plain that the

ore-deposits are not of direct sedimentary origin, although it is believed

that the formations containing them, and from which they are derived

are sedimentary. We know of no way by which sediments could be de¬

posited in such irregular forms as these. Also their frequent connection

with subsequent intrusive rocks shows that between the ore-deposits

and the latter there is some genetic connection. Although by the miners

the ores are often spoken of as veins, these deposits have never been

seriously regarded as fissures, nor can they be regarded as deposits

which have filled caves.

All of the evidence plainly points in one direction, that is, that they

are concentrations produced by downward percolating water. These

waters removed a part of the original material of the iron-bearing for¬

mations at the places where the ore-bodies occur and introduced iron

oxide nearly simultaneously. This explains the forms, positions and re¬

lations of the ore-deposits. They rest upon tilted walls or troughs of

impervious formations because water has here been converged. They

occupy places once taken by a part of the ore-formation because this is

readily penetrated by water, because it was rich in iron carbonate, and

because the constituents other than iron oxide are readily soluble.

The original condition of the ore-formation, as has been said, is a lean

sideritic and cherty slate. In order that the ore-bodies should be formed,

silica must have been removed and iron oxide introduced. That this inter¬

change has actually occurred is shown by an examination of the iron-

formation rocks associated with the ore-bodies. It has been noted that

the change from the ore-bodies to the rocks above is a transition rather

than abrupt. Along this transition zone it is a common thing to see sil¬

ica ban(Is die out by gradual removal. In the iron formation proper the

silica is frequently in nearly solid bands, alternating with bands richer

in iron. In passing toward the ore, cavities appear in the rock, the silica

being removed so that the stratum is here a porous one. The cellular

or geodal cavities formed by the removal of silica are very characteristic

225

The Iron Ores of the Lake Superior Beg ion.

a

of this transition zone and even when so minute as not to be visible in the

hand specimen are discoverable by a microscopical examination. How¬

ever, before all of the silica is removed, iron oxide begins to be intro¬

duced, and finally when the interchange is complete, in the places of the

siliceous bands is a solid body of iron ore.

It is usually found that the eruptive rocks underlying the ore-bodies

are greatly altered, the alkalies having been removed. It. is probable

that these alkalies have been an important agent in the solution of the

adjacent silica. It is evident that the pitching troughs are places along

which abundant water must travel because the surface waters are not

able to penetrate the underlying formation, and the overlying formation

is a porous one. It is equally evident that the contact plane between

the Upper and Lower Huronian, where there is a coarse conglomerate at

the base of the Upper Huronian, is also a horizon along which under¬

ground waters travel, and this is particularly true where violent folding

has shattered the underlying ore-formation, and here it will be remem¬

bered the ore-bodies of this horizon usually occur.

Along these channels of percolation, as in the case of fissures, waters

from various sources meet. A portion of these waters will have traveled

for a considerable distance through the iron carbonates. Such waters

will have oxidized this iron carbonate in part and thus become carbon¬

ated and take other iron carbonate into solution. Such iron-bearing

waters will meet along the impervious formations other waters which

have reached these positions by shorter paths, traveling perhaps wholly

through already altered and brecciated ore-formation material contain¬

ing no iron carbonate. Such waters carrying no iron, but containing

oxygen, will precipitate the iron from the carbonated solutions.

Those ore-bodies which underlie one or more impervious formations,

but rest upon other impervious formations have derived their material

from the areas of iron formation material between the dike or other

basement formations of the ore-bodies in question and those of the next

overlying deposit. In a given instance this part of the ore-formation

will have a considerable surface area for the entrance of percolating

waters between the outcrops of the underlying and overlying impervious

formations. (See Plate VII, fig. 3.) The waters have here carried the iron

oxide along the impervious formation upon which the ore rests and have

precipitated it under the overlying impervious body. Whether the ore-

body thus produced fills the entire space between the two impervious

formations depends upon the supply of material which was available

and upon the perfection with which the process of concentration has

been carried out.

In the production of the magnetic ores it appears that there was not a

sufficient amount of oxygen to peroxidize the iron, although there was

15— A. & L.

226

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

enough to precipitate it or a part of it at least. Pyrite associated with

the magnetite indicates the presence of actual reducing agents and

these may have changed some of the original hematite of this horizon

to the form of magnetite. This lack of oxygen at the plane separating

the Lower and Upper Hnronian may be due to the fact that immediately

above is the impervious slate of the latter; consequently from the sur¬

face there wTas no direct path for percolating waters.

From what has been said as to the transition zone between the ore-

bodies and the iron formation, it will be seen that the process of the

solution of the silica often runs in advance of the introduction of the

iron oxide. It is wholly possible that the silica has been sometimes

removed so far ahead as to cause a considerable sagging of the ore-for¬

mation. This suggestion is made because the brecciated character of

the rocks adjacent to the ore-bodies frequently indicates that local

fractures have occurred.

Many of the intrusives which cut the ore-formations are probably of

Keweenawan age. If this be true it is evident that the concentration of

these ore-deposits has occurred since Keweenawan time. It is also

manifest that the final concentration did not occur until the folding

and erosion subsequent to both the Lower and Upper Huronian series,,

and for a part of the districts at least these were post-Keweenawan. It

is almost certain that the Lower Huronian iron formation was exten¬

sively modified before the Upper Huronian series was deposited, but it

is also probable that the ore-bodies now mined have been produced

simultaneously with those of the Upper Huronian, otherwise the Lower

Huronian ore-deposits would not invariably be found above the eruptive

rocks with which they are in contact. While the final concentration

did not begin until the later foldings to which these series have been

subjected, there is no evidence that the process has ceased at the pres¬

ent time.

The ore-bodies at the base of the Upper Huronian were concentrated

in the lean detritus of the Lower Huronian iron formation at the

same time and in the same manner as the ore-deposits just considered.

The remarkable likeness of the Upper and Lower Huronian ore-

formations is then explained to be due to the likeness of the original

iron-bearing formations of the Upper and Lower Huronian, and to the

fact that the concentration of both was due to the same causes operat¬

ing at the same time.

The Huronian rocks of Lake Superior are often spoken of as the iron¬

bearing series. The foregoing discussion shows that ore-bodies occur

only in certain definite formations which constitute but a small percent¬

age of the entire Huronian series. Moreover it is evident that valuable

ores are only found within these formations where a combination of

peculiar conditions occur causing local concentrations of iron oxide. A

227

The Iron Ores of the Lake Superior Region.

recognition on the part of practical mining men of these principles will

save large sums of money annually spent in unscientific prospecting,

and, as they have already done in certain cases, will undoubtedly lead to

the discovery of additional ore-bodies.

U. S. Geological Survey,

Lake Superior Division,

Madison, Wis., March 7, 1892.

228

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE VII.

Fig. 1. Cross-section of Penokee series. Showing its relations to the

underlying Archean, the overlying Keweenawan, and the conformable

succession of its three members.

Fig. 2. Cross-section of Pence mine, Penokee series, showing the re¬

lations of the dike-rock, quartzite, ore-deposit, and drift material.

Fig. 3. Longitudinal section of a Penokee deposit, looking south.

The figure shows how, as a consequence of the pitch of the dikes, the

ore-bodies which reach the rock surface soon pass under the furruginous

chert. The figure also shows, when one dike is parallel to another or

nearly so, that the ore-body of the lower dike may pass under that of

the upper. The vertical distance between the two deposits depends

upon the horizontal distance between the outcrop of the two dikes and

upon their pitch. The irregular way in which the ore passes above into

the chert is seen, as well as a horse of rock at the west end of the west

open pit.

Fig. 4. Generalized section of Lower Marquette ores, showing the

relations of the deposits to the associated formations. Ore is seen at

the contact of the Upper and Lower Huronion, above a folded mass of

diorite, upon one or both sides of intersecting dikes, and in a trough

formed by the union of a dike and a mass of diorite.

Fig. 5. Vertical cross-section of an ore-deposit of the Marquette dis¬

trict. This is bounded below by a synclinal of soapstone grading into

diorite and above by ferruginous chert. The change from ore to chert

is not so sharp as drawn. In longitudinal section this body shows a

considerable pitch.

Fig. 6. Vertical cross-section of an ore-deposit of Marquette district.

At the left the ore rests upon soapstone grading into diorite. At the

right it is upon one side of a dike-rock, the latter being an off-shoot of

the diorite. At the contact of the two a pitching trough is formed in

which the ore-body becomes of large size.

Fig. 7. Horizontal section of ore-deposit on east side of Republic horse¬

shoe, Marquette district. The left side of the ore is bounded by a cross

joint. The right side is bounded in part by a sharp flexure passing

into a joint, and in part grades into the lean banded jasper and ore.

Trans. Wis. Acacl

Vol. VIII. PI VII.

ORE DEPOSITS of LAKE SUPERIOR REGION

The Present Condition of the Latitude Problem.

229

THE PRESENT CONDITION OF THE LATITUDE

PROBLEM.

By G. C. COMSTOCK.

[ABSTRACT.]

The title which has been announced for my paper, “ The Present Con¬

dition of the Latitude Problem,” imposes upon me the necessity of ex¬

plaining in what the latitude problem consists, since I can not assume

that the term thus employed will be well understood even in scientific

circles.

There come down to ns from remote antiquity legends, curious enough

in themselves, which seem to imply that at the time of their origin a

very different condition of affairs obtained from that which now exists.

Thus the early Egyptian temples appear to have been oriented with ref¬

erence to the points of the compass at times when those points were

different from what they now are, and there are traditions of a time at

which the sun rose in the west and set in the east. And coming down

to much more recent dates, speculation has been rife as to whether the

great pyramids in Egypt may not contain in themselves evidence of a

changed position of the earth’s rotation axis.

Until within the last half dozen years such matters were looked

upon by astronomers with the utmost incredulity, and it was almost a

matter of faith that the earth’s axis is the one thing terrestrial which is

permanent in position. But about a half dozen years since Dr. Knestner,

one of the astronomers connected with the observatory at Berlin, under¬

took a very extended and accurate series of latitude determinations at

that place, having in view as the object to be attained the solution of a

very different problem, the determination of the so-called “ constant of

aberration.” But Kuestner’s results for the aberration came out wrong;

they would not agree with the classical values of this quantity elsewhere

determined, and he found himself face to face with the alternatives that

either his observations were hopelessly bad, or that the latitude of his

observatory had changed to the amount of nearly half a second during

230 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

the time covered by his observations. Kuestner adopted the latter al¬

ternative, but his suggestions were received with great incredulity on the

part of astronomers, and it was only when it became apparent that sim¬

ilar changes could be traced in simultaneous observations elsewhere that

the matter seemed worthy of serious investigation. Such investigation

it has received under the auspices of the International Geodetic Associ¬

ation, which has for over two years past maintained a continuous series

of observations at three German observatories, which agree in indicating

a variation of the latitude of these stations in character entirely similar

to that detected by Kuestner. In our own country similar investigations

have been prosecuted in a less systematic manner, but agreeing never¬

theless with the results of the German work.

But we come here to a new phase of the matter. An extended and

very elaborate discussion of long series of astronomical observations

running back over a period of more than a century has been undertaken

by Mr. S. C. Chandler, who has reached the very remarkable result that

during this entire period traces of a similar variation in latitudes may be

detected, that is, that during this period the latitude of any given place

on the earth’s surface, instead of being absolutely fixed, has oscillated

about a mean value, being at times a little greater and at others a little

less than its average amount.

If we inquire into the causes of such an instability of latitude, we shall

find very serious difficulties in the way of any explanation based upon

known dynamical laws. It is true that Euler pointed out a century ago

that if the axis about which the earth rotates does not coincide exactly

with its axis of figure, that is the short diameter of the spheroidal earth,

there will necessarily result a rotation of one of these axes about the

other producing a slight periodic change in latitudes, and that this

change should run through its complete cycle in a period of 308 days

But it seems difficult at first sight to identify this theoretical oscillation

with the actual changes detected by the European observers and by Mr.

Chandler. The work of the European observers appeared to indicate an

oscillation of latitudes having a period of very approximately a year,

while the time required for the periodic change detected by Chandler is

427 days; so that the periods appear to be entirely discordant. A sugges¬

tion has been made in this connection, however, by Professor Newcomb

which may help to bridge over the difficulty of co-ordinating these periods

among themselves. He points out that the period of 306 days which is

associated with Euler’s name has been computed upon the supposition

that the earth is a perfectly rigid body, while we have abundant evidence

that the earth’s rigidity, although great, is by no means infinite, and this

lack of perfect rigidity will have the effect of lengthening the Euler

period, so that it may be made 365 days or 427 days long, thus possibly

bringing it into agreement with the observed periods. One difficulty

The Present Condition of the Latitude Problem .

231

however, stands in the way of this explanation. Mr. Chandler has in¬

dicated as a result of his investigation that the period of time within

which the latitude makes a complete oscillation is not of uniform length

hut ranges from about 350 up to 427 days, and this variation in the length

of the period is in no way accounted for by Newcomb’s explanation.

Turning now for a moment aside from this periodic variation of the

latitude, let us briefly consider another but allied phase of the same

matter. At the conference of the International Geodetic Association,

held at Home in 1884, Fergola, an Italian astronomer, presented a con¬

siderable amount of data tending to show that during the past century

there had been a progressive diminution in the latitudes of European

observatories. In other words, that aside from this periodic variation of

latitudes there had been a steady and uniform drift of the surface of

the earth in Europe away from the north pole. Fergola’s paper at¬

tracted great interest at the time, and his suggestion that a concerted

plan of action should be adopted for the systematic investigation of this

secular change in latitude was adopted by the Geodetic Association.

Measures were taken to have a series of observations for this purpose

commenced at Washington and at Lisbon; but unfortunately the mat¬

ter terminated without anything having been accomplished and the

plan for systematic investigation seems to have been abandoned.

At the earnest request of some geologists especially interested in gla¬

cial phenomena, I took up the question of the secular variation of lati¬

tudes anew some three years ago, with the intention of examining more

carefully the American data, which had scarcely been touched upon by

Fergola, and of ascertaining whether it could be made to yield any con¬

tribution to a better knowledge of the secular change. Without going

into the details of this investigation, it may suffice to state here that this

data, although somewhat scanty in amount, still indicates very strongly

that American observatories have a common motion toward the north

pole amounting to about four feet per year; in other words, that the

rotation axis of the earth, instead of being fixed relatively to the crust of

the earth, is changing its position, moving in a direction along the west

coast of Greenland, so that it is being brought progressively nearer to

American stations and carried more slowly away from European ones.

The results of this investigation were presented last summer to the

American Association for the Advancement of Science, and a committee

of that association was appointed to devise means for further investiga¬

tion of these changes in latitude, both periodic and secular. Under the

auspices of the International Geodetic Association, simultaneous obser¬

vations are now being made in Germany and in the Hawaiian Islands.

These will suffice for a very accurate determination of the periodic

changes of latitude, but they are not well adapted to a determination of

the secular change, the longitudes being badly chosen for this purpose,

232

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

and it is very much to be desired that as soon as possible a series of ob¬

servations having the secular change in view should be undertaken in

the United States and along the eastern coast of Asia, since the direction

of the motion of the pole appears to be such that stations thus located

will be subject to larger variations of latitude than those in any other

longitudes.

Correlation of Moraines with Beaches.

233

ON THE CORRELATION OF MORAINES WITH RAISED

BEACHES OF LAKE ERIE*

By FRANK LEVERETT.

The narrow ridges of sand and gravel which traverse the plains of the

western Erie basin, at distances varying from a few miles up to 80 miles

or more from the present shore of Lake Erie, as well as those of the

eastern portion of the Lake Erie basin, which lie near the borders of the

lake, were recognized by the early settlers as old lake shores, and were

known in many sections as “lake ridges.” Nearly all the reports of

geologists, whose work has lain within the territory covered by these

beach lines, contain references to the beaches, and many contain valu¬

able data concerning them, but so far as I am aware no complete tracing

of any one of the beaches has been made by my predecessors.

At the time the reports of the Ohio geological survey were written,

the question seems not to have been raised as to whether the beaches

completely encircle the lake, though Dr. Newberry and Prof. Winchell

each entertained the hypothesis that the high stage of water in the lake

may have been caused by the occupancy of the present outlet of the

Great Lakes by the retreating ice-sheet.^ During the twenty yeaps that

have elapsed since these reports appeared, critical investigation of cer¬

tain districts has shown that these beaches do not in all cases surround

the bodies of water which they border. To Mr. Gilbert especially are

we indebted for the advancement of knowledge along this line. The

discovery was made by him, some years ago, that several of the raised

beaches of Lake Erie do not completely encircle that body of water, but

that those along its south shore terminate in a successive series from

higher to lower in passing eastward from northern Ohio to southwestern

New York. The results of his study are unpublished, but through his

kindness I have been made acquainted with his recent views and sup¬

plied with the principal data. In explanation of the failure or disap¬

pearance of these beaches, in the eastern portion of the basin, Mr. Gil¬

bert has entertained the theory that their eastern termini represent suc-

* The article from which the main part of this paper is taken appears in full in the

American Journal of Science, Yol. XLIII, April, 1892.

t Geology of Ohio, Yol. I., p. 552; Proc. Amer. Ass. Adv. Sci., 1872, p. 183.

234

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

cessive positions of the ice front in its northeastward retreat across the

Lake Erie basin, but has held that the complete verification of this

theory depends upon the occurrence of moraines which are the demon¬

strable correlatives of the beaches. It is believed that such moraines

have now been discovered and traced into connection with the three

beaches which terminate in Ohio. Two other beaches terminate in

southwestern New York, but since the glacial phenomena of that region

have not received critical attention, it is not known whether moraines

occur there which can be correlated with the beaches. The limitations

of the several stages of the lake, on its north shore, have not been de¬

termined. The study is, therefore, far from complete and the present

paper furnishes but a brief introduction to the interesting history

which further investigations promise to reveal.

The facts to be presented are naturally grouped under three heads:

(I) The Van Wert or Upper beach and its correlative moraine, the

Blanchard ridge; (II) The Leipsic or second beach and its correlative

moraine; (III) The Belmore, or third beach and its correlative moraine.

The names here adopted are those suggested by Prof. N. H. Winchell *

I. THE VAN WERT OR UPPER BEACH AND ITS CORRELATIVE MORAINE.

(a) The Van Wert or Upper Beach. — The distribution of this beach in

Ohio and Indiana, and the southwestward outlet of the lake which it

bordered, are well shown in maps published many years ago by Mr Gil¬

bert.! It was supposed by Mr. Gilbert, at that time, that the beach con¬

tinued further east than Findlay, and his maps accordingly contain a

hypothetical continuation along the north slope of the Blanchard mo¬

raine to the Sandusky river at Tiffin. It is now found that there is a

beach line having about the position conjectured by Mr. Gilbert, but it

is the Leipsic or second beach, while the Van Wert or upper beach ap¬

parently terminates at Findlay, there being in the district east from

the uieridian of Findlay no beach line outside (south) of the Leipsic

beach. At its eastern terminus, the beach is in the midst of a plain that

rises gradually toward the north, the east, and the south, so that the

lake terminated in a mere point whose waters were quite shallow.

Along the Blanchard moraine, on the north side of of the river, there is

no beach line of corresponding age with the Van Wert ridge, though

sand sets in on the outer slope a short distance west from Findlay and

reaches altitudes as great as on the beach south of the river. The phe¬

nomena along the moraine, as shown below, seem to indicate that the

ice-sheet overhung it while the lake was still occupying the Van Wert

beach, and thus prevented the waves of the glacial lake from making

their impress on the moraine.

*Proc. Am. Ass. Aclv. Sci. 1872, pp. 171-179. Geol. of Ohio, Vol. II., p. 56.

1Am. Journ. of Science, May 1871, p. 341. Geol. of Ohio, Vol. I. 1873, p. 540.

Trans Wis. Acad. tol. VIII. PI. VIII

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Correlation of Moraines with Beaches.

235

The altitude of the Van Wert beach throughout its course in Indiana

and Ohio, has a variation of scarcely ten feet, the general altitude being

very nearly 210 feet above Lake Erie. In Michigan it has been examined

by Dr. J. W. Spencer, who reports a marked northward differential up¬

lift between Ypsilanti and Berville, its altitude being 211 feet at Ypsi-

lanti, and 244 feet at Berville.*

The Van Wert ridge, so far as I have examined it, consists in the main of

a deposit of sandy gravel. It is not a strong beach, its usual height being

three to five feet and its breadth but ten to twelve rods. Its pebbles are

often but slightly worn, an indication that wave action was not strong. It

is not improbable that throughout a larger portion of the year than at

present the lake shore was fringed by ice. Fossils are extremely rare if

not entirely absent from this beach, a feature which accords well with

the view that the beach was formed during the low temperature of the

glacial period, though it is merely negative evidence, since the ab¬

sence or scarcity of fossils is not always due to the original absence of

life, but often to the lack of conditions for preservation.

(b) The Blanchard Moraine. — The Blanchard is the latest moraine of

the series in Ohio, that can be traced around the western end of Lake

Erie. Westward from Findlay the moraine, though a less conspicuous

feature than eastward from that city, was recognized and mapped by Mr.

Gilbert more than twenty years ago.| It is, therefore, one of the earliest

recognized moraines on this continent. From near the meridian of

Findlay eastward it resembles the earlier moraines in presenting a

broadly ridged and slightly undulatory tract of till, standing twenty to

forty feet above the plain south of it, and having a breadth of one and

one-half to three miles. Near the meridian referred to it assumes a

very different appearance, that of a knob and basin topography of sub¬

dued type in which knolls of conical form rise abruptly five to ten feet

and cover an acre or less each, and among which are sharp basins occu¬

pying usually but a small fraction of an acre each, though frequently

several feet in depth. The crest of the moraine is no longer well de¬

fined though it continues to be a water shed-between tributaries of the

Maumee, all the way to that stream near Defiance.

The structure presents as marked a change as the topography. In¬

stead of a uniform deposit of till at the surface, there is a variety of for¬

mations remarkable for the abruptness of their alternations. In one

knoll a fine sand may occur while its neighbors are composed of clay, or

a portion of a knoll may be sand and the remainder clay, the whole

being moulded together in a symmetrical knoll, like the gravel and till

in ordinary kames. A few knolls contain gravel but as a rule pebbles

are rare, and no surface bowlders or large pebbles were observed. The

nlays are very calcareous and abound in nodules in nearly every exposure .

* Am. Journ. Sci. March 1891.

+ Am. Journ. Sci., May 1, 1871, pp. 339-342.

236 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

Such is the character of the moraine for a distance of ten or twelve

miles. About three miles northwest of Leipsic, near the center of town¬

ship 2 north, range 7 east, the Leipsic or second beach crosses the moraine,

and from there northwestward the moraine has a comparatively smooth

surface, the result of wave action subsequent to the retreat of the ice.

The portion of the moraine of especial interest is the knob and basin

tract, above described. If my interpretation be correct this owes its

peculiar topography and structure to the presence of lake water beneath

the ice-margin. This portion of the moraine has an altitude but slightly

below the level of the Van Wert Beach, consequently the water was

shallow and incapable of buoying up the ice-sheet and producing ice¬

bergs. The result was what might be anticipated under such conditions

of deposition, a variable structure produced by the motion of water

under the edge of the melting ice-sheet, and an uneven surface moulded

by the inequalities of its base and margin. It may be suggested that

the moraine received its sandy deposits from a lake that covered it after

the ice had retreated. It seems improbable, however, that such was the

case, (1) because the sandy deposits are not in the form of a beach nor

in any way connected with a well defined beach, but consist of sharp

knolls similar to the clay knolls of the moraine; (2) because the sand in

places graduates into clay of glacial origin showing contemporaneous

deposition with it; (3) because the basins and depressions are so sharp

and of such a form and arrangement as to forbid the idea that wave

action was long exerted on them; (4) the portion of the moraine north¬

westward from where the Leipsic beach crosses, affords a clear illustra¬

tion of the effect of an open lake on the moraine, its surface being

smooth and its sand either a uniform coating or aggregated into forms

clearly referable to wave or wind action. It is fortunate that the lake

in its later stages fell short a few feet of reaching its earlier maximum

stage, and thus left unmodified a portion of what appears to be a lake-

deposited moraine. So far as I am aware no case of a moraine demon¬

strably formed in lake water has been reported from other parts of the

glaciated district, but it is not improbable that other instances will be

found when attention is directed more closely to the subject, if they

have not already been observed by other students. It is quite probable

that in portions of this moraine further north there will be found other

places similar to that described.

Summing up the phenomena of this district it appears, (1) that the

Van Wert ridge terminates near Findlay, Ohio, and that east from there

the Blanchard moraine is its correlative, (2) that the Blanchard moraine

from near the line of Putnam and Hancock counties northward was

deposited in lake water. The beach as well as the morainic phenomena,

therefore, support the hypothesis that the lake bounded by the Van

Wert beach was of glacial age.

Correlation of Moraines with Beaches.

237

II. THE LEIPSIC OR SECOND BEACH AND ITS CORRELATIVE MORAINE.

(a) The Leipsic or Second Beach. — This beach was traced from the

Blanchard river, near Ottawa, eastward to its eastern terminus near

Cleveland. Its course is not known west from the meridian of Ottawa,

but it is probably the correlative of Mr. Gilbert’s “ Second Beach ” that

passes through Bryan and Hicksville, Ohio, since it has about the same

altitude as that beach, and since no other beach that could be a correla¬

tive has been found.

In the portion already traced the course of the beach is winding, fol¬

lowing pretty closely a contour line 195 to 200 feet above the lake, though

for a portion of its course, lying between the villages of Van Buren and

Bellevue, it has an altitude about 210 feet above the lake.

From the Blanchard river, at a point about three miles above Ottawa,

it passes northwestward along the outer face of the Blanchard moraine

for a distance of 9 to 10 miles. Here it crosses the moraine and passes

south of east along its inner face for a few miles. It then leaves the

moraine to the south and takes a course north of east, through McComb

and Van Buren, to Fostoria. From Fostoria it bears south of east

through Bascom to the Sandusky river at Tiffin, then northeast to

Bellevue, southeast to the Huron river, near Pontiac, northeast again

nearly to Elyria, then south a few miles to Black river, after which it

takes nearly a direct course toward its eastern terminus near Cleveland.

The bays at Sandusky, Huron and Black rivers, were not formed by the

cutting back of the shore of the lake, for a restoration of the original

slope on which the shore was carved, shows that the lake nowhere cut

back its shore a mile, and usually but a few rods. The general appear¬

ance of this beach is much like that of the Van Vert, though it is on the

whole somewhat stronger, its wave cut benches standing often 6 to 8 feet,

and occasionally 15 to 20 feet, above the inner border plain. Its gravels

like those of the Van Wert beach contain many pebbles which are but

slightly rounded, and there are many places where bowlders are im¬

bedded in the beach deposits. The only fossils discovered are the horns

of elk and deer which were obtained in a railway gravel pit three miles

east of Ottawa, from undisturbed gravel at a depth of 7 to 9 feet from the

surface. All the evidence collected favors the view that the shore

throughout a large portion of the year was protected by ice from the

action of the waves.

As previously stated the Leipsic beach has its terminus near Cleve¬

land. The beach here connects with the western end of a moraine.

Between Rockport and Linndale the beach swings from a course north

of east, to a southerly course, and is there made up of a series of ridges

of nearly uniform height, which are united at the curving portion of the

ridge, but diverge into distinct ridges toward the southeast, so that their

ends are spread out over a space of nearly one-half mile. The outer

238 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

ridge comes to Big Creek bluff in North Linndale. There is outside of

these beach ridges a peculiar ridge, which appears to be a compromise

between a beach and a moraine. At its western end, near the inner bend

of a tributary of Big Creek, a mile or so west of North Linndale, it is

composed of gravel, and resembles in every way the beaches just north

of it, but upon tracing it eastward the gravel changes to till, giving it

the appearance of a low glacial ridge. This low till ridge may be traced

through North Linndale to the bluff of Big Creek, near the bend of that

stream, and upon crossing the creek we find a much larger ridge of till,

one worthy the name moraine. This larger ridge is separated from

the eastern end of the beach proper by the narrow valley of Big

Creek, one-fourth mile or less in width. I was unable to find beach

gravel along the inner (north) slope of the morainic ridge, further east

than the terminus of the beach ridge, but this inner border district is

very flat, and its clays contain few pebbles compared with the clays of

the moraine. These features apparently indicate that the lake water

covered the tract north of the moraine, either while the ice overhung it

or subsequently.

(b) The Correlative Moraine of the Leipsie Beach. — This moraine as

indicated above, is traceable no further west than North Linndale. Both

north and west from there the surface, aside from the flow beaches, is a

monotonous plain with scarcely any undulation. The disappearance of

the moraine at the point where the beach appears, leaves little room for

doubt that the ice-sheet here terminated in a lake, and that the beach is

of glacial age. The portion of the moraine west of the Cuyahoga does

not show evidence that it was deposited in lake water. On the contrary,

its structure, so far as exposed, opposes such a theory of deposition, the

mass of the ridge being ordinary till without capping of sand or other

water deposits. The descent is rapid toward the Lake Erie basin from

the junction of the beach and moraine; there was probably sufficient

depth of water to cause the ice-sheet to break up into bergs at its margin

instead of resting on the lake bottom and forming such a moraine as it

did in the western Erie basin, northward from the junction of the Van

Wert beach and Blanchard moraine.

Tracing the moraine eastward we find it passing just south of the vil

lage of Brighton, near which it is interrupted by the Cuyahoga valley. It

reappears on the east side of the river in Newburg and is traceable from

there eastward, through Randall and Warrensville to the Chagrin river

below Chagrin Falls. West of the Cuyahoga it is a single gently undu¬

lating ridge, about 80 rods in width and 20 to 30 feet in height. East of the

river it consists of many short ridges and conical swells 10 to 25 feet in

height and has a width of one to two miles or more. In places there is a

well defined crest, but as a rule the crest is wanting.

The range of altitude is considerable. West of the Cuyahoga the mo¬

raine stands about 800 feet A. T. East of the river it rises from 800 feet

Correlation of Moraines with Beaches .

239

at Newburg to 1,050 feet at Randall (only six miles distant), and ranges

up and down 200 to 250 feet in eastern Cuyahoga and Geauga counties in

crossing ridges and valleys, its highest points being about 1,250 feet A. T.

The thickness of drift as shown by its relief above border districts is

only twenty to thirty feet, but spread out as it is over a width of one to

two miles, it represents an accumulation^ least 100 times that of the

correlative beach. The moraine is composed principally of till, though .

in places it has gravelly knolls (kames). Pockets of gravel and sand oc¬

cur in the till, and beds of assorted material are occasionally interstrati-

fied with it. In short, the moraine in its topography, range in altitude,

bulk and constitution, is so different from the beach that the two forma¬

tions cannot be confused, and yet there seems to be no question that

the moraine of the eastern Erie basin has, in the western Erie basin, a

beach for its correlative.

III. THE BELMORE BEACH AND ITS CORRELATIVE MORAINE.

Between the Leipsic beach and the present shore of Lake Erie, there

are several beaches. One of these, the Belmore beach, terminates near

Cleveland, the others continue eastward into southwestern New York,

and do not concern us in the present discussion. From its eastern ter¬

minus westward to the meridian of Belmore and Leipsic, the Belmore

beach lies only one to three miles and in places, as at Berlin Heights,

only a few rods north of the Leipsic beach. Westward from this

meridian the courses of the two beaches are quite divergent, the Leipsic

bearing south of west, while the Belmore bears northwestward crossing

the Maumee river near Defiance, from which stream it bears east of

north into Michigan. The general altitude of the Belmore beach within

the state of Ohio is 160 to 170 feet above Lake Erie. It lies, therefore,

too low to open southwestward, as do the earlier beaches, through the

Ft. Wayne outlet.

In size and general appearance this beach differs but little from the

Leipsic, but is on the whole more sandy.

The ridge phase of the Belmore beach apparently exists no further

east than the Cuyahoga river but it is thought that the lower of the two

terraces in the eastern part of Cleveland was occupied by the lake at the

time this beach was forming. The absence of a beach, in the eastern

Erie basin, which could be considered a correlative of the Belmore

beach, has been determined by Mr. Gilbert, we therefore are led to in¬

quire whether a moraine occurs there as a correlative of the beach.

The innermost moraine formed on the southern borders of the Lake

Erie basin, is distinctly traceable from the eastern end of the lake, west¬

ward to Euclid, Ohio, a village situated about ten miles east from the

mouth of the Cuyahoga. The gap between the western end of the

moraine and the eastern end of the ridge phase of the Belmore beach, is,

therefore, about ten miles, but between the moraine and the Cleveland

240

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

terrace it is scarcely half that distance, and I am not certain bnt that

the terrace may find occasional development along the face of the bold

escarpment south of Lake Erie, as far east as the western terminus of

the moraine. But should the gap between the moraine and the beach

prove to be five or even ten miles, it would not follow that they cannot

be correlated with each other, for the position of the boundary between

the ice-sheet and the lake may have oscillated through a distance as

great as this gap, during the course of the period in which the moraine

and beach were forming. The failure or disappearance of the beach

necessitates an explanation, and the only probable one yet found, is

that the ice-sheet excluded the lake from the eastern portion of the

basin, and the disappearance of this moraine near the eastern end of the

beach, though it does not connect as closely with the beach as do earlier

moraines with their correlative beaches, leaves no reasonable room for

doubt that it is the correlative of the Belmore beach.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS.

From the data abov^e presented it appears that Lake Erie in its earlier

stages was but a small body of water, its size being conditional on the

position of the retreating ice-sheet, and the height of the western rim of

the basin it occupied. It at first occupied only a portion of the district

between the outlet and the western end of the present lake, the remain¬

der of the basin, including the whole of the area of the present lake,

being occupied by the ice-sheet. Its south and north shores were then

at the Van Wert ridge, while its eastern border was at the Blanchard

moraine. At the time of the formation of the Leipsic and Belmore

beaches the area of the lake was nearly as great as the present area of

Lake Erie, though it occupied but little of the present bed of the lake.

From the phenomena attending the replacement of the three beaches

in Ohio by moraines, we are led to suspect that the two later beaches

which die away in southwestern New York are there connected with mo¬

raines, and that similar moraines will be found to connect with the

beaches of Lake Ontario at points where they disappear on its eastern

and northern borders.

Differential uplift was slight in the western Erie basin compared with

what it was in the eastern Erie basin and the Ontario, and on the shores

of Lake Huron and Georgian Bay. The data at hand indicate that it

amounts to scarcely more than ten feet in the whole area of the portion

of the Erie basin west of Cleveland, and has therefore played an insigni¬

ficant part in causing the three stages of the lake herein described.

The bulk of the moraines is many times that of the beach deposits’

though no longer time was involved in their deposition. The ice-sheet was,

therefore, a much more efficient transporting agency than the lake waves.

The extreme scarcity of evidence of life in these waters is a feature

quite accordant with the theory deduced from the relation of the beaches

to the moraines, that the lake was of glacial age.

Inscriptions on the Monuments of the Achcemenides .

241

THE CUNEIFORM INSCRIPTIONS ON THE MONUMENTS

OF THE ACHCEMENIDES*

TRANSLATED BY

HERBERT CUSHING TOLMAN, Ph. D.

»

THE SEPULCHRAL INSCRIPTION OF CYRUS.

The oldest inscription of Persia is found on that structure generally

believed to be the tomb of Cyrus. At Pasargadae, in the midst of the

plain of Murghab, stands a building of white marble rising to the height

of thirty-six feet from the ground. Its base is forty-seven, feet long and

forty-four feet broad. A figure in bas-relief carved on a pillar, perhaps

the portrait of the king himself, strengthens the theory that this struc¬

ture is the tomb of Cyrus. A narrow doorway leads into an inner cham¬

ber, where Arrian says, the body of Cyrus was placed. Under the relief

is the cuneiform inscription, the translation of which follows:

I (am) Cyrus, the king, the Achaemenide.

For the sake of comparison I add the epitaph of Cyrus quoted by

Strabo, (XV, 3.)

12 drQp<jJ7tE, eyed KvpoS zipi 6 Kajj.(3vdov, 6 tt)v apxvv HzpdaiZ

KaradrT/ddjueroZ ncti rrj $ AdiaA [iadiXevdoA. Mp ovv ^ovrjdiQ’i jdoi rov

jur?jjuaroS.

* For the original text of the inscriptions the reader is referred to the translator’s Old

Persian Grammar, published by Ginn & Co., Boston, Mass. (1892).

16— A. & L.

242

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences. Arts and Letters.

THE INSCRIPTION OF DARIUS HYSTASPES AT BEHISTAN.

The longest and most important of the Old Persian inscriptions is the

great monument of Behistan. The name Behistan forms a dependent

compound, the first member being baga (God) and the second stana

(place.) Behistan or “ Place of God ” was known to the Greeks who gave

it the name (dayidravov opo6. This immense rock rises abruptly to a

height of 1,700 feet from the plain below. No place in all Persia could

Darius have found more fitted for the purpose of holding an everlasting

memorial of his reign. The bas-reliefs are uninjured and show a row of

nine usurpers bound with a cord about their necks. In front of them

stands the monarch who treads upon the prostrate body of a tenth vic¬

tim. Behind Darius are two attendants, armed with the spear and bow.

The figures of the conquerer and his warriors are skillfully executed,

while the rebels are intentionally represented as diminutive in size.

Above the picture is an effigy of Auramazda, the greatest deity of the

Persians.

Over the heads of the king and his captives are placed legends com¬

memorating the monarch’s triumphs and showing the ancestry of Darius

and the fraud of the usurpers. Below the reliefs in five parallel columns

occurs the inscription of nearly one thousand lines, the translation of

which I make at this point.

i.

1. I (am) Darius, the great king, the king of kings, the king in Persia,

the king of countries, the son of Hystaspes, the grandson of Arshama,

the Achaemenide.

2. Says Darius the king my father (is) Hystaspes, the father of

Hystaspes (is) Arshama, the father of Arshama (is) Ariyaramna, the

father of Ariyararamna (is Caispis *), the father of Caispis (is)

Achaemenes.

3. Says Darius the king therefore we are called the Achaemenides:

from long ago we have extended t from long ago our family have been

kings.

4. Says Darius the king VIII.J of my family (there were) who were

formerly kings: I am the ninth IX: individually we were (lit. are) kings.

* Caispis is omitted by tbe carelessness of the stone-cuttei\ It is easily supplied from

the inscription above the head of Darius which repeats these introductory sections ; vide

infra.

X The Persian word amata I connect with the Sanskrit root ma to measure (CP Zend ma

and Latin me-to). The A is doubtless a prefix corresponding to the Sanskrit a (hither).

amata would mean measured hither or to the present time, i. e. reaching to the present .

It is possible to emphasize the idea of the root ma (measure): hence the word might

signify measured , tested, tried.

X The numerals are represented by horizontal wedges for the units and oblique for the

tens.

Trans. Wis. Acad.

Vol. VIII , PI. IX.

The Behistan Mountain

Inscriptions on the Monuments of the Achcemenides. 243

5. Says Darius the king by the grace of Auramazda I am king: Am-

amazda gave me the kingdom.

6. Says Darius the king these are the countries which came to me: by

the grace of Auramazda I became king of them, Persia, Susiana, Babylon,

Assyria, Arabia, Egypt, which are by the sea, Sparda, Ionia, Media,

Armenia, Cappadocia, Parthia, Drangiana, Area, Chorasmia, Bactriana,

Sogdiana, Gandara, Saka, Thatagus, Haravatis, Maka, in all (there are)

XXIII countries.

7. Says Darius the king these (are) the countries which came to me:

by the grace of Auramazda they became subject to me: they bore tribute

to me: what was commanded to them by me this was done night and

(lit. or) day.

8. Says Darius the king within these countries what man was a friend*

Mm will supported I supported: who was an enemy him well punished

I punished; by the grace of Auramazda these countries followed my law:

as it was commanded by me to them, so it was done.

9. Says Darius the king Auramazda gave me the kingdom; Auramazda

bore me aid until this kingdom was established: by the grace of Aura¬

mazda I hold this kingdom.

10. Says Darius the king this (is) what (was) done by me after that I

became king; Cambyses by name, the son of Cyrus (was) of our family: he

before was king here: of this Cambyses there was a brother Bardiya (i. e.

Smerdis) by name possessing a common mother and the same father with

Cambyses; afterwards Cambyses slew that Bardiya: when Cambyses slew

Bardiya, there was not knowledge j (on the part) of the state that Bar¬

diya was slain: afterwards Cambyses went to Egypt: when Cambyses

went to Egypt, after that the state became hostile, after that there was

deceit to a great extent in the provinces, both Persia and Media and

other provinces.

11. Says Darius the king afterwards there was one man, a Magian,

Gaumata by name; he rose up from Paishiyauvada; there (is) a moun¬

tain Arakadris by name; from there on the 14th dayj of the month

Viyakhna then it was when he rose up: he then deceived the state; I am

Bardiya the son of Cyrus brother of Cambyses: afterwards the whole

state became estranged from Cambyses (and) went over to him, both

Persia and Media and the other provinces: he siezed the kingdom; on

the 9th day of the month Garmapada then it was he thus seized the

kingdom; afterward Cambyses died by a self-imposed death. ||

* The Persion word is of doubtful interpretation. It looks like the nomen agentis of gam

to go, a goer hither or a comer. The translation friend is a conventional one.

t azda, a doubtful word. I connect it with the root da to know which occurs in the com¬

pound AURAMAZDA.

t Lit. with fourteen days; a use of the instrumental which denotes the association of time

with an event. This idiom is employed in all like temporal expressions.

11 The word uvamarshiyush I divide into uva self (Cf. Skt. sva. Lat. se) and marshiyush

244 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

12. Says Darius the king this kingdom which Gaumata the Magian

took from Cambyses, this kingdom from long ago was (the possesion ) of

our family: afterwards Gaumata the Magian took from Cambyses both

Persia and Media and the other provinces; he acted in accordance with?

his own pleasure? he became king.

13. Says Darius the king there was not a man neither a Persian n or

Median nor anyone of our family who could make Gaumata the Magian

deprived of the kingdom; the state feared him vehemently (or because

of his violence); he would smite the state utterly which knew the former

Bardiya; for this reason he would smite the state that it might not know

me* * that I am not Bardiya the son of Cyrus; any one did not dare to say

anything against Gaumata the Magian until I came; afterwards I asked

Auramazda for help; Auramazda bore me aid; an the 10th day of the

month Bagayadis then it was I thus with (my) faithful? men slew that

Gaumata the Magian and what men were his foremost allies; there (is) a

stronghold Sikayauvatis by name;| there is a province in Media Visaya

by name; here I smote him; I took the kingdom from him; by the grace

of Auramazda I became king: Auramazada gave me the kingdom.

14. Says Darius the king — the kingdom which was taken away from

our family, this I put in (its) place; I established it on (its) foundation;

as (it was) formerly so I made it; the sanctuaries? which Gaumata the

Magian destroyed I restored. The commerce ? of the state and the

cattle and the dwelling places and in accordance with % the clans which

Gaumata the Magian took from them (I restored); I established the state

on (its) foundation both Persia and Media and the other provinces; as-

(it was) formerly so I brought back what (had been) taken away; by the

grace of Auramazda this I did; I labored that our clan I might establish

in (its) place; as (it was) formerly, so (I made it); I labored by the grace

of Auramazda that Gaumata the Magian might not take away our race.

15. Says Darius the king this (is) what I did, after thatP became king..

16. Says Darius the king when I slew Gaumata the Magian after¬

wards there (was) one man Atrina by name the son of Upadara(n)ma; he

rose up in Uvaja (i. e. Susiana); thus he said to the state; I am king in

Uvaja; afterwards the people of Uvaja became rebellious (and) went

over to that Atrina; he became king in Uvaja; also there (was) one man

a Babylonian Naditabira by name the son of Ain . ; he rose up in

Babylon; thus he deceived the state; I am Nabukudracara the son of

Nabunita; afterwards the whole of the Babylonian state went over to*

die (Cf. Skt. mar Lat. morior). The meaning also corresponds to the statement in Herodo¬

tus III 64-65. that Cambyses died from a wound inflicted by his sword as he was leaping

from his horse.

* Note the direct form of expression.

t Nama is not the accusative of specification but is attacted into the case and even the gen¬

der of the subject. Lit. there is a stronghold (its) name (is) Sikayauvatis.

X The transition from the accusative to the instrumental is hard to explain.

Inscriptions on the Monuments of the Achcemenides. 245

i

that Naditabira; Babylon became rebellions; the kingdom in Babylon

-he seized.

17. Says Darius the king afterwards I sent forth (my army) to Uvaja;

this Atrina was led to me bound; I slew him.

18. Says Darius the king afterwards I went to Babylon against that

Naditabira who called himself Nabukudracara; the army of Naditabira

held the Tigris; there he halted and was on shipboard; afterwards I de¬

stroyed the army . one (army) I made submissive, of the other

. . I led; Auramazda bore me aid; by the grace of Auramazda we

crossed the Tigris; here the army of Naditabira I slew utterly; on the

:27th day of the month Atriyadiya then it was we thus engaged in battle.

19. Says Darius the king afterwards I went to Babylon; when to

Babylon . ; there (is) a town Zazana

by name along the Euphrates; there this Naditabira who called himself

Nabukudracara went with his army against me to engage in battle;

afterwards we engaged in battle; Auramazda bore me aid; by the "grace

of Auramazda the army of Naditabira I slew utterly .

. . the water bore it away; on the 2nd day of the month Ana-

maka then it was we thus engaged in battle.

ii.

1. Says Darius the king afterwards Naditabira with (his) faithful ?

horsemen went to Babylon; afterwards I went to Babylon; by the grace

of Auramazda I both seized Babylon and seized that Naditabira; after¬

wards I slew that Naditabira at Babylon.

2. Says Darius the king while I was in Babylon these (are) the prov¬

inces which became estranged from me, Persia, Uvaja, Media, Assyria,

Armenia, Parthia, Magus, Thatagus, Saka.

3. Says Darius the king there (was) one man Martiya by name, the

•son of Cicikhris — there (is) a town in Persia Kuganaka by name — here

he halted; he rose up in Uvaja; thus he said to the state; I am Imanis

Mng in Uvaja.

4. Says Darius the king then I was near by Uvaja; afterwards from

me . the people of Uvaja seized that Martiya who was chief

of them and slew him.

5. Says Darius the king one man Fravartis by name, a Mede, he rose

up in Media; thus he said to the state; I am Khshathrita of the family

of Uvakhshatara; afterwards the Median state which was in clans be¬

came estranged from me (and) went over to that Fravartis; he became

Mng in Media.

6. Says Darius the king the Persian and Median army, which was by

Mm, it was faithful ? (lit. a faithful (?) thing); afterwards I sent forth an

246 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

army; Vidarna* by name, a Persian, my subject him I made chief of them*;

thus I said to them; go smite that Median army which does not call it¬

self mine; afterwards this Vidarna with the army went away; when he

came to Media . there (is) a town in Media . by name — here

he engaged in battle with the Medes; he who was the chief among the

Medes did not then hold (the army) faithful ?; Anramazda bore me aid;

by the grace of Anramazda the army of Vidarna smote that rebellious

army utterly; on the 6th day of the month Anamaka then it was the bat¬

tle (was) thus fought by them; afterwards my army — there (is) a region

Ka(m)pada by name — there awaited me until I went to Media.

7. Says Darius the king afterwards Dadarsis by name, an Armenian,,

my subject, him I sent forth to Armenia; thus I said to him; go, the re¬

bellious army which does not call itself mine smite it; afterwards Dad-

arsis went away; when he came to Armenia, afterwards the rebellious

ones having come together went against Dadarsis to engage in battle

. a village . by name in Armenia; here they engaged in bat¬

tle; Auramazda bore me aid; by the grace of Auramazda my army smote

that rebellious army utterly; on the 6th day of the month Thuravahara

then it was thus the battle (was) fought by them.

8. Says Darius the king a second time the rebellious ones having*

come together went against Dadarsis to engage in battle; there (is) a

stronghold, Tigra by name, in Armenia — here they engaged in battle:

Auramazda bore me aid; by the grace of Auramazda, my army smote

that rebellious army utterly; cn the 18th day of the month, Thuravahara

then it was the battle (was) thus fought by them.

9. Says Darius the king a third time the rebellious ones having come

together went against Dadarsis to engage in battle; there (is) a strong¬

hold, U . ama by name, in Armenia — here they engaged in battle;

Auramazda bore me aid; by the grace of Auramazda my army smote

that rebellious army utterly; on the 9th day of the month, Thaigarcis

then it was thus the battle (was) fought by them; afterwards Dadarsis

awaited me until I came to Media.

10. Says Darius the king afterwards Vaumisa by name, a Persian, my

subject, him I sent forth to Armenia ; thus I said to him; go, the rebell¬

ious army which does not call itself mine, smite it; afterwards Vaumisa.

went away; when he came to Armenia afterwards, the rebellious ones

having come together went against Vaumisa to engage in battle; there

(is) a region, . by name, in Assyria — here they engaged in battle;

Auramazda bore me aid; by the grace of Auramazda my army smote

* A nominative in apposition with an accusative. This weak syntax is common to the Old

Iranian languages. Artificially the construction can be explained by supplying asti is and

repeating the idea in the form of a pronoun. The boldest case is in III. 2. fraishayam

dadarshish I sent forth Dadarsis , the nominativejbeing used apparently as an object. For

a fuller discussion of the subject the reader is referred to my Old Persian Grammar 61, a,.

notes, 2.

Inscriptions on the Monuments of the AcJuemenides. 247

that rebellious army utterly; on the 15th day of the month Anamaka,

then it was thus the battle (was) fought by them.

11. Says Darius the king a second time the rebellious ones having

come together went against Vaumisa to engage in battle; there (is) a

region Autiyara by name in Armenia — here they engaged in battle;

Auramazda bore me aid; by the grace of Auramazda my army smote

that rebellious army utterly; . . of the month Thuravahara

. thus the battle (was) fought by them; afterwards Vaumisa

awaited me in Armenia until I came to Media.

12. Says Darius the king afterwards I went from Babylon; I went

away to Media; when I went to Media — there (is) a town Kudurus by

name in Media — here this Fravartis (i. e., Phaortes) who called himself

king in Media went with (his) army against me to engage in battle;

afterwards we engaged in battle; Auramazda bore me aid; by the grace

of Auramazda I smote the army of Fravartis utterly; on the 26th day of

the month Adukanis then it was we engaged in battle.

13. Says Darius the king afterwards this Fravartis with faithful ?

horsemen — in that place (was) a region Raga by name in Media — here

went; afterwards I sent forth my army against them; Fravatis was

seized (and) led to me; I cut off (his) nose and ears and tongue, and to

him . I led; he was held bound at my court; the whole state

saw him; afterwards I put (him) on a cross at Ecbatana, and what men

were his foremost allies, these I threw within a prison at Ecbatana.

14. Says Darius the king one man, Citra(n)takhma by name, a Sagar-

tian, he became rebellious to me; thus he said to the state; I am king in

Sagartia, of the family of Uvakhshatara; afterwards I sent forth the

Persian and Median army; Takhmaspada by name, a Mede, my subject,

him I made chief of them; thus I said to them; go, the rebellious army,

which does not call itself mine, smite it; afterwards Takhmaspada went

away with the army (and) engaged in battle with Citra(n)takhma; Aura¬

mazda bore me aid; by the grace of Auramazda my army smote that

rebellious army utterly and seized Citra(n)takhma (and) brought (him)

to me; afterwards I cut off his nose and ears, and to him . I led;

he was held bound at my court; the whole state saw him; afterwards I

put him on a cross in Arabia.

15. Says Darius the king this (is) what (was) done by me in Media.

16. Says Darius the king Parthia and Hyrcania . of

Fravartis . called himself; Hystaspes my father .

army . afterwards Hystaspes .... allies . town - by

name . they engaged in battle . . . thus

the battle (was) fought by them.

248 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

hi.

1. Says Darius the king afterwards I sent forth the Persian army to

Hystaspes from Raga; when this army came to Hystaspes, afterwards

Hystaspes with that army went away — there (is) a town Patigrabana by

name in Parthia — here he engaged in battle with the rebellious ones;

Auramazada bore me aid; by the grace of Auramazda Hystaspes smote

that rebellious army utterly; on the first day of the month Garmapada

then it was that thus the battle (was) fought by them.

2. Says Darius the king afterwards it became my province; this (is)

what (was) done by me in Parthia.

3. Says Darius the king there (is) a region Margus by name; it be¬

came rebellious to me; one man Frada, a Margianian, him they made

chief; afterwards I sent forth Dadarsis by name, a Persian, my subject,

satrap* * in Bactria against him; thus I said to him: go, smite that army

which does not call itself mine; afterwards Dadarsis with the army

went away (and) engaged in battle with the Margianians; Auramazda

bore me aid; by the grace of Auramazda my army smote that rebellious

army utterly; on the 23rd day of the month Atriyadiya then it was thus

the battle (was) fought by them.

4. Says Darius the king afterwards it became my province; this (is)

what (was) done by me in Bactria.

5. Says Darius the king one man Vahyazdata by name — there (is) a

town Tarava by name; there (is) a region Yutiya by name in Persia — ■

here halted; he a second time (i. e. after Gaumata) rose up in Persia;

thus he said to the state; I am Bardiya the son of Cyrus; afterwards the

Persian army which (was) in clans departed from duty; it became

estranged from me (and) went over to that Vahyazdata; he became king

in Persia.

6. Says Darius the king afterwards I sent forth the Persian and

Median army which was by me; Artavardiya by name, a Persian, my

subject, him I made chief of them; the other Persian army went with

(lit. after) me to Media; afterwards Artavardiya with the army went to

Persia; when he came to Persia — there (is) a townRakha by name in

Persia — here this Vahyazdata who called himself Bardiya went with (his)

army against Artavardiya to engage in battle; afterwards they engaged

in battle; Auramazda bore me aid; by the grace of Auramazda my army

smote that army of Vahyazdata utterly; on the 12th day of the month

Thuravahara then it was thus the battle (was) fought by them.

7. Says Darius the king afterwards this Vahyazdata with faithul?

horsemen then went to Paishiyauvada; from thence he went with an army

* The Persian word khshatrapavan (satrap) is lit. protecting the kingdom; khshatra

kingdom (Cf. artakhshatra, Artaxerxes) and pa protect (Cf, Skt. and Zend pa, Lat. pa-vi,

• s. FODA"and the root in the Lat. pater and its cognates.

Inscriptions on the Monuments of the Achcem'enides. 249

again against Artavardiya to engage in battle; there (is) a mountain

Paraga by name — here they engaged in battle; Auramazda gave me aid;

by the grace of Auramazda my army smote that army of Vahyazdata

utterly; on the 6th day of the month Garmapada then it was thus the

battle (was) fought by them and they seized that Vahyazdata and what

men were his foremost allies they seized.

8. Says Darius the king afterwards — there (is) a town in Persia

Uvadaidaya byname* — here, that Vahyazdata and what men were his

foremost allies, them I put on a cross.

9. Says Darius the king this Vahyazdata who called himself Bardiya

he sent forth an army to Harauvatis — there (was) Vivana by name, a

Persian, my subject, satrap in Harauvatis — against him (he sent an

army) and one man he made chief of them; thus he said to them: go,

smite that Vivana and that army which calls itself of Darius the king

afterwards this army, which Vahyazdata sent forth, went against Vivana,

to engage in battle; there (is) a stronghold Kapishakanis by name —

here they engaged in battle; Auramazda bore me aid; by the grace of

Auramazda my army smote that rebellious army utterly; on the 13th

day of the month Anamaka then it was thus the battle (was) fought by

them.

10. Says Darius the king again the rebellious ones having come to¬

gether went against Vivana to engage in battle; there (is) a region

Ga(n)dutava byname — here they engaged in battle; Auramazda bore

me aid; by the grace of Auramazda my army smote that rebellious army

utterly; on the 8th day of the month Viyakhna then it was thus the bat¬

tle (was) fought by them.

11. Says Darius the king afterwards this man, who was chief of that

army which Vahyazdata sent against Vivana, this chief with faithful ?

horseman went away — there (is) a stronghold Arshada by name in Harau¬

vatis — he went beyond thence; afterwards Vivana, with an army on

foot went (against) them; here he seized him and what men were his

foremost allies he slew.

12. Says Darius the king afterwards the province became mine; this

is what was done by me at Harauvatis.

13. Says Darius the king when I was in Persia and Media a second

time the Babylonians became estranged from me; one man, Arakha by

name, an Armenian son of Han(?)dita,j* he rose up in Babylon; there (is)

* The reader has noticed the constant use of paratax. Instead of bringing the words of

the sentence into syntax independent constructions are employed. In no other language is

this loose arrangement (which we must feel was original to speech) shown to better ad¬

vantage than in the old Persian inscriptions.

t The N in Handita as well as the N in Dubana conjecture has supplied. The combina¬

tion of wedges in the cuneiform text resembles no other characters on the stone and per¬

haps is the sign for L which otherwise would be wanting in the Old Persian alphabet. I

however feel that it is simply a careless writing of the nasal.

250

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

a region, Dnban(?)a by name — from there he rose up; thus he lied; I am

Nabukudracara, the son of Nabunita; afterwards the Babylonian state

became estranged from me (and) went over to that Arakha; he seized

Babylon; he became king in Babylon.

14. Says Darius the king afterwards I sent forth my army to Babylon;

Vi(n)dafra by name, a Mede, my subject, him I made chief; thus I said to

them; go, smite that army in Babylon which does not call itself mine;

afterwards Vi(n)dafra with an army went to Babylon; Auramazda bore

me aid; by the grace of Auramazda, Vi(n)dafra seized Babylon . .

on the 2d day of the month . then it was thus . .

• a o •

IV.

1. Says Darius the king this (is) what was done by me in Babylon.

2. Says Darius the king this (is) what I did; by the grace of Auram¬

azda it was (done) wholly in (my) way;* after that the kings became re¬

bellious I engaged in XIX battles; by the grace of Auramazda I smote

them and I seized IX kings; there was one, Gaumataby name, a Magian;

he lied; thus he said; I am Bardiya the son of Cyrus; he made Persia re¬

bellious; there (was) one, Atrina byname, inUvaja; he lied; thus he said;

I am king in Uvaja; he made Uvaja rebellious to me; there (was) one,

Naditabira by name, a Babylonian; he lied; thus he said; I am Nabuku¬

dracara the son of Nabunita; he made Babylon rebellious; there (was)

one, Martiya by name, a Persian; he lied; thus he said; I am Imanis

king in Uvaja; he made Uvaja rebellious; there (was) one Pravartis by

name, a Mede; he lied; thus he said; I am Khshathrita of the family of

Uvakhshatara; he made Media rebellious; there (was) one, Citra(n)takhma

by name, in Sagartia; he lied; thus he said; I am king in Sagartia, of the

family of Uvakhshatara; he made Sagartia rebellious: there (was) one,

Frada by name, a Margianian; he lied; thus he said; I am king in Margus;

he made Margus rebellious; there (was) one, Vahyazdata by name, a Per¬

sian; he lied; thus he said; I am Bardiya the son of Cyrus; he made Per¬

sia rebellious; there (was) one, Arakha by name, an Armenian; he lied;

thus he said; I am Nabukudracara the son of Nabunita; he made Baby¬

lon rebellious.

* hamahyaya tharda is of doubtful interpretation. Rawl. suggested “the performance of

the whole Oppert “ dans toute ma vie; dans toute l’annie, toujours Spiegel “ in aller

Weiser 11 Many idle attempts have been made to connect tharda with the Sanskrit qarad,

autumn used in the Veda metaphorically for year , but they are unsatisfactory. I feel

that we have nothing which can give us light on this phrase.

