20l

OFFICERS FOR 1898-9. V.20-al

Co} pal

President: Witt1AM C. Krauss, M.D.,F.R.M.S. . . Buffalo, N. Ags

Vice Presidents: G. CARL HusBER, M.D.,F.R.M.S. . Ann Arbor, Mich.

A. M. BLEILE, ie Daa TA 2 aN ae Columbus, O.

Secretary: Henry B. Warp, A. M., PH. Dae ane Lincoln, Nebr.

Treasurer: MaGNus PFLAUM. . . . . . .. PiGis beurre, Tae

ELECTIVE MEMBERS OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

Simon H. GaGe, B. S. woo an ease Nee

A. CLIFFORD MERCER, M. D), BOAR RICE Hs. | poe wea Syracuse, N. Y.

VERANUS A. Moors, M. D. 4 Me a) wos 2 eta

PAST PRESIDENTS.

Ex-officiis members of the Executive Board.

1 RE WARD, OM eR, IMS or eiroys Ne a.

at Indianapolis, Ind., 1878

R.A Warp, M.D,,)F. RMS. ot roy, No Y.,

at Buffalo, N. Y., 1879

H. L. Smiru, LL. D., F. R. M. S., of Geneva, N. Y.,

at Detroit, Mich., 1880

4. J. D. Hyatt, F. R. M. S., of New York City,

at Columbus, O., 1881

5. Gero. E. BLackHaM, M. D., F. R. M. S., of Dunkirk, N. Y.,

at Elmira, N. Y., 1882

6. ALBERT McCatia, Pu. D., F. R. M. S., of Fairfield, Ia.,

at Chicago, Ill., 1883

WD. Cox Wai Deh Re Mo Ss ion Cincimnahhior

at Rochester, N. Y., 1884

8. H. L. Surry, LL. D., F. R. M. S., of Geneva, N. Y.,

at Cleveland, O., 1885

9. T. J. Burrii1, Pu. D., F. R. M.S., of Champaign, I1l.,

at Chautauqua, N. Y., 1886

10. Wm. A. Rogers, LL. D., F. R. M. S., of Waterville, Me.,

at Pittsburg, Pa., 1887

11. D.S. Kexuicort, Pu. D., F. R. M. S., of Columbus, O.,

at Columbus, O., 1888

12. Wm. J. Lewis, M. D., F. R. M. S., of Hartford, Conn.,

at Buffalo, N. Y., 1889

13. Gero. E. Fetx, M. D., F. R. M. S., of Buffalo, N. Y.,

at Detroit, Mich., 1890

14. Frank L. JAmss, Pu. D., M. D., F. BR. M.S., of St. Louis, Mo.,

at Washington, D. C., 1891

15. MarsHaty D. Ewe tt, M. D., F. R. M. S., of Chicago, IIl.,

at Rochester, N. Y., 1892

16. Jacos D. Cox, LL. D., F. RB. M. S., of Cincinnati, O.,

at Madison, Wis., 1893

17. LkEsTER Curtis, M. D., F. R. M. S., of Chicago, Ill.,

at Brooklyn, N. Y., 1894

18. Srmon HENRy GAGs, B. S., of Ithaca, N. Y.,

at ithe N. Y., 1895

19. A. CLIFFORD MERCER, M. D., F. R. M. S., of Syracuse, N

at Pittsburg, Pa. , 1896

20. E. W.Cxiaypots, D. Sc. (Lond.), F. G. SS. L. E. & A., of Akron, O.,

at "Toledo, O., 1897

21. D.S. Kexuicort, Pu. D., F. R. M. S., of Columbus, O.,

at Syracuse, N. Y., 1898

_ _The Society does not hold itself responsible for the opinions expressed by members

in its published Proceedings unless indorsed by a special vote.

PROCEEDINGS

The American Microscopical Society

TWENTY-FIRST ANNUAL MEETING, HELD AT SYRACUSE, NEW YORK,

Auaust 30, 31 AND SEPTEMBER 1, 1898.

THE ANNUAL ADDRESS OF THE PRESIDING OFFICER.*

THE NATURAL IN DISEASE.

VERANUS A. MOORE, ITHACA, N. Y.

It is specified in the constitution of this society, that the

president shall deliver an address at its annual meeting. In

the past, these have consisted of a presentation of the results

of personal investigation, a resume of the present knowledge

of the particular subject in which the speaker happened to be

most interested, or, a more philosophic dissertation on some

phase of micro-biology. The most arduous of the duties of the

president seems to have become the preparation of such a treat-

ise, and its reception the special enjoyment of these annual

gatherings. This year, however, there has happened a sad

incident which has marred the pleasure of this meeting, and

which has snatched from us the president’s annual offering.

In the death of President Kellicott, this society has lost one

of its early members and a loyal friend, and the world a most

*The sudden death of President Kellicott in April last, and the impaired

health of the first vice president, caused, for the first time in the history

of the society, the duties of the presiding officer to fall upon the second

vice president.

4 VERANUS A. MOORE:

enthusiastic student of natural history. He was a man whose

life was spent in nature’s great laboratory, and if he had been

spared to address us on this occasion, we would have listened

to an important chapter from nature study. He taught during

his lifetime the existence of higher and nobler ideals. Person-

ally, I am much indebted to the living influence of his forceful

character and, if perchance, in my feebleness in trying to do as

he would have wished, I shall be so fortunate as to kindle anew

or deepen your interest in pure or applied biology, cherish the

thought as a reflected message from him who would, had God

willed, instructed us this hour.

Under the trying circumstances, I had some difficulty in

selecting a topic for this formal address. The little time since

this unexpected duty fell to me has been so overcrowded with

other and more imperative duties, that it was impossible to

carry out a new, or even complete, any line of investigation,

the results of which could be used on this occasion. Likewise

it was too brief for preparing a discussion on any of the broader

and more fundamental problems centered in any of the sciences

represented in our society. It so happened, however, that fol-

lowing this call to duty, I had occasion to adjust a course of

instruction in comparative bacteriology, to meet the needs of

students of human medicine, and, at the same time, to fill it

full for those who were seeking knowledge in comparative

pathology. In working out this actual and seemingly difficult

problem, the subject as announced suggested itself and in its

somewhat popular consideration I ask your indulgence.

If, in my selection, I seem to have failed in appreciating the

fitness of things, and to have brought before a society which

deals in pure science, ajungle of practical ‘‘isms’’, I must ask,

impertinent as it may seem, what is the aim, the ultimate pur-

pose, of the observations and rich discoveries in physiology, in

in anatomy, in botany, and to a less extent in pathology as

carefully recorded in our annual volumes? Why have so many

workers in biology striven with untiring energy to discover the

hidden structure or to learn the vital purpose of the cells of the

living body, not only in man but in the lowlier animals and in

THE ANNUAL ADDRESS a

plants as well. The technical and enthusiastic biologist some-

times hesitates when he is asked to point out the practical sig-

nificance of his investigations; but, the sober answer of the

devotee of each of the varied branches of human research

assures us that it is for bettering human existence. How this

is to be brought about, is in the beginning unthought of, but

we all share in the consciousness that the discovery of a new

fact, the crystalizing of a new truth, the extending of our horizon

into nature’s processes by a single ray, adds something to the

sum total of human enjoyment.

Undoubtedly, the primary purpose of this organization was

to hasten the perfection and application of the microscope.

This instrument which has passed through a most perfect evo-

lution, rising from a simple lens beset with errors in contour,

to a complicated instrument, not only for magnification but of

precision as well. By its aid, the ultimate cells in the structure

of the organic world are being measured and delineated with

mathematical exactness. However, time has shown, that equally

as important a result issuing from this band of workers has been

a share in the elucidation of many obscure problems in the realm

of natural history. Although in themselves they are seemingly

remote from the ideals of the utilitarian, they have little by lit-

tle illuminated the conditions connecting the normal with the

abnormal until many of the cords which bound pain and suffer-

ing to mankind have snapped asunder.

There is, perhaps, nothing in the evolution of human thought

which stands out more conspicuously than the idea of the super-

natural in producing and curing disease. In Egypt, in India,

in Persia and in China, the healing art was entrusted to the

priestly class. In the middle centuries the faith in the super-

natural cause of disease and belief in fetish cures became so

strong, that there was something irreligious in seeking cure by

natural means. At one time it is affirmed that physicians were

forbidden to treat the sick without calling in ecclesiastical ad-

vice. As arule, the leaders in theology discouraged the belief

that diseases were caused by natural agencies. It is largely

due to this, that it was possible for the vast system of ‘‘ pas-

6 VERANUS A. MOORE:

toral medicine’’ so powerful in the middle ages, and in certain

phases continuing even at the present time to exist. Monas-

teries possessed healing relics. which turned vast treasures into

their coffers. The skulls of the three wise men of the East so

carefull encased in the cathedral of Cologne, and the bones from

plundered cemeteries hung on the walls of the churches of St.

Gereon and of St. Ursula are said to have been potent agencies

in healing the sick and remunerating the priests. Even Martin

Luther, the great champion of religious liberty, ascribed his

own diseases to ‘‘ Devil’s spells’’, and declared that ‘‘ Satan

produces all the maladies which afflict mankind’’.

In opposition to the idea of the supernatural as the immediate

and specific cause of disease, there sprang up with the teachings

of Hippocrates, a different and more rational theory. Living

as he did in that early age of lofty thought and philosophy, he

broke away from the traditional theories and laid the founda-

tions of medical science upon experience, observation and reason.

The school of Alexandria promulgated this theory. Thus five

hundred years before the Christian Era, the minds of a few men

were turned toward the natural in disease; but the little which

had been gained seemed to have been lost in the middle ages

with the development of the new interpretation of disease as a

product of satanic forces, and the restoration to health the spe-

cial act of a Divine agency.

For nearly two thousand years after Hippocrates, the condi-

tion of the science and of the art of medicine was primitive in-

deed. Like those poor people of to-day who try to charm away

disease with a ‘‘madstone’’, the sick and injured were the vic-

tims of circumstances, or, rather, they lived or died as the

chance may have been. We sometimes forget that many peo-

ple in the present generation entertain vagaries concerning the

cause of physical disorders which are quite as astonishing as

those cherished more generally centuries ago. The time seems

to be ripe when biology should claim the abnormal and its

causes as a complement to the normal. Do we not find in the

abnormal as elsewhere, that ‘‘ Nature is neither kind nor cruel,

but simply obedient to law, and, therefore, consistent’?! The

THE ANNUAL ADDRESS 7

burden of the thought which led to the selection of my subject,

was the vast indebtedness of the world to biology for interpret-

ing the nature and finding the cause of so many of the diseases

which afflict the vegetable and animal kingdoms. To this should

be added the desire of every honest physician and every thought-

ful teacher of biology to have all who will feel that disease is a

natural product, that its coming and its going depend largely

upon conditions which are possible for man to find out and

control. I do not wish to be understood by this that it is with-

in man’s power to prolong life indefinitely, but rather, that those

maladies which shorten our allotted three score years and ten

upon earth, are, for the greater part, preventable.

The early history of medicine is confined in the biography of

afew men. Schools were founded on men, not on principles

until the increeping of error and false hypotheses became more

potent than truth itself. But worse than this, and more to be

regretted than all the other undesirable influences of those early

teachings, there grew up in the public mind that greatest of

misconceptions, the belief in disease as an entity, ‘‘an evil

spirit to be exorcised and driven out by drugs’’. The superfi-

cial observer recognizes only results, he is content with know-

ing the end, never seeking the causes. Results are his ulti-

matum, for factors and forces have not disturbed the quietude

of his mental processes.

As we approach the early dawn of modern medicine, we find

Sydenham going to nature for an explanation of the morbid

processes which confront the practitioner. He laid down and

acted upon the fundamental proposition that, ‘‘All diseases

‘should be described as objects of natural history’’. In discuss-

ing the method for the study of medicine, he states, ‘‘ In writ-

ing, therefore, such a natural history of diseases, every merely

philosophical hypothesis should be set aside, and the manifest

and natural phenomena, however minute, should be noted with

the utmost exactness’’. His theories were rigorously opposed

by Morton and others who considered all diseases to be ‘‘ pois-

oning of the vital spirits’’, but he became the standard bearer

of his time in returning to the methods of Hippocrates whose

8 VERANUS A. MOORE:

method and art of healing ‘‘ were founded on the nature of

things, and on the limits of human ability’’.

Among those who were foremost in subduing prejudices and

eliminating false hypotheses which smothered the study of dis-

ease for so many centuries, should be mentioned John Hunter.

He may be known to some of us better as naturalist than

physician. It is, perhaps, through his great achievements as

student of nature, that he exercised his greatest power. He

was a pathologist, but he looked upon morbid processes as a

part of the great whole, governed by law, but which could not

be understood until the facts were secured, tabulated and sys-

tematized. His untiring industry and peculiarily interesting

experiments, attracted men to him, and it has been well said

that, ‘‘he made all physicians naturalists’. Certain it was,

that in his generation and that immediately following him,

many of the successful practitioners became distinguished as

students of nature.

If we should trace from the beginning the progress in human

pathology, we would find that the great landmarks are the dis-

coveries and the works of biologically trained men who were

devotees of pure science, and not the results of those who made

technical utility their guiding principle. What would modern

medicine and surgery be if we should strip from them all of

these useful and beneficient applications which have come from

the discoveries of Galvani, Volta, Harvey, Priestly, Magendie,

Claude Bernard and many others, to say nothing of the won-

derful revelations which have been made in more recent years ?

The revolution in surgery wrought by Lister has its origin in

the discoveries made by Pasteur, a chemist and biologist. It

is an interesting fact, that those medical schools which have

advanced the science of medicine most, have been associated

with great Universities which offered special inducements for

biologic study. While there has existed on the one hand a

feeling that the science of medicine is’ something more enobling

than a part of pure biology, and on the other, the technical

botanist and zoologist sometimes frown upon the seeming loose-

ness of the science of the healing art, there is much in old asso-

: THE ANNUAL ADDRESS 9

ciations to increase a mutual sympathy. Before there was a

school of botany or zoology, or of law, or even of theology,

there was a school of medicine. For centuries, all there was

of biology was clustered around the teachers of medicine, many

of whom advanced our knowledge of disease with most aston-

ishing rapidity by means of their discoveries as_ biologists.

Pathology itself which is the pure science of medicine as con-

trasted with the healing art, was without a name even, until a

better knowledge of the normal revealed the existence here and

there of the abnormal. These deformities were relegated to a

department by themselves where they remained undisturbed

until finally they attracted the attention of a few zealous stu-

dents of nature, who, in the course of time, have shown that

the abnormal holds an equal position with the normal in the

great group of Natural Sciences.

It would be interesting to continue this retrospect and learn

how perfectly the premises, that ‘‘disease is a part of natural

history’’, as it is now understood, was heralded by those fathers

of modern medicine who saw deeper into the nature of the ab-

normal than the average man. However, the brilliancy of those

early prophecies, those beacon lights of the new pathology, no

matter how bright they might have been, are as shadows com-

pared with the actual that has happened in the evolution of

pathology. It is exceedingly modest to affirm that the investi-

gations and experiments which have been made during the last

fifty years have done more than all the observations of the pre-

ceding centuries to raise pathology from the realm of supersti-

tion and darkness, to conditions of light and exactness. _ Illus-

trations are numerous, but perhaps the specific diseases offer

the most striking ones. From the very dawn of medical history

to the brilliant investigations of Davaine, published in 1863,

anthrax had decimated again and again the flocks and shep-

herds of the civilized world. Its nature was unknown, its

cause was shrouded in mystery, and its coming was supposed to

be an expression of rebuke from angry gods or enraged devils.

Since 1863 the specific cause of ths disease has been discovered,

and its terrors have been allayed by prohibiting its appearance.

10 VERANUS A. MOORE:

Tuberculosis, Asiatic cholera, and the pest of India, afford sim-

ilar illustrations of human vagueness in the past concerning the

nature of disease and the feeble faith in man’s ability to pre-

vent or control them. We are'no longer paralyzed by fear of

epidemics of these terrible diseases for their causes have been

captured and brought largely within the control of man, and to-

day these specific agents are growing, somewhat as curiosities,

in peaceful colonies in scores of our biologic laboratories.

Where in the history of man’s advancement can greater victories

be found ?

Definite knowledge which led to the demonstration of morbid

processes, as products of natural agencies, began to accumulate

with increased rapidity, near the dawn of the present century.

In fact, this new theory took a definite position just as soon as

biologists, physicists, and the makers of instruments of precis-

ion made it possible for the pathologist to study intelligently

the finer structure of the abnormal. The progress of pathology

has been paralleled with the progress of philosophy itself,

‘<system succeeding system in genetic order.” It was impos-

sible, therefore, from the very nature of things, to have estab-

lished a theory respecting the etiology of disease based upon

natural or specific causes, so long as the reasoning and the phil-

osophy of the day did not admit such a cause to be necessary.

What could a rational interpreter of diseases do when the

scientists advocated and the populace believed, not only in the

possibility of, but in the actual every day happening of spon-

taneous generation? With the fall of that theory, micro-biology

gained its first great victory, and cleared forever the passage to

the rational study of the natural forces which ever exert them-

selves in the production and in the elimination of disease.

There is a tendency to look upon the infectious maladies as

the only ones in which purely biologic agencies constitute the

causal factors. To be sure, they furnish our most telling illus-

trations, and offer many inducements for consideration. How-

ever, I wish to call attention to a more neglected and perhaps,

obscure topic in illustrating the natural in disease, namely,

general pathology. While the epidemic diseases are serious

THE ANNUAL ADDRESS inant

indeed, with their present subjugation they do not furnish the

most of our physical troubles. Yet the statement which has

become almost axiomatic, that ‘‘all of the common ailments

are due to the violation of physical law”, is believed in only a

half hearted manner. There was much wisdom shown in the

physician’s reply to a patient complaining from a mixture of

preventable disorders, ‘‘ My dear sir, you have no business to

be sick”. The cellular pathology of Virchow, with its various

modifications, has done an immeasureable amount of good in

establishing the almost imperceptible gradation existing between

health and disease.

The student of general pathology soon finds that, while many

conditions of the abnormal have been differentiated from the

general, by finding definite specific causes for them, much re-

mains for interpretation. In fact, the unsolved problems in

general pathology are so difficult that they seem to be intangi-

ble, so intimately do they come into relation with cosmic phys-

ics, meterology, geology, sociology, chemistry, botany, zoology,

and the rest that a distinguished pathologist wrote ‘‘ General

pathology knows no other direction, and no other order than

physiology”. Illustrations of this are numerous. The highly

developed biceps of the blacksmith, if submitted per se to the

pathologist, would be called a beautiful specimen of hypertrophy,

but the physiologist knowing the history, sees an illustration of

high development from special use. The muscle of the hyper-

trophied heart brought on by over-exertion, caused by some

valvular or other lesion, becomes a much more serious matter.

It has been shown and the fact verified by members of this

Society, how active and efficient the phagocytes are in elimin-

ating foreign particles, like bits of carbon, from the body. Pa-

thologists have pointed out the efficiency of these same cells in

defending the body against foreign invaders. In both cases,

however, they are sometimes overpowered, the infection is ac-

complished, the abscess is formed, the disease is established,

and the life may be extinguished.

It must be admitted by us all that we are too prone to over-

look the influences of environment. Are we not too willing to

12 VERANUS A. MOORE:

pass over the action of natural forces and agencies, which either

consciously or unconsciously have an indwelling influence upon

the vital powers of the human or the animal body? To be

sure, nature has furnished us with the benefit of certain adapta-

tions of the abnormal, but these will not suffice to sustain the

body under prolonged neglect. If there is physical or mental

disability, there must be a cause. If there is vigor and intel-

lectual superiority, there is somewhere in the cosmos an explan-

ation. Henry Clay was called a crank because he always sent

the hay and grain for his trotting horses from his own farm.

When questions concerning this seemingly foolish notion he

replied, ‘*‘When my horses eat the hay and grain from my

farm, they always win, when they do not, they always lose”.

This was called a whim, for neither Clay nor any one else could

venture a rational explanation for the fact in the statement.

Finally, however, it has been found that the forage and cereals

of his locality in Kentucky contain 10 per cent and upwards

more phosphoric acid than those from the localities where his

horses competed. If this was an isolated case, it might still be

doubted that the constituents of the soil and consequently of

the forage had an influence upon the vital powers of the horse.

It is a verified fact, however, that those particular localities

noted for raising fine animals have a forage exceedingly rich in

phosphates. Again, in the early days when at least the com-

mon people lived very largely upon the crops raised on the

home farm, and before there was such an interchange of food

products, it is interesting to note that the localities famous for

raising fine horses were equally as conspicuous for their great

men. If we read carefully geographical pathology, we find in

certain districts a prevalence of certain physical disabilities

which as yet, fall naturally into the general group, but which

nevertheless have their origin in the influence of certain local

conditions.

From a study of the more general conditions which influence

the animal body, one is sometimes led to feel that there is a

tendency to expect too much of the microscope and to neglect

naked eye observations. The old time naturalist knew little of

THE ANNUAL ADDRESS 13

minute anatomy, yet we could better spare much of the micro-

scopic than the results of the close observations of Linneus,

Hunter or Agassiz. The laboratory worker loses much that the

field observer takes into account. So in general pathology he

who studies the abnormal in itself, fails to discover its relation

to natural forces and consequently the legitimate right for its

existence. Hunter and Paget showed for the first that disease

begins with slight deviations from the normal, and the real

cause for these deviations may be as far from the generally

accepted ones as was phosphoric acid from the mind of the

jockey who rode Clay’s horses.

It sometimes seems unfortunate that more of our biologists

do not grapple with the problems in general pathology, and

circumscribe with more definite observations and experiments,

the conditions which lead to the abnormal. The agencies

by way of instruments and reagents are more numerous and

efficient than ever before. The knowledge of physiology

and physiologic chemistry is constantly increasing and the

topics which need more light seem inviting. As they per-

tain to the living tissues, they must be approached by those

who feel an inspiration for the living. The solution of the

problems concerning the theories of cell-proliferation set forth

by Virchow and by Weigert would be ample to fill a life time

of untiring research and experiment.

No doubt, one of the great difficulties is the inability to se-

cure sufficient material. The naturalist preserves with equal

care hundreds of duplicates of the specimen which he is to study.

Is this so with the physicians who are the reapers for the patholo-

gists, and in this connection for the biologists? Are they as

careful as they might be in securing the important, not necessarily

the rare, specimens which from time to time fall in their way ?

While it is true, that the study of pathology is best carried on

in connection with a large hospital service, it is equally true

that much highly important and valuable material never comes

to the general ward. Who has followed the voluminous liter-

ature on the cause of malignant tumors without feeling that it

is quite as important to continue their study as it has been in

14 VERANUS A. MOORE:

the past? If we are to learn more concerning the cause and

nature of these abnormalities,.we must continue their study.

Every examination carefully made brings out new facts, or

prepares better than before the examiner for the next specimen.

We are told that ‘*To him who hath, shall be given”, and cer-

tainly in the material world, this applies to none better than to

the devotee of the science or of the art of medicine. A dis-

tinguished oculist had successfully removed avery bad cataract

and was receiving the congratulations of a brother oculist who

was deeply impressed with the skill and success of the opera-

tion. <‘* Yes’, was the reply, ‘‘ but that operation has cost a

bushel of eyes”. This tells the story of success in explaining

the cause of disease quite as much as in the art of healing.

The standing difficulty in pathology has been in the relations

existing between morbid anatomy and etiology. The researches

of Virchow, Conheim, Stricker, and others, have shown that

wherever in the body there exists an abnormal aggregation of

tissue it came from pre-existing cells. Upon the cause of their

proliferation, there are different theories, but concerning the

fundamental biologic principles involved, all are agreed. The

infectious diseases were carefully described, their periods of

incubation, symptoms and gross morbid anatomy were known

to the older pathologists, but they failed to distinguish the

cause. The reason may be found in the trend of the biologic

thought and philosophy of the day, which precluded the need

of natural, or specific agencies. For this reason, the natural

forces which existed as the causal factors in the epidemics or

plagues of the times could not be found.

With the development of the science of bacteriology, there

came a new epoch in the human understanding of the nature of

diseases, especially of the infectious ones. We are prone to |

look upon this new science as being exceedingly modern. In

its present accepted meaning this may be true, but he who finds

his way through the vast literature on the subject learns that

its first paper was entitled, ‘‘ The world of the infinitely little ”,

written at Delft, Holland, by Anthony Von Leeuwenhoeck in

1675. It was this man’s work which was done largely for

THE ANNUAL ADDRESS 15

amusement, that laid the foundation of bacteriology, a science

which is now recognized as having much to do with the organic

world from the lowliest of plants to the highest of the animal

kingdom. For two hundred years this science was kept alive

by a few workers in succeeding generations. So mysterious

did it seem, that naturalists could not comprehend the effect of

the labors of these infinitely little structures. But finally

methods and instruments were in hand with which it was pos-

sible to isolate and study the properties of individual species

among them. As soon as this came, we read in rapid succes-

sion of the discovery of the specific causes, the species of bac-

teria which produce relapsing fever, traumatic infections,

anthrax, tuberculosis, Asiatic cholera, typhoid fever, glanders,

diphtheria, and many other pests of the animal kingdom. In

addition to affording us this specific information, bacteriology

has had a broadening influence on the general study of disease.

It has taught a perpetual co-existence and vital interdependence

of plants and animals, and in some instances established a

unity in the etiology of the afflictions of man and of beasts. It

has also taught us that these microscopic organisms which are

largely our friends, but in part our enemies, stand in a similar

relationship to the flowering plants. While they in the main,

prepare the food for higher vegetation, a few species among

them cause the most serious of plant diseases. Thus the pear

blight, a destructive disease of melons, tomatoes, potatoes,

cabbage, beets, sweet corn, and of the beautiful carnation are

known to be caused by certain species of bacteria.

Indirectly, bacteriology has illuminated the significance of

certain phases of zoology. The student of pathology, failing

to find the specific cause of certain of the infectious diseases by

means of the methods of the bacteriologist, modified them

somewhat, and as a result, certain higher orders of plant life

and a few protozoa became distinguished as the agens morbi

in such affections as thrush, actinomycosis, malaria, Texas or

Southern cattle fever, entero-hepatitis in turkeys and a serious

form of dysentery in man.

These bacteria and protozoa which sometimes become para-

16 VERANUS A. MOORE:

sitic on the animal body are being studied, as have been studied

the birds of the air, the fishes of the deep, or the beasts of the

earth. These organisms of the unseen world, unknown save

through the adventitious agency of the microscope, give us one

of the key notes of our temporal welfare: explain to us how it

is that we are able to enjoy our existence, and proclaim to us

that they, these same organisms, give us permission to live.

Were it not for the saprophytic bacteria, ‘‘the world would be

piled mountain high with the corpses of the past dead”. Their

usefulness permits our living. They serve to carry back to

primeval elements all our composite organisms and organiza-

tions. The deduction of Pasteur in this connection are worthy

of repetition, ‘‘ That wherever and whenever there is decompo-

sition of organic matter, whether it be the case of an herb, or

of an oak, of a worm or of a whale, the work is exclusively

done by infinitely small organisms. They are the important,

almost the only agents of universal hygiene; they clear away

more quickly than the dogs of Constantinople, or the wild

beasts of the desert, the remains of all that has had life; they

protect the living from the dead; they do more, if there are

still living beings; if, since the hundreds of centuries the world

has been inhabited, life continues, it is to them we owe it”.

With the knowledge brought to us by bacteriology, the pro-

gress in the study of the specific causes of disease has been

rapid. Further than this, the study of the influences of these

causes upon the body generally has tended to explain much

that remained mysterious in general pathology. In a very few

years, etiology has united all of the biologic and physical

sciences and brought them within the range of the student of

medicine. Etiology has become permanently linked to micro-

biology. We look now to botany and to zoology for the ex-

citing causes of the infectious diseases. If we still have diffi-

culty in understanding the nature of these maladies, let us view

them in the light of parasitism. The sufferer from malaria,

tuberculosis or anthrax is actually a host entertaining, at the

expense of his own vital forces, a multitude of ungrateful

guests in the form of microscopic plants or animals.

THE ANNUAL ADDRESS al

If we look up and down the scale of the animal and vege-

table kingdoms we recognize over and over again the destruc-

tive tendencies of the living upon the living. Sometimes the

scene becomes tragical as witnessed in the jungles or in the

trackless deep. Sometimes the struggle is long continued and

we watch for the outcome, feeling sure that without the inter-

vention of forces guided by the intellect, the combatant which

best adapts itself to the environment will eventually win. Some-

times we see the little parasitic vine slowly entwine itself about

a powerful tree, drawing its substance from it until finally the

life of the tree goes out. In the reservoirs of India, Koch

found the water swarming with little organisms which, when

taken into the human body, multiplied and gave rise to a se-

ries of symtoms and tissue changes which prostrated their host

and which condition has long been known as Asiatic cholera.

All of the infectious diseases, whether caused by bacteria,

higher fungi or protozoa, afford illustrations of the simplest

“organisms becoming parasitic upon the more highly organized

plants or animals. Thus it has come about that the abnormal

which is seen so often in nature sometimes restricted to single

individuals, sometimes appearing as devastating plagues, has

been demonstrated to be the result of natural forces acting un-

der changed conditions. The prophesies by way of the the-

ories of Hippocrates, Sydenham and Hunter, have been ful-

filled in the results of investigations carried out since the organ-

ization of this society.

If the discovery of the cause foretold the end, we could feel

that, so far as the infectious diseases are concerned, the goal

is near at hand. But such is not the case. Pathologists are

being led step by step into broader and infinitely more compli-

cated fields. Preventive medicine, which is the key note of

modern medicine, is clamoring for more definite, specific

knowledge concerning the possibilities of not only recognized

pathogenic bacteria, but of others as well. Health officers are

asking for information concerning the possible means of infec-

tion, and epidemics and epizootics of peculiar character are

constantly appearing and demand interpretation. Then come

18 VERANUS A. MOORE:

the numerous questions concerning the relationship and identity

of certain animal and human diseases. Comparative and ex-

perimental pathology, which have become a necessity in the in-

terpretation of certain human affections, have laid at our door

a series of problems, so long and so difficult, that the most

hopeful read the subjects of research for generations to come.

Every practical investigation in comparative pathology brings

to light a host of problems, perhaps of secondary importance,

but clamoring for attention.

I have already referred to the significance of etiology. I

desire to call attention to a few important illustrative results in

comparative etiology. In an old pathology we learn that for-

merly tuberculosis, glanders and actinomycosis, all diseases of

the lower animals and all affections of man, are very closely

related if not identical. They were grouped together. Now

we know that the bacteria of glanders and tuberculosis and the

fungus of actinomycosis, are as different as three species of the

flowering plants. Recently, five diseases of swine known to

the veterinarians of Europe, were positively demonstrated by

Jensen to be caused by the bacillus of rouget, and thus varie-

ties of one and the same disease. With the existence of defin-

ite etiological factors, the isolating and grouping of diseases

must continue until they are classified in accordance with this

standard. Some one asks what difference does it make? The

answer must be first, that right is right; and secondly, when

all of these diseases are treated directly or indirectly with some

product of their specific organisms as in the case of diphtheria

antitoxin of today, we cannot hope for good results save in

cases of disease, no matter about its form, which are due to the

same etiological factor.

This lead us to the cause for the variation in the course of

infectious diseases. The difficulty of becoming enlightened on

this highly important topic, without resource to experimental

pathology is obvious. By its aid much has been learned con-

cerning the fundamental principles involved, although this field

has just been opened. The causes may be cast in a simple

equation, namely, the course of the disease will change in ac-

THE ANNUAL ADDRESS 19

cordance with variation in either the resistance of the animal

or the virulence of the specific bacteria. Thus, for example,

the bacterium of an acute septicaemia which should ordinarily

cause death in a rabbit in eighteen hours, may be changed so

that the lesions may become peritonitis, pleuritis, pericarditis,

subcutaneous or deeper seated abscesses. In swine we often

see abscesses in joints due to the localization of bacteria which

ordinarily cause an acute general disease, but which owing

either to their attenuation or to the resistance of the host, have

produced painful and long suffering localized affections. In

human pathology, such localized lesions are common and the

desirability of extending similar investigations with the etiologi-

cal factor of all of the infectious diseases is apparent. The

formula is simple; but define for us who can, the range of in-

fluences which may modify that subtle property of bacteria we

call virulence. What elements in the body impart to it a

natural resistance? Really, what are these vital forces about

which men talk so freely and know so little ?

If we pass below these more superficial but perplexing ques-

tions, we are met with those concerning the influence of the

host upon the parasite. One of them has already found ex-

pression in the assertion that ‘‘the continued passage of a

species of bacteria through a single species of animals, tends

to increase its virulence for that species and to attenuate it for

all others’’. This hypothesis, which needs to be verified, is

one of vital importance respecting the transmission of infec-

tious diseases, such for example as tuberculosis from animals

to man and wee versa. If we could continue to call up ques-

tions in this department, which are still unanswered, we would

soon learn that notwithstanding the much already known, all

of the articles in the final constitution of preventive or sanitary

medicine have not been written. Schools and theories of med-

icine which were largely based on individual opinions are

rapidly disappearing and the science of medicine, which gov-

erns its practice, is being constructed in accordance with the

results of the biologic study of disease.

20 VERANUS A. MOORE:

The unanswered questions are not all concerning etiology.

Before the ideals of the most far seeing advocates of preventive

medicine are realized, millions of individuals will have become

infected and their restoration to health is the final demand upon

the physician. The trend of therapeutics in the line of serum

therapy is well known. The marvelous success with diph-

theria antitoxin gives hope that somewhat similar methods will

bring about like results with other maladies. The problems

here are numerous and nowhere in the realm of human research

is there a field involving such a variety of factors. Physi-

ology, chemistry, physics, all have their share to do in this

field ot applied biology. ‘Surely there is as much pure gold

of science to be gathered in working out these problems appli-

cable to the every day life of the individual and to the State as

in other kinds of inquiry aimed at a supposed higher mark”.

I have tried in this short address to bring to your attention

certain very general considerations concerning the inseparable

relations existing between disease and the acting forces of nature.

It has been possible to touch upon only a few of the many topics

which suggested themselves, and these inadequately. We have

seen, however, that many diseases depend for their existence

upon well defined biologic agencies, while others seem to take

origin in the influence of a greater variety of forces. It is to

the interpretation of these as yet obscure factors in the produc-

tion and in the healing of disease that future research will, in

part at least, be directed. Although many of these investiga-

tions seem to be independent of the microscope and microscopic

methods, others and equally important ones rely entirely for

their success upon them. More than this, the every-day appli-

cation of the existing knowledge of the nature and cause of

disease require the constant use of the microscope and the

fullest interpretation of the facts call for still better methods.

As we return to our accustomed places let us take up with

renewed zeal the struggle with the problems in hand, not waver-

ing for the reason that Browning gives:

‘‘ Knowing ourselves, our world,

Our task so great,

Our time so brief’’.

DAVID SIMONS KELLICOTT

ODT aR TRIE

DAVID SIMONS KELLICOTT.

Professor David Simons Kellicott, B. Sc., B. Ph., Ph. D.,

was born at Hastings Center, N. Y., January 28th, 1842; died

at Columbus, Ohio, April 13th, 1898. He was married to

Valeria Stowell, who with one daughter, Gertrude Stowell, and

one son, William Erskin, survive him.

After a preliminary education in the elementary schools and

the academy of his native place, he in 1865 entered Genesee

College, now Syracuse University. Forced to interrupt his

college work for a time, he came to Ohio, where he taught

school at Scioto Furnace. Resuming his college work he was

graduated in 1869 with the B. Sc. degree and in 1874 he ob-

tained from his alma mater the B. Ph. degree. In 1881 he

took from the same institution the Ph. D. degree. Immedi-

ately upon his graduation he was called as teacher of Mathe-

matics and Botany to Mexico Academy. After one year’s work

there he became instructor in Mathematics and Natural Science

in the Keystone State Normal School, Berks county, Penn.

In 1871 he was made teacher of natural science in the State

Normal School at Buffalo, remaining until 1888. During this

time he also served as Dean and Professor of Botany and

Microscopy in the Buffalo College of Pharmacy. In 1888 he

was appointed to the chair of Zoology and Comparative Anat-

omy at Ohio State University, which chair then included all of

animal (and human) biology. In 1891 the department was

divided, Professor Kellicott taking the new chair of Zoology

and Entomology, which he held at the time of his death—a close

the more tragic since he was about to occupy, and in fact had

already made preparation for moving into, the new laboratory

building planned largely after his own wishes and in which his

labors would have been, if not lessened, materially lightened.

22 A. M. BLEILE:

As a teacher he was thorough and conscientious. Hard

work was ever his. Nothing that could raise the efficiency of

his teachings was ever overlooked or slighted. In all of his

work, in or away from the class room, he had in mind its bear-

ing on the teaching of his classes, and his private library

and his private collections were freely drawn upon to enhance

the value of his instruction. Neither was the practical appli-

cation of knowledge pushed aside for pure theoretical learning

and the mind-training resulting therefrom. He established a

course in Entomology having for object the teaching of such

facts as could be applied in the farming of plants and animals.

To his effort is due the course preparatory to the study of medicine

at the Ohio State University, which is specifically held out to

fit such students as intend later to take up the study of medi-

cine, and which provides instruction in the fundamental sciences

usually but briefly given in our medical schools.

His conscientiousness was pushed to all but a fault. His

time, valuable to himself, was always at the command of any

student for even smallest matters. His reward was the respect

and love of those working under him.

As a scientist, we find in Professor Kellicott again those

characteristics (and how could it be otherwise) which mark the

man in_all his relations in life: modest, hard-working, accurate,

honest. His modesty was that modesty which is not born of

weakness or distrust of self, but which comes from a true real-

ization of real worth and ‘power strong enough and great

enough not to need continuous assertion and self-aggrandizement.

Again, his capacity and will for work, intense and almost in-

cessant, stands out. After a year’s close application to his

duties, his summers would be spent in collecting tours in this

and other states or in investigations and study at Wood’s Hole

laboratories or later at the Lake Laboratory established by the

Ohio State University at Sandusky in 1895. Some respite

would come in this time by his attendance at the meetings of

the various scientific bodies of which he was a member, but

even here his activity would manifest itself, for he was not a

mere spectator or listener—he was himself a contributor, and

at Pe

DAVID SIMONS KELLICOTT 93

busy in administrative and executive affairs of these societies.

He was a keen and accurate observer, quick to sift the essen-

tial from the unessential. His writings and presentations were

always impersonal and thoroughly honest. What a compliment

that is! In his earlier investigations he busied himself with

the study of those low but beautiful forms of animal life, the

infusorians and the rotifers. In this field he was an authority.

Conversant as he was with this small-large world, he added to

the knowledge of their life history several new species. Later

the study of Lepidoptera absorbed his attention and the allied

forms of Odonota captivated his attention. Here again science

was enriched with facts of his assiduous gathering and new

species were added to the lists. With all this, he found time

for the study of plant and animal parasites, and he directed hig

thoughts largely to the economic side of this problem.

To this industry must be added the fact that he kept well in-

formed, and needs must be for his teaching duties, in the gen-

eral field of Biology. His zeal is further attested to by his

membership in scientific societies. He was a member of the

University Ornithological Society, of the Biological Club and

a free contributor to their proceedings. His interest here was

a valuable incentive to the student members. The Columbus

Horticultural Society was also fortunate in having him an ac-

tive member, with pronounced influence on their work. Other

larger societies had the benefit of his association in work and

in counsel. He was enrolled in the Ohio State Academy of

Science, Fellow of the Royal Microscopical Society, in the

American Microscopical Society and in the American Associa-

tion for the Advancement of Science. The esteem in which he

was held in these bodies and the valuation placed on his attain-

ments is apparent from the positions he heldin them. His services

were utilized in important committees. He was often elected

secretary or treasurer, and he held many higher positions of

honor. In 1888 he was president in this Society, and at the

1897 meeting he was again elected to this office for the present

year. In 1895 he was President of the Ohio State Academy

of Science. At the Detroit meeting held last summer he was

24 DAVID SIMONS KELLICOTT

made general secretary of the American Association for the

Advancement of Science. A prominent feature at the meetings

of these various organizations will be the willing tribute paid

to their late member and the sincere expressions of the loss

sustained by them.

The writings deaiing on the subjects already indicated, are

found in the transactions of his societies and in various journals

devoted to such topics. Some of his publications will remain a

lasting monument to his ability, skill and knowledge. A list

of his published contributions, perhaps not quite complete,

gives us sixty numbers. One of the latest is a laboratory guide

just from the press entitled ‘‘ Dissection of the Ophidian.”’

Its preparation was largely a labor of love for the benefit

of his students. The other book, ‘‘The Odonota of Ohio”,

is a complete key and full species-description of these ani-

mals. This work is just about to be published, and is the last

legacy left us.

His attainment in other and kindred branches of learning

bespeak the broad and well educated mind. So stands our

scientist, a specialist. Specialist of whom the layman often

says, such a man is one-sided with interest and comprehension

only in one narrow science; with no interest in the affairs of

men and things outside. How false would this be of Professor

Kellicott. Others will bear witness to his big heart, with room

and love for all things. Well do we of this Society remember

that in collecting trips made with him at the scientific gather-

ings, no one enjoyed more than he the beauties of field and

hill and lake and stream. He got from this spectacle more

than the artist, for in addition this great scripture was to him

not only a book brilliantly bound and gorgeously illuminated—

his knowledge of details, his specialism, taught him the types

used in its printing, and he could read the words now beautiful,

now sublime, formed by their combinations. As a teacher, as

a scientist, his loss will long be remembered. To his standing

as a man, the many tokens of respect and the heartfelt expres-

sions of sympathy so freely given, bear ample witness.

A. M. Bieme.

WILLIAM A. ROGERS.

Professor William A. Rogers, A. M., Ph. D., LL. D., was

a man of such strong character and able mind that he naturally

became a member of all the great societies which came within the

limits of his activity. His main work was in Astronomy and

Physics, fields in which accurate measurement is as important

as in Microscopy.

To insure accurate measurement he investigated the various

standard measures of length available and came to appreciate

the high value of the microscope in this investigation. There-

fore while he was an Astronomer and Physicist and used the

microscope only as an instrument of precision, his sympathies

turned to the group of men then known as the American So-

ciety of Microscopists, noting that among their efforts, the

realization of accurate micrometers was earnestly sought.

In 1882 he joined this Society and at nearly every meeting

since that time he presented one or more papers bearing upon

micrometers or micrometry and upon expansion and contrac-

tion which so vitally concern this accuracy.

While his interest in accurate measurement might have been

the primary reason for joining the Society, his broad and gen-

erous mind entered into sympathy with the Society’s work as a

whole. At the time of joining in 1882 he was fifty years old

and had a national if not an international reputation, hence he

was in a position to render great assistance in the general man-

agement of the Society. His general good sense acted as a

break on some of the radical members; but as I look back over

his career among us, what appeals to me most strongly was his

interest in the younger members. His words of encouragement

and praise for any creditable work were so genuine that one

could not help feeling that one would do his best to make the

next work more worthy of the generous recognition.

26 SIMON H. GAGE:

Professor Rogers, in spite of his other duties and engagements,

never hesitated to bear more than his share of the burden of

the Society. In turn the Society gave to him all the honors it

had to offer; and although it had not the reputation of many of

the societies of which he was a member, yet in the performance

of his duties toward this Society no one could have been more

conscientious and painstaking. I presume the preparation of

no address by a President of the Microscopical Society ever

cost more labor and solicitude than the one given by him at

the tenth annual meeting in Pittsburg, in 1887.

It has just been said that Professor Rogers came in to be one

of us, to give his unstinted labor and impart some of his whole-

some enthusiasm and faith in the value of our work. He did

all this and more. In times of depression, he gave not only

general encouragement but showed in detail how to advance

the interests and increase the success of the Society.

That the honor was to us rather than to him, is shown from

the fact that the year before joining the American Society, he

had been made an honorary fellow of the Royal Microscopical

Society of London.

He was a fellow of the American Association for the Ad-

vancement of Science and was three times honored by a chair-

manship of its sections. In 1873 he was elected to member-

ship in the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.

Yale College conferred upon him the honorary degree of A.

M. in 1890 in recognition of his work in Astronomy. In 1886

Alfred University, atits semi-centennial, gave him a Ph. D.;and

finally in 1892, 35 years after graduation, his alma mater,

Brown University, conferred upon him the degree of LL. D.

Professor Rogers was a teacher and an investigator. His warm

heart and noble enthusiasm made it easy for pupils to foliow

him. His investigations were guided by so clear a mind and

prosecuted with such tireless industry that success rarely failed

to crown his efforts.

In 1857 he became an instructor in Alfred Academy, and in

1859, Professor in Alfred University. From 1870 to 1886 he

was connected with Harvard University, most of the time as

WILLIAM A. ROGERS 27

Assistant Professor of Astronomy in the Observatory. In

1886 he became Professor of Physics and Astronomy in Colby

University; and at this time when the nation is so proud of its

navy, it should not be forgotten that he served in it from 1864

to the close of the war.

In 1897 Professor Rogers resigned his chair at Colby and was

made the head of the Babcock School of Physics which had

just been established in Alfred University; and its plans laid

with all the wisdom and experience which his long and fruitful

life had given him. His ripest experience was thus to work in

the same field that had felt the uplift of his youthful enthusiasm

nearly forty years before. But like many another circle of

human hope and aspiration, this was not to be completed. On

March 1, 1898, death came. Smion H. Gage.

Nore—For other details concerning the life and work of Professor

Rogers the reader is referred to the Quarterly Bulletin of Alfred Univer-

sity, July, 1897, and to the Physical Review, Vol. VI, pp. 315-319. Both

contain a portrait and a list of his scientific papers.

For the portrait printed herewith the Society is indebted to the cour-

tesy of Alfred University.

HENRY C. COONS.

The life of Professor Henry C. Coon, A. M., M. D., Ph. D.,

was that of a devoted teacher. Every opportunity for improve-

ment was seized by him, and every benefit gained for himself

was generously passed on to his pupils in the departments of

Physics and Chemistry at Alfred University.

In 1882 Dr. Coon became a member of this Socirty. While

he did not furnish papers for its proceedings, he gave his

encouragement and support. If it may properly be so ex-

pressed, he was one of our faithful ‘‘lay members” on whose

presence we could count, if the meetings were within reach,

and in whose financial support we were never disappointed.

Surely such earnest, true men are a blessing upon the earth,

and have an honored seat in our household. It is with regret

that we part with them forever.

Dr. Coon was born at West Edmeston, N. Y.,in 1828. He

died at Alfred University in May, 1898.

Simon H. Gage.

SPECIAL STRUCTURAL FEATURES IN THE AIR-SACS

OF BIRDS. 5

MARY J. ROSS.

The general structure of the respiratory apparatus of birds

has, from early times, attracted more or less attention. Nearly

every phase of the subject, with the exception, perhaps, of the

histologic, has been minutely and carefully investigated. Va-

rious birds, as the ostrich, eagle, hawk, sparrow, pigeon, can-

ary and chicken have been studied.

It is the purpose of this paper to discuss the histologic struc-

ture of the accessory organs of respiration—the air sacs, as

found in the chicken. But before doing so it will be advan-

tageous to review briefly certain peculiarities of the respiratory

organs that are intimately correlated with these sacs. The

work was conducted in the Anatomical Laboratory of Cornell

University, under Dr. Hopkins, to whom I am greatly indebted

for kindly interest, valuable suggestions and personal assistance.

Some authors have denied to birds the existence of a dia-

phragm; but, now, though in structure very different from that of

the mammal, two are generally conceded, since the discovery of

their use. When the body cavity is opened from the ventral

side, the viscera of the thorax and abdomen are seen to occupy

the median plane. A tightly stretched sheet of fibrous tissue

(oblique septum) on either side serves to hold them in place.

These fibrous sheets practically divide the body cavity into

thorax and abdoman, as does the diaphragm in mammals.

Closely adhering to the ventral surface of each lung, and form-

ing with the oblique septum a closed cavity, is another so-called

diaphragm (the pulmonary). These diaphragms resemble closely

the air-sacs, but examined minutely are found to be of heavier

texture and are less transparent. To the diaphragms are

30 MARY J. ROSS:

attached certain respiratory muscles, which move them in such

a manner as to cause the lungs and air-sacs to alternately con-

tract and expand.

‘¢The respiratory apparatus presents modifications more re-

markable than those of the circulatory’’, says Milne-Edwards.

Connected with the lungs are large membranous sacs, spread

throughout the whole body, and extending even to the cavities

of the bones. There are nine of these sacs, of which the

thorax contains seven—one thoracic, two cervical, two anterior

intermediate, two posterior intermediate, while the abdominal

cavity contains but the two abdominal sacs, partially held in

place by the diaphragms (Fig. 1). These sacs communicate

with the lungs by five perforations on the ventral surface of

each lung (Fig. 1). It is stated that some sacs have more than

one opening into the lung; but in the chickens which I have

examined (ten or more) there was but one orifice to each sac,

excepting the thoracic, which contains two, one into each lung,

thus making five openings on either side (Fig. 1).

All authors, with the exception of Sappey, who in any way

mention the inter-communication of the air-reservoirs, do so

but to affirm it. Even Wiedersheim states that all, with the

exception of the posterior intermediate, may and often do com-

municate with one another. Yet, notwithstanding these re-

peated affirmations, there has been no detailed description as

to the manner in which they communicate, or at what point

this communication occurs. After careful examination the

sacs were found to be entirely independent of each other, thus

tending to confirm Sappey’s statements as to their non-inter-

communication.

The lungs of birds contrast strikingly with those of mam-

mals. They are closely attached to the ribs and vertebra, are

very small, semi-elliptical in shape, of a light rosy hue, and in

general texture much more fragile than the lungs of mammals.

Then, too, they are not divided into distinct lobes as in certain

mammals; their lobulated appearance being due simply to the

deep indentations of the ribs and transverse processes of the

vertebre. However, the distinguishing characteristic of birds

STRUCTURAL FEATURES IN THE AIR-SAS OF BIRDS on

lungs lies in the distribution and termination of the air passages

within the lung tissue. In mammals the bronchial tubes pass

directly centrad, before sending divisions to the periphery of

the lung: in birds they are disposed at the periphery then

transmit branches centrad. Sappey’s work seems to show con-

clusively that the bronchioles, instead of ending in a series of

alveoli as in mammals, anastomose with one another. Thus a

continuous aerial network is formed. Yet Parker makes the

following statement: ‘‘Besides the branches to the air-sacs,

the main bronchus gives off secondary bronchi, and these

branch again, sending off tubes, which end blindiy near the

surface of the lung and give off blind dilations commonly

known as alveoli’’. In my work on the chicken it was found

that if the mesobronchium (Fig. 1, M) be opened and an in-

jection made through the first entobronchium (G) the injec-

tion mass penetrates rapidly into the cervical sac (Ar).

But almost simultaneously it returns to the mesobronchium

through the second and third entobronchia. The liquid re-

entering the mesobronchium does not nearly equal in amount

that which passes to the cervical sac. But if the pressure is

continuous the liquid circles around ina constant stream. Some

of the liquid also penetrates to the other air chambers. Unless

there is anastomosis of the bronchioles it does not appear pos-

sible for this to take place. Another experiment that was tried

to demonstrate the bronchial anastomosis, requiring much

greater care than the one just mentioned, is as follows: The

lung of a freshly killed chicken was exposed by removing the

surrounding viscera, as the heart, lungs, etc. The pulmonary

blood-vessels were tied and all orifices into the air-sacs closed.

This latter may be done either by tying or, more easily, by

plugging them with cotton. Colored collodion mass was then

injected through the main bronchial tube. As soon as this

mass becomes somewhat hardened the lung was carefully re-

moved and placed in artificial gastric juice until all of the lung

tissue is digested out. The course of the bronchioles can then

be traced more readily than in the fresh tissue. However,

this method is not entirely satisfactory as the very small

32 MARY J. ROSS:

branches are easily torn, and the connection is thus apt to be

lost. Yet enough may be traced to prove that branches from

one main bronchial tube anastomose with those from another.

In such a preparation as this, the courses of the main branches

are clearly shown; how that on leaving the mesobronchium

they pass to the dorsal and ventral surfaces, completely cover-

ing them with their ramifications. They then pass to the

centre, dividing into minute bronchioles, connected with each

other. With the exception of the anastomosing bronchioles,

the histologic structure of the lungs resembles that of mam-

mals. The air-sacs are thin, transparent membranes, with a

more or less fibrous connective tissue basement. Guillot aptly

compares them to soap-bubbles. And, when inflated they do

resemble large soap-bubbles—slightly glistening, easily de-

stroyed.

All the sacs, with the exception of the thoracic (Fig. 1, T)

can be freed from their connections with the adjacent tissue.

But there is a close adherence of the thoracic sac to the walls

of the thorax. This sac may be distinguished from the rest in

having membranous folds partitioning its cavity. Every organ

traversing it is completely ensheathed by these folds and so

held in place. It extends around the articulation of the shoul-

der, as the axillary sac, and into the cavity of the humerus

(Fig. 1, Ax, H). There were two cases in which the humerus

was not pneumatic, and in no case where the femurs were ex-

amined were they hollow. |

Stricker in his Manual of Histology asserts that the epithelial

lining of the sacs is pavement, and that cilia are present in the

sacs only near their connections with the lungs. As regards

the general character of the epithelium this statement is correct.

If a section be taken of any portion of the sacs not attached to

the walls of the body the epithelium is pavement. But in a

section taken from near the connection of the sacs with the

lungs, the epithelium as it leaves the bronchial tubes becomes

columnar, gradually changing to pavement epithelium. If the

epithelium is stained with silver nitrate the outlines of the cells

are brought out distinctly. For this surface-view of the cells

STRUCTURAL FEATURES IN THE AIR-SACS OF BIRDS 33

it is better to examine a two or three days old chick. Here

there is no need of a stain. The cells are pentangular, with

round nuclei (Fig. 5). If examined while fresh they appear

granular and exhibit cilia in motion. Where the membranous

sacs are attached to the surrounding tissue a change in the

character of the epithelium is apparent. Take for example a

section of the small muscle which passes through the thoracic

sac, from either side of the trachea to the body wall. Upon

examination we find the epithelium to vary greatly. Flattened,

7. €. pavement, cuboidal and columnar cells are all present in

the same section (Figs. 2, 3,4). This variation might pos-

sibly be ascribed to muscular contraction; however, at the

juncture of the muscle and body wall adipose tissue was pres-

ent in all the specimens examined. Here again where no

muscular contraction was possible the same cell changes were

noted. Sections of blood-vessels, both veins and arteries, and

of muscle from the wall of the thorax also exhibit the same

variations in cell outline. There was also noticed a slight dif--

ference in the length of the cilia, that on the columnar cells

being the longest (Fig. 2).

Stricker’s statement as to the presence of cilia is only par-

tially correct. Cilia are present near the connections of the

sacs with the lungs, as he says. But they are also present over

the entire surface of the sacs contained within the body cavity.

Fresh tissue taken from the dorsal as well as from the ventral

surface, from the farthest extremity of the abdominal sacs, as

well as from near the connection with the lung, exhibits rapidly

moving cilia. Various parts of all nine sacs were examined

with the same result; cilia were found everywhere. Although

the epithelium of each of the nine thoracic and abdominal sacs

is ciliated, as just mentioned, repeated examinations failed to

disclose any cilia in the evaginations, or prolongations of the

thoracic sac around the head of the humerus, (Fig. 1, Ax) and

of the abdominal sac around the head of the femur; nor were

any found in the cavities of the bones. As the axillary sac

(Fig. 1, Ax) is usually of considerable size and in part attached

to the muscles of the arm, histologic study of both fresh and

34 MARY J. ROSS:

sectioned tissue is easy. But though several specimens were

carefully examined no trace of cilia could be found. The sec-

tions were as in Fig. 5 but without cilia. Then the bones were

examined, but here again there was no trace of cilia. If the

removal of exfoliated epithelium and foreign substances is the

principal use of the cilia it is difficult to understand why they

are only present in part of the membranous sacs; for the open-

ings from the axillary prolongations, at least, are as large as

those from the lung to the thoracic sac (Fig 1, C).

To summarize briefly: The epithelial lining of the membranous

sacs is pavement, except where the sac is attached to the sur-

rounding tissue. Here there are variations in the form of the

cells, ranging from pavement to columnar epithelial cells.

Cilia are present over the entire surface of the sacs contained

within the body cavity, but absent from the prolongations of

the sacs in the joints and in the cavities of the bones.

STRUCTURAL FEATURES IN THE AIR-SACS OF BIRDS 35

EXPLANATION OF FIGURES.

All figures are drawn by the aid of a microscope and an Abbé camera

lucida, except Fig. 1, which is purely diagrammatic. Figs. 2,3 and 4

are taken from transections of the muscle connecting the trachea with the

body wall, and passing through the thoracic air-sac. The muscle is not

drawn in Figs. 2 and 3.

36 STRUCTURAL FEATURES IN THE AIR-SACS OF BIRDS

PLATE |,

Fig. 1. Diagram to illustrate the relative size, relation, and connec-

tion of the lungs and air-sacs.

ABBREVIATIONS.

A. Orifice from lungs to abdominal sac.

Abd. Abdominal sac.

Ant. I. Anterior intermediate sac.

Ax. Axillary prolongation of thoracic sac.

B. Oritice from lungs to posterior intermediate sac.

C. Orifice from lungs to thoracic sac.

Cer. Cervical sac.

D. Orifice from lungs to cervical sac.

E. Orifice from lungs to anterior intermediate sac.

F. Ectobronchia.

Fur. Furcula.

G. Entobronchia.

H. Prolongation of axillary sac to the cavity of the humerus.

B. Lungs.

M. Mesobronchium.

Post. I. Posterior intermediate sac.

T. Thoracic sac.

Tr. ‘Trachea.

2 Vidal en Tee ae

dich eS RQ Hy py eae

Pan) dye 1b DT

e j t,. oy. {

Pret ue ins

38 STRUCTURAL FEATURES IN THE AIR-SACS OF BIRDS

PLATE Il.

Fig. 2. Transection of muscle surrounded by the thoracic sac, show-

ingciliated columnar epithelium, (Col.) with basement membrane of fibrous

connective tissue (Bm.)

Fig. 8. Ciliated cuboidal epithelium, (Cub.) with basement mem-

brane (Bm.)

, a

tree YL

lan et

ny" Ww

ees !

Viv ith, eee

fh. Gnade

r 1% 7 at

me PO Lis eg re

Li ade it he OPO ha eh

cf i ie

“ ‘ aa int

¢ AUST WaT ae

\ i

ithe WA Tae wi eay*

RIYA tea) > ma PLowreryy 1y

MOO ear AL Rae Pe Ly i } ut hay t Lid? if

rer iin

Dy lal Oct yy ath

arty B. One

i Ad a\ ine.

Paani Tha 4

A is c 4 Ais

x r Man \ % i f A

hej" ¥ uve

LU L = 4 tn

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fei’ 1 1 I

, ‘iD

M RAV, Pe

tie BY

40 STRUCTURAL FEATURES IN THE AIR-SACS OF BIRDS

PLATE Iil.

Fig. 4. Transection of muscle.

M. Transection of striated muscle.

Bm. Basement membrane.

P. Pavement epithelium.

Fig. 5. Surface view of pavement epithelium of the air-sacs, showing

cilia and round nuclei in pentangular granular cells.

PLATE Ill

Fig.4,

if GY y,

AGY

Alli <=

MICROMETRY OF HUMAN RED BLOOD CORPUSCLE.

BY FRANK JUDSON PARKER, Pu. B., M. D.

The commonly accepted average diameter of the red blood

corpuscle of man is 1-3,200 in. or 7.9 microns, and although

some observers have given smaller averages and some have re-

ported larger measurements, no marked distinctions have been

discovered between the corpuscles of different races or different

nationalties.

The possible, (indeed, the probable), cause of differences re-

ported by various writers is attributed by Dr. M. C. White,

Proceedings of American Microscopical Society, 1896, Vol.

XVIIL., pp. 204, 205, to the different amounts of the corpus-

cle measured. Some rejecting all the dark border, others

measuring one-half the dark border, while others include the

whole of the dark border on both sides in their measurements.

Prof. Cabot, in his recent book on Human Blood, calls at-

tention to a statement by Gram that ‘‘ Measurements published

by observers living in Southern Europe are smaller than those

of Northern Europe, viz: Italians, 7 to 7.5 microns; Ger-

mans, 7.8 microns; Norwegians, 8.5.”

To further investigate this question, at the suggestion of Prof.

White, I have made the measurements reported below.

The measurements here reported have been made by the au-

thor using Bullock’s microscope, with a ¢ inch objective made

by Spencer and an Abbé condenser, Zentmayer’s cobweb mi-

crometer eye-piece and a stage micrometer by Leitz, ruled to

1-100 millimeter. This gave for each turn of the screw of the

micrometer 6.85 microns, and as the screw head was grad-

uated to 100 divisions, the micrometer is calculated to measure

to 0.0685 microns or about 1-350,000 of an inch.

49 FRANK JUDSON PARKER:

Each preparation of blood measured was placed upon a glass

slide, dried and covered with thin glass.

Blood was measured from the following subjects, viz:

ron E dS. sarker ny 0. va nha) . 100 Corpuscles

Girl from Finland, age 25, 3 tie in Aan ica. 500 -

Esquimaux girl, came ith Feary oh heen neo -

American girl, age 17. enn sh arg aztls 500 6“

Italian boy, age 17, in neon 3 moma a “500 <<

918°

40'8

91'8

9L'h

96°L

68°L

6L'8

6LL

£0'8 *

spoipuny Aq

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‘XV

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69°4, “UTA

LP'8 “XV

94h “UTA

98°L “XI

90°8 “UTA

96°8 “XVI

94h “UTA

96°24 XBT

69°, “UTA

Lb'8 “XBT

P'S “UW

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sonst Aq

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OSRIOAY

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‘et 088 “df

‘AIBIT “NOVT YALA oud ‘plo

saved FT Jnoqe [us xnvunbsy

‘SYJUOUL 90.14) VOTLOUTY Ur

saved Gz o8e ‘puvlurg woay [Ary

‘SYJUOU 9014} BOToULy

Uy ‘plo savoak pT ‘Koq welpeyqy

‘plo savok pT ‘LAs UvoLoMy

peinsvo

sojosndi09

jo 1oquInN

poolg jo aoan0g

‘ALISUMAIN() AIVA “CW “A “Hd ‘YAMUVd NOSGAL YNVUA

Ad GHHOSVAW SUTOSAdYOOD GOOTHA GHY GAYANOH ANO GNVSNOHL OMI

44 MICROMETRY OF HUMAN RED BLOOD CORPUSCLE

Here we find that the blood of the Italian boy (7.99 microns)

is a trifle larger than that of the American girl (7.90 microns);

that of the girl from Finland, (7.89 microns), not as large as

that of the Italian, whereas on Gram’s theory it ought to be

larger, and that of the Esquimaux girl (8.07 microns), though

a trifle larger than any of the others, is not as large as Gram

reports for the Norwegian, though coming from a higher lati-

tude.

The result of this investigation fails to show any marked

distinction that could be attributed to difference of ciimate or

nationality.

Nore.—When Dr. Parker had just finished the measurements here

reported he was called to the service of the United States with the Con-

necticut Naval Reserves and I have copied his table of measurements and

put the paper in shape for presentation to the American Microscopical

Society. M. C. Waite, M. D.

THE REGENERATION OF THE INTESTINAL EPI-

THELIUM IN THE TOAD (BUFO LENTIGINOSUS

AMERICANUS) DURING TRANSFORMATION.*

B. F. KINGSBURY.

The phenomena of metamorphosis are perhaps best exempli-

fied in the transformation of the tadpole into the frog or toad,

or the caterpillar into the butterfly, and certainly are in these

forms best known to the non-professional observer. To the

biologist they present a field of investigation both suggestive

and puzzling in its results. The remarkable changes of form

and structure which occur necessitate a more or less complete

distruction of parts with a subsequent regeneration to form the

tissues of the adult body,—changes often comprised within a

remarkably short period of time when it is considered how ex-

tensive they are.

In the higher orders of insects these processes of histolysis

and regeneration are most extensive. In the frog and toad the

changes easily recognized are the growth of arms and legs and

the disappearance of the tail, whereby the animal is suited for

a terrestrial instead of an aquatic existence. The alimentary

tract likewise undergoes marked changes in preparation for the

substitution of an animal for a vegetable diet. The mouth is

widened, the horny beak is lost and true teeth developed; there

occurs a differentiation of a stomach and rectum, accompanied

by a marked shortening of the intestine as a whole. It is with

the histolytic and regenerative changes in the intestinal epithe-

*The following note is a fragment of a more extensive investigation

upon the minute structural changes that occur in the toad during the

period of transformation into the adult, and was undertaken in con-

nection with work by Professor Gage of Cornell upon the habits and life-

history of the animal. The colored figures by which this article was

illustrated when read will be published with the final paper.

46 B. F. KINGSBURY:

lium that the present paper deals. In the yet untransformed

tadpole, in which the legs are quite well developed but before

the arms have yet broken through, the intestinal epithelium

presents the appearance characteristic of the Amphibia: it

possesses a simple columnar epithelium, thrown into folds when

the intestine is contracted. Connected with the epithelium and

hanging down from it or partially intercalated between the

bases of the columnar cells are clusters of three or four small

cells with scanty protoplasm, which have been generaily homo-

logized with the crypts of Lieberkuhn of mammals. A lumen

is but rarely to be recognized in these clusters in Amphibia,

though an arrangement of the cells as if surrounding a lumen

may be quite often found. In the tadpole, however, such is

not the case, and in younger tadpoles cell-clusters as such ap-

parently do not exist. Their origin and first appearance have

not been ascertained as yet.

At a later stage, after the arms have been put forth and _be-

fore there is any appreciable diminution in the size of the tail,

these cell-clusters have increased markedly in size, and karyo-

kinetic figures are abundant in them. From these cell-clusters

the new epithelium of the transformed toad will be formed and

the changes that lead to the final establishment of the adult in-

testine now follow rapidly, so that, before the tail is more than

half absorbed, the new epithelium is completely formed and the

old, larval epithelium occupies the lumen of the intestine as a

disorganized mass of matter, cell fragrants, nuclei and globules;

many of them apparently containing substance of a fatty nature

which is stained black by means of osmic acid solutions.

The degeneration of the old epithelium is first indicated by

the browner stain given to the protoplasm by osmic acid mix-

tures such as Hermann’s and Flemming’s fluids; globules and

granules of a brown and black color-reaction with osmic acid

appear in the cell body, which becomes vacuolar. The epi-

thelium then begins to disintegrate and cell-outlines become

indistinguishable. The nuclei remain for a long time appar-

ently unchanged and may be easily distinguished after the cell

bodies are completely destroyed. Accompanying these degen-

THE REGENERATION OF THE INTESTINAL EPITHELIUM 47

erative changes in the surface epithelium has been the steady

growth of the cell-clusters or crypts. At first they are simply

solid balls of cells; soon, however, a lumen appears in the mid-

dle of the ball and it becomes converted thereby into a hollow —

sphere or often a flask whose wall is a single layer of columnar

cells. The spheres grow, the side toward the old epithelium

opens, the neighboring crypts (spheres) meet one another and

fuse, and in that manner a new continuous epithelium is formed.

The old disintegrating epithelium is apparently simply displaced,

—pushed into the lumen of the intestine where it remains as a

mass of debris.

The bearing these facts have on the difficult question of the

mode of regeneration of the intestinal epithelium is quite inter-

esting and suggestive. At the present day histologists are

confronted by two theories as to the mode of regeneration of

the intestinal epithelium,—the first, which may be styled the

theory of L7rbstein, which is the older view, is that the new

epithelial cells may be formed from the small cells which have

been found here and there lying between the bases of the col-

umnar cells, and which are generally spoken of as substitution

cells,—a prejudgement of their nature and function. On the

other hand, Bizzozero affirms that the erypts of Lieberkuhn are

the seat of regenerative activity and from their depths proceed

new cells to accommodate an expanse of surface or replace cells

which have been lost by abrasion. There are several investi-

gators whose results show at least that karyokinesis is much

more abundant in the crypts of Lieberkuhn of mammals than

in the surface epithelium or on the villi,—circumstantial evi-

dence in favor of Bizzozero’s theory. The migration of cells

from the crypts to the summit of the villi which this theory

presupposes, is, it seems to me, rather hard to accept without

strong evidence.

Granting the correctness of the homology of what I have

spoken of as cell-clusters in Amphibia with the crypts of Lieb-

erkuhn in mammals, Bizzozero’s theory would find in the re-

generation of the epithelium in the toad during transformation

an argument in favor of its correctness, since here the new

48 THE REGENERATION OF THE INTESTINAL EPITHELIUM

epithelium is entirely formed from the so-called glands or

erypts of Lieberkuhn.

It is likewise interesting to note that we encounter here in

Amphibia quite the same mode of regeneration of the epithelium

that has previously been found by other investigators to occur in

insects during metamorphosis, and in dragon-fly nymphs at

least, to supply loss of cells during normal digestive activity,

as the results of some recent investigations (Needham) have

shown.

Cornell University.

METHOD FOR PREPARING NUCLEATED BLOOD IN

BULK FOR CLASS DEMONSTRATION.

T. E. OERTEL.

No book on microscopical technique which I have been able

to consult gives a method for preparing blood in bulk.

For class demonstration it is obvious that by having on hand

ready prepared material the work will be greatly facilitated and

a uniformity of result assured which could not be expected from

the faulty manipulations of untrained students to whom blood

is usually given for study early in their histological course.

It is much more convenient for the teacher to dispense his

preparation from a small vial than to be compelled to make

‘¢smears”’ for a large class. ‘‘ Smears” are also often unsatis-

factory by reason of agglutination or crenation of the corpuscles,

excess of serum and the formation of fibrin and much care is

required in their proper fixation, by the usual method of heat,

in order that the result be not disastrous.

These considerations led me to try and work out a method

which would allow of the staining and keeping of nucleated

blood in bulk ready for distribution to the class and so fixed

that there should be but little distortion of the corpuscles.

The red blood cell is a delicate structure and some care in

its manipulation is required.

If the steps of the method are strictly followed one may be

confident of a successful issue.

Chloroform the animal selected; a large frog is probably the

most convenient; open the thorax, puncture the aorta and allow

the blood to flow directly into a small glass jar, with ground

glass stopper, containing a one per cent (1%) aqueous solution

of osmic acid. The solution should be largely in excess of the

50 METHOD FOR PREPARING NUCLEATED BLOOD IN BULK

amount of blood, at least fifty times as great. The vessel is

now closed and set aside for several hours in which time the

blood cells will have become thoroughly fixed and hardened

and have settled in a thin layer at the bottom.

Decant the supernatant fluid and add distilled water, gently

agitating the vessel until the blood is thoroughly mixed with

the water. Again decant after sedimentation has taken place

or filter rapidly through very thin filter paper and wash off the

filtrate in a small quantity of distilled water.

Next add Bohmer’s haematoxylin diluted one-half with dis-

tilled water. Use no more of this mixture than enough to

promote quick and thorough admixture with the water contain-

ing the blood. After a few moments staining filter as before,

wash the filtrate from the paper by agitating in a large dish of

distilled water and set the vessel aside for an hour or more in

order that the nuclei of the cells may be well differentiated.

Dehydration is now accomplished by running the blood

through various strengths of alcohol beginning with seventy

per cent (70%) and ending with absolute, filtration or decanta-

tion being practiced with each step. Care must be taken not

to use too small a quantity of alcohol or the cells will not be

well dehydrated.

Clear in carbol-xylol (carbolic acid one part, xylol three

parts), allow the blood to settle in a large test tube or conical

glass, draw off as much of the fluid as possible with a bulb

pippete and add thin xylol balsam.

Keep in a well stoppered bottle and when wanted for use

shake until the blood is thoroughly mixed with the balsam,

with a small glass rod transfer a drop to a clean slide and

superimpose a cover glass. A neat and permanent preparation

is the result.

NOTICES OF SOME UNDESCRIBED INFUSORIA, FROM

THE INFUSORIAL FAUNA OF LOUISIANA

J.C. SMITH, NEw ORtLEANsS, La.

(Being a continuation from page 68 of the Proceedings for 1897.)

Famity TrerrAmitip& Kent.

Genus Terramitvs Perty.

Tetramitus ordlis. Sp.n. Plate IV., Fig. 1.

Body sub-obovate normally, soft and very changeable in

shape; usually more than one and a half times longer than

wide; the anterior extremity obliquely truncate and excavate

for a variable distance on the ventral surface; posterior ex-

tremity very changeable; four flagella, as long or longer than

the body, originating together on the anterior border at the

summit of the truncation, and usually directed downward; oral

aperture simple and located at the inferior extremity of the

truncation; contractile vesicle distinct and situated in the pos-

terior body-third near the ventral surface; nucleus roundish and

in the anterior body-third; endoplasm granular.

Length from 1-1000 to 1-600 inch; habitat, an old infusion.

This form was found on several occasions very numerous in

an old infusion, in company with an abundance of bacteria, on

which it was feeding very ravenously. Its shape changes con-

stantly while thus feeding, and often the excavate truncation

would become the anterior border. With a + objective the

oral aperture could be easily located by the continual entrance

of the bacteria and the formation of food vacuoles at that

point; these vacuoles were often quite numerous and would

circulate through the endoplasm for sometime before disap-

pearing.

52 J. C. SMITH:

The family Tetramitide includes only the pantostomatous

forms, and will therefore exclude this species, but the great re-

semblance it bears to the Zetramitus decissus Perty is the

writer’s excuse for placing it with this family provisionally.

Famity Encuetyip Kent.

Genus Encurtys Ehrenberg.

Enchelys vermicularis. Sp. un. Plate IV., Fig. 2.

Body sub-clavate, cylindrical, soft but persistent in shape;

about three times longer than wide; annulated distinctly so as

to appear as if segmented; between the annulations, the body

is encircled with a single row of fairly stout hispid setae; body

entirely covered with quite long and active cilia; simple oral

aperture apical; contractile vesicle near the posterior border;

nucleus roundish and sub-central; endoplasm hyaline and gran-

ular; movement rotary and worm-like.

Length, 1-550 inch; habitat, the brackish waters of Lake

Pontchartrain.

Genus Titiia Gruber.

Tillina distincta. Sp.n. Plate IV., Fig. 8.

Body sub-reniform, compressed, plastic but persistent in

shape; less than twice as long as wide, clothed with short cilia;

longitudinally striate; trichocysts abundant; oral aperture sit-

uated in the anterior body-half some distance from the anterior

border, in a cleft-like depression on the ventral surface; this

aperture continued dorsal-ward for some distance as a ciliated

and capacious pharynx; the oral cilia a little larger than the

body cilia; contractile vesicle in posterior fourth; nucleus round

to ovate and sub-central; anal aperture on the ventral surface

near the posterior border; endoplasm granular and usually con-

taining an abundance of food.

Length, 1-200 inch; habitat, ditch water.

The activity of the oral cilia is apt to lead one to believe

that there is a small membrane there, but the contrary can be

easily demonstrated.

NOTICES OF SOME UNDESCRIBED INFUSORIA 53

Tillina megastoma. Sp. n. Plate IV., Fig. 4.

Body somewhat bean-shaped; much compressed; anterior and

posterior borders rounded; plastic but persistent in form; twice

as long as wide; clothed with fairly long cilia and longitudin-

ally striate; oral aperture located at the upper extremity of the

usually straight ventral surface, just below the anterior border,

and is continued dorsal-ward, as a very capacious and strongly

ciliated pharynx, which curves slightly downwards as it nears

the dorsal border; contractile vesicle large and in posterior

body-fourth; nucleus very granular, roundish and sub-central;

endoplasm granular.

Length, 1-160 inch; habitat, brackish waters of Lake Borgne.

This 7i//ina was taken with every collection from a certain

spot in Lake Borgne and was usually found in company with

Litosolenus armatus of Dr. Stokes.

The writer takes this occasion to mention that the forms of

Litosolenus armatus found here, range much larger in size than

those recorded by Dr. Stokes as found at Long Island. He

records 1-150 inch as the maximum size, while the forms found

here measured 1-90 inch. The longitudinal striations of the body

are not due to the arrangement of the cilia, but to some gran-

ular elements of the endoplasm. The very large and densely

ciliated pharynx seems to cut the body in twain. It is a very

active feeder and usually contains a number of diatoms and

desmids.

Tillina granda. Sp.u. Plate IV., Fig. 5.

Body sub-reniform, compressed, elastic and slightly change-

able in shape; about twice as long as wide; clothed with fine

cilia; faintly striate longitudinally; trichocysts abundant; oral

aperture in the nearly central ventral depression, and continued

as a crescent-shaped pharynx, which is densely ciliated; con-

tractile vesicle near the posterior border; nucleus ovate, in the

anterior body-half and near the dorsal border; anal aperture on

the ventral surface near the posterior border; endoplasm brown-

ish and usually containing food balls.

54 J. C. SMITH:

Length, 1-90 inch; habitat, ditch water.

This form differs from Zilina magna of Gruber, in not pos-

sessing the posterior lobate process, which includes the con-

tractile vesicle. It is also very much larger than 7. magna.

At times the concavity disappears and both of its lateral borders

are alike. They were taken in large numbers from ditch

water; some had the faint longitudinal striations, while others

lacked this peculiarity.

Famity Lempip Kent.

Genus Lempus Cohn.

Lembus ornatus. Sp. n. Plate IV., Fig. 6.

Body elongate-clavate; cylindrical; elastic and from five to

six times longer than wide; distinctly annulated; an undulating

membrane and a furrow originating near the apex, extend

backward on the ventral surface to near the body-center, where

it meets the simple oral aperture; this undulating membrane

finely striated transversely; body covered with fairly large and

active cilia; oral and body cilia not diverse; a single long seta

extending from the caudal extremity; contractile vesicle near

the posterior border; nucleus elongate and sub-central; endoplasm

bluish and granular; reproduction by transverse fission.

Length, 1-350 to 1-210 inch; habitat, brackish waters of

Lakes Pontchartrain and Borgne.

The very noticeable difference existing between this form and

those hitherto recorded is in the finely striated undulating

membrane; these striations are good tests for a 4 objective.

The membranes of the largest forms were usually ragged on

their free borders. They are abundant and were sometimes

found in company with Chlamydodon mnemosyne Ehr.

Famity Trytinnop# Clap. and Lach.

Genus Srromprpinopsis Kent.

Strombidinopsis paradoxus. Sp. nu. Plate IV., Fig. 7.

Body thimble-shaped, soft and changeable in form; cylindri-

cal; posterior border round and anterior border transversely

NOTICES OF SOME UNDESCRIBED INFUSORIA 55

truncate; less than twice as long as wide; peristome simple and

bearing a single circle of heavy setose-like cilia, which are as

long as a half-body length; disk slightly convex and appearing

to open and close the oral aperture by its elevation and de-

pression; oral aperture on one side of the disk and continued

downwards as a non-ciliated pharynx; body clothed with very

fine cilia, those only immediately below the peristome very

evident; contractile vesicle large, in anterior body-half and

near the border opposite the oral aperture; nucleus ovate, in

posterior body-half just below the pharynx; anal aperture de-

bouching on the pharynx as in Vorticella; endoplasm very

granular and usually containing much food; reproduction by

transverse fission.

Length, 1-550 inch; habitat, fresh water.

This form was found, in company with Hymenostoma hymen-

ophora Stokes, in several collections of water taken from a

fish pond in one of the public buildings of New Orleans. In

activity, it surpasses the Urocentrum turbo. Diatoms, unicel-

lular algee and small infusorians are consumed by it in large

quantities. As a precedent to its feeding, it attaches itself to

the slide, an algal filament or debris, by means of a caudal-like

filament of its body, which filament sometimes exceeds the

body in length. Transverse fission is ushered in by the ap-

pearance, at the body center and on the same side as the con-

tractile vesicle, of a circlet of setose-like cilia.

Fig.

Noone w

NOTICES OF SOME UNDESCRIBED INFUSORIA

PLATE IV.

Tetramitus oralis n. sp.

Enchelys vermicularis n. sp.

Tillina distincta n. sp.

Tillina megastoma n. sp.

Tillina granda n. sp.

Lembus ornatus n. sp.

Strombidinopsis paradoxus 0. sp.

THE PERSISTENCE OF BACTERIA IN THE MILK

DUCTS OF THE COW’S UDDER.

ARCHIBALD R. WARD, IrHaca, N. Y.

The constant presence of bacteria in freshly drawn milk is a

matter of considerable importance. The fact that milk when

drawn from the udder may contain bacteria is of the greatest

interest in connection with the observance of measures designed

to reduce the bacterial content of milk tothe minimum. Here,

if that fact be true, is one source of the infection of milk which

can not be elminated by the exercise of precautions during the

milking or the subsequent processes to which it is subjected.

The earlier investigations undertaken to throw light on the

question of the presence of bacteria within the healthy udder

consisted in counting the bacteria in samples taken during dif-

ferent periods of the milking. Schultz* found a decrease in

numbers as the milking progressed. Lehmann+ obtained like

results. It might be concluded from the work of Schultz and

Lehmann that the teats, or at most the lower portion of the

cistern, only certain bacteria.

Gernhardt} found a larger number in samples from the mid-

dle of the milking than at the beginning, although some of the

samples from the last milk drawn were sterile. To explain

his results, Gernhardt suggests that the bacteria make their

way up through the milk ducts of the teats, through the cistern

and into the smaller ramifications of the ducts which connect

the cistern with the ultimate follicles. Such an assumption

explains the wide variation in numbers obtained by him.

* Leopold Schultz. Archiv. f. Hygiene, B.S. XIV. (1892).

7Lehmann. 17te Versammlung d. deut. Ver. f. offent. Gesundheits-

pilege.

¢{Gernhardt. Quant. Spaltpilzunters. d. Milch, Inaug. Dissert. Univ.

Jurjew.

58 ARCHIBALD R. WARD:

E. von Freudenreich* states that when in the udder, milk is

free from bacteria except when the milk glands are in a dis-

eased condition. He mentions the fact as having been demon-

strated by Pasteur who drew samples directly from the cistern

by means of a sterile cannula. On the other hand, Bolley and

Hall+ compared the species of bacteria in the milk of several

cows, the samples being taken through a sterile milking tube

inserted into the milk cistern.

Russellt found that bacteria are present in the udder proper

in case of mastitis. In Russell’s Dairy Bacteriology we find

the following: ‘‘How far these different forms of germ life

are able to penetrate into the healthy udder is as yet unknown.

In all probability, the glandular tissue of the udder is not

affected, although it is possible that microbes might work their

way up the open channel of the teat into the udder proper”.

Grotenfelt$ says: ‘‘When the milk is drawn from the ud-

der of a healthy cow it is germ free, or sterile. The original

sterility of normal milk is due to the fact that the bacteria can

not gain access to the milk glands from without as long as the

udder is not injured in any way”. F. W. Woll, the translator

of Grotenfelt’s work, adds in a foot note: ‘‘The bacteria in

the milk cistern will be mostly washed out by the first milk

drawn, but not all removed until milking has progressed some

time”.

Rotch | concludes that the few cases in which contaminated

samples were obtained from the strippings, were due to faults

in technique and not to bacteria from the interior of the udder.

* Ed. von Freudenreich. Dairy Bacteriology (1895), translated by J.

R. A. Davis. Page 36.

+Bolley and Hall. Abstract in Experiment Station Record, Vol. VII.,

INOS, <p. 991.

{H. L. Russell. Dairy Bacteriology, 2nd edition, pp. 42, 43.

2Goésta Grotenfelt. The Principles of Modern Dairy Practice, trans-

lated by F. W. Woll. Page 23.

||T. M. Rotch. Transactions of the Association of American Physi-

cians (1894).

BACTERIA IN THE MILK DUCTS IN THE COW’S UDDER 59

Moore* reviews the conclusions of Schultz, Gernhardt and

Rotch and gives the results of his own investigations. In

every examination made, he found the last milk from at least

one quarter of the udder to contain bacteria. In concluding

his paper, Moore suggests that a bacteriologic examination of

the larger milk ducts and of the acini themselves might throw

some light upon the assumption of Gernhardt. Such an inves-

tigation was rendered impossible at the time on account of his

inability to procure the udder of a freshly killed milch cow.

That sterile samples may frequently be obtained directly

from the teat is a fact that has been demonstrated by many in-

vestigators. But the frequency with which these same work-

ers have failed, leads to the conclusion that the last milk con-

tains only a few bacteria and which may or may not be con-

tained in a given small sample. Schultz, Gernhardt, Russell,

Rotch and Moore have all been unable to get sterile milk in

every case. Information is not at hand concerning the amount

of milk taken for a sample, except that Moore took 50 ce. of

the last milk. Connt+ suggests that the reason the earlier

workers obtained sterile milk so readily was because they did

not collect large samples. He says ‘‘ Essentially the same

facts have been demonstrated in regard to human milk. * *

* * * Honigmann’, Knochenstiern?, Ringel*, and Palleske’*,

have all independently found that it is impossible to get human

milk fresh from the mammary gland in such a way as to be

sterile”.

*V.A. Moore. Preliminary Investigations concerning the number

and nature of Bacteria in Freshly Drawn Milk. Twelfth and Thirteenth

Annual Reports of the Bureau of Animal Industry U.S. Dept. Agr. p. 261.

+W.H. Conn. Bull. No. 25, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Office

of Experiment Stations.

1. Honigmann. Ztscher. Hyg. 14 (1893), p. 207.

2. Knochenstiern. Inaug. Diss. Dorpat, (1893).

3. Ringel. Minch. Med. Wochenschr., (1893), p. 513.

4, Palleske. Virch. Arch., 130 (1892), p. 185.

60 ARCHIBALD R. WARD:

E. von Freudenreich* states that he failed to obtain sterile

milk in large quantities although the udder was washed and

smeared with lard, to prevent contamination. In an attempt to

collect ten liters of sterile milk for an experiment in cheese mak-

ing, he was unable to reduce the number below 212 bacteria per

cubic centimeter. He calls attention to the ease with which a

few cubic centimeters are collected, using the same precautions,

but he does not recognize the presence of bacteria from within

the udder.

Those who believe the last milk as drawn from the teat to be

absoluely sterile, must necessarily explain’ the constant presence

of bacteria in the fore milk. The explanation is substantially

as follows: Bacteria in the air or in stable filth accidentally

gain a foothold in the milk remaining on the end of the teat

after milking. The favorable conditions for bacterial growth

offered by the ducts favor the multiplication of the invading

bacteria which increase so rapidly as to account for the pres-

ence of the multitudes always found in the fore milk. Experi-

ments by the writer have shown that it is possible for this to

occur under certain conditions, but the more probable explana-

tion is embodied in the results of the investigations about to be

described. These will be treated under three separate heads,

as they have in common only the fact that they lead to the

same conclusion.

THE PERSISTENCE OF CERTAIN SPECIES OF BACTERIA IN THE

FORE MILK..

The work of Bolley and Hall is the only investigation on

the subject that has come to notice. Samples of milk were

taken by means of a sterile milking tube inserted through the

duct into the milk cistern. Some species were found common

to both the first and the last milk drawn. Only one organism

was found common to the milk of all the animals examined, —

that one having no effect upon the milk. The writers conclude

that a given form, once present, may be quite constant in its

occupancy of the udder in an individual.

* Ed. von Freudenreich. Landwirtschaftliches Jahrbuch der Schweiz.

1890, II., p. 18.

BACTERIA IN THE MILK DUCTS OF THE COW’S UDDER 61

In the investigations which I have made to determine the

nature of the milk duct flora, the following methods were fol-

lowed: Before collecting samples, the udder and flanks of the

cow were thoroughly moistened to prevent the dislodgment of

dust by the movements of milking. In addition, the teats

were moistened with a solution of mercuric chloride. Samples

were drawn directly from the teat into sterile test tubes which

were provided with cotton plugs. In this respect the work of

the writer differs from that of Bolley and Hall. Cultures were

made immediately after collecting the samples. Five two

hundred and fiftieths (5-250) of a cubic centimeter of milk was

found, in general, to introduce a sufficient number of bacteria

for convenient study upon a plate culture made in 15 ce. of

medium. For a time both gelatin and agar plate cultures were

made, but the use of the former was discontinued, as agar was

found to be more satisfactory. The total number of colonies

did not appear until after several days in the incubator at a

temperature of 37.5° C. The plates were then carefully ex-

amined and sub-cultures were made from the colonies of the

apparently different species. The various forms of colonies

were carefully described and the number of each recorded.

The milk of each of the four teats of the cow was examined

on two successive days and after a lapse of two weeks, some of

them were examined upon four more days. Four or possibly

five species were observed, only one being common to the four

teats. Although the bacterial flora of each of the teats differed

from that of its neighbors, the same species were found to per-

sist in the same teat from day to day. They were not present

in the same relative numbers on each occasion.

The milk of another cow was examined on five occasions

covering a period of eight months. In the milk of this animal

but three species of bacteria were found. On the first day

that the milk was examined, a streptococcus was found to pre-

dominate in numbers in all four of the teats. The other two

species occurred only occasionally, but in the later examina-

tions they were found to exceed the streptococcus in number.

The presence of streptococci in milk from a normal udder is,

62 ARCHIBALD R. WARD:

in the experience of the writer, unusual. None have been

found in the milk of eight other cows in the same stable, or

for that matter, in any examination of fore milk from cows

elsewhere. The persistence of the streptococcus in the milk of

the one cow is therefore of special significance.

The mathematical probability that the same organism will

invade the same sterile milk duct, even twice in succession, is

infinitely slight. It is therefore necessary to seek other ex-

planation for the constant presence of bacteria in the fore milk,

when we consider the persistence of species in the milk of cer-

tain cows or in particular quarters of the udder of the same cow.

AN EXPERIMENT IN COLONIZING THE CISTERN WITH BACTERIA.

With reference to determining the possibility for an organ-

ism to persist in the cistern for a considerable period, it was

determined to introduce into one quarter of the udder, a cul-

ture of an easily distinguished bacillus. For this purpose

Bacillus prodigiosus was selected because the red color of its

growth on agar would render its presence in milk easily recog-

nized when cultures were made. Four cubic centimeters of a

bouillon culture were introduced into the cistern by means of a

hyperdermic syringe lengthened with a milking tube. Both

the milking tube and the syringe were scalded to guard against

introducing any other micro-organisms along with prodigiosus.

It was known from work already done that the organism in

question was not a natural inhabitant of the udder upon which

the experiment was being made.

The use of the milking tube as is nearly always the case,

occasioned an inflammation of one side of the udder. The in-

flammation is attributed to the use of the milking tube rather

than to Bacillus prodigiosus. The threatened obstruction of

the teat by the accumulation of irregularly shaped masses of

casein, rendered it necessary to frequently draw out the puru-

lent liquid from the diseased quarter ot the udder during the

two following days after which the inflammatory condition sub-

sided. Plate cultures were made each day. On the day fol-

lowing the inoculation, ten colonies of Bacillus prodigiosus

BACTERIA IN THE MILK DUCTS OF THE COW’S UDDER 63

appeared on the plates. Although the same amount of milk

was used in making the cultures on the days following, the

number of colonies was observed to decrease in number. On

the sixth day, the colonies of that bacillus ceased to appear.

During the whole period, with the exception of the first two

days, colonies of the native bacterial flora were observed in

each plate culture.

The fact that an organism selected at random, without con-

sidering its fitness for inhabiting the udder, should succeed in

persisting there for six days in significant. The experiment

demonstrates the fact that frequent and thorough milkings may

not remove all bacteria from the udder. That other species of

bacteria, better fitted for that environment are able to persist

in the udder for longer periods, seems highly probable.

A BACTERIOLOGIC EXAMINATION OF THE GLANDULAR TISSUE OF THE

UDDER.

The writer is indebted to Dr. Moore for the suggestion of

this line of work and for the privilege of associating with him

in an investigation based upon it. <A partial report of the re-

sults obtained has been published elsewhere*. In attempting

to draw conclusions from the facts which have already been

presented, the writer finds himself unavoidably influenced by

the facts brought to light in the work to which reference has

been made. That his conclusions may not appear to be based

upon a less firm foundation of fact than is the case, he feels

justified in here referring to the joint labor.

The fundamental method underlying the investigation con-

sisted in making a large number of cultures directly from freshly

exposed glandular tissue. Sterile tubes, containing about 15 ce.

each of gelatin, and some containing slanted agar were taken

to the place of slaughter.

The purpose was to compare the bacteria found in the fore

milk with those which might be found in the udder itself.

*V. A. Moore and A. R. Ward. Bull. No. 158, Cornell University

Agricultural Experiment Station.

64 ARCHIBALD R. WARD:

Samples of the fore milk and in one case, of the strippings,

were taken immediately before the slaughter. In order to ob-

tain more definite results, each quarter of the udder was arbi-

trarily divided into three divisions. The first (A, Pl. V.) in-

cluded the teat and milk cistern. The second and third divis-

ions (B, C) included horizontal zones of equal thickness con-

stituting the remaining portion of the udder.

Immediately after slaughtering the cow, the udder was care-

fully removed. The skin was reflected and*a flamed knife was

used to make a dorso-ventral incision several inches in depth

in one quarter of the udder. Samples of milk were collected

in sterile test tubes as it welled out of the cistern and its smaller

ramifications. In making cultures from the glandular tissue,

care was taken to prevent milk of the ventral region from com-

ing in contact with the freshly exposed surfaces. Bits of tissue

were detached with flamed scissors, and transferred to culture

media by the use of a flamed platinum loop. Tubes of gelatin

and of agar were inoculated in this manner from each of the

three arbitrarily designated divisions of the quarter. The same

procedure was repeated with each of the other three quarters of

the udder. Cultures were made from the udders of six cows in

the manner described.

Upon returning to the laboratory, the gelatin was liquified

at a temperature not exceeding 37° C. and poured into sterile

Petri dishes where it again became solid. Agar plate cultures

were made from the milk samples, and together with those

slanted agar cultures already inoculated, were placed in the

incubator. The agar plate cultures were designed to be used

as a check upon the reliability of the conclusions reached from

an examination of the other cultures. For instance: It might

be possible that organisms appearing to have been obtained

from the interior of the udder, may have lodged upon the bits

of tissue during the tranfer. The identity in cultural and mor-

phologic characters of bacteria found in cultures made from the

fore milk and the glandular tissue of the udder would eliminate

a source for false conclusions.

BACTERIA IN THE MILK DUCTS OF THE COW’S UDDER 65

The tubes of slanted agar after standing in the incubator for

several days, were examined particularly with reference to the

presence or absence of growth. Nearly all of the media which

had been in contact with material from the udder, showed

growth. Note was taken of the color and character of the

growth of the colonies and sub-cultures were made.

The gelatin plate cultures were in like manner examined,

furnishing a more satisfactory method for obtaining pure cul-

tures. With these, a direct comparison made it possible to

trace the presence of the same organism in the three localities.

In order to prove that these identities existed, sub-cultures

were made for a more detailed comparison later. The plate

cultures made from the milk were examined and sub-cultures

were made from ali of the apparently different colonies.

By comparing cultures from the various sources, it was found

that the same organism frequently occurred in the fore milk

and in each of the three parts of the udder. Most of the bac-

teria obtained in pure cultures were found to belong to one of

three species of micrococci. Cultures of the three species were

obtained from a sufficient variety of sources to demonstrate

their general distribution throughout the udder.

The apparently healthy udders of six milch cows were in

that manner found to contain bacteria in the depths of the milk-

secreting tissue. By the methods employed, it was impossible

to detect any difference in the relative numbers of bacteria

present in the three regions of the udder.

The evidence at hand indicates that the teats and the greater

portion of the udder may normally contain bacteria. It also

seems highly probable that a few at least of the organisms

found in the udder remain there after each milking, becoming

the progenitors of the organisms found to be present in the

milk when drawn. This conclusion seems to be supported by

the following facts.

1. Certain species of bacteria have been found to persist in

particular quarters of the udder for considerable periods of

time. This controverts the statement that the milk ducts are

sterile at the close of the milking, becoming tenanted from

66 BACTERIA IN THE MILK DUCTS OF THE COW’S UDDER

the outside by any organisms which by chance come in contact

with the end.of the duct.

2. It is possible for bacteria to remain in the udder and not

be ejected along with the milk. This has been proven possible

in the case of one organism. <A culture of Bacillus prodigiosus

has been introduced into the milk cistern and has succeeded in

persisting there for six days, as was shown by its presence for

that period in the milk of that quarter of the udder.

3. Cultures of bacteria have been obtained by Dr. Moore

and the writer from the glandular tissue of the udders of freshly

killed milch cows. Identical species of micrococci were ob-

tained from the milk and from the glandular tissue of the

udder.

4. It has not been shown by the investigations published

up to this time that the last milk drawn is always sterile.

From the Laboratory of Comparative Pathology and Bacteriology,

New York State Veterinary College, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York.

68 BACTERIA IN THE MILK DUCTS OF THE cCOoW’S UDDER

PLATE V.

A photograph of a section through the teat and one quarter of the

udder of acow. The parts represented by the letters A, B, C, indicate

the three arbitrary divisions into which the gland was divided for pur-

poses of examination.

From Bulletin No. 158, Cornell University Agricultura] Experiment

Station.

AN OCCURENCE OF ALBINO EGGS OF THE SPOTTED

SALAMANDER, AMBLYSTOMA PUNCTATUM L.

HORACE W. BRITCHER, Syracusse, N. Y.

The folowing account could not have been written at all

except that Dr. C. C. Mercer kindly placed at my disposal the

. facilities of the Medical College, and that Prof. C. W. Hargitt

gave me access to literature on the subject.

About the middle of last March, while searching for am-

blystoma and frog eggs, several small masses of white eggs

were found. As they were supposed to be unfertilized and

already decomposing, only one mass was brought to the labor-

atory, where an examination under the microscope showed the

eggs to be developing regularly, the surface presenting a net-

work of cells normal in all respects except that there were no

pigment granules present. A day or two later the remainder

of the eggs were obtained (about 100 in all), and various stages

in their development have been preserved for study.

All of the growth phenomena proceeded apparently regularly,

the egg lengthening, neural folds forming and closing, the gill

ridges and tail appearing and finally life being manifested by

the twitching of the body when the jelly mass was disturbed.

Just at this stage there began to be noticable to the naked eye

a slight grayish mottling of the sides of the body. This pig-

mentation increased as the tadpoles grew and when they had

reached a iength of about eighteen mm. they could not be dis-

tinguished, by the naked eye, from normal embryos raised in

dim light in the laboratory, but were a little lighter in color

than embryos freely exposed to the sunlight.

An examination of the preserved material shows that in none

of the stages are there present any brownish black pigment

granules. Embryos about six or seven mm. long show, just

along and above the midline of the side of the body, many

small, angular, dark spots, quite uniformly scattered along a

band about one-quarter as wide as the dorso-ventral diameter

70 HORACE W. BRITCHER:

of the body. In an embryo ten mm. long the spots have in-

creased considerably in number, spreading both dorsally and

ventrally, and have sent out numerous branches which in many

instances anastomose freely. One mass of such spots is seen

just in front of the gills, another just behind the gills, while

those along the side of the body dorsal to the midline are

mainly disposed in four groups. Those ventral to the midline

are more uniformly distributed. A few spots are present on

the gills and a few are found in the tail region of the dorsal

fin. In an embryo thirteen mm. long the branches anastomose

much more freely, and the head, before nearly spotless, has

become thickly covered. At fifteen mm. the spots are fusing

together in numerous instances.

The surface of normal eggs is black or dark brown in color,

and as the embryo grows it continues quite uniformly dark

brown (except ventrally) for some time, becoming finally in

embryos twenty or more millimeters long a grayish black

color. In a normal embryo nine mm. long this uniform brown-

ish color is seen to be augmented along the sides by darker

patches composed of the black branching pigment spots, which

in an embryo twelve mm. long have spread quite freely over

the surface.

Pigment in the salamander larva has been recognized as

occurring in three ways: first, as minute brownish-black spher-

ules in the epithelial cells; second, in branching pigment cells

with processes passing between the epithelial cells; and third,

in the ramified pigment cells of the cutis. In this paper no

distinction is made between the second and third classes.

The surface pigmentation of the normal egg is of the first

class and a section of such an egg when the epiblast is several

cells deep, shows the outer layers of cells to contain large

quantities of such granules, chiefly massed near the free sur-

face of the cells, but extending also inward, mainly along the

cell wall. Similar pigmented granules are distributed less

abundantly over the free surface of the cells lining the mesen-

teron, and also to some extent are present in some of the yolk

cells lining the blastocoel.

OCCURENCE OF ALBINO EGGS OF THE SPOTTED SALAMANDER 71

Sections of a normal tadpole thirteen mm. long show the

surface epithelium to be granularly pigmented as above, but

the granules are more compactly arranged in a layer close to

the surface. Just beneath the epidermis the branching pig-

ment cells are numerous, the branches extending usually par-

allel or obliquely to the surface; at places in the tail they

appear to form almost a continuous layer. In the gills the

branches ramify more freely among the surrounding cells. The

ear and nostril invaginations are quite deeply pigmented by the

brownish black granules; the pigmented layer of the dorsal

portion of the retina is composed mainly of the subepidermal

branching cells, while the ventral portion seems to derive its

color from the pigmented granules. The cells of the nervous

system contain numerous rounded black pigment bodies, which

are present to a lesser extent throughout the mesodermal cells

of the body.

io ins tadpole eight mm. long, the subepidermal, branching

pigment ceils are not so abundant nor so fully developed as in

the larger individual. There are rounded pigment bodies in

the mesoderm, but not in the nervous system, which is colored

brownish by the pigment granules. The pigment of the retina

of the eye seems to be of the epidermal granular nature, rather

than of the subepidermal cellular character.

Sections of an albino embryo with closed nervous system

show no traces of pigmentation whatever, either granular or

cellular. Sections of an embryo six mm. long show subepi-

dermal pigment cells appearing, but there are as yet no traces

of pigmentation in the eye or ear invaginations.

In a tadpole ten mm. long the subepidermal pigment cells

are much more numerous than in the previous stage and are

branching out in all directions more freely than those in the

slightly older stage of normal embryos. The ear invaginations

are entirely devoid of pigment but the retina is being pigment-

ed dorsally and downward along the back of the optic cup,

probably by the branching pigment cells. The lower side of

the retina is not yet pigmented, and in the adjacent subepi-

dermal tissue there are only two or three pigment cells in the

72 HORACE W. BRITCHER:

neighborhood of each eye. The cells of the nervous system

and also those of the mesoderm throughout the body are with-

out any traces of the rounded pigment bodies so numerous in:

the normal embryo.

A SHORT LIST OF PAPERS BEARING MOST DIRECTLY UPON THE SUBJECT

CAMARANO, Lor.: Di alcuni girini albini e delle cause dell’ albinismo.

Boll. Musei Zool. Anat. Comp. Torini. T. 4, No. 64.

FISCHER-SIGWART, H.; Sur l’albinisme chez les larves de Rana tempor-

aria, avec quelques remarques sur l’albinisme en generale. Ver-

handlgn. Schweiz. naturf. Ges. Soloth, 1888, p. 59.

Lessona, Micu.: Dello albinismo nei girini della Rana temporaria L.:

Atti. R. Accad. Se., Torino. Vol. 16, Disp. 1, p. 94,

FiscHEr, A.: Uber Beeinflussung and Entwickelung des Pigments. Arch.

f. mikr. Anat. Bd. 47, Hft. 4, p. 719.

FISCHEL, A.: Pigmentation of Salamandra maculata.

(Abstr. in Jour. Roy. Micr. Soc. 1896, p. 611.)

WINKLER, F.: Origin of Pigment in Bufo. Mitth. Embryol. Inst. K. K.

Univ. Wien, 1892, p. 64.

(Abstr. in Jour. Royal Micr. Soc. 1896).

V4 i uy ed

1) Ga ae

; Ath i"

74 OCCURENCE OF ALBINO EGGS OF THE SPOTTED SALAMANDER

PLATE VI.

Fig. 1. Photomicrographs of Amblystoma punctatum 10 mm. long,

matched to show distribution of branching pigment cells.

Fig. 2. Portion A-B of Fig. 1, more highly magnified to show char-

acter of branching pigment cells.

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EXPERIMENTS IN FEEDING SOME INSECTS WITH

CULTURES OF COMMA OR CHOLERA

BACILLI.

R. L. MADDOX, M. D., HON. F. R. M.S.

On looking over some old slides lately a few were found that

related to the results obtained by experiments, made at two dif-

ferent periods in the year 1885, on feeding flies and other in-

sects with cultures of living comma or cholera bacilli. Some

of the mounts had been spoiled, being overrun by mycelial

thread, the specimens having been mounted dry. Some of the

specimens had been lightly stained, others were unstained. As

none had been figured or photographed, it occurred to me that

three or four, if reproduced, might yet be of interest, if they

were utilized to illustrate a very brief résumé of the two articles

published in the numbers for August and December of the

Royal Microscopical Journal of the same year. Consequently

four of the slides have been selected to illustrate by photomi-

crographs the following remarks:

The object with which the experiments were undertaken was

firstly to ascertain if the comma bacillus was pathogenic to

insects when fed in ordinary or diluted cultures on sugar;

secondly, to note if the dejecta contained any of the bacilli in

a liviug state; and thirdly, to find out if cultures could be made

from such excreta.

Of course it was necessary to see microscopically if the ordi-

nary dejections contained any curved bacilli. This was done

by retaining such insects in captivity for some time before be-

ing fed with the cultures. These cultures, which were origin-

ally in agar-agar and gelatine media, had been very kindly

given to me by Prof. E. Klein, F. R.S. Wasps, bees, Z77s-

talis, the black beetle and the common blue-bottle were chiefly

used in the experiments. The bee had to be discarded, as

curved bacilli had been found in it by Mr. Cheshire, though I

had not noticed any in the evacuations. One wasp was retained

76 R. L. MADDOX:

in captivity some time, and seemed to me to be considerably

affected by the food, but as two of the four illustrations refer

to the blowfly, which is fairly hardy in captivity, one being set

at liberty after forty days confinement, and fed for many days

on the cultures, the remarks will refer chiefly to that insect.

For the main particulars of the experiments I beg to refer to

the aforenamed articles in the Royal Microscopical Journal.

The insects were generally captured by placing a prepared

tumbler over the insect, and then sliding stiff paper or card-

board beneath and transferring the vessel to a clean and shallow

saucer or plate of glass on which a square piece of glass was

placed. This served to collect the dejections passed on it, and

was easily removed to substitute another on which a small lump

of sugar, dampened with the culture, sometimes diluted, was

afterwards placed. The microscopical examinations were made

after scraping up the excreta passed at various periods extending

even to thirty-six hours and comprising thirty-one dejections, by

a flattened needle, and mixing them with sterilized water on a

cover glass. There was one difficulty originated by this plan

which I fancy led to many of the experiments being abortive, as

many of the dejections were dried up, and the contained bacilli

probably dead, or killed sometimes by the high temperature.

Before touching the details it may be as well to state that

Dr. Grassi found in 1883 that flies which had fed off the ova

of Taenia solium that had been kept in alcohol, passed dejections

containing the ova; also that others which had fed off the ova

of a Tricocephalus from a plate in the laboratory, carried and

deposited the ova on pieces of paper placed in the kitchen.

Dr. Grassi also found they could be carriers of the ova of

the thread worm, Oxyuris. I think that lately experiments

have been made of a more extended nature in the same direc-

tion with the plague bacillus, but unfortunately I have no data

to refer to. N. Davaine had also found that flies carry the con-

tagion of infected blood, consequently my experiments only

added another possibility to the list. Ifound that Hyristals

tena Supported captivity fairly well, and as it breeds in sewers

expected, it might possess advantages for these experiments; but

FEEDING INSECTS COMMA OR CHOLERA BACILLI Ce

this was not the case, so the common blue-bottle fly was se-

lected as the best, and the following remarks will apply chiefly

to this insect, It may however be stated that the natural de-

jections of the Hristalis contained no curved rods, and after

feeding on the cultures, only very few were seen in the evacu-

ations. Thecultures placed on aniline dyed sugar did not seem

to particularly affect them, except to increase the oily globules in

the stools. Some were allowed their liberty, while others were

killed to examine the perivisceral fluid, when by staining many

pale, motionless rod bacilli of four or five joints were noted,

also a few rather large rods, but scarcely a curved bacillus

could be found.

A female blowfly placed in captivity was firstly fed with

sugar moistened with a watery solution of methyl violet for

six days, and then seemed extremely feeble. It was then

fed on sugar damped with a gelatine culture which though

much broken down, contained an abundance of commas,

but fearing it might be unsuitable, I changed for an agar-

agar culture not broken down. The fly at first fed freely on this,

but later a male blowfly was also placed under the same

tumbler. Both, after feeding off and on for six hours, fur-

nished together six dejections. These, though much dried,

furnished well marked, double or S-shaped bacilli, but without

movement. The next day the flies were seen in coitus, aud a

little later the female was found dead. In the perivisceral fluid

scarcely a comma could be found. The male was now kept by

itself and fed from the original agar-agar culture. The daily

examinations of the dejections did not lead to much, until about

the seventh day a fair number of the crooked rods were passed,

some with a very sluggish motion, but short and dumpy in

appearance. A day later, 18 dejections had been passed in the

24 hours; these contained little colonies of the commas, as well

as single and double shaped ones. The perivisceral fluid of

this fly was also examined, and in upwards of fifty fields only

four curved bacilli were found. It is just possible that the few

curved bacilli found in this fluid might have been carried in by

the scissors used to make the incisions into the integment.

78 R. L. MADDOX:

Another female blowfly was now made the subject of further

experiments, as no commas were found in the normal dejections.

It was fed on sugar damped with the agar culture that had been

inoculated with prepared meat infusion (note Plate VIT., Fig. 2).

Curved bacilli being found in the dejections, some motile, an

inoculation was made into a prepared meat infusion kept

at 90° F.; on the fourth day in four excreta thirty crooked

bacilli were found, but three days later scarcely one could be

seen. The culture was changed for another similar four days

old and used to inoculate a fresh meat infusion, as the former

was accidentally upset. This fly was sadly weak on its legs

but strong on wing. This fresh culture was used to moisten

the sugar. The fly feeding from it freely, passed three liquid

dejections only part of these were used to inoculate a clear meat

infusion, which gave turbidity after thirty-two hours and yielded

both long and short undulating rods, with only a few single

commas, which a weak solution of aniline. acetate rendered

very clear. The fly, although much revived, could not crawl

to the top of the tumbler, hence it was fed from the agar cul-

ture, and in two days thirty-one dejections were passed; they

contained only a few curved rods, but the mixed dejections

were used to inoculate a gelatine tube, as I had not yet suc-

ceeded in inoculating gelatine from the excreta. The tube

was kept at room temperature 65° Fahr.

Two days later there were fourteen evacuations semi-solid and

one fluid; seven of the former were mixed with half of the

latter and used to inoculate another gelatine tube. The other

seven and half were inoculated into another gelatine tube which

was then heated to fluidity and poured out on four sterilized

3x1 slides, covered and kept at room temperature. On the

third day these were examined and only one furnished amongst

other growths the comma bacilli. The gelatine tube with the

seven and half dejections had on the third day a whitish

raised warty-looking growth with no evidence of the track of

the needle. This contained crooked rods of all degrees of

curvatures even to a complete ring (vide Plate VII., Fig 3).

FEEDING INSECTS COMMA OR CHOLERA BACILLI 79

An inoculation into meat infusion from the same agar-agar

culture when examined was found to abound with similar or-

ganisms. This was transmitted through the fly; at first no curved

rods could be found in the dejecta, but later on they yielded

a fair number of comma bacilli. After seven days the fly was

fed from the meat infusion culture, and passed some of the

crooked rods; these were inoculated into a fresh meat infusion

and in three days gave an abundance of bacilli, some in zo-

ogloea masses, others free and motile.

The fly had now grown very weak, hence it was fed on plain

meat infusion, on sugar, on fruit jelly and other things, and

quickiy regained strength. After having been in captivity forty

days, it was given its liberty as no rods were longer found in

the dejections. These experiments, troublesome as they were,

show I think conclusively that the comma bacillus can be re-

vived after passing through the digestive organs of the blow-

fly, but if the dejections be dry, or the rods weakly or'scanty,

there is no great chance of a revival by the contamination of

food, yet if fairly abundant, of strong growth and not too dried

up, they may be able to spread disease.

80 FEEDING INSECTS COMMA OR CHOLERA BACILLI

PLATE Vil.

Fig. 1 represents the comma bacilli in the original culture on agar-

agar which has a very rough and crowded aspect.

Fig. 2 is taken from the same culture inoculated into prepared meat in-

fusion (Liebig extract) and shows the bacilliin amore favorable condition.

Fig. 3, from an inoculation from the dejecta into gelatine, affords

an example of some of the bizarre forms found in comma bacilli cultures.

Fig 4 is from an inoculation of the excreta into meat infusion, and

likewise furnishes examples of irregular forms. <A field was selected in

which there appeared a double comma, the smaller one being apparently

embraced by the larger one, a small opening being left between them,

and what looks very much like a spore in the negative lying to the left of

the interspace. The bacilli after transmission through the fly appear to

have gained a little in size. The negatives were made at the magnifica-

tion of 1000 diameters.

QUESTIONS IN REGARD TO THE DIPHTHERIA

BACILLUS.

M. A. VEEDER, M. D., Lyons, N. Y.

There is no longer any question in regard to the identifica-

tion of the diphtheria bacillus. That has been settled beyond

dispute. There is much to be learned, however, in regard to

its varieties, and their behavior under different conditions in

and out of the body, and in association with other micro-organ-

isms, as well as when present alone. For the purpose of such

study there are two methods, each of which should supplement

the other. These minute forms of life become known to us,

not only as they appear under the microscope, but also by the

behavior of the diseases which they produce. Thus the ques-

tions that force themselves on our attention during an epidemic

become a guide for further microscopical study, and it is for

the most part questions encountered in this way that it is now

proposed to mention.

A very important question is that of the life history of the

bacillus in the human throat under various forms of treatment,

and without treatment. Since it has become customary with

health boards to make the duration ot quarantine depend upon

the results of microscopical examination of cultures of bacilli

from the throats of those having the disease and those exposed,

there has been a tendency to concentrate attention upon this

mode of propagation from individual to individual. There is

no doubt that so long as the bacillus is present, even in the

absence of all clinical symptoms of diphtheria, there is danger

of conveying the disease, and measures of throat disinfection,

and immunization of the person, and quarantine, should be

persisted in until it is certain that all danger is past. Atten-

tion to detail is important in this connection. Disinfectant

82 M. A. VEEDER:

solutions for use in the throat require to be rightly applied at

sufficiently frequent intervals, and in such manner as to reach

behind the palate and into the back of the nostrils, or they

will fail no matter how well adapted by their chemical and

physical properties to destroy the bacillus. In like manner the

antitoxin, if used for purposes of immunization, requires to be

of proper strength, and given early. It is safe to say that with-

out the use of such measures, and quarantine of proper dura-

tion, diphtheria will inevitably spread. But even when these

precautions have been employed thoroughly they may fail to

eradicate the disease from particular localities. In other words

the growth of the bacillus in the throat, whether in typical or

atypical forms, does not account for the manner in which diph-

theria sometimes remains endemic in a particular household or

neighborhood in spite of quarantine and throat disinfection.

A very notable instance of this sort was reported at the Mon-

treal meeting of the British Medical Association last year, and

again at the American Public Health Association at Ottawa

this year. In this case diphtheria’ has continued to recur in a

state school in Minnesota at frequent intervals for ten years in

spite of the most elaborate precautions. In the British Medi-

cal Journal for April 16th, 1898, at page 1009, it is stated

that an atypical variety of the diphtheria bacillus, supposed to

be the cause of the trouble in this school, was found to be con-

fined strictly to inmates of the institution, with one exception

in 2400 examinations. In other words there was no endemic

prevalence of anything of the sort in the town adjacent, or

anywhere else in the state, so far as was known, except in this

particular school. Presumably antitoxin, throat disinfection,

and quarantine, were all employed with thoroughness com-

mensurate with the interest that such a state of affairs, and its

wide publication, would arouse, and yet the disease continued

to recur.

It would seem evident in such a case that there must be some

other method of propagatien of the bacillus than in human

throats, and that the culture medium, whatever it may be,

must be located somewhere on the premises, harboring and

QUESTIONS IN REGARD TO THE DIPHTHERIA BACILLUS 83

perpetuating the infection so that when destroyed within the

body of every inmate, reinfection from without becomes possible

again. The growth of the bacillus in media external to the

body might very well originate atypical forms. But be this as

it may, the writer as health officer and practising physician,

has repeatedly been brought face to face with this very ques-

tion as to the life of the diphtheria bacillus outside the body.

As a rule when the disease has given evidence of a tendency

to recur in a particular house or neighborhood it has been pos-

sible to find somewhere about the premises an accumulation of

material obviously adapted to serve as a culture medium for

this particular bacillus, and so situated that effluvia from it

would surely gain access to those very persons who contracted

the disease.

In any such case it is, as a rule, difficult to secure pure cul-

tures of any particular bacillus that may be in question. The

varieties present are more numerous than in the cultures from

the throat so that the one wanted is lost in the crowd, and

there may be admixture of much extraneous matter, if direct

inoculation of the culture medium is attempted, so that it is

difficult to get conclusive evidence. Thus far the best evidence

attainable has been the immediate and complete disappearance

of the disease, when the proper source of the trouble has been

identified, and effectual measures for its removal by disinfec-

tion, or otherwise, have been adopted.

Still it is possible that definite information in regard to the

life of the bacillus outside the body may be had experimentally.

It should be determined for what length of time the bacillus

remains alive not only in a single culture, but also in a succes-

sion of cultures, transferred from one to another. This may

be done with the various media ordinarily employed for such

purposes, or with saliva, or pus, or mucus, or other secretions

from the body, under varying conditions of temperature and

moisture. Thus the development of atypical forms and changes

in the virulence of the bacillus due to its mode of life outside

the body may be detected by such a succession of cultures

starting from a single one.

84 M. A. VEEDER:

This is the laboratory side of the question, as yet unworked,

except in desultory and fragmentary fashion. Leading up to

it from the side of the practical work of the health board, is

the identification of such culture material, and its proper dis-

infection, or destruction. In the experience of the writer a

drain pipe that is rarely if ever flushed completely, and that is

crusted over on the inside with partly dried filth is specially

apt to form a medium for the retention and growth of succes-

sive crops of the diphtheria bacillus. Inoculation may occur

in various ways, a little expectoration, rinsing the mouth atthe

kitchen sink, for example, may start the process. The bacilli

implanted in an underground drain, or other receptacle that is

constantly nearly dry, and never completely flushed, find these

conditions very suitable for their growth. The temperature

and moisture, and fresh accessions of organic matter from day

to day are well adapted to bring about a series of cultures re-

sembling substantially those from tube to tube suggested in

the last paragraph. In such a case disinfectant solutions may

run along the bottom of the drain leaving the top and sides

untouched. Indeed in the case of a very large drain of this

sort the writer found it necessary to generate chlorine in order

to disinfect it completely. During continuance of infection

there is constant liability of its diffusion by the partly dried

material becoming detached and carried by the vapors arising

from fermentation, or by access of air currents. An instance

of this sort that came under the observation of the writer was

in connection with a dry closet system, so-called, in a school

building. The vaults containing the partly dried excretions

were in the cellar, and were cleaned only once or twice a year

and never disinfected. Under these conditions an outbreak of

diphtheria among the children appears to have been brought

about by this material in the cellar becoming infected perhaps

by particles of partly dried mucus containing the bacillus being

carried down through the ventilating flues which were built so

as to pass through these vaults. Infection once accomplished

propagation of the bacillus on a large scale would ensue on the

plan of plate cultures, there being accessions of fresh material

QUESTIONS IN REGARD TO THE DIPHTHERIA BACILLUS 85

suitable for the purpose daily. This being the case it would

need only some failure of the ventilating apparatus to allow

the vapors arising to find their way into the rooms most distant

from the main ventilating shaft and it was in these rooms pre-

cisely that the disease occurred and spread. An effort was

made in this case to secure cultures, but the difficulty was that

the bacterial flora was too abundant, and the particular bacillus

sought was lost in the crowd, as in other experiments of the

kind with drain pipes and receptacles having the peculiarities

indicated.

A very important point in connection with such prevalence

of diphtheria as has just been indicated, is the occurrence sim-

ultaneously of much ordinary sore throat so-called, in which

the usual form of the diphtheria bacillus appears to be wanting.

It has occurred to the writer that some atypical variety of the

bacillus, of greatly attenuated virulence, through an succession

of cultures outside the body, may be responsible for this form

of throat trouble, often spoken of at such times as sympathetic

sore throat. I would regard this form of the disease, in con-

nection with an outbreak of diphtheria, as clear evidence that

it was becoming endemic in the locality; in other words that

cultures outside the body were in progress somewhere in the

vicinity.

Mixed infection, or the association of diphtheria bacilli with

steptococci and other micro-organisms, is of great interest be-

cause of the increased danger to life, and because it may serve

to explain at times the failure of the antitoxin which does not

protect against other toxins than that of diphtheria. But these

are points of interest to the practicing physician rather than the

microscopist.

The fact that diphtheria, like many other diseases, spreads

in waves over extensive portions of the earth’s surface, increas-

ing very largely for a year or two, and then subsiding for a

series of years, is usually referred to meteorological conditions

modifying the virulence of the bacillus itself, or modifying the

conditions on which its virulence depends. It may, however,

be a question for study by the methods of modern microscopy.

86 QUESTIONS IN REGARD TO THE DIPHTHERIA BACILLUS

It is possible that the products of bacterial activity may inhibit

the growth of these organisms, in and out of the body, on a

scale large enough to be evident at a glance in the statistics

showing their epidemic prevalence. In other words even when

practically left to themselves, as is the rule-in many parts of

the world, they do not increase indefinitely but exhaust the

material susceptible to their attack, and perhaps in a measure

originate their own antitoxines. In either case it is a question

to be determined by the culture methods of the bacteriologist

and microscopist, identifying atypical and modified forms of

the bacillus, and their relation to the severity of the disease in

particular cases, and its epidemic prevalence in general.

Another exceedingly interesting series of questions is as to

why the bacillus attacks children in preference to adults, and

certain tissues and parts of the body in preference to others.

Considerable light has been thrown upon these very difficult

and obscure phases of the subject by modern methods of study

of embryology and comparative anatomy, bringing out what

may be termed the developmental relations involved. This is

the special field of the histologist and microscopist, and it is

likely to be exceedingly fruitful in the near future. Compar-

ative pathology is the outcome; this is just beginning to be

recognized as a part of the medical curriculum and is likely to

answer many questions along the lines just indicated in this

paragraph.

MEDICAL MICROSCOPY.

A. A. YOUNG, M. D., Newark, N. Y.

Microscopy may be termed one of the eyes of Medical

Science, valuable when rightly used and its revelations rightly

interpreted. The novice sees the same objects that the skilled

microscopist sees through his microscope but to the novice the

characters seen are unintelligible hieroglyphics while to the

microscopist these same hieroglyphics become an intelligible

written language. Microscopy is only valuable to those whose

eyes have been trained and prepared to differentiate objects

found in the microscopic field, and a mind so educated along

certain lines as to be able to resolve the impressions received

into an intelligible language.

It is not enough to know that objects in the microscopic field

stand out in bold relief to the eye, their outlines easily recog-

nizable; they must also form a definite concept in the mind of

the observer or nothing is gained practically to the observer or

to the world.

From time almost immemorial it has been considered that

abnormal conditions of the body were produced by morbific

agents having at least a quasi-independent existence, whatever

the morbific agents might be. Here, too, evolution has done

its work, it has carried the medical profession along from the

personal and unknowable ‘‘little devil” supposed to abide with

man, to the tangible and recognizable bacillus which the mic-

roscope has now forced from its obscurity.

Though bacilli belong to the iower forms of organic life it

cannot be said that they originate from nothing. It seems to

be a well established fact that there is no such thing as ‘‘spon-

taneous generation ’’ but that each living thing must produce

88 A. A. YOUNG:

after its kind, and so far as we are able to study material forms

this is absolutely true; but of the beginning of life, or life

itself, outside of its physical manifestations, He who called it

into existence has ever maintained an absolute silence and thus,

for some wise reason, has He left humanity on this subject in

intellectual darkness. What life actually is therefore must be

left to individual surmises.

The germ theory of disease was promulgated long before the

discovery of the disease producing bacillus, and over this

theory many hard battles were fought before it become an ac-

cepted fact; so well is it now grounded that its verity scarcely

admits of a question.

The microscope in medical science has indeed become a most

valuable adjunct; it has pointed out the way from the field of

fancy to the field of fact, it has made the hypothetical bacillus

a veritable bacillus, it has by its revelations, in a measure at

least, revolutionized the methods of the medical profession and

the end is not yet.

If the known be indicative of the unknown, if the past be

prophetic of the future, we are forced to the conclusion that all

of those abnormal manifestations of the body which we term

disease must be due to the presence of bacilli or rather of

developing bacilli within their nidus or within some develop-

ing medium of the body. It is important also for the physi-

cian to understand not only how to search for the specific

bacillus and recognize it full grown, but he should know equally

well where its natural home is, what its method of reproduc-

tion and what elements are necessary to carry out its repro-

ductive processes.

The process of development as observed in the macroscopic

world clearly indicates that it is during this developing period

that the growing being preys upon and is most destructive to

other forms of life; this is markedly true in the insect world,

it is the larva and not the imago that is destructive to organic

life. The manner and mode of living of the larva differs

widely from the imago towards which it is progressing and into

which it will in due time reach its perfectness. What was

MEDICAL MICROSCOPY 89

food for the larva in its developing stage becomes to the imago

positively repugnant and unfit to sustain its life. What is

here true in the macroscopic world is inferentially true in the

microscopic world. The developing bacillus may require dif-

ferent surroundings and different dietetics from the fully de-

veloped bacillus; it may also be true that the fully developed

bacillus is perfectly harmless unless it be aroused and its re-

productive function brought into activity, which function it cer-

tainly has, and having such a function there must exist in or

about it at least a germinal vesicle or spore in which the be-

ginning of life takes place. Such a vesicle must exist though

the eye hath not seen it; it is no proof that an object does not

exist because it has not been discovered. Ultimate particles

will in all probability remain theoretical ones and defy detec-

tion though their existence cannot be doubted.

It seems to be an established fact that protoplasm is the

basis of all animated matter and in it began the first manifes-

tations of that mysterious force known as life, the manifestation

of which has developed physical man. There seems to bea

unity in creation, and coming as it must from one Creative

Mind, it could not consistently be otherwise.

What is so manifestly true in insect life must also be true,

though not apparent, in every animate thing having prehensile

and reproductive powers. The bacillus, coming as it does un-

der this classification, must have a beginning in a germinal

vesicle, a period of activity, of growth and development, end-

ing in perfectness then giving its individual life to other germ-

inal vesicles which it has developed and prepared to deposit

in some developing menstrum to complete again another cycle.

That the home of the fully developed bacillus is not the

home of the developing one, and that the conditions surround-

ing the former are markedly different from the conditions sur-

rounding the latter are practically proven by recent investi-

gations in the biological history of the typhoid bacillus and by

the action of the antitoxic serums in the system.

It is true, as observation has proven, that the presence of

fully developed pathogenic bacteria in or about the system

90 MEDICAL MICROSCOPY

does not constitute disease even though located upon those

membranes on which they are found when pathological pro-

cesses exist. It is then confidently asserted that when these

pathogenic bacteria enter some of the body-juices either as

fully developed bacilli or as spores from them, and the pro-

cess of reproduction begins, then, and then only, do we find

the phenomena that are indicative of those abnormal processes

that constitute disease.

One of the greatest needs of the medical profession of to-day

is a more accurate knowledge of the biology of bacteria. On

account of the difficulties that arise in methods and technique

the busy physician is unable to enter upon and bring to a suc-

cessful termination the necessary investigations; such investi-

gations call for the services of an expert. For such services

the medical profession as a body must appeal to the micro-

biologist and it is confidently hoped that such appeal shall

not be in vain.

AGAR-AGAR.

W. W. ALLEGER, WasuinerTon, D. C.

The preparation of agar by the older methods is well known

to be a tedious operation, which consumes much valuable time.

The product obtained is seldom, if ever, quite transparent;

while not infrequently troublesome precipitates which not only

mar the appearance of the medium but render it unsuitable for

the finer classes of work, develop after sterilization.

The use of powdered agar, which has been in the market for

two or three years, because of its ready solubility, simplifies

the process and greatly shortens the time required in the pre-

paration of the medium; but for some reason, doubtless because

of the scant notice which has been given to the matter in the

literature, it does not yet seem to have come into general use.

To call attention to the powdered form, and to report a method

for obviating the appearance of secondary precipitates in the

tubes, on sterilization, was the object of a paper by the writer

published in the first number of the Journal of Applied Micro-

scopy.

The method then described materially lessened the time and

labor required in the preparation of agar and gave a perfectly

transparent product. Subsequent efforts, aided by a suggestion

obtained from an article by Dr. Ravenel, in the June number

of the Journal, have enabled us to shorten the time limits from

two and one-half hours to one hour, counting from the time of

the receipt of the meat in the laboratory until the last drop of

the completed medium has passed through the filter, and yet

obtain average results; while by deferring filtration until after

the first sterilization a perfectly transparent medium is obtained.

In the latter event from half to three-quarters of an hour suffices

for the initial preparation, exclusive of the time required for

99 W. W. ALLEGER:

sterilization in bulk, but a half hour more is required on the

following day for re-heating and filtering. The process is

as follows:

Rub up 10 grams each of powdered agar and Witte’s pow-

dered peptone, and 5 grams of sodium chloride, in a porcelain-

lined saucepan, with just sufficient water to thoroughly moisten

the powder and form a thin paste; add gradually, while stirring

the mixture, 500 cc. of water; place ona gas stove, interposing

a piece of asbestos board or wire gauze between the saucepan

and flame, and heat the mixture until the agar is dissolved,

stirring occasionally to prevent burning on the bottom of the

dish. If the paste made with cold water is properly rubbed up,

so as to break down all the lumps and moisten all the agar,

solution will be practically complete by the time the boiling

point has been reached, so that two or three minutes brisk

boiling suftices.

With the aid of a meat press extract the juice from 500 grams

(one pound) of lean meat, and add the juice to 500 ce. of water.

Mix this ‘‘flesh-water’’ with the agar solution—which now

should have cooled sufficiently not to coagulate the albumin in

the flesh-water, but still be hot enough to remain fiuid—and

carefully neutralize with a 4 per cent solution of caustic soda.

After neutralization boil the mixture until all the coagulable

albumin in the flesh-water has been coagulated and comes to the

surface, leaving a clear fluid beneath. Again test the reaction,

and, if need be, correct it; add sufficient boiling water to sup-

ply any loss that may have occurred through evaporation, and

filter through paper. To insure rapid and complete filtration

without the necessity of reheating the mass I distribute the

solution in three or four filters, using coarse, folded paper,

pass sufficient boiling water through each filter to wash away

loose lint and thoroughly heat the funnels just previous to

commencing the filtration of the agar. With good paper and

proper attention to detail filtration is usually accomplished in

from ten to fifteen minutes.

While filtration is in progress sterilize or boil a tube of the

filtrate. If it remains clear after heating, and when cold is free

AGAR—AGAR 93

from sediment and only slightly opalescent, the entire filtrate

may be immediately run off into tubes and sterilized. But ifa

precipitate should make its appearance either on heating or

while cooling, the filtrate should be sterilized in mass and

allowed to stand in the sterilizer with the light turned low or

out until the precipitate collects together at or near the bottom

of the flasks when the agar may be reheated and refiltered; this

time, with the confident expectation that the filtrate will be and

will subsequently remain transparent. Or, if preferred, the

agar may be run off into cylindrical deposit glasses, sterilized

therein, and allowed to stand in the sterilizer, as before, until

the sediment has settled to the bottom after which the clear

fluid may be syphoned off, or allowed to cool and cut off with

a knife and the portion containing the sediment be discarded,

or filtered, according to amount.

Usually, on account of the liability to secondary precipitates,

and because the agar is never so transparent when filtered im-

mediately as it is when the filtration is deferred until after the

first sterilization, I do not filter at once, but merely strain out

the coarser flocculi by running the medium through losely

packed cotton, sterilize in flasks, allow the flasks to stand in

the sterilizer and slowly cool, and wait until the following day

before filtering through paper. Filtration is then still more

rapid, if care is taken to bring the temperature of the mass up

to the boiling point in the sterilizer before commencing the

filtration, and the product is always transparent.

The coarser precipitates which occur on sterilization are

usually due to the coagulation of albumin which has escaped

coagulation at the time of the preparation of the medium; but

the troublesome ones are of more doubtful origin; probably

they consist, in the first place, of very fine flocculi which pass

through the filter on the first filtration, and, in the second

place, of salts which are held in solution during the first filtra-

tion but which as a result of changes in the reaction, oxidation,

or because of lessened solubility in the cold medium and their

presence to supersaturation, are deposited as the medium cools.

94 W. W. ALLEGER:

But whatever their nature and cause I have been unable to

avoid their appearance altogether save by the method just

detailed. When present in only small amount and sterilization

is not too much prolonged, (ten minutes) if the tubes are

quickly cooled they cause no perceptible sediment and only a

slight opalescence in the finished product and are then really

not objectionable, though I always prefer to have my media

perfectly transparent, if possible.

Eggs are not needed to clear the agar when made by the

above process, the albumin in the meat juice being sufficient

for the purpose.

If it be desirable to make agar from bouillon it is only neces-

sary to rub up the powdered agar with a little of the cold bouil-

lon to a paste and then gradually add the balance of 500 ce.

thereof, and boil until solution—which quickly takes place—is

complete; add the balance (500 cc.) of the bouillon; stir in the

whites of two eggs and boil until the egg albumin is coagulated

and rises to the surface leaving the clear solution beneath, and

then filter, as before. As, however, the agar can be made

from the flesh-water almost as readily and quickly as the bouil-

lon itself, there is little inducement for the use of previously

prepared bouillon.

Meat extract can also be substituted for the flesh-water.

Formerly I used from 20 to 30 cc. of Valentine’s meat juice

per liter, but more recently I use but 10 to 15 cc. which quan-

tity I find sufficient. I prefer Valentine’s to other extracts

that I have tried as it makes a lighter colored agar and seems

to be free from resistant spores, as no more care is required in

the sterilization of the media made from it than from meat

itself. If 10 cc. of meat extract (or meat juice as Valentine

terms it), be added to 500 cc. of water and substituted for the

flesh-water the process is the same as with the latter, save that

egg albumin must be added to clear the medium if it be desired

to filter before sterilization. Meat extract, being readily kept

on hand, is more convenient than meat for the preparation of

media, but some organisms do not seem to thrive so well upon

the media thus made.

AGAR—AGAR 95

The precaution of first moistening the agar and peptone with

a small quantity of cold water or cold bouillon, as the case may

be, and rubbing to a smooth paste free from lumps, must not

be omitted. If stirred directly into a hot solution—and to a

less extent if stirred directly into a large quantity of cold water,

without previous moistening—the agar rolls up into little lumps

and is almost as difficult of solution as the finely cut pieces of

shred agar.

If a meat press is not at hand the flesh-water can be made in

the ordinary way either by macerating finely minced meat in

cold water for a few hours, or by digesting for a shorter time

at a higher temperature.

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CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HISTOGENESIS OF THE

CARYOPHYLLALES. I.

FREDERIC E. CLEMENTS.

The purpose of the following paper is three-fold: 1, to set

forth the results of a series of investigations upon the origin

and structure of meristematic tissues, and their primary deriva-

tives; 2, to accumulate additional evidence concerning the dif-

ferent phases of present histological, and histogenetic prob-

lems; 3, to furnish some considerations for the evaluation of

anatomical characters in taxonomy. For many reasons, the

order Caryophyllales presents a peculiarly favorable field for

these researches. Its comparatively low position among Dico-

tyledones leads to the expectation that here will be found, to a

certain extent, the instability of specializations and differentia-

tions characteristic of low grades of development. The great

diversity of morphological characters, moreover, would seem

to bespeak concomitant extremes in histogenetic differentiations.

Finally, on the other hand, the considerable community of

habit throughout the group would tend to produce results quite

opposite to those effected by the first two causes. Thus, as is

always the case, the resultant of these and other forces would

be expressed by the degree of departure of cell-aggregates, and

of tissue-systems from a theoretical type. The theoretical

reality, but practical non-existence, of this type will be made

evident in the course of exposition.

To obviate the necessity of frequent repetition of subject

matter, it has seemed best to subdivide the text into three parts.

The anatomical and histogenetic details, except such as are

common to all Dicotyledones, will be brought out in connec-

tion with one of the parts. Thus, while each part will concern

itself chiefly with the elucidation of some particular problem in

98 FREDERIC E. CLEMENTS:

histogeny, there will be found woven in with this the minute

anatomy of the organs under discussion. The three subdivis-

ions are as follows:

J. The transition from root to stem.

II. The origin and development of radicels.

Ill. The apical growth of the stem.

ie THE TRANSITION FROM ROOT TO STEM.

Since the present paper lays no claim to originality in the

general facts presented, but only in the particular application

of these facts, it has seemed best to give a brief résumé of the

principal researches as yet published upon this question. This

historical account will be followed by an exposition of the type-

structure of the hypocotyl; following this will be found the

details of structure, and of transition in the various families of

Caryophyllales. After a comparison of the different types of

transition, will be given the conclusions deduced from the data

presented.

HISTORICAL.

In the beginnings of plant anatomy, the transition-region

was regarded as a geometrical plane, and its supposed position

was determined by external data. Lamarck, Saint-Pierre, De

Candolle, and Saint-Hilaire looked upon it as a line determined

on the one hand by what is now called positive geotropism,

on the other by negative. De Candolle, in particular, consid-

ered the transition-region to be not an actual organ, but merely

the limit between two organs. However, he avoided two mis-

takes into which his successors fell. He located the transition

below the cotyledons, and stated that rarely, if ever, was there

any external evidence of its position. Saint-Hilaire and Meyen

adopted the views of De Candolle, though the former fell into

the error of regarding the constriction in the hypocotyl of

some plants as an external indication of the location of the

transition-region. Gaertner, Richard, Mirbel, aud others

thought the transition-region identical with the insertion of the

cotyledons, while Cauvet believed it to be equivalent to the

radicel.

HISTOGENESIS OF THE CARYOPHYLLALES 5h)

Clos was the first to advance the theory that the ‘‘ collet”

was not a plane limiting two organs, that it was a distinct

region determinable by morphological and histological charac-

teristics. Confining himself mostly to the former, he defined

the ‘‘collet” as that portton of the hypocotyl, limited above

by the cotyledons and below by the area of root-hairs. That

these alone are insufficient to accurately delimit the ‘‘col-

let’ has since been shown by Van Tieghem, and by Gerard.

Still, to Clos belongs the credit of having first discovered the

real nature and extent of transition. Moreover, although Clos

has left us no exact data concerning histological changes in the

transition-region, he recognized the presence and importance

of such, as the following passage will show. ‘* Although

Hugo von Mohl has proved that the vessels of the stem traverse

the ‘collet’, as De Candolle understands it, without undergo-

ing interruption, it is none the less true that it is in the ‘col-

let’ (as we have defined it) that the pith begins. It is in the

‘collet’, moreover, that the fibrovascular bundles, descending

from the stem, unite in diverse manners, and undergo modifi-

cations, which determine for the root this or that rhizotaxic

type. Also, the ‘collet’, in as much as it is an intermediary

organ, partakes sometimes more of the anatomy of the root,

sometimes more of that of the first internode of the stem, and

and sometimes, finally, it has anatomical characters entirely

peculiar to itself”.

Van Tieghem, in 1869, first considered the ‘‘ collet” to bea

geometric plane, not entirely dissimilar to a node. His invest-

igations, however, were correct; the cause of error was general-

ization from an insufficient number of data. As a result of

careful anatomical research, he was able to add greatly to Clos’

results by defining the ‘‘collet” as the organ, ‘‘ where takes

place the passage of xylem strands from alternation to simul-

taneous semi-rotation and superposition, by which they become

centrifugal instead of centripetal, and where occurs the cessa-

tion of special conjunctive tissue, which is replaced by primary

parenchyma”. In 1872, Van Tieghem reversed his opinion

concerning the abrupt transition from root to stem, giving for

100 FREDERIC E. CLEMENTS:

the first time the precise details of the process. According to

these later investigations, he divides the transition into four

stages: 1, rotation of the xylem strands, which become centri-

fugal instead of centripetal; 2, their superposition upon the

phloem strands; 3, the abrupt interruption of the pericycle

without the latter; 4, the dilatation of the central cylinder,

with the interposition of the conjunctive tissues. As Gerard

has since demonstrated, and as will be brought out in the

present paper, the sequence of these stages is not necessarily

correct, the fourth as a matter of fact most often preceding the

first. Yet these four steps are essentially typical for all

Dicotyledones, and it is chiefly in the matter of minute detail

that the knowledge upon this subject has since been increased.

Dodel, in the same year, as a result of investigation of the

transition-region in Phaseolus, communicated the discovery of

two new facts, both of great importance, and of universal ap-

plication. The first of these was the division of the primary

strands during the transition, and the second, the assumption

of an intermediate, tangential (secantial) position, as a result

of the torsion of the radial bundles to become collateral. In

1876, Goldsmith confirmed Van Tieghem’s results, extending

them, howeyer, so that the ‘‘collet,’? which all recent writers

had understood as limited to the hypocotyl, was, in a consider-

able number of cases, found to be located above the cotyledons.

Another important deduction reached by the same author was

that there is no interrelation between the morphological char-

acters of the seedling, and the histological characters of the

transition-region.

Gerard, in 1880 and 1881, extended his investigations so as

to include all groups of vascular plants: it is his researches

that have laid the foundation for all future work upon the

‘<collet.’? Not only did he corroborate and extend the essen-

tial facts as demonstrated by Van Tieghem, Dodel, and Gold-

smith, but he accumulated a mass of details that must stand as

classic upon this question. His conclusions are a succinct

résumé, not merely of his own investigations, but of the ante-

cedent researches, and warrant a full translation in this place.

HISTOGENESIS OF THE CARYOPHYLLALES 101

‘‘To summarize: the ‘collet’ as a geometric plane does not

exist.

‘There exists, between the stem and the root, a region, more

or less extensive, according to the plant, in which the elements

of the root, in ascending to the higher portions of the axis, are

modified, displaced, and assume gradually the configuration,

position, and importance which they possess in the stem.

‘The transformation of each of these elements is independent

of the modifications of the adjacent elements; it may be con-

tinuous, or it may take place at intervals more or less separate;

sometimes slow, it is at other times extremely rapid. The

transition may originate, indifferently, in one or the other ele-

ment: the one which inaugurates the transition here, will be

the last to be adapted to it there. It results from these facts:

1, that the ‘collet,’ anatomically speaking, viewed in its differ-

ent aspects, and in several plants at one time, presents the

most various expressions, incalculable in number; 2, that the

transformation of the tegumentary system is unable to furnish

any character for the delimitation of stem and root. The

mutation of the epiderm is but one of the phases of the trans-

ition; it occurs at very diverse times.

‘‘Taken in its largest dimensions, the ‘collet’ may originate —

in the superior portion of the radicle, and may terminate in the

fourth internode, though it rarely exceeds the cotyledons. It

can be entirely localized in the radicle; it may occupy a portion

of this organ, and all, or part, of the caulicle; finally, concern-

ing the caulicle alone, it may comprise the totality, or only a

part of it. It is seen, then, with what caution one should em-

ploy the two terms, radicle and caulicle; convenient, it is true,

in descriptive writing, but liable to give rise to false ideas con-

cerning the structure of these two organs.

‘‘Most frequently, the transition occurs gradually, and com-

pletely in the hypocotyledonary axis; but, when the elements

of the root reach the cotyledons, and are entirely lost in them

without having realized the caulinary type, there is an abrupt

change at the base of the internode, since the epicotyledonary

102 FREDERIC E. CLEMENTS:

axis always possesses the elements of the stem normally

disposed.

‘The extent of the ‘collet’ seems everywhere dependent

upon the diameter of the plantlet. The greater this is, the

more quickly the transition takes place; but it is necessary to

add,that, beyond a minimum dimension, this cause seems to have

no influence. The absence of the caulicle affects also the rap-

idity of the movements, and, consequently, the length of the

‘collet.’ This region is extremely short with the vascular

cryptogams, and the monocotyledons deprived of this organ.

An extensive pith in the root, facilitating the displacement of

the elements, also renders the transition more rapid.

‘There is no family character to be drawn from the study

of the ‘collet.’ There is merely a certain constancy in the

species; whatever the longitudinal development of the plantlet,

the elements possess the same disposition beneath the coty-

ledons.”’

Gerard’s conclusions, well-founded and complete as they

are, leave three very evident lacune: 1, concerning the con-

stancy of transition-type and method for each species; 2, the

reduction of the manifold forms of transition to a definite num-

ber of more or less well-defined types; 3, a determination of

the concomitancy of transition types, and accepted diagnostic

characters in the higher groups. It would be presumptuous in

a paper so limited in scope as the present one to postulate final

conclusions with reference to any of these questions. The

Caryophyllales afford, however, much cumulative evidence,

the import and weight of which will be hereinafter discussed.

GENERAL FACTS OF THE TRANSITION.

The tegumentary cylinder plays no part in the transition.

The epidermis of the root, however, which is characterized by

the possession of root-hairs, and by its rounded, irregular,

loosely-disposed cells, undergoes very considerable modifica-

tions. It first loses its root-hairs; the cells increase in size

transversely and their outer walls begin to cuticularise. Finally,

they are reduced in number about one-half, they elongate radi-

HISTOGENESIS OF THE CARYOPHYLALLES 103

ally, and become very firmly compacted together, so that out-

wardly they present a continuous, cuticularised surface. The

exoderm undergoes at the same time corresponding changes.

It gradually loses its property of suberisation, the cells decrease

considerably in size; and ultimately become more or less

collenchymatous.

The transformation of the epiderm, although a feature of

the transition, is in no way, or at least indirectly alone, con-

nected with the changes which occur in the central cylinder.

In most cases, the transformation of the epiderm takes place

completely, before the first step of the internal transition has

occurred. In some instances, on the other hand, the internal

transition is practically accomplished before the epiderm loses

those features which characterize it in the root. Thus, it is

readily seen that the epiderm and the central cylinder are prac-

tically independent of each other with respect to their behavior.

As for the transformation itself, it may take place rapidly, or

gradually; it may extend over a large, or a small portion of

the hypocotyl.

The cortical cylinder is modified but little. The number of

layers of cells ordinarily increases toward the cotyledons, and

at the same time the size of the cells undergoes a consequent

decrease. Their form frequently changes from polyedric to

rounded, and the whole tissue becomes characterized more and

more by intercellular spaces. The endoderm, also, suffers but

slight changes. It loses its property of suberisation, the

characteristic punctation disappears, and it becomes, toward

the apex of the seedling, more and more amyliferous.

The modifications which affect the pericycle are inconsider-

able. In many plants, the pericycle persists from the tip of

the root to the cotyledons without the slightest variation except

in the number of cells. Even when it enters the cotyledons,

which it does in company with the endoderm, and the entire

cortical cylinder, it suffers no change. In some cases, how-

ever, there is a diminution in the size of the pericyclar cells

situated in front of the phloem strands, and, not infrequently,

some, or all the cells directly opposite the phloem disappear.

104 FREDERIC E. CLEMENTS:

Although Gerard makes the distinct statement that the

mesenchym is entirely passive, the evidences of its activity are

so numerous as to make it impossible to accept such a conclu-

sion. Its function is four-fold: 1, to bring about the separa-

tion of the xylem strand into two plates, and, sometimes, the

subsequent disintegration of these; 2, to intervene between the

prototracheids and the pericycle; 3, to give origin to the med-

ulla of the central cylinder; 4, to originate the procambium.

While the mesenchym may be regarded as the causative

tissue, it is the xylem that is chiefly concerned in the changes

which occur in the central cylinder. The process by which the

centripetal xylem of the root is transformed into the centrifugal

xylem of the stem may be divided into five stages:

1. Duplication and equalization of the xylem elements.

2. Longitudinal segmentation of the xylem strand into two

plates.

3. Approach of xylem and phloem.

4. Superposition of xylem upon the phloem in secantial

orientation.

5. Mutation from secantial to collateral orientation.

The first stage takes place by the transformation of the ad-

jacent cells of the mesenchym into tracheids, and the decrease

in diameter of all the elements of the xylem. In the second,

the cells of the mesenchym insinuate themselves between the

central xylem elements, and, growing rapidly, force them apart

into two plates. At the same time, the prototracheids are

pushed back from the pericycle by the mesenchym, and they

take part in the constitution of either plate. In the third stage

the xylem plate, either as a whole, or in part, approaches the

phloem, or in some cases, the movement appears to be mutual.

In the fourth, the xylem is superimposed upon the cambium in

face of the phloem. From linear, or plate-like, it becomes

cuneiform, and passes quickly from the secantial orientation to

the collateral, the fifth stage. In elongated, slender hypoco-

tyls, the fifth stage is rarely reached below the cotyledons, and

sometimes it is found just above them. In short, stout hypo-

cotyls, it is usually found in the lower portion of the ‘‘tigelle’’,

- HISTOGENESIS OF THE CARYOPHYLLALES 105

the upper part of which then exhibits the structure of the stem

proper.

Compared with that of the xylem, the behavior of the phloem

is very simple. At the beginning of the transition, the phloem

strands extend themselves along the pericycle. When the

xylem splits, the phloem frequently divides also; sometimes,

however, it remains entire, and division occurs only after the

superposition of the xylem. In the assumption of the secantial

orientation, the phloem is usually passive, though movement

does sometimes take place in it, as well as in the xylem.

The cambium (procambium) is produced directly from the

mesenchym. Its purpose is two-fold; to connect the xylem

and phloem into the collateral bundle, and to originate, in

most cases, the vascular strands of the first internode.

DETAILS OF STRUCTURE AND TRANSITION IN THE VARIOUS FAMILIES.

CARYOPHYLLACE.

Dianthus sinensis. The tegumentary cylinder of the root

occupies more than three-fourths of the diameter. It consists,

besides the epiderm, exoderm, and endoderm, of a cortical

parenchyma of three or four layers of rounded cells, with

numerous very small intercellular spaces. The outer layer is

usually the largest, and from it the adjacent layers gradually

decrease in size, on the one hand toward the epiderm, on the

other toward the endoderm. In some cases, contrary to Van

Tieghem’s and to Gerard’s generalizations, the cells of the

exoderm, are the largest of the tegumentary cylinder. There

is, then, an abrupt change to the numerous small cells of the

epiderm, and a gradual transition towards the cells of the

endoderm. The cells of the latter are prismatic; their walls

are so closely applied to those of the pericyclar cells that inter-

cellular spaces are nearly invisible, or utterly lacking (1:1).

The central cylinder possesses a simple, one-layered pericy-

cle, composed of 25 to 30 polyedral cells. The stele is diarch,

each xylem strand containing, ordinarily, four, rarely five or

six, elements, the outermost of which, prototracheid, lies against

106 FREDERIC E. CLEMENTS:

the pericycle. The two strands are united in the centre by a

large tracheid, and the double xylem strand is thus a single

row of elements for, at least, a large portion of the root proper.

The number of rows in the rays of the mesenchym is regularly

three. Where the mesenchym touches the pericycle, its cells

alternate with the cells of the latter, and it is only to be dis-

tinguished from a second layer of the pericycle by the fact of

its interruption by both prototracheids and protophloem. The

two phloem strands consist of plate-like masses, extending the

length of four or five pericyclar cells. They contain two sorts

of elements, large primary sieve-tubes, alternating with the

cells of the pericycle, and small, cuboidal or polygonal cells,

scarcely separable from the mesenchym.

The first change in the structure of the root takes place in

the epiderm and the exoderm. The manner and nature of this

has already been pointed out. Its complete independence of

any transformation in the central cylinder is evidenced by the

fact that both epiderm and exoderm have practically assumed

their ultimate expression, before there has been the least dis-

turbance of the elements in the central cylinder (1:7,8).

At a distance of about three millimetres from the tip of the

root, the cells of the mesenchym adjacent the large, central

tracheid become lignified, and pass over into constituents of

the xylem strand. At the same time, there is a considerable

increase in the size and activity of the phloem strands. They

may now become more or less broken up into two separate

strands (I:2) or they may maintain their integrity for some

time yet. About a millimetre above the increase of the xylem

strands, the mesenchym grows in between the elements of the

latter and forces them apart first into two more or less irregular

plates (I:3), and finally, by continued intrusion, into a number

of very irregular, isolated strands. Just previous to this, the

mesenchym in face of the phloem strands has passed over into

cambium, and the phloem itself, if still undivided, splits into a

number of strands, which come to lie along the pericycle for

a very considerable distance, ultimately being distributed here

and there along almost the entire periphery (1:4).

HISTOGENESIS OF THE CARYOPHYLLALES 107

The prototracheids, during these changes, assume a position

more remote from the pericycle, and, with the adjacent xylem,

form the xylem element of the bundle-trace of the cotyledons

(1:5). These enter the cotyledons, with respect to the phloem

strands which accompany them, in secantial orientation, which,

however, passes over almost immediately into the centrifugal.

In some cases the whole number of the xylem strands is carried

into the cotyledons, and the fibrovascular strands of the first

internode, the stem proper, arise from the residual phloem-cam-

bium of the hypocotyl (1:6). In other instances, the fibro-

vascular strands, alternating with those destined for the coty-

ledons (1:5), enter the first internode, and, by division, give

rise to the vascular system of the stem.

The transition-region extends, then, from the upper portion

of the root proper to the cotyledons, and includes the whole of

the hypocotyl above the collet, the <<‘ tigelle”’.

Silene armeria. The diameter of the tegumentary cylinder

of the root is very variable. Near the tip, it consists of ' but

four layers, epiderm, exoderm, one-layered cortical paren-

chyma, and endoderm. The transition in size takes place only

toward the central cylinder, the exoderm alone equalling the

cortical parenchyma and the endoderm in extent. In the vicin-

ity of the collet the number of rows in the parenchyma in-

creases to two or three, and the outer of these dominates the

cylinder, so that decrease, as normally, takes place in two op-

posite directions, toward both epiderm and exoderm. The

cells are now nearly orbicular, and the tissue of the entire

cylinder is characterized by very numerous and regular inter-

cellular spaces, which are entirely lacking in the root. The

cells of the endoderm are more or less elongated transversely,

so that, ultimately, they become prismatic.

The pericycle is simple and contains 25 to 30 polyedric cells.

As in Dianthus sinensis, it persists up to the cotyledons, in-

creasing the number of its cells to correspond to the expansion

of the central cylinder: in face of the phloem strands, the peri-

cyclar cells sometimes diminish in size, but apparently never

wholly disappear. The composition and arrangement of xylem

108 FREDERIC E. CLEMENTS:

and phloem are very similar to that already indicated for Dian-

thus sinensis. The xylem is diarch, and consists usually of

nine elements, four in either arch, connected by a large, cen-

tral one. The behavior of the xylem is quite different in dif

ferent individuals.. Ordinarily, the single-rowed strand persists

until the region of transitional activity in the upper part of the

root isreached. Frequently, however, at a very short distance

from the tip, the xylem becomes two- or three-rowed, and the

root maintains this structure until the collet isreached. The

phloem, composed of both primary sieve-tubes and smaller ac-

cessory vessels, forms a columnar strand on either side the

xylem, and separated from it by two rows of mesenchymatous

cells.

The transformatiun of the epiderm and the exoderm takes

place in the region of the collet, and is effected in a very

short distance, being completed before modification of the

central cylinder occurs.

As has already been pointed out, the xylem strand is fre-

quently doubled in the lower portion of the root. When this

is not the case, duplication occurs in the collet (II:1). In

either instance, the real index of the beginning of the trans-

ition is to be found in the equalization of the diameter of the

xylem elements, and the withdrawal of the prototracheids from

the pericyle. Concomitantly, the mesenchym begins to grow

vigorously, and those layers in front of the phloem strands pass

over into the peculiarly cubical cells of the procambium. These

changes take place less than a millimetre from the insertion of

the cotyledons. The actively growing mesenchym pushes in

between the xylem elements, and separates them first into two

irregular plates (11:2). The phloem undergoes no important

change, but simply extends itself further along the pericycle:

the entire mesenchym, except that concerned in the disinte-

gration of the xylem, and destined to become the pith, is trans-

formed into procambium. The medulla soon appears in the

center of the cylinder, and the xylem strands are separated into

numerous secondary strands. The secondary xylem strands

come to lie in four more or less definite, oppositive groups

HISTOGENESIS OF THE CARYOPHYLALLES 109

(11:3). The phloem apparently does not split into correspond-

ing groups, but is, on the contrary, differentiated out of the

procambium along the entire periphery. This condition, which

is essentially that of secantial orientation, is attained a short

distance below the cotyledons. By the time the latter are

reached, the fibrovascular system is practically centrifugal.

This is actually true, however, only for those strands destined

for the first internode. Those which form the trace of the

cotyledons are still slightly secantial, until the very moment of

their entrance into the latter. The base of the first internode

possesses a stele composed for the most part of procambium,

but containing, also, the two vascular bundles received from

the hypocotyl.

The transition-region, if the duplication of the xylem ele-

ments in the lower portion of the root may be excepted, begins

scarcely more than a millimetre below the cotyledons, and

terminates at the insertion of the latter.

Silene conoidea. The transition-region corresponds in the

details of structure, location and extent so exactly to that of

Silene armeria, that an exposition of it would be the merest

repetition. The two species might well be one in so far as

histological differences are concerned.

Silene otites. The transition region, though agreeing in the

main with that of Szlene armeria and conoidea, presents a few

differences, which, though unimportant, are more or less con-

stant. Among these is the very early appearance and abund-

ant distribution of starch-granules in the endoderm (IV:3), a

condition which takes place tardily and feebly in the other two

species. The disintegration of the xylem strand occurs some-

what later also, and, in consequence, the stele has scarcely

more than entered the secantial orientation by the time it

reaches the insertion of the cotyledons (IV:4). The centrifugal

arrangement of xylem and phloem takes place, then, at the

very moment of entrance into the cotyledons, as was seen

sometimes to be true in Stlene armeria. The strands of the

first internode have at this time, though little differentiated,

already assumed collateral orientation.

110 FREDERIC E. CLEMENTS:

According to Gerard’s expositlon, the details of transition in

Silene inflata are in almost perfect accord with the facts al-

ready stated. The sole discrepancy is in the behavior of the

phloem. In Silene inflata, it divides before passing into

secantial orientation with the xylem; in Sclene armeria, conoidea

and otttes, division of the phloem strands apparently never oc-

curs. On the contrary, the procambium gives rise to accessory

phloem, which forms, with the original strands, a more or less

continuous circle within the pericycle.

In Lychnis githago, Gerard found the facts to be practically

the same, with the exception of an additional step, consisting

in temporary fusion of the strands during secantial disposition.

In the six species of Caryophyllacee investigated, the transi-

tion-region is based upon a single type of structure, the mod-

ifications of which are slight and of little importance. The

transition-region, moreover, is always limited below by the

collet; and above by the cotytedons, and, in most cases, is con-

fined to the upper portion of the ‘‘tigelle’”’ alone.

PorTULACACE.

Portulaca oleracea. The tegumentary cylinder of the root

occupies about three-fourths of its diameter. Besides the epi-

derm, exoderm and endoderm, it consists of a one-rowed corti-

cal parenchyma, a condition which persists even to the cotyle-

dons. The exoderm is uniformly composed of larger cells,

and transition in size is, in consequence, regularly unilateral,

i. e., towards the endoderm. The tissue of the cylinder is very

compact, the cells are for the most part polygonal, and the

intercellular spaces none. The cells of the endoderm differ

considerably from those of the other layers in their elongated,

prismatic form, as seen in transection.

The pericycle is one-layered, and contains usually about 25

cells. The cells in face of the phloem strands decrease greatly

in size, especially upwards in the stem, and, before the cotyle-

dons are reached, they disappear entirely. The stele is diarch,

each xylem ray consisting usually of three elements, united in

the centre by means of one large vessel. The prototracheids

HISTOGENESIS OF THE CARYOPHYLLALES a iB

lie directly against the pericycle. The phloem strands are

more or less convex; and consist, in the lower portion of the

root, of but six or eight elements, slightly differentiated from

the mesenchym. The latter is composed regularly of two rows

of cells.

The modification of epiderm and exoderm occurs at the very

base of the ‘‘tigelle,” while the structure of the stele is yet typ-

ical. It is rapid and is completed in a rather short distance.

As usual, the first indications of the transition are to be fonnd

in the conversion of adjacent cells of the mesenchym into xylem

elements (V:1). The duplication of the xylem is never car-

ried far, resulting almost always merely in the formation of a

double-rowed xylem strand. At the same time equalization of

the size of the elements occurs, and concomitant with this,

the division of each phloem strand into two, resulting in the

formation of four secondary strands, which assume a quadrate

position (V:2). The cells of the mesenchym now penetrate

the xylem strand, separating the metatracheids from the pro-

totracheids, but leaving the xylem grouped generally into two

plates (V:3). Simultaneously, the interposition of mesenchym

between pericycle, and prototracheids takes place. The pith

grows rapidly in the centre of the cylinder, and either xylem

plate is forced back upon the two secondary phloem strands,

which have grown toward each other, and have united (V:4).

The interposed mesenchym is meanwhile converted into pro-

cambium. Alternating with the two bundles thus formed, are

two large strands of procambium, arising from the modification

of the mesenchym. Thus, the whole of the xylem and phloem

elements of the hypocotyl is concerned in the fibrovascular

strand of the cotyledons (V:5). Just below the cotyledons,

each of the procambial strands divides into three parts, each

of which is differentiated into a fibrovascular bundle, and as

such enters the first internode. The orientation of vascular

strands is, thus, typically collateral just below the insertion of

the cotyledons, and the transition-region is bounded above by

the latter.

Portulaca oleracea differs from all Caryophyllacee (except

112 FREDERIC E. CLEMENTS.

sometimes Dianthus sinensis) investigated, in the constitution

of the fibrovascular bundles of the cotyledons by the entire

vascular portion of the stele; from all but Szlene inflata (rarely

Dianthus sinensis), in the division of the phloem strands.

NYcTAGINACEA.

Allionia hirsuta. The tegumentary cylinder is especially

broad, the number of layers in the cortical parenchyma is or-

dinarily five or six. The cells of the layer next within the

exoderm are the larger; from these inward, the decrease in size

toward the small endodermal cells is very gradual, toward the

epiderm, it is abrupt. The cells of the tissue are globose, and

the tissue itself is characterized by numerous, small intercellu-

lar spaces. The cells of the endoderm are almost. perfectly

globose in shape, and early undergo cuticularisation.

The pericycle is simple and consists of about 40 cells. These

persist without noticeable modification throughout the root.

The stele is diarch, rarely pseudo-tetrarch. In its simplest

expression, it is but a single row of vessels, of which there are

five in each arch, a large central one serving to unite the two

archs. This condition is found for the most part only near

the tips of roots. In most cases the xylem strand is two-rowed

(VI:1). The centre of the cylinder is occupied by a very large

tracheid, about which is grouped a circle of similar, smaller

elements, which are continued bilaterally into an arch consist-

ing of six or seven tracheids. Such a strand is, of course,

nothing but an anticipation of duplication: its constancy

lends especial significance to it, however. The prototracheids

do not touch the pericycle, but lie against certain cells, which

seem to indicate a double-layered pericycle at these two points.

The mesenchymatous rays are very broad; they consist of seven

or eight rows of regular, polygonal cells. The phloem strands

comprise three rows of cells; the inner cells are small and

scarcely distinct from the mesenchym, the outer are large and

globose. They lie, for the most part, directly against the

pericycle and constitute the primary sieve-tubes.

Contrary to what has been noted heretofore, the mutation of

HISTOGENESIS OF THE CARYOPHYLLALES 113

the epiderm does not precede the disturbance of the elements

in the stele, but is subsequent to it. In fact, the peculiar,

non-cuticularized epiderm has undergone little modification by

the time the transition from root to stem is really completed.

From what has been said above, it follows that duplication

and subsequent equalization of the xylem elements is not the

first indication, nor necessarily an indication at all, of the be-

ginning of transition. The thickening of the walls of the cen-

tral xylem elements disappears, ‘‘runs out’’, and simultan-

eously appears the intrusion of the mesenchym. The central

elements are burst apart, and the xylem separates into two

plates, for the most part transversely, but also somewhat

obliquely (V1I:2). By the further growth of the mesenchym,

these plates are separated into four xylem strands (VI:3), of

which the prototracheidal ones, though destined to disappear,

serve to mark the trace of the primary bundles descending

from the first internode. The other two strands, forced further

and further back by the growing medulla, come to lie near the

phloem plates, each of which has begun to divide (VI:3).

Each of these two xylem plates now divides to form three, the

middle one of which is like the prototracheids, marked for dis-

appearance, while each outer one assumes a position near its

corresponding, secondary phloem strand (V1I:4). At the same

time, the mesenchym in front of the phloem is transformed

into cambium, the tracheids pass from the secantial disposi-

tion to a point directly in face of the cambium, and the bundles

become collateral (V 1:5).

The entire transition has taken place in that region of the

hypocotyl, the collet, where occurs the abrupt change in the

diameter of the seedling. The whole of the ‘‘tigelle,’’ then, pos-

sesses the structure of the stem proper. It is characterized by

four collateral bundles, which a short distance below the coty-

ledons are increased to six, by the appearance of the two

primary bundles of the first internode, which arise directly

above the disappearing prototracheids (VI:6). Imbedded in

the pith at either end, still persist some of the tracheids of the

vanishing middle strand of the xylem mentioned above.

114 FREDERIC E. CLEMENTS:

Allionia nyctaginea. The structure of the root, and the

structure, location and extent of the transition-region present

no appreciable difference from the structure of the same organs

in Allionia hirsuta. The points of correspondence are prac-

tically perfect for every stage.

According to Gerard, the transition-region of M/rabilis jal-

apa corresponds in every detail with the statements made above

for Allionia hirsuta, and nyctaginea. Ue considers, however,

that the total disappearance of the residual tracheids marks

the termination of the transition-region. This conclusion

seems to be entirely unwarranted; the persistence of the unused

tracheids is more or less accidental, and has no particular sig-

nificance. If Gerard’s view were to be regarded as cor-

rect, the term transition-region, would be applied to a por-

tion of the hypocotyl, the upper three-fourths of which is

characterized by perfectly collateral bundles; manifestly a mis-

application.

The transition-region of the Nyctaginaceze, compared with

that of the Caryophyllacez, occupies but a small extent of the

hypocotyl. It is located uniformly in or near the collet, and

often is almost entirely confined to it. The transition may be

regarded as beionging to another type, characterized by the

fact that the prototracheids, or their trace, enter the first in-

ternode, and not the cotyledons, as is the case in Caryophyl-

laceze and in Portulacacee.

AMARANTACES.

Amarantus retroflecus. The cortical parenchyma of the

root comprises two or three rows of which the outer, as usual,

is the larger. The exoderm differs but slightly from the outer

layer, and, in fact, the two are often confluent. The tissue of

the tegumentary cylinder is composed of globose cells, between

which there are numerous, irregular intercellular spaces. The

cells of the endoderm are very similar.

The pericycle is simple and contains usually about 20 poly-

gonal cells. Those in face of the phloem undergo a very con-

siderable diminution in size, while, in the upper part of the

HISTOGENESIS OF THE CARYOPHYLLALES Li 9

hypocotyl, they disappear entirely. The xylem strand is

diarch; each arch is composed of three or four elements, the

outermost of which lies against the pericycle. The mesenchym

is three-rowed and passes insensibly into the phloem strands.

The latter are more or less cuneiform, and are composed of

about twelve elements.

The transformation of the epiderm takes place, as is usual

for slender hypocotyls, before the beginning of the transition.

In the present case, the complete modification of the epiderm

results long before the first change occurs in the central

cylinder.

The transition is inaugurated by the duplication of the

xylem elements and their subsequent equalization (VIII:2).

The thickening of the walls of the mesenchymatous cells is

only partial, however, and the next stage follows so quickly.

that, when the mesenchym appears in the centre of the cylinder,

it ordinarily divides a single-rowed xylem transversely into two

plates (VIII:3). Simultaneously, the prototracheids leave the

pericycle, and each phloem strand undergoes division (VIII:3).

Following this, a strand of procambium is developed from the

mesenchym on either side in the space left by the separation

of the secondary phloem strands. Each xylem arch is now

further split up by the mesenchym, several elements assume a

position in front of either phloem strand, the cambium appears,

and the vascular strands take up the secantial orientation

(VIII:4). During this process, the pith has made its appear-

ance in the centre of the cylinder. Meanwhile, also, the pro-

cambial strands have developed into perfectly collateral strands

destined for the first internode. Just below the cotyledons,

the xylem of the strands in secantial orientation turns upon

the phloem, and seeks to take up a centrifugal position (VIII:5).

This step, however, is rarely accomplished before the strands

enter the cotyledons, where they assume the typical collateral

disposition.

In some hypocotyls, the strands reach the cotyledons even

before they have taken up the secantial disposition. In such

instances, the phloem and xylem, both still centripetal, enter the

116 FREDERIC E. CLEMENTS:

cotyledons, and are there properly oriented. The mesenchym,

then, early develops the lateral, procambial strands, and these

enter undifferentiated, the first internode, where they are quickly

converted into primary vascular bundles. In such individuals,

there is always an abrupt transition from ‘‘tigelle” to stem at

the insertion of the cotyledons.

Whether the transition be gradual, as is normally the case,

or abrupt, as just described, the whole of the xylem, and gen-

erally the entire phloem, passes into the cotyledons. The trace

of the first internode is formed, then, by the conversion of the

interfascicular mesenchym into procambial strands. More in-

frequently, each phloem strand, instead of dividing into two

secondary strands, splits into three, and the middle one of

these is differentiated into a vascular strand of the first inter-

node. The six vascular strands of the second internode are

formed by the splitting of each of the primary strands of the

first internode into four, three of which enter each cotyledon,

while the fourth passes into the third internode.

As has been found elsewhere to be the case in species of the

same genus, Amarantus albus presents no material points of

difference in the details of the structure of the seedling.

The manner of transition in Amarantus paniculatus, accord-

ing to Gerard, is in perfect accord with the second method

described for Amarantus retroflexus. In consequence, Amar-

antus retroflecus, albus, and paniculatus are characterized by

exactly the same type of transition-region, notwithstanding the

fact that this type shows slight modifications in different in-

dividuals.

The transition-region in Amarantacez begins, then, in the

upper portion of the ‘‘tigelle”, a considerable distance above

the transformation of the epiderm, and is terminated by the

cotyledons.

CHENOPODIACE.

Beta alba. The tegumentary cylinder occupies four-fifths

of the diameter of the root. Besides the epiderm, exoderm,

and endoderm, it possesses a cortical parenchyma, composed

HISTOGENESIS OF THE CARYOPHYLLALES a Gye

of five or six rows of cells. The middle row is the largest,

and the diminution of successive layers toward both epiderm

and endoderm is gradual. The cells are irregularly polygonal,

and the tissue abounds in regularly rounded intercellular

spaces. The endoderm is composed of compact, cuboidal

cells.

The pericycle is simple and comprises usually about 40 cells.

The pericyclar cells, though diminishing in size above in face

of the phloem strands, persist until they reach the cotyledons,

which they enter along with the cortical cylinder. The xylem

is diarch, each arch consisting of four or five elements, of

which the prototracheids, indifferently, lie against the pericycle

or remote from it. The mesenchym is broad and contains four

or five rows of regularly polygonal cells. The phloem strands

are large pilates, extending for a considerable distance along

the pericycle. They are four- or five-rrowed, and comprise two

sorts of elements. The inner rows consist of small cells

scarcely separable from the mesenchym, the outer row is

composed of large, primary sieve-tubes, which lie against the

pericycle.

The transformation of the epiderm occurs in the upper part

of the root, only a short distance below the duplication of

the xylem elements.

The increase in number of elements in the xylem, and the

equalization of their diameter takes place in the middle of the

collet ([X:2). Concomitant with this, the layers of mesenchym

adjacent to the pholem pass over into procambium. The

mesenchym then forces itself in between the xylem elements,

and the metatracheids are separated from the original strand

(1X:3). By the further intrusion of mesenchym, the xylem is

split into two secondary strands, which are pushed back toward

the periphery. At the same time, each phloem strand divides,

and the two resulting parts become somewhat widely separated

([X:4). The stele reaches the cotyledons in this condition,

and the xylem and phloem strands pass directly into the seed-

leaves, where they assume their proper disposition. More

rarely, the phloem strands on either side the xylem become con-

118 FREDERIC E. CLEMENTS:

fluent along the pericycle, and the xylem and phloem then enter

the cotyledons in secantial orientation. The mesenchym,

which grows in between the secondary strands of the phloem,

is transformed into procambial strands, which, above the

cotyledons, are differentiated into the primary bundles of the

first internode. Thus, the whole of the vascular elements of

the stele passes into the cotyledons.

Chenopodium album. The cortical parenchyma is ordinarily

three-rowed, the outer row is the largest, and the others de-

crease gradually toward the endoderm. The latter is composed

of rounded, close-fitting cells, very much smaller than those of

the inner layer of the parenchyma. The pericyle is simple,

and is composed of about 20 cells. It persists with but little

change, apparently, throughout the hypocotyl. The xylem is

diarch, each arch containing three or four elements. The pro-

totracheids lie directly against the pericycle. The mesenchym

is two-rowed; it passes gradually into the inner row of the

phloem strand. The latter possesses two or three primary

sieve-tubes, lying against the pericycle (X:1).

The transformation of the epiderm takes place in the upper

part of the root, some distance below the collet, and several

millimetres below the beginning of the transition.

The duplication of the xylem begins three or four milli-

metres, or more, below the cotyledons. At the same time, the

separation of the prototracheids from the pericycle takes place

(X:2). Some distance above, the mesenchym grows in between

the xylem, dividing it into two strands. Concomitantly, the di-

vision of the phloem strands, and the subsequent separation of

the secondary strands occurs. The ends of the secondary

xylem strands approach the secondary phloem strands, and the

transition from the secantial to the collateral orientation begins

(X:3). In the early steps of this process, the fibrovascular

strands for the first internode are cut off and quickly assume

the collateral disposition. The passage of the bundles destined

for the cotyledons from centripetal to centrifugal is laborious,

and requires considerable time. It is accomplished by the

gradual approach of the secondary phloem strands, and by

HISTOGENESIS OF THE CARYOPHYLLALES nS

the swinging toward each other of the xylem plates upon

the prototracheids as a pivot. Just before entering the coty-

ledons, the two adjacent bundies become confluent, and enter

the cotyledons as a simple vascular strand. Simultaneously,

the strands passing upward into the internode undergo division

in rapid succession, so that the first internode possesses twelve

vascular strands, three toward either face. Six of these, the

three on either side, which alternate with the cotyledons below,

pass into the leaves of the first internode; the remaining six

enter the second internode, where they again undergo division.

Contrary to Gerard’s conclusions upon the effect of the di-

ameter and length of the hypocotyl upon the rapidity of trans-

ition, Beta alba, with a short, thick hypocotyl, possesses a

truncated transition-region, and the vascular elements of the

stele are forced into the cotyledons long before they have

assumed the customary arrangement. In Chenopodium album,

on the contrary, where the hypocotyl is exceedingly slender

and elongate, the transition is perfected, and the ‘‘tigelle ”’ has

the structure of the stem before the insertion of the cotyledons

is reached.

Atriplex hastata, investigated by Gerard, is intermediate

between the two plants studied above: the vascular elements of

the stele pass into the cotyledons while in secantial orientation.

PHYTOLACCACES.

Phytolacca decandra. The tegumentary cylinder occupies

nearly two-thirds of the diameter of the root. The cortical

parenchyma consists of three or four layers of almost uniform

size; toward the endoderm, the cells become slightly smaller.

The latter are polygonal, and the tissue is compact, and almost

without intercellular spaces. The endoderm is not at all dis-

tinctive; it is simply the inner layer of the cortical parenchyma.

The pericycle is simple at first, comprising about 40 cells.

In the upper part of the root, however, it undergoes division

to form a sort of procambial tissue, and it maintains this con-

dition until it enters the cotyledons. The xylem is diarch:

each arch consists of five to eight elements. The prototrach-

120 FREDERIC E. CLEMENTS:

eids usually lie against the pericyle, but this is not necessarily

true. The mesenchymatous rays are broad, and contain five

or six rows of cells. The phloem strands are characteristic;

they are composed almost wholly of eight to twelve large pri-

mary sieve-tubes.

As has already been demonstrated for those plants which

experience an abrupt change of diameter in the colletal region,

the transformation of the epiderm occurs comparatively late.

In Phytolacca decandra, the epidermal cells finally acquire the

characteristics of the epiderm of the stem a short distance

above the collet. This external change corresponds internally

with the appearance of the medulla in the central cylinder.

The duplication of the xylem strand occurs in the upper

portion of the root, not far below the collet (XI:1). About

one millimetre above this point, the mesenchym intrudes itself

between the xylem, and the latter is divided transversely into

two equal, secondary strands (XI:2). Shortly after, each

secondary strand is again split into three, of which the middle

one contains the prototracheids (XI:3). Concomitantly, the

outer strands approach the phloem, the adjacent mesenchym is

modified to form cambium, and the vascular elements of the

stele assume the secantial orientation. The strands do not

divide, but extend themselves along the pericycle and, together

with the procambial strands developed from the mesenchym,

form a circle of phloem elements, interrupted only in face of

the prototracheids. The secondary xylem strands swing

slightly away from each other, and tend to assume a more

nearly collateral disposition. They enter the cotyledons, how-

ever, before this is accomplished, and the perfectly collateral

arrangement is only realized there. The _ prototracheidal

strands furnish the middle bundle of the cotyledons, and the

outermost secondary strands, the lateral.

In some individuals, a peculiar modification of this method

of transition is presented, which, in many respects, is identical

with that demonstrated for Allionia hirsuta and nyctaginea.

The xylem is first split into four alternating strands, two pro-

totracheidal, and two purely secondary. The latter again

HISTOGENESIS OF THE CARYOPHYLLALES 121

divide into three, the outermost of which assume a position

near the phloem strands, which have already divided. The

passage from the secantial to the collateral disposition takes

place almost instantaneously. The stele now contains four

collateral bundles, and alternating with these, four secondary,

reduced xylem strands, and presents exactly the arrangement

characteristic of Allionia hirsuta (V1:5) and of Allionia nycta-

gmea (VII:5). This disposition is maintained for nearly a

millimetre: the two xylem strands, which were the middle ones

formed by the splitting of the secondary xylem plates after the

separation of the prototracheids, are, however, transformed into

collateral bundles before the cotyledons are reached. Before

entering the cotyledons they divide and one-half of each goes

to either cotyledon, forming the outermost strand. Of the

four original collateral bundles of the upper portion of the

hypocotyl, two enter either cotyledon and form the principal

strands. Central, between these two, still persists the pro-

totracheidal strand, represented only by two or three spiral

vessels.

Phytolacca decandra thus presents two widely different mod-

ifications of the one type of transition. The one first described

appears to be the more frequent, the second, rather exceptional.

That they are modifications of one type, and not two distinct

types, is shown by the fact that, in both cases, the vascular ele-

ments of the central cylinder of the hypocotyl pass, in their

entirety, into the cotyledons, while the fibrovascular system

of the first internode is derived from the procambial stele,

which enters it from below. More commonly, the elements of

the hypocotyledonary stele reach the cotyledons before they

attain their ultimate expression, and the transition-region is

truncated. In rarer instances, and for reasons which are cor-

relates of the individual development of each plant, the transi-

tion occurs in the lower portion of the hypocotyl, and, in con-

sequence, the collateral structure of the stem characterizes the

greater part of the ‘‘tigelle”’.

122 FREDERIC E. CLEMENTS:

Gerard’s investigations of Phytolacca decandra have led him

to assign to it a method of transition for the most part in accord

with what has been presented above as normal.

PoLyYGONACES.

Polygonum lapathifolium. The tegumentary cylinder, in ad-

dition to epiderm, exoderm and endoderm, possesses a cortical

parenchyma comprising five or six layers. The middle layer,

or layers, is uniformly the largest, and the decrease in size of

the other layers is very gradual toward both endoderm and

epiderm. The cells are typically Maltese-cross-shaped, and

the tissue is characterized by the large and regular intercellular

spaces. The endoderm, on the contrary, is very compact, and

its cells are cuboidal.

The pericycle is simple, and persists with slight modifica-

tions until the cotyledons are reached. The xylem is tetrarch.

The archs are placed at right angles to each other, and consist

usually of four elements, united in the centre by a larger one.

The prototracheids lie directly against the pericyclar cells.

The phloem strands are likewise four: they are more or less

cuneiform, and are separated from the xylem rays by two or

three rows of mesenchymatous cells (XII:1).

The transformation of the epiderm occurs in the upper por-

tion of the root, while the typical disposition of the stelar ele-

ments is yet undisturbed.

Duplication of the xylem elements, and their subsequent

equalization never occurs. The beginning of the transition is

indicated by the disintegration of the central xylem element,

and the appearance of the mesenchym in the centre of the cyl-

inder. The rays of the xylem strand are separated from each

other, and are pushed back toward the pericycle (XII:2).

Shortly after, the phloem strands grow rapidly and extend

along the pericycie until they reach the xylem. The phloem

elements then group themselves about the xylem strands, and

are, at the same time, crowded out midway between the xylem

bundles by the mesenchym (XII:3). The bundles, or, rather,

the masses of phloem and xylem, are still centripetal, and they

HISTOGENESIS OF THE CARYOPHYLLALES 123

enter the base of the cotyledons with this disposition. The

whole number of xylem and phloem elements pass into the

cotyledons. In consequence, the stele of the first internode is

formed by the modification of the internal mesenchym of the

hypocotyl into procambium.

The transition-region of Polygonum lapathifolium commences

in the collet, and terminates only in the base of the first inter-

node.

Rumex altissimus. The features of the tegumentary cylinder

are essentially similar to those already noted for Polygonum

lapathifolium: the same is true of the pericycle.

The xylem is tetrarch, but the rays are of different value.

Two, the primary, usually contain four elements and the pro-

totracheids lie against the pericycle, while the alternate two,

the secondary, comprise but two or three elements, which

rarely attain the pericycle. The phloem is tetramerous, and,

with the mesenchym, presents no points of contrast with the

same structures in Polygonum lapathifolium (XI1I1:1).

The first stages of the transition concern the xylem alone.

Duplication of the elements takes place in the upper part of

the root, and the secondary rays of the xylem begin to disap-

pear at the same time (XIII:2). This condition persists for a

short time and is then followed by the equalization of the size

of the elements, the disappearance of all but the primary ones

and the prototracheids, and the ultimate arrangement of these

in a single, radial series (XIII:3). During this time, the

phloem and the mesenchym have remained passive. The

mesenchym now intrudes itself between the central elements of

the xylem, and, simultaneously, between the pericycle and the

prototracheids. The xylem plates are then forced toward the

centre of the cylinder, and the elements arrange themselves

about the medulla more or less in the form of a V. Concom-

itantly, the opposite phloem strands, i. e., those separated by

the uniseriate xylem plate (XIII:3), coalesce and the stele pos-

sesses now but two phloem masses, still separated by the mes-

enchym (XIII:4). This disposition is maintained without

alteration until the cotyledons are reached, with the sole excep-

194 » FREDERIC E. CLEMENTS:

tion that the entire mesenchym of the stele is transformed into

procambium, part of which becomes interfascicular cambium,

and part, the originative tissue of the vascular system of the

first internode.

The xylem and phloem masses reach the cotyledons without

attaining the secantial disposition. At the moment of entrance,

however, the phloem strands divide again into four, separated

by the procambium. The two resulting vascular strands then

assume the secantial disposition, and, one passing to either

cotyledon, they are therein arranged according to the collateral

type.

The final disposition of the vascular elements of the hypo-

cotyledonary stele is the same in Rumex as in Polygonum.

The method of attaining this, however, is very different. In-

stead of following the tetrarch type, the central cylinder assumes

the diarch character, and the transition then occurs after the

manner common to hypocotyls of this structure.

According to Gerard, the transition in Rhewm compactum

is different from that of Rwmex or Polygonum. Not only do

the four phloem strands divide to form eight, but each ray of

the tetrarch xylem is split into two, resulting also in the form-

ation of eight xylem strands. The secantial disposition is

quickly passed through, each two adjacent vascular strands

coalesce, and the ‘‘tigelle’’ attains the cotyledons characterized

by four perfectly collateral bundles.

SUMMARY

Of all the various phases of the transition-region, there are

four, which, by reason of their constancy within the species,

and their great variation in higher groups, seem to be of

essential significance. These are: (1) duplication of the xylem

elements; (2) division, or non-division of the phloem; (3) the

disposition of vascular elements upon entering the cotyledons;

(4) the origin, or constitution of the cotyledonary trace. Of

these, only the last, on account of its profounder significance,

and greater constancy, is able to afford a satisfactory basis for

the elaboration of certain types of transition. The other three,

HISTOGENESIS OF THE CARYOPHYLLALES 125

by their not infrequent disappearance, or extensive modifica-

tion, are unsatisfactory as fundamental characters for the

analytical disposition of the manifold forms of transition.

They are, however, of no inconsiderable service as cumulative

characters, and may, moreover, be used as marks of subtypes.

The bundle-trace of the cotyledons may be constituted in

three fundamentally different ways. It may be composed of

the entire vascular system of the hypocotyledonary stele,

holostelar; it may be constituted by those vascular strands, in

which the prototracheids are the xylem elements, proto-

tracheidal, or it may be formed from those bundles into which

the metatracheids have passed, metatracheidal. The holostelar

type is the most widely distributed. It is found in Portulaca

oleracea, Amarantus retroflecus, Amarantus albus, Beta alba,

Phytolacca decandra, Polygonum lapathifolium and Rumea

altissimus. The prototracheidal trace is nearly as common as

the holostelar: it occurs in Dianthus sinensis, Silene armeria

S. conoidea, S. otites, and Chenopodium album. The meta-

tracheidal type is rare. Of the plants investigated, it exists in

but two, Allionia hirsuta and Allionia nyctaginea.

Duplication is a very constant feature of transition. It

occurs throughout the Caryophyllales, except in those possessing

a tetrarch xylem strand, i. e., in Polygonum and Rumex. Tt

is never found in Polygonum: in fact, the method of vascular

formation renders it unnecessary, if not impossible. It takes

place to a slight extent in the three individuals of Rumex altis-

simus investigated. The peculiarly anomalous transition of

this species presents many puzzling features, however, and,

until further research has determined these, the actual existence

of duplication is more or less doubtful.

The division of the phloem, which is essentially, at least, a

correlate of xylem division, is found in about half the species —

studied. It occurs in Dianthus sinensis, Silene inflata (accord-

ing to Gerard), Portulaca oleracea, Allionia hirsuta, A. nycta-

ginea, Amarantus albus, A. retroflerus, Beta alba, and

Chenopodium album. In Silene armeria, 8. conoidea, S. otites,

and Phytolacca decandra, the phloem strands, instead of under-

126 FREDERIC E. CLEMENTS.

going division, increase greatly in extent, and finally occupy

the greater part of the periphery. Naturally, this circle of

phloem is broken up at the passage of the bundle-trace into

the cotyledons; by this time, however, the process has lost

whatever of significance it may have once possessed. In

Polygonum and FRumex, there is no necessity for a division of

the phloem, since the number of secondary xylem plates corre-

sponds to the number of phloem strands. This is not strictly

true of Rumex, since the secondary xylem rays disappear,

leaving but two secondary xylem plates. In correspondence

with this, however, the four phloem strands coalesce into two.

The vascular elements of the hypocotyl reach the cotyledons

in one of three conditions, centripetal, secantial, or collateral.

The first two are but varying degrees of expression of incom-

pleteness, and may be classed together as truncated transition;

the latter may, in contradistinction, be called complete trans-

ition. The three are, of course, nothing but various expressions

of the same structure and are not essentially distinct. They

vary not only from species to species, but, sometimes, from

individual to individual. Truncated transition is found in

Dianthus sinensis, Beta alba, Polygonum lapathifolium, and

Rumex altissimus. Complete transition occurs in Szlene

armeria, S. conoidea, S. otites, Portulaca oleracea, Allionia

hirsuta, A. nyctaginea, Amarantus albus, A. retroflecus, and

Chenopodium album. Phytolacca decandra presents both

truncated and complete transition.

The extent of the transition-region is quite constant for the

Caryophyllales. It commences usually in or near the colletal

region, and terminates, almost without exception, at the in-

sertion of the cotyledons. In consequence, the transition-

region and the ‘‘tigelle’’ are almost invariably coincident, and

the latter possesses, then, a peculiarly distinctive structure.

In Allionia hirsuta, A. nyctaginea, and in some individuals of

Phytolacca decandra, the transition operates almost entirely

within the collet, and the anatomical features of the ‘‘tigelle’’

are in no wise characteristic, but correspond to those of the

stem proper.

HISTOGENESIS OF THE CARYOPHYLLALES 127

To summarise:

The transition-region of each species is reducible to a con-

stant type, which is, however subject to certain, non-essential

modifications. The number of types of transition in the Cary-

ophyllales is three: holostelar, prototracheidal, and metatra-

cheidal. The correspondence of histogenetic, and taxonomic

characters is insignificant and valueless, except in the species.

Even here, it is general.

Il. THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF RADICELS.

HISTORICAL.

Negeli and Leitgeb, in 1868, were the first investigators to

pay especial attention to the details of the development of

radicels. The plants studied were Pontederia crassipes, Oryza

sativa, Veronica beccabunga, Lysimachia thyrsiflora, and

Nasturtium officinale. In these, they considered the plerome,

and periblem to be derived from the pericycle, while the calyp-

tra was regarded as a derivative of the endoderm. They paid

little attention to the dermatogen, looking upon it, perhaps, as

the inner layer of the calyptra. Although they found, in

Limnanthemum vulgare, that the calyptra increased in thickness

by the tangential division of the dermatogen, they interpreted

the process incorrectly.

Reinke, in 1871, stated that the origin of the radicel was

always endogenous, and that it took place in the pericycle. He

followed very exactly the division of the pericycle into three

layers, but he erred in concluding that the dermatogen was

constituted by the upper layer resulting from the division of

the pericycle into two, while the division of the lower layer

gave rise to the periblem and the plerome.

Janczewski, in 1874, denied the correctness of Reinke’s con-

clusions, and laid down the principle that the plerome alone

was constantly derived from the pericycle. As a result of his

investigations, he described five types of radicellar origin.

In the first type, Péstia stratiotes, the pericycle gives rise to

the plerome and periblem, while the dermatogen and the calyp-

128 FREDERIC E. CLEMENTS:

trogen arise from the division of the endoderm into two layers;

in the second, Alisma, Sagittaria, and Zea, the plerome and

periblem are derivatives of the pericycle, while the calyptrogen

is formed by tangential division of the outer layer of the peri-

blem; in the third, Raphanus, Kagopyrum, and Helianthus,

plerome, periblem, and calyptrogen arise from the successive

division of the pericycle; in the fourth, Papilionaceze and

Cucurbitaceze, the plerome alone originates from the pericam-

bium, the periblem is formed from the successive division of

the endoderm, and the calyptrogen is produced from the term-

inal cells of the periblem; in the fifth, both periblem and

plerome arise from the pericycle. In the case of Hagopyrum,

Janczewski speaks of the endoderm as forming a continuous

layer about the radicel, the epigen, but he lays no emphasis

upon the fact, and regards it apparently as of no importance,

Vonhoehne, in 1880, taking up the suggestion of Reinke

that the exit of the radicel took place by the absorption of the

tissue of the cortical cylinder, found that, as a result of chem-

ical action, the cortical cylinder was digested and absorbed by

the growing radicel.

Van Tieghem and Douliot, in 1889, in a memoir become

classic, laid down the two fundamental principles, that the

Dicotyledones present but a single type of radicellar formation,

albeit this may show secondary variations, and that the radicel

always proceeds, in its entirety, and in a manner essentially

the same, from the pericycle of the mother root. Van Tieg-

hem, moreover, was the first to follow the absorption of the

cortical cylinder to its logical conclusion, and to distinguish

between radicels with ‘‘ poche digestive ’’ (epigen), and radicels

without ‘‘poche digestive”. He also investigated the position

of the rhizogenic arcs and their relation to the elements of the

central cylinder, and traced the detailed development of rad-

icels from simple and compound pericycles.

THE ORIGIN AND STRUCTURE OF RADICELS IN GENERAL.

The point of origin of the radicel is determined by the dis-

position of the xylem strands within the root. In the case of

HISTOGENESIS OF THE CARYOPHYLLALES 129

diarch xylem strands, the disposition of the rhizogenic areas,

and hence of the radicels, is either diplostichous, or mon-

ostichous. Where the xylem strand is tetrarch, or polyarch,

the arrangement of radicels is isostichous. Inthe latter, which

admits of little or no variation, except in those plants possess-

ing pericyclar canals, the middie cell of the rhizogenic arc is

exactly opposed to the prototracheid, and the radicels stand at

equal distances from each other. Of the polyarch types, the

tetrarch is the most common, and isostichy comes to mean

quadriseriation in nearly all cases.

In the case of a root possessing a diarch xylem strand, the

radicels may be either quadriseriate, diplostichous, or biseriate,

monostichous: between the two are numerous transitional mod-

ifications. In typical diplostichy, the radicel lies directly in

face of the mesenchymatous ray, and its basal cells rest on the

one hand upon the prototracheids, on the other, upon the

primary sieve-tubes. From this, it results that one-fourth of

the pericycle is concerned in radicellar formation. When the

quadrant contains an uneven number of cells, as is generally

the case, the central one determines the axis of the radicel,

and is the originative of the histogenic row: if the quadrant is

composed of an even number of cells, the central two serve to

determine the axis of the radicel.

In the majority of roots, however, the axis of the radicel is

not in direct continuation of the mesenchymatous ray, but

deviates from such a line, toward the xylem more frequently,

but sometimes also toward the phloem. The angle of this

deviation may be slight, in which case the quadriseriation of

the radicels is not destroyed, or, on the contrary, it may be

great, in which case the radicels tend to become more and

more biseriate. In some instances, the angle of deviation

reaches 45 degrees, and the radicel comes to be inserted upon

the prototracheid, just: as is the case in quaternary roots,

though the radicels are now biseriate, or monostichous, instead

of quadriseriate, isostichous.

The rhizogenic arc, then, is determined with reference to

the above principles. It is constituted directly by the cells of

130 FREDERIC E. CLEMENTS:

the pericycle when these are polyedric; if they are prismatic,

each first undergoes division. In transection of the root, the

rhizogenic area always appears as the rhizogenic arc, consisting

of the cells of the pericycle concerned in the process.

The cells of the rhizogenic arc first elongate radially, and

the central one or two divides transversely. Division follows

quickly in the other cells of the arc, and the pericycle is then

composed of two layers. The upper of these divides as did

the pericycle, central cell first, lateral ones in quick succession.

As a consequence, the young radicel consists of three layers,

the lower, plerome, the middle, periblem, and the upper,

dermatogen. The further development of each of these layers

now devolves upon its initial cell, or histogen.

Asarule, the histogen of the plerome divides only trans-

versely, and always in a basifugal direction. The segments

also undergo transverse division for a short time, especially

while the plerome is elongating rapidly, after which division is

chiefly longitudinal. The formation of the pericycle of the

plerome takes place usually by the longitudinal division of an

apical segment of the histogen of the plerome. More rarely,

the pericycle is developed from the ordinary segments of the

histogen. The behavior of the dermatogenic histogen is essen-

tially similar to that of the plerome. Its divisions are, how-

ever, always basipetal in direction. The first layer of the

calyptra arises from the transverse division of the histogen of

the dermatogen, and from the subsequent transverse division

of the remaining cells of the dermatogen. Successive layers

of the calyptra always arise below the first by the same

process. As a consequence, the outermost layer, in which

exfoliation always originates, is the oldest and the innermost,

the youngest.

The histogen of the periblem divides almost invariably in a

longitudinal direction. Ordinarily, one or two segments on

either side of it share the same peculiarity for a certain length

of time, so that the periblem is found to consist usually of but a

single row of cells at the apex, while further down the sides,

it is two-, or sometimes three-rowed. Both the lateral seg-

HISTOGENESIS OF THE CARYOPHYLLALES 131

ments, and the histogen, however, divide ultimately to form

either the endoderm and the exoderm of the cortical cylinder of

the mature radicel, or their originative layers.

The exit of the radicel from the root was formerly supposed

to result by the rupture of the cortical cylinder, caused by the

rapidly growing tissue of the radicel. Van Tieghem was the

first to deny this, and to point out the true method. He

demonstrated that the process was a chemical one, in which

diastasic solution and absorption of the adjacent cells oc-

curred. He, moreover, divided radicels into two groups,

according to the method by which this absorption took place.

In some instances, the outer layer, or layers, of the radicel

itself performs this function. In this case the calyptrogen is

often more highly developed for this process, though quite as

frequently, solution and absorption of the circumjacent layers

are carried on by the dermatogen alone. In other instances,

the endoderm undergoes special modification to become a par-

ticular digestive organ. At the same time that the primary

layers of the radicel are being formed, the cells of the endoderm

undergo repeated radial division. In addition to this, the cells

increase considerably in size, and are distinguished by the

dense protoplasm and large nucleus. As the radicel grows,

the accommodation of the transformed endoderm, or epigen, to

it results by the appearance of new transverse divisions, and

this peculiar digestive layer accompanies the radicel until the

latter has penetrated the cortical cylinder, when it in its turn is

digested and absorbed. In some plants, division of the endo-

derm takes place tangentially as well, and the result is a

several-layered, or compound epigen, similar in behavior and

function to the simple one.

As has been stated before, Van Tieghem is inclined to group

radicels into two classes, based upon the presence or absence

of the epigen. That this organ is purely local, if not some-

times, even, entirely accidental, is shown by the fact that it may

exist in one of two nearly related genera, and be entirely lack-

ing in the other. Even more; Chenopodium album sometimes

possesses an epigen, and is at other times deprived of one.

132 FREDERIC E. CLEMENTS:

Moreover, in the Chenopodiacee, especially, the epigen is a

particularly variable, and inconstant structure. According to

Van Tieghem, it is lacking in Chenopodium album, quinoa and

nitrariaceum; in Chenopodium, when present, it consists of

but four cells; in Salsola tragus, and Acnida cannabina, of but

three; in Beta maritima, and Kochia eriophora, the epigen

persists only until the middle of the cortical cylinder; in Beta

alba, it is not absorbed until the radicel has made its exit,

while in Atriplex tartarica, Axyris amarantoides, and others,

it remains as a covering to the radicel for some time after its

exit. It is, hence, easily seen that the possession, or depriv-

ation of an epigen is of no particular significance. The two

conditions in no way correspond to two distinct and different

structures, but merely to very various degrees of expression of

the same structure.

The correlation of the peculiarly serial zones of the radicel,

dermatogen and periblem, with the more or less irregularly

disposed mesenchymatous tissue of the root is effected by means

of an especial cell (really, of course, a circle of cells), called

by Van Tieghem, the epistele. It is the basal cell of the upper

layer formed by the bipartition of the pericycle, and may be

distinguished as soon as the upper layer is divided into peri-

blem and dermatogen, a process which takes place in every

cell except the basal one. Van Tieghem defines the epistele

as the place where the periblem and dermatogen ‘‘se confond-

ent.” In the mature radicel, the epistele is to be distinguished

from the basal cells of the plerome only by its position, and

subsequent behavior. After a certain time, it undergoes trans-

verse division, and of its two segments, the inner becomes a

component of the periblem, the outer, a constituent of the

dermatogen. In some cases, these two segments undergo

further radial division, and the transition from dermatogen and

periblem to the tissue of the root is more gradual still. In one

or two rare instances, the epistele appears to consist of two or

more cells, which function practically as does the simple

epistele.

HISTOGENESIS OF THE CARYOPHYLLALES oo

DETAILS OF ORIGIN AND STRUCTURE.

CARYOPHYLLACE.

Dianthus sinensis. The cortical cylinder of the root pos-

sesses a diarch xylem strand separated from the two plate-like

phloem strands by means of two or three layers of mesenchym.

In the unmodified central cylinder, the prototracheids usually

lie against the pericycle; at the place of origin of a radicel this

is always the case. The entire cylinder is surrounded by

endoderm, consisting ordinarily of 14-20 polyedric, or slightly

rounded cells, which contain a resting nucleus imbedded in a

small amount of protoplasm.

At the point of radicellar origin, an uneven number of cells

of the pericycle, 7, 9, 11, or even more, elongate radially,

and, beginning with the central one, divide transversely to form

two layers. As is normal for Dicotyledones, the inner layer

gives rise to the plerome, while the outer divides again almost

immediately to form the periblem and the dermatogen. At

the same time, a basal cell is cut off from the histogen of the

plerome, and these four cells, the three histogens and the basal

cell, come to lie in the axis of the radicel (XIV:2). Concom-

itantly, an even number of cells of the endoderm just without

the rhizogenic arc become densely filled with protoplasm, and

they immediately begin to function asthe epigen (‘* poche diges-

tive” of Van Tieghem). Normally for Dianthus sinensis, the

epigen persists as a single layer of cells covering the radicel

until the latter reaches the exterior, when it is at once absorbed.

Rarely, however, it is possible that the cells of the endoderm

may divide transversely as well as radially, thus giving rise to

a compound epigen. Van Tieghem has already pointed out

that in some plants the cortical layers next the endoderm take

part in the formation of a compound epigen. It would not be

surprising, then, to find such a structure arising from the

endoderm alone, as sometimes seems to be the case (XIV :2).

At this period, there is no sharp line to be drawn between

the three zones, and the epistele is not yet to be discerned.

The rapid elongation of the radicel, however, soon tends to

134 FREDERIC E. CLEMENTS:

accentuate the basipetal and the basifugal division of the his-

togen of the dermatogen and plerome respectively, and these

two zones become easily distinguishable from the periblem.

At the same time, the epistele is first to be seen readily, though

its formation is really anterior (XIV:1). At this period, the

calyptrogen, or first layer of the calyptra, is formed. Its origin

is due to a single basipetal division of the dermatogenic his-

togen, followed by a similar division of a certain number of

segments of the latter, in the present instance, four.

The further development of the radicel follows the type. By

the time that the tip of the radicel has reached the exterior,

the calyptra consists of three or four layers, in the outermost

of which exfoliation has all but begun. The pericycle of the

plerome has become set off as a single layer of elongated, pris-

matic cells, though the axial row of cells shows no indications

of spirals. The terminal segments of the periblem, moreover,

remain undivided and, as a consequence, the periblem is so far

undifferentiated into endoderm and exoderm. The three his-

togens again assume a more nearly serial arrangement, which

they maintain.

The xylem strand in the root of /anthus is binary, and,

according to Van Tieghem’s conclusions, the arrangement of

the radicels should be diplostichous. Such is normally the

case; the rhizogenic arc extending from the prototracheid of

the xylem strand to the primary sieve-tube of the phloem

strand, thus being placed directly in front of the mesenchym.

In some cases, however, one-half of the number of cells of the

pericycle take part in the formation of the radicel, and the

rhizogenic arc extends from prototracheid to prototracheid.

At first glance, this appears to indicate biseriate arrangement

of the radicels and such, in fact, is what Clos had already

pronounced it to be. On closer examination, however, it is

seen that it is not the central cell of the rhizogenic arc, but

one nearer this or that prototracheid that determines the his-

togenic series of the radicel. Thus, while the angle of devia-

tion from the normal position is almost 45 degrees, nearly re-

sulting in the opposition of rhizogenic area and of phloem,

HISTOGENESIS OF THE CARYOPHYLLALES 135

and in a biseriate arrangement of the radicels, yet, the quad-

riseriate radicels never assume a perfectly biseriate disposition.

Silene otites. The structure of the central cylinder of the

root is essentially similar to that of Dianthus sinensis. The

xylem strand is diarch and is separated from the broad phloem

strands by the two-layered mesenchym. The location of the

rhizogenic area, and the formation of the three zones of the

radicel are likewise identical. In the earlier stages of the dif-

ferentiation, oblique segmentation is so frequent that it becomes

almost impossible to distinguish the histogens, which, for the

most part, are exactly seriate, and, as in Dianthus sinensis,

are prolonged downward into the basal cell of the plerome.

There is no epigen in S//ene otites. The endoderm, instead

of being transformed to constitute a nourishing envelope, is

quickly absorbed by the dermatogen, and the developing rad-

icel comes to lie directly against the cells of the cortical cylin-

der. The calyptrogen is early cut off from the dermatogen,

and its comparatively large extent is no doubt due to the fact

that hereafter, i. e., until the radicel leaves the root, it is to

function as the digestive and absorptive layer of the radicel

(XIV:4). Naturally, this function must be performed by the

dermatogen for the basal portion, but, since diastasic solution

and subsequent absorption are so much more active at the apex,

the calyptrogen may be regarded as the real organ of this

process.

The differentiation of the layers of the radicel, though by no

means sharp, is quite exact. In the comparatively young

plerome, the axial row is already differentiated, and the peri-

cycle is distinguishable assuch at the apex of the cylinder, at

least. More unexpected is the very early separation of the

periblem into endodermic and exodermic layers, a step which

appears in Dianthus sinensis only after the radicel has left the

root. The significance of the early and extensive delimitation

of the calyptrogen has already been discussed.

At the moment when the radicel escapes from the root, its

structure may be characterized, generally, as follows: The

plerome consists, ordinarily, of five or six layers of typically

136 FREDERIC E. CLEMENTS:

elongated cells, surrounded by a pericycle, whose cells are

polyedral, rather than prismatic. As far as could be de-

termined, the single histogen occupies the very apex of the

plerome, and the terminal cells of the pericycle are lateral

segments of it, not the derivatives of an apical segment of it,

as is the case in Dzanthus sinensis. The periblem, as stated

above, is ordinarily separable into the originative layers of

endoderm and exoderm. This, however, is not always true.

In some radicels it is still simple at the apex, as in Dianthus.

The dermatogen offers nothing of especial interest, except that

it is composed of remarkably large, cuboidal cells, which also

characterize the periblem. Its histogen, though small, is dis-

tinct, and, with its derivatives, forms a very perfect series with

the histogen of the periblem and of the plerome. The calyptra

consists of three layers; an inner one still in the process of

formation, a middle one already well-differentiated, and an

outer, earlier one, the diastasic envelope. The latter covers

the entire upper half of the radicel, and is so compact that it

persists intact in radicels that have pushed far beyond the root.

Not a trace of exfoliation has been found in any of the sections

examined. The appearance of this outer layer of the calyptra

at this time is characteristic. It is of a peculiar, flabelliform

shape, due to greater increase in size of the upper and terminal

cells, an increase that is gradually lost toward the lower end.

The insertion of the radicels is typically diplostichous.

Normally, however, the angle of deviation toward the proto-

tracheid is so great that the paired series are almost coincident,

as was demonstrated in Dianthus, where the deviation was,

however, toward the protophloem. In one instance, moreover,

the deviation is so great that the radicel is inserted directly in

front of the prototracheid, which, with its arch, lies in the con-

tinuation of the axial row of the plerome.

Clos, basing his conclusions upon external evidence alone,

ascribed biseriate radicels, as well as quadriseriate, to Caryo-

phyllacee. Van Tieghem denies absolutely the existence of

biseriate radicels, and states that Clos’ error was due to lack of

histological evidence. He admits, however, that externally

land

HISTOGENESIS OF THE CARYOPHYLLALES 137

the radicels may appear biseriate, and that internally the angle

of deviation may vary through very wide limits: virtually an

admission, notwithstanding his statements, that the angle of

deviation may become 45 degrees, resulting in the biseriate

disposition of the radicels, just as in the case mentioned above.

Silene conoidea. The structure of the central cylinder is

practically identical with that of Silene otites. The early

stages of the radicel are essentially those of Dianthus sinensis

(XIV :2), with the one important exception that, as in S. otztes,

the epigen is entirely lacking. The histogens of the plerome

and periblem are remarkably large and distinct. The cells of

the dermatogen are peculiarly cubical in shape, resulting from

the fact that they function, until the separation of the calyp-

trogen, as the diastasic layer of the radicel.

In the comparatively few instances noted, the insertion of

the radicels was biseriate, the long axis of the xylem strand

lying directly in the continuation of the axial row of the

plerome, and the exterior basal cells resting exactly upon the

primary sieve-tubes of either phloem strand.

Silene armeria presents the same general, histogenetic fea-

tures as does S. conoidea. It differs merely in the diplostichous

insertion of the radicels.

The Caryophyllacez are characterized by a diarch xylem

strand, and, in consequence, by quadriseriate radicels, i. e., by

diplostichous arrangement of the radicels. In this family,

then, the radicel is normally opposite the mesenchymatous ray,

and is limited on the one hand by the prototracheid, on the

other, by the primary sieve-tube. In any genus, or species,

or sometimes in a single individual, the axis of the radicel may

deviate from coincidence with the ray of the mesenchym, and

approach either protoxylem or protophloem. When this de-

viation is slight, the quadriseriate disposition is still evident,

but as the angle of deviation approaches 45 degrees, the paired

radiceis come to lie directly over each other, either in face of

the phloem, as in Dianthus sinensis, and Silene armeria, or in

front of the xylem, as in Stlene otites and Silene conoidea.

138 FREDERIC E. CLEMENTS:

As Van Tieghem has demonstrated, the presence or absence _

of epigen in this family is not at all constant for groups higher

than genera; it may be found to hold only for species. He

has shown its absence in Szlene nocturna and integrifolia, to

which should be added Silene armeria, conoidea and otites, and

its presence in Dianthus viscidus, beside which should be

placed D. sinensis. |

The histogens of the three zones of the radicel are appar-

ently always single. In the periblem, there sometimes ap-

pears to be three, or even as many as five; these are, however,

simply the undivided segments. The number of layers in the

calyptra is ordinarily three, though this is entirely dependent

upon the age of the radicel, and upon the presence or absence

of exfoliation.

There seems to be two methods of formation for the peri-

cycle of the plerome. In the first, in Dianthus, the terminal

cell of the pericycle is cut off as an apical segment of the his-

togen, while the adjacent cells are cut off similarly from the

histogenic segments. In the second, noted for Szlene, the

histogen itself occupies the apex of the plerome, and the upper-

most segments cut off from it laterally go to constitute the

pericycle. Van Tieghem does not make mention of two such

processes in his text, but some of his drawings evidence the

one or the other very clearly.

PoRTULACACEA.

Portulaca oleracea. The xylem strand of the root is diarch

in the younger plants; in the older ones, especially in the

transition-region, it becomes more or less completely tetrarch.

It is surrounded by a broad band of mesenchym, composed of

large, polyedric cells. The phloem strand is located on either

side of the mesenchym, as an elongated plate of slightly dif-

ferentiated cells.

The point of origin of the radicel may be directly in face of

the mesenchymatous ray, resulting in diplostichy, or it may be

directly in front of the prototracheid, producing biseriate dis-

position of the radicels. The latter seems more often the case

HISTOGENESIS OF THE CARYOPHYLLALES 139

in young roots, where secondary changes have not yet taken

place, while in older roots, where the disposition of the ele-

ments has been altered, quadriseriate arrangement seems to be

the rule. In the same maturer roots, the radicels often arise

in the same plane, resulting in the formation of a compound

radicel, which appears to be placed directly in front of the

phloem. Such an arrangement is, however, easily reducible

to diplostichy, since each component radicel of the compound

one is located in front of the mesenchymatous ray.

A special, diastasic layer is lacking in Portulaca oleracea.

The endoderm is quickly absorbed by the dermatogen, which

performs this function until the differentiation of the calyptro-

gen. The number of layers of the calyptra is ordinarily three,

which extend almost to the base of the radicel.

The number of histogens in the periblem, contrary to the

rule, is two; both dermatogen and plerome, however, have but

a single one (XV:1).

NYCTAGINACEA.

Allionia hirsuta. The xylem strand is diarch, each arch

consisting of four elements, united by a larger one in the

centre. The prototracheids are separated from the simple

pericycle by two or three layers of small cells. The mesenchym

is very abundant and consists of five or six rows of small,

polyedric cells, separating the large sieve-tubes of the phloem

from the xylem.

The number of cells of the pericycle taking part in the form-

ation of the radicel is nine, out of a total of forty. Two of

the cells lie on one side of the prototracheid, and seven on the

other. In consequence, the disposition of the radicels is diplo-

stichous, with an inclination of about thirty degrees toward the

xylem. In one instance, however, that of a mature radicel,

the fifth, or middie cell, of the rhizogenic arc was directly in

line with the three prototracheids, thus indicating a monostich-

ous, or biseriate arrangement of the radicels.

As normally, the nine cells of the rhizogenic are divide

transversely to form two layers, and the upper of these two

140 FREDERIC E. CLEMENTS:

divides again, forming the dermatogen, periblem and plerome.

The fifth, or middle cell, gives rise to the histogenetic row of

the radicel, and as a consequence, each zone possesses but a

single histogen. The first cell of the calyptrogen is cut off as

an apical segment of the histogen of the dermatogen, and this

gives origin to the lower layer of the calyptra, which is com-

posed of elongate, plate-like cells, extending half-way down

the radicel.

The cells of the endoderm, without undergoing any special

modification, divide radially, and accompany the growing rad-

icel as the epigen. This layer differs from the epigen of

Dianthus sinensis in its narrow, elongated cells (XV :2), a con-

dition, perhaps, induced by the pressure experienced in passing

through the cortical cylinder. So faras Ad/ionza is concerned,

the epigenic layer always remains simple, contrary to the rule

in some genera of this family.

Contrary to what Van Tieghem has postulated for the nature

and behavior of the epistele, in Ad/ionia hirsuta it appears to

consist of at least two cells, one of which cuts off segments to

form a continuation of the dermatogen, while the other assists

in the formation of the periblem. Ifthe epistele is but a single

cell, its identity is not easily established among the two or

three cells, which occupy this particular region.

At the time of the exit of the radicel from the root, it is

characterized by the presence of five very distinct layers. The

outermost of these, the epigen, consists of a single layer, the

disintegration and absorption of which has already begun at

the apex (XV:2). Below this is the calyptra, comprising four

layers, the outer cells of which have undergone exfoliation

even before the radicel has pierced the epiderm of the root.

Beneath the calyptra and originative of it, is the dermatogen,

a single layer of large, cuboidai cells terminated near the base

of the radicel by the epistele. The apex of the periblem is

terminated by a row of three cells, the large pentagonal histo-

gen and its two lateral segments. From each of the latter

arise two rows of cells, which become three in number some-

time before the epistle is reached. The plerome consists of a

HISTOGENESIS OF THE CARYOPHYLLALES 141

remarkably well-defined axial row surrounded by three jayers

of cells, in their turn enclosed in the simple pericycle. The

latter takes its origin from the longitudinal division of an apical

segment of the pleromal histogen.

The radicellar formation of Allionia nyctaginea agrees com-

pletely with that of <A/lionia hirsuta. No case of genuine

monostichous insertion of the radicels has been found, however.

AMARANTACES.

Amarantus albus. The xylem strand of the root is diarch,

and consists of eleven elements, of which the prototracheids

lie directly against the pericycle. The mesenchym consists

ordinarily of one layer of cells, more rarely of two. The

phloem strands are small, containing only a few elements.

The pericycle is simple and comprises about 20 cells.

Of the whole number of cells of the pericycle, but five com-

monly take part in the formation of the radicel. In all the

pericycles examined, the number of cells between prototracheid

and primary sieve-tube was uniformly five. Since the odd, or

middle cell of the rhizogenic arc gives rise to the histogenic

vow of the radicel, it follows that the radicel is inserted exactly

in face of the mesenchymatous ray, and forms an angle of 45

degrees with both xylem and phloem. Such an arrangement

is typically perfect diplostichy, and seems to be constantly

characteristic of Amarantus albus.

The origin of the three zones of the radicel from the peri-

cycle is entirely normal. The endoderm, however, is not con-

verted into epigen, but is absorbed by the calyptrogen. That

the latter almost solely performs the diastasic function is be-

yond doubt, since it is only after its differentiation from the

dermatogen that the endodermis begins to disintegrate. The

histogens of all three zones are unpaired. The behavior of the

epistele is apparently according to the rule. The calyptra

usually consists of two or three layers, the first of which, in its

diastasic function, covers the upper half of the radicel.

The formation of radicels in Amarantus retroflerus agrees

in all particulars with that in Amarantus albus.

142 FREDERIC E. CLEMENTS:

Van Tieghem assigns two histogens to the periblem in

Amarantus paniculatus, hybridus, chlorostachys, speciosus and

atropurpureus. In Amarantus albus and retroflerus, there is

but a single one, apparently. In the same plants he states

that the delimitation of the calyptrogen takes place just before

the exit of the radicel, while in those here investigated, the

calyptrogen is cut off before the absorption of the endoderm.

CHENOPODIACES.

Beta alba. The xylem strand is regularly diarch, each arch

consisting of four to six elements. The mesenchym comprises

one, rarely two layers, which passes almost insensibly into the

phloem strands. The pericycle is simple, and usually contains

about 40 cells.

Of the whole number of cells in the pericycle, seven are

generally concerned in the formation of the rhizogenie are.

Three of these are located on one side of the prototracheid,

and four on the other. In consequence, the odd, or middle

cell, lies immediately to the right, or left of the prototracheid,

and the angle of deviation approaches 40 degrees. No case

was observed, however, where this angle becomes 45 degrees,

so that diplostichy is characteristic of the radicels.

The transformation of the endoderm into epigen is a com-

paratively slow process. The cells enclosing the tip of the

radicel are first changed, and modification then takes place in

a basipetal direction. In the stage represented in figure 1,

plate XVI, the cells of the endoderm at the base of the radicel

are still undergoing division. From their small size and con-

siderable number, the cells of the epigen are with difficulty

distinguished from the cells of the dermatogen. Their origin

is proved beyond doubt, however, by: their continuity with the

cells of the endoderm. Although no instance of complete

bipartition of the epigen has been found, so many of its cells

show transverse division, that no doubt there are cases in

which it is really two-layered.

The behavior of the epistle is evolved in very considerable

uncertainty. As has been already suggested for A//ionia har-

HISTOGENESIS OF THE CARYOPHYLLALES 143

suta, it appears to consist of at least two cells. It may be

possible, however, that primary division takes place at a time

when the epistle is not to be distinguished from the adjacent

cells.

The histogen of both plerome and dermatogen is always

unpaired. The same is apparently true of the histogen of the

periblem, though, in some cases, there appears to be a second

present. The calyptrogen is early cut off from the dermatogen

as a thin plate of cells, extending about half way down the

radicel. The differentiation takes place slowly: the pericycle

and axial row do not appear until just before the exit of the

radicel from the root.

Chenopodium album. The disposition of the elements of

the central cylinder is very similar to that of Beta alba.

Of the 20 cells of the pericycle, five are concerned in the

formation of the rhizogenic arc. Of these, three are on one

side of the prototracheid, one on the other side and one directly

in front of it. As in Seta, the odd cell, the initial of the

axial row of the radicel, lies immediately to the right or left

of the prototracheid, and the arrangement of the radicels is

atypically diplostichous.

The number of cells of the endoderm, which take part in

the formation of the epigen, is normally four. As the radicel

grows older, this number sometimes increases to five or six.

In all cases, however, the lower part of the radicel is uniformly

destitute of an especial diastasic layer (X V:4).

The epistele is very distinct, even as early as the time of

origin of the epigen, and its behavior is apparently quite

normal.

Van Tieghem assigns an epigenic layer to Beta alba, but he

states that Chenopodium album is destitute of one. In certain

genera of Chenopodiacee, he finds the epigen developed in

very different degrees, and persisting for a very variable

length of times It may, therefore, be possible that the same

genus, or the same species even, may, at one time, develop a

particular diastasic layer and, at another time, be entirely

destitute of such.

144 HISTOGENESIS OF THE CARYOPHYLLALES

PHYTOLACCACE.

Phytolacca decandra. The xylem strand is diarch, each arch

comprising eight to ten elements. The mesenchym is a broad

band of four or five layers of cells, partially enclosing the

nearly circular strand of phloem.

The number of cells of the pericycle concerned in the form-

ation of the rhizogenic arc is seven, one of which les on one

side of the prototracheid, and six on the other. The dispo-

sition of the radicels is in consequence almost perfectly

diplostichous. The rhizogenic arc, as above, gives rise to the

three primary layers of the radicel, two of which, plerome and

dermatogen, are characterized by a single initial, while the

third, periblem, possesses two histogens. The plerome is a

broad cylinder, consisting of an axial row and four or five

enveloping layers, the outermost of which is slowly differen-

tiated into the pericycle. The periblem comprises but a single

row of cells at the apex; below, this layer is increased to two.

The calyptra is especially well-developed, consisting of three

or four layers, which become as many as five or six by the

time that the radicel is ready to leave the root.

- The endoderm surrounding the young radicel is completely

differentiated to form the epigen. Transverse divisions arise

in it early, and the mature epigen then contains at least two

layers.

PoLyGoONACEA.

The structure, position, and development of the radicels of

Polygonum lapathifolium are identical in all respects with

those of the radicels of Rumex altissimus.

Rumex altissimus. The xylem strand is tetrarch. Each

arc consists of three or four elements, united in the centre by

a single large vessel. The number of phloem strands is also

four, separated from the xylem by two rows of mesenchym.

The pericycle is simple and consists of about 40 cells.

As Van Tieghem has pointed out in the case of all quater-

nary roots, the disposition of the radicels is isostichous, i. e.,

the odd cell of the rhizogenic arc is directly opposed to the

HISTOGENESIS OF THE CARYOPHYLLALES 145

prototracheid. If two radicels arise at the same level, they

are not confluent as in the diplostichous arrangement, but stand

at right angles to each other. The number of cells of the

pericycle concerned in the formation of the rhizogenic arc is

ordinarily seven.

The whole of the endoderm covering the radicel is modified

by radial divisions into a compact epigen, which persists for

some time after the radicel has left the root. The epigen

never manifests any transverse divisions, and, in consequence,

always remains simple.

The epistele is very prominent, existing as a cell which

stains but slightly in the midst of much smaller cells, staining

a deep red. The periblem possesses two initials, and is but

one-rowed at the apex. Further down, it is two-rowed, and

before it reaches the epistele, the number of rows becomes

three. The histogen of the dermatogen and of the plerome is

unpaired. The calyptrogen is strongly developed, consisting

of three or four rows of cells, the outer of which covers the

upper two-thirds of the radicel.

CONCLUSIONS.

From the foregoing data, Van Tieghem’s conclusions that

the radicel proceeds always and entirely from the pericycle,

and that there is but a single type of radicellar formation for

Dicotyledones receive new confirmation. It may, at. first,

seem somewhat difficult to reduce the various modifications to

one type, but a careful study of each makes it evident that

modification has taken place almost exclusively in the rather

non-essential features of the process. Thus, while there may

be considerable differences with respect to the arrangement of

the radicels, the number of initials in the respective layers,

the formation of the epigen, or the behavior of the epistele,

there is absolute unanimity with regard to the originative layer,

the method of origin, the number of primary layers, the mode

of exit, etc.

The Caryophyllales are characterized by the possession of a

simple pericycle and a diarch xylem strand. Exceptions to

146 FREDERIC E. CLEMENTS:

the latter are found in the Polygonacer, Rumex and Polygonum,

where the xylem is tetrarch. Diplostichy, or monostichy of

the radicels is the rule, though isostichy is alone found in the

two genera just mentioned.

The zones of the radicel are derived typically from a single

initial, though in a few rare cases, Leta, Amarantus, the per-

iblem possesses a paired histogen. The presence of a definite

and well-developed calyptra is characteristic of the whole order.

As has already been mentioned, inconstancy in the forma-

tion of the epigen is characteristic of this order. The epigen

is found in seven genera, and eight species, and is lacking in

three genera and six species. Its instability within family,

genus, and even species has also been sufficiently demonstrated.

Ill. THE APICAL GROWTH OF THE STEM.

HISTORICAL.

Hofmeister, in 1851, was the first investigator to study the

structure of the apical region of the Phanerogams. Influenced

by his researches in the Pteridophytes and Gymnosperms, he

was led to conclude that the Phanerogams were likewise char-

acterized by a single apical cell. His discoveries were made

upon Lobinia, Elymus, Iris, Acer and Fraxinus, in each of

which he thought to see a single terminal cell, in some cases,

cuneiform, in others, prismatic. In 1859, Hofmeister figured

a terminal cell in the embryo of Loranthus, and of Lathraea,

without making any definite statement as to whether the ma-

ture plant grew in the same fashion.

Caspary was the first to combat the views of Hofmeister.

In his studies of Hydrillacez in 1858, he gives no definite ex-

pression to the apical region of Philotria canadensis, but, a

year later, he assigned three initials to Aldrovandia vesiculosa,

each of which is originative of a distinct layer, or zone.

Sanio, in 1864-65, found in the apex of Aippuris vulgaris

two meristem layers, always dividing perpendicularly to the

surface, which he regarded as giving origin to the leaf. Be-

neath these, he recognized the central cylinder, to which he

HISTOGENESIS OF THE CARYOPHYLLALES 147

assigned no initial, although noticing the fact that both derm-

atogen and periblem took their origin each from a particular

cell.

N. J. C. Mueller, in 1866, investigated and figured, among

others, Dianthus barbatus, D. plumarius, Fraxinus excelsior,

and Viscum album. To Fraxinus excelsior, he assigned a

single initial, although his figure contradicts his statement.

Douliot, from Mueller’s figures, credits him with attributing

three initials to Dianthus barbatus, and one to Dianthus plum-

arius. These drawings, which, together with those of Vesewm

album, show clearly the differentiation into plerome, periblem

and dermatogen, might as easily be interpreted to represent an

apex possessing two histogens. Whatever construction may

be placed upon some of his figures, there can be no doubt that

Mueller stood with Caspary for the existence of more than one

initial in the apex of Phanerogams.

Hanstein, in two treatises, 1868, 70, first extended his re-

searches over a large number of genera. He proved conclu-

sively that, not only was the apex of the plant furnished with

several initials, but also that these initials were to be found in

the very young embryo, which Hofmeister and others had

thought grew by the division of a single terminal cell. He

distinguished the three primary layers of the embryo, and of

the vegetative point, as dermatogen, periblem and plerome. It

was by reason, however, of the constant presence of these

three layers in the apex that he fell into a very considerable

error. He thought that each layer, or zone, had its origin in

an initial peculiar to itself, and, as a consequence, was led into

attributing three histogens to all Phanerogams, a misinterpre-

tation first corrected, as will be seen below, by Douliot.

Hanstein’s opinions have been opposed by Pringsheim,

Westermeier, Naegeli and others; on the other hand, his

theory has been supported by Voechting, Kubin and Mueller,

Haberland and Groom.

In 1890, Douliot, in a somewhat exhaustive memoir, con-

firms, in general, Hanstein’s conclusions. While admitting

regular occurrence of three layers in the apex, however, he

148 FREDERIG E. CLEMENTS:

finds that, by reason of the community of origin of periblem

and plerome, the number of initials is sometimes decreased to

two, one for the dermatogen, and one common to both plerome

and periblem. His investigations, which are based upon a

number of genera greater than all those before studied, are

conclusive and permit of the postulation of the general prin-

ciple that the Phanerogams are characterized by an apical

region, possessing two, sometimes three initials, but never a

single apical cell.

Douliot’s conclusions afford a suggestion of the possible tax-

onomic significance of the variation in the number of initials

of the apex, and will be given here in brief.

‘In the Gymnosperme, the stem has always but a single

initial cell at its summit. With Monocotyledones, the case of

two initials is more frequent, that of three initials iess frequent”’.

‘‘In the Apetale, out of six examples, four have but two

distinct initials; of the fifteen families of Dialypetalee Hypogyne

studied, five possess a stem with two initials; the five families

of Dialypetalee Epigynee have always shown three distinct hist-

ogens; finally, among the Gamopetale, the Plantaginace

alone are characterized by two initials.”

‘It may then be said that in the majority of Dicotyledones,

the stem is terminated by three initials, and, in a small number,

by two initials only; in the latter case, one initial is common

to the periblem and to the plerome cylinder”’.

DETAILS OF THE APICAL GROWTH IN THE VARIOUS FAMILIES.

CARYOPHYLLACEA.

Dianthus sinensis. The apex of the seedling is character-

ized by two histogens, the upper of which gives rise to the

dermatogen, or epidermis, the lower to both periblem and

plerome. The latter is the terminal cell of the tissue beneath

the dermatogen (X VII:1).

In the seedling, the periblem is always simple; it consists in

the mature plant, ordinarily, of three or four layers.

Silene armeria. The three layers of the apex are more or

HISTOGENESIS OF THE CARYOPHYLLALES 149

less sharply set off from each other. Contrary to the case in

Dianthus sinensis, the periblem is two-rowed almost from the

first. Hence, the initial of the periblem is distinct from that

of the plerome, and the apical region is characterized by three

histogens (X VII:2).

Silene otites. The constitution of the apical region is similar

to that noted for Dianthus sinensis. The periblem consists of

a single layer, scarcely to be distinguished, on account of its

imperfect continuity, from the plerome. The two inner layers,

periblem and plerome, in consequence, possess a singie initial,

which gives rise to its segments by longitudinal division

(XVII:3).

According to Douliot, N. J. C. Mueller ascribes three hist-

ogens to Dianthus barbatus, and one to Dianthus plumarius.

Hanstein assigned, in general, three initials to Dianthus and

Silene, while Douliot finds in Dianthus calocephalus but two.

There is but little doubt that Mueller erred in giving Dzanthus

plumarius a single initial, so the Caryophyllacez investigated

may be divided into two classes, the one characterized by an

apical region with three histogens, the other possessing an apex

with but two. In the former would fall Dianthus barbatus and

Silene armeria, in the latter, Dianthus calocephalus, sinensis,

and Silene otites.

PorRTULACACE.

Portulaca oleracea. The apex of the seedling possesses two

histogens, one for the dermatogen, and one common to both

periblem and plerome. The latter, which is particularly large

and conspicuous, forms its segments by longitudinal division.

The periblem is one-layered and, except at the apex, is indis-

tinguishable from the plerome (X VII:4).

On the contrary, the apex of a mature stem or branch shows

three histogens, and three quite distinct tissue-zones. The

periblem is two-rowed, and possesses its own initial. The ini-

tial of the plerome now divides transversely, instead of longi-

tudinally as above (XVII:5). It has been impossible to make

out clearly the structure of the leaf-evaginations of the apex on

150 FREDERIC E. CLEMENTS:

account of the torsion of the tissue. They seem to have,

primarily at least, but two histogens, both plerome and _peri-

blem taking their origin from the inner.

So far as could be ascertained, the apical region of the Por-

tulacaceze has never before been investigated, so that it is im-

possible to confirm by the work of others these two very

diverse apex structures in the same species.

NYcTAGINACE.

Allionia hirsuta. The apex of the seedling stem possesses

two initials. The initial of the dermatogen is indistinct, and

scarcely to be distinguished from its segments. That of the

periblem and plerome is, on the contrary, extremely large and

conspicuous. It gives rise by longitudinal division to seg-

ments which constitute the periblem and by transverse division

to the elements of the plerome cylinder. An especially prom-

inent feature of the apical cone is the sharp delimitation of the

periblem which consists of a single layer increased to two on

the sides (X VII:6).

Allionia nyctaginea is in complete accord with Adlionia hir-

suta, so far as the number and behavior of the histogens is

concerned. In no case, however, was the common histogen

so characteristically conspicuous, nor was there evident any

such sharp differentiation of the periblem (X VII:7).

AMARANTACES.

Amarantus albus. The number of histogens in the apical

cone is two; as usual, one for the dermatogen, and one common

to the periblem and the plerome. The latter follows the rule,

aud divides longitudinally to form its segments. The periblem

is differentiated very late, and is never sharply delimited, ex-

cept in old stems (X VIII:1).

The constitution of the apical region of Amarantus retroflexus

is identical in all respects with that of Amarantus albus

(XVIII:2).

HISTOGENESIS OF THE CARYOPHYLLALES Lil

CHENOPODIACES.

Chenopodium album. The apex of both seedling and mature

plant is characterized by the possession of two initials, one for

the dermatogen, and one common to plerome and to periblem.

The latter, instead of lying next the dermatogen, as is usually

the case in apices having but two histogens, is situated in the

next lower layer, and its lateral segments give rise to the second

layer of the periblem (X VITI:3).

Beta alba. The initial of the dermatogen is not at all prom-

inent, and is to be easily recognized only in very young apices.

The plerome and periblem have a common histogen, situated

as in Chenopodium album, in the second layer of the periblem.

In apices of large seedlings, the two layers of the periblem are

especially conspicuous. In very young seedlings, and in young

branch-buds, there is but a single layer. Moreover, where the

two-rowed periblem leaves the apex to enter the leaves, it sud-

denly narrows to a single row, the cells of which alternate with

those of the dermatogen (X VIII:4).

The growth of the histogen common to periblem and plerome

is similar to that of the initial of the dermatogen and _ its

division is, in consequence, longitudinal.

No other genera or species of Chenopodiacezw have so far

been investigated with respect to the behavior of the apical

region. To generalize from the results obtained in the two

species mentioned above; the apex of the stem of Chenopo-

diacew is characterized by the possession of two histogens, the

inner of which always lies in the second layer of the periblem.

PHYTOLACCACEA.

Phytolacca decandra. The apex belongs to the normal type,

in that it possesses two histogens, one peculiar to the derma-

togen and the other common to plerome and periblem. Both

histogens show division in the longitudinal direction (X VIII:5).

The disposition of the periblem is two-rowed as in the Chen-

opodiacee, but contrary to the case in that family, the com-

mon initial is apparently always located in the outer layer.

152 FREDERIC E. CLEMENTS:

The apex of the various shoot-members of the plant seems

always to be characterized by identity of structure, and of

behavior.

PoLyGoNAcEs.

Lolygonun lapatiifolium. The apex of the stem possesses

two histogens, and has but one layer in the periblem. The

initial common to both periblem and plerome differs from that

in the other families of the Caryophyllales having two histo-

gens, in its location. Instead of being a component cell of

the periblem, it occupies a position more or less superior to

the latter, and simulates a single apical cell in appearance. Its

division is, however, longitudinal and normal (X VIII:6).

Rumex altissimus. The common initial for the plerome

and periblem behaves very differently from that of Polygonum

lapathifolium. Division of it takes place transversely, and it

gives rise, in consequence, to the two layers of the periblem

GOV Whs7):

Hanstein ha« ‘signed three histogens to Polygonum. Douliot

finds in Polygonum amphibium but two, the inner of which is

identical in location and behavior with that of Polygonum lap-

athifolium. Notwithstanding the difference in the method of

division of the inner histogen in Ramer and Polygonum, the

Polygonacee are regularly characterized by the possession of

two histogens.

CONCLUSIONS.

Of the thirteen species studied, eleven possess two initials,

one possesses three initials, and one has two initials in the

seedling, and three in the mature plant. In the cases of three

initials, the periblem is constantly two-rowed, apparently a

necessary concomitant of this structure of the apex. The con-

verse, however, does not hold true. Of the eleven species

possessing two initials, four have a two-rowed periblem, easily

accounted for, however, by the various methods of division of

the common initial, or by the early bipartition of the periblem

itself.

HISTOGENESIS OF THE CARYOPHYLLALES 153

The occurrence of two types of apical structure in different

species of the same genus, S¢/ene, and in different individuals

of the same species, Portulaca oleracea, may possibly throw

some light upon the numerous discrepancies between Hanstein’s

observations and those of Douliot. This fact serves to show

at least that, while apical structure characterized by a single

terminal cell is radically and significantly different from that

possessing a number of initials, the two forms of the latter are

merely different degrees of the one fundamental structure.

The apex growing by the segmentation of two histogens is

primitive, and that with three initials is merely a derivative, a

variation of it.

The conclusions to be deduced from the above results rein-

force Douliot’s opinions, already quoted, to the effect that

lower grades of development are characterized, for the most

part, by an apex with two initials, while higher forms are dis-

tinguished chiefly by an apex with three initials. Of six ex-

amples in the Apetale, Douliot found four possessing two

initials. Of the nine species of Apetale stud vd in this paper

all have two initials in the apical region, while of the remain-

ing five investigated, Dialypetale, one has three initials, one

either two or three, and three have two initials.

The University of Nebraska.

Readers will notice that the plates are given two numbers, viz: those

conforming to the volume, and those relating to this article alone, and

the latter (in parentheses) are used in the text.

154 FREDERIC E. CLEMENTS:

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Dope, A.—Der Uebergang des Dicotyledonen-Stengels in der Pfahl-

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FLAHAULT, Ch.—Recherches sur ]’Accroissement Terminale de la Racine

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Fiot, L.—Recherches sur la Zone Périmédullaire de la Tige. Ann. Nat.

Sci. VII. 18:38. 1893.

GERARD, R.—Recherches sur le Passage de la Racine a la Tige. Ann.

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HERAIL, J.—Recherches sur ]’Anatomie Comparée de la Tige des Dicoty-

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HouLsBert, C.—Recherches sur la Structure Comparée du Bois Secondaire

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LAMOUNETTE, M.—Recherches sur l’Origine Morphologique du Liber In-

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LEMAIRE, A.— Recherches sur ]’Origine et le Développement des Racines

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Moror, L.—Recherches sur le Péricycle du Couche Périphérique du Cy]l-

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OLIVIER, L.—Recherches sur ]’Appareil Tégumentaire des Racines. Ann.

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Petit, L.—La Pétiole des Dicotylédones. Ann. Nat. Sci. VII. 6:342. 1887.

PRuUNET, A.—Recherches sur les Neuds et les Entrenceuds de la Tige

des Dicotylédones. Ann. Nat. Sci. VII. 13:374. 1891.

RAUWENHOF?, N. W. P.—Observations sur les Caractéres et la Formation

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HISTOGENESIS OF THE CARYOPHYLLALES 155

Scott, D. H. AnD BREBNER, G.—On Internal Phloem in the Root and

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Recherches sur la Disposition des Radicelles et des

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Sur la Réseau de Soutien de 1’Ecorce de la Racine.

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156 FREDERIC E. CLEMENTS:

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

THE TRANSITION FROM ROOT TO STEM.

Abbreviations: Ep, epiderm; en, endoderm; ex, exoderm; pr, pericy-

cle; ec, central cylinder; cc’, cortical cylinder; xs, xylem strand; ps,

phloem strand; fs, fibrovascular strand; me, mesenchym; ec, cambium;

px, protoxylem; pp, protophloem; pt, prototracheids: mm, meristem; mx,

metaxylem; mp, metaphloem; pe, cortical parenchyma; fe, fibrovascular

strands of cotyledons; fn, fibrovascular strands of the first internode; ps’,

secondary phloem strands; xs’, secondary xylem strands; me’, medulla.

PLATE VIII (1).—Dianthus sinensis.

Fig. 1. Transection of the root just below the collet, showing the

typical centripetal, or radial arrangement of the diarch bundle. x 660.

Fig. 2. Transection of the ‘‘tigelle’’ about 1mm. above the latter: the

number of the xylem elements has increased, and the prototracheids have

withdrawn from the pericycle. x 880.

Fig. 8. Transection of the ‘‘tigelle’’ a short distance above the latter:

the lateral penetration of the xylem strand by the mesenchym has begun,

as also the modification of the latter into cambium. x 880.

Fig. 4. Transection of the ‘‘tigelle’’ in the vicinity of the cotyledons’

the complete segregation of the xylem strands, and the phloem strands

has been effected. x 880.

Fig. 5. Transection of the ‘‘ tigelle’’ at the insertion of the cotyledons;

the partial superposition of xylem and phloem has occurred, results in

secantial disposition. x 350.

Fig. 6. Transection of the first internode immediately above the cotyl-

edons: the fibrovascular system of the stem is represented by the stelar

circle, composed almost entirely of procambium, except at fs, where the

bundle-trace of the next pair of leaves is already somewhat differentiated.

x 350.

Fig. 7. Epiderm and exoderm of the ‘‘tigelle’’ in transection. x 350.

Fig. 8. Epiderm and exoderm of the root in transection. x 350.

PLATE IX (Il).—Silene armeria,

Fig. 1. Transection of the root in the region of the collet: the dupli

cation of the xylem strand has already occurred. x 880.

Fig. 2. Transection of the ‘‘tigelle’’ about 1 mm. below the cotyl-

edons: the intrusion of the mesenchym has just begun. x 460.

HISTOGENESIS OF THE CARYOPHYLLALES 157

Fig. 3. Transection of the ‘‘tigelle’’ just beneath the insertion of the

cotyledons: the strands of the central cylinder are in secantial orientation.

x 460.

Fig. 4. Transection of the young stem: the strands of the first inter-

node, which are destined for the next pair of leaves above, are shown at

fn. x 200.

Fig. 5. Epiderm and exoderm of the root in transection. x 300.

Fig. 6. Epiderm and exoderm of the ‘‘tigelle’’ in transection. x 300.

PLATE X (IIl).—Silene conoidea.

Fig. 1. Transection of the root, showing the typical structure of the

central cylinder. x 880.

Fig 2. Transection of the upper portion of the root: the duplication

of the xylem has begun, but the prototracheids are still in contact with

the pericycle. x 880.

Fig. 3. Transection of the lower portion of the ‘‘tigelle’’: the dupli-

cation has reached its limit, and the mesenchym has already interposed a

single row of cells between prototracheid and pericyele. x 460.

Fig. 4. Transection of the ‘‘tigelle’’ just below the insertion of the

cotyledons: the medulla occupies the whole of the centre of the cylinder:

the phloem and xylem strands are passing from the secantial to the

e2ntrifugal disposition. x 450.

Fig. 5. Transection of the stem just above the cotyledons: at fn are

shown the strands destined for the leaves of the first internode; at fn’ the

b2ginnings of the strands for the second internode. x 460.

Fig. 6. Epiderm and exoderm of the root in transection. x 350.

Fig. 7. Epiderm and exoderm of the ‘‘tigelle’’ in transection. x 350.

PLATE XI (IV).—Silene otites.

Fig. 1. Transection of the root, showing the typical structure of the

central cylinder. x880.

Fig. 2. Transection of the root near the collet, showing the beginning

of the duplication of the xylem elements, and, concomitantly, the with-

drawal of the prototracheids from the pericycle. x 880.

Fig. 3. Transection of the ‘‘tigelle’’ about one-half mm. below the

cotyledons: the amyliferous endoderm is here especially prominent; the

xylem strand is breaking up into secondary strands, while the mesenchym

in front of the phloem is being modified to form procambium. x 880.

Fig. 4. Transection of the ‘‘tigelle’’ just below the insertion of the

cotyledons: the central pith is well-developed; the bundles are in secantial

disposition. x 300.

Fig. 5. Epiderm and exoderm of the root in transection. x 460.

Fig. 6. Epiderm and exoderm of the ‘‘tigelle’’ in transection. x 460.

158 FREDERIC E. CLEMENTS:

PLATE XII (V).—Portulaca oleracea.

Fig. 1. Transection of the root, showing the typical structure of the

stele. x 460.

Fig. 2. Transection in the vicinity of the collet; the duplication of

the xylem has taken place, likewise the division of the phloem strands.

x 460.

Fig. 3. Tiansection of the ‘‘tigelle’’ about 2 mm. below the cotyle-

dons; the intrusion of the mesenchym has split the xylem into two groups.

x 460.

Fig. 4. Transection of the ‘‘tigelle’’ a short distance below the coty-

ledons: the xylem and phloem strands have united at fe to form the strand

of the cotyledons; at ¢ are shown the procambial strands originative of

the bundles of the first internode. x 460.

Fig. 5. Transection of the ‘‘tigelle’’ immediately below the insertion

of the cotyledons: fe, fibrovascular strands of the cotyledons; fn, fibro-

vascular strands of the first internode. x 460.

Fig. 6. Epiderm and exoderm of the root in transection. x 460.

Fig. 7. Epiderm and exoderm of the ‘‘tigelle’’ in transection. x 460.

PLATE XIll (VI).—Allionia hirsuta.

Fig. 1. Transection of the root, showing the typical structure of the

stele. x 400.

Fig. 2. Transection of the root: the ‘‘running out’’ of the central

vessels is taking place, and, concomitant with it, the intrusion of the

mesenchym. x 400.

Fig. 3. Transection of the root a short distance below the collet; the

xylem has separated into four strands, two of which are entirely proto-

tracheidal. x 400.

Fig. 4. Transection of the root a short distance above the latter: the

prototracheids are disappearing, each phloem strand has divided to form

two secondary strands, and the two remaining xylem strands have each

split to form three. x 460.

Fig. 5. Transection of the lower portion of the ‘‘tigelle’’; the four

bundles at fe are destined to form the vascular strands of the cotyledons.

x 460.

Fig. 6. Transection of the ‘‘tigelle’’ immediately below the cotyl-

edons; at fn are shown the lower ends of the bundle-traces of the first in-

ternode, at tt the residual tracheids of the xylem. x 300.

HISTOGENESIS OF THE CARYOPHYLLALES 159

PLATE XIV )VIl).—Allionia nyctaginea.

Fig. 1. Transection of the root, showing the typical structure of the

stele. x 400.

Fig. 2. Transection of the root, showing the disintegration of the

central elements of the xylem, and the separation of the latter into two

plates. x 400.

Fig. 3. Transection of the root at the beginning of the collet; the

pith has made its appearance in the centre of the cylinder, and has further

split the xylem into four strands. x 400.

Fig. 4. Transection of the collet, showing the secantial disposition

of the xylem and phloem. x 300.

Fig. 5. Transection of the lower portion of the ‘‘tigelle’’, showing

the two collateral bundles of the stem; pt, prototracheids; tt, residual

tracheids. x 300.

Fig. 6. Epiderm and exoderm of ‘‘tigelle’’ in transection. x 250.

Fig. 7. Epiderm and exoderm of root in transection. x 250.

PLATE XV (VIIl)—Amarantus retroflexus.

Fig. 1. Transection of the root, showing the type structure of the

stele. x 880.

Fig. 2. ‘Transection of the hypocotyl in the region of the ‘‘tigelle,’’

showing the beginning of the duplication of the xylem. x 880.

Fig. 3. Transection of the ‘‘tigelle’’ about 1 mm. below the cotyle-

dons in the normal transition, just below the cotyledons in the abrupt

transition. The mesenchym has forced the secondary xylem strands be-

tween the secondary phloem plates. x 460.

Fig. 4. Transection of the ‘‘tigelle’’ immediately below the cotyle-

dons: the bundles at fe are in secantial orientation, those at fn are per-

fectly collateral. x 400.

Fig. 5. Transection of the ‘‘tigelle’’ at the insertion of the cotyledons:

the vascular strands at fe are passing over to the collateral orientation;

those at fn are splitting to form the stelar system of the node next above.

x 350.

Fig. 6. Epiderm and exoderm of “‘tigelle’’ in transection. x 460.

Fig. 7. Epiderm and exoderm of root in transection.

PLATE XVI (IX).—Beta alba.

Fig. 1. Transection of the root, showing the typical disposition of

elements in the central cylinder. x 880.

Fig. 2. Transection of the collet, showing duplication of the xylem

strand. x 880.

160 FREDERIC E. CLEMENTS:

Fig. 3. Transection of the ‘‘tigelle’’ near the middle: the splitting of

the xylem plate has already begun, as also the transformation of the mes-

enchym into procambium. x 460.

Fig. 4. Transection of the ‘‘tigelle’’ just below the cotyledons; the

xylem has split transversely into two strands, likewise one of the phloem

plates.

Fig. 5. Epiderm and exoderm of root in transection. x 880.

Fig. 6. Epiderm and exoderm of “‘tigelle’’ in transection. x 880.

PLATE XVII (X).—Chenopodium album.

Fig. 1. Transection of the root, showing the type structure of the

stele. x 880.

Fig. 2. Transection of the lower portion of the ‘‘tigelle’’, showing

the duplication of the xylem. x 880.

Fig. 3. Transection of the ‘‘tigelle’’ about 2 mm. below the cotyle-

dons: the medulla, occupies the centre of the cylinder, the xylem and

phloem assuming secantial disposition; at fn, a primary vascular strand

of the first internode has already been cut off. x 460.

Fig. 4. Transection of the ‘‘ tigelle’’ immediately below the cotyle-

dons; the four cotyledonary strands have coalesced into two, and all the

strands have passed into the collateral arrangement. x 660.

Fig. 5. Epiderm and exoderm of ‘‘tigelle’’ in transection. x 880.

Fig. 6. Epiderm and exoderm of root in transection. x 880.

PLATE XVIII (X1).—Phytolacca decandra.

Fig. 1. Transection of the upper part of the root, showing the begin-

ning of duplication. x 350.

Fig. 2. Transection of the ‘‘tigelle’’ near the middle; the medulla

has separated the xylem into transverse plates. x 350.

Fig. 3. Transection of the ‘“‘tigelle’’ about one-half mm. below the

cotyledons; the vascular elements are assuming secantial orientation.

x 300.

Fig. 4. Transection of the ‘‘tigelle ’’ immediately below the insertion

of the cotyledons; the disposition of elements is nearly intermediate

between secantial and collateral disposition. x 300.

Fig. 5. Epiderm and exoderm of root in transection. x 460.

Fig. 6. Epiderm and exoderm of ‘‘tigelle’’ in transection. x 460.

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HISTOGENESIS OF THE CARYOPHYLLALES 161

PLATE XIX (XIl).—Polygonum lapathifolium.

Fig. 1. Transection of the upper part of the root, showing type

structure of the stele. x 350.

Fig. 2. Transection of the ‘‘tigelle’’ near the middle; the medulla

has appeared in the centre and has separated the four rays of the xylem

into as many secondary strands. x 350.

Fig. 3. Transection of the ‘‘tigelle’’ about one-fourth mm. below

the cotyledons: the phloem elements form a continuous circle, in the

quadrants of which are situated the centripetal xylem-phloem strands,

fe; at c is shown the interfascicular procambium which originates the

first internodal stele. x 350.

Fig. 4. Epiderm and exoderm of ‘‘tigelle’’ in transection. x 460.

Fig. 5. Epiderm and exoderm of root in transection. x 460.

PLATE XX (XIili).—_Rumeax altissimus.

Fig. 1. Transection of the root, showing type structure of the stele:

XS, primary rays of the xylem; xy’, secondary rays. x 460.

Fig. 2. Xylem plate from the lower portion of the ‘‘tigelle’’, show-

ing the duplication of the primary rays, and the disappearance of the sec-

ondary ones. x 460.

Fig. 3. Transection through the middle of the ‘‘tigelle’’; the xylem

has become uniseriate, and has assumed a pseudo-diarch character. x 460.

Fig. 4. Transection of the ‘‘tigelle’’ just below the cotyledons; the

xylem plate has split into two, while the phloem strands have coalesced

to form but two. x 460.

Fig. 5. Epiderm and exoderm of ‘‘tigelle’’ in transection. x 460.

Fig. 6. Epiderm and exoderm of root in transection. x 460.

162 FREDERIC E. CLEMENTS:

THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF RADICELS.

Abbreviations: Ep, epiderm; ex, exoderm; cc’, cortical cylinder; ce,

central cylinder; en, endoderm; pr, pericycle; xs, xylem strand; ps,

phloem strand; fs, fibrovascular strand; me, mesenchym; e, epistele: d,

cdermatogen; pe, periblem; pl, plerome; c, cambium; pt, prototracheids;

mx, metaxylem; px, protoxylem; mp, metaphloem; pp, protophloem; g,

digested cells of the cortical cylinder; h’, histogen of the dermatogen; h’,

histogen of the periblem; h/’, histogen of the plerome; h//’’, histogen of

the pericycle of the plerome; ca, calyptrogen; eg, epigen; be, basal cells

of the radicel; pr’, pericycle of radicel; s/, s/’, s//’, segments respectively

of histogen of dermatogen, periblem and plerome.

PLATE XX! (XIV).

Fig. 1. Transection of the root of a seedling, Dianthus sinensis, pass-

ing through the axis of a radicel. The three zones have become well-dif-

ferentiated, and the calyptrogen has been set off as a layer of five cells.

The histogen of each zone is apparently single; they are, however, not

serial. The epigen still consists of its original ten cells, half the number

of those in the endoderm. They are very sharply set off, however, from

the remaining ten cells by reason of their large nuclei and dense proto-

plasm. x 350.

Fig. 2. Transection of the same. The histogens of the three zones

are superimposed. Their segments are extremely irregular, and the

delimitation between the three zones is as yet not very evident. The

epigen is composed of but six cells; the central one presents transverse

division, anomalous for this species. x 660.

Fig. 8. Transection of an older radicel of the same. The radicel has

penetrated the entire cortical cylinder of the root and has finally absorbed

the epigen. It is still protected at the tip, however, by the two calyptral

layers cut off from the dermatogen. The pericycle of the plerome is now

first differentiated. x 660.

Fig. 4. Transection of the root of Silene otites, showing the radicel

in longitudinal axial section. The epigen is lacking and the calyptrogen

lies directly against the tissue of the cortical cylinder. The periblem has

already divided itself into two layers, originative of the endoderm and

exoderm.

HISTOGENESIS OF THE CARYOPHYLLALES 163

PLATE XXII (XV).

Fig. 1. Transection of the root of Portulaca oleracea, showing the

young root in longitudinal section. No epigen is developed, and the

dermatogen lies directly against the endoderm at this time. x 460.

Fig. 2. Transection of the root of Allionia hirsuta, showing the

radicel in longitudinal axial section at the time when it has broken

through the cortical cylinder. The terminal cells of the epigen are al-

ready dissolved, and exfoliation has begun in the calyptra. x 460.

Fig. 3. Transection of the root of Amarantus albus, showing the

radicel in longitudinal section at the time of the absorption of the endo-

derm. The epigen is lacking, and the cells of the calyptrogen lie directly

against the cortical cylinder. x 460.

Fig. 4. Transection of the root of Chenopodium album, showing the

very young radicel in longitudinal section. The three layers derived from

the division of the pericycle are very distinct. The tip of the developing

radicel is covered with four cells of the endoderm modified to, form an

epigen. x 460.

PLATE XXIII (XVI).

Fig. 1. Transection of the root of Beta alba, showing the radicel in

longitudinal axial section. Nearly the entire endoderm covering the rad-

icel has been changed into epigen; near the base this process is still going

on. The first layer of the calyptra has already been cut off. x 460.

Fig. 2. Transection of the root of Phytolacca decandra, showing a

longitudinal section of the radicel. The two-layered epigen has already

begun to be absorbed at the apex. x 460.

Fig. 3. Transection of the root of Rumex altissimus, showing longi-

tudinal section of a radicel just ready to leave the root. The epigen still

persists at the apex of the radicel. Beneath it, the calyptra has already

obtained a thickness of three layers. x 460.

164

HISTOGENESIS OF THE CARYOPHYLLALES

THE APICAL GROWTH OF THE STEM.

Abbreviations: pl, plerome cylinder; pe, periblem; d, dermatogen;

h/, initial of the dermatogen; h”, initial of the periblem, or common init-

ial of the periblem and plerome; h/”’, initial of the plerome. All figures

are magnified 460 diameters.

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PLATE XXIV (XVII).

Longisection of the apex of a seedling, Dianthus sinensis.

Longisection of apex of seedling, Silene armeria.

Longisection of apex of seedling, Silene otites.

Longisection of apex of seedling, Portulaca oleracea.

Longisection of apex of a branch of Portulaca oleracea.

Longisection of apex of seedling, Allionia hirsuta.

Longisection of apex of seedling, Allionia nyctaginea.

PLATE XXV (XVIIL.)

Longisection of apex of seedling, Amarantus albus.

Longisection of apex of seedling, Amarantus retroflexus.

Longisection of apex of a branch of Chenopodium album.

Longisection of apex of seedling, Beta alba.

Longisection of a flower-bud of Phytolacca decandra.

Longisection of apex of seedling, Polygonum lapathifolium.

Longisection of apex of seedling, Rumex altissimus.

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CARCINOMA ON THE FLOOR OF THE PELVIS.

TWO DISCOVERIES IN CANCEROUS DISEASE.

MARY A. DIXON JONES, M. D., New York City.

A woman nearly fifty years of age called to see me February

18, 1888; said she had been treated for many years by various

physicians, but without relief; that she was growing steadily

worse, and that at times her sufferings were most intense.

I found the uterus drawn to the extreme right, and with the

corresponding tube and ovary, fixed by inflammatory adhesions.

The left uterine appendages were prolapsed and adherent to a

mass the size of a small orange, in the centre of the pelvic

floor. This mass or tumor was soft, extremely sensitive, and

with some apparent fluctuation. Her last physician, diagnos-

ing it to be a misplaced uterus, had from time to time made

various and continued efforts to put the supposed organ in

position. These manipulations gave the patient great distress,

the pain often lasting several days. I advised the immediate

removal of the tumor as her only chance of recovery. Her

husband was anxious that the operation should be performed,

but wished it to be done in his own home. I refused to per-

form such an operation unless every circumstance, as far as I

could judge, was the most favorable for the patient’s recovery,

and suggested that she enter the hospital. Dr. E. A. Wheeler,

who had advised the patient to consult me, also thought it

best. She entered the Woman’s Hospital of Brooklyn, March

16, 1888. So much had she suffered that she said to me the

day before the operation: ‘‘If you were to tell me that I had

but one chance in twenty-five, I would take that chance and

have the operation’’.

166 MARY A. DIXON JONES:

‘The operation was performed on March 19, 1888. I re-

moved first the left tube and ovary with the tumor to which

they were adherent. All had grown so firmly to the floor of

the pelvis that the separation was attended with great difficulty

and followed by severe hemorrhage, which was almost uncon-

trollable. Nothing checked it but securely clamping the torn

edges of the wound, and for this I used forceps whose handles

projected beyond the abdominal incision. [I had previously re-

moved considerable portion of what I supposed to be affected

tissue. The pseudo-membranous adhesions which bound the

uterus and right uterine appendages were separated and the

latter removed. The peritoneal cavity was thoroughly flushed

with water sterilized by heat; a drainage-tube was introduced,

and for still more thorough drainage a large strip of gauze was

inserted in the abdominal wound, extending beneath the line

of sutures down to the floor of the pelvis. The abdominal

wound was dressed, the patient placed comfortably in bed, and

in every respect, she seemed to be doing well. Still there

were indications that the disease was malignant and I had little

hope of her recovery. Statistics show that operations for

malignant disease of the abdomen are almost invariably fatal. '

The patient came comfortably out of ether. In two hours the

drainage tube was drawn off, the dressings were found fully

saturated with bloody serum, and new dressings were applied.

So for several days three or four times in the twenty-four hours

the wound was redressed, and in twenty hours the forceps and

gauze were removed. She continued to improve, and in five

weeks was able to leave the hospital. She did so well that I

dismissed the idea of the disease being malignant, and it was

1. In 1881, in St. Luke’s Hospital, ‘‘2 cases of malignant tumor of the

abdomen, 2 deaths’’. In New York State Women's Hospital, in 188),

‘2 cases of carcinoma of omentum, exploratory incision, death’’; ‘‘car-

cinoma of ovary, ovariotomy, death’’. In 1886, 3 carcinomata of omentum,

exploratory incision, all died; Sarcoma, exploratory incision, death. In

1887, 2 cases of carcinomata of omentum, both died of shock, after ex-

ploratory incision; carcinoma ovarii, ovariotomy, death; sarcoma ovarii,

ovariotomy, death. In 1886, cancer of the ovaries, exploratory incision,

death.

CARCINOMA ON THE FLOOR OF THE PELVIS. 167

not until the eighth day of the following December, nine

months after the operation, when in due course, I studied

microscopically the specimen and found it was a cancer, and

portions of it were of a most malignant type. The left tube

and ovary were both found infiltrated with cancerous growth.

The right tube also showed inflammatory reaction, and gave

indications that the cancer was rapidly spreading.

The same day I discovered this condition, I sent for the

husband, and Dr. Wheeler. I informed the former of his

wife’s condition, and that in the natural course of the disease

the patient could not live more than a few months. Dr.