Inscriptions on the Monuments of the Achcemenides.

251

3. Says Darius the king these IX kings I seized within these battles.

4. Says Darius the king these (are) the provinces which became re¬

bellious; a lie made them* * * §. . . .that these deceived the state; afterwards

Auramazda made them in my hand; as desire (moved) me, thus. . . . .

5. Says Darius the king O thou who wilt be king in the future, pro¬

tect thyself strongly from deceit; whatever man will be a deceiver, him

punish well (lit. him well punished punish, Cf.. I. 8), if thus thou shalt

think “ may my country be firm.”

6. Says Darius the king this (is) what I did; by the grace of Aura¬

mazda I did (it) wholly in (my) way;| O though who shalt examine this

inscription in the future, let it convince thee (as to) what (was) done by

me; do not deceived thyself.

7. Says Darius the king Auramazda (is) a witness? that this (is) true

(and) not false (which) I did wholly in my own way.J

8. Says Darius the king by the grace of Auramazda .

(what) else (was) done by me to a great extent, that (is) not inscribed on

this inscription; for this reason it (is) not inscribed lest whoever will

examine this inscription in the future . it may

not convince him (as to) what (was) don6 by me (and) he may think (it)

false. §

9. Says Darius the king who were the former kings, by these nothing

(was) done to a great extent as (was) performed || wholly by me though

the grace of Auramazda.

10. Says Darius the king . let it convince thee (as to) what

(was) done by me; thus . for this reason do not

hide (this monument); if thou shalt not hide this monument (but) tell

(it) to the state, may Auramazda be a friend to thee and may there be to

thee a family abundantly and live thou long.

11. Says Darius the king if thou shalt hide this monument (and) not

tell (it) to the state, may Auramazda be a smiter to thee and may there

not be to thee a family.

12. Says Darius the king this (is) what I did wholly in (my) way;^[ by

the grace of Auramazda I did (it); Auramazda bore me aid and the other

gods which are.

13. Says Darius the king for this reason Auramazda bore me aid and

the other gods which are, because I was not an enemy, I was not a de¬

ceiver, I was not a despot . family above law, above

* Perhaps we can supply with Spiegel hamitriya a lie made them rebellious .

t Cf. IV. 2.

t Cf . IV. 2.

§ Although much has become obliterated yet we have enough to enable us to gain the

sense of the passage. The idea is: should I write the memorial of all my achievements,

they would be so many that men would lose faith in the testimony of this stone.

II Cf. IV. 2. but here tharda fails to appear.

II Cf. IV. 2.

252

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

me . I did . that whoever for me helped

those belonging to my race, him well supported I supported; whenever

. him well punished I punished.

14. Says Darius the king 0 thou who art king in the future, whatever

man shall be a deceiver . shall be . (be) not

a friend to these; punish these with severe punishment.

15. Says Darius the king O thou who shalt see this inscription in the

future which I inscribed or these pictures, thou shalt not destroy (them)

as long as thou shalt live; thus guard them.

16. Says Darius the king if thou shalt see this inscription or these

pictures (and) shalt not destroy them and shalt guard them for me as

long as (thy) family shall be, may Auramazda be a friend to thee and may

there be to thee a family abundantly and live thou long and whatever

thou shalt do, this for thee (let) Auramazda . let him grant thy

prayers.

17. Says Darius the king if thou shalt see this inscription or these

pictures (and) shalt destroy them and shalt not guard them for me as

long as (thy) family shall be, may Auramazda be a smiter to thee and

may there not be to thee a family and whatever thou shalt do this let

Auramazda destroy for thee.

18. Says Darius the king these (are) the men who were there then

when I slew Gaumata the Magian who called himself Bardiya; then

these men cooperated as my allies; Vi(n)dafrana by name, the son of

Vayaspara, a Persian; Utana by name, the son of Thukhra, a Persian;

Gaubaruva by name, the son of Marduniya, a Persian; Vidarna by

name, the son of Bagabigna, a Persian; Bagabukhsha by name, the son

of Daduhya, a Persian; Ardumanis by name, the son of Vahauka, a

Persian.

19. Says Darius the king O thou who art king in the future, what

. what Darius .

I did.

v.

1. Says Darius the king this (is) what I did . . . 7 . .

. . way . . . .

. king . province; this became

estranged from me; one man ..imina by name; the (people) of Uvaja

made him chief; afterwards I sent forth (my) army to Uvaja; one man

Gaubaruva by name, a Persian, my subject, him I made chief of them;

afterwards this Gaubaruva with an army went to Uvaja; he engaged in

'V , • •

Inscriptions on the Monuments of the Aclicemenides. 253

battle with the rebellious ones; afterwards

, . and to him .

me . province

. thus it . .

he seized and led to

2. Says Darius the king

. Auramazda .

Auramazda . I did.

3. Says Darius the king whoever in the future

by the grace of

4. Says Darius the king . I

went against Saka .

. Tigris . . . to the sea .

. I seized the enemy . to .

. . Saku (n) ka by name, him I seized .

. there another as chief .

. afterwards .

5. Says Darius the king . . . not

Auramazda . if by the grace of Auramazda

. . . I did.

6. Says Darius the king . worship? Aurmazda: .

Kossowicz remarks: “Notatu dignum omnium, quantum scio, imperatorum, qui ar-

morum vi atque gloria celebres extiterant, nisi duo, Darium Hystaspi nempe et Napole-

onem I — mum, commilitonum nomina, victorias suas recensendo, in publicis monumentis

memoriae tradidisse.”

254

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences. Arts and Letters.

THE SMALLER INSCRIPTIONS OF BEHISTAN.

A.

Over the picture of Darius.*

I (am) Darius, the great king, king of kings, king of Persia, king of the

countries, the son of Hystaspes, the grandson of Arshama, the Achae-

menide. Says Darius the king my father (is) Hystaspes, the father of

Hystaspes (is) Arshama, the father of Arshama (is) Ariyaramna, the

father of Ariyaramna (is) Caispis, the father of Caispis (is) Achaemenes.

Says Darius the king therefore we are called Achaemenides; from long

ago we have extended; from long ago our family have been kings. Says

Darius the king VIII of my family (there were) who were formerly kings;

I am the ninth IX; individually we are kings.

B.

Under the prostrate form.

This Gaumata the Magian lied; thus he said; I am Bardiya, the son of

Cyrus; I am king.

c.

Over the first standing figure.

This Atrina lied; thus he said; I am king in Uvaja.

D.

Over the second standing figure.

This Naditabira lied; thus he said; I am Nabuk (u) dracara, the son of

Nabunita; I am king in Babylon.

E.

Upon the garment of the third standing figure.

This Fravartis lied; thus he said; I am Khshathrita of the family of

Uvakhshatara; I am king in Media.

E.

Over the fourth standing figure.

This Martiya lied; thus he said; I am Imanis, king in Uvaja.

* Cf. I, 1-4.

Inscriptions on the Monuments of the Achcemenides.

255

Gr.

Over the fifth standing figure.

This Citra(n)takhma lied; thus he said; I am king in Sagartia, of the

family of Uvakhshatara.

H.

Over the sixth standing figure.

This Vahyazdata lied; thus he said; I anFBardiya, the son of Cyrus;

I am king.

i.

Over the seventh standing figure.

This Arakha lied; thus he said; I am Nabuk (u) dracara, the son of

Nabunita; I am king in Babylon.

J.

Over the eighth standing figure.

This Frada lied; thus he said; I am king in Margus.

k.

Over the ninth standing figure.*

This (is) Saku(n)ka, the Sakian.

* Herodotus mentions the high cap which was peculiar to the garb of the Sakians. It is

interesting to note that the figure is represent on the stone wearing this national head-dress.

Of. plate, opp. page 242.

256

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

THE INSCRIPTION OF ALVEND.

This inscription is engraven upon two niches on a large block of stone

near the base of Mt. Alvend. Not only is the monumental fame of Da¬

rius perpetuated by the Behistan mountain, but in different parts of the

Persian empire this monarch caused to be inscribed historic records of

his reign. At Persepolis the palaces declare the name of their founder

and his prayers for the protection of heaven. To Darius beyond all

others we are indebted for what we have of the Paleography of Persia.

After translating the inscription indicated above I shall take up the re¬

maining ones of this king at Persepolis, Suez, etc.

A great god (is) Auramazda who created this earth, who created yonder

heaven,* who created man, who created the spirit? of man, who made Da¬

rius king, one king of many, one lord of many. I (am) Darius the great

king, king of kings, king of the countries possessing many kinds of people,,

king of this great earth far and wide, the son of Hystaspes, the Achae-

menide.

* Asman ( heaven ) is literally a stone as we know from its cognate in Sanskrit. Probably

the Persians regarded the sky as a solid dome; cf. the Hebrew word raqi (a) (Gen. I. 8J), and

our firmament (firmamentum).

Inscriptions on the Monuments of the Achcemenides.

257

THE INSCRIPTIONS OF SUEZ.

A crowned head is carved upon the stone together with the legend:

Darins the great king, king of kings, king of the countries, the son of

Hystaspes, the Achaemenide.

Above are a dozen lines of Persian cuneiform text the translation of

which follows.

B.

A great god (is) Auramazda, who created yonder heaven, who created

this eai'th, who created man, who created the spirit ? of man, who made

Darius king, who gave the kingdom to Darius; what great .

. I (am) Darius the great king, king of

kings, king of the countries possessing many people, king of this great

earth far and wide, son of Hystaspes, the Achaemenide. Says Darius

the king I am a Persian; with (the help of) Persia I seized Egypt; I com¬

manded to dig this canal * from the Nile by name a river which flows

in Egypt to the sea, which goes from Persia; afterwards this canal was

dug there as I commanded . . . . .

*Cf. Herodotus IV. 39. Xrjyei $£ avzrj [p ' Apafirf), ov Xpyovda ei y?/

vojxop, £<s rov koXtcov zov ’Apafiiov , kS zov AapsioZ £K zov NiiXov

diGopvxct kdfjyaye.

17— A. & L.

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

. 258

THE INSCRIPTION OF LONDON.

The following short inscription can be seen in the British Mnsenm on

a cylinder which furnishes a fine specimen of gem engraving. A warrior

in his charriot is represented as attacking at full speed a lion,* the

symbol of power. This warrier from his crown we can interpret as King

Darius. He holds his bow ready for action, while the charioteer urges

on the steeds. This cylinder was carried to England from Egypt.

I (am) Darius the king.

* On tlie Persian sculptures, the lion and hull occur often, as emblems of strength. Meta¬

phors of this kind are frequent in all oriental literature. In making a list of the epithets of the

god Indra in the Veda, I was struck with the repeated comparisons of this sort. ' However,

the Vedic poets drew from the stall as the most fertile source of metaphors, and it was the

later Sanskrit which used the beasts of the forest more extensively for that purpose,

(e. g, the tiger of men, etc.) In Biblical literature the reader is referred to Ezekiel i. 10.

“ As for the likeness of their faces, they four had the faces of a man, and the face of a lion

on the right side.” Daniel vii. 4. “ The first was like a lion and had eagles wings.” The

familiar national emblems of later date, the Roman eagle, the British lion, etc., all had.

their origin in this early conception.

Inscriptions on the Monuments of the Achcemenides.

259

THE INSCRIPTIONS OF DARIUS AT PERSEPOLIS.

The inscriptions of Persepolis show that same spirit of patriotism

which characterizes the record on Mt. Behistan. The superiority of

Persia over the provinces of the empire is set forth by the monarch with

the purpose of elevating the feelings of his countrymen and of keeping-

alive ever in their hearts the love of country. The palace of Darius

shows the ruins of several apartments with external chambers which were

evidently guard-rooms. The roof of a large room, fifty feet square, was

supported by pillars, the bases of which remain to-day. This edifice is

one of those ruins which represent the combined work of several succes¬

sive Achaemenian kings. All the structures stand upon the same plat¬

form around which are great walls of hewn stone. Two inscriptions are

found above the wall and one on two pillars, which read as follows:

A.

Above the ivall surrounding the palace.

r

The great Auramazda, who (is) the greatest of the gods, he made Darius

king; he gave to him the kingdom; by the grace of Auramazda Darius (is)

king. Says Darius the king this (is) the country Persia which Auram¬

azda gave me, which, beautiful, possessing good horses, possessing good

men, by the grace of Auramazda and (by the achievements) of me Darius

the king, does not fear an enemy. Says Darius the king let Auramazda

bear me aid with (his) fellow gods and let Auramazda protect this coun¬

try from an army, from misfortune, from deceit; may not an enemy. . . .

come unto this country, nor an army, nor misfortune nor deceit; this I

pray of Auramazda. . . .with (his) fellow gods; this let Auramazda give

me with (his) fellow gods.

B.

Another inscription above the ivall.

I (am) Darius the great king, king of kings, king of many countries,

the son of Hystaspes, the Achaemenide. Says Darius the king by the

grace of Auramazda these (are) the provinces which I subdued with (the

help of) that Persian army, (and) which feared me (and) brought to me

tribute; Uvaja, Media, Babylon, Arabia, Assyria, Egypt, Armenia, Cap-

260 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

padocia, Sparda, Ionia, which (are) of the dry (land) (and) which (are) of

the sea, and the provinces which (are) in the east, Sagartia, Parthia,

Zara(n)ka, Haraiva, Bactria, Sugda, Uvarazamiya, Thatagus, Harau-

vatis, India, Ga(n)dara, Saka, Maka. Says Darius the king if thus thou

tshalt think “may I not fear an enemy,” protect this Persian state; if

the Persian state shall be protected, may this goddess (namely) this

spirit (of patriotism) for a long time unharmed, descend upon this race.

c.

Over the pillars in the palace.

Darius the great king, king of kings, king of the countries, the son of

Hystaspes, the Achaemenide, who built this palace.

Trans. Wis. Acad.

Vol. VIII, PI. X.

The Tomb of Darius

Inscriptions on the Monuments of the Achcemenides. 261

THE INSCRIPTION ON THE TOMB OF DARIUS.

Naqshi — Rustam is the burial place of Darius.

On the face of a mountain which rises to the perpendicular height of

900 feet are cut the excavations which are doubtless tombs. These relics

have a common external appearance. They are carved into the rock

fourteen feet deep in the form of a cross the upright section of which is

about ninty feet, the tranverse division about fifty feet. Four pilasters

about seven feet apart ornament the tranverse section, in the midst of

which is the deor of the tomb. On the division above the facade of this

sepulchre are the sculptures. A double row of fourteen figures support

two cornices. Two bulls form the pillars at each end of the upper cor¬

nice. On an elevated pedestal of three steps stands a figure dressed in a

flowing robe holding his bow in his left hand. Without doubt this is the

effigy of him who lies buried beneath. Opposite the standing form on a

pedestal of three steps is an altar upon which the sacred fire is burning,

while above is a disk probably representing the sun of which the fire

blazing at the shrine is the symbol. Above is the image of Auramazda.

One of these structures Ker-Porter visited and with great difficulty

explored its interior. Although he was not able to read the inscription,

yet he conjectured that this was the tomb of Darius. I quote him at this

point. “ The second tomb is the only one whereon the marks of an in¬

scription can be traced; but over the whole tablet of the upper compart¬

ment, letters are visible wherever they could be introduced; above the

figures, between them and the altar, along the side, from top to bottom,1

in short, everywhere, we see it covered with the arrow-headed characters

and in good preservation. What a treasure of information doubtless

is there to the happy man who can decipher it. It was tantalizing

to a painful degree, to look at such a sealed book, in the very spot of

mystery, where probably, its contents would explain all. But it certainly

is a very distinguishing peculiarity of this tomb that it alone should con¬

tain any inscription, and that the writing on it is so abundant; a circum¬

stance that might warrant the supposition of this being the tomb that

was cut by the express orders of Darius Hystaspes to receive his re¬

mains. ” (Travels in Georgia, Persia, Armenia, ancient Babylonia etc.,

etc. by Sir Robert Ker-Porter, vol. I, p. 523).

Before translating the inscription I wish to call the attention of the

reader to Herod III. 88. Tcpdorov psv vvv tvtcov Ttoir/6dpEv oS XiBivov

(AapeioS) e6t?]6e. ^gdov 8e oi evt/v dv?)p i7t7tEv ?. ETtsy paipE Se y pdppara

Xhyovra rads. Aapsio^ 6 tT6rd(j7t£oS 6vv te tov iititov rp dpErp uai

OifidpsoS rov imtoKopov £Krrj6aro rrjv IlEpdsGov f5a6iXpb)v.

262

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

A.

A great god is Auramazcla, who created this earth, who created yonder

heaven, who created man, who created the spirit? of man, who made Darins

king, one king of many, one lord of many. I (am) Darius the great king

king of kings, king of the countries possessing many kinds of people,

king of this great earth far and wide, son of Hystaspes the Achaeme-

nide, a Persian, the son of a Persian, an Aryan, an Aryan offspring.

Says Darius the king by the grace of Auramazda these (are) the provinces

which I seized afar from Persia; I ruled them; they brought tribute to

me . what was commanded to them by me, this they did;

the law which (is) mine, that was established; Media, Uvaja, Parthia, Har-

aiva, Bactria, Suguda, Uvarazamis, Zara(n)ka, Harauvatis, Thatagus, Ga-

(n)dara, India, Sakae Humavarkae, Sakae Tigrakhaudae, Babylon, Assy¬

ria, Arabia, Egypt, Armenia, Cappadocia, Sparda, Ionia, Sakae beyond

the sea, the Ionians wearing long hair,* Patians, Kusians, Macians, Kar-

kians. Says Darius the king Auramazda, when he saw this earth .

. afterwards gave it to me: he made me king; I am king;

by the grace of Auramazda I established it on (its) foundation; what I

commanded to them, this they did as desire came to (lit. was) me. If

perchance thou shall think that manifold (lit. a manifold thing) are

these provinces which Darius the king held, look at the picture (of those)

who are bearing my throne,t in order that thou mayst know them; then

to thee will be the knowledge (that) the spear of a Persian man hath

gone forth afar; then to thee will be the knowledge (that) a Persian man

waged battle far from Persia. Says Darius the king this (is) what

(was) done; all this by the grace of Auramazda I did; Auramazda bore

me aid until this (was) done; let Auramazda protect me from .

and my race and this country; this I pray of Auramazda; this let Aura¬

mazda give me: O man, what (are) the commands of Auramazda, may he

(make them) revealed to thee; do not err; do not leave the right path; do

not sin.

B.

A great god (is) Auramazda who . made

spirit? of man . above Darius the

king . . .

Says Darius the king by the

*Cf. the Homeric %ap?/%o/4&5or.r£s.

t The northern throne of the great palace contains five tiers of ten warriors supporting

the platform on which the king is represented sitting, surrounded by his attendants.

Inscriptions on the Monuments of the Achcemenides. 263

grace of Auramazda .

. is violence .

. violence . .

c.

Gaubaruva, a Patisuvarian, spear -bearer of Darius the king.

D.

Aspacana, quiver-bearer?, a server of the arrows of Darius the king.

E.

This (is) a Macian.

264

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

THE INSCRIPTIONS OP XERXES AT PERSEPOLIS.

A.

Upon each one of the four pillars of the entrances to the palace of Xe rxes

A great god (is) Auramazda who created this earth, who created yonder-

heaven, who created man, who created the spirit? of man, who created

Xerxes king, one king of many, one lord of many. I (am) Xerxes the great

king, king of kings, king of the countries, possessing many kinds of people,

king of this great earth far and wide, the son of Darius the king, the

Achaemenide. Says Xerxes the great king by the grace of Auramazda, this

entrance possessing all countries I made; much else (that is) beautiful

(was) done by this Persian (people) which I did and which my father did;

whatever (that has been) done seems beautiful, all that we did by the

grace of Auramazda. Says Xerxes the king let Auramazda protect me

and my kingdom and what (was) done by me and what (was) done by my

father, (all) this let Auramazda protect.

B.

Upon the pillars on the western side of the palace , ivhere Xerxes is repre¬

sented standing with two attendants.

Xerxes the great king, king of kings, the son of Darius the king, the

Achaemenide.

c.

Upon the wall by the stairs of the palace.

A great god (is) Auramazda who created this earth, who created yonder

heaven, who created man, who created the spirit ? of man, who made Xerxes,

king, one king of many, one lord of many. I (am) Xerxes the great kingy,

king of kings, king of the provinces possessing many kinds of people,

king of this great earth far and wide, son of Darius the king, the Achae-

menide.,' [Says Xerxes the great king by the grace of Auramazda this,

palace (lit. seat) I made; let Auramazda protect me with the gods and

my kingdom and what (was) done by me.

D.

The above inscription is repeated on the western stairs of the palace.

Inscriptions on the Monuments of the Achcemenides. 265

E.

Upon the highest pillar near the southern stairs.

A great god (is) Aurmazda who created this earth, who created yonder

heaven, who created man, who created the spirit ? of man, who made Xerxes

king, one king of many, one lord of many. I (am) Xerxes the great king,

king of kings, king of the provinces possessing many kinds of people,

king of this great earth far and wide, son of Darius the king, the Achae-

menide. Says Xerxes the great king by the grace of Aura * Mazda this

palace (lit. seat) Darius the king made, who (was) my father; let Aura-

mazda protect me with the gods and what (was) done by my father

Darius the king, (all) this let Auramazda protect with the gods .

F.

The above inscription is repeated upon the walls of the southern

stairs.

G.

Upon the stairs of the palace.

A great god (is) Auramazda who created this earth, who created yonder

heaven, who created man, who created the spirit? of man, who made

Xerxes king, one king of many, one lord of many . I (am) Xerxes the great

king, king of kings, king of the provinces possessing many kinds of peo¬

ple, king of this great earth far and wide, the son of Darius the king,

the Achaemenide. Says Xerxes the great king what (was) done by me

here and what (was) done by me afar, all this I did by the grace of

Auramazda; let Auramazda protect me with the gods and my kingdom

and what (was) done by me.

* Notice that the two members of the compound are separated. In the Zend Avesta we

read ahura mazda, aura signifies lord (Cf . Sanskrit \ asura, Zend ahura) ; mazda

we can divide into maz great (Cf. Sanskrit mahat, Lat. mag-nus, Gothic mag, Eng.

might.) and da to know.

266

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

THE INSCRIPTION OF XERXES AT ALVEND.

The following inscription is engraven upon two niches cut into a small

rock:

A great god (is) Auramazda, who (is) greatest of the gods, who created

this earth, who created yonder heaven, who created man, who created the

spirit? of man, who made Xerxes king, one king of many, one lord of

many. I (am) Xerxes the great king, king of kings, king of the provinces

possessing many kinds of people, king of this great earth far and wide »

the son of Darius the king, the Achaemenide.

THE INSCRIPTION UPON THE VASE OF COUNT CAYLUS.

This vase contains the three customary forms of cuneiform writing

and a line of Egyptian hieroglyphics. This relic is preserved in Paris.

Four fragments of similar alabaster vases containing the same quadri-

lingual inscription have been found by W. K. Loftus in Susa, and are

to be seen to-day in the British Museum.

I (am) Xerxes, the great king.

Inscriptions on the Monuments of the Achcemenides. 267

THE INSCRIPTION AT VAN.

This inscription is about sixty feet from the plain below, engraven

upon a niche in an enormous rock which rises to the perpendicular

heighth of one hundred feet:

A great god (is) Auramazda who (is) the greatest of the gods, who

created this earth, who created yonder heaven, who created man, who

created the spirit ? of man, who made Xerxes king, one king of many, one

lord of many. I (am) Xerxes the great king, king of kings, king of the

provinces possessing many kinds of people, king of this great earth far

and wide, the son of Darius the king, the Achaemenide. Says Xerxes

the king Darius the king who (was) my father he by the grace of

Auramazda did what (was) beautiful to a great extent and he com¬

manded to carve this place - ? he did not make the inscription in¬

scribed; afterwards I commanded to inscribe this inscription; let Aura¬

mazda protect me with the gods and my kingdom and what (has been)

done by me.

268

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

THE INSCRIPTION OF ARTAXERXES I.

This inscription, which is quadrilingual is engraven upon a vase which

is preserved in the treasury of St. Mark’s at Venice.

Artaxerxes,* the great king.

THE INSCRIPTION OF DARIUS II.

Above the posts of the windows in the palace at Persepolis.

(This) lofty stone structure (has been) made by (one belonging to) the

race of Darius the king.

THE PECULIARITIES OF INSCRIPTIONS OF ARTAXERXES

MNEMON AND ARTA XERXES OCHUS.

These inscriptions show that the work of decay had already begun in

the grammatical structure of the language. Such careless irregularities

occur in them that I wish to call the attention of the reader to a few

before I begin the translation: (1) what should be a genitive becomes

attracted into the nominative on account of proximity; (2) the nomina¬

tive is attracted into the case of a preceding noun for the same reason*

yet allowing the predicate to be in the proper case; (§) the nominative

is thrust into the accusative as if it were to become a direct object, yet

the passive construction is retained. In consequence of these irregu¬

larities it will be impossible to make a literal translation as I have done

heretofore, but I shall translate as if the regular constructions were

employed.

* The cuneiform text spells the name of the monarch on the vase ardakhcashca. This

spelling must be due either to foreign pronunciation or to the ignorance of the workman,.

Elsewhere the cuneiform characters give the regular artakhshatra.

V.'V ■ '

Inscriptions on the Monuments of the Achcepienides. 269

THE INSCRIPTION OF ARTAXERXES MNEMON AT SUSA.

This inscription is upon the base of one of the columns in the ruins

of what once must have been a great palace. Much of this building was

used for the pavement of other edifices by the races which in after time

possessed this spot.

t

A.

I (am) Artaxerxes, the great king, king of kings, the son of Darius* the

king.

B.

Upon the base of a pillar in a large row of columns. This palace

seems to have been fashioned after the model of that of Darius at Per-

sepolis. In connection with this edifice it is interesting to refer to Dan.

viii. 2. “ and it came to pass when I saw, that I was in Susa (or Shu-

shan) in the palace ” etc.

Says Artaxerxes the great king, king of kings, king of the countries,

king of the earth, the son of Darius the king; Darius (was) the son of

Artaxerxes the king; Artaxerxes (was) the son of Xerxes the king;

Xerxes (was) the son of Darius the king; Darius (was) the son of Hys-

taspes, the Achaemenide; this building Darius, my ancestor made .

. . . . . Artaxerxes (my) grandfather . Anakata

and Mithra . by the grace of Auramazda the building I made; let

Auramazda, Anahata and Mithra protect me . .

* Darayavus (Darius) although having a stem in u is treated like nouns whose stems end

in a. So in Prakrit there is a strong tendency for the so-called first declension to trespass

upon the others, thus breaking down the barriers which were observed by the Sanskrit.

270

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

THE INSCRIPTION OF ARTAXERXES OCHUS AT PERSEPOLIS..

Upon the steps of the palace.

A great god (is) Anramazda who created this earth, who created yonder

heaven, who created man, who created the spirit? of man, who made me,

Artaxerxes, king, one king of many, one lord of many. Says Artaxerxes

the great king, king of kings, king of countries, king of the earth. I

(am) the son of Artaxerxes, the king; Artaxerxes (was) the son of Darius

the king; Darius (was) the son of Artaxerxes the king; Artaxerxes (was)

the son of Xerxes the king; Xerxes (was) the son of Darius the king;

Darius was the son of Hystaspes by name; Hystaspes was the son of

Arshama by name, the Achaemenide. Says Artaxerxes the king this

lofty stone structure (was) made by me during my reign (lit. under me).

Says Artaxerxes the king let Auramazda and the ®god Mithra j protect

me and this country and what (was) done by me.

Inscriptions on the Monuments of the Achcemenides. 271

THE OLD PERSIAN LANGUAGE.

We have now translated all the inscriptions of the Achaemenides

which have been discovered. Before closing this work I wish to speak

a word for the Old Persian language. Not only the historian feels an

interest in reading the records written by the monarchs of one of the

greatest empires of past ages, but the philologist recognizes in the

speech, which has been preserved to us through the ambition of these

oriental despots another offspring of our mother-tongue. Of that great

sisterhood of languages, to which our own speech belongs, the Old Per¬

sian is a most ancient member. In its grammatical structure it most

closely resembles the Vedic dialect of the Sanskrit and we have to rely

almost entirely upon the combined help of the Sanskrit and Zend for an

understanding of its vocabulary. For the sake of illustration I add a

few Old Persian words with their cognates in the other members of our

family.

In its phonetic system the Old Persian showed a striking analogy to

that of the Greek in allowing an original sibilant to pass over into the

aspiration, e. g. ah be for Skt. as.; so in Greek 6 and rj for Skt. sas and

SA.

A few peculiar points of syntax I shall note.* The nominative is some¬

times used apparently as the direct object of a verb. The instrumental

assumes a temporal sense by denoting the association of time with an

event. The dative has disappeared from the language and its place is

taken by the genitive. This datival genitive is simply a pregnant use of

the possessive genitive and occurs likewise in the Prakrit and late San¬

skrit. e. g. khshatram mana frabara, he gave the kingdom to me (made

* For a fuller discussion of the peculiarities of Old Persian syntax, cp. my article in the

Proceedings of the Oriental Society (1892) p. 100.

272

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

it mine by giving). The relative pronoun is frequently equivalent in

meaning and usage to the Greek article agreeing with its antecedent

not only in gender and number but also in case. When used in this way

its independent character is lost.

The imperfect and aorist sometimes appear without augment as often

in the Veda. With the loss of this augment they sacrifice their peculiar

character. After ma prohibitive the sense is that of an optative or im¬

perative. The infinitive often expresses purpose as the dative infini¬

tive in the Rig Veda.

The participle of kar do regularly takes a genitive for the instrumen¬

tal, perhaps on account of the nominal character of the participle.

Changes in Temperature and Distribution of Magnetism. 273

THE EFFECTS OF CHANGES IN TEMPERATURE ON

THE DISTRIBUTION OF MAGNETISM.

By HIRAM B. LOOMIS, Ph. D.,

Instructor in Physics, State University .

The following paper is an account of some experiments undertaken to

determine more accurately, if possible, the kind of change which takes

place when a magnet is heated and cooled. An extensive investigation

of the changes in magnetic distribution, moment, and permeability is

under way and considerable work has been done in all three lines.

Though the results so far obtained as to changes in moment and perme¬

ability are not deemed complete enough for publication, the investiga¬

tion as to the changes in distribution may be of interest.

The subject will be considered under the following heads:

I. Historical Sketch.

II. Description of Apparatus and Experiment.

III. Calculation and Verification of Results.

IV. Discussion of Results.

I. HISTORY.

* About 1825, Kupffer magnetized a steel bar and placed it in a water

bath. Near it he suspended a magnetic needle and determined the

period of 300 swings before the temperature of the bar had changed.

The bath was then heated to 100° C., and the period of 300 swings again

determined. The bar was alternately heated and cooled between the

same limits of temperature, and determinations of the period were

made. His results may be summed up as follows: If a permanent

magnet be heated above the temperature of magnetization, its magnetic

moment decreases., On again cooling the moment increases, but not

enough to make up the first loss. This is true of the first three or four

heatings and coolings.

t Riess and Moser also experimented on the change in magnetic moment

by swinging magnets in the earth’s field and determining the period of

* Wiedemann’s Electricitat III., p. 753.

t Riess und Moser, Pogg. Ann. 17, p. 425, 1829.

18— A. & L.

274 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

vibration. For needles 34 lines long they found the following formula

held:

I' = I [1 - 0.000324 (t' - 1) d],

where I and I' are the intensities of magnetization at the temperatures

t and t' on the Reamur scale, and d is the diameter of the magnets. For

needles 2 inches long the numerical factor is 0.000432, showing that the

proportional change in intensity of magnetization is greater in shorter

magnets. Their temperature limits were 0° and 80° R. By swinging

their magnets at different temperatures they found the change in moment

proportional to the difference in temperature as is shown by their for¬

mula, which is to be applied with caution for their magnets had not

been brought to what we call the permanent state.

In 1851,* Lamont found that when a permanent magnet was alter¬

nately heated and cooled fifteen or sixteen times between fixed limits

of temperature, it reached a permanent state in which it had a definite

magnetic moment for a given temperature and always returned to that

moment when brought to the corresponding temperature, provided only

it had never passed beyond the temperature limits mentioned above.

The higher the temperature, the smaller was the magnetic moment.

tProf. G. Wiedemann has made some careful investigations on the

influence exerted by the temper of the steel and the original intensity

of magnetization. He used bars 22 cm. long and 1.35 cm. in diameter.

Before being magnetized, they were alternately placed in melting snow

and boiling water fifteen times, in order to bring the steel itself as far as

possible into such a state that alterations in temperature would produce

no structural change. The bars were magnetized in a coil at a tempera¬

ture of 0°. They were then carefully placed in a box of sheet copper be¬

fore the needle of a magnetometer and the deflection was observed by

a telescope and scale. The temperatures of 0° and 100° C. were obtained

by means of melting snow and boiling water. His results for magnets

that have reached the permanent state show that in the case of hard

steel magnets the change in moment is nearly proportional to the

moment at 0°, while for tempered and soft steel magnets, the ratio of

the change to the moment at 0° C. increases with the moment. As his

results give a good idea of the size of the changes under discussion, I ap¬

pend the following table from his paper:

* Lamont, Pogg. Am. 82, p. 440, 1851.

+ G. Wiedemann, Pogg. Am. 100, p. 235, 1852; 103, p. 563, 1858; 122, p. 355, 1664.

Changes in Temperature and Distribution of Magnetism. 275

II. Tempered steel bar.

Soft steel bar , No. 1.

Soft steel bar , No. 2.

Very soft steel bar which had been heated and slowly cooled many times.

M0 is the intensity of magnetization before any change in tempera¬

ture has taken place; M100, when first heated to 100° C.; M'0, after being

again cooled to 0° C, N0 and N100 are the intensities of magnetiza¬

tion at the temperatures indicated by the subscripts after the magnet

has been heated and cooled fifteen times.

276

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters.

With reference to the theory of these changes Prof. Wiedemann says:

44 Besides the permanent effect dne to an alteration in temperature there

is a temporary change. Each heating diminishes the permanent mo¬

ment of the molecules. Moreover, for the time being, it loosens the

particles of the body and lessens the strain in which they have been

placed by the action of external forces, therefore they return a little

toward their first position of equilibrium, in which they were held by

the forces acting between them before the external forces came into

play. Heating thus diminishes the magnetization temporarily, but on

cooling the molecules return to their former position and the lost mag¬

netization is regained.

“We can produce entirely analogous phenomena if we change the

temperature of bodies which have suffered a change of form (tortion) as

a result of the mechanical forces, and observe the increase and decrease

of this on heating and cooling.”

*Barus and Strouhal carefully distinguished the mechanical effect of

heating from the purely magnetic effect. They found that a temperature

20° or 30e C. above that of the water in which a glass hard steel rod was

dipped in hardening produced quite perceptible annealing effects. This

change in the hardness of steel would naturally affect the magnetiza¬

tion.

According to their experiments, if a glass hard steel rod is thoroughly

annealed by being kept at the temperature of boiling water for a day or

two and then magnetized to saturation at the temperature of the room,

the loss in magnetism on being heated to the boiling point is rela¬

tively small and is nearly independent of the time it is kept there.

Nearly the whole change takes place during the first ten minutes. On

the other hand, if the bar is not first annealed, the change is much

larger and is not complete after twenty-two hours heating.

We pass now to investigations on changes in distribution due to tem¬

perature changes. This field has not been extensively worked. These

two investigations are all that could be found.

■fKupffer determined at two different temperatures the period of

vibration of a short needle placed opposite different parts of a long

magnet, and found the proportional change in distribution greater at

the ends than in the middle of the bar. All his measurements were

made before the bar had reached the permanent state.

X Poloni measured the distribution at various temperatures, by slip¬

ping a coil from different parts of the magnet to such a distance that

the magnet exerted practically no effect, and measuring the quantity

of electricity thus induced. He worked between temperatures 0° and

* Bull U. S. Geol. Sur. No. 14, p. 151.

tKuppfer, Pogg. Ann. 12, p. 133.

X Poloni, Beibl. 5, p. 802. Atti della R. Acad.dei Lincei 5, p. 262, 1881.

Changes in Temperature and Distribution of Magnetism. 277

200° C., using an oil bath to obtain his high temperatures. The changes

were quite regular between 0° and 180° C., but were very large near 190° C.

Between 0° and 180° C., he found that the following formula held:

M — A £ 1 + K—1 — K~x — K (l + x"> J

where M is the induction in the magnet at a distance x from one of the

ends; 1, the length of the magnet; A, a quantity depending only on the

temperature, while K is sensibly constant for a given magnet.

II. DESCRIPTION OF APPARUTUS AND EXPERIMENT.

The determination of the reason for and laws governing the increase

and decrease in magnetism from changes in temperature forms an inter-

* esting problem, and the investigation was undertaken in the hope of

throwing new light on the subject. The apparatus employed was sug¬

gested by Prof. Rowland, under whose direction the investigation was

conducted, and will be best understood from the diagram on plate XI.

A and B are two cylindrical soft steel magnets (Stub’s steel of the

same temper as when purchased) 30.1 cm. long, and 0.55 cm. in diameter.

They were magnetized to saturation in a coil, the magnetic circuit being

completed by an iron casting, which happened to be of suitable size and

shape. They were then brought to the permanent state by alternate

heating and cooling. In both ends of each holes were bored and threads

cut. The depth of these holes in magnet A was 8 mm. at each end. In

magnet B the hole at the south end was 11 mm. deep, that at the north

end 7 mm. In the experiment the magnets were placed perpendicular

to the earth’s field.

Pieces of brass rod H H H H of the same diameter as the magnets were

screwed into their ends and acted as guides for the two coils (to be de¬

scribed presently), so that after they had been slipped off the magnets,

they could be slipped back again without trouble. DD is a brass rod

about 1.5 metres long, holding the two ‘magnets together in the position

shown in the figure. CC are pieces of non-conducting material to keep

the magnets from changing temperature by conduction along the rod

DD.

E and P are two coils of very fine wire wound on paper tubes which

just fit the magnets. They consisted of 150 turns (five layers of thirty

turns each), and were about 7 mm. wide. Their frames were joined by a

brass rod PP, of such length that when the coil E was at the center of

the magnet B, the coil F was also at the center of the magnet A. By

278 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

means of this rod they could be moved simultaneously over correspond¬

ing portions of the two magnets. At G is a gauge which regulates the

distance the coils are moved at a time, so that as they are moved step by

step from one end of the bar to the other, the steps will be of equal

length. By loosening a screw the coils may be moved from the middle

of the magnet to either end at one step.

The cross sections of two cylindrical double boxes made of sheet zinc

are indicated at S and T. At K K are openings in which corks holding

thermometers were inserted. At L L are openings into the space be¬

tween the two parts of the double box. Through these a current of

steam or cold water was passed to keep the space containing the magnets

at the requisite temperature. The temperatures employed were 14° and

99.5° C. The water used to produce the lower temperature was city water

direct from the faucet. A fairly constant temperature was easily main¬

tained. M N, M N, are openings by which the magnets were introduced

and through which the bars D D and PP passed. They were about 2.5

cm. in diameter and 20. cm. long, und were stuffed with cotton, the bet¬

ter to maintain the temperature of the interior.

The exploring coils, an ordinary astatic galvanometer of low resistance,

an earth inductor, arid a resistance box were connected up in series. At

first the exploring coils were so joined that the currents produced by

moving them opposed each other. Beginning at the middle of the mag¬

nets the coils were moved step by step to one end, the throw of the needle

being observed for each step. The coils were moved so far in the lastmea-

surment that practically no lines of induction passed through them as was

determined by experiment. Similar observations were made for the other

half of the magnets. This gives the excess of the number of lines of in¬

duction passing from a certain section of one magnet into the air over

that passing out of a corresponding section of the other magnet, that is

the difference of distribution of magnetism in the two magnets. These

measurments are taken first (say) when A and B are both at 14°C, and

and again when A is at 14° C, but B at 99. °5 C. The difference between

the two sets after they have been reduced to the same scale by the earth

inductor readings is evidently the change in distribution in B due to

the change in the temperature. By this method the quantity observed

is of about the same magnitude as the quantity we desire to obtain.

To get the distribution of magnetism of the bars, the difference in dis¬

tribution was first measured as above at the lower temperature, then

the connections of the coils were changed so that the induced currents

were in the same direction and the sum 'of the distributions was meas¬

ured in a similar way. In this case extra resistance had to be added

from the resistance box to keep the readings on the scale.

Changes in Temperature and Distribution of Magnetism. 279

III. CALCULATING OF BESULTS.

The formula for the ballistic galvanometer is

Q = k sin

where Q is the quantity of electricity; k, a constant factor; and 5 the

angular throw of the needle. The observations were made with telescope

and scale. Calling d the observed throw and r the distance of the mirror

from the scale.

tan 2 5 = —

r

5

Expanding sin we have •

this formula was used in reducing the large readings.

The earth inductor readings were taken frequently and were sub¬

stantially the same throughout the experiment. The throw of the nee¬

dle due to the earth inductor when both magnets were at 14° C. was 39.5

scale divisions; when one magnet was at 99.°5 C. and the other at 14° C.,

it was 37.8. The average throw due to slipping the exploring coils over

a certain portion of the magnets when one was hot and the other cold,

was multiplies by f f f = 1.045 to reduce to the scale of readings taken

when both magnets were cold. Corresponding readings were then sub¬

tracted, giving the change in distribution in terms of the scale divisions.

The reduction to absolute measure was as follows: The effective area of

the earth inductor as determined by previous observers is 20,716 sq. cm.

The value of the horizontal component of the earth’s field at and near

the position in which the earth inductor was placed has been determined

by numerous observers, and by various methods, and may safely be

taken as within 1 per cent, of 0. 2 C. G, S units. The total number of

lines of induction cut by turning the earth inductor was 2 H A = 8,286.4.

As the throw was 39.5 scale divisions, each division correspouded to

8,286.4-r- (39.5 X 150) = 1.398 C. G. S. lines of induction. The factor 150

is due to the 150 turns of the exploring coils. The change in distribu¬

tion in scale divisions obtained above was then multiplied by 1.398

giving the change in linear distribution in C. G. S. lines of induction

per 2.17 cm., that being the distance the coils were moved at each step.

280 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

In determining the difference in distribution, the angles observed were

quite small. The largest was less than 2s, making the angular throw of

the needle less than 1°. The deflections in scale divisions were there-

3-

fore taken as proportional to sin The error in the case of the largest

reading would not exceed one part in 3,500. The error in the result is

still less, as it is obtained by subtracting two throws.

Specimen Calculation.

Magnet A.

Middle to North End.

In finding the sum of the distributions it was found necessary to make

use of the formula given on p. 279, because the angles were too large to

3

take sin proportional to tan 2 3. The corrected readings were re-

A

duced to absolute measure in the way just described. We have now the

sum and difference of the linear distribution of the two magnets. One-

half the sum plus one-half the difference gives the distribution of one,

one-half the sum minus one-half the difference gives that of the other.

The distributions at the higher temperature were obtained by subtract¬

ing the change in distribution due to the heating.

The induction at each point of the magnet was obtained by adding

up the number of lines of induction passing out of the magnet beyond

the point in question.

Changes in Temperature and Distribution of Magnetism. 281

Tables of the results for magnets A and B are given on pages 282-83.

The first column gives the distance of the exploring coils from the cen¬

ters of the magnets at the end of each step. The second and fourth

columns gives the number of C. G. S. lines of induction passing out from

the magnet at 14° and 99.°5 C. respectively in the step of the coil shown in

the first column. The third column gives the change in distribution. The

fifth and sixth columns gives the magnetization at the two tempera¬

tures, i. e. the number of C. G. S. lines of induction per square centime¬

ter passing through the magnet at the point indicated. The seventh

column gives the proportional change in magnetization at different

points of the magnet.

In the fifth and sixth columns two values are given for the center of

the magnet, calculated from the two ends, and serve to indicate the de¬

gree of accuracy attained. The variation is considerably less than one

per cent. The second and third columns from which all the others are

calculated give the means of at least five or six separate determinations,

which agree well among themselves. The results were further checked

by slipping the coils from the middle of the magnet clear off each end

at both temperatures. The variation between this measurement and

the others was always less than one-half of one per cent. This was con¬

sidered quite good as it is impossible to slip the coils over this whole

distance at the same rate at which they were slipped over the small

divisions.

In plate XI our results are shown graphically. The full lines give the

distribution at 14° C and 99. °5 C. The dotted lines give the change in

distribution due to this change in temperature. The scale of ordinates

in the last curves is ten times that of the distribution curves.

In addition to the checks upon accuracy already mentioned, the fol¬

lowing entirely independent determinations of the magnetic moments

of the two magnets were made. In the tables of distribution pp. 282-83, we

are given the number n of lines of induction issuing from little divis¬

ions of the bar, as well as the distance d of these divisions from the

center of the magnet. A first approximation to the moment is given

by the formula:

M=4 ~ 2 nd.

47T

282

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

Magnet A.

Changes in Temperature and Distribution of Magnetism. 283

Magnet B.

234

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

To this value the following correction was added: If A B, in Fig. 1?

is the length of one of these divisions of the magnet, and C D a part of

the distribution curve supposed to be straight, then the area ABDC

represents the number of lines of induction issuing from the magnet

in the length A B. Let F be the center of gravity of the triangle

C E D. It is evident that the portion of the distribution represented

by the triangle should be multiplied by the abscissa of F, not of H,

therefore a correction

2 area of C E D X G H

was added to the summation already given. From this calculation the

following results were obtained:

Changes in Temperature and Distribution of Magnetism. 2S5

The magnetic moments were also determined by swinging the magnets

at the two temperatures in a known field. The experiments were per¬

formed with great care and gave the following results:

The difference between these two sets of values is considerable, in the

case of magnet A the variation amounts to two per cent. This may be

due to the fact that only an approximation could be made to the mo¬

ments of inertia of the magnets because of the holes in the ends, where

a slight error would affect the result materially, the distance from the

center being 15 cm. The moments of inertia were calculated by divid¬

ing the magnet into two parts, an inner core and an outer shell extend¬

ing beyond the core at both ends. On the other hand it is to be noticed

]y[ _ m

that the ratios — h* — !!_§_ differ by less than one part in 300. In this

Mi 4

ratio the moment of inertia of the magnet is eliminated. I think on

the whole that the accuracy of the work is fairly well shown.

IV. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS.

The result of the experiment may be stated as follows: If a magnet

be heated after it has been brought into the permanent state, the pro¬

portional loss in distribution is greatest at the ends and least in the

middle. A glance at the table on pages 282-83, or at the curves on plate XI,

will show this. The same fact may be stated in other words as follows:

The proportional change in the number of lines of induction passing

through a cross-section of the magnet is greater, the nearer the section

is to the end, as is shown by column seven in the table on page 282-83. This

286 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

is different from the result obtained by Poloni, who found the propor¬

tional change sensibly constant throughout the magnet. It could not,

be expected that the small difference noticed here could be detected by

his method which consisted in measuring two large quantities and sub¬

tracting them in order to obtain a small difference. In the method em¬

ployed in this research the quantities measured differed but little in

size from the quantities desired, and much greater accuracy is easily

obtained.

I would suggest the following explanation: Prof. Ewing has recently

made an important addition to Weber’s theory of magnetism. He

says the forces which hold the little molecular magnets in position are

largely the mutual attractions and repulsions of these molecular magnets

themselves. In applying Ewing’s theory to the case in hand, let us con¬

sider a row of magnetic molecules ABC, etc.

ABC HIJKL

J is held in position by the action of H I, etc., on the one side and

K L. etc., on the other, while A has only B C, etc., to act upon

it. It is evident that the force holding J in position is greater

than that acting on A. Suppose the bar of which this line of

molecules is a part is heated. If in this process the energy of

vibration of A and J receive equal increments, it is evident that the

increase of amplitude of A will be greater than that of B. Now the

magnetic moment contributed by each molecule is the moment of the

molecule resolved along the direction of magnetization of the bar. The

moment contributed by A would suffer a larger proportional loss than

that contributed by J, and so the loss would be greatest at the ends.

There are other facts pointing in this direction, e. g., when a magnet

is heated before it has reached the permanent state, Kupffer found, as

already stated, that the proportional permanent loss was greatest at the

ends. In some rough tests I have made on this point, heating the bar

almost to redness, I have found the proportional loss at the ends nearly

twice as great as at the center of the bar. This would naturally follow

from the supposition made, for the force holding the end molecules in

position being less, they are more easily set in such violent vibration as

to swing out of one position of equilibrium into another.

I am tempted to add a single remark on another part of the investiga¬

tion. In every case tried so far, the area of the cycle of magnetization

(the largest magnetizing force being the same for all temperatures) is

always smaller for the higher temperature. I have only experimented

Changes in Temperature and Distribution of Magnetism. 287

on soft steel. If the same thing is true for iron and is as marked in

degree, I should expect alternate current transformers to work more

efficiently at high than at low temperatures. I understand that some

t

efficiency tests point in this direction.

Madison, Wis., December 28th, 1891.

4

*

Trans Wis. Acad.

M=

H

&

Magnet A

Magnet ]3

Early Lutheran Immigration to Wisconsin.

289

«

EARLY LUTHERAN IMMIGRATION TO WISCONSIN.*

By KATE A. EVEREST.

The first immigration of Germans to Wisconsin in large numbers was

that of the so-called Old Lutherans of Pomerania and Brandenburg, who

came between 1839 and 1845, as a result of the attempt by King Frederick

William IV., of Prussia, to unite the Lutheran and Reformed faiths.

My purpose is to sketch the history of that movement with the emi¬

gration that followed and the forming of several German settlements in

this state.

Philip Schaff divides the history of the Lutheran church into five

periods. The first reaches from the Reformation to 1580, the date of the

adoption of the Book of Concord; the second from 1580 to 1700, when the

doctrinal system was defined in opposition to Romanism, Calvinism and

the milder forms of Lutheranism; the third period reaches from 1700 to

*

the middle of the eighteenth century, and is the time when. Pietism was

exercising its moderating influence; fourth, the period of Rationalism,

which reached the higher circles, the clergy, and the universities, and

created a revolution in theology; fifth, the period of the revival of evan¬

gelical theology and religion at the third centennial of the celebration of

the Reformation in 1817.1

From Reformation times there had been attempts to reconcile the fol¬

lowers of Luther with those of Melancthon and Zwingli, but the year

1580 marks their failure. In that year the Book of Concord was adopted

which strictly defined the Lutheran faith in distinction from both Cal¬

vinism and the milder forms of Lutherism represented by Melancthon. J

The controversy had been carried on hotly by the followers of each

reformer. At his death, Melancthon said, “ For two reasons I desire to

to leave this life: first, that I may enjoy the sight which I long for of the

son of God and of the church in Heaven; next, that I may be free from

the monstrous and implacable hatred of the theologians.” [|

* For informat1 on in regard to the Wisconsin communities, I am indebted to the pastors

of the churches: Rev. Gram, Rev. E. Pankou, Rev. R. Grabau, Rev. A. W. Keibel, of Wis¬

consin, and Rev. Philip von Rohr, of Minnesota, also to Dr. Falge, Mr. Blumenfeld and

others v ho have generously given me the information at their disposal. — K. A. Everest.

t Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, article. “Lutheranism.”

X Brockhaus Conversations — Lexicon. Vol. XI, article ‘Union. ’

II Gardiner’s “ Thirty Years War.” p. 13.

19— A. & L.

290 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

The basis of the Lutheran doctrine was the “ unaltered * Augsburg

confession,” the Smalcald article, and Luther’s catechisms.

By the Peace of Augsburg (1555), the only Protestant faith recognized

in Germany was the Lutheran and that the unaltered Augsburg confes¬

sion, but in the Peace of Westphalia (1648), both Lutheranism and Calvin¬

ism were given a legal standing.

At the beginning of the Thirty Years War it is estimated tliat between

seventy and ninety per cent, of the population of Germany were Protest¬

ant and by far the larger part of that number were Lutherans. The seat

of Lutheranism was northern Germany, while in the south the German

princes had adopted Calvinism. The Reformed faith or Calvinism had

taken root in Germany partly from Switzerland, the home of Zwingli,

and partly through the teachings of Melancthon, but it never gained

that hardy growth in Germany, says Gardiner, that it had in its native

soil. It was the religion of the courts, and according to the principle of

the times, it became the religion of the people, (cujus regio, ejns religio.)

Prom 1580 to the close of the seventeenth century the lines between

the two Protestant faiths were drawn still more closely, and the first

modification of dogmatic principles was effected by the influence of

Spener and the Pietists. Doctrine became subordinate to “ inner light ”

and to practical piety, it was like the Methodist revival in England

but did not result in secession.!

Meanwhile the thought of union was being revived. Frederick I. of

Prussia called councils of Lutherans and Reformed theologians at Berlin

for the sake of obliterating differences, and in 1737, Frederick Wil¬

liam I. sought to unify church usages by abolishing certain forms. But

the times were doing more. Rationalism was at work modifying creeds,

so that at the end of the eighteenth and beginning of the nineteenth

century the Lutheran church had but few representatives. J The old

hatred seemed strange, even incomprehensible to the new race. Ration¬

alism was above dogmatic strife and Pietism regarded the eternal love

as the essence of Christianity. Hence the idea naturally arose that

Protestantism might well return to its early unity. [| Of this idea

Schleiermacher was the spokesman and Frederick William III. its propa¬

gator, though they differed materially as to the manner in which it was

to be carried out.

The beginning of this century was rich with new national life for

Germany. Romanticism and the War of Liberation gave rise to a revival

of the past. It was a time of peculiar activity and awakening, which

called out German patriotism and above all new political aspirations.

* The Augsburg confession was edited and altered by Melancthon; hence two forms: the

invciriata editio and variata editio.

t Brockhaus, XVI, p. 37.

$ Brockhaus, XI, p . 269 .

|| Treitschke, Staaten-Geschichte der Neuesten Zeit. II, p. 239.

Early Lutheran Immigration to Wisconsin.

291

By all the leaders in this movement a constitution with popular repre¬

sentation was demanded. The idea that the people should participate

in government and legislation underlay every attempt at reform. Even

in religious matters the same right was recognized. Thus as early as

1813 great importance was attached to the necessity of a free church

constitution. The great representative of this idea was Schleiermacher.

For this he wrote and worked unceasingly, believing that in this way

only could the union be brought about,* but the spirit of absolutism at

the Prussian court which was unfavorable to political constitutions, wa s

not less so to a free church constitution.

The year 1817 marks the beginning of a new' epoch in religious mat¬

ters. In that year Claus ITarnes published his ninety-five theses against

rationalistic apostasy and in the same year at the three hundredth anni¬

versary of the Reformation, King Frederick William III., of Prussia, pro¬

claimed the union of the Reformed and Lutheran churches. The great

point of difference between the two creeds lay in the doctrine of the

Lord’s Supper; the Lutherans taught the real presence of Christ’s body

44 in,” “ with,” and “under” the bread and wine of the sacrament; the

Calvinists made these symbolic of the real spiritual presence to believers

only. Other points of difference related to the doctrine of predestina¬

tion which Luther had not taught in any strict sense; but the Reformed

church laid great emphasis on moral character, and for that reason was

more inclined to the idea of unity than the Lutherans who emphasized

doctrinal points.

To the king who was of the Reformed faith the union seemed most

simple. 44 According to my opinion,” he had said, 44 the communion strife

is only an unfruitful theological subtlety, of no account in comparison

with the fundamental faith of the Scriptures.” | The fact that he was

outside of the church to which the great majority of his people belonged,

was a source of great regret to him. Possessed of a deeply religious

nature and for some time under pietistic influences, the union had been

one of his dearest objects. Though the act may have been praiseworthy,

and was performed by the king in the profound belief that he was called

to do that work, yet his unfortunate belief in the sacred prerogative of

kings which led him to carry out the reform in a thoroughly absolute

manner, was destined to call forth an opposition which ended in the par¬

tial failure of the attempt. The union was proclaimed without the con¬

sent of the churches, and in 1822, a new agende was drawn up by Bishop

Eylert and the court theologians, and. in 1830, was rigidly enforced.

Schleiermacher, the upholder and defender of the Union, was strongly

opposed to the agende, partly on account of its source, namely the royal

*Weber’s Weltgesckichte, vol. XIV, p. 900. Brockhaus, articles “Union” and “ Schleir-

macher.”

+ Treitschke II, p. 240.

292

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

will instead of the free choice of. the church, partly on account of its

contents, on the ground that they were antiquated and reactionary.

“ The Union rested not simply upon a weakening of the opposing

Evangelical doctrines,” says Weber, “but upon positive dogmatic princi¬

ples.”* It was ostensibly a liberal union leaving the interpretation of

disputed points to the conscience of the individual while the Bible only

was recognized as the ground of faith and life.

While the movement had many warm supporters and was imitated

by other German courts, namely, by Baden, Nassau and Rheinpfalz,,

yet it was not heartily supported by the rationalistic element, and on

the other hand, aroused a new Lutheran consciousness. It was taken

as an attempt to root out Lutheranism which the revival of Germany’s

great past was more likely to restore. This was especially the case in

those parts of Prussia where Lutheranism existed almost unmixed,

where, then, there was no sympathy with Reformed doctrines and the

union was not felt as a practical necessity. This was the case in North

Germany — Saxony, Mecklenburg and in Pomerania. “ It seemed,” says

Treitschke, “ like an uprising of Reason against Revelation.”!

For some years the opposition was confined to literary polemics,! but

in 1830 when the new agende was enforced by cabinet orders, Prof.

Scheibel of Breslau founded a separate society of two or three hundred

families, and being refused permission to worship according to the old

agende, Scheibel left the country. Many Silesian pastors followed his

example and resistance spread rapidly to Erfurt, Magdeburg and differ¬

ent parts of Pomerania. At Erfurt the leader of the movement and

afterwards of the emigration to America was Rev. Johannes A. A. Gra-

bau, pastor of the Evangelical church. In spite o“ an early education

under the influences of a pastor of the United faith, Grabau seems to

have kept his preference for the Lutheran church. Finally, in 1836, he

reached the conclusion that the Union was contrary to the Scriptures

and declared publicly that he could no longer use the new agende with

good conscience. Being questioned by the counsellor of the Consistory,,

he replied that the new form in the administration of the Lord’s Supper

did not express the belief of the Lutheran church, and that their faith

was curtailed and weakened in the new spirit of the times. His society

agreed with him and when he was suspended from his office and a new pas¬

tor was put in charge, they followed him to his house where services were

held. This, too, was forbidden, but they decided “ to obey God rather than

men.” The separate society grew until it reached a membership of nearly

400. Meanwhile, at Magdeburg, another small body of Lutherans had

separated from the Union church and were holding services at the home

of a captain of the guards, Henry von Rohr. The movement was

* Weber 14, p. 900.

+ Treitschke, Vol. II, p. 243.

X Schaff-Herzog II, 1376.

Early Lutheran Immigration to Wisconsin. 293

spreading in Pomerania and many pastors and laymen were being perse¬

cuted. In 1837, Grabau was imprisoned and, at that time, there were

said to be twenty pastors in prison or banished.* Laymen who refused

to send their children to the United schools, or who availed themselves

of the administration of Luthern pastors in baptism or marriage cere¬

monies, but especially those who refused to pay the taxes required for

the support of a pastor of the United faith were imprisoned, fined or

otherwise punished.