Wheeler said, and afterward wrote: ‘‘There was no doubt the

operation had greatly prolonged the patient’s life, and relieved

in a great measure her sufferings’’. Still it was evident the

malignant degeneration had been existing only about one year;

and if the growth had been removed at an earlier period, or

before it had infiltrated surrounding structures, the disease

might have been entirely eradicated, and the patient saved.

Cancer is primarily a local disease induced by local irritation.

In this instance the disease was clearly of local origin. The

patient had been sick since the birth of her last child, then

thirteen years of age. At that time there was some sepsis,

which resulted in pelvic peritonitis, salpingitis, and oophoritis,

followed by the displacement of the Fallopian tubes and

ovaries, and the formation of pseudo-membranous adhesions,

Repeated attacks of peritonitis increased the disease, and the

long continued local irritation developed the cancer, which

finally ended her existence’.

If the uterine appendages in this patient had been removed

eight or ten years previously, the source of irritation would

have been removed, and the development of cancer, in all

probability, prevented. At that time, too, the necessary surg-

ical interference would have been comparatively simple.

The case of this pelvic tumor had been one of exceeding in-

terest to me, and from time to time, I returned to the study of

1. She died thirteen months after the operation, a large secondary

growth in the peritoneal cavity.

168 MARY A. DIXON JONES:

it; but repeated and careful microscopical examinations, not

only left unsettled the question as to the cause of the disease,

but even as to where the cancer started. According to modern

views, first announced by Thiersch and Waldeyer, a normal

epithelial structure is required for giving rise to the cancer.

There is no structure on the floor of the pelvis, unless we resort

to the hypothesis, that a parovary was the initial source of the

grown cancer. <A sufficient number of cases is, however, on

record, where cancer has started in pure connective tissue

formations, entirely devoid of epithelial structure.

The tumor, with the adjacent tissues, was placed in a dilute

solution of chromic acid, until thoroughly hardened, and after-

ward sliced for the microscopical research. The main tumor

exhibits three varieties of cancer, i. e., scirrhous, adenoid, and

medullary cancer.

The scirrhous portion appear to be composed of an ex-

tremely firm and dense fibrous connective tissue, with scanty

nests of epithelia dispersed in it. It is mainly in the cross

sections that we meet with epithelial nests. In many places,

the protoplasmic bodies, between the bundles, the so-called

connective tissue cells are enlarged, or found ina state of active

proliferation by a more or less pronounced outgrowth of living

matter. In such places the splitting up of the protoplasmic

bodies into rows and chains of nucleated, coarsely granular

bodies is piainly seen. Even in the scirrhous portion, we not

unfrequently meet with nests hollowed out in their centre

thereby showing a tendency to change into the adenoid variety.

The epithelia of the nests are small, provided with distinct

nuclei and nucleoli, and separated from one another by a light

rim of cement substance traversed by delicate thread-like form-

ations.

Close by we meet with a variety termed ‘‘adenoid”’ or

gland like. This form is conspicuous by epithelial nests hol-

lowed out in their centre into more or less regular cavities,

typical of all glandular tissne. With high powers we can

ascertain that many epithelia are enlarged and contain globular

and irregular secondary formations in their interior which have

CARCINOMA ON THE FLOOR OF THE PELVIS 169

been considered by pathologists as parasitic in nature. I hold

the view of Virchow, that all these impacted formations are

signs of active proliferation of the epithelia, the so-called

‘¢mother-cells’’, of old authors, tending toward a new forma-

tion of epithelia. The adenoid form of cancer is most fre-

quently met in the uterus and in the alimentary tract, although

in this case I was unable to trace any connection of the cancer-

ous tumor with either the uterus or the rectum.

The third variety of cancer observed in this tumor is the so-

called medullary form, which pathologists justly consider the

most malignant. See Fig. 1.

We see some scanty tubular formations of adenoid cancer

blending with a portion characterized by an abundance of

epithelial nests and comparatively little fibrous connective

tissue between them. Both the scirrhous and adenoid forms

have contributed to produce the medullary type. The nests,

though peg-like in the vicinity of the tubules, have assumed

rather irregular forms, in which even the single epithelia-al cells

have, in many instances, lost their angular shape to such a degree

that a large protoplasmic layer may appear with scattered

nuclei and occasional demonstrations of single epithelia-al cells,

which, however, under all circumstances, remain interconnected

by means of delicate threads.

In the adjacent connective tissue we see an active prolifera-

tion, most pronounced in the medullary portion of the tumor.

There are numerous granules and globules ccattered through-

out the connective tissue. This infiltration has long since been

known by the name of ‘‘small cellular infiltration of Virchow”’,

or ‘‘inflammatory reaction’’ of Thiersch and Waldeyer. It 1s

interesting to inquire what may be the origin and significance

of this proliferation in the connective tissue adjacent to all

cancer nests, more especially to the adenoid and medullary

varieties. The image offered by the connective tissue closely

resembles the inflammatory condition.

We know that every new growth in the connective tissue

first appears as a reduction to its medullary or embryonal con-

dition, the same as takes place in ordinary inflammation.

170 MARY A. DIXON JONES:

Both cancer and sarcoma, in their commencement, present ap-

pearances similar to inflammation. It is only the final result

that will determine the nature of the exuberant growth of the

connective tissue or the epithelium, whether it is simply an

acute inflammatory disturbance or a malignant tumor, sarcoma

or carcinoma.

Around every growth we see this inflammatory reaction or

infiltration. Virchow says: ‘‘If we examine any proliferat-

ing tumor of a cellular character we find, three to five lines

beyond its apparent limits, the tissue already in a state of dis-

ease and exhibiting the first traces of a new zone'”’.

FIRST DISCOVERY :—-INFLAMMATORY CORPUSCLES CHANGE DIRECTLY

TO CANCER EPITHELIA.

When studying with high powers of the microscope, this

‘¢inflammatory infiltration”’, | noticed that some of the inflam-

matory corpuscles were shaping themselves into cancer epi-

thelia. The indifferent or medullary corpuscles were changing

to large polyhedral epithelia-al cells, and forming cancer nests.

This, so far as I know, had never before been observed or demon-

strated, and it completely sustains what Dr. C. Heitzman

asserted in 1883, that the so-called small cellular infiltration of

the connective tissue was the ‘‘pre-stage of cancer*”’.

This view is of great practical importance; and shows that in

any operation for the removal of a malignant growth, all the

inflammatory infiltration around should be removed. When-

ever we see by the microscope this infiltration on the cut sur-

face made by the surgeon, we can positively foretell a recur-

rence of the cancer in the given spot. We will always find

this zone is the chief source of local recurrence after extirpa-

tion.

We see clearly the transformation of the basis sub-

stances into protoplasm. Both the free protoplasm between

the bundles and the protoplasm of the basis substance grow

1. Cellular Pathology, p. 503.

2. Microscopical Morphology.

CARCINOMA ON THE FLOOR OF THE PELVIS 1d

and proliferate. We see rows of newly formed elements

between the bundles and the bundles themselves transformed

into protoplasmic bodies, the final result being what patholo-

gists term ‘‘inflammatory infiltration”’.

In the highest degree of this change only scanty spindle-

shaped fibrilla are left between the groups of the embryonal or

medullary corpuscles. At the same time we see that in the

groups of medullary corpuscles numerous bodies had made

their appearance characterized by an angular shape, by mutual

flattening, and the appearance of large oblong nuclei; in short,

bodies which offer all evidence of epithelia-al cells, although they

had made their appearance, independently of previous cancer

nests in the midst of embryonal or medullary corpuscles sprung

from previous fibrous connective tissue.

SECOND DISCOVERY :—-HOW CANCER EPITHELIA-AL CELLS ARE CON-

VEYED TO DIFFERENT AND DISTANT PARTS OF THE BODY.

The microscopical analysis of both ovaries revealed still more

remarkable facts serving to illustrate the manner in which can-

cer is spreading. The right ovary was found in the state of

the reactive infiltration just described. This may have been

the result of a mere oophoritis, or of a beginning appearance

of cancer. Since the right ovary contained several gyromata,

and the inflammatory infiltration was most pronounced in the

cortex of the ovary, and in the vicinity of the gyromata, I

would consider part of this, at least, as subacute oophoritis.

Quite different were the features of the left ovary. Fig. 2.

Here we see already with low powers of the microscope

peculiar tracts pervading the medullary portion near the hilum.

These tracts show coarsely granular irregular bodies clustered

together in the shape of rows, exhibiting all the features of

cancer nests. Higher powers of the microscope reveal the in-

teresting facts that these rows of cancer nests are in the lymph-

vessels, and that the lymph-vessels are dilated by, and are car-

rying the cancer epithelia-al cells. This proves, what has long

been surmised, that cancer is conveyed to different and distant

parts of the body by means of the lymphatics; but this is, so far

172 MARY A. DIXON JONES:

as I know, the first time it has been seen, or the fact positively

verified, though it has generally been supposed to be the case,

because the lymph ganglia near a malignant growth are the

first to be affected. The endothelial lining of lymph-vessels

is most conspicuous in the dilated portions where the cancer

epithelia-al cells do not entirely fill the calibre. In the lymph-

vessels the cancer epithelia-al cells have mostly lost their angular

shape, being more or less rounded and coarsely granular, and

showing a considerable increase of living matter toward an

endogenous new formation. Some epithelia (KX) show a karyo-

kinetic change of the nuclei which leads to a division of the

cancer epithelia. Besides these formations we meet with pro-

toplasmic bodies mixed with epithelia-al cells not surpassing

in size so-called lymph corpuscles, and between all these form-

ations granules of varying size.

In Fig. 2, an entirely recent thrombus of the lymphatics is

illustrated which is proved by the fact that as yet no change

has taken place in the walls of the lymphatics or in their

endothelium. That such changes do occur, and give rise to

secondary tissue changes in the vicinity of the lymphatics, is

proved by the study of other portions of the same specimen.

See Fig. 3.

- Here we notice peculiar changes of cancer epithelia-al cells,

not only the indistinct karyokinetic change in some nuclei, but

also a direct division of the epithelia-al cells into smaller pieces

of protoplasm, known by the name of medullary or embryonal

corpuscles. Whether the division is an indirect or direct one,

the result is the same under all circumstances; it is the living

matter of the protoplasm or the epithelia-al cells stored up in

the nuclei and the granules in the surrounding protoplasm

that causes proliferation.

Along the border of the lymph-vessels we still recognize the

endothelial cells, which likewis are in a beginning proliferation

by the outgrowth of their living matter into, first, coarsely granu-

lar, afterward vacuolated, and at last nucleated and reticulated

bodies, exactly as we see in an acute inflammatory process. In

several places in the specimen the wall of the lymph-vessel is

CARCINOMA ON THE FLOOR OF THE PELVIS 173

completely lost by inflammatory changes of the adjacent fibrous

connective tissue. But the connective tissue corpuscles and

the basis substance have undergone proliferation, which may

lead to the appearance of medullary or inflammatory corpuscles,

changes which penetrate the environments of the !ymph-vessels

to a varying depth, and as stated before, to be considered the

commencement of pre-stage of a cancerous growth. One of

the endothelia of an apparently normal lymph-yessel is illustrated

at L. C. It shows a cluster of red-brown pigment granules,

due to a previous hemorrhage.

The highest powers of the microscope thoroughly convince

the observer of the tissue changes occurring around a cancerous

thrombus in a lymph-canal. See Fig. 4.

The illustrated spot is more advanced in such changes than

those drawn in Fig. 3. Wesee some nuclei in karyokinetic

changes. In many epithelia-al cells the nuclei are broken up into

a number of irregular lumps of living matter. We see a division

of some epithelia-al cells into smaller pieces of protoplasm, in-

terconnected with some origina epithelia-al cells by delicate

threads. The lining endothelium of the distended lymph-vessels

is changed everywhere, the changes consisting in an increase of

the living matter of both the nuclei and the granules of the pro-

toplasm. At the same time the adjacent connective tissue exhibits

beautiful figures of proliferation from a small, just perceptible,

granule into a solid, later a vacuolated, and at last nucleated

mass of living matter; the last form being that usually described

by authors as ‘‘protoplasm’’ or ‘‘cells’’. The basis sub-

stance of the fibrous connective tissue has, to a large extent,

been liquified and transformed into protoplasm, so much so

that only scanty spindle-shaped vestiges of such tissue are seen

in the immediate vicinity of the lymph-vessels; whereas, some

distance away, the beginning liquefaction of the basis sub-

stance is shown by the reappearance of living matter. The

peritoneal cover of the left tube is broadened, its blood-vessels

dilated, and the cortex crowded with medullary or inflammatory

corpuscles. In a few places I was able to trace an increase in

the size of the medullary corpuscles to that of cancer epithelia-

174 CARCINOMA ON THE FLOOR OF THE PELVIS

al cells so much so that I must attribute the inflammatory in-

filtration of the peritoneum not to peritonitis proper, but to a

beginning invasion of the peritoneum with cancer.

My researches prove, beyond doubt, that the spreading of

cancer from one organ, or from one tissue toward a neighbor-

ing one, is accomplished by the lymph-vessels. For centuries

physicians and pathologists have been aware of the fact that

the organs first affected by secondary cancerous growth are the

lymph-ganglia in the neighborhood. It was a logical inference

to conclude that the lymphatics were instrumental in conveyiug

the poison of the cancer. It remained unsettled up to date

whether the infection of the lymph-ganglia was affected by the

so-called cancer-juice or by constituent elements of the cancer-

ous growth.

No observation, as far as I am aware, has ever been made

to corroborate the hypothesis of the pathologist. My studies

have revealed the fact that the lymph-vessels carry the cancer

poison not only to the neighboring lymph-ganglia, therefore,

centrifugally, but into an organ which has no lymph-ganglia,

only lymph-vessels, as the ovary. The specimen shows plainly

that the poison is the cancer epithelia-al cells which are trans-

mitted into the lymphatics, causing thrombosis of the lympha-

tics and infection around them. Whether or not the poison is

lodged in parasitic organisms within the cancer epithelia-al cells

Iam unable to say. All attempts to prove the existence of

such parasites have thus far proven failures.

176 CARCINOMA ON THE FLOOR OF THE PELVIS

PLATE XXVI.

Fig. 1. Carcinoma of Floor of Pelvis, Adenoid and Medullary Por-

tion. x 200. A, adenoid or gland-like formations of cancer-epithelia; M,

M, medullary portion of cancer; J, I, so-called small cellular or inflam-

matory infiltration of fibrous connective tissue; F, longitudinal bundles

of coarse fibrous connective tissue; NV, beginning formations of nests

between the bundles.

Fig. 2. Thrombosis of Lymph-vessels of Left Ovary with Cancer

Epithelia. x 600. C, fibrous connective tissue of medulla of ovary near

hilum; M, bundles of smooth muscle fibres; L, L, L, lymph-vessels with

unchanged endothelial lining; Z, H, cancer epithelium filling and extending

the calibres of lymph-—vessels; K, cancer epithelium whose nuclei show

karyokinetic figures.

Fig. 8. Cancerous Invasion of Connective Tissue from Cancer Epi-

thelium transported into lymph-vessels. x 600. F, fibrous connective

tissue; L, L, lymph-vessels; LZ, C, lymph-corpuscles; P, pigment cluster

from previous hemorrhage; C, C, cancer epithelium lying in lymph-vessels;

E, E, endothelium of lymph-vessel in proliferation; G, outgrowth of living

matter in endothelium and adjacent connective tissue.

Fig. 4. Tissue Changes around a Lymph-Vessel filled with Cancer

Epithelium. x 1,000. F, F, fibrous connective tissue unchanged; C, C,

cancer epithelium inalymph-vessel, coarsely granular, undergoing divis-

ions; EZ, E, endothelium lining the lymph-vessel in active proliferation; J,

I, proliferation of fibrous connective tissue environing the cancer

thrombus.

PLATE XXVI

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EFFECT OF HIGH ALTITUDE ON BLOOD COUNTS.

A. MANSFIELD HOLMES, A. M., M. D., DENVER, CoLo.

Much speculation has resulted from the various investiga-

tions on the influence of altitude on blood counts. This sub-

ject involves so many factors that if the results are to be of

scientific value much care must be taken both in the accuracy

of the technique employed, and in the interpretation of the

phenomena. My studies in hematology have, for some time,

directed my attention to this problem. Many interesting

studies have been made in this line of work in the Alps and

other parts of the world; but so far as I have been able to:

ascertain, a careful study of this subject has not been made in

the mountains of the United States. The altitude of Pike’s

Peak, in the vicinity of Denver, has presented the opportunity

for making sucha study. I, however, was not able to avail

myself of this opportunity until the early part of last Septem-

ber (1898).

All hematologists recognize the fact that the counting of the

red and white cells of the blood is a more or less inexact pro-

cedure. Discrepancies are unavoidable; but for scientific pur-

poses precautions can be taken which diminish these errors to

the minimum. Similar difficulties are met with in the estima-

tion of the hemaglobin, an approximately accurate estimate of

which requires extended practice and a keen sense of color per-

ception. A few words as to the method adopted in this study

are probably not out of place. The instruments employed

were a microscope, Fleischel’s hemometer, and Thoma-Zeiss

hemacytometer. It might be as well to state at this time that

a uniform method of study was used in each count, the same

instruments were employed, and the usual sources of error in

making such counts were, as far as possible, avoided.

178 A. MANSFIELD HOLMES:

In normal blood it has been ascertained that for every white

cell there are about five hundred red cells. It is evident to

all who have used the Thoma-Zeiss instrument that in making

a count of the red and white cells over an area large enough to

furnish five hundred red cells, there may be no white cell found,

while in an adjacent area two or more white cells may be

found. Therefore, the ratio of red cells to white cells, as

determined by a count of one such area, may have a wide

variation. Mathematically, if we let X equal the number of

white cells, then °°°—R—ratio of red to white cells. When

X—0, R= co (infinity); X—1, R—500; X—2, R—250; ete.

On the average, when X is equal to 1, we may conclude that

the probability of error in the count of white and red cells is

500 against the white. How may we diminish the probability

of error? This is a question which I have considered, and for

my own use have adopted the following method:

I use the highest power dry lens that can be focussed on the

blood in the Thoma-Zeiss cell. By counting the red cells in

fifty squares, and the white cells in four hundred squares we

reduce the ratio of error eight times; 500-—8—62, 5—R’. Also

I use an objective which .will give a field of vision with a

diameter five or six times greater than the side of one of the

squares of the Thoma-Zeiss cell. Any variation in either

direction can be readily adjusted by increasing or decreasing

the tube length of the microscope. Using my Bausch and

Lomb microscope with a No. 6 lens, 1 inch objective, and tube

length 163 mm., I obtain a field of vision with a diameter

equal to the side of six squares, which equals §,; mm. There-

fore r?— 35; the area, r?—3.1416 x 73,—.070686 sq. mm., =

area of field of view. In other words, by counting 14.14 fields

of view we obtain the number of blood cells in 1 sq. mm. By

counting 84.84 fields of view we obtain the count of cells

equal to 6 sq. mm. Therefore by adding the number of white

ells found in the 400 squares to those found in 84.84 fields of

view beyond the checkered scale, we obtain the number of

white cells found in 7 sq. mm. of surface, which is the equiv-

alent of 99 fields of view. (84.84 plus 14.14—98.98). The

EFFECT OF HIGH ALTITUDE ON BLOOD COUNTZ 179

total number divided by 7, the number of sq. mm., will give

an average very close to the true number. The probable error

is now reduced from 62.5 to 8.9—(62.5—T—8.9— R”).

In the following studies I uniformly counted the red cells in

fifty squares of the Thoma-Zeiss cell, or the equivalent of one-

eighth of one sq. mm. of surface. The white cells were

counted over a surface equivalent to 7 sq. mm, The blood

was diluted with Toison’s Solution, 1 to 100; thoroughly mixed,

and studied immediately. Two counts were made, each com-

ing from the same diluted specimen of blood, the mixture be-

ing thoroughly agitated before taking the drop utilized for

counting. The shortest possible time intervened between the

two counts; the same Thoma-Zeiss instrument was used, and

the same precautions used in mixing the contents of the instru-

ment before the drops were taken. In each count, as far as

possible, a drop of the same size was used and the same care

exercised in applying the cover glasses. The blood studied

was taken from the tip of the finger, punctured by a triangular

pointed needle. In each study I have adopted the average of

the two counts for my report as being approximately closer to

the actual number.

I have been particularly interested in comparing the results

of the first and second counts made from the same diluted

specimen of blood, and have also compared these estimates

with those obtained by the use of Deland’s hematocrit.

In my experience the Thoma-Zeiss instrument has been more

satisfactory, although I must confess that I have not used the

hematocrit except on a few occasions, and then for the purpose

of comparing the two instruments. In the following study I

made use of my own blood. In this connection it will be

necessary to be, to a slight degree, personal. At the time of

making the study I was in good health. I was, however, in

need of rest. I left Denver on September 8th, 1898, for Col-

orado Springs, and commenced the experiments on the follow-

ing day.

First Srupy.—Made at Dr. Gildea’s residence, Colorado

Springs, September 8th, 1898, at 11:45 a. m., two hours after

180 A. MANSFIELD HOLMES:

breakfast. The temperature was 52° F. The count resulted

as follows: White cells, 10,700; red cells, 4,968,000 per ec.

mm. Hemaglobin unfortunately was not estimated at this

time on account of not having the instrument at hand.

It was my intention to ascend Pike’s Peak on the following

day, but a storm prevented. On the second day following I

made the ascent with the following report:

Seconp Stupy.—Made at the Iron Springs Hotel, Manitou,

Colorado, September 11th, 1898, 6:30 a. m., before breakfast.

Temperature, 45° F. The count was as follows: White cells,

8,900; red cells, 5,104,000 per c.mm. Hg. 100 per cent.

Immediately after completing this count I breakfasted and

took the train for Pike’s Peak, arriving at the top of the Peak

at ll a.m. Through the courtesy of Mr. B. M. Rastall, the

agent of the Pike’s Peak railroad at the top of the mountain,

I was permitted to use one of the windows of the station, the

building formerly used as the United States Signal Station.

Tairp Stupy.—Made on top of Pike’s Peak, 11:15 a. m.

Temperature 15° F. Storming. Biood taken before luncheon.

Count: White cells, 8,000; red cells, 5,668,000 per c. mm.

Hg. 95 per cent.

Fourta Strupy.—Made on top of Pike’s Peak, 2:15 p. m.,

three hours later. Temperature 9° F. Storming. Blood

taken immediately after luncheon. Count: White cells, 9,300;

red cells, 5,840,000 perc. mm.

On completing this study the train was ready to return to

Manitou and I was unable to estimate the hemaglobin.

Firra Stupy.—Made at the Iron Springs Hotel, Manitou,

9 p. m. on the same day. Temperature 40°F. Moderating.

Blood taken two hours after dinner. Count: White cells,

10,800; red cells, 5,352,000 perc. mm. Hg. 100 per cent.

For convenience I have arranged the data of the foregoing

studies in tabulated form.

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182 A. MANSFIELD HOLMES:

During the short period that I remained at the top of the

mountain, I ascertained that Mr. Rastall, the agent of the rail-

road, had been residing there for almost six months, and had

made only occasional trips to Manitou, and on these trips never

remained longer than a few hours. Through the courtesy of

Mr. Rastall I was permitted to study his blood during the time

1 was at the top of the mountain, and he kindly returned to

Manitou with me to enable me to make a second study, to ob-

serve the effect of a sudden change to a lower altitude.

Frrst Stupy.—Made on top of Pike’s Peak, September 11,

1898, 1 p.m. Temperature 9° F. Storming. Blood taken

immediately after luncheon. Count: White cells, 10,600; red

cells, 6,788,000 perc. mm, Hg. 110 per cent.

Sxconp Stupy.—Made at Iron Springs Hotel, September

11, 1895, 3:30 p.m. Temperature 40°F. Modeating.

Blood taken before dinner. Count: White cells, 15,500; red

cells, 6,620,000. Hg. 110 per cent.

These observations are recorded in tabular form on the op-.

posite page (Table IT).

Blood films were also taken at the time of making the various

counts. These films have been stained and a differential count

made. The tabulated report of these differential counts both

from my own blood (Table III) and from Mr. Rastall’s (Table

IV), are given on page 184.

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EFFECT OF HIGH ALTITUDE ON BLOOD COUNTS 185

Let us now compare the foregoing studies and observe the

effects produced on the blood count by the sudden changes in

altitude. By referring to Table I, it will be observed: First,

that between the second and third studies there was an inter-

val of four hours and forty-five minutes. Second, during this

period I made the ascent from the Iron Springs Hotel, Mani-

tou, to the old Signal Station at the top of the Peak; the in-

crease in altitude being 7,816 feet, or, approximately, one mile

and ahalf. Third, during this period the red cells showed an

increase of 564,000 foreach ec. mm. Fourth, these two counts

were made before’ breakfast and luncheon, respectively, and

yet the variation in the count of white cells was scarcely ap-

parent. Fifth, during the interval of three hours between the

third and fourth studies, while remaining on the top of the

mountain, the number of red cells made a further increase of

172,000. In other words, during a period of seven hours and

forty-five minutes the number of red cells increased 736,000

per each c. mm. Sixth, in the fifth study, made on returning

to Manitou, equally as important phonomenon was observed.

The interval between the fourth and fifth studies was six hours

and forty-five minutes. During this period there was a de-

crease in altitude of 7,816 feet, and the number of red cells

decreased 488,000 per each c. mm.

It will therefore be recognized from these studies: First,

that a sudden change from a low to a high altitude produces

a rapid increase in the number of red cells. Second, that a

sudden change from a high to a low altitude produces a rapid

decrease in the number of red cells.

The percentage estimation from Table I is as follows: Tak-

ing the count made at Manitou in the morning as the standard,

the first count made on top of the mountain, four hours and

forty-five minutes later, shows an increase of 11.5 per cent.

The second count made on top of the mountain, three hours

later, shows an increase of 14.42 per cent. Hence there was

an increase of 2.92 per cent during the three hours on the top

of the mountain.

186 A. MANSFIELD HOLMES:

On returning to Manitou in the evening the count remained

4.86 per cent higher than in the morning before starting for

the top of the mountain. It will therefore be observed:

First. That the red cells increase ¢mmediately on making

the ascent of the mountain.

Second. That the number continues to increase during

a residence on the mountain.

Third. That the number suddenly diminishes on returning

to a lower altitude.

Fourth. That the rate of decrease is not as pronounced as

the rate of increase.

By comparing the second study of Mr. Rastall’s blood, made

at the Iron Springs Hotel, Manitou, with the first study, made

at the top of the mountain four hours and thirty minutes earl-

ier, we observe a decrease of 168,000 per each c. mm., or

2.47 per cent. By making a similar comparison of my own

studies, comparing the fifth study with the fourth, we observe

a decrease of 8.35 per cent, the interval between the studies

being six hours and forty-five minutes. If these two cases

are to be compared, it would seem that the blood of per-

sons residing in a high altitude for a long period is affected to a

less degree on returning to a lower altitude, than that of one

who remains in a high altitude for a short time.

Numerous explanations have been offered to account for the

apparent increase in the number of red cells in high altitudes;

but before proceeding to look for an explanation, the factors

which may, directly or indirectly, influence this change, should

be considered. In order to eliminate, as far as possible, all

factors except those due directly to altitude, the shortest possi-

ble intervals between the counts should be considered of not a

little importance. The long intervals between such counts in

the majority of the reports. made heretofore, impressed me

with the necessity of making counts with short intervals

between them, and yet to have the advantage of the great dif-

ference in altitude. Pike’s Peak, with its great elevation and

a railroad running to the top, offers advantages for such a

study not equalled at any other point.

EFFECT OF HIGH ALTITUDE ON BLOOD COUNTS 187

The U.S. Signal Station was opened at the top of Pike’s Peak

September 8, 1892, and remained until October 1, 1894. The

records of this Bureau show that for September, 1893, and

September, 1894, the mean atmospheric pressure was equivalent

to 17.91 cubic inches of mercury. Also the mean temperature

for September, 1893, was 52.4° F., and for September, 1894,

29.2° F. It is estimated that one cubic inch of mercury at 4°

C. weighs .49 pound avoirdupois. Hence, the weight of 17.91

cubic inches of mercury will be nearly 8.79 pounds. Therefore,

the mean atmospheric pressure on Pike’s Peak during Septem-

ber, 1893 and 1894, was approximately 8.79 pounds to the

square inch.

Denver is one mile above sea-level. The atmospheric pres-

sure at such an elevation is about twelve pounds to the square

inch. This is about three pounds to the square inch less than

at sea-level. A person passing suddenly from sea-level to such

an altitude frequently experiences a sudden dilation of his

entire vascular system as a result of the diminished resistance

of the atmospheric pressure. After a prolonged residence at

such an elevation, the nervous system adjusts itself to the

changed conditions and very little inconvenience is experienced.

Those who have made the trip to the top of Pike’s Peak have

experienced the effects of the diminishing atmospheric pressure

from 12 pounds to 8.79 pounds.

The smaller amount of oxygen in the atmosphere at high

altitudes is also an important factor. Red cells possess a

strong affinity for oxygen, and are distinctly oxygen carriers.

Each organism is accustomed to, and demands, a definite

amount of oxygen. The respiration and circuiation are auto-

matically adjusted in accordance with the ease or difficulty

with which this need is satisfied.

Under the conditions existing in high altitudes the difticulty

of supplying the organism with the needed oxygen is increased.

Hence, it would seem that under such conditions there is a

need for a greater activity of the total volume of red cells, to

absorb the amount of oxygen necessary for the organism. This

necessarily brings into activity many red cells which, under

188 EFFECT OF HIGH ALTITUDE ON BLOOD COUNTS

different conditions, probably remain in a more or less quiescent

state in deeper portions of the body.

How far these influences are responsible for the variation in

the count of the red cells of the blood at varying altitudes, it is

not the purpose of this study to investigate. The able experi-

ments of Regnard, Egger and others have gone extensively

into this department of the study.

PHOTO-MICROGRAPHY WITH OPAQUE OBJECTS.

;

W. H. WALMSLEY.

It is a matter of no little regret to the lover of the micro-

scope and its wondrous revelations in the realms of Nature in-

visible to the unaided sight, that the wide class of subjects

which may be embraced in the comprehensive title or term of

Opaque Objects is so greatly neglected of late years. This is

alike true of both modern instruments and observers. The

microscopes of twenty years ago were abundantly supplied

with objectives of moderate and low powers suited to their

examination, and with accessory apparatus for their illumination

under the most diverse conditions, whilst much space in the

text books was devoted to the same subject. But with the

general introduction of the instrument into schools of all

grades and its practical employment in a multitude of arts and

sciences, most of these accessories have been eliminated from

its outfits, until a microscope as now generally furnished com-

prises merely a simple form of stand with a couple of objectives

of moderate and fairly high powers and a double nose piece.

‘¢Only these and nothing more”. Vast fields of investigation

are undoubtedly within the scope of its capacities, but the

wonderful beauties of form and outward structure in the untold

myriads of Nature’s lavish handiwork, remain but as a sealed

book to the great majority of observers. With the aid of the

most advanced modern methods in staining and cutting sec-

tions, the minutest structure of a tissue is revealed to the prac-

tised eye, which may be almost or entirely ignorant of that of

its envelope. How many of the students of the present day

know anything of a mucous surface for instance, injected with

opaque pigments and viewed under a proper illumination? Yet

nothing can be more beautiful or instructive. So too with

190 WwW. H. WALMSLEY:

innumerable other subjects. The seeds of plants with their

infinite forms and markings: pollens, spores, scales and hairs

of leaves and stems, endless in variety and beauty. In the

insect world we have the compound eyes of many a fly glowing

with gorgeous beauty, the scales upon the elytra and bodies of _

many beetles, and the wings of butterflies and moths, the fairy-

like eggs, among the loveliest productions of Nature. In the

mineral kingdom may be found minute crystals of every form

and hue. But it is useless to extend the list, it is inexhaust-

ible in subjects that will repay the most careful examination

for purposes of either study or recreation.

The reproduction of opaque objects as seen under the micro-

scope, for purposes of illustration and record, is no less import-

ant than that of transparencies. As a matter of course—in the

author’s opinion—photography offers the most satisfactory

method of so doing. With suitable lenses and careful illumin-

ation it is but little if any more difficult than the photograph-

ing of transparent substances, yet no one seems to have done

anything heretofore in this direction, with the single exception

of photographing metailic surfaces under high powers; a most im-

portant subject which has received considerable attention and

added greatly to the world’s knowledge of these structures,

within the last three or four years. Excepting these, however,

I have never seen a photo-micrograph of an opaque object, nor

a single line from any pen bearing upon the subject. If such

exist they have not come under my observation.

It is hoped that these few preliminary remarks may not

prove useless or uninteresting as an introduction to the equally

brief notes or hints as to the making of this class of photo-

micrographs, the following of which has led to fairly good re-

sults in the author’s hands.

Any microscope, with or without inclination to body, may

be used. The results are better with, than without an ocular,

and the latter should be, if possible, especially constructed for

the purpose—as Zeiss’ projection eyepiece for example. It

should be capable of carrying and focusing a three-inch ob-

jective, which power is useful for many comparatively large or

PHOTO-MICROGRAPHY WITH OPAQUE OBJECTS 191

coarse objects. The outfit of lenses should include a two-inch

objective but need not go above 3, the most useful work

being done with 1}$-in. to 4-in. A plano-convex or bull’s eye

condensing lens on stand is indispensable. If possible, a

Lieberkiihn for each objective and a parabolic silvered reflector

should be included in the outfit, though the latter pieces of

apparatus are rarely found in these days with any microscope,

especially of American manufacture.

Artificial illumination may be used; even the somewhat dim

coal oil lamp, which, however, requires inordinately long ex-

posures. The acetylene gas light is altogether the best from

an artificial source I have ever employed, and is quite satisfac-

tory in time and quality. But altogether the best light for the

purpose is dffused daylight from a window with northern ex-

posure, than which nothing can possibly be better. If the

camera is constructed so as to permit the use of the micro-

scope in a vertical position, so much the better, as proper

lighting of the object is more readily secured than when the

instrument is inclined horizontally, an even illumination, avoid-

ing deep shadows, giving the best results in most cases, and

this is the more readily obtained when the object lies in a hori-

zontal plane. Some objects are better shown under a diffused

light, such as may be obtained near a window without the

interposition of a condenser. If its color be dark or reflect

but little light, the bull’s eye should be used focused upon the

specimen, care being taken to avoid glare or excess of illumin-

ation which will result in a confused image in the negative.

With some subjects the Lieberkiihn may be used advant-

ageously, with others the parabolic reflector, but the majority

yield better results under the most simple forms of illumina-

tion. A very little practice will enable the operator to de-

termine this for himself, in widely differing cases.

The character of plates to be used for the negatives is prob-

ably of more importance than those for transparent objects.

They should be of a good degree of sensitiveness but not too

rapid, must be capable of giving great density if desired and

should develop equally well with all mediums, so that the

192 PHOTO-MICROGRAPHY WITH OPAQUE OBJECTS

worker may employ that with which he is most familiar. The

best and most satisfactory paper I have ever used is the

‘¢Velox’’, a modified bromide, capable of being handled by

daylight but sensitive enough to be printed by lamp or gas-

light, and giving black and white prints of the most exquisite

and permanent qualities. The illustrations accompanying this

paper are printed on ‘‘ Glossy Velox’’ which I have found to

yield results superior to those obtainable on the matt surface.

Some specimens are better delineated by allowing the light

from the sky to fall as nearly perpendicular as possible upon

them. Others again show better by throwing the light obliquely

across their surfaces by means of the bull’s eye condenser or

parabolic reflector. They should always be carefully studied

under various methods of illumination before making any

attempt to photograph them, in order to determine upon the

best resolution and definition of their several features. No. 2

of the illustrations was made with the light reflected from a

white cloud and falling directly upon the object without the in-

tervention of a condenser. The others were lighted from the

same source, but with a condenser so arranged as to throw the

light across their surfaces, causing slight shadows. The result

is strikingly shown in No. 3 from a slide of Cuxhayven diatoms,

mostly discoid forms. As seen with the page in proper posi-

tion, many of them present the appearance of shallow dishes

or saucers, containing others of smaller dimensions; reverse

the page and print and this appearance is entirely lost. With

these three photographs the illumination was from the front of

the microscope.

The possibilities of this class of photo-micrography for real

work or recreation only, are very great; the field boundless. I

trust that others may feel inclined to enter upon it and that

we may hear from them in the future.

The explanation of Plate XX VII may be found in the text.

ON THE NORTH AMERICAN SPECIES OF THE GENUS

ATAX (FABR.) BRUZ.

ROBERT H. WOLCOTT.

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.

One who opens many of our fresh-water mussels, cannot fail

to notice, in part of them at least, dark spots upon the mantle or

gills, which a moment’s observation will show are living, moving

organisms. <A lens will reveal the fact that they have four pairs

of six-jointed legs and a pair of five-jointed palpi, but no

antenne-like structures, that the head, thorax and abdomen are

fused into one mass with no trace of segmentation, and that

the relatively long legs are clothed with spines and hairs which

assist in swimming. Two small blackish or brownish eyes

may be detected near the anterior margin. These characters

point to the taxonomic position of these creatures in the order

Acarina or Mites and in the family Hydrachnide or Water—

Mites, while their presence in the mussel suggests their mem-

bership in the genus Ata, the members of which are mussel—

parasites, during at least a part of their existence. Rarely

representatives of other non-parasitic genera may be found

within these shells, but their occurrence there is purely acci-

dental; on the other hand few species of this genus are found

except in mussels. However, the genus is not confined to the

Unionide, a single species having been found in the mantle—

cavity of a South American gasteropod, Ampullaria, related

to our genus Campeloma, and the author having detected

another previously described species in a species of Spheriuin,

one of the Cyrenide.

In scanning the literature on the subject we discover but

scattered references to Hydrachnide, under the generic term

Acarus, previous to 1781, when O. F. Miiller described 49

species from Denmark, establishing for them the new genus

194 ROBERT H. WALCOTT:

Hydrachna. In 1793, J. C. Fabricius included all these under

Trombidium, but in 1805 he established the genus Atawv which

was equivalent to Hydrachna of Miiller. Previously, in 1796,

P. A. Latreille had erected the genera Zimnochares and

Lylais, but these were by Fabricius included under Ataw. In

1834, Antoine Dugés restricted the name //ydrachna to a few

species which are still so classified, re-established the genera

Limnochares and Hylais, and separated from Ataa Fabricius,

which included the greater number of the species, the additional

genera Diplodontus and Arrenurus. In 1837 the genus of

Fabricius was still more sharply limited by C. L. Koch, who

separated several new genera; but only in 1854 and by

Ragnar Bruzelius was the genus Atawz reduced to the limits

which were for forty years accepted by all students of the

group as its natural bounds and are by many still so regarded.

In 1894 Richard Piersig, on grounds considered insufficient by

Koenike, separated from Ataz the genus Cochleophorus, and

in the past year, 1897, he has proposed another new genus,

Encentridophorus, to include a species described by Koenike

from East Africa, and the genus Vajadicola to include one of

our American species, also.described by Koenike. The char-

acters which separate Cochleophorus from Atax, as thus

limited, are sufficient, it seems to the author, to render the

former a valid genus; certainly the two designate clearly de-

fined groups of species and all described forms fall naturally

into one or the other of these groups. In accordance with this

view the species included under Cochleophorus are excluded

from this paper. In regard to Najadicola, however, while it

possesses certain characters which differ from those of other

species of parasitic mites, the writer has been unable to agree

with Piersig in thinking these differences such as to entitle it

to more than sub-generic rank.

As in the above manner limited, the characters of the genus

Atax are thus defined by Piersig in his ‘‘Deutschlands Hy-

drachniden”’ (97):

Body soft, with but a slight tendency to the formation of

chitinous thickenings over the surface, round or oval; on the

NORTH AMERICAN SPECIES OF THE GENUS ATAX 195

anterior margin no concavity; the posterior margin evenly

rounded or with a shallow median concavity. The first pair

of legs distinguished by an unusual thickness and in the non—

parasitic species provided with long, stout, movable, sword-

shaped spines, inserted into prominently projecting papille.

Second pair usually exceeding the third in length. The pro-

portion between the length of the body and legs quite variable,

but generally the legs of the parasitic species shorter than those

of the non-parasitic. The maxillary shield is not fused with

the neighboring epimera. In ventral view it resembles in

shape a broad chalice. The palpi are long; in the parasitic

forms they equal or exceed in thickness the first pair of legs.

The next to the last segment possesses on its ventral side three

papille varying in size in different species; of these the one

at the outer end ends in a chitinous spur, while the two others

placed somewhat farther posteriorly are each crowned with a

little hair. The fifth palpal segment is short and provided with

chitinous claws. Among the epimera those of the fourth pair

are distinguished by their size and more or less rectangular

form. Third epimeron imperfectly separated from the fourth.

Genital area at the extreme end of the body. The chitinous

plates surrounding the genital cleft from either side, bear to-

gether 10, 12, or numerous, acetabula. In the females charac-

teristic sword-like spines appear in the vicinity of the genital

opening, which are employed in oviposition.

This diagnosis is not strictly applicable to all of our species,

even excluding Atax (Najadicola) ingens (Koenike), since both

A. abnormipes mihi and A. ‘ndistinctus mihi are deeply emargi-

nate posteriorly, A. pectinatus mihi is a non-parasitic form yet

lacks the movable spines on the first pair of legs, and the

genital area is not in all forms at the extreme end of the body,

though usually approaching that position.

The sub-genus Vajadicola differs in the following respects.

The fore legs are not thickened, and all are short, with few

short spines and simple claws. The genital area is not at the

end of the body but immediately behind the last epimera and

as Koenike’s figures show, bears a certain resemblance to

196 ROBERT H. WOLCOTT:

that of Cochleophorus. It is, however, much broadened trans-

versely, and each genital plate is triangular in outline. There

are no spines about the genital opening of the female and the

lack of these is correllated with the method of oviposition, A.

(V.) engens Koenike depositing its eggs in masses between the

gills and not in them. .

Of the genus A¢aa as thus defined there have been hereto-

fore described 22 valid species, distributed geographically as

follows:

From Europe, 8: A. aculeatus Koenike (Germany), A. Bonz

Claparéde (Germany, Sweden, Switzerland, France, Russia)

A. crassipes (Miiller) (Finland, Russia, Switzerland, Denmark,

Germany, Italy, France), A. jiguralis Koch (Germany), A.

intermedius Koenike (Belgium, Germany, Russia), A. limosus

(Koch) Berlese (Italy, Germany), A. t¢ricuspis Koenike (Ger-

many) A. ypsilophorus (Bonz) (Sweden, Germany, Switzer-

land, France).

From Asia, 3: A. crassipes (Miiller) is recorded from Pales-

tine, and A. Schmackeri Koenike was described from Shanghai,

China, while Daday has recently published one from Ceylon,

A, singalensis, while his A. nodosus belongs to Cochleophorus.

From Africa, 1: A. lynceus Koenike from East Africa.

From Brazil, 6: A. Ampullarie Koenike, A. jissipes

Koenike, A. Jheringi Koenike, A. perforatus Koenike, A.

procurvipes Koenike, A. rugosus Koenike, all from the

province of Rio Grande do Sul.

From Guatemala, 3: A. alticola Stoll, A. dentipalpis Stoll

and A. septem-maculatus Stoll.

A. alzatei Alf. Dugés, described from Mexico, is a species

of Curvipes.

From North America, A. ypsilophorus (Bonz) has several

times been recorded and Koenike adds to it from Canada A.

fossulatus Koenike and A. (W.) ingens (Koenike).

Our own literature is not entirely wanting in references to

this genus, but the work done by Americans has for the most

part been practically worthless, while efforts made to secure

the original specimens have resulted in failure, as would be ex-

NORTH AMERICAN SPECIES OF THE GENUS ATAX 1!

pected from the number of years that have elapsed, the nature

of the specimens, and the crudity of methods of preservation

in vogue at the time they were described.

Thos. Say, in 1821, described Hydrachna triangularis from

Unio cariosus Say; in so doing he may have re-described Atax

ypsilophorus (Bonz) as other authors have inferred, although

from his description it is impossible to say which species he

had under observation. In 1836, James D. Dana and James

Whelpley, in Silliman’s Journal, described two forms, //y-

drachna formosa from ‘* Anodonta cataracta”’ (A. fluviatilis

Dillw.) and ‘* Unio purpurata”’ (an incorrect identification as

U. purpuratus Lam. is Southern in its habitat); and //ydrachna

pyriformis from Margaritana undulata Say. The former is

another synonym of A. ypsilophorus (Bonz), the latter a dis-

tinct species, but the characters given are not sufficient for

exact determination. Its form and the character of the claws

which are described as simple, seem to show that it is a female

of either A. abnormipes mihi or A. indistinctus mihi, but of

which it is impossible to tell. In 1842, 8. S. Haldeman

described under the ‘‘Genus? Unzionicola’’ nine species:

oviformis, lactea, personata, humerosa, symmetrica, prowima,

lugubris, unicolor and reticulata—with very short descrip-

tions, based mostly on color. Two of the nine are identi-

eal with A. ypsilophorus (Bonz), while the other seven are

probably the same, as Koenike (95b) suggests. Joseph

Leidy, in 1883, noted the presence of the same European

form in Anodonta fluviatilis Dillw. from New Jersey, and

mentions the occurrence in Unio complanatus Sol. of a second

species, ‘‘ probably ’’, he says, ‘‘ A. Lonzz”’, also a previously

described European form. In 1891, F. Koenike of Bremen,

Germany, published a preliminary account (91c) of some

material received from Dr. Tyrrell in Ottawa, Canada, con-

firming Leidy’s observation as to the occurrence of A. ypsil-

ophorus (Bonz) in North America, but, and it seems rightly,

throwing doubt on his identification of A. Bonz Claparéde. In

1895, a fuller paper (95b) on the same material by the same

author appeared and in it he enumerated the species previously

198 ROBERT H. WOLCOTT:

mentioned—A. ypsilophorus (Bonz), A. ,fossulatus Koenike

and A. (JV.)ingens (Koenike).

The collection of material upon which the present paper is

based was begun in 18938 and has been carried on, as oppor-

tunity offered, ever since. During the five years the following

collections of Unionide have been made and examined for

mites:

August, 1893, at Lake Saint Clair, Mich., 257 specimens of

Unio gracilis Barnes, U. luteolus Lam., U. nasutus Say, U.—

alatus Say, U. wentricosus Barnes, U. gibbosus Barnes, JU.

rectus Lam., U. coccineus Hild., U. undulatus Barnes, U.

occidens Lea, Margaritana rugosa Barnes, J. deltoides Lea

and Anodonta ovata Lea.

October, 1893, at Lansing, Mich., from the Cedar River,

about a score of mussels, belonging to several species, the

record of which is, unfortunately, lost.

July and August, 1894, at Charlevoix, Mich., from ‘+ 26”

Lake, Twin Lakes and Susan Lake, small inland lakes in the

vicinity, and from Round Lake, opening into Lake Michigan,

and also from Intermediate Lake at Ellsworth, Mich., 116

specimens of U. duteolus, M. rugosa, A. subcylindracea Lea, A.

footiana Lea, A. edentula Say and A. fragilis Lam.

August, 1894, in two small lakes on Beaver Island, L.

Michigan, 85 specimens of U/. luteolus, A. footiana, A. fra-

gilis and A. marryatana Lea.

July and August, 1895, from Grand River and smaller

streams, and from Reed’s Lake, near Grand Rapids, Mich.,

273 specimens of U/. coccineus, U. gubbosus, U. ventricosus,

U. occidens, U. rectus, U. undulatus, U. plicatus Lea, U.

adlatus, U. ligamentinus Lam, U. spatulatus Lea, U. Now-

eboract Lea, U. rubiginosus Lea, U. pustulosus Lea, U. School-

craftii Lea, U. verrucosus Barnes, U. luteolus, M. rugosa, M.

marginata Say, A. ovata, A. edentula, A. footiana, A. sub-

cylindracea, A. fragilis, A. imbecilis Say.

July, 1897, from Rogue River, Kent County, Mich., and

from Reed’s Lake, Grand Rapids, Mich., 21 specimens of UW.

NORTH AMERICAN SPECIES OF THE GENUS ATAX 199

occidens, U. spatulatus, M. deltoides, M. marginata, A. foot-

tana, and A. subcylindracea.

August, 1895, at Long Lake, Kalamazoo, Mich., 138 speci-

mens of J. luteolus, U. ventricosus and A. footiana.

August, 1895, at Black Lake, Holland, Mich., 10 specimens

of U. luteolus and U. ventricosus.

July and August, 1898, from various localities along Grand

River, near Grand Rapids, Mich., from the mill-pond at Mill

Creek, near Grand Rapids, from Reed’s Lake, and from Plas-

ter Creek, in the same vicinity, 534 specimens of the species

previously enumerated from the same localities, with the

addition of U. pressus Lea.

August, 1898, at White Lake, Muskegon county, Mich., 86

specimens of (7. luteolus, A. subgibbosa Anth., A. subcylindracea,

A. footiana and M. complanata Barnes.

August, 1897, at Lake Winnebago, Oshkosh, Wis., 21

specimens of U. gracilis, U. lutcolus and A. grandis Lea.

October, 1894, from Blue River, Crete, Neb., 2 Unio

luteolus.

October, 1894, from pools near Lincoln, Neb., 19 speci-

mens of U7. parvus Barnes, U. subrostratus Say, U. jamesianus

Lea and A. grandis.

October, 1894, from Platte River, South Bend, Neb., 1

_ A.W grandis.

October, 1894, from Weeping Water Creek, Weeping Water,

Neb., about 50 specimens of U. subrostratus, U. rubiginosus,

UY. undulatus, U. jamesianus and M. complanata.

September, 1895, from the same locality, 24 of the same

species.

September, 1895, from near Lincoln, Neb., 20 U. lachry-

mosus Lea, A. plana Lea, and A. decora Lea.

September, 1897, from the Blue River, at Milford, Neb.,

42 specimens of U. lachrymosus U. ventricosus, U. School-

eraftii, U. anodontoides Lea, M. complanata, A. plana and

A. grandis.

Thus, personally, the author has examined nearly 1,600

200 ROBERT H. WOLCOTT:

specimens of Unionide, representing a large number of locali-

ties and 39 species.

Through the kindness of Mr. Rh. H. Johnson of Harvard

University the material obtained from the foliowing mussels

has been received for examination:

Angust, 1897, from Lake Chautauqua, New York, 150

specimens of U7. phaseolus Hild., U. gibbosus, U. luteolus, A.

edentula and A. plana.

August, 1897, from Cayuga Creek, Cheektowaga, Erie

county, N. Y., a number of UW. occidens. |

To Prof. H. M. Kelly of Cornell College, Mt. Vernon, Iowa,

the author is indebted for the data and mites obtained from

the examination of the following large number of mussels, col-

lected during the years 1896 and 1897:

From the Illinois River and bayous and lakes near Havana,

Ills., 731 specimens of U7. alatus, U. asperrimus Lea, U. ano-

dontoides, U. cornutus Barnes, U. donaciformis Lea, U. ebenus

Lea, U. ellipsis Lea, U. graniferus Lea, U. elegans Lea, JU.

gibbosus, U. Higginsiti Lea, U. gracilis, U. laevissimus Lea,

U. ligamentinus, U. luteolus, U. lachrymosus, U. metanever,

Raf., U. multiplicatus Lea, U. parvus, U. pustulatus Lea,

U. pustulosus, U. rubiginosus, U. plicatus, U. securis Lea,

U. tenuissimus Lea, U. trigonus Lea, U. rectus, U. tuberculatus

Raf., U. ventricosus, M. rugosa, M. marginata, M. confragosa

Say, MW. complanata, A. imbecilis, A. plana, A. suborbiculata

Say, A. edentula and A. corpulenta Coop.

From the Spoon River at Bernadotte and Duncan’s Mills,

Ills., 194 specimens including the greater number of the above

species.

From Abbey Creek and Cedar River, Mt. Vernon, Iowa,

486 specimens, including also the majority of the same species.

From the Susquehanna River at Lewisburgh and Sunbury,

Pa., and the Schuylkill River and French Creek near Phoenix-

ville, Pa., 202 specimens of A. edentula, M. undulata, M.

marginata, U. complanatus Sol., U. heterodon Lea, U.

nasutus, UW. ochraceus Say and U. tappanianus Lea.

NORTH AMERICAN SPECIES OF THE GENUS ATAX 201

Mr. M. Ricker of Burlington, Iowa, has kindly sent a small

collection of mites obtained at Havana, Ills., from the same

species of Unionide enumerated in the above list.

The present paper embodies, thus, the results of the exami-

nation of nearly 3,500 mussels, representing 60 species, and

from them have been collected and preserved about 7,000

mites, belonging to 15 species, of which 7 are new and 3 more

are reported from America for the first time. Search has been

made for mites in Ps7diwm and Spherium but with success in

only one instance, when two individuals of A. crasszpes (Miiller)

were found in a species of Spherium, and in Campeloma,

Physa, Limnea and Goniobasis, but so far without results.

In this enumeration and throughout the paper the author has

avoided any attempt to pass judgment upon the validity of the

different species of mussels referred to, and has included many

names which he himself believes to be synonyms, as for

instance, Unio oceidens Lea and U. ventricosus Barnes, in order

that there should be in this way no omissions of species which

others might believe distinct from those given. All the

names given have been more or less generally recognized and

the reader is requested to make his own synonymical corrections

in accordance with his opinions.

The specimens of mites obtained were studied alive, pre-

served in various fluids, and mounted upon slides to allow of

thorough microscopical examination. Without, at first, suf-

ficient knowledge of the weight of specific characters, too much

dependence was placed upon color, which, it is found, has

almost no value in identification, though the brilliancy of

coloration is one of the principal features which make the group

such an exceedingly attractive one for study. Later certain

structural characters were fixed upon, which, by their similarity

in allied species, led to confusion; and differences, too, which

were at first assumed to be sexual, were found later, when the

true sexual characters were discovered, to be specific. Finally,

especially at first, the mites collected from a single species of

mussel and bearing a close resemblance were assumed to be

identical and only found to include more than one species after

202 ROBERT H. WOLCOTT:

the accumulation of individuals in vials prevented the correc-

tion of the recorded notes. These, together with a lack of that

familiarity with the Unionide necessary to make sure identifi-

cations at the time of examination and consequent occasional

confusion in the recording of observations, impair the value of

early notes and collections. The facts are mentioned that

others may be warned thereby, and in order that certain allusions

in the descriptions which follow may be understood. It may

be said here, that in the case of more recent collections, care

has been taken to keep the mites from each mussel separate

until careful examination under the microscope, of the structure

of palpi, legs, genital area, etc., has allowed of exact identifi-

cation of each individual mite.

As to preserving fluids, alcohol, corrosive sublimate, picro-

sulphuric, Flemming’s and other solutions were at first used.

Of these corrosive sublimate gave the best results, but all have

been rejected as making the specimens too brittle and leading

to serious breakage of appendages. Formol does not preserve

the color effectually and is partly open to the same objections.

Yet a certain proportion of the specimens collected have always

been preserved in either it or the media previously mentioned,

to allow of their being studied in various ways. A solution

recommended by Koenike (91c) and consisting of

Glycerine. Fn Se 2 peanes ayaa

PC MMs. oe aan

Glacial acetievacid. 2.) 2.22. ...). «2: 2) parts byt yaoi

Absolute alcohols %\. 0.00: -1 part by velk,

has been found to preserve the ae in the best condita

for future study, since although it cannot be recommended as a

preservative either of form or color, it keeps the body soft and

the appendages pliable, and thus they lend themselves the more

readily to methods of preparation used in making slide mounts.

A solution consisting of

Glycerine ..!../): Mee .10 parts by weight,

Citric acid, nonveutares solely 3 parts by weight,

Distilled water................10 parts by weight,

to which is added, when the mites have regained their plump

NORTH AMERICAN SPECIES OF THE GENUS ATAX 203

form after being first shrivelled by being put into the mixture,

Absolute alcohol.........1—-10 of the total volume,

is recommended by Koenike (96) as an improvement over his

previous formula, and has been of late used in place of it,

without sufficient time having elapsed to judge of its merits.

In the preparation of slide mounts, specimens are removed

from the preservative, thoroughly washed in distilled water,

treated with a dilute potassium hydrate solution, a rent made

in the skin and through it the contents of the body pressed out,

again thoroughly washed, passed through the grades of alcohol

and clearing mixture and finally mounted in balsam. By this

means a perfectly transparent mount is obtained and all the

hard parts are readily studied. There is more or less distor-

tion, but comparison with specimens preserved in other media

assists in obtaining a correct view of the relations of the hard

parts, which are themselves in perfect condition. The mouth-

parts are removed from the body, separated by dissection and

also mounted for detailed examination.

The study of the material collected has resulted, as before

stated, in the detection of 13 species, of which 7 are new and

have been briefly described in a preliminary paper published in

the Zoological Bulletin for June, 1898. The list is as follows:

1. Atax crassipes (Miiiler).

Atax aculeatus Koenike.

Atax pectinatus mihi.

Atax intermedius Koenike.

Atax abnormipes mihi.

ico

Ataz indistinctus mihi.

Atax serratus mihi.

Atax fossulatus Koenike.

Atax stricta mihi.

Atax arcuata mihi.

Atax ypsilophorus (Bonz).

Atax tumidus mihi.

13. Atax (Najadicola) ingens (Koenike).

In the arrangement of these species in the order given, an

attempt is made to preserve the sequence in which the Eu-

aor

peer see ne

204 ROBERT H. WOLCOTT:

ropean forms have usually been arranged and with the end in

view of bringing allied species together. First the two free-

living forms, together with a third, parasitic in habit, but re-

sembling the other two very closely in form and structure, fall

naturally into what may be called the crassipes group, A.

crassipes, A. aculeatus and A. pectinatus. Then the forms in

which the hind leg of the male is modified and in which, in

the same sex, the body is more or less strongly emarginate

posteriorly and which in both sexes have the distal segment of

the palpus broad and tipped with two prominent curved claws,

form a second group, the dntermedius group, including A.

intermedius, A. abnormipes, A. indistinctus and A. serratus.

A third group includes A. fossulatus and <A. stricta, with 5

acetabula on each side, in the female set into the surface of the

body, in the male on a genital plate; while A. arcuats, A.

ypsilophorus and A. twmidus form a not very homogeneous

group, the members of which are related in form of body,

character of genital area, etc., and which in structure and po-

sition of the genital area show a gradual transition towards A.

(V.) mgens, which itself is related on the other hand to

Cochleophorus.

In the descriptions which follow, the terms used need no

explanation except perhaps with reference to the palpi and legs;

the former are supposed to be extended parailel to the long

axis of the body, whence the terms inner and outer, dorsal, ex-

tensor or upper, and ventral, flexor or lower, as applied to the

corresponding surfaces. The legs are supposed to be at right

angles to the body and the terms anterior and posterior become

applicable. The names applied to various parts are such as

have hitherto been applied or are literally translated from the

corresponding terms in use by European writers on the subject.

Measurements have been taken with an ocular micrometer.

The length of the body is that of the body proper, and the

projecting mouth-parts are not included; the length of a seg-

ment is the length of a straight line connecting the middle

points of its two ends; and the total length of an appendage is

the sum of such lengths of the segments which compose it. In

NORTH AMERICAN SPECIES OF THE GENUS ATAX 205

all measurements of legs which follow the claw is not included

in the total. For the sake of brevity the legs and the epimera

corresponding are frequently referred to by Roman numerals

and the segments of the legs and palpi are numbered from the

base outward, using Arabic numerals; thus ‘III 3” refers to

the third segment of the third pair of legs, and ‘‘Palpus 5” to

the distal segment of the palpus.

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES.

I. ATAX CRASSIPES (Miiller).

Hydrachna crassipes Miiller, 1776; 189, no. 2254: id., 1781: XLI, Pl.

LY, f.1, 2:

Trombidium crassipes Fabricius, 1792; II, 400.

Atax crassipes Fabricius, 05; 366: Koch, 35; 7, 21: id., 37: III, 8, Pl.

1 Ag ae

Atax elegans Koch, 35; 7, 12.

Ataz truncatus Koch, 35; 7, 22.

Ataz albidus Koch, 35; 7, 28.

Atax confluens Koch, 35; 7, 24 (nymph).

Atazx truncatellus Koch, 35; 37, 17 (nymph).

Hydrachna crassipes Walckenaer and Gervais, 44; III, 197.

Atazx crassipes Bruzelius, 54; Pl. I, f. 14: Claparéde, 68; 471: Kramer,

75; 293; Lebert, 79; 368, Pl. XI, f. 10, 10a; Neuman, 80; 21, PI. I, f. 1:

Koenike, 81a; 627: id., 81b; 356: Haller, 81a: 76: Berlese, 82: fase. IV, no.

7: Krendowsky, 85; 55: Barrois and Moniez, 87; 5: Piersig, 94b; 214:

Koenike, 95a; 139: id., 96a; 232: Piersig, 96; 40: id., 97; Lief. I, 52,

P). III, f. 5, a—h.

Atax crassipes is noteworthy among the species of this genus, for the

great length of its legs, which cover a greater area than those of any other

species, though its body is smaller than many others. The body of the male

varies in length from 0.5 to 0.7 mm., while the female is from 0.7 to 0.9 mm.

and even 1.1 or 1.2mm. long. Its form is broadly oval, with the larger

end of the oval anteriad and evenly rounded, the smaller end posteriad

and truncate, projecting nipple-like papillae at either side giving this end

the appearance of having been cut squarely off. The greatest breadth is

about opposite the third epimeron. The nipple-like papillae exhibit

varying degrees of prominence and Piersig describes a muscle which serves

as a retractor and by which they may be made to completely disappear.

The double eyes are very large, blackish in color, close to the margin

and moderately distant from each other, in a specimen 0.618 mm. long

_ being 0.184mm. apart. The anterior portion of each eye is larger and

nearly twice as large as the posterior.

206 ROBERT H. WOLCOTT:

The mandibles are nearly typical in form, though a little longer than

the average for the genus, the maximum width being equal to about one-

third the length, which in the specimen just referred tois0.148mm. The

greatest breadth is near the posterior end; the dorsal margin is slightly

concave, the posterior dorsal angle rounded, the posterior ventral angle

produced, forming a point of muscle attachment, and the ventral margin

nearly straight; a shallow mandibular groove is present. The distal seg-

ment includes about one-third the total length, and most of this is made

up by the slightly curved and rather slender claw, which is indistinctly

hooked at the tip and marked on the inner side toward the base by

slightly curved oblique striae, which are vertical to the line of insertion

of the claw.

Palpi, long and slender, segment 1 about half as thick a3 it is long: 2

the thickest of all and nearly as thick as long; 3 about two-thirds as thick

as 2, and a little over half as long; 4, longest of all, but only about half as

thick as 2; 5 slender, curved, at the base nearly asthick as 4, but at once

strongly contracted and throughout most of its length with the dorsal and

ventral surfaces nearly parallel. From above or below the palpi appear

even more slender than from the side, the extreme width of 2 at about

the middle being only three-fourths of its thickness and the palpus ta-

pering gradually and evenly from this point to the tip which is blunt and

bears very small claws; 2 has two small spines on the outer side close to-

gether and near the dorsal margin, and one on the inner side near the

middle, with a second very small one close to the base; 3 has a very long

stout spine in the middle of the outer side and one smaller but still long

and stout on the dorsal side near the distal margin. On 4 are the three

papillae characteristic of the genus, the two being but alittle beyond the

middle of the segment, the third at the distal margin, and all three being

exceptionally long and slender. The outer of the two is the longest and

its length equals the thickness of the segment, the third at the distal end

is about two-thirds as long as the outer, and the inner of the two only

about one-third aslong. The two bear each a small hair, the third a broad

chitinous cap. There is, finally, a long slender hair on the outer side of

this segment near the base.

The maxillary shield, as far as its main portion is concerned, is broad,

short and evenly rounded posteriorly, with a rather prominent rostrum

anteriorly; the ancoral process is nearly as long as is the main portion,

is broad at its base, its lateral margins forming with the anterior part of

the margin of the former a nearly straight line; and tapers to a narrow

tip, which is produced to either side forming recurved hooks.

The epimera are rather large, especially the posterior group, and the

spaces between the groups are narrow in the male, wider in the female.

The posterior margin of the anterior group is strongly convex while at

one- third the distance from the inner to the outer end and opposite the

suture between I and II, the two give rise to a long curved process which

runs back to a considerable distance beneath III. The separation be-

tween III and IV is represented by a line at about two-fifths the distance

from the anterior margin and which curves from the outer side obliquely

NORTH AMERICAN SPECIES OF THE GENUS ATAX 207

inward and forward about half way acrosss the plate formed by the two.

This plate is nearly rectangular, somewhat longer than broad, with the

anterior margin slightly concave, and the inner slightly convex. On the

thickened border at the inner posterior angle are two hairs.

The legs, as before stated, are very long, all considerably exceeding

the body in length. Measurement of several specimens show a variation

in the relative length of legs and body and in the relative lengths of the

legs themselves, but this variation seems to possess neither locality, sexual

nor specific significance. Ina single specimen from Lake St. Clair the

third pair of legs exceeds in length the first, but in all other cases III is

the shortest, nearly equalling I, and Il and IV are considerably longer,

with IV a little longer than II and more than twice the length of the body.

In all cases the order of length of the individual segments in IL and IILis

as follows, beginning with the longest—5, 4, 6, 3, 2, 1; in I, 5 and 6 are of

about equal length, and both shortened, being shorter than 3; in IV, 6 is

lengthened and surpasses 4. In the case of I, 2 possesses a ventral

papilla, projecting chimney-like to a distance equal to two-thirds of the

thickness of the segment, deeply excavated and open at one side and re-

ceiving into this excavation a long movable spine, while there is also a

short movable spine at the outer margin of the posterior side; 3 has two

movable spines on either side ventrally; 4, four in two ranks on the

proximal half of the ventral surface; 5 a row of four towards the base

and one at the tip on the ventral side, of the former the first and third

being the longer. All of these spines are widest at a little distance from

their insertion tapering gradually to a blunt tip, and more rapidly to

their point of insertion. The fifth segment has the dorsal surface pro-

duced forming a scoop-like shield over the insertion of the next segment.

1, 2 and 3 are very stout, 4 tapers considerably towards the tip, 5 and 6

being noticably slenderer and 6 somewhat curved. II, III and IV are

slenderer at the base than I, and taper gradually from base to tip; they

possess a moderate number of long, slender, straight spines which form

groups on the tips of segments II 5, III 4, III 5, IV 4 and IV 5, while on

IV 3, numerous spines are scattered along the ventral surface. On I the

claws are rather stout, much curved and bifid, the ventral of the two tips

being the stouter; on the other legs, however, the claws are longer, much

more slender and the two tips are long, slender and sharply pointed,

while the dorsal of the two is not so long as the other and thus forms an

accessory claw arising at a distance from the tip equal to one-fourth the

length of the claw.

The genital cleft in the female is flanked by four chitinous plates, of

which the two anterior are irregularly rectangular with rounded angles

and the two posterior roughly triangular with the angles also rounded.

Each bears three acetabula and numerous slender spines, and six longer

and stouter spines are borne—two each by the anterior plates and one

each by the posterior—on their contiguous angles which are somewhat

produced and directed outward. The male also. possesses twelve

acetabula but they are borne on two lunate plates, one on either side,

and are distributed on each plate in two groups of three each.

208. ROBERT H. WOLCOTT:

On either side of the genital area isa large nipple-like papilla, which

varies in prominence, and which, according to Piersig, can be retracted

by a muscle running to it fromthe last epimeron. Koenike (81b) believes

these papillae to contain highly developed epidermal glands.

MEASUREMENTS,

Male. juv. Male Female Female

Grand Rapids, Mich. BeaverlI’ds. Beaverl’ds: Lake St. Clair.

Length of body, 0.367 mm. 0.701 mm. 0.835 mm. 1.002 mm.

Length of leg I, 0.683 mm. 1.234 mm. 1.857 mm. 1.596 mim.

Length of leg II, 0.842 mm. 1.525 mm. 1.657 mm. 2.081 mm.

Length of leg IJ, 0.632 mm. 1.193 mm. 1.285 mm. 1.632 mm.

Length of leg IV, 0.872 mm. 1.596 mm. 1.708 mm. 2.112 mm.

Length of palpus, — 0.357 mm. 0.393 mm. 0.403 mm.

Atax crassipes was first met with Sept. Ist, 1893, in ma-

terial dredged over a bed of Chara in Anchor Bay, Lake St.

Clair, at a depth of about 3 meters. Specimens were again

secured near the same locality on the 3d, and in that vicinity

again on the 12th, at a depth of 5 meters. It was collected in

the southwestern part of the lake on the 8th and 10th at

depths of 5 and 6 meters respectively, and off Point Pelee

Island, Lake Erie, on the 17th, at a depth of 5 meters. Alto-

gether 29 specimens were secured. It appeared to be of

general distribution over the Chara which carpets the bottom of

Lake St. Clair, a lake which though of an area of 410 sq. miles

is over its deeper portion only about 6 meters in depth.

During the summer of 1894, specimens, parasitic as well as

free, were collected at several points in Northern Michigan.

They were found in Round Lake at Charlevoix, July 9th to

13th, at depths of 16 to 18 meters, in limited numbers; July

31st a specimen was secured in bottom collections from Lake

Michigan off Fisherman’s Island, a few miles west of Charle-

voix, at a depth of about 10 meters, and on August 18th

the species was obtained in bottom tows in Lake Michigan

between Beaver and High Islands at depths of 10 and 234

meters. Aug. 6th the species was found at Twin Lakes and

‘¢26°’ Lake, small inland lakes near Charlevoix, on Aug. 21st

at Susan Lake, another similar lake in the vicinity, and in

material collected on the same day at Intermediate Lake, also

not far distant. Sept. 5th Dr. R. H. Ward collected specimens

NORTH AMERICAN SPECIES OF THE GENUS ATAX 209

at Dodge Creek, Emmet County, so that the species may be

accounted as generally distributed throughout the smaller in-

land lakes of Northern Michigan, and also in Lake Michigan

and the smaller lakes in connection with it, though present

nowhere in large numbers. Mr. Bryant Walker, a concholo-

gist and a member of the same party as the writer, turned over

to him two specimens of an Ataw from Spherium simile Say,

collected in ‘¢26”’ Lake Aug. 6th, and on the 17th of Angust

specimens of adults and nymphs were secured in considerable

numbers from Anodonta footiana and Anodonta fragilis taken

in a lake at the north end of Beaver Island, Lake Michigan.

All of these have been carefully studied from mounts and the

author has been unable to detect any characters by which any

of them may be distinguished from Ataa crassipes.

Specimens were collected at Grand Rapids, Mich., during

the months of July and August, 1896 and 1897, in Reed’s

and Fisk’s Lakes, and in a third very small lake near the city.

The former are lakes of moderate size and with a depth of 20

meters or more, but the latter is hardly more than a pool in the

midst of a cranberry bog, 50 meters across, and with scarcely

more than a meter of clear water above the loose, half-floating,

semi-decayed vegetable mould which forms the bottom of such

lakes. All are spring-fed. Two specimens, apparently of this

species, were collected in two examples of Anodonta fragilis

from Reed’s Lake, July 23, 1898.

From Mr. J. B. Shearer have been received specimens col-

lected in Quannecussec River, an arm of Saginaw Bay, Lake

Huron, in the Kawkawlin River, an affluent of the same bay,

and at Les Chenaux Islands, in northern Lake Huron, near

Mackinaw, all obtained during August, 1895.

In Wisconsin, the author has collected this form in Lake

Winnebago, at Oshkosh, Sept. 2, 1897, while he has receive’

it from two localities in Nebraska,—in a collection made

Dr. H. B. Ward at a lake at South Bend, Sept. 2, 1897, a

from material obtained by Mr. O. D. Noble ina ‘‘stagna.

spring-fed pool’’ at Linwood, Sept. 1898.

210 ROBERT H. WOLCOTT:

2. ATAX ACULEATUS KOENIKE.

Atawx crassipes juv. Claparéde, 68; 471, Pl, XX XIII, f. 1-3.

Atax aculeatus Koenike, 90; 138: id., 95d; 386, f. 13: Piersig, 96; 40,

footnote: 1d 917; et. aon Ble tess)

A. aculeatus is very closely related to A. crassipes and can best be

described by comparing it directly with that species. It is similar in form,

but so far as the author’s observation goes never reaches as great size, the

males attaining a length of from 0.5 to 0.6 mm., the females 0.65 to

0.75 mm.

The mandibles are similar in form as is also the maxillary shield. The

eyes are very large, black and rather close together.

The palpi share in the resemblance, though they are apparently a

trifle more slender and are proportionately longer.

The epimera occupy even more of the under surface of the body and

in the male the four groups are almost in contact.

The legs are very long asin A. crassipes and the proportions similar,

though those of A.aculeatus seem slightly stouter than in the allied

species. The sixth segment is, however, somewhat longer in III and

exceeds 4. In I, 4 is the longest and 5 and 6 approximately equal to each

other, while both exceed 3; 6 is also not quite so slender as is the case

in A. crassipes and is less curved and a little dilated at the tip. The

arrangement and length of the spines on the legs are practically the same

in the two species. The claws are similar.

The genital field in the present form is characteristic and markedly

different from that of A. crassipes. There are but ten acetabula instead

of twelve, in the male situated on two kidney shaped plates which flank

the genital cleft. On each side two anterior acetabula are placed one directly

behind the other, and are separated by an interval from the three pos-

terior, of which the two anterior lie side by side. Thecleft is longer than

in A. crassipes and in the case of all specimens on slides gapes widely.

In the female the single lateral plate is divided into two, the anterior of

which is pouch-shaped with the neck of the pouch directed anteriad, while

the posterior is similar in outline but inverted. The former has two

acetabula, the latter three. The ovipositor is prominent and of character-

istic form. From each side of the genital opening projects a plate which

anteriorly and—since the genital area is on the posterior surface of the

body—also, ventrally, is produced and turned outward forming a conical

process, at the top of which is articulated a short, thick, sharply-pointed

spine. At the base of this, internally, is a small sharply-pointed process,

and from the posterior—and dorsal—margin projects a longer, tapering

and sharply pointed process, both of these processes being not set into

sockets, but apparently continuous with the rest of the plate. By the

apposition of these two plates, they are able, probably, to serve together

as an ovipositor.

NORTH AMERICAN SPECIES OF THE GENUS ATAX P11

At either side of the genital area is a conical] papilla, similar to that

found in A. crassipes but still more prominent.

MEASUREMENTS,

Male Female

Length of body ............. aM 0.601 mm. 0.668 mm.

Tenet of tear Ten a.b 02 oe 2 sets oe vsieharsads 0.943 mm. 1.244 mm.

enrubef dem Ti i: Sos owiehe 1,168 mm. 1.453 mm.

Bengtih of leg lie je. 2213.) jou sa ate 0.918 mm. 1.147 mm.

Mon gthvonteecbye yn oon ag santos 1.199 mm. 1.601 mm.

LOREHOL Palpusicc. 6... os on x5 0.301 mm. a

In the examination of mussels from Grand River, at Grand

Island near Grand Rapids, Mich., July 9, 1896, nymphs of

different species of mites and also dead mites were found in

the mucous about the exhalent aperature of many individuals.

Little notice was taken of these until in Unio ligamentinus, U.

alatus and Anodonta edentula, afew adults were found; these

were, however, on cursory examination, supposed to be Atax

crassipes. A more thorough examination later showed them

not to be that species and to belong probably to Atax aculeatus,

a determination which has since been verified. On the 5th of

July, 1897, six specimens were found along the edge of the

mantle of Undo spatulatus from the Rogue River, Kent County,

Mich. During the past summer especial care was taken to ex-

amine all mites and nymphs occurring in the situations referred

to. It was found that most of them were nymphs and of these

the majority were A. abnormipes, a smaller number were A.

aculeatus, a still smaller, A. ¢ntermedius, and now and then

one of A. serratus or A. fossulatus, all of these species being

reared from such nymphs. Of all, only A. aeuleatus was rep-

resented by adults, while this species in its adult form seemed

to occur nowhere but along the margin of the mantle and about

the exhalent and inhalent aperatures, situations which its

slender form and superior activity enable it to maintain. The

mussels from which it was obtained were U/. rectus, U. gibbosus,

U.. undulatus, U. ligamentinus, U. occidens, U. ventricosus, U.

spatulatus, U. Novi-eboraci, U. coceineus, all from different

localities along Grand River, north of the city of Grand Rapids,

Mich. ; Unio pressus and Anodonta plana, from Plumb’s Creek,

912 ROBERT H. WOLCOTT:

near that city; and Unzo luteolus, from White Lake, Muskegon

County, Mich. The dates were from July 27th to August 30th.

3. ATAX PECTINATUS WOLCOTT.

Atax pectinatus Wolcott, 98; 280.

A species, in the character of the genital area allied to A. crasstpes

and A. figuralis Koch, but with the legs relatively shorter than either and

with the palpi very thick, considerably thicker than the basal segment of

the first pair of legs. The claw of this pair of legs is broad, flat and

deeply pectinate, which character suggests the specific name.

It is of medium size as compared with the other species of the genus,

the males measuring 0.7 to 0.8 mm., the females 0.8 to 1.0 mm. in length

respectively. ‘Nhe body is broadly elliptical with the antero-posterior

diameter but slightly greater than the transverse, which is greatest at a

point about midway between the anterior and posterior extremities. The

posterior margin is smoothly rounded and the surface is uniformly

smooth and without chitinous thickenings of any kind. The males are

somewhat slenderer than the females.

Eyes moderate in size, with the anterior of the two lenses the larger.

Maxillary shield relatively short and broad, with a prominent rostrum

formed by the apposed anterior mesial angles of each of the two max-

illary plates which are completely fused anteriorly. The posterior lateral

angles are quite evident though rounded while the ancoral process pro-

duced by the apposition of the two produced posterior mesial angles is, as

compared with other species, very weak.

Mandibles with a long, narrow proximal segment which is slightly

broader posteriorly where it is directed somewhat ventrad and tapers to

a bluntly rounded point, in front of which is ashallow mandibular groove.

Its form is irregular owing to the undulating marginal outline. Distal

segment large, with a broad basal portion and a sickle-shaped claw which

is moderately curved except toward the tip, where the curvature is more

pronounced and where it tapers somewhat more rapidly than before to a

sharp point. The proximal half of this claw is marked by fine, wavy,

oblique lines. Extreme breadth equal to about one-fourth its total length.

Palpi large and heavy, those of the female somewhat more than two-

fifths the length ofthe body. Those ofthe male are very little smaller than

those of the female in absolute measurement and are therefore larger in

proportion to the size of the body. Basalsegmentshort and broad. Segment

2 is the largest and much the thickest, equaling nearly one-half the total

length and with a thickness in proportion to the length as5:9._ The flexor

side is nearly straight, with a very slight concavity, the extensor side very

convex and evenly so, making it much longer than the other and causing

the planes of the two ends to be very oblique to one another. On the

inner side of segment 2 are two flattened spines rather near together, at

a distance from the basal margin of about one-third the length of the seg-

ment, and a third one-half the distance from these to the distal end, all

three being nearer the extensor than the flexor side of the palpus. On

\ |

NOR ,\MERICAN SPECIES OF THE GENUS ATAX 213

the outer side are two toward the extensor margin, the distance between

them somewhat less than one-third the length of the segment. Segment

3 is much shorter than 2 and not so broad, yet broader than long. Its

flexor side is half the length of the extensor, each of them with a slight

convexity, and there is a small straight spine on the outer side, while 4 is

longer and narrower, concave on its flexor surface, moderately convex on

the opposite side. The former bears distally a pair of not very prominent

papillae and a short spur at the distal margin. Segment 5 tapers at first

rapidly, then more gradually to a blunt, rounded tip, produced slightly

toward the flexor side and bearing at the distal end four short claw-like

projections arranged in quadrille, while immediately proximad of them

are two very short spines.

Epimera covering about the same proportion of the ventral surface as

do those of A. figuralis, but Il and II] and those of opposite sides are

separated only by very narrow spaces, narrower in the male than in the

female. Outline of the fused I and Ilapproximately triangular, the apex

of the triangles of the two sides nearly meeting in the median line. The

anterior margin of this triangular plate is slightly excavated and the

posterior forms a double curve, being convex for the inner two-thirds of

its length and beyond that concave. I is long and narrow, broadly ex-

panded at its outer end, where it is moderately excavated to receive the

first pair of legs, while ILis broadly triangular with the anterior external

angle truncate. The plate formed by the fused III and IV has a slightly

concave anterior margin, a nearly straight inner margin, and a posterior

margin slightly convex, all the angles being rounded. The epimera of

the opposite sides approach each other most closely in front. A trans-

verse suture two-fifths of the distance from the anterior to the posterior

margin indicates the line of junction of the two epimera.

The legs are shorter than in the related species and relatively longer

in the male than in the female. In the former [is slightly longer than

the body, II and III about equal and each a little less than one-third

longer, [V about two-thirds longer. 1 of the female is almost four-fifths

of the body length, II and III somewhat exceed it and IV is greater by

a little more than one-third. Of the individual segments 1 is the shortest

and the others gradually increase in length to 5, but 6is again shorter. I

is slightly heavier than the rest, though as a whole the legs are decidedly

weak and the distal segments especially slender. There are no movable

spines on I set into projecting sockets as in A. crassipes and A. figuralis,

their number is somewhat less, and individually they are shorter and

more slender and taper to a sharp point. The claws are characteristic.

Those on I are expanded dorso-ventrally and flattened laterally, forming

a broad plate of which the dorsal margin is strongly arched, the flexor

margin deeply pectinate,the pectinations, about sixteen in number, reach-

ing nearly three-fourths the distance to the opposite margin, and with a

slight curvature toward the base of the claw. The claws of the remaining

legs are slender, strongly curved at the base, more moderately beyond,

and again more strongly toward the sharply-pointed tip. On the whole

the claw of II has the more pronounced curvature and is shortest, IV the

914 ROBERT H. WOLCOTT:

least pronounced and is longest. Each has a very inconspicuous tooth in

the middle of the flexor margin.

The genital area is circular in general outline and is situated toward

the posterior end of the body. It includes a genital cleft, flanked on

either side in the male by one genital plate, in the female by two. The

genital plates of the male are each lunate in form and bear six acetabula

placed in two groups with a moderate interval between. In the female a

transverse division along this line separates each plate into two, of which

the anterior is irregularly quadrilateral, the posterior roughly triangular

in outline, each bearing three acetabula.

MEASUREMENTS OF SPECIMENS DESCRIBED:

Male Female

Bength’ of body. 22). 6). ste/e's 0.70 mm. 1.08 mm.

Length of palpus............. —— 0.44 mm.

Leneth'oileg Ty...) eas 0.73 mm. 0.82 mm.

Lene totter weh soit. 1.00 mm. 1.14 mm. (approximate)

Rength of leg TE. st, .5054. 0.98 mm. 1.15 mm. oor We

Length'of leg TV .2. 60h. /. 1.18 mm. 1.41 mm.

Length of mandible. ........ — 0.292mm.

Length of genital area, me-

GiB ElOtG Ae er Ania) bees els 0.21 mm. 0.17 mm.

Types retained in the collection of the author.

This species was taken in the dredge at Lake St. Clair, Sep-

tember 1, 1893; later another was discovered in material

collected a few days previous; and others were afterward col-

lected in the vicinity of New Baltimore, Mich. Altogether six

specimens were secured, but owing to breakage in transit of the

bottle containing them, only two are available for description,

and these, a male and a female, are to a certain extent distorted

in mounting. Field notes taken at the time say: ‘‘ Pinkish

tinge to epimera and genital area. Legs and palpi blue of an

unusally deep tint. Body deep olive brown, with a yellowish-

brown Y-shaped mark. Eyes blackish.”

4. ATAX INTERMEDIUS KOENIKE.

Atax ypsilophorus van Beneden, 48; 9 et seq., Pi.

Atax Bonzi “living free,’’ Koenike, 81a; 626.

Atax intermedius Koenike, 82; 265: Lampert, 93; LX XIX: Piersig,

94b; 214: Koenike, 96a; 233: Piersig, 96; 40: id., 97; Lief. I, 46, Pl. I,

f. 2, a-e.

A. intermedius is one of the smaller species, and especially small are

the males, between which and the females there is a much greater dif-

ference in size than in any other of our species. The length of several of

NORTH AMERICAN SPECIES OF THE GENUS ATAX J15

each sex, measured from preserved specimens, proved to be from 0.75 to

0.95 mm. for the females and only about 0.5 or 0.6 mm. for the males.

The form is broadly oval, approaching elliptical, and with both ends

evenly rounded. The skin shows a fine, even, parallel striation over the

whole body of the female; the striae running transversely, while the

epimera show the hexagonal reticulation which is characteristic of the

group of species which has been referred to as the intermedius group. In

the male the same reticulation is visible over the whole body, but is more

pronounced and regular on the epimera.

Eyes large and rather distant from each other.

Maxillary shield relatively broad, especially posteriorly, where its

thicker portion is evenly rounded, while the thinner and relatively slender

ancoral process extends posteriad a short distance and ends in a broad

tip, which is produced laterally to an unusual degree, forming recurved

hooks. Line of separation between the two plates of which the shield is

composed distinct.

Mandibles quite typical in form, the basal segment rectangular,

broader posteriorly, with the dorsal posterior angle rounded, ventral pos-

terior angle produced and a shallow mandibular groove on the ventral

side. Distal segment moderate, claw rather small and slender, and

moderately curved.

The palpi are as a whole quite slender, being only a little thicker than

the first pair of legs, and in many respects are characteristic. The basal

segment is not unusual; but 2 is much longer along the dorsal margin than

along the ventral, the former being moderately convex, the latter nearly

straight. It bears on the outer side and near the dorsal margin three long

slender spines, two close together near the middle, a third toward the

distal margin; on the opposite side are two spines near the middle. 3 is

nearly straight along the dorsal margin, slightly convex along the ventral,

and about half as long and two-thirds as thick as2; it bears a long, slender

spine on the outer side close to the proximal margin, and one on the

inner side, close to the distal margin and also to the dorsal surface. 4 is

the longest of all, yet only half as thick as 2; its dorsal margin is slightly

convex toward the base and nearly straight beyond; its ventral surface is

concave proximally, but convex distally where it bears the usual number

of papillz, of which the paired ones are characteristic. The outer of the

two is short and inconspicuous, the inner very large, prominent and

flattened laterally; in the male the latter is longer and slenderer, while the

former is also longer. Both bear small hairs. Segment 5 is curved ventrad

and is nearly circular in cross-section at the base, but at the tip is com-

pressed laterally; it bears the usual terminal claws, which, however, are

only moderately large and the whole segment is unlike that in the other

species grouped with this.

Epimera in the female occupying about the anterior half of the ventral

surface, in the male nearly the whole of it, leaving only room posteriorly

for the genital area. Spaces between the groups also much wider in the

female than in the male. In the former the first epimeron is nearly rect-

angular, and IJ irregularly triangular, with the inner end produced and

216 ROBERT H. WOLCOTT:

passing beneath the anterior margin of III. Of the posterior group, LI

comprises about one-third and the suture between it and IV runs obliquely

inward and forward half way to the inner margin. Anterior margin

slightly concave, inner and posterior slightly convex, with inner posterior

angle rounded and those of opposite sides diverging. In the male all the

epimera relatively much larger and the inner ends of the anterior groups

nearly in contact, The posterior groups are not only nearly in contact

but a chitinous bridge connects the two which thus become one mass

which is somewhat emarginate posteriorly.

The legs are all longer than the body in the female and very much

longer in the male. III is the shortest, I next longer, II next and IV the

longest of all. They are of medium stoutness and taper slightly from

base to tip. In I and II the three outer segments are, in order of length,

beginning with the longest, 4, 5, 6; in IIT all are nearly equal, but 5 exceeds

4; and in IV, 6 is also longer than 4. The spines are moderately

numerous on the legs of the female and are rather long, while those on 2,

3 and 4 of I are set into short excavated papille similar to those of A.

crassipes, though ‘not so prominent. A bunch of four or five spines on

the proximal half of the ventral surface of I 4 is noticeable. On the

ventral surface of 4 and 5 of both III and IV, there are numerous hairs,

more abundant and smaller on IV than on III, longer at the tip of each

than elsewhere. The legs of the male posess fewer spines than do those

of the female, and in this sex IV is peculiar; 4 of this leg is curved, the

concavity being on the posterior and ventral aspect of the segment, and

at the tip on the same aspect is a bunch of very long spines. On the

posterior surface of 5 and about the middle isa bunch of strong, feathered

spines. The claws are similar in form to those of A. ypsilophorus, and

as in that species, are received into a cleft in the end of the dilated tip of

the segment.

The genital area is proportionately large and flanked in the male by

one plate on each side, in the female by two. Each of the two in the male

is broadly lunate in form and bears five acetabula in two groups—2 and 3

respectively—and numerous small spines. In the female the anterior

plate on each side is rhomboid in shape, with the anterior and outer mar-

gins slightly convex, and the posterior concave; it bears two acetabula,

which are larger than those of the male, and its inner margin is reflected

outward, forming two blunt, moderately thick lips, the margin of each of

which bears two short stout spines. The posterior plate is roughly circular

with a projecting inner anterior angle and its anterior and inner margins

are thickened, the inner also reflected, forming a broader and less promin-

ent lip than that of the anterior plate, while at the inner anterior angle

is a stout spine, and external to it on the anterior margin a second. On

this plate are three acetabula.

NORTH AMERICAN SPECIES OF THE GENUS ATAX O17

MEASUREMENTS:

Male Female

Bengthrof body. w/o sac saco eects ess 0.501 mm. 0.752 mm.

Eengthof leg Tacs athe ates 0.643 mm. 1.112 mm.

Bength! of leg Hii. ead lend: 0.852 mm, 1.607 mm.

Rength ofvlep Mi eth cis. vestaee 0.627 mm. 0.959 mm.

Men rth Of GOUT to caia vias acini. senior 0.867 mm. 1.571 mm.

Beng eh Of pal puss. ( 4 ssa ale sts vastus 0.214 mm. 0.337 mm.

Of this species, 13 specimens were obtained at L. St. Clair,

Aug. 17, 1893, from Anodonta ovata and Oct. 10, 1893, 22

specimens were collected at Lansing, Mich., from mussels

taken from Cedar River, but unfortunately the record of species

of Unionide has been lost. It was found in considerable

abundance at Round Lake, Charlevoix, Mich., in Anodonta

subcylindracea, A. footiana, A. edentula and Unio luteolus;

at 6626” and Twin Lakes, in A. edentula, A. footiana and A.

Fragilis, 1 limited numbers in the former but more abundantly

in the latter lake; and at Intermediate Lake, in Margaritana ru-

gosa, Anodonta subcylindracea, A. footiana, A. edentula and

A. fragilis, but in none common. At Beaver Island, Lake

Michigan, it was collected rather commonly in Anodonta

footiana and A. marryatana taken from a lake towards the

south end of the island. At Grand Rapids, Mich., during the

summer of 1895, A. cntermedius was found only in Marga-

ritana rugosa from two localities on Grand River and only in

limited numbers, while during the past summer the same was

found to hold true. A few specimens were secured Aug. 17th

to 20th, 1898, at White Lake, Muskegon County, Mich., from

Anodonta footiana and A. subcylindracea.

In Nebraska it is a very abundant form, and on one occasion

a very large Anodonta plana was fouud to contain 406 speci-

mens. It has been collected in ponds at Lincoln, in Weeping

Water Creek at Weeping Water and in the Blue River at

Milford, from Unio subrostratus (once), U. Jamesianus (once),

Margaritana complanata (occasionally), Anodonta plana, A.

decora and A. grandis. The females are almost uniformly in

excess, averaging three to each male; of 1178 specimens from

the vicinity of Lincoln for example, 275 were males and 893,

918 ROBERT H. WOLCOTT:

females. There is usually a tinge of blue in the Michigan

specimens, lacking in those from Nebraska.

5. ATAX ABNORMIPES WOLCOTT.

Atax abnormipes Wolcott, ’98; 280.

Among the species to be considered in this paper are two which are

quite different from all others, which bear a very close resemblance to

each other and which are yet clearly distinct. They are both peculiar in

the possession by the males of a highly modified fourth pair of legs, while

the females present no marked structural peculiarity. The first of these

is Atax abnormipes. It is one of the smaller species, the females aver-

aging about 0.7 mm., the males about 0.55 mm. The body of the former

is about one-sixth longer than broad, somewhat broader posteriorly and

so slightly pyriform in shape and evenly rounded at both ends. In pro-

file it is about two-thirds as high as long, flattened dorsally in the center,

the outline descending abruptly at either end. The surface of the bodyis

marked by lines dividing it into minute hexagonal areas, appearing

facetted. ‘The male is decidedly pyriform, with a breadth equal to four-

fifths its length, the average of a number of specimens being 0.445 mm.

and 0.56 mm. respectively. The body is smoothly rounded: anteriorly,

but deeply emarginate posteriorly.

Eyes very large, in the male measured, 0.143 mm. apart. Each lens

nearly circular, the anterior a little the larger.

Maxillary shield —Comparatively broad, the sides anteriorly nearly

parallel, with the anterior lateral angles diverging. The ancoral process

very broad with a width at the tip of over half the extreme breadth of the

whole, inconspicuously hooked and with sides which from the tip di-

verge at once to the posterior lateral angles, which thus instead of ap-

pearing posterior, seem like projecting angles in the middle of each side.

Mandibles.—The basal segment is broadly rectangular, nearly as

broad as long, slightly narrowed anteriorly, the dorsal posterior angle

rounded, the ventral angle produced for attachment of muscles. Distal

segment comparatively large, the claw rather heavy, slightly curved and

quite blunt. Patch of oblique striae near its base sharply limited and

witha broadly elliptical outline.

Palpi.—Whole palpus slender and somewhat less than one-half the

length of the body. Basal segment short, while 2 is of moderate length,

relatively thicker than the rest, and convex along both extensor and flexor

margins, the convexity of the former the greater; on the outer side are two

long, tapering, slightly curved spines toward the extensor margin; on the

inner surface one, similar to the others, in the middle, and a second close

to the distal margin. 3, somewhat narrower than 2 and proportionately

ong, though hardly as long as broad; flexor margin nearly straight;

extensor margin convex; a spine at the proximal margin of outer surface,

nearer the extensor side, and another at the distal margin on the inner

side. 4, long and slender, narrower than 3, about three times as long as

thick and slightly tapering toward the end; paired papille on the flexor

NORTH AMERICAN SPECIES OF THE GENUS ATAX 219

margin two-thirds the way towards the tip, short, and with a slender

spine, the third at the distal margin short and inconspicuous. 5, broad,

laterally quadrate in outline, with the ventral distal angle produced and

on the distal margin two slender, strongly curved claws, one near the ex-

tensor margin, the other about in the median line.

Epimera large, covering most of the uuder surface of the body and

with a very narrow space between II and III and between those of oppo-

site sides. I, rather broad, with parallel margins, the anterior margin

concave, the posterior slightly convex. II, slightly broader than I and

with its posterior margin quite convex and forming with the inner end of

lacontinuous curve. Line of separation between III and IV distinct one-

half the way in from the lateral margin and one-fourth the distance from

the anterior towards the posterior margin of the plate formed by the two.

Anterior margin of III concave and anterior internal angle projecting.

Posterior margin of IV strongly convex, indistinctly angulated, and pro-

duced backward to a point even with the genital area, which thus lies in

an angle between the last two epimera. Lateral margin deeply excavated

between the points of articulation of legs III and IV and opposite the

division between the corresponding epimera. The surface of the body

between the four groups of epimera is thickened and so to a certain ex-

tent all are fused into one mass. The surface of all the epimera is

marked, as is the rest of the body surface, by a system of lines cutting it

up into small hexagonal areas, and the same is true of the maxillary

plates.

Legs.—In the male, very short and comparatively thick, the last

especially so. JI averages one-seventh shorter than the body and is

shortest of all, III is one-seventh longer than the body, II a sixth longer

and IV a fourth longer. Of the individual segments, 1 is shorter, 2 and 3

are about equal and next longer; 4 is longest except in IV where 6 is very

long, exceeding it and all the others; while in I and II, 6 exceeds 5 and

in III the reverse is true. The legs are all moderately well supplied with

spines and are not noteworthy except in the case of III, 5 and IV, 4 to 6.

The former has at its tip three doubly curved blade-like spines reaching

three-fourths the way to the end of 6. Of the latter, IV 4 is compressed

laterally through the distal two-fifths of its length and on this compressed

portion bears a bunch of six very large spines, placed in two rows on the

ventro-anterior surface, and exceeding in length the next segment, while

on the posterior surface are about nine spines, of which six are moder-

ately stout, while the three distal are very long and slender and reach

beyond the distal end of 5 by about one-third its length. 5 is short, at its

base narrower than 4, tapering toward the tip, with two very heavy,

curved blunt spines on the extensor surface and a row of spines along the

flexor side, and a bunch of fine hairs at the distal end, while 6 is very

slender and ratherlong. All the claws are strongly bent and bifid, withan

accessory tip on the convex side short and inconspicuous and ending at a

distance from the end equal to one-sixth the whole length of the claw.

220 ROBERT H. WOLCOTT:

The legs of the female are slenderer and relatively shorter and III much

shorter than inthe male. IV, 4 is exceeded by bothiand6. There is no

marked structural peculiarity; the segments of the last pair decrease reg-

ularly in thickness from 1 to 6; 1V 4 lacks the six large spines; and IV 5

the two long ones, retaining the row of spines on the flexor surface.

The genital area of the male lies one-half on either side of the groove

in the emarginate posterior end of the body, the opening being at its bot-

tom; the latter is bounded by two rather broad lunular plates, each with five

acetabula in two groups—two in front and three behind. In the femalea

transverse division indistinctly separates each of these lunules into two

parts, the anterior with two, the posterior with three acetabula, and each

bears at the angle adjacent to the other three, a flattened spine.

MEASUREMENTS:

Female Male

Wenguk OLOGY. 1.0.5.) . accieeh sees . 0.714 mm. 0.586 mm.

Tem enVOn Lem) so ie cece iene ors 0.560 mm. 0.510 mm.

Baneth of les hls occ tay eee es 0.740 mm. 0.688 mm.

isenetnotlerial heey. oc areraes elec 0.663 mm. 0.668 mm.

Benet Orger gl Wieecc\ sa scaea eae es 0.770 mm. 0.745 mm.

Palas $2) or oe ni tains nase anes 0.306 mm. 0.265 mm.

I SUTESTIVS 0 Po EEE Bh ee apa pe GI Bom es a 0.173 mm. 0.153 mm.

Types in the author’s collection; co-types have been deposited in the

collection of the Zoological Laboratory, University of Nebraska, in the

Museum of Comparative Zoology, of Harvard University, in the United

States National Museum, and in the Kg]. Museum fiir Naturkunde in

Berlin.

Atax abnormipes was collected at Lake St. Clair during the

summer of 1893, but owing to confusion of different species

due to lack of familiarity with the group, no statement can be

made as to the hosts except that it was almost surely harbored

by Unio alatus, U. ventricosus and U. luteolus. It was next

met with at Grand Rapids, Mich., in the summer of 1895,

when individuals were found in UW. ligamentinus, U. occidens,

U. ventricosus (very abundant), U7. alatus and U. rectus from

different localities in Grand River, while collections made since

have added to the list of hosts U. wndulatus, and emphasized

the fact that it is far more abundant in U. ventricosus than in

any other species of mussel. One specimen was found in that

species from Rogue River, Kent County, Mich., July 5, 1897.

It has been taken in limited numbers in JU. luteoluws from

Reed’s Lake near Grand Rapids, Mich., in the same Unzo

from Long Lake, Kalamazoo, Mich., and in that and U. ventri-

NORTH AMERICAN SPECIES OF THE GENUS ATAX 991

cosus, from Black Lake, Holland, Mich., while the past summer

it was found in U. /uteolus from White Lake, Muskegon County,

Mich.

At Oshkosh, Wis., the species was found during September,

1897, in U. gracilis and U. luteolus from Lake Winnebago.

In Illinois, as determined from specimens received from Prof.

H. M. Kelly and Mr. M. Ricker, A. abnormipes has been taken

from U. anodontoides, U. gracilis and U. occidens collected at

Havana. Finally in material received from Mr. R. H. Johnson

and obtained at Chautauqua Lake, N. Y., it occurred in U.

luteolus and U. phaseolus and perhaps in Anodonta plana,

though the record is doubtful, while it also was present in

mites taken from U. ventricosus at Cheektowaga, Erie County,

Be Ys:

6. A. INDISTINCTUS WOLCOTT.

Atax indistinctus Wolcott, 98; 281.

The second species of Atax referred to under the head of the preced-

ing is A. indistinctus, which received the name it bears when only

females had been collected, and in reference to the close resemblance be-

tween the females of the two species, which were only separated by the

most careful observation. Since the preliminary paper in which this was

described has been published an abundance of males have been secured

and the species shown to be entirely distinct though closely allied.

A. indistinctus is a species rather under medium size and yet a little

larger than A. abnormipes, the measurement of several males showing a

variation in body length of from 0.675 mm. long by 0.55 mm. broad to 0.75

mm. long by 0.618 mm. broad, while the average of a number of females

was 0.£25 mm. by 0.63 mm. It is similar in form to A. abnormipes, and

like that species the whole surface of the body is marked off by fine lines

into smal] hexagonal areas.

Eyes large but not quite so large as in the preceding species, and

about the same distance apart.

Maxillary shield similar to that of A. abnormipes, but the posterior

lateral angles not so prominent and the sides in front of it slightly diverg-

ing instead of parallel. Rostrum rather prominent.

Mandibles similar to those of A. abnormipes in form.

Palpi rather slender but not so much so as in those of the previous

species. The spines are similar in number and position to that form, the

two on the outer side of 2 dividing it into thirds. The distal margin of

this segment is not uniformly concave but a shallow re-entrant angle

separates the extensor two-fiiths and the flexor three-fifths of its length.

A rounded angle in the proximal margin of 8 corresponds to this, the

segment being proportionately heavier than in the allied species, while 4 is

999 ROBERT H. WOLCOTT:

also proportionately stouter and more tapering, its base being nearly as

thick as that of 3, while the distal end is only one-half as thick as the

proximal; its breadth in the middle is a little over one-half itslength. The

papillae on this segment are rather more prominent than in A. abnormipes.

5 is similar to that of that species but the claws are more slender and a

little farther apart, and the ventral distal angle a little more produced.

Epimera.—Of the same general character as in A. abnormipes, but

differing in the following respects: They occupy sligatly less than a pro-

portionate amount of the ventral surface; the space between the groups of

epimera is a little greater and the inner ends of the first pair do not

approach closely to each other but leave a considerable interval behind

the maxillary shield. This is owing to a shortening of I and is accompa-

nied by an increase in the curvature of the posterior margin of the plate

formed by it and II, which margin is also indistinctly angled toward the

base of Il. The posterior margin of IV does not project so far posteriorly

and so the genital field is not to such an extent enclosed by it.

Legs of female relatively longer than in A. abnormipes and very

slightly more slender. I is one-tenth shorter than the body, II and II

about one-fifth longer and of the two, IJ a trifle the longer, IV two-fifths

longer than the body. Individual segments of each leg in order of length

4, 6, 5, 3, 2, 1, except in IV, where the last three are 6, 5, 4. Number and

distribution of spines on the legs about the same as in A. abnormipes; a

row of long spines on the flexor surface of segments 4 and 5 of leg IV; the

tip of 5 in each leg armed by several long spines.

In the male, I slightly exceeds the body-length; IJ, III and IV are each

a little over two-fifths longer, and of these IV is slightly longer than II and

that slightly longer than III. Segments in I and I, in order of length 4,

6, 5, 2, 8, 1; in III, 5 is longer than 6, and in IV, 6 is less than 2 or 3, this

shortening leading to a shortness of the whole leg. The same three

spines are present at the distal end of IV 5, but are not so long—not quite

two-thirds the length of 6. IV modified in a similar manner to the same

in A. abnormipes, but differing in the following details: Spines on 3 much

more numerous; on the posterior surface of 4 the spines are longer and

more numerous, and on the ventro-anterior surface are eight spines, three

in a dorsal and five in a ventral row; the distal portion of this segment is

not so much compressed, and the ventral surface is quite evenly convex;

5 is thicker, has a row of ventral spines as in A. abnormipes but only one

long heavy spine in the middle of the dorsal surface instead of two.

Claws similar except that the accessory tip is one-third the length from

the end of the principal one.

Genital area as in A. abnormipes in form except that the angle which

separates the plates of the two sides anteriorly is more acute here than in

A. abnormipes. Acetabula in males usually seven on each side—in one

specimen eight—with an indefinite separation into two groups. In the

female are three and six on the two plates of either side, in one case four

and five on one side and three and six on the other.

NORTH AMERICAN SPECIES OF THE GENUS ATAX 223

MEASUREMENTS:

Maile Female

Kengtiiot bodys oss yee ar ce 0.740 mm. 0.867 mm.

Width of body (extreme)....... 0.637 mm. -_—_- —-—

engih of lem Dy... bear sie ayes le» 0.785 mm. 0.698 mm.

engi ofles Tayo as a. oss. 1.066 mm, 0.890 mm.

Heneth iat leg PUD wr.) seis. +) </eiai- 1.050 mm. 0.870 mm.

Mengih or leo Vyas Ps bes 27, «tre 1.076 mm. 1.020 mm.

Palpus (from another speci-

men of same size in case

Ghee ea 0.347 mm. 0.380 mm. (approx.)

Types in the author’s collection; co-types have been deposited in the

collection of the Zoological Laboratory, University of Nebraska, in the

Museum of Comparative Zoology of Harvard University, in the United

States National Museum, and in the Kgl. Museum fiir Naturkunde in

Berlin.

Specimens of females of this species taken at Lake St. Clair,

Mich., were confused with the following species and their

identity not detected till mounted and subjected to a careful

microscopical examination, when the differences between the

two species became apparent. Hence no statement can be

made as to the definite source of the specimens.

It was therefore with much pleasure that upon looking over

the collection of mites from Prof. H. M. Kelly, this species

was found in considerable numbers—60 males and 115 females

altogether. They were taken from UW. alatus and U. gracilis

from the Illinois River at Havana, Ills.; from UW. gracilis from

the Spoon River at Duncan’s Mills and Bernadotte, Ills.; and

from ‘‘Unio spp.” from the Cedar River at Mt. Vernon,

Iowa. Specimens were also found in the material from Mr.

M. Ricker.

7. ATAX SERRATUS WOLCOTT.

Atazx serratus Wolcott, 98; 282.

Atax serratus resembles very closely the two preceding species in the

appearance of the palpi and in the form of the claws and to a lesser degree

in the outline of the genital field and of the epimera. It is larger, pro-

portionately more elongated and the body of the male is only slightly

pyriform. The legs are proportionately shorter and IV of the male is not

modified. They are characterized by the presence of numerous serrate

spines which suggests the specific name proposed.

The body is oval in form, bluntly and evenly rounded at both ends in

the female, that of the male with a slight posterior emargination. Its

294 ROBERT H. WOLCOTT:

extreme width at a point a short distance beyond the middle is equal to

two-thirds of the length; from the side the dorsal convexity is seen to be

considerable and quite uniform, but highest posteriorly. Its surface is

smooth and without chitinous thickenings or lines of any kind, though

the epimera show the regular reticulation referred to in regard to the

two preceding species.

Eyes as in the two preceding forms, large and deep black in color,

though a little farther apart than in the others.

Maxillary shield similar to that of the preceding; suture between the

two plates running about half way forward from the posterior end and a

little farther than even with the posterior lateral angles.

Mandibles.—Ventral margin nearly straight; dorsal parallel to it,

curving outwardly however toward the posterior end, and this curve con-

tinued evenly around the posterior end to the produced posterior ventral

angle. Distal joint medium in size and not noteworthy as to form; claw

slightly curved, and concave margin slightly arched outwardly in middle.

Palpi large and heavy, similar to those of the preceding in form.

Convex dorsal margin of 2, two and a half times the length of the nearly

straight flexor margin and 2 one-third as broad as the length of the whole

palpus; there are two spines near the middle of its outer surface, one on

the inner near the middle and another near the distal margin which is

flat, blade-like and serrate. 3 very broad, its breadth four-fifths that of

the preceding and one-half its length; inner margin one-half of outer and

both nearly straight. 4 thick, considerably tapering, at the base two-

thirds as broad as 2 and at the tip less than one-fourth as broad. Paired

papillae three-fourths the distance to the distal end. 5 has the inferior

distal angle produced and a spine at the base of the projection on the

outer side.

Epimera occupying two-thirds of the ventral surface, with the spaces

between the groups narrow: the inner ends of the anterior groups ap-

proach each other much closer than in the preceding, and the posterior

margin, instead of being smoothly rounded, shows an excavation oppo-

site the junction of the two epimera. Anterior median angles of posterior

groups produced, anterior margin concave; the inner margins diverging

posteriorly; the posterior median angles rounded off; and the posterior

margin convex, but only moderately so. Suture separating HI and IV

nearly complete.

Legs moderately heavy, rather more slender than in the other two

species and proportionately shorter, while the species is peculiar in the

fact that III is ionger than II. In the male I equals about three-fourths

the body length, II is somewhat shorter than the body, HI about equal

to it, while IV, which is shortened, is only one-tenth longer. In the fe-

male_all the legs are relatively shorter still and IV is scarcely longer than

the body. Length of individual segments in order, beginning with the

longest, 4, 5, 6, 2, 3, 1, except in III where 5 is about equal to 4and in IV

of both male and female where 5 is greater than 6 and that than4. In

the female more or less of the spines on the legs are serrate along both

NORTH AMERICAN SPECIES OF THE GENUS ATAX 295

margins, those on only the basal segment of I, but gradually including

more and more on each leg, till on IV are serrate spines on all seg-

ments, and on the distal is a row of very prominent, flattened, blade-like,

serrate spines. On IV 4 are also three heavy club-shaped spines. In the

male serrate spines are present, but less numerous and not so prominent,

while the sex is characterized by not only the shortening of the last pair of

legs but also by a thickening of the same making them stouter than the

two preceding pairs and about as stout as the first. Theclaws are sharply

curved, have an accessory tip at two-thirds the distance from the base,

and end in a very fine point.

Genital area broader than long, each lateral plate divided in the

female into two, an anterior pouch-shaped plate with its inner end pro-

duced into along neck, curved backward and bearing on its tip a flattened

spine, and a posterior nearly circular plate. Three specimens examined

possessed the following number of acetabula: 15 and 31 on one side, 12

and 25 on the other; 11 and 21 and 12 and 19; 8 and 12 and 6 and17. The

male has but a single plate on either side with a total of 19 or 20 acetabula

on each side.

MEASUREMENTS:

, Male. Female.

Monsin- ot y GORY. -1 35.) o4h a3) sale lac ce 0.868 mm. 1.170 mm.

Peng Or) leg. Ti. santas nes. 0.668 mm. 0.816 mm.

Mempan et leg EE) 55, Bee cats «:« 0.820 mm. 1.020 mm.

Beret \ leg RUE cee ee ei 2 0.870 mm. 1.070 mm.

Fenugivot leg IV, 2.561205 2+ 0.959 mm. 1.214 mm.

Bengiiot Palpus. 7. oo sek cies oles « —— 0.510 mm.

Color of legs, a bright blue-green, and body tinged with bluish-green.

Types in the author's collection; co-types have been deposited in the

Zoological Department, University of Nebraska, in the Museum of Com-

parative Zoology of Harvard University, in the United States National

Museum, and in the Kg]. Museum fiir Naturkunde in Berlin.

Of A. serratus, specimens have been collected at L. St.

Clair, probably from Unio luteolus. At Grand Rapids, Mich.,

specimens have been obtained from Unio coccineus, U. undu-

lotus and U. alatus from Grand River, and from Margaritana

deltoides from Rogue River, Kent County, Mich. In material

from Unio occidens from Cayuga, Cheektowaga, Erie County,

N. Y., one specimen was found, while specimens have been

secured amongst a number of mites from ‘‘ Unio spp.”’ col-

lected in the Cedar River, Mt. Vernon, Iowa. It is thus a

widely distributed species, though one of the rarer ones. Owing

to an accidental interchange of the marks ‘‘7” and ‘*?” upon

the labels of two slides and the distraction of numerous inter-

ruptions when the preliminary description of this species was

226 ROBERT H. WOLCOTT:

written, confusion occurred in that description and so it is in

certain particulars wrong. Unfortunately too, and much to the

writer’s regret, the error was overlooked in the reading of

proof and only discovered after the separates were distributed.

8. ATAX FOSSULATUS KOENIKE.

Atax fossulatus, Koenike, 95b; 221, Pl. III, f. 68-70: Wolcott, 98; 283.

A. fossulatus is one of the larger species of the genus, the males

ranging in length from 1.1 mm. to 1:3 mm., the females from 1.4 mm. to

1.6mm. The body is oval, smoothly rounded anteriorly and posteriorly

and with the greatest breadth about opposite the posterior margin of the

last epimera: dorsally it is considerably arched, somewhat higher pos-

teriad.

The eyes are moderately large and quite close together, in one male

specimen 1.08 mm. long, the longest diameter of the eye amounting to

0.046 mm., and the distance between the inner borders of the two to 0.224

mm., while the extreme width of the body is 0.718 mm.

Maxillary shield broad, the sides anteriorly nearly parallel, the latero-

posterior angles moderate and the shield contracted posteriorly to a rather

broad and short ancoral process the width of which is two-sevenths the

greatest width of the shield.

Mandible with basal segment roughly rectangular, broadened pos-

teriorly, the dorsal and posterior margins forming, by the rounding off of

the posterior dorsal angle, a sweeping curve. Total length in the speci-

men referred to above, 0.28 mm. and greatest width somewhat more than

half the length. Distal joint moderate in size and with the claw compar-

atively short and straight, slightly hooked at the tip; the area of cross-

striae on the side of the base of the claw comparatively restricted.

Palpi rather large and moderately heavy, in the specimen referred

to previously the length amounting to 0.607 mm., while the maximum

dorso-ventral diameter of segment 2 is 0.184 mm. Segment 2 is convex

on both dorsal and ventral margins, but the dorsal curature is much the

greater; it is but little longer than thick, and bears on both outer and

inner surfaces two spines, those of the outer side close together midway

between the two ends and near the dorsal margin, those on the inner

side also close together, slightly farther from the base and more removed

from the dorsal margin. 3, about two-thirds as thick as 2, one-half as

long, and with a spine at the proximal margin on the inner side and

another toward the distal margin on the outer side. 4, slightly longer

than 2, slightly less than one-half as thick; the dorsal and ventral mar-

gins nearly parallel to the base of the paired papillae on the ventral sur-

face, beyond which the thickness of the segment rapidly diminishes. All

segments showing a gradual tapering when viewed from above. The

outer of the paired papillae is very small, the inner more prominent and

the spur at the distal margin moderately so. 5, nearly straight above,

concave below, tapering to a blunt tip, which bears three small blunt

claws; on the ventral margin, midway between base and tip, a small hair.

NORTH AMERICAN SPECIES OF THE GENUS ATAX te

Epimera covering approximately the anterior half of the ventral

surface of the body, the spaces between the two groups on either side

comparatively narrow, that between the groups of opposite sides greater,

especially in the case of the anterior groups, between the inner ends of

which is quite an interval. The spaces are all wider in the female and in

that sex the epimera are relatively a little smaller than in the male. The

last epimera are relatively long, being longer than broad, while just ex-

ternal to the inner posterior angle the posterior margin bears a spur-like

projection which curves outwardly and probably serves as a point of

muscle attachment. III, broadened externally, and an excavation on the

outer margin corresponding to the suture between it and IV.

Legs rather long and slender, the first considerably stouter than the

others; the first pair of the female nearly three-fourths the body length,

II seven-eights of that length, III slightly exceeding the length of the

body, and IV nearly a fourth longer. In the male the legs are propor-

tionately still longer, all exceeding the length of the body, I by a very lit-

tle, IV by over two-thirds. Of the individual segments, 4 exceeds 5 and

that 6, except in III, where 5 is longer than 4, and in IV where 5 is still

more elongated and 6 greatly lengthened, slightly exceeding 5. The seg-

ments gradually decrease in thickness from 1 to 6 and the last tapers con-

stantly from base to tip. The legs are armed with a considerable number

of spines of medium length, which form a continuous row along the

ventral surface of segments 4 and 5, and also along 6 in the case of IV,

the spines in this last case shorter. The distal segment is unusually con-

tracted toward the tip, and is not cleft to receive the claws, but these last

are partly covered by a thin chitinous plate, which, together with several

slender hairs, springs from the dorsal side of the segment behind the

claws. The claws are bifid, a small accessory claw being developed on

the dorsal side of the primary one very close to the tip, except in the case

of the first leg, where the secondary claw is longer and springs from a

point one-third the way back from the tip of the other. The claws, as a

whole, are rather heavy and strongly curved.

The genital area is situated about midway between the last epimera

and the end of the body, slightly nearer, perhaps, to the latter. It is

broadly oval in form and nearly as broad as long. In the male the

genital cleft is flanked by two reniform plates, which bear five large

acetabula, of which the two anterior are in contact, the second separated

by a narrow interval from the third, the three posterior in contact, and

the two last situated side by side; several short spines are found along

the inner margin of these plates. In the female the five acetabula bear

the same relationship to one another but the two plates are not so evident

and the acetabula seem to be set into the surface of the body itself, though

this is thickened over the whole by a deposition of chitin. At the genital

opening, short clefts in this thickened area run toward either side and in

the four angles formed by these and the genital cleft itself, are four short,

stout, curved spines, while other smaller spines occur here and there,

scattered over the space within the row of acetabula and along the mar-

gin of tae genital cleft.

228 ROBERT H. WOLCOTT:

MEASUREMENTS:

Male Female

Length Of (00d yi. ch cis a sO aicisins la siels 1.136 mm. 1.419 mm.

Lemeth Gree Eye 32) seek 4 teen 1.188 mm. 1.035 sm.

engthiot, lem Gin ein; oe. see tec 1.515 mm, 1.285 mm.

Lengthnfon lea lll s,s eens aicsia. faa 1.647 mm. 1.438 mm.

Meneph(ordter W604 stitch tnd a 1.958 mm. 1.739 mm.

This species was the most abundant of all at Lake St. Clair,

228 specimens being secured from a number of species of

Unionide, but no definite statement of the exact species in

which it was taken can be given, except that among them were

U. alatus, U. ventricosus and U. luteolus.

Specimens were secured at Charlevoix, Mich., and vicinity,

as follows: in Round Lake, from Anod. subcylindracea, A. foot-

tana and U. luteolus; in ‘¢ 26°’ and Twin Lakes from the same

Anodontas and A. edentula and A. fragilis; in South Lake,

Beaver Island, Lake Michigan, from Ul. luteolus. Nowhere

else has this species been found in Anodontas, and I should be

tempted to believe that those collected had migrated from Unio

luteolus while the mussels were kept in pails of water a day or

two before being examined, were it not that at Twin Lake only

Anodontas were collected. The species was rare at all of these

localities.

At Grand Rapids, Mich., A. fosswlatus has been found very

generally distributed,—in Unio luteolus at Reed’s Lake; in UV.

rubiginosus, U. plicatus, U. undulatus, U. pustulatus, U. Novwi-

eboraci, U. occidens, U. ventricosus, U. ligamentinus, U. spat-

ulatus, U. rectus, U. coccineus, U. verrucosus (especially

abundant), UW. alatus, U. Schoolcrafti, from different localities

in Grand River; and in UW. occtdens from Rogue River, Kent

County.

The species has also been taken at Lansing, Mich., but from

what host is uncertain. At White Lake, Muskegon County, it

was found the past summer in U/. luteoluws, and at Black Lake,

Holland, Mich., it has been collected from that species and

from Unio occidens.

At Oshkosh, Wis., it has been found in Unio gracilis and

UO. luteolus.

NORTH AMERICAN SPECIES OF THE GENUS ATAX 229

It is present in the material from [llinois in U. alatus, U.

asperrimus, U. cornutus, U. gracilis, U. pustulosus, U. plica-

tus and U. occidens from the Illinois river at Havana, and

from U. gracilis, U. levissimus, U. lachrymosus, U. pustulosus

and U7. tuberculatus from the Spoon River at Duncan’s Mills

and Bernadotte. Also in materia! from. the Cedar River at

Mt. Vernon, Iowa, from l. rectus, U. alatus and others.

In New York it has been found at Chautauqua Lake in U.

luteolus and at Cheektowaga, Erie County, in U. occidens.

9. ATAX STRICTA WOLCOTT.

Atazx stricta Wolcott, 98, 283.

Very similar to the preceding in many ways but differing in details.

It is smaller than A. fossulatus, relatively broader and the legs are not

only slenderer and shorter, but have usually a blue tinge which is lacking

in the other species.

Eyes small and rather distant from one another.

Maxillary shield and mandibles very similar to those of A. fossulatus.

Palpi slenderer than those of that species and with the last segment

somewhat more strongly curved; ventral papillae on 4 relatively a little

more prominent.

Epimera in general of the same form. They are, however, slightly

broader proportionately, and the posterior median angle of IV is more

rounded and not so strongly excavated.

Legs relatively shorter, more slender and not so tapering as those of

the preceding species. I, not so noticeably stouter than the others and distal

segment, instead of growing constantly smaller toward the tip, is nar-

rowed in the middle and dilated at the tip, which is even slightly broader

than the base. Asin A. fossulatus, 5 is relatively elongated on III and

both 5 and 6 on the last pair of legs, and as in that species III is longer

than IJ. Distal segments relatively longer on all legs and last segment

flattened and very slightly dilated dorso-ventrally at the tip, instead of

gradually contracted as in A. fossulatus. Claws all simple, relatively

longer and more slender, and those on I stouter and not so evenly curved

as those of the other legs. Not so many spines on the legs as in the allied

form, but they are longer.

Genital area in about the same position as in the preceding but rela-

tively smaller, the acetabula smaller, and intead of the last two being side

by side they are al! in one curved line. The two rows do not approach

each other so closely anteriorly and posteriorly as in the other species.

The sexes differ in a manner similar to those of A. fossulatus.

230 ROBERT H. WOLCOTT:

MEASUREMENTS OF A MALE:

Hength Or body 2 sie iss oaks ne sie eles 0.835 mm.

Length ob leg Tin, siisake's ces Dees 0.811 mm.

Inenotin’ of leg Pal eos tees ae hele 0.995 mm.

enethror wes Lh. 52k feats ele - 1.107 mm.

bengtihoor leg HEV dese tite Aes cee 1.250 mm.

No female is in such a condition on the slide as to allow of ready or

accurate measurement.

Types in the author’s collection; co-types have been deposited in the

Museum of Comparative Zoology of Harvard University, in the United

States National Museum, and in the Kgl. Museum fiir Naturkunde in

Berlin.

This species when collected was considered to be the male of

A. fossulatus, but when slide-mounts of that species were made

the true male was discovered, and also both sexes of the

present form. The most striking difference, and that first

noted, was in the position of the acetabula in one line, hence

the name ‘‘stricta,’’ but careful observation showed the

presence of other differences as above indicated and also that

these differences, though slight, were constant. It may be a

variety of A. fossulatus, but it is for the present considered

separate, though closely allied.

Specimens were taken at Grand Rapids, Mich., during the

summer of 1895, among A. fossulatus, from U. coccineus, U.

ligamentinus, U. occidens, U. rectus, U.rubiginosus, U. School-

crafti, U. undulatus, U. verrucosus and U. alatus—89 speci-

mens altogether—but owing to their being confused with A.

fossulatus no statement can be made as to the exact source.

Collections of many more of the same mussels from near the

same localities, this last summer, it was hoped would give more

definite information, but only one specimen was found, which

wasin U7. wndulatus.

In Nebraska it has been collected from U. /amesianus and

7. lachrymosus from pools near Lincoln, from U. undulatus,

UT. lachrymosus, U. rubiginosus and U. Jamesianus at Weeping

Water, from Weeping Water Creek; and from U. lachrymosus

from the Blue River at Milford. The Nebraska specimens are

all peculiar in that the genital area is a little smaller and the

NORTH AMERICAN SPECIES OF THE GENUS ATAX 931

acetabula smaller and more closely crowded toward the middle

of either side.

Specimens were received from Prof. Kelly and Mr. Ricker

collected in UY. plicatus at Havana, Ills.

10. ATAX ARCUATA WOLCOTT.

Ataz arcuata Wolcott, 98; 284.

A species equal in size to A. fossulatuvs and A. ypsilophorus, between

which it appears to occupy an intermediate position, having resemblances to

both, but quite distinct from either. It is especially characterized by the

form of the legs, the distal segments of which are so strongly curved as

to suggest the name bestowed upon it.

It is of the same elongated elliptical form which characterizes the re-

lated species, very slightly broader posteriorly, and with both anterior

and posterior margins evenly rounded.

Eyes very small and lenses nearly equal. In the male specimen

measured the two were 0.301 mm. apart.

Maxillary shield similar to that of A. ypsilophorus, except that the an-

coral process is not so long, and the lateral margins perhaps a little less

divergent anteriorly.

Mandibles of the same form as in that species except that a concavity

is present in the posterior margin toward the ventral angle, whereas in

A. ypsilophorus the margin is nearly straight.

Palpi also very similar to those of A. ypsilophorus. though varying

somewhat in the direction of those of A. fossulatus. 1, as heavy asin the

former species, but 3 relatively less thick, and 4, instead of tapering,

nearly as thick at its distal as at its proximal end, the ventral papillae

being more prominent. Distal segment slenderer and longer than in A.

ypsilophorus and the claws at the tip relatively smaller.

Epimera.—Anterior groups narrower toward the median line and

more nearly triangular than in either A. ypsilophorus or A. jfossulatus.

Posterior group much shorter than in either and inner margin distinctly

shorter than the outer, with both anterior and posterior inner angles very

much rounded, especially the latter, which causes the epimera of the two

sides to appear widely divergent posteriorly. Space between the two

groups of epimera on each side very wide.

Legs very long, especially in the male, and similar to those of A. fos-

sulatus in that 1 is very markedly thicker than the rest and in that the

successive segments of each leg are distinctly slenderer than the one

next the body and give an evident tapering appearance. They are, how-

ever, relatively slender. III is a trifle longer than II, all but I exceed the

body in length, and IV is over half as long again. Of the segments, 5isin

all legs unusually long and 6 abnormally short. The legs are less plenti-

fully supplied with spines than are those of either of the other two species

and the spines are rather weak. The legs are especially characterized by

the curved form of the terminal segment, the curvature being only mod-

erate in the case of I, but in IV amounting to a deflection of 30°. This

232 ROBERT H. WOLCOTT:

segment also tapers toward the tip but just at the end is broadly ex-

panded to receive the short thick bifid claw, which is much smaller,

broader and thicker than in A. fossulatus. The rounded margin of the

expanded tip of the segment projects above the claw beyond its base, and

bears two short flattened lanceolate spines which project still farther.

Genital field similar in form to that of A. ypsilophorus though some-

what broader, being broader than long, like that of that species in posi-

tion, and finally also flanked in both sexes by a single plate on either side,

which bears in the male about 22 to 25 acetabula, in the female 26 to 30.

These are not all of the same size and two a little before the middle and

against the outer margin of the plate are decidedly larger than the rest.

Spines at the genital opening of the female similar to those of A. ypsilo-

phorus, heavy, curved and flattened. A few small and weak spines are

seen along the inner margin of each genital plate.

MEASUREMENTS:

i Female Male

Benge Of bodiys),,.\ 2 pyscser- ita wiciwiee . 1.170 mm. 1.250 mm.

Hewebh on Jeg ll...) ce ee eee wea wie 0.918 mm. 0.872 mm.

Mengeh One ee sel alent 1.413 mm. 1.346 mm.

mene rhyat der Wai cit ee sid 1.454 mm. 1.382 mm.

WET SEAVOn ER LW hs weujn ie ae bon iclate beet 2.040 mm. 1.907 mm.

Weneth jolipalousaso cs ser ee ees 0.403 mm. 0.408 mm.

Length of genital field........... — 0.224 mm.

Width of ipenital field) ocak). — 0.255 mm.

In color this species is not distinguishable from A. ypsilophorus.

Types in the author’s collection; co-types have been deposited in the

collection of the Zoological Laboratory, University of Nebraska, in the

Museum of Comparative Zoology of Harvard University, in the United

States National Museum, and in the Kgl. Museum fiir Naturkunde in

Berlin.

A. arcuata was first found at Charlevoix, Mich., in Round

Lake and living in Anodonta subcylindracea, A. footiana and

Unio luteolus. At ‘+26”? Lake it was collected in U/nio luteolus

and at Intermediate Lake in Margaritana rugosa, A. subcylin-

dracea, A. footiana, A. edentulaand A. fragilis.

At Grand Rapids, Mich., it has been taken in Marg.

deltoides, M. marginata and A. subcylindracea, and at Rogue

River, Kent County, in A. swbceylindracea. At White Lake,

Muskegon County, Mich., it has also been found common in

A, subcylindracea and in all the collections referred to, far

more specimens were taken in that than in any other mussel.

It has been collected in Marg. marginata from the Schuyl-

kill River at Phoenixville, Pa., and specimens were received

from Prof. Kelly.

NORTH AMERICAN SPECIES OF THE GENUS ATAX 933

11. ATAX YPSILOPHORUS (BONZ).

Acarus ypsilophorus Bonz, 1783; VII, 52, Pl. I, f. 1-4.

Trombidium notatum Rathke, 1797; IV, 175, Pl. X.

? Hydrachna triangularis Say, 21; I, 79: id., Leconte’s Ed., 59; IT, 22.

Limnochares anodontae Pfeiffer, 24; pt. 2, 27-28, Pl. I.

Hydrachna concharum von Baer, 27; XIII, 590, Pl. X XIX.

Unionicola oviformis, U. lactea, ? U. personata, ? U. humerosa, ? U.

symmetrica, ? U. proxima, ? U. lugubris, ? U. unicolor, ? U. reticulata—

Haldeman, 42; 1-3, Pl., f. 1-11.

Non Atax ypsilophora von Beneden, 48; (=A. intermedius Koenike).

Atax ypsilophora Garner, 64; 114: Claparéde, 68; 474, Pl. XX XIII:

Bessels, 69; 146: Lebert, 79; 367.

Atax ypsilophorus Neuman, 80; 26, Pl. I, f. 2: Koenike, 87a; 626:

Haller, 81a; 78: Koenike, 82; 265: Leidy, 83; 44: Harrington, Fletcher and

Tyrrell, 84; 140.

Atax concharum Krendowsky, 89; 59.

Atax ypsilophorus Barrois and Moniez, 87; 5: Girod, 89; XIV, n. 5,

107: Koenike, 91c: 257: Piersig, 94b; 214: Koenike, 95b; 217: Piersig, 96; 40:

Koenike, 96; 232: Piersig, 97; Lief. I, 48. Pl. I, f. 3, a-h.

This, the best known of all the species of the genus and the one first

described, is also one of its larger representatives, the males measuring

from 1.1 to 1.3 mm. in length, the females from 1.3 to 1.5 mm., or when

distended with eggs, 1.8mm. The body is oval, but more nearly elliptical

than in most species, evenly rounded at each end, and much arched. The

males are considerably slenderer than the females.

The eyes:are proportionately small and moderately close together, in

a specimen 1.086 mm. long, 0.296 mm. apart. They are brownish black in

color.

The ny xillary shield is widest anteriorly, quite evenly rounded pos-

teriorly a.d with a prominent ancoral process, which is considerably

broaden .d at the tip, each lateral corner of which is produced to form a

recurved hook. The rostrum is moderately prominent. Mandibles

relatively short and broad. in a specimen 1.32 mm. long, their total

length being 0.24 mm. The basal segmentis broadest posteriorly, where

its width is over two-fifths the total length; its ventral side is nearly

straight, with the posterior angle produced; its dorsal and posterior side

form together a sweeping curve from near the anterior end on the dorsal

side to the ventral posterior angle. The distal joint is rather heavy, but

the claw is deeply inserted and the exposed portion is relatively short

and slender, and quite straight. The area of oblique striae is rhombic in

outline and confined to the base of the claw, which is bent at a point even

with the distal margin of the segment, and ends in a sharp point.

Palpi.—Comparatively small and only moderately thick. The first

segment is narrow, and 2 is wide, being twice as wide as 1, and wider than

long, measured from the middle of one end to the middle of the other.

Ventral margin slightly convex, the dorsal stronglyso. 3, short and mod-

erately broad with both sides nearly straight, while 4is of moderate length,

234 ROBERT H. WOLCOTT:

somewhat longer than 2, gradually tapering and with sides nearly straight.

The paired papillae on its ventral surface are a little over two-thirds the

way toward the tip and the claw at the distal margin is only moderately

conspicuous. 5 is rather small, curved, with the ventral side unusually

concave and the tip slightly broadened and bearing the usual claws,

which are here rather prominent. The inner side of 2 bears a spine near

the middle, and the outer side two in the middle and nearer the dorsal

margin; 3 has a spine at the basal margin on the inner side and one at

the distal margin on the outer: 4 has in addition to the hairs on the

papillae, two small ones on either side of the claw at the distal margin of

the ventral surface; and 5 has a hair on the outer side a short distance

from the base. Piersig (97) describes the hairs on the outer side of 2 as

feathered but I can discover no such on my specimens.

The epimera are quite typical. The anterior groups are quadrilateral

and the posterior rectangular with the spaces between them of consider-

able width, especially in the female, in which sex the posterior groups

are relatively shorter. The anterior groups have the anterior and pos-

terior margins nearly equal, the outer a little shorter and the inner still

shorter. I is nearly of equal breadth throughout and its inner end makes

up the whole of the inner margin; IJ is triangular with both anterior and

posterior margins convex; while its inner end is prolonged into a short

eurved hook which turns backward and outward. III makes up only

one-fourth of the length of the posterior group, which has a slightly con-

cave anterior margin, a nearly straight inner margin, a convex posterior

margin, and rounded angles.

The legs are of medium length, and rather slender, with the first pair

not much thicker than the rest. I in the female is nearly five-sixths of

the length of the body, II is about one-seventh longer than the body,

III is shorter than II and about equal to the length of the: body, while

IV is more than a half longer than the body. In the male the legs are

relatively somewhat longer. Of the individual segments, 4 is longest and

the others follow in the order 5, 6, 3, 2, 1, except in IV where 5 is longest,

and it and 6 both exceed 4. All the legs are abundantly supplied with

hairs and spines, and many of them, especially on the middle segments

of the anterior three legs and at the tip of [V 5 are long and almost like

swimming hairs. IV has the ventral surface of 4 and 5 thickly beset with

spines of moderately length, and this pair of legs has, on the whole, more

spines, but they are shorter than in the preceding pairs. The distal end

of segment 6 on all the legs is broadened dorso-ventrally and receives in

a groove in it the thus retractile claw. The claws possess two tips of

which the proxinal one is slightly curved and meets the distal tip whichis

in line with the basal portion of the claw, at a right angle. The distal

tip curves slightly for a short distance beyond the junction of the two,

and then turns sharply ventrad so that its outer end is nearly parallel to

the proximal tip. :

Genital area flanked by two plates, each of which bears from 16 to 24

acetabula. The area in both sexes broader than long, each plate in the

female with a thickened strip running from the groove at the genital

NORTH AMERICAN SPECIES OF THE GENUS ATAX 935

opening outward toward the acetabula, but not reaching them. The two

plates in the male bear a few small spines and the margins next the

groove are not thickened or produced. But in the female, these margins

are thick, and produced outwardly in front of the genital opening to

form two wide lips, which diverge at their tips. These lips each bear

along their margins several spines, a small one anteriorly and two or

three longer, stouter and somewhat curved ones about the middle. Be-

hind the genital opening the lips are not so prominent and there is but a

single longer and more slender spine.

MEASUREMENTS OF A FEMALE:

Female

ILE EBL Ol DOU MSS Ats sot 75 kta .o/sactm sc 5.0 Sais 4 aha eam 1.336 mm.

ATTRA CHE MOR IES it conte rays! seins ctcie. sis ie uans, wiayaaene oowbers 1.030 mm.

ROHS TI OL LEGO i els ciaicten a aaj ere iene (alt oes, aes artle ae bonsaenels 1.515 mm.

Meusih orless Wi ol ale | weln este ace ot ae « sboretaete 1.326 mm.

Meret Onilem DVe. ies ar cita.ctace sy0is A cjeresthald otis arta 2.147 mm.

eae POURS: ya Nee ree dhi eich ius Em curren Sid s ulna et a tan 0.495 mm.

The number of previous records of the occurrence of this

species in North America is suchas toshow ita very common and

widely distributed form. Dana and Whelpley (36) found it at

New Haven, Ct., in A. dwiatilis Dillw, and in a second species

of mussel which they incorrectly identified as Unio purpuratus

Lam. Haldeman (42) seems to have collected it in A. fluwia-

tilis, U. radiatus and U. cariosus from the Susquehanna River,

Pa. Leidy (83) records it in A. flwatilis from Clarksboro,

N. J., and Koenike (95b) from Canada, in Anodonta fragilis.

It was found to be common in the summer of 1893 at Lake

St. Clair, in A. ovata, and also at Lansing, Mich., in the fall

of the same year though in what mussels is uncertain.

In Northern Michigan it was equally abundant the next

summer, being collectedin A. swbcylindracea and A. footiana

from Round Lake at Charlevoix; from the same and also

from A. edentula and A. fragilis, from ‘¢26” and Twin

Lakes in the vicinity of Charlevoix; and in A. subcylindracea

and A. fragilis from Intermediate Lake at Ellsworth, Mich.

At Grand Rapids, Mich., it is abundant and has been col-

lected in numerous localities along Grand River, in U. pressus,

M. marginata, M. rugosa, A. edentula, A. ovata, A. subcylin-

dracea and A. footiana; from Reed’s Lake in A. fragilis; from

Rogue River, Kent County, in Jf. rugosa, A. ovata and A.

236 ROBERT H. WOLCOTT:

Footiana; trom Plaster Creek in A. ovata; and from the mill

pond at Mill Creek in A. plana and WU. pressus.

At White Lake, Muskegon County, Mich., it was collected

during the past season in A. subgibbosa, A. subcylindacea, A.

footiana and M. complanata.

In Illinois, it has been found in A. corpulenta and A. vmbe-

cilis from the Illinois river at Havana and in A. suborbiculata

from Thompson’s Lake near Havana. In Iowa it has been

obtained in the Cedar River from JM/. rugosa at Mt. Vernon.

In Nebraska the writer has collected it in U. subrostratus and

A. grandis from pools near Lincoln; in IM. complanata, A.

plana and A. decora from Weeping Water Creek, Weeping

Water; and in A. grandis, A. plana and M. complanata from

the Blue River at Milford.

From the material received from Chautauqua Lake, N. Y.,

it is apparently as common as in all other localities cited, and

has been collected in A. plana and A. edentula.

The record of collections shows that it is essentially an Ano-

donta parasite, though occuring in Margaritana and rarely in

Unio.

12. ATAX TUMIDUS WOLCOTT.

Aiax tumidus Wolcott, 98; 285.

Very similar to A. (N.) ingens in form and in size, the females of both

showing a tendency to enormous distension when filled with eggs, in the

relative length of the legs, and also in color, the internal structure of each

as a rule giving no suggestion of the usual Y-shaped mark, but the color be-

inga light brown with numerous fine white vermiculate lines, though speci-

mens of A. tumidus have been found showing quite a well defined Y-mark.

It was stated in the preliminary description of the species that it also

agreed in the manner of depositing eggs, but the possibility of an error

in this statement was changed to a probability by careful observations on

this point during the past summer.

The species is, under normal conditions, one of the largest of the

genus, the females measuring from 1.4 to 1.5 mm. in Jength and when

filled with eggs even 1.8 or 2.0 mm., the males ranging from 1.10 to 1.25

mm. The body is oval, broadened posteriorly, evenly rounded at both

ends and uniformly arched, being also highest posteriorly.

Eyes small, black, and separated from each other by a considerable

distance.

Maxillary shield similar to that of A. (N.) ingens, short and broad,

with no ancoral process produced posteriorly, and with muscles attached

to long curved processes projecting from the sides backward and upward.

NORTH AMERICAN SPECIES OF THE GENUS ATAX 237

Mandibles like those of A. arcuata and A. ypsilophorus with the line

separating the two portions carried backward on the ventral side toward

the base, thus causing the distal to encroach on the basal portion. But

here the encroachment is greater than in the other cases and the heavy

claw seems actually to spring from the side of the distal end of the basal

portion.

Palpi comparatively stout, segment 4 especially noteworthy in that

regard. The basal three segments are moderately thick but 4is unusually

so, being through most of its length nearly as thick as 3, though narrowed

somewhat before the papillae on the ventral surface is reached and from

that point diminishing rapidly in diameter till at the tip it is only one-

half as thick as at the base. This segment is also short, being not twice as

long as 8 and its length only a little more than one-fifth greater than its

diameter toward its base. The paired papillae are very short while the

third at the tip is quiterudimentary. Last segment rather long, strongly

curved and blunt. Claws at the tip very small and inconspicuous.

Epimera resembling closely those of A. arcuata but relatively even

smaller.

Legs also resembling those of A. arcuata in general form but rela-

tively heavier and differing in the fact that II is longer than III by about

one-tenth. The swollen body of the present species is also longer in pro-

portion to the length of the legs and only the last pair exceeds it in the

male, while in the female none equal it, 1V being a trifle shorter. ‘The

proportion between the segments resembles those in A. arcuata, as re-

gards the relative length of 4 and 5 and the shortness of 6. The distal

segment is relatively stouter, and only slightly arcuate. The claws are

characteristic, being short and thick with two hooks, the ventral of which

is the heavier and somewhat the longer; it projects ventrally at a right

angle to the base of the claw and the dorsal hook after continuing for a

short distance in line with the base, also turns ventrad at a right angle.

The tip of the segment is expanded and has two flattened leaf-like spines

dorsally at the distal end which project beyond the claw.

_ Genital area.—Similar to that of A. arcuata in general form but ab-

solutely larger and relatively broader; number of acetabula greater, in

the male 34 to 35, in the female 40 to 41. In the male they cover most of

the lateral plates which are reniform in shape, in the female while they

reach the inner margin posteriorly, they leave about one-half the width

bare anteriorly; two lying against the outer margin exceed the others in

size, as is the case in A. arcuata. ‘he inner margin of each plate is pro-

longed into a long, flat pointed spine of which the anterior margin is con-

vex, the posterior nearly straight, so that it is shaped something like a

beak. Its width at the base is equal to one-fourth the length of theinner

margin of the plate and it occupies the second fourth of the margin from

the anterior end. The genital plates are thick and the margins very

heavy, making a pronounced and quite broad border.

238 ROBERT H. WOLCOTT:

MEASUREMENTS:

Maile Female

Lerigth ot body. ofs.!o02 scl} s 1.170 mm. 1.660 mm.

Lengthyof leg yess. epee 0.724 mm. 0.949 mm.

Length of leg II..... ee eae 0.994mm, 1.372 mm.

Length ofleg MIT). otek ects. a 0.938 mm. 1.255 mm.

Mengthet dem TVco. n5.) ote ists 1.397 mm. 1.612 mm.

Length of palpus........... .... 0.331 mm. 0.372 mm.

Length of genital area......... 0.255 mm. —--

Width of genital area.......... 0.321 mm. -—— =

Types in the author’s collection; co-types have been deposited in the

collection of the Zoological Laboratory, University of Nebraska, in the

Museum of Comparative Zoology of Harvard University, in the United

States National Museum, and in the Kgl. Museum fiir Naturkunde in

Berlin.

Atax tumidus was taken at Lake St. Clair in the summer of

1893, but only once, in Margaritana deltoides. At Ann

Arbor, Mich., three specimens were found in the collection of

the Zoological Department of the University of Michigan,

from the Huron River, but no record had been made of the

species of mussel. Two were collected at Lansing, Mich.,

but in what species of Unionide is uncertain.

It was only collected in North Michigan in Intermediate

Lake at Ellsworth, August 9, 1894, from Anodonta fragilis

and A. edentula—7 specimens being secured.

At Grand Rapids, Mich., it has been collected in Anodonta

subcylindracea and Unio undulatus (once) from Grand River;

in Anodonta ovats (¢) from Plaster Creek; and in Anodonta

subcylindracea from the mill-pond at Mill Creek, near Grand

Rapids.

It thus has been taken only in Michigan and there but

rarely, yet seems generally distributed through the state; it

also seems to be restricted to Margaritana and Anodonta, and

has proven most abundant in A. subcylindracea.

13. ATAX (NAJADICOLA) INGENS (KOENIKE).

Atax ingens Koenike, 95b; 219, Pl. III, f. 65 to 67.

Najadicola ingens Piersig, 97; 60.

A. (N.) ingens is the largest of all our parasitic mites, especially if we

consider the size of the gravid females, one of which has been collected

measuring 6.0 mm., though the average length of the females is from 2.25

to 2.50 mm., and the males from 1.50 to 1.65mm. The body is broadly

oval, evenly rounded at both ends, and much arched, highest posteriorly

NORTH AMERICAN SPECIES OF THE GENUS ATAX 239

When filled with ripe eggs the female resembles a large swollen sac, with

a cluster of short legs at one, and the more pointed end, which when the

mite is in a dish, are quite incapable of serving for support or locomotion

and the animal lies helplessly on its back, unable to stir until some object

which it can grasp is brought within reach, when its attempts to right

itself and to escape from its uncomfortable situation are extremely

laborious and in cases of great distension of the body, even utterly vain.

It possesses a different style of coloring from all other species except

in the case of some specimens of A. tumidus, there being no Y¥-shaped

lighter mark upon the back, but the whole body being of a honey-yellow

color, deepening to a yellowish-brown on the back, with numerous and

irregularly distributed fine white vermiculate lines.

The eyes are reddish-brown, small and rather widely separated. The

maxillary shield is short and broad, and quite evenly rounded posteriorly,

though on either side of the median line at the posterior extremity there

is a small bulging of the outline due to a thickening of the margin of the

shield. On each postero-lateral margin a little behind the middle isa

curved chitinous process which runs laterally beneath the first epimeron.

The mandible is long and slender with an extreme breadth of a little

over one-fifth the total length, It is thin and delicate, especially at the

ventro-posterior angle where it is produced backward to a distance equal

to one third the total length, forming a rectangular plate which is hol-

lowed, producing a shallow mandibular furrow. The diameter of the

basal joint is greatest just anterior to the posterior dorsal angle and

grows gradually less till at the junction of the distal joint it is only about

half as great. The distal joint is relatively small, with a claw which is

broad, curved, indistinctly angled near the base, and sharply pointed. At

the dorsal side of this claw is a thin flattened tapering chitinous process.

The palpi are moderately heavy and relatively short, averaging only

about one-third the length of the body. The first segment is unusually

long and much broader at its basal than at its distal end, which is not

true of 2, the distal margin of which is twice the breadth of the basal.

The ventral margin of 2 is straight, the dorsal moderately convex; on the

inner side are four spines, one near the middle at the dorsal side,a second

a short distance ventrad and posteriad of this, and two others distad of

the second, forming with it a row running to the middle of the distal

margin. On the outer side of this segment a little proximad of the middle

and toward the dorsal side are five small spines, enclosing an area which

is a nearly regular pentagon. 3 is stout, its ventral margin nearly

straight and more than half the slightly convex dorsal margin, and with

asmall spine on the inner side near the proximal margin. 4 is rather

clumsy, nearly as thick at the distal as at the basal end, and bears two

very inconspicuous papillae near the distal margin, and a small spur at

the margin, on the ventral side. There is also a short, thick, blade-like

spine on the inner side at the distal margin, and 5 has the usual three

claws at the blunt tip. The palpi thus possess the general characters of

those of other species of Ataw, being peculiar in the number of spines on

2 and the one on the inner surface of 4.

240 ROBERT H. WOLCOTT:

The epimera cover only about one-third the whole ventral surface.

The two groups of each side leave but a narrow interval between them,

but the space between those of opposite sides is wider, especially in the

case of the anterior pair. The epimera of the male are relatively larger

and closer together than in the female. I and II form a roughly triangu-

lar plate with a rounded inner angle, and from the inner end of the pos-

terior margin of IJ a short, stout, curved process runs back beneath III.

Of the plate formed by III and IV, III furnishes about one-third. This

plate is longest externally, narrowed toward the median line and the

inner end is rounded. All epimera are relatively thick.

Legs relatively short and stout, and the first pair slightly heavier

than the rest. In females not distended with eggs and in males the first

leg is a little over one-half the body length, II is a little longer than I, II

is longer still and over three-fifths the length of the body, and IV is longest

but still less than the body-length. The proportions seem to be about the

same in the two sexes. Of the individual segments, 5 is in all legs the

longest, 6 about equal to it except in IV where 5 is slightly lengthened,

and 4 next in length. The distal segments are nearly as thick as the

proximal which gives the legs a rather clumsy appearance. Spines are

comparatively very few and all short and stout; aside from this they are

peculiar only in the fact that each segment except 1 and 6, bears at the

distal end, a group of from four to six of these short, stout spines. The

claw is received in the end of 6 in a manner similar to that found

in A. ypsilophorus and the distal end of the segment is slightly expanded.

The claw is long, slender, strongly curved and slightly angled at two-

thirds the distance from the base, in the case of all but the first leg. In

the case of I, the claw is stouter, shorter and evenly curved, but like all

the rest simple and sharply pointed.

Genital area not at the end of the body but close behind the last

epimera and so produced toward either side that the total breadth is

about the same as the distance between the outer margins of the posterior

groups of epimera, and approximately two-thirds the width of the body.

Each plate has an outline roughly thatof a right-angled triangle, the base

of which corresponds to the anterior margin, the hypotenuse to the pos-

terior margin, while the short inner margin represents the altitude. The

latter margin lies at a short distance from the genital cleft in the female,

but in the male bounds it, and meeting the plate of the opposite side in

front and behind, surrounds it. The anterior margin is nearly straight,

the posterior slightly convex and the outer end rounded. The acetabula

are numerous and vary in size, two toward the outer end of each plate

being larger than any of the rest.

MEASUREMENTS:

Male Female

Lenrth of DOav ao sc abe exceed eb 1.503 mm. 2.330 mm.

eng Of leg es ities os ance nee 0.826 mm. 1.264 mm.

Length ot leon) oi tesomenae ee 0.862 mm. 1.346 mm.

Length oblog TN ii) cowie f lice cine 0.943 mm. 1.581 mm.

engin of leg DV esi pn ciliated isoun 1.367 mm. 2.017 mm.

engin of palpus. ..ks st twet ocstiew aie 0.469 mm. 0.821 mm.

NORTH AMERICAN SPECIES OF THE GENUS ATAX 941

This species was first identified from a specimen collected at

«© 96? Lake, near Charlevoix, Mich., from Anodonta fragilis,

and another collected at Intermediate Lake, Ellsworth, Mich.,

also from A. fragilis. Koenike described it from that species

and from Unio complanatus.

It seems to be found in both Unio and Anodonta, as at

Grand Rapids, Mich., it has been collected in Unio gibbosus,

OT. ligamentinus and Anodonta footiana. In one specimen of

A. footiana were 23 irregular masses of eggs, varying from

1.0 to 2.5 mm. in diameter, and in various stages of develop-

ment, with one mite 2.0 mm. jong and another, a female full of

eggs, 6.0 mm. inlength. At Long Lake, Kalamazoo, Mich.,

one male has been taken from U. luteolus. Only 16 speci-

mens have been found altogether, so it seems, like A. twmidus,

to be a rare species.

SYNOPSIS OF THE SPECIES INCLUDED ABOVE.

1. Genital field toward the end of the body and

in general form more or less broadly oval

or approximately circular; females with va-

riously modified spines about the genital

opening which assist in oviposition, the

eggs being deposited singly in the gills,

CUAK Vern ran ya 2d, Te, a4ate, ete Sea

Genital field removed from the

end of the body, immediately behind the

last epimera and plates so extended trans-

versely as to have the form of very low

broad triangles, whose long bases extend

from either side of the genital cleft a con-

siderable part of the .way toward the side

of the body. No spines at genital opening,

the eggs being laid in masses between the

gills (Nasapicona)........ 18 A. (WV.) ingens (Koen.)

2. Acetabula 6 on each side in two groups of

ALIKE SUSE 1) ON OPM ea UR OU We te Ap 9

242

ROBERT H. WOLCOTT:

Acetabula 5: on. each: side 20... 6. .05)05.04, Pe

Acetabula more than 6 on each side............ 10.

First pair of legs thicker than the palpi,

with movable spines set into the sides of

deeply excavated conical papillae, and with

claws simply bifid.......... 1. A. crassipes (Mill.)

First pair of legs not so thick as palpi, with-

out movable spines, and with a broadly ex-

panded pectinate claw...... 2. A. pectinatus mihi.

Legs very long, first pair thicker than palpi;

body truncate posteriorly and with a promi-

nent nipple-like papilla at either lateral

posterior angle............ 3. A. aculeatus Koen.

Legs shorter and first pair not so thick as

palpi; body evenly rounded or,gmarginate

Deliiads 3. en HER RSs OC a. 68 SO

Last pair of legs modified and posterior mar-

gin of the body emarginate....... oo) sala OOP

Last pair of legs not modred se posteric ior

margin of the body rounded. Jats ds, ya

Modification consisting of a soem fourth

segment on last pair of legs. Legs long

and slender....... 4. A. intermedius Koen., male.

Modification consisting of a thickening of

the first four segments of the iast pair of

legs, and a shortening of the fifth, which

bears two heavy spines, while the sixth-is

long and slender. All legs stouter and

thicker............. 5. A. abnorméipes mihi, male.

Genital plate of each side divided into two

parts, with two and three acetabula re-

spectively. . ne ) Agen

Genital pate 0 on soaks a not distin ae

vided . ated seve ae

Claw with two beck ae eal in nena

4. A. intermedius Koen., female.

10.

1 Bie

12.

13:

NORTH AMERICAN SPECIES OF THE GENUS ATAX 243

Claw with a very small accessory tip on the

convex side of the principal one.

PAL a ee As female.

Pate two jdesebule placed side by side; claws

bifid. . ve sreueeiiadiu 18s5 oA. fosdares Koen,

Meelis placed i in a continuous line; claws

Surinpnee WL ae + te VES ALS siraete aaa,

Acetabula about nine on each side. Hind

leg of male modified...... 6. A. éndistinctus mihi.

Acetabula 20 or more on each side............ 11.

Distal segment of palpus expanded, quad-

rate and with two long curved claws.

Body slightly emarginate in male, and legs,

especially of females, with more or less ser-

rate spines....... See nM CEs rece eiet B

Distal segment of bonis slender, curved

and ending in a blunt point armed with

small claw-like spines. Body not emargi-

nate behind and no serrate spines on the legs. 12.

First pair of legs not noticeably thicker than

the rest; distal segment of the legs straight,

and claws large and with two long equal

hooks. wsaeeeeeee 11. A. ypsilophorus (Bonz).

First pair wee es noticeably thicker than the

rest and tapering from base to tip; distal

segment slender, more or less arcuate and

claws small and bifid. SF yee: eae Ha:

Distal segment of ae idecaaiey eee

fourth segment of palpus tapering from bee

to apex. Maxillary shield with an ancoral

process posteriorly.......... 10. “A. areuata mihi.

Distal segment of legs slightly arcuate;

fourth segment of palpus swollen and nearly

uniform in diameter from the base to the

paired papillae on the ventral surface. Max-

illary shield with no ancoral process poste-

Fiesty AO OTe. kei DD) a eondes wiki.

944 ROBERT H. WOLCOTT:

BIOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS.

Most of these mites pass all their life stages within the

limits of the mussel’s shell, moving about over the surface of

the mantle; a few, of which A. crasszpes is an example, remain

only till the last stages of development are reached and then

leave the shelter of the mussel to pass the remainder of their

life swimming freely about in the water. The eggs are depos-

ited singly in the mantle and gills, rarely, as in A. (lV.) imgens,

in masses between the gills. The spines guarding the genital

opening, by being inserted into the surface of the gill, prob-

ably assist in oviposition, either by holding the body firmly

against the surface of the gill or mantle which is then pierced

by the ovipositor, or by themselves piercing the surface, the

ovipositor being protruded between them and the eggs de-

posited, rather more abundantly in the gills apparently, in the

case of the Unzo-dwellers, more numerously in the mantle by

the Anodonta-parasites. The development of these eggs has

been studied by Ciaparéde (68) and others and five stages have

been distinguished.

First, the egg stage, in which the embryo is surrounded by

a firm outer membrane and a more delicate inner membrane

—the ‘‘ Zwischenhaut’’ of Claparéde (68), the ‘‘ Dotterhaut ”’

of Kramer (80) or the ‘‘ Apoderm”’ of Henking (82). The

former, as development proceeds and the embryo increases in

size, is ruptured, but the latter increases in size or is capable

of distension and remains surrounding the embryo till the young

mite is ready to emerge, when it is also burst open and the larva

appears. Third, the first larval stage, in which the mite has but

three pairs of legs, and whichis very short. Fourth, the nymph

stage, in which the larval legs are lost and a new set is de-

veloped beneath the old larval skin. Fifth, the second larval

or sub-imago stage, in which the mite has four pairs of legs but

in which it lacks still the perfect development of the sexual ap-

paratus and the relative proportions belonging to the adult,

those only being acquired when a final moult of the skin re-

veals the adult mite. It is not the intention in this paper to

go into details as to this process, further than to note that the

NORTH AMERICAN SPECIES OF THE GENUS ATAX QA5

first two stages are passed in the substance of the gill, and the

next apparently in the spaces between the plates of which the gill

is composed. This stage is very short and the nymph is soon

formed either in the spaces in the giils or outside them in the

mucous over their surfaces. In the latter case the nymphs ac-

cumulate in the mass of mucous at the exhalent aperature, and

the same species of mite has been reared both from nymphs

taken from the gills and from those zollected in the latter situ-

ation. During the second larval stage the mite is very active

and moves freely about between mantle and gills. Generation

follows generation in the mussel, the only check to the increase

in number of mites being afforded by accidental escape or

voluntary migration. The latter, as Kramer (91) observes,

usually occurs during the second larval period when the body

is smaller, the legs longer, and the mites more active than

later. When free from the ancestral mussel they no doubt

swim here and there or clamber over the bottom with a chance

of finding another mussel and effecting a lodgment therein.

However, collections made with nets over beds of mussels have

never, so far as the author’s experience goes, furnished speci-

mens of these migrating mites.

There seems to be no particular time of year when eggs are

deposited as they are found throughout the season, but are ap-

parently most numerous in the summer, while during early au-

tumn the adult mites are most abundant. There also seems to

be no one time at which the eggs from any one female mite are

laid, but in the same shell and with but a single female, and in

which other conditions lead to the inference that she laid all

the eggs, they are found in various stages of development.

Lodgment is effected probably with different degrees of fa-

cility in different species of mussels. The swiftness of the cur-

rent seems to have little effect in preventing it, if indeed it

does not assist. In lakes with practically no current, collec-

tions show the following percentage of those infested, no other

conditions being regarded, and all collections being, made

during August of different years:

246 ROBERT H. WOLCOTT:

In Lake St. Clair (Anchor Bay), of 251 mussels, 62 pe

cent infested.

In Intermediate L., N. Mich., of 52 mussels, 65 per cent

infested.

In Reed’s Lake, Grand Rapids, Mich., of 96 mussels, 64.5

per cent infested.

While in Grand River, with a rapid current, collections at

various points show:

Of 175 mussels, 62.33 per cent infested;

Of 73 mussels, 60.00 per cent infested;

Of 182 mussels, 90.50 per cent infested;

Of 85 mussels, 82.00 per cent infested.

These Jast two larger percentages were obtained during the

past summer, when the percentage of infested mussels was un-

usually high. Indeed careful observations made during the

summer in the attempt to secure more accurate data than had

heretofore been obtained, as to the effect of different conditions,

were rendered practically of no value from the fact that the

percentage of mussels infested was so abnormally high as com-

pared with other seasons that no accurate comparison could be

made with former years and other localities. Still further ob-

servations are necessary and only general statements can be

made in the discussion which follows.

The mussels which are most sensitive, most active in closing

their shells, and whose shells close most tightly, seem to be

more immune from the presence of parasites than those possess-

ing less of these properties. The following figures have (p. 245)

been selected with reference to such species of mussels as have

been represented in the collections by a considerable number of

specimens and illustrate different types as regards form.

If these UJ. occidens and U. ventricosus are thick, the valves

meet at a considerable angle and not closely, and they are

slower to close upon irritation. WU. gibbosus, U. rectus and

U. nasutus are long and thin, the valves meet at a small angle

and tightly and they are more active. The other forms are in-

termediate in these respects.

NORTH AMERICAN SPECIES OF THE GENUS ATAYX¥ 247

Collected Collected

Mussel. previous to Per cent during Per cent

1898. infested. 1898. infested.

Unio occudens 19 100.00 40 100.00

Unio ventricosus |

Onio luteolus 60 70.00 33 85.00

Unio ligamentinus 57 63.00 75 96.00

Unio plicatus )

Unioundulatus § ao Peeel a ad

ae gebbosus 46 15.00 36 55.00

nio rectus

Unio nasutus 24 4.00 oe pe WW 2

This past summer, however, in the case of UU. spatulatus

and U. Novi-eboract, which are very similar in size and form,

an apparent exception to the rule was found; for of 46 speci-

mens of U. spatulatus, 20, or 43 per cent. were parasitized,

while of 24 of the other species collected with U. spatulatus,

all were infested. JU. spatulatus has, to be sure, the ad_

vantage in the angle at which the shells close and in activity,

but hardly sufficient to lead one to infer the above result from

simply a comparison of those characters. The mussels repre-

sented in the above table were all from Michigan, none from

elsewhere being included, in order to avoid any necessity of

allowing for a difference of locality. All were collected to-

gether along the Grand River at Grand Rapids, except U.

nasutus which was from Lake St. Clair and UW. luteolus which

represented specimens from Lake St. Clair, Reed’s Lake at

Grand Rapids, and White Lake, Muskegon County, together

with a few from North Michigan Lakes. Comparison of JU.

lutecolus from the different localities showed practically a uni-

form percentage.

As between Anodontas and Unios, of 29 Anodontas taken

previous to this year at the same localities as the above men-

tioned Unios, omitting U. dutecolus, 17 or 58.5 per cent were

infested; of those taken this summer 68 out of 74 or 72 per

cent were infested. Anodontas taken with the JW. luteolus

enumerated above, previous to 1898, showed a percentage of

72 per cent or 33 out of 46, and during 1898, of 95.5 per cent

or 21 out of 22.

248 ROBERT H. WOLCOTT:

The size of the mussel seems to have little effect. No

accurate records were made in regard to this fact previous to

the past summer and for reasons stated above, these records

are of little value in proving or disproving the fact of any

connection between size and percentage of mussels infested.

Generalizing from experience, in the absence of previous ac-

curately recorded observations, it seems, however, that there

is none.

The same is true of sex, which seems to affect inno degree the

extent of parasitism, though it might be supposed that especially

in the case of a gravid female entrance by the mite might be

the more easily effected.

Records kept the past summer also as to depths at which the

shell was buried and amount of vegetation on the bottom,

furnish no satisfactory data. It has become evident that it is_

not an easy matter to collect facts in such form as to allow of

a proper comparison of the importance of the various factors

which determine the occurrence of parasitic mites in various

species of Unionidae and under different conditions. And it

has also become evident that perfectly accurate statements,

with the accumulation of the data necessary to furnish an

adequate basis for them, will only be possible after years of

careful observation. The author regrets that he has not the

benefit of such in the preparation of this paper, but hopes that

he may at some time in the not far distant future be able to

report more fully upon this exceedingly interesting subject of

research.

The maximum number of mites found in a single shell has

occurred in the case of an Anodonta plana from a pool near

Lincoln, Neb., opened in September,1895. In it were 15 Ataw

ypsilophorus and 406 A. intermedius—93 males and 313

females. The mussels collected in Nebraska, however, espec-

ially the Anodontas, have averaged more mites to the specimen

than those collected in Michigan, though the percentage of

those infested is about the same.

The presence of these mites seems to entail few, if any, con-

sequences upon the host; though Garner (64) claims that their

NORTH AMERICAN SPECIES OF THE GENUS ATAX 249

presence causes the growth of pearly prominences on the inside

of the shell, and it is possible the irritation due to the presence

of eggs in the mantle, might in some cases lead to this. The

figures collected the past summer are not sufficient to allow of

accurate statements being made. When the attempt is made to

allow for the effect of age, of variation in form in the different

species, and situation as affecting the probability of the en-

trance of foreign particles, the number of mussels examined

does not furnish sufficient data for definite conclusions. Other

sources of uncertainty are added when it is considered that

even if no mites are found in a mussel of considerable size the

assumption that it never has contained any is entirely unwar-

ranted, and when it is remembered that in case of infested

mussels we have no means of knowing how long the mites have

been there and whether or not sufficient time has elapsed for

the demonstration of any effects on the host.

But upon the mites themselves the effect is more pronounced.

Living in the gills during development and later in a slimy

secretion, as they do, the tracheal system is less perfectly

developed, in some cases becoming quite rudimentary. Yet

they live for weeks in a vessel of water after removal from

the mussel. Here the other effects of parasitism become

apparent, especially if we compare free-living and parasitic

species. The body of the parasitic forms is large and more or

less unwieldy, in the case of the females of A. tumidus and

A. (lV.) ingens so large, at times, as to incapacitate the mites

for any movement, and the great thing lies on its back kicking

its legs in the air utterly unable to even hold itself right side

up. The swimming powers are feeble and the animal sinks at

once to the bottom where it clambers clumsily about, fortunate

if any soft object allows it to obtain a foothold, at a great dis-

advantage if it be on a bottom too hard to allow its claws to

penetrate. An apparent immunity from this effect of parasit-

ism is seen in the case of A. aculeatus which, living as it does

along the edge of the mantle and about the exhalent aperature,

is more exposed to currents of water and retains the length of

legs, small size of body and activity of movement almost un-

250 ROBERT H. WOLCOTT:

impaired—indeed, it is quite as good a swimmer as A. crassipes.

Aside from increase in size and unwieldiness of form, there is

a lack of the bright coloring which makes the whole group such

interesting objects of study. The method of oviposition leads

finally to peculiarities of structure in connection with the

female sexual organs, consisting of the spines about the genital

opening previously referred to. If kept for some time in a

vessel of water cannibalism is never resorted, to, no food is

taken, and after weeks of starvation the mites finally die.

Haldeman (42) says they do not suffer from cold, as they are

pretty active in water a few degrees above the freezing point;

and he has found them moving about in a Unio, the outside

layer of which was frozen. Nevertheless, they become torpid

instantly, he says, if placed in freezing water, though the tor-

pidity remains but a short time, if the temperature be gradually

raised. As arule, the migrations of the mussel from shallow

to deep water and its habit of burying itself in mud during the

winter, must make the temperature conditions within the shell

very constant. Equally uniform is the supply of food, which

is furnished to the animal with a minimum amount of exertion.

This stability of conditions under which the animal lives

would lead us to expect little variation among the mites and

little is found. Cases occur, involving the number, size, form,

etc., of acetabula on the genital plates, and to a slight degree

the relative dimensions and characters of other parts. But in

no case are these sufficient to cause any confusion amongst

different species, even when these are found living together in

the same mussel. Specific characters are well defined and con-

stant, and with care in the examination of specimens and a

knowledge of the characteristic structural features of each

species, identification should be perfectly sure.

The strange thing is that under conditions so stable, so

many species should occur. In this respect as compared with

the European fauna ours seems remarkably rich, since we have

now 13 recorded species of A¢aa as compared with 8 from all

parts of the continent of Europe, and our list is likely to be

increased by collections in the more distant parts of the coun-

NORTH AMERICAN SPECIES OF THE GENUS ATAX 251

try, although those so far made cover seven states, from New

York and Pennsylvania to Nebraska, and represent, all told,

forty-one localities—2 in New York, 4 in Pennsylvania, 21 in

Michigan, 1 in Wisconsin, 4 in L[llinois, 2 in Iowa, and 7 in

Nebraska. Material would be especially valuable from the

South and from the Pacific Coast, and it is hoped this paper

may be an incentive to investigators to take up the work of

collecting Hydrachnide from those regions. Any material

sent to the writer will be gratefully acknowledged, and if de-

sired, labelled specimens returned; he will also gladly respond

to any requests for information concerning the group.

Finally, the author would be doing an injustice both to those

who have very generously assisted him and to his own senti-

ments of grateful appreciation, did he fail to acknowledge that

assistance. To Dr. Richard Piersig of Leipzig, Germany, and

to Prof. F. Koenike of Bremen, he is indebted for literature,

and to Prof. Koenike also for specimens; each has been very

generous and to the kindness of each he acknowledges his in-

debtedness. Material has been received from Mr. R. A.

Johnson of Harvard University, Dr. R. H. Ward of Troy, N.

-Y., Mr. Jas. B. Shearer of Bay City, Mich., Mr. M. Ricker

of Burlington, Ia., Prof. H. M. Kelly of Cornell College, Ia.,

Mr. O. D. Noble of Linwood, Neb., and Prof. H. B. Ward

of the University of Nebraska, to each of whom the author ex-

tends his grateful acknowledgments. To Prof. Ward and to

his former teacher, Prof. J. E. Reighard of the University of

Michigan, he extends his thanks for many personal favors, and

he also acknowledges his obligation to Mr. Bryant Walker of

Detroit, Mich., for assistance in the identification of the mus-

sels collected. Finally, it is just and proper that he acknowl-

edge the assistance of his wife in the routine of the examina-

tion of mussels collected. He shall feel that he has partially

repaid his obligations to those mentioned if that which he

has accomplished by their assistance shall meet with their

approval.

252 ROBERT H. WOLCOTT:

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

von BAER, CARL ERNST.

27. Beitrige zur Kenntniss der neideren Thiere. Nova Acta

phys-med. Acad. Caes. Leop.-Carolinae nat. cur., xiii, pt. 2, 523-

762. Bonnae, 1827.

Describes A. ypsilophorus as Hydrachna concharum.

BARROIS AND MONIEZ.

87. Catalogue des Hydrachnides recueillies dans le nord de la

France. Lille, 1887. 36 pp.

A. crassipes (Miill.), Cochleophorus spinipes (Mill.), C. vernalis

(Miull.), A. ypsilophorus (Bonz), A. Bonzi (Clap.).

VAN BENEDEN, P.J.

48. Recherches sur l’histoire naturelle et le développement de |’

Atax ypsilophora (Hydrachna concharum), ete. Bruxelles, 1848.

(24 pp.;al ple):

The species studied was A. intermedius Koenike.

BERLESE, ANT.

82. Acari, Myriopoda et Scorpiones hucusque in Italia reperta.

79 Fascicles and supplement. Padova, 1882—’96.

A. crassipes and ‘‘A. limosus Koch’’ (according to Piersig (96b),

A. limosus Koch = Cochleophorus spinipes (Miill.).

BESSELS, Emin.

69. Bemerkungen iiber die in unseren Najaden schmarotzender

Atax-Arten. Jahreshit. d. Ver. vater]l. Naturk. Wiirtt. xxv, 1869,

146-152. Transl. by W.S. Dallas in Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.

vii, 1871, 55-59.

Observations on development, ete.

BoONZ,CHRISTOPH. GOTTLIEB.

1783. Nova acta phys.-med. Acad. Caes. Leop.-Carolinae nat. cur.,

etc. Observatio x. vii, 52-53, Pl. I, f. 1--4. Norimbergae, 1783.

Describes Acarus ypsilophorus.

BruzELius, RAGNAR MAGNUS.

84. Beskrifning 6fver Hydrachniden, som forekomma inom Skane.

Akad. Abhandl. Lund, 1854.

Restricted the genus to the limits since recognized; includes in ob-

servations A. crassipes and Coch. spinipes.

Nore.—In this bibliography no mention has been made of articles

which are simply records of occurrence. The different references are in-

dicated by date, together with letter following when necessary. The

designation given to each reference corresponds to that in the card cat-

alogue of the author. which is believed to be complete, and in which the

sequence adopted is carefully chosen to indicate the order of publication.

This designation is here retained to preserve a uniformity of citation in

this and other papers.

NORTH AMERICAN SPECIES OF THE GENUS ATAX 253

CLAPAREDE, EDOUARD.

68. Studien an Acariden. - Zeitschr. fiir wiss. Zool., xviii, pt. 4,

1868, 446--480.

Describes fully the development of A. ypsilophorus: describes A.

Bonzi.

DapDay, Eve. V.

97. Die Fauna des Balatonsees. x. Wassermilben (Hydrachniden).

Result wiss. Erforsch. Balatonsees ii, pt. 1, 195--205.

Describes Ataw Hungaricus,=Cochleophorus spinipes (Miill.),juv.

98. Mikroskopische Stisswasserthiere aus Ceylon. Termézetr.

Fiizeter.,xxi, 1898, 123 pp., 55 text figures.

Describes Atax nodosus and A. singalensis, of which A.

nodosus belongs to Cochleophorus.

Dana, (JAS. D.) AND WHELPLEY (JAS.).

36. On two American Species of the genus Hydrachna. Silliman’s

Amer. Jour. Sci. xxx, 1836, 354--359. Plate.

Describes Hydrachna formosa (= A. ypsilophorus) and H. pyri-

formis (spec. undet.).

Duaes, ALF.

84. Naturaleza México, vi, 344.

Atax Alzatet, n. sp. (is a Curvipes).

DuGEs, ANTOINE.

34. Recherches sur l’ordre des Acariens. Deuexiéme Memoire. Re-

marques sur la famille des Hydracnés. Ann. Sci. Nat. 2me Série

t, Zool:, 1834, 144-174, -Pl. x, xi.

Restricted genus Atax by separation of Diplodontus and Arren-

urus, but as types of Atax gives Hydrachna histrionica Herm. (a

Limnesia) and H. lutescens Herm. (a Piona).

FABRICIUS, JOH. CHR.

1792. Entomologia Systematica, etc. Hafniae, 1792-1794, 4 vols.

In vol. ii, pp. 398-406, gives all of Miiller’s species but H. gros-

sipes, under the genus Trombidium.

05. Systema Antliatorum, etc. Brunsvigae, 1805.

Establishes genus Atax (= Hydrachna, Miller).

GARNER, R,

64. On a Parasitical Acarus of theAnodon. Rept. 33d Meet. Brit.

Ass. Ady. Sci. Notices, 114.

A. ypsilophorus causes growth of pearly prominences on inside

of shell.

GIROobD, PAUL.

89. Recherches anatomiques sur les Hydrachnides parasites de

)’Anodonte et de 1’Unio, Atax ypsilophorus et Atax Bonzi. Bull.

Soc. Zool. France, xiv, 1889, 107-110. Jour. Roy. Mic. Soc. Lond.,

1889, 746-747 (abstract).

93. Recherches sur la respiration des Hydrachnides parasites.

Assoc. frang. Avance. Se. 22 Sess. Besangon, pt. 1, 248.

954 ROBERT H. WOLCOTT:

HALDEMAN, S. S.

42. Onsome American species of Hydrachnidae. Zoological Con-

tributions, No. 1. Philadelphia, 1842.

Describes 9 spp. of mussel parasites under the ‘Genus ?

Unionicola’’—U. oviformis, U. lactea (both= A. ypsilophorus),

U. personata, U. humerosa, U. symmetrica, U. proxima, U. lug-

bris, U. unicolor, U. reticulata (spp. undet.).

HALLER, G.

81a. Die Hydrachniden der Schweiz. Mitth. der naturforsch. Ges-

in Bern. ii, 1881, 18-83, Pls. i-iv. Separate, Bern, 1882.

Synonymy and notes on A. crassipes, A. ypsilophorus, Coch.

spinipes.

HARRINGTON, FLETCHER AND TYRRELL.

84. Report of the Entomological Branch for the season of 1883.

Ottawa Field Naturalists’ Club, ii, 1884, 134-140.

Atax Bonzi (incorrect identification?) and A. ypsilophorus in

America.

HENKING, H.

82. Beitrage zur Anatomie, Entwicklungsgeshichte und Biologie

von Trombidium fuliginosum Herm. Zeit. f. wiss. zool, xxxvii,

1882, 553-663, Pls. xxxiv—xxxvi.

IHERING, H. VON.

92. On the Geographical Distribution of Atax. Tr. N. Zealand

Inst., xxv, 252-253.

Kocg, C. L.

30. Deutschlands Crustaceen, Myriapoden und Arachniden. Regens-

burg, 1835-41 (40 parts). Also in Panzer’s ‘‘Deutschlands

Insekten,’’ beginning with yart 132.

37. Uebersicht des Arachnidensystems. Niirnberg, 1837-43

(4 parts).

In the former, simply describes species, in the latter arranges

them systematically. Restricts Afaa by separating from it the

genera Nesaea, Piona, Hygrobates, Hydrochoreutes, Atractides,

Acercus, Maricaand Limnesia. Describes under Ataw, A. cras-

sipes (Mill.): A. truncatus, albidus, truncatellus, conjiuens,

elegans (all= A. crassipes (Miill.)—Piersig, 96b): A. figuralis,

diaphanus, lobatus (all = A. figuralis Koch-Piersig, 96b); A.

spinipes (Mill.), freniger, falcatus, limosus, fastuosus, pictus,

hyalinus, bifasciatus, furcula (all = Coch. spinipes (Mill.)—

Piersig, 96b); A. vernalis (Miill.) (Cochleophorus); A. grossipes

(Miill.) (ident. 7?) A. minimus Koch (ident. 7).

KOENIKE, F.

81a. Revision von H. Lebert’s Hydrachniden des Genfer Sees.

Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool., xxxv, pt. 4, 1881, 613-628.

8ib. Vorldufige Notiz tiber die Bedeutung der ‘‘Steissdriisen’’ bei

Atax crassipes (Miill.). Zool. Anz. iv, 1881, 356-357.

82.

90.

90a.

90b.

91.

91c.

93.

98c.

95.

95a.

95b.

NORTH AMERICAN SPECIES OF THE GENUS ATAX 255

Ueber das Hydrachniden Genus Atax. Abh. naturw. Ver.

Bremen, vii, 1882, 265-268.

Ein neuer Bivalven-Parasit. Zool. Anz. xiii, 1890, 188-140.

A. aculeatus, n. sp. from Germany.

Eine Wassermilbe als Schneckenschmarotzer. Zool. Anz. Xiii,

1890, 364-365.

A. Ampullariae, n. sp. from §S. Brazil.

Siidamericanische auf Muschelthiere Schmarotzende Atax-

Species. Zool. Anz, xiii, 1890, 424-427.

A. procurvipes, n. sp., A. perforaius, n. sp., A, rugosus, Nn. sp.,

A. Jheringi, n. sp. from 8. Brazil.

Noch ein Siidamericanischer Muschel-Atax. Zool. Anz. xiv,

1891, 15-16.

A. fissipes, n. sp. from S. Brazil.

Kurzer Bericht ttber Nordamerikanische Hydrachniden. Zool.

Anz., xiv, 1891, pp. 256-258.

Die von Herrn Dr. F. Stuhlmann in Ostafrica gesammelten

Hydrachniden des Hamburger naturhistorischen Museum. Jahrb.

wiss. Anst. Hamburg, x, 1893, 1-55, 3 Pls. Also separate.

Describes A. spinifer, n. sp., A. simulans, n. sp., (both Cochleo-

phorus).

Weitere Anmerkungen zu Piersig’s Beitragen zur Hydrach-

nidenkunde. Zool. Anz., xvi, 1893, 460-464.

A. triangularis Piersig not valid—name preoccupied by Say,

1821.

Hydrachniden. Aus; Deutsch-Ost-Africa. Vol. iv, Die Thierwelt

Ost-Africas, Wirbellose Thiere. Berlin, Geog. Verlagshdlg.

Dietr. Reimer, 1895. 18 pp. ,

A. spinifer Koen., A. simulans Koen., A. spinipes (Miill.), A.

pauciporus, n. sp., A.lynceus, n. sp., A. figuralis Koch (figs.

only) (all Cochleophorus but the last two).

Liste des Hydrachnides recueillies par la Dr. Théod. Barrois

en Palestine, en Syrie et en Egypte. Rev. Biol. Nord. Fr., vii,

1895, 139-147. Separate, Lille, 1895.

A. crassipes from Palestine.

Nordamerikanische Hydrachniden. Abh. des naturwiss. Ver,

zu Bremen, xiii, 1895, 167-226. Pls. i-iii. Also separate.

A. ypsilophorus (Bonz), C. vernalis (Miill.), A. ingens, n. sp.,-A.

fossulatus n. sp., figs. of A. procurvipes Koen.

95d. Ueber bekannte und neue Wassermilben. Zool. Anz., xviii,

1895, 373-386, 389-392. 17 figs.

A. tricuspis, n. sp., (Germany), A. Schmackeri, n. sp. (China), A.

verrucosus, n. sp. (Germany) (Cochleophorus), A. callosus, n. sp.

(Germany) (also a Cochleophorus).

956 ROBERT H. WOLCOTT:

96. Holtseinische Hydrachniden. Forschungsber. aus der Biol.

Station zu Plon., iv, 1896, 207-248. PI.

A. crassipes (Mall.), A. limosus (Koch) Berlese, C. spinipes,

(Miill), C. vernalis (Miill.), A. ypsilophorus (Bonz), 4. interme-

dius Koen.

KRAMER, P.

75. Beitrage zur Naturgeschichte der Hydrachniden. Arch. f.

Naturgesch, xli, 1875, 263-882.

Describes 4. coeruleus and 4A. loricatus, both of. which = Coch.

spinipes.

77. Grundziige zur Systematik der Milben. Arch. f. Naturgesch.,

xliii, 1877, 215-247.

Systematic.

80. Ueber die postembryonale Entwicklung bei der Milbengattung

Glyciphagus. Arch. f. Naturgesch., xlvi, 1880, 103-110.

Krenpowsky, M. E.

78. [Ueber die Erscheinung der Metamorphose bei Wassermieben].

(Russian). [Arbeiten der naturf. Ges. Charkow]. 66 pp. 2 pls.

On metamorphosis, Refers to 4. coeruleus Kram. (Cochl. spin-

ipes.)

85. [Les Acariens d’eau douce (Hydrachnides) de la Russie merid-

-jonale]. (Russian). [Arb. Naturf. Ges. Charkow]. xviii, 1885.

209-358. 2 pls.

A. erassipes Miill., A. coeruleus Kram., (Coch. spinipes), A. ypst-

lophorus, v. Ben. (A. intermedius Koen.), 4. corcharum vy. Baer

(4. ypsilophorus (Bonz), ‘‘4. Bonzi v. Ben.”

LABOULBENE, ALEX.

51. Description de quelque Acariens et d’une Hydrachne. Ann.

Soe. Ent. France, 2 me série, ix, 1857.

His Hydrachna (Atax) viridana, according to Neuman (79) be-

longs to Arrenurus.

LAMPERT, KARL.

93. Parasiten der Teichmuschel (Anodonta mutabilis Cless).

Jahresheft Ver. vaterl. Naturk. Wiirtt. 1, 1893, 79-80.

A. intermedius Koen.

LEBERT, H.

79. Matériaux pour servir a |’étude de la faune profonde du lac

Léman, par Dr. F. A. Forel. vi Série. Hydrachnides du Léman.

Bull. Soe. Vaud. Se. Natur., xvi, 1879, 327-377, 2 pls.

Refers to 4. ypsilophorus, A. crassipes, and under “‘new genus,

Neumania’’, describes N. nigra and N. alba (both=C. spinipes).

Lerpy, Jos.

83. On the reproduction and parasites of Anodonta fluviatilis.

Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila.. 1883, 44-46.

A, ypsilophorus and 4. Bonzi (?).

MULLER, OTTO FRIEDR.

1776. Zoologiae Danicae prodromus, ete. Hafniae, 1776. (274 pag.)

NORTH AMERICAN SPECIES OF THE GENUS ATAX 257

1781. Hydrachnz, quas in aquis Daniae palustribus, etc., Lipsiae,

1781. (88 pp., 11 pls.)

Describes 4sp., Hydrachna crassipes (Atax), H. grossipes (ident. ’)

H. spinipes (Cochleophorus), H. vernalis (Cochleophorus). Es-

tablished Hydrachna to include all Water-mites. °

NEuMAN, C. J.

80. Om Syeriges Hydrachnider, aus Konig]. Svenska Vet.-Akad.

Hndler., xvii, (123 pp. 14 pls.). Separate, 1880.

OsBoRN (H.) AND UNDERWOOD (L.).

86. Preliminary List of the Species of Acarina of North America.

Can. Ent., xviii, 1886, 4-12.

Refer to ‘‘A. humerosa’’ and ‘‘A. ypsilophorus,’’ with the query

after each, ‘‘ where described ?”’

PFEIFFER, CARL.

24. Naturgeschichte deutscher Land-und Siisswasser-Mollusken. (38

parts). Cassel, 1821; Weimar, 1824, ’28.

Vol ii, p. 27-28, describes Atax ypsilophorus as Limnochares an-

odontae.

PrersiG, RICH.

93a. Beitrage zur Hydrachnidenkunde, Zool. Anz., xvi, 1893,

393-399.

Desc. A. trianguluris, n. sp. (Cochleophorus deltoides).

94b. Sachsens Wassermilben, Zool. Anz., xvii, 1894, 213-216.

Lists A. crassipes, A. figuralis, A. intermedius, A. Gonzi, A.

ypsilophorus: proposes genus Cochleophorus and lists C. spini-

pes, C. deltoides, C. vernalis.

96. _ Beitrage zur Kentniss der in Sachsen einheimischen Hydrach-

den-Formen. Leipsig, 1896. (71 pp.).

Chars. genera.—A. ypsilophorus (Bonz), A. intermedius Koen.,

A. Bonzi (Clap.), A. figuralis Koch, A. crassipes (Miill.), A: acu-

leatus Koen., A. tricuspis Koen., C.spinipes (Miill.), C. deltoides

Piersig, C. vernalis Koch., C. verrucosus (Koen.), C. callosus

(Koen.)

97. Deutchlands Hydrachniden. Bibliotheca Zoologica, xxii. (5

parts issued.)

Includes the species listed in previons reference.

97a. Bemerkungen zur Hydrachnidenkunde. Zool. Anz., xx, 59-61.

Proposes new genus Encentridophorus for A. spinifer Koen.

from E. Africa, and Najadicola for A. ingens Koen. from

Canada.

RATHKE, JENS.

1797. Skrivter af Naturhist. selsk., iv, pt. 1,175. Pl.x. 1797.

Redescribes A. ypsilophorus as Trombidium notatum.

Say, THOMAS.

21. An account of the Arachnides of the United States. Jour.

Acad, Nat. Sci., Phila., ii, 1821, 59-83. LeConte’s Ed. of Writings,

1859, ii, 9-21.

Describes Hydrachna triangularis (prob. = A. ypsilophorus].

258 ROBERT H. WOLCOTT:

STOLL, OTTO.

87. Hydrachnidae. Godman and Salvin’s Biologia Centrali-Ameri-

cana; Zool. Part lix, 1887, 9-15. Pls. vii-ix.

Desc. A. alticola, A. dentipalpis and A. septem-maculatus.

VAN VLEET, A. H.

96. Ueber die Athmungsweise der Hydrachniden. Zool. Anz., xix,

1896, 505-507.

WALCKENAER [CHAS. A. DE] AND GERVAIS [PAUL].

44, Histoire Naturelle des Insectes. Aptéres. Tom. iii; Paris; 1884.

Neglecting all the advances made since the time of Dugés (84),

enumerates under Atax 16 species belonging to several genera,

among them A. crassipes Mill., A. grossipes Miill., A. spinipes

Miill. (Cochleophorus), A. vernalis Mill. (Cochleophorus), A. fur-

cula Koch and A. freniger Koch (= C. spinipes (Miill.)

Wotcort, R. H.

98. _ New American Species of the Genus Atax (Fab.) Bruz. Zool.

Bull., i, 1898, 279-285.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

PLATE XXVIII.

Fig. 1. <A. crassipes. Outer side, right palpus. Male. x 180.

Fig. 2. A. crassipes. Three basal segments of leg I. x 180.

Fig. 3. A.crassipes. Genital area of female. x 250.

Fig, 4. A. aculeatus. Outer side, right palpus. Female. x 180.

Fig. 5. A. aculeatus. Posterior end of the body of a female, from

the unmounted specimen. No attempt has been made to mark the loca-

tion of hairs, but proportions and relative positions of parts shown are

correct. x 180.

Fig. 6. A.aculeatus. Spine at the side of the genital opening of

female. x 595.

Fig. 7. A. pectinatus. Outer side, left palpus of female. x 1%.

Fig. 8. A. pectinatus. Distal segment, leg I. Male. x 340.

Fig. 9. A. pectinatus. Mandible. x 175.

Fig. 10. A. pectinatus. Half of genital area of female. x 175.

PLATE XXIX.

Fig. 11. A. intermedius. Outer side, left palpus of female. x 250.

Fig. 12. A. intermedius. Distal joint, hind leg of female. x 180.

Fig. 13. A. abnormipes. Outer side, left palpus of female. x 260.

Fig. 14. A. abnormipes. Anterior surface,right leg IV of male. x 179.

Fig. 15. A. abnormipes. Claw of right leg lof male. x 540.

Fig. 16. A. indistinctus. Outer side, right palpus of female. x 200.

Fig. 17. A. indistinctus. Ventral surface, leg IV of male—segments

4,5and6. x 180.

Fig. 18. A. serratus. Mandible of female. x 185.

PLATE XXIX

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NORTH AMERICAN SPECIES OF THE GENUS ATAX 259

PLATE XXX.

Fig. 19. <A. serratus. Outer side, right palpus of female. x 170.

Fig. 20. A. serratus. Inner side, part of left palpus. x170.

Fig. 21. A. serratus. Distal segment, right leg 1V offemale. x 185.

Fig. 22. A. serratus. Claw of right leg II. x 540.

Fig. 23. A. serratus. One half of genital area of female. x17

Fig. 24. A. fossulatus. Outer side left palpus of male. x 180.

Fig. 25. A. fossulatus. Distal segment of first pair of legs. Female.

x 250.

Fig. 26. A. fossulatus. Genital area of male. x 180.

Fig. 27. A. stricta. Distal segment of first pair of legs. Male. x veal

Fig. 28. A. stricta. Genital area of male. x 250.

PLATE XXXi.

Fig. 29. A. arcuata. Outer side, right palpus of female. x 250.

Fig. 30. A. arcuata. Distal segment, last pair of legs, anterior

surface. Female. x 190.

Fig. 31. A. ypsilophorus. Outer side, right palpus of female. x 180.

Fig. 32. A. ypsilophorus. Posterior surface, distal segment, right

leg IV. Female. x 180.

Fg. 33. A. ypsilophorus. Posterior end of body of female from ven-

tral aspect. x 180.

Fig. 34. A. tumidus. Outer side, left palpus of female. x 250.

Fig. 35. A. tumidus. Anterior surface of distal segment, leg IV.

Female. x 190.

PLATE XXXil.

Fig. 36. A. tumidus. Mandible. x 180.

Fig. 37. A. tumidus. Outline of the epimera and maxillary shield

of female. x 55.

Fig. 38. A. tumidus. Genital area of female. x 180.

Fig. 39. A. (N.) ingens. Inner side, palpus of male. x 180.

Eig. 40. A.(N.)ingens. Segment 6, first leg, anterior surface.

Male. x 250.

Fig. 41. A.(N.) ingens. Mandible. x 180.

Fig. 42. A.(N.) ingens. Outline of epimera and genital plate of one

side. Female. x55. The line represents the median line of the body.

Fig. 43. A.(N.) ingens. Genital area of male, penis exserted. x 76.

FRESHWATER INVESTIGATIONS DURING THE LAST

FIVE YEARS. -

HENRY B. WARD.

It is just five years since the first report was published from

the Plén Biological Station, the first general public enterprise

of that character founded on fresh water and devoted to the solu-

tion of its problems. It is also just five years this summer since

the Michigan Fish Commission inaugurated work on the Great

Lakes by opening a laboratory on Lake St. Clair. The Plon

station has given a great impetus to freshwater work in Ger-

many, and to the efforts of the Michigan Fish Commission and

its corps of scientists can be traced much of the energy now

devoted to lacustrine investigation in this country. The half

decade which has intervened since 1893 has seen great progress

in this field and in view of the general interest taken in fresh

water work at the present time it may not be adjudged untimely

to give a résumé of the results achieved during this brief pe-

riod. It seems fitting also to publish in this connection a bib-

liography which has been the result of much work on my part

and which I hope may be of some service to other workers in

this field, especially as no extended bibliography on this sub-

ject has yet been published and no summary of progress in

this line is available in English at least.

While no effort has been spared to make the list of papers

complete, it is too much to hope that no reference has been

omitted which should have a place in its columns. On the

main lines of investigation, however, I hope that no important

article has been overlooked, but I should esteem it a favor to

have errors or omissions called to my attention by those who

note them. So far as possible all references have been verified

from the original and have been abstracted for the summary of

262 HENRY B. WARD:

progress, but in case of those articles not accessible, which in

the list are designated by a star, it seemed better to make use

of such reviews as were at hand in the various journals, or

given in brief form on the cards of the Bibliographical Council

at Zurich, in order that the cross references might be as com-

plete as possible.

Of course such a bibliography could not reasonably be ex-

pected to give all references on some subjects which are in part

included so that it is perhaps wise to state more specifically the

limits of the work undertaken. With the exception of a single

reference to Hensen, the father of plankton methods, a refer-

ence indispensable to all work, no mention has been made in-

tentionally of any paper except asit deals in part at least with

freshwater investigations. Nevertheless, some of the papers

not seen may easily be devoted to marine studies even though no

reference thereto is contained in the title. The bibliography is

also essentially confined to zoological references aithough some

of the important papers on physical, chemical and botanical

topics are cited. The papers of this character given are quoted

from many sources, yet certainly do not comprehend all of im-

portance on these topics. Their inclusion here is justified by

their importance and bearing on the general problems of fresh

water work, their immediate relation to the studies of certain

investigators and localities, or their occurrence in such sources

as render them easily accessible to the general student. Under

the topics of taxonomy and geographical distribution, also, no

effort has been made to collate all possible references; the en-

deavor has been rather to include all those papers of general

or special interest and those of most immediate importance and

accessibility to American students. Undoubtedly there is room

here for cousiderable difference of opinion and the special

student of a particular group or region will not find this bibli-

ography extensive enough for his purposes, but I hope none the

ess that it may be sufficiently representative to give a succinct and

precise idea of the extent of our knowledge as to the distribution

and composition of the freshwater life of the globe and the con-

ditions under which it is found. In the systematic part greater

RECENT FRESHWATER INVESTIGATIONS 263

emphasis is laid upon those groups which are plankton forms,

whereas others have received at most passing attention. There

is also a considerable amount of literature bearing upon the

technical phases of the subject, in its relation for instance to

the purity of a city water supply, which has been included so

far as references were found without any effort having been

made to cover the entire ground.

It is in dealing with the field of plankton work that I have

endeavored to include every article, however small, and to add

references to such reviews as were noted in order to make

the contents of the originai articles more widely useful.

In this I have been greatly aided by the admirable reviews of

Zschokke in the Zoologisches Centralblatt; more recently Ko-

foid has undertaken similar abstracts in the American Naturalist.

No effort has been made however to distinguish here between

comments, reviews, and abstracts, or to include all such notices

in the bibliography. A slight delay in the printing of the

paper enables me to include references up to the close of 1898.

In so extended a review the method of citation must neces-

sarily be brief yet such as to allow of the ready finding of

papers cited. J have adopted the following:—The name of

the author together with the year of publication of the article,

bearing a letter ‘affixed if necessary, forms the designation of

the paper. The title of the article is :not abbreviated, but

written precisely as given by the author. The name of the

journal is shortened as much as consistent with clearness and

three or four which are in constant use, are designated as

follows :

B. C. Bioiogisches Centralblatt.

J. R. M. 8. Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society,

London.

Z. A. Zoologischer Auzeiger.

Z. C. Zoologisches Centralblatt.

The abbreviations vol., pt., p., etc., are entirely omitted

but the following arbitrary order of arrangement will enable

any reference to be read with ease.

264 HENRY B. WARD:

The number of the volume is printed in lower case Roman

numerals, and comes first, except that an antecedent Arabic

figure may designate the series, if such exist. All other num-

bers are Arabic, and the last of these bearing no added desig-

nation is the page number. The latter may however be fol-

lowed by the number of figures or plates in which case these

numbers are always accompanied bya designative abbreviation,

fig. or pl. The number, part, or article, is quoted only when

paged separately, unless there was some uncertainty concerning

some other part of the reference. Many references are

incomplete, because (1) the article was entirely inaccesible,

(2) the reprint in my library did not show the precise location

of the article, or (3) disagreement between my card catalogue

and the printed reference in one of the bibliographical records

left uncertain the source of the error, and the paper referred to

was not accessible here.

An example will perhaps make the method of citation

clearer :

xiv, 4, means vol. xiv, page 4.

xiv, 4, 4, means vol. xiv, part or number 4, page 4.

4, xiv, 4, 4-42, means series 4, vol. xiv, part 4, page 4—42.

xxi, 1-8, 17-92. 4 pl. 7 fig., means vol. xxi, part 1 to 3,

p- 17 to 92, 4 plates, and 7 text figs.

It is but fitting that I should acknowledge here my in

debtedness to the various sources of information especially the

bibliographical records in zoology; to the many individuals only

a general acknowledgment of the courtesies can be made, but

of my debt to Professor J. E. Reighard of the University of

Michigan, who kindly placed his entire card catalog at my

service, special mention should be made.

RECENT FRESHWATER INVESTIGATIONS 265

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

APSTEIN, C.

93. Ueber das Vorkommen von Cladocera gymnomera in holsteini«

schen Seen.

Schr. natw. Ver. Schles.-Holstein, x, 1. 4 pp.

Seasonal and numerical data on the species.

94. Vergleich der Planktonproduction in verschiedenen holstein-

ischen Seen. '

Ber. Naturf. Ges. Freiburg i’Br., viii (‘‘Festschrift fir Weis-

mann’’), 70-88. 2 tab.

Rev. Z. C., i, 267-8; B. C., xiv, 319.

96. Das Siisswasserplankton. Methode und Resultate der quanti-

tativen Untersuchung.

Kiel und Leipzig, 200 pp. 113 figs. 5 tab.

Rey. Z. C., iii, 764-9; Natw. Rundschau, xi, 37, 474; Science, n. s,

vi, 140-1.

ATKINSON, E.

*98. Extraordinary Vitality of Entomostraca in Mud from Jerusalem.

Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 7, ii, 372-6.

Rev. Nat. Sci., xiv, 64.

Barros, TH.

*93; Notes préliminaire sur la faune des eaux douces de |’ Orient.

Rey. Biol. Nord France, iii, 6, 230-4; 7, 277-81; 8, 316-8, 9 Fig.

*94, Contribution a ]’étude de quelques lacs de Syrie.

Rey. Biol. Nord France, vii, 6, 224-313. 3 fig.

Rey. Z. C.,i, 734-6 (=Zschokke, 94a, q. v.); B. C.,xv, 869-73 (=Im-

hof, 95b, q. v.).

96. Recherches sur la faune des eaux douces des Acores.

Mém. Soc. Se. Agric. Arts, Lille, 5, vi, 172 pp. 3 cartes.

Rev. Z. C., iii, 609-11; B. C., xvi, 683-8 (=Imhof, 96, q. v.).

BEDDARD, F. E.

93. The Fauna of the Victoria regia Tank in the Botanical Gardens,

Nature, xlix, 247.

Tropical animals introduced with aquatic plants.

Bear, A.

*98. Die Fauna der wirbellosen Thiere des Babitsees.

Korr.-Bl. Nat. Ver. Riga, x], 77.

BIGNEY, A. J.

97. Notes on the Biological Survey of Milan Pand.

Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci., 96, 274-5.

Brief preliminary report.

*References not seen by the reviewer are designated by a star.

266

HENRY B. WARD:

BirGE, E. A.

93.

94.

95.

95a.

97.

97a.

Notes on Cladocera, III.

Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci., ix, 275-317. 4 pl.

Taxonomic, notes on distribution.

A Report on a Collection of Cladocera mostly from Lake St.

Clair, Michigan.

Bull. Mich. Fish Comm., 4, 45-7. 1 table.

Faunal list and discussion of species.

On the vertical distribution of the pelagic crustacea of Lake

Mendota, Wis., during July, 1894.

B. C., xv, 353-5.

Résumé of the following article.

Plankton Studies on Lake Mendota. I. The Vertical Distribution

of the Pelagic Crustacea during July, 1894.

Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci., x, 421-84. 4 pl.

Rev. Z. C., ii, 347-8.

The Vertical Distribution of the Limnetic Crustacea of lake

Mendota.

B. C., xvii, 371-4. Rev. Z. C., iv, 606-7.

Preliminary report on the work published in the next paper.

Plankton Studies on Lake Mendota. IJ. The Crustacea of the

Plankton, July, 1894-Dec., 1896.

Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci., xi, 274-448. 28 pl.

Rey. Z. C., v, 345-51; Am. Nat., xxxii, 282-4.

98. The Relation between the Areas of Inland Lakes and the Tem-

perature of the Water.

Proc. Am, Fish. Soc., xxvii, 99-105. 1 chart.

BLANC, H. ;

#95, Les Résultats d’une série de péches pélagique faites in 1894-5,

96.

*98.

dans le Léman.

Arch. sci. phys. et nat. Genéve, 3, xxxiv, 460-2.

Rev. Z. C., iii, 314.

Sur le Plancton du lac Léman, sa distribution horizontale et

verticale et sur les espéces les plus abondantes.

Actes Soc. helvet. sc. nat., lxxvii, 46-9.

Plancton nocturne du lac Léman.

Bull. Soc. Vaud. se. nat., 4, xxxiv, 128, 225-380; 129, 34-5.

Abst. J. R. M. S., 98, 618.

BLANCHARD, R., ET RICHARD J.

97.

Sur la faune des lacs élevés des Hautes-Alpes.

Mém. Soc. Zool. France, x, 48-61. 1fig. 1 tabl.

Rev. Z. C., iv, 512; B. C., xviii, 169-73 (= Imhof, 98, q. v.).

BLOCHMANN, F.

95.

Die mikroscopische Thierwelt des Siisswassers I. Protozoa.

Hamburg, 2 aufl., 49, 134pp. 8 taf.

Rev. Z. C., iv, 285-6.

Chiefly taxonomic.

RECENT FRESHWATER INVESTIGATIONS 267

Boumie, L.

98. Beitrage zur Anatomie und Histologie der Nemertinen.

Zeit. f. wiss. Zool., lxiv, 479-564. 5 pl.; also Arb. Zool. Inst. Graz,

vi, 1; Rev. Z. C., v, 666-72.

Morphological. Valuable discussion of freshwater species.

BORELLI, A.

95. Viaggio del dott. A. Borelli nella Repubblica Argentina e nel

Paraguay. XIII. Planarie d’acqua dolce.

Boll. Mus. Zool. Torino, x. 202, 1-6. Rev. Z. C., iv, 347.

Faunistic. Rarity of species noteworthy.

BRaApy, G. S., AND NORMAN, A. M.

*96. A Monograph of the Marine and Freshwater Ostracoda of the

North Atlantic and Northwestern Europe. Part II.

Sci. Trans. Roy. Soe. Dublin, v, 621-746. 19 pl.

Abst. J. R. M. S., 96, 310-1.

BREWER, A. D.

98. A study of the Copepoda found in the vicinity of Lincoln, Neb.

Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., xix, 119-38, 1 pl.; also in Stud. Zool.

Lab. Univ. Nebr. No. 29.

BROCKMEIER, H.

98. Siisswasserschnecken als Planktonfischer.

Forsch-ber. Biol. Stn. Plon, vi, 165.

BRUNER, L.

95. Animal Life in Thermal Springs. Insect Life, vii, 413-4. 1 fig.

BRUYANT, CH.

*94. _ Bibliographie raisonée de la faune et dela fiore limnologiques de

)’ Auvergne.

Revue d’Auvergne, Clermont-Fd. 8°. 92 pp.

BUTSCHINSEY, P.

96. Die Protozoen-Fauna der Salzsee-Limane bei Odessa.

Z. A., Xx, 194-7. Abstr. J. R. M. S., 97, 300.

CALKINS, G. N.

93. A Study of Odors observed in Drinking Waters of Mass.

Ann. Bept. Mass. Bd. Health, xxiv, 355-80. 1 pl.

93a. Seasonal Distribution of Microscopic Organisms in Surface

Waters.

Ann. Rept. Mass. Bd. Health, xxiv, 383-92.

CaLL, R. E.

97. The Hydrographic Basins of Indiana and Their Molluscan Fauna.

Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci., 96, 247-58. 1 pl.

CHILTON, C.

*94. Thesubterranean Crustacea of New Zealand; with some gen-

eral remarks on the fauna of Caves and Wells.

Trans. Linn. Soc. London, Zool. 2, vi, 163-284, 8 pl.

Rev. Z. C., iii, 789-801, 821-7.

268 HENRY B. WARD:

Cuopat, R.

97. Etudes de biologie lacustre.

Bull Herb. Boissier, 4, v, 289-314. Pl. Rev. Z. C., vi, 84.

Cuaun, C.

+96. Zur Biologie der pelagischen Siisswasserfauna.

Jahresb. Schles. Ges. vat. Cult., Zool-bot. sect., xxxvii, 80-3.

COCKERELL, T. D. A.

96. Proposed Biological Station.

Psyche, vii, 242, Suppl. 1, 32.

Dapay, EuG. Von.

*94. Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Microfauna der Natronwasser des

Alféldes. (Czeckish; latin diag.)

Naturhist. Hefte.

97. Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Microfauna der Tatraseen.

Term. Fiizetek, xx, 149-96.

Rev. Z. C., iv, 607.

97a. Die Faunades Balatons. IV. Nematoden.

Result. wiss. Erforsch. Balatonsees, ii, 1, 81-119.

Faunistic-systematic. Large number of species.

97b. Die Fauna des Balatons. V. Rotatoria.

Result. wiss. Erforsch. Balatonsees, ii, 1, 121-33.

97c. Die Fauna des Balatons. [X. Crustaceen.

Result. wiss. Erforsch. Balatonsees, ii, 1, 163-93. 40 fig.

Rev. Z. C., v, 374-5.

97d. Die Fauna des Balatons. X. Wassermilben (Hydrachniden).

Result. wiss Erforsch. Balatonsees, ii, 1, 195-205.

Faunistic-systematic. Scanty representation.

98. Mikroskopische Stisswasserthiere aus Ceylon.

Term. Fiizet., xxi [Anhanghsheft], 123 pp., 55 text fig.

Rev. Z. C., v, 601-3; Am. Nat., xxxii, 880.

DaHL, FR.

94. Die Copepodenfauna des unteren Amazonas.

Ber. naturf. Ges. Freiburg i’Br., viii, 10-22. 1 pl.

Dr GUERNE, J. G., see Guerne, J. G. de.

DoLan, J. P.

97. Temperature of Lake Wawasee.

Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci., 96, 279-86,

DOLLeEYy, C. S.

96.° The Planktonokrit, A Centrifugal Apparatus for the Vol-

umetric Estimation of the Food-supply of Oysters and other

Aquatic Animals.

Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 96, 276-89. 1 fig.

DRr6scHER, W.

*97. Zur Begriindung einer rationellen Fischwirthschaft.

Allg. Fisch. Zeit., xxii, 9-10.

RECENT FRESHWATER INVESTIGATIONS 269

*97a. Beitrag zur Kenntniss der Nahrung unserer Fische.

Allg. Fisch. Zeit., xxii, 19, 361-6; 20, 383-8.

*97b. Ein Beitrag zur Biologie der Seen.

Allg. Fisch. Zeit., xxii, 19, 369-71.

Drown, THos. M.

93. Onthe Amount of Dissolved Oxygen in the Waters of Ponds

and Reservoirs at Different Depths, in Winter under the Ice.

Ann. Rept. Mass. Bd. Health, xxiv, 333-42.

DuPLEssis, G., see Plessis, G. du.

DysowskI, B.

*98. Switez. [Der Switez-See.]

Kosmos, Lemberg, xxii, 5, 252-75.

ECKSTEIN, K.

*95. Die Rotatorienfauna des Miggelsees. [Aus. d. Biol. Station d.

deutsch. Fischerei-Vereines. |

Zeit. f. Fischerei, iii. 5 pp. 7 figs.

Rey. Z. C., ii, 756-7.

Scantily represented.

EIGENMANN, C. H.

95. Turkey Lake as a Unit of Environment and the Variation of its

Inhabitants. (With faunal lists by numerous collaborators).

Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci., v, 204-96.

ENTz, G.

96. Protozoa. Fauna regni hungariae.

Reg. Soc. Sci. Nat. Hung. Budapest. 29 pp.

Faunal list.

97. KEinleitung und allegemeine Betrachtungen tiber die Fauna

des Balatonsees.

Result. wiss. Erforsch. Balatonsees, ii, 1, 5-39. 5 fig.

Rev. Z. C., v, 351-2: Am. Nat., xxxii, 791-3.

EVERMANN, B. W.

93. The Investigation of Rivers and Lakes with Reference to the

Fish Environment.

Bull. U. S. Fish Comm., xiii, 79-73.

Scope of work under the commission—outline for lake work.

FIELD, G. W.

96. Scientific Agriculture.

Rept. R. I. Bd. Agl., 96, 94-8.

97. Onthe Plankton of Brackish Water. [Abstract.]

Science, n. s., v, 424-5.

98. Use of the Centrifuge for collecting Plankton. [Abstract.]

Science, n. s., vii, 201.

98a. Methods in Planktology.

Rept. R. I. Exp. Sta., x, 2, 120-49; Am. Nat., xxxii, 735-45.

FirzGERALD, D.

95. The Temperature of Lakes.

Trans. Am. Soe. C. E., xxxiv, 67-114.

270 HENRY B. WARD:

Forbes, E. B.

97. A Contribution to a Knowledge of North American Freshwater

Cyclopidae.

Bull. Ill.-Lab. Nat. Hist., v, 27-82. 18 pl.

Rev. Z. C., iv, 839-40.

Systematic monograph with important biological data.

ForBES, S. A.

93 A Preliminary Report on the Aquatic Invertebrate Fauna of the

Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, and of the Flathead Region

of Montana.

Bull. U. S. Fish Comm., xi, 207-58, 6 Pl.

Rev. Z. C., i, 396-8; B. C., xiv, 287-93 (=Imhof, 94, q. v.)

94. ‘Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History, Champaign, Ill.

Biennial Report of the Director 1893-1894.

Chicago: Hornstein Brothers. 8°, 36 pp., 15 pls..

Cf. Nat. Sci., viii, 228-9; Science, n. s., ii, 729-380.

97. Biennial Report of the Biological Experiment Station, 1895-6.

Chicago. 35 pp. 20 pl. Cf. Nat. Sci., x, 365.

FORDYCE, CHAS.

98. Anew Plankton Pump.

Proc. and Coll. Neb. St. Hist. Soc., 2, ii, 293-6; also Studies Zool.

Lab. Univ. Nebr., No. 25. 2 fig.

Rev. Z. C., v, 608.

FOREL, F.-A.

92. Le Léman. Monographie Limnologique. Lausanne, i, 589 pp.

94. Zoologie lacustre.

Arch. sci. phys. et nat. Genéve, 3, xxxii, 588-605.

Rev. J. R. M.S., 95, 161.

95. Le Léman. Monographie Limnologique. Lausanne, ii, 651 pp.

*96. Sur le Plancton du lac Léman.

Boll. Soc. Vaud. sc. nat., 4, xxxii, 121, 32-3.

FrANcp, R. H.

94. Zur Biologie des Planktons. Vorlaufige Mittheilung.

B. C., xiv, 33-8. Cf. corrections by Hensen; B:; Co xivieecle

Rev. Z. C., i, 308.

97. Die Fauna des Balatons. I. Protozoen.

Result. wiss. Erforsch. Balatonsees, ii, 1, 1-64.

Rev. Z. C., v, 322-3.

*97a. Der Organismus der Craspedomonaden.

Budapest, 1897. Rev. Z. C., v, 558-60; B. C., xviii, 535-6.

A monographic discussion of the group, including important

biological notes.

FRENZEL, J.

*95, Die Biologische und Fischerei-Versuchsstation ‘‘Muggelsee’’.

Bericht iiber die Jahre 1893 und 1894.

Zeit. f. Fisch., iii, 58-114. 4 fig. Also apart Berlin.

RECENT FRESHWATER INVESTIGATIONS 271

*95a. Die Bedeutung der biologischen Station fiir die fischwirth-

schaftliche Praxis.

Zeit. f. Fisch., iii, 175-8.

97. Zur Planktonmethodik. I. Die Planktonpumpe.

B. C., xvii, 190-8.

Abst. J. R. M. S., 97, 199.

97a. Zur Planktonmethodik. II. Die Seidengaze.

B. C., xvii, 364-71.

97b. Untersuchungen uber die mikroskopische Fauna Argentiniens

I. Die Protozoen. 1, 2. Die Rhizopoden und Helioamoeben.

Bibl. Zool., 12, 166 pp. 10 Taf.

Rey. Z. C., v, 392-3.

Fric, ANTON.

97. Fresh-water Biological Stations. Europe’s Example.

Nat. Sci., x, 169-72. 2 fig.

Fric, ANT. UND VAvra, V.

94, Untersuchungen tiber die Fauna der Gewadsser Bohmens. IV.

Die Thierwelt des Unterpocernitzer und Gatterschlager Teiches.

Arch. Natw. Landesdurchforsch. Bohmen, ix, 2, 124 pp. 80 fig.

Rev. Z. C., i, 736 (=Zschokke, 94a, q. v.); Nat. Sci., v, 370-5.

97. Untersuchungen tiber die Fauna der Gewasser Bohmens III.

Untersuchung zweier Béhmerwaldseen, des Schwarzen und des

Teufelsees.

Arch. Natw. Landesdurchforsch. Bohmen, x, 3, 74 pp. 32 fig.

Rey. Z. C., v, 158-9; Am. Nat., xxxii, 789-91.

FUHRMANN, O.

*94. Die Turbellarien der Umgebung von Basel.

Rey. Suisse Zool., ii, 216-90, 2 Taf.

Rev. Z. C., ii, 390-1.

95. Recherches sur la faune des lacs alpines du Tessin.

Rey. Suisse Zool., iv, 489-543.

Abst. Z. C., iv, 607-8; J. R. M. S., 97, 200.

GARBINI, A.

93. Primi materiali per una monografia limnologica del lago di

Garda.

Mem. Accad. Agric. Art. Verona, 3, lxix, 73 pp.

*94, Primi materiali, etc., (98 with additions),

Bull. Soc. Ent. Ital., xxvi, i, 3-50.

Rey. Z. C., i, 552-3.

94a. Appunti per una limnobiotica italiana. I. Protozoa, Porifera e

Coelenterata del Veronese.

Z. A., Xvii, 295-8.

Rev. Z. C., i, 738 (=Zschokke, 94a, q. v.)

Faunal list with biological data.

95. Fauna limnetica e profonda del Benaco. (Osservazioni fatte

nel 1894.)

Boll. Mus. Zool. Anat. Comp. Torino, x, 198, 7 pp.

95b.

95c.

95d.

95e.

95f.

*96.

96a.

97.

98.

98a.

GREVE,

*97.

GUPPY,

*93.

HENRY Be WARD:

Appunti per una limnobiotica Italiana, Il. Platodes, Vermes e

Bryozoa del Veronese.

Z. A., Xviii, 105-8.

Rey. Z. C., ii, 189.

Continuation of 94a.

Diffusione passiva nella limnofauna.

Mem. Accad. Verona, 3, Ixxi, 1, 10 pp.

Rev. Z. C., ii, 195-6.

Appunti di carcinologia Veronese.

Mem. Accad. Verona, 3, lxxi, 1-94 pp., 1 tab.

Appunti per una limnobiotica Italiana. HI. Arthropoda del

Veronese-Insecta e Arachnoidea.

Bull. Soc. Ent. Ital., xxvii, 12 pp.

Rev. Z. C., ii, 346.

Continuation of the list in 94a and 95a,

Distribuzione e intensita della fauna atesina (Adige suoi influ-

enti).

Mem. Accad. Verona, 3, lxxi, 2, 35 pp.

Appunti per una limnobiotica Italiana. IV.Mollusca del Veronese.

Z. A., xviii, 411-4.

Rev. Z. C., ii, 680-1.

Continuation of the list in 94a, 95a and 95d.

Osservazione biologiche intorno alle acque freatiche Veronesi.

Verona 37 pp.

Rey. Z. C., iii, 139.

Intorno ai Nemertini del lago di Garda ed alla loro origine.

Z. A., xix, 125-7.

Alcune notizie fisiche sulle acque de] Benaco.

Rivista Geogr. Ital., iv, 1, 29 pp.

Un pugillo di plancton del lago di Como.

Atti R. Inst. Veneto, 7, ix, 668-79.

Rev. Z. C., v, 487.

Cursory examination. Usual fauna.

Due nuoyi Rizopodi limnetici (Difflugia cyclotelliana—Heter-

ophrys Pavesit).

Z. A., xxi, 667-70. 2 fig.

Systematic-faunistic.

Cc.

Zur Frage tiber die Nahrung der Stisswasserfische.

Allg. Fisch. Zeit., xxii, 288-90.

HB:

The Distribution of Aquatic Plants and Animals.

Scott. Geogr. Mag., ix, 28-33.

GUERNE, J. G. DE.

93.

A propos d’une Méduse observée par le Dr. Tautain dans le

Niger, 4 Bamakou.

Bull. Soe. Zool. France, xviii, 225-30.

Rev. Z. C., ii, 19.

RECENT FRESHWATER INVESTIGATIONS 273

GIESBRECHT, W. UND SCHMEIL, O.

*98. Copepoda. 1. Gymnoplea.

Das Tierreich, 6, 169 pp. 31 fig.

GUERNE, J., ET RICHARD, J.

93. Sur la faune pélagique des lacs du Jura frangais.

C. R. Ac. Sci., Paris, exvii, 187-9. Extr. Rev. Sci., lii, 153.

Rev. Z. C., i, 7-8.

93a. Sur la faune pélagique de quelques lacs des Hautes-Pyrénées

Assoc. franc. avanc. Sci., Congress de Pau, 1892.

96. Premiére liste des Copépodes et Cladocéres d’eau douce du

Portugal.

Bull. Soe. Zool. France, xxi, 157-9.

Rey. Z. C., iv, 486. J. R. M.-S., 97, 36.

Faunal list—no new forms—mostly common European species.

GUNTHER, R. T.

94. A Further Contribution to the Anatomy of Limnocnida tan-

ganyicae.

Quar. Jour. Mic. Sci., xxxvi, 271-93. 2 pl.

Rev. Z. C., ii, 18-9.

HANITSCH, R.

*95. The Freshwater Sponges of Ireland with Remarks on the Gen-

eral Distribution of the Group.

Irish Natl., iv, 5, 122-31. 1 pl.

Rev. Z. C., ii, 587-8

Harr, C. A.

95. On the Entomology of the Illinois River and Adjacent Waters.

Bull. Ill. Lab. Nat. Hist., iv, 149-273. 15 pl.

Rey. Nat. Sci., viii, 228-9.

Hartwie, W.

97. Zur Verbreitung der niederen Crustaceen in der Proving Bran-

denburg.

Forsch-ber. Biol. Stn. Plén, v, 115-49.

*98. Ueber das Vorkommen einiger ‘‘seltener’’ Entomostraken in

der Provinz Brandenburg.

Natw. Wochenschr., xiii, 48-9.

hey. 4. Civ. dio.

98a. Zur Verbreitung der niederen Crustaceen in der Provinz Bran-

denburg. Zweiter Beitrag.

Forsch-ber. Biol. Stn. Plén, vi, 140-52.

Rey. Z. C., v, 3'75-6.

*98b. Die Crustaceenfauna des Miiggelsees wahrend des Winters.

Zeit. f. Fisch., v, 113-9.

Rey. Z. C., v, 508.

HEMPEL, A.

96. Descriptions of New Species of Rotifera and Protozoa from the

Illinois River and Adjacent Waters.

Bull. Ill. Lab. Nat. Hist., iv, 310-17. 5 pl. Rev. Z. C., iv, 55.

274 HENRY B. WARD:

97. A List of the Protozoa and Rotifera found in the Illinois River

and adjacent Lakes at Havana, III.

Bull. Ill. Lab. Nat. Hist., v, 301-88. 5 fig.

HENSEN, V.

95. Methodik der Untersuchungen.

Erg. d. Plankton Exp. d. Humboldt Stiftung., i, 200 pp. 11 pl.

97. Bemerkungen zur Planktonmechanik.

B. C., xvii, 510-2.

HERRICK, C. L.

95. Microcrustacea from New Mexico.

Z. A., xviii, 40-7. 29 figs. Abst. J. R. M.S., 95, 175.

HERRICK, C. L., AND TURNER, C. H.

95. Synopsis of the Entomostraca of Minnesota with descriptions

of related species comprising all the known forms from the United

States included in the orders Copepoda, Cladocera, Ostracoda.

Zool. Ser. ii, State Geol. Nat. Hist. Survey Minn. 525 pp. 81 pl.

HEUSCHER, J.

*93. Vorlaufige Bericht tiber die Resultate einer Untersuchung

des Walensees.

Schweiz. Fisch. Zeit., i.

*94. Bericht tiber eine Untersuchung von Teichen im Gebiet des

Kantons St. Gallen.

Schweiz. Fisch. Zeit., ii.

*95. Ueber die Berner-Oberlandseen.

Schweiz. Fisch. Zeit., iii.

Hickson, S. J.

*96. On the Distribution of the Freshwater Fauna.

Trans. and Ann. Rept. Manchester Mic. Soc., 96, 88-99.

Exc. Nat. Sci., xi, 79.

HOERNES, Rup.

97. Die Fauna des Baikalsees und ihre Reliktennatur.

B. C., xvii, 657-64. Rev. Z. C., iv, 825; J. R. M.S., 97, 524.

Horer, B.

95. [Communication by Comte Eberhard de Zeppelin Ebersberg, q.

v., on the Plankton of Lake Constance. ]

Arch. sci. phys. et nat. Genéve, 3, xxxiv, 458-60.

*96. Die Bedeutung von Planktonstudien fiir die Fischerei in Seen.

Allg. Fisch. Zeit., xxi, 355-9.

Hoop, J.

*95. On the Rotifera of the County Mayo.

Proc. R. Irish Acad., 8, iii, 664-706. Rev. Z. C., iv, 179-80.

Hopre-SEYLkg, F.

96. Ueber die Verteilung absorbirter Gase im Wasser des Boden-

sees und ihre Beziehungen zu den in ihm lebenden Tieren and

Pflanzen.

Ver. f. Gesch. d. Bodensees u. seiner Umgebung, Heft 24, 20 pp.

RECENT FRESHWATER INVESTIGATIONS 275

HouItFetpt-Kaas, H.

98. Plankton in norwegischen Binnenseen.

B. C., xviii, 625-36; Rev. Z. C., v, 736-7.

IHERING, H. von.

95. Os crustaceos phyllopodos do Brazil.

Revista Mus. Paulista, i, 165-80.

Imuor, O. E.

*92, Les organismes inférieurs des lacs de la région du Rhone.

Arch. sel. phys. et. nat. Genéve, 3, xxx, 646-52.

Rev. Z. C., i, 268.

94. Fauna hochgelegener Seen. Seen der Rocky-Mountains, Nord

Amerika. Von S. A. Forbes.

B. C., xiv, 287-93.

Extended review of Forbes, 93.

94a. Die Rotatorien der grossen Seen in Michigan, Nord Amerika.

B. C., xiv, 494-5

Review of Jennings, 94.

95. Tierwelt der hochalpinen Seen.

B. C., xv, 506-17.

Review of Zschokke, 95.

95a. Summarische Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Aquatilia invertebrata

der Schweiz.

B. C., xv; 713-19; Rev. Z. C.,_i1, 557; J. R. M.S., 95, 618.

95b. Th. Barrois, Fauna der Gewasser Syriens.

B. C., xv, 869-73.

Review of Barrois, Th., 94, q. v.

96. Die Binnengewasser-Fauna der Azoren. Referat nach de Guerne

und Barrois.

B. C., xvi, 683-8.

Review of Barrois, Th., 96, and earlier work.

98. Fauna derSeen. 1. Seen der europaischen Turkei und Monte-

negros. II. Seen der Alpen Savoyens.

B. C., xviii, 169-73.

Review of Richard, 97, and Blanchard et Richard, 97.

ISTVANFFY, J.

*94._ Ueber die Nahrung der Fischbrut im Balaton-See,

S.-B. k. Ungar. natw. Ges., Budapest, 19 Apr.

Cf. Bot. Centr., lx, 172

Jackson, D. D.

96. Onan Improvement in the Sedgwick-Rafter Method for the Mi-

croscopical Examination of Drinking Water.

Tech. Quar., ix, 271-4. 1pl. 1 table.

98. An Improved Filter for Microscopical Water Analysis.

Tech. Quar., xi, 241-5. 1 pl.

276 HENRY B. WARD:

JACKSON, D. D., AND ELLMs, J. W.

97. On Odors and Tastes of Surface Waters, with Special Reference

to Anabzena.

Tech. Quar., x, 410-20. 1 pl.

JANSEN, H.

*96. Der Miiggelsee in geographischer, biologischer und fischerei-

licher Beziehung. (Verh. 6. deutsch. Fischereitages, Berlin, 1896.)

Zeit. f. Fisch., iv, 268-301. 2 Karten.

JAWOROWSKI, A.

. *93. Neue Arten der Brunnenfauna von Krakau und Lemberg.

(Czeckish; German résumé.)

Lemberg, 8°. 61 pp.

*96. Neue Arten der Brunnenfauna von Krarau und Lemberg.

Arch. f. Naturgesch., ]xi, 1, 319-45. 1 taf.

Abst. J. R. M. S., 96, 301.

JELLIFFE, S. E.

93. The Chicago Water Supply in the World’s Fair Grounds.

Am. Mo. Mic. Jour., xiv, 310-1.

Abst. J. R. M. S., 94, 328.

93a. <A Preliminary List of the Plants found in the Ridgewood Water

Supply of the City of Brooklyn, Kings County, N. Y.

Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xx, 2438-6.

Merely a faunal list.

*93b. A Preliminary Report on the Microscopical Organisms found in

the Brooklyn Water Supply.

Brooklyn Med. Jour., Oct. 93.

*94. A Further Contribution to the Microscopical Examination of

the Brooklyn Water Supply.

Brooklyn Med. Jour., Oct. 94.

JENNINGS, H. S.

94. A List of the Rotatoria of the Great Lakes and of Some of the

Inland Lakes of Michigan.

Bull. Mich. Fish Comm., 3, 1-34. 1 pl.

Rev. B. C., xiv, 494-5 (= Imhof, 94a, q. v.); Abst. J. R. M. S., 94, 574.

Systematic-faunistic.

96. Report on the Rotatoria. With Description of a New Species.

Bull. Mich. Fish Comm., 6, 85-93. 2 figs.

Systematic-faunistic.

98. Trochosphaera Again.

Science n. s., viii, 551.

Found at Put-in-Bay, O. Not abundant.

JupDAY, C.

97. The Plankton of Turkey Lake.

Proc. Indiana Acad. Sci., 96, 287-96. 1 map.

RECENT FRESHWATER INVESTIGATIONS 2717

Keuicort, D. S.

96. The Rotifera of Sandusky Bay.

Proc. Am. Mic. Soc., xviii, 155-64.

97. The Rotifera of Sandusky Bay, II.

Trans. Am. Mic. Soc., xix, 43-54. 3 figs.

KERTESZ, K.

*94, The Rotiferfauna of Budapest and Vicinity (Czeckish).

Budapest. 55 pp. Rev. Z. C., iii, 284-7.

KLAPALEK. FR.

*93. | Untersuchungen iiber die Fauna der Gewasser Bohmens.

I. Metamorphose der Trichopteren, II. Ser.

Arch. natw. Landesdurchf. Bo6hmens, viii, 6, 1-143. 38 figs.

KLEBABN, H.

95. Allgemeiner Charakter der Pflanzenwelt der Pléner Seen.

Forseh-ber. Biol. Stn. Ploén, iii, 1-17.

96. | Ueber wasserbliithebildende Algen und iiber das Vorkommen

von Gasvacuolen bei den Phycochromaceen.

Forsch-ber. Biol. Stn. Plén, iv, 189-206.

97. Bericht tiber einige Versuche betreffend die Gasvacuolen bei

Gloiotrichia echinulata.

Forsch-ber. Biol. Stn. Plén, v, 166-79.

KLUNZINGER, C. B.

*96. | Ueber die biologische Station zu Pl6n in Holstein.

Jahresh. Ver. vat. Naturk. Wiirtt., lii, 80-1.

*96a. Ueber das Sammeln von Auftrieb.

Jahresh. Ver. vat. Naturk. Wirtt., lii, 124-5.

97. Die Lehre von der Schwebewesen des siissen Wassers oder Unter-

suchungeweisen und Ergebnisse der Limnoplanktonologie mit

besonderer Riicksicht auf die Fischerei.

Zeit. f. Fisch., v, 120-70.

97a. Ferienstudien am Gardasee.

Jahresh. Ver. vat. Naturk. Wiirtt., liii, 51-3.

KNAUTHE, K.

96. Zur Biologie der Siisswasserfische.

B. C., xvi, 410-6.

98. Der Kreislauf der Gase in unseren Gewassern.

B. C., xviii, 785-805.

Kocus, W.

92. Versuche tiber die kiinstliche Vermehrung kleiner Crustaceen.

B. C., xii, 599-606; Zeit. f. Fisch., i, 157-63: Jahresh. rhein. Fisch.

Ver. 90-1.

KOENIKE, F.

95. | Nordamerikanische Hydrachniden.

Abh. naturw. Ver. Bremen, xiii, 167-226. 3 pl.

On a collection from Canada containing 30 species, 16 new.

278 HENRY B. WARD:

Kororp, C. A.

96. A Report upon the Protozoa observed in Lake Michigan and

the Inland Lakes in the Neighborhood of Charlevoix, during the

Summer of 1894.

Bull. Mich. Fish Comm., 6, 76-84.

Faunal list with notes.

96a. The Biological Experiment Station.

Illini, xxvi, 665-72. Figs.

96b. On the Occurence of Trochosphaera solstitialis in the LIlinois

River.

Science, n.s., iv, 935-6.

At Havana, Il]. Perhaps imported by human agency.

97. Plankton Studies. I. Methods and Apparatus in use in Plank-

ton Investigations at the Biological Experiment Station of the

University of Illinois.

Bull. Il. Lab. Nat. Hist., v, 1-25. 7 pl.

Rev. Nat. Sci., x, 365-7; Z. C., iv, 518.

97a. On Some Important Sources of Error in the Plankton Method.

Science, n. s., vi, 829-32.

Rev. Z. C., v, 159-60.

98. Piankton Studies. II. On Pleodorina illinoisensis, a2 New

Species from the Plankton of the Illinois River.

Bull. ll. Lab. Nat. Hist., v, 273-93. 2 pl.

98a. Hints on the Construction of a Tow Net.

Jour. Appl. Mic., i, 111-3. 5 fig.

98b. The Freshwater Biological Stations of America.

Am. Nat., xxxii, 391-406.

Kramer, A.

97. Zur Mikrofauna Samoas.

Z. A., XX, 135-6.

Rev. Z. C., iv, 608. J. R.M. S., 97, 868.

LaKowiIrTz, L.

96. Ein neues Horizontalschliessnetz.

Schr. Naturf. Ges. Danzig, ix, 275-9. 1 pl.

Rev. Z. C., v, 42.

LAMEERE, AUG.

*95. La faune des regions belgiques.

Feuille jeunes Nat., 3. xxvi, 58.

LAMPERT, K.

*93. Bemerkungen zur Siisswasserfauna Wiirttembergs.

Jahresh. Ver. vat. Naturk. Wirtt., xlix, 102-9

*96. Das Thierleben unserer Seen im Winter.

Jahresh. Ver. vat. Naturk. Wiirtt., lii, 103-4.

97-8. Das Leben der Binnengewassser.

Leipsig, 8°. 12 parts. 560 pp. Pl. and text figs.

RECENT FRESHWATER INVESTIGATIONS 279

LANGENBECK,

*93. Ueber die Bildung der Sprungschicht in den Seen.

Petermann’s Mitth., xxxix.

LANKESTER, E. R.

93. Reappearance of the Freshwater Medusa (Limnocodium

Sowerbii).

Nature, xlix, 127-8

Transfer from place to place with tropical plants.

LARGE, THOS. :

97. Physical Survey of Lakes Tippecanoe, Eagle, Webster and

Cedar.

Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci., 96, 296-302 4 maps.

LAUTERBORN, R.

*93. Ueber Periodicitaét im Auftreten und in der Fortpflanzung eini-

ger pelagischen Organismen des Rheins und seiner Altwasser.

Ver. Nat. Hist.-Med. Vereins, Heidelberg, n. F., v, 1.

94. Ueber die Winterfauna einiger Gewasser der Oberrheinebene.

Mit Beschreibungen neuer Protozoen.

B.C., xiv, 390-8.

Rey. Z. C., i, 465; J. R. M. S., 94, 440.

*94a. Beitrage zur Stisswasserfauna der Insel Helgoland.

Wiss. Meeresuntersuch., n. F., i, 217-21.

Rev. Z. C., ii, 102-3.

98. Ueber die zyklische Fortpflanzung limnetischer Rotatorien.

B. C,, xviii, 173-83.

*98a. Vorlaufige Mittheilung tiber den Variationskreis von Anuraea

cochlearis Gosse.

Z. A., xxi, 597-604. 6 fig. Abstr. J. R. M.S., 98, 39.

LEEDs, A. R.

97. Quantitative Estimation of Micro-Organisms.

Stevens’ Indicator, xiv, 31-44. 1 pl.

LEMMERMANY, E.

95. Verzeichniss der in der Umgegend von Plon gesammelten Algen.

Forsch-ber. Biol. Stn. Plon, iii, 18-67.

Faunal list.

96. Zur Algenfiora des Riesengebirges.

Forsch-ber. Biol. Stn. Plon, iv, 88-133.

Systematic-faunistic study.

96a. Zur Algenfiora des Pléner Seengebietes. Zweiter Beitrag.

Forsch-ber. Biol. Stn. Plon, iv, 134-88.

Systematic-faunistic study.

97. | _Resultate einer biologischen Untersuchung der Forellenteiche

von Sandfort.

Forsch-ber. Biol. Stn. Plon, v, 67-112. 2 fig. 1 plan.

Faunal list—discussion of value of different vegetation.

280 HENRY B. WARD:

9%. Der grosse Waterneverstorfer Binnensee. Eine biologische

Studie.

Forsch-ber. Biol. Stn. Plon, vi, 167-204. l1taf. Rev. Z. C.. v, 487,

LENDENFELD, R. VON.

96. | Neuere Arbeiten tiber die Tiere der Finsterniss.

Z. C., iii, 789-801, 821-7.

LEVANDER, K. M.

94. Kleine Beitrage zur Kenntniss des Thierlebens unter dicker

Eisdecke in einigen Gewassern Finnlands.

Meddel. Soc. Fauna Flora Fenn., xx, 6 pp.

Rev. Z. C., iii, 426

94a. Materialien zur Kenntniss der Wasserfauna in der Umgebung

von Helsingfors, mit besonderer Beriicksichtigung der Meeres-

fauna. 1. Protozoa.

Acta Soc. Fauna Flora Fenn., xii, 2, 1-115. 38 taf.

Rev. Z. C., ii, 632-33; J. R. M. S., 94, 462.

94b. Materialien zur Kenntniss der Wasserfauna in die Umgebung

von Helsingfors, mit besonderer Beriicksichtigung der Meeres-

fauna. Il. Rotatoria.

Acta Soc. Fauna Flora Fenn., xii, 3, 1-72. 3 taf.

Rev. Z. C.. ii, 754-6.

LINSBAUER

*95. Vorschlag einer verbesserten Methode zur Bestimming der

Lichtverhaltnisse im Wasser.

Verh. K. K. Zool-bot. Ges. Wien, 95.

LORENZ VON LIBURNAU, JOS.

*98. Der Hallstatter See. Eine limnologische Studie.

_ Mitth. geogr. Ges. Wien., xli, 1-218.

LORENZI, A.

*96. Una visita al laghetto di Cima Corso (Ampezzo).

Alto Croan. Soc. Alp. Friulana., vii, 10 pp. Rev. Z. C., iv, 52.

*97. La fauna dei laghi del Friuli.

Alto Croan. Soc. Alp. Friulana, vii. 6 pp.

Rev. Z. C., v, 487-8.

*98. Prime osservazioni zoologiche sulle acqua freatiche del Friuli.

Alto Croan. Soc. Alp. Friulana, ix. 9 pp.

Rev. Z. C., v, 737.

Subterranean waters. New species of Niphargus.

LUNDBERG, R.

*95. On the Postembryonal development of the Daphnids.

Bib. Kg. Svens. Vet. Ak. Handl., xx, 4,2. 19 pp. 2 pl.

Rev. J. M. BR. S., 96, 413.

MAGNIN, A.

*95. Les Lacs du Jura. 1, Généralités sur la limnologie jurassienne

2, Végétation des lacs du Jura suisse.

Paris et Lyon, 8°, 96 and 23 pp., 1 and 2 pl., 17 and 5 text-fig.

RECENT FRESHWATER INVESTIGATIONS 281

Marsh, C. D. .

94. On the Vertical Distribution of Pelagic Crustacea in Green Lake,

Wisconsin.

Am. Nat. xxviii, 807-9. Abst. J. R. M. S., 95, 311-2.

95. On the Cyclopidae and Calanidae of Lake St. Clair, Lake Mich-

igan, and certain of the Inland Lakes of Michigan.

Bull. Mich. Fish Comm., 5, 1-24, 9 pl.

Abst. J. R. M. S., 96, 414.

Systematic-faunistic.

97. On the Limnetic Crustacea of Green Lake.

Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci., xi, 179-224, 10 pl.

Abst. J. R. M. S., 97, 534.

McMILian, C.

93. The Gull Lake Biological Station of the University of Minne-

sota.

Science, xxi, 330.

Maz, C.

*98. | Mikroskopische Wasseranalyse. Anleitung zur Untersuchung

des Wassers mit besonderer Beriicksichtigung von Trink- und

Abwasser.

Berlin, 8°. 631 pp., 8 Taf., 38 text-fig.

Rey. B. C., xviii, 507-9; Z. C., v, 446-7.

Mieuua, W.

*94. Methode und Aufgabe der biologischen Wasseruntersuchung.

Jahresb. Ver. Naturk. Manneim, 1, 20, 1-59.

MOENKHAUS, W. J.

98. Material for the Study of the Variation of Etheostoma capro-

des Rafinesque and Etheostoma nigrum Rafinesque in Turkey

Lake and Tippecanoe Lake.

Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci., 97, 207-228.

Adjacent lakes in different water-basins compared.

Montcomery, T. H., JR.

95. Stichostemma Eilhardin. g. et n. sp. Ein Beitrag zur Kenntnis

der Nemertinen.

Zeit. f. wiss. Zool., lix, 83-146, 2 Taf. Rev. Z. C., ii, 146-9.

Detailed study of the structure of a freshwater nemertine.

95a. The Derivation of the Freshwater and Land Nemerteans, and

allied Questions.

Jour. Morph., xi, 479-484.

Rev. Z. C., iii, 142-3.

96. Stichostemma asensoriatum un. sp.,a Freshwater Nemertean

from Pennsylvania.

Z. A., xix, 486-8. Abst. J. R. M. S., 97, 38.

Includes brief review of American freshwater species.

282 HENRY B. WARD:

Moore, J. E. S.

*97. On the General Zoological Results of the Tanganyika Expedi-

tion.

Proc. Zool. Soe., London, 97, 486-9.

97a. The Freshwater Fauna of Lake Tanganyika.

Nature, lvi, 198-200, 2 fig.

97b. The Fauna of the Great African Lakes.

Sci. Progress, vi, 627-41.

98. On the Zoological Evidence for the Connection of Lake Tangan-

yika with the Sea.

Proc. Roy. Soc. London, Ixii, 451-8. 3 fig.

98a. The Mollusks of the Great African Lakes. 1. Distribution.

Quar. Jour. Mic. Sci., xli, 159-180.

98b. On the Hypothesis that Lake Tanganyika represents an Old

Jurassic Sea.

Quar. Jour. Mic. Sci., xli, 303-21. 1 pl.

98c. The Marine Fauna in Lake Tanganyika and the Advisability of

further Exploration in the Great African Lakes.

Nature, lviii, 404-8.

Moore, J. P.

98. The Leeches of the U. S. National Museum.

Proc, U. S. Nat. Mus., xxi, 543-63. 1 pl.

Valuable taxonomic study on North American forms.

MRAZEK, A.

*93. Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Stisswassercopepoden (Czeckish).

Vestnik spol., Prag, 98. 74 pp. 3 pl.

Rev. Z. C., i, 593-4; J. R. M. S., 95, 52.

MRAzEK, A. - -

*93a. Beitrag zur Kenntnis der Harpakticidenfauna des Siisswassers.

Zool. Jabrb., Syst., vii, 89-1380. 4pl. Rev. Z. C., i, 277.

*95. Copepoden. Deutsch-Ost-Afrika.

Wiss. Forsch-res., iv, 11 pp., 3 pl.

MULLER, O.

98. Bacillariales aus den Hochseen des Riesengebirges.

Forsch-ber. Biol. Stn. Plon, vi, 48-87. 3 pl.

NACHTRIEB, H. F.

94. Zoological Work during 1893 at the Gull Lake Biological Sta-

tion.

Quar. Bull. Univ. Minn., ii, 5-7.

Nogre, AUG.

*94. Estudos sobre a fauna aquatica dos rios do norte de Portugal.

Annaes sci. nat., Porto, i, 151-7.

Merely a faunal list.

NORDENSKIOLD, E.

97. Notizen tiber Hydrachniden aus Siid-Finland.

Acta Soe. Faun. Flor. Fenn., xv, 1, 1-8.

Occurrence, distribution.

RECENT FRESHWATER INVESTIGATIONS 283

OLIVIER, E.

*94. Les Lacs d’Auvergne.

Rey. Sci. Bourbonn., vii, 117-9.

PACKARD, A. S.

94. On the Origin of the Subterranean Fauna of North America.

Am. Nat., xxviii, 727-51. 2 pl.

Rev. Z. C., ii, 137-9.

Pero, P.

*93. I laghi alpini valtellinesi. Parte I. Valle dell’ Adda.

Nuova Notarisia, iy.

*93a. I laghi alpini valtellinesi. Parte IJ. Vaile del Liro (Splugia).

Nuova Notarisia, iv, 117.

*93b. Richerche e studi sui laghi valtellinesi.

Nuova Notarisia, iv, 248-; 301-.

*94. ‘I laghi alpini valtellinesi.

Nuova Notarisia, v, 413-; 670-.

*95. Cenni oroidrografici e studio biologico de] lago di Mezzola.

Malpighia, ix, 71-112; 235-9.

95a. I laghi alpini valtellinesi. Fine.

Nuova Notarisia, vi, 1-138. 1table. 1 map.

PETR, FR.

*94. Freshwater Sponges of Europe (Czeckish).

Gymnas. program, Chrudim, 32 pp. 2pl. Rev. Z. C., ii, 301-2.

PriersiG, R.

97. | Deutschlands Hydrachniden.

Bibl. Zool. 22. (Not yet completed.)

Rey. Z. C., iv, 487-9.

Monograph of group with frequent important references to

habitat in freshwater.

PIETERS, A. J.

94. The Plants of Lake St. Clair.

Bull. Mich. Fish Comm., 2, 1-10. 1 map.

Faunistic. Distinguishes aquatic plant formations.

PITARD, EuG.

*96. Sur le Plankton des lacs du Jura.

C. R. Soc. Helv. Se. Nat., xxlxi, 152-5.

*96a. Le Plankton des lacs du Jura.

Arch. se. phys. et nat. Genéve, 4, il. 4 pp.

Rey. Z. C., iv, 375-6.

o7. La répartition quantitive en surface du Plankton.

Arch. se. phys. et nat. Genéve, 4, iii, 64-6. Rev. Z. C., iv, 513.

97a. Sur le Plankton du lac de Chavonues.

Arch. se. phys. et nat. Genéve, 4, ili, 67-70. Rev. Z. C., iv, 513.

97b. Le Plankton du Lac de Lowerz.

Arch. se. phys. et nat. Genéve, 4, iii, 77-9. Rev. Z. C., iv, 513.

284 HENRY B. WARD:

97c. Sur le plankton du lac de Joux.

Arch. se. phys. et nat. Genéve, 4, iii, 79-81. Rev. Z. C., iv, 514.

97d. Sur le plankton du lac de Brenet.

Arch. se. phys. et nat. Genéve 4, iii, 81-8. Rev. Z. C., iv, 514.

PLEssIs, G. DU.

*93. Organization et genre de vie de |’ Emea lacustris, Nemertien

des énvirons de Geneve.

Rey. Suisse zool., i, 329-57. 1 pl.

95. Note sur l’importation des Némertiens dans les eaux douces.

Z. A., xviii, 495-8. Rev. Z. C., iii, 148.

PoppE, 8S. A. UND MRAZEK, W.

.*95. Die von Herrn Dr. F. Stuhlmann auf Zanzibar und dem gegen-

tiberliegenden Festlande gesammelten Siisswasser-Copepoden.

Jahrb. Hamburg. wiss. Anst., xii (Beiheft), 125-34. 2 pl.

*95a. Entomostraken aus Stid-Georgien.

Jahrb. Hamburg. wiss. Anst., xii (Beiheft), 135-8. ipl.

*95b. Die von Herrn Dr. H. Driesch auf Ceylon gesammelten Siiss-

wasser-Entomostraken.

Jahrb. Hamburg. wiss. Anst., xii (Beiheft), 189-42. 1 pl.

PuGnat, C. A.

97. | Premiére contribution a ]’étude de la faune des lacs de la Savoie.

Revue Savois., 97,9 pp. Rev. Z. C., iv, 469.

REIGHARD, J. E.

93. A Laboratory on the Great Lakes.

Z. A., Xvi, 399-401.

94. Some Plankton Studies in the Great Lakes.

Bull. U. S. Fish Comm., xii, 127-42. 2 pl.

94a. <A Biological Examination of Lake St. Clair.

Bull. Mich. Fish Comm., 4, 1-41. 2 pl. 1 map.

Rev. Z. C., ii, 7-8; cf. Nat. Sci., x, 8-9.

94b. Suggestions for an Experimental Method of Determining the

Efficiency of Quantitive Nets.

Bull. Mich. Fish Comm., 4, 57-60.

98. Methods of Plankton Investigation in their Relation. to Prac-

tical Problems.

Bull. U. S. Fish Comm., xvii, 169-75.

RICHARD, J.

*93. Copépodes recueillis par. M. le Dr. Th. Barrois en Egypte, en

Syrie, et en Palestine.

Rey. Biol. Nord France, v, 10. 36 pp. 51 fig.

93a. Sur la distribution géographique des Cladocéres.

C. R. Congress Int. Zool., Moscou 1892. 9 pp.

94. Revision des Cladocéres, I.

Ann. Sci. Nat., zool., xviii, 279-389. 2 pl.

*94a.

94b.

*94c,

95.

95a.

*95b.

96b.

*97.

*97a.

98.

RECENT FRESHWATER INVESTIGATIONS 285

Cladocéres recueillis par le Dr. Th. Barrois en Palestine, en

Syrie et en Egypte.

Rey. Biol. Nord France, vi, 360-79. 12 fig.

Sur quelques animaux inférieurs des eaux douces du Tonkin.

Mém. Soc. Zoo]. France, vii, 237-43.

Rev. Z. C., i., 810.

Entomostracés recueillis par M. E. Modigliani dans le lac Toba

(Sumatra).

Ann. Mus. Civ. Genova, 2a, xiv, 560-78.

Cladocéres et Copépodes recueillis par M. Kavraisky prés de

Tiflis et dans le lac Goktsha.

Bull. Soe. Zool. France, xx, 91-3.

. Sur quelques Entomostracés d’eau douce d’Haiti.

Mém. Soc. Zool. France, viii, 189-99. ,11 fig.

Contribution a la faune des Entomostracés de la France.

Feuille Jeun. Naturl., 3, xxv, 9 pp. 6 fig. Rev. Z. C., iii, 322.

Fauna! list.

Revision des Cladocéres, II.

Ann. Sci. Nat., zool., 8, ii, 187-363. 6 pl.

Sur la faune pélagique du Tegernsee.

Z. A., xix, 28-9.

Rev. Z. C., iii, 139-40.

Sur la faune des eaux douces des Acores.

Bull. Soe. Zool. France, xxi, 171-8.

Abst. J. R. M. S., 97, 26; Z. C., iv, 469.

New forms reported; only cosmopolitan species.

Sur la faune de quelques lacs élevés du Caucase d’aprés les

récoltes de M. Kavraisky.

Bull. Soe. Zool. France, xxi, 183-5.

Abst. Z. C., iv, 469-70. .

Entomostracés recueillis par M. le Directeur Steindachner dans

les lacs de Janina et de Scutari-.

Ann. Nat. Hofmus. Wien, xii, 63-6. 1 fig.

Rey. Z. C., iv, 843.

Pelagic fauna poor, of 5 species, one new.

Sur quelques Entomostracés d’eau douce des environs de Buenos

Aires.

Anal. Mus. nac. Buenos Aires, v, 321-32. 6 fig.

Rev. Z. C., iv, 843.

Entomostracés de l’Amérique du Sud, recueillis par MM. U.

Deiters, H. v. Jhering, G. W. Miiller, et C. O. Poppe.

Mém. Soe. Zool. France, x, 263-301. Rey. Z. C., iv, 842-3.

Sur la faune des eaux douces des iles Canaries.

C. R. Ac. Sci. Paris, cxxvi, 439-41.

Rey. Z. C., v, 352.

286 HENRY B. WARD:

98a. Sur la faune des eaux douces explorées en 1898 pendant la cam-

pagne du yacht ‘‘ Princesse Alice.”’

Mém. Soe. Zool. France, xi, 326-38.

RICHTER, P.

94. Gloiotrichia echinulata P. Richt., eine Wasserbltite des Grossen

und Kleinen Ploner Sees.

Forsch-ber, Biol. Stn. Plén, ii, 31-46.

R1zzaArpvI, U.

*94. —_ Risultati biologici di una esplorazione del lago di Nemi.

Boll. Soe. Rom. stud. zool., 8, iii, 137-57.

Rev. Z. C., ii, 195.

*96. Gli Entomostraci del lago di Mezzola.

Boll. Soe. Rom. stud. zool., 3, v, 126-9.

Abstr. J. R. M. S., 97, 124.

Appendix to Pero, 95, q. v. Limnetic species few.

Ross, L. S.

96. Preliminary Notes on the Iowa Entomostraca.

Proc. Iowa Acad. Sci., 95, iii, 170-3.

Faunal list.

97. Some Manitoba Cladocera with Description of one New Species.

Proc. Iowa Acad. Sci., iv, 154-62.

Systematic-faunistic.

_ 97a. A New Species of Daphnia and Brief Notes on Other Cladocera

of Iowa.

Proc. Iowa Acad. Sci., iv, 162-6. 2 fig.

97b. The Illinois Biological Station.

Proc. Iowa Acad. Sci., iv, 167-70.

RUSSELL, I. C.

95. Lakes of North America.

Ginn & Co., Boston. 125 pp. 8 fig. 23 pl.

Sars, G. O.

*94. Contributions to the Knowledge of the Freshwater Entomos-

traca of New Zealand.

Vid.-Selks. Forh. Christiania, 94,5. 62 pp. 7 pl.

#95, On Some South African Entomotraca raised from dried mud,

Vid.-Selks. Forh. Christiania, 95,8, 1-56. 8 pl.

*96. On Freshwater Entomostraca from the Neighborhood of

Sidney.

Arch. Math. Natw., xviii, 2, 1-81. 8 pl.

ScHacut, F. W.

97. The North American Species of Diaptomus.

Bull. Ill. Lab. Nat. Hist., v, 97-207. 15 pl.

Rev. Z. C., v, 227.

Taxonomic; data on distribution, seasonal variations; bibliography.

98.

RECENT FRESHWATER INVESTIGATIONS 287

The North American Centropagidae belonging to the Genera

Osphranticum, Limnocalanus and Epischura.

Bull. Ill. Lab. Nat. Hist., v, 225-69.

Rev. Z. C., v, 713-4; Am. Nat., xxxiii, 164-5.

Systematic-faunistic with valuable bibliography.

ScHAREF, R. F.

*95.

On the Origin of the Land and Freshwater Fauna of Ireland.

Proc. R. Irish Acad., 3, iii, 479-85.

Rev. J. R. M. S., 95, 161; Nat. Sci., vi, 147-8.

SCHAUDINN, F.

96.

Heliozoa. Das Tierreich, 1-24.

Abstr. J. R. M. S., 96, 427.

Systematic.

SCHEWIAKOFF, W.

#93.

93a.

Ueber einige ekto- und entoparasitiche Protozoen der Cyclo-

piden.

Bull. Soc. Imp. Nat. Moscou, 93, 1, 1-29. 1 taf.

Rev. Z. C., i, 8-9.

Description of tycholimnetic species.

Ueber die geographische Verbreitung der Stisswasser-Proto-

zoen.

Mém. Ac. Imp. Sc. St. Pétersbourg, 7, xli, 8, 201 pp. 4 taf.

Rev. Z. C., i, 813-5; J. R. M. S., 95, 821-2.

SCHMEIL, O.

92.

93.

*98a.

*94,

96.

98.

Deutschlands freilebende Siisswasser-Copepoden. [. Cy-

clopidae.

Bibl. Zool., 11, 192 pp. 8 pl.

Deutschlands freilebende Siisswasser-Copepoden. II. Harpac-

ticidae. .

Bibl. Zool., 15, 103 pp. 8 pl.

Rev. Z. C., i, 278.

Copepoden des Rhatikon Gebirges.

Abh. naturf. Ges. Halle, xix.

Zur Hohlenfauna des Karstes.

Zeitsch. f. Naturwiss., lxvi, 339-53.

Rev. Z. C., i, 464-5; also iii, 790-801.

Deutschlands freilebende Siisswasser-Copepoden. III. Centro-

pagidae.

Bibl. Zool., 21. 144 pp. 12 pl.

Rey. Z. C., iv, 65-8; J. R. M. S., 96, 522-3.

Deutschlands freilebende Siisswasser-Copepoden. Nachtrag.

Bibl. Zool., 21, 145-88. 2 Taf.

Rev. Z. C., iv, 841-2.

288 HENRY B. WARD:

SCHRODER, B.

97. Die Algenflora der Versuchsteiche.

Forsch-ber. Biol. Stn. Plén, v, 29-66. 3 pl.

Systematic-faunistic.

97a. Ueber das Plankton der Oder.

Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Ges., xx, 482-92. 1 pl.

98. Neue Beitrige zur Kenntnis der Algen des Riesengebirges.

Forsch-ber. Bio]. Stn. Plén, vi, 9-47.

98a. Planktologische Mittheilungen.

B. C., xviii, 525-35.

SCHRODER, B. UND ZACHARIAS, O.

*97. Ueber die Flora und Fauna der Versuchsteiche des Schlesischen

Fischerei-Vereins zu Trachenberg in Schlesien.

1. Die Vegetationsverhaltnisse der Versuchsteiche, B. Schréder,

p. 28-36.

2. Die Fauna des Versuchsteiche, O. Zacharias, p. 36-51.

Zeit. f. Fischerei, v, 28-40; 41-51. 11 fig.

SCHROTER, C.

*97._Schwebeflora unserer Seen. Das Phytoplankton.

Neujahrsblatt naturf. Ges. Ziirich, xcix, 60 pp. 3pl. 3 fig.

Rev. B. C., xvii, 209-12; Arch. sci. phys. et nat. Genéve, 3, iii,

577-8.

SCHROTER, C., UND KIRCHNER, O.

*96. Die Vegetation des Bodensees.

Bodensee-Forschungen, ix. Absch. Lindau i’ B.

Rev. B. C., xvii, 593-9.

Scort, A. AND T.

*Q5. On New and Rare Species of Copepoda from Scotland.

Annals Scot. Nat. Hist., No. 18, 28-35. 1 pl.

*95a. Notes on Some Rare Freshwater and Marine Copepoda from

Scotland.

Annals Scot. Nat. Hist., No. 16, 233-9. 1 pl.

Scott, T.

98. The Invertebrate Fauna of the Inland Waters of Scotland.

Part III.

Ann. Rept. Fish Bd. Scotland, xi, 220-38. 2 pl.

*94, The Invertebrate Fauna of the Inland Waters of Scotland.

Part IV.

Ann. Rept. Fish Bd. Scotland, xii, 284-90.

95. The Invertebrate Fauna of the Inland Waters of Scotland.

Part V.

Ann, Rept. Fish Bd. Scotland, xiii, 287-57. 2 pl.

*95a. Notes on Freshwater Entomostraca with Special Reference to

Loch Leven.

Annals Seot. Nat. Hist., No. 15, 163-178.

96.

97.

98.

RECENT FRESHWATER INVESTIGATIONS 289

The Invertebrate Fauna of the Inland Waters of Scotland.

Part VI.

Ann. Rept. Fish Bd. Scotland, xiv, 167-70.

Rev. Z. C., iv, 376.

Faunal lists of several lakes and comparison of the same.

The Invertebrate Fauna of the Inland Waters of Scotland.

Part VII.

Ann. Rept. Fish Bd. Scotland, xv, 316-27. 1 pl.

Rev. Z. C., v, 160.

Comparison of nine Scotch lakes with faunal lists and descrip-

tions.

The Invertebrate Fauna of the Inland Waters of Scotland.

Part VIII.

Ann. Rept. Fish Bd. Scotland, xvi, 248-52. 4 pl.

Scort, T., AND DUTHIE, R.

95.

96.

97.

98.

The Inland Waters of the Shetland Islands.

Ann. Rept. Fish Bd. Scotland, xiii, 174-91. 1 pl.

The Inland Waters of the Shetland Islands. Part II.

Ann. Rept. Fish Bd. Scotland, xiv, 229-48. 1 pl.

Rev. Z. C., iv, 376.

An examination of numerous bodies of water; fauna scanty, in-

teresting.

An Account of the Examination of some of the Lochs of Shet-

land.

Ann. Rept. Fish Bd. Scotland, xv, 327-33.

Rev. Z. C., v, 160.

Further studies show anincrease on previous list of species.

Account of the Examination of some of the Lochs of Shetland.

Ann. Rept. Fish Bd. Scotland, xvi, 253-60.

SCOURFIELD, D. J.

93.

*94,

95.

*96.

97.

97a.

The Entomostraca of Wanstead Park.

Jour. Quekett Mic. Club, 2, v, 161-78.

Abst. J. R. M. S., 94, 567.

Entomostraca and the Surface-film of Water.

Jour. Linn. Soc. London, xxv, 158, 1-19. 2 pl.

Abst. J. R. M. S., 95, 52.

A Preliminary Account of the Entomostraca of North Wales.

Jour. Quekett Mic. Club, 2, vi, 127-48. 1 pl.

Rev. Z. C., iii, 462.

No macrofauna; poor littoral, rich limnetic microfauna.

On the Necessity for a British Freshwater Station.

Rep. Brit. A. A. S. Liverpool, lxvi, 881-2.

Wanted, a British Freshwater Biological Station.

Nat. Sci., x, 17-9; cf. viii, 8-9.

The Logarithmic Plotting of Certain Biological Data.

Jour. Quekett Mic. Club, 2, vi, 419-23. 1 pl.

290 HENRY B. WARD:

97b. Contributions to the Non-Marine Fauna of Spitzbergen.

Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 97, 784-92. 1 pl.

97c. Verzeichniss der Entomostraken von Plon.

Forsch-ber. Biol. Stn. Plon, v, 180. 1 tab.

Fauna! list.

98. The Entomostraca of Epping Forest. Part I.

Essex Nat., x, 193-210.

98a. The Entomostraca of Epping Forest. Part II.