At length Capt. von Rohr who had been deprived of his position as

captain of the guards, for his refusal to conform, assisted Grabau to es¬

cape from prison where, it was claimed, he was illegally detained. They

reached Seehof, on the cost of Pomerania in safety. Previous to this

time, frequent calls had come to Grabau from the Pomeranian churches

which had been deprived of their pastors, and he now visited and con¬

ducted services in the different societies. Already the question of emi¬

gration had been talked of here and letters were received from friends

in Ohio. Grabau advised them to wait until it was definitely settled

whether the Lutheran faith would be tolerated. Accordingly, letters

were sent to the government asking, in case it should not be tolerated,

for permission to emigrate. To the first question, the answer was “ The

Lutheran church is within the United church and outside of it, the

King will tolerate no Lutheran church in this land.” | Permission was

given to emigrate, in case they proved to the satisfaction of the govern¬

ment that they had a pastor, but not otherwise. In consequence of this,

many societies in Pomerania and the one at Magdeburg placed them¬

selves in communication with Grabau, asking him to become their

pastor. Grabau, meanwhile, had been imprisoned a second time, but he

Teceived permisssion to emigrate on strict conditions, namely, that he

go directly to Hamburg where they were to embark, accompanied by

police officers, lest he hold services on the way.

This was in the spring of 1839 and with Magdeburg as a center, a large

emigration was arranged for that year. Capt. von Rohr was chosen to

engage passage for them and to go in advance to America and choose

places for settlement. He chose Buffalo N. Y., and Milwaukee. Just why

lie selected Wisconsin, it is impossible to say, but after travelling through

New York, Ohio, Illinois and Wisconsin, in order to find the best possible

location for a settlement, Wisconsin and New York seemed the most

favorable. It is thought that the climate which resembles that of North

Germany was one inducement. Another was the prospect of obtaining

finely wooded lands, always highly prized by the Germans, at low prices.

Capt. von Rohr was very fond of the hunt and the west doubtless at¬

tracted him strongly.J The position of Wisconsin too, as to the routes of

* Lebenslauf des Ehrwurdigen J. A. A. Grabau von John A. Grabau (son), p, 26.

d Life of Grabau. p. 35.

t Letter from Rev. Philip von Rohr (his son). Winona, Minn.

294 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

travel through the Great Lakes must have been another favorable con¬

sideration. Land was plenty and cheap in Wisconsin, and land offices,

had been established within a few years in Milwaukee, Mineral Point,

and Green Bay.

To defray the expenses of the journey, a common treasury was formed

to which the wealthier members contributed part of their means to as¬

sist the poor to accompany them. Directors were appointed for each

company, to take charge of the money and distribute it according to the

needs of the poorer people.

Passage was engaged for one thousand people in five American sail

vessels. Rev. E. P. L. Krause, a pastor from Silesia with his society ac¬

companied them. They emigrated in the latter part of July and reached

Buffalo, October 5th. Capt. von Rohr had met them in New York and

told them of the places he had chosen and their advantages. Accord¬

ingly about one half settled in and near Buffalo while the remainder

came to Wisconsin with Capt. von Rohr.

These were chiefly Pomeranians. It is doubtless this body of immi¬

grants that is mentioned in Mr. Buck’s Pioneer History of Milwaukee.

“ The year 1839,” he says, “ brought the first installment of immigrants

from Germany and Norway. The effect of their arrival with their gold

and silver wherewith to purchase land was electric .

Whereas Milwaukee had been under financial depression before, now all

doubts about the future were dissipated.” Again he says: “The first

German colony arrived in 1839. It consisted of about eight hundred

men, women and children [the number is probably exaggerated]. They

brought with them the necessary housekeeping utensils and encamped

on the lake shore south of Huron street. The men went about in a.

business way, examining the government plats in the land office, and

having ascertained by all means in their power where lands well tim¬

bered and watered could be purchased, they entered lands bounding on

the Milwaukee river, between Milwaukee and Washington (later Ozaukee)

counties. A small number remained in the village [probably Milwaukee

is meant], but the most of them employed themselves without delay in

clearing and cultivating lands. The men immediately declared their in¬

tention to become American citizens, every man signing his name to his

petition, to the number of seventy in one day.” *

The majority of the immigrants, over three hundred people, and prob¬

ably those still possessing some means, went to Mequon and there formed

the Freistadt colony, a name chosen, no doubt, to commemorate their

new freedom; some settled in Cedarburg also, while a few remained in

Milwaukee.!

These settlers were from Pomerania, chiefly from the district of

Stettin and from Kamin an Greifenberg and the neighboring country.

* Buck’s Pioneer History of Milwaukee, p. 181; ancl an address by Judge Miller, p. 265.

tKoss “Milwaukee,” p. 103. “In der Neuen Heimatk.” Eickhoff, 372.

Early Lutheran Immigration to Wisconsin.

295

Farming and stock raising are the chief industries of this country and

the greater part of the land, about 60 per cent.,* * * § is held by large land

owners. Stettin is said to be the center of one of the best farming com¬

munities in Pomerania.| The Wisconsin settlers were chiefly farm-

laborers and handicrafts men, and, accordingly, well adapted to pioneer

life. They bought nearly all of the western half of the town of Mequon,

where they built log houses and improved the land. Capt. Von Rohr

had come with them, and during the first year he conducted their services

until the arrival of Rev. Krause from Buffalo, who was their first pastor;

immediately on his arrival a log church was built on section 19. In the

Milwaukee Society services were held in a house built by a fisherman on

land given him by Byron Kilbourn, near Chestnut street. It was a very

solid structure, built in true German style of panel work and clay fill¬

ing. They had no pastor, but the teacher Luck held services, while Rev.

Krause came occasionally from Freistadt.J

In 1843 another large immigation followed from Pomerania, from the

neighborhood of Stettin and the cities of Kolberg, Treptow and Kamin,

on the Baltic, and also from Brandenburg, from the country lying be¬

tween Ktistrin and Wrietzen on the Oder. Rev. Kindermann acted as

their leader. He had been directed to the Pomeranian churches by Rev.

Grabau during the earlier period of the persecution^ Others continued

to come until 1845. It was the reports of the earlier emigrants, who

were their friends and acquaintances, that led them to Wisconsin.

The cause of this emigration also was religious persecution, which had

not yet ceased, though it was abating. || But there were other causes as

well. Differences had sprung up in the Lutheran church in Germany

over the question of church government. The decrees of the synod were

that in disputed questions of doctrine, the majority of votes should de¬

cide. Against this one party protested and claimed that the only ulti¬

mate authority was the Scriptures. To this party, which was the weaker,

Rev. Kindermann belonged. . To avoid unpleasantness, therefore, they

decided to emigrate with those of like mind.

This company, too, had formed a common treasury to which the

wealthier members contributed from 15 to 20 per cent, of their means

to assist the poor, both in the passage and in purchasing land. It was

expected that the money would be returned with interest, but in many

cases this has not been done and the creditors have overlooked it.

Of this second body of immigrants, altogether about four hundred

families, some remained in Milwaukee and joined the first comers in the

* This includes the estates containing 600 morgen (acres) and more .

t. Brockhaus Conversations-Lexicon, article, ••Pommern.” Also Schonberg’s Handbuch

der Politischen Oekonomie. Auflage 2, p. 962.

t Koss, Milwaukee, p. 103.

§ Life of Grabau, p. 29.

|| Separate worship was allowed by King William IV, in 1846.

296 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

neighborhood of Chestnut street, but the majority went to the farms.

Kirchhayn, Washington county, and Lebanon, Dodge county, were

chosen for settlement. Lebanon was chosen by the advice of their

countrymen, J. Grunhagen, one of the earlier immigrants to Milwau¬

kee, probably for its situation on the Rock River. Seventy-eight fami¬

lies settled here in the years 1843 and 1844. These were the people from

Stettin and Brandenburg, while those from the Baltic lands settled at

Kirchhayn.

Rev. Kinderman became the pastor of the Kirchhayn people, while

at times he held services for the Lebanon community. For a

year or two the settlers in Washington county suffered great pri¬

vations; their land was heavily wooded and it took time to make it pro¬

ductive. Lebanon was more open and easier to cultivate. “ Within

fifteen years,” says Mr. Blumenfeld, of Watertown, “the country be¬

came a garden, and to-day it surpasses most towns in its high state of

cultivation.” Both the communities by their industry and thrift, have

been successful. There has been a marvelous change in the condition

of these people from that of poor farm laborers, in most cases, to that of

independent proprietors, almost all well-to-do farmers.

Between 1850 and 1860, a number of the early setlers went from Frei-

stadt, Cedarburg and Kirchhayn, to Sherman, Sheboygan county, and

Cooperstown, Manitowoc county. Land was cheap and plenty in the

northern counties and there again they formed prosperous settlements.

The large Pomeranian and North German element in Wisconsin is un-

j

doubtedly due in great measure to the early emigration of the Old

Lutherans to the state. Through their reports to friends and relatives in

the Fatherland, many have since followed them and either joined the

original communities or spread out into adjoining towns and counties.

Moreover, in 1853, Capt. von Rohr and Rev. Grabau made an extended

tour through Germany, especially through North Germany, and by their

conversations and reports about the success of their countrymen in

Wisconsin caused the majority of the Lutherans to settle in this state.

Emigration from the northern countries had scarcely begun at that period

but since 1870, Pomerania, Prussia and the adjoining countries have

furnished the greater part of the German emigration, of which Wis¬

consin has received a large share.

But these early settlers were not only the first body of German im¬

migrants to Wisconsin; they were also the beginning of the Lutheran

church in the state.

Freed from state support and government restraint the Lutheran

church has grown marvelously in this country. One indication of its

growth is its large membership;* another indication is the variety of

creeds that have developed, shown by the large number of synods of

* According to Prof. Ernst there are 200,000 Lutherans in Wisconsin.

Early Lutheran Immigration to Wisconsin.

297

which there are five in Wisconsin representing differences of creed

more or less fundamental. In these original communities questions of

church government and religious belief caused divisions, through which

the Missouri Synod and others were able to establish separate churches.

Between 1840 and 1850 the two synods of Buffalo and Missouri were

formed; the one by Rev. Grabau, the other by ministers from Saxony.

Soon a controversy arose between them on the question of the calling

and ordination of the clergy and the relation of the minister to his so¬

ciety. Rev. Grabau held that a minister must be called according to the

old church ordinances, and that the society must obey their minister in

all things not contrary to the word of God, while the Missouri Synod

held more Congregational views.* In this controversy Rev. Grabau was

supported by Rev. Kindermann, Rev. Krause and deputies from Mil¬

waukee who signed themselves “The Lutheran Synod of the church

emigrated from Prussia.” j*

In Milwaukee, meantime, they were still too poor to hire a pastor and

Rev. Krause had come from Freistadt every six weeks, but the journey

was long and expensive, so he called upon the 150 communicants to pay

each three cents a week for twenty weeks to buy him a horse and wagon,

but the tax appeared too large to them and they refused his request. The

demand was doubtless somewhat arbitrarily imposed, Rev. Krause being

a man of the extreme type of clerical dignity. The society was severely

rebuked by him, and was finally refused admission to the communion

until they recognized their sins and made public confession, but the

difficulty only increased and finally a large part of the society withdrew

and joined the Missouri Synod, which allowed more self rule. The

separated society was supplied with a pastor from Missouri and formed

the nucleus of the later Trinity society, the first of the numerous

churches in the state belonging to that synod; the remaining element

formed what is now the St. Paul’s society, in Milwaukee, belonging to

the Buffalo Synod.J

In the Lebanon community a controversy arose in 1847 on the subject

of worldly music which caused one party to form an independent or¬

ganization. Later in the same church the use of the private confessional

was discussed, and again in the Milwaukee church. || The demand for the

general confessional in its place caused the disuse of the private confes¬

sional in nearly all the churches after a few years.

There questions indicate an activity in the societies, partly the result

of new conditions and the union of people from different communities

in Germany, and partly the result of their recent experiences. In the

* Wolf’s Hist, of the Lutheran Church in America, p. 413.

+“ Hirtenbrief des Herrn Pastors Grabau zu Buffalo vom Yahre, 1840.”

tHist. of Milwaukee, by Frank A. Flower, p. 924; 'and Koss,1 Milwaukee, p. 137 seq.

|| Bericht des Nordlichen Districkts der deutschen Evangel. Luth. Sy ode. von Mo.,

Ohio, u. a. Staaten 1855 and 18Fg

298

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

Lebanon community, it is said that each family owns its set of Luther’s

works and is familiar with theological questions. It is not strange then

that there are six churches there with three pastors, of whom one is inde¬

pendent, another belongs to the Iowa Synod, and another to the Missouri

Synod.

In Kirchhayn, Cedarburg and Freistadt also, in 1855, we find besides

the churches belonging to the Buffalo Synod other societies belongingto

the Missouri Synod. * Such divisions are not infrequent as the re¬

sult of an unusual mental and spiritual activity, as for example Germany

itself in Reformation times and England in Puritan times.

While the other synods have increased rapidly in numbers in Wiscon¬

sin and other states, the Buffalo Synod has remained comparatively iso¬

lated and small, owing to its very conservative character, and its rigid

adherence to earlier doctrines. The use of the private confessional is

still preserved in its churches, while its doctrines adhere to the old

Saxon and Pomeranian church ordinances. The synod has but five

churches in the state and these are all the original communities who

emigrated between 1839 and 1815. They are Milwaukee (St. Paul’s),

Cedarburg, Preistadt, Kirchhayn and Sherman. The Cooperstown

church, though belonging to the Wisconsin synod, keeps the doctrines

and forms of the Buffalo synod.

* Berlcht — 1855.

The Clans of the Effigy Builders.

299

THE CLAN CENTERS AND CLAN HABITAT OF THE

EFFIGY BUILDERS.

By STEPHEN D. PEET, Ph. D.

The animal effigies of Wisconsin are very interesting specimens of the

handiwork of a people who have passed away. Who this people were, is

at present unknown. They were, however, remarkable for one thing —

their skill in imitating animal figures and especially in molding massive

imitative forms out of earth and raising bas-reliefs above the surface so

that they could easily be seen and recognized. Nowhere on the face of

the earth are there so many of these effigies as here, and nowhere else

can we learn as much about the effigy builders. There are, to be sure, a

few effigies in the state of Ohio which, like these in Wisconsin, are

molded from the soil. They are as follows: The Great Serpent in

Adams county, the Alligator mound, and the Bird mound in Licking

county, and the animal effigy in Scioto county, near the mouth of the

Scioto river. The writer has discovered also a massive serpent effigy

near Quincy, Illinois, and other gentlemen have discovered turtle and

animal effigies, both in northern Illinois and eastern Iowa, though these

probably belonged to the same system with the effigies of Wisconsin,

stray specimens which were built beyond the borders of the state. Other

than these, no effigies made of earth have been discovered anywhere on

the continent. There are, to be sure, effigies made of stone in various

parts of the country, as follows: Two in the shape of birds, discovered

in Georgia and described by Col. C. C. Jones, who is one of the most

skillful archgeologists. Several in the shape of serpents, turtles, buffa¬

loes and human form in Iowa, described by Prof. John Todd and Mr. T.

H. Lewis. The figures of birds, turtles and nondescript creatures may

be frequently seen inscribed upon rocks. Marquette, the missionary,

saw one such near Alton, Ill. Jonathan Carver saw others in the caves

in Minnesota. Rev. Edward Brown described those in West Salem, Wis¬

consin. Mr. T. H. Lewis has made a study of those found in the caves

of Iowa and Minnesota. It may be said, however, that the effigies made

from earth, notwithstanding the havoc made with them by the relic

hunter and the farmer, have proved about as enduring as those made

from stone, and no more liable to be marred and destroyed than are the

inscriptions in the caves. This makes the responsibility of the citizens

300 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

of the state all the greater. The effigies of Ohio are some of them to be

preserved by especial enactment. The serpent effigy has been purchased

and the ground about it laid out in a public park. No public movement

has, however, taken place in Wisconsin, which looks toward the preser¬

vation of these most interesting monuments. They are rapidly disap¬

pearing. At the present rate of destruction, it will not be long before

they will all be gone beyond recovery. When an effigy has been destroyed

it is impossible to restore it. If it is reconstructed it has a modern look

to it and lacks the peculiar air and grace which a native hand alone

could give. The touch of the white man’s hand is different from that of

the mound-builder. It would be useless for him to attempt to recon¬

struct these animal forms.

Many things have been impressed upon us from the study of these ef¬

figies, some of which we have already embodied in the work on Em¬

blematic Mounds which was published in 1890. Other things, however,

have been brought to light by later explorations and to these we would

now call attention:

I. In reference to the imitative skill of the effigy -builders, it is well

known that early and rude races had this in a remarkable degree. We

need only to go to the cave-dwellers of Europe to be convinced of this.

Here we find the mammoth, the reindeer, the horse, and many other ani¬

mals plainly drawn on pieces of ivory. They are excellent imitations

and show that the early races excelled in this. We do not, to be sure,

recognize in these the religious feeling which was exercised in erecting

effigies on the soil of Wisconsin. There are however inscribed figures

on the cylinders which have come down to us from the early historic

times, which have more of this religious symbolism embodied in them.

We do not know that these figures are totemistic in their design, but

they are symbolic at least and are wonderful imitations. Let us take

the cylinder that belongs to Sargon, 3300 before Christ. Here we find

Izdubar watering the sacred oxen. The oxen have wide-spread, branch¬

ing horns and small bodies — resembling Texan cattle. The human fig¬

ures have strange, wild faces and shaggy hair and resemble Scythians

but the drawings are excellent, the muscles are plainly seen on the oxen,

the expression in the faces is striking, and the water which flows from

the vessels is very like water. The effigies of Wisconsin are prob¬

ably not as old as these figures from the caves of Europe or from the

mounds of Chaldea, but they show the same imitative skill. Let me

illustrate this: There is an effigy on the east bank of Lake Mendota but

two or three miles from the capitol which represents a deer in the atti¬

tude of jumping. (See plate XII.) The deer has the head partly

thrown back, the rump thrown up, the hind legs drawn toward the

body very much as any deer would jump. An instantaneous pho¬

tograph could not take the o attitude better than did these native

artists. The effigy comes to its place remarkably well, when the meas-

Trans Wis. Acad. Vol. VIII, li. XII.

■

.

. .

The Clans of the Effigy Builders.

301

urements are taken, and the lines drawn according to a scale of

inches. The eye is useful in determining the animal intended

but the platting brings out the attitude more perfectly. Take an¬

other instance: There are two animals north of Buffalo lake, not

far from Crooked lake, which resemble squirrels. The platting of

these effigies brings out the fact that they are not squirrels at all but

raccoons. We find in them both nearly the same measurements, but as

the lines come out on paper we fin$ the crooked legs, the small head,

the high curved back, the short belly and the curved, bushy tail — all of

which are peculiarities of the coon. Near these CDons we find a turtle —

but a turtle in a most novel attitude, the same . attitude which a horse

assumes when he “ racks,” two legs upon one side thrown -forward, two

on the other side turned back, the whole figure being distorted and

twisted as only a turtle can twist. (See plate XII.) On the west side

of Green lake, squirrels appear in great numbers; every one of these

squirrels has a different attitude, but an attitude perfectly natural to

the animal.

II. In reference to the work of identifying the animals in the effigies.

A writer in the Nation of New York, seems to have doubts in reference

to this point. He thinks it is impossible for any one to train his eye to

recognize the animals in the figures and insists upon it that the sur¬

veyor and the naturalist be summoned before one undertakes to ident¬

ify the animals or decide as to the intent and hidden significance of the

figures. This is an old complaint but one that is too hypercritical to

be heeded. We do not deny the value of the surveyor’s services and

stated in the very introduction to the book that the first discovery of

the shape of the effigies, was made by those engaged in the work of sur¬

veying the mineral lands. We have also everywhere given credit to the

gentlemen who first platted the effigies. We have frequently quoted

Dr. Lapham, and have acknowledged our indebtedness to him. We

have also used the unpublished notes of Mr. H. M. Canfield, of Baraboo.

This gentleman seems to have been correct in all of his observations.

We have found from experience that the eye does become trained, so

that it takes in large figures, and one may come to recognize the animal

intended even before the measurements have been made. This, how¬

ever, must always be subordinate to the surveying and every observation

must be verified by measuring and platting.

The hidden significance of the effigies can not, however, be given by

surveying. This comes to the mind only after a long, close study of the

effigies in connection with the very locality where they are found. They

must be compared with one another and classified. The totem system

also of the wild tribes must be studied and then taken as a key into the

field and applied to the different groups and collections of groups. We

do not say that the totem system as it is now known will solve all

the problems, for there are many things which baffle us, notwithstanding

302 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

the application of this system. We find ourselves on the borders of an

unknown realm, so much lies beyond us that we feel that we have

hardly passed the rudiments, still we are sure so far as we have gone.

It is possible that the effigies are myth bearers as well as totems, and

that we shall need to know the myths before we can fully explain the

figures. Picture writing may, also, have been practiced in the effigies,

for there are groups of mounds in which the animal figures are so re¬

lated to one another that it would seem as if there was a pictograph on

a large scale,— these, however, are few and perhaps we shall be able to

explain them in some other way. There may be other escoteric systems

and various sacred mysteries embodied in the effigies. Possibly a trans¬

mitted symbolism will yet be discovered. To illustrate: There is a fig¬

ure of an owl, with its projections above the head, making it resemble

the horned owl. The eyes of the owl were not in the head but were un¬

der the wings and were composed of two small circular ponds of water.

(See fig 1.) This effigy is found near Merrit’s Landing. The whole fig¬

ure taken together makes a symbol which is very common in America.

The symbol consists of the eyes and nose of the divinity, and is found

in Mexico and Central America as well as in the mound-builders region.

The same symbol was found by Schlieman, in Troy.

# Fig. 1.— Homed Owl near Merrit’s Landing.

III. Location of the clans. In the book on the emblematic mounds,

we stated that there were various clans whose habitat could be easily

bounded; within that habitat all the processes of clan life could be

recognized in the effigies. We stated that the turtle clan was located on

the Rock river and extended from Lake Koshkonong above Janesville,

through Beloit and Rockford to the mouth of the Kishwaukee river;

possibly Lake Geneva should be embraced within the bounds of this

clan. We located, also, the panther clan on the Fox river, made it to

extend from Milwaukee to Racine to the state line, and embrace the

The Clans of the Effigy Builders .

303

large group of mounds near Big Bend on Fox river, and including an¬

other group near Burlington on the same river.

The wolf clan we located on the Milwaukee river. The raccoon clan

on the Sheboygan river. This fixed the map of the southeast part of the

state. The southwest part of the state was, however, uncertain. Since

the book was published we have visited this part of the state and have

passed up the Wisconsin river a second or third time, filling in the links,

and are now prepared to give the chain of clans which stretched from

the mouth of the Wisconsin river, up through to the Dells, and from

the Dells across to the Fox river and from the Fox down to its mouth.

This is the old historic waterway, but it was occupied in prehistoric

times. We begin in the southwest part of the state. Our first point is

at Potosi, an old mining town. Here we identified two serpent effigies

and a panther effigy. The mounds, however, here are mainly long

mounds and stretch in lines along the summits of the narrow bluffs —

very few effigies among them. (See fig. 2.) Cassville was the next point.

Here we discovered on the estate which formerly belonged to Gov.

Dewey, and now belongs to Gen. Newberry, of Chicago, a large number

of long mounds. There is a large group of burial mounds on the

bottom land opposite the picturesque ruins of Gov. Dewey’s house.

Passing up the Mississippi river, we come to the mouth of the

Wisconsin river. Here we find the bear or buffalo upon one side and

the swallow upon the other. Passing up the Wisconsin we come to

Boscobel. Here through the politeness of Dr. Armstrong, we were able

to visit several groups both west and east of the village and to fix the

limit of the swallow clan. The group which marks the boundary of this

clan is situated near Port Andrews, and is quite a remarkable group. It

consists of a line of swallows over a mile long. (See fig. 3.) The swallows

are on the slope of the hill near the bank of the river and underneath

the rocky cliff which is here very high. The road runs along the edge

of the cliff, and overlooks the land where the effigies are. They can be

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Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

plainly seen from the road and are very interesting and beautiful though

they are fast disappearing under the plow. There is one swallow here of

which we shall speak hereafter. It is at the end of the line of swallows

but is placed by itself on a knoll, and so surrounded by long mounds as

to be protected on three sides, constituting a sort of enclosure by itself.

East of this, in the neighborhood of Muscoda we find the eagle to be the

common .emblem.

Fig. 3.— Line of Swallow Effigies near Port Andrews.

The eagle clan appears to have been a large clan. It extended from

near Port Andrews, up through all the towns on the Wisconsin river and

as far east as Sauk City and even extended over the water-shed, and left

its totem on the banks of the four lakes at Madison. Mr. S. Taylor was

the first to recognize the eagle, but he said nothing about the eagle clan

and did not follow up the subject in this way. In fact all the early

Archaeologists were successful in their work of identifying particular

birds and animals, but did not undertake to trace the clan emblems or

to study the totem system. The eagle effigy, discovered by Mr. S. Taylor,

at Black Earth, marks the western extremity of this clan. The eagles

which, in company with Prof. P. W. Putnam, we discovered at the Dells,

may have marked the eastern extremity, though the center of the clan hab¬

itat proper was in the vicinity of Eagle township. We notice that there

is a difference in attitude of the eagles. At Muscoda there is a bird effigy

which is about 1,000 feet in length with the wings straight out. We

also found about twenty eagles with their wings partly folded in the

spread eagle attitude. At the Dells of the Wisconsin and near Sauk

City, the eagles have their wings in a straight line, exactly as they are

on the asylum grounds north of Madison. At Honey creek there are

two eagles near a game drive, and near the game drive two elks with a

foe watching the elks, but in this same locality we discovered several

swallows, showing that the swallow clan came into the territory of the

The Clans of the Effigy Builders.

305

eagle clan and placed their clan effigy on the same ground. The Eagles

seem to have been great hunters, for there are a great many game drives

in their territory — the elk and the moose being very common. Next to

the eagles were the mink — the same clan that we have referred to

before. This clan seemed to have had its center in the neighborhood of

Baraboo, but it extended south across Sauk Prairie to Honey creek, east

to the four lake region, north to the neighborhood of Portage and north¬

east to Buffalo lake. There is a group of effigies near the stone quarry

two miles west of Madison, in which there is a large elk, a mink, and an

eagle. There is another group near Merrill’s Springs, in which there are

two buffalos and an eagle, but no mink, and half a mile east, two eagles,

a wild goose, a wolf and several animal effigies. The mink is not com¬

mon in the four lake region, but is very numerous about Baraboo. The

raccoon is another clan. This was located northwest of the mink clan —

in Adams county and Juneau county. The raccoon is a very interesting

effigy. It is difficult to measure and to plat, but when it is platted,

comes out very beautifully. The wonder is that the effigy builders could

have made it so correct. They were much better imitators than the or¬

dinary white man. The individual who has made the work a study sees

more skillful molding of animal forms than he is able to exercise in de¬

lineating them and is led to go beyond the critics, especially if they are

critics who have never seen these imitative forms.

The clan east of the mink was that of the squirrel. Their habitat was

very extensive. It reached from Buffalo lake across Green lake to Win¬

nebago lake, and occasionally visited Horicon lake, even to the head¬

waters of Milwaukee river.

IV. The manner in which the clans marked their boundaries is an¬

other point. The effigy builders were evidently hunters, but they were

hunters who seem to have carried this totem system to a great length.

We find clan totems present everywhere and are able to recognize the

clans by the effigies. A preponderance of one particular animal or bird

over all others will be so great in one region, that it becomes a cer¬

tainty that this was the clan emblem. We can fix even the habitat of

the clan, by this means. Having entered into the region, we first ascer"

tain the preponderating effigy, then follow this to the limits, until we

find a change to some other. Within the bounds the clan totem appears

not only in the villages and centers but near thq game drives, and near

temporary encampments. We ascertain by this means all about the

clan. 2. The clan totem is not often carried beyond the habitat but ap¬

pears near the boundaries of other clans. In such cases the effigies which

embody the totem will be much larger than nearer the clan center. There

may have arisen at times disputes as to the hunting grounds. This would

lead the clan which claimed the hunting ground to make its totem

specially conspicuous. 3. We find also, that the emblems which are

20— A. & L.

306 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

placed on the borders between two clan habitats are not only very large,

but they seem to be associated with all the animals which would naturally

be hunted; the moose, elk, buffalo, bear are grouped together, and the

clan totem placed in the same region.

We now take up the illustration of these points. Let us begin at Mer¬

ritt’s Landing. (See fig. 4.) Here there are two or three very large

mink effigies, — one of them 700 feet long. It is so long and so level that

the farmer who owns the land has placed his gateway at the head

of the mink and drives to his field on the body of the mink, the road¬

way being open where the effigy is, but a second growth of timber comes

to the very edge of the mink on either side. This mink is nearly as long

as the whole drove of animals, the group on the edge of the lake being

1,000 feet and this 700 feet long. Another mink near by measures 450 feet.

These effigies mark the border of the habitat of the mink clan. This

clan extended from Sauk Prairie, through Baraboo across the portage of

the Wisconsin and Fox rivers to the North side of Buffalo lake. On the

south side of the lake about ten miles to the east of the mink clan

the habitat of the squirrel clan began. Both clans seem to have had their

hunting grounds on this lake. The elk, buffalo, moose, were the animals

which they hunted. There are many elk effigies on the north side of

the lake but the mink effigy is associated with them, mink effigies being

found, also, west of Buffalo lake, near the head waters of the Fox river .

Squirrel effigies extend across to Puckaway lake on the north side but do

not extend west of Buffalo lake. The squirrel clan also hunted the elk.

There is a group of squirrel effigies near Montello but there is an elk

effigy surrounded by squirrels, and everythingin the group indicates that

it was the hunting ground of the squirrels.

There is one contrivance which the squirrel clan adopted that is worthy

of notice here. They made two squirrels on a large scale, twisted

The Clans of the Effigy Builders.

307

the tails of the squirrels around over the back, very much as it is

twisted in the squirrel effigy on the asylum grounds opposite Madison,

but between the tail and the body of each squirrel, they dug a large pit

in the sandy soil and so made a trap for the animals which they would

drive from the forests towards the lake.

It is probable that they placed timber or brush, palisades or fences

around these traps but the squirrel effigies and the pits are all that are

left. The mink clan placed a moose on the highest hill that they could

find and from the top of this massive effigy could watch the squirrel

clan chase their game; for the two groups are not so far apart but that on

a clear day, they might recognize their presence or at least they could

exchange signals with one another. We are convinced that the clans

were friendly for these signal stations are scattered all over the state;

but the border lands between the clans may have been common pro¬

perty.

V. We now turn to the clan centers. The question which arises here

is, whether there were any clan centers which can be recognized. It is

well known that every clan has its central organization, its village site,

its council house, its burial place, frequently its place of sacrifice, and

its own place of assembly. The hunters did not differ from others in

this. They had game drives and frequently encamped away from their

villages, but there was among them a clan organization and a clan

center. It has been therefore a purpose with us to discover the clan cen¬

ters. We think we have done this in some cases, but in others are some¬

what doubtful. In the book on Emblematic Mounds we have spoken of

the villages of the effigy builders, one located at Big" Bend, another at

Waukesha, both on the Fox river, another at Racine. The village at

Racine was situated on the summit of an isolated bluff and was sur¬

rounded by conical mounds and panther effigies. There were look¬

out mounds on adjoining hills and garden beds in the valley below

and a large number of burial mounds on a hill opposite the village. The

village at Big Bend was surrounded with oblong mounds and panther

effigies. Opposite this, on a high bluff, was an altar mound and some

two or three miles west was a game drive and another two miles north of

the village, both of them abounding with panther effigies. Caches, or

pits, for storing corn were numerous near this village. The enclosure

at Aztlan may have been a clan village or it may have been a general

capital or a place of general assembly for all clans. Mr. W. H. Canfield

has located the village of the Mink clan, near Baraboo, and has spoken

about the council house. He represents this as a sort of circle or en¬

closure, which is surrounded by a large number of animals, the mink

being the most numerous. If we take this as our clue, we should place

the council house of the Turtle clan on the east side of Lake Koshkon-

ong, for the group here resembles that at Baraboo in many respects.

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Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

We discovered at Green lake, a circle or ring of earth in the midst of a

large number of effigies, the fox, eagle, wild goose, but the squirrels

largely preponderated. This ring was situated not far from the village,

the village being near the water, with the squirrels guarding its gate¬

ways, but a council house on the hilltop remote from the water. One

peculiarity of these so-called council houses, we do not understand.

We find around them so many effigies which are different from the clan

emblems, a strange mixture of animal forms. In Catlin’s Indians is a

description of a medicine lodge of the Mandans. The medicine man sits

in his lodge and summons all the animals which are the totems of all

the tribes. We have the same picture in the effigies. In one place at

Lake Koshkonong, we have the eagle, turtle, the fish, pigeon, woodcock,

the blue heron, the wolf, the lizzard and many other animals. At West

Bend we have the lizzard, the wolf, wild cat, coon, snake, and about a

dozen squirrels. At Baraboo we have the elk, buffalo, bear, wolf, eagle,

coon, fox, and a large number of mink. At Beloit, the panthers, wolf,

bear, pigeon and several turtles. All of these are grouped together in a

very remarkable manner. We call these council houses, but we do not

understand all of the features that are embodied in the group. This is

the point which we confess to be obscure, but think we are on the bor¬

ders of a constructive, rich field, but do not pretend to have fathomed

the subject.

VI. The citadels or sacred enclosures will be considered next. Here we

draw a distinction between groups of effigies, in the midst of which are

the circles or earth-rings which we call council houses and the long lines

of effigies at the end of which are what we call “ sacred enclosures,” but

which Mr. S. Taylor called “ citadels.” These are lines of long mounds

which have no “ citadels ” or “ inclosures ” connected with them. These are

placed “ generally,” at the summit of long narrow bluffs, on high land, and

were probably used either as screens or hedges or barriers to stop the flight

of wild game, to drive them into narrow openings, or as elevated roads for

hunters to run upon when they were chasing the game. They are in the

most sightly places, and are elevated to a uniform height and run along

the summit of the bluff for many miles. There are very few effigies con¬

nected with them. They are different from the lines at the end of which

are the citadels. The “ citadels,” so called, are nothing but little clus¬

ters of effigies, five or six in number, so arranged that they form a sort of

enclosure. In the center of the area, there is always to be seen a mound

of some kind, either a high lookout mound, or an effigy . There are many

such citadels, at least one to every clan habitat. A good illustration of

this is found in the isolated clusters in the Port Andrews group opposite

Boscobel. (See fig. 3 and 5) Here the effigy is a swallow— a totem of the clan

which lies to the west. It is surrounded by long mounds, and forms an

unique cluster. It is at the end of a long line of effigies, all of them swal¬

lows. Another example is found near Muscoda. The group is here prom-

The Clans of the Effigy Builders. 309

inent and forms the top of the principal mound; occupying the center of

the enclosure, may be seen at least 100 elevations, which stretch about 400

yards to the westward. The effigies which form the walls to this enclosure

are eagles, the eagle being the totem of the clan at Muscoda. A simi¬

lar cluster has been described by an old settler living near Merritt's

Landing, as having formerly existed on a knoll not far from his house.

The effigies surrounding the enclosure were mink, their tails extending

out long distances, like the spokes of a wheel, their heads toward the

center. We have said that the mink was the totem of this region. We

would say also that one of the groups of effigies of this place consisted of

a long line of elks which stretch along the borders of the lake. The so-

called citadel on the top of the hill was not far from the end of this line.

Fig. 5. — Sacred Enclosure near Port Andrews.

Mr. K,. C. Taylor discovered a long line of “ bear effiigies ” near the “ Blue

Mounds ” in Dane county. In the line was the man mound. The line

was about one and one-half miles in length and contained six effigies of

bears, six oblong mounds and one effigy of the human figure and a small

circle. There is a group on the south shore of Lake Mendota near Mer-

ril’s Springs. Here there is a short line of burial mounds with the effigy

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Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

of the eagle at one end. At the east end two buffalo effigies, three ob¬

long mounds, arranged around a central lookout or conical mound. This

we should hardly call a citadel though it illustrates how the effigies are

sometimes clustered or grouped around a central mound.

Fig. 6. — Group of Mounds on north shore of Lake Mendota, Madison, Wis.

The group on the north shore of Lake Mendota differs from this and

from nearly all other groups which we have visited. (See fig. 6.) Here the

effigies are neither in a line with a citadel at the end nor are they grouped

around a central circle with the “ council house ” in the circle but they

are arranged in a row with the heads of many of them toward the lake.

There are in this entire group from 40 to 50 mounds — many of them

effigies, but no one class of effigies preponderating. At one end is a

very large animal which we call a panther, next to this is a mink, at the

end of the mink, a man mound, near this a buffalo, next the fox, then

the bear, and another man mound and three or four pigeons of gigantic

size. (See fig. 7.) In the front of the asylum three eagles, a wolf, a bear, a

The Clans of the Effigy Builders.

311

fox and a squirrel. West of the asylum we find three long mounds with

an effigy in the midst on the side hill — on the top of the hill an animal

with a very long tail, possibly a squirrel, another with a short bushy tail,

perhaps a raccoon, another man mound, and a large cluster of burial

mounds, one of which contained an altar. These effigies do not bear the

right proportion to one another, for the panther is some two or three

times larger than the buffalo and the pigeon is even larger than the

panthers. The fox is very slender but the two man mounds are even

smaller than the fox; the deer is very small, not an eighth as large as the

eagle, but the squirrel has a tail 300 feet long, which is really the longest

tail we have anywhere seen.

Our explanation of these two classes of works is that one (the citadel)

embodied the council houses or assembly places of the clans, the other

the houses of the chiefs or clan rulers. This is conjectural but satisfies

the demands of the problem better than any other conjecture. We

throw it out merely as a suggestion, but would call attention to the

different classes of mounds as they are brought before us on this general

map. The habitats of the different clans may certainly be ascertained

by the totems. We think also that the clan centers can also be ascer¬

tained and the different places where clan life embodied itself can be

identified. Their villages with their game drives, burial places, sacrificial

places, dance grounds, assembly houses, council houses, and the houses

of their chiefs, all can be located by the study of the effigies.

31 2

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

THE LIMONENE GROUP OF TERPENES.

By EDWARD KREMERS.

The following historical study was undertaken with the desire to throw

some light upon the history of the terpenes. This class of compounds

has been of interest to chemists ever since organic chemistry may be re¬

garded as a science. Year after year the material accumulated until by

the beginning of the last decade it constituted a special lumber-chamber

of chemical literature. The reasons for this disorder are of a varied

character. The thought that every volatile oil contained its peculiar

terpene, when such was present, for a long time seems to have prevailed

in the minds of chemical investigators. Another grave fault is to be

found in the fact that one investigator often gave but little or even no

attention to the researches of others. This brought about serious con¬

fusions in the chemical nomenclature, which in turn gave rise to mis¬

understandings everywhere. The reason why, even in later years, so

little could be done to clear up the subject is to be sought in the fact

that for the most terpenes, no characteristic reactions were known.

Since at present, at least some systematic knowledge has been acquired,

it may not be without interest to look back and see who has identified

himself with the problems under consideration, who has aided in their

solution and who has retarded the same. In the course of years the

amount of material has accumulated to such an extent that a survey of

the same is a difficult matter, even for the person who has made a special

study of the subject. In fact an understanding of the Limonene group

of terpenes became possible only after Prof. Wallach, in 1888, had

demonstrated the relations existing between the members of this group.

For the better understanding of the subject the following explanatory

remarks may serve as a brief introduction. The limonene group of ter¬

penes consists of three hydrocarbons: the optically active, dextrogyrate

and laevogyrate limonene and the optically inactive dipentene. Whether

the inactive compound resulting from the mixture of equal parts of the

optically active components is identical with dipentene still remains an

open question. Suffice it is to say that all crystallizable derivations of

such an optically inactive mixture are identical with the corresponding

* These notes are translated from a series of articles published on this subject by the

writer in the “ Pharmaceutische Rundschau” of 1891 and 1892.

The Limonene Group of Ter penes.

313

‘dipentene compounds. The two physical modifications of limonene can

add one molecule of hydrogen chloride without loosing their optical ac¬

tivity. The additions of a second molecule, however, renders them op¬

tically inactive, they are then no longer limonene, but dipentene com¬

pounds. Pinene, the most characteristic hydro-carbon of the turpentine

oils, adds one molecule of hydrogen chloride to form the so-called arti¬

ficial camphor, or pinene, monhydrochloride. Under certain conditions

it also will add two molecules of hydrogen chloride and thus be converted

into dipentene dihydrochloride. Limonene as well as pinene can be

“ inverted” into dipentene. This inversion can also take place through

terpin hydrate. Limonene, and pinene even more readily, will add three

molecules of water to form terpin hydrate. This optically inactive hydrate

is no longer either a limonene — or pinene — but a dipentene derivative .

As will be shown later these inversions for a long time baffled chemical

investigators, and it is but recently that their character is being under¬

stood. This knowledge, the outcome of a series of investigations by

Prof. Wallach, has at last shed considerable light upon the constitution

und isomeric relations of the terpenes.

THE HYDROCARBONS.

SYNONYMS AND HISTORY.

Dextrogyrate Limonene.

Citrene — J. Dumas,1 1833.

Essence de citron — J. Dumas 1 & 3.

Citronyl — Blanchet & Sell,2 1833.

Carven 19 - — Schweizer,4 1840.

Hesperidene — Wright Piese,11 1871.

Citren 19 \

Hesperiden ( ^ allach. 1 -

Limonen — Wallach, 1884.

Citrene — Yoshida, 1885.

Rechts-Limonen — Wallach 22, 1888.

Dumas1 stated (1833) that “ Citrene,” the hydrocarbon from oil of lemon

is isomeric with “ camphene,” the hydrocarbon from turpentine oil, with

this difference: the molecule of the former is but half as large as that of

the latter. This distinction is shown by their different capacity for ab¬

sorbing hydrogen chloride. He regarded the natural “ citrene ” (dextro¬

gyrate limonene) as being identical with the artificial hydrocarbon which

he recovered from the hydrogen chloride addition-product (namely dipen¬

tene), and which he also designated as “ citrene.”

Blanchet and Sell2 (1833) designated as “ citronyl ” that hydrocarbon of

the lemon oil which is capable of forming a solid compound ( “ festes

314

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

salzsaures citronenol ”) with hydrogen chloride, and regard it as iso¬

meric with “ Dadyl ” that hydrocarbon of turpentine oil which is cap¬

able of yielding a crystallizable compound with hydrochloric acid.

Soubeiran and Capetain (1840) distinguish for the first time between

limonene and dipentene. They had determined the rotatory power of

their original material (for the “ essence de citron rectifiee [or] = 80°.916

dextrorotatory), but found the “ camphre de citron” (dipentene dihydro¬

chloride) obtained from it, as also the regenerated “citrene” (dipentene)

to be optically inactive. The difference, they state, is the same as that

between the “terebene” (o-Pinene) and the essence of turpentine (-Pi-

nene). They also call attention to the fact that the “ essence de tereben-

thine” (-Pinene) retains in the “ camphre solide” (Pinene-monhydrochlo-

ride) its optical activity, and that “S’il est possible de supposer que

l’essence de terebenthine soit entree sans alteration dans le camphre

solide, on ne peut se refuser a reconnaitre que dans ancune de ses com-

binaisons l’essence de citron n’a conserva son etat meleculaire primitif.”

Soubeiran and Capetain had thus recognized and pointed out the differ¬

ence beeween the hydro-carbons we now designate as dextrogyrate limo¬

nene and dipentene, and had also indicated the inversion of one into

the other. But, although they isolated and identified the dextrogyrate

limonene from the oil of orange, they do not at all call attention to th e

identity of the same with that from lemon oil.

In ] 840 Schweizer 4 isolated from the oil of caraway a hydro-carbon,

which he designated “ carven ” ( + Limonene). By passing hydrogen

chloride into it he obtained a dihydro chloride melting at 50° (Dipentene

dihydro chloride). The hydro carbon regenerated from this compound

by means of lime he regarded as unchanged carvene. Based upon his

analyses and vapor density determinations he assigned to the “ carven ”

the formula C 10H16 Boiling point 173° C.

It is quite apparent from what has been stated above that the different

capacity for the saturation of hydrogen chloride was regarded as chief

distinction between pinene and limonene. Based upon the direct for¬

mation of dipentene dihydro chloride from turpentine oil, Berthelot 5

(1852) claimed that the distinction between turpentine oil and lemon oil,

i. e., between pinene and limonene, was not at all essential. He seems to

regard both as identical, though he admits a slight difference on account

of the somewhat varying stability of the molecule of the two. As a

further proof for the latter statement, he shows later that limonene is

not as easily affected by heat as pinene 6~7.

Already in 1840 Volckel 8 had surmised the existence of a hydrocar¬

bon besides carvol in the oil of caraway. In 1853 9 he pointed out the

apparent genetic relations existing between carvol and this hydrocar¬

bon, the so-called carvene (+ limonene). Although Volckel’s formulas

have long been discarded the fact remains and is of historic interest.

The Limonene Group of Terrenes.

315

In 1864 [Gladstone attempted to introduce order into the then already

chaotic condition of the terpene literature. Based upon physical and

chemical properties he classified the terpenes into three great groups.

It is of special interest to note that he would regard the terpenes from

sweet orange oil, lemon oil and the oil of citrus medica as identical

rather than isomeric.

In 1871 Wright & Piese11 oxidized hesperidene from orange oil (4- lim¬

onene) with chromic acid mixture, and obtained acetic acid. From this

CH. CH3

they conclude that the formula || expresses in part “the group¬

's H13)

ing of the constituent carbon atoms.” Nitric acid oxidizes hesperidene

to oxalic and carbonic acids.

Two years later Wright12 obtained from hesperidene besides acetic and

formic acid a substance C10 H16 O when oxidized with chromic acid

mixtures. When oxidized with nitric acid he obtained oxalic acid and

hesperidinic acid, C30 H36 017, but no terephthalic acid.

When a molecule of bromine is added a liquid non-characteristic

dibromide is formed which when heated splits off hydrobromic acid and

cymene results which is identical with the cymene obt. from pinene and

“ citrene ” (-j- limonene from oil of lemon). From this Wright concludes

“that these three terpenes may all be regarded as dihydrides of cymene.”

The yield of cymene from “ hesperidene dibromide ” was 80 per cent, and

from the cymene he obt. by oxidation 45 per cent of terephthalic acid.

From the latter experiment he concludes that “the production of tereph¬

thalic acid “ from cymene by oxidation shows that two ‘ lateral chains ’

are present; and as toluic acid is also obtainable from cymene, one of

these must be methyl (since toluic acid gives rise to methyl-benzene to¬

luene); cymene therefore is either a methyl propyl-benzene or a methyl

isopropyl benzene.”

As to some of these views, however, Oppenheim 13 has claim of prior¬

ity. He had obtained “ citrene cymol ” by addition of bromine to “ cit¬

rene” and then splitting off hydrobromic acid by means of anilin; also

according to Kekules method by adding iodine and splitting off hydro -

iodic acid with the aid of heat. In his oxidation experiments with dilute

nitric acid he obtained not only terephthalic acid but also para-toluic

acid and acetic acid. Neither “terpene cymol” nor “citrene cymol”

therefore contain an etlyl group, but both have in para-position methyl

and propyl. The formation of acetic acid makes it probable that the

latter is isopropyl.

Already a year previous Oppenheim14 had remarked that the terpenes

were hydrocymols. Remarkable are, however his words which he wrote

shortly after. “ The fact, however, that until now para cymol has only been

obtained from terpenes may well create the suspicion that even the mild¬

est reaction according to which hydrogen may be abstracted, the action

316

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

of iodine on the terpenes, distnrbes the molecular arrangement of the

same and causes a rearrangement of the atoms which prevents us from

recognizing the original structure of the terpenes.”

In the seventies Tilden introduced a new class of terpene derivatives

which proved of exceeding interest and importance. His nitrosylchlor-

ide addition products and the nitro terpenes obtained therefrom afforded

a better means to distinguish the hydrocarbons of the pinene group

from those of the limonene group. He showed also that the terpenes

from orange oil, bergamot oil and caraway oil afforded the same nitro-

sylchloride addition product.

With the year 1884 there began a new era in the literature of terpenes

and volatile oils. Wallach had succeeded in preparing a tetrabromide 17

of “cynene” C10 H16 Br4 (now Dipentene tetrabromide), a handsomely

crystallizable body which melted at 124°. Soon after he obtained a

tetrabromide from “ hesperidene ” ( + limonene), which crystallized in a

very similar form, but melted at 104°. Wallach wrote at the time, “ There

seem to exist very close relations between “cynene” and “hesperidene,”

but no complete identity.” In these tetrabromides we have, as ifc were,

the key to our present knowledge of the terpenes. Th^se two terpenes

which for decades had been a stumbling block to chemists, were now

characterized. The importance of these substances already becomes

evident from the second contribution 20 of Wallach four months later.

By means of the tetrabromide Wallach proved the presence of limonene in

the fraction ITS1 of the following oils: lemon oil (so-called “ citrene ”),

bergamot oil, caraway oil (so called “ carvene ”), dill oil, erigeron oil and

in the oil of the leaves of pinus sylvestris.

Wallach showed, furthermore, that these fractions could be inverted

into dipentene by means of heat (temp, of 250-270°) as was shown by

means of the dipentene tetrabromide. Also by adding two molecules

of hydrogen chloride and splitting off the same by heating with aniline

and converting the resulting hydrocarbon into its tetrabromide.

Wallach then characterizes limonene in the following manner: “ It

boils between 175-177°, and possesses a lemon like odor. It produces a

nitroso derivative which melts at 71°, and a tetrabromide which melts at

104°, and crystalizes in rhombic-hemiedric forms. Hydrogen chloride

converts it in etherial solution into a dihydrochloride of dipentene

which melts at 50°. Hesperidene, citrene, carvene, etc., are hereafter to

be designated as limonene.”

The true character of limonene, i. e. its position as the dextrogyrate

member of the limonene group became apparent in 1888 when Wallach22

recognized lgevogyrate limonene as such and succeeded in the syntheti¬

cal preparation of dipentene derivatives from its destrogyrate and

lsevogyrate components. The peculiar differences between the limo

nenes and dipentene as revealed in their derivatives, as also the singular

The Limonene Group of Terpenes.

317

position of the clipentene derivatives when compared with the optically

inactive derivatives of pinene and camphene must be considered later.

It is no doubt largely due to these peculiarities that our knowledge of

the relations existing between the members of the limonene group was

so long retarded.

«

Lcevogyrctte Limonene.

Limonen — Wallach 2 1884.

Citrene — - Yoshida 3 1885.

Links-Limonen — Wallach 4 1888.

Apparently Deville1 (1849) has first described laevogyrate limonene,

without, however, recognizing its peculiar relation to dextrogyrate limo¬

nene, then chiefly known as citrene. From elemioil Deville obtained a

hydrocarbon which had the constant boiling point 174°, and to which he

assigned the composition Ci 0 e . At 11° it had the specific gravity 0.849 ;

coefficient of refraction 1.4719 at 14°C; specific rotatory power -90s, 30;

vapor density 4.84 (calculated 4.76). With hydrogen chloride he obtained

a compound to which he assigned the formula C10 H8 H Cl, and of which

he states: “La rotation de a camphre est nulle comme celle du cam-

phre de citron, son isomere.”

In 1884 Wallach demonstrated by means of the tetrabromide reaction

the presence of limonene in the oil from pinns sylvestris without, how¬

ever, paying attention to its optical properties. In the following year

Yoshida3 isolated from camphor oil a fraction 172-173° of the com¬

position C10 H16 of which he writes (p. 787): “This hydrocarbon is

probably chemically identical with citrene, the main constituent of the

so-called essence of lemon. The point of difference from the lemon oil

citrene is its lsevorotatory power, viz. [a]. = — 68.3°, but this can be

J

looked upon as a physical difference between the two, such cases being

common among the optically active terpenes.” Yoshida obtained from

this fraction a “Dihydrochloride of Citrene,” C10 H16 2H Cl (melting

point 58-59° C.), but did not succeed in making the nitroso-chloride. By

the addition of one molecule of bromine and splitting off hydrobromic

acid he obtained cymol, which upon oxidation yielded 40 p. c. tereph-

thalic acid.

In 1888 Wallach4 showed that laevogyrate limonene occurs in the oil

from the leaves of pinns picaea. “ The lsevogyrate limonene has a con¬

stant boiling point of 175-176°, its spec, gravity was 0.8465 at 20°, [u]D =

— 105° . Tetrabromide and nitroso-chloride clearly demonstrate the op¬

posite character of the hydrocarbon with reference to its dextrogyrate

congener.

318

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

Dipentene.

Citrene 1 — J. Dumas, 1833.

Citronyl 2 — Blanchet and Sell, 1833.

Kautschin 3 — Himly, 1835.

Citrene 4 — Soubeiran and Captain, 1840.

Carven 5 — Schweizer, 1840.

Cynen 6 — Volckel, 1854.

Cinseben 7 — Hirzel, 1854.

Caoutchine 8 — Williams, 1860.

Cynen 9 — Grsebe, 1872.

Isoterebenthene 10 — J. Riban, 1874.

Di-isoprene 11 — Bouchardat.

Terpilene 11 — Bouchardat.

Dipentene 12 — ")

i

Terpene 12 — - }■ Tilden.

Terpilene — J

Citrene 13 — Watts, 1886.

Cynen 14 — Wallach, 1884.

Cajeputen 15 — Wallach.

Cinen 16 — Wallach, 1884.

Dipenten 17 — Wallach, 1884.

In an article “ Sur la combinaison de l’essence de citron avec l’acide

muriatique,” Saussure18 (1820) states that from the “muriate citre” (dipen¬

tene dihydrochloride) the hydrochloric acid can be removed in part by

distillation with caustic lime.

In 1833 J. Dumas reports on the regeneration of the hydrocarbon

“citrene” (dipentene) from the “camphre de citron” (dipentene

dihydrochloride) by repeated distillation with caustic potassa and

caustic baryta. He assigns to the regenerated hydrocarbon the formula

C6 H4 and makes about it the following concluding remark: Si ’1 est

done certain, que cette matiere, qui fait presque totalite de l’essence de

citron, est isomerique avec celle, qui forme de son cote la presque totalite

de l’essence de terebenthine, avec cette difference, que la condensation

des elements est double dans la derniere.” Prom these remarks it be¬

comes quite evident:

1. That Dumas recognizes the isomerism between pinene and limo-

nene, resp. dipentene.

2. He supposes the limonene present in the oil of lemon to be identi¬

cal with the dipentene regenerated from the dipentene dihydrochloride

obtained by the addition of hydrogenchloride to, and by the inversion of

limonene.

3. He recognizes the fact that limonene will, absorb again as much

hydrogenchloride as pinene. Laboring under the false supposition that

The Limonene Group of Ter penes.

319

a molecule of hydrocarbon can combine with but one molecule of hydro¬

gen chloride, he comes to the conclusion that the molecule of limonene,

resp. dipentene is but half as large as that of pinene.

Blanchet and Sell 2 (1833) obtained independently the same results and

come to the very same conclusions.

In 1835 Himly 3 obtained from the products of dry distillation of

caoutchouc a fraction 168-171°. Saturated with hydrogen chloride this

yielded “ salysaures Kautschen,” (dipentene dihydrochloride) from which

the hydrocarbon can be regenerated by distillation with caustic potassa

and rectification over metallic potassium. The regenerated hydrocarbon

was colorless, possessed a limonene odor; spec, gravity 0.8423 at 16° ;

boiling point 171°; vapor density 4.461. He assigns to it the formula

C5 H8.

An observation of Soubeiran and Captain (1840) is of great interest,

viz.: that the hydrocarbon regenerated from the optically inactive

“camphre de citron” (dipentene dihydrochloride) is likewise optically

inactive and is thus distinguished from the “essence de citron”

(+ limonene).

Schweizer,5 however (1840), still regarded the dipentene regenerated

from the dihydrochloride as identical with the “carvene” (+ limonene)

from which the dihydrochloride had been prepared.

In 1848 List 19 observed that when the “ chlorwasserstoff verbindung

des Terpins ” (dipentene dihydrochloride) is distilled with caustic lime,

or when anhydrous terpin is distilled repeatedly with anhydrous phos¬

phoric acid a volatile oil of the composition “ C20 H16” is formed.

In the following year (1849) Deville20 regenerated the hydrocarbon

from the “camphre de citron” (dipentene dihydrochloride) prepared

from terpin hydrate and declares this hydrocarbon dipentene to be

identical with “1’essence de citron” (+ limonene). This, he states, “fur¬

nishes the means to transform the essence of turpentine into the essence

of lemon.” (That Deville, who made considerable use of the polariscope

in his investigations, apparently gives no heed to optical properties in

this case is rather surprising.)

In 1860 Greville Williams 8 in his researches on “Isoprene and Caout-

chine,” confirms Himly’s analysis. He states further that “ caoutchine”

(dipentene) decolorizes four equivalents of bromine; that by the alter¬

nating action of bromine and sodium cymol is obtained, which upon

oxidation yields “ insolinic acid.” Sulphuric acid converts “ caoutch¬

ine” into a viscid oil. Small quantities of an acid “C20H16S3O6” are

also formed from which a calcium salt, “ C30H15CaS2O6” was made.

Williams assumes that the heat effects a tearing assunder of a polymeric

body (caoutchouc), and that the substances which are formed stand in a

simple relation to the mother substance.

Tilden 11 in 1882 repeated some of the experiments of Greville Wil-

320 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

liams and of Bouchardat pertaining to the decomposition of terpenes at.

high temperatures. In an article 12 (1884) he makes the following very

important claim: “ There is no doubt that the di-isoprene of Bouchar¬

dat and the dipentene which I have just described, are identical with

terpilene, the optically inactive hydrocarbon into which the terpenes

and citrenes are convertible.”

In 1886 Watts31 showed dipentene (called by him “citrene,”) to be

present in the oil of the leaves from citrus limetta. He states that it

resembles “ citrene ” (+limonene) very much, but behaves differently

toward polarized light.

Bouchardat and Lafont22 (1886) studied the action of chromic acid on

leevogyrate pinene. Among other products they obtained a hydrocar¬

bon C10 H16 which boiled between 174-178°, [n]D = — 56° and combined

with hydrochloric acid to form a “ chlorhydrate de terpilene ou de

citrene” which melted at 47°, (dipentene dihydrochloride). It is quite

evident that this hydrocarbon consisted of a mixture of limonene and

dipentene. The “ isoterpenes ” of Flawitzky23 obtained by the dehydra¬

tion of the so-called “ terpenhydrate” (evidently mixtures of the opt. in¬

active terpinene with the opt. active ones,) are no doubt similar mixtures*

Bouchardat and Voiry24 (1888) bring nothing new when they state that

dipentene dihydrochloride when heated with alcoholic potash yields a

“ carbure terpilenique ” (impure dipentene). This fact simply shows

that the deplorable custom of dishing up old facts with new names has

not entirely ceased25. In his articles “ Sur l’essence d’Eucalyptus

globulus ”26 and “ Sur l’essence de cajeput”27 Voiry even surpasses his

master in scientific dishonesty.

In a historical study of dipentene wormseed oil (Oleum cinae) must

not be left unconsidered. It constitutes as it were a special chapter in

the history of this hydrocarbon. It will, therefore, be necessary to turn

back and study the development of our knowledge concerning dipen¬

tene ( “ cynene”) in connection with this oil.