Essex Nat., x, 259-74. 3 tables.

98b. The Entomostraca of Epping Forest. Part III and lV.

Essex Nat., x, 313-34.

Rev. Am. Nat., xxxiii, 161-2.

SEKERA, E.

*98. Studie limnobiologicke.

Program Gymnas., Pilgram, Bohemia. 28 pp.

SELIGO, A.

*93. Ueber einige Flagellaten des Siisswasserplankton.

Festgabe Westpr. Fisch. Ver. z. d. 150 jahr. Jubil.

Naturf. Ges. Danzig.

97. Zur Wasserpestfrage.

Allg. Fisch.-Zeit., xxii, 19-20. 7 pp.

SERNOW, N.

97. Daily Variations in the Plankton Volumes in Deep Lake (Rus-

sian).

Arb. Ichth. Sect. k. Acclim. Ges., ii, 210.

Table of amounts; cf. Zograf, 97.

SEuURAT, L. G.

*98 Sur la faune des lacs et lagunes du valle de Mexico.

Bull. Mus. Hist. Nat. Paris, 98, 23-7.

SHARPE, R. W.

97. Contribution to a Knowledge of the North American Fresh-

water Ostracoda included in the Families Cytheridae and Cy-

prididae. (With an extensive bibliography).

Bull. Ill. Lab. Nat. Hist., iv, 414-84. Pl. 39-48.

Rey Z. C., iv, 527-8.

Simrortn, H.

*96. Ueber Landpflanzen und Landthiere im heimischen Siisswasser.

Mitth. a. d. Osterlande, n. F., vii, 105-25.

tev Z. C., iv, 509-12.

SMITH, F.

94, List of the Protozoa and Mollusca observed in Lake St. Clair in

the Summer of 1893.

Bull. Mich. Fish Comm., 4, 42-4.

Faunistic.

RECENT FRESHWATER INVESTIGATIONS 291

Smitu, H. M.

98. Biological Survey of Lake Krie.

Science, n. s., viil, 13-4.

SMITH, J. C.

97. Notices of Some Undescribed Infusoria, from the Infusorial

Fauna of Louisiana.

Trans. Amer. Mic. Soc., xix, 55-68. 1 pl.

Soar, C. D.

97. Presidential Address: a few words on Water-mites.

Journ. Micros. and Nat. Sci., vii, 12 pp.

Contains notes on occurrence, means of collecting, ete.

STECK, TH.

93. Beitrage zur Biologie des grossen Moosseedorfsee’s.

Mitt. Naturf. Ges. Bern, 93, 20-73, 1 pl.

STENROOS, K. E.

95. Die Cladoceren der Umgebung von Helsingfors.

Acta Soc. Faun. Flor. Fenn., xi, 2, 1-44. 1 pl.

Rey. Z. C., iii, 324.

97. Zur Kenntniss der Crustaceenfauna von Russisch-Karelien.

Acta Soc. Faun. Flor. Fenn., xv, 2, 1-72, 1 pl. 1 chart, 1 table.

98. Das Thierleben im Nurmijarvi-See.

Acta Soc. Faun. Flor. Fenn., xvii, 1, 1-259, 3 pl. 1 ch.

Rev. Z. C., v, 603-6; Am. Nat., xxxii, 7938-4.

STEUR, A.

*97. | Copepoden und Cladoceren des siissen Wassers aus der Umge-

bung von Triest.

Verh. kk. zool.-bot. Ges. Wien, 97, 16 pp. 1 taf.

*97a. Ein Beitrag zur Kenntniss der Cladoceren und Copepoden-

fauna Karntens.

Verh. kk. zool-bot. Ges. Wien, 97, 49 pp. 6 fig.

STINGELIN, TH.

95. Ueber die Cladocerenfauna der Umgebung von Basel.

Z. A., xviii, 49-51. (Preliminary).

Abst. J. R. M. S., 95, 426.

*95a._ Die Cladoceren der Umgebung von Basel.

Rey. Suisse Zool., iii, 161-274. 4 pl.

Rev. Z. C., iii, 322-4; J. R. M. S., 96, 62.

97. Ueber jahreszeitliche, individuelle und locale Variation bei

Crustaceen, nebst einige Bemerkungen tiber die Fortpflanzung

bei Daphniden und Lynceiden.

Forsch-ber. Biol. Stn. Ploén, v, 150-65, 5 text fig.

Rey. Z. C., iv, 625-6.

STOCKMAYER, O.

94. Das Leben des Baches (des Wassers tiberhaupt).

Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Ges., xii, (Appendix) 133-41.

292 HENRY B. WARD:

STOKES, A. C.

96. Aquatic Microscopy for Beginners.

Portland, Conn., 3d Ed., 326 pp. 198 text-fig.

STRODTMANN, 5S.

95. Die Ursache des Schwebvermdgens bei den Cyanophyceen

(vorlaufige Mitth.). :

Bee rxy, 115-5:

*95a. Die Anpassung der Cyanophyceen an das pelagische Leben.

Arch. Entw-mech. Organismen, i, 3.

95b. Bemerkungen tiber die Lebensverhaltnisse des Stisswasser

plankton.

Forsch.-ber. Biol. Stn. Ploén, iii, 145-79.

96. Planktonuntersuchungen in holsteinischen und mecklenbur-

gischen Seen.

Forsch-ber. Biol. Stn. Plén, iv, 273-87.

Rev. Z. C., iii, 447-8.

97. Ueber die Nahrung einiger Wildfische.

Zeit. f. Fischerei, v, 103-12.

98. Ueber die vermeintliche Schadlichkeit der Wasserbliite.

Forsch-ber. Biol. Stn. Plon, vi, 206-12.

StupDER, TH.

*93. Faune du lac de Champex.

Arch. se. phys. et nat. Genéve, 3, xxx, 151-8. Rev. Z. C., i, 214.

Pelagic fauna little developed. List of forms observed.

SUNDVIK, E. E.

*96. Bidrag till fragan om fiskarnas resp. de kallblodiga djurens

ofvervintring. (German resumé).

Meddel. Soc. Fauna Flora Fenn., 21, 12-4.

Rev. Z. C., iv, 51-2.

Svc, F,

97. Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Infusorien Béhmens. I. Die cilia-

ten Infusorien des Unterpocernitzer Teiches.

Bull. Internat. Acad. Sci. Bohéme, 97,19 pp. 2 pl.

SzIGETHY, K.

97. Die Fauna des Balatons. III. Turbellarien.

Result. wiss. Erforsch. Balatonsees, ii, 1, 73-9.

Faunistic-systematic.

THOMAS, FR.

AO. Ein neuer durch Euglena sanguinea erzeugter, kleiner Blutsee

in der baumlosen Region der Biindner Alpen.

Mitth. Thiring. Bot. Ver., n. F. x, 28-34.

Rey. Z. C., iv, 778.

Smail pool, 2160 m. alt., blood red with Euglena.

RECENT FRESHWATER INVESTIGATIONS 293

TuHompson, H. D.

96. A Biological Examination of Lake Michigan. The Aquatic

Plants.

Bull. Mich. Fish Comm., 6, 72-5.

Faunal list with notes.

TURNER, C. H.

93. Additional Notes on the Cladocera and Ostracoda of Cincin-

nati, Ohio.

Bull. Sci. Lab. Denison Univ., viii, 1-18, 2 pl.

94. Notes on American Ostracoda with Description of New Species.

Bull. Sci. Lab. Denison Univ., viii, 2, 13-26. 2 pl.

ULE, W.

*93. Die Temperaturverhaltnisse der baltischen Seen.

Verh. x. deutsch. Geographentages, Stuttgart.

*91!, Beitrage zur Instrumentenkunde auf dem Gebiete der Seen-

forschung.

Petermann’s Mitth., xl.

94a. Geologie und Orohydrographie der Umgebung von Plon.

Forsch-ber. Biol. Stn. Pl6n, ii, 1-19.

VANGEL, E.

97. Die Fauna des Balatons. II. Coelenterata. Schwamme und

Hydren.

Result. wiss. Erforsch. Balatonsees, ii, 1, 65-71.

Faunistic-systematic.

97a. Die Fauna des Balatons. VI. Moosthiere (Bryozoa).

Result. wiss. Erforsch. Balatonsees, ii, 1, 135-48.

Faunistic-systematic.

97b. Die Fauna des Balatons. VII. Gliederwiirmer (Annelides).

Result.-wiss. Erforsch. Balatonsees, ii, 1, 145-51.

Faunistic-systematic.

VAVRA, W.

*93. Ein Beitrag zur Kenntniss der Siisswasserfauna von Bulgarien.

S.-B. K. Bohm. Ges. Wiss., Math.-natw. K1., xlvi, 4 pp.

Rev. Z. C., i, 398.

Numerous species of cosmopolitan character.

97. Die Siisswasser-Ostracoden Deutsch-Ost-Afrikas.

Ostafrika, iv, 28 pp. 59 fig.

Rev. Z. C., iv, 486-7.

Faunal study. Most forms known, yet not reported from Africa.

98. Stisswasser-Ostracoden der Hamburger Magalhaenischen Sam-

melreise.

Hamburg. 1-26 pp. 5 fig.

VEJDOVSKY, FR.

95. Zur vergleichende Anatomie der Turbellarien. (Zugleich ein

Beitrag zur Turbellarien-Fauna Bohmens.)

Zeit. f. wiss. Zool., 1x, 90-162, 4 pl; 163-214. 3 pl.

294 HENRY B. WARD:

VESCOVIE, P. DE.

*96. Notizie sulla formazione di un nuova lago nella provincia di

Roma e Considerazioni da punta di vista della fauna lacustre.

Boll. Soc. Rom. Stud. zool., v, 55-71.

VIRE, A.

(EbE Sur quelques animaux habitants les cavernes du Jura.

Bull. Mus. Hist. Nat. Paris, 95, 243-5

*96. Animaux cavernicoles.

Bull. Mus. Hist. Nat. Paris, 96, 90-2; also note p. 139.

96a. Modifications apportées aux organes de relation et de la nutri-

tion chez quelques Arthropodes par le séjour dans les cavernes.

C. R. Acad. Sci., cxxii, 486-7. ‘rans. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.,

xvii, 407-8.

Rev. Z. C., iii, 321-2, 790.

*97. La faune obscuricole des conduits d’eau de Seine de la ville de

Paris et le projet de dérivation des sources du Lunai.

Bull. Mus. Hist. Nat. Paris, 97, 237-42.

Vorer, W.

#95: Ueber Thiere die sich vermuthlich aus der Eiszeit her in un-

seren Bachen erhalten haben.

Verh nath. Ver. preuss. Rheinl., lii, 285-44.

Rev. Z. C., iv, 340-1.

*6. Planaria gonocephaia als Kindringling in das Verbreiterungs-

gebeit von Planaria alpina and Polycelis cornuta.

Zool. Jarb., Syst., viii, 131-76. 3 karten,

96a. Die Einwanderung der Planariaden in unsere Gebirgsbache.

Verh. nath. Ver. preuss Rheinl., liii, 103-48. 1 pl.

Vouz, W.

98. Ueber neue Turbellarien aus der Schweiz (vor!. Mitth.).

Z. A., xxi, 605-12. Figs.

WAGNER, PAUL.

*97. Die Seen des Bohmerwaldes. Eine geologisch-geograpische

Studie; zugleich ein Beitrag zur Losung des Karproblems.

Leipzig.

*97a, Fishfang im Gardasee.

Die Natur, xlvi, 616-7.

WALEER, B.

95. A Month with the Michigan Fish Commission.

Nautilus, xi, 2-6.

Description of the molluscan fauna.

95a. Review of our Present Knowledge of the Molluscan Fauna of

Michigan. Detroit. 27 pp.

96. | Report upon the Mollusca Collected in the Vicinity of Charle-

voix, Michigan, in the Summer of 1894.

Bull. Mich. Fish Comm., 6, 96-9.

Faunal list with notes.

‘

RECENT FRESHWATER INVESTIGATIONS 295

WALTER, E.

93. Biologie und Biologische Siisswasserstationen.

Forsch-Ber. Biol. Stn. Pl6on, ii, 138-47.

95. Eine praktisch-verwerthbare Methode zur quantitativen Bestim-

mung des Teichplanktons.

Forsch-ber. Biol. Stn. Plén, iii, 180-7.

Rey. Z. C., 11, 72.

95a. Ueber die Méglichkeit einer biologischen Bonitirung von

Teichen.

Allg. Fisch. Zeit., xx, 14 pp.; also Jahresb. Schles. Fisch-Ver.

*96. Zielen und Wege der Teichwirthschaft.

Zeit. f. Fischerei, iv, 144.

*96a. Ein Versuch die teichwirtschaftliche Station in Trachenberg

unmittelbar fiir die Praxis nutzbar zu machen.

Zeit. f. Fischerei, iv.

*96b. Die natiirliche Nahrung unserer Teichfische.

Allg. Fisch. Zeit, xxi, 374-7.

WARD, H. B.

94. A Preliminary Report on the Worms (mostly Parasitic) Col-

lected in Lake St. Clair, in the Summer of 1893.

Bull. Mich. Fish. Comm., 4, 49-54, 1 table; also in Stud. Zool. Lab.

Univ. Nebr., No. 4.

Faunistic.

95. The Food Supply of the Fish in the Great Lakes.

Nebr. Lit. Mag., i, 107-24, 2 pl.; also in Stud. Zool. Lab. Univ.

Nebr., No. 11; Bien. Rept. Mich. Fish Comm., xii, 117-29.

96. The Food Supply of the Great Lakes, and Some Experiments

on its Amount and Distribution.

Trans. Amer. Mic. Soc., xvii, 242-54, 2 pl.; also in Stud. Zool.

Lab. Univ. Nebr., No. 12.

Rev. Z. C., iii, 208-5"

96a. A New Method for the Quantitative Determination of Plankton

Hauls.

Trans. Amer. Mic. Soc., xvii, 255-60; also in Stud. Zool. Lab.

Univ. Nebr., No. 13.

Rev. Z. C., iii, 225; Ber. Fisch. Ver. Ost-Preussen.

$6b. A Biological Examination of Lake Michigan in the Traverse

Bay Region.

Bull. Mich. Fish. Comm., 6, 1-71, 5 pl.; also in Stud. Zool. Lab.

Univ. Nebr., No. 16.

Rev. Z. C., iv, 176-7; J. R. M. S., 97, 25; ef. Nat. Sei., x, 8-9.

98. Report of the Zoologist. Fish Food in Nebraska Streams.

Ann. Rept. Nebr. Bd. Agr., 97, 272-9; also in Stud. Zool. Lab.

Univ. Nebr., No. 28.

Rev. Z. C., v, 606.

Brief discussion of conditions and list of species found.

296 HENRY B. WARD:

98a. Aquacultural Experiment Stations and their Work.

Proc. Amer. Fish. Soc., xxvii, 125-9.

WARD, R. H.

95. Improved Methods of Collecting Aquatic Micro-Organisms.

Amer. Mo. Mic. Jour., xvi, 33-41. 1 pl.

WARREN, H. E., AND WHIPPLE, G. C.

95. The Thermophone, a New Instrument for Obtainining the Tem-

perature of a Distant or Inaccessible Place and Some Observa-

tions on the Temperature of Surface Waters.

Amer. Meteorol. Jour., xii, 85-50. 2 pl.

*95a. The Thermophone, A New Instrument for Determining Tem-

peratures.

Tech. Quar., Vili.

WEBER, E.-F.

98. Faune rotatorienne du bassin du Léman (lre partie).

Rey. Suisse Zool., v, 263-354. 6 pl.

Abst. Am. Nat. xxxiii, 163.

98a. Faune rotatorienne du bassin du Léman (2me partie).

Rey. Suisse Zool., v, 355-785. 10 pl.

WEBER, M.

*97. Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Fauna von Siid-Afrika, I. Zur

Kenntniss der Siisswasserfauna von Siidafrika.

Zool. Jahrb., Abt. Syst., x, 185-200. 1pl. 2 charts.

Rev. Z. C., iv, 825-8; J. R. M. S., 97, 275.

WELTNER, W.

*94. Forschungsberichte aus der Biologischen Station zu Pl6n.

Zeit. f. Fischerei, ii, 5. ;

*95. Spongillidenstudien, III. Katalog und Verebreitung der bekannt-

en Siisswasserschwamme.

Arch, f. Naturges., 95, i, 114-44.

Rev. Z. C., ii, 521-2.

Taxonomic; data on distribution, regions, ete.

95a. Biologische Siisswasserstationen.

In M. von dem Borne, Kiinst]. Fischzucht, Berlin, 186-96. 16 fig.

*96. Die Cladoceren Ost-Afrikas.

Deutsch Ostafrika, iv.

*96a. Die Coelenteraten und Schwimme des Siissen Wassers Ost-

afrikas.

Deutsch Ostafrika, iv, 1-8. Rev. Z. C., iv, 401.

WESENBERG—LunD, C.

*94, Grénlands Ferkswandentomostraca, I. Phyllopoda branchio-

poda et Cladocera.

Vid. Med. Nat. Forh. Kjobenhavn. p. 82.

*96. Biologisk Undersogelser over Ferskvandorganismer.

Vid. Meded. Nat. Forh. Kjobenhayn, (5), vii, 105-74.

98. Ueber danische Rotiferen und iiber die Fortpflanzungsverhalt-

nisse der Rotiferen.

Z. A., xxi, 200-11. Rev. J. R. M. S., 98, 309.

RECENT FRESHWATER INVESTIGATIONS 297

WESTERN, G.

94. Some foreign Rotifers to be included in the British Catalogue.

Jour. Quekett Mic. Club, 2, v, 420-6.

Rev. Z. C., iv, 181-2.

Faunal list with important biological data.

WHIPPLE, G. C.

94. Some Observations on the Growth of Diatoms in Surface

Waters.

Tech. Quar., vii, 214.

Rev. J. R. M. S., 95, 345; Amer. Mo. Mic. Jour., xvi, 140-5.

94a. Synura.

Amer. Mo. Mic. Jour., xv, 257-62. 1 pl.

Cf. Ann. Rept. Boston Water Board, xviii.

94b. A Standard unit of size for Micro-Organisms.

Amer. Mo. Mic. Jour., xv, 377-81, 2 fig. 1 pl.

Abst. J. R. M. S., 95, 386.

95. The Thermophone.

Science, n. s., ii, 639-43.

95a. Some Observations on the Temperature of Surface Waters; and

the Effect of Temperature on the Growth of Micro-Organisms.

Jour. New Eng. W. W. Assn., ix, 202-22. 5 pl.

96. Experience with the Sedgwick-Rafter Method at the Biological

Laboratory of the Boston Water Works.

Tech. Quar., ix, 275-9.

96a. Some Observations on the Relation of Light to the Growth of

Diatoms.

Jour. New Eng. W. W. Assn., xi, 1-26. 5 pl.

*96b. Report on the Organisms in the Boston Water Supply.

Ann. Rept. Boston Water Works, xix.

97. Microscopical Examination of Water, with a Description of a

Simple Form of Apparatus.

Science, n. s., vi, 85-9.

97a. Raphidomonas.

Jour. New Eng. W. W. Assn., xi, 348-56. 1 pl.

Extraordinarily abundant in Lynn water supply on one occasion.

97b Biological Studies in Massachusetts, No. 1.

Am. Nat., xxxi, 503-8. 2 pl.

97c. Biological Studies in Massachusetts, No. 2. Microscopical or-

ganisms.

Am. Nat.. xxxi, 576-81.

97d. Biological Studies in Massachusetts, No. 8. Geographical dis-

tribution of microscopical organisms.

Am. Nat., xxxi, 101-626.

298 HENRY B. WARD:

$8. Classification of Lakes according to Temperature.

Am. Nat,, xxxii, 25-33.

*98a. Some Observations on the Growth of Organisms in Water

Pipes.

Jour. New Eng. W. W. Assn., xii, 1.

WIERZEJSKI, A.

93. Die Raderthiere Galiziens. (Czeckish; German abstract).

Anz. Akad. Wiss. Krakau, xxvi, 161-265. 3 pl.

*95. Przeglad fauny skorupiakow galicyjskich-Krakau, 56 pp. 1 pl.

German resumé as Uebersicht der Crustaceen-Fauna Galiziens.

Anz. Akad. Wiss. Krakau, Juni 95, 170-8.

Rev. Z. C., ii, 346-7.

Systematic-faunistic.

WILLE, N.

96. Resultate einer vorliufigen Untersuchung tiber Organismen in

Christiania-Trinkwasser. (Mitth. Biol. Ges. Christ., 17 Okt. 95).

B. C., xvi, 125-6.

Wo tcort, R. H.

94. The Insecta and Acarina of Lake St. Clair. A Preliminary Re-

port.

Bull. Mich. Fish Comm., 4, 55-6.

Systematic-faunistic.

98. New American Species of the Genus Atax (Fab.) Bruz.

Zool. Bull., i, 279-85, 6 fig; also Studies Zool. Lab. Univ. Nebr.,

No. 23.

Systematic-faunistic.

WOLTERSTORFF, W. .

*96. Die ‘‘Zoologische Station’? des naturwissenschaftlichen Mus-

eums zu Magdeburg.

Blatter f. Aquar. u. Terr. Freunde, vi, 13-5.

WoopwokrtH, W. McM.

96. Preliminary report on Collections of Turbellaria from Lake St.

Clair and Charlevoix, Michigan.

Bull. Mich. Fish Comm., 6, 94-5.

Faunal list with notes.

96a. Report on the Turbellaria collected by the Michigan State Fish

Commission during the Summers of 1893 and 1894.

Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., xxix, 239-43. 1 pl.

97. On some Turbellaria from Illinois.

Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., xxxi, 1-16. 1 pl.

Systematic-faunistic study. Valuable bibliography.

YunG, E.

97. Le Plankton d’eau douce.

La Semaine Littéraire, 97, 519-21.

Popular discussion of methods, investigators and results.

RECENT FRESHWATER INVESTIGATIONS 299

ZACHARIAS, O.

93.

98a.

98b.

94.

94a.

94h.

94¢.

94d.

94e.

94f.

94g.

94h.

94i.

94k.

94).

Forschungsberichte aus der biologischen Station zu Pl6n.

I. Fauna des grossen Ploéner Sees. II. Beschreibungder neuen

Formen. III. Biologische Mittheilungen.

Theil 1, Berlin, 52 pp. 1 taf.

Die mikroskopische Organismenswelt des Siisswassers in ihrer

Beziehung zur Ernahrung der Fische.

B. C., xiii, 155-60; Jahresb. Centr. Fisch. Ver. Schles.-Holstein.

Fauna des Grossen Ploner Sees.

B. C., xiii, 877-82. (From Forsch-ber. Biol. Stn. Plén, i.)

Merely a list of species.

Forschungsberichte aus der Biologischen Station zu Plén.

Theil 2, Berlin, vii and 155 pp. 2 taf. 1 landkarte.

Rev. Z. C., i, 215-8.

Faunistische Mittheilungen.

Forsch-ber. Biol. Stn. Plon, ii, 57-90.

Forschungsergebnisse am Grossen Pléner See.

Z. A., xvii, 33-5.

Review of two years work at Ploén.

Beobachtungen am Plankton des Grossen Ploner Sees.

Forsch-ber. Biol. Stn. Plén, ii, 91-137.

Ueber die Vertheilung der Planktonorganismen innerhalb

eines Sees. (From Forsch-ber. Biol. Stn. Pl6n, ii.)

B. C,, xiv, 122-8; Trans. Rev. Biol. Nord France, vi, 185-94; Boll.

Sci., xvi, 89-92, 113-16; Abstr. J. R. M. S., 94, 552.

Ueber Pericdizitat und Vermehrung der Planktonwesen.

B. C., xiv, 226-30.

Aus der biologischen Siisswasser-Station am Gullsee in Minne-

sota.

B, C., xiv, 299-300.

Review of Nachtrieb, 94.

Die biologische Siisswasserstation der Universitat von Illinois.

B. C., xiv, 559-60.

Review of Forbes, 94.

Biologische Untersuchungen in amerikanischen Seen.

B.G., xiv, 605-7.

Short review of the work of Reighard and Ward.

Ueber die wechselnde Quantitét des Planktons im Grossen

~Ploner See.

B. C., xiv, 651-6.

Rev. Z. C., i, 736; J. R. M. S., 94, 552.

Das dritte Arbeitsjahr der Biologischen Station zu Plon.

Z. A., xvii, 448.

Statistische Mitteilungen tiber das Plankton des Grossen Ploner

Sees.

Z. A., xvii, 457-61.

300

95b.

95e.

95d.

95e.

*95f.

95h.

*95).

#96.

96a.

HENRY B. WARD:

Forschungsberichte aus der Biologischen Station zu Ploén.

Theil 3. Berlin. 209 pp. 2pl. 3 tab.

Rev. Z. C., ii, 70-3.

Faunistische Mittheilungen.

Forsch-ber. Biol. Stn. Ploén, iii, 73-96. 2 taf.

Description of new species and data regarding known forms.

Ueber die wechselnde Quantitaét des Plankton im Grossen Ploner

See.

Forsch-ber. Biol. Stn. Plon, iii, 97-117.

Based on weighings made regularly from March to September.

Ueber die horizontale und verticale Verbreitung limnetischer

Organismen.

Forsch-ber. Biol. Stn. Plon, iii, 118-28.

Fortsetzung der Beobachtungen tiber die Periodicitaét der Plank-

tonwesen.

Forsch-ber. Biol. Stn. Plén, iii, 129-44.

Record of daily observations throughout the year.

Statistische Mitteilungen aus der Biologischen Station am

Grossen Ploner See. II-XII.

Z. A., xviii, 28-29, 70-1, 87-9, 125-7, 140-2, 190-3, 256-9, 305-8, 367-71,

414-9, 448-52.

Tables of amount and composition of plankton hauls.

Uber die Ziele und Gesichtspunkte einer wissenschaftlichen

Durchforschung der Siisswasserbecken.

Deutsche Fisch. Zeit., xviii, 89-91. (Beilage.)

Ueber den Unterschied in den Aufgaben wandernder und sta-

bilier Siisswasserstationen.

B. C., xv, 378-84.

Ueber den Friihjahrs-Vegetation limnetischer Bacillariaceen im

Gr. Pléner See.

B. C., xv, 517-9:

Ueber die vertikale Verteilung limnetischer Crustaceen, insbe-

sondere tiber diejenige von Cyclops oithonoides.

B. C., xv, 686-8.

Rey. Z. C., iii, 324-5; J. R. M. S., 95, 6381.

Ueber die Méglichkeit einer biologischen Bonitierung von Fisch-

teichen.

B. C., xv, 847-8.

Ueber das Gewicht und die Anzah] mikroskopischer Lebewesen

in Binnenseen.

Helios, xiii, 108-5, 113-9. Also in Gaea, 1896, 1, 51-6.

Planktonmessungen im Grossen Pléner See.

Corr. Bl. f. Fischzucht, iii, 7-8.

Sucherokular mit Irisblende.

B. C., xvi, 30-1; also Forsch-ber. Biol. Stn. Plon, iv, 288-90.

*96b.

96e.

96f.

96g.

~ 96h.

97.

97a.

97b.

98c.

98d.

RECENT FRESHWATER INVESTIGATIONS 301

Ueber Periodicitat und Vermehrung der Planktonwesen.

Zeit. f. Fischerei, ii, 149-53.

Ueber der natiirliche Nahrung der jungen Wildfische in Bin-

nenseen.

B. C., xvi, 60-6.

Orientirungsblatter fir Teichwirthe und Fischziichter.

1. Die naturliche Nahrung der jungen Wildfische in Binnenseen.

2. Verschiedene Mittheilung tiber das Plankton unserer Seen

und Teiche.

Plén, 8°, 12 pp, and 16 pp.

Forschungsberichte aus der Biologischen Station zu Plon.

Theil 4. Berlin. 290 pp. litaf. 45 fig. 1 karte.

Quantitative Unterschungen tiber das Limnoplankton nebst An-

leitung zur Vornahme von Zahlungen und Volumenmessu ngen.

Berlin. 64 pp. From Forsch-ber. Biol. Stn. Plon, iv, 1-64.

Rev. Z.C., iii, 445-7.

Ergebnisse einer biologischen Excursion an die Hochseen des

Riesengebirges.

Forsch-ber. Biol. Stn. Plon, iv, 65-87.

Monatsmittel der Plankton-Volumina.

B. C., xvi, 803-6.

Abst. Z. C., iv, 52.

Forschungsberichte aus der Biologischen Station zu Plon.

Theil 5. Stuttgart. 180 pp. 4taf. 1 tab.

Neue Beitrage zur Kenntniss des Siisswasserplanktons.

Forsch-ber. Biol. Stn. Plon, v, 1-9. 1 taf.

Description of new limnetic species.

Biologische Beobachtungen an den Versuchsteichen des

Schlesischen Fischereivereins zu Trachenberg.

Forsch-ber. Biol. Stn. Plén, v, 10-28,

Zur Mikrofauna der Sandforter Teiche.

Forsch-ber. Biol. Stn. Plén, v, 112-4. 1 text fig.

List of forms from fish ponds; ef. Lemmermann, 97.

Leipziger Plankton.

Zeit. f. angew. Mikr., iii, 141-6.

Das Heleoplankton.

Z. A., XXi, 24-32; Rev. Z. C., v, 160-1

Das Potamoplankton.

ZA xxi. 41-8; Reyi Z.C., Vv; 161.

Forschungsberichte aus der Biologischen Station zu Plén.

Theil 6. Abt.1, Stuttgart. 87 pp. 3 pl.

Rev. B. C., xviii, 299-301.

Summarischer Bericht tiber die Ergebnisse meiner Riesenge-

birgsexcursion von 1896.

Forsch-ber. Biol. Stn. Plén, vi, 1-8; Rev. Z. C., v, 358.

Forschungsberichte aus der Biologischen Station zu Plon.

Theil 6. Abt. 2, 87-219. 2taf. 1 karte.

Rey. B. C., xviii, 718-20.

302 HENRY B. WARD:

98e. Untersuchungen tiber das Plankton der Teichgewasser.

Forsch-ber. Biol. Stn. Plén, vi, 89-139. 1 taf.

Rev. Z. C., v, 488-9.

98f. Ueber einige interessante Funde im Plankton sachsischer

Fischteiche.

B. C., xviii, 714-8.

98g. Ueber die mikroskopische Fauna und Flora eines im Freien

stehenden Taufbeckens.

Z. A., xxi, 670-3."

ZACHARIAS AND LEMMERMANN.

96. Ergebnisse einer biologischen Excursion an die Hochseen und

Moorgewasser des Riesengebirges.

Berlin. 80 pp. 26 fig. 1 pl. (From Forsch-ber. Biol. Stn. Plén, iv).

Rev. Z. C., iii, 425-6.

ZEPPELIN, E. VON.

95. Les observations du Dr. Hofer sur le Plancton dans le lace de

Constance.

Arch. sci. phys. et nat. Genéve, 3, xxxiv, 458-60.

Rev. Z. C., iii, 315.

ZIMMER, C.

98. Ueber tierisches Potamoplankton.

B. C., xviii, 522-4; Rev. Z. C., v, 605; J. R. M. S., 98, 528.

ZoGRAF, N.

95. An Attempt to Explain the Origin of the Fauna of Lakes in

European Russia. (Russian).

Bull. Ac. Imp. St. Pet., iii, 2. 19 pp. 1 map.

96. Essai d’explication de l’origine de la faune des lacs de la Russie

d’ Europe, (Communication preliminaire).

C. R. II. Cong. Int. Zool. Leyde, 183-95. Rev. Z. C., iii. 581-3.

97. What the Hydrobiologic Station on Lake Glubokoe (Deep Lake)

Has Done and Ought todo. (Russian).

Arb. Ichth. Sect. K. Russ. Acclim. Ges., ii, 202-6. 1 pl.

Rev. Z. C.. iv, 480-2.

ZSCHOKEE, F.

94. Die Tierwelt der Juraseen,

Rev. Suisse Zool., ii, 849-76. 1 Taf.

Rev. Z. C., i, 737-8 (= Zschokke, 94a); J. R. M. S., 95, 42.

94a. Neuere Arbeiten iiber die Tierwelt des siissen Wassers.

Z. C., i, 733-8.

95. Die Fauna hochgelegener Gebirgseen (with appendix by

Stingelin).

Verh. Naturf. Ges. Basel, xi, 36-133. 1 pl.

Rev. Z. C., ii, 99-102: B. C.,. xv, 506-17 (= Imhof, 95, q. v.).

95a. Die biologische Station zu Plén nach den Forschungsberichten.

Teil 2u. 3. B. C., xv, 408-15.

97. Fauna Helvetica. Seenfauna. .

Bibl. schweiz. Landeskunde, iv, 6, 24 pp. Rev. Z. C., v, 3538-4.

Including references to all forms except insects, from 1680-1897.

RECENT FRESHWATER INVESTIGATIONS 303

SUMMARY OF PROGRESS.

Among the general works treating of freshwater subjects

the limnologic monograph of Forel easily deserves the foremost

place, both by virtue of the breadth of its scope and by reason

of the completeness and precision of its treatment. Planned to

cover the entire field for a single lake, Geneva in Switzerland,

the work is worthy of the magnificent sheet of water with

which it deals. It is truly monographic and an indispensable

aid to every limnologic enterprise. Thus far but two volumnes

have appeared, the first of which (Forel, 92) falls really just

without the time limits of this review, yet for completeness

callsfor mention here. It first deals with the apparatus employed

and the plan of the entire work, and then covers the sections

on I Geography, Il Hydrography, depth, shore, bottom, ILI

Geology, IV Climatology, V Hydrology, sources, outflow,

level. The second volume (Forel, 95) handles sections VI

Hydraulics, current, movements, sezches, waves, VII Thermics,

VIII Optics, transparancy, color, mirages, [X Acoustics, X

Chemics, density, odor and value as drinking water.

The American student possesses in Russell (95) a valuable

discussion of the geologic and physiographic features of North

American lakes and lake systems. Lampert (98) has given a

semi-popular yet thorough and accurate presentation of life in

fresh-water. The larger part of the work is devoted to a sys-

tematic and biologic description of the genera which occur in

the German waters, but there are also important chapters on

the history of freshwater investigation and on general limno-

logic questions. Apstein has published (96) a convenient and

valuable work on the freshwater plankton which presents the ex-

tensive investigations of the author on Holstein lakes in compar-

ison with the results achieved by other workers elsewhere. The

details of the work are referred to under special topics later in

this article. Klunziger (97) has given an admirable review of

the methods and results of plankton work, with special refer-

ence to the problems of fish culture, and Field (98a) has pre-

sented a concise study of the same question.

304 HENRY B. WARD:

But few bibilographies bearing upon the subject of fresh-

water investigations have yet been published. That of Dolley

(96) is most largely marine, while those of Apstein (96) and

Field (98a) are exclusively confined to plankton studies. Others

treating of single genera or groups occur in systematic papers

on these forms.

The work of Mez (98) is rather of a technical character for

use in water analysis and treats of Protozoa alone among ani-

mal forms, discussing particularly their relation to the quality

of the water and their dependence upon its physical and chem-

ical character. American students are awaiting eagerly a

somewhat similar work by Whipple, which is already an-

nounced.

Stokes (96) is a convenient summary, largely taxonomic, of

freshwater genera; it contains, however, data on apparatus for

collecting and notes of a biological character.

In the line of apparatus for special work on limnetic ques-

tions much has been done and yet mostly in the direction of

adapting that used in marine investigations to the conditions

in fresh water. A recent and comprehensive discussion of the

former may be found in Hensen (95), whose assistant, Apstein,

was the first to apply the same methods to freshwater studies;

the latter has given (96) an extended account of the forms of

- apparatus used in his plankton investigations and somewhat

generally applied by others also. Forel (92, 95) mentions

numerous pieces of apparatus used in physical, chemical and

metereological studies on Lake Geneva. Here also Ule (94).

Fric and Vavra’s account (94) includes figures of many kinds

of smaller collecting appliances, and Klunziger (97) refers in a

general way to plankton apparatus. R. H. Ward (95) speaks

of the advantages of the Birge net, particularly in shore col-

lecting and among marsh plants.

Of new physical apparatus, the thermophone invented by

Warren and Whipple (95, 95a; cf. also Whipple, 95) is un-

doubtedly the best instrument yet devised for recording water

temperatures. See Linsbauer (95) for a method of determining

the amount of light at a given depth.

RECENT FRESHWATER INVESTIGATIONS 3805

The vertical net, planned by Hensen and first used by

Apstein in fresh water, is described by the latter (96). Some

improvoments in detail were made by Reighard (94a) and by

Kofoid (97) while the latter adapts the vertical net by an in-

genious arrangement to oblique hauls in shallow water. In a

later paper (98a) he gives a careful account of the best method

for the construction of the vertical net. Vertical closable nets

worked by sliding weights are described by Birge (97a) and

Marsh (97), and a horizontal net which can be opened and

closed by a cord by Lakowitz (96). The former are prompt

and accurate in action and may be used at any depth, having

been tested up to 1380 m., while the latter is apparently cum-

bersome, if not uncertain in action, and on the authority of the

author can be made use of only up to 20 m. in depth. As to

the material, fine silk gauze, of which such nets are constructed,

Frenzel (972) makes some criticisms regarding its inconstancy;

since while a single haul does not usually close the pores to a

noticeable extent there are exceptions, and furthermore con-

tinued use is sure to modify its filtering capacity, thereby falsi-

fying all calculations. The pores are closed by accumulated

detritus, not by diatoms or other small planktonts. The net

should be vigorously washed and wrung out each time to clean

out the pores. Hensen (97) questions these statements regarding

clogging and objects to such drastic treatment in cleaning the

net. Recently Kofoid (97a) has attacked the accuracy of

results obtained by the vertical net on the opposite basis: that

it allows the escape of too many organisms since ‘‘the silk

retains from 5 per cent. to less than 0.1 per cent of the total

number of organisms present excluding bacteria, as contrasted

with the catch of the Berkefeld filter;”’ volumetrically the catch

equals from one-half to only one forty-fifth of the amount

actually present in the water. Reighard (98) calls attention to

the fact. that the larger size of the nets used by some observers

makes clogging a less important factor than in studying silt-

laden waters with a small net. Shrinkage being largely if not

entirely eliminated by previous treatment of the net, leakage is

306 HENRY B. WARD:

the only uncertain factor, and since the organisms which escape

thus are the smallest, their volumetric importance may be

slight; but they must be investigated numerically by other

methods as the numerical estimations made from catches of

the vertical net are evidently most open to question.

As the vertical net does not collect all the material in the

column of water through which it passes, various means have

been adopted to ascertain the portion of water actually strained

or the coefficient of the net. Hensen’s earlier, extremely com-

plicated method was pointed out by Reighard (94a) and Ward

(96b) to be open to question, and the former proposed an experi-

mental method (94b) for precise determination of the efficiency of

the net. Hensen (95) advocates the use of a tin plate covering the

mouth of the net except a small opening in the center. By

counting the number of individuals of a well marked species

caught under these conditions and comparing with the number

caught by the full opening of the net, its coefficient may easily

be obtained. The method, however, evidently affords more

opportunity for error than that proposed by Birge (97a) who fil-

tered the entire column of water in a tin cylinder having the di-

ameter of the net opening in order to ascertain the coefiicient of

the net. This was found to be about two, and the difference

between maximum and minimum hauls of the net was no

greater than that shown by the column of water in the cylinder

at sucessive tests.

For Crustacea alone Birge found that the clogging of the net

in an 18 m. haul did not markedly affect its coefficient over

that employed for the 3 m. haul until after the rapid increase

of the phytoplankton in July. For the short haul the clogging

made at no time any visible alteration in the coefficient which

in the opinion of Birge is furthermore one of the most constant

factors, and quite as accurately determined as any other. How-

ever, Frenzel (97a) is inclined to think the coefficient decidedly

variable. Kofoid (97a) ascertained the coefficient of the net

in use at the Illinois station, according to the original method

of Hensen, to be 1.32; experimentally it was shown to vary

RECENT FRESHWATER INVESTIGATIONS 307

from 1.5 to 5.7, where the greatest variation is largely due to

the clogging of the net by heavy plankton hauls. MReighard

(98) proposed to eliminate all of the difficulties connected with

clogging, shrinkage and net coefficient at once by measuring

the volume of water that actually passes through the net in

each haul. To this end a small current meter is to be placed

in the mouth of the net and the volume calculated from the

rate of the current passing through the opening. Experiments

in this direction are now in progress.

As a substitute for the vertical net in obtaining the plankton

from a certain quantity of water, several investigators experi-

mented almost simultaneously with a plankton pump, so con-

structed that a definite amount of water is delivered by a single

stroke, the depth from which it comes being regulated by the

position of the mouth of the attached hose. The greatest diff-

culty which presents itself is the proper filtration of the water

discharged from the pump. The advantages urged in its favor

are (Kofoid, 97) greater accuracy in determining the volume

strained, the wide applicability of the method in shallow water,

in currents, under ice, amid vegetation, for water very rich or

very poor in plankton, and the rapidity of the process. The

pump used by Kofoid was very large. Frenzel (97) who

advances much the same arguments in favor of this apparatus,

which he used with particular success in obtaining plankton

under the ice, gives no particulars regarding his pump. For-

dyce (98) describes a pump which is easily portable and can be

used with advantage in small bodies of water.

A centrifugal apparatus has been used with success by Juday

and Kofoid (97) on preserved material in the measurement of

plankton volumes. Dolley (96) has employed a larger form,

called by him the planktonokrit, in the precipitation and

measurement of living plankton. This machine has been

used by Field (98) who later (98a) maintains its great superior-

ity for volumetric estimation over all other methods yet dis-

covered. Jackson (96, 98) found, however, that while good

results were obtained with Infusoria and Rotatoria, the reverse

308 HENRY B. WARD:

was true if Cyanophyceae were present, as these are not

thoroughly precipitated owing to low specific gravity. The

material is also matted together, preventing equal distribution

on the slide if numerical estimation is to be employed. Kofoid

(97a) emphasizes the selective error of the centrifuge on living

plankton.

In microscopical water analysis for technical purposes the

Sedgwick-Rafter method almost universally employed has been

subject to modification in detail by Jackson (96, 98), while

Whipple (96) has analyzed most clearly the various errors of

the method and the value of each. The same author has also

(97) planned a simple form of apparatus for water analysis.

Leeds gives a valuable discussion and summary of these

methods.

In the filtration of plankton organisms Kofoid (97a) found

that the sand filter retained only 40 to 65 per cent of the num-

ber of organisms present and advocated as more satisfactory and

precise the Berkefeld filter. Reighard (98) objects to the con-

tamination of the plankton resulting from the use of the latter,

and Jackson (98) considers that the slow rate of filtration

makes its use entirely unpractical.

For the manipulations connected with the enumeration of

individuals in plankton hauls various minor pieces of apparatus

have been suggested; only the more important need be noticed

here. Whipple (94b) advised the employment of an ocular with

a field suitably ruled, and Zacharias (96a) introduced an ocular

of large field with an iris diaphragm. As the enumeration of

organisms recorded without reference to size and character is

extremely misleading, Whipple (94b) proposed a standard unit

of size, 20x20 microns, as a means of correcting the error.

Tables for common organisms and an ocular with ruled field

assist in the computation. Comparison of lines platted to show

the numerical and areal values of the organisms in a haul with

the albuminoid ammonia curve forthe same demonstrate the

much closer correspondence of the areal estimation with the

amount of organic substance present. By the use of logarith-

RECENT FRESHWATER INVESTIGATIONS 309

mically ruled paper Scourfield (97a) was able to represent

extreme ranges in number of organisms while at the same time

proportionate changes in number are indicated by lines having

the same angle of slope in whatever part of the chart they may

be situated.

The freshwater stations of the world have not all been

founded within the last five years. Yet only the Swiss and

Bohemian stations can be said really to antedate this, and even

then much of their important work comes within this period.

As to what constitutes a ‘‘station’? and what each has accom-

plished I have spoken in another place,* and shall refer here

only briefly to such articles concerning the origin, manage-

ment and functions of those formal enterprises as would not

easily be included under other headings. A general account of

such institutions is given by Lampert (98), and for America by

Kofoid (98b). Scourfield’s appeal (96, 97) for the foundation

of a British station, and Fric’s presentation (97) of Europe’s

example contrast well the position of the two countries in this

movement.

The oldest definite station in Europe, the Bohemian, is

described in Fric and Vavra (94, 97). The Plon station and

its opportunities are set forth in Klunziger (96), Zacharias

(93, 94, et alia), Zschokke (95a). Other German stations are

noted by Woltersdorff (96), Frenzel (95). In Hungary, Entz

(97), and in Russia Zograf (97) record similar enterprises. In

Italy Garbini’s long and successful investigations on Lake

Garda entitle that station to a high rank. In North America

work on the Great Lakes is recorded by Reighard (93), on

Lake Mendota by Birge (95, 97), on Gull Lake, Minn., by

McMillan (93), Nachtrieb (94), Zacharias (94b), and on Turkey

Lake by Eigenmann (95). The work of the Illinois station at Ha-

vana, the most extensive American enterprise of this character

thus far, is fully set forth in the reports of the director (Forbes,

94, 97) which are inspiring appeals to limnobiologic investiga-

tion. Other references to this station are Kofoid (96a), Ross (97b)

* Science, n. 8., ix, 497-508.

310 HENRY B. WARD:

Zacharias (94g). The technical station of the Boston water

works is well described by Whipple (97b) who sets forth clearly

the importance of such an enterprise in its relation to the

water supply of a great city.

Last year the United States Fish Commission made a pre-

liminary survey of the region about Put-in-Bay, Lake Erie,

with reference to the fitness of this point for an experiment

station in connection with the government fish hatchery. The

work will be continued the coming summer (H. M. Smith, 98.)

The necessity for an aquacultural experiment station, the

right of such a foundation to governmental support, its proper

location and function and allied questions are discussed by

Ward (98a). Zacharias (95g) believes that a wandering lacus-

trine station is of secondary importance; some evidence to the

contrary could be found in the work of Fric and Vavra (94,

97), Reighard (94), Ward (96b).

The temperature conditions of freshwater lakes were dis-

cussed by Fitz Gerald (95). In temperate climates, deep lakes

show a winter curve running from O° C at the surface to 4° C

at the bottom, while the summer curve is reversed, extending

from 24° C at the top to 7°-10° C at the bottom. Whipple

(95a) shows that a temperature difference of 3° C prevents wind

from maintaining circulation and the lower region remains

stagnant until the fall overturning mixes the water of the lake.

Birge (97a) made a most careful study of the temperature con-

ditions and variations in Lake Mendota. The warming of the

water in the spring is gradual and uniform until the difference

between top and bottom is 7°-8°C. Then gentle winds with high

temperature lead to the formation of a mass of warm water

on the surface so thick that however the wind may blow there is

always a warm stratum floating on the colder water. Immediately

below the warm water is a layer a meter or less in thickness in

which the temperature falls very rapidly; this layer Birge

names the thermocline. Below it the temperature falls gradu-

ally to the bottom of the lake. Once formed, late in June, at

about eight meters of depth, it moves downward slowly and

RECENT FRESHWATER INVESTIGATIONS oe

irregularly, depending upon the action of the wind, and

reaching the bottom asa result of the late September gales,

diseppears. These conditions are of extreme biological im-

portance since below the thermocline the water is stagnant

during the entire summer and becomes’ unfit to support most

forms of animal life. The sub-thermoclinal water is reported

by Whipple (95a) and others to be malodorous, deficient in

oxygen and rich in the products of decay. Its overturning is

the occasion of a rapid increase in the diatoms of the plankton.

Whipple (98) distinguishes three types of lakes, polar, tem-

perate and tropical, according to the surface temperature,

which in lakes of the first type is never above that of max-

imum density (4° C), in those of the tropical type never below

that point, and in lakes of the temperate type sometimes above

and sometimes below it. He also designates three orders of

lakes on the basis of the bottom temperature, which in those of

the first order is practically constant at or near the point of

maximum density; in those of the second order the bottom

temperature fiuctuates but never very far from the same point

while in lakes of the third order the bottom temperature rarely

varies from that of th> surface. With regards to periods of

circulation which are so important for the development and

distribution of the plankton, he says: ‘‘ Speaking in very gen-

eral terms, we may s:y that lakes of the first order have no

circulation; lakes of the third order no stagnation (except in

winter); and lakes of the second order have both circulation

and stagnation.” According to Birge (98) the thickness of the

surface stratum of warm water depends on the wind, the ex-

posure of the lake, and among those similarly located in these

particulars, upon the area of the lake, being less in a lake of

smaller area. The bottom temperature of a small lake is likely

to be lower than one would expect from the depth merely and

that of a large lake higher. Here also Ule (93), Langenbeck

(98) and Dolan.

The amount of oxygen present in various parts of a water

basin and the dissemination of gases through the water is of

312 HENRY B. WARD:

the greatest importance in its bearing on conditions of existence

in a lake. Drown (93) found that in water basins in winter

under the ice there is a deficiency in the amount of oxygen

present, which increases from the surface downward. Insome

reservoirs the bottom water becomes even malodorous and as

poor in quality as during the summer stagnation period. This

was true only of lakes rich in organic material. The careful

and extended investigations of Hoppe-Seyler (96) on Lake

Constance, Switzerland, show a deficit of oxygen in deeper

waters above the calculated amount. The amount present,

however, is still sufficient to satisfy the respiratory needs of

the abyssal animals, even the most sensitive fish, such as trout.

Knauthe (98) maintains that in somewhat turbid waters the

micro-organisms demand more oxygen than fish and larger

forms and in stagnant waters far more than is contributed by

_the atmosphere. In daylight the microscopic green plants

give off oxygen to the water so abundantly that in strong sun-

light the maximum is reached in a few hours. Even moon-

light causes an appreciable increase in the quantity of oxoygen;

but in darkness the amount sinks in five or six hours of sum-

mer temperature to the minimum necessary for the Cyprinidae.

Calkins (93) groups the odors of freshwater into three

classes (1) those of chemical or putrefactive decomposition, (2)

those of growth, i. e., excretory products, and (3) those of

physical disintegration. All evidence points to oil globuies as

the specific cause of those odors grouped under the last two classes.

Certain odors are associated with definite organisms. Jackson

and Ellms (97) were able to add to the evidence concerning

natural odors and the organisms producing them and to dis-

tinguish sharply between the natural odor and that produced

by the decomposition of the same organism. Here also

Whipple (94a).

The geological and physical features of individual lakes have

been studied by Ule (94a) at Plon, Pero (95) in Italy, Large

(97) in Indiana, Wagner (97) in Bohemia, and Lorenz von

Liburnau (98).

Among the articles noted on the phytoplankton Schroter (97)

RECENT FRESHWATER INVESTIGATIONS 313

presents the most general survey of plant life in the water.

He distinguishes by the vegetation three general types of water

basins, swamp, pond and lake; the swamp plants rise with

vegetative organs above and free from the surface of the water.

In the pond true submerged plants are wanting and only sub-

mersed plants with swimming leaves and submersed plants

with emersed leaves are normally present. To the single

plankton organism the term planktont is applied and among

the lake pjants the author differentiates (1) the floating flora, or

phytoplankton with the eulimnetic species of the open water,

the bathy-limnetic forms, half floating, half inhabitants of the

littoral zone, and the tycho-limnetic plants, stray elements of

shore or bottom flora; (2) the swimming flora, pleuston, driven

about on the surface and with organs fitted to an aerial exist-

ence; (3), the bottom flora or phyto-benthos, bound to the sub-

stratum and consisting of flowering plants, Characeae, sessile

algae and mosses, epiphytic and endophytic algae, and fungi

and bacteria. Each individual body of water has its own char-

acteristic flora as is shown by comparison of a series of lakes.

A careful study of the plankton shows numerous adaptations

to the conditions of its existence.

These general principles are repeated and emphasized by

examples in the general part of Schréter and Kirchner (96)

which deals with the flora of Lake Constance based upon about

five years of study. The special discussion of the algal flora

of the lake by the second author includes an account of charac-

teristic features and of the composition of each part of the

flora. There were found in the lake the very large number of

361 separate species. No quantitative investigations were

made on the plankton. Here also Bruyant (94) and Magnin

(95).

Among the Cyanophyceae Strodtmann (95, 95a) and Klebahn

(96, 97) find in the so-called ‘‘red bodies ’’ the cause of float-

ing. So long as these are present in sufficient numbers the

algae swim at the surface, when they are scanty or wanting

the algae sink slowly or rapidly to the bottom. The <‘‘red

314 HENRY B. WARD:

bodies ”’ are actually gas vacuoles in the protoplasm, present in

all the plankton Cyanophyceae, but entirely wanting in the

fixed forms.

On the diatoms of the plankton Zacharias (95h) gives statis-

tical records from the enumeration of plankton hauis during

the year showing the number found at different seasons and

the maxima and minima of various species. Whipple (94)

notes the effect of the fall overturning of the water in producing

a maximum of diatom development by the distribution of an

abundant food supply from the stagnant substratum of the

water. In a later paper (96a) are recorded more detailed obser-

vations on the effect produced by other causes. The maximum

of diatom growth is shown experimentally to be just below the

surface of the lake, to be greater in light-colored water and to

vary in close correspondence to the variation in the intensity of

the light. Apparently the diatoms possess no power to move

upward toward the light but are carried upward by convection

currents in the water. Such conditions prevail particularly in

the fall circulation period. Pero has studied very carefully

the distribution of the diatoms in the lakes of a single canton

in the Alps.

The ‘‘ water bloom” has been studied by Klebahn (96) who

finds that thirteen different species may give rise to the phe-

nomenon. According to Strodtmann (98) it is only indirectly

the cause of actual damage, varying in amount under different

conditions, and is of direct value as food, particularly to the

Cladocera and Copepoda which are so important as fish food.

Here also Richter (94) and Thomas (97). Seligo (97) dis-

cusses the damage done by the introduced /lodea canadensis

and believes it probably overdrawn. After considering its re-

lation to the general biology of the water, the author empha-

sizes the small value of the shore plants in the food relations

of freshwater and yet on the other hand the known greater

abundance of fish where such plants are found.

For Plon and other lakes in Holstein, Klebahn (95) describes

the aquatic vegetation, the regions into which it may be di-

RECENT FRESHWATER INVESTIGATIONS 315

vided and the forms in each. Here also Lemmermann (95,

96a). Lemmermnan (96), Miiller (98) and Schréder (98) report

on the flora of the lakes in the Riesengebirge, and the latter

undertakes to distinguish the formations of the freshwater

algae, as limnophilous, potamophilous, sphagnophilous creno-

philous, geophilous, lithophilous and _ kryophilous, giving

faunal data regarding each. Concerning other local floras

there is noted the report of Pieters (94) on that of Lake St.

Clair, Thompson (96) on Lake Michigan and Whipple, Jelliffe

and others on the flora of city water supplies in this country.

On the flora of ponds used for fish culture Lemmermann (97 )

and Schroder (97) have made some investigations. The

former reaches certain preliminary conclusions as to the eco-

nomic worth in such ponds of different forms of vegetation.

The freshwater fauna may be considered from two main

standpoints which indicate thus principal subdivisions of the

subject. One may investigate the forms of which it is consti-

tuted or the location in which these forms are found, discussing

accordingly first their composition and second their distribution.

Regarding the composition of the freshwater fauna it may

be said that nearly every paper listed in the bibliography con-

tributes some notes of importance. Under this heading, how-

ever, it is the intention to bring together briefly only those

which for one reason or another lay particular emphasis on

this feature, dealing with taxonomic groups of various size in

their faunal relations. As noted previously the bibliography

makes no claim to completeness on extra-plankton topics. Its

shortcomings are undoubtedly most noticeable under the present

heading. Greater attention has naturally been devoted to con-

tributions treating of North American forms while literature on

freshwater vertebrates has been entirely omitted, and that on

insects almost wholly.

On Protozoa Blochmann presents a very satisfactory general

summary. Schewiakoff (93a) isthe most important contribution

on the group within the limits of this review. In Europe Le-

vander (94a), Entz (96), Francé (97), deal with the protozoan

316 HENRY B. WARD:

fauna of a single region; similarly F. Smith, Kofoid (96) J.C.

Smith and Hempel in this country. Here also Garbini (94a),

Butschinsky. Among papers dealing with one or more subdi-

visions of the group may be noted Schaudinn, Frenzel (97b), _

Schewiakoff (93), Seligo (93), Svec and Francé (97a). On the

Porifera Weltner (95), Hanitsch and Vangel (97).

Fuhrmann (94), Borelli, Szigethy, Vejdovsky, Volz and

Woodworth have contributed to a knowledge of the Turbel-

laria, while Bohmig and Montgomery deal with the Nemer-

tines. The results of Daday’s work (97a), on Balaton Nema-

todes make one wonder whether these free living forms have

not been much neglected heretofore.

On the Rotatoria, a most important plankton group, there

has appeared the recent valuable memoir of Weber. Wierzejski

(98), Levander (94b) and Daday (97b) have contributed to a

knowledge of the group in Europe, and Kellicott, Jennings and

Hempel in the United States. Here also Eckstein, Garbini

(95a), Kertész and Hood. Imhof (95a) and Walker treat of the

Mollusca in connection with freshwater investigations. Call dis-

cusses the relation of the molluscan fauna to different hydro-

graphic basins in a region belonging to several drainage areas.

The splendid monograph of Piersig and the papers of

Koenike, Daday (97d) and Wolcott (98), together with briefer

articles by Soar and Nordenskiéld comprise the studies on

Hydrachnids listed. On the entomology of a freshwater body

the work of Hart easily takes the first place; articles by Klap-

alek, Wolcott (94), and Garbini (95d) are also noted.

Among the articles on the Crustacea, those of Garbini (95c)

and Wierzejski (95) are general intheir scope. The Entomos-

traca have been studied by a host of investigators, among whom

may be noted Daday, de Guerne, Herrick, Mraizek, Poppe,

Richard, Rizzardi, Sars, Scott, Scourfield, Steuer, Turner,

Viavra and Wesenberg-Lund. On the Ostracoda particularly

are noted the works of Brady and Norman, Vavra, and in this

country Turner and Sharpe.

The magnificent monograph of Schmeil on the Copepoda

RECENT FRESHWATER INVESTIGATIONS 317

deserves prominent notice. Valuable articles on the group

are Mrazek, Marsh (95), E. B. Forbes, Schacht and Brewer

On the Cladocera the revision of Richard (94, 96) is a model

of completeness and accuracy. Birge (93, 94), Ross (96),

_ Turner (93) in this country, and Stenroos (95, 97), Stingelin

(95), Weltner (96) in Europe, have contributed to a study of

the same group. On ail of the plankton crustaceans much

emphasis has been laid and in most of the articles noted

under the head of distribution may be found important tax-

onomic notes on these groups.

The distribution of freshwater life may be regarded from

the standpoint of the single body of water or through a com-

parative view of different bodies of water. In the latter case

one may consider those bodies which are within a giyen geo-

graphic area, or those which are associated in character. Ac-

cordingly it is permissible to speak of the geographic, the hydro-

graphic and the areal distribution of freshwater organisms. In

considering first the geographic distribution of freshwater ani-

mals, regions are designated by ordinary geographic terms since

a basis for subdivisions into faunal regions has not yet been

worked out save in Russia by Zograf. Of general value on

the geographic distribution of freshwater animals is the work

of Schewiakoff (93a) on the Protozoa which seems to indicate a

cosmopolitan distribution for these forms. Frenzel (97b)

doubts this on the basis of studies in South America, since of

88 species found in Argentina, 44 are new. The accuracy of

these studies has, however, been questioned.

Observations on Australian forms are reported by Chilton

and Sars, from the Pacific Islands (Samoa) by Kramer, from

Sumatra by Richard (94c) and from Ceylon by Poppe (95b) and

Daday (98). From eastern Asia Richard (94b) is the only

record of the freshwater fauna noted. From Asia Minor

Barrois (94) and Richard (95, 96c) complete the list.

Northern Africa is touched upon in Barrois (93) and Rich-

ard (93). German East Africa has a well planned biological

survey of governmental character in progress. Reports touch-

318 HENRY B. WARD:

ing upon this topic are Mrazek (95), Weltner (96) and Vavra

(97). Poppe and Mrazek (95) treat of nearly the same terri-

tory and Weber (97) deals with African faunal regions based

on a study of the fishes, decapod crustaceans and mollusks.

The work of Moore in Central Africa is considered under the

fauna relicta. Concerning island faunas Barrois (96) and

Richard (96b) report from the Azores and Richard (98) from

the Canaries. The species are mostly cosmopolitan or known

from adjacent portions of Africa and Europe.

Single brief reports characterize also our knowledge of the

South American freshwater fauna, from the west Borelli, from

the east Dahl, Ihering, Frenzel (97b) and Richard (97b), and

from the south Vavra (98), with a single note on South Georgia

from Poppe and Mrazek (95a).

In Europe extreme northern points are noted in Richard

(98a), Scourfield (97b) and Wesenberg-Lund (94). _Lauterborn

(94a) on the fauna of Helgoland, Scott and Duthie on that of

the Shetland Islands, Scott on Scotland, Western, Scourfield

and, Soar on England and Wales, and Hanitsch and Hood on

Ireland, record the advance in knowledge from these regions.

From Norway, Wille and Huitfeldt-Kaas, and from Finland,

Levander, Nordenskiéld and Stenroos are noted.

From Germany, Schmeil, Piersig, Lampert (98) and Apstein

(96) are of general import; more limited in area is the work of

Zacharias, Apstein (93) and others from Holstein; Hartwig,

Frenzel and others from Central Germany; Lauterborn from

the Rhine; Lameere from Belgium; Klapalek, Svec, and Fric

and Vivyra from Bohemia; Jaworowski and Wierzejski (93,

95) from Galicia; Daday, Entz, Francé, Vangel, and others

from Hungary; Schmeil (93a, 94), Lorenzi, Steuer and Richard

(96a) from the eastern Alps, and Vavra (93) and Richard (97)

from Bulgaria and Albania. The Russian articles, probably

exceedingly incompletely recorded, are Zograf (96) and Butsch-

insky (96).

No region has been more carefully studied than Switzerland

and the Alps. The work of Imhof (95a) and especially of

RECENT FRESHWATER INVESTIGATIONS 319

Zschokke (95) and of his students and associates Stingelin,

Fuhrmann and others, is of great value. On the northern

slope of the mountains Hofer, Heuscher and Steck, toward

the west and south and in the Jura Forel, Blanc, Pitard,

Studer, Weber, de Guerne et Richard, Blanchard et Richard

and Pugnat. On the south of the Alpine chain, Garbini, Pero,

Fuhrmann (95), Klunzinger (97a), Wagner (97a); in Italy, Riz-

zardi and Garbini, and in Portugal, Nobre and de Guerne et

Richard (96) are among those noted in the list.

On this continent the work of E. B. Forbes, Herrick and

Turner, Schacht, Sharpe, Turner (94) and Wolcott (98) is

general in extent. On the freshwater fauna of Canada are

noted Koenike and Ross (97); on that of the Atlantic coast

region Montgomery, Calkins, Whipple, and others; on that of

the Great Lakes and contiguous territory, Birge, Jennings,

Kellicott, Kofoid (96), Marsh, Reighard, F. Smith, Walker,

Ward (94, 96a), Wolcott (94) and Woodworth (96); on the

freshwater fauna of the central region Eigenmann, Hart,

Hempel, Kofoid (96b, 98), Woodworth (97), and others;

further south Herrick (95), Turner (94) and Seurat; on the

plains toward the west Brewer and Ward (98); in the mountains

S. A. Forbes (93), and on the island of Hayti, Richard (95a)

record the work of the period under consideration.

Viewed from the hydrographic standpoint, freshwater or-

ganisms may be discussed with reference to the particular envi-

ronments which each type of water basin affords; one may

distinguish roughly the brook, river, swamp, pond and lake as

types of environment. These have been very unequally studied

as accords with the difficulty and probable results of the inves-

tigation. Stockmayer (94) has given a brief summary of the

general biologic aspect of the life of the brook, or in fact of

water in general, and of the problems to be solved by a station

located in a region rich in brooks; such a station is certainly a

great desideratum in freshwater work. No record appears of

work done on such a body of water.

The importance of studies on a river have been emphasized

320 HENRY B. WARD:

by Forbes (94, 97) and the particular problems with which one

has to deal in such a location. Under the direction of the

same investigator there has been opened on the Illinois River

a station which is devoted primarily to the problems of a river

system. Some of the results are given in the papers of Hart,

Hempel and Kofoid. Lauterborn (93, 94) and others have

done some work on the fauna of a river, and recently the topic

has received more attention. Schréder (97a, 98a) finds in rivers

the phytoplankton much in excess, the diatoms constituting the

ruling forms. Jn shallow ponds with not too strong an inflow

the zooplankton is far richer than in streams where it decreases

with increasing current. Zacharias (98a) shows that the potamo-

plankton is formed in plant-grown bays on the river shore, and

multiplies perhaps in slow-flowing streams. Zimmer (98) finds

that the character of the potamoplankton varies with the hight

of the water. He distinguishes (1) autopotamic forms which

find their conditions of existence only in flowing water. These

include at most very few animals. (2) Eupotamic forms, living

either in standing or flowing water, including most species of

the river plankton. (8) Tychopotamic forms, torn by chance

from quiet waters in which they live normally, and finding no

possibility of reproduction in the current. The potamoplank-

ton is very poor both in species and individuals as compared

with the limnoplankton. The Rotatoria constitute its chief

element, adult Crustacea are rare, and only one protozoon has

been observed. It is interesting to note that in a lake of the

Jura, Zschokke (94) records that the variations of level and the

strong current give it partly the character of a river. Here

the littoral zone is almost barren but the limnetic fauna rich

in species though poor in number of individuals.

No specific report is on record during this period concerning

the investigation of a swamp. The closest resemblance to

such conditions are presented by Lake Nurmijarvi (Stenroos,

98) which possesses in fact a maximum depth of one meter.

Here could be distinguished nevertheless the characteristic re-

gions of the pond or lake fauna. The extreme richness of such

RECENT FRESHWATER INVESTIGATIONS 321

shallow bodies of water is indicated by a total of 460 species

recorded from this lake. The paper contains most valuable

observations on the characteristic fauna in each floristic region

and on its structural and ecological peculiarities. Zacharias (98)

calls the floating fauna of shallow natural or artificial water

basins the Aeleoplankton and has studied it from a number of

places. The majority of limnetic forms recur here and certain

Rotifera rare or lacking in lakes are found in such basins.

Characteristic is also the abundant development of the micro-

phyta and of the Ceriodaphniae. Here also Bigney and Pitard

(97a). Fric and Vavra (94) treat of two ponds, of somewhat dif-

ferent character, and give a complete and clear picture of pond

life, and the changes it undergoes. Here also Ward (98). The

characters of a pond are precisely stated by Zacharias (98) who

has found in such water basins almost all the eulimnetic organ-

isms of true lakes. The Rotatoria are more numerous, and in

the phytoplankton the desmids are the chief fa+tor.

On the fauna of a lake many investigations have been made

within the past five years, and the profitless preparation of

mere faunal lists seems fortunately to have passed its maximum

since an increasing number of the later papers has considered

not merely the composition of the freshwater fauna or of one

of its groups, in the region studied, but also the biological re-

lations and the origin of the fauna. Among the large number

of lacustrine investigations of all degrees of completeness, only

the more extensive can be mentioned in this connection. The

monographic work of Forel on Laka Geneva, Switzerland, has

already been sufficiently characterized. Lake Ploén, Holstein,

has also been extensively studied by Zacharias and his coad-

jutors. Garbini’s careful investigations on Lake Garda, Italy,

and those of Entz and his confréres on Lake Balaton, Hungary,

are also deserving of prominent mention. Schwarzsee, Bohe-

mia, under Fric, Miigglesee, Germany, under Frenzel, and

numerous other individual lakes in Europe have been subjected

to careful investigation with valuable results. In North

America Reighard has studied Lake St. Clair, Eigenmann

Turkey Lake and Ward the northern portion of Lake Michigan

322 HENRY B. WARD:

in conjunction with numerous colaborers. Birge has devoted

himself singly to Lake Mendota and Marsh to Green Lake.

Other investigators have turned their attention toward a

series of lakes or a given type of lake rather than toward

a single body of water. Thus Apstein (94) has achieved

valuable results from the study of Holstein lakes, Pero

has devoted himself to Swiss lakes in a single can-

ton and Hartwig to those of Brandenburg. But the

most s-riking instance of this specialization is Zschokke

whose investigations on elevated lakes have established so

clearly the biological features of such locations that subsequent

studies have added only details to the general picture he has

painted. The results of this autnor are summarized in a final

paper (95) which presents further a comparison of the author’s

work with that already achieved in other regions. This paper

includes a careful study of two lake regions in the Alps, a

group of small sub-nival bodies of water in the Rhaeticon chain

and numerous lakes of Wallis near St. Bernard. Both a littoral

and a limnetic fauna is present and in them most freshwater

groups are represented, though in European nival and subnival

lakes Helizoa, sponges, Bosmina, Isopoda and Decapoda are

wanting and mollusks are scantily represented. The bulk of

the Alpine freshwater fauna consists of resistent cosmopolitan

species which recur in part in lakes of high altitude elsewhere.

To these are added (1) here and there rare forms from the

plains, (2) pure mountain forms often of northern character,

(8) abyssai inhabitants of sub-alpine lakes which find a suitable

environment on the shores of elevated Alpine lakes. The com-

position of the lacustrine fauna varies from piace to place even

within a single mountain chain, but in general unfavorable en-

vironment increases with the altitude. The limit of suitable

environment, i. e. the upper limit of animal life, lies at dit-

ferent altitudes in different mountain ranges, but appears to be

higher in massive ranges than in neighboring chains of lesser

magnitude. The presence of certain forms adapted to the par-

ticular locality and the absence of other species imparts to the

scanty fauna of a mountain lake a decided individuality, often

RECENT FRESHWATER INVESTIGATIONS 323

apparently in strong contrast to that of a neighboring basin.

In an earlier paper (94) Zschokke presented the results of

studies on lakes in the Jura showing a typical mountain char-

acter. Previously de Guerne et Richard (93) had investigated

the limnetic fauna in the same region and (94) in the Pyrenees.

In the Cottian Alps Blanchard et Richard (97) found similar

faunal conditions. Here also Blanc, Pitard, Imhof (93),

Pugnat (97). The varying fauna in adjacent basins is explained

by the last mentioned author on the ground of variation in the ex-

posure and illumination of the water. Studer (93) attributed

the poverty of the limnofauna in the lake of Champex to the

excessive illumination of the shallow water in the absence of

shore and bottom plants. Imhof (95a) investigated the hori-

zontal and vertical distribution of the aquatic mollusca in the

Alps. They are more numerous in the territory of the Rhone

and the Po, and manifest in small and in elevated lakes a rapid

reduction in number. On the southern slope of the Alps Fuhr-

mann (95) finds the fauna of the elevated lakes similar, though

somewhat richer. In the Julian Alps Lorenzi (97) finds a cos-

mopolitan fauna in which the plankton consists of tychopelagic

forms alone. In the Riesengebirge according to Zacharias

(96g, 98c) the limnetic fauna is scanty but similar to that of the

Rhaeticon lakes studied by Zschokke. The species present are

typical cold water forms. The same poverty and cosmopolitan

cast in the fauna is reported by Fric and Vavra (97) who at-

tribute the scanty shore and bottom fauna to the lack of vege-

tation. The disappearance of certain elements in the fauna

can be traced definitely to the introduction of game fish. In

the Tatra lakes, Galicia, Wierzejski (95) found typical Alpine

conditions in the poverty of species in the abundance of cosmo-

politan forms and in the contrast in proximate basins of equal

altitude. The lakes show, however, as Daday (97) remarks,

notable richness of fauna even up to an altitude of 2,000 m.

Here also Richard (96a, 96c). In Syria Barrois (94) found an

unusually rich limnetic fauna of cosmopolitan Entomostraca

and Rotatoria. The Sea of Tiberius, though strongly saline,

has a pure lacustrine fauna.

324 HENRY B. WARD:

One of the earliest investigations on elevated lake regions

and the only one yet made in this country is that of Forbes (93)

in Wyoming and Montana. Noteworthy is the careful study

of the entire environment and its influence on the fauna. In

this Forbes made valuable contributions to the general char-

acter of the fauna of elevated lakes which were utilized by

Zschokke in the paper already noted. Among the features

discussed by Forbes are the extreme poverty of the vertebrate

aquatic fauna, the ruling species being rather Amphipods, leeches

and insect larvee, great rarity of mollusks, the abundance of

Entomostraca, largely cosmopolitan species, and the sharp

contrast of the fauna in adjacent water basins. There exists

a deepwater fauna in many of these lakes, of which something

was ascertained. In general the fauna proved to be richer

than that of lakes at corresponding and even less elevation in

Europe. ‘The infiuence of environment was well shown by

variations in the fauna, such as the abundance of mollusks in

a lake lying within a iime formation and their rarity in all

other elevated waters.

Only one investigator has yet endeavored to group into re-

gions in accordance with their fauna, the lakes of any conti-

nental area. Zograf (96) divides the lakes of Russia into four

regions, based upon the distribution of the fish and crustaceans.

The first region includes the large water basins in the north-

western portion of Russia, the second surrounds the first, the

third includes the lakes of Central Russia and is little known,

and the fourth takes in the steppe lakes bordering upon the

south. Geological evidence supports this general classifica-

tion, the first three being in territory covered by glacial sheets

in different periods and the last constitutes the remains of a

miocene sea covering southern Russia.

In discussing the distribution of the fauna within a single

body of water authors have regularly adopted Forel’s lacus-

trine regions and the majority have also made use of the

terms introduced by Pavesi to designate the plankton organ-

isms as eulimnetic or regular inhabitants of the open lake and

tycholimnetic or chance members of the same region. The

RECENT FRESHWATER INVESTIGATIONS 325

general composition of the plankton may be judged from the

statement of Strodtmann (96) that about 80 organisms occur in

the plankton of Holstein lakes of which, however, less than 40

are usual or important. All authors agree in noting the limited

number of species which are found in the plankton and equally

regarding the extreme abundance of individuals which make

up its volume. These organisms, moreover, are not at all times

the same species but manifest certain variations to be noted

later. Among the species of animals which the plankton

contains the Rotatoria are said to be the most important.

The total amount of plankton taken in the vertical net or

plankton pump and preserved in some suitable fluid is esti-

mated in several ways. (1) After settling in graduated tubes

for twenty-four hours the volume is read off from the tube,

Apstein (94), Reighard (94), Ward (96). Or the volume is

measured in a centrifugal machine, Juday (97). (2) Under

‘ suitable precautions the entire amount is weighed, Fric and

Vavra (94), Zacharias (95, 95b). Or a known quantity of a

haul, measured by the first method, is taken, weighed both

before and after incineration, and the amount of organic

material in the entire haul calculated, Ward (96a). (3) The

organisms in a definite portion of a haul are counted under

suitable precautions and the number of: organisms in the entire

haul calculated therefrom. This method, first used by Hensen

in the ocean, has been applied to freshwater by Apstein (94,

96). Zacharias (94d) employed it in abbreviated form. An-

other simplified form is given by Birge (95a).

There is no known relation between the results obtained by

these different methods and consequently no comparison can

be made between the results obtained by one method and those

obtained by another. Furthermore while the work of one ob-

server at a given time is capable of comparison with that done

at another, it seems perfectly clear that the work done by one

observer can not be directly compared with that done by another

even if the same method is employed. Difficulties in this con-

nection are noted by Kofvid (97), Reighard (98) and others.

326 HENRY B. WARD:

Apstein (94) would divide lakes into two classes, plankton

rich and plankton poor, the first characterized by an abun-

dance of Clathrocystis and absence or rarity of Dinobryon, and

the second by reverse conditions. This classification is ques-

tioned Reighard (94), Zacharias (94) and Strodtmann (96) on

the basis of investigations in other lakes. The total amount

of plankton is believed by Steck (93) to depend on the length

of the shore line, and Reighard (94) also regards this as an im-

portant factor. Many observers have noted that there is in

general proportionally less in a larger than in a smaller lake,

and this has been found by Reighard (94a), Hofer (95), Walter

(95), Zacharias (95b), Strodtmann (96) and others to be capable

of more precise statement in the principle that the amount of

plankton per cubic meter of water varies inversely as the depth.

Other factors affect the development of the plankton, chief

among them being light, (Stenroos, 98), transparency of the

water, (Steck, 93), and temperature, (Zschokke, 95). Walter

(95) emphasizes also the relation between the depth and the

area of the lake.

In Norwegian lakes presenting a great variety of conditions

as to altitude, depth and rapidity of change in water contained

therein, Huitfelt-Kaas was able to show that shallow waters are

especially favorable for the development of the plankton while

deep basins are under otherwise like conditions notably poorer.

This is true only in summer and is probably controlled largely

by temperature conditions. Even more important, however,

is the drainage area of the lake and the proportionate inflow

and outflow, so that in basins with rapid change in water much

less plankton is found than in more stable lakes. Here it is

evident that a shallow lake may be even less favorable for

the development of the plankton than a deeper one by virtue

of the greater instability associated with a limited volume.

On the question of horizontal distribution Apstein (94),

Reighard (94a) and others have maintained the existence of uni-

formity. Zacharias was inclined to question this (94c, 94d)

but has since then changed his views (95c). In the case of re-

cent observers who have noted nonuniformity in distribution

RECENT FRESHWATER INVESTIGATIONS 327

(Pitard, 97, Garbini, 98a) and particularly the presence of a

greater amount near the shore*, it is probable that proper re-

gard was not paid to depth and that there really exists no con-

siderable difference. Uniformity of horizontal distribution has

been shown to be modified by large infiow and by the existence

of areas more or less separated from the main body of the lake,

by shallows, or in deep bays (Huitfelt-Kaas, Zacharias.)

Regarding vertical distribution, Hofer (95) is alone in

placing 35 m., or in one case 65 m., as the lower limit of the

plankton. Other observers have noted no such limit and

Ward (96b) found plankton even down to 130 m., although he

shows that in comparison with the upper portions of the water

the deep stratum, 25 m. to the bottom, contains very little

plankton.

All investigators agree that the upper strata of the water

contain proportionately more plankton than any below. Reig-

hard (94) found at a depth of 5 m. that half the plankton oc-

curred in the upper one and one-half meters of water. Apstein

(94) and Ward (96) show that much more is found in the sur-

face 2 m. than in any equal stratum below this. From enu-

meration of the Crustacea alone, Birge (97a) demonstrates that

in water having a total depth of 18 m. during the summer 45

per cent is found in the upper 3 m., 25 to 30 per cent in

the 3-6 m. level, 15 to 18 per cent in the 6—9 m. level, leaving

only 8 to 12 per cent for the lower half of the water. In the

fall and winter, however, the distribution of the Crustacea is

nearly uniform.

Francé (94) found in Lake Balaton a regular diurnal migra-

tion of at leastapart of the plankton, governed by light and

storm. Zacharias (95) was unable to find any such movement

of the plankton in Lake Plon. It is, however, confirmed for

Lake Balaton by Daday (97c) in his investigations on the lim-

netic Crustacea. Marsh (97) and Birge (95a) are positive that

it does not exist in the lakes which they studied. Pitard

* Two observers make directly contrary statements in this respect

concerning the same lake (Blanc, 95, and Pitard, 97).

328 HENRY B. WARD:

(97¢, 97d) notes the much greater amount of plankton in the sur-

face stratum at night than can be found during the day whena

large amount is first met at 5 m. and the maximum at 10 m.

Birge (97a) on the basis of precise enumeration is able to show

concerning distribution in the upper meter of water that (1)

on calm, sunny days the upper 10 cm. of the lake may be al-

most devoid of Crustacea, while at a depth of 50 em. the

numbers are considerable and may be very great; (2) the upper

meter is populated largely by immature Crustacea; (3) in

stormy and cloudy weather the Crustacea approach nearer the

surface though the number in the upper 10 cm. is always less

than at 50 cm.; (4) at night the young become more evenly

distributed in this layer and the adults rise from below the 1

m. level towards the surface. Though this is only necessarily

true of the single lake studied, it must be said that the obser-

vations far exceed in accuracy of data any others yet published.

The vertical distribution of the plankton as a whole is, how-

ever, often quite different from that of the individual species.

Data regarding these are given by many investigators, none of

whom equal Marsh (97) and Birge (97a) in accuracy and

amount of evidence presented.

In studying the seasonal distribution of the plankton Apstein

(94) found the existence of a minimum in February in contrast

with a summer maximum. Zacharias (96f) shows that the

‘monthly mean remains much the same in different years, and

gives (96h) a set of records covering hauls made at a definite

point every ten days throughout the year. These give a min-

imum during the winter, a small maximum in May and another

greater in amount in August; both the rise to the maximum

and the decline from it are very rapid. Huitfeldt-Kaas finds

a singie maximum in Norwegian lakes in July-August, and a

winter minimum in January-February. The approach to the

latter is a gradual one, but the former exhibits a rapid rise

and fall within a brief period. Here also Sernow.

For Entomostraca, Scourfield (93) places the maximum in

September, while Birge (97a) finds a spring maximum in May,

followed by a rapid deciine to the early summer depression in

RECENT FRESHWATER INVESTIGATIONS 329

June; then a midsummer maximum in July, a late summer

minimum in August and an autumn maximum in September or

October, followed by a decline to the winter minimum of

December to April.

The seasonal distribution of individual organisms has been

studied by a host of observers, prominent among whom is

Zacharias. In the first report of the Plén station (93) records

of certain species are given and others are added in each sub-

sequent volume. Calkins (93a) notes a definite culmination

foreach organism, no two falling at the same time, though

most occur during the summer. The diatoms find a maximum

in the spring with low temperkture of the water, the Cyanophy-

ceae at the end of the hot season with a high temperature of

the water and the algae in general at the time of the fall over-

turning. Zacharias (95d) and others find a considerable agree-

ment in the periodicity of organisms in successive years, while

Birge (97a) looks upon the periodicity as really biennial.

At Plon Zacharias (96h) is able to distinguish a winter and a

summer plankton and also for a brief period a fall and spring

plankton. In October and November the Copepoda rule so

that there is nearly a pure copepod plankton; from March to

May the diatoms are almost alone and in enormous numbers.

This is related to temperature as Schréder (98a) shows that in

colder alpine lakes and in streams the diatoms rule while in

ponds and lakes of higher temperature their place is taken by

the Schizophyceae. Precise data on the seasonal distribution

of different Crustacea are contained in the work of Marsh (97)

and Birge (97a) who have traced individual species through

long periods.

Lauterborn (98) has made observations of importance on the

limnetic Rotatoria—nearly half are eurythermic, or perennial;

about the same number are stenothermic of the summer variety

and only two stenothermic with preference for the winter tem-

perature. The summer and winter forms are all monocyclic,

while the perennial species are dicyclic or polycyclic, i. e.

producing males and ‘‘winter eggs” two or more times yearly.

330 HENRY B. WARD:

In dicyclic forms the first sexual period falls in the spring and

the second in the fall.

Lundberg and Stingelin (97) discuss seasonal dimorphism

among Cladocera and shows that in some instances the suc-

cession of species is actually only a succession of broods.

Lauterborn (98a) shows great variations among Rotifera at dif-

ferent times of the year.

The extreme change in environment in the case of those lakes

which are frozen in winter has attracted the attention of

numerous observers to the life of the water at that time. Ac-

cording to the observations of Lauterborn (94) the microfauna

under the ice is rich in species and often in individuals; even

the limnetic fauna endures through the winter, some species in

large numbers. Certain Rotatoria are found in summer only,

and some Protozoa in winter only. However, accordingly to

Zacharias (94e) in Lake Plén, the Protozoa are the first to dis-

appear, then the Rotatoria, the Crustacea reaching a minimum

in February and March. The periodicity of these forms is, he

believes, ruled not by temperature but by the surface and

depth of the water basin. In Finland also, Levander (94)

finds a rich limnetic fauna, consisting of various groups,

which persists under the ice of Jakes and ponds. Of Cladocera,

according to Stingelin (95), most forms persist through the

winter though those with ephippia disappear, and many forms

manifest a marked seasonal dimorphism which as yet has been

worked out in only a few species. The investigations of Birge

(97a) show that 7 out of the 11 limnetic species of crustacea in

Lake Mendota are perennial and present in considerable num-

bers in the winter plankton, and these numbers are singularly

uniform from January to March with a minimum near the first

of this period. The Rotifera and the phyto-plankton are also

regularly present in this period and become abundant before

the breaking up of the ice. Hartwig (98b, cf. 98a) gives

precise data for another lake concerning the occurrence and

abundance of numerous winter species. Here also Lampert (96).

Sundvik believes that the fish may in some cases pass the

RECENT FRESHWATER INVESTIGATIONS ooL

winter dormant while frozen in the ice of small ponds which

are entirely congealed.

Wesenberg-Lund (96) emphasizes the adaptations to the

climatic conditions of freshwater existence, particularly to the

ice, which are necessary in organisms coming from the sea.

This necessity is most evident for surface forms and is mani-

fested in the formation of winter eggs and winter buds. Land

animals must undergo modifications particularly in the organs

of respiration to fit them for an aquatic life.

In reference to the littoral fauna as a whole only a few scat-

tered notes are at hand. Various authors have attributed the

richness of a lake fauna to the development of the littoral area.

Reighard (94a) has expanded the idea to aconsiderable extent.

Others have attributed to the opposite cause the poverty of a

lacustrine fauna as Ward (96d) in the case of Pine Lake. In

this connection it has been frequently pointed out that the

development of the littoral flora is an exceedingly important

factor. On the whole, but little attention has been paid to the

littoral fauna as a whole although isolated groups of organisms

from it have been carefully studied. When the reverse has

been true, the results attained are rather striking. Thus Entz

(97) and his colleagues in the investigation of Lake Balaton

found an exceedingly rich littoral fauna, and some progress

was made in the distinction of shore ‘‘formations” and the

characteristic fauna of each. Thus Francé (97) distinguished

as protozoan formations, the peat bogs, the muddy shore with

reeds, the bottom mud, the sandy and rocky shore, and the

plankton.

The investigation of underground waters has received some

attention. In New Zealand, Chilton (94) discovered in sub-

terranean streams many forms also common in surface waters,

but all pale and transparent. In all the Crustacea save one,

eyes were entirely lacking, and in that one no retinal pigment

was present. On the other hand, the antennae and other ap-

pendages were noticeably elongated. In the caverns of the

Adelsberg, Schmeil (94) noted that the subterranean Entomos-

traca were colorless or pale in contrast with similar forms from

332 HENRY B. WARD:

surface waters. In the former eyes were present to be sure, but

the pigment was much reduced. According to Garbini (96)

subterranean forms present these same differences in color from

individuals of the species found at the surface but are further

distinguished by diminutive size and weakness. Only two

species were found which were characteristically subterranean.

Lauterborn (94a) notes that much the same species are present

on Heligoland in a dark closed well as in an open light one.

The fauna was here very scanty. Here also Lorenzi (98).

Packard (94) and Lendenfeld (96) have given summaries of

our knowledge regarding cave animals with frequent references

both morphological and ecological to the freshwater fauna of

such localities. The observations of Garbini (96) were made

largely on material from water-pipes. Whipple (98a) has made

similar studies in Massachusetts. Here also Viré.

Though numerous experimental researches have been made on

the ability of animals to become acclimatized to higher temper-

atures, there have been few observations on the forms which

occur under similar conditions in thermal springs. Both

Bruner (95) and Kellicott (97a) record species collected from

boiling springs, but without more precise data concerning con-

ditions.

The importance of the plankton as fish food was pointed out

by Zacharias (98a) and Fric and Vavra (94) and discussed in

detail in connection with the food relations of the water by

Reighard (94) and Ward (95). Here also Field (97).

Walter (95) demonstrated by statistics the proportional re-

lation in fish ponds between the amount of plankton and the

growth of the young fish. Kochs (92) found that Entomostraca

could be enormously multiplied by the use of fertilizers in the

water, and Zacharias (97) reports that the fertilization of fish

ponds doubles the amount of plankton present. Variations in

the fertility of different water basins call for more precise

investigation and for the selection of suitable areas for inten-

sive aquaculture as in agriculture. Here also Hofer (96).

Istvanfiy (94) shows that the diatoms are an important

source of food supply to the young fish, but that the species of

RECENT FRESHWATER INVESTIGATIONS Bias

diatoms in question are those which grow on the shore plants

and only rarely the plankton forms. Strodtmann (97) has un-

dertaken valuable statistical investigations on fish food accord-

ing to which certain species are clearly plankton eaters while

others depend upon littoral forms for food. Here also Walter

(96b), Grevé (97), Dréscher (97a). Recently, Brockmeier (98)

has observed that in some instances gastropods make direct use

of the plankton as food.

The problem of the origin of the freshwater fauna has been

attacked from many sides. Of a general character may be

noted the discussion of Forel (94) who holds that the littoral

fauna has come by immigration from the marsh and river,

the limnetic has been brought in by birds largely and the

abyssal has been differentiated in the lake itself. The distri-

bution of freshwater animals according to de Guerne (93) is

influenced (1) by geographic reasons, (2) by zoologic features

of the organism. Even to the weakest a current forms no

barrier.

A number of observers have studied brackish water basins

and the modifications in transition from marine to freshwater

conditions. Levander (94a) found in an inlet of the sea typical

marine and brackish water forms together with those of the

freshwater in about equal numbers. Field (97) studied a long

pond manifesting all degrees of salinity and found the greatest

number of forms near the point of mean salinity. The forms,

however, were more like the hali- than the limno-plankton.

An increase in size of various species on prolonged stay in

brackish water indicates one possibility in the production of

species. Butschinsky (96) noted the mixed character of the

fauna in somewhat similar brackish lakes and its variation with

changes in the concentration of the salt. Lemmermann (98)

investigated a strand lake which had been dammed and in

which the salinity was constantly decreasing. The plankton

which was notably rich manifested some irregularities traceable

to the variable salt content of the water and certain species

were localized at various places.

334 HENRY B. WARD:

According to Scharff (95) the fauna of Ireland has come by

direct extension from Scotland and Wales, with which the con-

nection previously existing broke down during the pleistocene

period. Hanitsch (95) holds, however, that among the fresh-

water sponges three of the six species are American. The

importation occurred by means of gemmules borne on floating

pieces of wood in the Gulf Stream, or indirectly by mi-

grating birds through Greenland. The failure of these species

to spread further is explained on the ground of their inability

to compete with native species.

Simroth (96) believes that a secondary adaptation of many

land plants and animals has followed upon their remigration

into fresh water. Such groups as Hydrachnids show clear evi-

dence of a land life. Fresh water has been furthermore a place

of refuge for many ancient forms such as the Ganoids, the

Dipnoi and the Branchiopoda. Here also Guppy.

Beddard and Lankester show how tropical animals act-

ually are transported from place to place on aquatic plants.

Garbini (95b) has obtained positive evidence of passive trans-

portation of freshwater animals in that ten species representing

seven groups were actually collected in transit on mammals,

birds, amphibians and aquatic insects, thus evincing the impor-

tant rdle of these forms in the dispersion of the aquatic fauna.

Schewiakoff (93a) rightly regards currents of air and water and

actively migrating animals as the eflicient means of distribu-

tion for protozoa. Their successful introduction depends ac-

cording to Francé (97) not on meteorological conditions but on

hydrological surroundings and on associated plant forms.

Kofoid (96b) states briefly the agencies, human and meteoro-

logical, important in dispersion.

The insufficiency of our knowledge and the impossibility of .

drawing reliable conclusions regarding the distribution of

freshwater forms from the data at present on record are shown

by the statements of Hartwig (98) concerning rare Entomos-

traca and Jennings (98) on a supposed Asiatic rotifer.

The fauna of island lakes is believed by Richard (98) in the

case of the Canary Islands to be introduced in the egg stage by

RECENT FRESHWATER INVESTIGATIONS oa

birds and winds. Barrois also notes for the fauna of the

Azores that the cosmopolitan European species which are

present are characterized by resting stages of some sort, indi-

cating thus passive introduction by birds, water insects and

also by man. Such a population must have come gradually to

the islands.

The success with which plankton organisms may be trans-

ported during some stage in their life history is further evinced

by the ease with which some of these organisms can be raised

from dried mud, as done by Sars. In this dried condition such

forms may remain years without losing power of development

under satisfactory conditions of environment. The older ex-

periments on that point have recently been confirmed by At-

kinson.

Among other agencies in dispersion must be noted the

glacial epoch and Voigt has followed out with great care the

effect upon the population of mountain brooks produced by the

glacial period and the present gradual supplanting of one spe-

cies by another.

According to Garbini (94) the limnetic fauna is a passive

importation from northern centers of dispersion, and Strodt-

mann (96) finds its extended uniformity both in Europe and

North America evidence of a previous common center in

northern polar regions from which the limnetic fauna spread

southward. The marine forms in Lake Garda Garbini (94)

believes are not a fuuna relicta but either active migrants from

the Adriatic in most part or in a few cases passive transports

from the northern ocean.

f especial interest on this question is the discussion con-

cerning the origin of the Nemertines, a purely marine group

with scattered freshwater species. According to Montgomery

(95a) these forms are of double origin, (1) direct migrants

through rivers to lakes and (2) relict forms in lakes. Their

recent origin is shown by variable structural features. Du

Plessis (95) would limit the former to rivers and to lakes never

occupied by the sea. Garbini (96a) thinks those of Lake

336 HENRY B. WARD:

Garda certainly not of a relict character but introduced pas-

sively from northern freshwater bodies.

The presence of a fauna relicta in African lakes has received

strong confirmation in the recent investigations of Moore on

Lake Tanganyika. This water basin contains a medusa, six

quasi-marine gastropods, two prawns, one crab and several pro-

tozoa, all marine in character and together constituting what

the author calls a halolimnic fauna. These geographically

isolated forms can not. have made their way up the stream

flowing from the lake, in fact only one occurs on that shore

where the outlet empties into the sea; they cannot have been

carried overland, being deep water forms in part at least; they

are not like modern oceanic forms, but are similar to Jurassic

types. The common freshwater fauna was marked in geologic

deposits of that period, hence it originated previous to these

halolimnie forms which are consequently evidence of the

contamination of the lake by a deep arm of the sea in what is

geologically speaking no very remote period of time.

Giinther (94), speaking of the relict forms in Africa, notes

that the freshening of the water must have come very grad-

ually since evaporation is so rapid in the tropics. Rizzardi

(94) finds in a small crater lake a considerable fauna relicta

and concludes that this demonstrates the marine origin of the

water basin. In discussing another lake Garbini (93) had pre-

viously shown that such a fauna may owe its origin to passive

introduction. Hoernes (97) states still more sharply the argu-

ment in the case of Lake Baikal; a relict fauna does not neces-

sarily demonstrate the relict character of the water basin. The

former may have come, as in Lake: Baikal, indirectly from the

marine source through other bodies of water, no longer in ex-

isteuce; and the connection was in this case more probably with

the Mediterranean than with the northern ocean.

PICRO-CARMINE AND ALUM-CARMINE AS

COUNTER STAINS.

B. D. MYERS, IrHaca, N. Y.

The following paper embodies the results of experiments

with picro-carmine and alum-carmine* as counter stains, as de-

veloped incidentally during the year in the histologic laboratory

at Cornell University.

The excellence of picro-carmine was first noticed last No-

vember, in staining developing bone which had been decalcified.

Picro-fuchsint was being regularly used as a counter stain

with hematoxylin. Merely for the experiment picro-carmine

was used on one section and left nearly two hours. Much to

our surprise and pleasure we found that, instead of our

section being ruined, we had secured an excellent differentiation.

This was not the first attempt with picro-carmine, but always

before the time had been short, from two to fifteen minutes.

The advantage of the stain over picro-fuchsin is noticeable in

the superiority of differentiation secured as illustrated in the

slides presented at the meeting of Microscopical Society.

The embryonal cartilage cells are better marked by the

hematoxylin and picro-carmine, for the alkaline picro-carmine

does not fade the hematoxylin as does the acid picro-fuchsin.

It is particularly in the zone of calcifying cartilage that this

superior differentiation is noticed. The vertically arranged

rows of cartilage cells have lost their horizontal septa, but the

*For literature see Lee’s Vade Mecum and the most recent publica-

tions on the subject by P. Mayer, Ueber Picro-carmin, Zeitschrift ftir

wissenschaftliche Mikroskopie. Vol. XIV, pt. I, p. 18.

7See Freeborn, Trans. N. Y. Path. Soc., 1893, p. 73. Also Studies

from the Dept. of Path. of the College of Physicians and Surgeons,

Columbia University, N. Y., 1894-5.

338 B. D. MYERS:

vertical septa are pronounced and project into the primary

marrow cavity as irregular trabeculae of calcified cartilage.

The osteoblasts have enveloped these trabeculae with a cover-

ing of true bone and at the same time the cartilaginous trabe-

culae within are being absorbed and true bone substituted.

This true bone, with the picro-carmine, has taken a red

which is brilliant in comparison with picro-fuchsin; and the

gradually diminishing and disappearing cartilage which, with

picro-fuchsin, has taken a stain not distinguishable from that

of the cells of the true bone is, with picro-carmine, beautifully

differentiated by a clear pronounced blue, showing the alka-

linity of the picro-carmine.

This tendency on the part of picro-carmine to bring out the

hematoxylin as a blue, while the acid picro-fuchsin fades it, is

very noticeable in the tonsil of dog which was next submitted.

In the mucous cells near this gland the nuclei, removed as far

as possible from the lumen, are brought out with unequalled

clearness. The structure of the blood vessels is also brought

out with great distinctness, and the differentiation throughout

is very marked.

Quite as striking a contrast between picro-carmine and picro-

fuchsin is noticed in a section of the pyloric stomach of a

kitten. The stain with picro-carmine is not only more differ-

ential, but the unstriped muscle of the stomach and blood

vessels is brought out much better by the picro-carmine.

During the summer picro-carmine was tried with good re-

sults on sections of the fallopian tube of a mare. It has been

used with greatest success on tissues which present a mucous

surface, and while these successes have been noted, an equal

number of failures were encountered, so no claim is made for

picro-carmine as a ‘‘pan’’ stain. It seems particularly un-

suited for tissues that stain with difficulty.

Ranvier’s picro-carmine was used in most of these experi-

ments, but Bizzozero’s was used with equal success. Mayer’s

recent formula was used in the histological laboratory at

Cornell last year with results quite as good as those from

Ranvier’s.

PICRO-CARMINE AND ALUM-CARMINE AS COUNTER STAINS 339

In the summary, then, we find picro-carmine, in the cases

noted, gives, with hematoxylin, a more differential stain than

picro-fuchsin, and shows the characteristic alkaline reaction

with hematoxylin, bringing out the hematoxylin as a beautiful

sharp biue, while the acid picro-fuchsin tends to fade it. Two

hours is, in general, the best time for picro-carmine. There

is no danger of overstaining.

ALUM-CARMINE.

During the summer it was my privilege to prepare some

slides of liver of guinea pig to show Anthrax bacilli. The

bacilli were readily found, and, at the request of Dr. Moore,

pathologist and bacteriologist of the New York State Veteri-

nary College, I attempted to get a contrast stain and finally

succeeded with alum-carmine. I had tried picro-carmine with-

out success. In fact I have never been able to secure a good

stain with picro-carmine on liver. By experiment I found

that one hour and fifty minutes with alum-carmine gave the

best results. The crystal-violet with which the bacilli were

stained, and which is washed out much or entirely by the al-

cohols and elearer, must be sufficiently intense to permit of

thorough dehydration and clearing and yet leave a distinct

stain. One and one-half minutes will suffice if care is taken

not to leave longer than is necessary in alcohol.

By this stain the nuclei and the cell body are clearly differ-

entiated and the alum-carmine forms a very good contrast

stain with the crystal-violet. The simplicity of the method

commends it to us. It is suggested that with methylene blue

a still greater contrast may be secured.

Cornell University, Sept. 12, 1898.

ADDENDUM.

Since writing the above my attention has been called to the

fact that Stohr in his text book of Histology (p. 156, Second

Ed., translated by Dr. Billstein) directs that developing bone

be stained -with hematoxylin and then with picro-carmine.

Jan. 17, 1899.

Nore.—I wish to acknowledge my indebtedness to Dr. Kingsbury for

suggestions received during the year, regarding the use of picro-carmine.

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A RAPID STAINING APPARATUS.

C. M. MIX, IrHaca, N. Y.

Methods of staining may be roughly arranged in three

classes: staining in toto, staining the sections and carrying

them through all the steps necessary previous to mounting

them in balsam on the slides, and, finally, performing all the

work of staining after the sections have been fastened to the

slides.

The first method is an excel-

lent one, when small pieces of

tissue are used. Large pieces

would not be penetrated evenly

by the staining agent. This

method is very rapid; for the

sections can be mounted di-

IM, rectly from the knife in Canada

balsam after removing the parat-

| fin, or, in case the object is

imbedded in collodion, it is

yl, only necessary to remove the

oil, dehydrate, clear and mount.

isl On account of the difficulties in

securing good penetration in the staining fluids, this very etti-

cient method has, we are loath to note, a rather limited appli-

cation.

In most cases better results are obtained by staining after

the sections are cut. As was suggested above, this result may be

obtained in two ways. When pieces of firm, homogeneous

tissue, such as pieces of liver, are employed, and in case it is

not necessary to preserve the continuity of the series of sec-

tions, good results may be obtained by placing the sections as

342 C. M. MIX:

soon as cut in watch glasses, filled with the proper reagents.

By transporting them from one dish to another by means of a

section lifter, or even by means of a glass rod, the sections

may be carried through the various processes necessary to pre-

pare them for mounting, before they are placed upon the slide

at all.

This method is entirely inapplicable to serial work, as in

embryological investigations for instance. Only firm struc-

tures could be treated in this way, for the more delicate ones

would rapidly go to pieces, after the removal of the paraffin,

without something to hold them in place. Even firm tissues

are in great danger of being torn and distorted, or entirely

destroyed, by being so often handled. Thus it appears that,

for work in which delicate structures are involved, or for

pieces of considerable size, both the above methods fail.

To meet these difficulties, the method of staining on the slide

A Fig. 2. B

has been resorted to. As applied in the laboratories of Cornell

University, the method is as follows: the sections are fastened

to the slide by means of a thin coat of albumen and heat, if

imbedded in paraffin, or by a drop of ether-alcohol, if collo-

dion is used. After the removal of the paraffin or oil by means

of benzene or xylene, they are treated with ninety-five per

cent alcohol. They are now ready to be stained. The slides

may now be placed in either the ordinary Stender dish, contain-

ing the staining agent, or laid flat on the rack (r, Fig. 5) over the

waste jar (w, Fis. 5). In the latter case, the staining agents

are poured upon the slides by means of pipettes. Excellent

results are uniformly obtained in this way, in serial as well as

A RAPID STAINING APPARATUS 343

single sections. Since the section is firmly fastened to

the slide, the relative position of the different parts of the

tissue is not changed, and the section does not become

broken, or lost. If several slides are placed in one of the

Stender dishes at the same time, there is always danger of

hitting them together and thus destroying the sections. This

difficulty becomes particularly annoying in serial sectioning,

where, of course, it is of the utmost importance to preserve

every section intact.

To hasten the process of staining on the slide and to reduce

the danger of injury to the sections, the apparatus described

below has been devised. By means of this device, fourteen °

slides can be stained in the time usually required for one, and

the danger of injury to the section is entirely obviated. This

apparatus was designed and its efficiency thoroughly tested in

the laboratories of Cornell University.

The apparatus was designed primarily for work with Heid-

enhain’s iron-hematoxylin, in the use of which, in order to ob-

tain a permanent stain, it is necessary to wash the sections for

some time in running water. Hence, with the essential part

of the apparatus, there is combined a washer, which will be

described later. The principal part of this staining device isa

earrier, or slide holder (Fig. 1, b). It consists of two rings

cut out of stiff sheet brass. The rings are about one-third of

a centimeter in width and about five centimeters in diameter.

They are held parallel to each other and about six centimeters

apart by four upright standard pieces of the same material.

344 Cc. M. MIX:

These upright pieces are arranged parallel to each other and at

right angles to the rings. Two of them extend about six cen-

timeters above the upper ring to form the handle. In this

way we have a skeleton basket. Across the bottom ring ex-

tend two parallel pieces of brass, arranged at right angles to

the handle. In the upper edge of each of these cross strips

are seven notches, opposite each other, and of such a size as to

receive, in each pair of notches, the ends of two slides, placed

back to back (Fig. 1, a and b). These carriers are five centi-

meters in diameter and hold fourteen slides. They are made

to fit a museum jar of convenient size, described above (Fig.

1, a). Any vessel of convenient size might be used with car-

rier to match.

This jar for holding the reagents is the No. 2605 made by

Whitall, Tatum & Co., New York City. It is listed in their

catalogue as museum jar—diameter two inches; height to

shoulder, three and three-fourths inches; height to top of

stopper, five and one-half inches; width of mouth, two inches.

The handle of the carrier extends into the hollow stopper when

the vessel is closed. These glass stoppers are ground to fit

the necks of the bottles, so that the vessels are tightly closed,

and in consequence evaporation is prevented.

The third part of this apparatus consists of a washer very

similar in construction to and identical in principle with

the tissue washer described by Prof, Gage in his article

in the July (1898) Journal of Applied Microscopy (Figs.

A RAPID STAINING APPARATUS 3845

2, 3 and 4, b). The washer consists of two parts—an

oblong brass box 24 centimeters long, 19 centimeters wide,

and 9 centimeters deep (Fig. 3, c). At one of the lower cor-

ners is an inlet tube (i) to which is attached a piece of rubber

tubing extending to the tap (t) from which is derived the supply

of water. Inside this box (c), which is water tight, is a second

box (d), made one centimeter smaller all around, so as to

easily fit inside of the first. From the upper edges of this in-

side box there projects a flange (f) which rests upon the upper

edges of the outside box. Thus a water space of about one

centimeter is left between the outer and the inner box. The

inner box, unlike the outer one, is made of perforated brass

and allows the water to pass freely through it. By means of

five cross partitions, which intersect at right angles, the perfo-

rated box is divided into twelve compartments, each six centi-

meters square (Fig. 2, c). Hach compartment is large enough

to hold one of the slide carriers. In this way a constant and

gentle current is maintained, and the preparations do not be-

come dislodged from the slides.

The slides with the preparations attached are placed in the

notches back to back. Then the carrier with its fourteen

slides is placed successively in the various reagents contained

in the jars described above. When hematoxylin and some

counterstain, as picro-fuchsin, are used, six ee are necessary

to complete the outfit (Fig. 5).

346 C. M. MIX:

The advantages of this apparatus over the old method are

obvious at a glance. The slides are not touched, either with -

fingers or forceps, from the time they are placed in the carrier

until they are removed from the clearer to be mounted. They

are held in a stable position, so that it is impossible for the

preparations to be injured by hitting against each other or the

sides of the jar. By exercising a little care in lifting the car-

rier from the liquid, only the gentlest of currents is produced.

In the hands even of an unskilled operator, the danger of injury

to the sections is reduced almost to zero. Fourteen slides can be

prepared with the labor incident upon the preparation of one by

the old method. When a large number of slides is being pre-

pared, it expedites matters to start a second carrier of slides

as soon as the first carrier is removed from the first bottle, and

so on until the whole number to be prepared is under way.

This applies especially to serial work or the making of large

numbers of duplicate slides for classes.

In a word, this apparatus, which, in its simplest form, need

consist only of the carrier and the reagent jar, simplifies and

makes available for wholesale preparation the best and most

accurate method of staining, namely, the method of staining

on the slide. It removes all danger of accident to the sections.

The danger of distortion is reduced to a minimum. Great

rapidity is obtained, and a complicated process is simplified.

Cornell University.

PROCEEDINGS

The American Microscopical Society.

MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL MEETING

HELD AT

SYRACUSE, N. Y., AUG. 30, 31 AND SEPT. 1, 1898.

FIRST SESSION.

Turspay, August 30, 1898, 10 o’clock A. M.

The meeting was called to order by Dr. A. Clifford Mercer,

the acting president. He introduced Prof. Chas. W. Hargitt,

who delivered an address of welcome on behalf of the Syracuse

Academy of Science. Prof. John Van Duyn was then intro-

duced by Dr. Mercer and welcomed the society on behalf of

the Medical College of Syracuse. The acting president re-

sponded on behalf of the Society, after which he declared the

meeting ready for business.

In the absence of the Secretary, Dr. W. C. Krauss, who

was detained by sickness, Magnus Pfiaum was appointed

acting Secretary.

The Executive Committee recommended the following for

membership:

Dr. Mary Amanda Dixon Jones, New York City.

Dr. Henry D. Didema, Syracuse, N. Y.

Dr. F. W. Higgins, Cortland, N. Y.

Mr. Luther B. Elliott, Rochester, N. Y.

Dr. J. W. Mobley, Milledgeville, Ga.

Prof. Chas. Fordyce, University Place, Neb.

Prof. G. E. Condra, Lincoln, Neb.

All of whom were duly elected as members.

348 PROCEEDINGS OF THE

A biography of the late President, Prof. D. 8. Kellicott,

prepared by Dr. A. M. Bleile, was read by the Secretary.

Biographies of Professors Wm. A. Rogers and H, C. Coon,

prepared by Prof. 8. H. Gage, were read by Dr. A. C.

Mercer.

The following papers were then presented:

‘Special Structural Features in the Air Sacs of Birds.”

Read by Miss Mary A. Ross, A. B.

A discussion of the paper by Dr. Moore and Prof. Hargitt

followed.

The next paper, ‘‘A Report of a Student’s Work in the Mi-

crometry of the Blood Corpuscles of Individuals of Different

Nationalities,” was read by Dr. Moses C. White.

Discussion by Dr. Higgins and Magnus Pflaum.

‘‘Teaching of Correct and Definite Method in the Use of

the Substage Condenser,’’ a demonstration by Dr. A. C.

Mercer, was interesting and instructive.

The President appointed Burton D. Myers and L. B. Elliott

as members of the auditing commmittee, after which the

meeting adjourned.

SECOND SESSION. .

Turspay, August 30, 1898, 2 o’clock P. M.

After the meeting was called to order by the President the

following papers were presented:

‘‘Method for Preparing Nucleated Blood in Bulk for Class

Demonstrations,’’ by Dr. T. B. Oertel, in the absence of the

author was read by L. B. Elliott.

‘‘History of the Toad Tadpole’s Tail,” by B. F. Kingsbury,

Ph. D., read by C: M. Mix.

‘Use of Picro-carmine and Alum-carmine,’’ by B. D.

Myers.

‘Rapid Staining and Washing Apparatus,” a demonstration

by C. M. Mix.

‘¢Photo-Micrography with Opaque Objects,” by W. H.

Walmsley, read by Dr. A. C. Mercer.

‘‘The Business Management of Laboratories,’’ orally deliv-

ered by L. B. Elliott.

AMERICAN MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY 349

‘‘Microscopic Examination of Legal Documents,’’? by Dr.

Geo. E. Fell, read by title.

‘Some Laboratory Apparatus for Histology,” by Prof S.

H. Gage, read by title.

‘An Occurrance of Albino Eggs of the Spotted Salamander,

Amblystoma punctatum,” read by Mr. Horace W. Britcher, of

Syracuse, N. Y.

THIRD SESSION.

Turspay, August 30, 1898, 8 o’clock P. M.

The meeting was held in the new hall of the University

Building. The Acting President, Dr. V. A. Moore, delivered

the annual address, after which an informal reception was held

on the invitation of the Citizens’ Club of Syracuse, at their

rooms in the University Building.

FOURTH SESSION. ®

Wepnespay, August 31, 1898, 10 o’clock A. M.

The meeting was called to order by the President.

On the recommendation of the Executive Committee, Mr.

Henry R. Howland, A. M., was elected to membership.

The President appointed the following as members of the

nominating committee:

Dr. Raymond C. Reed, Dr. A. M. Veeder, Mr. L. B. El-

liott, Mr. Herbert R. Spencer and Dr. Geo. E. Clark.

After a short business session the following papers were

presented:

‘‘Notices of Some Undescribed Infusoria from the Fauna of

Louisiana,” by Mr. J. C. Smith, read by title.

‘‘Experiments in Feeding some Insects with Cultures of

Comma, or Cholera Bacilli,” by Dr. R. L. Maddox; read by

title.

“Questions in Regard to the Diphtheria Bacillus,” by Dr.

A. M. Veeder, delivered orally.

‘‘Means and Methods for Giving Instruction in Bacteri-

ology,” by Raymond C. Reed, a demonstration.

350 PROCEEDINGS OF THE

‘‘The Resistance of Certain Species of Bacteria in the Milk

Ducts of Cows,” by A. W. Ward, of Ithaca, N. Y., delivered

orally from notes. |

‘‘What Shall be Taught in a Short Course in Bacteriology,”

by Dr. Veranus A. Moore, read by title.

‘‘The Comparative Value of the Different Methods of

Plankton Measurements,’”’ by Prof. Henry B. Ward, read by

title.

‘Work Done in Lacustrine Biology, 1893-1898,” by Prof.

Henry B. Ward, read by title.

FIFTH SESSION.

Wepnespay, August 31, 1898, 2 o’clock P. M.

The afternoon was given to the inspection of the Medical

College, and the members were treated to a demonstration and

“examination of its various apparatus by the professors of the

College.

Dr. Moses C. White gave a demonstration of ‘‘The Electric

Projection Microscope in Histology with a New Departure in

Objectives.”

SIXTH SESSION.

Wepnespay, August 31, 1898, 8 o’clock P. M.

A Microscopical Soiree was held at the Medical College.

SEVENTH SESSION.

Tuurspay, September 1, 1898, 8 o’clock A. M.

The meeting was called to order by the President and the

following papers were presented:

‘‘New Discoveries in Cancer,” by Dr. Mary Amanda

Dixon Jones, read by Dr. A. C. Mercer.

A paper by Dr. A. A. Young was read by title.

‘cA New Triple Differential Stain,” by Dr. C. W. Kellogg,

read by title.

The regular business of the society was then taken up.

The Treasurer reported all debts paid and a balance of

$76.48 in the treasury.

AMERICAN MICROSCOPICAL SOOIFTY oo

The Auditing Committee not being present, Dr. A. C.

Mercer moved that the Treasurer’s Report, if acceptable to the

Executive Committee, should be pubished. Carried.

The same motion was made in regard to the Secretary’s

Report and carried.

The report of the Nominating Committee was as follows:

For President: Dr. Wm. C. Krauss, Buffalo, N. Y.

For Vice Presidents: Dr. A. M. Bleile, Columbus, O.; Dr.

G. Carl Huber, Ann Arbor, Mich.

For Secretary: Prof. Henry B. Ward, Lincoln, Neb.

For Treasurer: Magnus PHaum, Esq.; Pittsburg, Pa.

For elective members of the Executive Committee: Prof. 8.

H. Gage, Ithaca, N. Y.; Dr. A. Clifford Mercer, Syracuse,

N. Y.; Dr. Veranus A. Moore, Ithaca, N. Y.

All of the above officers were duly elected by ballot.

Dr. A. C. Mercer moved that the Society send greetings to

Dr. W. C. Krauss with hopes for his speedy recovery. Car-

ried.

A letter read by Dr. A. C. Mercer, from Prof. Hamilton L.

Smith, was ordered to be filed.

Mr. Pflaum read a letter from Dr. Geo. OC. Taylor which

was ordered to be filed and answered.

Mr. Pflaum moved that the thanks of the Society be given

to Dr. A. C. Mercer and the local committee. Carried.

Dr. A. C. Mercer moved that ‘‘The General Organization of

the Society be referred to the Executive Committee for consid-

eration in all directions and details, and that it report at the

next meeting of the Society.” Carried.

Dr. A. M. Veeder moved that a vote of thanks be given to

the press of Syracuse for its reports of the meeting. Carried.

Prof. Raymond C. Reed moved that a vote of thanks be

given to the Syracuse Academy of Science and the faculty and

officers of the University of Syracuse. Carried.

Dr. A. C. Mercer moved that a vote of thanks be given to

the acting President and Secretary. Carried.

Mr. L. B. Elliott moved that the Secretary notify all officers

of their election, to give them detail of action taken at this

352 PROCEEDINGS OF THE

meeting and request their activity for the next meeting. Car-

ried.

Dr. A. C. Mercer moved that Prof. 8S. H. Gage be requested

to send to the family of Prof. D. 8. Kellicott, deceased, our

late President, an expression of sympathy on the part of the

Society. Carried.

Adjournment sine die.

In the afternoon the members were treated to a carriage ride

with a visit to the Syracuse Water Works and tothe New York

State Institution for Feeble Minded Children. The former

was fully shown and explained by its Superintendent, Mr.

Wm. R. Hill, the latter by Superintendent Dr. James C.

Carson. The drive and especially its purpose were thoroughly

enjoyed by the participants.

An interesting feature of the meeting, greatly appreciated

by the members and visitors, was the exhibit of the latest pro-

duction of Microscopes and Acccessories, furnished by the

Bausch & Lomb Optical Company, the Spencer Lens Com-

pany and Richards & Co. Also the exhibit of X Ray Appa-

ratus by the Edison Manufacturing Co. received its full share

of attention.

Thus ended successfully a meeting which, by reason of un-

expected occurrences, seemed, until the last moment, most dis-

couraging of results. The President, Prof. D. 8. Kellicott,

who suggested Syracuse and on whose account it was chosen as

the meeting place, and who undertook the preparations for the

meeting, had died. The Secretary, Dr. W. C. Krauss, be-

came sick, and during a time when his services were most

needed to ensure a good meeting, was near death’sdoor. The

whole burden of arranging the meeting was suddenly thrown

on the shoulders of Dr. A. C. Mercer in charge of the local

committee and Dr. Veranus A. Moore, who became acting

President. The Society cannot sufficiently appreciate their

services. Maenus Prriavm,

Acting Secretary.

AMERICAN MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY

TREASURER’S REPORT

FOR THE YEAR ENDING AUGUST 17, 1898.

DR.

To balance on hand Toledo Meeting............

fea membership dues; 1897, 8... 200... ek ieee $ 16.90

To Membership dues, 1898, 194............. .... 388.00

Wormombersnip dues, 1899, 2). o.... ota set anes « 4.00

orAdmisston fees 1898; Pie ieee. Ac od ecsdctec ass

To donation by Author for plates................

Pee NTT ELIOT St ls) 4) 2 i eka ta gle cale's! She alssiew'sla so

eanetio Of Proceedings: ..5 2 tind ecu l et ee ated ees

Pipe TRAE) ABST ict es acs shenn'dia alelsia)e hiss x oh 7.00

Bee veriininig, LOO isk ene | edna s wie sic a eles 75.00

To Postage and Expressage collected............

CR.

By Expense Toledo Meeting.................... 3.60

ESE omit iy ieielod's adisha Sai d'e Sisieie a icin 31.53

Ma MmRERE: Ne Ae Us istolecs Salae/aa s oiaie OMS Vere 31.02

By Stationary and Printing..................... 12.90

RRMPIIRTICA IRE eis ep EE ss UD i ey oid) aids wlesags aida ee 13.93

By isssuing Vol. XVIII, balance................. 149.90

By issuing Vol. XIX, printing......... 259.95

- : 3 SS REE DL LOS iste bevev., ass 73.75

333.70

By investment Spencer-Tolles Fund............. 40.00

Paeeaines: ON ANE o's. sc eee omen

353

$ 693.06

354 AMERICAN MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY

SPENCER-TOLLES FUND.

Amount reported at Toledo Meeting.................. $ 496.03

SIS OQIRGIONS elo lec heehee ran allt Wyk nantes 4.00

Dividends anuary) 2, 1086.) oooh oceus cn eee 22.65

Dividends July 8 SSGs ui eco e ee seeks che bate cece ee 23.78

Cash from sale of ‘Proceedings ....00.)....0c.5 acne bes 36.00

OTe CC ee ee weea earever ital Clalit erent aw a Ne $ 555.46

TInerease Goring the years .).-) sie vies ioe, ciemyeierareinle $86.48

SyRAcusE, N. Y., Sept. 1, 1898.

We hereby certify that we have examined the foregoing accounts for

the year 1897-98 and find the same correct, with proper vouchers for ex-

penditures. BURTON D. MYERS,

SIGNED: L. B. ELLIOTT,

Auditing Committee.

CONSTITUTION.

ArtTIcLE I.

This Association shall be called the Amertcan MicroscopicaL

Sociery. Its object shall be the encouragement of micro-

scopical research.

Articte II.

Any person interested in microscopical science may become

a member of this Society upon written application and recom-

mendation by two members and election by the Executive

Committee. Honorary members may also be elected by the

Society on nomination by the Executive Committee.

Articte III.

The officers of this Society shall consist of a President and

two Vice-Presidents, who shall hold their office for one year,

and shall be ineligible for re-election for two years after the

expiration of their terms of office, together with a Secretary

and Treasurer, who shall be elected for three years and be

eligible for re-election.

ArticLte LV.

The duties of the officers shall be the same as are usual in

similar organizations; in addition to which it shall be the

duty of the President to deliver an address during the meeting

at which he presides; of the Treasurer to act as custodian of

the property of the Society, and of the Secretary to edit and

publish the Proceedings of the Society.

ARTICLE Y.

There shall be an Executive Committee, consisting of the

officers of the Society, three members elected by the Society,

and the past Presidents of the Society and of the American

Society of Microscopists.

356 CONSTITUTION AND BY-LAWS

ArticLE VI.

It shall be the duty of the Executive Committee to fix the

time and place of meeting and manage the general affairs of

the Society.

Arxticte VII.

The initiation fee shall be $3.00, and the dues shall: be

$2.00 annually, payable in advance.

Articte VIII.

The election of officers shall be by ballot.

ArRTIcLE IX.

Amendments to the Constitution may be made by a two-

thirds vote of all members present at any annual meeting,

after having been proposed at the preceding annual meeting.

BY-LAWS.

The Executive Committee shall, before the close of the an-

nual meeting for which they are elected, examine the papers

presented and decide upon their publication or otherwise dis-

pose of them.

All papers accepted for publication must be completed by

the authors and placed in the hands of the Secretary by

October Ist succeeding the meeting.

Il.

The Secretary shall edit and publish the papers accepted

with the necessary illustrations.

Tif.

The number of copies of Proceedings of any meeting shall

be decided at that meeting.

CONSTITUTION AND BY-LAWS 357

No applicant shall be considered a member until he has paid

his dues. Any member failing to pay his dues for two consec-

utive years, and after two written notifications from the

Treasurer, shall be dropped from the roll, with the privilege of

reinstatement at any time on payment of all arrears. The

Proceedings shall not be sent to any member whose dues are

unpaid.

The election of officers shall be held on the morning of the

last day of the annual meeting. Their term of office shall

commence at the close of the meeting at which they are

elected, and shall continue until their successors are elected

and qualified.

Wi.

Candidates for office shall be nominated by a committee of

five members of the Society. This committee shall be elected

by a plurality vote, by ballot, after free nomination, on the

second day of the annual meeting.

WEL

All motions or resolutions relating to the business of the

Society shall be referred for consideration to the Executive

Committee before discussion and final action by the Society.

VITE:

Members of the Society shall have the privilege of enrolling

members of their families (except men over twenty-one years

of age) for any meeting upon payment of one-half the annual

subscription ($1.00).

Approved by the Society, August 11, 1892.

LIST OF MEMBERS

The figures denote the year of the member’s election, except 78, which marks an

original member. Th: TRANSACTIONS are not sent to members in arrears, and two

years’ arrearage forfeits membership. (See Article 1V. of By-Laws.)

Members Elected During the Year 1808.

For addresses see regular list.

BEssEyY, CHARLES E., Ph. D., LL.D. Hotmes, A. M., M. D.

CLEMENTS, FRED. E., A.M. Ph. D. Howxanp, Henry R., M. D.

Davis, CHAs. H. JOHNSON, Wm. D., M. D.

DipaMaA, Henry D., M. D. JONES, Mary A. D., M. D.

ELLIoTT, LUTHER B. Mos.ey, J. W., M. D.

FINDER, WM ., Jr., M. D. MURPHEY, EUGENE E., M. D.

GoopricH, W. H., M. D. Pounp, Roscon, A. M., Ph. D.

Hieeins, F. W., M. D. WotcotTt, Ropert H., A. M., M. D.

ABERDEIN, RoBERT, M. D., F. R. M. S., 82. .827 James St., Syracuse, N. Y.

ACKER, GEO. N., M. D., ’91..913 Sixteenth St., N. W., Washington, D. C.

JATNSETE CHA REBG ING | Oosecoie selec ie oles ado an ereniocelemeeeeS Rochester, Minn.

ALLEGER, WALTER W., M. D., ’94,..906 S. St., N. W., Washington, D. C.

APWOODS MH. Saco tees ele seen ois cies tease mates 261 W. 34th St. N. Y.

ATWOOD ES Be PEO MeO Scolar nie a nteccie seks eh ele alae srepetets Rochester, N. Y.

AES MORGAN Wis Ms MOAB, ieee eile nl cmteies olgts Upper Montclair, N. J.

BARKER, ALBERT S., ’97,..... .... 24th and Locust Sts., Philadelphia, Pa.

BARNSFATHER, JAMES, M. D., ’91,

Cor. Sixth Ave. and Walnut St., Dayton, Ky.

BARTLETT, CHARLES JOSEPH, M. D., ’96,....... ......New Haven, Conn.

BAUSCH; EDWARD: 78.) \cee ocean 179 N. St. Paul St., Rochester, N. Y.

BAUSCH, (EIEN YE BGS cee conerne cic scinie niscorniots euetolteeteeRntens Rochester, N. Y.

BAUSCH; WiILTAM, MBSUa ic ak accents ctaciei ale Nala alels aietenanets Rochester, N. Y,

BEAD, Prot. JAMES EABRTUMY. | 290... ci sclelae slstels Scio College, Scio, Ohio

BEARDSEEY,) Prot AF. OT, ices a wats Ooo nie bss setn's alnpee's aietelknieis Greeley, Col.

BRT SCARS HHS s, (Ooty ne oltnelersscuale tessa 89 Broadway, New York City

BENNETT, EUW RY WG. VOB ii. ise aes holmes 256 W. 42d St., New York City

Bessey, Prof. CHARLES Epwin, Ph. D., LL. D., ’98,....... Lincoln, Neb.

BIscon Erol THOMAS DL ON sera sisiele einvete 404 Front St., Marietta, Ohio

THE AMERICAN MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY 359

pn AL Me M.D: 81 oc. Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio

Beonie CETor DONA DSON; (96), ofs))6 cise alelacioa cine a Crawfordsville, Ind.

Boorn, Many A., F. BR. M.S., ’82;.......- 32 Byers St., Springfield, Mass.

Boyce, JAMES C., Esq., ’86,............ Carnegie Building, Pittsburg, Pa.

Borex, Joun W., M. D., ’96,.......0.. 23 Mawhinney St., Pittsburg, Pa.

aes, OAM, 798 See wis eos 3223 Clifford St., Philadelphia, Pa.

Pain, Gn. 9:3) 96, 5225 oe eee os 302 Spitzer Building, Toledo, O.

BRroMLEY, ROBERT Innis, M. D.. '93,..........-..cccceeeeees Sonora, Cal.

EO Pee Ba ee eee W. Main St., Angelica, N. Y.

BEMMN, i. LOWLAND, OL oo voice os ese 33 S. 10th St., Philadelphia, Pa.

BROWN, OBERT, 7BD)) 060002. os 6. Observatory Place, New Haven, Conn.

BaounpAaGrm: A.A, MD), 7943 oc. See. 1153 Gates Ave., Brooklyn, N. Y.

BuLL, JAMES EDGAR, Esq., ’92,..... 253 Broadway, New York City, N. Y.

BuRNER, NATHAN L., M. D., ’96,... .368 Hamilton Ave., Columbus, Ohio

Raebriibes rot bys PheDr iis RR Me S., O78 3.0 ee hase: Urbana, Ill.

Burt, Prof. EDWARD A., ’91,....... Middlebury College, Middlebury, Vt.

BusH, Beeruad E:).M) Dj 796.56 550.0.5: 808 Morse Ave., Rogers Park, IIl.

CAMPBELL, D. P.,M. D., ’88,.Tomichi, White Pine P. O., Gunnison Co.,Col.

CARTER, JOHN B., ’86,. 0522.2 c006 Ne ate Germantown, Philadelphia, Pa.

CHESTER, ALBERT H., A. M., ’88,..Rutgers College, New Brunswick, N. J.

Cr ePE GO. Eis. VOOIsI re EAE Shes cwlnw cscres 116 Water St., Pittsburg. Pa.

Prank AYEORD. be ME De 968 soso de Suk ahisees Syracuse, N. Y.

CLARK, GEORGE Epw., M. D., ’96...... Skaneateles, Onondaga Co., N. Y.

CLAYPOLE, AGNES M., 94, ............. Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.

CLAYPOLE, EpITH JANE, Ph. B., M.S., °93,

Wellesley College, Wellesley, Mass.

CUAYPOLE, BDWwARD, W., B. Se., F. GS. 786,602.40. 0.688 Se Akron, Ohio

CLEMENTS, FREDERICK E., A. M., Ph. D., ’98,.............. Lincoln, Neb.

Gosrni@nAs. WN. Aj Me 86.0030. ic ose wees 26 N. Pine St., Albany, N. Y.

a A a ER a: Re 114 Sycamore St., Oil City, Pa.

Coucu, FRANCIs G., 86,

Kalish Pharmacy, 28d St. and 4th Ave., New York City

Co=,Cuas. FY, ER. M, S.,;785.... . Grand Central Depot. New York City

Gras POOMAS ISS oss eee. ss 244 Greenpoint Ave., Brooklyn, N. Y.

CUNNINGHAM, M. C., ’96,...............; Board of Health, Pittsburg, Pa.

15 LASHES eel Co vUCHNE 3 RAL 1s ap GR a dS ov Drawer 1033, Rochester, N. Y.

MARES ONE Hie OG fr Sos ik os Ava edie Sind Oe ahele a hme Marion, Ohio

PANN dt ME Ds, 2965 2. ve Sis oe soa ober oe Young St., Brighton, Ont.

Dinaway Heney DM. D:., 798.......:- 424 8. Salina St., Syracuse, N. Y.

Penn, VATED C2 Msi 296, .6do secs estes 361 Pearl St., Buffalo, N. Y.

Dorr, L. Bravery, A. B., M. D., ’96....300 Jefferson St., Buffalo, N. Y.

Dore Os HOBART) Phe Gt,’95, 025. ..3535.08 945 Niagara St., Buffalo, N. Y.

Dort, Miss ELIZABETH, ’96,............. 608 Filmore Ave., Buffalo, N. Y.

DousLepAyY, Henry H., Esq., ’90,..715 H. St., N. W., Washington, D. C.

Mcepcerme SW Be Sb oR ade Box 1033, Rochester, N. Y.

Mosram, MK. Me 708,856.55. 746022: 3388 E. 26th St., New York City

360 THE AMERICAN MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY

EASTMAN, LEwis M., M.D., F. R. M. S., ’82,

772 W. Lexington St., Baltimore, Md.

EIGENMANN, Prof. C. H., ’95,... University of Indiana, Bloomington, Ind.

Brnrorr, Brot, ARTHUR Es (Ole ol ea ae. 4 irving Place, New York City

BELIOT rae Bi AO8s sn ehicee © okies 4 Fulton Ave., Rochester, N. Y.

BESNER Ad OHN AM: De 28a 6 & sone. Al eos ee P. O. Box 454, Denver, Col.

GWT tA el Se OOFE oa RAGE RT i Seien Lt Los: 16 Pearl St., Council Bluffs, lowa

EWELL, MARSHALL D., LL. D., M.D., F. R. M. S., ’85,

618 and 619 Ashland Block, Chicago, Il.

Hermer: ADoOuPE, IM: Dy) {Sivas as Pore ee 520 E. Main St., Columbus, Ohio

Neu, GEO HMDA RR Meise assy 72 Niagara St., Buffalo, N. Y.

FELLOWS, CuHaAs. S., F. R. M. S., ’83,

28 Chamber Commerce, Milwaukee, Wis.

KEREISs Erol, HARRY. Bis 960s ease 118 York St., New Haven, Conn.

Eta AG Gee Der 82 hse yee an PN Summit Place, Des Moines, lowa

GENDER We Mite eb ME) 22298 se Be re oe 2 Union Place, Troy, N. Y.

Jtofcpe no} rey) WG ea! Be hE Ae ea Zeiss Optical Works, Jena, Germany

BINT ANISH: MIDS BOI! ee Oee . ‘“‘The Portland,’’ Washington, D. C.

FORDYCE, CHARLES, B. S., A. M., ’98,

Nebraska Wesleyan University, University Place, Neb.

Hox sOSGaRiGs (OD we NS Mo od U.S. Patent Office, Washington, D. C.

FULLER, CHAS. G., M. D., F. R. M. S., ’81,

39 Central Music Hall, Chicago, Ill.

GABRINER, BRED: MODS 787,:.O2..cenkee. 3519 Penn. Ave., Pittsburg, Pa.

GAGE, Prof. Stmon H., B.-S., ’82,.......Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.

GAGE: JMS), SUSANNA PHELPS; "870500000 s,s Maice nla oes ee Ithaca, N. Y.

GUAT RS Oe MIR COG ic. uth ta Means og bol eee, Ee ate cn ee Chevy Chase, Md.

GOODRICH). Wists Me Dr 9B ei eee cclasicie ame ae ea eee Augusta, Ga.

GREEN, Miss ISABELLA M., M.S., ’96,...St. Mary’s School, Raleigh, N. C.

HaaG, D. E., M. D., F. R. M.S., ’86,.. 1121 Washington St., Toledo, Ohio

ELAWAMAN SG. (Bes RR IMS S270) cacage Sa! eae Box 527, Troy, N. Y.

HANKS, HenrraG:, (86.25... 718 Montgomery St., San Francisco, Cal:

HASENCAMP, Oscar, M. D.,..... Cor. Cherry and Ontario Sts., Toledo, O°

HATKIEED (od) ON sce eas ake ss 333 Arsenal Ave., Indianapolis, Ind’

Heap, GHORGE HENRY Mee: 796, o.oo. cee eobaseee Battle Creek, Mich.

HEINEMAN, H. Newron, M. D., 791,..... 60 W. Fifty-sixth St., New York

HERTZLER, ARTHUR AG] ITD 296. 05 Lc ities eee Halstead, Kan-

EG GINS SE Wid, Mi Di OB Si egies. 2 kee oes ee Courtland, N. Y.

Sha by prage & ons 92909 2 pel yl 2d cir] D doy fob ee aya kL 24 High St.. Buffalo, N. Y.

HOREMAN 0s: Ee! Me DOG See 111 Steuben St., Pittsburg, Pa.

HOLBROOK) Mi. DLre MER Barth ts oe 46 E. Twenty-first St., New York

Hors AL OMS ANE Ds POR ke esa Ce Jackson Block, Denver, Colo.

HOSKINS, WWM a ton. cmt sey eit er oe Room 55, 81 S. Clark St., Chicago, Il.

Howarp, Curtis C., M. D., ’83,..Starling Medical College, Columbus, O.

Howe, Lucien, M. D., F. R. M. S., ’78,..87 W. Huron St., Buffalo, N. Y.

THE AMERICAN MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY 361

HOWLAND, HEnRy R., A. M., ’98,.......... 217 Sumner St., Buffalo, N Y.

HuBeEr, G. CaR., M. D., F. R. M. S., 90, 24 E. Ann St., Ann Arbor, Mich.

0 ELETESTS jst 9 6 DBI 5a RRR 0 SG | 5 a a a eM ES Ge Ce deb Ad Jamaica, N. Y.

1s SENSES (Gt) DA its ae ae a re 69 Burling Lane, New Rochelle, N. Y.

JACKSON, CHEVALIER Q., M. D., ’87,......... 63 Sixth Ave., Pittsburg, Pa.

JAMES, BusHROoD W., M. D., ’94,

N. E. cor. Green and Eighteenth Sts., Philadelphia, Pa.

AMEE SO RANK D7. Pb. DD: MD. SO Box 568, St. Louis, Mo.

SPAMS GMO NENW no GOs. alee ka aid bcp cicve te cee ee 108 Lake St., Chicago, Ill.

JOHNSON, FRANK S., M. D., ’83,.......... 2521 Prairie Ave., Chicago, IIl.

SCL GD ORS A 2 SNP Tm bot cH Bergen, N. Y.

JOHNSTON, UEVE D., Mi D,, 796,205 000.026. Pritt seh REE Whittier, Cal.

JONES, Mrs. Mary A. Drxon, M. D., ’98,. 439 W. 162 St., New York City.

[STPTRTLOvevel "dio 0 Gl, Jv Le 51 DJEAP Ap (seer i ae ey Battle Creek, Mich.

ira ARRAN DUCKER: JR, 29D. 2 56.00. odes 1386 Main St., Buffalo, N. Y.

MECN GSB Yost Nae Hey Apes MS See OE Sie oe oe ee Ithaca, N. Y.

J CHPRT TE ATES 01s Blog [eS a ly ak Springfield, Ohio.

ITS. ee UA 7 ae OS ee 3385 Superior St., Toledo, Ohio.

LSC 2651 Delegate 53 S. Fourth St., Easton, Pa.

LGRATOLE gS WB 1 09 OC 5 ee OS 411 W.59th St., New York.

Krauss, WM. C., B. S., M. D., F. R. M. S., 90,

371 Delaware Ave., Bufialo, N. Y.

PENDREV et OTOL ooo. Ba lcokicc t+ cis eia'a/big. dx 19 Court St., Fort Wayne, Ind.

LAMB, J. MELVIN, M. D., ’91,........ 906 G St., N. W., Washington, D. C.

IVAN SMEG, ANSTO. oo o/s oh x's wloe ee 156 Woodward Ave., Detroit, Mich.

LATHAM, Miss V., D. D.S., F. R. M. S., ’88, 808 Morse Ave., Chicago, III.

MAWEON, UW ARDY) Py BB iis o5ie ec cae eee eee 3 Linden Ave., Troy, N. Y.

bereprs do) HARRY, 796)... 025 5.0821 2nd and Franklin Sts., Reading, Pa.

Lewis, Mrs. KATHARINE B., 89, ‘‘Elmstone,’’ 656 7th St., Buffalo, N. Y.

MMM MMSAUN ee TOES ome eT ee ae Ne ie ty ran See es Dixon, Ill.

LinE, J. Epwarp, D. D.S., F. R. M. S., ’82, 39 State St., Rochester, N. Y.

ee DORN Dy) Or 0 iy. oslo es 4 Lafayette Sq., Washington, D. C.

WORE ADORE HY DOs ies, coal WA sia bietel da 'nsa's 48 Clinton Place, Rochester, N. Y.

TEOMUB MELO NVe SAGs ois cae Soke doll cseue 48 Clinton Place, Rochester, N. Y.

Loomis, CHANDLER H., ’97, Atlantic Dredging Co., 31 Pine St. N. Y. City.

Lo Oa) tre) OR GI Le A es 80 E. 55th St., New York City.

LOVELAND, A. E., M. A., M. D.,’97,....McLean Hospital, Waverly, Mass.

Lyon, Howarp N., M. D., ’84,.......... 39 Belleview Place, Chicago, Il.

Manton, W. P., M. D., F. R. M. S., ’85, 32 W. Adams Ave., Detroit, Mich.

MARSHALL, Coins, M. D., ’96,...... 2507 Penn Ave., Washington, D. C.

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MAST RAIN, SUM B52 973s ca bonkn bcc aero aa New London, Ohio.

McCatia, ALBERT, Ph. D., ’80,

414 Monadnock, Dearborn and Jackson Sts., Chicago, III.

362 THE AMERICAN MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY

MCKAY | SOSEPHUN84. | hese oun. meraals ss ileaters 259 Eighth St., Troy, N. Y.

McKim, Rev. Hastert, ’85,........ 33 W. Twentieth St., New York City.

MEADER, LEE Dovetass, M. D., ’96, 914 E. McMillen St., Cincinnati, O.

MELnOR GH ASMOE SO uli cn enll als nba Nt 77 Fifth Ave., Pittsburg, Pa.

MERCER, A. CLIFFORD, M. D., F. R. M. S., ’82,

324 Montgomery St., Syracuse, N. Y.

MERCER, FREDERICK W., M. D., F. R. M. S., 88,

2540 Prairie Ave., Chicago, Il.

MILLER, JOHN A., Ph. D., F. R. M. S., ’89, 255 Ellicott St., Buffalo, N. Y.

MIEENOR GHAS) Gur cGOne eek ations eee 318 Highland Ave., Pittsburg, Pa.

ERLE.) PS TVV VE Mir Cio: lens alge erie ahchah iis CR _..Milledgeville, Ga.

Moopy, RoBEerT O., M. D., ’91,..... 1204 Chapel St., New Haven, Conn.

MOORE UProl OV Acs MED Bye. cause ete Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.

MURPHY. HUGENE IB. oOMe Ds ORs ese cy occa oan ae ee _.Augusta, Ga.

BEYORS, “BURTON DD; Oss ciss ws winless oink sale 89 N. Tioga St., Ithaca, N. ¥. ©

NUNN, RICHARD J.,. M.D... ’88,.....52...5.. 1191¢ York St., Savannah, Ga.

OBERT, ce pM Den Oe ef te Med. Dept., Univ. of Ga., Augusta, Ga.

OER AVY adds et eae (acne ans e tcyetyales esis rate 18 Locust St., Portland, Me.

ODIN, RSC ME De GOs se a acite econ 82 Adams Ave. West, Detroit, Mich.

OLSEN, ALFRED BERTHIER, M. D., ’96,

Med. Miss. Training School, 1926 Wabash Ave., Chicago, Ill.

| YAO Op OSI el Bev 8 Degas Ue) O ORR LAER Bie RE Se 85386 Olive St., St. Louis, Mo.

Park, ROSWELL, A. M., M. D., ’84,....510 Delaware Ave., Buffalo, N. Y.

BATRICK SHRANIC Venn ON nce g yi 601 Kansas Ave., Topeka, Kan.

RASH VE RED SEIN Bt casas aoe esis aktahale OR ieee Box 210, Altoona, Pa.

BEN NOGK | Bape tiOs on ve es ok 38609 Woodland Ave., Philadelphia, Pa.

PERRY, STUART H., Esq., 90,

Cor. Saginaw and Lawrence Sts., Pontiac, Mich.

Braun, MAGNUS, MSO Ode ia beeing. 415 Grant St., Pittsburg, Pa.

EE IGONIGAGLE av EISQs.) (once ica tes 243 Superior St., Cleveland, Ohio.

ROUND, JROSCOn: AGIMe TERA DOS. ose Lincoln, Neb.

PYBUEN, GEORGE, MED 386 ho i ohn awed. 1011 H St., Sacramento, Cal.

RED. RAYMOND Oi Silke era cmnereebente 108 University Ave., Ithaca, N. Y.

REYBURN, ROBERT, M. D., ’90,..... 2129 F St., N. W., Washington, D. C.

REYNOLDS, WILLIAM GEORGE, M. D., ’97,.............. Woodbury, Conn.

RIcE, FRANCIS Scott, ’96, Cor. Third St. and Eastern Ave., Aspinwall, Pa.

Ropsins, Henry A., M. D., ’91,....1750 M St., N. W., Washington, D.C.

SAMPSON; CATIA) Wiss Mls co Gihvcl rah ete ace ete coketavele ennai ae Penn Yan, N. Y.

ScHwrrZ, HENRY, MM. Ds,\"96) 50 ce 518 W. Chicago Ave., Chicago, Ill.

SCHWERDTFEGER, Louis CHARLES, EsqQ., ’96,....Lincoln, Logan Co,, Il.

SEAMAN, WM. H., M. D., ’86, 1424 Eleventh St., N. W., Washington, D. C.

SECOR A BIN GAG. Ooms Bereich Acetate ee cis ate na? eee an aem Elmira, N. Y.

SEYMOUR; /Prots MONE (80.2 hoe ete er ee alte acta a eae Chico, Cal.

THE AMERICAN MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY 863

ReEMBBE eh 1504 BS. oc sa erative diararsivie awe 809 Adams St., Bay City, Mich.

Perererem ey LUA Sy: 5, Gay Voitna cine oe) eet aoa ee ee Hoboken, N. J.

SIEMON, RUDOLPH, ’91............. 22 E. Jefferson St., Fort Wayne, Ind.

Porm CAs) 1. Ph. Di. Mi. De FB ee Se ne Defiance, Ohio.

SETA BTA 5 CEPA Se 131 Carondelet St., New Orleans, La.

ONSEB IE rey AUIS Ese. DS DIE S552 OF 0... ave buses ctu ae orate eas Bryan, Ohio.

SPENCHOR: HERBERT Ro 285.50 oo sic oc cdc was 367 Seventh St., Buffalo, N. Y.

STILison, J. O., A. M., M. D., ’80,...445 N. Penna St., Indianapolis, Ind.

BROGKWEEE. TLODNEY By 296). ccc oe wee eae five Box 509, New Brighton, Pa.

SON Va OBUR Td 2, I Tre 190s, icra Gis a srso oe fale P. O. Box 363, Pittsburg, Pa.

STOWELL, THomas B., A. M., Ph. D., 782,

State Normal School, Potsdam, N. Y.

SUMMERS, Prof. H. E., ’86,........ University of Illinois, Champaign, II].

Tuomas, Prof. Mason B., ’90,.... Wabash College, Crawfordsville, Ind.

THORNBURY, FRANK J., M. D., ’96...... 401 Delaware Ave., Buffalo, N. Y.

EMMEN SSG MOREE OU en cc cc scncet eacis coe ake ae Syracuse, N. Y.

TWINING, FREDERICK E., ’96............. 1833 Mariposa St., Fresno, Cal.

VANDERPOEL, FRANK, M. E., ’87,...... 191 Roseville Ave., Newark, N. J.

VEEDER, ANDREW T., M. D., ’83,

Horne Office Building, Penn Ave., Pittsburg, Pa.

War Es eM PAGS MDs 86) 2 i). os vane tveedte cae Lock Box 1108, Lyons, N. Y.

Vorosn, C. M., Esq., F.B. M. S., ’78,..... 5 Rouse Block, Cleveland, Ohio.

VREDENBURGH, E. H., ’84,......... 122 S. Fitzhugh St.; Rochester, N. Y.

WiAEMSeny- WH. ROR. MM. 'S:, °78;).....- 4248 Pine St., Philadelphia, Pa.

Warb, Prof. Henry B., A. M., Ph. D., ’87,

University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Neb.

WEBER, Prof. Henry A., Ph. D., ’86,....1342 Forsyth Ave., Columbus, O.

WEIGHTMAN, CHAS. H., ’86,............ 5859 Michigan Ave., Chicago, 11].

MERCH MG HOnO: Mie Doc O le Oa cele! Box 416, Fergus Falls, Minn.

Wunpu, Fenest, M: D.; 791,025... .. 471 Delaware Ave., Buffalo, N. Y.

EST Ei 5 eS a 7 508 Adams St., Toledo, Ohio

WHELPLEY, H. M., M. D., Ph. G., F. R. M.S., 790,

2342 Albion Place, St. Louis, Mo.

WHITE, JONATHAN, Esq., ’91,........... 14 Maple Ave., Brockton, Mass.

Wore, Mosms; Ci0M. Di 88 oe ces oe Box 1674, New Haven, Conn.

WED. PANN II IDs BOs. 52.5 oie tae c alee eters Petersburg, II].

Witten, MAGTIN S:, °86,..22 2.5. .0260 21 Walnut St., New Britain, Conn.

Witson, LeonrpAs A., Esq., ’85,.... 112 Public Square, Cleveland, Ohio

Warsone Mrs: Mary Je Mi IDS, 29D) occ. 5 05.5 ola See Ithaca, N. Y.

WoOLcott, RoBERT Henry, A. M., M. D., °98,.........5...%. Lincoln, Neb.

WOODWARD, ANTHONY, ’85,........... 206 W. 128th St., New York City

WOODWARD CAGES OTs cn we scjnc es cette eo siee oie 93 Park Ave., Utica, N. Y.

Youne, Augustus A., M. D., ’92,

22 E. Miller St., Newark, Wayne Co., N. Y.

YzZNAGA, JosE M., Es@., 90,......... 612 F St., N. W., Washington, D. C.

ZENTMAYER, FRANK, ’91,........... 209 S. Eleventh St., Philadelphia, Pa.

364 THE AMERICAN MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY

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BIENNIAL INDEX

FOR VOLUMES XIX AND XxX.

RRM SPREE SV WN a NM PLLC ONG | oii. 0 2 3 bia vin, ales epee bint aula! by afoye/ oe paras ee

Air-sacs of Birds, Special Structural Features in the, Mary J. Ross..

Albino Eggs of the Spotted Salamander, An Occurrence of, Horace

BOP EREIEC MEMS NN cima rehe giaie soe alee AO Side wa dies sieeve ee ed eens CR ee

Ae RINN a WV gp AA UES AIEET 80a) ohn) Srnsoss bm, dpe dvd Staten aah od's, bale eid lear aa

*Ameba villosa Leidy, The Sporular Development of, J. C. Smith...

Annual Address of the Presiding Officer, The Natural in Disease, Ver-

SAUTE EE OORE 3 5 schiln' vino, n\eloyd 6 die. oie eis dels, 20 2-0 aid Tae

*Arthropods, Some Points on Cleavage Among, Agnes M. Claypole..

Atax, On the North American Species of the Genus, Robert H. Wol-

*Bacteria, Dahlia as a Stain For, in Sections Cut by the Collodion

Rieihond ) maymiotcd (Weeds. 3) st.2s'n6d 2a adlew cd be Henin aus

Bacteria, The Persistence of, in the Milk Ducts of the Cow’s Udder,

Oar PAPER MELA T Aas WORE Che Sic). 5 a/c Me So wt alal «si slecie's, HN 2 OE Mio Ieee SET

*Berry, John M., A Comparison of the Phagocytic Action of Leuko-

cytes in Amphibia and Mammalia...............-.....000- esc

Birds, Special Structural Features in the Air-sacs of, Mary A. Ross..

Bleile, A. M., Obituary of David Simons Kellicott...................

Blood Counts, Effect of High Altitude on, A. Mansfield Holmes.....

Britcher, Horace W., An Occurrence of Albino Eggs of the Spotted

od, AEs LIVE 1S Sa RU LA pe ee LE ee dQ creck

PRP red COO ea oat a) x dials) v2 va! 5/5 jajovain's S's sénjnvatarby atm Biel haabniaete es ae ee

RM MGCANR EN LOME IO ore 01a o's cjo5n ls ainvcia;s,cia xine = boa), « ope sage ee aoe

Carcinoma on the Floor of the Pelvis, Two Discoveries in Cancerous

Pieeaso Mary Aircon. POUES... Vs ol..'s «1d as ean pjeiseamenaia mee

Caryophyllales, Contributions to the Histogenesis of the, Frederic E.

CAUSED REE ie eA pad eR a le REE GALS PMTs fav Sal

*Claypole, Agnes M., Some Points on Cleavage Among Arthropods..

*Claypole, Edith J., The Comparative Histology of the Digestive

PRCA cs oS es ale ac Hendy tihsh tin ate 0) sia e590 (5 aka Rial eS Seen ae

*Claypole, E. W., Microscopical Light in Geological Darkness.......

*Cleavage Among Arthropods, Some Points on, Agnes M. Claypole..

Clements, Frederic E., Contributions to the Histogenesis of the

AURORA LSRIGS 2 05 fobs sik eid. 2's. dice etsigs aw A'eichale 6 Sioa eal Maa ERE Rie aah ae

All articles from Volume XIX are starred.

182

177

198

356

165

366 BIENNIAL INDEX

Comma or Cholera Bacilli, Experiments in Feeding Some Insects

With Cultures of, R. L. Maddox. 2.0): 00.2... s2.c0 sas see 75

*Comparative Histology of the Digestive Tract, Edith J. Claypole... 838

*Comparative Study of Hair for the Medico-Legal Expert, A, William

George Beynolds .. «0c cies 0% cine estas cn ae 08 oe 117

*Comparison of the Phagocytic Action of Leukocytes in Amphibia and

Mammalia, A, John M. Berry... 6.05. 0 <s5 vesca seas som eee eee 93

*Constitution, Adopted at Rochester, N. Y., 1892..................4. 196

Constifmiions. «6605 6s). ocses vac sas 0 we aiein) ee ste e wipe new Oe 5 erga eer 305

Contributions to the Histogenesis of the Caryophyllales. I. Fred-

erit ‘Hi. Clements 203... 2s. ce ede ens sso nt seem ks oe ee 97

Coons, Henry C., Obituary, Simon H. Gage.............ccesseeenane 28

*Dahlia as a Stain for Bacteria in Sections Cut by the Collodion

Method, Raymond C. Reed. 2.2.55... 0800S cec cee chee eeenee 182

*Development of Methods in Microscopical Technique, Henry B.

Ware ous csecessa gadis ovdee ost tecs bed ccseb ite cca eee een 175

*Digestive Tract, The Comparative Histology of, Edith J. Claypole.. 83

Diphtheria Bacillus, Questions in Regard to the, M. A. Veeder, M. D. 81

Disease, The Natural in, Veranus A. Moore.:.....+...s.ccsececsceees 3

Effect of High Altitude on Blood Counts, A. Mansfield Holmes..... 177

Epithelium, Intestinal, The Regeneration of, In the Toad During

Transformation, B. F. Kingsbary. .. .3 : .)..002 escapee 45

Experiments in Feeding Some Insects with Cultures of Comma or

Cholera, Bacilli, ‘BR. L. Maddox.:: ; .\....5/3% «des's2s oc 75

Freshwater Investigations During the Last Five Years, Henry B.

WT on. 5 ais oso ins, dares sdi e's alere dis 0" dd Nel w 9 ores ee 261

*Gage, Simon H., Notes on the Isolation of the Tissue Elements..... 179

Gage, Simon H., Obituary of William A. Rogers.................... 25

Gage, Simon H., Obituary of Henry C. Coons..... ................- 28

*Hair, A Comparative Study of, for the Medico-Legal Expert, William

George ‘Reynolds. occ ees wae pees os ties > ee 117

*Hemospast, The. A New and Convenient Instrument for Drawing

Blood for Microscopic Examination, Veranus A. Moore......... 186

Histogenesis of the Caryophyllales, Contributions to, Frederic E.

Clements. ios posi e cis od aek wkend eves Sas cb puede yee an 97

Holmes, A. Mansfield, Effect of High Altitude on Blood Counts...... 177

*Infusoria from the Infusorial Fauna of Louisiana, Notices of Some

Undescrihed( J: 'C: Smith. so 520500 o7n thee eee eee 55

Infusoria, Notices of Some Undescribed, from the Infusorial Fauna of

Lowisianiay Jo (C0. Sait soe oi ooo. tae a ave) ayn on 51

Insects, Experiments in Feeding with Cultures of Comma or Cholera

Bacilli, R. L. Maddox...... . Dad Lee Reicks a2 at ea arr 75

Investigations, Freshwater, During the Last Five Years, Henry B.

Ward ik 8 ea is sew he guaiel Galore eater 261

BIENNIAL INDEX 367

Jones, Mary A. Dixon, Carcinoma on the Floor of the Pelvis ....... 165

*Kellicott, D. S., The Rotifera of Sandusky Bay. Second Paper..... 43

Kellicott, David Simons, Obituary, A. M. Bleile....................- 21

Kingsbury, B. F., The Regeneration of the Intestinal Epithelium in

Mie wloAd OwTrins TrAnstOrmatlOn: ssccies «cee + eee enn enter 45

*Leukocytes in Amphibia and Mammalia, A Comparison of the Pha-

gocytic Action of, John M. Berry.............. Ted Ae ees ts en 93

PARTS irr ME IMDOLS: y LOOT Oe si evtisecc vs ove binlee ee Sern bigw Sa et ae aie totes 201

Seen EC MAIITS LES D ssa'a u's! sac c bo os aids Dae cgine wah sg pa epalguae eee 358

*Loveland, A. E , A Study of the Organs of Taste.................... 129

Maddox, R. L., Experiments in Feeding Some Insects with Cultures

MUON OF CHOLEDA ACI As ccc co's calms o oerale eee marae redeeee %5

Man, Micrometry of Red Blood Corpuscle of, Frank Judson Parker.. 41

Medical Microscopy, A. A: Young ............0.05..- b> eee a aerneae 87

PLOMITEUSHSTLOl, LONGO iyo tals ve igiecesicc aie clclsitis de atlaee aimee mene 201

PRE MPUEN A PS h Ole LOAO—O ysis Seine ev cials o's slavere wiotplateisseve! svciale cine Mralnee At alcersts 358

Method for Preparing Nucleated Blood in Bulk for Class Demonstra-

TNS rg Oo a er RE ey cp ccla Cele 49

Micrometry of Red Blood Corpuscle of Man, Frank Judson Parker.. 41

*Microscopical Light in Geological Darkness, The President’s Address,

eCPM SPU ai ed Ss Vass fae a wate yeu ton veh actnme caress 3

*Microscopical Technique, Development of Methods in, Henry B.

NEO eT Toler ects «oes sit J nw esis s vine 2 of oeuparsi ie neater ge 175

Preruseony, Momical A, A. YOUN. oo... sec ees on enalpeistepae cies 87

*Micro-structural Characteristics of Steel, Francis Scott Rice........ 28

*Microtomes, Two Very Simple, Edward Pennock................... 189

*Minutes of the Twentieth Annual Meeting, held at Toledo, Ohio,

OBES ERETES CHORE ON PLE G «css a ove ola'a' ig cece 4's lo © ose ahaha’ wieilt d/l c\Oeer are ecm eiestn 190

Minutes of the Twenty-First Annual Meeting, held at Syracuse, N. Y. 347

mix, ©. M., A Rapid Staiming Apparatus ...... 2. .sjcoes- camsuis dmepe 341

*Moore, Veranus A., The Hemospast. A New and Convenient In-

strument for Drawing Blood for Microscopic Examination...... 186

Moore, Veranus A., The Nutural in Disease...............-00- ee eeee 3

Myers, B. D., Picro-carmine and Alum Carmine as Counter Stains... 337

Natural in Disease, The, Veranus A. Moore............00-eececceees 3

*Notes of the Isolation of the Tissue Elements, Simon H. Gage.. ... 179

*Notices of Some Undescribed Infusoria from the Infusorial Fauna

CLM OMISIANAs Je x SOLES osc iaens ees a elds UAE ie eee ee ae eres 55

Notices on Some Unuescribed Infusoria from the Infusorial Fauna of

Meera. OC. Smaithy oc clislo nov ates ne to ee eee oa eee 51

Nucleated Blood, Method for Preparing, in Bulk for Class Demon-

gr ii sed Rt OA Dg 2S a RU Ree depp 28 CGN mc a 49

368 BIENNIAL INDEX

Obituary, Henry C. Coons, by Simon H. Gage............ .....2.00: 28

Obituary, David Simons Kellicott, by A. M. Bleile .................. 21

Obituary, William A. Rogers, by Simon H. Gage.................... 25

Occurrence of Albino Eggs of the Spotted Salamander, Amblystoma

punctatum 1; An, Horace W. Britcher, .\.\:2.2 5.0. cne s ooeeeee 69

Oertel, T. E., Method for Preparing Nucleated Blood in Bulk for

Class Demonsiration oS Solio... ce ds cele eee ee 49

*Officers for 1897-8 and Executive Committee ..............c0.c00e0s 2

Officers for 1898-9 and Executive Committee.. ......... 2. cece eee 2

On the North American Species of the Genus Atax (Fabr.) Bruz.,

Robert. H: Wolcott. 00... oe ise ee. ss 05 1 2 Sevens als rn 193

Parker, Frank Judson, Micrometry of Red Blood Corpuscle of Man.. 41

Pelvis, Carcinoma on the Floor of the, Mary A. Dixon Jones ........ 165

*Pennock, Edward, Two Very Simple Microtomes...............++- 189

Persistence of Bacteria in the Milk Ducts of the Cow’s Udder, Archi-

Mosh BR WV re oo so oho velo ide, cu yes wlain. 9 ile (ie a) exe iehe ie ee ee 57

Photo-Micrography with Opaque Objects, W. H. Walmsley.......... 189

Picro-carmine and Alum Carmine as Counter Stains, B. D. Myers... 337

*President’s Address, 1897. c. 6.6/0 0:1 o\s\sn0 ae o's as.) 5heiue Cee 3

President’s: AGGress, 1898) 24 i)s.s,<, «pis eucisese © Gale eke alc ee eee eee 3

Questions in Regard to the Diphtheria Bacillus, M. A. Veeder...... 81

Rapid Staiming Apparatus, C.,M. Mix. ...... <0). 0. o%5s.Le eee 341

Red Blood Corpuscle of Man, Micrometry of, Frank Judson Parker.. 41

*Reed, Raymond C., Dahlia as a Stain for Bacteria in Sections Cut by

the Collodion Method. ....)......:....0)s=.0) 2s + ba oe 182

Regeneration of the Intestinal Epithelium in the Toad (Bufo lentigin-

osus americanus) During ‘Transformation, The, B. F. Kingsbury... 45 ©

*Reynolds, William George, A Comparative Study of Hair for the

Medico-Legal Expert.) 2 oi)... 500 bees. de ies o> nae 117

*Rice, Francis Scott, Micro-structural Characteristics of Steel....... 28

Rogers, William A., Obituary, by Simon H. Gage................... 25

Ross, Mary J., Special Structural Features in the Air-sacs of Birds.. 29

*Rotifera of Sandusky Bay, The. Second Paper, D. S. Kellicott.... 43

*Sandusky Bay, The Rotifera of. Second Paper, D. S. Kellicott..... 43

*Smith, J. C., Notices of Some Undescribed Infusoria from the Infus-

orial Fauna of: bouisiana ..) co. ec 3 tee eee 55

Smith, J. C., Notices of Some Undescribed Infusoria from the In-

fusorial Fauna/of Louisiana: ../) 50.6 cod sles ca cle bees eee aie 51

*Smith, J. C., The Sporular Development of Ameba villosa Leidy .. 69

*Some Points on Cleavage Among Arthropods, Agnes M. Claypole.. 74

Special Structural Features in the Air-sacs of Birds, Mary J. Ross... 29

*Spencer Tolles Fund 1897............... cio wl ace lel ata give a Chala talaga ena 195

Spencer Tolles Fund 1898 9... oj. cia cinsiee' wciews orninaremn oe 354

*Sporular Development of Ameba villosa Leidy, The, J.C. Smith.... 69

BIENNIAL INDEX 369

*Stain for Bacteria in Sections Cut by the Collodion Method, Dahlia

fer) repo Reeds. 5). sivisccc cc -oiepic. divie a std bia) uleeIeiiclel mia le) sieis- 182

Stains, Picro-carmine and Alum Carmine as Counter, B. D. Myers... 387

*Steel, Micro-structural Characteristics of, Francis Scott Rice....... 28

*Study of the Organs of Taste, A, A. E. Loveland................ .. 129

mere eA Sts UOT ios «oso. 2's 2 oo Side © wyaynjars, an xe wntaieleceinple mld metale eae 207

PeMIEeRI DOES, TOOD LM.) jou ni own o's ee ny eormele Afb Aibtate Aa cea hat eheh oh che 364

*Taste, A Study of the Organs of, A. E. Loveland..................-. 129

*Technique, Development of Methods in Microscopical, Henry B.

sa eh aS ASME Ae Mayo aicit' 2 d's) a Sia ie eA a KORN tan ee ieeetie ee 175

*Tissue Elements, Notes on the Isolation of, Simon H. Gage......... 179

Toad, The Regeneration of the Intestinal Epithelium of, During Trans-

ieee eh. MMP BDEEY <2) 2 2) 2 3.4 ti sgeniaaeeuteaie salt eae 45

*Treasurer’s Report for Year Ending July 22, 1897.............. ies LOS

Treasurer’s Report for the Year Ending August 17, 1898............ 353

*Two Very Simple Microtomes, Edward Pennock........... .....-. 189

Veeder, M. A., Questions in Regard to the Diphtheria Bacillus...... 81

Walmsley, W. H., Photo-Micrography with Opaque Objects......... 189

Ward, Archibald R,, The Persistence of Bacteria in the Milk Ducts

SERIO MCREES iiss, aia's 25,4): s'o o/ai'w theo wiv din 2's afsieasyerees amie gE tars 57

*Ward, Henry B., Development of Methods in Microscopical Tech-

HALOS LC ape Peps EA Hel chs ete a stage ee AA Nig Ws fo 2 lag os She al sat ete Paes JPM ater 175

Ward, Henry B., Fresh Water Investigations During the Last Five

PiMESaN tre Cee site et tte Ait a's hd Alea» g soale <x nip oiatesean Shae aeons ae 261

Wolcott, Robert H., On the North Arnerienn Species of the Genus

SSE ee SERA TR Sh Ee bt OE Nl ee Ma Re nl A ci tee 193

The next meeting of the American Microscopical Society

will be held in Columbus, O., August 17, 18 and 19, 1899.

Columbus is the central city of Ohio, with excellent railroad

connections in every direction. Its hotels are among the best

in the State. It is well known as a convenient and attractive

city for conventions.

The sessions of the Society will be held in the elegant new

Biological Hall of the Ohio State University, which was

designed for the special accommodation of the departments of

Entomology, Zoology, Anatomy and Physiology, and is fully

equipped with all the latest and best apparatus for this work.

The building is in design and general appearance one of the

most attractive on the campus and is easily accessible from the

city hotels. All the facilities of the institution will be placed

at the command of the Society, which is thus insured the most

satisfactory environment for a successful meeting. By holding

the meeting at this place and date, members of the Society are

assured of reduced railroad rates, granted in connection with

the meeting of the American Association for the Advancement

of Science the following week. A most cordial invitation is

extended to our members to remain for the meeting of the

latter organization and enjoy all its privileges at an added

expense of $3.00, the nominal fee for affiliated membership,

or to become full members.

Reduced railroad rates are granted to all our members.

Details concerning rates, programs, etc, will be sent in a later

circular. Notice of papers for the annual meeting should be

sent the Secretary at once.

By recent action of the Society, members may be elected at

any time, and blank applications may be secured in any

number from the Treasurer or Secretary.

TRANS AG EONS

OF THE

American Microscpical

Society

ORGANIZED 1878 INCORPORATED 1891

EDITED BY THE SECRETARY

Twenty-Second Annual Meeting

COLUMBUS, OHIO, AUGUST 17, 18, anp 19, 1899

VOLUME XxXI

LINCOLN, NEB.

HUNTER-WOODRUFF PRINTING COMPANY

1900

OFFICERS FOR 1899-1900.

President: (A. M: BiumIne . 60. Oa). ee CGolumbussee

Vice Presidents: C.H.EIGENMANN . . . . . . Bloomington, Ind.

M.A. VEEDER oo. 3 6) so 2 eee

Secretary: Henry B.WAaRgD . . . . 4. » « » » JdancoiniNep:

Treasurer: J.C.SMITH . .). sw) ee ls ee. New "Orieane tia

Custodian: MaGcnous Prraum ....... .... . Pittsburg, Pa.

ELECTIVE MEMBERS OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

WW HATLEGER ee ey oe ee ie ais le) ie)! ee

RR ic ga foes eich le tha pegs Anh gt vel ec

BoD? MIvERs ne ka i RN Be Wd i

EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

Past presidents still retaining membership in the Society.

R. H. Warp, M. D., F. R. M.S., of Troy, N. Y.,

at Indianapolis, Ind., 1878, and at Buffalo, N. Y., 1879.

H. L. Smiru, LL. D., F. R. M. S., of Geneva, N. Y.,

at Detroit, Mich., 1880, and at Cleveland, O., 1885.

J. D. Hyatt, F. R. M. S., of New York City,

at Columbus, O., 1881.

ALBERT McCatta, Pu. D., F. R. S. M., of Fairfield, Ia.,

at Chicago, Ill., 18838.

J. D. Cox, LL. D., F. R. M. S., of Cincinnati, O.,

at Rochester, N. Y., 1884, and at Madison, Wis., 1893.

T. J. Burrixy, Pu. D., F. R. M. S., of Champaign, Il.,

at Chautauqua, N. Y., 1886.

Geo. E. FELL, M. D., F. R. M. S., of Buffalo, N. Y.,

at Detroit, Mich., 1890.

FRANK L. JAMES, Pu. D., M. D., F. R. M. S., of St. Louis. Mo.,

vj at Washington, D. C., 1891.

MARSHALL D. EwELL, M. D., F. R. M. S., of Chicago, Ill,

at Rochester, N. Y., 1892.

Srmmon Henry GAGE, B. S., of Ithaca, N. Y.,

at Ithaca, N. Y., 1895.

A. CLIFFORD MERCER, M. D., F. R. M. S., of Syracuse, N. Y.,

at Pittsburg, Pa., 1896.

E. W. Ciaypotr, B. A.,D.Sc., (Lond.), F.G. SS. L. E. & A., Pasadena, Cal.

at Toledo, O., 1897.

V. A. Moors, M. D., of Ithaca, N. Y.,

at Syracuse, N. Y., 1898.

W. C. Krauss, M. D., F. R. M. S., of Buffalo, N. Y.,

at Columbus, O., 1899.

The Society does not hold itself responsible for the opinions expressed by members

in its published Proceedings unless indorsed by a special vote.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

FOR VOLUME XXI.

The Annual Address of the President: Some Medico-legal Aspects of

Trauma in Relation to Diseased Cerebral Arteries, by William C.

BISREISE « PatHiER IOs p IW Veo 215 oto. oa dais boo Rem ee ee ee 1

Defective Development and Disease, with Special Reference to the

Curability of Consumption and Cancer, by M. A. Veeder, Lyons,

PP ae sted or erect ne iNet ap eas nitis cis’ 4'a's. 5.8.4 < elafer a a mature sett Ree Ree ale

The Reaction of Diabetic Blood to Some of the Anilin Dyes, by V. A.

WM ERER ENS ler lei rs ns Gate ao asi she a ch nle sis’ o\c << ve araveine eae ay he he ae eee 31

Comparative Study of the Soft Palate, by William Fairfield Mercer,

Meabes, ama 155 cco ne kd foe. aics ws aes sawlede coma don rere 41

The Eyes of the Blind Vertebrates of North America, II. The Eyes of

Typhomolge Rathbuni Stejneger, by Carl H. Eigenmann, with

pal aemba ecaraph Vs 2 a .asios aeate soci gov Se we oda UL Oe aa a EERE 49

The Modern Conception of the Structure and Classification of

Diatoms. With a Revision of the Tribes and Rearrangement of the

North American Genera, by Charles E. Bessey, with plate V..... 61

Notices of Some Undescribed Infusoria, from the Infusorial Fauna of

Louisiana, by J. C. Smith, New Orleans, La., with plate VI...... 87

Notogonia Ehrenbergii Perty, by J. C. Smith, New Orleans, La., with

ee ye cs cre ieee ola le Aaic' sos 6 ois «ln bia 4s ug eR eee 95

Chlamydomonas and its Effect on Water Supplies, by George C.

Wihipple, Brooklyn; N. ¥.; with plate VIL.....-...0.sc4-sca ae sek 97

An Incubator for Student Hee, by Veranus A. Moore, with plate VIII. 103

Some Laboratory Apparatus, by Simon Henry Gage................. 107

An Expedient for Use in Difficult Resolution, by R. H. Ward, Troy,

DED Neometa shen ccsijaste Asloby BatabiG sta eahad yd aia:claka. coacd Mt Aas ahs caaha, Sn oe ere 111

The Plankton of Echo River, Mammoth Cave, by Charles A. Kofoid 118

Library Expedients in Microscopy. Indexing, Cataloguing, Preparing

and Arranging Literature and Slides, by R. H. Ward, Troy, N. Y. 127

New Genera aud Species of North American Hydrachnidae, by Robert

EW oleoit, withiplates [X-to XIL+....)..:<22<a2caese eee 177

A Plea for the Study of Limnobiology, by Henry B. Ward............ 201

A New Avian Cestode, Metroliasthes lucida, by B. H. Ransom, with

Pacoima iis oe) 3 aS ares 2 sss an cig helenae eee eget 213

A Comparative Study of Methods in Plankton Measurement, by Henry

aN AEE. MAGN AES) CW LO), VL. ..« . 5). 5 ae ote ee eeeoaene ee saurs 227

RMAT ASMP Ceo ders ateltst at "a3 3,5: aaacdinvda oe 06 0 diel a eR el aie: 249

Minutes of the Annual Meeting. viata é id's (olaldl © oieialalaoal abel MepaeneerMER aN Eko) he 257

Ra area SOLE OMEN ESRMOTL bajo. xn oss ih n'a sao) 4 weal ang ve Re AR AU CNG eles ea 263

Be TAPERED TDET tS 2 As asc lps alaharasave ssa a ata op RA TART AT oman e See 265

Ie ER NET RAINS. Se) 18510 ‘a pig ay iu, 2h avchesedinnd esc a RDS NEE neh gc) a 266

PSION POTTER 2 2.2.25 occ) (a's, dale nara a ai ate ey MM IRON stood wa ee 268

PASE Or SUSE EAD OES sooo 5) ds. 'd wisinia'e sooratamtenirar ate Pa a aD ble wis nls «iba untae 275

PEC ET ASE TETRIS N Src ls ela asia -s| Liat cials etal eS IAAL ca sae ea ti ta te I

ERRATA.

Page 5, fifteenth line from the top: omit the comma between

‘‘uraemic’’ and ‘‘ manifestations. ”’

6 9, fifth line: insert ‘‘r’ in ‘‘transgressors. ”’

‘¢ =: 99, sixth line from the bottom: transpose ‘‘next”’ and

“¢the.’?

‘¢ 185, top line: substitute ‘‘amount”’ for ‘‘ mount.”

‘¢ 148, insert ‘‘51” before ‘‘ Inorganic Microscopy.”

s¢ 6158, line ‘811, 2”: for ‘‘eyptoplasm” read **eyto-

plasm.”’

*¢ 6176, top line at right: ‘‘ Ecuador,” for ‘‘ Equador.”’

‘¢ 207, at bottom: references under ‘‘Claypole, A. M.”

and ‘‘Claypole, E. J.” should be to ‘Proc.

Am. Mic. Soc.”

TRANSACTIONS

The American Microscopical Society

TWENTY-SECOND ANNUAL MEETING, HELD AT COLUMBUS, OHIO,

aueust 17, 18 anv 19, 1899

THE ANNUAL ADDRESS OF THE PRESIDENT

SOME MEDICO-LEGAL ASPECTS OF TRAUMA IN

RELATION TO DISEASED CEREBRAL ARTERIES

By WILLIAM C. KRAUSS, M. D., F. R. M. S., Burrato, N. Y.

In casting about for a subject upon which to address you I

thought it wise to select one from the domain of medico-legal

medicine, one which has interested me for some time and one

which I trust will continue to absorb the interest it so much

deserves.

After a period covering ten years of active private practice

in the field of nervous and mental diseases, some important

facts must certainly stand out prominently to almost any one

who is in any way an observer or even a follower in the

science in which he treads. The mere pursuit of any of the

microscopical sciences must make of any one an observer—one

who sees, then feels—not with his fingers but with his intellec-

tual grasp.

In the study of disease one should first search for the phe-

nomena, and then ask for the cause, and in nearly all cases he

will find the phenomena commensurate with the cause. Some-

2 WILLIAM C. KRAUSS

times the cause may be obscure—not, however, to the trained

and thorough observer, but to him who looks superficially at

the nature of things and fails to see what lies below the super-

ficial strata. At other times that cause may be so hidden and

so buried within the organism that the microscope, with all

its mechanical niceties, is called into action to help solve the

seeming mystery.

One of the most interesting questions in neuroiogy, and one

of the most important is the relation of trauma to disease of

the nervous system. I do not mean a trauma sufficient to

produce a fracture if applied to the cranium, or even to a

laceration, if applied to the soft tissues, but a trauma appar-

ently slight and of seeming little import at the time of its

infliction. To those cases especially do I refer where serious,

even fatal, results follow a slight contusion, in certain individ-

uals, while in others the same force would be scarcely if at all

perceptible, and this brings me to the important and valuable

services to be rendered by the microscope in elucidating the

true cause of the various phenomena noted.

It is a well-known fact that the susceptibility of individuals

differ; that is, what produces a serious condition of things in

one would have no effect upon another, This susceptibility

may be evidenced in one of two ways: first, by producing a

class of disorders comprised under the head of the traumatic

neuroses, usually functional and temporary, and, secondly, by

calling forth a more serious class of disorders, which terminate

in death itself, either primarily or through sequele. Such are

injuries to the arterial system, weakened and degenerated by

disease, either acquired or inherited. The vices, alcoholism

and syphilis, produce upon the arterial walls, especially of the

cerebral vessels, a degeneration and disintegration, which

render them unsafe carriers of the blood even under the usual,

normal blood pressure. When the pressure is increased, the

tension becoming greater, then there develop, as Charcot

pointed out in 1868, and Virchow previously in 1851, under

the name of ectasia ambulare, small aneurismal protuberances,

which under slight provocation, as shock, excitement or exer-

THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS 3

tion, physical or psychical, burst, and permit the egress of

blood under the high arterial tension into the surrounding brain

tissues.

Of the two classes of disorders the first, or functional, are of

less serious import and depend less upon a preexisting patho-

logical condition of the constituent elements of the nervous

system than upon a general debasement or deterioration of the

whole nervous organisation. There is found in those individ-

uals an increased morbid reaction of the ganglionic nerve cen-

ters to all kinds of impressions, both mental and bodily,

whether slight or profound, and is liabie to manifest itself on

very short notice and on the jeast provocation.

The microscope has been unable as yet to point out the de-

gree of involvement of these nerve centers or even the area of

involvement, but may at some future time render inestimable

aid in solving one of the most complex questions in human

neurology. This very absence of knowledge regarding its path-

ology has led to much controversy and debate regarding this

affection. There are even some who look upon it with con-

tempt under the mistaken idea that the barometric changes of

disposition, tastes and feelings from day to day indicate a fraud-

ulent basis. Studied originally by Erichsen, under the name of

railway spine, this syndrome has been investigated by Rigler,

Hodges, Page, Clevenger, Oppenheim, Striimpell, Dana, Out-

ten, Knapp, Bailey, and in no uncertain way by Charcot and his

pupils, and has received a galaxy of names, polyonymic as well

as mononymic. The relation which the arterial system bears

to the genesis of this affection is as yet not well defined, except

in this much, that an artery diseased is a poor conduit for the

passage of a fluid whose function in the brain is primarily to

nourish and regenerate tired and worn out nerve cells.

Turning to the second class of disorders we meet a condition

of the vessel walls long since recognised, and easily demon-

strable by any one acquainted with microscopic technique.

Doubt and uncertainty regarding the lesion have long since dis-

appeared, and to the student beginning the study of medicine is

taught at the bedside and demonstrated in the laboratory the

4 WILLIAM C. KRAUSS

effects of an endarteritis and the structural appearance of the

lesion. He is, moreover, taught that this condition of the vessel

walls, leading to their deterioration, disintegration and destruc-

tion when occurring in early manhood is attributable, in the

great majority of cases, to two vices—alcoholism and syphilis—

both unfitting the arteries for the work nature originally mapped

out for them.

Three conditions are necessary for the normal circulation of

the blood in the arterial system. First, the arterial walls must

be capable of dilating without strain or injury to any of the

coats of the arteries; second, the walls must be able to contract

upon their contents; and third, the lumen of the vessels must

be preserved.

The elasticity of the vessel walls permits the blood to flow in

an unbroken, continuous current through the smaller blood-

vessels and arteries, relieving them of the direct force of the

heart’s action. In fact the main force of the heart is spent in

distending the larger arteries and the immediate propelling

force of the circulation is the elasticity of the arteries in which

the heart stores up the energy of its systole for the moment.

The blood pressure is, of course, highest in the heart; consider-

able in the whole arterial system, though gradually diminishing

toward the capillaries, in which it would be feeble; lower still

in the smaller veins; and at its minimum where the great veins

enter the heart. It is estimated that the blood pressure of the

carotids in man is not less than 150 to 200 millimeters of mer-

cury. ‘To supply a sufficient elasticity to the arterial walls, to

withstand the force of the heart’s action, the middle coat has

been supplied with yellow elastic tissue, the importance of

which, when diseased, is not to be overlooked or underestimated.

The contractility of the arteries has great physiological im-

portance, but less pathological than the elasticity. In the smaller

vessels, by virtue of their contractile walls, the distribution

of blood is regulated to the various organs. Where the resili-

ency of the vessels is at fault, active or passive anemias or

hyperemias of the brain and other organs are produced.

When the elasticity and contractility of the vessels are not

THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS 5

impeded by disease and the lumen is not encroached upon, nu-

trition is carried on normally and the functions of the parts

supplied are commensurate with their growth and development.

Where the vessel walls are weakened by disease, the elasticity

of the arteries is impaired, the resistance to the blood pressure

is too feeble and hemorrhage from rupture takes place.

The disease leading to the weakening of the vessel walls has

been variously designated by different names as arterio-sclerosis,

atheroma, chronic endarteritis, endarteritis deformans and the

like.

A pure and simple physiological process of old age, its earlier

occurrence, or the more extreme grades of its severity, are de-

pendent upon some toxic principle in the organism, prominent

among which may be mentioned syphilis, chronic alcoholism,

gout, uremic, manifestations, and in some cases it is due to over-

strain. Although the causes of arterio-sclerosis are well known,

there exists diversity of opinion as to how these recognised

causes operate. The opinion once in vogue, that the inflamma-

tion started in the inner coats as a result of the irritation of the

toxic or infectious agencies in the blood, is no longer tenable.

It seems fairly well established that the degenerative changes

and loss of elasticity in the vessel wall are the result of the

primitive causes, and the hyperplastic processes in the intima

and other parts of the arterial wall are the ultimate result.

(Stengel. )

Thoma believes that the degenerate vessel tends to dilate

and to thereby slow the circulation; the slowing leads to

hyperemia of the vessels, and to a consequent connective tissue

new formation in the intima, which narrows the vessels. These

changes also occur in the middle and outer coats.

Heubner, in 1874, first described accurately the changes

taking place in the arteries, especially at the base of the brain,

resulting in an arteritis or endarteritis, and found existing

either as an independent disorder or as part of a local syph-

ilitic affection. An endarteritis is found, due to the pouring

out of round cells from the vasa vasorum—an endothelial pro-

liferation, followed by thickening of the intima, fenestrated

6 WILLIAM C. KRAUSS

membrane and adventitia. As a result, the lumen of the

vessel is narrowed, even occluded, or the intima becomes

roughened and changed and a thrombus forms, which may in

turn give rise to an emboius.

The process may be a diffuse one, but it is most commonly

distributed irregularly, the inner surface of the vessel exhibit-

ing patches of sclerosis separated by areas of comparatively

healthy tissues, or is furrowed or wrinkled with irregularities.

In many cases also there occurs a deposition of new material

within the affected area of the vessel wall, this newly formed

tissue being in some cases hyaline and nearly structureless

(‘‘hyaline degeneration”); in others containing round cells,

few or many, embedded in a hyaline or gelatinous matrix.

This newly formed tissue, furthermore, is very prone to early

and extensive, slowly progressive, degenerative changes, fatty,

or, less frequently, calcareous in nature, which render the

diseased areas more distinctly visible, giving rise to the familiar

‘Catheromatous plaque.”

In those cases in which the degenerative change is calcareous

in character, the formation of irregular chalky masses, or of

smooth ‘‘ calcareous plates,”

cases these deposits may involve the entire circumference of

is a common result. In extreme

the vessel for long distances, rendering the arterial wall so

brittle, that instead of bending, it fractures under application of

force. The fatty and calcareous degenerative changes are

often combined; indeed, in the more serious cases this is the

general rule, the deposition of calcareous matter appearing as

a later stage of the fatty degenerative atheroma.

The patches of atheroma are raised, usually encroaching

slightly upon the lumen of the artery, although in ordinary

cases they interfere only in a very minor degree with blood-

flow.

There are three alterations which atheroma produces, each

of which may, according to circumstances, have important

effects on the circulation.

These are narrowing of the caliber, loss of elasticity and

rigidity of the wall, and interference with the muscular con-

THE PRESIDENTS ADDRESS 7

tractility of the vessel. Thus it is seen that this process

counteracts each one of the conditions so necessary for the

normal circulation of the blood. Generally as a result of the

weakening of the vessel walls by sclerosis or degeneration,

small saccular aneurisms, often called miliary aneurisms,

develop in the end arteries of the brain, but especially in the

arteries supplying the optic thalamus, corpus striatum and lentic-

ular body, and the lenticulo-striate artery has even been

designated by Charcot the apoplectic artery, because of its

proneness to aneurismal development and consequent rupture.

Hemorrhage rarely occurs at the cortex of the brain because

the smaller arteries and arterioles enjoy an intimate anasto-

mosis with each other, and any sudden increase in blood pressure

is quickly equalized through this anastomosis. Then, too,

these arteries do not receive the direct flow of the blood from

the carotids, and the blood pressure is perceptibly diminished

by the time it reaches these arterioles. Arteries at the base of

the brain are not so liable to rupture as the end arteries going

to the large ganglia, because of their anastomoses in the circle

of Willis and because of their tortuous course, which permits

of considerable increased pressure before they straighten out

and become tense. Aneurisms of small size, from a pea toa

bean, are very prone to develop along these arteries and hence

are next in importance to the lenticulo-striate artery as regards

rupture.

The end arteries in the region of the internal capsule are so

liable to rupture, because instead of having a system of anas-

tomoses, they terminate in blind pockets.

When the large vessels at the base of the brain, that is, of

the middle cerebral, posterior cerebral and the communicating

arteries, have undergone calcareous degeneration the absence

of the normal elasticity of these vessels allows the blood to

pass with great force and directness into these end arteries and

if the conditions are favorable, that is, an endarteritis is present,

the vessel walls will yield to the strain and become bulbous

and then aneurismal. They may remain in this condition for

some years even, but they are comparable to the faulty flues in

8 WILLIAM C. KRAUSS

a boiler—only safe as long as the pressure is low. When the

pressure is increased physiologically, through eating, drinking,

sexual congress, exercise, or pathologically, through stimu-

lants, the emotions, or by slight injuries to the head, then the

aneurismal walls give way and a serious hemorrhage follows.

Without previous disease of the arteries it is almost impos-

sible to think of hemorrhage from rupture to take place. The

action of the heart alone is never responsible. In most of

these cases where the endarteritis has existed for a long period,

the heart is hypertrophied, a condition probably due to the re-

sistance which it has to overcome in forcing the blood along

through the diseased and often narrowed vessels without the

aid of the normal elasticity by which the work of the heart is

much lessened.

To an individual with such a diseased condition of the cere-

bral arteries, a trauma, be it ever so slight, may, and does very

often, produce fatal hemorrhages. When such cases arise in

the criminal courts, what is to decide the true guilt of the pris-

oner? Should the jury listen only to the passioned, eloquent

summary of the prosecuting attorney, or should the jury take

cognizance of the status of the cerebral vessels of the victim

previous to the injury, and heed the testimony of the micros-

copist, who has carefully examined into the condition of the

arteries and found the prisoner, though guilty, nevertheless a

victim of circumstances 4

There is an old story told of a physician, who, when being

asked his age, replied that he was as old as his arteries. How

true this is, those of us who feel of arteries can bear testimony,

but is it not equally true, that a man is no healthier than his

arteries? Here again, those of us who examine applicants for

life insurance know full well that no individual with a sclerotic

radial or temporal artery will be accepted as a first-class physi-

cal risk. If a condition of sclerosis exists at the wrist or fore-

head, it is safe to infer that the same condition wiil be found at

the base of the brain. It has even been asserted by Duret that

endarteritis will be found affecting the basilar artery when its

presence can be detected in no other artery of the body.

THE PRESIDENTS ADDRESS 9

If life insurance companies regard such individuals as sub-

standard risks, why should not courts of justice? I do not

make this plea because I favor the criminal classes or desire to

lighten their punishment in any degree, or to offer any induce-

ment or incentive to future transgessors, but simply to call at-

tention to a question which I believe will in the near future be

given full and due consideration.

A chain is no stronger than its weakest link, or a bridge

stronger than its weakest span, or a man stronger than his

weakest artery.

If a man with such a condition of the arteries be engaged in

heated discussion, in mental or physical excitement, or is under

the influence of alcoholic drinks, or all combined, and is sud-

denly stricken down with a fatal hemorrhage, the verdict will

simply read, death from apoplexy. If, however, he is engaged

in a dispute, under the same conditions as just noted, and re-

ceives a slight blow, perhaps even a push by his antagonist, and

a fatal hemorrhage likewise ensues, the verdict will read mur-

der or manslaughter, and the prisoner will most generally re-

ceive the full punishment allotted by the statute. A case of

this kind, in which I was engaged as medical expert, but failed

for some reason to appear on the stand, illustrates the injustice

of such procedures, ard although perhaps not admissible in an

address of this kind, nevertheless I will report it and grant you

the exceptions.

The victim was a sailor of Swedish extraction, and had sailed

the lakes for seven or eight years, making his home at Buffalo.

He was in the habit of spending his nights when on shore at a

notorious dance hall in the infected district. One night he met

a singer in the resort, whose husband was ‘‘the strong man,”’

doing certain tricks, as stone-breaking, tearing chains asunder

and the like. The couple proceeded up-stairs to a private room

and drank heavily of strong liquors. Leaving the room and

descending the stairs they met the husband, who struck the

sailor on the jaw, felling him, and in a few moments the latter

expired. Post mortem examination of the cranial cavity re-

vealed a large flattened clot of blood in the posterior fossa of

10 WILLIAM C. KRAUSS

the cranium—the same having escaped from a large opening in

the basilar artery near its bifurcation into the posterior cerebrals.

The basilar artery was the seat of an arteritis, also endarteritis,

with thickening of the lumen in some places and thinning in

others. It was at one of the thinned portions that the rup-

ture occurred. Other evidences of cerebral or arterial disease

were wanting, and the anatomical diagnosis was reported as

‘cerebral basilar hemorrhage.”

Of course, no history of syphilis could be obtained, but the

seat of the disease, condition of the artery, occupation, habits

and surroundings of the man, leave little doubt as to some

previous specific inoculation. No doubt the woman’s husband

was, to a great degree, a victim of circumstances. With the

degenerated condition of the arteries, as was found in the case,

the excitement might of itself have produced the arterial rup-

ture, and this, further accentuated by the increased arterial

tension, due to the large amount of stimulants which he had

taken, would have required but a very slight shock, either

mental or physical, to have produced a disruption of the dis-

eased vessel. The force of the blow was of itself not so

important under these circumstances, although at the trial

much stress was laid on the assumption that the prisoner must

have dealt a terrible knock-out blow, being noted for his

strength, which, in fact, consisted only in stage tricks, he being

actually possessed of only ordinary strength.

There was no examination made microscopically to deter-

mine the exact pathological condition of the bloodvessels.

Neither was the defense of the prisoner as vigorously fought

as might have been, on account of the evil atmosphere surround-

ing the tragedy, and the verdict of the jury read, manslaughter

in the first degree. Had the microscope been called into this

case, the arterial degeneration probably present been thoroughly

demonstrated to the court, the defense of the prisoner carried

out on lines suggested above, I believe the disposition of the

case would have been different, even though it was of unsa-

vory character.

Soon after I was called in to another medico-legal case which,

with your kind permission, I will also briefly narrate.

THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS 40

A policeman making his rounds in the lower part of our city

came across a group of children surrounding a drunken man,

who had fallen to the ground. In trying to rouse him, the

man suddenly sprang to his feet and attacked the policeman,

so that the latter was obliged to defend himself, and in the

fray, struck the drunken man on the head with his club. The

man staggered and fell to the ground. An ambulance was

called and he was taken to an emergency hospital for treatment.

No fracture of the skull was found, and no abrasion of the

scalp could be detected, but the patient was in a condition of

coma—very light—which increased gradually to a deep coma.

A meningitis was supposed to be the cause of the coma and

after an illness of two weeks he died. The autopsy, made very

carefully, did not reveal any meningeal inflammation, but on

careful inspection a small aneurism with hemorrhage into the

medulla was detected. The brain and arteries were carefully

hardened and prepared for microscopical examination, which

was conducted by Dr. H. U. Williams, of Buffalo, represent-

ing the prosecution, and by myself for the defense. No trace

of any injury to the meninges could be found. The brain

matter was healthy; not so, however, the arteries. A general

endarteritis was found affecting nearly all the cerebral arteries,

but more especially the vessels at the base of the brain—the

vertebrals and the basilar. The middle coat of the vessels

was unequally thickened and thinned and a small aneurism

had developed near the junction of the basilar and vertebral

arteries. This aneurism was furthermore ruptured and the

pressure of the escaped blood upon the vital centers in the

medulla occasioned the man’s death.

At the trial, the medico-legal question of most import was,

in how far did the blow of the policeman’s club produce death?

Had the arteries been in a normal healthy condition there

would have been no contest over the case, no point of differ-

ence to be settled. The condition of the vessel walls, however,

put another aspect to the case. Who could say but what the

excitement and the consequent increased arterial pressure

WILLIAM C. KRAUSS

might not of itself have produced a rupture of the diseased

vessels. The microscope proved conclusively a dangerous

condition of the ruptured vessel and case after case has been

found of a similar death without any external violence. It

was therefore impossible to state what brought about the rup-

ture and the jury wisely exonerated the policeman from the

charge brought against him.

Diseased conditions of the cerebral arteries, especially pro-

duced by alcohol and syphilis—place individuals into a class

peculiarly of their own. They are dangerous to themselves

and far more dangerous to others. They offer a point of least

resistance, and upon the degree of resistance does their own

life and safety depend. They are no stronger, no healthier than

their diseased vessels and should be so regarded in all courts of

justice.

A trauma not severe enough to produce any pain or injury to

a normal healthy man will produce brain lesions of the most

dangerous character in these cases. Where the condition of

the arteries is not made manifest to the court by a microscopist,

or where the court fails, or refuses, to see the susceptibility of

the patient to apoplexy through slight injuries, then the pris-

oner receives punishment far in excess of what he really de-

serves. All cases of death following head injuries should be

most carefully investigated and the true condition of affairs be

made known in no uncertain manner. The microscopist be-

comes in ali such cases a most important adjunct, and his find-

ings and deductions should be given most careful and respect-

ful consideration.

Turning now to another class of symptoms engendered by

trauma to the head, we meet disturbances of mental action,

sometimes slight, sometimes profound, and in not a few cases

of beginning degenerative lesions, terminating in insanity. It

is not so much the local effect of the injury, but the general

effect of a commotio cerebri, and the syndrome of mental disor-

ders induced by such cause has been well termed by the Ger-

mans ‘*commotion insanity.” The effect of a violent blow or

jar or jolt to the head must have some influence upon the mol-

THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS 1s)

ecules of the brain, as well as upon the encephalon as a mass;

it must displace and disarrange delicate microscopic structures,

such as the nerve cells and nerve fibers.

If there be present in the individual the remnant of previous

syphilitic inoculation, the effect will be far reaching and most

serious. A slumbering paresis is many times awakened by

slight accident so infinitesimal that at the time no heed is paid

to it. Slowly and surely the progressive symptoms of paresis

develop and soon the disease is converted into a galloping par-

esis, and fortunately for the patient and friends a rapid dissolu-

tion is to be looked for. The microscope again discloses the

cause, as Mickle, of London, Mendel, of Berlin, and many

others have long since shown—a degenerative condition of the

frontal lobes with a previous syphilitic inoculation as a back-

ground.

General paresis, like tabes, has an initial stage that may last

for months or years, during which the patient is not only not in-

capacitated for work, but may conduct himself so rationally

that no suspicion is entertained that he is already suffering from

a disease which is soon to destroy both body and mind. From

the insidiousness of its onset it is usually impossible to say

even approximately when the morbid process began. In nor -

traumatic cases, where the first marked symptoms consist of an

attack of acute maniacal excitement, or of acute mental depres-

sion, there is every reason to suppose that the disease had al-

ready existed, though unsuspected, for sometime. Similarly,

when an injury to the head is quickly followed by an outbreak

of the symptoms of the disease, it is never possible to say with

absolute certainty that the traumatism did anything more than

hasten into activity a process which was already existent and

whose ultimate development was inevitable, irrespective of

traumatic agency. (Bailey.)

This early prodromal stage, when the individual is thought

by friends and relatives to be perfectly sound and healthy, is

called by LeGrand du Saulle the ‘‘medico-legal period,’ be-

cause of the large number of medico-legal inquiries made bear-

ing upon the patient’s soundness of body and mind during this

14 WILLIAM C. KRAUSS

period. I recall a case where in such a predisposed individual

paretic symptoms rapidly developed after he had been knocked

down on a street corner by a careless driver. Previous to this

accident he was a thorough musician and an adept violinist.

After a few days he became a paretic of the most pronounced

type with his delusions of grandeur all concentrated about music,

opera and song. The family, on advice of the consulting attor-

ney, had recourse to law and a suit for damages was the result.

Trauma was looked upon as the cause of this man’s insanity,

but as a matter of fact it was only contributory. The real cause

was the pathological condition existing in the poor fellow’s

brain—a product of his own misdeeds. The trauma only lit

up the slumbering embers, and once flared-up the progress of

the disease was not to be controlled.

The percentage of cases of paresis due to trauma is given by

Schlager* as ‘‘ one-seventh of all cases of mental diseases in-

duced by head injuries.”” Meyer found 15 cases of injury to

the head in 76 cases of general paresis in which the causes

were clearly made out. In 80 male cases Krafft-Ebing found

cranial injury to be the cause in 6. Christian observed 43

cases of general paresis in 100 cases of injuries to the skull.

Other observers, as Mickle and Gudden, have found a relation-

ship between trauma and general paresis in 7-10 per cent. of

their cases.

In the great majority of these cases the head injury is but

secondary to the predispositions underlying the individual.

These may be either inherited or acquired. If the former, then

a congenital syphilis; if the latter, a preceding syphilitic inocu-

lation is, as a rule, the predisposing factor. Generally, and

if the courts are ill-advised and ignorant of the underlying con-

dition, punishment is inflicted, usually in the shape of heavy

damages awarded the patient.

The rdle which the diseased bloodvessels play in paresis is

perhaps primary, leading to the atropic changes in the brain

cortex itself. The very earliest anomalies are nutritive defects

in the ganglionic cortical elements, and then follow local hyper-

* Quoted from Bailey; Accident and injury.

THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS 15

emias of the frontal, temporal or parietal convolutions, dilata-

tion and degeneration of the coats of vessels, lymphatic stasis

and effusions into perivascular lymph spaces, swelling and then

wasting of nerve cells and fibers, proliferation of neuroglia

and of protoplasmic glia cells, cortical and meningeal adhesions,

and the formation of neo-membranes.

Thus it will be seen that although differing materially from

the pathological condition of the arteries, as found in apoplec-

tic attacks, nevertheless, the degenerative coats of the artery,

through syphilitic infection, are equally as dangerous to the

victim and as calamitous to the aggressor.

Alcohol and syphilis, the two vices of civilization, produce

the most degenerating conditions in the neuron and in the

vessels going to support and tone the system of neurons.

Disease and death follow closely upon their trail; they single

out with great delight both youth and beauty; they render the

strong and vigorous weak and susceptible; they disintegrate

and destroy the physical, as well as the psychical; but more

than all, not satisfied with their own unfortunate prey, they

tend to inculpate others by force of circumstances and weave

a web of guilt and suspicion about them. Fortunately, how-

ever, in many cases they leave such glaring earmarks that the

microscope is able to detect their presence and act thereby as

a safeguard to the unsuspecting and innocent.

DEFECTIVE DEVELOPMENT AND DISEASE, WITH

SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE CURABILITY

OF CONSUMPTION AND CANCER.

By M. A. VEEDER, M. D., Lyons, N. Y.

The problems about to be discussed are of interest to micro-

scopists, although in one sense more strictly adapted to another

audience. It would have been desirable to have given more

detailed observations in reference to histological, biological,

and other points involved, instead of dwelling so largely upon

the general aspects of the subject. Nevertheless, the paper

may be, I hope, of some service to the working microscopist as

indicating lines of research that it is specially desirable to

follow.

Our knowledge of the agency of bacteria in the production

of disease has advanced so rapidly since the pioneer discovery

of the bacillus of tuberculosis in 1883 that there is danger of

forgetting that there is another side to the question, having ref-

erence to the perfection of organization of the human frame,

and its consequent resisting power to disease. Indeed, there

are disease conditions due to defective development solely, in

the entire absence of bacterial infection of any sort. Thus the

degenerative changes due to old age result in enfeeblement

amounting to positive disease, and yet there is no microbe of

old age, at least not any thus far discovered. Nor is there any

microbe of nearsightedness, nor of squint, nor of harelip, nor of

lack of brain and nerve, nor of any of the thousand and one

imperfections and peculiarities, many of them racial, like flat

noses and thick lips, that appear in those having otherwise fine

physique.

Really the human body is no better than patch-work, loosely

put together and weak at many points. Malformations about

the neck, commonly spoken of as scrofulous, may signify noth-

18 M. A. VEEDER

ing more than imperfect closure of the embryonic bronchial

fissures in that location. The tibia and fibula being of nearly

equal size, and the ankles crooked in the embryo, undue per-

sistence of these forms may originate coarse ankles and clumsy

gait, presenting the appearance of positive disease, whereas it is a

purely developmental detect. So, too, the appendix vermiformis,

that supernumerary tattered end of the patch-work of the body,

appears to serve no purpose except to catch dirt and infection,

and destroy life on absurdly small provocation, gratifying the

disciples of Malthus, but no one else. In like manner the

wisdom tooth is a superfiuity, except so far as the dentist is

concerned, and there are many other abnormalities of like char-

acter pleasing to no one, unless it be the student of teratology,

and the surgeon.

In the subject chosen for this paper, cancer and consumption

are specially named in connection with defective development,

as representing two aspects of the entire question, and at the

same time as being essentially most important because of their

serious nature. With our present knowledge, cancer represents

all that is worst among diseases not due to specific micro-

organisms, and consumption all that is worst among diseases

produced by such organisms.

Until inoculation experiments have demonstrated that cancer

is contagious, its bacterial origin cannot be assumed. Cancer

appears to be most closely allied to eczema, the chief difference

being that it affects epithelial cells other than those chiefly in-

volved in eczema. Cancer, like eczema, may be produced by

many sorts of irritation, bacterial or otherwise, there being no

specific parasitic organism in either disease, and both alike being

non-contagious. Thus, tobacco-smokers’ cancer starts from the

irritation of the lip by the pipe, at the outset resembling the

eczema to which it is so closely allied, and which is associated

also with cancer of the breast, as was pointed out by Sir James

Paget. The difference in the behaviour of cancer and eczema

in respect to danger to life is, according to this view, due to the

fact that in the former the epithelial cells involved have a power

of growth resembling that of various appendages of the skin,

DEFECTIVE DEVELOPMENT AND DISEASE #9

such as the hair and nails, but not safeguarded in the same way.

Cancer cannot be cast off as the horse sheds his coat, or the stag

his antlers, or the snake its skin, nor can it be kept trimmed,

like the hair and nails, although something of this sort is often

attempted surgically.

Thus cancer may be taken as the type of all that is worst in

the diseases due to faulty growth. It does not stop with the

formation of tissues of low vitality, and specially vulnerable to

the forms of infection capable of producing ulceration, but

goes right on increasing in bulk, producing injurious pressure

effects on surrounding parts and destroying their vitality. The

products of the perverted cell activity in cancer, like many

other wastes of the body, appear to be poisonous when retained,

not resembling, except in appearance, the corresponding exuda-

tion in eczema, which is harmless. Thus the epithelial origin

and type of growth of cancer is the most serious phase of the

question as to the nature and consequences of defect of devel-

opment affecting the cellular structure of parts of the body.

Consumption, on the other hand, is the type of all that is

worst in the class of diseases that are plainly due to specific

forms of bacterial infection, Unlike the bacilli of many other

infectious diseases, that producing consumption is not des-

troyed by the products of its own activity. Hence the futility

of the search for an anti-toxin for this disease derived from its

bacillus, and hence also its tendency to progress to a fatal

termination. Self limited diseases only are likely to be con-

trolled to any important extent by the methods of serum

treatment thus far devised.

Thus broadly these are two types of disease, the one prima-

rily due to defect of development, and the other to specific

bacterial infection. The former produces abnormal growth,

which may be harmless, like a wart, or malignant, like cancer;

the latter produces the congeries of symptoms comprised under

the general term inflammation.

The former of these classes of diseases may exist indepen-

dently of the latter. There may be hereditary or congenital

tissue conditions originating idiocy, epilepsy, deafmuteism,

20 M. A. VEEDER

dwarfishness, malformations, and the like, without bacterial

infection of any sort. It is a question, however, whether bac-

terial diseases can gain a foothold, on the other hand, except

at some point where there is lowered resisting power, through

defect of development. As a matter of fact a very large pro-

portion of the infectious diseases attack primarily portions of

the body exhibiting deficiencies in respect to function or struc-

ture, or both. It is of fundamental importance to inquire in

what way and to what extent imperfections of development are

associated with diseases of every kind, excluding none, bacte-

rial or otherwise. Hence the propriety of discussing both

consumption and cancer in this connection.

The identification of the markings indicating persistence of

rudimentary and embryonic forms is the first step towards a

proper understanding of the questions of cellular pathology

involved. Such identification is not difficult in a large propor-

tion of cases. Thus the tonsils are rudimentary structures,

tending to disappear as adult life approaches, and having little

if any function at any time, and consequently having small

resisting power, are the usual starting point of disease in the

throat. In like manner in the mouth the wisdom tooth is well

nigh functionless and specially subject to decay. In the chest

the thymus gland reaches its maximum size at the age of two

years, and nearly disappears at the age of twenty, and has

very little apparent function. This being the fact its agency

in the production of disease is worthy of far more careful

scrutiny than it has thus far received. In a few instances this

gland has been found to be inflamed and swollen where chil-

dren have died suddenly and unexpectedly without any other

conspicuous symptom than some difficulty of breathing, Like

the appendix vermiformis, another of these troublesome rudi-

mentary structures, until recently thought to be quite inoffen-

sive, the thymus gland may play a much more important part

as a cause of death than has heretofore been supposed. Thus

also cretinism is a form of stunted and irregular growth due,

apparently, not to bacterial infection, but to imperfection of the

DEFECTIVE DEVELOPMENT AND DISEASE 91

thyroid gland as shown by the improvement that results from

thyroid feeding in these cases.

Embryonic and rudimentary markings in general are closely

related to disease processes. In a case observed by the writer

cancer dissected out accurately the surfaces which form the

upper bronchial cleft in the embryo, and whose imperfect

closure produces harelip and cleft-palate. Erysipelas has been

observed to follow the line of these clefts also. In like man-

ner decay in the teeth and bones follows epiphyseal and other

lines connected with processes of development. In each case

of this sort the spread of disease appears to have had refer-

ence to lowered resisting power of the tissues rather than to

distribution of blood supply, or to lymphatic channels, or any

other like agency.

So too in the case of organs and parts of the body that fail

of their normal development there is increased susceptibility

to disease. The eye that is congenitally imperfect is specially

subject to inflammation. The ear that does not hear well

through malformation is most readily attacked by disease.

Incomplete closure of the opening that exists normally previ-

ous to birth, between the two sides of the heart, entails increased

liability to serious consequences from disease, an ordinary cold,

it may be, proving fatal in such children. Failure of develop-

ment of parts of the nervous system may disturb mentality,

nutrition, muscular action, and the like. Thus there is not an

organ or part of the body that may not exhibit deficiency and

consequent disease.

Embryology, especially, throws a flood of light on questions

such as these, and becomes an exceedingly fascinating study,

as a department of microscopical research. In other words it

is not altogether a question of bacteriology, but of the study

of the tissues at various stages of their growth and in their

various relations. Indeed in the case of cancer this may

prove to be the only means of solving the problem of its caus-

ation. If it is not due to any specific micro-organism, there is

no other resource than to institute a careful search for rudimen-

tary, functionless or disappearing organs or structures in the

22 M. A. VEEDER

tissues that are found to be specially subject to cancerous dis-

ease. In this connection it is of special interest to note that

cancer, unlike infectious diseases, is most apt to occur late in

life, pointing to degenerative changes rather than bacterial

invasion as its cause.

Still, if cancer should be found to be due to a parasite of any

sort it would be none the less important to determine the con-

ditions of lowered resistance which enable it to gain a foothold

in the manner indicated throughout the course of the present

discussion.

We have at Buffalo, N. Y., a State Laboratory specially de-

voted to research in regard to cancer. This is a step in the

right direction, and it would seem that similar original research

in regard to a multitude of questions concerning consumption

would accomplish more than such ordinary State Sanitaria for

consumptives as have been proposed. It has seemed to the

writer, also, that improved methods of recording cases might be

of great service in many state institutions.

For years the writer has made it a practice to identify and

note, as far as possible, all the markings, even the most insig-

nificant, indicating defective development. Not unfrequently

the results are exceedingly interesting, especially when such

stigmata are numerous though not conspicuous. For example,

a person met casually was seen to have a slight cleft in the iris

just below the pupil of the eye. The bridge of the nose was

hollowed and of the infantile type. The bony bridge across

the lower part of the outlet of the nostril was lacking, the upper

lip sinking in at that point. There was evidence of a tendency

to harelip in the center of the lower lip, which is rather un- _

common, the upper lip being the ordinary location of such mal-

formation. The upper jaw was imperfectly developed, being

small in comparison with the lower jaw. The teeth were irreg-

ular, and the skin and hair coarse. Darwin’s tubercle was

specially well marked on the inner margin of the rim of the

ear. The neck was thick and of the type sometimes called

scrofulous. These and other markings, many of which carica-

turists seize upon and exaggerate habitually, would give even

DEFECTIVE DEVELOPMENT AND DISEASE 23

the most casual observer the impression that the individual in

question was of a low order of development, both physically

and mentally. As a matter of fact he was an epileptic, and a

criminal, and has since died of consumption.

The disease history in any such case, taken in connection

with the record of such markings, becomes very instructive.

By such means it may become possible to identify much more

perfectly than has been the rule heretofore, the precise defects

of development which give access to each particular form of

disease, thus affording a basis for more accurate histological

study.

Indeed, almost every form of disease, as well as cancer and

consumption, exhibits a marked predilection for particular or-

gans and parts of the body. Much light will be thrown upon

such selective affinity of disease by studying the relation of the

parts involved to embryonic forms and to homologous struc-

tures and tissues in animals, and especially to the markings

indicating defective development. This is the office of com-

parative pathology, which bids fair to become a very progressive

department of medical science in the near future.

It is possible that the time may come in the course of such

investigations as have been outlined when early and complete

removal of the part affected will not be our only resource in

dealing with cancer. It is not likely that an anti-toxin will be

found for cancer, it, like consumption, not being a self-limited

disease. Still the writer has seen a cancerous ulcer heal as the

result of its becoming the seat of an attack of erysipelas, but the

relief was only temporary, the ulceration recurring in about a

year and finally causing death. From some microscopic obser-

vations that were made in connection with this case it was

inferred that the cancer itself was not affected favorably or

otherwise by the erysipelas, the real effect that produced the

apparent improvement being nothing more than the healing of a

subsidiary ulceration due to some form of infection that had

fastened itself on the cancerous area. In other words, the ery-

sipelas in this case acted on the principle of an anti-streptococcus

94 M. A. VEEDER

serum so far as the ulceration was concerned, but did not really

benefit the cancer itself.

So far as the prophylaxis of cancer is concerned, we can only

recommend the avoidance of sources of irritation, like the

smoker’s pipe in tobacco cancer. Peculiarities in regard to the

geographical distribution of the disease that are just beginning

to attract attention may afford a clue to racial and other hered-

itary influences on which it may depend. The effect of environ-

ment on developmental conditions is very decided, and may

play a part in preventing or accelerating the spread of cancer.

These questions are very large and difficult, and their complete

solution will require extended research along the lines that have

been sketched with a free hand in the course of this paper.

Consumption, on the other hand, belongs in the class of bac-

terial diseases with reference to which the case is much simpler.

Still it has its developmental relations, having a marked predi-

lection for particular lung and bony tissue. It is probable that

lowered resisting power in these parts of the body is necessary

in order that it may gain a foothold. Thus predisposition on

the part of the tissues is requisite, as well as presence of infec-

tion, as has been indicated throughout the course of the discus-

sion. The bacillus does not pass from parent to child by

heredity, but only special vulnerability of the tissues in which

it gains a lodgement. Thus whatever tends to secure periect

development, and fortify resisting power, will aid in the preven-

tion and cure of consumption also.

But this is not our only resource. Consumption is a perfectly

curable disease in a large proportion of cases, because of certain

peculiarities of the bacillus on which it depends. This is the

fact in the earlier stages of the disease more particularly. As

has already been intimated, there is no anti-toxic serum that is

likely to be effectual against it. Nevertheless, consumption is

curable in a very simple way, which as soon as it is mentioned,

will seem so very obvious that it will be understood and cor-

roborated by experiences within the range of observation of

almost any one. And yet this is practically the first public

DEFECTIVE DEVELOPMENT AND DISEASE 95

announcement of the result of studies leading definitely to this

conclusion.

The point is that the bacillus of tuberculosis thrives only at a

temperature closely approximating that of the human body.

At a lower temperature, especially, its growth is retarded to

such an extent that it may become dormant and in this condi-

tion be destroyed by the processes akin to digestion that are

going on constantly in the air passages and lungs. Or, at a

later stage, if it have invaded the tissues more deeply, it may be

destroyed by the leucocytes and other vital agents whose office

it is to enable the human frame to resist the invasion of disease.

That it is possible to lower the temperature of the lungs to

a considerable degree by the inhalation of air such as is met

with in ordinary outdoor living may be shown by a simple

experiment. It is possible to arrange a thermometer in a tube,

and so regulate the breathing as to obtain very nearly the tem-

perature of the air exhaled. If this be done in air at the ordi-

nary temperature of a room it will be found that the air that

has passed through the lung does not quite reach the tempera-

ture of the body, but comes very near it if the room be very

warm. If then the experiment be tried outdoors in much

colder air it will be found that the air exhaled may fall short

as much as fifteen or twenty degrees of reaching the tempera-

ture of the body. If the bacillus is anywhere in contact with

air so cold as this its growth must certainly be greatly retarded

and there is very good evidence that this is the fact in the lung.

It is probable that the bacillus is located very superficially in

the mucous lining of the air passages for a long time, it may be

for weeks and months after intection, acting like foreign matter

such as dust in this location, until growth begins and the

tissues are invaded superficially at the outset but more deeply

later. If at this stage the individual infected houses himself

up in a warm room constantly, because of the slight hacking

cough, as is very apt to happen, the infection gains a firmer

foothold, and the chances of recovery diminish steadily.

Hence the desirability of outdoor life for consumptives, and

plenty of fresh cold air at night. Hence also the advantage of

26 M. A. VEEDER

residence at a considerable altitude, the dry air taking up heat

more readily, and its rarefied condition quickening and deepen-

ing respiration, so that the air cells are more fully expanded and

more deeply penetrated. Hencealso the comparative immunity

from consumption and other lung troubles in the Arctic regions,

although this has been ascribed to cod-liver oil, which fails of

any such effect in lower latitudes, it being the crisp cold that

really does the good. It is the explanation of such benefit as

is derived without clear understanding of the reasons, perhaps

from living on a ranch, or going to some distant sanitarium,

or taking a sea voyage, in all which cases some measure of

outdoor life is insisted on. Even within the tropics outdoor life,

night and day, may prove effectual on the principle that has

been stated.

In order to secure the greatest benefit the vital forces should

be strengthened by plentiful and nutritious diet, forced feeding

in fact. The change to habitual outdoor life and sleeping ina

cool room should be made so gradually and with such precau-

tions as will obviate lowered resisting power through shock to

_ the nervous system.

Many instances are known to the writer in which there has

been recovery from consumption affecting the lungs, and in-

stances likewise in which there was failure because the disease

was situated in the bones or elsewhere, in such manner as not

to be accessible to the benefit from open-air life that has been

described.

In this connection it is of very great interest to note that

cattle are specially susceptible to infection by the bacillus of

tuberculosis, but that it does not affect the lungs in their case

so frequently as in the human species, the reasons for which

will appear in the further course of the discussion, it depending

in part, perhaps, upon the manner of their infection, and in part

upon their manner of living.

Normaily the temperature of the ox is somewhat higher than

that of man, so that cattle are more readily infected for this

reason. But growth of the bacillus in the lung would be re-

tarded by their outdoor life at certain seasons, so that as a rule

DEFECTIVE DEVELOPMENT AND DISEASE 27

they succumb to tubercular disease scattered in other parts of

the body. Horses, on the other hand, are immune, their tem-

perature normally being somewhat below that of man, and their

lungs fully and freely expanded in the open air at frequent in-

tervals, instead of being almost entirely disused as in the case

of cattle confined to their stalls for weeks and months together,

and at best only walking slowly about in the open air. Asa

matter of fact, cattle that run wild on the plains are as free

from tuberculosis as horses. Lecturers at dairymen’s conven-

tions, who tell the farmers that they must keep their cattle

warm if they would secure record yields of milk and butter,

are responsible for much of the spread of tuberculosis.

But perhaps the greatest danger of all is from the common

barn-door fowl. The prevalence of tuberculosis among grami-

nivorous birds, whose temperature is normally 105°, is very sig-

nificant from the point of view of the present discussion. Their

flesh is not eaten raw, nor do they yield milk, so that there

is no great danger to the human species from tuberculosis in

fowls, but their droppings falling into the hay and grain become

a source of great danger to cattle especially, whose intestinal

tract is most liable to infection from this source. Indeed,

this may be the explanation of the reinfection of herds on farms

where they have been slaughtered, wholly or in part, in response

to the tuberculin test.

The idea of controlling the activity of disease-producing

bacilli by temperature changes has other applications already in

use that are corroborative of the position here taken. Thus

the treatment of typhoid fever by cold baths, or by the applica-

tion of cold to the abdomen, is in successful use. In like

manner the application of cold to the chest has been employed

in pneumonia. So, too, the warmth of a poultice may hinder

the activity of certain bacilli by raising the temperature beyond

the point at which they are best able to grow.

In short, the principle is that employed by Pasteur at the

very outset of his studies which originated the modern science

of bacteriology, when he hit upon the idea of employing cold

to prevent fermentation in beer. He likewise made the dis-

28 M. A. VEEDER

covery that the baciilus of anthrax, which is fatal to cattle,

horses, and sheep, does not propagate at a temperature very

much above 100°, and hence birds, whose temperature normally

is 105°, are not susceptible to its attack, unless made to stand

in cold water long enough to lower their temperature to the

proper degree.

Thus, as every working microscopist knows, temperature

control plays a part that can be measured with precision in de-

termining the activity of microbes of every sort. It is to be

remembered, however, that the bacillus of tuberculosis is not

destroyed in a culture outside the body by a degree of cold

that proves fatal in the lungs. It is the resisting power of the

body that destroys and eliminates the germ, benumbed and

weakened by lowering the temperature. It is to bring out this

point clearly that it has been thought best to outline the entire

subject of defective development and disease, employing cancer

as a typical case in contrast to consumption.

From the point of view of the present discussion it is evident

that much of the advice given consumptives in regard to change

of climate, outdoor life, and the like, involves some dim idea of

the nature of the truth of the matter, but lacks precision, not

specifying accurately which are expected to be curative of the

measures suggested. With a better understanding in this re-

gard it becomes possible to increase the efficiency of the meas-

ures employed, it being known precisely what it is proposed to

accomplish. Thus it may become possible to prevent tubercu-

losis in cattle, as well as in the human species, by proper out-

door exercise of herds and prevention of infection from such

sources as fowls.

With these points in view it becomes possible to estimate

more accurately the value of various accessory measures, some

of which have been hinted at. Experiment has shown that it

is possible by forced feeding to determine the sex in bees and

tadpoles very readily. It has been claimed recently that this

has been accomplished also in the human species. This being

the case, it shows what a profound effect nutrition has upon the

vital and reproductive organs, and upon heredity. If it is pos-

DEFECTIVE DEVELOPMENT AND DISEASE 29

sible to modify the development of sex by such means, it surely

is possible to modify in like manner the resisting power of the

body against disease.

As regards heredity, Weissmann in his book on ‘‘Germ

Plasm’’ makes it consist in the minute subdivision and trans-

mission from parent to offspring of certain protoplasmic gran-

ules. If, however, life be taken away in such manner that the

protoplasmic constituents of the body are otherwise undisturbed,

the form remains but power is wanting. Brain and nerve force

manifest in muscular action, and in the operation of the senses,

are requisite for the maintenance of bodily vigor in the individ-

ual, and for its transmission to the offspring.

Thus the cure of consumption in the manner that has been

described is not a question of cold storage, or life in a cave at

a constant temperature, with a view to the absolute freezing

out of the germs of such disease. It is rather a question of the

fuil and free exercise of the powers of the body, and their

maintenance in such condition that, with some aid from special

measures of temperature control, they are able to win a com-

plete victory in a contest that has heretofore been very unequal.

It is to be hoped that observers having the requisite micro-

scopical equipment will be specially alert in regard to the

questions that have been raised. It is not a question of lenses

altogether, but of knowing what to look for.

ve Pe ous

Lal ee? he

MAT OTY eos he!

THE REACTION OF DIABETIC BLOOD TO SOME OF

THE ANILIN DYES.

By V. A. LATHAM, M. D., D. D. S.

The importance of the clinical investigation of the blood is

fast becoming an evident factor in the medical and chemical

education of to-day, and it seems surprising that so many

recent manuals pertaining to clinical methods should leave out

the reaction of anilins with the blood in cases of diabetes

mellitus. That, as yet, the work may be open to criticism, we

do not doubt; but every microscopical student interested in the

subject might at least endeavor either to improve our knowl-

edge, or to disprove the value of the test by systematic exam-

inations.

We usually find the statement made that to detect the differ-

ence between diabetic and non-diabetic blood, owing to the

amount of sugar present in each, it is necessary to examine

a large quantity of blood. This renders the investigation

unpleasant to both physician and patient; and any method by

which a satisfactory result can be obtained through using only

a drop or two of blood will be very gladly accepted. Origi-

nality is not claimed in the methods here given, but I urge the

further investigation of a method which seems to promise good

results with very little trouble, and it is for this reason I send

the slides and brief notes.

In blood examination, let us review the points to be care-

fully observed:

(a) Cleanliness of instruments, slides, covers and apparatus.

(b) Purity of dyes, which must be obtained from a reliable

dealer, and should be especially designated for the particular

study in hand.

filtered, as mould is liable to oceur.

32 Vv. A. LATHAM

(d) Even films and not too thick, except for the microscopic

examination.

(e) Strictly following an author’s method.

(f) Avoiding over-heating, either in degree or time.

(g) Preparation of control slides under exactly the same

conditions.

In examining blood in cases of suspected diabetes, remem-

ber there is yet something indefinite in our knowledge regard-

ing the pathologic conditions; this affection shares somewhat

in the confusion incident to the study of kidney disease gen-

erally. Herein is a source of error, which may, perhaps,

result in no reaction, even though the method and technique

be faultless. It is unnecessary here to enter into a discussion

of symptoms and nomenclature beyond stating that the factor

of time (i. e. duration of the disease) is important in differ-

entiating between glycosuria and true diabetes. The latter

term applies only to that form in which the specific gravity is

high, sugar excretion abundant, diuresis, thirst and other cardi-

nal symptoms present. It is an interesting fact that not only

does the blood react to anilins, but also the urine, showing

that glucose decolorizes in a warm alkaline solution, in urin-

alysis. In making the blood test it is often an advantage to

test the urine also. In fact, this must be done, unless the

investigator is experienced in blood work, and I would suggest

the phenylhydrazin test as modified by R. T. Williamson,

from Hoffmann and Ultzmann’s work. It is a simple test, the

reagents can be easily kept in powder, a short time only is

required to make the examination, and it is possible to leave

the specimen and look for the crystals when convenient. Per-

manent specimens may then be made of the large, fine, sulphur-

yellow needle crystals, by drying the deposit on a slide and

mounting in canada balsam. A small amount even of albu-

men does not seem to invalidate the test, though it is best to

remove all we can by filtering. The test does not show any

crystals of phenylglucosazone in normal urine. It gives no

reaction with uric acid, creatinin, hippuric acid, pyrocatechin,

as gotten by Fehling’s method. The objection has been raised

REACTION OF DIABETIC BLOOD TO ANILIN DYES 33

that the test is too sensitive for clinical work, and that if gly-

curonic acid be present, similar crystals are formed. This is

the case, if Moritz’s method is used, but not if Williamson’s

be carefully followed.

The blood shows the color to be slightly darker than is the

case with normal blood. The reaction is alkaline, even if

coma be present, and is best tested by the papers especially de-

vised by Haycraft and Williamson. The percentage of water

varies but is usually slightly diminished. The specific gravity,

though variable, is mostly increased. The number of red

corpuscles also varies, though usually the hemoglobin is greater

than normal, which is a differentiating point between many

chronic ailments and saccharine diabetes. The leucocytes show

no definite change in their proportion, though Professor Lim-

beck says leucocytosis accompanying digestion is frequently so

well-marked in severe cases as to be a distinguishing mark of

diabetes.

To prepare films for examinations, any one of several meth-

ods may be used. Among the best are

(a) Cover-glass films,

(b) Slide-films, and

(a) Coverfilms are readily made by placing two square

covers diagonaily across one another with a drop of blood be-

tween, and slipping them apart to spread the blood.

Or a cover can, after a little practice, be passed lightly over

a drop of blood in such a manner as to barely touch its surface

and leave a film thinly spread.

(6) Slide-films may be prepared by spreading a drop which

has been put about one-third from the end of the slide, using a

second slide to spread the drop by pushing it over the latter

like a plane.

Or, slides may be lightly drawn, one over the other, starting

from the center or a little beyond; this method is not so satis-

factory if the specimens are intended for microscopic examina-

tion, as the film is at the end of the slide and inconvenient to

examine over the circular opening in the stage.

34 Vv. A. LATHAM

slide-film described above. Its details are as follows: Prick

the finger after thoroughly cleansing it, wipe off the first drop,

using the next for films. Have ready some strips of smooth

gutta-percha tissue, or the thinnest tissue paper, three-fourths of

an inch wide and an inch and a half long. Apply one of these

strips to the exuded blood, about midway, and at once place the

charged strip, blood surface down, upon a well-cleaned glass

slip, wait a second or two till the blood spreads out, then draw

the gutta-percha or paper by the uncharged end along the glass.

A very thin film of blood, with evenly disposed corpuscles, is

secured, and at least three or four slips may be prepared from

the one charging if neatly and quickly done. Let the slips dry,

and they may be stained and examined at any later period that

is convenient. The use of tissue paper is recommended, for

the absorption of blood in the paper allows the spreading of

a large number of films and retards coagulation longer than

any other method. Personally I prefer a strip of stout note-

paper held with the thumb and first two fingers so it curves

part way around the index finger. The curved end is used to

take up the blood, and then drawn lightly along the slide at an

acute angle, leaving an even film with the corpuscles thinly and

regularly distributed.

For the preservation of mounts of blood, especially if stained

with methylen blue, iodine gum will be found useful, as the

stained specimens fade so easily in the balsam; even such ob-

jects as the plasmodiae show nicely in the gum.

The films must now be jized, which may be done by any one

of the following methods:

(a) Absolute Alcohol for ten minutes.

(b) Absolute Alcohol and Ether, equal parts—the maximum

time that allowed sharp staining I found to be twenty-five

minutes.

(d) Bichloride of Mercury, a method in which care must be

used to avoid crystalline deposits, and not recommended for

diabetic blood.

REACTION OF DIABETIC BLOOD TO ANILIN DYES 35

(¢) /Zeat incubation or by Ehrlich’s copper plate.

(f) Gulland’s method, the formula being:

Saturated solution of eosin in absolute alcohol. ..25c. ¢.

nner be ry (3). 2/01) i's Porte 25. ¢.

Sol. of mercury weenie bs! in Nala ele ee grms. in

LO cies)... ies wave § POUOTO DS LOR SG:

The last method is eeu as a time-saver, fon the slides are

dropped in the fluid while the films are wet, or if covers are

used the films are quickly immersed in the solution before dry-

ing occurs, 5cc. to 10cc. being sufficient for four films. Three

minutes are sufficient to fix the films, though immersion for

twenty-four hours will not harm them. Wash in water very

thoroughly and counterstain if desired. (Sputum and pus can

also be stained and fixed by Gulland’s method.)

To detect Glycogen in the Blood.—Prepare the films or

slides, dry and mount in iodine gum, made as follows:

odiner SS wee Gee Ge pat

Potassie: lodide®., hinted d oiy23. 2s 3° pares

Distilled Water, to which an excess of pure

Gum Arabic has been added....100 parts.

Glycogen is detected in two forms. (1) In the multi-nuclear

neutrophilic leucocytes, as intra-cellular glycogen. (2) As

free extra-cellular glycogen, which arises from the degeneration

of the leucocytes. /n normal blood only the extra-cellular

glycogen can be recognized with certainty by the action of

iodine in cover preparations. But cz diabetic blood minute

specks of glycogen, stained deep brown with iodine can be

seen distinctly in some leucocytes, and the amount of extra-

cellular glycogen is two or three times more than in cover

preparations of normal blood.

Ludwig Bremer gives a very simple test to distinguish dia-

betic from non-diabetic blood, by its action in decolorizing

methylen blue. [Methyl blue is absolutely useless in this’

work; the pure ‘‘medicinal” or ‘*Methylen blau nach Ehr-

lich” giving the best results. JI understand Dr. Rotch advises

Griibler’s methylen blue, soluble in alcohol, as the best.]

R. T. Williamson uses the same anilin-reaction in a different

36 Vv. A. LATHAM

manner. ‘There are several modifications of Bremer’s method,

and for convenience we shall describe two, the microscopic and

the macroscopic.

(a) The Microscopic Method.—Make thin even cover films

of some diabetic and normal blood. Fix with equal parts of

absolute alcohol and ether; it is recommended to place the

fixative in a vessel over a water-bath and boil for four minutes.

Then stain, in a specially prepared solution made as follows:

Take saturated watery solutions of eosin and methylen blue;

mix in equal parts. A precipitate forms, which should be

filtered off, washed, dried and reduced to powder. A z#: part

of eosin and % of methylen blue are added. From 0.025 grm.

to 0.95 grm. of this mixture is dissolved in 10 grms. of a 33

per cent. solution of alcohol. Stain for four or five minutes in

a warm place, wash in distilled water rapidly, dry in air and

mount. The diabetic film, or glycosuric blood corpuscles are

stained a sap or bluish-green. Non-diabetic blood is a reddish

violet or madder color. Le Goff used a watery solution of

eosin mixed with a saturated watery solution of methylen

blue (proportions not given, but possibly equal parts); the

resulting precipitate he washed and dried. Five grams of this

substance he directs to be dissolved in twenty to twenty-five

grams of alcohol (30 percent.). Filterthe solution. Covers are

heated in an incubator for two hours at a temperature of 120°C.,

then stained with the above solution, washed in distilled

water, dried with bibulous paper and mounted in xylol-bal-

sam. The red corpuscles of normal blood stain variously from

a clear purplish rose-color to a dark maroon, while diabetic red

corpuscles stain pale green, yellowish-green, or are unstained.

Nuclei of white cells are blue, and are the same in normal

and in diabetic blood. He records some very interesting

color-reactions of diabetic blood. Bremer prefers the blue to

be free from zinc, while Lépine prefers zine to be present.

The former urges using a fresh solution, added to the water

just before use. Lépine has described a similar reaction in

leukaemia, but it is quite likely that glycosuria was also

present.

REACTION OF DIABETIC BLOOD TO ANILIN DYES 37

A modification of Bremer’s method is to use a 2 per cent.

solution of methylen blue for two minutes, then stain for ten

seconds in a 0.125 per cent. solution of eosin. Keeping all

the precautions of Bremer in view it was found that in every

case of diabetes in which the amount of sugar in the urine was

more than 2 per cent. the blood gave the characteristic reaction.

Even in a case where dieting had caused the sugar to disap-

pear, the reaction persisted. No reaction is found in the blood

of severe anaemia. The blood plasma is not essential in pro-

ducing the reaction. If 5 ccm. of blood be taken from a vein

of a diabetic patient and placed in a centrifuge, the corpuscles

are readily separated from the plasma. The corpuscles, after

being washed in normal saline solution until the washings give

no trace of sugar, still give the Bremer reaction.

(6) The Macroscopic method also shows that the red blood

corpuscles which stain normally with acid stains, in diabetes

require basic dyes.—Smear evenly upon two slides, about 4 or

$ their length, a tolerably thick film of blood—normal blood

on one slide and diabetic blood upon the other. Heat in an

incubator six to ten minutes at a temperature of 135°C. [Ina

personal note, Dr, Bremer advises that the flame be removed

when the temperature reaches 130° C., 135° C. being the opti-

mum and 129°C. the lowest point at which the test is reliable.

Heating for over ten minutes also renders the film valueless. |

Now stain in a 1 per cent. aqueous solution of one or more of

the stains on the following page.

The reaction is possibly due to the alkalinity, but as yet is

imperfectly understood, Almost any histological stain will

do to difierentiate diabetic from normal blood, provided that

according to its chemical constitution it has an affinity either

for non-diabetic or diabetic red blood corpuscles.

The blood reaction obtained by methylen blue is of value

in distinguishing the coma of diabetes from other forms of

coma, especially in cases, seen for the first time, in which the

patient without history or friends, is brought to the hospital in

an unconscious condition. Where no urine can be obtained,

38 v. A. LATHAM

REACTION OF BLOOD

STAIN METHOD — - ee

NORMAL DIABETIC

(a) Congo-Red. 1 per cent. Aque- | Stained Red. Not stained or

ous Sol. for 114 only indiffer-

to2 min. Wash ently.

in Dist. H,O rap-

idly, dry.

(b) Methylen “ « ‘“ @reenish- ‘ «

Blue. Blue:

let. ed.

(d) Ehrlich-Biondi.| 2—3 min. (1 per | Violet. Orange.

cent.)

—BEAUTIFUL CONTRASTS BY—

( Methyl | 1 per cent. Aque- Green, deeper

Green. | ous Sol. 144 to 2 thanin normal

min. Wash in blood.

Double | Dist. H,O.

Staining }

Kosin. | %-1 per cent. | Eosin Color. Green.

Aqueous Sol. 10

I sec. Wash, dry.

( Methy- Red Corpuscles Red Corpus-

len Deep Brown or cles

Blue. Purple.

Double |

Staining }

Green or

Eosin. Greenish-

Yellow.

REACTION OF DIABETIC BLOOD TO ANILIN DYES og

the blood test furnishes an accurate and ready means of diag-

nosis.

Williamson's Modification.—Thoroughly clean a narrow test

tube (a wide one gives too large an area for the action of oxygen),

and place in it 40 cem. of distilled water. With a Southall’s

1 ccm. tube take 20 ccm. of blood from the finger and blow it

gently into the water. Should it stick to the side, carefully

shake it to the bottom. Then add 1 ccm. of a 1:6000 water

solution of methylen blue, and then add 40 ccm. of a solution

of potassium hydrate. Mix well by shaking. Also make a

control specimen of normal blood. We see the fluid in each

tube has a fairly deep blue color. Place them ina beaker and

heat in a water-bath until the boiling point is reached. Boil

four minutes. The diabetic blood is now changing from

a deep blue to a dirty pale yellow, almost the color of

normal urine. The normal blood remains blue, or bluish-green,

sometimes a pale violet, but never decolorizes, i. e., never loses

its blue color. N. B.—The tubes must be kept quite still in

the water-bath, as shaking causes decolorization of methylen

blue by oxidation from the atmosphere, and the blue may re-

turn. Severe cases will decolorize a methylen blue solution

of double strength, i.e., 1:3000. No other disease, I believe,

has yet been found that will decolorize the blue. The reaction

is probably due to excess of grape-sugar, as this substance read-

ily removes color from a warm alkaline solution of methylen

blue as seen in the urine test.

In conclusion: Anilin methylen blue is also used for esti-

mating the amount of sugar in the blood, and as a test for

glucose inthe urine. Safranin 1:1000 is also used, and others

of the same group.

Possible failure to secure the reaction may resuit from

neglect of the precautions enjoined, from use of impure dyes,

from experiment on cases not truly diabetic, or from insufii-

cient experience on the part of the worker. But to condemn a

method without repeated tests by a sufficient number of com-

petent observers is certainly wrong. The anilin reaction of

blood in diabetes may in time prove as helpful as the Widal

40 Vv. A. LATHAM

reaction in typhoid fever, which, though not, as we all hoped

it would be, a sure and early positive diagnosis in typhoid

fever, is valuable as one determining factor in diagnosis.

Even in these days of comparative uncertainty, a blood exam-

ination is essential to a modern practitioner’s investigation of

a supposed case of typhoid; and it may prove an equal, if not

a better aid, in the study of diabetes.

808 Morse Ave., Chicago, Il.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

ALLEN.—Chemistry of Urine.

Von JAKSCH.—Clinical Diagnosis.

RIEDER.—Blood Atlas, &e.

LIMBECK.—Diseases of Blood, etc.

STENGEL.—Twentieth Century Medicine.

OsLER.—Pepper’s American Text book of Medicine.

Lorwy.—British Medical Journal, Vol. 1, June, 1898.

Coss, A. C.—On Blood Diseases.

BREMER.—Centralblatt fiir Med., June 5, 1897.

N. Y. Med. Jour., Mar. 7, 1896.

Medical News, Philadelphia, Feb. 9, 1895.

British Med. Jour., July 3, Aug. 28, 1897.

LITER JET. LE Gorr.—Paris, 1897, p. 44.

LEPINE ET LYONNET.—Lyon, Med., 1896, Vol. 82.

—_—_—__—_—_-—— Lyon, Med., 1896-1897.

R. MaGurre.—Fowler’s Dictionary of Medicine.

WILLIAMSON.—Centralblatt fiir Wiss. Med., Berlin, 1894.

HUTCHISON AND Rarny.—Clinical Diagnosis, 1888.

GULLAND.—British Med. Journal, March, 1897.

COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE SOFT PALATE.

By WILLIAM FAIRFIELD MERCER, Pu. M.

WITH PLATES I AND II.

In the preparation for the observations given below sections

were made of the soft palate of the cat, adult and fetal, the

rat, the guinea-pig, the calf, and the puppy.

Most of the hardening was done in picric alcohol, sections

cut in paraffin, 10m thick, stained in hematoxylin, and counter-

stained in picro-fuchsin.

In general the same tissues are found in all the palates

studied, but with quite a range of distribution, no two of them

having the same relative amount or position of the parts.

A section of the palate of the puppy is represented in

Figure 1* The epithelium of this palate, as of all of them, is of

two kinds, squamous and columnar, and extends over the

entire surface of the organ. The squamous epithelium is of

the typical form and extends over the entire oral surface,

around the free end, upon the nasal surface to a point marked

x, Figure 1, where it is gradually replaced, in a manner to be

described later, by the columnar epithelium which extends over

the remaining surface of the organ.

Under the epithelium, closely connected with it, is a layer

of connective tissue. This extends quite generally throughout

the organ and surrounds masses of glands. These glands are

of the typical mucous form (Fig. 8). In the puppy, which is

the one now under consideration, these glands open upon both

surfaces by the means of ducts (Fig. 1, Gd). The glands in

this particular palate are arranged upon the two sides of a

central mass of striated muscle (Fig. 1, J/) which extends the

49 WILLIAM FAIRFIELD MERCER

entire length. It seems to be the general rule for the glands

to be arranged so that the opening is to the side opposite a

band of muscles. If the muscle is through the middle they

open upon both surfaces, if at one sidet he ducts extend to

the opposite surface.

Blood vessels, nerves, and lymphoid tissue are quite gener-

ally distributed throughout the organ.

A section of the soft palate of the rat is represented in

Figure 2. In this the squamous epithelium extends farther

if anything upon the nasal surface as at 2, Figure 2. The

connective tissue is arranged similarly to that in the palate of

the puppy, but the layer of muscles (Jf) is entirely at the nasal

side and the glands are all at the oral side of the palate, and

therefore open into the mouth and not into the nasal cavity. As

seen in the figure the glands are in a continuous mass. In this

palate the muscles have more of a varied direction, for there

are some trans-sections of muscle as well as longi-sections in

the same specimen. Blood vessels are quite prominent.

Figure 3 represents a longi-section of the palate of the guinea-

pig. The first thing that attracts one’s attention to the palate

of the guinea-pig is the way it is arranged in the throat of the

animal. The palate extends in a continuous curtain backward

and downward and joins with the tongue at the sides, so the

only opening into the pharynx is a small hole in the middle

line, not larger than a fair sized lead pencil. In cutting

through the center, the appearance in Figure 3 is given. A

section of a piece of the tongue (7) is shown in relative posi-

tion. | ;

In this palate the ciliated epithelium (Ce) extends to the point

w on the nasal surface.

The connective tissue is about equally distributed upon both

sides of the glandular tissue (J/g) which is not found, or very

little at most, near the free end of the palate. This free end

has, in the place of the glandular tissue, more muscles. In

this, as in the palate of the rat, the glands are all at the one

side of the layer of muscle and their ducts (@d@) invariably open

COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE SOFT PALATE 43

upon the oral surface. Lymphoid tissue (Z) is rather more

abundant than in the rat and less so than in the puppy.

The section of the palate of the calf (Fig. 4) shows a mas-

sive organ, but with quite general characteristics as compared

with those of the puppy; having epithelium of the same kind

and extent, and muscles extending through the center with the

glands (J/7) upon either side sending their ducts (Gd) to both

surfaces.

The direction of the muscles differs greatly from that of the

puppy- Inthis, the sections being cut in the same general plane,

the muscles are eut in various directions, while in the puppy they

are cut in perfect longi-section. The distribution of gland

substance is somewhat different from any of the palates de-

scribed, viz., that smai] masses are found distributed at varying

intervals throughout the connective tissue (C’) as well as large

masses bordering upon the muscles.

Figure 5 represents a longi-section of the palate of the adult

cat. In this the shape first attracts attention, being thick at the

fixed end while comparatively thin at the free margin. The

thickened portion contains large masses of glandular tissue

while the thinner portion contains very little. The glandular

tissue has quite a well marked division, indicated by C*, which

throws it into two groups. The ducts (@d) from these divi-

sions open upon their respective surfaces. So in the cat, ducts

open upon both the nasal and oral surfaces. In the free end of

the palate is found a mass of glandular tissue mixed with lym-

phoid tissue. Ciliated epithelium extends down the nasal sur-

face to z. The muscles appear in longi-section in the free end,

in the thickened portion in cross or oblique sections.

Figure 6 shows a section of the palate of the rabbit. In

this, while the epithelium and connective tissue are about as in

the others in extent and quantity, the glands are in great excess,

extending throughout the organ to the very tip. The muscies

are all bunched at the nasal side, thereby throwing the glands

to the other (the oral) with all their openings upon that surface.

In the section described the muscles are cut in various direc-

44 WILLIAM FAIRFIELD MERCER

tions. In the thicker portion of the section there is found a

band of connective tissue (C’*) which is quite characteristic of

this palate. This separates the glands from the muscles.

Lymphoid tissue (Z) is more abundant in this palate than in any

other described.

Figure 8 shows a section of the mucous gland with a duct.

The characteristic mucous cell (mg) isfound. The cells extend

to the lumen of an acinus, A’ in cross section and A in

longi-section, with the nucleus at the outer margin. Blood

vessels are distributed throughout the tissue, held in place by

fibers of connective tissue. The gland duct (Gd) is made up

of a coat of connective tissue lined by a layer of epithelial cells

(Fig. 9, Z') which is continuous with the epithelium of the sur-

face. Figure 9 shows the portion of Figure 8 indicated by the

arrow, under the 1-12 oil immersion lens.

Figure 7 represents a section of the palate of the fetal kitten.

This has no glands as such; but in their place a mass of cells

with large nuclei. In some places the razor has passed through

these cells in the plane of the long axis of the mass. In these

sometimes a lumen is noticed but no mucous cells, as are found

in the adult, or even in the new born kitten. By tracing a

mass of these cells through a series of sections the cells are

found to be continuous with the epithelium of the surface and

of the same kind. In this the ciliated epithelium extends around

the free end of the palate from the nasal surface to the oral

surface, to a point z quite a distance from the apex. It is evi-

dent that these cells are ciliated until the organ is put to use,

when the ciliated epithelium is replaced by squamous epithelium.

In the place of connective tissue and muscle as such, the

structure is more a mixture of both, connective tissue fibers

with elongated nuclei between them, with now and then a few

muscle fibers, not very distinct.

Of the soft palates studied three had ducts opening upon both

surfaces, that of the cat, the puppy, and the calf. Three had

ducts opening upon one surface only, viz., the guinea-pig, the

rabbit, and the rat. Invariably, if the ducts open upon one

COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE SOFT PALATE 45

surface only it is upon the oral. So the nasal surface must re-

ceive its mucous from other sources than itself. The relative

arrangement of the other tissues of the organ is determined by

the location of the glands with respect to the muscles.

This investigation also brings out the fact that the cells of

the columnar epithelium extend to the basement membrane in-

stead of being stratified as formerly described. Cells of vary-

ing form, from round to quite elongated, are found among the

long tapering portions of the ciliated cell (Fig. 10, Ce). This

figure is taken at the point of transition of the two forms of

epithelium. It is to be noticed that at the point of transition

between the ciliated and the squamous epithelium the cells of

the squamous epithelium (Se) are overlaid with the cells of the

columnar epithelium, that the cells of the columnar epithelium

become shorter, and the cilia less and shorter as they push out

over the squamous epithelium. The bases of the cells rest upon

the layer of connective tissue (C’) described in other parts of the

paper.

Cornell University, Department of Histology and Embryology.

He 02

COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE SOFT PALATH

PLATE I.

1. Longi-section of palate of puppy.

2. Longi-section of palate of rat.

Longi-section of palate of guinea-pig.

Longi-section of palate of calf.

List of Abbreviations used in Figures.

Lumen of acinus, longi-section.

Lumen of acinus, cross section.

Blood vessel.

Connective tissue.

Connective tissue between muscle and glands.

Columnar epithelium.

Epithelium lining gland ducts.

Section of gland duct.

Lymphoid tissue.

Lymphoid tissue with glandular tissue.

Muscle, striated.

Mucous glands.

Nasal side.

Oral side.

Squamous epithelium.

Point of division between squamous and columnar epithelium.

Fig. 5.

Fig. 6.

Rig. i.

Fig. 8

ate of rabb

it.

COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE SOFT PALATE

PLATE I).

Longi-section of palate of adult cat.

Longi-section of palate of rabbit.

Longi-section of palate of fetal kitten.

Section of mucous gland under high power, taken from pal-

Fig. 9. Section of gland duct, at point indicated by the arrow in Fig.

8, under very high power.

Fig. 10. Section of epithelium through point of transition from

Squamous to columnar epithelium.

PLATE Il

Pai hns

UR TAM

eae

SAGE

See

THE EYES OF THE BLIND VERTEBRATES OF NORTH

AMERICA, II. THE EYES OF 7YPHLO-

MOLGE RATHBUNI STEJNEGER.*

By CARL H. EIGENMANN.

WITH PLATES III AND IV.

The caves of North America are inhabited by three salaman-

ders whose eyes range in their structure from the perfectly

normal to the most degenerate known among the Batrachia.

Spelerpes maculicauda (Cope) is common in the caves of the

Mississippi Valley. As far as I have been able to determine,

its eyes have not undergone any degeneration. (Fig. 10.) It is

abundant and so nearly allied to Spelerpes longicauda Green,

an epigean species of very wide distribution, that it has until

recently been considered identical with it.

Typhlotriton speleus Stejneger, is restricted to the western

caves of the Mississippi Valley. It has so far been found in

Marble Cave and Rockhouse Cave, and smaller caves in the same

neighborhood in southwestern Missouri. It is found under

rocks in and out of the water. This is the most interesting

form inasmuch as it is a much more typical cave animal than

Spelerpes, but has not yet reached the degenerate condition of

Typhlomolge. Its eyes are apparently normal in the larva, but

in the adult have undergone marked degeneration. (Fig. 11.)

The eye-lids are disappearing, and the rods and cones are no

longer present in the adult. The eyes of this species will be

dealt with in another place.

Typhlomolge rathbuni Stejneger, is found in the underground

streams near San Marcos, Texas. It has been secured from the

* Contributions from the Zoological Laboratory of the Indiana Uni-

versity, No. 29. :

50 CARL H. EIGENMANN

artesian well at San Marcos, and from a surface well. It has

also been noticed in one of the caves near that place, Ezel’s,

in which the underground water can be reached. It is said to

have come out of some artesian wells south of San Antonio.

It is a perennibranch and spends all of its time in the water.

Its remarkably long and slender legs are unable to support its

body when out of the water. Its eyes form the basis of the

present paper. (Fig. 12.)

In February, 1896, the first recorded specimens of this species

were cast up from an artesian well about 190 feet deep, bored

by the U. S. Fish Commission. Other specimens have since

been thrown up at the rate of thirty to fifty a year.

The U. 8. Fish Commission, through Dr. B. W. Evermann,

sent me four specimens of this salamander and a number of its

eggs. The late Prof. W. Norman, of the University of Texas,

and Prof. Wm. Bray, of the same place, secured me an additional

number. To all of these gentlemen I wish to acknowledge my

appreciation and indebtedness. *

The specimens received from the U. 8S. Fish Commission

through Prof. Evermann are as follows:

One adult, received in Washington Apr. 8, 1896.

Three young, of different sizes, received Mar. 11, 1896.

A few eggs laid about Mar. 15, 1896.

The specimens sent me by Prof. Evermann were preserved

in alcohol; those sent by Prof. Norman had been killed in

Perenyi’s fluid. The sections were stained chiefly in Biondi-

Ehrlich’s tricolor mixture. While the present account contains

all that my material warrants me to say concerning these eyes, I

appreciate that very much more is left to be done by some one

who has access to an unlimited supply of living material of this

interesting animal.

* More recently I visited the caves and artesian well at San Marcos,

and have been able to observe the living specimens. On this visit I was

put under endless obligations to the very efficient Superintendent of the

U. S. Fish Hatchery at San Marcos, Mr. J. L. Leary. My notes on the

living salamander, together with Prof, Norman’s observations, will be

published elsewhere.

EYES OF BLIND VERTEBRATES OF NORTH AMERICA, 11 51

The following gives the dimensions of the eyes in a number

of individuals. Professor Norman sent only the heads, so I

am able to give only approximately the length of those speci-

mens sent by him. The approximate sizes were obtained by

comparing the distance between the eyes with the same distance

in entire specimens.

Left Eye Right Eye

[SS "SN SGATmnLTE TT aN

Length of Distance be- Longitudinal Transverse Longitudinal Transverse

specimen tween eyes diameter diameter diameter diameter

30 mm. 144mm. .886mm. .232mm. .868mm. .240 mm.

About 47mm. 192mm. .482mm. .320mm. .432mm._ .304 mm.

About 70mm. 3.10mm. .544mm. .384mm. .608mm._ .368 mm.

BPR ate es vel aie!) i eta\caieleig ah 496mm. .432mm. .544mm._ .384mm.

About 90mm. 4.00mm. .592mm. .400mm. .592mm. .448 mm.

The eye of Typhlotriton is, in many respects, much more de-

generate than that of its European caverniculous relative,

Proteus. In Proteus the six muscles are all present; in Zyph-

lotriton they have entirely disappeared. In the former all the

layers normal to the retina are present; in the latter the condi-

tions are much simpler. In Proteus the lens is still present,

and blood-vessels still enter the eye; in Zyphlotriton no trace

of the lens could be found, except in one individual, and blood-

vessels no longer enter the eye. While some of the asymmetry

may have been caused by reagents, it is evident that there is a

great deal of fluctuation in the shape of the eye. The eye is

irregular-oval in outline as seen from above, but the optic nerve

enters it at the posterior half of its inner face. The eye also

increases materially in size from the smallest to the largest of

the specimens examined, and this increase is not directly pro-

portional to the increase in the length of the animal, so the

young have relatively larger eyes. (PI. II, fig. 1.)

The eye lies immediately beneath the skin, to which it is

attached by a connective tissue mass which is horizontally

elongate. The axis of the eye makes an acute angle with the

surface of the skin, the eye being directed outward and forward.

The dermis over the eye does not differ from that in the neigh-

boring tissues. The epidermis, in the largest individual, is

perceptibly thinner over the eye, i. e., from the continuation of

52 CARL H. EIGENMANN

the axis of the eye to the surface of the epidermis. The meas-

urement, in the largest individual, of the epidermis at a point

over the eye and 320u above and below this point gives the

following:

Thickness over the eye 73u, 320u above the middle of the

eye 96u, 320u down from the eye 80n.

The same elements are found over the eye that are evident

in other regions. There is no indication of a past free orbital

rim; the dermis and epidermis are directly continuous over the

eye. There are no eye muscles and no glandular structures

connected with the eye. It is surrounded on all sides, except

where it becomes associated with the skin, by loose connective

tissue meshes, filled with fatty tissue, and is bound to the dermis

by many fibres running in various directions, and among these

a few pigment cells are found.

SCLERA AND CHOROID.

(a) Largest specimens. Cartilaginous elements are found

in the sclera of but two eyes. In one individual 90 mm. long,

the left eye possesses a cartilage, while there is none in the

right eye. It is in this case placed just above the entrance of

the optic nerve, and measures 96 in thickness, 160 vertically,

and 204 antero-posteriorly. In all other cases it is a thin,

flocculent layer not distinctly separable from the layers beneath

it. Itis thickest about the entrance of the optic nerve. Over

the front of the eye there are a few denser strands which may

represent the remains of the cornea. Over the sides of the eye

of the largest individual the sclera measures from 4y to nothing.

About the entrance of the optic nerve it attains a thickness of

14, and contains here many flat nuclei with a length up to 17p.

The choroid reaches a thickness of 20m near the entrance of

the optic nerve, and dwindles regularly from this point to the

distal face of the eye. Blood-vessels are found in it next to

the pigmented epithelium of the eye. Otherwise it is a mass

of pigment interlarded with streaks of colorless tissue contain-

ing nuclei. Over the front of the eye, next to the epithelium,

there are a number of colorless cells with large, granular nuclei.

EYES OF BLIND VERTEBRATES OF NORTH AMERICA, 11 53

(b) Essentially the same conditions exist in younger speci-

mens, but the parts are relatively thinner.

The ophthalmic artery, which extends approximately parallel

with the optic nerve during its distal course, is sometimes sur-

rounded by pigment. (Figs. 2 and 3.)

THE PIGMENT LAYER, EXCLUSIVE OF THE IRIDEAL PARTS.

The pigment layer is a thin, compact layer, densely pig-

mented. In an individual 30 mm. long it is about 8 in thick-

ness. As there are no rods and cones, the inner surface of this

layer is similar to the outer, that is, the cells form a pavement

epithelium. In places, however, processes of the cells extend

in among the cells of the nuclear layers, for a distance of 40u

in some cases (Fig. 2), to the inner reticular layer. In the in-

dividuals 70 to 90 mm. long, the pigment epithelium reaches

16 in thickness.

The only indication of a lens was found in the eye of a spec-

imen 72 mm. long. In this a small lenticular group of cells

lay in the opening of the pupil. It measured 24x40yu. (Fig. 9.)

THE IRIS AND ORA SERRATA.

Marked changes take place between the smallest and largest

individual examined, so that these must be dealt with seriatim.

(a) The smallest individual 30 mm. long. (Figs. 4 and 5.)

On the left side the pupil measures 22 in diameter; the dis-

tance from the margin of the pupil to the ora serrata measures

approximately 100u. The epithelial portion of this iris con-

sists of an outer Jayer of dense pigment considerably (14,)

thicker than the pigment epithelium of the rest of the eye. At

the pupil this pigment appears rolled into the inner surface of

the iris, where it is continuous with the inner layer of cells,

which consists of a layer of ordinary pigmentless epithelium 6u

thick, with the nuclei elongate and placed obliquely, and 24u

in length. A few of these ordinarily pigmentless cells show

pigment. There is a distinct thickening of the iris at the mar-

gin of the pupil. The pigment cells lying on the inner face of

this region are much less densely pigmented than those of the

54 CARL H. EIGENMANN

outer layer, and their nuclei are quite evident. The pupil is

closed with colorless cells belonging to the choroid. (Fig. 6.)

In the specimen 70 mm. long, very marked changes have

been brought about. The pupil was 24 wide on the right, but

is now an oblique channel, and the lower margin of the iris

overlaps the upper margin. On the left it is more nearly as in

the younger stages, but wider (484). The free margin of the

iris reaches now the enormous thickness of 56 to 80u. The

pigmented epithelium has rolled in more so that the elongated

nuclei, free from pigment, are crowded together in the region

of the ora serrata. The pupil is filled in part with pigment,

evidently of choroidal origin. (Fig. 7.)

The right eye of the specimen 90 mm. long. The choroidal

pigment has forced its way into the interior of the eye, and

forms a conical-shaped mass like a plug in the iris, and ex-

tending into the depth of the vitreous cavity. Apparently on

the external half of the iris the pigmented layer has become

rolled in and folded upon itself in the interior of the eye, giv-

ing rise to a pigment mass over 100m thick. No such mass is

present in the left eye. The pigment on the inner or upper

half of the iris is as in the younger stages.

The choroidal pigment entering the eye is in solid, vermiform

strands.

THE RETINA.

The retina of Zyphlotriton is much simpler than that of Pro-

teus. In the latter all the layers typical of the perfect retina

are still distinguishable (Kohl ’92, p. 88). In the former the

outer reticular layer has entirely disappeared, and the layers

between the rods and cones and the inner reticular layer form

a mass of cells that are homogeneous as far as ordinary histo-

logical methods permit one to determine. There are nowhere

the slightest evidences of any rods or cones either in the largest

or smallest individual. The nuclei of the outer nuclear, the

horizontal and inner nuclear layers are alike. Miillerian fiber-

nuclei have not been distinguished as such. This layer consists

of about five series of nuclei, and measures 44y in thickness in

EYES OF BLIND VERTEBRATES OF NORTH AMERICA, Il 55

the smallest (30 mm.), and 48u in the largest (90 mm.) speci-

men; it is between 32 and 48y in the specimen 70 mm. long.

The inner reticular layer is thin, but well defined. It is 6u

thick in the smallest specimen, 164 in the specimen 70 mm.

long. In section the ganglionic layer forms a U-shaped mass

of cells. In the larger specimens it is about 60, thick, and

made up of from five to seven series of cells. The vitreous cavity

is a widely flaring, trumpet-shaped structure, with its pointed end

reaching about the center of the eye. In the older specimens

it is filled by fibers and cellular tissue, apparently continuous

with the choroid ingrowth from the pupil. (Fig. 8.)

The optic nerve is 17y in diameter in the 30 mm. specimen.

In the largest specimen it is 244 thick without its sheaths. At

its passage through the pigmented layer of the retina it is con-

tracted to a width of but 14. Within this layer it expands to

28u. After passing directly through the ganglionic layer it is

distributed to the cells of this layer, some of the fibers being

bent at an acute angle to reach the cells near the entrance of

the nerve into this layer. A large number of isolated pigment

granules are found associated with the nuclei of the optic nerve

within the eye from its entrance to the ganglionic layer. (Fig.

6.) There is no sheath of pigment such as is found in 7yphlo-

gobius. Pigment cells are also occasionally present in the very

center of the eye (Fig. 6), and are presumably associated with

the optic nerve. The sheath of the optic nerve consists of a

direct continuation of the choroid layer, which is for a shorter

distance pigmented, and of a continuation of the sclera.

Blood-vessels do not enter the eye with the nerve, and none

were with certainty detected, except in the largest individual,

where they are closely associated with the choroidal mass of

tissue that has grown into the eye through the pupil.

SUMMARY.

1. The eye lies just beneath the skin. The skin is but little thinner

over the eye than elsewhere, and shows no structural characters different

from those of neighboring regions.

2. The eye muscles have vanished.

3. The lens has vanished, and its place has in part become filled by

an ingrowth of choroidal tissue containing pigment.

56 CARL H. EIGENMANN

4, The vitreal body is very small, if present at all. The vitreal cav-

ity is a funnel or trumpet-shaped space.