In 1841 Wohler27 communicates the results of Volckel’s analysis of the

oil. He states that “it does not appear to stand in any simple relation

to santonin” but consists of a substance “C9 H15 O” admixed with

small quantities of another oil.” In 1853 Volckel28 assigned to the chief

constituent of the oil boiling at 174-175° the formula “C:2 H10 O.” In

the following year in an article “ Veber das Cynen ” he treats of a hydro¬

carbon obtained by distilling wormseed oil repeatedly with anhydrous

phosphoric acid. After successive treatment of the crude product with

sulphuric acicl , water and chloride of calcium in order to “ purify ” ? it,

the “cynen ” distilled completely between 173-175°. He assigns to it the

formula C13 H9. “Das Cynen ist demnach aus dem Wurmsamenol:

C12 H10 O durch das Ausscheiden vom 1 Aeq. Wassertoff and 1 Aeg.

Sauertoff als Wasser entstanden.”

The Limonene Group of Terpenes.

321

Hirzel7 (1854) regards the rectified “ 01 Cinae ” to consist of a mixture

of a hydrocarbon “Cinaeben” “C10H8” with “Cinaeben campher,”

“ C10 H9 O.” The latter when distilled with anhydrous phosphoric acid

yields among other products “ Cinaeben.”

Kraut’s 29 analysis of wormseed oil (1862) would lead him to the form¬

ula “ C24H20O2,” However, his vapor-density determinations bring him

to the conclusion that the oil is a mixture of a substance “C20H18O2,”

with little of a hydrocarbon “(probably of the formula C20H16).”

Kraut and Wahlforss 30 verify Volckel’s statement in so far as the oil

when distilled with anhydrous phosphoric acid yields a hydrocarbon.

Their analyses and vapor-density determinations, however, lead them to

the formula “ C10 H16.” “ This hydrocarbon is optically inactive .”

Graebe 9 replaced (1872) phosphorus pentoxide by phosphorus penta

sulphide. He obtained a hydrocarbon which he supposed to be “ cy-

nen.” However it must have been cymol, since it yielded terephthalic

acid upon oxidation. Graebe’s “cynen sulfosaeure, C10 H15 (S03 H)”

when fused with caustic potassa did not yield a phenol of “ cynen” but

of cymol, consequently it must have been a derivative of the latter.

Faust and Homeyer 31 prepared “ Cynen” according to Graebe’s method

and identified it as cymol by means of paratoluic acid and of cymol sul-

phonate of barium. They believe that there can be no further doubt as

to the identity between “ cynen ” and cymol.

Hell and Stiircke32 (1884) again use phosphorus pentoxide as dehydrat¬

ing agent and obtain the hydrocarbon C10 H16. Fuming sulphuric acid

blackens it and converts only a part of it into the sulphonic acid. The

barium salt is stated to be identical with the barium cymol-sulphonate

obtained by Kraut from caraway oil. Hell and Stiircke arrive at the

conclusion that by the action of phosphorus pentoxide upon worm-

seed oil “ cynen ” and not cymol results, but that the sulphuric acid by

abstracting two hydrogen atoms oxidizes the former into the latter34.

Hell and Ritter 35 (1884) have observed that when hydrogen chloride is

passed into wormseed oil, this becomes heated and C10 H18 0. H Cl is not

formed but water is split off and “ cynendihydrochlorid ” C10 H18 Cl

(melting point 50-51°) results (dipentene dihydrochloride). From this

“ cynen ” (dipentene) can be obtained by distillation wth caustic soda

and rectification over metallic sodium. These reactions are to be ex¬

pressed by the following equations.

1. C10 H18 O + H Cl = C10 H18 Cl (OH), [a chlorhydrin.]

2. C10 H18 Cl (OH) + H Cl = C10 H18 Cl2 + H2 O.

3. C10 H18 Cl 2 = C10 H16 + 2H Cl.

About the same time with Hell, Wallach36 began his investigations

of the terpenes. In part they meet on the same ground, in part they

supplement each other. However, where Hell feigned analogies to exist

21— A. & L.

322 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

among terpenes or their derivatives Wallach removed all doubts and

thus laid a foundation for a systematic investigation of the terpenes.

Wallach showed that the composition of the hydrogenchloride addi¬

tion product of cineol C10 H18 O, the chief constituent of wormseed oil,

is expressed by the formula (C10 H18 0)8 H Cl. When heated by itself

this compound splits off water and hydrochloric acid as expressed by

the following equation:

(Cio H18 0)3 H Cl = 2 H3 O + H Cl + 2 C10 H16 whereby cinene

(dipentene) is formed. Cineol adds two bromineatoms to form a

bibromide which is deliquescent. Water and hydrobromic acid split off

and a tetrabromide C10 H16 Br4 is formed which melts at 125.5°. This

tetrabromide is identical with the one obtained by the addition of

bromine to the hydrocarbon cynene (dipentene). At the same time

Wallach showed that cajeputol37 is identical with cineol, also cajeputene

with cynene. The limonene odor of cinene (dipentene) lead Wallach to

surmise the relations existing between this hydrocarbon and hesperidene

( + limonene). The preparation of limonene tetrabromide38 melting at

104° proved these suppositions to be true.

The importance of these tetrabromides soon became apparent. Already

in his second contribution Wallach showed conclusively by means of

the tetrabromide reaction that dipentene was formed in a large number

of reactions. Wallach, at that time, characterized dipentene as follows:

“ It boils at 180-182039. The odor resembles that of limonene. It com¬

bines with bromine to form a tetrabromide which crystallizes in the rhom¬

bic system and melts at 125-126°, also with two molecules of hydrogen

chloride, without being changed thereby, to dipentene dihydrochloride

which melts at 49°. At high temperatures it polymerizes without being

previously modified.” 40

Dipentene is classified here as the special hydrocarbon of the dipentene

group, whereas the closely related “ hesperiden ” (-f limonene) is placed

in the limonene group.40 The reason for such a separation is * quite

apparent. The inactive modifications of pinene and camphene are

not essentially different from their optically active modifications.

Laevogyrate limonene was not yet known as such. It was only with the

discovery of this terpene on the part of Wallach41 that the true relations

existing between dipentene and the optically active limonenes could be¬

come wholly apparant. Whereas the relations existing between o-pinene

and ± pinene are those of o-tartaric and to ± tartaric acids, the re¬

lations existing between o-dipentine and ± limonene are explained

by those existing between o-racemic acid and the optically active tar¬

taric acids.

Dipentene, therefore, is not optically inactive limonene in the same

sense in which o-pinene and o-camphene are the optically inactive mod¬

ifications of the respective groups. That dipentene derivatives, pre-

The Limonene Group of Terpenes.

323

pared synthetically from the optically active modifications, have but a

simple molecule has been shown by Wallach in connection with opti¬

cally inactive carvoxime. 43 On account of the peculiar position of the-,

optically inactive members of derivatives from the limonene group he.

has retained the designation “ dipentene ” in preference to 0-limonene^

for optically inactive limonene derivatives corresponding to those of

optically inactive tartaric acid may yet be found.

Properties.

The hydrocarbons of the limonene group are colorless liquid terpenes

of an agreeable lemon-like odor. 1 Two of the three are optically active,

being opposite in character. The physical constants of the limonenes

have been determined as follow's :

Boiling point, 175—176°. 2 3

Spec, gravity at 20° 0,816. 3

[a] = 105° 3 resp. + 106.8° 2

Coefficient of refraction nD 1.17459. 3

Molelecular refraction ^n, — 15.23. 3

(n2 + 2)d

Chemically the two modifications are identical. They add one mole¬

cule of hydrogen chloride without losing their optical activity. When

every trace of moisture is avoided they will not add more.4 In the

presence of moisture, however, they add two molecules of hydrogen

chloride and thereby become optically inactive, i. e., are converted into

a dipentene derivative, dipentene dihydrochloride. The di bromine ad¬

dition products appear to be viscid liquids and are therefore not charac¬

teristic. When hydrobromic acid is split off cymol results.13 The

tetrabromides, however, are very characteristic.5 Optically 6 as well as

crystalographically 7 their character is opposite. The limonenes add also

nitrosyl chloride, apparently but one molecule. However, two addition

products of j qP result, an a — and a (5 — nitroso-chloride. With bases

Like limonene the mon-

NO

Cl

and

NO

O (NO)a.

both yield the same a — and (5 — nitrolamines.

hydrochloride is still capable of adding the groups

In this case, however, but one hydrochlor-nitroso chloride or hydo-

chlor-nitrosate resp. results. The molecule of hydrogenchloride can

also be added after the addition of the NO Cl group, viz., by the nitrol¬

amines. Thus e. g. the u-nitrolanilid will yield an u-hydrochlor addition

product, the /3-nitrol anilid a /?-hydrochlor addition product. Of these

the u-base is identical with the one obtained from the hydrochlor-nitroso-

chloride.8 These peculiarities, which have thus far been observed in con¬

nection with limonene group only indicate a different behavior of the two

double bonds toward regents.

324 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

The behavior of the limonenes toward water is similar to that toward

The hydrohalogens. After the addition of one molecule of water the

-hydration product still appears to be a limonene-derivative.9

The addition of a second molecule of water makes it a dipentene

derivative. Terpin and its hydrate are both optically inactive and upon

dehydration yield dipentene but no limonene.

The transformation of limonene to dipentene is termed inversion and

seems to be brought about easily by the presence of acids. Thus e. g. a

partial inversion takes place in the preparation of the nitrosochlorides

and nitrosates, and especially of the hydrochlor nitrosochlorides and ni-

trosates10. Limonene can also be inverted into terpinene whereby di¬

pentene results as intermediate product11. Indirect inversion into ter-

pinolene12 also seems to take place under favorable conditions. If the

isoterpenes of Fl^witzky9 are but impure limonenes then the pinenes

can be inverted into limonene by means of alcoholic sulphuric acid. It

thus becomes apparent that limonene though a relatively stable terpene

is by no means the most stable.

Dipentene closely resembles the limonenes in most of its properties

Boiling poing 178°, spec, gravity 0.845 at 20°, nc = 1.47308. It is readily

distinguished from the limonenes by being optically inactive. Whether

dipentene is physically identical with optically inactive limonene, re¬

sulting from a mixture of equal parts of dextro-and Isevogyrate-limo-

limonene has not yet been decided. Chemically they are identical.

Since in all characteristic cases the optically inactive limonene deriva¬

tives have been shown to be identical with the corresponding derivatives

obtained from dipentene the term dipentene only will be used here¬

after. The dihydrochloride is identical with the one resulting from the

addition of two molecules of hydrogen chloride to the limonenes. The

tetrabromide, however, is distinguished from the limonene tetrabrom-

ides in form, melting point and solubility. What has been mentioned

of the limonenes with reference to nitrosylchloride also holds true for

dipentene. It might yet be stated that all dipentene derivatives can

also be obtained by mixing solutions of equal parts of the corresponding

detro- and lsevogyrate limonene derivatives. It is to be supposed that

dipentene like limonene will add water to form terpin hydrate, but this

has not yet been demonstrated.

Limonene as well as pinene and phellandrene can be inverted into

dipentene, which in turn can be inverted into terpinene only. Dipentene

is therefore one of the most stable terpenes.

The Limonene Group of Ter penes.

325

OCCURRENCE'.

Dextrogyrate Limonene :

In the oil of Citrus Limonum.16

aurantium.17

medica.18

r 15

l

“ bigaradia sienensis.19 |

“ “ myrtifolia.19 J

“ Bergamia.20

Carum Carvi.21

Anethnm gravelens (Dill oil).22

Erigeron Canadense.23

Lcevogyrate Limonene :

In the oil of Lauras camphora (camphor oil).24

| (“ Fichtennadel oel”).25

Pinus picea.

Dipentene :

In Camphor oil.29

“ Cubeb oil.30

“ Elemi oil.31

“ Olebanum oil.32

“ Swedish turpentine oil (modified natural product).33

“ Russian turpentine oil 34 (modified natural product).

“ Oil from leaves of Citrus Limetta.35

“ Oil of black pepper.36

The statements that 01. Cinae, 01. cajeputi and 01. Eucalypti contain

dipentene as natural product, are without proof.37

The presence of limonene can readily be ascertained in the fractions

of volatile oils boiling about 175° by Tilden’s nitrosylchloride reaction

as modified by Wallach.26 If the yield is not too small the n-nitroso-

chloride can be recrystallized from ether and recognized by its crystal¬

line form.47 The conversion of the crude nitrosochloride into carvoxime

is characteristic but not easily performed. The double decomposition

of the crude nitrosochloride with benzylamine is much simpler.28 The

u-nitrol-benzylamine base crystallizes in dull needles which melt at 93°.

The tetrabromide reaction is also very characteristic but not as easily

and readily performed as the one mentioned last.

Dipentene is found in fractions boiling from 175-180° It is character¬

ized by means of its tetrabromide 38 melting at 124°, by means of its

nitrosochloride and the benzylamine base obtained therefrom.39 The

u-base crystallizes well from dilute alcohol in colorless transparent crys¬

tals, melting at 109-110°.

326

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

Methods of Formation.

If the “ Isoterpenes” of Flawitzky 9 are impure limonenes, then the

latter can be obtained by inversion of the optically active pinenes

through the optically active terpineols (terpene hydrates of Flawitzky).

Dipentene being more stable than its optically active modifications

results from a large number of reactions:

I. Polymerisation of Isoprene, a hemiterpene. 40

II. Inversion of less stable terpenes, viz.:

1. By means of heat : direct inversion into dipentene.

2. By means of acids-

f a. Hydrohologen acids: into dipen¬

tene dihydrochloride, etc.

b. Sulphuric acid : apparent direct in-

^ version.

3. By means of water in presence of acids (e. g. nitric acid) con¬

version into terpin hydrate.

According to these methods pinene, 41 limonene 42 and phellan-

drene 43 can be converted into dipentene.

III. Destructive distillation of polymerized terpenes : e. g. Kaoutch-

ouc (Himly’s “ Kautschin ”).

IV. Regeneration of dipentene from derivatives :

1. Removal of hydrohalogen from dipentene dihydrochloride

and dihydrobromide by means of alcoholic potash,44 sodium

acetate 45 or anilin.46

2. Dehydration of O-Terpineol or terpin, resp. terpinhydrate 47

Methods of Preparation.

Dextrogyrate limonene is obtained by fractional distillation. Oil of

sweet orange consists almost entirely of + limonene. The “ carvene.” of

commerce and Erigeron oil are also very rich in + limonene and relative¬

ly cheap.

Levogyrate limonene is thus far obtained from “Fichtennadel 61” only.

Dipentene is best obtained by decomposition of its dihydrochloride or

bromide by boiling with anilin.46 The use of sodium acetate and glacial

acetic acid45 cause the formation of byproducts. It is rather difficult to

remove the last traces of halogen.5

HYDROHALOGEN ADDITION PRODUCTS.

Monohydrochlorides.

History :

The question whether a limonene monhydrochloride analogous to

pinene-monhydrochloride can exist has long remained an open one.

Considerable speculation has been indulged in concerning the liquid

byproducts, resulting in the preparation of dipentene-dihydrochloride.

Some regarded it as a monhydrochloride, others as an isomeric liquid

The Limonene Group of Terpenes.

327

dihydrochloride. Those who supported the latter view termed it “ cam-

phre-liquide de citron ” in opposition to the “ camphre solide de citron ”

(crystalized dipentene dihydrochloride). From this “camphre liquide

de citron” Soubeiran and Capitain1 went so far as to prepare the hypo¬

thetical hydrocarbon “citrylene”: spec, gravity 0.88, boiling point 168°,

vapor density 5.08, optically inactive. More than this, they created a

group of liquid camphors, in distinction to the solid and artificial cam¬

phors.

Characteristic as well as interesting are Berthelot’s2 views (1882). He

had succeeded in preparing dipentene-dihydrochloride from pinene.

From this he concludes that the difference between pinene and limonene

(“ essence de citron ”) is not “essentielle.” Consequently limonene must

yield a mono hydrochloride, analogous to artificial camphor. However

“ sa preparation est difficile, car elle parait se produire seulement en

faible proportion et d'une maniere aceidentelle .”

That under such conditions it is perfectly impossible to interpret all

older statements in the light of present knowledge is certainly apparent.

A complete catalogue of all the literature that has reference to this par¬

ticular subject would therefore be useless. In most cases it may be

assumed that these liquid products were mixtures of mono- and dihy¬

drochlorides.

A statement by S. de Luca8 (1887) appears to be more rational. When

he passed dry hydrogen chloride into relatively pure limonene from the

citrus bigaradia no solid compounds icould result. Crystallized dipentene-

dihydrochloride, however, resulted when the oil was shaken with

aqueous hydrochloric acid, de Luca, however, makes no statements re¬

garding composition and character of this liquid chloride. Ribans4

statements (1874) are more important. By passing dry hydrogen chloride

into limonene a liquid monhydrochloride resulted which could be

converted into crystallizable dihydrochloride by treatment with moist

hydrogen chloride. Bouchardat5 (1875) claims to have obtained a liquid

monhydrochloride and a solid dihydrochloride. Maissen6 (1883) also

obtained a hydrohalogen addition-product which was not saturated.

From these statements by de Luca, Berthelot and Maissen it would

seem that the hydrogen chloride must be dry to yield a monhydro¬

chloride. Others7, however, who according to their statements employed

dry hydrogen chloride obtained dipentene-dihydrochloride and no

monhydrochloride. It is therefore not at all surprising that Wallach8

(1887) after an unsuccessful attempt to prepare a monhydrochloride de¬

nied the existence of such a compound. The study of Maissens com¬

pound (dipentene-hydrochlor-nitrosate), however, again brought up this

question.

As a result of these investigations it became apparent that a monohy¬

drochloride of limonene could exist, and that it was an unsaturated com¬

pound. The understanding of Riban’s and Maissan’s experiments had

328

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

to make the latter fact apparent, but Wallach first called attention to it.

Physical as well as chemical characteristics were first studied by him.

Wallach’s monohydrochloride was, as I have shown, chiefly dipentene-

monhydrochloride.10 The optically active monhydrochlorides were first

described by me.11

Properties.

Since there is no criterion to ascertain the purity of the monhydro-

chlorides the following data found for the three physical isomers will

have to be accepted at present : 11

+ Limonene-monhydrochloride.

44 A colorless, mobile liquid of faint limonene odor. It boils at 97-98°

under pressure of 11.-12 mm. Spec, gravity 0.973 at 17.8°; [u]D = -f- 39.5°.”

—Limonene-monhi/drochloride.

“This corresponds with the dextrogyrate compound in all but its

optical properties. The rectified product boiled at 95-96° under a pres¬

sure of about 11-12 mm.; spec. grav. 0.982 at 16°; [or] = + 40.0°.”

Dipentene-monhydroeliloride.

It was prepared by mixing equal parts of the above dextrogyrate and

lgevogyrate compounds. “The mixture was optically inactive; spec^

gravity 0.982 at 16.5°; boiling point 98° under pressure of 12 mm.” Wal¬

lach 12 ascertained the physical properties of a dipentene compound to

be as follows; Boiling point 90° under pressure of 11 mm.; spec. grav.

0.98; nc = 1.4789, molecular refraction 49,86, calculated for an unsatu¬

rated compound C10H17C1 50,28.

Chemically the monhydrochloride behaves like an unsaturated com¬

pound. Under the conditions, however, which are most favorable to its

formation it will not add a second molecule of hydrogen chloride.11 But

in the presence of moisture it adds another molecule and the limonene

derivative is thereby converted into a dipentene derivative. It also adds

H 13

Br

NO

Cl

14

and

NO

O (NOa).

15

Chlorine very likely also can be added, but

this apparently substitutes at the same time.16 Water is not added di¬

rectly. In the presence of water the chlorine is substituted by hydroxyl, 1&

and the aqueous hydrochloric acid acts upon the terpineol to form ter-

pin hydrate.17

The monhydrochlorides polymerize in a very peculiar manner.18 Hy¬

drogen chloride is split off at the same time and partial inactivity results

when the underlying hydrocarbon was optically active.

The Limonene Group of Terpeyes.

329

The hydrogen chloride is not easily removed and traces of chloride

are apt to remain. The regenerated hydrocarbon is a mixture of limo¬

nene and dipentene19.

Preparation.

When dry hydrogen chloride is passed into a dry solution of limonene

or dipentene in carbon disulphide the monhydrochloride alone results.

For technical details compare the original.20 Dipentene monhydro¬

chloride can also be prepared by splitting off a molecule of hydrogen

chloride from dipentene dihydrochloride21.

Identification.

The monhydrochlorides can easily be identified by means of the

hydrochlornitrolaminebases. The preparation and purification of the

hydrochlornitrolbenzylaminebase is easily carried out22.

Dipentene-dihydrochloride.

Synonyms.

Muriate Citre — Th. de Saussure, 1820.

Camphre de Citron — J. Dumas, 2 1833.

Citrene chlorhydrate — J. Dumas, 2 1833.

Festes salzsaures Citronenoel — Blanchet & Sell, 4 1833,

Salzsaures Kautschin — Himly, 5 1835.

Hydrochlorate de Citrene — Laurent, 6 1837.

Camphre solide 7 de citron — Soubeiran and Capitain. 8 1840.

Chlorwasserstoffsaures Carven — Schweizer, 9 1840.

Chlorwasserstoff Terpin — List 10 1848.

Bichlorhydrate d’essence de Terebenthine — Berthelot, 11 1852.

Dichlorhydrate de terpilene — Berthelot, 12 1861.

Zweifach chlorwasserstoffsaures Terpilen — Oppenheim, 14 1864.

Dihydrochloride of citrene — Yoshida, 15 1885.

Cynen dihydrochlorid — Hell& Ritter, 16 1884.

Dipenten-Dihydrochlorhydrat — Wallach, 17 1884.

Chlorhydrate de terpelene — Bouchardat & Lafont, 18 1886.

Dipenten-Dihydrochlorid — Wallach 17 1887.

History :

Dipentene dihydrochloride is one of the oldest characteristic terpene

derivatives. The so-called artificial camphor, the pinene monhydro¬

chloride alone has claim to priority.19 In an article “ Sur la combinaison

des acides avec les substances vegetales et animales.” Thenard in 1807

mentions a crystalline substance which resulted upon the absorption of

hydrogen chloride by lemon oil. There can scarcely be any doubt as to

the identity of this substance. At least Blanchet and Sell4 mention

Thenard as the discoverer of the compound under consideration. The

330 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

fact that Thenard recognized that the hydrochloric acid was added

without causing a decomposition of the molecule adds to the interest of

the discovery.

In 1820 Saussure 1 prepared dipentene dihydrochloride in pure form

and described the same. He calls attention to the physical differences

between this “ muriate citre ” and the “ muriate terebinthine.” From it

he also regenerated the hydrocorbon.

J. Dumas,2 in 1833, accepts the formula C5 H4 -f- y2 H 3^ Ch for the

“ camphre de citron.”

In the same year Blanchet and Sell4 characterize the “salzsaure

Citronenol” as follows: “From ether it crystallizes in laminae with a

silver lustre and of tuberose-like odor. It melts at 43° and sublimates

at 50° without decomposition,” etc. Percentage of chlorine 33.5 p. c.;

formula C5 H8 + Cl H. Thenard has tried to ascertain the composition

of the compound by noting the quantity of hydrogen chloride absorbed

by the oil. Saussure destroyed the substance with nitric acid and pre¬

cipitated the chlorine as silver chloride. He obtained 27.6 p. c. chlorine.

Blanchet and Sell employed the lime method. These chemists also sup¬

posed that by the action of hydrogen chloride upon lemon oil two solid

compounds are formed, the one of which decomposes into hydrochloric

acid and oil when recrystallized from warm alcohol, the other being

more stable. The latter is termed “ salzsaures citronyl ” (the substance

under consideration), the other “ salzsaures Citryl.”

Himley21 (1835) obtained “ Salzsaures Kautschin” by passing hydrogen

chloride into “Kautschin ” (dipentene) and regenerated the hydrocarbon

by distillation with lime and rectification over potassium.

Soubeiran and Captain8 (1840) mention the readiness with which

dipentene dihydrochloride decomposes: “II sufELt meme d'evaporer une

dissolution alcoolique de ce camphre pour qu’il soit detruit en partie,”

etc. They do not accept Blanchet and Sell’s view regarding the mixture

of two isomers. They recognize the fact that the “ camphre de citron ”

and also the regenerated “ citrene ” are optically inactive.

Schweizer 9 (1840) assigns to his “ chlorwasserstoff saures Carven,” the

formula C10 H16 + Cls H2. He regards it as isomeric with the solid

compound obtained by the action of hydrogen chloride upon lemon oil,

copaiva oil, and orange oil, with which it corresponds more or less in

some of its properties.

List 10 (1848) regards the chlorhydrate “Co0HtooCl3” obtained from the

terpin as isomeric with the one obtained by Blanchet and Sell and by

Dumas. He claims cyrstallographic differences, also differences in

melting points and solubility.

Deville’s observation of 1849 is of some interest : “Les hydrates de

terebenthine donnent avec l’acide chlorhydrique de 1’eau et du cam¬

phre de citron dont on peut retirer une huile qui par ut identique

The Limonene Group of Terpenes.

331

avec 1’essence de citron elle-meme, ce qni fournit le moyen de transformer

l’essence de terebentine en essence de citron.”

Berthelot 11 obtained (1852) dipentene dihydrochloride directly from

turpentine oil by shaking the latter with aqueous hydrochloric acid,

or by passing hydrogen chloride into a solution of turpentine oil in

ether, alcohol or glacial acetic acid.

Trying to replace the three molecules of “ water radicles” in terpin hy-

chlorine, Oppenheim 14 (1862) always obtained the dihydrochloride of

dipentene.

These extracts and remarks may afford sufficient insight into the older

literature of the dihydrochloride of dipentene. To give complete liter¬

ary references up to date would be useless. From the above it becomes

obvious that with a better knowledge of this compound some light was

shed over the relations of terpenes in general. It must also be obvious,

however, that for many it was a stumbling block and brought about

greater confusion. Some chemists indeed recognized the identity of this

compound from whatever source they obtained it, others denied the

same. In the imaginations of some there were as many dihydrochlorides

as there were terpenes, and these were limited only by the number of

volatile oils containing hydrocarbons of the formula C10 H16

In spite of Berthelot’s ideas Gladstone’s 24 (1864) classification of the

terpenes gained ground more and more. According to this dipentene

dihydrochloride was regarded as the characteristic addition product of

“ citrene ” ( +• limonene) and allied terpenes, whereas artificial camphor

was taken as characteristic derivative of the “terpenes” (pinene and

allied terpenes.)

In the following twenty years little was added to a better understanding

of this compound. A full understanding was possible only after the dis¬

covery of lsevogyrate limonene, (1888) i. e., after the completion of the

limonene group and synthesis of dipentene derivatives.

Properties.

Dipentene dihyrochloride crystallizes in pearly laminae which melt

at 50°. 3 5 It is insoluble in water, soluble in alcohol and ether, readily

soluble in chloroform, from which solution it can be precipitated with

methyl alcohol. Its presence effects a decrease of the melting-point of

other substances.22

Chemically, dipentene dihydrochloride behaves like a saturated com¬

pound, and as a terpene derivative it is relatively stable . By splitting off

one or both hydrogen chloride molecules it is converted back into un¬

saturated compounds. Heated by itself,28 or in alcoholic solution.29

it decomposes into its components, dipentene and hydrogen chloride.

Caustic potassa and anilin split of hydrogen chloride, but the last traces

of chlorine are very difficult to remove.30 Solution of permanganate of

potassium attacks it readily.31

332

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

Methods of formation:

I. Addition of hydrogen chloride:

1. To the monhydrochlorides of the limonene group.32

2 To the hydrocarbons of this group.33

The optically active hydrocarbons are hereby inactivated. The indi¬

rect formation from cineol 34 is to be classed with 2, since the hydrogen

chloride acts first as a dehydrating agent forming k‘ cinene ” (dipentene).

II. Esterification of the diatomic alcohol terpin and its hydrate:

1. By means of hydrochloric acid.35

2. By means of the tri- and pentachlorides of phosphorus.36

Ad I and II. The formation from the terpineols 37 no doubt consists in

an esterification of the monatomic alcohol and subsequent addition of a

second molecule of hydrogen chloride.

III. Inversion and addition:

e. g. From pinene,38 phellandrene,39 and probably from terpino-

lene.40

Preparation.

Larger quantities of dipentene dihydrochloride are rationally pre¬

pared by passing hydrogenchloride over (not into) a solution of limonene

in one-half its volume of glacial acetic acid. A rise in temperature of

the solution must be avoided to prevent the formation of oily products.

After the solution has congealed to a crystalline mass it is poured into

water and the drained chloride is purified by dissolving it in alcohol and

precipitating with water.41

Small quantities can be readily purified by dissolving in chloroform

and precipitating the solution with methyl alcohol.

Dipentene-Dihydrobromide.

Dibromhydrate de terpiline, Berthelot,42 1861.

Zweifach bromwasserstoffsaures terpilen, Oppenheim,14 1864.

Cynen-dihydrobromid, Hell and Ritter,16 1884.

Dipenten-dihydrobromid, Wallach,17 1887.

History.

Dipentene-dihydrobromide was first prepared by Berthelot 42 from ter-

pinhydrate analogous to the chloride. In the following year (1862)

Oppenheim 14 prepared it from terpinhydrate with tri- and penta bromide

of phosphorus. In 1884 Hell and Ritter16 prepared it from cineol

analogous to the chloride. Wallach has repeatedly prepared the dihy¬

drobromide from dextrogyrate limonene, dipentene, terpinhydrate,43 also

from terpinolene.44

The Limonene Group of Terpenes .

333

Properties.

In its properties the bromide resembles the chloride. Melting point

64°. (Hell & Ritter16 42°.)

Methods of Formation.

These are analogous to those of the chloride. In how far they have

been carried out can be seen from the historical sketch.

Preparation.

Dipentene dihydrobromide can be prepared in few minutes when to a

solution of limonene or dipentene an excess of a saturated solution of

hydrobromic acid is added. The mixture must be left cold, and when

poured into water the dihydrobromide is precipitated in pure condi¬

tion.45.

Dipentene Dihy dr iodide.

Zweifach jodwasserstolfsaures Terpilen — Oppenheim.14 1862.

Cynen-Dihydrojodid — Hell und Ritter.16 1884.

Dipenten-Dihydrojodid — Wallach.17 1887.

History.

Wiggers46 and also List 10 did not succeed in preparing a hydriodide-

analogous to the hydrochloride. Oppenheim was the first to succeed.

He obtained it by treating terpin hydrate with phosphorus iodide. The

product, however, cannot have been pure as indicated by the melting point

48°. Hell & Ritter 16 (1884) obtained the hydriodide analogous to the hydro¬

chloride and hydromide from cineol. Melting point 76-77°. At the

same time and independently Wallach and Brass47 obtained the same

compound from the same material. Wallach also prepared it from

terpin-hydrate 48 and terpineol49 with the aid of hydriodic acid.

/

Properties.

In its properties the dihydriodide is analogous to the dihydrochloride

and dihydrobromide, but it is less stable. However with its purity its

stability increases. Prom petroleum ether it crystallizes in two phys¬

ically isomorphous modifications60: rhombic crystals melting at 77° and

monosymmetric crystals melting at 78-79°.

Methods of Formation :

These are analogous to those above mentioned. In how far they have

been carried out can readily be seen from the historical notes.

334

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

Preparation :

1. Analogous to that of the hydrobromide.

2. From terpin hydrate: to 5 g. terpin hydrate contained in a flask

about 20 cbcm. of cone, hydriodic acid (spec. grav. 1.96) are added and the

mixture is shaken without the application of heat. The transformation

into the iodide takes place quantitavely. The drained product is crys¬

tallized from petroleumether in which terpin hydrate is almost insol¬

uble.51

THE HYDRATES OF THE LIMONENE GROUP.

Terpin and Terpin-hydrate.

Synonyms.

Pyrocamphorium1 — Trautwein.

Terpenthin salz1 — Buchner,2 1820.

Terpentinolcamphorid1 — Trommsdorf,3 1828.

Terpin1 — Berzelius,4 List,5&9 1848.

Trihydrate d’essence de terebenthine1 — Deville.

Turpentine camphor1 (C 20 C20 Q4).

Hydrate of oil of turpentine.1

* Terpenthincampher — Blanchet and Sell,6 1833.

*Wachholderbeerenolhydrat ( Bianc

* Terpenthinhydrat \

Terpenthincampher — Wiggers,8 1840.

Terpentinolhydrat,9 1884.

Hydrate de terebenthine

Bihydrate d’essence de terebenthine

Terpinhydrat — Wallach.11

History.

Disregarding the dehydration products the chemical literature of ter¬

pin, resp. of terpin hydrate at first sight appears to be very simple. Ac- •

cording to Gmelin1 terpin hydrate was observed as early as 1827, by

Geoffroy; Buchner2 is stated to have regarded it as a salt of succinic

acid with a volatile base, whereas Dumas and Peligot12 and then Wiggers8

considered it to be a hydrate of turpentine oil. It is rather strange that

Blanchet and Sell7 are not mentioned by Gmelin in his historical re¬

view. The same views, however, have been expressed before, viz.:

by Blanchet and Sell,13 by the publishers of the “Annalen der

Chemie und Pharmacie,” and by List. They are the same we find in our

* Those marked with *, no doubt, pertain not to terpin or its hydrate but to pinol hydrate

which was not recognized as such at the time.

TheLimonene Group of Terrenes.

335

hand-books to-day. A critical study, however, must throw doubt upon

at least some of their statements. Unfortunately time does not

permit at present to verify these doubts by experimental evidence.

Nevertheless, the same, as well as the reasons therefore, shall be men¬

tioned. If Blanchet and Sell’s contribution13 be read in the light of our

present knowledge of terpin hydrate several points will have to be re¬

garded in a rather doubtful light. The same is true of the historical

sketch given by the editors of the “ Annalen.” It is even stranger that

List could make the remark that the older analytical results corres¬

pond, whereas they fall very distinctly into two categories. An explana¬

tion for their views is probably to be found in the fact that at an early

date terpin hydrate was converted into terpin free from water of crystal¬

lization, and that pinol hydrate, a substance approaching terpin closely

in empirical composition had not been recognized as such. To make

physical differences agree or to regard such differing statements as mis¬

prints may be admitted a single time, a repetition of such a procedure,

however, must create suspicion. An attempt to bring all statements

concerning the so-called “ terpentine oil hydrate” in harmoliy with actual

facts would leave a number of points unexplained. This riddle, however,

may be solved by substituting pinol hydrate in place of terpin (free

from water of crystallization) whenever necessary. The following table

may, therefore; serve as a key to a better understanding of the terpin-

literature.

* Armstrong has shown recently that pinol hydrate prepared according to Sobrero

melts at 150° (J. C. S , June, 1891, J. 317.)

336 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

Properties.

Terpin hydrate crystallizes in large transparent prisms.17 It is solu¬

ble in 250 p. of water, 10 p. alcohol, 100 p. ether, 200 p. chloroform; in 32 p.

of boiling water and 2 p. of hot alcohol;18 it is insoluble in petroleum

ether. It melts at 116-117°, sublimating at the same time. When heated

in a flask the water of crystallization is first given off with which a por¬

tion of the substance passes over, then the anhydrous terpin distills at

258° . The anhydrous terpin congeals to a hard crystalline mass which

melts at 102-105° .20

Terpin and its hydrate are saturated compounds 1 9 when boiled with

acids or other dehydrating agents there results first of all the monatomic

unsaturated alcohol tepineol, C10 H18. Further dehydration yields ac¬

cording to the conditions and dehydrating agent employed, three hydro¬

carbons C10 H16 differing essentially in their properties: terpinene,

terpinolene and dipentene.21 Cineol also results, but only in small

quantities22 When treated with the hydrohalogen acids dipentene

dihydrochloride,23 dihydrobromide 24 and dihydriodide 25 result respec¬

tively. When treated with the chlorine, bromineand iodine derivatives

of phosphorous the same dipentene derivatives result.26 Hydrofluoric

acids also acts upon terpin hydrate but the resulting products have not

been studied27. With nitric acid it appears to yield an ether from which

upon saponification the alchol can be regenerated only in part.28 Nitric

acid29 also oxidizes terpin hydrate; permanganate solution30 even more

readily.

Occurrence.

In some text-books it has been stated that terpin hydrate has been

found in the oil from Acimum basilicum, L., and in Cardamom oil. This

however, is not at all to be considered as a natural occurrence. To our

knowledge terpin hydrate does not occur in plant organs.

Determination.

Characteristic for terpin hydrate are its crystalline form and its melt¬

ing point, as also the melting-point of the anhydrous terpin. Chemically

it can be characterized by converting it into any one of the dipentene-

hydrohalogen derivatives. Of these the di-hydriodide can be prepared

most readily.31

Methods of Formation.

Hydration of —

I. The hydrocarbons C10 H16:

(a) Limonene.32

(b) Pinene 33 (whereby inversion takes place.)

II. The alcohol terpineol 34 C10 Hi 8 O. As an indirect formation

that from limonene monhydrochloride 35 may be con¬

sidered under terpineol.

ThelLimonene Group of Terpenes.

332

Preparation .38

According to’Hempel, who compared the methods of Wiggers and De-

ville, 8p. of turpentine oil are mixed with 2p. nitric acid (spec, gravity

1.25 — 1.3) and 2p. alcohol. □ The mixture is shaken several times daily

until crystals begin^to form. To obtain crystals in comparatively short

time shallow dishes can be employed. The drained crystals are re-crys¬

tallized form alcohol.

Terpineol.

Synonyms :

Terpineol 1 — List 2 1848.

Berthelot 3 1852.

Oppenheim4 1864.

Tilden5 1878.

Tanret6 1885.

Diterebenhydrat — Oppenheim 4 1864.

Terpinhydrat — Flawitzky 7 1879 and 1887.

Monohydrate de Terebenthene — Tanret6 1885.

Terpineol — ¥/allach 8 1885.

Bouchardat and Voiry 9 1887.

History :

In an impure form, as so-called “ terpinol,” terpineol has given rise to

manifold speculations, which need not be considered here. Both Tilden5

and Flawitzky,7 according to opposite methods, obtained relatively

pure terpineol, but it was Wallach who first introduced order into the

chaos of older speculations. By means of a systematic study of the

dehydration products of terpin, in which all side reactions were avoided

as much as possible he ascertained that terpineol is the first dehydration

product of terpin, and that by further dehydration it is converted, ac¬

cording to conditions, and reagents into one or more of three hydro¬

carbons, viz., dipentene, terpinene, terpinolene; also that in the process

of dehydration of terpin small quantities of cineol are formed as

byproduct. These few introductory remarks will enable us to interpret

the older literature upon this subject.

In 1846 Wiggers 10 obtained from terpin hydrate by heating the same

with hydriodic acid a compound to which he assigns the formula

C 20 H 16 + H. The results of his analyses do not at all agree well with

this formula. He remarks that this substance might be regarded as the

“Oxyd von einem aus dem Terpentinol neuentstandenen Radical =

C20 H,17 wozu, aber, wie es scheint durchaus kein Grund vorhanden ist.’5

22— A. & L.

33 S Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

In 1848 List2 supposes to have obtained the same substance Wiggers

had in hands by boiling terpin with acidulated water (one drop of cone,

sulphuric acid sufficed to decompose 11.5 g terpin). The substance

termed “ Terpinol ” by him is stated to possess a hyacinth-like odor, es¬

pecially when largely diluted and to boil constantly at 180°. When sat¬

urated with hydrogen chloride it yields the same chloride as does terpin

hydrate. (Dipentene dihydrochloride.) This fact, List supposes, sup¬

ports Berzelius’ view (27, Jahresbericht, p. 445,) that terpinol is the oxide

of a radical C20 H,17 and that terpin is the hydrate of terpinol. The fol¬

lowing formulae are to express “ die verschiedenen Betrachtsungsweisen

der Constitution dieser Korper:”

Crystallized Terpin: —

C2° H22 O6 = C20 H16 + 6H = C20 H17 O + 3 H + 2aq.

Anhydrous Terpin: —

C20 H20 O4 = C20 H16 + 4H = C20 H17 O + 3H.

Terpinol: —

C20 H17 O = C20 H16 + H = C20 H17 O.

61 Chlorwasserstoff Terpin ” : —

C20 H18 Cl2 = C20 H16 + 2H Cl — C20 H17 Cl + H CL

However, these views do not satisfy List, for “ es erheben sich dagegen

alle die Umstade, welche gegen die Annahme sprechen, das der Alchohol

das Hydrat der Aethers und dieser das basische Oxyd von C4 H5 sey.”

According to Oppenheim 4 (p. 155) Berthelot 8 (1852) is stated to have

obtained “ terpinol ” “ bei der Einwirkung von Kali auf die zweifach

chlorwasserstoffsaure Verbindung des Terpilens.” He accepts the form¬

ula “C20 H16,HO.”

Oppenheim 4 (1864) claims to have obtained “ das Terpinol von Wiggers

und List ” by treating “ zweifachbromwasserstoffsaures Terpilen ” with

acetate of silver: 2C10H18Br2 -f4C2H3 Ag02 =4AgBr -f- n3 jj3 q ( ^

2C2 II4 02 4- C20 H34 O. This “terpinol” boiled between 165-208°.a

Oppenheim acknowledges that lie could never obtain a product of con¬

stant boiling point ; also that Gerhardt doubted the existence of such a

substance. As an “ Aether des Terpins ” Oppenheim designates a sub¬

stance which very likely was impure acetate of terpineol. (p. 157.)

By boiling terpinhydrate with water acidulated with hydrochloric

acid Tilden 5 (1878) obtained a substance C10 H18 O, resp. C10 H16. Hs O

to which he assigns the double formula C10 H18 <q> C10 H18. He

retains for it the term terpinol and supposes it to be an ether or anhy¬

dride of terpin, i. e. to stand in the same relation to terpin as ether

does to alcohol. “ Almost conclusive evidence of this is supplied by the

The Limonene Group of Ter penes.

339

action of hydrochloric acid, which does not give a monochloride as

might be expected if terpinol had the constitution expressed by C10 H17

(O H)

In the following year, however, a vapor density determination com¬

pels Tilden to accept the simple formula C10 H18 O. “It is somewhat

remarkable that this chloride (i. e. dipentene dihydrochloride) thus

formed from terpinol, corresponds in constitution not with that sub¬

stance but with terpin.

although when decomposed by alkalis it yields terpinol and not terpin.”

Tanret 6 (1885) states that the formula (C20 H16) 2 H2 02 for terpinol

ought to be rejected, that terpinol proper boils between 215-220° and is

a monohydrate of terebenthene (C20 H16fH2 02; also that the product

which results from the action of dilute acids upon the terpin, or of alco¬

holic potassa upon “ Terebenthen dichlorhydrat ” are but mixtures of a

hydrocarbon C20 H16 with monohydrate.

Since we shall have occasion to refer repeatedly to Wallach’s8 (1885)

researches on terpineol it may suffice here to mention the results of his

dehydration experiments, which, as has already been mentioned served

as a key to a better understanding of this part of the limonene literature.

Hydrochloric and nitric acids were not employed as dehydrating agents

on account of the byproducts to which they give rise: hydrochloric acid

to chlorides, nitric acid to oxidation products. The products resulting

upon treatment of terpin hydrate with

sulphuric acid (1 : 2) are terpinene.

terpinolene.

terpineol.

sulphuric acid (1:7) terpinene (largely),

phosphoric acid [spec. gr. 1.12 = 20 p. c.] (1:4): terpineol and

terpinene or

dipentene.

phosphoric acid [spec. gr. 1.12 = 20 p. c.] (1:2): terpineol (exclusively).

glacial acetic acid terpineol (essentially),

potassium bisulphate: terpineol.

dipentene.

Terpineol always results as intermediate product and upon further

dehydration is converted into one or more of the above mentioned ter-

penes. “ Bei der Zerlegung des Terpinhydrats durch Sduren od. durch

wasserentziehende Mittel ensteht unter keirier Bedingung eine Verbindung

von der Zusammensetzung C20 IT34 O und dem Siedepunkt 168°.

Thus far the terpineol under consideration, whether pure or impure

as “ terpinol,” always showed itself to be optically inactive.

340 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

Bouchardat and Lafont 11 report (1886) on a series of experiments per¬

taining to the action of acids on the terpenes. The action of acetic

acid on pinene furnishes a mixture of acetates which can be separated

by means of fractional distillation under diminished pressure. The

separated acetates yield upon treatment with alcoholic potassa optically

active terpineol and borneol respectively. Whereas, by this treatment

pinene could be converted into terpineol and borneol, camphene could

be converted into borneol only, dipentene into optically inactive ter¬

pineol, dextrogyrate limonene12 into dextrogyrate terpineol. From the

o-terpineol they obtained crystals at a very low temperature.

With the introduction of new terms, viz.: “ terpilenol ” and “ terpol ”

for terpineol, and of “terpal” for cineol Bouchardat and Voiry9 (1887)

have rendered poor service to science. Their disregard of the results

achieved by others certainly is not honorable.

( 1879 )

Flawitzky7 j ^gg^ j prepared optically active monohydrates, which he

termed “ Terpenhydrate,” by treating dextro — and laevogyrate pinene-

with alcoholic sulphuric acid. No doubt, these terpenehydrates as well

as'the “ terpilenoles ” of Bouchardat are optically active terpineols inacti¬

vated more or less by the presence of optically inactive terpineol.

When dehydrated with acetic acid anhydride they yielded optically ac¬

tive hydrocarbons C10H16 which Flawitzky termed “ Isoterpene ” and

which, to judge by their properties were more or less impure limonenes.

Properties.

Terpineol is a viscid13 liquid18 of agreable odor,14 lighter than and in¬

soluble in water, readily soluble in alcohol. It is volatile with water

vapors and boils between 215-218° 15. That obtained from dipentene and

and terpin is optically inactive,6 that obtained from optically active

pinene and limonene is optically active.17

Terpineol is an unsaturatod compound.19 The addition of water con¬

verts it into terpin and its hydrate.20 The removal of a molecule of water

dehyrates it according to reagents and conditions to dipentene,21 ter-

pinene or terpinolene,22 but never to pinene. The hydrohalologen acids

convert terpineol like terpin into the dihydrohalogen addition products

of dipentene i. e. the dihalogen esters of the diatomic alcohol but not

into a monohalogen ester of the monatomic alcohol terpineol23, probably

according to the equation.24

C10 H17 OH + H Cl = C10 H1S | 3^

Cio H18 | oh + H Cl = C10 H-18 Cl2 + H3 O.

The monohydrochlorides of the limonenes, no doubt are to be regarded

as monochlorine esters of the terpineols.25 Apparently the acetic ester

can be prepared from the alcohol.26 When saponinfied with alcoholic

The Limonene Group of Terpenes.

341

potassa thes esters yield the corresponding terpineols.11-12 Presumably

nitric and sulphuric acids are capable of forming similar compounds,

which, however, are very unstable. The presence of water at a normal

temperature suffices to sapoinfy them.27 Phosphoric acid converts ter-

pineol into the isomeric cineol.28 With carbanil terpineol yields a crys-

tallizable phenyl-terpinyl-urethane, which sufficiently demonstrates the

alcoholic nature of the same.29 Apparently the hydroxy hydrogen can

be replaced by sodium.30 Whereas very dilute nitric acid causes the

formation of terpin hydrate more concentrated acid oxidizes. Potassium

permanganate also readily oxidizes terpineol.31

Methods of Formation.

I Hydration of

Pinene.

Limonene and Dipentene.

II Dehydration of

Terpin, resp. terpin hydrate.

III Saponification of

1. The acetates of the terpineols.

2. The dihalogen esters of terpin.

Preparation.

To prepare optically inactive terpineol 25 g. of terpin hydrate are boiled

with 50 cbcm. of phosphoric acid, specific gravity 1.12 [= 20 per cent.]

for 10 or 15 minutes, or 50 g. of terpin hydrate are boiled in a flask at¬

tached to a reflux condenser with 100 cbcm. glacial acetic acid for five or

six hours. The resulting products are distilled with water vapor. The

dried oil is rectified and the fraction boiling between 215-218° is col¬

lected8. The optically active terpineols can be obtained according to

Flawitzky7 by hydration of the pinenes by means of alcoholic sulphuric

acid, or according to Bouchardat and Lafont1]&12 by saponification of the

acetic esters (obtained from the optically active pinenes or limonenes)

by means of alcoholic potassa.

Occurrence and Identification.

Thus far the analysis and boiling point of terpineol and the conversion

into dipentene dihydrochloride have served as factors for its identifica¬

tion. Whether these data are sufficient is rather questionable. If pos¬

sible the carbanil reaction should be employed. If the latter be taken

as the only true criterion the presence of terpineol in natural products

has not yet been absolutely proven. However, the occurrence of ter¬

pineol in a number of volatile oils is very probable.

342

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

Nitrosochlorides , Nitrosates, Nitrolctmines.

History :

According to Wallach2 Bunge was the first to prepare a nitrosyl chlor¬

ide derivative of a terpene. Tilden,3 however, was the first who examined

it more carefully and described it. Thus he obtained from the class of

“ terpenes ” (pinene) an optically inactive nitroso chloride which melted

at 103 ’, and which, by splitting off hydrogen chloride was converted into

the characteristic nitroso terpene, melting at 129°. From the class of

“ citrenes ” (limonene) he obtained an isomeric, optically active nitroso

chloride, v/hich, by splitting off hydrogen chloride, was converted into a

nitroso derivative (“ nitroso herperidene ”) isomeric with “ nitroso ter¬

pene,” and whose melting point was 70-71°. These reactions henceforth

characterized Gladstone’s 4 “ terpenes ” and “ citrenes,” and the identity

of herperidene, carvene and citrene could no longer be doubted. Til-

den’s method of preparing the nitroso chlorides by passing nitrosyl

chloride into a solution of terpene, however, was very defective. Neither

did Tilden surmise that his “ herperidene nitrosyl chloride ” was a mix¬

ture.

In 1885 Goldschmidt 5 showed that the oxime from carvol was chem¬

ically identical with “ nitroso herperidene ” of Tilden. Soon after (1888)

Wallach 6 taught how to prepare the nitroso chlorides in large quanti¬

ties with the aid of hydrochloric acid and amylnitrite, also the prepar¬

ation of the nitrolamines. Fully as important was the discovery that

the nitroso chlorides were mixtures and that they could be separated

into the a and fi compounds (1889). 7

Preparation.

Wallach’s method of preparation is as follows: “ To 5 cbcm. of limo¬

nene, 7 cbcm. of amyl nitrite (or 11 cbcm. of ethyl nitrite) and 12 cbcm.

of glacial acetic acid are added, and to this solution, kept cold in a.

freezing mixture, a solution of 6 cbcm. of crude muriatic acid in 6 cbcm.

of glacial acetic acid is carefully added in small quantities. Finally 5

cbcm. of alcohol are added.” The great solubility of the a — and the

sparing solubility of the (5 — compound admit of an easy separation of

the two nitroso-chlorides.

Physical Properties.

a-Nitrosochlorides.

The limonene u-nitroso-chlorides crystallize in tabular crystals of

the monoclinic system 9. The dipentene derivative does not crystallize

as well10. The + and — u-nitroso-chloride melt at 103 — 104°, whereas

the dipentene derivative melts at 78° n, but congeals to a crystalline mass

immediately after, and melts a second time at L03-1040. The limonene

derivatives are soluble in about an equal weight of chloroform and twice

The Limonene Group of Ter penes.

343

their weight of 'ether. These solutions are strongly optically active

[u]D =+313.4° resp. — 314.8° 13. The dipentene derivative is more read¬

ily soluble, and is optically inactive.

/ 3-Nitrosochlorides .

The limonene /3-nitrosochlorides are precipitated from their chloroform

solutions with methyl alcohol as woolly crystalline needles.14 By care¬

ful crystallization from chloroform they can be obtained in handsome

prismatic crystals.15 The /?-nitrosochlorides are much less soluble than

the ar-derivatives. Their optical activity is also not as great: [a jp __

+ 240.3° resp. — 242.2° 16 The melting point has been found to vary, viz.,

100-106° 14 Dipentene /3-nitrosochloride, like the u-derivative, is more

Soluble, does not crystallize as well as its optically active modifications

and melts at 101°- A third modification which melts at 75-76° has been

observed.17

Chemical Properties.

The chemical properties of the a- and /3-nitrosochlorides do not differ

essentially and can, therefore, be considered together. When carefully

heated by themselves (Tilden 3), or when heated with alcoholic potassa

(Wallach18) hydrogen chloride is split off and carvoximes result (Comp,

also Goldschmidt 5). Thus dextrogyrate limonene-nitrosochloride yields

laevogyrate carvoxime, also obtainable from laevogyrate carvol; whereas

laevogyrate limonene nitrosocloride yields dextrogyrate carvoxime, also

obtainable from dextrogyrate carvol.19 From dipentene nitrosochloride

optically inactive carvoxime results, which can also be obtained by

mixing solutions of equal parts of the optically active carvoximes.20

A molecule of hydrogenchloride can be added to form nitrosochloride-

hydrochlorides, but these differ from the hydroehlor-nitrosochlorides.21

The chlorine of the j group can easily be replaced by basic radicles

whereby nitrolamine bases result. In these double decompositions a-

and /3-nitrosochloride behave alike.22

The nitrosochlorides are unsaturated. With bromine they yield an

unstable dibromide (Tilden1). Their unsaturated condition is also

recognizable from the hydrochlor nitrosochloride.

Nitrosates.

Thus far dipentene-nitrosate only has been described. There appears

to be some difficulty connected with the preparation of the limonene-

nitrosates.23 Dipentene-nitrosate crystallizes in laminae which melt at

84° In its constitution it is analogous to the nitrosochloride; by split¬

ting off nitric acid o-carvoxime results; by double decomposition with

bases the optically inactive nitrolamine base results; apparently it adds

344

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

a molecule of hydrogenchloride (molecular addition); its unsaturated

condition becomes apparent from the hydrochlor nitrosate. Thus far a

separation of two nitrosates, if such a mixture results at all, has not

been effected.

Nitrolamines.

The double decomposition of terpinene nitrosite with bases on the part

of Wallach induced this investigator to study the behavior of nitroso-

chlorides and nitrosates toward bases. Thereby the analogy between the

nitrosochlorides

No

Cl, nitrosites

No ( NO

O (NO) and nitrosates } O (NOa) was

established. The application of this reaction proved especially favorable

in the limonene group. Even before the nitrosochlorides were known

to be a mixture the notrolanilids were recognized as such. Further¬

more, it was ascertained that the separated a and (5 nitrosochlorides

yielded each two, viz, an a and a (5 nitrolamine base, and that these a and

/ 3 nitrolamine were respectively identical. The reactions may be ex¬

pressed in the following manner:

a — Nitrosochloride ft — Nitrosochloride

a — Nitrolamine fi — Nitroamine

(NO

a-Nitrolpiperidine 26. C10 H16 -j

(n.C5H10

Limonene-a- nitrol piperidine crystallizes from alcohol in hand¬

some rhombic crystals which melt at 93-94°. In petroleum ether, in

ether and chloroform it is readily soluble, less so in alcohol. The solu¬

tions turn the plane of polarized light in the [direction® of the underly¬

ing hydrocarbons: [or] = + 67, 75° resp. — 67, 60°. The hydrochlo-

1 CZZ □

rides turn the plane of polarization in the opposite direction.

The dipentene base precipitates upon the mixture of the petroleum

ether solutions of the optically active components. From alcohol it

crystallizes in monosymmetric crystals which stand in no relation to

the well formed crystals of its optically active modifications.

(NO

/?- Nitrolpiperidine 26 Cxo HT6 ]

(n.c5hT0.

The Limonene derivatives melt at 110-111°, crystallize monosymmet-

rically, and are less soluble, especially in petroleum ether, than the

The Limonene Group of Ter penes.

345

-compounds. The solutions turn the plane of polarized light in a

direction opposite to that of the underlying hydrocarbon:

dextrogyrate-limonene-/3-nitrolpiperidine [a:] = — 60, 37°.

Isevogyrate “ “ “ “ M D — + 60, 18°.

Their hydrochlorides are almost optically inactive. The dipentene

base stands in similar relation to its components as does the a-base to

its. It melts at 152°.

( NO.

u-Nitrol benzylamine 27 C10 H10 •]

( NH CH3 C6 H5.

The limonene u-nitrol benzylamine crystallizes from alcohol in hard

needles which possess no sharply defined crystal faces. It melts at 93°.

It is optically strongly active turning the plane of polarized light in the

same direction with the underlying hydrocarbon; [a] = + 163.8°, resp.

— 163.6°. The salts of this base are sparingly soluble in water, more read¬

ily in alcohol. Their rotatory power is without exception opposite to

that of the free base.

dextrogyrate-limonone u-nitrol benzylamine-chlorhydrate [or] =

— 82.26°.

lsevogyrate-limonone u-nitrol benzylamide-chlorhydrate [uJD =

+ 83.06°.

dextrogyrate-limonene u-nitrol benzylamine-nitrate [or] = — 81.5°.

laevogyrate-limonene u-nitrol benzylamine-nitrate [or] = + 81.0°.

dextrogyrate-limonene u-nitrol benzylamine-d-tartrate [a] = — 49.98°.

lsevogyrate-limonene u-nitrol benzylamine-d-tartrate [a] = + 69.6°.

dextrogyrate-limonene u-nitrol benzylamine-l-tartrate [u] = — 69.9°.

laevogyrate-limonene u-nitrol benzylamine-l-tartrate [<*] = + 51.0°.

The /3-Nitrol benzylamines have not yet been obtained in a pure con¬

dition.

(NO

a-Nitrol anilids 28 C10 H16 ]

(nhc6h5

The limonene derivatives crystallize, when pure, from dilute alcohol in

hard, colorless, tabular crystals which melt at 112-113°. Their action upon

polarized light corresponds to that of the underlying hydrocarbons,

viz.: [u] — 4- 102.25° resp. — 102.62°. The hydrochlorides are sparingly

soluble in water, more readily in alcohol. Their solutions deviate the

ray of polarized light but little, however, in the same direction as do the

free bases.

346 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

(NO

The a-Nitroso-derivatives ,29 C10 H16 ■] crystallize in.

( N (N O) C6 H5,

white blunt needles and melt at 142°. Their solutions deviate the ray

of polarized light in the direction as do the underlying bases, but the

action is lessened, viz.: [n] = + 46.20° resp. — 47.82°

Dipentene-a-nitrolanilid crystallizes from a mixture of alcoholic solu¬

tions of equal parts of the limonene derivatives and melts at 125-126°.

The dipentene nitroso-compound 29 is obtained in the same way from its

components. It is less soluble than the latter, crystallizes better, i. e.,

in triangular tablets and melts at 147°.

The Nitrolanilids, like the nitroso-chlorides, are unsaturated compounds

and can take up a molecule of hydrogen chloride. The u-hydrochlor

(NO

addition products, C10H17 Cl s are identical with the hydro-

(nh.c6h6

chlor nitrol anilids to be described later.

(NO

(3 -Nitrolanilids™ C10 H16 ]

(nh.c6h5.

The limonene /3-nitrolanilids are somewhat filty needles, which are

almost insoluble in water and petroleum ether, readily soluble in hot

benzol, but difficultly in cold benzol and in ether, more readily soluble

in alcohol and chloroform. Whereas the solutions of the /3-compounds

are not. precipitated. The latter thus appear to be stronger bases. Melt¬

ing-point 152°. Optically they act in a direction opposite to that of the

underlying hydrocarbons and thus differ from the /3-derivatives.

dextrogyrate-limonene /3-nitrolanilid [cr] =■ — 89.39°.

lsevagyrate-limonene /3-nitrolanilid [n] =+87.17°.