5. The pigmented layer of the retina is a pavement epithelium with

indistinct cell boundaries, and with occasional pigmented processes ex-

tending into or through the nuclear layers.

6. Rods and cones are not formed.

7. The outer reticular layer has disappeared.

8. The inner and outer nuclear layers form one layer, cells indistin-

guishable from each other.

9. The inner reticular layer, as usually with degenerate eyes, is rela-

tively well developed.

10. The ganglionic layer is well represented and connected with the

brain by the well developed optic nerve.

11. The epithelial portion of the iris is at first simple, with an outer

pigmented and an inner colorless layer. With age the margins of the iris

become folded inward in such a way that the pigmented layer may be

thrown into folds in the interior of the eye, while the colorless layer is but

little affected.

12. Pigment granules, and rarely pigmented cells, are associated in

the eye with the optic nerve.

13. The eye is more degenerate than that of the European Proteus.

It is less degenerate than that of the North American blind fishes Ambly-

opsis, Typhlichthys, and Troglichthys, but much more so than that of the

species of Chologaster.

PAPERS EXAMINED.

EIGENMANN, C. H., ’99: The Eyes of the Amblyopsidz. Archivf. Ent-

wickelungsmechanik VIII, pp. 543-615.

Kou., C., ’92 and ’93; Rudimentére Wirbelthieraugen. Bibliotheca

Zoologica. Heft 13 und 14.

STEJNEGER, LEONHARD, ’92; Preliminary Description of a New Genus

and Species of Blind Cave Salamanders from North America. Proc.

U. S. Nat. Mus., XV., pp. 115-117.

, 96. Description of a New Genus and Species of

Blind Tailed Batrachians from the Subterranean Waters of Texas.

Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., XVIII., pp. 619-621.

rianie,

"WStRD

ha a

RO le

a ey

Bi hylon)

CARL H. EIGENMANN

PLATE Ill.

DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES.

All figures except those from photographs have been drawn with the

aid of the camera lucida.

3-7,

Pigment epithelium.

Outer nulear to inner reticular layers of the normal retina.

Inner reticular layer.

Ganglionic layer.

Choroid.

Blood corpuscles.

Outer layer of the iris, epithelial.

Inner layer of the iris.

Optic uerve.

Pupillary margins.

Sclera.

Pigment cells which have entered the eye.

Fig. 1. Outline sketch of part of the section of the head of a specimen

90 mm. long, showing the position of the eye.

Fig.

COIR AP w

Right eye of a specimen 30 mm. long.

Exit of the optic nerve of the same.

Iris of the left eye of the same specimen.

Upper half of iris of the right eye of a specimen 70 mm. long.

Right eye of a specimen 70 mm. long.

Right eye of a specimen 90 mm. long.

Exit of optic nerve of the same eye.

Lens of a specimen 72 mm. long.

PLATE Ill

60 EYES OF BLIND VERTEBRATES OF NORTH AMERICA, II

PLATE IV.

DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES.

Figs. 10-12. The heads of the three cave salamanders of North Amer.

ica. The heads were subjected to the same treatment to prepare them for

photography, and the photographs were taken under approximately the

same magnification.

Fig. 10. The head of a Spelerpes maculicauda 54 mm. long. XK 14.

Fig. 11. The head of a Typhlotriton speleus 54 mm. long. X 15.

Fig. 12. The head of a Typhlomolge rathbuni 4744 mm. long. K 14

PLATE IV

Figure 10 at top; 11 at bottom: 12 between.

THE MODERN CONCEPTION OF THE STRUCTURE

AND CLASSIFICATION OF DIATOMS.

WITH A REVISION OF THE TRIBES AND A REARRANGEMENT OF THE

NORTH AMERICAN GENERA.

By CHARLES E. BESSEY, Pu. D.

WITH PLATE V.

In the revision of the Bacillariaceae for Engler and Prantl’s

‘¢Pflanzenfamilien,’”’ Schiitt has availed himself principally

of the studies of Otto Miiller and has given us the first clear

conception of the meaning of the diatom cell, and its relation to

the diatom filament. Starting with the filament, we regard it

as the typical condition, from which the unicellular diatoms

have been derived by the solution of the filament and the

adaptation of the separate cells to an independent life. Diatoms

are thus regarded as typically filamentous algae, and are no

longer to be placed among unicellular plants. Accordingly

their place in the system is readily determined, and there is no

longer any excuse for trying to assign them to the Protophyta

or Phaeophyceae, much less to place them outside the vegetable

kingdom. Schiitt asserts their near relationship to the Desmidi-

aceae, and Engler in his ‘‘Syllabus der Panzenfamilien”’ assigns

them to the Euphyceae, with Desmidiaceae and Zygnemaceae

as close relatives on the one hand, and the Peridiniales on the

other.

In a recent study of the diatoms in the light of these views

as to their structure, I have accepted Schiitt’s interpretation

with a slight modification, and have adopted the principal fea-

62 CHARLES E. BESSEY

tures of his classification, introducing, however, some changes

in both, which I fear he may not accept. What follows must

then be understood as based upon Schiitt’s monograph, but

with my own modifications so freely introduced that the respon-

sibility for the views set forth must rest with the present writer

rather than the eminent German monographer.

FAMILY BACILLARIACEAE.

Cells yellowish-brown (by the addition of phycoxanthin to

the chlorophyll) in unbranched filaments, circular, angled or

flattened in cross section (end view or valve view); or more

commonly separated early into isolated individuals (sometimes,

however, more or less associated together in gelatinous colonies)

which are similarly shaped, or variously twisted or bent; cell

wall at first composed of cellulose, early more or less completely

silicified, in most tribes very finely porous, and often wholly or

partly covered with a gelatinous layer; the walls of each cell

constitute a closed box (‘‘frustule”’ of older authors), consisting

of two ends (‘‘ valves ’’) and two overlapping rings, the ‘‘ girdle,”

and in many cases of ‘‘interzones’’ (zwischenbinder), which

lie between the girdle and the valves; the interzones are some-

times mere rings, but often they have more or less complete

septa which transversely divide the cavity of the cell; chromat-

ophores one or two, large and lamelliform, or numerous, small

and granular; propagation (1) by the division of the cell

(always at right angles to the axis of the filament) forming two

similar cells, (2) by the escape of the protoplasm from its wall,

its rapid growth into a larger cell and the formation of an en-

tirely new wall (rejuvenescence), and (3) by contraction of the

protoplasm of a cell and the formation of a new thick and armed

wall (asexual resting spore); generation by the union of the

escaped protoplasmic contents of the two cells, resulting in the

formation of one or two new, usually much larger cells (several

modifications of this process have been observed). Minute

fresh water and marine plants, floating free or attached to vari-

ous objects.

CLASSIFICATION OF DIATOMS 63

The family is readily separated into two sub-families:

A. Sus-Famitry Centrricar.—Cells in transection circular,

less commonly polygonal or elliptical, and rarely irregular;

valves marked concentrically or radially by dots, areolations,

lines or ribs; cells often with spines, processes or horns.

B. Sus-Famiry Prennatrar.—Cells in transection narrowly

elliptical to linear, less commonly broadly elliptical, lunate,

cuneate or irregular; valves marked pinnately or transversely

by dots, areolations, lines or ribs; cells without spines, pro-

cesses or horns (spines very rarely present, e. g., Dimerogramma

and Cymatosirda).

Under the sub-family Centricae are arranged nine tribes, the

sequence being from those which are typically cylindrical fila-

ments to those which are flattened filaments, in the former more

commonly remaining as filaments, in the latter more commonly

separating into individual cells. (Plate V.)

Under the sub-family Pennatae are arranged six tribes, the

sequence being from those typically Hlamentous to those typi-

cally separated into individual cells. (Plate V.)

In further interpretation of the diatom structure as indicating

the relationship of these two sub-families I have regarded them

as constituting two separate but somewhat parallel genetic lines,

in which the Coscinodisceae and Fragilarieae are approximately

primitive, the former having given rise to the Centricae and

the latter to the Pennatae.

In comparing the two sub-families it is interesting to note

that the species of Centricae are largely marine and fossil, and

those of Pennatae are largely fresh-water and recent. The

structure of the plants of the former is relatively simpler, but

the superficial ornamentation is usually more marked, while in

the Pennatae the structure is increasingly more complex up to

the Naviculeae, Bacillarieae and Surirelleae, where the raphe is

a characteristic structure, while in these the superficial ornamen-

tation is less marked.

I may say in passing that I have a similar conception of the

structure of the Desmids, and that in the arrangement of the

CHARLES E. BESSEY

families of the Conjugatae I regard the Zygnemaceae as more

nearly primitive, with their filamentous, unbranched plant-body,

and that the Desmids and Diatoms represent two similar and

somewhat parallel genetic lines, in which the filaments tend to

break up early into independent cells, the former with a less

modified cell wall, the latter with its wall usually much modified

by the deposition of silica.

Kry To THE TRIBES.

A. Sus-Famity Crnrricar.—Cells in transection circular,

less commonly polygonal or elliptical, and rarely irregu-

lar; valves marked concentrically or radially by dots,

areolations, lines or ribs; cells often with spines, pro-

cesses or horns.

ifs

ILE

it:

LY...

Cells short box-shaped or discoid, mostly circular in

transection, usually without horns or projections,

. Valves not divided into sectors by ribs, sometimes

with radial rows of dots, without ‘‘eyes” (round or

oval, definitely bounded, hyaline areas) or nipples,

Tribe 1. Coscinodisceae.

Valves divided into sectors by ribs, without ‘‘ eyes”

or nipples, Tribe 2. Actinodisceae.:

Valves with radial undulations, or dome-shaped pro-

jections, the latter with ‘‘eyes,” nipples or spines,

Tribe 3. Hupodisceae.

Cells two to many times as long as broad, circular,

rarely round-elliptical in transection; girdle with num-

erous interzones, Tribe 4. Solenzeae.

Cells box-shaped, about as long as broad (rarely

much longer), transection circular to elliptical, with

two to many horns much longer than the cell; inter-

zones rarely present, Tribe 5. Chaetocereae.

Cells box-shaped, shorter than broad or but little

longer, transection circular, polygonal or commonly

elliptical; valves with two (rarely one) to more poles,

each pole with a projection or horn which is shorter

CLASSIFICATION OF DIATOMS 65

than the cell, or when about its length provided with

claws; interzones rarely present,

Tribe 6. Biddulphieae.

. Cells box-shaped, as long as broad or shorter, ellip-

tical, sometimes lunate in transection; valves with-

out horns or projections; rarely with interzones,

a. Valves lunate, without transverse septa,

Tribe 7. Huodieae.

b. Valves not lunate,

1. Valves with transverse septa, without spines,

Tribe 8. Anauleae.

2. Valves without transverse septa, with a marginal

row of spines, Tribe 9. Rutilarieae.

B. Sus-Famimry Prennatrar.—Cells in transection narrowly

elliptical to linear, less commonly broadly elliptical,

lunate, cuneate or irregular; valves marked pinnately or

transversely by dots, areolations, lines or ribs; cells with-

out spines, processes or horns (spines very rarely present,

e. g., Dimerogramma and Cymatosira).

Rachis of the valves (i. e., the line between the diver-

gent pinnate markings) evident as a narrow unmarked

strip (pseudoraphe), rarely wanting; valve without a

slit (raphe),

. Cells usually little shorter than broad or longer, with

numerous interzones, mostly united into filaments,

Tribe 10. Zuabellarieae.

. Cells prevailingly much shorter than broad (¢rod-

shaped” of older authors, the longer axis of the rod

representing one of the transverse axes of the cell),

often united into filaments,

1. Cells cuneate in girdle view (i. e., valves not par-

allel), rachis median, interzones present,

Tribe 11. Meridioneae.

2. Cells rectangular in girdle view, or if cuneate the

rachis not median, interzones present or absent,

Tribe 12. Fragilarieae.

66 CHARLES E. BESSEY

II. Rachis containing an elongated slit (raphe) through

the cell wall,

a. Rachis commonly median, often more or less lateral,

not keeled or when keeled not punctate, interzones

present or absent, Tribe 18. Maviculeae.

b. Rachis lateral, less often median, punctate-keeled,

raphe not plainly visible, Tribe 14. Bacillarieae.

III. Rachis evident as a narrow, unmarked strip, or keeled;

valve with two lateral wing-keels, each enclosing a

raphe, Tribe 15. Swrirelleae.

A. SUB-FAMILY CENTRICAE.

TrisE I. CoscrinoDISCEAE.

Kry To THE GENERA.

I. Cells forming filaments, girdle side marked,

a. Valves without spines,

1. Entire valve uniformly marked, 1. Lysigonium.

2. Margin and center of valve differently marked,

a. Marginal portion a narrow ring, 2. Paralia.

6. Marginal portion a very broad radially striate ring,

1. Central portion finely punctate, 3. Hyalodiscus.

2. Central portion areolated, 4. Hyalodictya.

b. Each valve with a circle of spines, 5. Stephanopyzis.

IL. Cells single, girdle side not marked,

a. Long box-shaped, central portion of valves coarsely are-

olated, 6. Craspedodiscus.

b. Cells disk-shaped,

1. Valve markings not consisting of sinuate lines,

a. Valve with distinct central and marginal portions,

without spines, 7. Cyclotella.

4. Central and marginal portions of valve grading

into one another,

1. Valve with a circle of spines, 8. Stephanodiscus.

2. Valve without spines, 9. Coscinodiscus.

2. Valve markings consisting of sinuate lines,

10. Liradiscus.

CLASSIFICATION OF DIATOMS 67

1. Lysigoniwm Link (Melosira Agardh). Cells cylindrical

(or elliptical), closely joined together, not carinate, sometimes

transversely furrowed, sometimes superficially denticulate in the

plane ot the fracture, valves simply punctate. Species numer-

ous, in fresh and marine waters.

2. Paralia Heiberg. Cells cylindrical, valves furrowed par-

allel to the edge, valve markings of two kinds, at the center

finely punctate, at the edge a circle of areolae. Species few,

marine and fossil.

3. Hyalodiscus Ehrenberg. Cells solitary, geminate or sev-

eral, valves orbicular, with radiating lines, and with a distinct

central smooth umbilicus. Species few, marine and fossil.

4. Hyalodictya Ehrenberg. Like the preceding, but with

the umbilicus closely areolate. Species one, in fresh waters.

5. Stephanopyxis Ehrenberg. Cells cylindrical or discoid

(occasionally elliptical in transection), mostly united in chains,

valves tumid convex, hexagonally alveolate, spines usually cor-

onal, sometimes wanting. Species many, marine and fossil.

6. Craspedodiscus Ehrenberg. Cells solitary, long box-

shaped, valves diversely areolate, central portion sharply

defined from the surrounding border by a spiny line. Species

few, marine and fossil.

7. Cyclotella Kiitzing. Cells mostly single or in twos,

short cylindrical, discoid, valves saucer-shaped, diversely

marked, central portion inflated, smooth or granulate, sur-

rounded by a circular border marked by fine radiating lines.

Species numerous, mostly in fresh waters.

8. Stephanodiscus Ehrenberg. Cells single, short cylindrical,

discoid, valves circular, slightly convex, not hexagonally areo-

late, radially granulate with hyaline spaces between the radii,

center hyaline or granulate, edge with a simple crown of spines.

Species many, mostly in fresh waters, some fossil.

9. Coscinodiscus Ehrenberg. Cells single, discoid, valves

circular, rarely elliptical or rhomboid, fiat or centrally depressed,

sometimes undulate or plicate, often with a central hyaline circu-

lar or irregular area, which may contain an areolate rosette;

68 CHARLES E. BESSEY

markings areolate or granulate, margin narrow or broad, mostly

with marginal spines. Species very many, marine and fossil.

10. Liradiscus Greville. Cells single, discoid, with a nar-

row girdle band, valves circular to elliptical, somewhat convex,

flattened towards the edge, surface sinuate-reticulate, more or

less rough, sometimes with small spines, no central area, margtn

narrow and hyaline, or broad and radially lined. Species few,

marine and fossil.

TrisEe IJ. ActTINopISscEAE.

Kry To THE GENERA.

I. Ribs or sectors without claws,

a. No sharp separation of central and marginal portions,

1. Radial ribs not transversely connected,

11. Stictodiscus.

2. Radial ribs connected by transverse lines or rows of

granules, 12. Hemiptychus.

b. Center areolated and surrounded by a hollow, radially

chambered border, 13. Planktoniella.

II. Ribs or sectors with claws,

a. Valve radially undulate, the alternate sectors dissimilar,

14. Actinoptychus.

b. Valve not undulate,

1. Rays all alike, 15. Asterolampra.

2. One of the rays dissimilar, 16. Asteromphalus.

11. Stictodiscus Greville. Cells single, discoid, valves circu-

lar or angled, more or less convex (often unequal), with radial

ribs usually not reaching to the center, central area usually

granulate. Species many, mostly marine and fossil.

12. Hemiptychus Ehrenberg (Arachnotdiscus Ehrenberg).

Cells single, discoid, valves circular, with numerous stout radi-

ating ribs (often alternately longer and shorter), which are con-

nected by transverse lines or rows of granules, center hyaline.

Species few, marine and fossil.

13. Planktoniella Schiitt. Cells single. discoid, flat; valves

circular, consisting of a sharply defined, slightly areolated center,

CLASSIFICATION OF DIATOMS 69

surrounded by a broad, hyaline, hollow, radially chambered and

ribbed border. Species one, marine.

14. Actinoptychus Ehrenberg. Cells single, discoid, valves

circular to hexagonal, with radiai more or less dissimilar undu-

lations, the surface mostly hexagonally areolate; sectors provided

with marginal claws; umbilicus central, often hyaline and mostly

stellate. Species many, marine and fossil.

15. Asterolampra Ehrenberg. Cells single, discoid, flat;

valves circular or obtusely angled, with similar hyaline, radial

rays, all reaching the margin and there provided with marginal

claws; center sometimes areolate, margins always areolate, with

a middle non-areolated band between the marginal band and

the center. Species many, marine and fossil.

16. Asteromphalus Ehrenberg. Cells single, discoid; valves

circular or elliptical to oval, with sub-similar, hyaline, radiating

rays, all reaching the margin and there provided with marginal

claws; center hyaline, crossed by radial zigzag lines, and sur-

rounded by a broad areolated field divided by the rays. Species

many, marine and fossil.

Trise III. Evropiscrar.

Key To THE GENERA.

I. Valves with nipples, no ‘‘eyes,”’ 17. Tripodiscus.

Ii. Valves without nipples, with ‘‘ eyes,”

a. ‘* Eyes” sub-marginal, small,

1. Valve surface granulate in radiating lines, one

‘Seye,”’ 18. Actinocyclus.

2. Valve surface mostly areolate, one to four ‘‘eyes,”

19. Hupodiscus.

b. ‘*Eyes”’ not marginal, usually large, 20. Aulzscus.

17. Tripodiscus Ehrenberg (Aulacodiscus Ehrenberg). Cells

single, discoid or box-shaped; valves circular (rarely polygonal),

bearing one to forty-five sub-marginal nipple-like processes,

flat, crateriform, or with an elevated zone; markings granular,

in straight or crooked lines. Species many, marine and fossil.

70 CHARLES E. BESSEY

18. Actinocyclus Ehrenberg. Cells single, discoid, or short

box-shaped; valves circular to elliptical or rounded rhomboid,

flat (rarely convex), granulate, the granules usually round, and

arranged radially; central area usually round; one round, sub-

marginal ‘‘eye.”? Species many, marine and fossil.

19. Hupodiscus Ehrenberg. Cells single, discoid; valves

circular, flat or slightly convex, center often depressed; mark-

ings mostly areolate, without a central area, ‘‘ eyes” one to four,

small, near the margin; spines small, few to many, sub-marginal.

Species few, marine and fossil.

20. Aulzscus Ehrenberg. Cells single, discoid; valves circu-

lar, round to elliptical (rarely bluntly angled), flat, with usually

two (rarely one, three or four) truncate, conical processes, each

terminating in a large ‘‘eye;” central area usually present;

markings of the surface variable, granulate, pruinate, to areo-

late. Species many, marine and fossil.

TrisE ITV. SoLeEnigBAer.

[ We have but one genus. ]

21. Rhizosolenia Ehrenberg. Cells long cylindrical, form-

ing chains; girdle composed of numerous scale-like, almost

ringed segments; valves unsymmetrical, oblique to the long axis

of the cell; cell-wall but little silicified. Species many, mostly

marine, rarely in fresh waters.

TrisE V. CHAETOCEREAE.

Key To THE GENERA.

I. Valves circular, with many horns, 22. Bactersastrum.

II. Valvesellipticaleach withtwohorns, 23. Chaetoceros.

22. Bacteriastrum Shadbolt. Cells short cylindrical, usually

shorter than broad, forming chains, with numerous horns aris-

ing at the margins of the valves, Species few, marine.

23. Chaetoceros Ehrenberg. Cells short elliptical, shorter or

longer than broad, forming chains; valves elliptical, each bear-

ing two long horns, girdie bands but little silicified. Species

many, marine.

CLASSIFICATION OF DIATOMS Gi

TrisnE VI. BiIppULPHIEAE.

Key To THE GENERA.

I. Projections or horns without claws,

a. Valves alike,

1. Valves tri- to multipolar, with a projection at each

angle,

a. Strongly silicified, without spines or claws,

24. Triceratium.

6. Weakly silicified, a stout spine at each pole,

25. Lithodesmium.

2. Valves bipolar,

a. With spines, strongly silicified,

1. Projections strongly developed,

26. Biddulphia.

2, Projections reduced, each bearing aslender spine,

27. Zygoceros.

6. Without spines, weakly silicified, 28. Hwcampia.

b. Valves unlike, 29. Isthmia.

II. Projections or claws with terminal claws,

30. Hemiaulus.

24. Triceratium Ehrenberg. Cells prismatic, box-shaped,

free or connected in chains; valves three to many angled,

angles more or less prolonged into protuberances, without

spines or claws. Species many, nearly all marine and fossil.

25. Lithodesmium Ehrenberg. Cells prismatic, box-shaped,

united into long chains; valves three angled, each angle with a

stout terminal spine; girdle band of many scale-like segments;

cell walls incompletely silicified. Species few, marine and

fossil.

26. Biddulphia Gray. Cells box-shaped, elliptical to sub-

circular in transection, free or connected in chains; valves

usually strongly convex, bipolar, each pole with a short pro-

tuberance or stout horn, which is rounded or truncate; valves

frequently with stout spines. Species many, marine and fossil.

27. Zygoceros Ehrenberg. Like Biddulphia, but with the

protuberances of the valves reduced, and bearing a slender spine-

like or thread-like horn. Species few, marine and fossil.

12 CHARLES E. BESSEY

28. Hucampia Ehrenberg. Cells short, slightly curved,

forming spiral chains; valves elliptical, flat or with two pro-

tuberances; girdle band mostly with many cross-lines; cell walls

weakly silicified. Species few, marine and fossil.

29. Isthmia Agardh. Cells box-shaped, mostly longer than

thick, and broad, trapezoidal, free or united into tree-like col-

onies; valves elliptical, dissimilar, each with a protuberance;

girdle band distinct. Species few, marine and fossil.

30. Hemiaulus Ehrenberg. Cells mostly box-shaped, tran-

section elliptical to multiangular, with relatively long protuber-

ances, united into chains; valves bi- to multipolar, each pole

extended into a short or long horn, terminating in one or more

claws. Species many, marine and fossil.

TrisE VII. Evoprmas.

[We have but one genus. |

31. Hemidiscus Wallich (Huodia Bailey). Cells box-shaped,

single; valves lunate, markings areolate or granulate. Species

few, marine and fossil.

Trise VIII. AwnavLeae.

Ky To THE GENERA.

I. Valves with transverse septa appearing in girdle view as

straight, incomplete partitions,

a. Valves straight, 32. Anaulus.

b. Valves slightly curved, 33. Hunotogramma.

II. Valves with transverse septa appearing in girdle view as

bent, incomplete partitions,

a. Incomplete partitions bent-capitate, 34. Terpsinoe.

b. Incomplete partitions, after bending, elongated parallel

to the valve-face, 35. Porpeia.

32. Anaulus Ehrenberg. Cells box-shaped, single; valves

elliptical, straight, with two transverse septa, which appear as

straight, short, incomplete partitions in the girdle view; valve

markings punctate. Species few, marine and fossil.

33. Hunotogramma Weisse. Cells as in Anaulus, but the

valves slightly curved, and with two to many transverse septa.

Species few, marine and fossil.

CLASSIFICATION OF DIATOMS 73

34. Terpsinoe Ehrenberg. Cells box-shaped, single or united

into chains by their angles or valve-faces; valves symmetrical,

oblong-elliptical, with lateral undulations, and with two to many

transverse septa which in girdle view appear as short, incom-

plete partitions with thickened curved ends (resembling ‘‘ notes”

of written music). Species few, fresh-water, marine and fossil.

35. Porpeia Bailey. Cells box-shaped, single; valves oblong-

elliptical, the middle and ends swollen, with two transverse

septa which in girdle view appear as incomplete partitions,

which soon bend axially parallel to the valve-face. Species

few, marine and fossil.

Triste IX. Rotiarieaer.

[We have but one genus. |

36. Hutilaria Greville. Cells much broader than long, in

valve view oblong-elliptical, united into short chains; valves

boat-shaped, somewhat elevated at the ends, surrounded by

tooth-like spines. Species few, marine and fossil.

B. SUB-FAMILY PENNATAE.

Trine X. TABELLARIEAE.

Kry to THE GENERA.

I. Transverse ribs of the valves, when present, not extend-

ing into the cell cavity,

a. Valves with a few prominent transverse ribs, _

37 = Tetracyclus.

b. Valves transversely striate only,

1. Interzones two to many, septa not undulate,

a. Valves coarsely striate, pseudoraphe present,

38. Rhabdonema.

4. Valves finely striate, pseudoraphe absent,

39. Striatella.

2. Interzones two, septa undulate, 40. Grammatophora.

IJ. Transverse ribs of the valves extending deeply into the

cell cavity, 41. Denticula.

74 CHARLES E. BESSEY

37. Tetracyclus Ralfs. Cells united into flat filaments,

shorter or longer than broad, with many interzones, and cen-

trally perforated transverse septa; valves elliptical to oblong,

swollen in the middle, without prominent median line, no nod-

ules, and sparingly transverse ribbed. Species few, fresh-water

and fossil.

38. Rhabdonema Kiitzing. Cells united into flat filaments,

shorter or longer than broad, the filaments basally attached by

a gelatinous cushion on one corner of the end cell; interzones

many, externally cross-marked, their transverse septa variously

perforated; valves elliptical or linear-lanceolate, with a pseudo-

raphe, and transverse-beaded lines and no nodules. Species

few, marine and fossil.

39. Striatella Agardh (7ubellarta Ehrenberg). Cells shorter

or longer than broad, united into flat filaments which may partly

separate into zigzag chains, basally attached by one corner;

interzones few to many, each with an alternately perforated

septum; valves linear to elliptical-oblong, more or less swollen

centrally and at the ends; without pseudoraphe or nodules;

surface transversely striate, not ribbed. Species many, fresh-

water, marine and fossil.

40. Grammatophora Ehrenberg. Cells shorter than broad,

united into flat, zigzag chains, basally attached; interzones two,

each with an undulate, centrally perforated transverse septum;

valves linear to elliptical, sometimes swollen in the middle and

sometimes at the ends also, with a faint pseudoraphe, and polar

but no central nodules, mostly finely cross striate. Species

many, marine and fossil.

41. Denticula Kiitzing. Cells free, single or united into.

very short, flat filaments; interzones two, each with a transverse

septum with a row of perforations; valves lanceolate, without

raphe, with transverse ribs and striae. Species few, fresh-water,

brackish water, and fossil.

CLASSIFICATION OF DIATOMS tS

Trine XI. MeriIpIonBAg.

Kry To THE GENERA.

I. Valves punctate or variously punctate-striate, without

transverse ribs,

a. Not stalked, 42. Sceptroneis.

b. Cells stalked,

1. Each interzone with a septum only at its broader end,

43. Licmophora.

2. Each interzone with a scalariform-fenestrate septum,

44. Climacosphenia.

II. Valves finely transverse-striate and with transverse ribs,

45. Meridion.

42. Sceptroneis Ehrenberg. Cells free, mostly single, cune-

ate in valve and girdle view; interzones wanting; valves trans-

versely moniliform-striate, with pseudoraphe which is sometimes

very broad; polar nodules sometimes recognizable. Species

few, fresh-water, marine and fossil.

43. Licmophora Agardh. Cells stalked, single or forming

fan-like chains, cuneate in valve and girdle view;-interzones

two, open at the narrower end and with a septum at the broader

end; valves very finely transversely striate, and with a pseudo-

raphe; nodules wanting. Species many, marine.

44. Climacosphenia Ehrenberg. Like Licmophora, but the

interzones with scalariform-fenestrate septa. Species few,

marine and fossil.

45. Meridion Agardh. Cells free, united into fan-shaped

or spiral chains, cuneate in valve and girdle view; interzones

wanting; valves cuneate, rounded at the ends, with transverse

ribs, and fine, transverse, centrally interrupted striae, this in-

terruption forming a pseudoraphe. Species few, in fresh waters.

Trise XII. FRAGILARIEFAE.

Kgry To THE GENERA.

I. Rachis median,

a. Valves with transverse ribs, or if not ribbed, with a

central ‘‘ eye,”

76 CHARLES E. BESSEY

1. Without a central ‘‘ eye,” 46. Odontidium.

2. With a central ‘‘eye,”’ 47. Plagiogramma.

b. Valves without transverse ribs, without a central ‘‘ eye,”

1. Ends of valves alike,

a. Cells in filaments, or zigzag chains,

1. Valves flat, without polar nodules,

48. Fragilaria.

2. Valves raised at the ends, and often in the mid-

dle, with polar nodules. 49. Dimerogramma.

6. Cells single, or forming fan-like, stalked clusters,

50. Synedra.

2. Ends of valves unequally swollen, 51. Asterionella.

II. Rachis near one margin,

a. Ends of valves alike,

1. Pseudoraphe and central nodule evident,

52. Ceratoneis.

2. Pseudoraphe and central nodule not evident,

53. Hunotia.

b. Ends of valves unlike, 54. Tibiella.

46. Odontidium Kiitzing (Diatoma DC.). Cells united into

short bands or zigzag chains, which are attached at the base,

not cuneate, girdle view oblong-rectangular; vaives lanceolate

to linear with transverse ribs, and fine transverse striae, the

latter interrupted centrally by the indistinct pseudoraphe; no

central nodule. Species few, in fresh waters.

47. Plagiogramma Greville. Cells often united into chains,

free, not cuneate, girdle view oblong-rectangular; valves linear

or elliptical, transversely punctate striate and sometimes ribbed,

with a central ‘‘eye;’’ pseudoraphe often present; terminal

nodule present. Species many, marine and fossil.

48. Fragilaria Lyngby. Cells united into mostly ribbon-

shaped, rarely zigzag, chains, not cuneate, girdle view rectangu-

lar, mostly narrowly linear; valves linear-lanceolate or fusiform,

flat, transversely striate or with transverse rib-like, beaded

markings but no true ribs; pseudoraphe present; no nodules.

Species many, fresh-water, marine and fossil.

CLASSIFICATION OF DIATOMS CE

49. Dimerogramma Ralfs. Cells united into ribbon-like

chains, not cuneate, girdle view rectangular; valves lancevlate

to linear-lanceolate, sometimes broader or narrower in the

middle, not flat, raised at the ends, and often in the middle,

with coarse or fine transverse-punctate striations, interrupted

by the pseudoraphe; with polar and often central nodules.

Species few, marine and fossil.

50. Synedra Ehrenberg. Cells free or attached, single or in

fan-shaped clusters, not cuneate, girdle view linear; valves linear

or lanceolate-linear, sometimes somewhat crinkled, transversely

striate, mostly with a pseudoraphe; sometimes with false central

and polar nodules. Species many, fresh-water, marine and

fossil.

51. Asterionella Hassall, Cells attached into a star-shaped

cluster, not cuneate, girdle view narrowly linear, with unequally

thickened ends; valves narrowly linear with unequally swollen

ends, very finely transverse striate, with a pseudoraphe; no

nodules. Species few, fresh-water and marine.

52. Ceratoneis Ehrenberg. Cells free, single, not cuneate,

girdle view linear; valves crescentic, faintly or not at all trans-

versely striate; pseudoraphe present close to the concave edge;

polar and central nodules present. Species few, fresh-water

and fossil.

53. Hunotia Ehrenberg. Cells free or united into chains,

or attached, not cuneate, girdle view rectangular-oblong; valves

crescentic, often undulate on the convex margin, transverse

striae uninterrupted; pseudoraphe not evident; polar nodules

present; central nodule wanting. Species many, fresh-water

and fossil.

54. Tibiella Bessey (Actinella Lewis*). Cells attached into

fan-shaped colonies, cuneate in girdle view; valves curved, with

the ends unequally swollen, finely transverse-punctate-striate,

with marginal beads or spines; pseudoraphe indistinct; polar

* Actinella Lewis (1865) is antedated by Actinella Persoon (1807), as

well as by Actinella Nuttall (1818), and must therefore be suppressed.

The name Tibiella is suggested by the resemblance of the cells in valve

view to the human tibia.

78 CHARLES E. BESSEY

nodules present; central nodule wanting. Species few, fresh-

water and fossil.

Trine XIII. NavicuLkar.

Key To THE GENERA.

I. Valves parallel,

a. Rachis of valves not keeled,

1. Raphe almost straight,

a. Raphe with a simple border,

1, Septa of interzones (when present) not fenestrate,

+. Cells straight in girdle view, 55. Wamweula.

++. Cells curved,

§. Both valves witharaphe, 56. Rhoiconeis,

$§. Only one valve with a raphe,

57. Achnanthes.

2. Septa of interzones fenestrated,

+. Both valves with a raphe, 58. JDastogloia.

tt. Only one valve with a raphe,

§. Interzonal septa narrow, marginal, fenes-

trated, 59. Cocconeis.

§§. Interzonal septa complete, fenestrated,

60. Campyloneis,

4. Raphe bordered by two ridges,

1. Central nodule small or only slightly elongated,

61. Brebissonia,

2. Central nodule much elongated, rib-like,

62. Amphipleura.

2. Raphe strongly sigmoid or arcuate,

a. Raphe sigmoid,

1, Celi not twisted, 63. Gyrosigma.

2. Cell twisted, 64. Scoliopleura.

b. Raphe arcuate, 65. Towonidea.

b. Rachis of valves with a keel,

il Keel (including the raphe) sigmoid, median,

66. Amphiprora.

2. Keel (including the raphe) arcuate, excentric,

67, Amphitrite.

CLASSIFICATION OF DIATOMS 79

II. Valves not parallel, ends approximating,

a. Cells straight in girdle view, 68. Gomphonema.

b. Cells curved in girdle view, 69. BRhoicosphenia.

III. Valves not parallel, edges approximating,

a. Valves without transverse ribs,

1. Girdle narrow, not striate, 70. Cymbella.

2. Girdle broad, striate, T1. Amphora.

b. Valves with transverse ribs, raphe not evident,

72. Cystopleura.

55. Wavicula Bory. Cells single, free or enclosed in gela-

tinous tubes, or rarely united in chains, not cuneate, elliptical

to linear-lanceolate in valve view, rectangular and straight in

girdle view; with or without interzones, interzonal septa not

marginally chambered; valves bilaterally symmetrical, with a

straight raphe (or nearly so), no keel, and round polar and

central nodules, the latter sometimes elongated (stauros); sur-

face transversely punctate-striate orribbed. Species very many,

fresh-water, marine and fossil.

56. Fhoiconeis Grunow. Cells single, free, not cuneate,

curved in girdle view, interzones several; valves elliptical-

lanceolate, symmetrical, with a straight median raphe and cen-

tral and terminal nodules; surface transversely striate. Species

few, fresh-water, marine and fossil.

57. Achnanthes Bory. Cells single or forming short chains

attached by the basal cell, cells curved only in girdle view;

valves elliptical to lanceolate, often narrower or broader in the

middle; valves dissimilar, the one concave with a true raphe

and central and polar nodules, the other convex with a pseudo-

raphe, both striate with transverse rows of dots, sometimes

ribbed. Species many, fresh-water, marine and fossil.

58. Mastogloia Thwaites. Cells mostly enclosed in a gela-

tinous mass, not cuneate, lanceolate in valve view, and oblong

in girdle view; valves like those of Wavicula; two interzones

present, each having a septum with a central opening surrounded

by a row of rectangular chambers. Species many, fresh-water

and marine.

80 CHARLES E. BESSEY

59. Cocconeis Ehrenberg. Cells single, free, straight or

curved in girdle view, and the plane of the upper valve with

its margins curved downwards; valves round-elliptical to cir-

cular, dissimilar, the lower concave with a true raphe and

nodules, the upper with a pseudoraphe and without nodules,

both transversely punctate-striate; interzone one with a narrow

marginal fenestrated septum, or none. Species many, fresh-

water, marine and fossil.

60. Campyloneis Grunow. Cells single, free, curved in

girdle view, and the plane of the upper valve with the margins

curved downwards; valves scutelliform, dissimilar, the lower

concave, transversely punctate-striate, with a straight raphe and

central nodules, the upper convex, cribrose-punctate, with a

pseudoraphe and without nodules; interzone one, between the

lower valve and the girdle, its septum complete, fenestrated.

Species few, marine and fossil.

61. Lrebissonia Grunow. Cells single, free or enclosed in

gelatinous tubes, or sometimes stalked, not cuneate, elliptical

to linear-lanceolate in valve view, rectanguiar and straight in

girdle view; without interzones; valves bilaterally symmetrical,

with a straight raphe (or nearly so) which is enclosed between

two parallel ridges; central nodule small, usually slightly

elongated; surface transversely punctate-striate or ribbed.

Species few, fresh-water and marine.

62. Amphipleura Kiitzing. Cells single, free, or enclosed

in gelatinous masses or tubes, not cuneate, narrowly lanceolate

in valve view, narrowly oblong in girdle view; valves bilater-

ally symmetrical; raphe straight, bordered by two parallel

ridges, and separated by the long, narrow, longitudinal, rib-like

central nodule; polar nodules small; surface transversely striate.

Species many, fresh-water, marine, and fossil.

63. Gyrosigma Hassall (Pleurosigma W. Smith). Cells

single, free or rarely enclosed in gelatinous tubes, not cuneate,

straight and oblong-elliptical in girdle view, sigmoid in valve

view; valves bilaterally symmetrical, sigmoid-lanceolate; raphe

median, sigmoid; central nodule small; striations crossed, ob-

CLASSIFICATION OF DIATOMS 81

liquely (decussate) or at right angles (rectangular), reaching

almost to the raphe. Species many, mostly marine, some in

fresh waters, also fossil.

64. Scoliopleura Grunow. Cells single, free, twisted, not

cuneate, girdle view oblong, the girdle oblique; valves elliptical,

strongly convex, the raphe sigmoid, excentric; central nodule

small; surface transversely striate, sometimes obliquely striate-

pearled. Species few, fresh water, marine, and fossil.

65. ZYoxonidea Donkin. Cells single, free, not cuneate,

twisted, lunate or arcuate in valve view, the girdle oblique;

valves unsymmetrical, with an arcuate excentric raphe, and

central and polar nodules; striations decussate. Species few,

marine.

66. Amphiprora Ehrenberg. Cells single, free, not cuneate,

twisted, lanceolate in valve view and oblong in girdle view but

with a sigmoid girdle; interzones present; valves convex, with

the raphe concealed in a sigmoid emarginate keel; central and

polar nodules present; valves transversely striate, rarely scat-

tered punctate. Species few, fresh water and marine.

67. Amphitrite Cleve (Auricula Castracane). Cells single,

free, not cuneate, quite unsymmetrical; valves reniform, with

an arcuate, emarginate, oblique keel at the convex margin in-

cluding the raphe, central and polar nodules present; interzones

present; striations of valves transverse or irregular. Species

few, marine.

68. Gomphonema Agardh. Cells single, mostly stalked or

in gelatinous masses, cuneate in both girdle and valve views;

interzones present; valves bilaterally symmetrical, often later-

ally twice indented; raphe straight, with central and polar nod-

ules, the former sometimes transversely elongated (stauros);

surface transversely punctate-striate. Species many, fresh water,

marine, and fossil.

69. Rhoicosphenia Grunow. Cells mostly stalked, cuneate

in both girdle and valve views, curved in girdle view; inter-

zones present; valves straight, bilaterally symmetrical, trans-

versely striate, unlike; the concave valve with raphe and central

82 CHARLES E. BESSEY

and polar nodules, the other without nodules, and with a pseudo-

raphe. Species few, fresh water and marine.

70. Cymbella Agardh. Cells single, stalked, (often becoming

free) or enclosed in gelatinous tubes, oblong and straight in

girdle view; no interzones; valves lunate, not symmetrical;

raphe somewhat excentric, arcuate, rarely straight; central and

polar nodules present; surface transversely striate, without ribs.

Species many, fresh and brackish waters, and fossil.

71. Amphora Ehrenberg. Cells single, mostly free, elliptical

to rectangular in girdie view; sometimes with cuneate inter-

zones; valves lunate, not symmetrical; raphe excentric, near

the concave margin, doubly arcuate; central nodule rounded or

transversely elongated; surface transversely punctate-striate.

Species very many, fresh water, marine, and fossil.

72. Cystopleura Brebisson (Hpithemia Brebisson). Cells

single, rarely in short chains, attached ventrally to other plants,

girdle view oblong to doliiform; interzones present or absent;

valves lunate, internally transversely ribbed, transversely

beaded externally; raphe excentric near the concave margin

(by some considered to be a pseudoraphe). Species many, fresh

and brackish waters.

Trine XIV. BactLuARIBAE.

Key To THE GENERA.

I. Keel median, 73. Bacillaria.

II. Keel at one edge, 74. Homoeocladia.

73. Bacillaria Gmelin. Cells paraliel, in free chains, glid-

ing upon one another in the chains, rod-shaped, straight, rhom-

bic in cross section; valves linear, pointed, with a median,

beaded keel in which is concealed the raphe; transversely

striate. Species few, fresh water and marine.

74. Homoeocladia Agardh (Miteschia Hassall). Cells mostly

free, rarely in tubes or chains, sometimes stalked, elongated or

linear, rarely cuneate, rhombic in cross section; valves linear to

lanceolate, pointed, with the oblique, bordered keel at one edge

enclosing the raphe; surface punctate or transversely or decus-

sately striate. Species many, fresh water, marine, and fossil.

CLASSIFICATION OF DIATOMS 83

Tris—E XV. SvURIRELLEAE.

Kry To THE GENERA.

I. Valve surface undulate, 75. Sphinctocystis.

IJ. Valve surface not undulate,

a. Valves cuneate, reniform, elliptical or linear,

76. Surirella.

b. Valves sub-circular, saddle-shaped, 77. Campylodiscus.

75. Sphinctocystis Hassall (Cymatopleura W. Smith). Cells

free, oblong to linear, straight; valve surface undulate and

transversely striate, with a beaded keel on each margin, con-

taining the raphe; along the center of the valve extends a

straight pseudoraphe. Species few, in fresh and brackish waters.

76. Survrella Turpin. Cells free or stalked, straight or

twisted, in valve view cuneate, reniform elliptical or linear,

girdle view cuneate, elliptical, oblong or sigmoid; valves with

a beaded or ribbed keel on each margin containing the raphe;

surface with ribs extending from the margin towards or to the

median linear or lanceolate pseudoraphe. Species many, fresh

water and marine.

77. Campylodiscus Ehrenberg. Cells solitary, free, disk-

shaped, disk twisted or saddle-shaped, round elliptic; valves

round elliptic, with short mostly radiate ribs, and a marginal

keel concealing the raphe; pseudoraphe median, but at right

angles in the two valves. Species many, mostly marine, a few

in fresh waters.

84 CHARLES E. BESSEY

PLATE V.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE.*

The family Bacillariaceae consists of two quite sharply separated sub-

families, which probably originated by divergent development from a

common ancestral filamentous type.

SUB-FAMILY CENTRICAE.

TRIBE I. COSCINODISCEAE, represented by Stephanopyxis, a short

filament in girdle view, and one cell in valve view; Coscinodiscus, in valve

view; Lysigonium, a short filament in girdle view, and a cell in valve

view.

TRIBE IJ. ACTINODISCEAE, represented by Stictodiscus, in girdle view

(above) and valve view (below); Asteromphalus in valve view; Asterop-

tychus, in girdle and valve views.

TRIBE III. EUPODISCEAE, represented by Hupodiscus, valve view

_ (fragment); Actinocyclus, valve view; Tripodiscus, girdle view; Auliscus,

valve (fragment) and girdle views.

TRIBE IV. SOLENIEAE, represented by Corethron, one cell in girdle

view; Lauderia, a short filament in girdle view; Rhizosolenia, one cell

and part of a second, in girdle view.

TRIBE V. CHAETOCEREAE, represented by Bacteriastrum, a short fila-

ment in girdle view; Chaetoceros, a filament in girdle view, and another

in end (valve) view.

TRIBE VI. BIDDULPHIEAE, represented by a filament of Eucampia,

a chain of Triceratiwm in both valve and girdle views, and cells and

chains of Isthmia in girdle view, one above in valve view.

TRIBE VII. EUODIEAE, represented by fragments of Hemidiscus in

girdle view, with a smaller fragment in valve view at the left.

TRIBE VIII. ANAULEAE, represented by Terpsinoe, in girdle and valve

views, and Anaulus in two girdle views, and valve view (at the right).

TRIBE TX. RUTILARIEAE, represented by Rutilaria, two cells in girdle

view, and one cell in valve view; Pseudorutilaria, girdle view of two con-

tiguous half-cells (below), and valve or sectional view (above).

SUB-FAMILY PENNATAE.

TRIBE X. TABELLARIEAE, represented by a filament of Rhabdonema

and enlarged valve view, a chain of Grammatophora (girdle view) and

enlarged valve view, Tetracyclus in girdle and valve views, and a broken

filament of Striatella.

* The drawings for this plate were made upon a chart about 1x2

meters, by Miss Edna L. Hyatt, Artist for the Botanical Department of the

University of Nebraska, and then photographically reduced to the present

dimensions.

PLATE V

LEAE

S= La

2 ree

= = ‘ E Apsara

UMASTAG

ae ME R

SY e

CLASSIFICATION OF DIATOMS 85

TRIBE XI. MERIDIONEAE, represented by several fan-shaped fila-

ments of Liemophora, borne on gelatinous stalks.

TrRiBE XII. FRAGILARIEAE, represented by broken filaments of Frag-

tlaria, and one cell (at the right) in valve view; two cells of Synedra, the

right in girdle, and the left in vaive view; two cells of Hunotia in girdle

view, and one (above) in valve view, and a broken filament of Odontid um,

in girdle view.

TRIBE XIII. NAVICULEAE, represented typically by cells of Navicula

(valve view on the right, girdle view on the left), Gyrosigma (girdle view

below, valve above), Gomphonema (girdle view below, valve above),

Cystopleura (valve view at left, girdle at right), and Cymbella (valve view

below, girdle above), and somewhat aberrantly by Achnanthes (a short,

attached filament at the right and two valve views at the left), and two

valve views of Cocconeis (lower at left and upper at right).

TRIBE XIV. BACILLARIEAE, represented by a filament of Bacillaria

(at the left) and two cells (at the right, the upper in girdle view, the lower

in valve view); and three cells of Hemoeocladia, the lower in girdle view,

the other two in valve view.

TRIBE XV. SURIRELLEAE, represented by two cells of Surirella (valve

view at left, girdle view at right), and Sphinctocystis (girdle view below,

valve view above).

TPL Y

pay

an id

were

Nhs

NOTICES OF SOME UNDESCRIBED INFUSORIA,

FROM THE INFUSORIAL FAUNA OF

LOUISIANA.

By J. C. SMITH, NEw ORLEANS, LA.

WITH PLATE VI.

(Being a Continuation from Page 68 of the Transactions for 1897, and

from Page 56 of the Transactions for 1898.)

Famity PLEUvROMONADIDAE Kent.

Genus Orxomonas Kent.

Oikomonas viridis sp. n. Plate VI, Fig. 1.

Body pyriform, sub-cylindrical, soft and variable in shape;

normally less than twice as long as wide; flagellum single, as long

as the body and originating in the center of the anterior border;

endoplasm enclosing two lateral dark green pigment-bands,

which extend for nearly the whole iength of the normal body;

contractile vesicle distinct and placed to one side of the flagel-

lum, above the pigment-band and in contact with the periphery,

the contour of which it distinctly disturbs at each contraction,

dark pigment-spot placed above the pigment-band, opposite the

contractile vesicle; nucleus roundish and sub-central; food in-

cepted at all parts of the periphery; reproduction by longitu-

dinal fission.

Length 12.54; habitat, pond water.

This species was found frequently and at times in great

abundance in pond water with several species of filamentous

algae. The pigment-bands are distinctly sausage-shaped, and,

in color, resemble the endochrome of the alga, Oedogoniwm.

88 J. ©. SMITH

It attaches itself to debris or the slide by a caudal-like ex-

tension of its substance, which, at times, exceeds the body in

length, and when the zooid breaks loose from its attachment,

this extension remains for some time, but is always retracted

before again attaching itself. It is a very active feeder, and

as it always attaches itself before feeding, it generally remains

but a short time in the free-swimming condition when food is

abundant. The food is of all kinds, and, at times, much longer

than its body. The expansion and contraction of the contrac-

tile vesicle is quite rapid and cannot escape notice.

This form may possibly be the JMonas viridis of Dujardin,

which seems to have failed of recognition by all subsequent

observers excepting De Fromentel. Jf. viridis is the same

size. It bears a superficial resemblance to the Cryptoglena

pigra Ehr,, but differs in being soft and plastic, and in the non-

possession of an oral aperture. It also bears some resemblance

to Chrysomonas flavicans Ehr. and to Chrysomonas ochracea

Ehr., but these forms have a distinct oral aperture and the

pigment-bands are permanently yellow.

In size, shape (somewhat), plasticity and manner of taking

food, it bears a very strong resemblance to Chromulina ovalis

Klebs, but differs essentially in the color of the pigment-band,

which in (@. ovalis is yellow or golden, and in the habit of

attaching itself preparatory to feeding.

In company with this form were found on several occasions

a number of triciliate infusorians (Fig. 3), which the writer is

inclined to identify as the Callodictyon triciliatum Carter; an

infusorian which seems to have evaded all students of these

lowly forms since Carter found it at Bombay in 1865. The

forms noticed agreed in the transparency and vacuolar con-

struction of the endoplasm, and in the position of the nucleus,

which reagents showed to be globular. The anterior depression

was absent; the three flagella were equal in size, but nearly as

long as the body; the occasional posterior bifurcation was never

present in the specimens seen. The body was soft, slowly

changeable in shape, but never to any great extent, and food

SOME UNDESCRIBED INFUSORIA 89

was taken in at any part of its periphery. In size it differed

somewhat, being 35.7, as against $2.9u as recorded by Carter.

Minus its flagella and movement this form resembles an elon-

gate rayless Actinophrys.

Famity HeEreromiripar Kent.

Genus Hereromira Dujardin.

Heteromita obovata sp. n. Plate VI, Fig. 2.

Body obovate, subcylindrical, plastic and slightly changeable

in shape; less than three times longer than wide; the anterior

flagellum as long as the body and the posterior one nearly

twice as long; contractile vesicle large, active and placed in

the posterior third of the body, near the sinistral border; nu-

cleus round, distinct and in the anterior fourth of the body;

endoplasm bluish; movements slow and equable.

Length from 16.66 to 27.84; habitat, ditch water.

This form can be easily distinguished from all others of this

genus so far described by the position of the contractile vesicle

and nucleus.

In shape, relative length of the flagella, position of the con-

tractile vesicle and of the nucleus, this species resembles the

free-swimming phase of Dimorpha radiata Klebs, but numerous

and constant observations have demonstrated that it does not

change its character. It is a very active feeder and incepts

food at any part of its body. It does this in a peculiar man-

ner. The food is found and pressed to the body by one or

both flagella, the body then curves about the food and seems to

press it in.

At times the narrow posterior end of the body will throw

out one or several filaments of its own substance, by which it

fastens itself to the slide and then both flagella are thrown for-

ward to seek food, Occasionally it becomes so filled with food

that it loses all semblance to its normal shape, and may then be

very nodular. In this respect it resembles Heteromita globosa

Stein.

90 J. C. SMITH

The form was found in great abundance in ditch-water, and

seemed to be very persistent, being taken a number of times

during several months from the same spot.

Famity Hatreripar Clap. & Lach.

Genus Hatteria Dujardin.

Halteria activa sp. nu. Plate VI, Fig. 4.

Body subovate, cylindrical, soft and plastic, but persistent in

shape; less than twice as long as wide; a spiral wreath of long

cilia originating near the anterior border and continued around

the body, making a circuit and a half, and ending at the oral

aperture, which is near the body-center; oral aperture continued

for a short distance as a membranous pharynx; two springing-

setae dependent from near the oral aperture, and reaching for

some distance below the posterior extremity; contractile vesicie

large and latero-central; nucleus round and sub-central; repro-

duction by transverse fission; movements as with //alteria grand-

mella Miill.

Length 50u; habitat, brackish water of Lake Pontchartrain.

In consequence of the powerful ciliary wreath, the rotary and

forward movements of this species are exceedingly rapid, sur-

passing those of HZ. grandinella. The springing movement is

correspondingly weak, owing to the meager supply of setae.

Viewed from the dorsum the springing-setae appear to be caudal

appendages, and only by the exercise of much patience can

their true nature be demonstrated.

In company with this form were a number of fairly large-

sized Pleuromonas jaculans Perty, and taking advantage of the

favorable conditions, they were given some attention. The

apical flagellum was easily demonstrated with an 4 objective,

and was never found to be longer than the body of the zooid,

and invariably hanging down the concave side. A number

were studied with the special object of determining the manner

of taking food, and as a result, the writer feels obliged to con-

clude that this ubiquitous form has a true oral aperture just

above the origin of the flagellum by which it attaches itself.

SOME UNDESCRIBED INFUSORIA 9

Famity OxyrtricuHipaE Ebr.

Genus Epicrinres Stein.

Epiclintes pluvialis sp. n. Plate VI, Fig. 5.

Body elongate, very elastic, and from five to seven times

longer than wide; divided into three distinct regions—a widest

central portion which is convex on the dorsal and flat on the

ventral surface, a narrower neck-like portion which is very

much compressed and rounded at the free anterior border (the

central portion usually about twice the length of the anterior

portion), and an elongate, attenuate tail-like portion which is sub-

cylindrical and very variable in length; peristome-field elongate-

obovate, occupying about one-half the width of the neck-like

portion, and extending from near the anterior border to a short

distance within the central portion, and there meeting the oral

aperture, which is continued a short distance as a distinct

membranous pharynx; the peristome-field has a continuous outer

marginal fringe of powerful cilia, each of which is longer than

one-half the width of the neck-like portion; the inferior or

narrower end of this field has for some distance up an oppo-

sitely reflexed marginal series of fine pre-oral cilia; the mar

ginal series of body cilia are large, those on the caudal extremity

being somewhat larger, the ventral series not numerous, and

apparently without definite arrangement; the dorsal surface

covered with fairly long hispid setae; contractile vesicle dorsally

placed, a little below the oral aperture and near the sinistral

border; anal aperture located at the lower ventral extremity of

the central portion; movements eccentric; reproduction by

transverse fission.

Length 357; habitat, pond water.

This large and unique form of the Hypotricha presents a

marked departure from all other members of the order in hay-

ing a symmetrical peristome-field, the same region being more

or less arcuate in all other forms described so far. It also bears

the distinction of being the first one of the genus Lypiclintes

with a fresh-water habitat. They were taken in large quanti-

ties from a small pond at Slidell, Louisiana, with a species of

92 J. ©. SMITH

Myriophyllum, and in company with what appears to be a three-

horned variety of Ceratiwn hirundinella Bergh. (Fig. 6.) It

is a ravenous feeder, and is usually filled with food, in fact the

forms observed were so congested that it was impossible, after

many efforts, to differentiate the nucleus. In one instance one of

the zooids was seen to swallow eight specimens of 7rachelomonas

armata Ehr., which ought to be classed as quite a feat, when the

formidable array of spines with which 7. armata is covered, is

considered. It has the peculiar habit of resting alongside of

some debris or algal filament, and collecting around its body a

quantity of debris, from which it protrudes most of its body

when feeding, and into which it withdraws itself when disturbed.

This habit is thus exactly similar to that of Stichotricha

aculeata Wrz.

The Ceratewm mentioned above is brownish-yellow and meas-

ures, full length, 166,.

Famity URcEOLARIIDAE Stein.

Genus Tricnopina Ebr.

Trichodina viridis sp. nu. Plate VI, Fig. 7.

This ciliate resembles the Zrzchodina pediculus Ehr. in every

way excepting that its endoplasm contains numerous small

green bodies, not unlike, in shape and general appearance,

the chlorophyll of plants. These small green bodies are very

much like those contained in the endoplasm of Paramecium

bursaria Ehr. They are constant, in more or less abundance,

and give to the animal a bright green color. The shape is

much more compressed than any TZ. pediculus seen by the

writer, and resembles a checker used in the game of draughts.

Size varies (diameter) from 76.75 to 91p.

Ectoparasitic on the fresh-water snail Physa integra Halde-

man.

An examination of more than one hundred specimens of the

host failed to disclose a single instance of its absence from

their bodies.

SOME UNDESCRIBED INFUSORIA 93

GeEnus ConDYLOSTOMA.

Condylostoma culex Smith.

This form was described in these Transactions for 1897, page

63. A further examination has shown that it is only occasionally

found with the eggs of Culex mosquito, and that its natural

habitat is the egg-sac of the pond-snail Physa integra Halde-

man. A recent examination of a large number of these egg-

sacs showed this form present in every instance, and always in.

large numbers.

Fig

Fig.

Fig

Fig.

Bafsise Si ei oS)

SOME UNDESCRIBED INFUSORIA

PLATE Vi.

Oikomonas viridis.

Heteromita obovata.

Callodictyon triciliatum.

Halteria activa.

Epiclintes pluvialis.

Ceratium hirundinella—variety.

Trichodina viridis.

Notogonia Ehrenbergii. (See page 95).

NOTOGONIA EHRENBERGII Perry.

By J. C. SMITH, New OrR.eEans, LA.

WITH PLATE VI, Fic. 8.

Max Perty, in 1852, described and figured a rotifer, which

he named Notogonia Ehrenbergii. This rotifer not having been

again met with up to 1889, and Hudson and Gosse* consider-

ing the description not sufficiently explicit, they placed it

among their ‘‘ Doubtful and Rejected Genera. ”’

Up to quite recent years it appears to have escaped the atten-

tion of students of this group of animals, for Delage and Hér-

ouardt, in their Vermidiens, place the V. Hhrenbergii in their

‘¢ Incertz sedis. ”’

In this country, observers seem to have been more fortunate,

for Prof. Kellicott{ has met with it in abundance in Ohio, and

about the same time Prof. Jennings$ has quoted it from Lake

Michigan.

I have taken it in large numbers from an old unused well in

Audubon Park, New Orleans, and having given it considerable

attention, deem it not amiss to give a description of this form

so that there may be no longer any excuse for ranking it as

doubtful.

Lorica transparent, widening backwards, with its posterior

border bounded by three concayities; the two outer concavities

terminating laterally in thorn-like points, which are directed

dorsal-ward and slightly forward; the opening for the head

slightly excavate dorsally and much more so ventrally; the open-

* The Rotifera or Wheel-Animalcules, 1889.

7 Traité de Zoologie Concréte, 1897, Vol. V.

t Rotifera of Sandusky Bay, Journal A. M. S., 1897.

2 Bulletin of the Michigan Fish Commission, No. 6.

96 NOTOGONIA EHRENBERGII PERTY

ing for the foot slightly excavate dorsally and deeply excavate

ventrally; ventral plate plain and dorsal plate much arched;

postero-lateral borders sub-marginally marked with a zig-zag

pattern as in Metopidia solidus Gosse; internal anatomy iden-

tical with that of JL, solidus; eyes, two, smali, dark, widely

separated and placed well up in the head; foot three-jointed;

toes slender and almost as long as foot; frontal hood as in I.

solidus.

Length, including head and toes, 151.5; of lorica 114; of

foot and toes 72.9; greatest width of lorica 147.

Jennings records this form as Metopidia Ehrenbergii, and

Kellicott says that he can see no reason for separating it from

the genus Metopidia. I consider both of these observers to be

correct, for this rotifer has as much claim to a position in this

genus as the type of the genus itself.

It is an exceedingly handsome animal, and rivals in trans-

parency and distinctness of its viscera, the much-admired

Pterodina patina Ebr.

It has a peculiar trick of spreading its toes and turning them

dorsal-ward while feeding.

The figure given (Plate VI, Fig. 8) was drawn with the aid

of a camera, and is a faithful likeness of Perty’s original. The

size may be considered as corresponding exactly with that

given by him.

CHLAMYDOMONAS AND ITS EFFECT ON WATER

SUPPLIES.

By GEORGE C. WHIPPLE, Brook yy, N. Y..,

BIOLOGIST AND DIRECTOR OF MT. PROSPECT LABORATORY.

WITH PLATE VII.

It is now a well known fact that most of the unpleasant

tastes and odors that affect public water supplies are caused by

microscopic organisms, and it is somewhat surprising to find

that, amidst the host of existing forms, the troublesome organ-

isms are limited to about twenty-five genera. The following

table shows the important odor-producing organisms, together

with the odors that they impart to drinking water:

GROUP ORGANISM NATURAL ODOR

Aromatic Odor: Diatomaceae—

Asterionella, Aromatic-geranium-fishy.

Cyclotella, Faintly aromatic.

Diatoma, Faintly aromatic.

Meridion, Aromatic.

Tabellaria, Aromatic.

Protozoa—

Cryptomonas, Candied violets.

Mallomonas, Aromatic-violets-fishy.

Chlamydomonas, Aromatic-fishy-unpleasant.

Grassy Odor: Cyanophyceae—

Anabaena, Grassy and moldy-green corn-

nasturtiums-etc.

Rivularia, Grassy and moldy.

Clathrocystis, Grassy and sweetish.

Coelosphaerium, Grassy and sweetish.

Aphanizomenon, Grassy.

Fishy Odor: Chlorophyceae—

Volvox, Fishy.

Eudorina, Faintly fishy.

Pandorina, Faintly fishy.

Dictyosphaerium, Faintly fishy.

Protozoa—

Uroglena, Fishy and oily.

Synura, Ripe cucumbers - bitter and

spicy taste.

Dinobryon, Fishy, like rockweed.

Bursaria, Irish moss-salt marsh-fishy.

Peridinium, Fishy, like clam-shells.

Glenodinium, Fishy.

Vegetable Odor: Diatomaceae—

Synedra, Indistinct vegetable odor.

Melosira and others, Indistinct vegetable odor.

Recently it has been found that Chlamydomonas is an odor-

producing organism. Attention was first called to this by

Hollis and Parker,* who found the organism in Spot Pond,

Stoneham, Mass.

This pond covered nearly three hundred acres and had a maxi-

mum depth of thirty-seven feet, but about one-fifth of the pond

had a depth of less than six feet. The bottom of the pond was

covered with thick deposits of mud, and the water that entered

the pond came partly from a swampy region. These conditions

no longer exist, as the pond has been recently acquired by the

Metropolitan Water Board, and is being improved and devel-

oped as a storage reservoir.

Chlamydomonas was first observed in Spot Pond in August,

1898, but its maximum growth did not occur till November.

After Nov. 21st it decreased rapidly, but lingered in small

numbers through the following winter and spring. At the time

of its maximum growth it was present as follows:

Number per ce. Standard Units per cc. +

Surface, 628 156

Mid-depth, 682 171

Bottom, 532 133

It was found that ‘‘moderate numbers gave a somewhat

unpleasant sweetish and oily taste and odor, and the oily and

unpleasant character became more pronounced as the number of

* Chlamydomonas in Spot Pond, by Dr. F.S. Hollis and Horatio N.

Parker, Journal of the New England Water Works Association, Vol. IV.,

No. 1, Sept., 1899.

+ One Standard Unit equals 400 square microns.

CHLAMYDOMONAS AND ITS EFFECT ON WATER SUPPLIES 99

organisms increased, becoming fishy and even offensive when

high numbers were present.”’

The writer has had recently the opportunity of corroborating

the testimony of Hollis and Parker as to the odor-producing

qualities of Chlamydomonas, and of noting the occurrence of

the organism under conditions very different from those exist-

ing in Spot Pond.

The 26th ward of Brooklyn, N. Y., is supplied with water

from driven wells, usually pumped directly into the pipes. A

reservoir is connected with the distribution system, and is drawn

upon whenever the consumption exceeds the amount of water

pumped. For the greater part of the time, however, the water in

the reservoir is stagnant. The reservoir has a capacity of about

five million gallons, and the depth at high water is about

eighteen feet. The bottom is of clay, and the slopes are

cemented.

On Nov. 16, 1899, the water in this reservoir contained 5120

Chlamydomonas per cubic centimeter (equal to 1200 Standard

Units), or about eight times as many as were found in Spot

Pond. It had a decided green color as seen from above, and a

distinct aromatic, almost fishy odor. The odor was much in-

tensified by heating the sample, and after standing a few days,

odors of decomposition could be observed. The temperature

of the water on Nov. 16th was 8.5°C. On Nov. 21st, the

water contained 4248 Chlamydomonas per ce.; on the 27th,

1328; and on Dec. 6th, 608. As the organisms decreased the

odor became correspondingly less in intensity, though it still

retained its characteristic aromatic and unpleasant qualities.

The comparison of the growth of Chlamydomonas in Brooklyn

with that in Spot Pond is interesting because of the very differ-

ent character of the water in the two places. This difference

is well shown by the chemical analysis on the next page.

It will be observed that while the amount of organic matter

is much greater in the Spot Pond water, the nitrogen available

as plant food is far greater in the water from the driven wells.

Chlamydomonas is, no doubt, largely influenced in its food

supply by the amount of nitrates present.

100 GEORGE C. WHIPPLE

Driven Wells of

Spot Pond Long Island Water

(Average for 1897) Supply Co.

(Nov. 16, 1899)

In Parts per Million

Color, (Platinum-cobalt Standard) 0.370 0.000

Albuminoid ammonia....... Hehe 0.273 0.004

Bree ammonia. 62.0.6 cosec uae 0.021 0.000

INGEIBES ES bia Ye tice te he eaektnee ale 0.001 0.003

Total residue on evaporation..... 51.100 279.500

Blardinesaey hc. aie ee 20.000 166.000

Chlorine sy joys his Se Ls ce etiel a 5.700 23.000

The occurrence of Chlamydomonas under conditions differing

so widely as in the two illustrations would imply that the or-

ganism may develop in almost any pond or reservoir. The

early records show that it is a very widely distributed organism,

but, with a few exceptions, it has thus far escaped the notice of

those biologists who are studying water supplies. There are

several reasons for this. The organisms are seldom present in

water supplies in numbers sufiicient to attract attention by their

odor; they are much smaller than most of the common organ-

isms, and the powers of the microscope that are ordinarily used

in water examination fail to bring them out with distinctness;

and their small size permits many of them to pass through the

sand of the Sedgwick-Rafter filter unless an extremely fine sand

is used.

The maximum growths of Chlamydomonas in Spot Pond and

in Brooklyn both occurred during the month of November, but

the organism may be found at all seasons of the year. It is

frequently present in the reservoirs of the Brooklyn Water

Supply during May and June.

Several species of Chlamydomonas have been described, but

they are of doubtful value. Hollis and Parker stated that the

forms observed by them resembled Ch. albo-viridis St., but

that in some of their phases they resembled several of the nine

CHLAMYDOMONAS AND ITS EFFECT ON WATER SUPPLIES 101

forms described by Goroshankin.* The forms observed by the

writer have agreed in most cases with the figures of Ch. pulvis-

culus Ehrbg. as given by Biitschli. The adult individuals were

almost spherical and averaged about 12y in diameter. The

flagella were generally two in number and about twice the

length of the body. The cell contents consisted of a single

chromatophore, situated near the base of the cell, or cleft and

extending forwards; a contractile vacuole near the base of the

flagella; a nucleus almost in the center of the cell; certain

minute particles said to be starch granules; and oil-globules.

As arule, no eye-spot was visible. The cell was usually sur-

rounded by a thin lorica, but several forms were observed

where the entire cell was embedded in a spherical mass of

jelly about 30y in diameter, similar to that surrounding Haema-

tococcus Agardh (Chlamydococcus A. Braun). In these cases

the cells were flask-shaped, the small end terminating at the

surface of the jelly and the flagella extending out through a

depression in the surface. The length of the flask-shaped cells

was 18, and the diameter was 12y. Division of the cells took

place, and groups of four, eight, sixteen and thirty-two cells were

observed. In most cases the daughter-cells were provided

with long hair-like processes, some of them having a length

of over 100u. The daughter-cells were grouped in scattered

colonies surrounded by a common sheath, or in compact botry-

oidal clusters without sheath, and having hair-like processes

radially disposed like the pseudopodia on Actinophrys.

During the occurrence of Chlamydomonas in the reservoir of

the Long Island Water Supply, the water at first contained no

other organisms except a few Synedra ulna, but later rotifers

of various kinds became abundant. On Dec. 6th the water

contained the following:

Approximate number per litre

Branchionus pala Ehrbg................. 800

Synchaeta pectinata Ehrbg.............. 400

Anuraea cochlearis Gosse..............6. 400

Notommata aurita Ehrbg................ 2400

As the number of rotifers increased the Chlamydomonas be-

came less abundant.

* Proceedings of the Society of Natural History of Moscow, 1891.

102 CHLAMYDOMONAS AND ITS EFFECT ON WATER SUPPLIES

Figs. 1-4.

Figs. 5-6.

Figs. 7-9.

Fig. 10.

Fig. 11.

Fig. 12.

PLATE VII.

EXPLANATION OF FIGURES.

Chlamydomonas Ehrbg. After Hollis and Parker.

Chlamydomonas pulvisculus Ehrbg. Typical forms.

i zi Ke Divisional forms.

s 3 a With gelatinous coating.

Haematococcus lacustris. After Biitschli.

Chlamydomonas albo-viridis St. After Biitschli.

AN INCUBATOR FOR STUDENT USE.

By VERANUS A. MOORE.

WITH PLATE VIII.

Among the difficuities attending the teaching of bacteriology

is the selection of incubators suitable for student use. The

majority of those now catalogued by the trade are too small to

accommodate a large class. In our most elementary course it

has been found necessary for each person to have not less than

eighty square inches of shelf room for the boxes or stands for

holding test-tube cultures, Petri dishes, and fermentation tubes.

In fitting up our student laboratory this necessity was in a

measure anticipated and two large incubators built on the

Weisnegg pattern were provided. These were found to afford

ample shelf room for our present classes, but the difficulty of

utilizing the rear half of each shelf soon became apparent. The

shelves were necessarily too close together to enable one to

reach over cultures standing in the fore part and the result was,

that, notwithstanding our cautioning and the intelligent care on

the part of the student, it not uncommonly happened that

cultures were misplaced, or worse still, pushed from the shelves

to the floor with the attending consequences.

In order to overcome the confusion, accidents, and annoyance

to students in having their cultures misplaced or perhaps des-

troyed by others in removing those in their rear, the desirability

of constructing individual apartments suggested itself. A

number of devices were considered, but the one about to be

described seemed to be, all things considered, the most practi-

cable. It consists simply of a chest of drawers very much after

the Lillie paraffin-oven pattern which are placed within the in-

cubator, each drawer being of sufficient size to furnish storage

104 VERANUS A. MOORE

for the working cultures of one student. Their use removes all

possible excuse for any person meddling with the cultures of

others, and they afford convenient trays in which to transfer

cultures from incubator to work table and wice versa.

The Weisnegg incubators are heated by gas ‘‘microbe”

burners, placed underneath, the heat being radiated from a

metal plate at the bottom and one at the top and the metal

tubes connecting them. The tubes are arranged at the two

sides and back, and are placed close to each other (see Fig. 1).

This arrangement gives lateral heat quite as much as a water

jacketed incubator. The shelves with the standards supporting

them as seen in Fig. 1 were removed, and in their place the

frame work for the drawers was fastened (Fig. 3), leaving a

narrow space on all sides.

The drawers were made from sheet zine with a wooden front.

Each drawer is 49 centimeters long, 10.5 centimeters wide and

19 centimeters deep. The sides and rear end are perforated,

which allows quite free passage of air. The ends are soldered

and the perforations are sufficiently high from the bottom to

allow the drawer to hold the cultures if the tubes should, for

any reason, break. The drawers can be easily cleaned and

disinfected.

The board on the front end of each drawer closes the front

of the incubator so that the opening of the door affects the

temperature but very little. The drawer is provided at the top

with a narrow flange which runs in a metal groove and in

which the drawer is supported. The grooved strip is imbedded

in the frame work. On the front end of each drawer is an in-

expensive but convenient pull which is also provided with a

frame for a card on which is written the name of the person

who is to use it.

In regulating these the Roux bimetallic regulator is used.

It is inserted at the back rather than near the center of the side,

as shown in Fig. 1. The size of the drawers might possibly

be better if a trifle larger, but as we desired to use the

incubator already built, and also to provide for the maximum

AN INCUBATOR FOR STUDENT USE 105

number of students, the area of each drawer was reduced to the

minimum. *

I am indebted to Mr. Henry Bool, who built the drawers,

for his skill in minimizing the space occupied by the frame

work, and to Mr. Raymond C. Reed of this department for the

photographs used in the illustrations.

Department of Comparative Pathology and Bacteriology,

LV. ¥. State Veterinary College, Ithaca, N. Y.

* The incubators have been used for a term of six months since the

presentation of this paper. They have fulfilled in every respect all that

was expected of them, and as yet no objections to such an arrangement

has been found.

106

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 3.

Fig. 4.

AN INCUBATOR FOR STUDENT USE

PLATE Vill.

EXPLANATION OF FIGURES.

Photograph of incubator as originally built.

es is ut with apartment drawers completed.

with frame work for drawers.

drawers showing different views.

e se “e

ae e ce

PLATE VIII

}eibeas aes SSG Ta Pa | |

Rae RE ROS OE i

ai Sits esi SP eae

SOME LABORATORY APPARATUS.

By SIMON HENRY GAGE.

During the last two or three years the requirements of an

unusually large class in the laboratory of Histology and Embry-

ology made it desirable and indeed necessary that some modi-

fications should be made in standard apparatus and facilities in

order that the large number should have the same facilities for

personally undertaking the principal methods that had been

accorded to the smaller number. The first serious difficulty

arose in connection with the holders for the parattin blocks to

be sectioned by the Minot ribbon microtome. Each microtome

is regularly furnished with three holders of different sizes. For

fifty to seventy-five students to use one or even two ribbon

microtomes when only three to six holders are available involves

so much loss of time in waiting for one another or in hunting

up the holders, that it seemed necessary to devise some cheap

holder that could be supplied in such quantity that no waiting

on that account would be necessary. It occurred to the writer

that flat-headed wire nails, cut to the proper length, or flat-

headed stove bolts of the right length and size, might be used.

Fig. 1. Flat-headed stove bolt. If a long one is obtained it

may be sawed off to avoid the thread at the end.

On investigation the stove bolts (Fig. 1) seemed most appro-

priate, and these were obtained. For small blocks the bolts

answer without modification, but for most of the objects a larger

surface than the head of the bolt was necessary. To increase

the surface, an American cent was soldered to the head of the

bolt. This coin is rough on the two faces so that either one is

good for cementing the paraffin block to. For still larger sur-

108 SIMON HENRY GAGE

faces the old copper cent of the U.S. or copper coins from

Canada or Europe were used. For a soldering flux the acid

mixture of the tinners was used (i. e., 50 per cent. hydrochloric

acid to which some scrap zinc had been added). As the stove

bolts vary considerably in diameter it is desirable to take the

clamp for the holder to the hardware store

and select the bolts that fit properly. In

case one dislikes the thread on the end of

the bolt—and it is more or less objection-

able—a longer bolt may be obtained and

cut down to the proper length with a hack-

saw. If the cut end is then smoothed with

a file, one will have holders as smooth and

finished as those sent out by the makers of

the microtome. Indeed it is hoped that the

makers of the microtome will supply cheap

holders. One should get them for at most

$5.00 per hundred. They do not cost half

that if made as above indicated.

The convenience of having plenty of

holders has more than fulfilled expectations.

Not only are the research students undis-

Fig.2. Shellvialcon- turbed with their blocks for series, but in

taining a paraflin the ordinary laboratory work, if a specimen

block cemented to REA

one of the stove- has proved of sufficient excellence for future

Ceiedisn oe ieee use, the block is left on the holder, the end

men is indicated gealed with melted paraffin and the whole

by the shading. : : :

placed in a shell vial as shown in the figure

(Fig. 2). It can be readily appreciated by the busy director

of a laboratory that sections for a class from this block could

be obtained with the minimum of time and labor.

Another piece of apparatus urgently needed for a ribbon

microtome is a suitable tray or drawer to hold the ribbons.

Such a drawer is shown in Fig. 3. If a tray like this is covered

by a sheet of smooth paper the ribbons may be laid on the

paper as they are cut, and then numbered so that in making the

series no mistakes need occur. In addition the name of the

object and the thickness of the sections can easily be added.

SOME LABORATORY APPARATUS 109

When the tray is filled with ribbons, another similar tray is

piaced over it to prevent disarrangement of the ribbons by

currents of air. With these trays ribbons have been preserved

without apparent deterioration for a year in a cool basement.

It should be stated, however, that the sections are not so easily

straightened with warm water after preserving them so long.

SSS

Fig. 3. Tray or drawer of wood for ribbons of sections

or for mounted slides. Face and sectional view. (From the

Journal of Applied Microscopy.)

These trays were originally designed for storing mounted

slides and they were made the size of the laboratory lockers

(30x43 centimeters), a size which easily holds fifty slides. Their

cost is $12.00 per hundred in Ithaca.

The last piece of apparatus to be mentioned is a receptacle

for preparing the dichromate and sulfuric acid cleaning mixture

for glass. As is well known this is used by the liter in all

chemical, bacteriological and in many histological laboratories.

(Formula from Dr. G. C. Caldwell’s laboratory guide: Dichro-

mate of potash 40 grams dissolved in 150 cc. of water. To this

is slowly added 230 cc. of sulfuric acid.) It was found difficult

to prepare this mixture on account of the great heat on adding

the sulfuric acid and on account of the corrosive nature of the

mixture. Finally a low, flaring iron kettle was selected and

lined with heavy sheet lead. The lead is not appreciably cor-

roded and the kettle does not break by the heat. When the

mixture is cool it is poured off into bottles.

Histological and Embryological Laboratory, Cornell University.

J yovog Ys ¥y

Uy eh (any ie WE x Poy ony

/ -- Y 7) : ; eer ; haat

. =

AE eae.

AN EXPEDIENT FOR USE IN DIFFICULT RESOLU-

TION.

Bye he oe WARD Me Di RRO Ne eye

The resolution of difficult objects, or the effort to decide

whether unknown objects are resolvable or not, is often so

tedious and even so uncertain in its results, that any plan

promising real assistance is interesting. Looking intently

through the microscope at a highly magnified object of ex-

tremely fine structure, in order to note the effects while experi-

menting with changes in the illumination, is extremely wearing

to the eye and is perhaps the worst way of accomplishing any-

thing that can be done otherwise.

The appearances presented when looking down the tube of

the microscope, the ocular having been removed, while sending

through the objective illuminating cones of light having various

qualities, are familiar as optical curiosities, and they have long

been used by makers and others as a means of testing the cor-

rections of the objective and of the illumination; but they have

scarcely been employed, certainly not adequately, as a practical

assistance in manipulation for the examination of objects.

Using an immersion decentering substage condenser and light

from an ordinary library table lamp, the illuminated portion of

the objective should appear as an intensely bright, white or

reddish dise occupying a small portion (perhaps one-fourth to

one-tenth of the diameter) of the otherwise perfectly dark back-

lens of the objective. The whole field should be perfectly free

from diffuse light, or with only a trace of blue at the edge oppo-

site the disc. The disc should be sharply defined, and of such

size (by graduating diaphragm) and eccentricity (by decentered

condenser) as have been found most successful with the optical

combination employed; and of course it should be located at a

112 AN EXPEDIENT FOR USE IN DIFFICULT RESOLUTION

point at right angles to the lines, if any are to be seen. For ex-

treme resolution the illuminating disc should be located at the

edge of the field or even partly beyond it, the visible and act-

ing portion then appearing like a half-moon or like the edge-

view of a biconvex lens, as shown in the cut.

The writer lately saw this method employed by Mr. Charles

Beach of the Catskill Mt. House, in demonstrating, with

moderately capable apparatus, Amphipleura pellucida and

other fine objects. Without focussing on the object, or seeing

it at all, the illumination was thus adjusted until the remark

was made, ‘‘ That will show it now,” and it did at first glance

and every time. It is in remarkable contrast to the tedious

work often done, by the really expert, in making the adjust-

ments while intently studying the unresolved object through

the microscope.

How far this method would be helpful in the study of objects

whose structure is unknown, by enabling the observer to be

always certain that he is working his lens at its maximum of

resolving power, is an interesting and presumably important

field for experiment.

Figure. Oblique illumination by decentered condenser.

THE PLANKTON OF ECHO RIVER, MAMMOTH CAVE.

By CHARLES A. KOFOID.

The limestone region of Kentucky covers an area of about

eight thousand square miles. A portion of this region, espe-

cially in the neighborhood of Mammoth Cave, is deyoid of the

usual system of streams which afford surface drainage. The

St. Louis limestone which underlies the Chester sandstone is

honeycombed by caverns hollowed out by the underground

water-courses, and the roof of sandstone has fallen in in many

places forming sink-holes some of which are several thousands

of acres in extent. It is reported, say Hovey and Call (’97),

that there are four thousand of these sink-holes in Edmonson

County alone. At the bottom of the sink-hole a more or less

open passage-way leads to the cavern below. These myriad

sink-holes drain off the surface water into the underground

water-courses which eventually make their way to Green River,

the only open stream of the vicinity. The total length of this

underground system is estimated by Professor Shaler, says

Packard (’89), to be one thousand miles. Echo River is a part

of this subterranean system found in Mammoth Cave, in a

tubular cavern accessible for the length of half a mile. Its

width, according to Hovey and Call (’97), varies from twenty

to two hundred feet. At times of high water the entire cavern

is filled by the stream, but at low water, when the stream is

most visited, the archway overhead varies in height from five

to thirty feet and the depth of the water has about the same

range. Barometric observations indicate that the level of Echo

River is about twenty feet above that of the local surface

stream known as Green River. Experiments with floating chaff

have demonstrated that the subterranean water system of

Mammoth Cave opens in certain large springs along Green

River though I have found no data upon this point pertaining

114 CHARLES A. KOFOID

directly to Echo River. It is known, however, that Echo River

has some connection with other parts of the water system of

the cave.

As above stated the only known source for the water in these

cave streams is the surface waters of the neighborhood which

make their way through the sink-holes, or by seepage, into the

caverns below. The abundance of the sink-holes has prevented

any extensive development of surface streams and I have found

no reference to ‘‘lost”’ streams in the literature at hand.

Hovey and Call (’97) state that many of the outlets of the sink-

holes have been closed up artificially to prevent accidents to

domestic animals and that this has resulted in the formation of

deep pools. It is evident from these facts that the planktonts

can have but limited opportunity to breed in the surface waters

before they reach the underground system of the cave.

The temperature of the water in Echo River was found by

Mr. Hovey (see Packard, ’89, p. 9) to be 55° F. on Aug. 13-15,

1881, thus having, at this time at least, about the temperature

of the air of the cave and the rock walls (53°-54°). I have

found no records of water temperatures at times of flood, or in

December, the month in which the collections here reported

upon were made.

In December, 1898, Professor C. H. Kigenmann of the Uni-

versity of Indiana made a towing-net collection in the waters

of Echo River which he preserved in formalin and kindly sent

to me for examination. The collections were made with a net

of No. 12 silk bolting cloth, a silk whose apertures will easily

allow many of the smaller organisms usually found in plankton

to escape. When, however, the pores of the net become clogged

with organisms or debris the filtration is more efficient though

less rapid. Collections made with nets of this cloth may thus

contain representatives of all the organisms present in the

plankton but not in their relative numbers.

The total volume of the catch received from Professor Eigen-

mann after standing twenty-four hours was 1.75 cubic centi-

meters. It consisted almost entirely of a semi-flocculent

THE PLANKTON OF ECHO RIVER, MAMMOTH CAVE 115

sediment, colored reddish brown by the salts of iron from the

limestone leachings, together with a few fragments-of vegetable

debris and traces of finely powdered quartz. Superficial ex-

amination revealed a few Entomostraca upon the surface of the

sediment while inspection with the microscope increased the

evidence for the presence of plankton organisms in the cave

waters. All of the material was carefully examined under a

low power (35 diameters) and the organisms listed and removed

for identification when it was possible. About one-third of the

catch was examined under a higher power (175 diameters).

The following is a list of the organisms observed together with

such biological data as could be gathered from the material:

LIST OF SPECIES IN THE PLANKTON OF ECHO RIVER.

ALGAE.

Phycochromaceae.

1. Oscillaria sp.

Two filaments were found of twenty and fifty-five cells re-

spectively.

2. Ulothria sp.

Three fragments of filaments of fifteen to forty cells.

Bacillariaceae.

3. Niteschia linearis Smith.

A single dead frustule.

Protozoa.

Rhizopoda.

4. Amoeba limax Duj.

A single well preserved individual was found which has been

referred to this species. It lacks all indications of pseudopodia

such as are usually to be seen upon A. proteus when taken in

plankton and killed in formalin. The body measured 15x45y,

was somewhat wider posteriorly than anteriorly, and was

116 CHARLES A. KOFOID

abruptly truncate at both ends. A single well defined nucleus

and a number of food vacuoles were visible but no trace of a

contractile vacuole could be found. It may be that this is but

a form of A. proteus, but for the reasons above given it has

seemed best to retain Dujardin’s name for the form. Amoeba

has been found by me occasionally in river planktons in company

with testaceous rhizopods.

5. Difftugia globulosa Duj.

Two specimens of this common rhizopod were found, one of

which was but an empty shell while the other was a normal

individual. Next perhaps to D. lobostoma this species is the

commonest of rhizopods in the plankton of rivers. In Lake

Michigan also (Kofoid, ’95) it is an abundant planktont.

6. Centropyxis aculeata var. ecornis Leidy.

Two examples only were found, both of which were empty

shells. Centropyzis is a littoral species abundant among water

plants and shore debris. I have rarely found it in living con-

dition in river planktons.

Choanoflagellata.

7. Salpingoeca amphoridium J. Clark.

_ A cluster of six loricae was found attached to the scale of a

moth, and two smaller clusters to fragments of vegetable debris.

In the individuals examined the neck of the lorica was some-

what shorter than it is in the typical S. amphoridium. No

trace of collar or flagellum could be detected. Salpingoeca

brunnea Stokes has been abundant in the piankton of the Llinois

River, being found sessile upon Meostra and other plankton

diatoms and algae. The specimens found lack the truncate

base and the brown color characteristic of the typical S. brunnea.

It has seemed best to refer the form to the variable and cosmo-

politan S. amphoridium.

Flagellata.

8. Colaciwm vesiculosum Ehrbg.

Rather common upon Cyclops, attached to the carapace and

THE PLANKTON OF ECHO RIVER, MAMMOTH CAVE AZ

appendages. This is an abundant parasite of Cyclops in epigean

streams.

Suctoria.

9. Podophrya cyclopum Clap. & Lach.

Common upon Cyclops, especially upon the bases of the

antennae and upon the carapace. This form, like the one pre-

ceding, is frequent upon Cyclops in other waters.

PorIFERA.

10. Spongilla fragilis Leidy,

A small number of spicules resembling those of the skeleton

of this common species were found. Exact identification is

impossible without the gemmulae, of which none were to be

discovered. Sponge spicules are frequently to be found in river

waters.

V ERMES.

Nematoda.

A single small nematode worm, evidently young, about 0.35

millimeter in length was found. A single large nematode egg

occurred in the collections.

Oligochaeta.

12, ———

A fragment one millimeter in length from the posterior end of

a small enchytraeid worm occurred in the collection.

Rotifera.

13. Rotifer sp.

But a single rotifer was found in the whole collection. This

was a much contracted specimen belonging to the Philodinadae

of which, owing to its condition, specific identification was

impossible and even generic questionable.

118 CHARLES A. KOFOID

ARTHROPODA.

Crustacea.

Ostracoda.

14. Limnocythere sp.

Two specimens, one of which was young, belonging to this or

a related genus were found. The fully grown specimen had

been feeding recently. Ostracoda are frequently found in the

plankton of streams though they belong properly to the bottom

or to the littoral fauna.

Copepoda.

15. Diaptomus sp.

The mutilated and empty carapace of a single specimen was

found. Identification of the species was impossible.

16. Cyclops viridis var. americanus Marsh.

Represented by a single adult female. This is a common

summer form in streams and lakes.

17. Cyclops bicuspidatus Claus.

This was the most abundant species of the genus and was

represented by about seventy individuals of which about two-

thirds were adult. The two sexes were about equally repre-

sented, The immature forms were principally females and

were almost fully grown. Several of the adult females had

egg-sacs attached and a number of free eggs were found in the

collection. Some of the adult females were unusually large,

the length, excluding caudal setae, being 1.75 millimeters.

The usual length is a little more than one millimeter. The

antennae were somewhat shorter than usual, reaching only to

the posterior border of the first segment. The caudal furcae are

also somewhat shorter than they often are found, the proportions

of length to width being but four or five to one. In river and

lake specimens, especially the latter, the furcae may be as much

as nine times as long as they are wide. This species is abun-

dant in the Great Lakes and appears in the plankton of the

Illinois River during the cooler parts of the year.

THE PLANKTON OF ECHO RIVER, MAMMOTH CAVE 119

18. Cyclops albidus Jurine.

This species was represented in the collection by about thirty

specimens of which but three were males. A single egg-bearing

female was found, though but a few of the females were imma-

ture. This species also is frequently found in river planktons.

19. Cyclops serrulatus Fischer.

But one specimen was found, a small egg-bearing female.

The furcae were noticeably curved and divergent and were

armed externally with heavy hooked spines. This variable

species is widely distributed especially in creek waters.

The facts that the Cyclopidae were present in considerable

numbers in Echo River and that some of them were carrying

eggs seem to indicate that they might be regarded as normal

members of the stygian fauna, A few observations, however,

reuder this inference of questionable validity.

1st. All the individuals examined had eyes which did not

appear to differ from normal eyes in any marked degree. What-

ever pigment was present in the living animal had been removed

by the action of the formalin, as is usual in collections preserved

in either alcohol or formalin.

2nd, The proportion of dead individuals represented by more

or less disintegrated bodies was large, larger in fact than usual

in collections from epigean waters. Several specimens were

fungoused and three instances of infection by an opaque whitish

spore-like growth, which by some writers has been referred to

Sporotrichum, were noted.

3rd. The entire absence of nauplii and of the larval stages

would suggest that the activity in breeding had been recently

checked. The number of eggs present in the ovisacs was fre-

quently below the normal. It hardly seems possible that all

the nauplii—if any were present—should have escaped through

the net.

4th. Less than ten per cent. of the individuals showed any

trace of food contents in the intestinal tract, indicating a sus-

pension of feeding.

120 CHARLES A. KOFOID

5th. The species are all common epigean forms and are prob-

ably continually carried into the cave by the waters tributary

to the cave streams, and are as continually removed by the out-

flowing currents. Under these conditions these species of

Cyclops should be regarded as adventitious and temporary

members of the cave fauna and not as permanent residents

since the conditions of access and the continual changing of the

waters do not permit the establishment of a permanent colony.

flexapoda.

20.

A single small dipterous larva, 0.8 millimeter in length, too

young for further identification. Dipterous larvae, especially

of Corethea and of Chironomus, are frequently found in the

plankton of lakes and streams.

The collection also contained a few insect eggs of three dif-

ferent sizes.

Of the twenty organisms above listed but three are plants,

and these not usually found in plankton. They were also pres-

ent in but insignificant numbers. Of the seventeen animal plank-

tonts, three are Rhizopoda, one a flagellate, and one a suctorian,

in all five Protozoa of which but one may be called a planktont.

The sponges, nematodes, oligochaetes, and rotifers are cach

represented by asingle species no one of which is a typical plank-

ton organism. Aside from the unidentified ostracod all of the

five Entomostaca found occur in the plankton of epigean streams.

The single dipterous larva is at the best but an unimportant

representative of the plankton. Of the total number of organ-

isms the following only may be cited as typical planktonts:

Difugia globulosa,

Diaptomus sp.,

Cyclops viridis americanus,

Cyclops bicuspidatus,

Cyclops serrulatus,

Cyclops albidus.

THE PLANKTON OF ECHO RIVER, MAMMOTH CAVE 121

The following parasitic or attached organisms are to be classed

as passive planktonts:

Salpingoeca amphoridium,

Colacitum vesiculosum,

Podophrya cyclopum.

The representatives of the littoral fauna and flora which were

found include the following:

Oscillaria sp.,

Ulothria sp.,

Nitzschia linearis,

Amoeba limax,

Centropyxis aculeata var. ecornis,

Spongilla fragilis,

Nematode worm,

Enchytraeid worm,

Lotifer sp.,

Limmnocythere sp.,

Dipterous larva.

The chief characteristics and noticeable features of this col_

lection are the absence of plant life, especially of diatoms, the

absence of rotifers, the predominance of Copepoda, and the

presence of a considerable range of littoral species, chiefly at-

tached or bottom-living forms.

In addition to the species above listed the collection con-

tained other evidences of life, the scales of Lepedoptera for

example being very numerous. These were of a number of

different types and were much more abundant than they are in

ordinary stream waters. The stellate hairs of the elm (U/mus

americana), the spores of Alternaria, and comminuted fragments

of vegetation were also present much as in surface waters. The

collection also contained a noticeable quantity of hyphae and

knotted mats of mycelium for which a subterranean origin seems

most probable. There were also present a number of' the cal-

careous shells of fossil Foraminifera, derived presumably from

the oolitic limestone of the cave.

The plankton of the cave streams doubtless plays an impor-

ant part in the oecology of aquatic cave life since it may be

122 CHARLES A. KOFOID

the primal source of the food supply of the larger Crustacea,

the blind-fish, and the cave salamanders. The animal plankton

which is swept into the cave or which develops in its waters

can find little plant life to support it. Plants—other.than the

fungi—do not seem to thrive in the total darkness, so that any

permanently established colony of animal planktonts in cave

waters must either depend upon the uncertain accessions of food

from the surface waters or adapt itself to the supply furnished

by the fungi. The fact that most of the Copepoda in the col-

lection had not been feeding recently would seem to indicate a

scanty food supply.

Previous observations upon the microscopic fauna and flora

of the waters of Mammoth Cave seem not to have been made

upon towing-net collections, and they report other forms than

those here listed. With the possible exception of the dipterous

larva all the species found in this plankton collection were never

before reported from the waters of the cave. Dr. Tellkampf

(45) examined the water of the cave, making some hasty

sketches which he later submitted to Professor Ehrenberg of

Berlin. This examination resulted in the following list. Under

the circumstances the identification is uncertain and no attempt

will be made here to enter into the question of nomenclature

and synonomy:

From Serena’s Bower, 9 miles from entrance of the cave—

Monas colpoda,

Monas socialis,

Bodo sp.

From River Styx—

Chilomonas emarginata,

Kolpoda or Chilodon cucullus.

On May 3, 1874, Professor Packard (’89) examined the water

in Wandering Willie’s Spring, a pool not far from the mouth

of the cave, and reports the following as present:

Vibrio,

Colpoda (*),

Nassula or Prorodon,

Paramoecium (#4).

THE PLANKTON OF ECHO RIVER, MAMMOTH CAVE 123

In addition Professor Packard (’89) describes a Canthocamptus

for which he proposed the name stygzus from this same spring.

No other Copepoda, so far as I can ascertain, have been re-

ported from the cave prior to this paper.

Ehrenberg (’54) in his ‘‘ Microgeologie” (fide Packard, 89,

p- 26), adds to the list of Tellkampf the following:

Biddulphia (%),

Gallionella (?),

Synedra ulna.

The micro-fauna of European caves has been studied by

Claus, Joseph, and Schmeil and the fragmentary data of this

paper accord well with their more extended results. Thus

Joseph (’82) records two ‘‘new’’ species of Cyclops from the Car-

nolian Caves which Schmeil (’94) believes to be C. albidus and

C. serrulatus, two of the species here reported from Echo River.

His list also includes Branchipus pellucidus, Estheria coeca,

Leptodora pellucida, and Cypris stygia. In previous papers he

deals with other groups of stygian invertebrates. Of the

Rhizopoda he (’79d) finds only an amoeba, which he describes

as A. cellarwm, though in all essential particulars it resembles

A. proteus. The only other Protozoa found by Joseph (’79b)

were some unidentified attached ecto-parasites of the cave

Crustacea and other cave animals, and a new member of the

Peridinidae, Peridiniwin stygiuwm, which occurred in a pool

near the mouth of a cave near Adelsberg. He further states

that in a score of years’ collecting in caves he has found exam-

ples ‘‘of more than half of the groups of Infusoria” principally

in parts of the caves where bat excrement is found. No specific

identifications are given. Of the nematodes he (’79c) records

fourteen species from the rubbish at the mouth of the cave, and

several others belonging to the genus Plectus from the deeper

parts of the cave in bat excrement. In Recca Cave another

species of lectus occurs. Of the Rotifera nine species

were reported from the Karst cave region by Joseph (’79a).

These are said to belong, one each to Trochosphaera (sic) and

Lepadella, two to Hydatina, and two to a new genus Apodoides,

124 CHARLES A. KOFOID

while the other three remain unidentified. Specific identifica-

tions are not given and it seems probable that the generic iden-

tifications are subject to revision. The caves from which these

species were secured are said by the author to receive large

amounts of flood water in March from surface streams. A

single oligochaete Hnchytraeus cavicola is described by Joseph

(80) from the cave at Potiskavez; this worm was frequently

taken from the stomach of the cave salamander.

Schmeil (’94) in a critical paper describes the Copepoda

which he secured from the cave region in which Joseph worked.

As above stated he concludes that Joseph’s species were only

well known epigean forms. He finds no particular stygian

forms, reporting from Magdalen Cave five species, Cyclops

bisetosus Rehberg, C. viridis Jurine, C. dybowskii Lande, C.

serrulatus Fischer, and C. prasinus Fischer. In the living con-

dition some of the individuals showed a marked reduction in

the amount of pigment in the eye. Claus (793) had previously

reported from Recca Cave five species of Cyclops, viz: C. bise-

tosus Rehberg, C. bicuspidatus Claus, C. vernalis Fischer, C.

strenuus Fischer, and C. serrulatus Fisher. Thus three of the

four species here reported from Mammoth Cave have been found

in the waters of European caves. In addition to the Copepoda,

Schmeil (’94) reports from Magdalen Cave two Ostracoda, both

apparently new, belonging to the genera Cypris and Typhio-

cypris.

There is little doubt that more extended collections made in

various localities in waterways of Mammoth Cave and at dif-

ferent seasons of flood and low water would considerably in-

crease the list of species which make their way into the cave

with the surface waters, and may possibly lead to the discovery

of some peculiar stygian planktonts, or more likely of some

sessile or bottom-living forms of micro-organisms.

The character of this collection renders inevitable the con-

clusion that the plankton of Echo River—in this instance at

least—has been recently derived from epigean waters. It pre-

sents few if any typical stygian forms. The recurring access

THE PLANKTON OF ECHO RIVER, MAMMOTH CAVE 125

of surface waters provides for the renewal and maintenance of

this subterranean plankton and effectually prevents the devel-

opment of any peculiar cave species. It is also possible that

currents of air and visitors might carry into the cave the germs

of many minute forms which could there develop when they

found proper conditions of moisture within the cave. The

additions to the cave fauna from this source must, however, be

insignificant in comparison with the ever recurring contributions

of the surface drainage.

Oniversity of Illinois, Urbana, Ill.

LITERATURE CITED.

Criaus, C.

93. Neue Beobachtungen tiber die Organization und Entwicklung

von Cyclops. Ein Beitrag zur Systematik der Cyclopiden. Arb.

a. d. Zool. Inst. Wien. Bd. 10, 74 pp. 7 Taf.

EHRENBERG, C. G.

D4. Microgeologie. Das Erde und Felsen schaffende Wirkendes

unsichtbar Kleinen selbstandigen Lebens auf der Erde. Pp. xxviii,

’ 504, 41 Taf. Leipzig, 1854.

Hovey; H; C., and Car, R. E.

97. The Mammoth Cave of Kentucky: An Illustrated Manual.

112 pp., 25 Pl. and Map. Louisville, 1897.

JOSEPH, G.

‘79a. Zur Kenntniss der in den Krainer Grotten einheimischen

Raderthiere. Zool. Anz. Bd. 2, pp. 61-64.

*79b. Ueber Grotten-Infusorien. Ibid, pp. 114-118.

‘79c. In den Krainer Grotten frei lebende Nematoden. Ibid, pp.

275-277.

79d. Weitere Mittheilungen aus dem Gebeite der Grottenfauna.

Ibid, pp. 305-307.

80. Ueber Enchytraeus cavicola n. sp. Ibid, Bd. 3, p. 358.

“82. Systematisches Verzeichniss der in den Tropfstein-Grotten

von Krain einheimischen Arthropoden nebst Diagnosen der vom

verfasser endeckten und bisher noch nicht beschreiben Arten.

Ber. Entom. Zeitschr. Bd. 26, pp. 1-50.

126 THE PLANKTON OF ECHO RIVER, MAMMOTH CAVE

Kororp, C. A.

95. A Report upon the Protozoa observed in Lake Michigan and

the Inland Lakes in the neighborhood of Charlevoix during the

Summer of 1894. Bull. Mich. Fish Comm., No. 6, App. IL., pp.

76-84.

PACKARD, A. S.

89. The Cave Fauna of North America, with Remarks on the An-

atomy of the Brain and Origin of the Blind Species. Mem. Nat.

Acad. Sci., Vol. IV., pp. 1-156, Pl. 1-27.

ScHMEIL, O.

94. Zur Hodhlenfauna des Karstes. Zeitschr. f. Naturwiss. Sachs.

u. Thur. Bd. 66, p. 339-353.

TELLKAMPY, T. A.

45, Memoirs on the blind-fishes and some other animals living in

Mammoth Cave in Kentucky. N. Y. Journ. Med., July, 1845,

pp. 84-93, 1 Pl.

LIBRARY EXPEDIENTS IN MICROSCOPY.

INDEXING, CATALOGUING, PREPARING AND ARRANGING LITERATURE

AND SLIDES.

BY Rh. HY WARD, M. 1. “Exoy, Ney

INDEXING.

The advantages of indexing as a library expedient are obvious,

universally known, and almost entirely neglected. Even with-

in the limits of an ordinary private library, the constantly in-

creasing mass of useful matter, mixed with and lost in a far

greater amount that is practically worthless to the owner, soon

outgrows the capacity of the memory to utilize it adequately;

to search for it without a guide soon becomes impracticable, to

find it by means of the indexes in the various volumes, if there

are any, {s necessarily tiresome, and also distracting and incon-

clusive by reason of the alphabetical arrangement where no

sensible association of ideas leads and assists the mind, and

where the most important material may be overlooked by un-

certainty as to the exact words used by an author as a designa-

tion. ‘To a thinker the table of contents at the beginning of a

volume is a much more agreeable and useful study than the

alphabetical index at the close, and it is often the best aid in

searching the volume for some desired assistance. The general

indexes published at longer intervals by some serials, as our

own Proceedings, or collated as in some commercial enterprises,

are a valuable assistance but only of limited availability. A

general index, like Poole’s, which with all its limitations is in-

valuable, can only apply to some limited field in literature; is

almost inevitably subject to the absurdity of alphabetical ar-

rangement, and is necessarily more or less obsolete, and greatly

128 R. H. WARD

so unless by depending on frequent supplements by which its

utility is proportionately reduced.

It may be safely said that any owner of a library, who desires

to cultivate any specialty, or indeed to do any literary or scientific

work beyond merely reading for the passing pleasure of doing it,

ought to incorporate with the subject-catalogue of his volumes,

index-references to such chapters, sections or passages, large or

small, if not adequately included in the title of the volumes, as

he may reasonably expect to wish to refer to, or be reminded

of, in the future. Naturally a specialist will include freely ref-

erences beyond the limits of his own library; and the index

will have become, when arranged more or less sensibly, a gen-

eral catalogue of literary material available and important to

himself. This is evidently the substitute, adapted to present

conditions, for the wholesale copying of valuable extracts into

an index-rerum a generation ago.

CATALOGUING.

For extensive work of this kind a card catalogue is indispen-

sable; and short extracts or hints are much more available if

copied onto the cards. It may also be added that important

fragmentary notes or memoranda of personal observations or

suggestions, or any such information likely to be required for

future use, should be written upon cards and classified with the

rest.

Of course the cards of the Conciliumn Bibliographicum at

Ziirich, and the forthcoming international catalogues of scientific

literature, do now, or will in the near future, assist in this

work, but not to the exclusion of individual effort; though the

early, not to say hasty, repudiation, in the latter case, of any

effort to make the enterprise conformable to the decimal system

of classification which a rapidly increasing number of us have

used extensively with great convenience and profit, is, to speak

too mildly, a very great disappointment and discouragement.

Microscopical slides should be catalogued and indexed with

the same care, in the same spirit and to the same results, as

books or notes; the identical index numbers being used, as a

LIBRARY EXPEDIENTS IN MICROSCOPY 129

matter of course. Naturally they require the same cross refer-

ences to points that are important elsewhere than in the groups

where the slide has been, on the whole, most advantageously

located. There is no objection to using a standard card cata-

logue for this purpose, except the great waste of room by using

cards so much larger than required. Cards 25x75 mm. are amply

sufficient, and if not too numerous they may be most conven-

iently distributed in their proper places among the slides in the

object cabinet. If inconveniently many for that, they will

occupy but little room when packed in boxes as a card catalogue.

Where very few are required, dummy slides may be used, hav-

ing no mount, but only a label telling in what mount (stating

always the index number as well as title) the object can be

seen.

PREPARATION OF UNBOUND LITERATURE.

For a public reference library, and for the works in his own

line in the private library of a professional man or a specialist,

there seems to be no shorter road, royal or plebeian, to the ex-

haustive results required than the system of cataloguing and

indexing hitherto described. The specialist cannot reduce the

growing bulk of his outfit by discarding anything in his spec-

ialty. Thus the professional microscopist would desire to

possess, so far as possible, full sets of every microscopical jour-

nal ever published in his own country, and of the most charac-

teristic foreign ones, however much comparatively unimportant

matter they might contain; as he can never know when he

might wish to refer to something that was formerly considered

insignificant. And the same immunity from condensation may

well be extended to some but not all of the other, somewhat

allied, scientific journals in which he feels most interested.

But in building up his own library one can do far better than

this in regard to much of the material that constantly presents

itself incidentally. In the mass of mixed literature in the form

of general magazines, reports, and various publications that are

largely of superficial and temporary value, if any, and which

are commonly thrown away when the next number appears,

130 R. H. WARD

there are, occasionally, portions that are of permanent value,

varying in length from a portion of a page, or a cut, up to an

elaborate article. If these old numbers are laid aside on the

shelves for future use, read or unread, bound or unbound, the

useful portions soon become buried in so great a mass of worth-

less material as to be practically and finally lost unless prompt-

ly and thoroughly catalogued by cards; and then the result is

so cumbersome that the effort is soon abandoned and an oppor-

tunity to acquire an invaluable library is gone. The fact is,

according to common observation and experience, that bound

sets of ordinary non-professional journals, reports, etc., are

among the most unused, and therefore to most persons and for

most purposes the most worthless, portions of libraries, except-

ing only public reference and private specialists’ libraries, and

small private libraries that contain little else; while the really

valuable parts, separated from the rest, may be made one of

the most used and useful portions. The remedy for this em-

barrassment is simple, easy and obvious, but so radical that

scarcely anybody seems to think of it, and still less to venture

to do it after hearing it recommended. It is merely to keep

what is wanted, and keep it in useful form, and discard what is

not wanted, without regretting the loss of what is only a burden,

or longing for the grand row of volumes the material would

make if handsomely bound—at a handsome cost—while well

knowing that if the same set, bound, were offered for sale at

the cost of binding, the offer would not be considered for a

moment. Instead, take them all to pieces, glean out all that

might be of future interest to one’s self or to anyone likely to

come in contact with the collection; and instead of a cart-load,

mostly rubbish for all future use, there will remain a handful,

more or less, that will be valuable unless spoiled by bad man-

agement in rebinding. How far it is wise to apply this radical

method will obviously depend upon the taste, judgment and

requirements of the person interested.

My own first experience in this direction, some thirty years

ago, was most suggestive; and the one lesson proved enough.

Having a pile of numbers of one of the miscellaneous maga-

LIBRARY EXPEDIENTS IN MICROSCOPY ies 0

zines ready for the binder, it occurred to me to discard portions

not wanted and which were not worth house-room, a plan

confirmed by a hasty review of a few numbers. The whole pile

was dismounted, and the result gave four or five volumes of

valuable material, bound up according to the fashion of the

time, instead of some three yards of mostly wasted shelf-room.

Had the whole set been bound, scarcely a volume would have

been taken from the shelf, to this day, except for dusting; while

the condensed volumes have been really useful, and would have

been far more so but for being spoiled by binding. For years

they have been awaiting a convenient time to be taken to pieces,

for the individual classification and use of the various papers.

Since then I have never been thoughtless enough to fasten to-

gether pamphlets that would be more useful apart.

Naturally the same might be said of pasted scrap-books, and

of note-books as ordinarily written. Generally, as of bound

pamphlets, all they are good for is to be cut up and classified

by subjects. This is provided for, however, in some cases, by

the note-books where clippings are placed loosely in pockets or

envelopes; and by notes written always on separate sheets that

can be rearranged at will. The latter can be handsomely

accomplished by writing on sheets perforated for tying together

near the left margin, like the so-called sermon paper. Slips of

card catalogue size would naturally be used for purposes within

the limit of their capacity.

It is probably the general belief and experience that unbound

literature is a nuisance; and great quantities of it that are really

valuable—greater to-day than ever before—are daily thrown

away. I hope to be able to convince some of those interested

in the subject that it would be at least as nearly true to say that

it is the only literature of permanent value that is not more or

less of a nuisance. Clearly the aim should be to make every-

thing of the kind a unit, described by a single and simple title

that accurately characterizes it; as the fancy titles that give no

idea of the subject, which are now so much affected by some

otherwise decent journals, are silly, troublesome and disgusting.

132 R. H. WARD

Authors’ separates or reprints of vaiuable articles on definite

subjects, that can be handled and classified independently, are

the ideal literature of our day, and the more otber things that

can be got into the same state of utility, the better. Such a

collection, when properly classified, is its own index and its own

catalogue. Everything it contains is available with a minimum

of trouble.

STORAGE OF UNBOUND LITERATURE.

If only a few things of special importance are to be preserved,

those of all sizes from small clippings or memoranda to octavo

pamphlets can best be distributed by subjects into stout manila

envelopes, and these properly classified between the books of

the library, taking care to use envelopes slightly taller than the

adjacent books, in order that they be not iost from sight

between them; while quartos and larger would be piled horizon-

tally at the ends of someshelves. The familiar sets of envelopes

tied into covers, to be handled and stored like note-books, are

perhaps convenient for holding a few small scraps; though

only in some special cases can they well become a part of an

extensive system, as they complicate and embarrass the

classification.

For somewhat larger collections, the various sorts of book-

like pamphlet cases, to stand on the shelves among the books,

and always with covers to exclude dust, would be used instead

of envelopes, for pamphlets and extracts of similar size; while

the smaller scraps would, in any event, remain in envelopes,

and the envelopes, titled and indexed according to their con-

tents, would thereafter be treated exactly as pamphlets on the

subjects so indicated.

Pamphlet-cases, however, are clumsy, and waste much room;

are awkward to open, empty and repack, unless made to open

with a hinge motion at the back instead of a removable cover;

are costly if of good quality and used in large quantities; and

preserve the contents in poor shape, by reason of the frail papers

settling down, by the effect of gravity, during long standing on

one end, unless some troublesome arrangement or apparatus be

LIBRARY EXPEDIENTS IN MICROSCOPY 133

adopted to keep the boxes always stuffed full or the contents

pressed firmiy against one side.

For large collections the pigeon-hole method seems incom-

parable, and the writer was glad to abandon everything else

many years ago. The pamphlets of every kind, including the

envelopes of small clippings or notes, are most perfectly pre-

served and most rapidly handled, and the space appropriated is

most completely utilized. Ordinary book-cases will be found

a convenient receptacle. For a beginning a few shelves will

suffice; the writer’s collection fills five large cases. The shelves

should be set about three inches apart; and they should be at

least twelve inches wide, which will hold folios lying length-

wise, and smaller sizes crosswise. There is no objection to

completing the pigeon-holes by having thin wooden partitions

built-in vertically, except that the arrangement is inflexible,

causing waste of room and interference with classification. It

is far better to leave the shelves wholly free, stacking the

material in piles as it will best go in. A careful person can

use the piles unprotected without difficulty, or each pile can be

tied into a bundle with a small string; but it is best to have

movable partitions of sheet tin-plate or other metal, not too

clumsy but stout enough to maintain their shape. The sheets

are cut 5 or 6 inches wider than required, and the surplus part

is bent at right angles, like an L or flange, to lie upon the shelf,

where the pamphlets piled upon it hold it firmly enough to keep

the whole arrangement wherever it is put.

Of course every pile has on the edge of the shelf beneath it

a label announcing its subject and index number; and as these

numbers follow each other in regular series throughout the col-

lection, the whole is delightfully simple, sensible, and available,

whether it contains a hundred entries or a hundred thousand.

The labels must be capable of instant shifting. Label holders

that can be bought are often too wide for the thickness of the

shelves. A neat substitute is to slip the cards, carefully cut to

size, behind the heads of large-headed brass tacks driven just

far enough to leave room for the card. For a rectangular card

two tacks below and one at each end are required; but the end

134 R. H. WARD

tacks alone will suffice if the card be suitably notched near the

ends, to straddle them. Even a strip of heavy, tough paper

lying on the shelf under each pile, projecting in front as much

as the thickness of the shelf and bent down in front of it to

serve as a label, will suffice.

The great variety of sizes to be shelved without nullifying

the classification presents some important problems. Asa rule

every page should lie flat without folding, and widely different

sizes do not stack well together; but many exceptions may

profitably be made. If there were in a certain group a large

number each of octavo, quarto and folio sizes, it would be best

to make three stacks, locating intermediate sizes with the next

larger; but if nearly all were quartos, the few folios might be

folded (unless having valuable illustrations) and laid in, and

the few octavos also inserted, making one series of all. Several

smaller scraps from the envelopes, or that would otherwise go

there, may often be gummed to a larger paper to which they

practically belong; or several of them on an identical subject

be gummed lightly (but not irrevocably) inside of a single-told

sheet of note or letter paper, for instance, for convenient classi-

fication among others on the same subject.

ARRANGEMENT.

Books, pamphlets, slides, and their catalogues may be ar-

ranged either with or without classification. In serial arrange-

ment, without classification, they are numbered, and permanently

located in regular order as acquired. Such a catalogue of ac-

cessions is the book-list kept, perhaps, by most of careful owners

of private libraries. It is useful by reason of incidental mem-

oranda added, and as a means of assigning and recording the

serial numbers written in each volume, by which the individual

volumes can be referred to. It seems scarcely worth while to

include unbound literature in this list, except, perhaps, pamph-

lets of unusual importance. In case of slides, this list, by

leaving ample space to each number, with or without a printed

form to fill up, is made to contain any amount of information,

simple or elaborate, that may be required by the owner, as to

LIBRARY EXPEDIENTS IN MICROSCOPY too

the history, character and treatment of the material and its

mount.

Obviously both books and slides might be thus arranged, but

the former probably seldom are, by beginners, unless thought-

lessly. In later experience it is not rare to see recent acquisi-

tions stuffed in at the unoccupied ends of the shelves without

regard to anything else. This intellectually slovenly habit will

be excused, if questioned, by the plea that they are thus more

easily gotten at; but it may be safely inferred, in most of such

cases, that the rest of the library is little if ever used.

Such an arrangement of slides, however, has been seriously

advocated, and is used by some persons. It is argued that as

a perfectly natural or satisfactory classification is unattainable,

and as it must be supplemented by a reference catalogue as an

assistance in finding what is required (always except in the

decimal classification), therefore no classification should be at-

tempted, but every slide be located at once and finally in the

first vacant space in the drawers, to be found only by catalogue

thereafter. The same argument would apply equally to books,

and the plan, though not perhaps used for them as a whole,

seems to be often employed to supplement a rough and unsat-

isfactory classification. Whatever advantages such a plan

might have, for books or slides, in a great public collection

where the objects called for are to be collected and brought to

the user by a paid employe, who has nothing to do but to get -

the things as ordered and afterward to return them to their

places, it seems to me beyond reasonable question that every

private owner of literature or slides should, for pleasure of

handling and for educational effect, have his collection classified

in the most rational manner, so that the whole will present it-

self to his eye and mind as a harmonious whole; each section

of it presenting, so far as possible, all that he has at command

in regard to its particular subject, and standing adjacent to

those most nearly related to itself.

CLASSIFICATION.

Classified arrangement may be based on various character-

istics. Buyers of books as furniture often classify them by

136 R. H. WARD

size, color, or elegance of binding. In such cases, the tradi-

tional board in front of each shelf, covered with the representa-

tion of the backs of a row of books tooled upon it by a book-

binder, would be preferable; as the purchase for such uses of a

set of books, or even a set of dummies representing books,

seems a needless extravagance. A cabinet of microscopical

slides is sometimes, though perhaps less often, deserving of a

similar criticism; but at worst it does generally serve to amuse

its owner, which the books referred to do not.

Equally artificial, and only somewhat less unsatisfying, is the

venerable alphabetical classification, where the available sec-

tions depend wholly upon the combination of letters in words.

As the number of such combinations is well nigh infinite, the

capacity of the system is indisputably great; and it is still largely

employed in libraries. Requiring only the intelligence to

recognize the letters of the words and compare their sequence,

and leading with mechanical certainty to the object when its

name is exactly known, it is claimed to be especially suitable

for large public libraries where attendants are employed to

bring forward the items called for. When the student does

not know exactly what to call for, so much the worse for the

student. Probably the attendants, unfamiliar with his exact

wants, will assist him as much as they can, but he, at best, is

working at a great disadvantage. Exactly in this line, and, so

far as it goes, confirming its conclusions, is the recent experience

of some of the smalier libraries where the alcoves have been

freely thrown open to the public, and all readers have been

allowed to loiter among the books shelved on the Dewey system,

and to select what they choose after seeing what is offered in

any groups which may attract them. To an outside observer

this seems to greatly increase the capacity of the library as an

educational agency; and it is cordially commended by some, at

least, of the officials who have employed it. Alphabetical dis-

tribution should, in my judgment, be used as little as possible

and as a last resort, in small groups, after a rational subdivision

has been carried as far as practicable. As an artificial key it

should be tolerated, not courted.

LIBRARY EXPEDIENTS IN MICROSCOPY 137

Alphabetical classification by authors, either separate or

combined in same series with a subject classification, as a key,

is a familiar library expedient partly natural but largely artifi-

cial. To the microscopist it may be chiefly useful as a check-list

of his library, showing which works of each author listed he

possesses and which are still desiderata. The most advisable way

of preparing sucha list, for private use, is to buy such books as

F. C. 8. Roper’s Catalogue of Works on the Microscope, Julien

Deby’s Bibliotheca Debyana, etc., check the items that are

possessed, and write on the blank pages those acquired but not

in the list. If an interleaved copy cannot be obtained, it will

of course be necessary to have a copy rebound with blank leaves

between all the pages. Such a list, being compact and easily

handled, is more convenient for frequent use than the more

clumsy card catalogue.

The only classification that commends itself to a philosophical

mind is by subjects. It should also be a reasonable and prac-

tical working system. We need not wait a few centuries more,

before beginning, until philosophers have agreed upon the exact

relations of all classes of knowledge, nor necessarily begin our

scheme with everything pertaining to that part of eternity that

preceded the creation of the universe. The indispensable

requisite is to have a convenient number, not too many, of con-

venient classes, conveniently grouped together, with a few great

lines of thought running through them, and radiating out into

a convenient number of branches that are capable of likewise

branching, without limit. This naturally groups together,

throughout, that material that will most probably be thought of

and studied together; and the location of the material will be

naturally led to by the trains of thought occupying the mind at

the time it is wanted. This is perfectly simple and obvious,

now that it is understood; but it could not have been so stated

before the appearance of the decimal system of classification

both supplied and elucidated the need.

Many years ago the writer undertook, as doubtless many

others did, rather instinctively than conscious of the full effect

to be attained, to reach this end by working as numerals the

1358 R. H. WARD

alphabetical letters used in designating the alcoves or other

divisions in libraries. This of course produced a twenty-five

unit (dropping one letter for the sake of a round number)

numerical system, of stupendous proportions, putting quite out

of sight the world’s little decimal system and the imaginary

duodecimal system a longing for which occasionally makes its

appearance somewhere. This gave correspondingly grand ef-

fects, the first subdivision furnishing over 600 groups, and the

third, using only four figures (letter symbols) supplying nearly

400,000. The scheme was soon dropped as too awkward and

clumsy for practical use. The employment of letters as figures

was not only awkward at first, because of its unfamiliarity, but

permanently awkward and liabie to errors, from the constant

dual use of the symbols (letters) with the confusing and mis-

leading character of the word-like combinations produced; while

the groups were too large for convenient memorization, and a

burden instead of an aid to the mind seeking light on a partic-

ular subject. Why I did not instantly step to the logical con-

clusion of adopting the familiar decimal system of numerals

would be as difficult to explain as it was obviously and con-

fessedly stupid. It is only possible now to claim the common

though impecunious excuse that it was no more stupid than

other people were. When Melvil Dewey, now Director of the

library of the State of New York, proposed to use figures with dec-

imals for this purpose, it was evident enough that this was what

was wanted. The figures were among the most familiar things

in the world and were used in perfectly simple, direct manner;

a few more figures would be required in some cases than with

a system capable of multiplying or dividing by 25’s, but figures

are so familiar to educated people and are so easily handled,

that a few more or less are of little importance, and of none

compared with the awkwardness of handling much larger

groups. And a collection thus managed may be kept always

fresh and modern, like the boy’s old jack-knife that was always

the same familiar and serviceable knife, however many of its

parts may have been changed by repairs and renewals. Prac-

tical duplicates may be weeded out whenever desired, obsolete.

LIBRARY EXPEDIENTS IN MICROSCOPY 139

pieces may be thrown out, or retained for historical purposes,

new material may be added at all times and to any extent, with-

out trouble or confusion. The scheme is simply an unlimited

system, that never can be full, always open at every point for

any use that may be desired by anybody.

As to the alleged difficulties and impractical character of the

system, even a novice having a little literary experience can

readily locate his material with some assistance from the synop-

sis about to be presented.

This seems, to my mind, to be true beyond reasonable ques-

tion; or would seem so were it not that since this paper was

written, and long after its principles had been publicly advo-

cated and notoriously vindicated by a successful and growing

use, some highly honored persons, of great character and author-

ity, and of great experience and ability on other lines, have

apparently found conservatism irresistible, have been unable to

admit the success of so radical an innovation, and have thought

it necessary to place a great international enterprise of which

they are the honored leaders directly in the way of a successful

improvement which is already far advanced in introduction,

and which, so far as publicly known, seems to have been agree-

able and profitable to those who have used it, and formidable

mainly to those who have not.

Though the elaboration of such a scheme is a work of vast

complexity and almost unequalled difficulties, it is only justice

to say that Mr. Dewey’s presentation is remarkable as an in-

genious and thorough literary work and practicable as a work-

ing manual, equally available for catalogue and for shelving

purposes. For general work, exclusive of specialties, it seems

to leave remarkably little, considering the circumstances, to be

regretted or desired. Its faults are those inherent in any work

of broad scope and somewhat permanent character. In the class

5, for instance, of natural science, the material is subdivided

in a manner that, needless quibbles aside, is intelligible, con-

venient and adequate for most well-balanced libraries intended

for general use.

140 R. H. WARD

But a specialist, as such, is not well balanced and cannot be;

neither is his library. He has chosen to over-develop himself

in one or more lines, and his resources must be made to corres-

pond. He would desire to have at command, so far as possible,

everything having an important relation to his specialty. A

botanist, for instance, will locate among his professional mater-

ial, in thought and in housing, things that a chemist, a zoologist

or a sanitarian would likewise be interested to place in his own

special group. Much additional difficulty is presented by the

fragmentary notes and clippings pertaining to fine points, that

require a greatly extended subdivision of classes to be really

available when wanted.

Especially is this true of such aspecialty as Microscopy, which,

while small, at least in the suggestion of its name, has relations

to a great many lines of human activity and interest. Books,

pamphlets, etc., that are possessed solely or even mainly for

their value in microscopical chemistry, botany, zoology, etc.,

from in fact nearly every division of Dewey’s classes 5 and 6,

and many from beyond those limits, must be at hand in the

microscopical library and not scattered among thousands of

other books in various parts of the house; or, at least, these

and others not owned must be included in the microscopical

catalogue, so as to be not only found with a minimum of trouble,

but suggested without the labor and uncertainties of search,

when wanted. This suggestiveness, which is inherent in the

Dewey method, is an invaluable though undervalued peculiarity.

For the classification of slides this system is not only

peculiarly applicable, but incomparable; in addition to the

great and decisive advantage of having the slides bear the

same index numbers as the corresponding literature. In fact

the whole scope and utility of the system only become obvious

when the same numbers are applied, and serve as a clue, not

only to books, pamphlets, clippings and slides, but likewise to

the related notes, lecture MSS., diagrams, lantern slides, and

illustrative specimens or aids of various kinds; a utilization

which the writer and others have employed with facility and

LIBRARY EXPEDIENTS IN MICROSCOPY 141

satisfaction for many years. For accurately locating the defi-

nite points shown in slides, or discussed in fragmentary notes,

a subdivision on the Dewey lines but far beyond the Dewey

limits is required; and the full tables used by the writer for this

purpose will probably be published elsewhere. The following

key and synopsis show the plan of the whole and will be of use

for every worker with the microscope.*

*Persons desiring the whole Dewey system can obtain it in book form

from the Library Bureau, Chicago, Ill., or Boston, Mass.

Special elaborations of Zoology, and of Anatomy and Physiology,

which are particularly valuable for microscopical purposes, can be ob-

tained in pamphlet form from the Concilium Bibliographicum, Ziirich,

Switzerland, as follows:

Tables for use in zoological bibliography..... ....... Franc 0.50

as ‘6 «physiological 66) bot aaa eats % 1.30

Prospectus of zoological section (English edition).... ‘ 2.00

Library cards on recent publications in Evolution, Microscopy, Pale-

ontology, Zoology, Anatomy, Physiology at 1 to 5 francs per hundred

(exact prices are given in Prospectus q. v.).

An interesting pamphlet in French on the decimal classification and

its aim, with general abridged tables, is issued as Publication No. 9, by the

Office International de Bibliographie, 1, rue du Musée, Bruxelles, Bel-

gium.

142 R. H. WARD

INDEXING AND CLASSIFICATION IN MICROSCOPY

By THE DECIMAL SYSTEM

CLAssEs OF THE DecimAL SysTEM

Dewey’s

0 General

1 Philosophy 4 Philology 7 Fine Arts

2 Religion 5 Natural Science 8 Literature

3 Sociology 6 Useful Arts 9 History

GENERAL Section oF Microscopy

Dewey’s

578 Microscopy

.l Varieties of Microscopes

.2 Optical Parts

.8 Mechanical Parts

.4 Accessory Apparatus and Management of Microscope

5 Illuminating Apparatus

.6 Preparation and Mounting of Apparatus

.? Special Preparation and Study of Inorganic Material

.8 - oS cc sé «6 Botanical Material

9 - . cc ee Zoological Material

Key to tHe AmpuirieD Metuop 1n Microscory

As developed in the annexed Synopsis of Classification

5 Natural Science

57 Biology

578 Microscopy

578.1 Apparatus

578.4 Accessories

578.42 Micrometry

578.429 Standards

5 78:5 The Microscope in Science

55 In Geology

1552 Micro-Petrography

2552.2 Volcanic rocks

LIBRARY EXPEDIENTS IN MICROSCOPY 143

3552.22 Volcanic ashes, ete.

26 Economic Microscopy

61 The Microscope in Medicine (In broadest sense)

7614 In Sanitation

1614.3 Study of Adulterations, etc.

7614.32 Milk and its Products

:614.325 Butter and its lnitations

Ex., Discussion of the Am. Mic. Soce.’s standard

em. is 578.429

Verified copies of its rulings, on glass or

metal slides, .429

A drawer of Rock sections, or any literature

concerning them, 2552

Oleomargarine specimens, or related literature, 614.325

In using full tables the last item would have

an adjacent number of its own, :614.326

In this system everything is a subdivision of the branch from

which it directly springs, 578.04, for instance, being one of the

ten possible branches of 578.0; and everything should be class-

ified in the most definite group that will hold it. Ex., (See

under Synopsis of Classification), a paper on Microscopy is

578.04; on Microscopical societies, 578.0604; on Slide-cabinets,

578.074; on Teaching microscopy, 578.077; on Microscopical

history, 578.0904; on Microscopes, 578.104; on Illumination

of projecting microscopes, 578.125; on Uses of the microscope,

7604. In all these cases the ‘‘.0” or ‘*.04’’, which are here

used freely to show the method of distribution and of sub-

division when required, may well be omitted in small collec-

tions, as is here done in the instance before the last, and added

afterward when the accumulation of material becomes trouble-

some and requires further sifting.