Their nitroso-derivatives-9, however, which melt at 136° again turn the

plane of polarized light corresponding in direction to that of the under¬

lying hydrocarbon. Their specific rotatory power is by (about) 10°

stronger than that of the corresponding a derivatives:

dextrogyrate-/3-nitrol-nitroso-anilid [or] = + 57,67°

laevogyrate-/3-nitrol-nitroso-anilid [or] — — 57,75°

Dipentene (3 nitrol nitroso anilid , obtained from its optically active

components, does not crystallize well and melts at 129° .

The /3 -hydro chlor addition products 30 differ from the n-compounds and

have thus far not been obtained from the hydrochlor-nitrosochlorides.

The Limonene Group of Ter penes.

347

The limonene derivatives crystallize from alcohol in beautiful, hexagonal

tablets and melt at 78° . They are not at all strongly optically active,

but turn the plane in a direction corresponding to that of the underly¬

ing hydrocarbons, [or] = + 12.91° resp. — 12.51° . The hydrochlor ad¬

dition product of Dipentene- (3 -nitrol-anilid crystallizes from its alcoholic

solution in four sided prisms and melts at 90° .

Hydrochlor, Nitrosochlorides, Nitrosates and Nitrolamines.

Through the action of hydrochloric acid, amyl nitrite and nitric acid

( NO Cl

upon “carvene” Maissen obtained a “compound C10 H16 j jj ’’which

Wallach recognized as hydrochlornitrosate, C10 H17 Cl. NO (O. NOs).

Later it was shown that this compound was a dipentene and not a lim¬

onene (“carvene”) derivative. The corresponding hydrochlor-nitroso-

chloride was first prepared by Wallach. The optically active modifica¬

tions were prepared by me in Prof. Wallach’s laboratory.

The hydrochlor-nitrosochlorides, etc., are saturated compounds. They

can be regarded as nitrosochlorides, nitrosates and nitrolamines of the

monhydrochlorides of the limonene hydrocarbons. Thus far all of the

saturated nitrosochlorides, etc., prepared from monhydrochlor limonene,

have been obtained in but one modification, which corresponds to the

u-modification of the unsaturated derivatives free from chlorine.

( NO

Hydrochlor nitrosochlorides 31 C-10 H17 Cl ]

(Cl

The limonene derivatives crystallize poorly, melt at 92-93° without de¬

composition. [a] for the dextrogyrate compound = +173.71°. The crude

product is largely contaminated by the dipentene modification. The

latter apparently posseses a higher melting point, viz, 109°. Like the

unsaturated nitrosochlorides they split off hydrochloric acid, however,

to form hydrochlorcarvoximes.

( NO

Hydrochlor-nitrosates 32 C10H17Cl-j

( O (NO,)

The limonene derivatives can be obtained in handsome pearly prisms.

They melt at 108° decomposing at the same time, [or] for the dextro¬

gyrate compound = +61.34°. The dipentene hydrochlor-nitosrate also

melts at 108-109° and is readily distinguished by its optical activity.

From it a molecule of nitric acid can be split of with the aid of dimethyl-

anilin33 anologous to the hydrochlor carvoxime reaction. The resulting

348

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

product crystallizes from an ethyl-alcoholic solution with a molecule of

C3 H5 O H, from a methyl-alcholic solution wit a molecule of C H3

OH.

Hydrochlor-nitrolbenzylamine ,34 C10 H17 Cl

The Zimonewe-derivatives were obtained in white filty needles, which

melt at 103-104.° They turn the plane of polarized light as do the

underlying hydrocarbons: [n] = +• 149.6° resp. — 147.4.°

The chlorhydrates crystallize from alcohol in small needles which

melt and decompose at 163-164. ° The action upon polarized light cor¬

responds to that of the free bases though weakened: [a] = + 46.97°

resp. — 50.9. °

The dipentene-hydrochlor-nitrol-benzylamine crstallizes better than

its optically active components, melts at 150° and is but difficultly solu¬

ble. Its hydrochlorate, however, is more soluble than its components,

but possesses the same melting point.

HydrocTilor-nitrolanilids ,35 C10 H17 Cl

The limonene-derivatives crystallize from ether in handsome colorless

flat prisms. Melting point 117-118° [n]^ = +126.95,° resp. — 122.34.°

DipewZewe-hydrochlor-nitrolanilid, prepared synthetically is colorless and

melts at 140-141.° When hydrogen- chloride is split off a- and ft- nitrol

anilids apparently result.36

The Limonene Group of Terpenes.

349

REFERENCES.

Dextrogyrate Limonene :

1 Ann. Chim. Phys. T. 52.

2 Annalen, Bd. 6, p. 259.

3 J. Pharm, T. 26, p. 1.

4 J. pr. Chem. Bd. 24, p. 257.

5 Ann. Chim. Phys. [3] T. 37.

6 Ibidem, T. 38.

7 Ibidem, T. 39.

8 Annalen, Bd. 35, p. 308.

9 Ibidem, Bd. 85, p. 246.

10 J. C. S., Vol. 17, p.l.

11 Ibidem, Vol. 24, p. 1186.

12 Ibidem, Vol. 31, p.549.

13Berichte, Bd. 6, p. 915.

14 Ibidem, Bd. 5, p. 94.

15 Ibidem, (1874) p. 627.

16 J. C. S., 1877, Vol. 1, p. 554.

17 Annalen, Bd. 225, p. 311.

18 Ibidem, p. 318.

19 Ibidem, Bd. 227, p. 290 and 291.

20 Ibidem, p. 277.

21 Ibidem, p. 289.

22 Ibidem, Bd. 246, p. 222.

Loeovgyrate Limonene.

1 Ann. Chim. Phys. [3] T. 37, p. 80.

2 Annalen, Bd. 227, p. 287.

3J. C. S., Vol. 47, p. 779.

4 Annalen, Bd. 246, p. 222.

6 Dissertation, p. 16.

Dipentine.

1 Ann. Chim. Phys. T. 52.

2 Annalen, Bd. 6, p. 259.

3 Ibidem, Bd. 27, p. 40.

4 J. Pharm., T. 26, p. 1.

6 J. pr. Chem., Bd. 24, p. 257.

6 Annalen, Bd. 89, p. 358.

350

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

7 Jahresber. f. Chem. f. 1854, p. 591 (Zeitschr. Pharm. 1854 pp. 3, 17, 65*

180.) Jahresber. f. Cliem. f. 1855, p. 655 (Zeitschr. Pharm. 1855, pp. 2, 33,

etc.)

8 Royal Society of London Proceedings, vol. 10, p. 516.

9 Bercihte, Bd. 5, p. 677.

10 Compt. rend. T. 79, p. 223.

11 Ibidem, T. 102, p. 50.

12 Chem. News, vol. 46, p. 120.

13J. S. C., vol. 49, p.316.

uGraebes “ Cynen ” is cymol, comp, also Wallach, Annalen, Bd. 225.

15 Annalen, Bd. 225, p. 314.

16 Ibidem, Bd. 227, p. 278.

17 Ibidem, p. 301.

18 Ann. Chim. Phys., T. 13, p. 259.

19 Annalen, Bd. 67, p. 362.

20 Ann. Chim. Phys. [3] T. 27, p. 80.

21 J. C. S., vol. 49, p. 316.

22 Compt. rend., T. 102, p. 50.

23 Berichte, Bd. 12, p. 2354 and

Bd. 20, p. 1956.

24 Compt. rend., T. 106, p. 663.

25 Compare Ann. Bd. 252, p. 128.

26 Compt. rend., T. 106, pp. 1419 and 1538.

27 Annalen, Bd. 38, p. 111.

28 ibidem Bd. 87, p. 312.

29 Arch. d. Pharm., [2] Bd. Ill, p. 104.

30 Annalen, Bd. 128, p. 293.

31 Berichte, Bd. 7, p. 1427.

32 Berichte, Bd. 17, p. 1970, (sent in Ang. 14th, 1884.)

33 Annalen, Bd. 192, p. 222.

34 This view is confirmed by Wallach. But as Faust & Homeyer, in

judging Voelckel’s analyses (these are stated to agree better with

cymol, C10 H14) apparently did not consider that Voelckel had

used P2 Os in dehydrating cineol, so Hell & Stiircke overlook the

fact that Faust & Homeyer employed P2 S6. Wallach has shown

that phosphorus pentasulphide easily converts cynene (dipentene)

into cymol.

35 Berichte, Bd. 17, p. 1975. (“ Eingelaufen am 14, Aug. 1884.”)

36 Annalen, Bd. 225, p. 291. (“ Eingelaufen am 10, Aug. 1884.”)

37 Ibidem, p. 314 and ]8 p. 317.

"Ibidem, Bd. 227, p. 277.

89 Compare Annalen, Bd. 245, p. 197.

40 Ibidem, Bd. 246, p. 221.

42 Ibidem, p. 228.

43 Ibidem, p. 230.

The Limonene Group of Terpenes.

351

Properties , etc.

1 Annalen, Bd. 227, p. 291 and 301.

2 Ibidem, Bd. 252, p. 144.

3 Ibidem, Bd. 246, p. 222.

4 Dissertation, p. 38.

5 Compare also F. Scheidt, “ Ein Beitrag znr Kenntniss der Terpene

Bonn, 1890.

6 Annalen, Bd. 252, p. 145.

1 1bidem, Bd. 246, p. 224.

8 Dissertation, p. 9.

9 Berichte, Bd. 12, p. 2357 and

Ibidem, Bd. 20, p. 1956.

10 Dissertation, p. 51.1

nDipentene is always found as an impurity in artificial terpinene

Annalen, Bd. 230, p. 261, and

Ibidem, Bd. 239, p. 38. •

12 Annalen, Bd. 230, pp. 247 and 262, and

Ididem, Bd. 239, pp. 2, 23 and 51.

13Oppenheim; Berichte, Bd. 6, p. 915, and

Ibidem, Bd. 7, p. 627.

Wright: J. C. S., vol. 21, p. 686.

15 Only such data were considered that were deemed sufficient proof

i. e. those in which optical properties are included.

16 1840 — Soubeiran & Capitain, J. d. Pharm., T. 26, p. 1. 1885 — Wal-

lach, Annalen, Bd. 227, p. 290.

17 1840 — Soubeiran & Capitain16. 1877 — Tilden, J. C. S., Vol. I., p.

554. 1884 — Wallach — Annalen, Bd. 225, p. 318.

18 1854 — M. Berthelot, Ann. Chim. Phys. T. 40, p. — .

19 1857 — S. de Luca, Compt. rend., T. 45, p. 904.

20 1885 — Wallach, Annalen, Bd. 227, p. 290.

21 Ibidem, p. 291.

22 Ibidem, p. 292.

23 Ibidem, p. 292.

24 1885 — Yoshida, J. C. S.,Vol. 47, p. 787.

25 1888 — Wallach, Annalen, Bd. 246, p. 221.

26 Annalen, Bd. 252, p. 109.

27 Ibidem, p. 111.

28 Ibidem, pp. 121 and 136.

29 Ibidem, Bd. 227, p. 296.

80 Ibidem, Bd. 238, p. 80.

81 Ibidem, Bd. 252, p. 102.

32 Ibidem, p. 101.

33 Ibidem, Bd. 230, p. 224 and Bd. 239, p. 26.

34 Ibidem, p. 246.

352

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

85 J. C. S. -

Eberhardt, Arch. d. Pharm., Bd. 225, p. 515.

87 Wallach speaks of “aus Wurmsamenol erhaltliehem cynen,” but

he obtained this “ cynen ” with the aid of chemical reagents, by means

of which cineol is converted into dipentene. The hydrocarbon occuring

in these oils no doubt is dipentene, but the experimental proof is want¬

ing. Comp. e. g. E. Jahns, “Ueber das Eucalyptol.” Archiv d. Pharm. y

Bd. 223, p. 52.

38 Method of preparation, Annalen, Bd. 239, p. 3.

69 Ibidem, Bd. 252, pp. 127 and 136.

40 Ibidem, Bd. 227, p. 295., Comp. Diisoprene of Bouchardat.

41 1 Comp. Wallach: “ Am. Terpentinol., Fichtennadelol, Wachholder-

beerenol, Macisol, Salbeiol, Citronenol.” Annalen, Bd. 227, p. 277 et seq.

2 (a.) That under certain conditions pinene will not form artificial

camphor but dipentene dihydrochloride was first shown by Berthelot

(1852.) Comp, historical sketch. Also Wallach, Annalen, Bd. 227, p. 286.

(5.) The inversion of pinene into dipentene by means of sulphuric

acid was studied by Armstrong and Tilden; Berichte, Bd. 12, p. 1754.

Wallach, Annalen, Bd. 227, p. 283.

3 Compare Terpinhydrate.

42 1 Comp. Wallach: “ Pomeranzenschalenol, Fichtennadelol, Annalen,

Bd. 227, p. 277.

2 Comp, historical shetch, also Dissertation, p. 38.

3 Comp. Disertation p. 46 9. Hydrochloric acid acts like nitric acid:

Annalen, Bd. 230, p. 266, Dissertation p. 45.

43 Annalen, Bd 239, p. 44.

45 Annalen. Bd. 239, p. 4.

46 Annalen, Bd. 245. p. 196.

47 Annalen, Bd. 230, p. 247 et. seq.

Ad. Monhydrochlorides. •

1 Journ. de Pharm., T. 26, p. 1.

2 Ann. Chim. Phys., [3] T. 37.

3 Compt. rend. T. 45, p. 904.

4 Ibidem, T. 79, pp. 223 and 315. (J. C. S. Vol. 32, p. 1162.)

5 Ibidem, T. 80, p. 1446. (J. C. S. Vol. 33, p. 1259.)

6 Gazetta Chimica, T. 13, p. 99. (Berichte, Bd. 16, p. 1241.

7 Compare e. g.:

Himly (1835) Annalen, Bd. 29, p. 40.

Schweizer, (1840) J. pr. Chem., Bd. 24, p. 257.

8 Annalen, Bd. 239, p. 10.

9 Ibidem, Bd. 241, p. 324.

Ibidem, Bd. 245, pp. 241 et. seq. (p. 248, also pp. 258-260.)

The Limonene Group of Terpenes .

353

10 Dissertation, p. 55.

11 Ibidem, p. 40.

12 Annalen, Bd. 245, p. 249.

13 Ibidem, Bd. 245, p. 259.

14 Ibidem, p. 260; Dissertation p. 46.

15 Ibidem, p. — ; ibidem p. 49.

18 Dissertation, p. 45.

17 Annalen, Bd. 230, p. 265.

18 Ibidem Bd. 245, p. 259; Dissertation, p. 41.

It is of interest to note that the addition of one molecule of hydro¬

gen chloride renders limonene more apt to polymerize. Disregarding

the crystalline camphene (no doubt also fenchene) the terpenes with

one double bond apparently polymerize more readily than those with

two.

19 Dissertation, p. 43.

20 Ibidem, p. 39.

21 Annalen, Bd. 245, p. 250.

22 Dissertation, p. 51, etc.

ad Diliydrolialogen addition products.

1 Ann. Chim. Phys., T. 13, p. 259.

2 Ibidem, T. 52.

3 Dumas proposes the ending ene for the hydrocarbons from volatile

oils to avoid confusion with the alkaloids.

4 Annalen, Bd. 6, p. 259.

5 Ibidem, Bd. 27, p. 40.

6 Ann. Chim. Phys. T. 66, p. 196.

7 Comp. Monohydrochlorides — note 4.

8 J. de Pharm. T. 26, p. 1.

9 J. pr. Chem., Bd. 24, p. 257.

10 Annalen, Bd. 67, p. 362.

11 Ann. Chim. Phys. [3] T. 37.

12 Ibidem [3] T. 61, p. 463.

13 According to the nomenclature proposed by Berthelot in his “ Chimie

organique fondee sur la synthese ” T. IT, p. 735.

14 Annalen, Bd. 129, p. 149.

16 J. C. S., vol. 47, p. 787.

16Berichte, Bd. 17, p. 1975.

17 Annalen, Bd. 227, p. 301, and Ibidem, Bd., 239, pp. 12 and 13.

18 Compt. rend., T. 102, p. 433.

19 The original names of these derivatives already indicate this fact.

To the pinene monhydrochloride alone the term artificial camphor

23— A. & L.

354

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

(“camphre artificiel”) could be applied on account of its camphor like

odor. The dipentene dihydrochloride, which has not the least resemb¬

lance with natural camphor could be called “camphre artificiel de

citron” only because it was prepared from a similar natural product

and in an analogous manner. The “camphre artificiel” proper was.

thereafter also termed “ camphre artificiel de terebenthine.”

20 Memoirs de la Societe D’Arcueil, T. 2, p. 23.

21 Annalen, Bd. 27, p. 40.

23 Ann. Chim. Phys. [3], T. 27, p. 80.

24 J. C. S., vol. 17, p. 1.

25 Table of melting points in chronological order:

1833. Blanchet & Sell, 43°.

1840. Soubeiran & Capitain, 50°.

1840. Schweizer, 50°.

1862. Oppenheim, 48°.

1884. Hell & Ritter 50-51°.

1885. Yoshida 58-59°.

1887. Weber 50° (Amalen, Bd. 238, p. 102).

1887. Wallach 50° (Ibidem, Bd. 239, p. 12).

26 Can therefore be precipitated from its solution in glacial acetic

acid with the aid of water.

27 Tilden: Berichte, Bd. 12, p. 1131.

Wallach: Annalen, Bd. 239, p. 5.

28 Wallach Ibidem, Bd. 230, p. 260.

29 Wallach Ibidem, Bd. 239, p. 12. (Comp. B. & S. 4).

30 Comp. Dipentene: Regeneration.

31 Annalen, Bd. 246, p. 267.

32 First observed by Riban: Compt. rend. T. 79, pp. 223 & 314.

Confirmed by Wallach: Annalen, Bd. 245, p. 247.

33 Comp, historical sketch.

34 Hell & Ritter (1884): Berichte, Bd. 17, p. 1975.

Wallach & Brass (1884): Annalen, Bd. 225, p. 298.

35 First observed by List10 (1848) verified by Deville (1849); Ann. Chim.

Phys. [3], T. 27, p. 80, and others, Wallach: Annalen, Bd. 230, p. 248 and

ibidem, Bd. 239, p. 18.

36 Oppenheim14 (1862).

37 Wallach: Annalen, Bd. 230, p. 265.

Comp, also Flawitzky; (1879) Berichte, Bd. 12, p. 2354 and (1887)

ibidem, Bd. 20, p. 1956.

Bouchardat & Lafont (1886), Compt. rend., T. 102, p. 433.

38 Berthelot11 (1852).

39&40 Annalen, Bd. 239, p. 44.

41 Ibidem, Bd. 245, p. 267.

42 Ann. Chim. Phys. [3], T. 61, p. 463.

The Limonene Group of Terpenes.

855

43 Annalen, Bd. 239, p. 13.

44 Ibibem, p. 24.

45 Ibidem, p. 3.

46 Ibidem, Bd. 57, p. 247.

47 Ibidem, Bd. 225, p. 302.

48 Ibidem, Bd. 230, p. 249.

49 Ibidem, p. 265.

50 Ibidem, Bd. 239, p. 14 and Bd. 252, p. 128.

51 Ibidem, Bd. 230, p. 249.

ad Terpinhydrate.

1 According to Gmelin “ Hand-book of Chemistry” 1860, vol. 14, p. 258.

2 Repert. 9, 276, and 22, 419.

3 N. Journ. d. Ph., Bd. 15, St. 2, p. 46.

4 Jahresbericht 27, p. 440.

5 Annalen, Bd. 67, p. 362. List distinguishes between “ Krystallisirtes

Terpin C20 H17 0 + 3 H + 2 aq.,” and “Terpin ohne Krystallwasser?

C20 H17 0 + 3 H,” p. 375.

6 Annalen, Bd. 6, p. 267.

7 Ibidem, Bd. 7, p. 167.

8 Ididem, Bd. 33, p. 358.

9 Ibidem, Bd. 52, p. 390.

List 5 rejects this term because according to his views the elements of

water in the terpin are not present as “ Hydratwasser.” He also rejects

the term “ Terpentin campher ” as inappropriate. He accepts the no¬

menclature of Bezilius4-5:

10 Ann. Chim. Phys. [3] T. 27, p. 80. (Annalen, Bd. 71, p. 348.)

11 Annalen, Bd. 230, p. 247.

12 Ann. Chim. Phys., T. 57, p. 334 (1835). (Annalen, Bd. 14, p. 75.

The analyses of Dumas and Peligot pertain to crystals found in tur¬

pentine oil (a), in basil icum oil (Acimum basilicum, L) ( b ) and in carda¬

mom oil] (cardamomum minus) (c). They assign to these substances the

formula C40 H33 + H12 06 and believe them to be identical. No doubt

these crystals were terpin hydrate as also those obtained by Rammels-

berg (Annalen, Bd. 52, p. 391.) from a mixture of turpentine oil, hydro¬

chloric acid, “ Spiritus cochleariae ” and “ Spiritus Serpylli.”

13 Blanchet and Sell mention Buchner,2 Boisonot, Persot, Cluzel and

Geiger (Mag. Pharm. 16, 64), as chemists who have investigated “Terpen_

thin campher.” B. & S. had not prepared the substance themselves but

had recived it from Prof. Geiger who probably obtained it by heating

moist turpentine oil for some time at a temperature of 50°. Based upon

their analysis of the (“ nicht vollkommen von anhangendem Oele

356 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

befreiten,”) substance they assign to it the formula C10 H16 + H4 O2

__ qi° Hoo q2? consisting therefore “ aus einem Atom Terpenthinol und

einem Atom Wasser.”

Blanchet (Annalen, Bd. 7, p. 167) obtained “ Terpenthinhydrat ”

“ durch vermischen des Oels (Wacholderbeerenoel) mit Wasser und hin-

stellen desselben in gewohnlicher Temperatur, wo denn nach einigen

Wochen das Hydrat an den oberen Wdnden des Gef asses krystallisirt

According to such a method pinol hydrate is obtained, not terpin

hydrate.

14 That Stenhouse, according to Wiggers’ method, should not have ob¬

tained terpin hydrate, but a substance “C5 H4 -j- HO” (i. e. C10 H20 03)

seems strange indeed. Analyses, physical properties and the odor of the

dehydration product do not harmonize with those of terpin-hydrate, but

with those of pinol-hydrate.

15 Attempting to prepare terpin hydrate in one experiment (Annalen

Bd. 57, p. 247) Wiggers obtained according to his well known method

campher ” within half an hour, which, however, disappeared after sev¬

eral hours. After that no further crystals would result. It would ap¬

pear from the text that Wiggers had shaken the bottle whereupon the

crystals dissolved. Under these conditions pinol hydrate might form

in so short a time, but not terpin-hydrate.

List (Annalen, Bd. 67, p. 362) essentially verifies Wiggers’ statements,

and calls special attention to the fact that one molecule of water in ter¬

pin hydrate is present as water of crystallization.

Deville (Annalen, Bd. 71, p. 346) adds very little new. It is of interest,

however, to note that he recognized the identity of the dipentene dihy¬

drochloride obtained from terpin hydrate with that obt. from lemon oil.

16 Sobrero first recognized the fact that by the action of oxygen in the

presence of sunlight a hydrate is formed which differs from the “ Terpen-

tinolhydrat ” of Wiggers. He assigns to it the formula “C20 H16 02 -f-

2 H O” [i. e., C10 H18 02 = C10 H16 O -f- H2 O]. This substance recently

designated as “ soberol ” by Armstrong (J. C. S., vol. 49, p. 315), is noth¬

ing more or less than Wallach’s pinol hydrate (Annalen, Bd., 259, p. 313.)

17 A compilation of the various crystallagraphic measurements can be

found in Rammelsberg “ Handbuch d. kryst. phys. Chemie.” (1882) p. 449#

18 According to Vulpius, J. C. S., 56, 1202 (from Chem. Centr., 1889, p. 789,

from Pharm. Centralhalle, 30, 289.) The statement that terpinhydrate is

soluble in 200 p. of cold and 22 p. of boiling water (Realencyclopgedie der

gesammten Pharmacie IX, p. 645) can be traced back to Blanchet and

Sell (Annalen, Bd. 6, p. 266). It has been indicated that these chemists

very likely had no terpin hydrate in hand but pinol hydrate.

19 An alcoholic solution does not decolorize bromine; Wallach: (Anna¬

len, Bd. 230, p. 248.)

20 Ibidem.

The Limonene Group of Terpenes.

357

21 Ibidem, p. 271. The details of the dehydration experiments, p. 253.

22 Ibidem, Bd. 239, pp. 18, 20, 23.

23 Comp. Dipentene dihydrochloride: Historical notes.

24 Observed first by Berthelot (Ann. Chim. Phys. [3] T 61, p. 463.)

25 Comp. Dipentene dihydriodide: Historical notes.

26 Oppenheim (1862). Annalen, Bd. 129, p. 149.

27 Wallach, Ibidem, Bd. 239, p. 19.

28 Ibidem.

29 Ibidem, p. 20.

Oxidizing terpin with nitric acid Hempel (Annalen, Bd. 180, p. 71) ob¬

tained besides carbonic and oxalic acids chiefly toluic acid, C8 H8 O,2

terephthalic acid and terebinic acid C7 H]0 O.4 Oxidizing terpin with

chromic acid he obtained terpenylic acid C8 H12 O4 + H2 O. Already in

1856 Personne (Annalen, Bd. 100, p. 253) had obtained “Terebentilsaure

C16 H10 O4 by passing the vapor of terpin over hot soda-lime.

30 Ibidem, Bd. 246, p. 267.

31 Ibidem, Bd. 230, p. 249.

32 Dissertation, p. 49.9

33 The first reliable method is that of Wiggers. Tilden obtained the

same product from American and French oil of turpentine. The hydra¬

tion takes place in the presence of acids:

1. Of nitric acid — Wiggers, Mansfield.

2. Of muriatic acid — Rammelsberg (Annalen, Bd. 52, p. 390.)

[3. Of sulphuric acid — Tilden, Wallach.]

34 That the regeneration of terpin hydrate from terpineol takes place

within a few days in the presence of dilute acids was observed by Tilden

and confirmed by Wallach (Annalen, Bd. 230, p. 266).

85 Dissertation, p. 45.

Oil. | Nitric Acid. | Alcohol.

Temp. 20-25°. Largest

yield after 2 yrs. 1 oz.

from 1 lb. oil .

From 4 1. after G weeks

250 g: abt. 7.2 p. c _

Tilden claims to have

obtained a yield of

abt. 33 p. c .

Annalen 5 7, 247.

Ibidem, 71, 348.

(Ann. Chim.

Phy. [3] 35,80.)

Anna!enl80,73.

J. C. S. 33, 248.

Pharm. Chem.

II., 818.

358

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters.

ad Terpineol.

1 Although much has been written about “ Wiggers’ terpinol ” this term

did not originate with Wiggers, but with List. List’ s terpinol is not identi¬

cal with Wallach’s terpineol but a mixture of the latter substance with

hydrocarbons C10 H16 (probably dipentene and terpinene). However,

Berthelot3 already employed the term terpinol for a substance C10H18O,

whereas Oppenheim4. falls back upon List’s formula C20 H340, although

he acknowledges that the substance under consideration is most likely

no chemical unit and even quotes Gerhardt4, wlio does not believe in the

existence of such a body. Tilden5. again declares List’s terpinol to be a

mixture, nevertheless he retains the term for his monatomic alcohol

C10 H180. The same must be said of Tanret6.

2 Annalen, Bd. 67, p. 362.

3 Ibidem, Bd. 83, p. 106. (Compt. rend., T. 34, p. 799.)

4 Ibidem, Bd. 129, p. 149.

6 J. C. S., Vol. 33, p. 247, and

Ibidem, Vol. 35, p. 286.

6 Ibidem, Vol. 48, p. 990. (J. de Pharm. [5] T., 11, p. 506.

7 Berichte, Bd. 12, p. 2354, and

Ibidem. Bd. 20, p. 1956.

8 Annalen, Bd. 230, p. 254.*

9 Compt. rend. T. 104, p. 996.

10 Annalen, Bd. 57, p. 252.

11 Compt. rend., T. 102, pp. 50, 318, 433 and 1155.

12 Ibidem, T. 54 ?, p. 845.

13 Bouchardat and Voiry 9 claim to have obtained crystals of “ tepilenol”

prepared from terpin, that melted at 30-32°.

14 Annalen, Bd. 230, p. 265.

15 Terpineol from its acetate (from pinene) 218-223° B. & L.11

Terpineol from terpinhydrate 218 ° B & V.9

“R-Terpenhydrat ” of Flawitzky7 213.7-217.7°.

“ L-Terpenhydrat ” of Flawitzky7 217.7-220.7°.

16 Comp. “ Cautschene Monochlorhydrate ” B. & L.u

Comp. Terpineol, Wallach, Annalen, Bd. 239, p. 21.

17 From acetate prep, from — pinene [a:] = — 64.3 ° B. & L.11

“L-Terpenhydrat of Flawitzky”7 [a]^ = — 56.2 ° .

“R-Terpenhydrat of Flawitzky”7 [u] = + 48.4°.

“ Terpilenol” from citrene through the acetate [a] = + 67° 31' La-

font.12

The Limonene Group of Terpenes.

359

18 Spec. Gravity = 0.961 at 0°, Bouchardat & Lafont.11

0.952 Bouchardat & Voiry.9

0.9339 at 0° )

[ Flawitzky.7

0.9340 at 0° )

0.940 at 15° )

£ Schimmel & Co., Bericht, Oct ’90, p. 52.

0.935 at 20° )

19 It readily absorbs bromine. The bromide, however, is solid at very

low temperatures only. Allowed to stand with an excess of bromine di-

pentene tetrabromide is formed. Wallach, Annalen, Bd. 230, p. 266.

20 Tilden already observed that in alcoholic solution of “ terpinol ” acid¬

ulated with nitric acid crytals of terpinhydrate are generated J. C. S.

vol. 33, p. 250. Wallach observed that very dilute hydrochloric or sulp¬

huric acids at ordinary temperatures favor the addition of water.

21 Since terpinene and terpinolene are products of inversion of limo¬

nene and dipentene the terpineols and terpin must be regarded as deriva¬

tives of the hydrocarbons of the limonene group, but not of the pinene

group. This view is supported by the conversion of the terpineols into

dipentene tetrabromide19 and into the dihydrohalogen derivatives of di¬

pentene.

22 Comp, historical notes: Wallach (1885).

23 List, Annalen, Bd. 67, p. 370.

Tilden, J. C. S., vol. 33, p. 249.

24 Wallach, Annalen, Bd. 230, p. 267.

Flawitzky, Berichte, Bd. 20, p. 1960.

25 From the method of formation of the monochlorhydrates of the lim-

-onenes we know that by the action of hydrogen chloride upon terpineol

the monochorine ester (if this is identical with limonene monohydro¬

chloride) could not be found. In this reaction water would be generated

and thus the conditions favorable to the formation of the monochloride

would be destroyed. For the formation of terpin-hydrate from the

monochloride comp. Dissertation p. 45.

26 Oppenheim, Annalen, Bd. 129, p. 157. This substance also appears to

result from the action of acetic acid on pinene (B. and L!1), upon limon-

mie (L12) and upon dipentene (B. and L.11)

27 Comp, methods of formation of terpin hydrate, also Wallach, An¬

nalen, Bd. 239, p. 19.

28 Wallach, ibidem, p. 21.

29 Wallach, ibidem, Bd. 230, p. 267.

"Wallach, ididem, Tilden, J. C. S., vol. 35, p. 288.

31 Annalen, Bd. 246, p. 267.

32 ad I. Terpene hydrates of Flawitzky7.

360 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

ad II. List2: by means of very dilute sulphuric acid (p. 367.)

Berthelot3: action of heat alone, chlorides of zinc, calcium

strontium and ammonium, fluoride of calcium.

Tilden5: by means of dilute hydrochloric acid, (p. 248.

Wallach8: by means of dilute sulphuric acid, phosphoric

acid, glacial acetic acid and potassium disulphate.

ad III. 1 Bouchardat and Lafont11: Acetates from pinene and dipen -

tene.

Lafont12: Acetate from + limonene.

20ppenheim4: Dipetene 2 H Br. with silver acetate (p. 154.)

Oppenheim4: Dipentene 2 H I with ammonia (p. 156.)

List2 (p. 373.) ) By boiling the dihy-

Berthelot3 (according to Oppenheim.) (• drochloride with

Tilden5 (p. 249.) ) water.

Many of these references must be taben with considerable reserve.

In most cases no pure terpineol was obtained. However, it is to be

assumed that in all cases more or less of it was formed.

33 According to Tilden 5 (p. 289) lemon oil contains 10-15 p. c. of a

substance which has the same boiling point with terpineol and yields a

dichloride melting at 48°. This 44 natural terpinol ” is stated to be dex¬

trogyrate. So called 44 Cajeputol ” is stated to contain a fraction which

boils above 200°, which is capable of yielding a dichloride melting at 48°.

Weber (Annalen, Bd. 238, p. 101) separated from cardamom oil a frac¬

tion 205-220°, which yielded dipentene dihydrochloride, melting at 52°.

He did not succeed in making the carbanil reaction.

Watts (J. C. S. vol. 49, p. 316) has sufficient faith in an insignificant

color reaction to conclude from it the presence of terpineol in the oil

from the leaves of Citrus Limetta.

Bertram and Gildemeister (Archiv d. Pharm. Bd. 228, 485), assume the

presence of terpineol beside borneol in the fraction 200-220° of kesso-oil

(valeriana officinalis, var. angustifolia.) They obtained from this frac¬

tion dipentene dihydriodide melting at 76° • The oil also contains

dipentene.

- Kwasnick (Berichte, Bd. 24, p. 81) reports as follows of a fraction

from Kuro-moji-oil (Lindera fericia, Bl.): 44Eine angenehm nach Flie-

derbluehten riechende Fluessigkeit C10 H-18 O, siedet bei 218° und

wurde durch sein Verhalten gegen Chlorwassertoff und gegen Brom, sowie

durch sein schoen hrystallisirendes Jodid, welches bei 75-76° schmilzt,

identificirt.” This oil also contains -j- limonene, dipentene and — carvol.

The Limonene Group of Terpenes.

361

ad Nitrosochlorides , etc.

1 J. C. S. (1877), Vol. 31, p. 558.

2 Annalen, Bd. 245, p. 245.

3 J. C. S. (1875) p. 514 and ibidem (1877), p. 554.

4 J. C. S. 1864.

5 Berichte, Bd. 18, pp. 1729 and 2220.

6 Annalen, Bd. 245, p. 241.

7 Ibidem, Bd. 252, p. 108.

8 Ibidem, p. 109; Comp, also ibidem, Bd. 245, p. 255, and Dissertation,

p. 18.

9 Ibidem, Bd. 252, p. Ill; also “ Wissenschaftliche Beilage znm Jahres-

bericht des Elizabeth Gymnasiums, Breslau, Ostern ’90.

10 Ibidem ,p. 124.

11 Dissertation, p. 22.

12 Annalen, Bd. 252, p. 125.

13 Annalen, Bd. 252, p. 145.

14 Ibidem, p.112.

15 Dissertation, p. 23.

lfl Annalen, Bd. 252, p. 146.

17 Dissertation, p. 24.

18 Annalen, Bd. 245. p 256.

19 Ibidem, Bd. 245, p. 257, and

Ibidem, Bd. 246, p. 224.

20 Ibidem, Bd. 245, p. 268, and

Ibidem, Bd. 246, p. 227.

21 Ibidem, Bd. 245, p. 257.

22 Ibidem, Bd. 252, pp. Ill and 125, also

Dissertation, p. 24, et. seq.

23 Annalen, Bd. 245, p. 258.

24 Ibidem, p. 270.

25Wallach, “Nitrosate and Nitrosite ” etc., Annalen, Bd. 241, p. 288.

Wallach, Sechste Abhandlung Ibidem, p. 315.

Wallach, Siebente Abhandlung Ibidem, Bd. 245, p. 241.

Wallach, Elfte Abhandlung Ibidem, Bd. 252, p. 106.

Kremers, Dissertation.

26 Annalen, Bd. 245, p. 271.

Ibidem, Bd. 252, pp. 113, 125 and 146.

27 Ibidem, pp. 121, 126 and 147.

28 Ibidem, pp. 118 and 126, also.

Dissertation, pp . 24 and 60.

29 Dissertation, p. 29.

30 Dissertation, p. 34.

362

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

31 Annalen, Bd. 245, p. 260.

Dissertation, p. 46.

32 Annalen, Bd. 245, p. 260.

Dissertation, p. 49.

33 Annalen, Bd. 245, p. 265.

84 Dissertation, p. 51.

85 Annalen, Bd. 245, p. 262.

Dissertation, pp. 55 and 34.

86 Ibidem, p. 60.

The Psenclo-Gregorim Drama Christus Patiens.

363

THE PSEUDO-GREGORIAN DRAMA xPitro< nd6X*v IN ITS

RELATION TO THE TEXT OF EURIPIDES.

By P. L. VAN CLEEF, Ph. D.

PART I.— THE BAOCHAE.

The Christian Drama XpidroS Ilddx^v, which by its superscription is

ascribed to Gregorius Nazianzenus, has been clearly shown by Doering

and Brambs not to be in accord with the other writings of Gregorius and

assignable not to him but to a much later writer. Doering1 attributed

it to Tzetzes but Brambs,2 who has most recently and most thoroughly

studied the problem, assigns it with seemingly greater right to Theo¬

doras Prodromus or an author of that period, i. e. of the 11th or 12th

century.

The drama is a cento constructed of lines taken from the Prometheus

and Agamemnon of Aeschylus, the Cassandra of Lycophron, the Holy

Scriptures including Genesis, Exodus, the Psalms, the four Gospels, the

letters of Paul and even the Apocryphal books; but mainly, as the writer

acknowledges in his introduction (v. 3 sq.), from Euripides, of whom he

has used seven plays known to us, Hecuba, Orestes, Medea, Hippolytus,

Troades, Rhesus and Bacchae. From these plays it is evident that the

MS. of Euripides, that the writer had in his possession, must have been the

second of the two classes, into which Kirchhoff has divided our existing

MSS. of Euripides, and that no more plays were used may be accounted for

on the supposition that the MS. used by the writer contained only the seven

above-mentioned plays, with which were perhaps bound the two men¬

tioned plays of Aeschylus and the Cassandra of Lycophron. That the

writer had no other plays of Euripides before him seems certain from the

fact that he has plundered these in a most thorough manner, not con-

2De tragoedia Christiana quae inscribitur XpidroS LLddx^v, Realschul-

prog. Barmen, 1864, p. 8.

2 De auctoritate tragoediae Christianae quae inscribi solet XpidroZ

Hadxoav Gregorio Nazianzeno falso attributae. Diss. inaug. scripsit J. G.

Brambs, Eichstadii, 1883, p. 64. Cf. also the Praefatio of Brambs’ edi¬

tion of the Christus Patiens, Teubner, 1885, p. 17 sqq.

364 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

tent to take here and there a line. Everything that could be of service

has been utilized and the remarkable thing is that he was not tempted to.

use the same line twice. Indeed he seems to have checked off each line

as fast as used and never to have repeated it without considerable varia¬

tion. Nor has he taken the verses in their original order but we find

brought together in the same speech verses not only of different speakers

but taken from very different portions of the same play. Thus of the

prologue of the Medea verses 20-39 (excepting only 23, 24 and

29) have been used by the writer of the XpidroS nddxa)v as follows:

V. 20 -= 4 of the Xp. IT.; 21 sq. = 51 sq.; 25 sq. = 46 sq.; 27 sq. — 912 sq.;

30 = 974; 31 sq. = 945 sq.; 33 = 949;34 —36 = 53 —55; 37 = 489; 38 = 485;

39 = 491. From this it is plain that he was so thoroughly master of these

sixteen verses that he has interspersed them in one thousand lines of his

drama.

Inasmuch as we have here excerpts from plays of Euripides pre¬

served in some cases in a single manuscript and in others in only two, it

would seem probable at first consideration that this cento would be of

great value in determining the text of Euripides. This question was

early investigated, soon after the appearance of Kirchhoff’s critical

edition of Euripides, by A. Doering.1 Kirchhoff had previously pointed

out the fact that the MS. of Euripides used by the author of this cento

contained without doubt the portion of the Bacchse after v. 1328, which

our present MS. lacks, and hence was derived from an archetype which

contained the whole of that play.2 But Doering, after citing all those

passages in which the Xp. IT. had preserved, as he judged, the real read¬

ing of Euripides, reached the conclusion that the MS. used by the

author of the Xp. II. was inferior to the MSS. of Class I but superior to

those of Class II of the Euripidean MSS. It is my intention in this pa¬

per to investigate the problem more thoroughly and to set forth clearly

both sides of the shield, inasmuch as there was a feeling that but one

side had been clearly shown in the articles of Doering in Philologus.

And that the paper may not be too colossal in its magnitude, it has been

decided to limit the present investigation to one play of Euripides, the

Bacchse, preserved in only two MSS., a Palatinus 287 of the 14th century

(designated by the letter P.) and a Florentinus XXXII (known by the

designation C.) also of the 14th century which, however, contains but the

first half of the play, lacking all from verse 756 on to the end (1392). As

the writer of the Xp. II. has taken from the 1392 lines of the Bacchse (the

extracts from those portions now lost in our MSS. do not come here into

consideration) over 250 lines for his cento, over half of which are from

1 Die Bedeutung des Tragcedie Xp. II. fur die Textkritik des Rhesus*

Philologus 23 (1866), pp. 577-591, and Die Bedeutung der Tragoedie Xp. II.

ftir die Euripidestextkritik, Philologus 25 (1868), pp. 221-258.

2 Ein Supplement zu Euripides’ Bakchen, Philologus 8 (1853), pp. 78-93.

The Pseudo-Gregorian Drama Christus Patiens.

365

the latter half of the play, preserved in a single MS. of the 14th century,

there would seem to be good opportunity in this play for determining the

value of the citations as found in the Xp. II. for the text of the Bacchse.

It must first be remarked that, as the subject of the cento did not

often allow its author to quote directly without change from his chosen

model, we expect to find many variations from Euripides occasioned by

this fact, and do not expect to find many lines to be taken verbatim

Bearing this in mind three classes of citations as made by the author of

the Xp. II. may be distinguished.

I. Those verses in which one or more words have been necessarily

•changed to bring into harmony with the theme the heathen conceptions

of Euripides. This class also includes all those verses in which by

reason of the context some change has been made. The verses in this

class must necessarily constitute the great majority of all the verses

quoted and we add here the list that it may be of service to any who

may desire to investigate the question further.1 2

1 = Xp. n. 1573 (?) 29 = 1553

2 = 1545 (?) 30 ~ 1555

4 = 1546, 1533, 1535 sq., 31 = 1552 (?)

1543, 1758 sq., 40 = 1568

2395, 2405, 2574 * 47 = 1574, 1564

60 =r 2519

61 = 2520

69 = 1608

71 = 1607

72 sq. = 1139

1 The first and only complete list of quoted verses that exists is to be

found in the preface of Brambs’ edition in the Teubner series, p. 8 sqq.

The list of verses quoted from the Bacchse (p. 15 sqq.) is almost complete.

I have added but two further citations. In a considerable number of in¬

stances the parallelism as there referred to is so very remote as to be of

no value for our investigation, and to leave great doubt in the mind if

the verse is really modeled after that of Euripides.

2 When more than one verse of the Xp. II. is cited as a parallel of a

verse from the Bacchae, the one that stands first is the real corres¬

ponding verse, the others may be neglected, as corresponding only

vaguely with the given line.

3The proposal to read here the future participles x°Pev6gdv xai nava-

drjjdGov from the evidence of the Xp. II. is neither consonant with the

context, nor demanded by the Xp. II. For it is not true that the tense

has never been changed in the Xp. II. Such a change occurs in

280 = 571; 1120 = 2564; 1128 = 1162; 1237 = 163; 713 = 2218; 213 = 1561;

777 = 2245; 955 = 1506; 1077 = 2254; 1223 = 2202.

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Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

183 = 1153

186 = 1156

187 = 1157

213 = 1561

231 = 1558

232 = 1559, 1557 1

240 = 1557 2

248 = 1136

264 = 193

265 = 194 sq.

280 = 571

283 = 570

287 = 572

288 = 575

289 = 577, 585

290 = 579

291 580

306 = 587

307 = 588

309 = 584

313 = 586

315 = 263 3

333 = 599, 565

335 = 1032, 565, 599

360 = 1788

361 = 1789

362 = 1790

363 = 1791

389 sq. = 1801

390 = 1803

391 = 1804

442 = 1384 (?)

443 = 1385, 1928

445 = 2070, 2073

446 = 2074

447 = 2075

450 ^ 1655

489 = 1556

492 = 1668

666 = 2212

670 = 2222

678 = 1845

683 = 1833

684 = 1835

685 sq. = 1836

693 = 2018

712 = 2216

732 — 1812, 1810

733 = 1811, 2039

760 = 1101 (?)

761= 1102 (?)

769 = 2262

770 = 2263

772 = 2265

774 = 2266

775 = 2221

777 = 2245

779 = 2228

780 = 2229

788 = 2278

789 = 2279

790 = 2280

846 = 2287

854 = 2311

960 = 1522

962 = 1524

963 = 1525

964 = 1526

967 = 1521

972 = 1531

973 = 1306, 1295

995 (= 1015) = 1437

1025 = 1648

1026 = 1649 sq. 4

1027 = 647, 1601

1030 = 438, 654

1031 = 1535, 2100, 2542

1032 = 652, 2192

1043 = 657

1044 = 658

1046 = 675

1050 = 678

1064 = 660

1065 = 661

1068 = 663

1069 = 566

1073 = 662

1077 = 2254

1079 = 2257

1082 = 2258

1085 = 2261

1086 = 671, 2013

1088 = 170, 2016

1089 = 2017, 171

1095 = 666

1097 = 668

1113 = 1432

1118 = 2566

1128 = 1162

1135 = 1473

1143 = 1167

1144 = 1062

1202 = 1598

1214 = 1264

1215 = 1265

3 The change of rfavdao to drpdei s is doubtless due to the fact that the

author of the Xp. II. had already used 7tavmi$ in 1557. After substitut¬

ing KctKovpyiai for rr/dds (SanxEiai he could scarcely retain kcckov py ov

and hence changed it to nauovpyov.

2 This similarity has been overlooked by Brambs .

3 The dative/ of the Xp. n. is partial testimony to the dative of C., P.

and Stob. 5, 15. Stobaeus 74, 8 reads eii r?)v g>vdiv.

4 ev yy of the Xp. II. testifies somewhat to ev yaicc of P. and against

Wecklein’s emendation, ev yviaiS.

The Pseudo-Greg orian Drama Chrisius Patiens.

367

1217 = 1486

1219 = 1487

1221 = 1488

1226 = 1455

1233 = 161

1239 = 165

1240 = 166

1243 = 169

1259 = 1053

1260 = 1890

1262 = 1056, 1892

1263 = 1058

1280 = 1310, 444, 853

1281 = 854

1314 = 1342

1315 = 1343

1327 = 1712 sq.

1328 = 1714

1332 = 1760

1333 = 1680

1335 = 1683, 1678

1336 = 1678

1337 = 1681

1338 = 1752, 1682

1339 = 2573

1340 = 1685

1346 = 2562

1352 = 1700

1353 = 1701

1356 = 1671, 1758

1360 = 1684, 1695

1362 = 1697

1366 = 1703

1368 = 1706

1369 — 1706 sq., 1669,

1756.

II. The second class of citations consists of those verses which are

quoted exactly as we have them in our existing Euripidean MSS. This

list is even larger than we should have expected and embraces fifteen

lines, the enumeration of which is here given:

Bacchse. Xp. IT.

Found in both P. & 0. ■<

39 = 1567

178 — 1148

3161 = 264

6682 = 2219

6693 = 2220

679 = 1846

1 This verse which stood clearly in the Eur. MS. of the author of the

Xp. IT. at this place, as in the two MSS. of the Bacchae, (for Xp. IT.

314 — 316 = Bacch. 262 — 264) is rejected by Kirchhoff and Wecklein,

(Cf. the latter’s Curae Criticae, p. 18. Wecklein considers it a dittograph

of Hipp. 79.) because it was lacking in Stobaeus 74.8, who quotes the

whole passage. Nauck, on the other hand, following Dindorf, rejects

Hipp. 79-80 as spurious, and retains our verse. If the verse is to be re¬

jected, then the MS. used by the author of the Xp. IT. is in no way

superior to our Euripidean MSS. and the interpolation must have been

made in the common archetype of our MSS. and that in the possession

of the author of the Xp. IT.

2 MS. A. of the Xp. IT. reads TtoTEp'> 005, V. Ttoorepor (omitting 601). Cail-

lau’s Benedictine edition of 1840 {Xp. IT. appended to the works of Gre¬

gorius Naz.) Ttpd)T ov 601. This variance we shall have occasion to men¬

tion later.

3 Here the Xp. IT. agrees with our Euripidean codices in reading

raKEiOev, which Brunck, whom all subsequent editors have followed,

changed to rd xeIBev.

368

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

Found in P. alone -=

771 — 2264

7941 = 2268

795 =2269

838 = 1930

1078 =2256

1112 =1431

11522 = 1147

12613 = 1055

1361 = 1696

III. So far we have made no distinction between the MS. of Eur.

used by the author of the Xp. 77 and the existing MSS. of the Bacchse,

It is in the third class of citations that we shall have occasion to see of

how much value the citations from Euripides found in the Xp. n. are.

This class includes all those verses in which no particular reason seems

to exist to justify a change, and yet, which show some variation from the

MS. readings of the Bacchge. Here three sub-divisions are to be distin¬

guished. A. those cases in which the Xp. II. presents a reading so plainly

superior to our MSS. reading that it has been adopted by Kirchhoff and

all who have followed him: B. those cases in which the Xp. 17, offers a

reading which has appeared to some of the editors of Euripides worthy

of adoption or in which the readings presented by the Xp. 77. seem at

least equally good with those of the MSS. : C. those cases in which the

Xp. 77. presents a corrupt reading, although there is no apparent reason

to justify the corruption.

A. The verses in which the readings of the Xp. 77. have been adopted

by all the editors of Euripides in preference to those of our Euripidean

MSS. are the following:

1. 55. C. & P. \i7tov6a, Xntovdai C2 as also Xp. 77. 1602, Et. M. 453 C.,

while Strabo, 469, testifies at least to the ending — ai.

[Here as in a number of other cases the testimony of the

Xp. 77. is entirely ignored by Kirchhoff.]

2. 655. P. & C. read docpds doqidS si. But the Xp. II. 1529, docpd 5 do<pd$

dv.

3. 694. P. & C. read itapBsvoi re xd^vysZ. The Xp. 77. on the other

hand has napBsroi r'! sr'> dXvysZ which all have adopted.

Usener’s conjecture, (Rh. Mus. XXIII. 160) dv^oi rs

*MSS. V. and B. of the Xp. 77. avrdv.

2 MS. P. and the Xp. II. read jpppn. Orion, Anth. 4, p. 55, reads xrf/jua ,

which all the editors have adopted. (Nauck adopts without any note of

the change!) Here again, if the MS. of Euripides is wrong, the Xp. 77. is

wrong with it, and the corruption is to be traced to the archetype of P.

and the Euripidean MS. of the Xp. 77.

3Bruhn proposes for usvsir^ ysvoXT'’ against the combined testimony

of P. and the Xp. 77.

The Pseudo- Gregorian Drama Christus P aliens. ^ 369

uaQvy e$ , seems extremely probable, in which case the

Euripidean MSS. have preserved the reading better than

the Xp. II., although both have been corrupted by the in

corporation of the gloss, 7t apQsvoi, into the text.

The remainder of the cases are from the portion of the play preserved

only in codex P.

4. 778. P. reads kcpd-itzszai. But the Xp. II. 2227 v<pditrerai. (But

codex V. of the Xp. II. shows the same corruption

kcpaTtrerai.')

5. 1031. dv om. codex. But the Xp. II. 2100 and 2542 retains dv, though

the order of the words is changed. Kirchhoff is followed in

the insertion of dv by Nauck and Bruhn. Other editors

have suggested other methods of restoring either the

dochmiacs or a trimeter. At the best the reading of the

Xp. n. cannot be regarded as very much superior to that

of the Palatinus.

6. 1041. P. rivsi. But Xp. H. 653 zivi .

7. 1049. P. kmtodwv. Xp. 17. 677 ek rtoScidv.

8. 1096. P. upazafdoXov^. Xp. 17. 667 xpazcaftoXovs.

9. 1151. P. oi u at y' . Xp. II. 1146 and Orion, Anth. 4, 55 oiyai 8\

[Here again K. ignores the additional testimony of the

Xp. 77] Beiske changed to zavzd , which Paley follows.

10. 1161. P. k^ETtpdqazo. Xp. 17. 1050 pd’c.sz e. Scaliger had sug¬

gested the change, to whom K. and W. ascribe the reading.

11. 1344. P. XiddojusQa. Codex V. of Xp. II. 2557 XiddojusdQa , the re¬

maining codices agree with the Palatinus. Musurus

changed to XiddojusdQa , to whom the emendation is as¬

cribed by K. and W. with no reference to the Xp. n.

12. 182. This verse seems rightly rejected here, as Dobree has done,

not only because it is a paraphase of 860 but because the

Xp. 77, which quotes the whole passage from 178 to 187 in

verses 1148-1157, entirely ignores the existence of this

verse. Evidently it was not to be found in his MS. of the

Bacchae, else he had made use of it for his theme.

13. 1213. P. 7T/1 ekzgov. Xp. 77 1263 npuzdi, from which Barnes drew

the emendation itpuz^v. The passage will be treated

again.

14. 1345. P. ejieQeW which Musurus corrected to kud$EQ\ The mis¬

take is not to be found in Xp. II. 2560, where the form given

is EjudOojusv.

B. Verses in which the reading presented by the Xp. II. seems at least

as good as that of our MSS. of the Bacchae.

1. 1048. P. 7 tiupov, which Musurus emended to i toippov. The Xp. II.

676 reads xXorjpov. The passage is ably treated by

Doering (Phil. XXV. (1867) ). itoippo 5 is found twice in

24 -A. & L.

370 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters.

classical Greek and both occurences are in the Cyclops of

Euripides, 45 and 61. x^°VP£L is the form in P. at Bacch.

106, x^or/pzi with ov suprascr. in C. Cf. Wilamowitz, Anal.

Eur. p. 47. Hermann on this passage, reasoning from the

analogy of m66fjprf$, decided that x^°VP£l was to be read

here. For onr passage we must assume a co-ordinate form

j/1 or/poj>, although it does not occur elsewhere. It were

possible to read in the Xp. 17. x^-°VP£5 or X^-°VPL to bring

it into harmony with Bacch. 106. There was no reason

why the author of Xp.n. should have made a change and

he doubtless found xAoVpov in his MS. of Euripides.

2. 1084. P. svAsijuoj,. But Xp. 77 2260 vAijuoy svAeijuos is a arfcct-

Asyojusvov. vAipoS is said to be found in frag. 395. 34.

Cf. Wilamowitz on this line in Bruhn’s edition of the Bac-

chae.1 And Doering rightly notes (Phil. XXV. (1867) ) that

v\ijuo$ agrees better with cpv A/1 7 six£ of 1085 and strength¬

ens the idea of 6iya, while evAsijuos seems an unnecessary

epithet of the rarer}. EvA.siju.oS could easily have arisen

from vAi/u 05 by reason of the pronunciation. Inasmuch as

vAijuoS is rightly constructed (cf. XPV& ijuoS, dorajuoS, etc.),

occurs elsewhere (?) and suits the context better, while

evAeijuoS is as least somewhat suspicious in its formation,

Bruhn inserts the former in the text, while Wecklein de¬

cides also in its favor.

3. 1353. The line in P. has only five feet. The probable completion

of the line, redress, was suggested by Kirchhoff from

Xp. 77 1701 redrraS. This emendation has been adopted

by Schoene and Bruhn. Other editors have proposed

other solutions of the difficulty, while Paley desired to

reject the verse entirely, redress seems the simplest

emendation and the only one that has the slightest

authority.

4. 787. P. reads Aoyaov hAvgov. But the Xp. 77 2277 uAvsir Aoyaov.

Nauck preferred to change to hAvgov A oyaov. The use of

the infinitive in the Xp. EL. seems justified by the difference

in meaning, as Doering (Phil. XXV.) has shown, but the

transposition can be due only to one of two causes. 1.

Because the author of the Xp. II. found the words in their

transposed order in his MS. of Euripides; or 2. Because

1 1 have been unable to find the citation. On careful inspection of

the references to the fragments of Euripides in Bruhn’s edition of the

Bacchae it is not at all evident what edition he made use of, as the num¬

bers correspond in no instance with the editions wuthin my reach, viz.

the older collections of Matthiae and Dindorf and the editions of Wag¬

ner and Nauck.

The Pseuclo-Greg or ian Drama Christus Patiens.

371

he made an arbitrary change in the Euripidean text. The

latter seems to be the reason in this case. As th((

next line in the Xp. II. ends with kXvgqv, its author appar*

ently desired to avoid the simularity of endings and so

changed the order of words in this line. There seems to

be no reason for preferring with Nauck the reading kXvojv

Xoycov.

5. 14. The line is lacking in C. P. and Strabo I. 27 and XV. 687 read

IlF.pd&v which Elmsley wished to emend to <P and

Wecklein, who in 16 reads £7trjXQov for si tEXBaoy from

Strabo XV. 687 (although Str. I. 27 gives etc sXOoor), drops 0 7

altogether. Wecklein however says nothing of the testi¬

mony of the Xp. n. 1588, which also omits 0; but preserves

the participle in verse 16, though changed to n apsXQcov.

6. 20. P. and C. tcoXiv. But Xp. U. 1595 x^ova which Schenkl and

Wecklein have taken into text, who also place verse 20

after 22. In the order of lines preserved by our MSS.

^ the similar endings of 19 & 20, tloXei^ and itoXiv , seem ob¬

jectionable. But if the order be changed th°"- ^iection is

removed. q

We may also include under this head those cases in which the cita¬

tions from the Xp. II. agree with one of the MSS. and not with the other.

They are as follows:

1. 75. P. QiaddsvErai. But C. and the Xp. II. 1141 Qiadeverai.

This statement rests upon Bruhn’s Kritischer Apparat.

Wilamowitz in his Analecta Euripidea does not note this

variance of the MSS., so that it seems at least questionable.

2. 46. P. ovSajuov with which the Xp. II. 1571 agrees. C

3. 56. P. %vveu7t6povs. C. and the Xp. II. 1603 dvv£ymipov%. All

editors follow MS. P.1

4. 314. P2 with Stobaeus Plor. 5.15 and 74.8 read prjd aocppovelv.

P. C. .and the Xp. U. 262 dc&cppovEiv without ju?}.

In the following passage the thought rather than the word of the Xp. II.

has furnished Hartung (whom Schoene & Bruhn have followed) with a

plausible correction of MS. P. 1090-1 ydoovsS || * syovdai certainly

cannot stand. Kirchhoff, following Heath, reads for pddovEi r/ddora

and retains s'xovdai. Wecklein prefers to bracket 1091. ^ The three

® !In 443 = Xp. II. 1385 and 1928 the MSS. of Euripides read ai,

dvvrfp7tada<Z\ Xp. II. 1385 ovi dvr- but 1928 ovS t-vr- Such a point is

entirely beyond the evidence of late MSS., as seems also the case under

consideration. It is only given to give the benefit of the doubt to the

Xp. II. A similar question is that of e$ and sii. Cf. 450 — Xp. II. 1655;

1073 = 662. Likewise -rj or -si in second person singular middle of the

verb. Cf. 787 = 2277 and 2286; 960 = 1522. So also the i subscriptum in

the verb dd^oo; cf. 1050= 678: and the accent of dlya; cf. 1084 = 2260.

372

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

above-mentioned editors draw from the signification of Spduaodi of the

Xp. 77. 2015 and the form of the reading of P. the emendation rpsxov6ai .

C. So far we have regarded the readings afforded ns in any way by

the Xp. 77. as either superior or equal in value to those of our MSS. of

the Bacchae. In Class C. will be collected all those passages in which

the author of the Xp. 17. has apparently with the utmost arbitrariness

changed the Euripidean text or with a more charitable supposition found

in his MS. a very corrupted form of the Euripidean text.

1. 8. Xp. 77. 1583 has rspipovysv'1 for zvcpopeva and a6f8s6zov for

£ti C co6av. These changes were doubtless made to avoid

the resolved feet. The Euripidean line is unmetrical and

difficult. Barnes emended by dropping zs and he has

been followed by all the editors but the line is not relieved

of all its difficulties.

2. 9. Xp. 77. 1584 itpos zr/vd > for sis kprjv. The same variation is

found in

3. 312. Xp. 77. 584 itpo 5 yrjv for sis yrjv and

4. 776. Xp. 77. twice (2244 and 2222) rtpos rdv zvpavvov for sis tov

zvpavvov. Of these three cases the first may have been

due to the context. To obtain a final long syllable in

KoXiv, repos may have been written after it instead of sis.

But this explanation will not hold for the other two in¬

stances and the author of the Xp. 77. does not elsewhere

show such attention to the laws of quantity. A short 1

lengthened under the influence of the accent is not a rare

phenomenon in the Xp. 77.

5. 13. Xp. 77. 1587 -itavsvKXssis itoXsis for rtoXvxpv 6 ovs yvas. The

reading of the Xp. 77. is testimony to the accusative. Elms-

ley, followed by Wecklein, reads rtoXvxpvdGov.

6. 16. Xp. 77. 1590 7tapsXQc2v for STtsXOcov. Here also ’ Appdftcov for

'Apafiiav to avoid the resolved foot. sTtsXBaov is the

reading of Str. 1. 27, but Str. XV. 687 gives s7tr/XBov, which

Wecklein has adopted.

7. 22. Xp. 77. 1564 sjucpavGos for spcpavr/s. Similar is

8. 993 = 1013. Xp. 77. 1099 cpavspcAs for cpavspds.

9. 46. Xp. 77. 1571 3’ for r .

10. 56. Xp. 77. 1603 ejuds Oiados for Qia6os sjuds.

11. 116 sq. Xp. 77. 1614 sv <p QrjXvysrss pivsi ysvos for svBa psvsi j|

Qr/Xvys vrjs oxXos.

12. 184. Xp. 77. 1154 XPV for 3 si. But 8 si is the emendation of Musli¬

ms for dp of the MSS., which corruption had its origin

doubtless in itacism.

13. 185. Xp. 77. 1155 rvv r/yov for s^pyov.

The Pseudo-Gregorian Drama Christus Patiens. 373

14. 194. Xp. 17. 1161 artovcsD s for djuoxBsi. This is plainly a change as

the line is unmetrically constructed. Codex Vindob. (V.)

gives (f d7tovGD5 ryidov pyrjdaizo. A. and B. ppdSv ocTtovcsD^

' rjyr/dszai. The remaining vjugjv ditovco^ pypdszai.

15. 211. xp. JJ. 228 Hay GO for eyed. Elsewhere the author of the

Xp. JJ. has not been so particular about avoiding 'asyn¬

deton,

16. 285. Xp. IT, 569 zovzo V. B. D., ceteri zovzov for zovzov.

17. 444. Xp. n. 1386, 1929 xdSSpdsv for xdSpday

18. 448, Xp. 17. 2072 dvsldav for dvrjxav.

19. 449. Xp. JJ. 1654 0’ for S’. But V. reads S’. Herwerden emended

to y’ . Also avr/p for dvrjp.

20. 472. Xp. JJ. 1549 (Jpozoii for (dpozdov.

21. 667 = 716. Xp. 77. 2213 6’ for re (667) or r ’ (716).

22. 671. Xp. 77. 2223 to z'oqvOvjuov for xai rov^vQvjuov.

23-24. 672. Xp. 77. 2233 rtavzoov for 7tdvzGo$ and also Si’ kjuov for

kjiov.

25. 713. Xp. 77. 2218 sidopwv for sidiSwv.

26. 955. Xp. 77. 1506 xpvipsi dv for xpvTtzjp S£.

27. 1029. Xp. 77. 649 zi ppvvsii for zi ppvvsis.

28. 1083. Xp. 77. 2259 sdzppt^s for sdzpfms. In the Xp. II. the verbs of

the lines immediately proceeding and following are in the

aorist. That may account for the change in this line. In

Euripides the verb in 1082 is imperfect, in 1084 aorist.

29. 1087. Xp. 77. 673 xapa 5 for xopa$.

30. 1091. Xp. 77. 2015 dpjur/juadiv for Spoprjpadi. This may be due to

the fact that SpajuGodi already stands in the line in the

Xp. n.

31-32. 1111. Xp. 77. 1430 Oaddov for Qaddoov. For the use of the adverb

for the adjective in such expressions cf. examples 7 and 8

supra. Also yapaipicpry for x(XJiai7teTVi> MSS. A. and B.

of the Xp. 77. read xaM-a'1 pi(pV5.

33. 1120. Xp. 77. 2564 oixzsipov for oixzsips S’.

34. 1121. Xp. JJ. 2565 apitXaxiaidiv for ayapziaidiv.

35. 1147. Xp. JJ . 1300 g$5 xaXXinxos, rj xXso 5 rixps psya. A. and B.

have si, with r/ written above it in B. si V. C. M. oitov rj,

where oitov is plainly a gloss upon 77. P. of the Bacchse reads:

xaXXivixov y Saxpva vixpepopsi , which Kirchoff , Paley and

Nauck retain. Reiske, followed by Hermann and Bruhn,

reads dp, while Heath emends to rj, the reading adopted by

Schcene and Wecklein. Emendations of vixrjcpopsl , which

is a onta% Xsy., have been suggested by Portus, vixp epopsi,

and Hartung, vix 77 cpspsi, the latter two adducing the

line in the Xp. II. as partial evidence. In any case the

o?4 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

author of the Xp. II. has changed to all appearances his

Euripides.

36. 1150. Xp. n. 1145 ydp for 8 s.

37. 1163. Xp. 17. 1052 aipadvlov caftan.

38. 1213. Xp. II. 1263 spfiaivs Ttpurdf, nhipaKos i rpo5 spfiadsis for

7tA.£xrcSv 7tpdf> oiuovf, uXipduGov ?t podccp ftdd si ?. The cor¬

rection of TtXsKrcSv to 7 tr/KTGov has been spoken of on

page 369. In this line ?rp6 5 hpfiddsi^ is plainly a corruption

of npodapfiadsis, which word the author of the Xp. n. ap¬

parently did not understand. But the singular nXipanoi

is either a variant reading or a deliberate change. The

singular uXipaKof, with Tipodapfiadsi 5 is found in Aesch.

Sept. 466 and Eur. Phoen. 1173. More instructive is Phoen.

489, where Ttpurcdv uXiuaHcov Ttpodappddsi 5 is read, the

two passages being plainly imitations, the one of the other.

This seems a strong argument against Doering’s sugges¬

tion that “ Ttpura^ passt besser zu den Stufen Oder Spros-

sen, als zu der Leiter.”

39. 1216. Xp. U. 1485 qjspcopsv for cpspovrs^.

40. 1223. Xp. n. 2202 s I'd go po\c8v for sdco (3e(3gos.

41. 1237. Xp. n. 163 r/^Go for t/hgo.

42. 1241. Xp. 77. 167 Kvdpovfisvo 5 for yavpovpsvos.

43. 1244. Xp. 77 1048 go psysQo 5 for go 7tsr0o 5.' Here 7tsv0o 5 is restored

by all the editors of the Xp. II. It is doubly strange that

this corruption should have crept in, as it introduces a

resolved foot, which, as we shall later see, the author of the

Xp. 77 plainly avoided. It seems probable that psysOos

stood in his Euripidean MS.

44. 1245. Xp. 77 1049 iqsipyadpsroi for s^sipyadpsvGor. P. reads here

s^sipyadpsvdov. Probably the author of the Xp. 77 did

not understand the construction.

45. 1316. Xp. 77 1634 Qavcdv spot <P for ydp ovkst ; av.

46. 1317. Xp. 77 1635 dei y 7 for spoiy'.

47. 1348. Xp. 77 2563 bpydv for opyds .

48. 1354. Xp. 77 1702 nay go for sycb 0\

To this list should be added the cases in which, to avoid a resolved

foot, a change has been made by the author of the Xp. 77, which num¬

ber 22, and are catalogued on pp. 376 sq.

In the following instances neither our MSS. nor the Xp. II. has pre¬

served the correct reading.

1. 15 = Xp. 77 1589. dvdysipor , corrected by Elmsley to dvdyipov

This is explained by itacism.

2. 263 = Xp. 77 191. P. and C. svdsfisias, which Reiske corrected

The Pseudo-Gregorian Drama Christus P aliens.

375

to dvddsfisia?,, a reading adopted by all. The Xp. 77

reads ddsfisias, which gives the right sense but is unmet -

rical.

3. 669 = Xp. 77. 2220. raKslBev, corrected by Branck to rd ksiQsv,

due to the incorrect division into words.

4. 844 = Xp. 77.1287. P. svrfpsxss corrected by Canter to s-orpsitsi.

The Xp. 77. has 7tavsv7tps7tsy

5. 854 — Xp. 77. 2311. ocpXsiv , connected to ocpXslLv for Euripides.

Cf. L. and S. sub voce.

6. 955 = Xp. 77. 1506. P. upvp>fjvai. Xp. 77. xpv(3?/vai . Musurus

corrected to upv^rjvai for metrical reasons.

7. 1099 = Xp. 77. 669 dXXoi, corrected by Brodaeus to dXXai.

8. 1152 = Xp. 77. 1147 xPVILa‘ But Orion, Anth. IV. 55, reads urpya,

which all editors adopt.

9. 1162 -= Xp. 77. 1051. P. yovov. Xp. 77. Qprjvov. Canter changed

to yoov. It is possible that the Xp. 77. may be right here.

10. 1355 = Xp. 77. 1670. P. an 8s poi rd Qsdqxxrov. Xp. 77. sdri ydp

to Oadcparov. It seems likely that the author of the

Xp. 77. found in our Euripidean MS. what our MS. now

contains, but changed to obtain a verb and to avoid the

tribrach. Haupt suggested povdri , which all the editors

have adopted.

11. 1368 = Xp. 77. 1706. Ttcirpcpa, changed by Elmsley to Ttarpia metri

causa.

It remains now to sum up our discussion of the value of the citations

from Euripides found in the Xp. 77. If we have correctly classified the

citations the conclusion is evident. In 14 instances the Xp. 77. has fur¬

nished us the means of correcting our MSS., of which three instances

only are from that portion of the play contained in the two MSS. The

Xp. 77. has not preserved the exact form of the word in all cases, nor have

all, or even the best MSS. of the Xp. 77. preserved the correct reading in

every case. The benefit of the doubt has been given the Xp. 77., so that

cases 13 and 14 have here been included, and case 11, although testified

toby only one MS., and that not the best one. In our second list are to be

found 6 cases in which the excellence of the readings of the Xp. 77. is by

no means so clear as to recommend their adoption to all the editors of

the Bacchee. In four cases the Xp. 77. stands in agreement with one MS.

and not the other, in two of which there may be serious doubt, if the

reading of the Xp. 77. is preferable. However, to be perfectly fair and

just to the Xp. 77., these cases may be all enumerated in its favor, and the

sum total is 24, over against which should be placed the 48 + 22=70 cases

in which the author of the Xp. 77. has without any doubt and for no good

reason changed the reading of the Euripidean text, or found a very

corrupt form of the Euripidean text in his MS. In the following it will

376

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

be shown that the writer of the Xp. 77. was apparently exceedingly faith¬

ful to his Enripidean text, and changed it, in all probability, only to

avoid having more than twelve syllables in his line, and that in conse¬

quence his text of the Bacchae was of a most corrupt nature. If this

is substantiated then it is difficult to place any reliance upon the evi¬

dence of the Xp. 77, so far as the text of the Bacchae is concerned. If,

then, this be the truth in the case of the Bacchae, where the Euripidean

MSS. are so poor, the testimony of the Xp. II. for plays contained in

better MSS. will be proved to be almost unworthy of consideration.

That the author of the Xp. II. followed his text of Euripides faithfully,

even slavishly, is evident from the following considerations:

1. The retention of the Doric forms of choral passages. Such are

fiior&v of 1140 = B. 73 and ipvxdv of 1141 = B. 75. In only one instance

is this neglected. In 1801 riji is written, where Bacchae 389 shows rus,

which change is easily explained as due to the effect of the added word

naXrjS.

2. Line 1099 is very instructive as to the fidelity of the author of the

Xp. 17. to his Euripides and also of the liberty he allowed himself with

the text. Bacch. 993 = 1013 reads, itgo Since cpavepoi, itgo ^icppcpopo^,

a trimeter although in a choral passage. This contained a resolved foot,

which was an offense to the writer of the Xp. II. His version is, there¬

fore, it go 8m1 , it go <pavepG05 Zuppqiopoi, where he has preserved the Dori-

cism Since, but treated the final vowel as short and subject to elision.

He would certainly never have attempted to elide an -p, had he found

that in his MS. of the Bacchae, so that we may regard the Doric form

preserved in this instance also.

3. In 1150 = B. 180, although the author of the Xp. II. has added to

the sentence the three last words of 1149, while Euripides connected

their equivalent with the preceding line and began a new sentence with

this one, the Xp. II. shows the 8’ retained from Euripides, although now

the fifth word in its sentence.

In 1594 codex V. has preserved k'xovda (nom.), though the construction

demands the accusative, and the other MSS. have the accusative, exovda

being the form found in the Bacchae 19. Perhaps this is to be regarded

rather as an error of V. than as the retention of the Euripidean reading,

although in several instances V. has preserved the better readings. Cf.

Braudes’ praefatio to his edition, p. 5.

t 4. The preservation of resolved feet. It has already been pointed out

in several instances that the author of the Xp. 77. has taken the liberty of

changing the Euripidean text to avoid a resolved foot. It remains to be

shown how far this influence has been at work in the Xp. 77. Before giv¬

ing the complete list of cases, a few deserve special mention, as being

very instructive of the method taken by this writer. The simplest way

to avoid a resolved foot was to omit a word from the line. This has taken

The Pseudo-Greg orian Drama Christus Patiens. 377

place in 168 = B. 1242 where yap has been dropped to obtain a twelve

syllabled verse: uaXei <piXovs e£$ Saira • juaxdpios ei for juatia pi os yap

si, in which the first a and the i of paxdpioi receive the accent, although

short in quantity. Again 1589 = B. 15. Here re has been dropped,

thus Bdxrpia [re] reiyp rr/v re dvdyeijiior x®ova, where i of Bdxrpia

receives the accent.

A second way to avoid the tribrach was to combine with the omission

or elision of a syllable transposition. Thus 2007 = B. 692. dW aitn-

fdaXovdai rov vitvov opfidroDv from ai §' ocrcofiaXovdai OaXepdv

ojujudrGov vrfvor. Here are three violations of the rules for quantity, in

the two u7s of cxTtoflaXovdai and the v of vitvov. In 1099 the remarkable

elision of Doric a has been noted on p. 376. In 1592 = B. 17, the Xp. 77.

reads 7tddav r> \ 'Adiav nrX. for 1 'Adiav re nddav nrX.

Then again a change of words could be made. Thus 2223 — B. 671

rd r; oqvQvjuov uai ro Xiav pppevov for uai rov^vQvpov uai ro fiadiXixdv

Xiav, where i of Xiav is lengthened. And 1566 = B. 49. ev diaQeis

rdvQevd,} avadrrjdeis updroi for ravQevde Qejnevo 5 ev, jueradrpdoo

7to8a. An interesting example is 1054 = B. 1260 et eoo 5 reXov^ for

el de dux reXov$.

These cases will suffice for illustration. The remainder are: 569 — B.

285; 1310 = B. 1280; 1536 and 1543=B. 54; 1564 = B. 22; 1570 — B. 45;

1583 =J B. 8; 1590 ==B. 16; 1593 = B. 18; 1603 = B. 56; 1683 = B. 1335;

1754 = B. 1339; 2075 = B. 447; 2519 = B. 60; 2560 = B. 1345. In most of

these cases short vowels have been lengthened to receive the accent'

Adaptation of lines written in other metres are full of the same sort of

errors. Of. 653 = B. 1041; 1052 = B. 1163; 1706 = B. 1368. .

Further when the author of the Xp. IT. found it necessary for his

theme to change the Euripidian text, he avoided the use of a resolved

foot, where the Euripidean equivalent has such. The following are

the instances: 169 = B. 1243; 666 = B. 1095; 668 = B. 1097 ; 1152 = B. 181;

1153 = B. 183; 1156 = B. 186; 1161 = B. 194; 1525 = B. 963; 1552 = B. 31;

1553 = B. 29; 1602 = B. 55; 1668 = B. 492; 1760 = B. 1332; 1790= B. 362;

1811 = B. 733; 1835 = B. 684; 2074 = B. 446; 2280= B. 790; 2520 =B. 61.

In many of these cases a short a is lengthened under the influence of

the accent.

But to return to our point. In four instances the author of the Xp. II.

has retained unwittingly, it would seem, a resolved foot, indicating how

carefully he followed his Euripidean MS. When off his guard he fol¬

lowed his model and allowed a line to him metrically objectionable to

creep in in its exact form. When he has tried to remove the source of

objection he has betrayed himself by his absolute ignorance and disre¬

gard of the laws of quantity. The instances referred to are as follows:

1585 = B. 10. Here the MSS. C., M., A., B. read with Euripides cdvod de

xp id iv [Eur. Kadjuov] afiucrov rj [Eur. d'5] nedov rode . Both Dubner and

378

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

Brambs reject 8s from the text but wrongly. We have simply caught

him napping here and have an insight into his method of work.

1570 = B. 45 rj [Eur. 05] Qeopaxsl rh Kara. 6s 6tcov8c6v r7 onto [Eur.

uar1 hfis uai 67tovdoov a7to.] Here Qsojuaxsi was left in C., M., V. and

the other resolved foot removed. It may be that this is to be explained

by synizesis, as in A., B. it appears written Qvjuaxsi.

2219 = B. 668 OsXoo S' aKov6ai, itorspd 601 itap PV 6 ia. This is the

reading of all the MSS. except A. (7 torsp’ 035 7 tapp.) and V. (7 toorspov

7tapp.), which are evidently attempts to remove the objectionable foot.

1048 = B. 1244. This has been discussed on p. 374. It seems most pro¬

bable that he found in his Euripides jusysQo 5.

We have then shown how the author of the Xp. II., when off his guard,

followed his MS. of the Bacchae so closely, that he has introduced re¬

solved feet in several instances, and also that the writer al¬

lowed himself the liberty to change a line to remove the objectionable

tribrach. The conclusion must be drawn, that for Euripidean lines con¬

taining resolved feet the Xp. II. offers in all but a very few instances

testimony of a very insignificant value. We have also demonstrated how

slavishly in several instances he has followed his model to the sacrifice

of grammatical and orthographical accuracy in his own composition.

We feel, therefore, justified in affirming, that, inasmuch as in 48 cases he

has preserved readings vastly inferior to those of our own MSS., cases in

which a change is scarcely to be justified, the writer of the Xp. II. made

use of a MS. of the Bacchae that contained a very corrupted text of that

play. I cannot in view of facts here brought together agree with Doering

that the citations from the Bacchae in the Xp. II. have a. high value for

the text criticism of that play. Nor can' I give assent to his statement,

that the Euripidean MS. used by this writer should be placed for its ex¬

cellence midway between the two classes of the Euripidean MSS. dis¬

tinguished by Kirchhoff. The result of the present investigation has been

to assign to a class much inferior to the existing MSS., which belong to

Kirchhoff’s second class, the MS. of the Bacchae that the author of the

Xp. II. has used. Probably a careful investigation of the subject through

the other plays of Euripides plundered by this ignorant writer would re¬

veal the same state of affairs there also.

List of Crustacea Cladocera from Madison , Wis.

379

LIST OF CRUSTACEA CLADOCERA FROM MADISON,

WISCONSIN.

By E. A. BIRGE,

Professor of Zoology, University of Wisconsin.

In 1878 the writer published Notes on Cladocera in the fourth volume

of the Transactions of this Academy,* in which were noted twenty-five

species of Cladocera found at Madison. Returning to the subject with

better means of collecting and a much larger command of the literature

of the group, I have been able to enlarge greatly the number of species

and to identify them more accurately. As the task of reviewing the

greatly scattered literature, especially of the Lynceidce , seems likely to

occupy some time, it seems advisable to print a list of the species

already found, with notes on rare or new forms.

A glance at the subjoined list of sixty-four species and varieties

regarded by many European writers as species, will show how close our

fauna is to that of Europe. Out of the whole number, only nine are

peculiar to this country and of these five are varieties of species found

elsewhere, or are very close to foreign species. Three species are deter¬

mined as new, Latonopsis occidentcilis from the Sididce , Moina sp. nov .

from the Daphnidce , Alona lepida from the Lynceidce.

With the exception of five species and varieties ( Daphnia pidex , Zb

retrocurva , Alona tenuicaudis , and the species of Moina), all of the

species in the list have been found in Lake Wingra. This is a small lake

about one and three-fourths miles long and half as wide, with broad

margins of marsh all around it. In the marsh the water is from a few

inches to two feet deep between the areas of wild rice and reeds, and the

bottom is partly composed of vegetable debris and partly covered by a

dense growth of Chara. The lake itself hardly exceeds fifteen feet in

depth, and almost the entire bottom is overgrown with water plants

of various kinds. Among these weeds and in the marshes Cladocera

abound. The abundance of food and variety of locality offered proba¬

bly account for the great number of species. In Lake Mendota, a

much larger body of water, six miles by four, and having a depth

of sixty to eighty feet, I have found only thirty-eight species of Clado-

* Vol. IV, 1876-7 (printed 1878), pp. 77-110. PI. I, II.

380

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

cera. Doubtless more careful and prolonged collecting would disclose

new species in both bodies of water, but the larger lake is certainly

poorer in number of forms, especially the littoral species. The pelagic

forms are, of course, more abundant in the larger lake, and one variety

has been found in Lake Mendota which Lake Wingra does not possess.

This single locality has yielded a number of species, comparing not

unfavorably with the fauna described from England, Denmark or Russia.

No European country shows more than 100 species; so that more than

one-half of the probable fauna of Wisconsin has been found here. That

so large a fraction of the entire fauna should belong to one locality will

not appear strange when the similarity of the fauna to that of Europe is

considered. If the species of Cladocera have so wide a range as appears

from Sar’s observations on Australian Cladocera, and from my work

here, it is not probable that many species are strictly local. We should

expect to find any given species over a large extent of country in suita¬

ble localities. This expectation has been realized in many cases. As

conspicuous instances I may note the occurrence of Drepanothrix

dentata, Euren, in Wisconsin, the finding of Dunhev edict setiger , Birge,

in Hungary by Daday, and the occurrence of Ilyocryptus longiremis,

Sars, in Wisconsin and in Australia. No doubt some species are strictly

local, confined to a small area, or the product of life-conditions existing

there and not elsewhere. But the chance that this is true in any given

case is small, and all well marked species should be looked for in every

suitable locality. We should expect also that a locality especially favor¬

able to the development of the Cladocera would contain a very large

fraction of the fauna of the region.

The subjoined list also shows the value of long and careful collecting

in one locality, and the impossibility of justly estimating the Cladocera

of a lake from a single visit. The different forms behave much like the

plants of a locality. Some species are present throughout the season.

Some can be found only for a few days. Some come in the spring and

disappear early, while others belong to the latter part of the open season.

Of the nearly sixty species found in Lake Wingra I have never found

more than thirty as the result of a single day’s work. It is clear that a

list of Cladocera compiled from a flying visit to a locality and containing

from six to twenty species, has no claim to represent the fauna of that

locality. Only careful collecting at intervals throughout an entire sea¬

son can give even an approximate idea of the number of species

present.

I may add that a single specimen was found in Lake Wingra, belong¬

ing to the genus Anchistropus, Sars, and apparently not to the species

emarginatus, Sars. It was accidentally destroyed before it could be

carefully studied.

List of Crustacea Cladocera from Madison , Wis. * 381

LIST OF CLADOCERA FOUND AT MADISON, WISCONSIN.

1. Holopedium gibberum , Zad.

2. Sida crystallina , O. F. M.

3. Daphnella brachyura , Liev.

4. Daphnella brandtiana , Fisch.!

5. Latona setifera , O. F. M.

6. Latonopsis occidentalism spec.

nov.

7. Moina brachiata , Jur.

8. Moina , spec. nov.

9. Simocephalus vetulus. O. F. M.

10. Simocephalus serrulatus , Koch.

11. Ceriodaphnia megops, Sars.

12. Ceriodaphnia reticulata , Jur.

13. Ceriodaphnia pulchella, Sars.

14. Ceriodaphnia consors , Birge.

15. Scapholeberis aurita , Fisch.

16. Scapholeberis obtusa , Schdl.

17. Scapholeberis mucronata , O.

F. M.

18. Daphnia pulex , De Geer.

19. Daphnia Schoedleri , Sars.

20. Daphnia minnehaha , Herrick.

21. Daphnia hyalina , Leydig.

22. Daphnia kalilbergensis, Qchoed-

ler.

23. Daphnia kahlbergensis , var ced-

erstroemii , Schdl.

24. Daphnia kahlbergensis , var.

retrocurva, Forbes.

25. Lathonura rectirostris , O. F. M.

26. Macrothrix rosea , Jur.

27. Macrothrix laticornis , Jur.

28. Drepanotlirix dentatcc, Euren.

29. Ophryoxus gracilis , Sars.

30. Ilyocryptus sordidus, Lieven.

31. Ilyocryptus longiremis , Sars.

32. Bosmina longirostris, O. F. M.

33. Bosmina longicornis , Schoed-

ler.

34. Bosmina cor nut a, Jur.

35. Bosmina bohemica , Hellich. (?)

36. Eurycercus lamellatus , O. F. M.

37. Leydigia quadrangular is, Ley¬

dig.

38. Alona quadrangular is, O. F. M.

39. Alona affinis, Leydig.

40. Alona linea ta, Fischer.

41. Alona guttata, Sars.

42. Alona costata, Sars.

43. Alona tenuicaudis, Sars.

44. Alona lepida, spec. nov.

45. Graptoleberis testudinaria,

Fischer.

46. Dunhevedia ( Crepidocercus ) sef-

iger, Birge.

47. Pleuroxus trigonellus, O. F. M.

48. Pleuroxus denticulatus, Birge.

49. Pleuroxus gracilis, Hudendorff ,

var. unidens, Birge.

50. Pleuroxus exiguus, Lillj.

51. Pleuroxus excisus, Fischer.

52. Pleuroxus procure at us, Birge.

53. Chydorus spliaericus, O. F. M.

54. Chydorus spliaericus, v ar. caela-

tus, Schdl.

55. Chydorus spliaericus, var. punc-

tatus, Hellich.

56. Chydorus globosus, Baird.

57. Alonopsis latissima, Kurz.

58. Alonopsis media, Birge.

59. Acroperus leucocephalus, Koch.

60. Camptocercus macrurus, O.

F. M.

61. Camptocercus rectirostris ,

Schdl.

62. Camptocercus biserratus , Schdl.

63. Polyphemus pediculus, De Geer

64. Leptodora hyalina, Lillj.

382 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

NOTES ON THE PRECEDING LIST.

Species 1. Holopedium gibberum, Zad.

I have found this species only once in Madison. It is quite abundant

in collections from northern Minnesota, and Forbes* notes its occurence

at Grand Traverse Bay, Lake Michigan.

Species 2. Sida crystallina, O. F. Muller.

No specimens were found belonging to the form S. elongata , DeGeer.

Species 3 and 4. Daphnella brachyura, Liev. and D. brandtiana Fisch.

Of those closely allied forms I have only to say that both are found

with us, and show exactly the same differences as described and figured

by Sars in his Norges Ferskvandskrebsdyr. D. brachyura is usually found in

open water, and D. brandtiana in marshes. I cannot state this as a law,

however, as both forms are found together sometimes, in either kind of

locality.

Species 5. Latona setifera, O. F. Muller. Plate XIII. Fig. 6.

Our specimens of Latona have one peculiarity not mentioned by any

European writer. There is a thick coat of short hairs on the head, body

and antennas. These hairs are .02 mm. or less in length, are close set and

give the outline a velvety appearance when seen by transmitted light.

P. E. Muller | says: “ Hvad der er aldeles eiendommeligt for Latona og

neppe jagttaget hos nogen anden Cladoceer, eret fint Lod af ganske korte

Haar, der isaer Andes over Matrix; det er vanskeligt at see og opdages

kun ved staerkt Sidelys.” This exact account shows that his specimens

were not villous as ours are. The hairs are conspicuous in any light and

are very easily seen. No other European writer mentions a similar struc¬

ture. A more extended study of specimens from different localities will

show whether this is a local peculiarity or is characteristic of a distinct

variety. On old females which have not moulted recently the hairs are

worn off.

The male antenna differs somewhat from the account given by Sars.J

The appendix ciliata is much larger than Sars Agures it, and is situ¬

ated at the same level as the sense-hairs instead of distal to them.

The size, number and arrangement of the setae on the edge of the cara¬

pace differ from the details given by Sars, but not in any very important

respect.

Latona seems to be rare in Europe, but the apparent rarity is, as Sars

says, probably due to its mode of life and the method of collecting. In

late summer and early fall, one can be certain of obtaining a good num-

* Forbes, S. A. On some Entomostraca of Lake Michigan and adjacent Waters. Am.

Naturalist, vol. xvi., p. 641. Aug., 1882.

+ Muller, P. E. Danmarks Cladocera, pp. 97-98. r

t Norges Ferskvandskrebsdyr, p. 55, PI. Ill, figs. 17a, 17b.

List of Crustacea Cladocera from Madison , Wis.

383

ber at various localities near Madison. It lives in clear water among

weeds, and a dredge which can be dragged through the weeds and not

merely above them is needed in order to secure it. With the cone-

dredge it is not difficult to obtain 20 to 100 specimens. The same may

be said of such bottom forms as Ophryoxus and Drepanotlirix.

Sars speaks feelingly of the difficulties which beset one who attempts

to view this powerful and obstinate cladoceran from the side. If a life-

box is used and a trace of per cent, of solution of osmic acid in water

is added to the water containing the animal, there will be little trouble

in turning it on its side. After the poison begins to act, it is best to at¬

tempt turning the animal by rotating the cover of the life-box. If left

to die undisturbed the antennae are usually expanded while an irrita¬

tion applied to it while alive causes it to fold the antennae along its

sides, when it can readily be turned into any position.

Species 6. Latonopsis occidentalis, sp. nov. Plate XIII. Figs. 1-5.

In 1888 G. O. Sars* established the genus and species Latonopsis

australis for a new form of the Sididce raised by him from mud obtained

from Australia. I have found here a second and closely allied species of

this new and remarkable genus, and have succeeded in finding males

which did not developein Sars’ aquaria.

Latonopsis , Sars, is closely ailed to Latona , Sars, and may be charac¬

terized as follows:

'latonopsis, Sars.

r Impression between head and thorax slight or wanting. Labrum

devoid of plate-like expansion. Antennule with a long, plumose, straight

or curved flagellum, articulated to the basal part. Antenna with simple

rami, the superior ramus bi-articulate, the inferior tri-articulate, as in

Daphnella. Heart concave dorsally, truncate anteriorly, the aorta arising

on the ventral side. Shell-gland with three long branches. Male (of

L occidentalism Birge, at least) with simple copulatory organ, and hook

on first leg. Antennule long, slightly curved, armed with fine teeth re¬

sembling in general the antennale of Sida, but having a median projec¬

tion near the base. Color of both species yellowish-transparent.

SPECIES.

a. Fornices absent. Antennule shorter than anterior margin of

head. L. australis, Sars.

b. Fornices present. Antennule longer than anterior margin of

head. L. occidentalis, sp. nov.

" * Sars, G. O.fJ Additional notes on Australian Cladocera raised from Dried Mud. Chris

tiania 1888, pp. 6-15. PI. I. Christiania Videnskabs Selskabs Forhandlinger 1888. No. 7.

384 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

DESCBIPTION OF FEMALE.

The head is in some cases marked off from the body by a slight depres¬

sion, not seen in young specimens, and often absent in older individuals.

The anterior outline of the head as seen from the side forms a straight

or slightly convex line from the attachment of the antennules to the eye,

where it passes by an abrupt curve into the dorsal margin. This mar¬

gin is frequently continuous to the hinder end of the valves, and is

nearly straight in young specimens but strongly convex in old females.

Ventrally the anterior margin of the head terminates in a small pro¬

jection to which the antennules are attached. The ventral margin is

continued into the labrum, and is entirely devoid of the leaf -like expan¬

sion characteristic of Latona , Sars’ organum affixionis. Above the inser¬

tion of the antennae the valves are continued into small bilobed fornices,

resembling those of Latona but much smaller, and not continued to the

insertion of the antennules as are those of Latona. The head as seen

from above is somewhat pyramidal in form.

The carapace does not differ greatly from that of the Sididce in gen¬

eral. It leaves the oral structures uncovered in front; it is straight or

convex dorsally according" to the age of the animal; the ventral margin

is evenly rounded and passes into the nearly straight posterior margin

by a curve which forms no marked projection. The upper posteal angle

is well marked. The edge of the carapace is fringed with long plumose

setae, each set on a small elevation. At the lower posteal angle are placed

three setae, much longer than the others. They are often longer than

the carapace, and diverge from each other as they leave the shell, one

passing nearly straight backward and the others more outward. These

setae are longer in our species than in L. australis as figured by Sars.

The valves are not marked except by the braces (Stiitzbalken).

Along the inside of the hinder edge of the shell, from the insertion of

the long setae to the junction of the valves, runs a row of fine spines

like those of Latona.

APPENDAGES.

The antennule consists of the basal part, the sense-hairs and the flagel¬

lum. The first is short, oblong, freely movable. The sense-hairs num-

List of Crustacea Cladocera from Madison, Wis.

385

ber about eight and are placed on the posterior side of the distal end of

the base. The flagellum is attached to the base with a distinct suture.

Sars calls it “ distinctly articulated ” in L. australis. Whether he means

that there is a movable joint he does not make clear. In L. occidentalis

there is simply a distinct suture. The flagellum is long, curved back¬

ward, tapers to a fine point, and is fringed with long straggling sense-

hairs. These are far less numerous than in Latona. Most of them are

on the anterior side of the antennale but at the tip they are attached to

all sides. In this arrangement of the hairs the structure differs from the

antennule of L. australis as figured by Sars. The sense-hairs are also

longer than he shows them and the whole antennule is about twice as

long, relatively, as that of L. australis.

The antenna closely resembles that of L. australis. The basal joint is

exceedingly stout, so that the branches look too small for it. The dorsal

sames is bi-, the ventral tri-articulate.

The

set® are

4 (5) - 7

0 — i — 4

and the spines ^ ^ The basal joint bears the usual dorsal sense

organ at the base, and at the distal end are a spine anteriorly and a

plumose sense-hair behind. The proximal joint of the dorsal ramus

bears four well developed setae, and sometimes a fifth, proximal, seta

which is much smaller than the others. Its presence or absence seems

to depend on no law, as it is either present or absent in specimens of all

ages and both s^exes and may be present on one side and absent on the

other side of the same individual. All setae are two jointed and densely

plumose.

The proportionate length of individual setae differs in my specimens

from L. australis as figured by Sars. The terminal setae of the dorsal

ramus are little longer than the others in L. occidentalis. The seta of the

second joint of the ventral ramus is as long as the largest on the distal

joint and each is quite twice as long as any other seta on the branch.

The post-abdomen closely resembles that of L. australis. It is short,

fleshy, obtusely conical, and armed with nine very small super-anal den¬

ticles. The abdominal setae are two-jointed, plumose, each set on a

fleshy projection. They are a little longer than those of L. australis.

The terminal claws are strongly curved, and have two secondary teeth, of

which the distal is the longer.

The mouth parts and legs seem to resemble closely those of the other

Sididce. No careful study of the legs, has, however, been made. They

number six pairs, as in other Sididce.

INTERNAL ORGANS.

In the structure of the internal organs L. occidentalis agrees closely

with L. australis , and I can add little to Sars’ account. The general ar¬

rangement of the organs of the head may been seen in the figures.

25— A. & L.

3S6 W isconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

The heart as seen from the side, shows a tube convex below and con¬

cave above. It is truncated anteriorly, and the aorta issues from its

ventral side. From above the heart closely resembles that of Latona ,

having the form of a broad sac, rounded behind, and widest through the

venous ostia.

The shell-gland has a form in this genus, which is unique among the

Cladocera. It consists of three branches, of which the shortest is dor¬

sal and extends toward the heart, the next in length is ventral, while the

longest extends posteriorly and may reach through two-thirds of the

length of the valve. This last loop is found only in Latonopsis. The

whole gland consists of a tube doubled on itself, whose course can easily

Ibe traced. Beginning near the mandible in a bladder-like expansion the

tube passes into the valve and extends ventrally; it returns on itself to

the middle point, then passes backward in a long loop, returns again to

extend up toward the heart and come back to the middle. Then comes

a second posterior loop, lying parallel to and within the first, and on its

return the tube passes to its outlet near the mandible. Thus there are

two passages in the dorsal and ventral loops and four in the posterior,

not three as stated by Sars (op. cit. p. 9.). Sars’ figure (PI. I, Fig 1.) shows

the organ quite correctly.

DESCRIPTION OF MALE.

The male resembles in general the young female.

The antennules are long and stout, being often nearly half as long as the

animal. They taper toward the apex, are curved, but not geniculate. They

are provided with a long row of very fine teeth extending from a point near

the sense-hairs to the apex. They thus resemble in general the antennule

of the male Sida and Daphnella and differ widely from the male Latona.

Near the base of the antennule on the inner side is a stout projection,

rounded at the apex and covered with very fine hairs. This projection

is probably equivalent to the “ appendix ciliata ” of the male Latona .*

In Latona, Sars shows the appendix ciliata some way distal from the

olfactory hairs, while in Latonopsis , it is some way proximad to these-

My specimens of Latona, however, show the appendix close the to sense-

hairs; so that the difference of position does not interfere with homol¬

ogy. The cilia on the appendix of Latonopsis are very fine and easily

overlooked; they are far less conspicuous than in Latona.

The copulatory organs resemble those of Latona. They are a pair of

long, curved, flexible appendages, perforated by the vasa deferentia.

They arise at the base of the post-abdomen and are long enough to reach

beyond the terminal claws.

The first leg shows a very distinct and strong hook. In this structure

Latonopsis differs from the other Sididce and especially from Latona.

* Sars,JG. O. Norges Ferskvandskrebsdyr. ’ Cladocera Cfcenopoda, p. 55. PI. Ill, Fig. 17.

List of Crustacea Cladocera from Madison , Wis.

38?

Sida, Limnosida and Daphnella have short, fleshy knobs rather than

hooks, and Latona is devoid of any special structure. Holopedium has

n hook similar to that of Lcttonopsis but much longer, as is natural in

that genus.

The new hatched male has the copulatory organ in the form of a pair

of small buds, which do not reach the adult form until after four or five

moultings. The antennule of the young male differs widely from the

adult form. It is short, lacks the appendix ciliata, and shows a distinct

suture between base and flagellum. The latter is covered with long stragg¬

ling hairs. The whole structure closely resembles the female anten¬

nule. It is clear that the extension of the male antennule beyond the

sense-hairs in the homologue of the flagellum of the female.

RELATIONS OF THE GENUS.

Sars was entirely justified in separating Latonopsis from Latona. While

the structure of the two genera is quite similar in the female, the male

differs widely from that of Latona. The antenna is more like that of

Daphnella than that of any other genus, especially in the rami, while the

great development of the base is like that of Latona. The antennule is

peculiar and shows an intermediate stage between that of Latona and

Daphnella , though nearer the former. In the male, however, the anten¬

nule is more like that of Sida than that of Latona. In the form of the

body, the outline of the head, in the fornices, the position of the eye,

eye-muscles and optic ganglion; in the heart; in the shape of the cara¬

pace, and the development of the setae of the carapace, it approaches

Latona. It lacks entirely the peculiar development of the antenna seen

in Latona and [the plate on the lower side of the head; while Latona

lacks the development of the shell-gland, which Latonopsis shows. In

most of the points of resemblance and difference between the two

genera, Latonopsis is nearer the ordinary form of the Sididce , and it

may be considered as connecting Latona with the other Sididce , but

with many cross-relations to other genera.

RELATIONS OF THE TWO SPECIES.

L. occidental is is very close to L. australis. Indeed, I am not sure but

that they are really the same species. There are many points of minor

difference, but the most tangible is the antennule, which is about twice

as long in the American form. It must not be forgotten, however, that

Sars’ specimens were hatched from mud, and it may be possible that

specimens collected in their native waters will agree more closely with

the American species. If the difference is constant, L. australis is nearer

the ordinary type of the Sididce in the structure of the antennule.

3S8

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

BIOLOGICAL REMARKS.

Latonopsis occidental is was found in Lake Wingra, a small lake about

one and three-fourths miles long with a broad margin of marsh. It

lives chiefly in the marshy region although I have found it in deeper

water — one to three meters. It is most abundant in openings among

the reeds of the marsh, where there is a foot or so of water filled with

algae and vegetable debris. In one such spot it was especially abundant

during the summer of 1891. A single haul of the dredge would give

from six to thirty individuals. I have dredged it with Latona in the

open water, while I have never found Latona in the marsh. Sars’ speci¬

mens came from a clayey mud. I have never found this species in

muddy water.

In the aquarium it behaves quite like Latona. It often remains sus¬

pended and motionless in the water, and can often be turned over with

the dropping tube without disturbing it. When, however, it decides to

move it starts very suddenly. Its movements are less vigorous than

those of Latona , as would be inferred from the different structure of

the antennae.

I have never seen more than eight young in the brood cavity. There

are two sexual eggs, for whose reception a special cavity is enclosed,

although there is no true ephippium.

The males appear in the latter part of July and the first part of

August, and in September no specimens of either sex could be found,

while Latona was more plentiful at this time than earlier in the season.

Constant observation at any small lake will convince the student that

the appearance of the males does not depend on temperature or any

other simple cause. Each species has its own time for sexual reproduc¬

tion, which is related to external influences in the same complex way

as is the flowering of plants.

Species 8. Moina, spec. nov.

A species of Moina , apparently new, has been found, but it is not as

yet thoroughly worked up and will probably form the subject of a spec¬

ial paper. It seems related to M. bracliiata , Jur. and was at first identi¬

fied with this species. Further study, however, showed that there was

only one egg in the ephippium and that the structure in other particu¬

lars differ from M. bracliiata. The male especially shows peculiarities

not found in other species.

Species 21. Daphnia hyalina, Leydig. Plate- XIII. Fig. 9.

Into this species have been united D. galeata , Sars, D. pellucida, P.

E. Muller and D. gracilis , Hellich. Two well marked varieties are found

at Madison. One with pointed crest is found in Lake Wingra, and the

other whose crest is rounded is found in the larger lakes. Although the

Lest of Crustacea Claclocera from Madison , Wis.

389

lakes are only a mile apart, I have not found the pointed variety in

Mendota or the rounded in Wingra. The outlines of the head are very

variable, the variations quite closely resembling those [represented in

D. berolinensis , apicata , and cucullata , although of course this species has

the macula nigra.

The males appear in the latter part of September. The flagellum of

the antennule is convex, stout and short, usually little longer than the

sense-hairs. The anterior sense-bristle in our specimens lies little nearer

the end of the basal portion of the antennule than the head. In this our

specimens differ from Eylmann’s * * description, who says of it, that it is

“ von der Endborste nicht weit entfernt.”

This species is the most abundant in the open waters of the Madison

lakes. I have also obtained it from Minnesota and Michigan, showing

some variation from our form in each case.

Species 24. D. kahlbergensis var. retrocurva, Forbes. Plate XIII.

Figs. 7, 8 .

This form was first described by Forbes * as a distinct species. It is the

most extreme Daphnid form yet observed. I cannot agree in the state¬

ment of Forbes that the large helmeted forms predominate in the smal¬

ler lakes (1. c. p. 643.) At Madison the forms of D. hyalina and of D.

retrocurva in Lake Mendota are much more helmeted than those in Lake

Wingra. The former lake is about six miles by four, the latter

by % mile. D. hyalina in the smaller lake is more like D. apicata ,

while in Mendota the crest is more developed than is shown by any

European descriptions. D. Tcahlbergensis from Wingra shows the forms

typical of that species and of cmerstroemii while the full development

of the crest only comes in the larger lake. The males of this species ap¬

pear late in the fall, in the latter part of October and in November.

The head is of the Jcahlbergensis type, sometimes curved up but never

showing the extreme development of the female. The antennule has a

flagellum a good deal longer than the sense-hairs, curved at the tip and

distinctly articulated to the basal part.

Our specimens do not show the extreme development of the head be¬

fore birth noted by Forbes (1. c., p. 642). The head in the young is not as

much crested as in the adult D. hyalina. This species is always found

in company with D. hyalina and is far less numerous. On calm summer

nights the water of Lake Mendota swarms with these two species, to¬

gether with a Cyclops , a Diaptomus , and Leptodora hyalina. They are

not abundant close to shore and seem to spend the day in swarms at the

* Eylmann , E. Beitrag zur Systematik der Europaiscken Dapkniden, Freiburg i. B. 1886,

p. 33.

* Forbes, S. A. Entomostraca of Lake Michigan and adjacent waters. American Natur¬

alist. Vol. xvi., p. 642, August, 1882.

390

Vdisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

bottom where the vegetation consists mainly of diatoms, outside of the

growth of weeds. The number of the Cladocera is simply incalculable..

I do not think that any shallow water is more filled with crustacean life

than are the open waters of our lakes. Dredging does not give a fair

idea of the number of open water individuals. Only surface collecting-

at night will disclose them.

Species 26. Macrothrix rosea, Jurine. Plate XIII. Figs. 13, 14.

I have succeeded in finding several specimens of the male of this

species and have materially increased the accuracy of my knowledge of

its structure. I found a single male in 1877 which was described in the

Transactions of the Wisconsin Academy, Vol. IV. p. 90. Since that time

the male has been seen by Daday,* who gives a figure which, however*

is so small and shows so little detail that it does not add much to our

knowledge.

The male antennules are long and curved, provided with a long an¬

terior sense-hair at the base. They are curved toward the median plane

of the body at the tip and bear the olfactory hairs on a small elevation

on the anterior side. On the posterior side of the apex is a cluster of

5-6 long diverging sense-hairs. Daday shows these in his figure, but

does not mention them in the text. In the possession of this extra

sense organ, the male M. rosea differs from all other male Cladocera.

known, including the closely allied Macrothrix laticornis. These sense-

hairs were not seen by me in my earlier specimen.

The post abdomen is prolonged into a flexible projection, on whose

summit the vas deferens opens, just before the very small terminal

claws. The whole structure thus resembles that of the male Bosmina.

Species 27. Macrothrix laticornis, Jurine.

This form, which is usually given as the commonest of European spec¬

ies seems very rare here. I have met with not more than a dozen speci¬

mens in a season’s collecting, while M. rosea is very abundant in marshes.

It is at times the predominant cladoceran, while M. laticornis has never

appeared except in single specimens.

Species 28. Drepanothrix dentata, Euren. Plate XIII. Figs. 15-17.

1861. Acantholeheris dentata , Euren, Om markliga Crustaceer af or-

dningen Cladocera, funna i Dalarne. Of vers, af K. Vet.-akad.

Forh. 1861, p. 118. Description of female. Tafl. Ill, fig. 2.

Female.

1862. Drepanothrix sentigerci, Sars, G. O. Om de i Omegnen af Chris¬

tiania jagttagne Crustacea cladocera. Forh. Vid.-Selskab. i

Christiania, 1862, p. 156. Description of male and female.

1862. Drepanothrix hamata , Sars., Do. p. 300. Mention only.

* Daday, E. Crustacea Cladocera Faunae Hungaricse,rp. 106, PI. II, fig. 43.

List of Crustacea Cladocera from Madison , Wis.

391

1867. Drepanothrix hamata, Norman and Brady. Monograph of the

British Entomostraca belonging to the families Bosminidae,

Macrothricidae and Lynceidae. Nat. Hist. Trans. Northum¬

berland and Durham, 1867, p. 12, description of female,

pi. XXII, figs. 5 female, 6, antennule, 7 post-abdomen.

1867. Drepanothrix dentata , P. E. Mueller. Danmarks Cladocera, p.

138. Description of female. PI. II, fig. 13, antennule.

1884. Drepanothrix dentata , Herrick, C. L. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Sur¬

vey, Minnesota. 12th Report, 1884, p. 73. Description from

P. E. Mueller. Plate C, fig. 14, antennule, from P. E. Mueller.

In the description of the genus the word not ” should be

erased in the first sentence, “ The head not separated from

the valves by a depression.”

1888. Drepanothrix dentata , Richard, J. Recherches sur la Paune des

Eaux du Plateau Central. Clermont, 1888. Mention only.

The references given above show that this rare species occurs in Den¬

mark, Scandinavia, Great Britain and France. I have found it here in

both sexes and in considerable numbers. Sars’ description is accurate,

as is that of Norman and Brady. The vas deferens opens in front of

the terminal claws without any prolongation of the base into a penis.

D. dentata is found in Lake Wingra at a depth of from 5-10 feet. It is

most abundant in a particular zone of depth in that lake where the

weeds of the marshy margin cease and those of the deeper water have not

come in abundantly. Here is a stretch of bottom a few yards in width

composed chiefly of broken up snail shells and vegetable debris and with

a few Charae as the chief living plants. In this zone I have found this

cladoceran quite common. It is not confined to it, however, but is met

with both inside and outside of this limit. In the marsh proper, how¬

ever, I have never found it. It 'is a bottom-haunting form and is there¬

fore difficult to obtain in large numbers.

Under some conditions it is markedly repelled by light. If a por¬

tion of the bottom with this and other Cladocera is placed with water

in a watch glass and the whole exposed to strong light as from a lamp,

Drepanothrix will at once hurry to the side remote from the source of

light. While Cliydorus , Pleuroxus , Daphnia and most other forms

present will congregate on the side toward the light, Drepanothrix hastens

away from it in an awkward scramble. The sabre-like setae from which

its name is derived are its chief organ of locomotion. These it uses much

as a boy uses a pair of sticks to propel his sled over the ice. It can swim

fairly well in the open water, but is hampered by the weight and stiffness

of these setae.

392

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

Species 29. Ophryoxus gracilis, Sars. Plate XIII. Figs. 10-12.

1862. Ophryoxus gracilis Sars, G. O. Oversigt af de i Omegnen af

Christiania jagttagne Crustacea cladocera, p. 158. Descrip¬

tion of male and female.

(?) 1875. Ophryoxus paradoxurus , Hudendorff, A. Beitrag zur Kennt-

niss der Siisswasser-Cladoceren Russlands, p. 43. Descrip¬

tion of female. Tab. II., fig. 1, a. b. This species, founded

on a single specimen, very possibly belongs here.

1882. Lyncodap hnia macro throides, Herrick, C. L. American Natural¬

ist, Vol. XVI, p. 1006. Description of female. Plate XVI.

figs. 1, female, 2, antennae, 3, post-abdomen, 4, antennule.

1884. Lyncodaphnia macrothroides, Herrick, C. L. Geol. and Nat.

Hist. Survey of Minnesota, 12th Annual Report, 1884, p. 74.

Description of female. PI. B, fig. 12, yg.; 13, labrum; 14, anten¬

nule; 15, last foot. PI. B, 1, figs. 1, female; 2, post-abdomen;

3, antennule.

Ophryoxus is quite abundant in Lake Wingra, occurring through the

the entire summer in openings in the marsh. It ifc nowhere rare, and

never very plentiful. It seems to have the habit of a Daphnia ,

swimming feebly about in the open waters, rather than clinging to

weeds. I give figures of the head, first leg, and the post-abdomen of the

male, which have never been illustrated.

The statement that the young have a long spine, (Sars), or that the

young differ in form from the adult (Herrick), need qualification. The

form never differs greatly from that of the adult, and there is never any

difficulty in recognizing it as the young of Ophryoxus. Indeed, the pres¬

ence of the spine is the only important difference between the young and

old. This spine is not long according to the standard of the genus

Daphnia as it rarely measures more than A of the length of the animal .

It is possessed by the male as well as by the young female. In the adult

female it is reduced to a sharp prominence, like that seen in many

species of Ceriodaphnia.

Species 31. Ilyocryptus longiremis, Sars. Plate XIII, fig. 18.

1888. I. longiremis , Sars. Additional notes on Australian Cladocera,

* Christ. Vid.-Selskabs Forhand. 1888, No. 7, p. 33-41. De¬

scription of male and female. PI. iv. figs. 1, female; 2, female

• from below; 3, spines from edge of shell; 4, female post¬

abdomen; 5, male.

I am unable to distinguish our specimens from those raised by Sars

out of mud from Australia. The antennary setae, from whose length the

name is derived, are even longer in our species than in Sars’ figures,

nearly equalling the total length of the animal. There are 5-7 super-

anal teeth, largest in the middle, an outer row of about eight long post-

anal spines and an inner row of 11-12 post-anal denticles besides several

List of Crustacea Cladocera from Madison , Wis.

393

very small teeth near the terminal claw. There are 3-4 denticles on each

side of the anus. This armature of the post-abdomen distinguishes the

species at once from Ilyocryptus sordidus and I. acutifrons , while the

antennary setae distinguish it from J. agilis. The fact that moulting is

imperfect also serves to distinguish it from the latter species.

This is the common form of Ilyocryptus here, and is very abundant in

shallow water and marshy localities throughout the summer and until

after the formation of ice in the winter. The failure of food consequent

on long continued cold seems the only thing which checks their multi¬

plication. Whether I. spinifer , Herrick (op. cit., p. 77), is identical with

this species can not be decided as none of the specific characters are

mentioned or figured.

Species 37. Leydigia quadrangularis, Leyd.

The shell-markings in my specimens are far more distinct than those

described by European authors. Otherwise the species agrees entirely

with the descriptions.

Species 40. Alona lineata, Fischer.

If, following Matile’s * advice, the specific name lineata is abandoned,

my form would be A.pulchra, Hellich.

Species 44. Alona lepida, sp. nov. Plate XIII. Fig. 19.

Length, .8 mm. Length of male, .6 mm.

Height, .45-50 mm. Height of male, .3 mm.

Length post-abdomen, .40 mm.

General shape conforms to the normal Alona type. Head depressed,

rostrum sub-acute, nearly reaching the level of the ventral margin of the

shell. Valves quadrangular, dorsal margin arched, superior posteal

angle obtuse, well-marked. Posterior margin oblique, bearing a row of

minute spinules. Inferior posteal angle rounded, very slightly emargi-

nate. Ventral margin beset with a row of plumose setae, of ordinary

length, which ends abruptly at the posteal angle. Valves marked by

close-set, conspicuous, longitudinal striae, alternately stronger and

weaker, occasionally anastomosing, running parallel to the dorsal and

ventral margins and converging into a reticulated area at the anterior

inferior portion of the valves. Between the striae lie the braces.

Antennule extends nearly to end of rostrum: is spindle-shaped, largest

near base, provided with an anterior sense-bristle and 6-8 subequal

sense-hairs. Antennary setae fff. The terminal setae are of unequal

length. All are plumose and without spines. The eighth setae is of

moderate size, bi-articulate and plumose. Spines of antennae, On the

middle joint of the inner branch is a circlet of small spines. Ventral

margin of labrum often notched just anterior to the posterior angle,

* Matile, P. Die Cladoceren der Umgegend von Moskau, 1890, p. 46.

394 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

which, is sharp. Eye moderate in size, showing four or fewer lenses.

Macula nigra about as large as eye, angular, and somewhat nearer to eye-

than to apex of rostrum.

Post-abdomen enlarged posteriorly, lower angle rounded, bearing 15-17

serrate post-anal denticles and about the same number of squamae. Ter¬

minal claws smooth. Basal spine rather large. Abdominal setae of ordi¬

nary length.

MALE.

Antennule cylindrical, with anterior sense-bristle and flagellum. Post¬

abdomen devoid of denticles and with a row of squamae. Vas deferens

opens in front of terminal claw. Basal spine large.

Color yellowish to bright yellow, fairly transparent. Lake Mendota,.

in deeper water, 15-20 feet.

This species is evidently related to A. elegans, Kurz * from which it

differs in its greater size, in the reticulation of part of the shell, and

in the size, shape and armature of the post-abdomen. The post-abdomen

of A. lepida resembles in general that of A. quadrangular is, O. F. M.

The species lives at the bottom in rather deep water — 15-20 or more

feet — and is much more abundant in Lake Mendota than elsewhere in

the vicinity of Madison.

Species 45. Graptoleberis testudinaria, Fischer.

My species G. inermis ,| is a variety of this species. The spine on the

terminal claw is sometimes, though rarely, present, and the other char¬

acters adduced for G. inermis fall within the range of variation of Eu¬

ropean forms.

Species 46. Dunhevedia (Crepidocercus) setiger, Birge. Plate XIIL

Fig. 20.

In 1888, G. O. SarsJ raised from dried mud and redescribed Dunhevedia

crassa of King. From his description and figures it is plain that my

genus Crepidocercus is identical with King’s Dunhevedia, which was estab¬

lished in 1853. The genus was named by King from Dunheved, the

place where the animal was found. My species differs from D. crassa ,

King, in the reticulation of the shell and, apparently, from D. podagra,

King, in general form. I have not been able to see King’s original pa¬

per. D. setiger has been found in Hungary by Daday.§

In the latter part of August I found the males of this species. D. setiger

has always been one of the rarest species of Cladocera here. It was

rarely collected at all, and if present in a dredging was found in only

* Kurz, W. Dodekas neuer Cladoceren. Sitzb. der K. Akad. der Wissensch. Wien;

1874. Separate reprint, p. 43. Description of female, Tab. II, fig. 1, female.

t Transactions Wis. Acad. Sci., vol. iv, p. 102, pi. I, fig. 17.

X Additional notes on Aust. Cladocei'a, 1888, p. 41, PI. 5, figs. 1-4.

§Daday, E. Crustacea Cladocera Faunae Hungaricae, p. 93, PI. I, fig. 47-48.

List of Crustacea Cladocera from Madisow, Wis. 395

one or two specimens. At the time named I found in Lake Wingra, in

water filled with Millefolium , immense numbers of the species in both

sexes. Thousands were collected in a single haul of the cone-dredge.

After about a week they disappeared and repeated efforts to find them

in the same locality failed. Doubtless the winter eggs had been laid and

both sexes were dead. It will be interesting to observe at what date the

species will appear in 1892.

The male measures about .36 mm in length and .24 mm in height. It

has the same general form as the female. The first foot has a stout

hook. The post-abdomen resembles that of the female, and is provided

with numerous scattered hairs. The vas deferens opens above the ter¬

minal claws. The terminal claws are smooth in both sexes, differing

from D. crassa in which they are denticulate.

Species 47. Pleuroxus trigonellus, O. F. Mueller.

This species is by no means abundant here, and is usually found in

deep water, down to 12-15 feet.

Species 48. Pleuroxus denticulatus, Birge. Plate XIII. Fig. 21.

This is the ordinary Pleuroxus here. It corresponds to P. aduncus, Jur.

in Europe. I give a figure of the male post-abdomen.

Herrick remarks on the similarity of this species to P. procurvatus , .

and suggests that the two names may really belong to varieties of the

same species. I have looked carefully for connecting forms but have

been unable to find then.

Species 49. Pleuroxus gracilis, Hudendorff, var. unidens, Birge.

I was not acquainted with Hudendorff’s paper when I wrote my de¬

scription of this species in 1877. Matile* notes the resemblance of the

two forms and correctly points out that the chief difference lies in the

overhanging projection of the upper posteal angle in P. unidens. As I

find this difference constant and as there are other less important differ¬

ences, I retain my name as characterizing a variety. Both Hudendorff

and Matile note the species as rare. I did the same in my former paper,

having then found only about 15 specimens. By the use of the cone-

dredge I have found it quite abundant in Lake Wingra in late summer

and autumn. There is no difficulty in getting 25 to 100 specimens from

one haul of the dredge.

Species 60-62. Camptocercus.

Three species of Camptocercus are found in Wisconsin. C. macrurus,

O. F. M. has been formed in only a few specimens.

I am doubtful whether Schoedler’s two species C. biserratus and C.

rectirostris are really distinct. I find forms agreeing with both descriptions

* Die Cladoceren der Umg. von Moskau, 1890, p. 37.

396

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

in general, and include both names. In no case have I found the head

directed so horizontally forward as in Schoedler’s figures of C. rectiro-

stris* * * § Nor are the posteal teeth so large. Our form more nearly resem¬

bles that figured by Matile.| In the other form, the head is more depres¬

sed, the macula nigra larger than the eye, and the ventral margin of the

valves is concave. I have found no specimens connecting the two forms

and have therefore identified them as above.

In both species I have found individuals in which the beak was trun¬

cate, resembling that part in C. Lilljeborgii , Schdl., as figured by IIellich,J

or C. latirostris, Kurz.§ The shell markings differ from those figured by

any author. If a cast shell is examined without cover glass and not

covered by water, a reticulated area is seen in the anterior part of the

valves just below the middle. From this radiate most of the striae.

These are in front parallel to the anterior edge of the shell and the

direction gradually changes until they are parallel to the ventral edge.

Sixteen or more striae run out on the ventral edge of the shell. The long¬

itudinal striae anastomose occasionally and those on the dorsal part of

the valves do not bend downward into the reticulated area. I have never

found specimens reticulated all over with quadrangular meshes as Hel-

lich (1. c., pp. 76-77) figures them.

Species 63. Polyphemus pediculus, De Geer.

This species I have found very rarely. Only two or three specimens

have been discovered at long intervals. Zacharias[| notes that this ani¬

mal is distinctly northern in its range. My observations confirm his

conclusion. I find it quite abundant in a small collection from northern

* Minnesota. Herrick also describes it as plentiful in Minnesota. As I

have often searched vainly for it here, I believe that this locality must

be close to the southern limit of its range. The same is probably true of

Holopedium gibberum , Zad.

Species 64. Leptodora hyalina, Lillj.

I quote this species by its old name, without passing on the correct¬

ness of the change to L. Kincltii , Focke. Focke’s paper is inaccessible to

me. Leptodora is very abundant in all our lakes. It grows to a large

size and specimens 18-21 mm. in length are not rare.

* Schoedler. J. E. Neue Beitrage zur Naturgesckickte der Cladoceren, 1853. PI. Ill, fig 50.

t Matile, P. Die Cladoceren der Umgegend von Moskau. 1890. PI. IV, fig.26.

X Hellick, B. Die Cladoceren Boekmens, 1877, p. 77, fig. 37.

§ Kurz, W. Dodekas neuer Cladoceren, 1874, PI. II, fig. 9.

|| Zacliarias, O. Die Fauna des grossen und kleinen Teickes in Riesengebirge, Zeit. Wiss.

Zool. Vol. XLI., p. 492.

List of Crustacea Cladocera from Madison , Wis.

397

THE CONE-DREDGE.

The dredge which I have used for collecting seems worthy of special

description. It consists of four parts: the body, the cone, the net, and

the screw-top. The body is a cylinder of stout tin, strengthened by a

wire at each end, four inches long, and four inches in diameter. On

top of this is placed a cone of brass netting, five inches high. This is

attached below to a circle of tin so that it fits into the top of the body

like the cover of a tin pail. The bail of the body is of stout brass wire;

the ends passed through the side of the body and enlarged, and the

loop of wire shaped so as to fit within the cone and project through a

hole in its top with an eye into which the dredge-line can be fastened.

To the end of the line is attached a snap-hook larger than the hole in

the top of the cone, so that the cone can not come off the body when

in use. There are two cones provided for my dredge, one of one-tenth

inch mesh, and the other of one-twentieth inch.

The Jjy inch mesh is coarse enough unless it is desired to secure very

large forms. For ordinary shallow water collecting it is the best size.

The cone can easily be removed for work at night in the open water.

The net is of fine cheese cloth, eighteen to twenty-two inches long,

conical, large enough at the base to slip over the dredge body, to which

it is tied. It is faced with stout muslin for a distance of two or three

inches at each end. At the smaller end it is small enough to fit the

screw-top, a tin cylinder one inch in diameter and one and one-quarter

inches in length, with a wire in one end and on the other a zinc

screw-top, such as are used on kerosene cans.

The seam along one side of the net is so made as to leave a sort of a

loop in the cloth, through which a string can be run. One end of this

string is tied about the dredge body; to the other end can be attached

a weight, when desired, without having the pull of the weight come on

the net.

This dredge is very useful for collecting small animals in shallow or

weedy water. It can easily be thrown from the shore to a distance of 50

feet or more, thus permitting much more extensive collecting from

shore than does the ordinary hand net. It can be drawn through weeds

and over muddy bottoms, straining large amounts of water without

becoming filled with mud or clogged with weed. If it is desired to col¬

lect from water close to the bottom without obtaining mud, a weight

fastened to the end of the cord spoken of, so as to drag behind the

dredge will cause the dredge to lift at each pull and so exclude most of

the mud, except in very deep water. If a band of cloth is fastened

about the base of the cone, leaving only the upper part free it will ad¬

mit the water just above the bottom without scraping up mud. An old

rake or other irregular piece of iron fastened to the dredge-line in front

of the dredge will stir up the bottom and thus samples of bottom ani-

398

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

mals can be gathered from a long distance, before the dredge fills. The

cone not only excludes weeds but also keeps out insects, larvae, large

Gammari, etc., which so abound in localities favorable for Cladocera, and

whose size and activity made it difficult to distinguish the smaller Crus¬

tacea in the collector’s jar. The fact that this dredge can be pulled

through weeds and strain a large quantity of water without obtaining

a large amount of vegetable debris makes it very valuable in obtaining

the rarer Cladocera .

The dredge is emptied by unscrewing the screw-cap and washing out the

contents of the bag into a tumbler or small jar of water. In collecting

near home this is brought to the laboratory for study. When it is de¬

sired to preserve collections for future study, the water is allowed to

stand and settle for a short time and then the clear water containing the

animals and free from mud is poured through a funnel into a small bag

of cheese-cloth which is tied and put into alcohol or Other preserving

fluid.

With this dredge it is not at all difficult to collect 20-30 species of

Cladocera from one locality and in a few hauls. In a collection thus

gathered from the shore on a flying trip to some small lakelets at Man¬

istee, Mich., I found twenty-six species of littoral Cladocera. Zacharias*

in a summer’s campaign in North German lakes found only twenty- three

species from the shore waters.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 3.

Fig. 4.

Fig. 5.

Fig. 6.

Fig. 7.

Fig. 8.

Fig. 9.

Fig. 10.

Fig. 11.

Fig. 12.

Fig. 13.

Fig. 14.

Fig. 15.

Fig. 16.

Fig. 17.

Fig. 18.

Fig. 19.

Ffg. 20.

Fig. 21.

PLATE XIII.

Latonopsis occidentalism Birge. Head of male, enlarged 60 diameters.

“ “ Head of young female, enlarged 50 diameters.

“ “ Post-abdomen of male, enlarged 75 diameters.

The spines of the carapace are omitted.

“ “ Antennule of new-hatched male, enlarged 200

diameters.

“ “ First leg of male, enlarged 175 diameters.

Latona setifera, O. F. M. Male antennule to show position of appendix cili-

ata (a). Enlarged 200 diameters.

Daphnia retrocurva, Forbes. Male antennule, enlarged 200 diameters.

“ “ Female, enlarged 30 diameters.

“ hyalina, Leyd. Male antennule, enlarged 200 diameters.

Ophryoxus gracilis , Sars. Head of male, enlarged 65 diameters.

“ “ Post-abdomen of male, enlarged 160 diameters.

“ “ Part of first leg of male, enlarged 200 diameters.

Macro thrix rosea, Jur. Antennule of male, enlarged 240 diameters.

“ “ Post-abdomen of male, enlarged 240 diameters.

Drepanothrix dentata, Eur. Post-abdomen of male, enlarged 175 diameters.

“ “ Female, enlarged 65 diameters .

“ “ First leg of male, enlarged 300 diameters .

Ilyocryptus longiremis, Sars. Male, enlarged 100 diameters. The spines of the

carapace are omitted where they would cross

the post-abdomen.

Alona lepida , Birge. Cast shell to show markings, enlarged 60 diameters.

Dunhevedia setiger , Birge. Male, enlarged 115 diameters.

Pleuroxus denticulatus, Birge. Post-abdomen of male, enlarged 165 diameters.

* Zacharias, O. Zur Kenntniss der pelagischen und littoralen Fauna Norddeutschen Seen.

Zeit. Wiss. Zool. Vol XLV, 1887., p. 265.

Vol. VIII , PI. XII I.

'mvv

Note on Cerussite from Illinois and Wisconsin.

399

NOTE ON CERUSSITE FROM ILLINOIS AND WISCONSIN.

By WM. H. HOBBS.

A few years since the University of Wisconsin obtained by purchase

the mineral collections of W. T. Henry, of Mineral Point, Wis. They

consist largely of the minerals associated in the zinc and lead deposits

of southwestern Wisconsin and northwestern Illinois, and comprise the

best series existing from that region. Among the carbonates cerussite

is found, the best localities being Galena, Ill., and several points in Iowa

County, Wis.

In a number of specimens in the University of Wisconsin collections

the mineral is quite well crystallized and is always found on the surface

of galenite, where its presence is best explained by the action of car¬

bonated waters on the galenite. Cubes of galenite attaining in some

cases dimensions of several inches are half covered by yellowish white

cerussite crystals, which vary in size from a millimetre to more than a

centimetre in diameter. They are stoutly columnar and translucent, with

a color varying from yellowish white to light steel-gray. The faces are

generally somewhat rounded, especially the terminal ones. The brachy-

axis is the one of principal development, the columnar habit being

given by the planes s, |Pob (012), and u, 2P,oo (021), which have about

equal development. The fundamental prism M terminates the crystals.

The pyramid t, P (111) appears as a rounding of the combination edge

M : s. Twins parallel to M were frequently observed. Measurements of

the interfacial angles with the goniometer of the Fness Universal-

apparat gave the following results:

u : u (2Pc6 : 2P5o )

s : s (£Pc6 : iPoo ) .

M : M (oo P : ooP)..

t : t (P : P) .

Measured Calculated.

111° 2' 110° 40'

139° 54' 140° 15'

117° 25' 117° 14'

130° 129° 30'

The face t gave no image, the value being the average of a number of

measurements by the shimmer seen when the lens was in place before the

telescope.

400 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

Figure 1 shows the average development of an untwimmed individual.

Mr. R. B. Green, late of the University of Wisconsin and now chemist

for the Lake Superior Iron Company at Ishpeming, Michigan, has made

an analysis of some of the more translucent crystals from Galena, Illinois,,

with the following results:

Calculated

for Pb Co 3.

PbO . 83.42 83.52

C03 . . 16.45 16.48

99.87 100.00

The material analyzed was specially examined for zinc with negative

results.

University of Wisconsin.

PROCEEDINGS.

NINETEENTH REGULAR MEETING.

Thursday, December 27, 1888, 4 p. m.

Committee Room of Senate Chamber.

Report of treasurer and secretary read.

That of secretary approved.

The committee on nominations (Prof. Van Hise, chair¬

man), reported the following candidates, all of whom were

elected:

C. C. Pudor, Madison.

Prof. C. D. Marsh, Ripon.

Prank Leverett, U. S. G. S., Madison.

Prof. G. C. Comstock, Madison.

G. B. Ransom, U. S. Navy, Madison.

F. W. A. Woll, Madison.

Prof. Stephen M. Babcock, Madison.

Prof J. S. Brown, Madison.

Dr. H. B. Favill, Madison.

Dr. Jos. Jastow, Madison.

Prof. J. E. Olson, Madison.

Prof. W. A. Henry, Madison.

F. G. Short, chemist, Experiment Station, Madison.

Hon. G. H. Noyes, Milwaukee.

H. J. Desmond, Milwaukee.

Dr. H. A. Puls, Milwaukee.

Dr. J. M. Dodson, Milwaukee.

J. H. Dawley, Antigo.

Prof. J. Bigham, Ripon.

J. B. Thayer, Madison.

404

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

W. H. Chandler, Madison.

Prof. Storm Bull, Madison.

Rev. A. H. Somers, Ft. Atkinson.

Rev. H. D. Maxson, Menomonie.

Prof. C. S. Slichter, Madison.

Prof C. H. Chandler, Ripon.

Thursday, 7:30 P. M.

Assembly Chamber,

Joint meeting of Academy and Teachers’ Association.

Paper — Importance of Libraries in Rural Schools— Hon.

J. B. Thayer.

Paper — Socialism and Anarchy — Rev. H. D. Maxson.

Adjourned.

Friday, Dec. 28, 9 A. M.

Rooms of the Academy.

Prof. Allen in the chair.

Auditing committee appointed consisting of Prof. L. M.

Hoskins and Prof. Chandler.

Committee on nominations appointed consisting of Prof.

Van Hise, Prof. I. M. Buell and Prof. A. J. Rogers.

The following papers were read:

“ Observations on the Till Aggregations in South Eastern

Wisconsin.” — Prof. Ira M. Buell.

“ Appendages of the First Abdominal Segment of the Em¬

bryo of the Cockroach.”— W. M. Wheeler.

“ Rote on a Disease affecting the Head and Eyes of Fish.”

— Prof. E. A. Birge.

“ Kame Ridges and Gravel Trains within the Area of the

Green Bay Glacier.” — Prof. Ira M. Buell.

“ British Convicts Shipped to British American Colonies.”

— Prof J. D. Butler.

Adjourned.

Proceedings.

405

Friday, 2 P. M.

Rooms of the Academy.

The treasurer’s report was approved on the recommenda¬

tion of the auditing committee.

The following papers were read:

“ Sectional Features in American Politics.” — H. J. Des¬

mond.

“The Defective Classes.” — A. O. Wright.

“ The Science of the English Language in the Light of

the Gothic.” — G. H. Balg.

“Aristotle’s Physics.” — Rev. J. J. Elmendorf. (This

paper was read by title and a brief synopsis of it given by

Prof. Allen.)

Adjourned.

Friday, 7:30 P. M.

Assembly Chamber.

The following papers were read.

“ Recent Explorations of Aztalan Mounds, with a Dis¬

cussion of the Pre-historic Races of America.” — Rev. A.

1ST. Somers.

“Studies in Archaeology.” — Rev. S. D. Peet.

Prof. Yan Hise offered the following resolution:

That a sufficient amount of money be appropriated fco

illustrate the next volume of the transactions of the

academy; the amount to be determined by the president, •

secretary and treasurer.

Carried.

Nominating committee reported the following candidates

who were elected:

Dominie Schuler, 473 15th Ave., Milwaukee.

Prof. Floyd Davis, Madison.

Rev. W. A. McAtee, Madison.

Rev. J. H. Crooker, Madison.

Resolved (Prof. Yan Hise), That the librarian be author¬

ized to prepare a catalogue of the library of the academy,

spending a suitable amount of money for the purpose.

Adjourned sine die.

406

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

TWENTIETH REGULAR MEETING.

Rooms of the Academy.

Thursday, Dec. 26, 1889.

Owing to the death of Pres. Allen, Vice-president King

occupied the chair.

Moved (Prof. Barnes) that a president be elected for the

unexpired term.

Carried.

Prof. Birge was elected.

President Birge in the chair.

The report of the secretary was read and approved.

Report of treasurer read.

The vice-president appointed an auditing committee con¬

sisting of Messrs. Barnes and Blackstone.

On motion, Messrs. Tatlock and H. P. Armsby were trans¬

ferred to the list of corresponding members.

The president appointed Profs. Bigham and King a com¬

mittee on new members.

Adjourned.

Friday, 9:30 A. M.

President Birge in the chair.

Report of auditing committee was received and adopted.

The chair appointed Prof. J. D. Butler to prepare a me¬

morial of Prof. Wm. F. Allen, Prof. T. C. Chamberlin to pre¬

pare a memorial of Prof. Roland D. Irving, and Rev. H. D.

Maxson to prepare a memorial of Prof. Lucius Heritage, to

be presented at the next regular meeting.

The following papers were read:

Proceedings. 407

“The Chemical Constituents of Locust Bark,” — F. B.

Power and J. Cambier.

“Notes and a Query Concerning the Ericaceae.” — Chas.

Chandler.

“ Observed Discrepancies from Law of Attraction Recon¬

ciled and Certain Points of Astronomy Explained.” — D. P„

Blackstone.

It was moved and carried that Prof. C. 0. Whitman

be placed on the list of corresponding members.

The treasurer submitted a list of members many years in

arrears.

Moved and carried that the names read be dropped.

Adjourned.

Friday, 2:30 P. M.

Mr. A. J. Rogers in the chair.

The following papers were read :

“Kentucky Pioneers.” — James D. Butler.

“Problems of Hypnotism.” — Joseph Jastrow.

“ On some Metamorphosed Eruptives in the Crystalline

Rocks of Maryland.” — Wm. H. Hobbs.

Adjourned.

Friday, 8 P. M.

President Birge in the chair.

The committee on nominations reported the following

names for membership.

Mr. Caleb N. Harrison, Milwaukee.

Prof. N. S. Fuller, Ripon.

Prof. A. A. Upham, State Normal School, Whitewater.

Prof. Chas. E. Bennett, Madison.

Dr. Wm. H. Hobbs, Madison.

Prof. C. P. Sennott, State Normal School, Milwaukee.

408 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

The Secretary was directed to cast the vote of the Aca¬

demy for these persons.

The following papers were read:

“Science as Related to Invention.” — A. J. Rogers.

“ Some new Theories of the Greek perfect in Ka.” — Chas.

E. Bennett.

Moved and carried that the council be authorized

to expend the amount necessary to meet the running ex¬

penses of the year.

Adjourned sine die.

Geo. W. Peckham,

Secretary .

Proceedings .

409

TWENTY-FIRST REGULAR MEETING.

Rooms of the Academy,

Tuesday, Dec. 30, 1890, 9 A. M.

President Birge in the chair.

Report of secretary read and approved.

In the absence of the treasurer, Hon. S. D. Hastings, Mr.

F. W. McNair presented his report.

The president appointed Messrs. Van Hise and Barnes

auditing committee on treasurer’s report.

F. M. McNair read a list of members and the amounts

due from each to date.

The following program was then followed:

“Recent Progress in the Chemistry of Sugars.” — H. W.

Hillyer.

“ Some Observations on Lake Superior Stratigraphy.” —

C. R. Van Hise.

“ Electro-Deposition of Aluminum in Aqueous Solutions.”

—A. J. Rogers.

“ On Cleavage and Lamination in Gneisses and their Re¬

lation to Bedding.” — Wm. H. Hobbs.

“The Eleventh Amendment to the Constitution.” — C. H.

Haskins. (Read by Prof. P. J. Turner.)

Adjourned.

Tuesday, 2:30 P. M.

The auditing committee reported that the treasurer’s re¬

port and vouchers had been examined and found to be cor¬

rect. Signed C. R. Van Hise and C. R. Barnes.

On motion of Prof. Jastrow the report was approved.

410

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters .

The president appointed Pres. Chamber] in and Prof.

Peckham a committee on new members.

The regular program was then resumed.

“Recent Theories of the Evolution of Sex.” — A. N.

Somers.

“Some Generalizations of Comparative Psychology.” —

Jos. Jastrow.

“Glacial Lobation in Ohio.” — Prank Leverett.

“Recent Progress in Correlation and Differentiation of

Glacial Deposits.” — T. C. Chamberlin.

“Hypnotism.” — A. N. Somers.

The committee on new members reported the following

nominations :

Dr. C. H. Haskins, Madison.

Prof. E. S. Goff, Madison.

Prof. C. D. Marx, Madison.

Prof. A. A. Knowlton, Madison.

Prof. W. S. Leavenworth, Ripon.

On motion the secretary was instructed to cast the ballot

of the Academy for these new members.

The meeting then adjourned.

Tuesday, 7:30 P. M.

The academy listened to the address of Pres. E. A. Birge

on “ Recent Problems in Biology.”

On the President’s suggestion the usual formalities were

waived and a very general discussion ensued.

The committee on nomination of officers reported as fol¬

lows:

President, Prof. Geo. W. Peckham, Milwaukee.

Vice-president for Science, Prof. R. D. Salisbury, Beloit;

vice-president for Letters, Rev. H. D. Maxson, Menomonie;

vice-president of Arts, Prof. E. B. Power, Madison.

Treasurer, Hon. S. D. Hastings, Madison.

Secretary, Prof. C. E. Bennett, Madison.

Curator and librarian, Prof. Win. H. Hobbs, Madison.

Proceedings .

411

On motion the secretary was directed to cast the ballot of

the Academy for the new officers.

It was moved and carried that the council be authorized

to expend the amount of money necessary to meet the ex¬

penses of the ensuing year.

Adjourned sine die.

C. E. Bennett,

Secretary.

Note — In June, 1891, the secretary, Prof. C. E. Bennett removed to

Providence, R. I., and in September the president appointed Prof. Wm. H.

Hobbs the secretary, ad interim.

412

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

TWENTY-SECOND REGULAR MEETING.

Rooms of the Academy.

Tuesday, Dec. 29th, 1891.

Meeting called to order at 9:30 A. M.

Vice-president F. B. Power in the chair.

The report of the secretary was read and accepted.

The treasurer, Hon. 8. D. Hastings, then read his report.

It was moved and carried that the following members be

made honorary members of the Academy:

Prof. C. E. Bennett, Providence, R. I.

Mr. Ira M. Buell, Sun Prairie, Wis.

Prof. J. W. Stump, Oswego, Y. Y.

Prof. C. D. Marx, Palo Alto, Cal.

The treasurer was given authority to drop from the list

of members all who were in arrears more than three years.

The presiding officer appointed Prof. C. D. Marsh, Mr.

Frank Leverett and Rev. A. Y. Somers, a committee to

audit the treasurer's report.

The report of the librarian and custodian was next read.

The librarian reported that the books of the library had

been re-arranged and a card catalogue begun. He recom¬

mended to the Academy the appointment of a library com¬

mittee of three, including the librarian, to consider means

of enlarging the library and making it more accessible to

members. It was further recommended that this commit¬

tee be authorized to purchase from the funds of the

Academy such odd volumes as may be necessary to com¬

plete the series of important journals.

It was moved by Prof. Van Hise to amend by requir¬

ing the expenditures of the committee to be subject to the

approval of the council. Carried.

Proceedings.

413

The recommendation was then adopted, and the presid¬

ing officer appointed Prof. G. L. Hendrickson and Prof.

Geo. C. Comstock and the librarian, the library committee.

The custodian recommended that the collection of fossils

belonging to the Academy be deposited in the collection of

the University of Wisconsin to be stored by itself and

labeled as the property of the Wisconsin Academy.

Prof. Birge moved that the recommendation be adopted

subject to the acceptance of the university authorities.

Carried.

Prof. J. W. Stearns, in a brief address, reviewed the life

of Rev. H.«D. Maxson, the late vice-president of the De¬

partment of Letters, and paid a tribute to his many sterling

qualities, to which Profs. Yan Hise and Marsh added their

testimony.

The president asked Prof. Stearns in the name of the

Academy, to prepare a memorial of the life of Rev. Mr.

Maxson for publication in the Transactions.

The president then appointed the following committees :

On Nominations of Officers — Profs. Yan Hise, Birge and

Hillyer.

On New Members — Profs. Birge, F. H. King and Turner.

On Publication — The Secretary ex-officio and Profs. Yan

Hise, Loomis and H. C. Tolman.

The literary program was then begun:

“ Origin of the Iron Ores of the Lake Superior Region.” —

C. R. Yan Hise, 25 minutes.

Discussed by Mr. Sennott.

“ On New Attidae.” — G. W. Peckham. (Read by title.)

“ Notes on a Little Known Region of Northwestern Mon¬

tana.” — G. E. Culver, 25 minutes.

Discussed by Dr. Butler, Prof. Yan Hise and Mr. Leverett.

“ Some Influences of Sex on Personality.” — A. N. Somers.

(Read by title.)

“On the Limonene Group of Terpenes.” — Edward Krem-

ers. (Read by title.)

The meeting then adjourned till afternoon.

414 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

Afternoon Session, 2:30 P. M.

The auditing committee, through its chairman, Prof.

Marsh, announced that the report and vouchers of the

treasurer had been examined and found to be correct.

The program was then resumed.

“ Notes on the Depth and Temperature of Green Lake.”

— C. Dwight Marsh.

“On the Deep Water Crustacea of Green Lake.” — C.

Dwight Marsh, 15 minutes.

Discussed by Profs. Birge and Van Hise.

“ The Present Condition of the Latitude Problem.” — G. C.

Comstock, 30 minutes.

Discussion by Profs. Butler, Davies, Hoskins, Loomis

and Van Hise.

“ On Certain Analogies between the Theories of Elasticity

and Electro-magnetism.” — J. E. Davies, 25 minutes.

“ On the Authenticity of the Commentariolum Petitionis

of Quintus Cicero.” — G. L. Hendrickson, 20 minutes.

“ The effect of Changes of Temperature on the Distribu¬

tion of Magnetism.” — H. B. Loomis, 25 minutes.

The Academy adjourned till evening.

Evening Session. 7:30 P. M.

The committee on New Members, through its chairman,

Dr. Birge, nominated the following for membership, and

the secretaty was instructed to cast the ballot of the Acad¬

emy for them.

Prof. G. A. Tolbert, Racine.

Mr. Geo. E. Luther, U. S. G. S., Madison.

Prof. F. L. Yan Cleef, Madison.

Prof. G. L. Hendrickson, Madison.

Dr. H. B. Loomis, Madison.

Prof. G. E. Culver, Madison.

Dr. A. H. Tolman, Ripon.

Mr. S. D. Townley, Madison.

Dr. Edward Kremers, Madison.

Proceedings.

415

Dr. H. C. Tolman, Madison.

Dr. C. F. Hodge, Madison.

Prof. W. A. Eckels, Ripon.

The literary program was then resumed.

“ On Some Interesting Pseudomorphs from the Taconic

Region.” — Win, H. Hobbs, 10 minutes.

“On Cladocera of Madison, Wisconsin.” — E. A. Birge, 30

minutes.

Discussion by Profs. Jastrow, Barnes and Marsh.

“ Some Hew Points in the Physiology and Hygiene of

Nerve Fatigue.” — C. F. Hodge, 30 minutes.

Discussion by Prof. Jastrow.

“ On the Correlation of Moraines and Raised Beaches of

Lake Erie.” — Frank Leverett, 30 minutes.

Meeting adjourned till next day.

Wednesday, 9 A. M.

“The Council Houses and Clan Centres of the Effigy

Builders.” — Dr. S. D. Peet, 25 minutes. (Read by his son,

Mr. C. E. Peet.)

Prof. Leverett then supplemented his paper of Tuesday

evening which had been abridged owing to the lateness of

the hour.

“On Two Hew Occurrences of Diabase.” — G. E. Culver

and Win* H. Hobbs, 20 minutes.

“The Pseudo-Gregorian Drama xpidros na6x^v in its

Relation to the Text of Euripides.” — F. L. Van Cleef. (Read

by title. )

“Early Lutheran Immigration to Wisconsin.” — Kate A.

Everest, 15 minutes. (Read by F. J. Turner.)

The Committee on Nomination of Officers through its

chairman, Prof. Yan Hise, nominated for vice-president of

the Department of Letters, vice Rev. H. D. Maxson, de¬

ceased, Dr. A. H. Tolman of Ripon, and for secretary, vice

Prof. C. E. Bennett removed to Providence, R. I., Dr. Wm.

H. Hobbs of Madison.

416

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters.

The secretary was instructed fco cast the ballot of the

academy for these officers.

The program was then resumed.

“Clocks and Watches” — R. G. Norton, 8 minutes.

“ Ponderable and Imponderable Fluids.” — Simeon Mills,

10 minutes.

“Limited Distribution of the Waterloo Boulder Train.” —

Ira M. Buell. 1 S|

Prof. Yan Hise spoke of the desirability of holding a

local meeting each year, at some of the educational centres

of the state, in addition to the regular annual meeting held

in Madison, and moved that the council be authorized to

hold such a meeting before the next annual meeting mak¬

ing all necessary arrangements as to time and place. After

discussion by the president, Prof. Marsh and others, the

measure was carried unanimously.

On motion of the treasurer, Dr. A. L. Chapin of Beloit,

was made a life member of the academy.

The meeting then adjourned sine die.

Wm. H. Hobbs,

Secretary .

Reports of Treasurer.

417

REPORTS OF TREASURER.

Madison, December 27, 1888.

To the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

Gentlemen: The undersigned would respectfully pre¬

sent the following statement of the financial transaction

of the Academy during the past year: —

Balance on hand December 27, 1887 . $849 19

Received from members during the year for fees and dues 58 00

Received from interest on permanent loan . 40 00

$942 19

The disbursements have been as follows: —

1888.

Jan. 21. Paid Nelson & North for printing blank notices.. $2 00

June 4. Paid Luding Kumlein for redrawing maps . 10 00

July 2. Paid Moss Engraving Co. engraving plates . 50 00

Oct. 2. Paid Marr & Richards, engraving maps . 10 00

Dec. 1. Paid M. J. Cantwell for printing . 7 75 79 75

Balance on hand, Dec. 27, 1888 . $862 44

Vouchers herewith submitted,

Samuel D. Hastings.

Treasurer.

To the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters:

Gentlemen: The following is a statement of the finan¬

cial transactions of the Academy during the past year, viz. :

Balance on hand as per last statement . $862 44

Received for interest on, permanent fund . 40 00

Received from members for initiation fees and annual dues . 85 50

$987 94

27— A. & L,

418 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

The disbursements on the order of the president and sec¬

retary have been as follows, viz. :

1879.

Jan. 10. Paid W. F. Allen on account of catalogues . $10 00

Jan. 17. Paid W. F. Allen on account of catalogues . 12 40

Jan. 18. Paid Burdick, Armitage & Allen for printing 8 50

Jan. 18. Paid G. W. Peckham for postage and envelopes 2 65

Mar. Paid E. A. Birge for cash paid for catalogue-

ing library . 16 00 $49 55

Balance on hand Dec. 26, 1889 . $988.89

Respectfully submitted,

Samuel D. Hastings,

Vouchers herewith submitted. ' Treasurer .

Madison, December 30, 1890.

To the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters:

Gentlemen: The following is a statement of the finan¬

cial transactions of the Academy during the past year, viz. :

Balance on hand as per last statement . . $938 39

Received for interest on permanent fund . 40 00

Received from members for initiation fees and annual

dues . 88 00

- $1,066 39

The disbursements on the order of the president

and secretary have been as follows, viz. :

1889.

Dec. 27. Paid S. D. Hastings for postage and envelopes for

6 years . $15 50

Paid Geo. W. Peckham, postage, envelopes, etc . 1 68

Dec. 28. Paid Burdick, Armitage & Allen, for printing _ 6 75

1890.

Feb. 3. Paid E. A. Birge for postage, etc . 27 00

Feb. 18. Paid Am. Express Co . . 6 75

Mar. 7. Paid Adams Express Co . ^ . . 3 95

Paid C. E. Hoyt for putting up documents . 5 00

Nov. 4. Paid G. W. Peckham for bills of Moss Engraving

Co., N. Y . 30 10

- $96 73

Balance on hand Dec. 30, 1890 . $969 66

Respectfully submitted,

Samuel D. Hastings,

Treasurer .

Reports of Treasurer.

419

Madison, December, 1891.

To the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters:

Gentlemen: The following is a statement of the finan¬

cial transactions of the Academy during the past year:—

viz. :

Balance on hand as per last statement . $969 6&

Received for interest on permanent loan . 40 00'

Received from members for initation fees and annual dues . 59 00'

Total . $1,068 60

The disbursements upon the order of the president

and secretary have been as follows, viz. :

1890.

Oct. 80. Paid L. S. Cheney for cataloging books, etc . $16 20

1891.

Jan. 81. Paid A. C. McClurg & Co., printing, etc . 4 35

Feb. 21. Paid Chas. E. Bennett, postage and express . 1 75

Mar. 4. Paid Mrs. E. A. Birge, for express . 1 00

May 4. Paid Burdick, Armitage & Allen for printing.. 3 50

Aug. 6. Paid State Journal, printing, etc . 2 85

Nov. 11. Paid Detrich & Adams stamp pad, etc . 75

Nov. 11. Paid Library Bureau (Boston), sundries . 12 88

Nov. 11. Paid W. H. Hobbs, postage, express, etc . 7 90

Total . $51 15

Balance on hand - 1891 . $1,017 51

Respectfully submitted,

Samuel D. Hastings,

Treasurer .

i

420

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

REPORT OF THE LIBARIAN AND CUSTODIAN.

( Presented at the Twenty -second Regular Meeting , December 39tfiyil391.)

The arrangement and cataloguing of the books of the

library has been begun during the past year, and the

catalogue is about a third completed. The work has been

much hindered because access to the rooms can be had

only on Saturdays and during vacations, owing to their

being used for meetings of the law and history classes.

The cases and shelves have been washed and the doors

fitted with new locks where necessary. The cases have

been given numbers from 1 to 31, and the shelves letters.

The dust of ages has been removed from the books and a

temporary arrangement made on the plan which follows.

As most members know, the library consists almost

solely of journals obtained in exchange for the Transac¬

tions of the Academy. A primary classification has been

made into: (l) Journals which treat of Sciences, Arts and

Letters. (2) Journals restricted to Sciences. (3) Journals

treating of special sciences, as biological journals, geologi¬

cal journals, etc. (This class contains a subdivision for

each science or group of sciences represented.) (4) Jour¬

nals relating solely to the Arts. (5) Journals relating to

Letters. Supplementary to each of these divisions is a

small collection of separate works and brochures of papers

in other journals. The bulk of the library of the Academy

is embraced in the first three divisions — general and scien¬

tific journals.

Under this primary grouping the journals are classified

according to language, as English, German, French, Italian,

Dutch, Norwegian, Swedish, Russian, etc.

A list showing this arrangement, with the number of cases

Report of Librarian.

421

where the journals of each department are to be found, will

be posted this noon near the door, so that members can in¬

spect the shelves and learn what journals the library pos¬

sesses in each or any department of knowledge.

The card catalogue has been adopted as in every way the

most convenient and the best adapted to any change of ar¬

rangement of books that may in future become necessary.

(I should perhaps state that a partial card catalogue exists,

but as it does not tell where the books are to be found, it

proved easier to make a new one than to use the old one.)

The present classification of the cards is the same as that

of the books, and each card gives reference to number of

case and letter of shelf where the book is to be f onnd. The

books have been given numbers on the following plan: Each

journal has a journal number, and each volume of that

journal a volume number separated from the journal num¬

ber by a space and period. The volume number is gener¬

ally the number of the volume. This makes it convenient

to number and catalogue accessions.

It is proposed, if possible, to finish the catalogue before

spring and publish a list of the journals in volume viii of

the Transactions.

The acknowledgment of books receive d and the details

of the work of cataloguing have been carried out by Mr. L.

S. Cheney, Fellow in Biology of the University of Wiscon¬

sin, who has been paid for the work. Credit is due him

for the care he has exercised in a work requi ring consider¬

able care. Journals have in some cases been found bound

with incorrect titles, parts of a volume bound with odd

numbers left out, etc.

At the next annual meeting of the Academy I expect to

be able to present a list of the most valuable of the journals,

and the Academy will be asked to appropriate money for

binding them.

As soon as the library is catalogued it will, I think, pos¬

sess considerable value to many of the members as a library

of reference. It includes many quite important journals,

I would recommend to the Academy the appointment of a

libi? ry committee of three, of whom the librarian shall be

422 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

a member ex- officio, to consider means of increasing our

list of exchanges, other means of enlarging and improving

the library, and how it shall be made most accessible to

members. The constitution provides that such a committee

be appointed annually. I recommend that this committee

be given authority to purchase — subject to the approval of

the council — from the funds of the Academy odd volumes,

when necessary to complete our series.

As custodian of the collection of specimens of the Acad¬

emy, I have little to report. The value of the collection

consists mainly in the type fossils of the late Wisconsin

Geological Survey, whose space on the shelves is needed for

the library. I recommend that these fossils be deposited

in the collections of the University of Wisconsin where

they can be stored by themselves, labelled as the property of

the Wisconsin Academy, and be accessible for study. This

would be done subject to the approval of the university

authorities. *

Respectfully submitted,

Wm. H. Hobbs,

Librarian and Custodian.

* The recommendations in this report were favorably acted on by the

Academy. (See proceedings, p. 412.) The work of the library committee

is hardly more than begun, and a full report will be given at the next an¬

nual meeting. The action of the Academy on the second recommendation

(concerning collection of fossils), has been presented to the faculty of the

University of Wisconsin, and on their recommendation permission was

given by the Board of Regents to transfer the collection to the university.

The transfer has been made accordingly. — Secretary, April, 1892.

Officers and Members

423

OFFICERS AND MEMBERS

OF THE

WISCONSIN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, ARTS AND

LETTERS, 1892.

OFFICERS.

PRESIDENT,

PROF. GEO. W. PECKHAM,

Superintendent of Schools, Milwaukee.

VICE-PRESIDENT OF SCIENCES,

PROF. ROLLXN D. SALISBURY,

University of Wisconsin, Madison.

VICE-PRESIDENT OF ARTS,

PROF. F. B. POWER,

University of Wisconsin, Madison.

VICE-PRESIDENT OF LETTERS,

PROF. A. H. TOLMAN,

Ripon College, Ripon.

SECRETARY,

PROF. WM. H. HOBBS,

University of Wisconsin, Madison.

TREASURER,

HON. S. D. HASTINGS, Madison.

LIBRARIAN AND CURATOR,

PROF. WM. H. HOBBS, Madison.

424 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

COMMITTEE ON PUBLICATION.

THE SECRETARY, eX-officiO.

Prof. C. R. Van Hise, Madison.

Prof. H. B. Loomis, Madison.

Prof. H. C. Tolman, Madison.

COMMITTEE ON LIBRARY.

THE LIBRARIAN, eX-OffiClO.

Prof. Geo. L. Hendrickson, Madison.

Prof. Geo. C. Comstock, Madison.

LIFE MEMBERS.

Prof. Edward A. Birge, Madison.

Dr. A. L. Chapin, Beloit.

Prof. J. E. Davies, Madison.

Gen. G. P. Delaplaine, Madison.

Hon. J. L. Hill, Chicago, Ill.

Hon. John W. Hoyt, Cheyenne, Wyoming.

Hon. John L. Mitchell, Milwaukee.

Hon. J. G. Thorp, Eau Claire.

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

Abbott, C. C., M. D., Trenton, N. J.

Andrews, Edmund, A. M., M. D., Prof. Chicago Medical College,

Chicago, Ill.

Armsby, Prof. H. P., State College, Pa.

Barron, John W., 113 E. 17th St., New York, N. Y.

Bennett, Prof. C. E., Brown University, Providence, R. I.

Benton, J. G., M. D., Philadelphia, Pa.

Bridge, Norman, M. D., Chicago, Ill.

Buchanan, Joseph, M. D., Louisville, Ky.

Byrness, R. M., M. E., Cincinnati, Ohio.

Officers and Members.

425

Caverno, Rev. Charles, Lombard, Ill.

Crooker, Rev. J. H., Helena, Montana.

Davis, Floyd, Des Moines, Iowa.

Ebenzer, F., Ph. D., Baltimore, Md.

Fallows, Right Rev. Bishop Samuel, Chicago, Ill.

Fiske, E. O., Minneapolis, Minn.

Gilman, D. C., Ph. D., LL. D., President Johns Hopkins University,

Baltimore, Md.

Harris, W. T., LL. D., Concord, Mass.

Higley, W. K., Chicago, Ill.

Holden, Prof. E. S., Director Lick Observatory, San Jose, Cal.

Holland, Rev. F. M., Concord, Mass.

Hopkins, F. N., M. D., Baton Rouge, La.

Horr, M. D., President Iowa Inst. Arts and Sciences, Dubuque, Iowa.

Hubbell, H. P., Winona, Minn.

Jewell, J. S., A. M., M. D., Prof. Chicago Medical College, Chicago,

Ill.

Le Barron, Wm,, State Entomologist, Geneva, N. Y.

Marcy, Oliver, LL. D., Prof. Northwestern University, Evanston, HI.

Marx, Prof. C. D., Stamford University, Palo Alto, Cal.

Morgan, L. H., LL. D., Rochester, Ill.

Newberry, Prof. J. S., LL. D., Prof. Columbia College, New York,

N. Y.

Orton, Prof. E., A. M., President State University, and State Geol¬

ogist, Columbus, Ohio.

Paine, Alford, S. T. D., Hinsdale, Ill.

Peet, Rev. Stephen D., Ph. D., Avon, Ill.

Potter, Prof. W. B., Washington University, St. Louis, Mo.

Safford, Prof. T. H., Williams College, Williamstown, Mass.

Sawyer, Prof. W. C., - .

Shaler, Prof. N. S., A. M., Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.

Shipman, Col. S. V., Chicago, Ill.

426

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

Somers, Rev. A. N., La Porte, Ind.

\\

Steele, Rev. G. M., Principal Wilbrakam Seminary, Wilbraham,

Mass.

Stump, Prof. J. W., Oswego, N. Y.

Tatlock, John, Jr., - .

Trelease, Prof. William, Washington University, St. Louis, Mo.

Trumbull, J. H., LL. D., Hartford, Ct.

Van de Warker, Eli, M. D., Syracuse, N. Y.

de Vere, Prof. Scheie M., LL. D., University of Virginia, Va.

Verrill, Prof. A. E., A. M., Yale University, New Haven, Ct.

Whitman, Prof. C. O., Clark University, Worcester, Mass.

Whitney, Prof. W. D., Yale University, New Haven, Ct.

Winchell, Prof. N. H., State Geologist, Minneapolis, Minn.

Young, Rev. A. A., Monona, Iowa.

Note.— The above list is believed to contain many errors. Note of corrections should be

sent to the secretary.

ACTIVE MEMBERS.

Barnes, Prof. C. R., Madison.

Balg, Prof. G. H., Mayville.

Bartlett, Dr. E. W., Milwaukee.

Beach, Prof. W. H., Milwaukee.

Beaty, Hon. Henry, Milwaukee.

Blackstone, Prof. D. P., Berlin.

Blaisdell, Prof. J. J., Beloit.

Buel, Ira M., Sun Prairie.

Butler, Prof. J. D., Madison.

Bull, Prof. Storm, Madison.

Carr, Chas. F., Madison.

Chamberlin, President T. C., Madison.

Officers and Members.

427

Chandler, Prof. C. H., Ripon.

Chandler, Hon. W. H., Madison.

Comstock, Prof. Geo. C., Madison.

Conover, Mrs. Sarah P., Madison.

Culver, Prof. G. E., Beloit.

Daniells, Prof. W. W., Madison.

Dawley, Prof. J. H., Antigo.

Desmond, Hon. H. J., Milwaukee.

Doyle, Hon. Peter, Milwaukee.

Emerson, Prof. Joseph, Beloit.

Eckels, Prof. W. A., Ripon.

Foye, Prof. J. C., Appleton.

Frankenburger, Prof. D. B., Madison.

Greene, Thos. A., Milwaukee.

Gordon, Mrs. Geo., Milwaukee.

Harrison, Caleb H., Milwaukee.

Haskins, Prof. C. H., Madison.

Hastings, Hon. S. D., Madison.

Hendrickson, Prof. G. L., Madison.

Henry, Prof. W. A., Madison.

Hillyer, Prof. H. W., Madison.

Hobbs, Prof. Wm. H., Madison.

Hodge, Prof. C. F., Madison.

Hoskins, Prof. L. M., Madison.

Hoy, Dr. P. R., Racine.

Jastrow, Prof. Joseph, Madison.

Kerr, Prof. Alexander, Madison.

King, Prof. F. H., Madison.

Knowlton, Prof. A. A., Madison.

Kremers, Prof. Edward, Madison.

Lamb, F. J., Madison.

Leverett, Frank, (U. S. Geol. Survey), Madison.

Leavenworth, Prof. W. S., Ripon.

428

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters ,

Luther, Geo. E. (U. S. Geol. Survey), Madison.

Loomis, Prof. H. B., Madison.

Marks, Dr. Solon, Milwaukee.

Marsh, Prof. C. Dwight, Ripon.

Meacham, Dr. J. G., Sr., Racine.

Meacham, Dr. J. G., Jr., Racine.

Mills, Hon. Simeon, Madison.

McLangen, Chas., Milwaukee.

Morris, W. A. P., Madison.

Nader, Capt. John, Madison.

Norton, R. G., Madison.

Noyes, Hon. G. H., Milwaukee.

Orton, Hon. H. S., Madison.

Parkinson, Prof. J. B., Madison.

Peckham, Prof. Geo. W., Milwaukee.

Power, Prof. P. B., Madison.

Pray, Prof. T. B., Whitewater.

Puls, A. J., Milwaukee.

Pudor, Prof. C. C., Madison.

Rogers, Prof. A. J., Milwaukee.

Salisbury, Prof. R. D., Madison.

Schuler, Dominee, Milwaukee.

Sennott, Chas. P., Milwaukee.

Schneiding, Henry E., Racine.

Smith, Prof. E. G., Beloit.

Sprague, A. R., Milwaukee.

Thayer, Hon. J. B., Superior.

Thwaites, Prof. R. G., Madison.

Turner, Prof. F. J., Madison.

Tolman, Prof. A. H., Ripon.

Tolman, Prof. H. C., Madison.

Townley, S. D., Madison.

Tolbert, Prof. G. A., Racine.

Upham, Arthur A., Whitewater.

Deceased Members.

429

Van Cleef, Prof, F. L., Madison.

Van Hise, Prof. C. R., Madison.

Van Velzer, Prof. C. A., Madison.

Viebahn, Prof. C. F., Watertown.

Wheeler, Prof. W. M., Milwaukee.

Wright, Prof. A. O., Madison.

Note.— Members will accommodate the secretary by promptly informing him of any

errors or omissions in the above list.

DECEASED MEMBERS.

Allen, W. C.

Allen, Prof. Wm. F., Prof, of History, University of Wisconsin.

Armitage, W. E., Right Rev. Bishop, P. E. Church, Milwaukee.

Carpenter, S. H., LL. D., Prof, of English Language, University of

Wisconsin.

Case, J. I., Racine.

Conover, O. M., LL. D., Madison.

De Koven, S. T. D., Warden Racine College, Racine.

Dewey, Nelson.

Draper, L. C.

Dudley, Wm., Madison.

Eaton, J. H., Ph. D., Prof, of Chemistry, Beloit College.

Engelman, Peter, Director German and English Academy, Mil¬

waukee.

Feuling, J. B., Ph. D., Prof. Philology, University of Wisconsin.

Hawley, C. T., Milwaukee.

Heritage, Lucius, Prof, of Latin, University of Wisconsin.

Holton, Hon. E. D., Milwaukee.

Irving, R. D., E. M., Ph. D., Prof, of Geology, University of Wiscon¬

sin, and U. S. Geologist.

Knapp, Hon. J. G., Milwaukee.

Kumlein, Thure.

430

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

Lapham, I. A., LL. D., State Geologist, Milwaukee.

Lawler, Hon. John.

Lewis, Mrs. H. M.

Little, Thomas H., Supt. Institution for the Blind, Janesville.

McDill, A. S., M. D., Supt. State Hospital for the Insane, Madison.

Nicodemus, W. J. L., A. M., C. E., Prof, of Engineering, University

of Wisconsin.

Paul, Hon. Geo. H., Milwaukee.

Pradt, J. B.

Keed, George.

Smith, Wm.

Wincheli, Prof. Alexander, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor,

Mich.

IHoiant* Qnev gj[t?m«0*

'pltUtaro ^lUen*

guctu# ®evita00+

gjimrij IPoiij l^lctxsan

[Courtesy of American Geologist.]

ROLAND DUER IRVING.

Former President of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

By T. C. CHAMBERLIN,*

President of the University of Wisconsin.

Professor Irving was bom in the city of New York, on the 29th day of

April, 1847. His father, the Rev. Pierre P. Irving, was a clergyman of

the Episcopal church and a nephew of Washington Irving. His mother

was a daughter of Chief Justice John Duer, of the supreme court of

New York. Sprung thus from a family of literary talent on the one

side and of judicial on the other, Professor Irving inherited tastes and

capabilities that especially fitted him for his subsequent work. His

birth and early education in the metropolis of our country impressed

upon him something of the breadth and complexity of its commercial,

social and intellectual activities and gave to a mind naturally disposed

to large and analytic conceptions a pronounced breadth and a discrimi¬

native habit. His youth was spent upon Staten Island, to which his

father had removed in his second year. A lack of entire robustness of

health, emphasized by frequent attacks of illness and a weakness of

sight, interfered with systematic study and checked the indulgence

of his passionate fondness of reading. His early training was therefore

conducted mainly at home, his father and sisters being his chief in¬

structors. It was only in his twelfth year that he entered school. His

dominant studies were classical, but he was fortunate in falling under

the instruction of a teacher whose frequent rambles with his pupils

fostered a love for natural history. Young Roland became especially

interested in the collection of the rocks and minerals that were accessi¬

ble upon the island. The identification and classification of these may

be looked upon as the initiation of his subsequent scientific studies.

In 1863 he entered the classical course of Columbia college. Forced by

the condition of his eyes to suspend his studies in his sophomore year,

he spent six months in England, the impress of which in certain choices

of language and methods of thought remained with him throughout

* This Sketch was first published in the American Geologist for January, 1887.

28— A. & L.

434

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

his life. On his return he was able to resume studies, though it was

necessary that the greater part of the texts should be read to him.

This probably strengthened a memory naturally retentive and drove

him to meditative and independent thought, since he was measurably

cut off from indulgence in simple acquisition. A full course in the

School of Mines, of Columbia College, gave him the technical founda¬

tion for his future work.

During two of his summer vacations he found employment and prac¬

tical experience in the coal mines of Wiconisco, Penn. Soon after

graduation he was appointed superintendent of the smelting works at

Greenville, N. J. Following this he was employed during parts of two

years upon the Ohio geological survey. His career thus far had lain

chiefly in the line of technical work. From this he was turned aside

in 1870 by a call to the department of geology, mineralogy and metal¬

lurgy in the University of YTsconsin, and from that time onward his

activities took two parallel lines, instruction and investigation. As an

instructor his work was characterized by thoroughness, by a masterly

command of the subjects he taught, by clearness of presentation and a

graphic and humorous exposition, by perfect candor and sincerity, by

earnestness, devotion and indefatigable industry — a rare combination

of qualities, which made him not only a singularly effective instructor,

but a worthy leader in all those moral and manly influences which

characterize the true teacher.

Professor Irving’s first independent geological investigation consisted

of the demonstration that the Baraboo quartzites of central Wisconsin

are very much older than the adjacent upper Cambrian sandstone

(Dikelocephalus horizon), which was at the time a battled question.*

Shortly after he made similar investigations on the quartzites near

Waterloo, Dodge Co., Wis.f

Upon the inauguration of the recent geological survey of Wisconsin

(1873), Professor Irving was appointed one of the three commissioned

assistant geologists and began his well-known investigations in that

connection. During the first year he was assigned to the study of the

Penokee iron range. He was here compelled, at the outset of his

official career, to encounter unwarranted expectations raised by pre¬

vious flattering opinions respecting the richness of the iron deposits

given by incautious and inexpert explorers. His perfectly candid and

unreserved report brought the usual reward of frankness and sincerity

in the face of opposing desire, at first a storm of protest and of adverse

*On the Age of the Quartzites, Schists and Conglomerates of Sauk Co., Wis., Am.

Jour. Sci., Vol. Ill, Art. xv, p. 93. The same in Trans, of Wis. Acad, of Sci. Arts and

Letters, Vol. II, pp. 107-119.

t Note on the Age of the Metamorphic Rocks of Portland, Dodge Co., Wis., Am. Jour.

Sci., Vol. V, Art. xxxi, p. 282.

In Memoriam .

485

criticism, which even threatened the existence of the survey, later, a

sullen acquiescence in the truth, and finally, an admiration for the

correctness and the courage of the position taken and a diversion of

enterprise from unprofitable into successful lines of exploitation. In

the second and third years of the survey Professor Irving’s field em¬

braced the Paleozoic and Archaean strata of central Wisconsin. In the

last years he returned to the Lake Superior field and laid the broader

foundation upon which nearly all of his subsequent investigations were

based. The results of his studies in this official relationship are re¬

corded in the four volumes of the Reports of the Wisconsin Geological

Survey (1873-1879). Meanwhile he had published several short articles

in the American Journal of Science, the Transactions of the Wisconsin

Academy, and elsewhere. Among these the more important are the “Age

of the Copper-Bearing Rocks of Lake Superior and the Westward Con¬

tinuation of the Lake Superior Synclinal.’'* * * § “ Some New Points in the

Elementary Stratification of the Primordial and Cambrian Rocks of

South Central Wisconsin.”! “ The Stratigraphy of the Huronian Series

of Northern Wisconsin, and on the Equivalency of the Huronian of the

Marquette and Penokee Districts.” J

In 1880 Professor Irving began those investigations upon the geology

of the Lake Superior region for the United States government which

continued until the time of his death. The first of these consisted of

a comprehensive study of the copper-bearing series, the results of which

he gathered into a monograph which perhaps stands as the best single

expression of his work. § This was the first approach to a unified and

systematic discussion of this great formation occupying a tract of 40,000

square miles and embracing portions of Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota

and Canada. Whatever differences of opinion may continue to exist

concerning the interpretation of the debated phenomena, this must

ever be recognized as a monument of industrious and able investigation

and of candid and careful induction. Following these studies upon

the copper-bearing series, Professor Irving took up in a correspond¬

ingly comprehensive manner, the investigation of the iron-bearing for¬

mations of the Lake Superior region and their correlation with each

other and with the original Huronian of Canada. Upon this work he

was engaged at the time of his death. He had in preparation and

nearing completion a monograph upon the Penokee-Gogebic range and

had well in hand a large amount of material relating to the Marquette,

Menominee and Vermilion Lake series, as well as the original Huronian

and Animike groups. His loss at this fruitful stage of his work, incal-

* Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. VIII, Art. vii, p. 46, 1874.

t Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. IX, Art. vii, p 440, 1875.

t Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XVII, Art. xlix, p. 393, 1879.

§ “ Copper-Bearing Rocks of Lake Superior.” Monograph V., U. S. Geol. Survey, 1883.

436 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

culable as it is, might have been still greater but for the fact that all

his material passed into the hands of his co-laborer, Professor Van Hise,

who is intimately familiar with his unwritten as well as written views.

Some of Doctor Irving’s leading conclusions from his later studies

were set forth in his presidential address before the Wisconsin Acad¬

emy of Sciences, Arts and Letters, entitled “ Divisibility of the Aarchoean

in the Northwest,” * * and more especially in the following very notable

papers: “Preliminary Paper on an Investigation of the Archaean For¬

mations of the Northwestern States,”! “On the Classification of the

Early Cambrian and Pre-Cambrian Formations. A Brief Discussion of

Principles; Illustrated by examples drawn mainly from the Lake Su¬

perior Region,” J “ Origin of Ferruginous Schists and Iron Ores of the

Lake Superior Region,” || “Is there a Huronian Group? ”^[ and the

introduction to Bulletin Number 62 of the U. S. Geological Survey,

“ On the Greenstones of the Menominee and Marquette Regions,” by

Dr. G. H. Williams.

During these later years in which he was chiefly engaged upon mono¬

graphic studies, he published numerous special papers, among which

the more important were, “ On the Nature of the Induration of the St.

Peter’s and Potsdam Sandstones, and of certain Archeean Quartzites in

Wisconsin,”* “Paramorphic Origin of the Hornblende of the North¬

western States,” t “ On Secondary Enlargements of Mineral Fragments

in Certain Rocks v J (jointly with Professor C. R. Van Hise), and “ The

Junction Between the Eastern Sandstone and the Keweenawan Series

on Keweenaw Point ” § (jointly with President Chamberlin).

Professor Irving’s greatest contributions to science lay in the depart¬

ment of structural geology and genetic petrography. His investiga¬

tions upon the great copper and iron-bearing series and the adjacent

formations of the Lake Superior region, constitute a contribution of

the first order. The deep sympathy of the present writer with Pro¬

fessor Irving’s views on questions that have been subjects of divergence

of opinion should perhaps restrain him from a full expression of his

appreciation of the profound value of this work, lest a color of personal

partiality be thrown over this sketch, but it is not too much to assert

that supporter and opponent alike recognize the ability which has char¬

acterized these investigations, and the high order of value which must

attach to them whatever interpretations may finally prevail.

* Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XXIX, pp. 237-249, 1885.

t U. S. Geol. Survey, Fifth Annual Report, pp. 181-241, 1885.

$ U. S. Geol. Survey, Seventh Annual Report, 1886.

|| Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XXXII, p. 255, 1886.

1 Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XXXIV, pp. 204-249, 1887.

* Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XXV, p. 401, 1883.

*t Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XXVI, p. 321, 1883.

i U. S. Geol. Survey, Bulletin No. 8.

§ U. S. Geol. Survey, Bulletin No. 23.

In Memoriam .

437

In the line of petrographic genesis Professor Irving made two very-

notable contributions, first, the demonstration of the prevalence and

importance of the secondary growth of certain fragmental constituents

of clastic rocks and the crystallographic co-ordination of the additions

with the nuclear particles. The existence of such a second growth in

quartz grains was an earlier discovery of others but was hit upon by

him independently. Jointly with his co-laborer, Professor Van Hise, he

demonstrated a similar second growth of hornblende and other min¬

erals and showed that such rebuilding was a prevalent process, consti¬

tuting an important element in those changes heretofore designated

metamorphic, thereby contributing an important factor in the elucida¬

tion of that mysterious process.

Perhaps the most important single determination by Professor Irving,

and one of his latest, was the demonstration of the origin of the iron

ores of the Lake Superior region. By a series of admirable investiga¬

tions he traced step by step the transformation of the ores from original

earthy carbonates of iron to their present forms, and made it altogether

clear that they were primarily deposited as sediments in a manner

closely similar to that of the iron ores of the Coal Measures. This dis¬

covery has given added significance to the association of these ores

with carbonaceous shales, and has led to the recognition of the iron¬

bearing series as marking in some sense a pre-Cambrian carboniferous

period.

The characteristics of Professor Irving as a scientific investigator

and writer are too well known to the readers of this magazine to need

analysis here. Personally, to those who came within the circle of his

intimate acquaintance, he possessed rare charms of character. Sincere,

frank, conscientious in the highest degree, he was a warm and true

friend. Possessed of a rollicking brusque humor, his intercourse was

marked by a freshness that was a source of constant enjoyment and

attraction to his intimate associates. No phrase better expresses it

than picturesqueness. Modest and retiring, the number of his close

friends was not large but their attachment to him was strong. The full

strength of these attachments has only been realized in their breaking.

He leaves a wife, a daughter and two sons. The artistic skill of Mrs.

Irving appears in some of the sketches and particularly in many of the

microscopic illustrations of her husband’s works.

I

In Memoriam.

439

WILLIAM FRANCIS ALLEN.

Late President of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

By JAMES D. BUTLER.

William Francis Allen was born September 5, 1830, and died Decem¬

ber 9, 1889. His birth was in Northborough, a Massachusetts village,

thirty-five miles from Boston; his death was in Madison. He grad¬

uated at Harvard University in 1851. His preparation for college was

made at home in a school taught by his father, also a Harvard graduate,

and a Unitarian pastor. For three years he gave instruction at New

York city in a private family, and then in 1854 went abroad. He was for

one year a student in the universities of Berlin and Gottingen. The

following winter he spent in Rome, and the spring in Greece, returning to

America in June, 1856. During the next seven years he was one of the

principals of a classical school near Boston, at West Newton. Late in

1863, accompanied by his wife, married the year before, he went to South

Carolina in the employ of the Freedman’s Aid Association. After a half

year of pioneer work in the education of negroes he came north, but very

soon repaired to Arkansas as an agent of the Sanitary commission. This

service was over early in 1865, and in the spring he returned to South

Carolina, where he served till the close of the school year as a superin¬

tendent in Charleston. The next two years he taught, first in Antioch

college, Ohio, and then at a military academy in New Jersey. His first

wife died in 1865, and after three years he re-married.

Professor Allen was a religious man. He was the true founder of the

Unitarian church in Madison. His life was a sermon of admonition and

a hymn of praise. The training of his children, a daughter by the first

marriage and three sons by the second, was a rare specimen of personal

assiduity. His nature was so far from doing harms that he suspected

none, and his faith in the doctrine of depravity may hence not have

been orthodox. Notwithstanding, no more stinging censure smote Fisk

and Tweed than fell from his lips.

His coming to Wisconsin was in 1867. In that year he accepted a call

to the state university. His chair was at first called that of Ancient

Languages and History, afterwards Latin and History, and for the last

four years of his life History alone. In this Northwest he found the

niche he was ordained to fill — for his teachings here his whole past life,

studies at home and abroad, early training and varied school experi-

440 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters .

ences — proved an admirable preparation. How well he paid for more

than a score of years the educational debt due to his profession it is

needless to say. Witnesses abound on every side. They agree that he

gave much information, but that in a way which inspired more than it in¬

formed. It was a favorite maxim with Prof. Allen that “moral educa¬

tion cannot be absent from any living system, that the only foundation

of thoroughness in study is that virtue which embraces a larger share of

human duties within its definition than any other — faithfulness.” Ex¬

emplifying in himself the virtue he praised, he became an inspiration to

many a student — filling him with a life-long delight in whatsoever

things are true, honest, just, pure, lovely, virtuous and praiseworthy.

Seeing him always an eager learner, his pupils became themselves the

more eager to learn.

While faithful to all details of his instructional routine, Prof. Allen

was a voluminous author. The bibliography of his writings, in his

Memorial volume, fills thirty pages and comprises more than nine hun¬

dred articles. We do not wonder that the number is multitudinous, for

many of the articles were brief, so much as at their diversified nature;

titles are arranged under thirty specific heads, but some of them find

their proper place only under yet another division styled Miscellaneous.

Before we run our eyes over a tithe of the topics we feel that the author,

who never wrote on a subject he had not investigated, was a multifarious

scholar — a rare survival of what former generations called a poly-

mathist. We are surprised that he, a recluse scholar, touched society at

so many points. He treated of slave songs and the negro dialect, and of

Latin grammar as well — now of Aristophanes and then of Uncle

Remus — here of the snake dance in Arizona, and anon of a day with a

Roman gentleman. He drew each change of many-colored life.

After all, our feeling is that Prof. Allen was first, last and chiefly an

historian. A great majority of his papers, whether in periodicals, or the

Madison Literary Club or in our Academy, were historical. If he wrote

upon Shakespeare his themes were the historical plays. If his theme

was Novels, it was historical fiction. His twenty lectures in Johns Hop¬

kins University were historic. His editions of classics were mainly his¬

torical authors. Whatever the subject that came before him his view of

it was historic. Every fact in his mind, if past, had made history; if

present, was making history, and if future, was about to make history.

Thus, through its relations, and thus only had any fact value for him.

All were but parts of a stupendous whole.

From Prof. Allen’s early sojourn in Rome as well as the nature of his

academic and university teaching, Roman history became predominant

in his thoughts, studies and writings. A hundred of his published ar¬

ticles on as many aspects of this vast department each shed some side

light upon it. His editions of Caesar and Tacitus, with notes upon

In Memoriam.

441

them, his classes in Sallust and Livy equipped him fully for writing with

classic taste and terseness his own Short History of the Roman People ,

the crowning key-stone in the arch of his authorship — - in penning the

last line of which he ceased at once to work and live. Nay, rather, he

still lives, for we are instinctively prompted to apply to him the touch¬

ing words which he taught, edited, and loved so well: Quiequid ex Agri¬

cola amavimus, quiequid mirati sumus, manet, mansurumque est in ani-

mis hominum.

442

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

LUCIUS HERITAGE.

By HENRY DOTY M ANSON.

Lucius Heritage, son of Isaac C. and Margaret S. Heritage, was born

Dec. 21, 1848, in Walworth, Wisconsin. In childhood his family removed

to Milton, where he spent a large portion of his life. The death of his

mother in 1864, led to a suspension of his studies and a temporary

abandonment of his purpose to prepare himself for a profession. He ac¬

cordingly became apprenticed to learn the wagon-maker’s trade, and

spent three years in this employment. His native taste for the things

of the intellect led him, however, to embrace an opportunity to re¬

sume his studies, and he entered Milton College in 1869. Completing

the Teacher’s Course in that institution in 1872, he taught Latin for a

short time in the St. Paul High School, and then returned to Milton to

receive his diploma from the Classical Course, in 1875. In the fall of

that year he became first assistant of Mr. Albert Markman, in the Mil¬

waukee Academy, where he remained one year. It was my fortune after

an interval of several years to succeed him in this position, and I found

his reputation for character and scholarship still very vivid in the tradi¬

tions of the school. He was pretty uniformly Mr. Markham’s standard

of comparison in speaking of the qualifications of a teacher. “As good

a man as Heritage,” was the highest compliment. In the fall of 1876 he

sailed for Germany, where he spent a little over two years as a student

in Gottingen, Halle and Leipsic. In the year after his return he was

married to Miss Ruth G. Maxson, who survives him, with one son, their

only child, born in 1885. It was during his temporary residence in Mil-

ton in 1879, that I first knew him. Our acquaintances are usually many;

but the circle of friends who really enter the current of our life and

make vital contributions to our character and thought, must always be

small. It was my fortune from this time until his death, to number

Prof. Heritage among these companions of the soul. In 1879 he was ap¬

pointed Latin tutor in the University of Wisconsin. Prof. W. P. Allen,

who, but for his untimely death, would have prepared a worthier biog¬

raphy than I am able to furnish, wrote soon after the death of Mr.

Heritage that when he became a candidate for the instructorship in

Latin, the University faculty were already predisposed in his favor on

In Memofiam.

443

account of the way in which he acquitted himself at an inter-state

oratorical contest held in Madison some years before. “I remember

nothing about the contestants or their subjects,” says Prof. Allen, “ex¬

cept that the delegate from Milton College attracted our attention by

his intellectual countenance and fine bearing.” In 1882, he was elected

Assistant Professor of Latin, and four years later was placed in full

charge of the department. In 1883-4 he spent another year in Germany,

for the purpose of pursuing some special studies. Throughout his life

he was a hard worker at whatever he undertook. Never robust, he un¬

doubtedly overtaxed his strength by intense application to his studies.

For several years, though he himself displayed great confidence and

courage, his immediate friends had been solicitous about his health; and

when a threatened attack of pneumonia prostrated him in November,

1888, they feared that the end was not far off. He rallied, however, and

for a short time resumed his work in the University, but was soon com¬

pelled to relinquish it, and started on a Southern trip in the hope of

regaining his health. The effort was fruitless. He died in Redlands,

California, May 14, 1889.

Prof. Heritage wrote very little for publication. His most important

literary work was an edition of the Dialogues of Tacitus, which, at the

time of his death, he had been for some years engaged in preparing.

It seldom happens that the nil nisi verum of the biographer becomes

more nearly one with the nil nisi bonum of the eulogist than in the case

of Mr. Heritage. Of an exceptionally keen and accurate mind, he was

no less distinguished for the integrity of his character.

His work as a pupil and a teacher I know only at second hand. Of

the latter Prof. Allen wrote: “Under his charge the Latin department

has advanced steadily in thoroughness and breadth of training. As

every year I have taken some of the higher classes in Latin, I have

noticed a marked improvement from year to year in the quality of the

scholarship, especially in the capacity of ready and correct translation.

His power as a teacher was very great. He won the affection and con¬

fidence of his classes in the highest degree, and was as distinguished for

firmness and strictness as for courtesy and fairness.”

While capable of making a thoroughly creditable appearance in public,

and always holding the attention of his hearers by his clearness in both

thought and expression, he did not seek publicity. He was essentially

a man of the study. The energy, which with many gifted people largely

spends itself in more ostentatious ways, with him was rather employed

in enlarging and refining his personal culture. And thus the informal

contacts of intimate friendship became a source of keen delight. It was

in this phase of his life that I knew him best. Conversation with him

was always enriching. He approached a question not in the role of a

debater, but of an inquirer. As far as the interests of truth are con-

444 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

cerned, debate is for those directly engaged in it worse than profitless,

and it was repugnant to his temper. He was naturally restrained from

taking the attitude of the advocate both by the judicialness of his mind

and the candor of his character; and this disposition was powerfully re¬

enforced by a discriminating intellect which refused to ignore identities

or confuse distinctions. Add the command of a copious and precise

vocabulary, and his equipment for enjoyable and instructive conversation

was complete. It was almost a luxury to have him occasionally hesitate

for a word. It gave one a moment to enjoy in anticipation the right

word which was sure to come,

While by nature a man of the study, he by no means lacked interest

in matters of public concern, and the interest was of a decidedly practi¬

cal rather than of a merely academic character. Politics he greatly en¬

joyed, not at all as a trade, nor yet merely as a science, but more still as

a field for effort in the line of promoting, or trying to promote, the com¬

mon good. While he could never become a partisan, he was always

anxious to actively identify himself with any organized effort to reform

or purify our public life. The temperance problem and other social

questions of importance in our day provoked earnest study, and when

the line of action seemed clear, enthusiastic devotion. If he ever seemed

to any one lacking in public participation in reformatory work, that fact

must be set down to the impartiality of his mind, which insisted on

seeing both sides of the shield ; and that impartiality was greatly

strengthened by an alert and delicate sense of humor — a quality of great

service, not only in giving sparkle to speech, but also in restraining

from absurdity. In medio tutissimius ibis was not with him the maxim

of a calculating prudence. It rather represented the native temper of

the man.

Of those deeper and more difficult themes which we call religious, we

spoke frequently and freely. Mr. Heritage shrank from no light which

the most thorough-going rationalism could shed on the problems of life.

But through all this unrestrained communion of thought and in¬

quiry, I never found his faith to falter in the underlying sanity of things,

the eternal purpose which runs through all, and gives to human effort

and character an immortal meaning. That purpose was most beauti¬

fully displayed in his life. We may well believe that, though not fully

revealed to our eyes, that purpose has with no less beauty, been working

itself out in his death.

In Memoriam .

445

H. D. MAXSOM.

By PROF. J. W. STEARNS.

Rev. Henry Doty Maxson, vice-president of the Wisconsin Academy

of Sciences, died suddenly at Eau Claire, Nov. 23, 1891. His connection

with the Academy had not been long, but the transparent sincerity of

the man and his complete devotion to the highest aims, had made a

strong impression upon its members. Mr. Maxson was born in De Ruy-

ter, New York, of Seventh Day Baptist family, and the wish of his

parents, and his own early choice, destined him for the ministry in that

denomination. Accordingly, he was in due time sent to the denomina¬

tional college, at Alfred, N. Y., to commence his preparation. But before

the end of his first year a great change had gradually taken place in his

convictions; and he acted upon it with the frankness which always char¬

acterized him, by renouncing his cherished plans and returning to his

home. I have heard him relate with much emotion the struggle it cost

him to take this step, because of the pain which he knew it would cause

his mother. It seemed to separate him from his parents, and to cut off

for the present the hope of a college education, of which he was very

desirous. Fortunately these results which he dreaded did not follow,

and in due time he graduated, in 1877, from Amherst college. He took

the lead of his class in college. He was not only at the head of it in

scholarship, but also in character, a marked man to whom his class¬

mates looked with affectionate esteem and almost with reverence. He

came to Wisconsin as a teacher, and was employed first at Milton col¬

lege, then at Markham’s Academy, in Milwaukee, and afterward for

nearly five years as Institute conductor for the State Normal School at

Whitewater. This service brought him into connection with a large

body of young people upon whom his influence wTas strong and inspir¬

ing. His genial manners, and his kindly interest in® them and their

pursuits made warm personal friends of his pupils. He stood before

them a refined gentleman, of quick sympathies, thorough scholarship,

and lofty aims, and they were broadened and uplifted by the intercourse

with him. In the spring of 1888 he became pastor of the Unitarian

church at Menomonie. Here he accomplished remarkable results in a

very short time. The magnetism of the man was quickly felt, and drew

446

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

about him a strong following; and Bible classes, a kindergarten, a gym¬

nasium, a literary society, a public library, arose and flourished under

his inspiration. Mr. Maxson was an untiring worker for the broadening

of human life and the refining of human nature. Although a close

student himself, there was nothing of the recluse about him. On the

contrary, he adapted himself with a sure insight to men of the most

diverse types, and enjoyed deeply the opportunities of service to others

which his position offered him. Thus in a brief life-time he was enabled

to accomplish a notable work. Members of this society are familiar with

his characteristics as a public speaker. His direct and truth-loving

nature shone out in his discourse. You felt that a strong, sincere, cul¬

tured man was talking to you, and talking directly to the point, with a

true insight and a large charity. He captivated you with the many-

sidedness of his thought and the abundance of the resources from which

it was illustrated and enforced. Those who had but a slight acquaint¬

ance with him felt the charm of his character, while those who enjoyed

his intimacy found in him the best inspirations of a noble manhood.

AUTHORS’ INDEX

BALG, G. H. Page.

The Science of the English Language in the Light of the

Gothic . 167

Baenes, Chaeles R.

Artificial Keys to the Genera and Species of Mosses Recog¬

nized in Lesquereux and James’ Manual of the Mosses of

North America . 11

- . Ibidem. Additions and Corrections . 163

Bennett, Chaei^s E .

Some New Theories of the Greek KA- Perfect . 141

Biege, Edwaed A.

List of Crustacea Cladocera from Madison, Wisconsin . 379

Chambeelin, T. C.

Some Additional Evidences Bearing on the Interval Between

the Glacial Epochs . 82

Chandlee, Chas. H.

Notes and a Query Concerning the Ericaceae . 161

Comstock, Geo. C.

The Present Condition of the Latitude Problem . 229

Culvee, G. E.

Notes on a Little Known Region of Northwestern Montana.. . 187

- . (With Wm. H. Hobbs.)

On a New Occurrence of Olivine Diabase in Minnehaha County,

South Dakota . 206

Desmond, Humpheey J.

The Sectional Feature in American Politics . 1

Elmendoef, John J.

Aristotle’s Physics . 169

Eveeest, Kate A.

Early Lutheran Immigration to Wisconsin . 288

448 Wtsconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

Hobbs, Wi. H. Page.

On Some Metamorphosed Eruptives in the Crystalline Rocks

of Maryland . 156

- . (With G. E. Culver.)

On a New Occurrence of Olivine Diabase in Minnehaha

County, South Dakota . 206

- . Note on Cerussite from Illinois and Wisconsin . 399

Kremers, Edward.

On the Limonene Group of Terpenes . 312

Leverett, Frank.

On the Correllation of Moraines with Raised Beaches of Lake

Erie. . . 233

Loomis, H. B.

The Effect of Changes of Temperature on the Distribution of

Magnetism . 273

Marsh, C. Dwight.

On the Deep-Water Crustacea of Green Lake . 211

- . Notes on the Depth and Temperature of Green Lake.. . 214

Peet, Stephen D.

The Clan Centers and Clan Habitat of the Effigy Builders .... 300

Tolman, H. C.

The Cuneiform Inscriptions on the Monuments of the Achse-

menides . 241

Van Cleef, F. L.

The Pseudo-Gregorian Drama Xpidro 5 Iladx^r in its Rela¬

tion to the Text of Euripides . 363

Van Hise, C. R.

Origin of the Iron Ores of the Lake Superior Region . 219

Wheeler, Wm. M.

On the Appendages of the First Abdominal Segment of Em¬

bryo Insects . 87

Wright, A. O.

The Defective Classes . 176

APPENDIX.

i

29 — A< St Li

APPENDIX.

List of Societies, Institutions, etc., with which the Wis

consin Academy Exchanges Publications.

An * indicates that the society has been recently placed on list.

Argentine Republic —

Buenos Ayres. Oficina Meteoro-

logica Argentina.

Cordoba. Academia Nacional de

Ciencias en Cordoba.

Australia —

Sydney. (New South Wales.) De¬

partment of Mines.

Austria —

Brieg. (Silesia.) Naturforschende

Gesellschaft.

Graz. (Styria.) Naturwissen-

schaftliche Verein fur Steier-

mark.

Gorlitz. (Silesia.) Naturforsch¬

ende Gesellschaft.

Prag. (Bohemia.) Die konigl.

bohmische Gesellschaft der

Wissenschaften.

Vienna. K. k. Akademie der

Wissenschaften.

Zoologisch-Botanische Gesell¬

schaft.

K. Akademie d. Wissenschaften.

K. k. Naturhistorisches Hof-

museum.

*K. k. Geologische Reichsan-

stalt.

Belgium —

Brussels. Societe Royale Mala-

cologique.

Liege. Societe Royale des Sciences

Mons. Societe des Sciences des

Arts, et des Letters du Hain-

aut.

Brazil —

Rio Janeiro. Museu Nacional do

Rio de Janeiro.

Instituto Historico e Geograph-

ico Brazileiro.

Canada —

Halifax. (Nova Scotia.) Nova

Scotia Institute of Natural

Sciences.

Hamilton. Hamilton Associa¬

tion.

Montreal. Natural History So¬

ciety. (The Canadian Record

of Science.)

Ottawa. Ottawa Normal School.

“The Ottawa Naturalist.”

Toronto. The Canadian Insti¬

tute.

Chili —

Santiago. Deutsche Wissen-

schaftliche Verein.

IV

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Art s and Letters.

4.

CMn a — C ontinued.

Observatorio Astronomico.

Oficina Central Meteorolojica

de Chile.

Denmark —

Copenhagen. Kongelige Danske

Videnskabernes Selskabs.

England —

London. Bernard Quaritch, 15

Piccadilly W., London, Eng¬

land.

British Museum.

The Royal Society.

Manchester. Manchester Liter¬

ary and Philosophical So¬

ciety.

Newcastle-upon-Tyne. North of

England Institute of Mining

and Mechanical Engineers.

Finland —

Helsingfors. Societe des Sciences

de Finlande.

Finska Vetenskaps-Societetens.

Observatoire Magnetique et

Meteorologique.

Finska Vetenskabs-Societeten.

France —

Amiens. Societe Linneenne du

Nord de la France.

Bordeaux. Academie Imperiale

des Sciences, Belles Lettres

et Arts.

Caen. L’ Academie Nationale des

Sciences, Arts et Belles-Let¬

tres.

Dijon. Academie des Sciences,

Arts et Belles Lettres .

France— Continued .

Le Mans. Societe d’ Agriculture,.

Sciences et Arts de la Sarthe.

Lyon. Academie des Sciences,.

Belles Lettres et Arts.

Montpellier. Academie des Sci¬

ences et Lettres.

Paris. Annuaire Geologique Uni-

versel (M. M. Carez et Dou-

ville, 15 Rue de Tournon).

Rouen. Societe des Amis de&

Sciences Naturelles.

Germany —

Bamberg. Naturforschende Ge-

sellschaft.

Berlin. * Deutsche geologische

Gesellschaft.

Kaiserliche Gesundheitsamte.

Zeitschrift der Gesammten

N aturwissenschaf ten.

Bonn. Naturhistorische Verein

der Preussischen Rheinlando

u. Westfalens.

Bremen. Naturwissenschaftliche

Verein.

Braunschweig. V er ein fur N atur-

wissenschaft.

Briinn. Naturforschende Verein.

Cassel. * V erein f ur N aturkunde.

* Realschule.

Danzig. Naturforschende Gesell¬

schaft.

Dresden. Die Naturwissenschaft¬

liche Gesellschaft Isis.

Elberfeld. Naturwissenschaft¬

liche Verein in Elberfeld.

Emden. (Friesland.) Naturfor¬

schende Gesellschaft.

Frankfurt a.M. Physikalische

Verein.

List of Corresponding Societies.

v

txermany — Continued.

Freiburg. Naturforschende Ge-

sellschaft.

Geissen. Oberhessische Gesell-

schaft.

Gottingen. Kgl. Gesellscbaft der

Wissenschaften.

Halle. (Prussia.) Zeitschrift fur

Naturwissenschaften. (Dr.

O. Luedecke.)

Kaiserliche Leopoldino-Caro-

linische deutsche Akademie

der Naturforscher.

Heidelberg. N aturhistorisch-Med-

izinsche Verein.

Jena. * University of Jena.

Medicinisch-N aturwissenschaft-

liche Gesellscbaft.

Kiel. University of Kiel.

Konigsberg. * University of Kon-

igsberg.

'Leipzig. (Saxony.) Verein fur

Erdkunde.

Magdeburg. *Naturwissenschaft-

liche Verein zu Magdeburg.

Mannheim. Verein fur Natur-

kunde.

Metz. L’Academie de Metz.

Munich. K. b. Akademie der

Wissenschaften.

Konigliche Sternwarte.

Nassau. Nassauische Verein.

Nurnberg. Naturhistorische Ge-

sellschaft.

Regensburg. (Bavaria.) Natur-

wissenschaftliche Verein zu

Regensburg.

Historische Verein von Ober-

pfalz und Regensburg.

Strassburg. * Kaiserliche Univer-

sitats- u. Landes-Bibliothek.

Wiesbaden. Nassauische Verein

fur Naturkunde.

Holland —

Amsterdam. Koninklijke Ak¬

ademie van Wetenschappen.

’s-Gravenhage. Nederlandsche

Maatschappij ter Bevorder-

ing van Nijverheid.

Haarlem. Musee Teyler.

Societe Hollandaise des Sci¬

ences a Haarlem.

Rotterdam. Bataafsch Genoot-

schap der Proef ondervinde 1-

ijke Wijsbegeerte.

Utrecht. Provinciaal Utrechtsch

Genootschap van Kunsten

Wetenschappen.

Koninklijk Nederlandsch Me-

teorologisch Institut.

Hungary —

Budapest. Bureau of Statistics

of the Capital City Budapest.

Ireland —

Dublin. Royal Irish Academy.

Royal Dublin Society.

Italy —

Bologna. Instituto di Bologna.

Catania. Accademia Gicenia di

Scienze Naturali in Catania

Florence. R. Institute di Studi

Superiori Practici e di Per-

fezronamento.

Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale

di Firenze.

Milan. Reale Instituto Lombar¬

do di Scienze e Lettere.

Modena. Societa dei Naturalisti.

Regia Accademia di Scienze

Lettere ed Arti.

vi

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters.

Italy — Continued.

Naples. L’Anomalo (Doctor An¬

gelo Zuccarelli, Via Salvator

Rosa No. 38).

Societa Italiana delle Scienze.

* Societa di Naturalisti in Na¬

poli.

Palermo. (Sicily) Reale Accade-

mia di Scienze, Lettere e

Belle Arti di Palermo.

Pisa. Societa Toscana di Scienzi

Natural!

Rome. Ministero della Pubblica

Istruzione.

Comitato Geologico d’ltalia.

Java —

Batavia. Konigliche Verein fur

Naturkunde (Koninklijke

Natuurkundige Vereinigung).

Mexico —

Mexico. Sociedad de Geografia

Y Estadistica de la Republica

Mexicana.

Museo Nacional.

Sociedad Mexicana de Historia

Natural.

Sociedad Cientifica “Antonio

Alzate.”

Tacubaya. Observatorio Astron-

omico Nacional de Tacubaya.

Portugal —

Lisbon. Academia Real das Sci-

encias de Lisbon.

Russia —

Kharkow. Societe des Natural-

de Kharkou.

Naturalistes de Moscou.

Meteorologisches Observatoriunt

der Landwirthschaftlichen

Akademie .

(M. le prof. Kamienski, Sec’y.

Odessa, Russia.)

St. Petersburg. Royal Free Econ¬

omical Society of St. Peters¬

burg.

Comite Geologique.

Acti Horti Petropolitani.

Royal Academy of Sciences.

Physikalisches Central-Obser-

vatorium.

Scotland —

Edinburgh. Royal Society of

Edinburgh.

Spain —

Ciencias Y Artes de Barcelo¬

na.

Norway —

Bergen. Bergen Museum.

Christiana. Norwegian Meteor¬

ological Institute.

sion.

Videnskabs Selskabet i Christi

ania.

University of Christiania.

Madrid. Real Academia de la His¬

toria.

Sweden —

Lund. University of Lund.

Stockholm. Kongliga Svenska.

Vetenskaps Akademiens.

Kongl. Vitterhets Historie och

Antigvitets Akademiens Man-

adsblad.

List of Corresponding Societies .

vn

Sweden— Continued.

Upsala. University of Upsala.

Royal Society of Science.

Switzerland —

Basel. Naturforschende Gesell¬

schaft.

Berne. Schweizerische Natur¬

forschende Gesellschaft.

Frauenfeld. Thurgauische Na-

turforschende Gesellschaft.

Freibourg. Societe Fribourgeoise

des Sciences Naturelles.

Lausanne. Societe Yaudoise des

Sciences Naturelles.

Neuchatel. Societe des Sciences

Naturelles.

St. Gallen. St. Gallische Na-

tur wissenschaftliche Gesell¬

schaft.

Zurich. Naturforschende Gesell¬

schaft.

Schweitzerische botanische Ge¬

sellschaft.

United States —

Arkansas:

Little Rock. * Geological Sur¬

vey of Arkansas.

California:

Berkeley. Agricultural Experi¬

ment Station of University of

California.

*

Sacramento. California State

Mining Bureau. Wm. Irelan,

Jr., State Mineralogist.

San Diego. “ The West Amer¬

ican Scientist.”

San Francisco. California Acad¬

emy of Sciences.

San J ose. Lick Observatory.

United States— Continued.

Colorado:

Colorado Springs. * Colorado

College Scientific Society.

Denver. The Colorado Scien¬

tific Society.

Golden. State School of Mines.

District of Columbia:

Washington. U. S. Naval Obser¬

vatory.

U. S. Geological Survey. J.

W. Powell, Director.

. Library of War Department.

*National Geographic Society.

Smithsonian Institution.

Bureau of Education.

The American Monthly Mi¬

croscopical Journal.

Weather Bureau, Dep’t of

Agriculture.

U. S. National Museum.

Illinois:

Avon. The American Anti¬

quarian and Oriental Jour¬

nal, edited by Stephen D.

Peet.

Champaign. Illinois State Lab¬

oratory of Natural History.

Springfield. ^Geological Sur¬

vey of Illinois.

Indiana:

Brookville. *Indiana Academy

of Science.

Indianapolis. *Geological Sur¬

vey of Indiana.

Iowa:

Des Moines. Iowa Academy of

Sciences.

Kansas:

Topeka. The Kansas Academy

of Sciences.

/

viii Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

United States— Continued.

Maryland:

Baltimore. Johns Hopkins Uni¬

versity.

Massachusetts:

Boston. Boston Society of

Natural History.

^Massachusetts Institute of

Technology.

American Academy of Arts

and Sciences.

Cambridge. (Harvard Univ.)

Museum of Comparative Zo¬

ology.

* Harvard University Library.

Salem. The American Associa¬

tion for the Advancement of

Science.

Worcester. * American Anti¬

quarian Society.

Michigan:

Lansing. * Geological Survey

of Michigan.

Minnesota:

Minneapolis. Geological Sur¬

vey of Minnesota.

Minneapolis. Minnesota Acad¬

emy of Natural Sciences.

Missouri:

Jefferson City. * Geological

Survey of Missouri.

St. Louis. Missouri Botanical

Garden.

The Academy of Sciences of

St. Louis.

Kansas City. “ Kansas City

Keview of Science and Indus¬

try.”

Nebraska:

Lincoln. University of Ne¬

braska.

United States— Continued.

New Jersey:

Trenton. The Trenton Natural

History Society.

Princeton. ^Museum of Geolo¬

gy and Archaeology of Prince¬

ton College.

New York:

Albany. New York State Mu¬

seum of Natural History.

New York State Library.

University of the State of

New York.

New York. Torrey Botanical

Club.

*The Auk; A Quarterly Jour¬

nal of Ornithology.

American Museum of Natural

History. (Central Park.)

New York Microscopical^So-

ciety.

* American Geographical So¬

ciety.

*The Technical Index.

Linnaean Society.

North Carolina:

Chapel Hill. ^Geological Sur¬

vey of North Carolina.

The Elisha Mitchell Scientific

Society.

Ohio:

Cincinnati. Cincinnati Society

of Natural History.

Cleveland. Cleveland Acad¬

emy of Natural Sciences.

Columbus. Ohio Agricultural

Experiment Station.

Geological Survey of Ohio.

Granville. * Journal of Com¬

parative Neurology. (C. L.

Herrick, Editor.)

List of Corresponding Societies.

IX

Ohio:

Granville. * Bulletin of the

Scientific Laboratories of

Denison University. (W. G.

Tight, M. S., Editor.)

Pennsylvania:

Harrisburg. Second Geological

Survey of Pennsylvania.

Philadelphia. Academy of Nat¬

ural Sciences.

* The American Naturalist.

Zoological Society of Phila¬

delphia.

State College. (Center County.)

The Pennsylvania State Col¬

lege Agricultural Experiment

Station.

The following Colleges and Incorporated Academies of the state are

entitled to receive the Transactions of the Academy:

Northwestern University, Watertown.

Milwaukee Academy, Milwaukee.

University of Wisconsin, Madison.

Ecclesiastical College of St. Lawrence, Mt. Calvary, Fond du Lac

County.

Carroll College, Waukesha.

Pio Nono College, St. Francis, Milwaukee County.

Sacred Heart College, Watertown.

Lawrence University, Appleton.

Beloit College, Beloit.

Yale College, Galesville.

Concordia College, Milwaukee.

Ripon College, Ripon.

German English Academy, Milwaukee.

Nashota House, Na shota.

United States— Continued.

Texas:

Austin. * Geological Survey of

Texas.

West Vikginia:

* Morgantown. West Virginia

University.

Wisconsin:

Madison. Agricultural Experi¬

ment Station of University of

Wisconsin.

State Historical Society.

University of Wisconsin.

Washburn Observatory of Uni¬

versity of Wisconsin.

Milwaukee. Naturhistorische

Verein von Wisconsin.

x Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

The Public Libraries of the following places in the state are entitled

to reoeive the Transactions of the Academy:

CHARTER.

AN ACT TO INCORPORATE THE “WISCONSIN ACADEMY OP

SCIENCES, ARTS AND LETTERS.”

The people of the State of Wisconsin, represented in senate and assembly,

do enact as follows :

Section 1. Lucius Fairchild, Nelson Dewey, John W. Hoyt, In¬

crease A. Lapham, Alexander Mitchell, Wm. Pitt Lynde, Joseph Hob-

bins, E. B. Wolcott, Solon Marks, R. Z. Mason, G. M. Steele, T. C. Cham¬

berlin, James H. Eaton, A. L. Chapin, Samuel Fallows, Charles Preuser,

Wm. E. Smith, J. C. Foye, Wm. Dudley, P. Englemann, A. S. McDill, John

Murrish, Geo. P. Delaplaine, J. G. Knapp, S. V. Shipman, Edward D. Hol¬

ton, P. R. Hoy, Thaddeus C. Pound, Charles E. Bross, Lyman C. Draper,

John A. Byrne, O. R. Smith, J. M. Bingham, Henry Bsetz, LI. Breese,

Thos. S. Allen, S. S. Barlow, Chas. R. Gill, C. L. Harris, George Reed,

J. G. Thorp, William Wilson, Samuel D. Hastings and D. A. Baldwin, at

present being members and officers of an association known as “ The

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters,” located at the city

of Madison, together with their future associates and successors forever,

are hereby created a body corporate by the name and style of the “ Wis¬

consin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters,” and by that name shall

have perpetual succession; shall be capable in law of contracting and

being contracted with, of suing and being sued, of pleading and being

impleaded in all courts of competent jurisdiction; and may do and per¬

form such acts as are usually performed by like corporate bodies.

Section 2. The general objects of the Academy shall be to encourage

investigation and disseminate correct views in the various departments

of science, literature and the arts. Among the specific objects of the

Academy shall be embraced the following:

1. Researches and investigations in the various departments of the

material, metaphysical, ethical, ethnological and social sciences.

2. A progressive and thorough scientific survey of the state, with a

view of determining its mineral, agricultural and other resources.

3. The advancement of the useful arts, through the applications of

science, and by the encouragement of original invention.

4. The encouragement of the fine arts, by means of honors and prizes

awardedfto artists for original works of superior merit.

5. The formation of scientific, economical and art museums.

xii Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

6. The encouragement of philological and historical research, the

collection and preservation of historic records, and the formation of a

general library.

7. The diffusion of knowledge by the publication of original contribu¬

tions to science, literature and the arts.

Section 3. Said Academy may have a common seal and alter the same

at pleasure; may ordain and enforce such constitution, regulations and

by-laws as maybe necessary, and alter the same at pleasure; may receive

and hold real and personal property, and may use and dispose of the

same at pleasure; provided , that it shall not divert any donation or be¬

quest from the uses and objects proposed by the donor, and that none of

the property acquired by it shall, in any manner, be alienated other than

in the way of an exchange of duplicate specimens, books, and other effects,

with similar institutions and in the manner specified in the next section

of this act, without the consent of the legislature.

Section 4. It shall be the duty of the said Academy, so far as the

same may be done without detriment to its own collections, to furnish,

at the discretion of its officers, duplicate typical specimens of objects

in natural history to the University of Wisconsin, and to the other

schools and colleges of the state.

Section 5. It shall be the duty of said Academy to keep a careful

record of all its financial and other transactions, and at the close of each

fiscal year, the president thereof shall report the same to the governor

of the state, to be by him laid before the legislature.

Section 6. The constitution and by-laws of said Academy now in

force shall govern the corporation hereby created, until regularly altered

or repealed; and the present officers of said Academy shall be officers

of the corporation hereby created, until their respective terms of office

shall regularly expire, or until their places shall be otherwise vacated.

Section 7. Any existing society or institution having like objects

embraced by said Academy, may be constituted a department thereof, or

be otherwise connected therewith, on terms mutually satisfactory to the

governing bodies of the said Academy and such other society or in¬

stitution.

Section 8. For the proper preservation of such scientific specimens^

books and other collections as said Academy may make, the governor

shall prepare such apartment or apartments in the capital as may be so

occupied without inconvenience to the state.

Section 9. This act shall take effect and be in force from and after

its passage.

Approved March 16, 1870.

CONSTITUTION.

NAME AND LOCATION.

Section 1. This association shall be called “ The Wisconsin Academy

of Sciences, Arts and Letters,” and shall be located at the city of

Madison.

GENERAL OBJECTS.

Section 2. The general object of the Academy shall be to encourage

investigations and disseminate correct views in the various departments

of Science, Literature and the Arts.

DEPARTMENTS.

Section 3. The Academy shall comprise separate Departments, not

less than three in number, of which those first organized shall be:

1st. The Department of Speculative Philosophy —

Embracing:

Metaphysics;

Ethics.

2 d. The Department of the Social and Political Sciences —

Embracing:

Jurisprudence ;

Political Science;

Education;

Public Health;

Social Economy.

2d. The Department of the Natural Sciences —

Embracing:

The Mathematical and Physical Sciences;

Natural History;

The Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences.

4th. The Department of the Arts —

Embracing:

The Practical Arts;

The Fine Arts.

xiv Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

5th. The Department of Letters —

Embracing:

Language;

Literature;

Criticism;

History.

Section 4. Any branch of these Departments may be constituted a

section; and any section or group of sections may be expanded into a

full department, whenever such expansion shall be deemed important.

Section 5. Any existing society or institution may be constituted a

Department, on terms approved by two-thirds of the voting members

present at two successive regular meetings of the Academy.

SPECIAL OBJECTS OF THE DEPABTMENTS.

Section 6. The specific objects of the Department of Science shall

be:

1. General Scientific Research.

2. A progressive and thorough Scientific Survey of the State, under

the direction of the Officers of the Academy.

3. The formation of a Scientific Museum.

4. The Diffusion of Knowledge by the publication of Original Con¬

tributions to Science.

The objects of the Department of Arts shall be:

1. The Advancement of the Useful Arts, through the Applications of

Science and the Encouragement of Original Invention.

2. The Encouragement of the Fine Arts and the Improvement of the

Public Taste, by means of Honors and* Prizes awarded to Works of

Superior merit, by Original Contributions to Art, and the formation of

an Art Museum.

The object of the Department of Letters, shall be:

1. The Encouragement of Philological and Historical Research.

2. The Improvement of the English Language.

3. The Collection and Preservation of Historic Records.

4. The Formation of a General Library.

MEMBEBSHIP.

Section 7. The Academy shall embrace four classes of governing

members who shall be admitted by vote of the Academy, in the man¬

ner to be prescribed in the By-Laws:

1st. Annual Members, who shall pay an initiation fee of five dollars,

and thereafter an annual fee of two dollars.

2d. Members for Life, who shall pay a fee of one hundred dollars.

Constitution.

XV

3d. Patrons, whose contributions shall not be less than five hun¬

dred dollars.

4th. Founders, whose contributions shall not be less than the sum of

one thousand dollars.

Provision may also be made for the election of Honorary and Cor¬

responding Members, as may be directed in the By-Laws of the

Academy.

MANAGEMENT.

Section 8. The management of the Academy shall be entrusted to a

General Council; the immediate control of each Department to a De¬

partment Council. The General Council shall consist of the officers of

the Academy, the officers of the Departments, the Governor and Lieu¬

tenant Governor, the Superintendent of Public Instruction, and the

President of the State University, the President and Secretary of the

State Agricultural Society, the President and Secretary of the State

Historical Society, Counselors ex officios, and three Counselors to be

elected for each Department. The Department Councils shall consist of

the President and Secretary of the Academy, the officers of the Depart¬

ment, and three Counselors to be chosen by the Department.

OFFICERS.

Section 9. The officers of the Academy shall be: a President, who

shall be ex-officio President of each of the Departments; one Vice-Presi¬

dent for each Department; a General Secretary; a General Treasurer; a

Director of the Museum, and a General Librarian.

Section 10. The officers of each Department shall be a Vice-Presi¬

dent, who shall be ex-officio a Vice-president of the Academy; a Secre¬

tary and such other officers as may be created by the General Council.

Section 11. The officers of the Academy and the Departments shall

hold their respective offices for the term of three years and until their

successors are elected.

Section 12. The first election of officers under this Constitution shall

be by its members at the first meeting of the Academy.

Section 13. The duties of the officers and the mode of their election,

after the first election, as likewise the frequency, place and date of all

meetings, shall be prescribed by the By-Laws of the Academy, which

shall be framed and adopted by the General Council.

Section 14. No compensation shall be paid to any person whatever,

and no expenses incurred for any person or object whatever, except

under the authority of the Council.

I-

xvi Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

KELATING TO AMENDMENTS.

Section 15. Every proposition to alter or amend this constitution

shall be submitted in writing at a regular meeting; and if two-thirds of

the members present at the next regular meeting vote in the affirmative,,

it shall be adopted.

AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION.

Amendment to Section 3: “ The Department of the Arts shall bo

hereafter divided into the Department of the Mechanic Arts and the

Department of the Fine Arts.” Passed February 14, 1876.

BY-LAWS.

ELECTION OF MEMBERS.

1. Candidates for membership must be proposed in writing, by a

member, to the General Council and referred to a Committee on Nom¬

inations, which Committee may nominate to the Academy. A majority

vote shall elect. Honorary and corresponding members must be per¬

sons who have rendered some marked service to Science, the Arts, or

Letters, or to the Academy.

ELECTION OF OFFICERS.

2. All officers of the Academy shall be elected by ballot.

MEETINGS.

2. The regular meetings of the Academy shall be held as follows:

On the 2d Tuesday in February, at the seat of the Academy; and in

July, at such place and exact date as shall be fixed by the Council; the

first named to be the Annual Meeting. The hour shall be designated by

the Secretary in the notice of the meeting. At any regular meeting, ten

members shall constitute a quorum for the transaction of business.

Special meetings may be called by the President at his discretion, or by

request of any five members of the General Council.

DUTIES OF OFFICERS.

□ 4. The President, Vice-President, Secretaries, Treasurer, Director of

the Museum and Librarian shall perform the duties usually appertain¬

ing to their respective offices, or such as shall be required by the Coun¬

cil. The Treasurer shall give such security as shall be satisfactory to

the Council, and pay such rate of interest [on funds [held by him as the

Council^ shall [determine. Five members of the General Council shall

constitute a quorum.

COMMITTEES.

5. There shall be the following Standing Committees, to consist of

three members each, when no other number is specified:

On Nominations.

On Papers presented to the Academy.

On Finance.

On the Museum.

xviii Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

On the Library.

On the Scientific Survey of the State; which Committee

shall consist of the Governor, the President of the State

University, and the President of this Academy.

On Publication; which Committee shall consist of the Presi¬

dent of the Academy, the Vice-Presidents, and the Gen¬

eral Secretary.

MUSEUM AND LIBRARY.

6. No books shall be taken from the Library, or works or specimens

from the Museum, except by authority of the General Council; but it

shall be the duty of said Council to provide for the distribution to the

State University and to the Colleges and Public Schools of the State, of

such duplicates of typical specimens in Natural History as the Academy

may be able to supply without detriment to its collections.

ORDER OF BUSINESS.

7. The order of business at all regular meetings of the Academy or of

any Department, shall be as follows:

Reading of minutes of previous meeting.

Reception of donations.

Reports of officers and committees.

Deferred business.

New business.

Reading and discussion of papers.

SUSPENSION AND AMENDMENT OF BY-LAWS.

8. The By-Laws may be suspended by a unanimous vote, and in case

of the order of business a majority may suspend. They may be amended

in the same manner as is provided for in the Constitution, for its

amendment.

INDEX TO PAPERS IN VOLUME I TO VIII, INCLUSIVE,

OF THE TRANSACTIONS OF THE WISCONSIN

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, ARTS AND LETTERS.

Allen, W. F. —

The Rural Population of England as Classified in Vol. Pages.

Domesday Book . I 167-177

The Rural Classes of England in the 13th Century . II 220-233

Ranks and Classes among the Anglo-Saxons . II 234-240

United States Sovereignty, — Whence Derived and

Where Vested . Ill 126-132

Peasant Communities in France . IV 1-6

The Origin of the Freeholders . IV 19-24

The English Cottagers of the Middle Ages . V 1-11

The Primitive Democracy of the Germans . VI 28-42

The Village Community and Serfdom in England. . VII 130-140

Town, Township and Tithing . VII 141-154

Andrews, Edmund —

Discoveries Illustrating the Literature and Religion

of the Mound Builders . IV 126-131

Armitage, W. E. —

The German Sunday . I 62-71

Balg, G. H. —

The Science of the English Language in the Light

of the Gothic . VIII 167-169

Barnes, Charles R. —

Artificial Keys to the Genera and Species of Mosses

Recognized in Lesquereux and James’s Manual of

the Mosses of North America . VIII 11-81

Artificial Keys to the Genera and Species of Mosses

Recognized in Lesquereux and James’s Manual of

the Mosses of North America — Additions and

Corrections . VIII 163-167

Bascom, John —

Freedom of Will Empirically Considered . VI 2-20

XX

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

Bennett, Chas. E — Vol. Pages.

Some New Theories of the Greek KA — Perfect . VIII 141-155

Birgke, Edward A. —

Notes on Cladocera . IV 77-109

On the Motor Ganglion Cells of the Frog’s Spinal

Cord . VI 51-81

List of Crustacea Cladocera from Madison, Wiscon¬

sin . VIII 379-398

Blackstone, D. P. —

The Variation in Attraction Due to the Figure of the

Attracting Bodies . VI 197-254

Buel, I. M. —

The Corals of Delafield . V 185-193

Bundy, Will F. —

A List of the Crustacea of Wisconsin, with Notes on

Some Little Known Species . V 178-184

Butler, J. D. —

The Naming of America . II 203-219

Copper Tools Found in the State of Wisconsin . Ill 99-104

First Foot-Prints Beyond the Lakes; or, What

Brought the French so Early into the Northwest . V 85-145

The “ Aita^ Aeyojueva ” in Shakspere . V 161-174

Carpenter, S. H. —

The Metaphysical Basis of Sciences . II 23-34

The Philosophy of Evolution . II 39-58

Caverno, Charles —

Social Science and Woman’s Suffrage . I 72-89

The People and the Railroads . Ill 143-150

The Abolition of the Jury System . IV 7-18

Life Insurance, Savings Banks and the Industrial

Situation . V 21-37

Chamberlin, T. C. —

Suggestions as to a Basis for the Gradation of the

Vertebrata . I 138-150

Some Evidences Bearing Upon the Method of the

Upheaval of the Quartzites of Sauk and Columbia

Counties . II 133-138

Index to Papers in Vols. I- VIII. xxi

Chamberlin, T. C. — Continued. Vol. Pages.

On the Extent and Significance of the Wisconsin

Kettle Moraine . IV 201-234

On a Proposed System of Lithological Nomenclature. V 234-247

Observations on the Recent Glacial Drift of the Alps. V 258-270

Some Additional Evidences Bearing on the Interval

Between the Glacial Epochs . VIII 82-86

Chandler, Chas. H. —

Notes and a Query Concerning the Ericaceae . VIII 161-2

Chapin, A. L. —

The Relations of Labor and Capital . I 45-61

The Nature and Functions of Credit . V 57-65

Committee on Exploration of Indian Mounds —

Report . . Ill 105-109

Comstock, Geo. C. —

The Present Condition of the Latitude Problem . VIII 229-233

Culver, G. E. —

Notes on a Little known Region of Northwestern

Montana . VIII 187-205

(With Wm. H. Hobbs).

On a New Occurrance of Olivine Diabase in Minne¬

haha County, South Dakota . VIII 206-210

Daniells, W. W. —

Note on the absorption of arsenic by the Human

Liver . II 128

Davies, J. E. —

On Potentials and their application to Physical

Science . I 155-164

Recent Progress in Theoretical Physics . Ill 205-221

Report on Recent Progress in Theoretical Physics. . . IV 241-264

Day, F. H.—

On the Fauna of the Niagara and Upper Silurian

Rocks as Exhibited in Milwaukee County, Wiscon¬

sin and in Counties Contiguous Thereto . IV 113-125

De Hart, J. M. —

The Antiquities and Platycnemism of the Mound

Builders of Wisconsin . IV 188-200

xxii Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

Desmond, Humphrey J. — Vol. Pages.

The Sectional Feature in American Politics . VIII 1-10

Eaton, James H. —

Report on the Geology of the Region about Devils

Lake . I 124-128

Relation of the Sandstones, Conglomerates and

Limestones of Baraboo Valley to each other and to

the Azoic Quartzites. . . II 123-127

Elmendorf, John J. —

Nature and Freedom . IV 62-76

Nature and the supernatural . V 66-84

Aristotles Physics . VIII 169-176

Everest, Kate A. —

Early Lutheran Immigration to Wisconsin . VIII 289-298

Feuling, J. B.—

On the Place of the Indian Languages in the

study of Ethnology . I 178-181

The Etymology of Church . II 182-192

Studies in Comparative Grammar . II 117-121

Haldeman, S. S. —

On Several Points in the Pronounciation of Latin

and Greek . II 178-181

Hastings, Samuel D.—

The present Condition of the Common Jails of the

Country . I 90-97

Higley, W. K. —

Reptiles and Batrachia of Wisconsin . VII 155-176

Hobbs, Wm. H. —

On Some Metamorphosed Eruptives in the Crystal¬

line Rocks of Maryland . VIII 156-160

On a new Occurrence of Olivine Diabase in Minne¬

haha county, South Dakota . VIII 206-210

Note on Cerussite from Illinois and Wisconsin . VIII 399-400

Holland, F. M. —

Vexed Questions in Ethics . II 35-38

Records of Marriages . II 73-76

Index to Papers in Vols. I- VIII. xxiii

Holland, F. M. — Continued. Vol. Pages.

Industrial Education . Ill 136-142

The Boa Constrictor of Politics . Ill 151-160

Were the Stoics Utilitarians . Ill 179-195

Hoy, P. R —

Deep Water Fauna of Lake Michigan . I 98-101

Insects Injurious to Agriculture, Aphides. (Plant

Lice.) . I 110-116

Natural History as a Branch of Elementary Educa-

cation . II 105-106

Some of the Peculiarities of the Fauna of Racine . . II 120-122

Fish Culture . Ill 37-39

On the Extent of the Wisconsin Fisheries . Ill 65-67

On the Catocalas of Racine County . Ill 96-98

How Did the Aborigines of this Country Fabricate

Copper Implements . IV 132-137

Why Are There no Upper Incisors in the Ruminantia IV 147-150

Water Puppy. (Menobranchus lateralis, Say) . V 248-250

The Larger Wild Animals that Have Become Ex¬

tinct in Wisconsin . V 255-257

Who Built the Mounds? . VI 84-100

Who Made the Ancient Copper Instruments . VI 101-106

Hoyt, J. W. — Vol. Pages.

Requisites to a Reform of the Civil Service of the

United States . II 89-104

On the Formal Commendation of Government

Officials . Ill 133-135

On the Revolutionary Movement Among Women. . . Ill 161-176

Hubbell, Herbert P. —

An Examination of Prof. S. H. Carpenter’s Position

in Regard to Evolution . Ill 196-202

Irving, R. D. —

The Age of the Quartzites, Schists, and Conglomer¬

ates of Sauk County, Wis . I 129-137

On Some Points in the Geology of Northern Wis¬

consin . II 107-119

On a Hand Specimen Showing the Exact Junction

of the Primordial Sandstones and Huronian Schists II 139

On the Occurrence of Gold and Silver in Minute

Quantities in Quartz from Clark County . II 140-141

On Kaolin in Wisconsin . Ill 3-30

xxiv Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

Jewell, J. S. — Vol. Pages

Mind in the Lower Animals . IV 164-187

King, C. I. —

Boiler Explosions . IV 151-163

Knapp, J. G. —

Conif erse of the Rocky Mountains . I 117-123

Ancient Lakes of Wisconsin . I 151-153

Kremers, Edward —

On the Limonene Group of the Terpenes . VIII 312-362;

Kumlein, Thure —

On the Rapid Disappearance of Wisconsin Wild

Flowers; a Contrast of the Present Time With

Thirty Years Ago . Ill 56-57

Lapham, I. A. —

On the Classification of Plants . I 102-109

Oconomowoc Lake, and Other Small Lakes of Wis¬

consin Considered with Reference to Their Capac¬

ity for Fish Production . III 31-36

The Law of Embryonic Development the same in

Plants as in Animals . Ill 110-113

Leverett, Frank —

Raised Beaches of Lake Michigan . VII 177-192

On the Correlation of Moraines with Raised

Beaches of Lake Erie . VIII 233-241

Loomis, H. B. —

The Effects of Changes of Temperature on the Dis¬

tribution of Magnetism . VIII 273-288

Marsh, C. Dwight. —

On the Deep Water Crustacea of Green Lake . VIII 211-214

Notes on the Depth and Temperature of Green Lake VIII 214-218

Mason, R. Z. —

The Duty of the State in its Treatment of the Deaf

and Dumb, the Blind, the Idiotic, the Crippled and

Deformed and the Insane . IV 25-30

Index to Papers in Vols. I- VIII.

xxv

McMurphy, J. G. — Vol. Pages.

Rotation as a Factor of Motion . IV 235-240

Nader, John —

Leveling and Use of the Barometer . Ill 68-76

Improvement of the Month of the Mississippi River. Ill 84-95

The Tides . V 207-233

A Chapter on Foundations . V 282-289

On the Strength of Materials as Applied to Engineer¬

ing . II 153-160

Nicodemus, W. J. L. —

On the Wisconsin River Improvement . II 142-152

Railway Gauges0 . II 161-177

History of the Science of Hydraulics . II 193-202

On the Ancient Civilization of America . Ill 58-64

Oldenhage, H. —

Remarks on the Descent of Animals . IV 138-146

Parkinson, J. B. —

Wealth, Capital and Credit . V 46-56

Payne, Alford. —

Art as Education . IV 31-43

Peckham, Elizabeth G.

(Gifford, Elizabeth M. and G. W. Peckham). Tem¬

perature of Pine, Beaver and Okanchee Lakes,

Waukesha county, Wisconsin, at Different Depths,

extending from May to December, 1879; also Par¬

ticulars of Depth of Pine Lake . V 273-275

(with Geo. W. Peckham). Genera of the Family At-

tidae, with a Partial Synonomy . VI 257-342

(with Geo. W. Peckham). Attidae of North America VII 41-10

(with Geo. W. Peckham and Wm. M. Wheeler).

Spiders of the Sub-family Lyssomanae . VII 221-256

Peckham, Geo. W. —

(with Elizabeth M. Gifford). Temperature of Pine,

Beaver and Okanchee Lakes, Waukesha County,

Wisconsin, at Different Depths, extending from

May to December, 1879; also Particulars of Depth

of Pine Lake

V 273-275

XXVI

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

Peckham, Geo. W. — Continued. Vol. Pages,

(with Elizabeth G. Peckham). Genera of the Family

Attidae with a Partial Synonomy . VI 257-342

(with Elizabeth G. Peckham). Attidae of North

America . VII 1-104

(with Elizabeth G. Peckham and Wm. M. Wheeler.)

Spiders of the Sub-family Lyssomanae . VII 221-256

Peet, S. D. —

Primitive Architecture in America . V 290-320

Ancient Villages among Emblematic Mounds . VI 154-176

The So-called Elephant Mound in Grant County, and

Effigies in the Region Surrounding it . VII 205-220

The Clan Centers and Clan Habitat of the Effigy

Builders . VIII 299-311

Salisbury, R. D. —

Notes on the Dispersion of Drift Copper . VI 42-50

Saeford, T. H. —

On the Present State of Our Knowledge of Stellar

Motion . VI 145-152

On the Employment of the Method of Least Squares

in the Reduction of Transit Observations . . VII 193-204

Sawyer, W. C. —

Letters an Embarrassment to Literature . IV 50-55

The Philosophy of F. H. Jacobi . V 146-160

Sherman, W. H. —

Vermillion by a New Process — Its Photographic

Properties. (Letter to the President.) . I 165-166

Simmons, H. M. —

Mr. Spencer’s Social Anatomy . IV 56-61

Smith, John G. —

Effect of the Duty on Imports on the Value of Gold. II 77-88

Steele, G. M.—

Population and Sustenance . II 59-72

f

Stuart, J. R.

The Harmonic Method in Greek Art . IV 44-49

Index to Papers in Vols. I- VIII. xxvii

Sweet, E. T. — Vol. Pages.

Notes on the Geology of Northern Wisconsin . Ill 40-55

On Kerosene Oil . Ill 77-83

Swezey, G. D. —

On Some Points in the Geology of the Region about

Beloit . V 194-204

Todd, James E. —

A Description of Some Fossil Tracks from the Pots¬

dam Sandstone . V 276-281

Tolman, H. C. —

The Cuneiform Inscriptions on the Monuments of

the Achsemenides . VIII 241-273

Trelease, William —

Preliminary List of Wisconsin Parasitic Fungi . VI 106-144

The Morels and Puff-Balls of Madison . VII 105-120 „

The Working of the Madison Lakes . VII 121-129

Van Cleef, F. L. —

The Pseudo-Gregorian Drama Xpidros IIa6x<nv in

its Relation to the Text of Euripides . VIII 363-378

Van Hise, C. R. —

Origin of the Iron Ores of the Lake Superior

Region . VIII 219-229

Wheeler, Wm. M. —

(With Geo. W. and Elizabeth G. Peckham.) Spiders

of the Sub -family Lyssomanae . VII 221-256

On the Appendages of the First Abdominal Seg¬

ment of Embryo Insects . VIII 87-140

Willard, S. W. —

Migration and Distribution of North American

Birds in Brown and Outagamie Counties . VI 177-196

Woodman, E. E. —

The Pipestone of Devils Lake . V 251-258

xxviii Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

Wright, A. O Vol. Pages.

On the Mineral Well at Waterloo, Wis. . I 154

The Philosophy of History . V 12-20

Distribution of Profits, a New Arrangement of that

Subject . V 38-46

The Increase of Insanity (2 papers) . VI 20-28

The Detective Classes . VIII 176-187

The appendix of this volume includes an index by authors of papers

contained in volumes I- VIII inclusive of the Transactions.

The tables of contents, which were omitted from volumes VI and VII,

will be found at the end of this volume.

The academy has a limited number of copies of volumes II- VIII of its

Transactions, which may be purchased at two dollars per volume. Ad¬

dress Wm. H. Hobbs, Secretary, Madison, Wisconsin.

The Library Committee of the Academy is endeavoring to enlarge the

library and render it more serviceable to members.' It has been thought

best to ask scientific workers to present the library with separates of

their personal papers. The gifts will be acknowledged and the titles of

papers will be printed after the author’s name in the annual report of the

librarian. It is requested that packages from abroad be forwarded

through the agencies of the Smithsonian Institution.

It is further suggested to American workers that the library does not

possess the reports of the State Geological Surveys, with the exception

of Pennsylvania, Arkansas, Minnesota, Wisconsin, and some of the

volumes of Maine, Illinois and Ohio. The method of distribution of

these valuable documents adopted by many states, makes it difficult to

obtain them except through the courtesy of individuals.

Direct packages to* or address the Librarian of the Wisconsin Academy

of Sciences, Arts and Letters, Madison, Wisconsin.

■ ' ■ ''V. r 1 "■ ’ 1 '■■■■■' 1