The analysis given in the following ‘‘ Synopsis of Classifica-

tion”’ is offered as a bird’s-eye view of the various fields of

microscopical study; to present, especially to the non-profes-

sional microscopist, the wide scope of the specialty, and to

suggest its many inviting fields for research. It is given in

144 R. H. WARD

the terms and methods of the decimal system of classification,.

which has not hitherto been publicly adapted to the special use.

of microscopists, so far as the writer is aware, to show the

utility of the system in microscopy, notwithstanding the too

general impression that it is difficult and impracticable; and as.

an aid to its use by microscopists who are not bibliographers, in

the utilization of slides and literature, including fragmentary

notes, clippings and cross references.

With a very strong impression of the advantages of uniform-

ity in such work, and of the inconveniences of changing, for

however good reasons, figures already used to any considerable

extent, the writer has retained as far as possible not only the

‘‘ Dewey ’’ figures but those of the Brussels and Ziirich ampli-

fications, even where it is evidently done, in respect of both

theory and practice, at a considerable sacrifice on account of

their having been prepared without special provision for the

exigencies of microscopy.

Whenever any usage is employed or suggested that differs

from the accepted teachings and practice of (public) library

economy, it is obviously not for the sake of controversy or even

questioning such practice, but to give the writer’s preference

for a different usage in the case of private owners, especially

microscopists, when handling their own material.

As here presented, the subjects pertaining to Apparatus and

Technique are found in 578.1—.6, while all of Applied Micros-

copy is given in a ‘‘:” series, in the order of the principal

classification.

The subdivision of :5 could be given in 578.7—.9, and can

be distributed there by anyone who prefers, as explained in the

notes to 578.7, .8 and .9. But circumstances have wholly

changed since Section 578 was written and published. The

conditions now to be met did not then exist, the microscopy of

the present has been created since that time, and its needs were

then undreamed of as well as unknown. The‘subdivision, ex-

cessive perhaps for other present purposes, that is required to

make the decimal system available for it at all, seems to be

best accomplished after the ‘‘:”. Still more is this true of the

LIBRARY EXPEDIENTS IN MICROSCOPY 145

:6 series, which could not be forced into 578 otherwise, with

even tolerable satisfaction. The following advantages are se-

cured by the arrangement here given. 1. It is most simple

and readily understood by the unfamiliar. 2. Everything is

directly interchangeable with any decimal service, without any

complications. To draw from any ‘‘ Dewey” library, personal

or public, it is only necessary to disregard the ‘‘:’’, as by taking

581.3 when :581.3 is here indicated, and prefixing the ‘:” if

the article is to be permanently assigned here; and, conversely,

to transfer from here to the general library, disregard, or for

permanent change remove, the ‘‘:” from before the section

number. 3. In many of the more important groups where sub-

division must be carried to a maximum number of digits, from

two to three digits are here saved, which, other things being

equal, is a decisive advantage.

For literature, the ‘‘578”’ should always be written before

the *‘.”?; while in a private microscopical library it may be

understood, not expressed before ‘‘:’? which naturally refers to

its owner’s specialty. It need never be used on a microscopical

slide, whose sectional character is obvious; but the character-

istic ‘‘.”? and ‘:’? should be carefully retained for maintaining

the familiar appearance of the figures as a part of the decimal

system. For ease of reading, and prevention of mistakes, the

writer prefers keeping the ‘‘.”’ invariably in the original Dewey

position, after the third figure of the line of principal classifi-

cation, and likewise marking the third point thereafter, when

the line extends beyond that, by a comma as ordinarily used in

writing and printing figures.

Paleontology is well provided for in the D. C. :56. But

many microscopists, botanists or zoologists, who are not also

geologists, have a few specimens of fossils, or corresponding

notes which can best be incorporated in their own subjects.

These can be distributed in :58 and :59, for instance; as putting

sections of fossil wood in :581.4 or :581.8, and fossil ferns in

:585.1. But it is often preferred to avoid this scattering of the

fossils, and they are often found mixed with the rock sections.

146 R. H. WARD

To meet this want, the writer has ventured to propose an ampli-

fication of 581.9 and 591.9 which does not conflict with any

D. C. use, and fortunately coincides exactly with the Brussels

scheme of place-subdivisions, though the writer used it publicly

in botanic teaching and lectures at least ten or fifteen years

before the Brussels Institute was founded. This arrangement

brings fossils in the slide-cabinet, very conveniently, immedi-

ately after histology; and also provides usefully, for our pur-

pose, for physiographic arrangement in .92.

In Micro-Botany, the writer’s amplification of :581 is given

to the extent deemed necessary for the present purpose; and in

Systematic Botany, :582-9, his indexing is given to the large

groups sufficient for a rough preliminary classification, on the

new philosophical order as adopted by Britton and Brown. The

writer’s amplification of the whole of Botany, strictly on the D.

C. lines, which he has used on trial for several years, is too large

for incorporation here, and will probably be published else-

where.

Medical Jurisprudence, which lawyers would naturally clas-

sify in :340.6, is to most microscopists and physicians not a

branch of Sociology but of physical and applied science, natur-

ally of :61,and it is therefore here located in :614.23 where

mentioned in D. C.

Microscopical Jurisprudence, a new title, is equally a matter

of Economic Microscopy, :6. It is not a branch of Medicine,

though closely related to it. As there seems to be no D. C,

group that can include it to advantage, nor any unassigned in-

dex number in :6, it is here indexed :6j, and placed next to :61

where it belongs. The writer’s elaboration of this topic is

given in the tables.

It can hardly be necessary to remind beginners that any part

of the decimal system which they happen to neither want nor

try to use can do them no harm by its alleged complexity or its

long figures; and if they should grow into it, by using a few

primary groups at first, and then subdividing these at their own

convenience and no farther, they would find it easy, and could

LIBRARY EXPEDIENTS IN MICROSCOPY 4a

hardly fail to acquire, meanwhile, a better command of what

they have and know, and a clearer conception as to what they

want to have and to know. A beginner’s collection might well

be sorted into six groups, indexed

578.1 Apparatus and its Technique

578.6 Preparation and Mounting

251 Scientific studies, Inorganic

:58 of ‘¢ ~—s- Botanic

259 ie ‘< —- Zoologic

:6 Economic Microscopy

To which physicians would naturally add

61 Medical Microscopy.

When any group becomes inconveniently large it would be

divided by reference to the synopsis hereafter given, or to fuller

tables. When, much later, the need arises for larger figures to

specify higher subdivisions, they will be welcomed instead of

dreaded.

148 R. H. WARD

SumMMARY OF Microscopy

Arranged by the Decimal System

For permanent use with very small collections, or as an easy begin-

ning with larger. Any or all parts can be readily amplified at any time,

while in use, by adding to the objects further figures from the Synopsis

following.

See key and explanatory notes on preceding pages.

Note series of ‘‘:”’ following series of ‘‘.”.

578 MICROSCOPY

General or Mixed Works unclassifiable below

.05 Periodicals

.06 Societies

578.1 Apparatus and its Technique

a | Microscopes

4 Accessories and their Use

5 Illuminating Apparatus

578.6 Preparation and Mounting of Objects

578:5 The Microscope in Science

Inorganic Microscopy

54 Micro-Chemistry

2549 Micro-Mineralogy

58 Micro-Bo‘any

Unclassifiable, arranged alphabetically here

581 Physiological and Structural

4 Anatomy and Histology of Members

.8 Histology

2582 Study of Cryptogams (Spore-Plants)

583 Thallophytes

an Algae; .2, Fungi; .3, Bacteriology; .9, Lichens

584 Bryophytes

ul Liverworts; .5, Mosses

2585 Pteridophytes

ies Ferns; .2, Water Ferns; 3, Equisetums; .4,

Club Mosses

ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS

The following indispensable amplifications of :583.1-.2 of

p- 161, and of :583.6-.9 and :585.1 and :587 of p. 164, and the

accompanying minor corrections, failed to appear in the publi-

cation on account of the impossibility of the author’s seeing

the proofs at the proper time.

P. 148

149

154

156

157

158

159

161

164

176

CORRECTIONS.

Insert ‘‘:5i"’ before ‘‘Inorganic Microscopy.”’

Under line ‘*:591”’ insert ‘*.1 Physiology: .2 Pathology. compara-

tive; .38 Embryology.”’

After ‘':591.4 Anatomy”’ add ‘‘and Histology of Organs.”’

Under ‘:.477”’ insert ‘‘.478.”’

After ‘:58 Micro-Botany’’ add ‘‘This amplification of Micro-

Botany is also intended for GENERAL BOTANY. by omitting

the “578:’": and it has thus been used by the author for several

years. Ex., Climbing plants, 581.54: Osmundiaceae (in

modern classification) 585.14.”’

Line ‘*:016"’ and the following line should be placed above ‘':58

General.”’

After ‘‘ 43 Shoot’’ add ‘‘;439 Bud.’

Line ‘*.49’, bring “‘Trichomes”’ into alignment with ‘‘Flower’’

and ‘‘Fruit.”’

Line ‘‘.52,”’ add ‘‘Cf. :581.926 and .928

.811,2, read *‘Cytoplasm.”’

.871, for ‘“‘“Mostly to’’ read ‘‘Cf.”’

.93-9, after ‘‘( )’’ insert ‘‘See table, pp. 174-6.”’

583.1 and .2, see amplification on p. 1 of the additions.

:083.6-.9, :585 and :587, ‘° ete i

Note to :59, for ‘‘are those’’ et seg., read ‘‘are with few excep-

tions from the Ziirich amplification.”

(866), read ‘‘Ecuador.”’

NOTE.

To be inserted in article ‘«‘ Library Expedients in Micros-

copy”? by R. H. Ward in Trans, Amer. Micros. Society, Vol.

21, p. 127-176.

The additions are printed so that they can be cut apart

and inserted at the proper page if desired,

. a wale ae tis

Raper

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bali wt TAURTOE VEL EH) eS ans nla a ramot + a

lewd) de 0) “fidenase m Hi) f ub aed df bag OTe Bae + is

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Aik & Peanneation a ; 1 (OL ae o> see ee

4 st) FTC « war wrt Ghee * De Mmoie ad aA, ne

t P si yack “ ily we ute cals ey “1 yurte * ob” anid ‘

) , 4 ie : SUV APPL "slot ot Sa,

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4 ve ; cy ppt “Od ‘hie ht sat ive. Gas.

‘ 5AY Tae cd (ire OLE Gur )* yorla ‘ a 18

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bacion \ quae sedge ily Sera

hth Moe ‘aa

mais oo eA ee nated ef mg anh ¢. ~~

LIBRARY EXPEDIENTS IN MICROSCOPY 149

578:586 Study of Phanerogams (Seed-Plants)

Spermatophytes

587 Gymnosperms

:588 Monocots

589 Dicots

>59 Micrs-Zoology

General

7591 Physiological and Structural

4 _ Anatomy

ATT Integument

1, Hairs; 5, Scales, Exoskeleton; 6,

Nails; 7, Feathers; 8, Horns

.8 Histology

1, The Cell; 2, Connective Tissue; 3, Carti-

lage; 4, Bone; 5, Blood, Lymph; 6, Mus-

cle; 7, Epithelium; 8, Nervous Tissue

2592 Invertebrates

596 Vertebrates 2598.1 Reptiles

2597 Fishes 2 Birds

6 Amphibians 599 Mammals

578:6 The Microscope in Useful Arts

:6j The Microscope in Law [Microscopical Jurisprudence]

61 The Microscope in Medicine [Medical Microscopy]

General

:611 Human Anatomy and Histology

018 Histology

1, The Cell; 2, Connective Tissue; 3, Carti-

lage; 4, Bone; 5, Blood; 6, Muscle: 7,

Epithelium; 8, Nervous System

7612 The Microscope in Physiology

7614.3 Adulterations, etc.

:616 Diseases. Pathology

96 Parasites

617 Surgery

:62-9 The Microscope in other Useful Arts

150 R. H. WARD

SYNOPSIS OF CLASSIFICATION.

For use in arranging microscopical libraries or slide-

collections, or as a clue to the more complete tables required

by experts. Also as an index to the literature related to micros-

copy in all libraries, and to the exact numbers where it may

be found in those classified on the decimal system.

See key and explanatory notes on preceding pages.

Note series of ‘‘:” following series of ‘‘.’’.

578 MICROSCOPY

:016 General Bibliography of Microscopy

General or Mixed Works unclassifiable below, ar-

ranged here, A—Z

578.01 Philosophy. Theories

.02 Compends. Treatises

.03 Dictionaries, etc. ‘

.04 Essays, Addresses, Letters, Separates, Reviews

.05 Periodicals. Annuals

.06 Societies and their Proceedings.

Their Journals, etc., to .05

.061 Official Institutions

.062 Scientific, Professional or Social Associations, Clubs,

Sections, ete.

1, Transactions; 2, Meetings, Reports; 3, Or-

ganization; 4, Membership; 6, Exhibitions,

competitions, prizes, etc.; 7, Festivities, ex-

cursions, field meetings; 8, Other society

enterprises, house, rooms, libraries, cabinets

instruments, research and work

.063 Congresses

.064 Expositions

.O7 Educational

.072 Laboratories, Experiment Stations, etc.

O74 Museums. Cabinets

.0O76 Gardens. Aquaria

O77 Teaching

LIBRARY EXPEDIENTS IN MICROSCOPY 151

578.078 Apparatus, Models, Lecture Charts and Diagrams,

Lantern Slides and Illustrative Specimens

.08 Collective Works. Miscellanies

.09 History of Microscopy

Ex., of German Microscopy, 578.0943

-091 Travels, etc., related to Microscopy

-092 Biographies and Addresses of Microscopists

Some would arrrange these with the History, by

countries, in .09 .

See also Biologists, :570.92; Botanists, :580.92;

Zoologists, :590.92

578.1 Apparatus and its Technique

-11 Varieties of Microscones

12 Projection

2, Lenses; 3, Stand; 4, Accessories; 5, [1lumina-

tion

13 Simple. Preparing

2, Lenses; 3, Stand; 4, Accessories; 5, Ilumina-

tion

14 Compound

<2 Special Parts, Optical

2, Reflectors; 3, Objectives, theory, definition,

power, nomenclature; 4, Aperture; 5, Im-

mersion; 6, Aberration and Correction; 7,

Testing, test objects, micro-ruling and writ-

ing; 8, Oculars; 9, Powers of compound

microscope

3 Mechanical. Stands

1, Body; 2, Stage; 3, Substage; 4, Limb; 5,

Base; 6, Tail-piece; 7, Coarse adjustment;

8, Fine adjustment; 9, Special stands

4 Accessories and Use

41 Drawing

42 Micrometry

43 Goniometry

44 Polariscope

152 R. H. WARD

578.45 Spectroscope

.46 Erectors

47 Minor Accessories

.48 Tables, Cases, Outfit

49 Photomicrography

499 Microphotography

5 Illuminating Apparatus

1, Sources of light; 2, Opaque ill.; 3, Dark

field; 4, Transparent; 5, Reflectors; 6,

Condensers; 8, Special oblique; 9, Binoe

ular

978.6 Preparation, Mounting, etc., of Objects

.61 Collection and rough preservation

.62 Examination. Methods, interpretation, errors

.63 Special Treatment

.631 Laboratory, table, apparatus, supplies

.635 Mechanical processes

.636 Treatment of suspended matters, deposits, ete.

.637 Fixing, hardening, softening, etc.

64 Dissection

65 Bleaching, staining, clearing

.66 Injection

JO0 Section cutting

2, Infiltration; 38, Imbedding; 4, Freezing; 5,

Cutting, microtomes, serial sections; 8, Treat-

ment of sections; 9, Hard sections

.68 Mounting

.681 Apparatus, etc.

.684 Manipulation. Arrangement

.686 Dry Mounting

687 Other media

.688 Finishing. Cements, Varnishes

.689 Repairing

.69 Reconstruction from sections, Models, etc.

578.7 (Special Preparation and Study; Inorganic)

Inorganic Microscopy can conveniently be located here, in-

stead of in :5, if intended to be a very small and subordi-

LIBRARY EXPEDIENTS IN MICROSCOPY 153

nate department; any required items from :5 to :55 being

inserted here by changing :5 to 578.7, or conversely being

transferred from here to there by changing 578.7 to :5. See

note to :5

578.8 (Special Preparation and Study; Botanic)

Micro-Botany can be located here if desired, transferring any

or all of :58, below, by changing :58 to 578.8, or conversely

transferred from here to there by changing 578.8 to :58. See

note to :5 ‘

578.9 (Special Preparation and Study; Zoologic)

Micro-Zoology; same note as to 578.8, above, reading :59 for

58, and .9 for .8. See note to :5

734 The Microscope in Law; see :6j

578:5 The Microscope in Science

(Special Preparation, Study and Description)

See explanatory notes following the ‘Key to the Method”’

25i Inorganic ‘icroscopy

254 Micro-Chemistry

2546 Inorganic Chemicals. 1, Non-metallic; 2, Metallic

2547 Organic Chemicals

2548 Orystallography

7549 Micro-Mineralogy

255 Micro-Geology

2552 Micro-Petrography

.2, Voleanic rocks; .22, Volcanic ashes, etc. ;

.8, Plutonic; .4, Metamorphic; .5, Sedimen-

tary; .6, Meteorites; .7, Decay of rocks

3553 Economic Geology

.2, Carbon series, peat, coal, fossil resins, etc. ;

.8, Iron ores; .4, Other ores; .6, Earthy

economic minerals; .7, Mineral water de-

posits; .8, Gems

756 Micro-Paleontology

See notes after ‘‘Key to the Method’’

2561 Fossil Plants

Here, or, for small collections, to :58

3562 Fossil Invertebrates

Here, or, for small collections, to :59

154

578:566

R. H. WARD

Fossil Vertebrates

Here, or, for small collections, to :59

:57 Micro-Biology

Mostly to :58 and :59

:58 Micro-Botany

758

See notes after ‘‘Key to the Method”’

General

:580.1, Philosophy, Nomenclature; .2, Com-

pends, Treatises; .3, Dictionaries, etc.; .4,

Essays, Addresses, etc.; .5, Periodicals; .6,

Societies; .7, Study and Teaching; .72,

Laboratories, Experiment stations; .73,

Bacteriology, to :583.3; .74, Museums,

Herbarium work; .76, Botanic gardens,

Aquaria; .77, Teaching, Pedagogy; .78,

Apparatus, etc., of instruction; .8, Collective

works, Miscellanies; .9, Botanic History;

.91, Travels related to Botany; .92, Biogra-

phies of Botanists

Bibliography

Unclassifiable, arranged here A-Z

Physiological and Structural

Physiology

Nutrition

Plant Constituents and Food

Absorption and Conduction

9 Movements of Gases

Transpiration

Photosynthesis; 9, Metabolism

External influences

Special processes. Cf. Ecology, :581.5

Saprophytes. 8, Parasites. 9, Insect-

ivore. 95, Symbionts

Respiration. 1, Temperature; 2, Phosphor-

escence

Products

578:581.124

Bs bear

.128

.129

LIBRARY EXPEDIENTS IN MICROSCOPY P55

Distribution. 5, Storage. 6, Utilization.

69, Waste

Growth

Periodicity

Development of Members

5, Adventitious growths; 8, Wounds

and Repair; 9, Grafting, cf. :634

Movements

1, Stability; 3, Elasticity; 5, Turgidity; 7,

Tensions

Mechanical tissues

Curvature movements

Hygroscopic curvatures

Growth curvatures

Nutation. 4, Heliotropism. 5, Hydro-

tropism. 6, Geotropism

‘‘Orthotropism”. 8, Coiling

Motions of Organs

1, Sensitive plants; 2, Insectivore; 5,

Gyrations; 7, Sleep of plants

Locomotion. Cf. Cytology, :581.81

Reproduction

1, Individuality; 2, Longevity; 3, Death; 4,

Permanence of Protoplasm. Cf. :581.81

Vegetative Propagation

Budding. 9, Spore formation

Sexual Reproduction

1, Differentiation of sex; 2, Alternation of

generations

Parthenogenesis

Fertilization

Pollination. 7, Cross fertilization. 8,

Hybridization

Reproduction of Thallophytes

Conjugation

Oophytic

156

578:581.183

.185

.186

.187

.188

.189

.19

ae Ue’

.38

.39

.43

.449

R. H. WARD

Carpophytic

Of Archegoniatae

Bryophytes and Pteridophytes

Antherozoids

Egg cells

Gymnosperms

Of Siphonogamae

Pollen plants

Pathology

Teratology

Embryology. Ontology

Ovule

Fertilization

Embryo

Development. Histology

Morphology

Vitality

5, Longevity; 9, Continuity of embryonic

substance

Germination

1, Time; 2, Conditions; 3, Effects

Seedling

Ontological development

Morphology, Anatomy [and Histology of Mem-

bers]

Cf. Histology, :581.8. Care is required to avoid

maintaining duplicate series here and there. All

histology that is separable should go there, unless a

non-botanist having a few sections, etc., that show

distribution of tissues (:581.85-.89) should prefer to

employ the simpler and easier classification here, for

all.

Thallus

Root

Shoot

Stem

Branching

Leaf

LIBRARY EXPEDIENTS IN MICROSCOPY Log

578:581.46 Flower

.463 Perianth

464 Calyx

465 Corolla

.466 Stamens

467 Pollen

.468 Pistils

AT Fruit

.48 Seed

49 Trichomes. Emergences, etc.

.5 Habits. Ecology

Joe Climate-relations

52 Aquatics, ete.

538 Drouth Plants

.585 Salt-region Plants

54 Climbing Plants

.549 Epiphytes

55 Saprophytes

.55 Parasites, ete,

57 Carnivorous Plants

58 Symbionts

59 Protective Adaptations

.6 Economic Botany

61 Food-stuffs

62 Food-adjuncts

.63 Medicinal Plants

For general students, here; for medical, to

7615

.64 Oils, Waxes, ete.

.645 Gums, Resins, etc.

.648 Dyes, etc.

65 Tanning Materials

655 Fibers, etc. Cf. Manufactures, :67

.66 Wood. Cf. Forestry, :634.9

.669 Barks

.67 Fodéder Plants, ete.

158 R. H. WARD

578:581.68 Other Products from,

1, Thallus, Cryptogams; 2, Root, tuber, etc. ;

3, Shoot; 4, Stem; 5, Leaf; 6, Flower;

7, Fruit; 8, Seed; 9, Hairs, etc.

69 Injurious Plants. Mostly distributed elsewhere

.8 Histology

81 The Cell. Cytology

.811 Protoplasm (Euergid)

: 1, Nucleus; 2, Cyptoplasm; 5, Plastids;

8, Continuity of protoplasm; 9, Cell

nutrition and growth

.812 Cell Wall and Morphology

.812,5 Forms

.813 Thickenings, ete.

2, Collenchyma; 3, Sclerenchyma; 4,

Tracheids; 6, Irregularities, 7, exter-

nal, 8, internal, pits, reticulations,

rings, spirals, etc.; 9, Cystoliths

.814 Transformations

.815 Non-nitrogenous products and contents

1, Starch; 2, Inulin; 5, Caoutchoue; 7,

Oils; 8, Resins; 9, Crystals, ete.

.816 Nitrogenous products and contents

.816,5 Crystalloids

.817 Cell Movements

1, Irritation; 2, Streaming; 3, Rotation;

5, Creeping; 6, Cilia; 7, Flagella

.818 Cell Formation. Reproduction

1, Nuclear division, karyokinesis; 3, Cell-

division; 4, Free cell-formation; 5, Cell-

budding; 6, Conjugation

.819 Age and Death of the Cell

82 Cell Families (Cohesions)

.821 Cell Fusions

.822 Fertilization. 3, Plasmodium. 4, Hyphae. 5,

Sieve-tubes. 6, Latex-tubes. 7, Vessels

578 :581.838

831

.838

.839

841

LIBRARY EXPEDIENTS IN MICROSCOPY 159

Tissues and Tissue Systems

Cell-building. 6, Cell-connection. 7, Spuri-

ous tissues

Meristem

Fundamental tissue

Tegmentary system

Epidermis. 1, Incrustations; 2, Exuda-

tions, secretions; 4, Coloration; 5,

Stomata; 6, Water-pores; 7, Trichomes,

Emergences, Glands, ete.

Vascular Bundle system

Distinct bundles. Phloem, Xylem

Conjoint bundles, Concentric, Collat

eral, Closed, Open

Distribution of Tissues

Ontogeny and Phylogeny

In Thallophytes

Bryophytes

Pteridophytes

Phanerogams

Embryo

Root

Epidermis, hairs, cap, sheath

Primary cortex, exodermis, endo-

dermis

Central cylinder, pericycle, vascu-

lar strands

Medullary tissue

Stem

Epidermis. Mostly to :581.841

Primary cortex

Hypoderma, fundamental tissue,

endodermis

Primary central cylinder

Pericycle

Vascular bundles. Phloem

Cambium, Xylem

160

578:581.877

888

.889

.889,1

.889,3

.889,5

.889,6

.889,7

.889,8

.889,9

.89

‘891

892

893

894

895

898

899

R. H. WARD

Bundle sheath, Bundle-strands,

Medullary sheath

Medulla (pith). 9, Medullary

rays

Secondary tissues

Secondary growing points and

meristem

Adventitious growths

In Monocots

Fundamental tissue

Scattered vascular bundles

Cambium ring

Gymnosperms and Dicots

1, Leaf bundles; 2, Cauline

Bast

1, Cortical rays; 2, Peri-

derm; 3, Cork; 4, Bark;

5, Lenticels; 6, Leaf-

scars; 7, wound-cork, ete.

Cambium

Wood

Seasonal growth. Annual

rings

Sap wood, 4, Heart wood

Medullary rays

Coloration

In Gymnosperms

Anomalous thickenings

Knotted, curled, ete.

Leaf

Epidermis. Mostly to :581.841

Fundamental tissue

Leaf bundles

Flower

Perianth. 6, Stamens. 7, Pistils,

Fruit. 5, Seed

Trichomes. Emergences. Glands

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ADDITIONS FOR PAGE 161

-583.1 Algae

.11 Cyanophyceae (Blue-green Algae)

.12 Chlorophyceae (Green Algae)

138 Protococcales

.14 Siphonales

15 Conjugatales

.1538 Desmidiaceae

154 Diatomaceae

A good arrangement for diatoms in a slide-

cabinet. would be:—(a) Special preparations

showing methods or results of mounting, ete.

(b) Opaque mounts, and those in situ in deep

cells. (¢) Specially selected and verified test

objects. (d) Named Genera, alphabetically, or

classified according to Prof. C. E. Bessey’s paper

in same Vol. (Proc. Am. Mic. Soc. 1899). (e)

Unnamed or mixed mounts, ( ), see pp. 174-6. —

Ex., Strewn diatoms from Hawaii, :583.154(969).

The index No. of diatoms, :588.154, should be

written on the drawers containing them, but is

needless on the slides whose character is obvious.

When the drawers are numerous they may be

marked u, b, ¢, d, ( ), ete., for the groups above

named or for others desired. ‘The slides may be

marked with a fine pen in red ink with the same

group letters, also underlining in red the first

letters of the genus in group d for alphabetic

arrangement, and giving the geographic index

complete in group e, as (969).

16 Confervoidales

.17 Phaeophyceae (Olive-brown Algae)

.18 Rhodophyceae (Red Algae)

.189 Corallinaceae

.2 Fungi

.21 Myxomycetes (Slime Fungi)

-38 Schizomycetes (Fission Fungi. Bacteria)

(As given in the Synopsis, pp. 161-4)

LIBRARY EXPEDIENTS IN MICROSCOPY 161

578:581.9 Distribution of Plants

91 Geologic (Phytogeology). cf. Paleontology,

:561

Div. like :581.4, or like :582-9

92 Physiographic. ( )

See Table of Geographic Subdivisions

93 Geographic (Phytogeography)

.930,1 Principles. Theories

.930,11 Local conditions. Moisture, temperature,

soil

.930,12 Zones of Latitude and Altitude

.930,15 Distribution. By winds, streams, animals,

man

.930,16 Limitations. Mountains, deserts, oceans

-930,17 Insular. 18, Polar

.930,19 Regions of Vegetation

93-9 Floras, etc. ()

Ex., Plants of Florida, :581.9(759)

:582 Study of Cryptogams (Spore-Plants)

The index numbers here given in the systematic

classification are adapted to the philosophical

arrangement, corresponding to that universally

employed in zoology, which did not exist when

the Dewey system was published. Britton and

Brown’s Ill. Flora of the Northern United

States, etc., is taken as a standard for the order,

so far asit goes. Those preferring the former

classification can of course obtain it from the

Dewey books.

583 Thallophytes

iE Algae

2 Fungi

3 Bacteriology

This analysis is not intended for those professional

bacteriologists who may prefer to classify with re-

gard to their own work or their latest theories;

but it is offered as a practical scheme for the

162

578 :583.8:016

807

-311

-o1

kR. H. WARD

convenience of others in arranging their literature,

references and specimens.

Bacteriology is here given as a whole, on the D.C.

methods but with original numbering. Medical

specialists can, if preferred, readily transfer the

whole, or only the Medical Bacteriology, .53-.59, to

610.73.

Bibliography

Technique

3, Staining; 5, Cultures; 7, Sterilization;

9, Photomicrography, cf. 578.49

Physiologic Bacteriology

Identification. Pseudo-Bacteria

Cytology, ete.

Association

Chains, filaments, swarms, zoogloea,

mycoderma, precipitate-condition

Origin; 5, Dissemination

Reproduction

1, Fission; 5, Spores; 8, Variation;

9, Polymorphism

Nutrition. 1, Aliments

Conditions; 9, Luminosity

Products

Movements

Effects of physical agents

Systematic Bacteriology

Micrococci (Spherobacteria)

Chromogenic species

Zymogenic species

‘* Monads ”’

Pathogenic species, to Medical Bact.,

:583.53, unless preferred to keep all

in one series

Bacilli (Rod-like forms)

Spirillae (Spirobacteria)

Economic Bacteriology

Bacteriain Fermentation. Cf. :583.38 and

7663

BIBRARY EXPEDIENTS IN MICROSCOPY 163

578:583.52

.529

.53

.530,7

531

537

538

539

541

.542

.543

544

.545

.546

547

.548

.549

.55

.555

.56

561

.562

.563

564

.565

.566

567

.568

.569

Bacteria in Putrefaction. Of. :583.38

Nitrification. Cf. :581.111 and :583.546

Bacteria in Medicine. Medical Bacteri-

ology

Experiments on animals. Vivisection

Infection. Susceptibility. Immunity

Pathogenie Micrococci

Pathogenic Bacilli

Pathogenic Spiriliae

The last three divisions are for general

discussions only, or for the arrangement of

very small collections. The following sub-

divisions are for more extensive work.

Bacteria in Hygiene and Sanitation. Ct.

1014

In Air

Of various places

Of various employments

On clothing, etc.

On surface of the body

Inthe Soil. Cf. :581, 111 and :583.529

In Food

In Drinks

In the stomach and intestines. Cf.

.563

Bacteria in Pharmacy

Antiseptics, Disinfectants, etc.

Bacteria in Disease. Cf. :616

Of Circulatory system

Respiratory system

Digestive system

Lymphatic system

The Skin. Dermatology

Genito-Urinary system

Organs of Locomotion

Nervous system

General Diseases

Cf. and div. like :616.9 if required

164 R. H. WARD

578:583.57 Bacteria in Surgery

572 Suppuration. Tetanus

.576 In Dentistry. The Teeth

TT Ophthalmology. The Eye

.578 The Ear

.579 Military Surgery

.58 Bacteria in Gynecology

582 Obstetrics

59 Bacteria in Comparative Medicine

Cf. and div. like :619

9 Lichens

584 Bryophytes

a Liverworts

: Mosses

585 Pteridophytes

i Ferns

2 Water Ferns

3 Equisetums

A Club Mosses

:586 Study of Phanerogams (Seed- Plants)

Spermatophytes

587 Gymnosperms

588 Monocots

:589 Dicots

ail Choripetalae, ‘‘ Apetalae ”’

2 ie ‘¢ Polypetalae ”’

Ay Sympetalae, Gamopetalae

:59 Micro-Zoclogy

The figures throughout Zoology, :59, when in ex-

cess of the D. C., are those of the Ziirich

amplification, except .91

General

:590.1, Philosophy, Nomenclature; .2, Com-

pends, Treatises; .3, Dictionaries, etc.; .4,

Essays, Addresses, ete.; .5, Periodicals; .6,

Societies; .7, Study and Teaching; .72, Lab-

ADDITIONS FOR PAGE 164

:583.6 Phycomycetes (Algal Fungi)

61 Oomycetes

66 Zygomycetes (Mould Fungi)

.( Ascomycetes

pth Hemiasci

72 Exoasci

13 Carpoasci

74 Cleistomycetes

ait Pyrenomycetes

AY Ge, Discomycetes

Ascolichenes to .97

.8 Basidiomycetes

81 Hemibasidia (Brand Fungi)

84 Basidiomycetes

88 Hymenomycetes

89 Gasteromycetes

Basidiolichenes to .98

9 Lichens

.97 Ascolichenes. Div. like .7

.98 Basidiolichenes. Div. like .8

585.1 Filicinae (True Ferns)

.11 Ophioglossaceae

.12 Marattiaceae

.13 Isoetaceae (Quillworts)

.14 Osmundiaceae

.15 Gleicheniaceae

.16 Hymenophyllaceae

-17 Schizaeaceae

.18 Cyatheaceae

-19 Polypodiaceae

:587 Gymnosperms

-l Cycadales E Pinaceae

.2 Ginkgoales neal Araucarineae

.3 Coniferae 6 Abietineae

+ Taxaceae Pe Taxodineae

Al Podocarpeae 8 Cupress‘neae

49 Taxeae .9 Gnetales

Pugngai piborhyrs

2 « Bupyparation.

G* An Dentistry.

T i Op MaDEGOKY.

O76 Thi ts

\ BTR Military ¢ iinsderrcnotatl

6S Dactetia in ' stony motion T ‘

OE ()batetrics _ essooyutoosiT] ‘a

“ if Bectore oo fe. 4p ede ieee

na . '

and di) ‘wstob? GtOs bien ;

® (igaaT bawttl) sibieadimakat i ;

23 RF PONY #9} voy mothiaa®d ;

sO 7 it sneuy A

yeteoyOTsIeET) A

SS 40. ot woodoiloibieadl - i

He - + anodoid e

+ . 7. ofil .viC) .zonedgilooge ve :

Ey iw 8. edi! vi. sorotoiloibieatl Lest! f

: ens) oul) gpnisilia

Stady:- of F gi onsonesolpoidgO- ia ;

Qvymn0sters fatrowlling)) sams ontooel

ssoonibunmaO

ssoorinoedsiol

neta ) aedoe ly dqodomy et

aasvevaxlioe

i Syumpetalae, bone ake

sooniboq ot ah

eerrig gag naa f

‘oudougr'd , ey, a * ate as * AG ae

anonitmoniTh chaleur’ i. Syihch haa * Sothad ihe Bis

onoliisidh | 4 « Be owtolinow AM oe

Saattiboxe'y Pi ies ossoara'l fm be

ago aR eeepit mate, r% gegan bobo. | 4

Pie

“up rat aes

( b BaD +

« P .

be ie ;, Stady wil Thsatlade “

* stabi =e.

. ¥ ii i ‘

ed 4 Js aaa

‘Sa Vo BLY eee) 2 See Tie ear ie

LIBRARY EXPEDIENTS IN MICROSCOPY 165

oratories, Experiment stations, Dissection,

Vivisection; .73, Bacteriology, to :583.3; .74,

Museums; .76, Zoologic Gardens, Aquaria;

.17, Teaching, Pedagogy; .78, Apparatus, etc..,

of instruction; .8, Coilective works, Miscel-

lanies; .9, Zoologice history; .91, Travels re-

lated to Zoology; .02, Biographies of Zoolo-

gists

578:591 Physiological and Structural

.1 Physiology

.2 Pathology

.8 Embryology

.4 Anatomy [and Histology of Organs]

41 Circulatory Organs

42 Respiratory Organs

43 Nutritive Organs

44 Lymphatic System

46 Genito-Urinary Organs

AT Motor Organs

ATT Integument

.478,1 Hairs

-478,5 Scales, Exoskeleton

.478,6 Nails

.478,7 Feathers

.478,8 Horns

48 Nervous System

49 Somatology

-5 Habits of Animals. Ecology

-6 Economic Zoology

.8 Histology

81 The Cell. Cytology

82 Connective Tissue

83 Cartilage

84 Bone

85 Blood. Lymph

86 Muscle

166 R. H. WARD

578:591,87 Epithelium

.88 Nervous Tissue

42) Distribution of Animals

91 Geologic

92 Physiographic

.93-9 Geographic

:592 Invertebrates

593. 1 Protozoans

2 Radiates

3 Coelenterates

.4 Sponges

as Cnidaria

.6 Actinozoa

.( Hydrozoa

.8 | Ctenophora

ao Echinoderms

:594 Molluses

sd. Bivalves

2 Scaphopods

oO Gastropods

4 Pteropods

5 Cephalopods

-( Polyzoa

.8 Brachiopods

i) Tunicates

3595 Articulates

ait Worms

atl Parasites

.14 Annelids

ae Es) Rotifers

.2 Arthropods

3 Crustaceans

“31 Entomostracans

35 Cirripedia

.36 Malacostraca

4 Arachnidans

.6 Myriopods

LIBRARY EXPEDIENTS IN MICROSCOPY 167

578 :595.7 Insects

1, Thysanura; 2, Orthoptera; 3, Pseudo-

Neuroptera; 4, Neuroptera; 5, Hemiptera;

6, Coleoptera; 7, Diptera; 8, Lepidoptera;

9, Hymenoptera

:596 Vertebrates

2597 Fishes

:597.6 Amphibians

7598.1 Reptiles

jar) TERS

599 Mammals. Human, mostly to :61

578:6 The Micrescope in Useful Arts

[Economic Microscopy |

Cf. 581.6 and 591.6

, General. Div. like 578.01—.09

:6j The Microscope in Law

{Microscopical Jurisprudence]

Cf. Medical Microscopy, :61, especially Med-

ical Jurisprudence, :614,23

:6j1 Courts; 3, Laws; 5, Evidence; 9, Fees

672 Identification of Persons

Handwriting, Chirography, to :6]3

fi | Skin. 2, Hair. 38, Finger marks. 4, Cloth-

ing, etc.

5 Blood stains. Identification, kinds

8 Other stains

2633 Handwriting. Chirography

ay Special Instruments and Technique

2 Personal characteristics from

21 Character of fingers or hand. Anatomical,

pathological

22 Temperament. .23, Tremor

24 Habit. .25, Signature

26 Position. Style

27 Pen pressure. Shading

ies Character and details of letters and words

168

578: 6]3.29

2674

:6j7

OID ip

:6]8

R. H. WARD

Effects of excitement, fatigue, disease, age

Disguised writing

Pen characteristics

Pencil characteristics

Ink characteristics. Kinds, age, treatment

Paper characteristics. Fibers, color, age, treat-

ment

Falsification. Forgery

1, Alterations

2, Additions; 4, Superposition; 6, Eras-

ures; 8, Bleaching

Imitative writing

Tracing

Mechanical effects; furrows, fibers

Pencil marks; covered, uncovered,

rubbed

Off hand

Counterfeiting. Cf. :76

Sexual cases

1, Seminal stains; .2, Menstrual stains

Impotence. .5, Sterility

Divorce

Rape

Pregnancy. .9, Abortion

Civil cases

Cases of actual or impending litigation, involy-

ing questions of identification or comparison,

adulteration or falsification, qualities or val-

ues, age or wear, or other pecuniary interests,

are often capable of receiving aid from the

microscope

See Disputed writing, :6j3; Foods and bever-

ages, :614.3; Hygiene and nuisances, :614.7;

Drugs and poisons, :615; Textile and other

Manufactures, :67; and other mercantile af-

fairs in :658 or scattered through the various

divisions from :62 to :69

578:6)9

761

7611

LIBRARY EXPEDIENTS IN MICROSCOPY 169

Criminal cases. Cf. Medical Jurisprudence,

1614.23

wl Forgery. Cf. :6]3.8

2 Counterfeiting

5 Poisoning. Cf. Micro-Chemistry, :54, and

Poisons, :615.9

.6 Wounds

.63 Blood stains. Cf. :6]2.5

65 Extraneous matters

.68 Powder grains and stains

3, Kind of weapon and ammunition

5, Distance of shot

The Microscope in Medicine

[Medical Microscopy]

:016, Bibliography

0.1, Philosophy, Theories; .2, Compends, Treat-

ises; .3, Dictionaries; .4, Essays, Addresses; .5,

Periodicals; .6, Societies; .7, Educational; .72,

Laboratories, Dissection, Experiments, Vivisec-

tion; .73, Bacteriology, to :583.3, or transferred

here, if desired, for medical libraries; .74,

Museums; .77, Teaching; .8, Collective works;

.9, Medical History; .91, Medical Travels; .92,

Medical Biographies

Human Anatomy and Histology

This section parallels Comparative Anatomy, :591.4,

and it is often preferable to combine the two, a medi-

cal specialist putting all here, and others putting all

together in Zoology.

-012 Teratology

018 Embryology

-018,11 Semen. ,15, Ovum

.013,3 Embryo. ,68, Blood. ,8, Adnexa

018 Histology

1, The Cell; 2, Connective Tissue; 3, Carti-

lage; 4, Bone; 5, Blood; 6, Muscle; 7,

Epithelium; 8, Nervous System; 81,

Ganglia; 86, Nerves

170 R. H. WARD

578:611.1 Circulatory System

.2 Respiratory System

zs) Digestive System

.36, Liver; 7, Pancreas; 8, Peritoneum, Mesen-

tery, Omentum

.4 Glandular and Lymphatic System

1, Spleen; 2, Vessels, ducts; 3, Thymus; 4,

Thyroid; 5, Suprarenal gland; 6, Lymphatic

glands

.6 Genito-Urinary System

1, Kidneys, ureters; 2, Bladder, urethra; 3,

Testis, vas deferens, scrotum; 4, Penis; 5,

Ovary, ducts; 6, Uterus; 7, Vagina, vulva;,

9, Mammae

.7 Motor and Integumentary Organs

a Of Skin

78 Hair. Nails

.8 Nervous System

.9 Regional Anatomy and Histology

:612 The Microscope in Physiology

:614 In Hygiene and Sanitation

.23 Medico-Legal Relations

Medical Jurisprudence will doubtless be put

here most conveniently by most microsco-

pists and physicians

Oo Adulterations, ete.

ol Examination of Food

32 Milk and Milk Products

34 Beverages

.7 Impurities of Air and Ground

nr (a Pollution and Injuries by Dust, Smoke; ete.

.78 Air in Country, Towns, Crowds, Parks, Roofs,

etc.

19 Air on Mountains, Snow-fields, Sea, Polar

regions

:615 The Microscope in Pharmacy

LIBRARY EXPEDIENTS IN MICROSCOPY 171

578:615.9 Poisons

:616 The Microscope in Diseases. Pathology

.01 Etiology, Germ theory (general discussion only;

details to Medical Bacteriology, :610.73, or

with the special diseases); .07, Study, Diagno-

sis; .077, Clinical Microscopy

.1 Diseases of Circulatory System

.2 Respiratory System; .24, Lungs

.3 Digestive System

Diseases of teeth, to Dentistry, :617.6

.4 Lymphatic System. Div. like :611.4

.5 Skin Diseases. Dermatology

fon)

Genito-Urinary System

Diseases of women, to :618

O07, Urinary analysis

1, Kidneys, ducts; 2, Bladder,—calculus; 3,

Urinary disorders,—diabetes; 4, Male

urethra; 5, Prostate; 6, Penis; 7, Scrotum;

8, Spermatic cord, Testis; 9, Spermator-

rhoea, Impotence, ete.

.7 Organs of Locomotion

.8 Nervous System

1, Cerebro-spinal circulation, Apoplexy; 2,

Cerebro-spinal Meninges; 3, Structural of

Brain and Cord; 5, Neuroses; 6, Special

Neuroses, Alcoholism, etc.; 7, Diseases of

nerves; 8, of Sympathetic system

.9 General Diseases

91 Eruptive fevers

92 Other fevers

8, Plague; 5, Cerebral-spinal; 7, Typhoid;

8, Yellow

.93 1, Diphtheria; 2, Cholera; 5, Dysentery; 6,

Malarial

94 Septic Diseases

.95 1, Syphilis; 2, Gonorrhoea; 3, Hydrophobia;

4, Glanders; 6, Splenic fever

172

Rk. H. WARD

578:616.96 Parasitic Diseases

961 Animal Parasites. Cf. :595

962 Entozoa

.968 Ectozoa; 1, Insects; 5, Arachnidans; 8,

Suctoria

.969 Vegetable Parasites

97 Poisoning. Cf. :615.9

98 Effects of Injuries, Circumstances, etc.

Mostly distributed elsewhere

99 Other General Diseases

991 Rheumatism. Gout

.992 Tumors

1, Modified connective tissue. Fatty,

Fibrous, Cartilaginous, Bony, Mucous

3, Complex. Muscle, Nerve, Vessels,

Glands, Warts

6, Embryonic type. Sarcoma

7, Epithelial, vascular. Carcinoma

9, Cysts

.995 Tubercle. 6, Scrofula. Rickets

997 Myxoedema, etc. 8, Leprosy

‘617 = In Surgery

.6 Diseases of the Teeth. Dentistry

aye Diseases of the Eye. Ophthalmology

.8 Diseases of the Ear

.1 In Gynecology

2 Obstetrics

7619 In Veterinary Medicine

.1, Horses; .2, Cattle; .3, Sheep, Goats; .4,

Swine; .5, Poultry; .6, Other Birds; .7,

Dogs; .8, Cats; .9, Other animals

:62 The Microscope in Engineering

7620.1 Quality and strength of materials

15 Effects of wear, stress, tremor, climate, etc.

763 = In Agriculture

76387 In the Dairy

LIBRARY EXPEDIENTS IN MICROSCOPY 173

578:64 Inthe Household

:65 i: Communication and Commerce. Mercantile Affairs

‘66 In Chemical Technology

7663.3 In the Brewery

1667 In Bleaching, Dyeing, etc.

669 In Metallurgy and Assaying

:67 In Manufactures

1675 Leather and its lnitatious

676 Paper and other Pulp Products

Rag-pulp. Kinds, qualities, condition

Wood-pulp. Mechanical, chemical

Other vegetable fibers. Straw, etc.

Paper making

Waterproofing, parchmentizing, ete.

Built-up articles from paper

Papier-maché

Other Pulp-products

G07 Textile Industries

100 Theories. Properties required for felting,

spinning, cordage, weaving, etc.

DONA wWD eH

ot Vegetable Hairs. Cotton

2 Fibers. Linen

cS Hemp

4 Other fibers and bundles

.6 Cordage

6 Animal Hairs. Wool

a Others

.8 Silk

.88 Mercerizing, plating, ete.

89 Artificial Silk

9 Fibrous Minerals. Asbestos. Spun glass

‘68 In Mechanic Trades

769 = In Building

7691.1 Wood, ete. Qualities, strength

Decay, Preservation

Bd In Art

174 ee eg

WARD

TABLE OF GEOGRAPHIC SUBDIVISIONS.

The following selection of a few of the place numbers of the

decimal system will enable the microscopist to become familiar

with this method of recording locality.

may be added to any index number.

the Giant’s Causeway, :552(415)

(2) Physical Geography

Divisions

(21) Continents

Arctic regions, etc.,

to (98-9)

(212) Temperate regions

(213) Tropical regions

(22) Islands

(23) Mountains

(24) Caves

(25) Plains. Deserts

(26) Oceans. Seas [Ocean-

ography]

(2601) Plankton

(261) North Atlantic

(2612) North Sea

(2613) Baltic

(262) Mediterranean

(2623) Adriatic

(2625) Black Sea

(263) Gulf of Mexico

(2635) Caribbean Sea

(264) South Atlantic

(265) Pacific

(266) Kast Pacific

(267) Indian Ocean

(2675) Red Sea

(268) Arctic Ocean

(269) Antarctic Ocean

(27) Ocean Currents

Any of these numbers

Ex., Rock sections from

(28) Fresh Water

(2801) Fresh-water Plank-

ton

(281) Streams

(285) Lakes

(29) Springs. Wells

(297) Stagnant water

Political Divisions

(4) Europe

(41) Scotland

(415) Ireland

(42) England

(429) Wales

(43) Germany

(436) Austria

(439) Hungary, etc.

(44) France

(45) Italy

(46) Spain

(469) Portugal

(4698) Madeira

(4699) Azores

(47) Russia

(48) Scandinavia. Denmark

(481) Norway

(485) Sweden

(489) Denmark

(49) Minor Countries

(491) Iceland

LIBRARY EXPEDIENTS IN MICROSCOPY 175

{492) Netherlands

(498) Belgium

(494) Switzerland

(495) Greece

(496) Turkey in Europe

(5) Asia

(51) China

(52) Japan

(53) Arabia

(54) India

(55) Persia

(56) Turkey in Asia

(57) Siberia

(58) Afghanistan, etc.

(59) Farther India

(6) Africa

(61) North Africa

(62) Egypt

(68) Abyssinia

(64) | Morocco

(65) Algeria

(66) North Central Africa

(67) South Central Africa

(68) South Africa

(69) Madagascar

(7) North America

(71) Canada

(72) Mexico

(728) Central America

(729) West Indies

(73) United States

(74) No. Eastern States

(741) Maine

(742) New Hampshire

(743) Vermont

(744) Massachusetts

(745) Rhode Island

(746)

(747)

(748)

(749)

(75)

(751)

(752)

(753)

(754)

(755)

(756)

(757)

(758)

(759)

(76)

(761)

(762)

(763)

(764)

(765)

(766)

(767)

(768)

(769)

(77)

(771)

(772)

(773)

(774)

(775)

(776)

(777)

(778)

(78)

(781)

(782)

(753)

Connecticut

New York

Pennsylvania

New Jersey

So. Eastern States

Delaware

Maryland

Dist. of Columbia

W. Virginia

Virginia

N. Carolina

S. Carolina

Georgia

Florida

So. Central States

Alabama

Mississippi

Louisiana

Texas

Oklahoma

Indian Territory

Arkansas

Tennessee

Kentucky

No. Central States

Ohio

Indiana

Illinois

Michigan

Wisconsin

Minnesota

Iowa

Missouri

West Central States

Kansas

Nebraska

So. Dakota

176

(784) No. Dakota

(786) Montana

(787) Wyoming

(788) Colorado

(789) New Mexico

(79) Pacific States

(791) Arizona

(792) Utah

(793) Nevada

(794) California

(795) Oregon

(796) Idaho

(797) Washington

(798) Alaska

(8) South America

(81) Brazil

(82) Argentine Republic

(829) Patagonia

(83) Chile

(84) Bolivia

(85) Peru

(86) Colombia

R. H. WARD

(866) Equador

(87) Venezuela

(88) Guiana

(89) Paraguay

(896) Uruguay

(9) Oceanica. Polar regions

(91) Malaysia

(914) Philippines

(92) Sunda

(921) Sumatra

(922) Java

(93) Australasia

(94) Australia

(95) New Guinea

(96) Polynesia

(961) Samoa, ete.

(967) Ladrones

(969) Hawaii

(97) Isolated islands

(98) Arctic regions

(99) Antarctic regions.

NEW GENERA AND SPECIES OF NORTH AMERICAN

HYDRACHNIDAE.

By ROBERT H. WOLCOTT.

WITH PLATES IX—XII.

In collections made in different parts of Michigan in 1893,

1894 and 1895, were included a considerable number of speci-

mens believed at the time to be not referable to any recognized

genera. However, lack of literature made it then impossible

to verify this supposition and since under these circumstances

the writer was unwilling to assume the responsibility of erect-

ing new genera to receive them, they were laid aside. Now

he has at his command references to all genera hitherto de-

scribed and it becomes possible to characterize with safety those

which have not in the meantime been made known by others,

for during the time which has elapsed the following genera, to

which must be assigned a part of the specimens referred to,

have been proposed:

Tyrrellia Koenike. (Koenike, 95b: 198.)

Krendowskia Piersig. (Piersig, 95a: 147.)

Linmnesiopsis Piersig. (Piersig, 96:20.)

Torrenticola Piersig. (Piersig, 97d: 155.)

Albia Thon. (Thon, 99: 100.)

Aside from these here enumerated, there remain three genera

apparently still unnamed, and with these and also with one of

those in the list above it is proposed in this paper to deal.

The technical expressions occurring in the paper are applied

in the same manner and with the same meaning as indicated in

a previous paper by the writer (Wolcott, 99:204) and need no

explanation, except perhaps as to the mouth-parts, to the differ-

178 ROBERT H. WOLCOTT

ent structures of which different authors have applied very

different names. The whole irregularly conical mass formed

by the mandibles and maxillae and the structures inclosed by

them is termed the ‘‘snout” and in Avendowskia, where un-

usually protrusible, the ‘‘ proboscis.”” The word ‘‘rostrum” is

applied to the smaller cone at the apex of the snout, made up

of the anterior portion of the maxillae, grooved for the passage

of the mandibles, and leading to the oral opening at the anter-

iorend. The ‘‘maxillary plate” or ‘‘ maxillary shield ” is the

plate which forms the ventral surface of the snout, is generally

more or less regularly shield-shaped, and fits in between the

two anterior epimera. The rostrum appears from beneath as a

median anterior projection of this plate.

The divisions of the family Hydrachnidae as recognized by

Piersig and used in his great work on German Hydrachnidae

(Piersig, 97), are accepted by the writer.

KreEnpowsx1A (Piersig).

Krendowskia Piersig, 95a: 147.

Geayia Thor, 97b: 11.

Diagnosis of genus: An hydrachnid of the sub-family

Hygrobatinae, with broadly oval body covered throughout with

a thick chitinous exoskeleton containing large goblet-shaped

pores, and divided into a larger ventral and a smaller dorsal

portion by a continuous suture; with epimera forming four

masses; with stout chelate palpi and mouth-parts borne at the

end of a protrusible proboscis; with legs bearing swimming-

hairs; and with the large genital opening situated between the

two posterior epimera and flanked on either side by a large

valve which bears on its face three or four acetabula and along

its margin a row of minute hairs.

The genus is most closely related to Avrenwrus, which it

resembles in the character of its chitinous exoskeleton, in the

form of its palpi, in the arrangement of its epimera, and in the

possession of swimming-hairs. It is, however, at once recog-

nized by the character of the genital area, which reminds one

NEW NORTH AMERICAN HYDRACHNIDAE 179

of Mideopsis, and by the protrusible proboscis which is quite

unique among these mites. The males also possess none of

the modifications of form and structure characteristic of the

males of Arrenurus

This genus was unknown until, in 1885, Krendowsky de-

scribed and figured as the female of Arrenurus punctator Koch,

a mite which Piersig recognized as belonging to a new genus

and species and to which he gave the name A7vendowskia

latissima. However, the proposed name was not accompanied

by any characterization of the genus or description of the species

and, though glad to accept the name, which is a well-deserved

recognition of the work of the only prominent Russian student of

this group, the author cannot refrain from expressing his dislike

of the manner in which the genus was proposed. He would not

thus venture to criticize one whose recent magnificent work has

made him arecognized authority on the group, did he not feel that

the bestowal of generic names in the way indicated was based on

a principle radically wrong, It should be required of every

author of a genus that in the place where it is proposed he give

such a generic diagnosis as will clearly define its essential char-

acters, if no more. Especially is the lack of such a diagnosis

to be regretted when the original reference is difficult of access

or of use by the majority of students.

The genus Geayia, proposed by Thor to include Geayia

Venezuelae, a species collected in Venezuela by a traveller, M.

Geay, seems undoubtedly identical with Avendowskia, which

antedates it by two years.

An approximate translation of Krendowsky’s original de-

scription (Krendowsky, 85: 116) is as follows:

“6. Arrenurus punctator Koch (Tab. VII, Fig. 11).

Deut. Crust. H. 12.'10.

Female—Body oval, convex dorsally, narrower anteriorly,

but not excavated in front, and of a pale green color with dark

dorsal patches. Chitinous layer of the cuticula containing tor-

tuous pores which anastomose at their inner ends and open ex-

ternally into cup-shaped depressions. Epimera green; forming

180 ROBERT H. WOLCOTT

four groups, and in shape differing from those of the different

species of Avrenurus in the fact that they have rounded outer

margins, and do not end in sharp points. The fourth pair has

also a marked peculiarity, being produced posteriorly, this

posterior portion quadrate in form with rounded corners.

Between these two epimera is placed the large genital area

which is approximately circular in form. The large round

genital opening is closed by two semi-lunar genital plates with

wavy outer margins. Along the margin of each plate are

placed three narrow elliptical acetabula. Legs of medium

length and green in color.

The form is very rare. Only one example was found,

August 5th, in the Psel, near the village of Manuilowka, county

of Kremenchuk, province of Poltawa.

Male unknown to me.”’

Thor (97b: 11) describes Geayea thus:

‘¢Geayia, Nov. gen.

Le corps et les pattes, dans ce nouveau genre, sont tout a fait

semblables & ceux de Arrenurus Dugés. La peau est trés dure,

avec beaucoup de pores et une ligne dorsale. Les pattes sont

courtes et minces, pourvues de soies natatoires.

L’appareil génital, au contraire, rappelle celui de MWideopsis,

Neum.; il est elliptique et situé entre les épiméres de la quat-

riéme paire. De chaque coté de la frente génitale se trouvent

quatre ventouses ou pores oblongues, insérées sur les deux

valves semilunaires. On trouve quelques pores (fig. 2) trés

petits disposés en cercle dans la peau, en dehors des valves.

Le plus caractéristique pour Geayza est un rostre enormement

long, paraissant formé de deux articles et d’une forme tout a fait

inconnue chez les Hydrachnides adultes.

Il rappelle un peu celui de Vautarachna Moniez, moins celui

de Hydryphantes Koch, Hydrachna Miiller, ete. Les deux

courts palpes sont, fait remarquable, attachés & son extrémite.

Le rostre provient d’un court tube de la peau (tube labial) il

forme en dehors du tube deux articles 4 peu prés de méme

longueur, le second s’éleyant 4 l’extrémité proeminente et un

NEW NORTH AMERICAN HYDRACHNIDAE 181

peu recourbée du premier. Dans le second sont les courtes

mandibules, et d’une échancrure du coté superiéur s’élévent les

deux courts palpes formant comme une pince avec le bord

inférieur proéminent du rostre.

Chaque palpe a les cing articles, le premier se cachant, le

cinquieme ressemblant a un petit crochet, semblable a celui

d’ Arrenurus, et s’articulant avec une protuberance plate du

quatriéme.’”’

Comparison of the one male specimen in the possession of

the writer with Krendowsky’s figure and description leaves little

room to doubt that that author had a male specimen, which he

assumed was a female because of the lack of the usual charac-

ters which distinguish the males of Arrenurus; while the three

female specimens examined belong to the same genus as those

deseribed by Thor, and to a species at least closely allied.

Krendowsky failed to note the protrusible proboscis, but in the

brief examination to which the mites under observation were

subjected by the writer, when collected and before being put

into the preserving fluid, no such peculiarity was noted in either

sex, and it is probable that in the case of Krendowsky’s speci-

men the methods used were such as failed to demonstrate it.

Krendowsky’s specimen had three pairs of acetabula, Thor’s

examples four, but this is apparently a sexual character.

It may be simply a matter of individual opinion, but to the

writer the dedication of a genus to one neither a student of the

group to which it belongs nor prominent for his contributions

to the literature of the science of zoology in general seems quite

inappropriate.

Krendowskia is a genus of wide distribution, as is shown by

its occurrence in localities as widely separated as Russia,

Venezuela, and Michigan.

Krendowskia ovata nov. sp.

General form (Pl. IX, Fig. 1) broadly oval, the length ex-

ceeding the maximum breadth by but about one-tenth, with the

more pointed end directed anteriorly, uniformly rounded at

both ends, strongly convex dorsally, moderately convex ven-

182 ROBERT H. WOLOGOTT

trally, and with the dorso-ventral diameter of the body equalling

nearly three-fourths of the total length.

Surface of the body covered with a chitinous exoskeleton

containing pores placed vertically to the surface. These pores

(Pl. LX, Fig. 2) are large, usually more or less irregular in diam-

eter and in direction, are similar to those figured by Norden-

skidld (98: Pl. I, Fig. 8a) for Arrenurus pustulator, and give to

the body the appearance of being coarsely pitted. The cuticula

which covers this chitinous exoskeleton is marked everywhere

by irregular fine wavy lines. The furrow which separates the

smaller dorsal and the larger ventral portions of the exoskeleton

includes an elliptical area, which is, in a male specimen 1 mm.

long, 0.835 mm. by 0.651 mm., and which approaches nearer

the posterior than the anterior end of the body. Here and there

on the dorsal surface (Pl. IX, Figs. 1 and 3) are seen rounded

papillae bearing slender hairs.

Eyes rather close together, large, and separated by a distance

equal to one-fifth the length of the body.

Proboscis protrusible to a distance equal to 65 per cent. of

the body length (Pl. LX, Fig. 3) and divisible into two portions.

The posterior of these is soft, capable of being inverted, equal

to three-fifths the length of the whole, and thickest proximally

while narrowest at its distal end. The anterior, consisting of

the mouth-parts, is covered by the chitinous maxillae, is thickest

distally, where its breadth is equal to two-thirds the greatest

breadth of the posterior portion, and narrowest at its junction

with the posterior portion. The anterior ventral angle is pro-

duced forming a rostrum the tip of which is even with the end

of the palpi.and which near its tip bears two small hairs.

Mandibles (Pl. LX, Figs. 4 and 5) long, irregular and ending

in a double claw. On the inner side is what appears to be an

articular suture but which is not apparent on the outer side.

Palpi (P1. LX, Fig. 6) relatively small and stout, the average

thickness being equal to more than one-quarter of the total

length, and chelate like those of Avrenurus. Segments 1 to 4

nearly the same in dorso-ventral diameter and 1 and 2 together

NEW NORTH AMERICAN HYDRACHNIDAE 183

equailing the combined length of 3 and 4. Segment 1 is long

and forms a ring of uniform width; 2 is the longest and pos-

sesses a long convex dorsal margin and a short concave ventral

margin, the difference in length of the two causing the two ends

to lie nearly at a right angle to one another. The latter pos-

sesses two long slender hairs, one on the dorsal margin and

another on the inner surface and near the second a third short

hair. Segment 3 is comparatively short with the dorsal and

ventral margins nearly equal, and bears a hair on the inner

surface toward the dorsal margin; while 4 is nearly as long as

2, is thick, and is, toward the tip and on the ventral side, ex-

panded and also produced to a considerable degree. This

expanded portion bears a slender hair and another is situated

at the distal end of the dorsal margin. The distal segment is

short and stout, bears a peg-like spine at the tip, and is oppos-

able with the produced ventral expansion of 4, giving to the

palpus its chelate character.

The epimera (Pl. IX, Fig. 7) occupy somewhat more than the

anterior half of the ventral surface and are divisible into four

groups. Epimera I and II of each side are approximated and

also united across the median line, while III and IV of each

side are also approximated but separated from those of the

opposite side and from I and IJ of the same side by a consider-

able interval. The outline of the individual epimera is shown

in Pl. IX, Fig. 7. There is little difference in size between I,

II and III and all are roughly triangular; while 1V is much

larger and characteristic in form. The latter meets [II by an

anterior margin equal to two-thirds the length of the posterior

margin of III; the inner margin is excavated anteriorly and is

then continuous with the rounded posterior margin which in

turn merges into the outer margin so that the epimeron becomes

quite evenly rounded posteriorly. The outer margin of the

same epimeron is produced antero-laterally and at this point leg

IV is attached. Epimera III bears a long slender hair towards

its inner end and opening in the excavation in the inner margin

of IV is what is apparently a large gland, while toward the

median line from this are two long slender hairs.

184 ROBERT H. WOLCOTT

Legs rather short, only the last pair exceeding the body in

length, and the first only two-thirds the length of the body.

Legs II and III nearly the same length, though III is slightly

the longer. On the whole the legs are rather slender and the

segments decrease uniformly in length from the outer end to

the base except that in leg III, 5 exceeds 6 and in IV both 5

and 4 exceed 6, 5 being longer than 4. Legs I and II bear

numerous long slender spines and hairs; III possesses a cluster

of slender hairs on’4 and 5, and one or two serrate spines on 2

and a clump of slender hairs at the distal end of each of seg-

ments 3,4 and 5. There are also at the tip of each of these

three segments a few very prominent serrate spines; and 4, 5

and 6 are also characterized by a row of spines on the flexor

surface. The claws are retractile, evenly curved, sharply

pointed, and possess an accessory claw on the convex margin

close to the tip.

The genital area (P1. IX, Fig. 7) is included for somewhat over

one-half its length between the two posterior epimera and is

nearly as broad as long, while its length equals about three-

tentl:s the total length of the body. The opening is guarded

by two valves each of which bears on its face next the margin

elliptical acetabula, in the male three in number, in the female

four. Along its thickened margin is also seen a row of about

a dozen small spines. How complete the possibility of closure

of these valves may be is not apparent from the specimens.

MEASUREMENTS OF A FEMALE SPECIMEN:

Lenptiy Of body. .c/ec'e sted y sys ds te 0.924 mm.

Length of pallpus’. ojccpis <x 2s ile < sie’ 'dntoyee 0.148 mm.

Lenptih ot mandible, . o 2/560). eee ss<sine ns 0.265 mm.

engenoi Neg a 2 eerie sare cst aoe oe 0.612 mm.

enpebiat beg Wh os) 42 sek ole prea be os weal 0.780 mm.

Lengihot ler Win. . ose scsic n't sop eeen'e 0.826 mm.

Lengthiot Tey ViVi. 3... cone enasweecteece 0.964 mm.

Length of genital area. ......2..<050.0- 0.281 mm.

The male and female differ but slightly from one another,

the most prominent sexual character being the difference in the

number of genital acetabula.

Types retained in the author’s collection.

NEW NORTH AMERICAN HYDRACHNIDAE 185

Three specimens were collected in Power’s Lake, Grand

Rapids, Michigan, August 9, 1895, and one in Crooked Lake,

Grand Rapids, Michigan, August 19,1895. The color of the

three former specimens as given in field notes taken at the time

was ‘dark rich brown dotted with blackish, legs dull greenish,”

while the specimen from Crooked Lake is noted as being ‘‘ dark

blue green.”’

The indefiniteness in regard to certain details in the descrip-

tion of both Krendowsky and Thor makes it impossible to

decide with certainty whether or not this species is identical

with that obtained by either one of the other two writers.

However, the form of the posterior epimera, as well as the gen-

eral form of body given in Krendowsky’s figure, is not quite

the same as in the American specimens, the body being propor-

tionately broader while the epimera referred to do not stop

short of the inner end of the pair in front, but are prolonged

toward the median line to a point even with the inner ends of

this pair and this prolongation is at its end even wider than the

inner end of the third pair. In Thor’s examples the palpi are

relatively smaller, while in his description he also says ‘‘ La

ligne dorsale est presque circulaire ou ovale,”’ whereas in the

writer’s specimens the area enclosed by this line is elliptical.

In Thor’s figure (Fig. 4) this area is a very pointed oval.

On the whole we prefer to describe our specimens as belong-

ing to a distinct species believing that these differences, together

with the wide separation of Michigan from the localities in

which the others were found, render it probable that such is

the case.

The significance of the specific name is at once apparent from

the outline of the body.

XYSTONOTUS Nov. gen.

Diagnosis of genus: An hydrachnid of the sub-family Hygro-

batinae, with elliptical body flattened dorso-ventrally, covered

by a chitinous exoskeleton which is separated into smaller dor-

sal and larger ventral portions by a continuous furrow and is

186 ROBERT H. WOLCOTT

pierced by numerous fine canals which pursue an irregular

course and tend to branch and anastomose; with epimera all

fused to form a single plate; with legs without swimming-hairs;

and with a genital area large and pyriform and the opening

guarded by two valves, on the inner surface of which are three

pairs of acetabula.

This genus is, in the character of the genital area and in the

possession of three pairs of acetabula, and also in the general

form of the body related to M/édeopsis, but differs in the lack of

swimming-hairs and in the relatively longer palpi and in the

form of the epimera. The claws are similar to those figured by

Piersig for J/dea in having a sharply pointed and longer tip

on the convex side and on the concave a shorter tip slightly

curved and spatulate in form. However, the genus differs

more widely from J/idea than from Jd/ideopsis in the character

of the palpi, of the genital area, of the epimera, and also in the

lack of swimming-hairs.

The generic name is derived from the Greek words «xystos,

smoothed as with a plane, and notos, the dorsum or back, and

is bestowed in allusion to the very characteristic form of the

single species here described as belonging to the genus.

AXystonotus asper Nov. sp.

Body (Pl. X, Fig. 8) of medium size and with a width about

equal to five-sixths the length, elliptical, evenly rounded poster-

iorly and somewhat flattened but hardly excavated at the

anterior end; compressed dorso-ventrally and more convex

below than above, the dorsal surface being nearly plane with

but a slight antero-posterior convexity, and meeting the lateral

body wall at about a right angle. The body is furnished

with a few short spines, with two longer ones at the

anterior end between the eyes, and with a bunch of three still

longer, on either side of the posterior end of the body. The

chitinous exoskeleton is very thick, covered by a thin cuticula

showing here and there fine irregular lines, and is perforated

by numerous branching canals (Pl. X, Fig. 9) which tend to

anastomose and which give almost a dendritic appearance.

NEW NORTH AMERICAN EYDRACHNIDAE 187

Eyes rather wide apart, separated by a distance equal to about

three-tenths of the total length of the body and of moderate

size. ;

Maxillary shield rather narrow, with nearly parallel sides, a

rounded posterior margin, and an acute though not very prom-

inent rostrum.

Mandibles (Pl. X, Fig. 10) rather small, their total length

being between one-fifth and one-sixth the length of the body,

moderately stout, irregular, and bearing a very large, tapering

and pointed claw.

Palpi (Pl. X, Fig. 11) irregular in general form, with segment

2 widest, and the succeeding ones tapering from 3 to 5. The

length of the palpus is equal to one-fourth the length of the

body and its maximum thickness to two-sevenths of its total

length. The first segment is very slender and possesses a spine

on the dorsal margin, while segment 2 is much thicker than 1 and

thickest of all, is quadrate in form, and bears three stout spines

along the dorsal margin, two posterior ones side by side and a

third distad of them. Segment 3 is rather short, bears a spine

toward the distal end and another at the dorsal margin; 4 tapers

from base to tip, has a slightly convex and somewhat irregular

dorsal margin and a ventral margin produced in its proximal

portion into a beak-like process the tip of which is directed

inward with respect to the palpus, bears two small spines and

ends in a sharp, somewhat recurved, point. The distal segment

tapers gradually from base to tip where it is blunt and termi-

nated by three points.

The epimera (Pl. X, Fig. 12) are united forming one plate

which however shows clearly the lines of separation between

the separate epimera. Of these epimera I and II are long,

narrow, and roughly triangular; III is long and quadrilateral

in form; IV again roughly triangular with the three margins

nearly equal and with the inner angle rounded. The posterior

margin of this fourth pair is not clearly defined but passes over

into the surface of the body. The epimeral plate is pierced by

pores similar to those which open over the surface of the body,

188 ROBERT H. WOLCOTT

and upon focussing these pores are seen to lead to branched

canals passing through the epimeral plate. Glands open be-

tween the first and second and second and third epimera.

The legs (Pl. X, Fig. 12) are rather short and stout, none of

them possessing swimming hairs but all short, stout spines, and

all have the individual segments produced distally and the last

segment expanded at the tip. The outer margin of each seg-

ment is also more or less dentate, this peculiarity being more

pronounced in the hind leg than in the fore leg, while in the

hind leg the spines tend to group themselves about the tips of

the segments. The fourth pair of legs also possesses on seg-

ments 5 and 6 a row of spines along the flexor margin. Of

the individual legs the first is the shortest and less than four-

sevenths the length of the body; II is nearly two-thirds as long

as the body; III about four-fifths its length. while IV exceeds

it by one-eighth. The length of the individual segments is in

each leg, in order, beginning with the shortest, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.

1, 2, 8, and 4 are nearly equal in I and II, 3 is shortened and

only equals 1 in III, and 4 is longer than the other two in IV.

The claws (Pl. X, Fig. 14) possess two tips, a slender

strongly curved and sharply pointed dorsal tip and yentrad of

this a shorter tip which is but slightly curved and flat and

spatulate in form.

Genital area (Pl. X, Fig. 12) situated toward the posterior

end of the body and pyriform, while owing to the fact that

the genital cleft is shorter than the extreme length of either of

the two plates which bound it there is a narrow indentation

anteriorly in the median line. The total breadth is even greater

than the length. In addition tu these two plates set immoy-

ably into the wall of the body there are two valves, narrower

than the plates, each of which bears near the margin of its inner

face three long narrow acetabula in a row one behind the other.

Between the genital area and the fourth epimeron of either side

is the large opening of a gland.

The anal opening is situated midway between the genital

opening and the posterior extremity of the body.

NEW NORTH AMERICAN HYDRACHNIDAE 189

MBASUREMENTS:

Length of body, female................. 0.610 mm.

Width: of. body; female, ,.251).3.%. 9a sare 0.493 mm.

Palpuss totalilenc tin. saae-lacrverercevrserate 0.148 mm.

Mandible; total’ lengtht's.. 0/0. ds... 50. 0.112 mm.

Leg. I, (exclusive:of claw) <\)c!s.:cc00 areles 0.337 mm.

Leg II, se Sh EE 2s Le Wt ten eet 0.893 mm.

Reg ThE. 9c GSAS Vali see tevs ot witcha Vero acs 0.490 mm.

Leg Tv," .** he iiaueteL Aatie Aerie Mee 0.678 mm.

Length of genital cleft...:........ Paysite 0.127 mm.

Extreme breadth of genital area........ 0.143 mm.

Of this species only two specimens were obtained, from Lake

Saint Clair during August, 1893. Both are apparently females,

from the fact that an egg is seen within the body of one, and

no males have come under the writer’s observation. The types

are preserved in his collection.

The specific name is suggested by the rough appearance of

the animal as a whole and the generally irregular outline of

the appendages.

KOENIKEA Nov. gen.

Diagnos's of genus: An hydrachnid of the sub-family Hygro-

batinae with body greatly compressed and even concave on the

dorsal surface, covered by a thick chitinous exoskeleton pierced

by fine pores parallel to one another and vertical to the surface;

with the antero-inferior angles of the maxillae in the female

produced to form a long curved rostrum; with the epimera in

the male fused forming a single plate, in the female forming a

plate on either side; with legs bearing swimming-hairs; and

with the genital cleft flanked by two large valves and numerous

acetabula imbedded in the wall of the body.

This genus belongs, with the next, among those which in

Piersig’s arrangement immediately precede Arrenurus and

which include Azxonopsis Piersig, Albia Thon, Atwrus Kramer,

Torrenticola Piersig, Mideopsis Neuman, Midea Bruzelius, and

Aystonotus mibi. It is, however, peculiar in the form of the

body, in the character of the genital area, and, in the case of

the female, in the possession of a long rostrum. This latter

190 ROBERT H. WOLCOTT

structure, which will be more fally described in connection with

the description of the species, is, in the male, similar to that

figured by Piersig for J/deopsis, but in the female is unlike

any structure hitherto described, although Zorrenticola shows a

tendency to the production of the rostrum in a somewhat similar

manner. From Aturus, Torrenticola, and Xystonotus, this

genus may be at once distinguished by the presence of swim-

ming-hairs; from A/ideopsis, Midea, Albia, and Awonopsis it is

easily distinguished by the character of the epimera and genital

area. The author takes great pleasure in dedicating this char-

acteristic and attractive genus to Dr. Ferdinand Koenike of

Bremen, Germany, whose name is perhaps the most prominent

of all among students of the group owing to the length of time

he has devoted to the subject, the number of his writings, and

the numerous and valuable additions he has made through them

to our knowledge of the subject.

Koenikea concava nov. sp.

Of medium size, the males averaging about 0.62 mm., the

females from 0.72 to 0.75 mm. As seen from above (Pl. XI,

Fig. 15) nearly circular in outline, being but slightly longer

than broad, and with a slight excavation between the eyes which

is rendered more apparent by the projection of the latter from

the body; viewed from the side, however, the mite is seen to

be greatly flattened, convex below, and even concave above.

There is a slight antero-posterior convexity but the concavity

is more marked and thus is formed a sharp rim extending en-

tirely around the margin. The dorsal portion of the exoskeletal

covering is the smaller and the furrow separating it from the

ventral forms a nearly circular outline parallel to the margin of

body, from which it is separated by a moderate interval. This

exoskeleton is pierced by numerous fine pores (Pl. XI, Fig. 16)

parallel to one another and vertical to the surface and is covered

by a thin structureless cuticula. The body is also marked by

more prominent pores, which probably represent the openings

of glands, and bears several hairs arising from papillae below

and in front of the eyes and two hairs at the posterior margin

of the body.

NEW NORTH AMERICAN HYDRACHNIDAE 191

Eyes a moderate distance apart, the interval between them a

little less than one-third the length of the body, black and

prominent.

The rostrum of the male (Pl. XI, Fig. 17) is moderately pro-

longed, the lower margin to a greater extent than the upper

causing the oral opening to look upward as well as forward.

The lower margin of the rostrum of the female (Pl. XI, Fig. 18)

is greatly elongated and forms a long upwardly curved spine

bearing a dorsal median groove which ends just before the tip.

This rostral spine at its base equals in thickness one-fourth the

maximum dorso-ventral diameter of the snout, tapers very grad-

ually to a bluntly rounded tip and has a total length, measured

along its axis, about equal to the rest of the snout. In the

groove on the dorsal side of the rostrum runs the elongated

distal segments of the mandibles. This mandibular ‘‘claw”’

are attached to the ventral side of the basal segment of the

mandible close to the tip (Pl. XI, Fig. 21), and is remarkably

slender while the basal segment is not specially noteworthy,

having about the usual form with a concave ventral and convex

dorsal margin and a rounded posterior extremity.

Palpi (Pl. XI, Fig. 19) weak in proportion to the size of the

body, equalling in the male only three-tenths of the body length,

and aJso unusually slender, having a maximum breadth equal

to only one-sixth the total length; even weaker in the female

than in the male. Segment 2 the stoutest, yet but little stouter

than 1, and those beyond gradually becoming more slender to

the tip. Segment 2 bears two spines on the extensor surface

and 3 a long slender hair on the extensor surface and another

on the inner surface; 4 a slender hair on the outer surface and

on the flexor surface nearly at the tip a short papilla tipped by

avery small spine. The distal segment bears a small dorsal

claw-like spine a little back from the tip, a stouter median spine

somewhat further toward the tip, and these, together with the

narrowed ventral tip, gives the segment the appearance of

ending in three points.

The epimera in the male (Pl. XII, Fig. 23) are united into one

plate which is pierced by pores similar to those over the rest of

192 ROBERT H. WOLCOTT

the surface of the body and in which the limits of the separate

epimera are indicated by denser, more highly refractive, broad

strips of chitin. In the female (Pl. XII, Fig. 24) the epimera

form two masses, one on either side, and a narrower interval

separates the two anterior of the opposite sides, while a broad

space intervenes between III and IV of the opposite sides.

The inner ends of II and III of each side are separate, forming

a wide angle. The outline of the whole epimeral area is irreg-

ular, with rounded angles, considerably emarginate between the

places of attachment of the legs and with a shallow concavity

in the median line posteriorly which is limited externally by

rounded angles in the middle of the hind margin of epimera LV.

Legs of the male rather short, I only three-fourths of the body

length, II nine-tenths as long as the body, III still nearer the

length of the body, and IV nearly one-tenth longer. In the

female the legs are relatively longer, I being six-sevenths and

II over nine-tenths the body length, while III is a little longer

than the body, and IV exceeds it by one-fifth. Of individual

segments the distal is the longest and the rest decrease in

length in order toward the base, except that 2 exceeds 3 in all

cases with the exception of leg IV of the female. The legs are

rather slender and rather sparingly supplied with slender spines

and swimming-hairs, the latter being found on segments III 5,

IV 4, and IV 5. At the tip of III 4, there is also a stout

serrated spine, and on IV 8 one, and on IV 4 and IV 5 two

each (Pl. XI, Fig. 20); the serrated spines in each case are in

line, being the most distal of a row of blunt spines on the flexor

margin of the segment. In the male the spines are fewer and

the legs slenderer than in the female.

In the case of both male and female the genital cleft (Pl. XU,

Fig. 24) is long, equaling one-fifth the total length of the body,

and is flanked by two large movable chitinous valves which

together form a broadly pyriform area of considerable size. On

either side outside of these valves and opposite their posterior

portion are about twenty small acetabula imbedded in the body

wali, while between the anterior portion of these valves and

NEW NORTH AMERICAN HYDRACHNIDAE 193

the posterior epimera are what appear to be the openings of two

large glands, and just external to these two long hairs.

The anal opening is situated at the posterior end of the body

and on either side of it are two hairs.

MEASUREMENTS:

Male Female

Length ob bodyai.ccccc.siccccice 52s 0.618 mm. 0.685 mm.

readthiaf body cesssc'. mere se :cisie ave 0.584 mm. 0.618 mm.

Length of, leg ireig- 8 sae etlastera'slaeia 0.464 mm. 0.571 mm.

ength oi lege lle omen aaiaca si pircl= «= 0.566 mm. 0.637 mm.

Length of leg III........... Maniacs 0.597 mm. 0.719 mm.

Length @f deg MVo 5.7. tach eis tons 2.5% 0.663 mm. 0.826 mm.

Length of palpus (approximate)... 0.190 mm. 0.210 mm.

Length of genital groove.......... 0.122 mm. 0.143 mm.

Extreme breadth of genital valves. 0.117 mm. 0.133 mm.

The types are retained in the author’s collection; co-types

will be deposited in the collection of the Zoological Department,

University of Nebraska, in the Museum of Comparative Zoology

of Harvard University, in the United States National Museum,

and in the Kgl. Museum fiir Naturkunde in Berlin.

Numerous specimens of this species were secured in Lake

Saint Clair, Michigan, during August and September of 1893;

in Susan and ‘*26” Lakes, Northern Michigan, in August,

1894; and in Reed’s, Fisk’s, Lamberton, Powers’, and Dean’s

Lakes, near Grand Rapids, Michigan, in July and August, 1895.

It thus seems to be a common and widely spread species, at least

in Michigan.

The name is bestowed in reference to the very characteristic

form of the body, the dorsal surface of which is strikingly

concave.

TANAOGNATHUS NOY. gen.

Diagnosis of genus; An hydrachnid of the sub-family Hygro-

batinae, with body compressed dorso-ventrally and covered by

a very thin exoskeleton consisting of a network of chitinous

trabeculae, and divided into a smaller dorsal and a but slightly

larger ventral portion by a continuous suture; with the rostrum

of the female(?) produced as in the female of Hoenzkea, and with

194 ROBERT H. WOLCOTT

the epimera similar to those of that genus; with the distal end

of the fourth segment of the palpus bearing a nipple-like process,

extended parallel to the distal segment; with the legs bearing a

few swimming-hairs; and with the genital cleft short, unguarded

by valves or plates of any kind, and with the numerous acetabula

imbedded in the wall of the body.

This genus is described from only one specimen, the sex of

which it is impossible to determine owing to the manner of

preservation, which has not been such as to preserve the internal

structure. The marked resemblance of the specimen to the

females of Hoentkea renders it probable that it is a female of a

closely allied genus and, at the same time, serves to distinguish

it, with Aoenzkea, from all other genera.

The author recognizes the danger of establishing a genus

under the circumstances, but is forced either to assign the species

to the genus Aoentkea or to establish a new genus to receive it,

and believes that the very marked difference in the character of

the chitinous exoskeleton, the characteristic form of the palpi,

the absence of any valves or plates guarding the genital cleft,

and also the peculiar form of the claw of the first leg, which is

quite unique among the forms hitherto described, and which

suggests that the specimen may be after all a male, are of sufii-

cient weight to justify the placing of it in a different genus.

The name is derived from the Greek tanaos, long, and gnathos,

a jaw, an allusion to the elongated rostrum, which is a marked

peculiarity of this genus, although a peculiarity shared by the

genus previously described.

Tanaognathus spinipes noy. sp.

The specimen which is here described is 0.668 mm. in length

and almost precisely the same in maximum breadth, the outline

of the body being thus circular. It is considerably compressed

dorso-ventrally and with a very slightly convex and quite uneven

dorsal surface and a more convex ventral surface. The body

is covered by a very thin chitinous exoskeleton, the pores of

which are so large that it is apparently made up of a fine net-

work of chitinous trabeculae; outside of this is a cuticula marked

NEW NORTH AMERICAN HYDRACHNIDAE 195

by fine, wavy, parallel striae. In front of the eye and external

to it is a papilla bearing a small hair, and toward the median

line are two more, the one nearest the median line being the

larger. A furrow, which is very close to the margin on the

dorsal side thus making the ventral portion but slightly the

larger, separates the dorsal from the ventral portion of the exo-

skeleton.

The eyes are large and rather wide apart, the distance between

them being 0.284 mm.

The mouth parts (Pl. XII, Fig. 25) bear a very close resem-

blance to those of Koenzkea concava and can best be described by

a direct comparison with those of that species. The dorsal surface

of the snout is less convex, and the ventral is not only less

convex but is also almost continuous with the lower surface of

the projecting rostrum instead of there being a considerable

angle between them. The snout is, therefore, proportionately

longer in the species under consideration while, it may be

added, the palpi and rostrum are in proportion noticeably

shorter. Two long, relatively stout hairs arise from the vertex

between the palpi and run downward toward the rostrum, then

turning forward are applied to its dorsal surface. As above

indicated, the rostrum appears to arise from the anterior end

of the snout at the ventral margin, and runs forward curving

gradually upward, whereas in Avenikea the rostrum appears to

come from the middle of the anterior end of the snout and

forms a right angle with the surface ventrad of its base.

The palpi (Pl. XI, Fig. 22) are markedly different from those

of Koentkea concava and very characteristic. On the slide

neither one of the two lies in the best position for observation,

but it is evident that the palpi are relatively short, that the

basal segment is unusually stout, exceeding considerably in

breadth any of the rest, and that the rest gradually decrease in

thickness to the tip. Owing to foreshortening the exact rela-

tive length of the segments cannot be told, but 3 is certainly

much longer and 4 much shorter than usual. Segment 2 bears

a small hair in the middle of the extensor surface; segment 4

196 ROBERT H. WOLCOTT

not only receives at its tip segment 5, but internally to the articu-

lation with 5 the segment is produced into a nipple-like papilla

projecting parallel to 5 to a distance equal to one-third the

length of the distal segment. At the base of this papilla and

on the internal surface of the segment is a small hair, while on

the inner side of 5 is also a small hair. Segment 5 ends ina

blunt tip which shows, in a very inconspicuous manner, the

presence of three chitinous claws.

The outlines of the different epimera (Pl. XII, Fig. 26) are

distinct but all the epimera meet one another except for a

very narrow interval between the anterior pair and an open

space at the angle between I, I] and III. The outline of the

whole epimeral field is similar to that of the male of Aoenikea

concava, but the external margin of IV is more produced and

the angle on the posterior margin of the same epimeron is

sharper.

The legs are relatively stout, the first unusually long and the

last proportionately shorter. The measurements of the legs are

as follows: I, 0.704 mm.; II, 0.770 mm.; III, 0.775 mm.;

IV, 0.816 mm. The segments in each of the legs are, in

order of length, beginning with the longest, 5, 6, 4, 2, 3, 1.

In each leg segment 5 is swollen at the middle and possesses

a convex extensor margin, while segment 6 is curved toward

the tip, the extensor margin being convex, the flexor concave.

Of the individual legs, I is the stoutest and its claw (Pl. XII,

Fig. 28) is peculiar, being very long, slender, and extending

straight out beyond the tip of segment 6 to a distance equal

to one-haJf the length of that segment. There is a stout

serrate spine at the tip of segment 5 on the ventral side.

Segment II 5 also bears a similar serrate spine and the

claw of II 6, like that of the rest of the legs, is small,

simple, and evenly curved. Leg III is similar to leg LI,

while IV is noteworthy. This last leg (Pl. XII, Fig. 27)

possesses two serrate spines, one beyond the other on the flexor

surface of segment 3, five in a row on 4, and a row of six on 5,

while a single long swimming-hair is borne at the tip of 3, two

at the tip of 4 and three at the tip of 5.

NEW NORTH AMERICAN HYDRACHNIDAE TON

The genital cleft (Pl. XII, Fig. 26) is very short, being only

0.071 mm. long, and is unguarded by valves or plates of any

kind. On either side and occupying a field semicircular in out-

line with the straight side antero-lateral are about forty-five

acetabula imbedded in the wall of the body. On either side

just laterad of the posterior end of the genital cleft is a small

hair, behind which is a long slender one, and still further

posteriad another small one.

Anal opening toward the posterior margin of the body.

The single specimen observed was taken from Soft-water

Lake, Grand Rapids, Michigan, August 19, 1895, and in field

notes made at the time the color is described as of a bright red

with greenish blue legs. This type specimen is retained in the

author’s collection.

The name is suggested at once by the character of the legs.

Loological Laboratory,

The University of Nebraska.

198 ROBERT H. WOLCOTT

LITERATURE.*

KOENIKE, F.

95b. Nordamerikanische Hydrachniden. Abh. des. naturwiss. Ver.

zu Bremen; XIII (1895), 167-226, Pls. I-III. Alsoseparate: Bremen,

1895.

KRENDOWSEY, M. E.

85. [The Fresh-water Mites of Southern Russia.] (Russian.) [Con-

tributions from the Society of Naturalists at the hnperial Univer-

sity of Kharkow]; XVIII (1884), 209-358, Pls. VII, VIII. Separate:

Kharkow, 1885,

NORDENSKIOLD, ERIK.

98. Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Morphologie und Systematik der

Hydrachniden. Acta Soc, Scient. Fennicae; XXIV (1898), 1-75,

Pls. I, Il. Helsingfors, 1898.

PIERSIG, R.

95a. Einiges tiber die Hydrachniden-Gattungen ‘‘Arrenurus’’ Dugés

und ‘‘Thyas’’ C. L. Koch. Zool. Anz.; XVIII (1895), 138-140, 145-

148; 3 Figs.

96. Beitrage zur Kenntnis der in Sachsen einheimischen Hydrach-

niden-Formen. Inaug.-Dissert. 71 pp. Leipzig, 1896.

97. Deutschlands Hydrachniden. Bibliotheca Zoologica, XXII.

VII+ 601 pp., Pls. I-LI. Stuttgart, 1897-1900.

97d. Eine neue Hydrachniden-Gattung. Sitzungsber. Naturf. Ges.

Leipzig; XXII, XXIII (1895-96), 155-157. (June 15, 1897.)

THON, KARL.

99. Ein neues Hydrachnidengenus aus Béhmen, nebst einigen

Bemerkungen iiber bohmische Hydryphantes-Formen. Zool.

Anz.; XXII (1899), 100-102.

THOR, Sie.

97b. Une intéressante Hydrachnide nouvelle, provenant des récoltes

de M. Geay au Vénézuela. Bull. Mus. d’hist. nat.; (1897), 11-13,

Figs. 1-6.

Wo.LcorTT, R. H.

99. On the North American Species of the Genus Atax(Fabr.) Bruz.

Studies from the Zool. Lab. Univ. of Nebr., No. 30. Trans. Am.

Micros. Soc.; XX (1898), 193-259, Pls. XXVIJI-XXXII. (May,

1899.)

* The designation of each reference must be for the reader an

arbitrary one, but is that used by the author in his card catalogue which

he feels sure is practically complete for the Hydrachnidae and where it

has been carefully chosen to indicate the sequence of publication, and is

retained here to secure perfect uniformity in citation in this and other

articles contributed by him.

NEW NORTH AMERICAN HYDRACHNIDAE 199

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

All figures drawn with the aid of a camera lucida.

PLATE IX.

All Figures of Krendowskia ovata nov. sp.

Fig. 1. Dorsal view of body of male. X 60.

Fig. 2. Sketch from an optical cross-section of the exoskeletal cover-

ing and cuticula. X 384.

Fig. 3. Side view of a female specimen, showing the general charac-

ter of the proboscis. X 60.

Fig. 4. Outer side of mandible of female. X 294.

Fig. 5. Inner side of same mandible as in the case of Fig. 4. X 294.

Fig. 6. Inner side of left mandible of female. X 280.

Fig. 7. Epimeral field and genital area of female. X 75.

PLATE X.

All Figures of Xystonotus asper nov. sp., female.

Fig. 8. Dorsal view of body. X 96.

Fig. 9. Sketch from optical cross-section of the exoskeleton and

cuticula. X 384.

Fig. 10. Inner side of left mandible. X 440.

Fig. 11. Outer side of right palpus. X 440.

Fig, 12. General view of body from beneath, the mouth parts re-

moved. X 96.

Fig. 13. Ventral view, ata focus which brings out the form of a section

of the body at the level of the constriction dorsad of the origin of the legs,

the latter arising from the dorsal side of the epimeral plate. X 96.

Fig. 14. Outline of the claw of the right fore leg. X 650.

200

Fig.

cuticula.

Fig.

X 440.

Fig.

X 167.

Fig.

nov. sp.

Fig.

nov. sp.

Fig.

nov. sp.

Fig.

NEW NORTH AMERICAN HYDRACHNIDAE

PLATE XI.

All but Fig. 22, of Koenikea concava nov. sp.

15. Dorsal view of body of male. X 86.

16. Sketch from optical cross-section of the exoskeleton and

X 650.

17. Snout of male from the side. X 294.

18. Side view of snout of female. X 416.

19. Inner side of left palpus of male. X 625.

20. Anterior surface of left leg IV of female. X 156.

21. Outer side of left mandible of female. X 305.

22. Inner side of left palpus of Tanaognathus spinipes nov. sp.

PLATE XIl.

23. Outline of epimera of female of Koenikea concava nov. sp.

24. Epimeral field and genital area of male of Koenikea concava

X 1380.

25. Snout of Tanaognathus spinipes nov. sp., side view. X 230.

26. Epimeral field and genital area of Tanaognathus spinipes

X 95.

27. Anterior surface of left hind leg of Tanaognathus spinipes

X 187.

28. Posterior surface of distal segment and claw of right leg I

of Tanaognathus spinipes nov. sp. X 130.

PLATE IX

RALW. eel.

z et fa

gee

Sead oe

PLATE XI!

RHW. det.

A PLEA FOR THE STUDY OF LIMNOBIOLOGY.

By HENRY B. WARD.

Historically at least the development of microscopical work

is inseparably connected with the study of fresh-water life. The

early students with the microscope ransacked ponds and ditches

for their material and the works of these pioneers are filled with

observations on the organisms of this character. Such names

as Leuwenhoek, Swammerdam, Trembly, O. F. Miiller, and a

whole host of others almost equally well known, recall sources

of information on the fresh-water fauna which are of permanent

value today. The appearance in 1838 of Ehrenberg’s famous

volume ‘‘ The Infusion Animalcules as Complete Organisms ’”’

marks in our own times a period of advance coincident with

noteworthy improvements in the instrument of research. Since

then many investigators of repute and I think it may be confi-

dently asserted the majority of private workers also have found

in the fresh-water life of their region the most accessible and

most fruitful field of study.

During the earlier years of its history this Society devoted

its attention largely to biologic problems, and the majority of

these touched in some way upon the life of our inland waters.

Thus the work of Vorce on the organisms of Lake Erie, of

H. L. Smith and Cox on diatoms and the long series of contribu-

tions by Kellicott on the fresh-water fauna marked a tendency

which was generally manifested in the public and private work

of the Society. Somewhat later this movement declined and

the published Proceedings show that the majority of the papers

were devoted to technic and to the construction of apparatus,

much of it manifesting a thoroughly transient character. There

were to be sure occasional papers of the earlier type but even

Kellicott, whose contributions are wanting in but one of the first

thirteen volumes of the Society Proceedings, failed for five

202 HENRY B. WARD

years to add anything in this line of work. There has come,

however, of late a decided increase in contributions which may

be classed in large part at least in this field since they were

worked out on fresh-water vertebrates. The microscopical

structure of these forms has been studied with great vigor by

an active branch of our membership, and this new movement

of Gage and his pupils towards the development of a compar-

ative histology added to the work of the Society an element of

great interest and permanent value.

It cannot be doubted, I believe, that mere technic and details

of apparatus and its construction do not furnish a sufficient raison

d’etre for an organization having a widely distributed member-

ship and seeking to interest a varied class of workers. The topic is

secondary, not primary; methods vary greatly in different fields;

they often need modification even for different objects of the

same character, and must be worked out in large measure by

each student to suit his particular problem. The results are

thus devoid of general interest or suited rather to the pages of

a journal devoted specifically to technic, in which moreover they

may be expected to appear with less delay than is incident upon

the publication of a large annual volume. Such journals, a

few, exist in our own country, and to them I believe this Society

should accord its hearty support and at the same time relegate

to them for publication papers of this character. It certainly

is not wise for us to compete with them in a field already well

occupied, especially when our members are getting more of this

work and more promptly than we can hope to give it to them.

Some definite lines of work are, however, evidently necessary

to hold our membership together, to keep up interest and arouse

activity and more than all to attract new members suflicient to

meet the annual decline of membership from natural causes and to

keep the Society in a healthy condition by the infusion of new

blood. Such lines of work must necessarily have certain charac-

teristics if they are to meet the conditions just mentioned. They

must be definite, they must attract a considerable number of

workers and yet be sufficiently circumscribed to unify the entire

A PLEA FOR LIMNOBIOLOGY 203.

membership of the organization. They must moreover possess a

permanent value if the work of the organization is to command

the attention and respect of the scientific world. It would

seem further to be highly advantageous were such aims to be

in fields not already occupied by other organizations and other

influences. From the past character of this Society it is also

apparent that these ends should appeal both to teachers and to

private workers, to specialists and to dilettanti, and finally they

should have in the microscope the main tool by which their re-

sults are to be gained. In them, then, the emphasis is laid not.

upon means except as they conduce to ends, not upon methods

except as they bring results.

It is not difficult from the recent history of the Society to cite

a striking concrete illustration of these general principles just

elucidated. The work of Gage and his pupils on comparative

histology has furnished a decidedly original and permanently

valuable portion of the contributions from members during

recent years. Other less clearly marked or more strongly

individualistic tendencies might be mentioned but the one will

suffice.

It is my purpose to call attention here to a field of work in

which as already noted this Society was active in its earlier

history, and which to a peculiar extent meets the conditions for

successful prosecution which have just been discussed. The

study of fresh-water life formed the original field of micro-

scopical investigation; in it were prepared as already noted those

masterpieces of Leuwenhoek, Swammerdam, Rosel von Rosen-

hof and a host of other early students with the microscope who

contributed so much to the advancement of biological science.

In it has been done the major part of the study attempted by

private workers with the microscope in all lands. It appeals

to the college teacher as well, and aside from the few who are

favorably located so that they may have recourse to the shore

regularly or in the interval of a vacation, it is the great and

only field of work for the inland naturalist. As yet compar-

atively unoccupied and thus in strong contrast with conditions

204 HENRY B. WARD

which prevail in the field of marine biology, it is broad enough

in its extent to draw together the most varied workers. The

part of the botanist, the zoologist, and even the bacteriologist,

in its development is sufficiently clear to need no demonstra-

tion, and the solution of its problems will certainly demand the

cooperation of the physicist and the chemist in working out the

conditions of existence and the processes of change, while its

importance from another point of view to the sanitary engineer

and to those engaged in solving the practical problems involved

in the water supply of the more closely settled portions of our

country cannot be over estimated. Although thus extensive in

its complete aspect, this topic is yet unusually flexible in the

ease with which it may be subdivided. A student of nature

may attack any point in this broad field with assurance that

careful work, however limited, will meet with adequate returns

and if not misdirected contribute proportionally towards the

solution of the greater problems in the field. The field is

furthermore one which with the development of scientific work,

both private and public, throughout the great continental area

of our country, will demand the attention and interest of a con-

stantly increasing number of workers. It may profitably even

today be forced upon the attention of many who bemoan the

fact that their distance from the sea precludes scientific work,

for it offers its problems everywhere that a pond may be found

or a temporary pool is formed by the spring rains. While it

gives an opportunity for all kinds of work, taxonomic, anatomic,

embryologic or physiologic, once embarked in the study the

investigator will be led sooner or later into the study of condi-

tions of existence and will find in ecology problems presented

with a clearness and singleness that cannot be matched else

where. In some such a ‘‘unit of environment” as one of our

members has called the lake, is offered greater simplicity and a

more definitely limited problem than is presented in most lines

of biologic study. Such a circumscribed region may be held

under daily observation and the records of this study will

demonstrate the rise and fall of species, the struggle for exist-

ence and kindred topics of biological import as they can hardly

A PLEA FOR LIMNOBIOLOGY 205

be seen elsewhere. And all these possibilities lie near the

student; instead of asking him to reach after that which for

some is unattainable, this field offers an abundance of material

close at hand. This again comes before the eye in its living

form and impresses the investigator in its character of living

working organisms so that in such work it is not difficult to see

an antidote for the excessive laboratory tendency which marks

the present time, at least in college biologic work.

In thus urgently calling to your attention, a prolific and

attractive field of work, let me not neglect to clear myself of

one probable imputation, It is not my hope or desire to im-

press all members in this field of study. The Society has

carried on valuable and successful work in many lines and will

continue to do so. Here however is room for the unoccupied,

and it may be uninterested, student; it will afford him occupa-

tion and kindle his zeal. It is preeminently the field for the

amateur microscopist and for the professional man who seeks

in microscopical studies his pastime. One has only to scan the

attractive pages of ‘‘Science Gossip” with its wealth of biolog-

ical observations to see what a hold such studies have on our

cousins across the sea, Who can doubt that such work con-

stantly attracts new students to this field of study? Through

our continental area there are far more varied conditions and

greater opportunities than are offered the English student of

fresh-water life and these questions are almost untouched as

yet. In considering then the importance, the general interest

and variety of such studies and their fruitfulness, no less than

their intimate connection with the development of microscopical

science and of this organization, is it not just to ask that the

Society appoint a special committee or group of workers who

shall consider the question of furthering such work and shall

report to the Society the best methods for encouraging and

directing it in our own country?*

* The recommendations of the Executive Committee and the action of

the Society on this matter may be found in the Minutes at the close of this

volume.

206 HENRY B. WARD

As an index of what this Society has done in the past twenty-

one years of its existence the following synopsis and bibliog-

raphy is presented. Papers have been entered under their

main subjects only and none included which do not in first in-

stance treat of some topic in fresh-water biology. Those papers

which deal merely with technic are not included though many

of them are useful and a few of immediate importance in their

bearing on fresh-water biology. Bacteriological contributions

are also omitted. Out of a total of 419 separate papers in the

twenty volumes of Proceedings and Transactions of the Ameri-

can Microscopical Society, 77 or about twenty per cent. are

included in this list.

GENERAL—

Faunistic: Mills, 83; Vorce, 82, 83.

Methods of Work: Conser, 96; Ward, 96a.

Ecologic: Ward, 96.

Summary Review: Ward, 99.

Economic—

Water Supply: Hyatt, 83; Krauss, 97; Thornbury, 97;

Veeder, 97.

Sewage: Bennett, 85.

Boranrio—

General: Mills, 83; Vorce, 82, 83.

Desmids: Wolle, 84.

Diatoms: Cox, 86, 91, 91a; Durkee, 85; Hyatt, 83;

H.L. Smith, 83, 87, 88; Vorce, 86.

Fungi: Bennett, 85.

Chara: Rowlee, 96.

Victoria Regia: Seaman, 92.

ZOooLogico—

General: Mills, 83; Vorce, 82, 83.

Protozoa: Fisher, 81; Kellicott, 84, 84a, 85, 85a, 86,

88a, 89, 89b; Perry, 91; Smith, J. C., 98, 98a, 99;

Stedman, 89.

Porifera: Mills, 83a, 85, 87; Stedman, 92.

Plathelminthes: Kellicott, 84b; Ward, 94.

A PLEA FOR LIMNOBIOLOGY 207

Annelida: Up de Graff, 84.

Rotatoria: Kellicott, 85a, 86a, 88, 89a, 90, 97, 98;

Up de Graff, 84; Vorce, 88, 91a.

Bryozoa: Kellicott, 83a.

Crustacea: Fellows, 88; Kellicott, 80, 80a, 81, 83, 87,

93; Vorce, 91.

Arachnida: Wolcott, 99.

VV ERTEBRATA—

Blood: Berry, 98; Claypole, E. J., 94; Gage, S. H., 89.

Development: Britcher, 99; Kingsbury, 96a, 99.

Histology: Claypole, A. M., 95; Gage, S. H., 86; Gage,

S. P., 96, 97; Green, 97; Hopkins, 91; Kingsbury,

95, 96:

P ARASITES—

Kellicott, 80, 80a, 81, 83, 84b, 87, 98; Ward, 94; Wol-

cott, 99.

LITERATURE.

BENNETT, A. W.

85. Fungi Found in Sewage-Effluents.

Proc. Am. Soe. Mic., VI, 90-92.

BERRY, J. M.

98. Acomparison of the Phagocytic Action of Leukocytes in

Amphibia and Mammalia.

Trans. Am. Mic. Soc., XIX, 93-116, 5 Pl.

BRITCHER, H. W.

99. An Occurrence of Albino Eggs of the Spotted Salamander,

Amblystoma punctatum L.

Trans. Am. Mie. Soc., XX, 69-74, 1 Pl.

CLAYPOLE, A. M.

95. The Enteron of the Cayuga Lake Lamprey.

Proc. Am. Soc. Mic., XVI, 125-163, Pls. III-X.

CLAYPOLE, E. J.

94. The Blood of Necturus and Cryptobranchus

Proc. Am. Soc. Mic., XV, 39-76, 6 Pls.

208 HENRY B. WARD

CoNSER, H. N.

96. Cocaine in the Study of Pond-Life.

Trans. Am. Mie. Soc., XVII, 310-811.

Cox; i: 0:

86. Some Diatom Hoops. The Question of their Mode of Growth

(Aulacodiscus kittoni).

Proc. Am. Soe. Mic., VII, 33-37.

91. Deformed Diatoms.

Proc. Am. Soe. Mic., XII, 178-183, 1 Pl.

91a. The Coscinodisceae. Notes on Some Unreliable Criteria of

Genera and Species.

Proc. Am. Soc. Mic., XII, 184-204, 2 Pl.

DURKEE, R. P. H.

85. ‘The Structure of the Diatom Valve.

Proc. Am. Soe. Mic., VI, 105-9.

FELLOWS, C. S.

88. A Description of Ergasilus chautauquaensis. A new species

of Copepoda, and a list of other Entomostraca found at Lake

Chautauqua, in August, 1886.

Proc. Am. Soc. Mic., IX, 246-249, 1 Pl.

FIsHER, J. H.

81. Notes on the Structure, Development, and Position of an un-

described Flagellate Infusorian.

Proc. Am. Soc. Mic., II, 44-49, 2 colored Pls.

GaGE, S. H.

86. Notes on the Epithelium Lining the Mouth of Necturus and

Menopoma.

Proc. Am. Soc. Mic., VII, 126-127.

89. The Form and Size of the Red Blood Corpuscles of the Adult

and Larval Lamprey Eels of Cayuga Lake.

Proc. Am. Soc. Mic., X, 77-83.

GaGE, S. P.

96. | Comparative Morphology of the Brain of the Soft-Shelled Tur-

tle (Amyda mutica) and the English Sparrow (Passer domestica. ).

Trans. Am. Mic. Soc., XVII, 185-238.

97. The Brain of the Embryo Soft-Shelled Turtle.

Trans. Am. Mie. Soc., XVIII, 282-286.

GREEN, J. M.

97. The Peritoneal Epithelium of some Ithaca Amphibia.

Trans. Am. Mic. Soec., XVIII, 76-106, 5 Pls.

Hopkins, G. S.

91. Structure of the Stomach of Amia calva.

Proc. Am. Soe. Mic. XII, 165-169, 1 Pl.

A PLEA FOR LIMNOBIOLOGY 209

Hyarr J. 1.

88. Sporadic Growth of Certain Diatoms and the Relation Thereof

to Impurities in the Water Supply of Cities.

Proc. Am. Soc. Mic., IV, 197-199.

KELLICOTT, D. S.

80. On Certain Crustacea Parasitic on Fishes from the Great Lakes,

Proc. Am. Soc. Mic., I, .3-57, 3 Pls.

80a. Observations on Lerneocera cruciata.

Proc. Am. Soe. Mic., I, 64-68.

81. Lerneocera tortua, n. s.

Proc. Am. Soc. Mic., II, 41-48, 1 Pl.

83. On Certain Crustaceous Parasites of Fresh-Water Fishes.

Proc. Am. Soc. Mic., LV, 75-78.

88a. Polyzoa. Observations on Species Detected near Buffalo, N. Y.

Proc. Am. Soc. Mic., IV, 217-229, 1 Pl.

84. On Some Infusoria Found on the Cray-Fish.

Proc. Am. Soc. Mic., V, 105-111.

84a. Cothurnia lata, n. s.

Proc. Am. Soe. Mic., V, 113-114.

84b. Notes on Two Parasites of the Cray-Fish.

Proc. Am. Soc. Mic., V, 115-116.

85. Observations on Infusoria, with Descriptions of New Species.

Proc. Am. Soc. Mic., VI, 110-125, 1 Pl.

85a. Notes: Infusoria, Rotatoria, etc.

Proc. Am. Soc. Mic., VI, 126-130.

86. Observations on Some Fresh-Water Infusoria. With Descrip-

tions of a Few Species Regarded as New.

Proc. Am. Soc. Mic., VII, 38-47, 1 PI.

86a. A New Floscule.

Proc. Am. Soc. Mic., VII, 48-50, 1 PI.

87. A Note on Argulus catostomi.

Proc. Am. Soc. Mic., VIII, 144.

88. Additional Notes on Certain Species of Rotifera.

Proc. Am. Soc. Mic., [X, 181-186.

88a. Some New and Rare Infusoria.

Proc. Am. Soc. Mic., IX, 187-190.

89. The Nature of Protozoa and Lessons of these Simplest Animals.

Proc. Am. Soc. Mic., X, 5-32.

89a. Partial List of Rotifera of Shiawassee River at Corunna, Mich-

igan.

Proc. Am. Soe. Mic., X, 84-96.

89b. Observations on Fresh-Water Infusoria.

Proc. Am. Soc. Mic., X, 97-106.

210 HENRY B. WARD

90. A New Rotiferon.

Proc. Am. Soc. Mic., XI, 32-33.

93. A Crustaceous Parasite of the ‘‘ Miller’s Thumb” (Cottus).

Proc. Am. Mic. Soc., XIV, 76-79.

97. The Rotifera of Sandusky Bay.

Trans. Am. Mic. Soc., XVIII, 155-164.

98. The Rotifera of Sandusky Bay (Second Paper).

Trans. Am. Mic. Soc., XIX, 43-54.

Kinessury, B. F.

95. TheHistological Structureof the Enteron of Necturus maculatus.

Proc. Am. Mic. Soc., XVI, 19-64, 8 Pls.

96. The Lateral Line System of Sense Organs in some American

Amphibia, and Comparison with the Dipnoans.

Trans. Am. Mic. Soc., XVII, 115-154, 5 Pls.

96a. The Spermatheca and Methods of Fertilization in some Ameri-

can Newts and Salamanders.

Trans. Am. Mie. Soc., XVII, 261-304, 4 Pls.

99. The Regeneration of the Intestinal Epithelium in the Toad

(Bufo lentiginosus americanus) during Transformation.

Trans. Am. Mic. Soc., XX, 45-48.

Krauss, W. C.

97. The Requisites of a Pure Water-Supply.

Trans. Am. Mic. Soc., XVIII, 165-175.

Mitts, H.

83. Microscopic Organisms in the Buffalo Water-Supply and in

Niagara River.

Proc. Am. Soc. Mic., IV, 165-175.

83a. Fresh-Water Sponge.

Proc. Am. Soc. Mic., IV, 209-216, 1 PI.

85. Thoughts on the Spongidae with Reference to the American

Sponges of the Fresh-Water Group, with some Account of them in

Detail.

Proc. Am. Soc. Mic., VI, 131-147.

87. Notes on the Fresh-Water Sponges.

Proc. Am. Soc. Mic., VIII, 182-139.

Perry, S. H.

91. Rhizopods of Oakland County, Michigan.

Proc. Am. Soc. Mic., XII, 94-96.

ROWLEE, W. W.

96. The Chlorophyll Bodies of Chara coronata.

Trans. Am. Mic. Soc., XVII, 155-156.

SEAMAN, W. H.

92. The Victoria Regia.

Proc. Am. Soe. Mic., XIII, 163-170.

A PLEA FOR LIMNOBIOLOGY 211

Smi1TH, H. L.

83. Rhizosolenia gracilis, n. sp.

Proc. Am. Soc. Mic., IV, 177-178.

87. A Contribution to the Life History of the Diatomaceae.

Pros. Am. Soe. Mic., VIII, 30-66, 5 PI.

88. A Contribution to the Life History of the Diatomaceae, II.

Proc. Am. Soc. Mic., [X, 126-167, 6 Pls.

SMITH, J. C.

98. Notices of Some Undescribed Infusoria from the Infusorial

Fauna of Louisiana.

Trans. Am. Mic. Soc., XIX, 55-68, 1 Pl.

98a. The Sporular Development of the Ameba villosa Leidy.

Trans. Am. Mic. Soc., XIX, 69-73.

99. Notices of Some Undescribed Infusoria from the Infusorial

Fauna of Louisiana.

Trans. Am. Mic. Soc., XX, 51-56, 1 PI.

STEDMAN, J. M.

89. On the Development and a Supposed New Method of Repro-

duction in the Sun Animalcule—Actinosphaerium eichhornii.

Proc. Am. Soc. Mic., X, 107-118, 1 Pl.

92. The Nervous System of the Fresh-Water Sponge.

Proc. Am. Soc. Mic., XIII, 77-78.

THORNBURY, F. J.

97. The Increasing Pollution of Our Municipal Water-Supplies.

Trans. Am. Mic. Soe., XVIII, 182-193.

Up DE GRAFF, T. S.

84. Descriptions of Certain Worms.

Proc. Am. Soc. Mic., V, 117-119.

VEEDER, M. A.

97. Public Water-Supply for Small Towns.

Trans. Am. Mic. Soc., XVIII, 176-181.

Vorce, C. M.

82. Forms Observed in Water of Lake Erie.

Proc. Am. Soc. Mic., III, 51-60, 1 Pl.

83. Microscopic Forms Observed in Water of Lake Erie.

Proc. Am. Soc. Mic., IV, 187-196, 1 Pl.

86. Remarks on Stephanodiscus niagarae.

Proc. Am. Soe. Mic., VII, 139-141.

88. Note on a New Rotifer, Gomphogaster areolatus.

Proc. Am. Soc. Mic., IX, 250-252, 1 Pl.

91, A New Daphnella.

Proc. Am. Soc. Mic., XII, 172-173.

91a. Additional Notes on Gomphogas'er.

Proc. Am. Soc. Mic., XII, 174-177.

212 A PLEA FOR LIMNOBIOLOGY

Warp, H. B.

94. On the Parasites of the Lake Fish.

Proc. Am. Mic. Soe., XV, 173-182, 1 PI.

96. The Food Supply of the Great Lakes; and Some Experiments on

its Amount and Distribution.

Trans. Am. Mie. Soc., XVII, 242-254, 2 Pls.

96a. A New Method for the Quantitive Determination of Plankton

Hauls.

Trans. Am. Mic. Soc., XVII, 255-260.

99. Fresh-Water Investigations During the Last Five Years.

Trans. Am. Mic. Soc., XX, 261-336.

WOLCOTT vi. ait,

99. On the North American Species of the Genus Atax (Fabr.) Bruz.

Trans. Am. Mic. Soc., XX, 193-259, 5 Pls.

WOLLE, F.

84. | Note on the Desmidiae of the United States.

Proc. Am. Soe. Mic., V, 137-139.

A NEW AVIAN CESTODE—WETROLIASTHES

LUCIDA.

By B. H. RANSOM.

WITH PLATES XIII AND XIV.

The material worked up into the subject matter for this paper

was obtained preserved in formol in two vials from a collection

belonging to Dr. H. B. Ward. One vial contained what was

apparently a single worm broken into three pieces, one of which

included the head; the other vial contained pieces of two or

more worms of the same kind as that of the first vial, but no

head. The labels in the vials gave as the host, the domestic

turkey; and the organ infested, the intestine. The specimens

were collected in the vicinity of Lincoln, Nebraska.

The characteristics of the worm to be gathered from a super-

ficial examination are as follows:

Length about 20 cm. Greatest width 1.5-1.8 mm. Width

just behind the head 0.6 mm. The most anterior proglottides

are five or six times wider than long; but in the older segments

with the general increase in size, there is an added increase in

length, so that the last proglottides are nearly twice as long as

broad, being 2.5-3 mm. long by 1.5-1.8 mm. wide (Figs. 2, 7

and 8).

The head is somewhat spherical with its anterior surface ex-

hibiting a slightly conical convexity (Fig. 1). In the compressed

specimen the head is broader than long, measuring 0.58 mm.

in length by 0.75 mm. in width. It has neither hooks nor

rostellum. The four round suckers are prominent and well

developed, and are situated somewhat anteriorly. They meas-

ure 0.2-0.25 mm. in diameter.

914 B. H. RANSOM

The strobilation of the worm becomes apparent immediately

behind the head, and very distinct within a distance of two

millimeters. In a contracted state of the worm the posterior

portion of the proglottis forms a prominent projecting rim which

overlaps more or less the anterior part of the succeeding pro-

glottis. In some of the younger proglottides this overlapping

covers the next segment for half its length. In all cases

this border is a well developed part of the proglottis.

The worm is rather transparent throughout, in its posterior

portion remarkably so. Some seven to ten centimeters from

the anterior end of the worm one may notice a white spot in

each proglottis, situated in the median line near the posterior

border and occupying about one-third its width. This structure

has the form of a double spherical sac, as becomes very evident

with the increasing size and transparency of the proglottides.

A little conical projection develops running forward from this

sac in the median line of the segment (Fig. 2, FC). Later a

bulb-like swelling appears at the anterior end of this projection.

In the oldest proglottides only a trace of the double posterior

sac (Fig. 7, U) remains, while the anterior bulb has become a

well marked little spherical body (EC), situated in the posterior

half of the proglottis with a diameter of from one-third to one-

half the width of the latter.

The cirrus sac can be seen under slight magnification without

difficulty. From the margin somewhat posterior to the middle

of the proglottis it runs diagonally forward and inward, ending

shortly after crossing the excretory canal. The angle it makes

with a line drawn transversely across the proglottis increases

with age. One cause at least of this change in the angle of

the cirrus sac is the growth of organs behind it, the pressure of

which shoves its inner end forward. It is found well preserved

in the oldest proglottides. Its shape is that of a slender cylin-

drical flask, and its most usual adult size approximates 100u by

400u (Figs. 2, 5, 7 and 10).

Posterior to the cirrus sac the vagina (V) and seminal recep-

tacle (RS) are often visible running towards the middle of the

proglottis.

A NEW AVIAN CESTODE 215

The genital pores are marginal and are located a little

posterior to the middle of the segment. The margin around

the opening is often bulged out into a papilla of more or less

prominence and the pores alternate very irregularly.

INTERNAL ANATOMY.

Body Wall.—The cuticula varies in thickness from 3 to 6y,

and beneath are found the usual layers of circular and longi-

tudinal muscles and of subcuticular cells.

Musculature.—The longitudinal muscle fibres are disposed in

a layer of which two parts can be distinguished, an inner part

consisting of about one hundred bundles of twelve to twenty

fibers each, and an outer part consisting of fibers, arranged in

bundles of three to five or isolated, scattered through the

parenchyma and lying externally to the inner portion. The

diameter of these fibers ranges from 1.5 to 4y. The inner

portion is continuous from segment to segment, while a great

deal of the outer part is interrupted by the strobilation.

The transverse musculature lies in a thin band of fine fibers

just within the ring of the longitudinal bundles. Except for

portions of the cirrus sac and vagina all the organs of the pro-

glottis lie within the transverse muscle bands. Laterally the

fibers of this layer penetrate the longitudinal muscle layer,

spreading out and attaching to the cuticula. The dorso-ventral

muscle system is well developed.

Excretory System.—The ventral canals (Figs. 5, 8, 9 and

10, VC) vary in size from 40 to 1804, and are very much

larger than the dorsal. In the old segments where the ventral

canal attains its maximum size the dorsal canal, has, on the

other hand, become very insignificant, with an inner diameter

of sometimes less than ly. The wall of the dorsal canal,

however, is much thicker than that of the ventral canal, and

commonly as thick as the Jumen which it encloses. In the

posterior part of each segment the two ventral vessels are con-

nected by an anastomosis whose ramifications run behind and

among the testes.

216 B. H. RANSOM

Sexual Organs.—Numerous testes are found in a mass in the

posterior portion of the proglottis, occupying the middle field,

and extending transversely from one ventral canal to the other

(Figs. 5 and 8,T). They are arranged in two layers which con-

tain two or three rows each in the lateral region, while at the

middle they are only one or two deep, so that the mass is some-

what concave anteriorly. Medianly and ventrally in this eon-

cavity lies the yolk gland ( Vit). Close to the yolk gland and

in the direction towards the genital pore is the shell gland (SG).

The ovary (Ov) lies anterior to the yolk and shell glands and

dorsal to its posterior edge is the uterus (U). The cirrus sac

(CP) lies with its proximal end near the anterior edge of the

ovary and somewhat dorsal to it, and with the vagina running

nearly parallel to it, passes between the excretory canals and

dorsal to the nerve cord towards the margin of the proglottis.

Male.—The testes number about 35 or 40. They are

approximately oval except where modified by pressure and

range in size from 30 to 1004. The number given is the

maximum, found in youthful proglottides ( Fig. 8), and with the

growth of the various organs is reduced so that when the

uterus begins active growth, only about twenty to thirty testes

will be found, most of them approaching the maximum size.

In the median line of the proglottis two or three efferent

ducts, in diameter 2 or 3, join to form the vas deferens.

This structure (Fig. 5, VD), lies just beneath the dorsal

transverse muscle layer. It runs forward near the median line

in a straight or sinuous course, then bends toward the cirrus

sac and twists and curves about the base of the latter in a mass

of coils. The bulk of the mass lies anterior and median to the

cirrus sac, several coils lie ventral, and there is a twist or two

on the dorsal side, but practically none posterior. The vas

deferens is surrounded throughout its course by a clear trans-

parent sheath which finally merges into a similar sheath (CS)

surrounding the cirrus sac and vagina.

The slender flask-shaped cirrus sac consists of a thick outer

muscular layer, surrounding a tissue of a reticular nature in

A NEW AVIAN CESTODE 217

whose midst is the cirrus (Fig. 5, C). The muscle layer

has a thickness of 1 to 44, and consists of circular, diagonal,

and a few longitudinal fibers. There is apparently also a sys-

tem of fibers running radially from the cirrus to the muscular

wall of the sac; but the base of the sac is free from such fibers.

The sheath surrounding the sac (CS) is clear and transparent,

of a fibrous or reticular nature, and towards its distal end

merges imperceptibly into the general parenchymatous tissue

of the proglottis.

The vas deferens penetrates the base of the sac and after one

or two twists expands into the cirrus (C), which is spindle or

cigar-shaped with a short curve at its inner end. Its wall is

thin and is surrounded by a system of circular fibers. Within

the wall of the cirrus reaching from one end to the other is a

compact bundle of highly refractive, fine, smooth fibers. There

seems to be no other conclusion as to the nature of these fibers

than that they are enormously developed spines. Their size is

truly extraordinary, some of them apparently reaching the

whole length of the cirrus. The partial extension of the cirrus

and its position in the vagina in one case observed among the

numerous proglottides sectioned ( Fig. 4), seems to indicate the

occurrence of self impregnation, a phenomenon already noticed

by various authors in many different species. In this connec-

tion I might say in passing that it is very common in sections I

have of Zaenia cesticillus, to find the cirrus well entered into

the vagina of the same proglottis. In none of my preparations

of the worm which forms the subject of this article does a

cirrus protrude beyond the genital opening. The genital sinus

is deep and narrow.

Running diagonally forward and inward across the ventral

canal where the cirrus crosses it is a thin strip of tissue. This

strip reaches across the canal and joins the wall both dorsally

and ventrally, closing it except for a small opening at its outer

edge (Fig. 10, x). Its function is problematical but it is evi-

dently not a valve of the ordinary type at least.

Female Sexual Organs.—The vagina( Figs. 4 and 5, V)is a

comparatively straight tube of 6 to 9y in diameter. It opens

218 B. H. RANSOM

into the genital sinus just posterior to the cirrus opening and

almost at right angles to it. Following the curve of the tip of

the cirrus sac it runs toward the center of the proglottis keep-

ing a position posterior to the sac and becoming also somewhat

ventrally situated. The first bit of the vagina has a tolerably

wide lumen and walls whose thickness varies in different

specimens. The diameter of the passage soon narrows to

about 2u, the walls thicken, and are lined on their inside with

bristle-like projections directed outward (Fig. 4, Cl). On

the outside this thick walled region is surrounded by a heavy

coat of glandular or myoblastic cells (Fig. 5, a) which deter-

iorate with the age of the proglottis. Before the excretory

canal has been crossed the lumen widens again and the walls

become thin. After copulation this thin walled region is seen

to be filled with spermatozoa. It has swollen to several times

its former size and functions as the seminal receptacle (Fig.

2, RS).

At its inner end the seminal receptacle branches into two

tubes; one of these leads to the ovary, the other to the shell

gland. The former I have designated as the ascending portion

of the oviduct (Fig. 5, Ovd. a), the latter as the descending por-

tion(Ovd.d). With age these tubes grow both in diameter and

length, become more or less coiled or twisted and their walls

become thinner. They are enveloped by the same transparent

sheath (CS), as are also the remaining male and female canals.

The ascending oviduct opens into the ovary ventrally on its

posterior surface by a funnel-like opening of 30y in diameter.

No structure is present which could be regarded as an oocapt.

The ovary (Ov) is situated in the middle of the proglottis

lying close against the ventral transverse muscle band and

when well developed it reaches almost to the dorsal layer. It

is a single sac-like organ divided into compartments. When

filled with ova it has a plump rounded appearance, convex an-

teriorly and somewhat concave and sunken in behind where the

oviduct opens into it. In cross sections through its posterior

part the ovary often presents the appearance of being bilobed,

A NEW AVIAN CESTODE 219

but sections through every other region show that it is clearly

singleand unpaired. The ova measure from 4 to 64 in diameter.

After the ova have left the ovary it flattens out, shrinks and

dwindles away.

From its point of union with the seminal receptacle and

ascending portion of the oviduct the descending portion (Ovd. d)

pursues its course, slightly sinuous and twisted in the mature

state, to the shell gland.

This structure (SG) is oval in section with its long axis

directed dorso-ventrally. In the stage when the eggs have be-

gun to fill the uterus, the shell gland has acquired a vacuolated

or honey-combed appearance and after the filling of the uterus

it degenerates rapidly and disappears.

As the oviduct enters the ventral side of the shell gland it is

met by the vitelline duct (YD) which is about 15y in diameter;

it opens with a funnel-like enlargement of 30, into the vitelline

gland (Vit). The vitelline gland has a sacculated structure

like that of the ovary but is smaller, being about half the size

of the latter and more compact. When the uterus begins to

take on its function as an egg receptacle the vitelline bodies

break up into tiny eosinophilous granules, which are very per-

sistent and in the oldest proglottides the remnants of the vitel-

line gland can be identified by their presence.

On entering the shell gland the oviduct becomes the ootype

(Ot). This turns anteriad from the shell gland and after a

short curved course empties into the uterus. The ootype has a

diameter of 10u and preserves its embryonic structure longer

than any other of the female tubes. With progressing devel-

opment of the uterus, the ootype grows longer and describes

two or three loops in its course; its walls also become thin.

The uterus at an early stage (Fig. 5, U) is a transverse band

of embryonic cells lying dorsal to the ovary and close behind

its posterior edge. It extends somewhat beyond the limits of

the ovary on each side and is joined near its middle by the

ootype. The cavity of the uterus is formed by a hollowing out

of the mass of cells and develops into a double spherical sac

920 B. H. RANSOM

which increases rapidly in size as it fills with eggs (Figs. 2 and

10, U). At the height of its development the uterus occupies

almost the whole of the inner parenchyma back of the genital

pore, and bulges out the proglottis wall dorsally and ventrally.

The eggs as they first appear in the uterus are in early stages

of cleavage. They are surrounded with a very delicate envelope

and measure about 204 in diameter. During the sojourn of

the egg in the uterus two more coverings become apparent,

making the three enveloping membranes so common among

cestode eggs (Fig. 3).

Shortly after the eggs have taken up their position in the

uterus important modifications occur in the proglottis. Just

anterior to the uterus within a cone-shaped space (Figs. 2 and

10, FC), the parenchyma becomes spongy with greatly thick-

ened fibers. Many of these fibers are grouped into strands

running transversely in zigzag wavy lines. Next to the uterus,

instead of this appearance of striation, there is a more pro-

nounced mesh-work or sponge-like network. The ovary does

not enter in any way into the formation of this structure as its

remains still persist ventral to the latter. With the progressing

development the cone-shaped organ takes on a more definite

structure. Some of the fibers group themselves to form a sur-

rounding wall; their course in this wall is mainly in a circular

direction. This wall, however, is not so compact that fibers do

not exist which, arising in the external parenchyma, penetrate

the wall and extend into the interior. The fibers enclosed

within the wall become fine and form a hair-like mass. In the

posterior part of the cone next the uterus, may be noticed run-

ning in a dorso-ventral direction amid these hair-like fibers, and

apparently differentiated from them, some five or six bands of

tissue which dorsally and ventrally unite with the fibrous envel-

oping wall of the cone (Figs. 2, 9 and 10, a). These bands unite

also with the heavy fibers of a reticular or lace-like frame-work

which covers the front of the uterus (Fig. 9, b). Certain modi-

fications also take place in the structure of the latter. All

traces of its epithelial cells disappear and it becomes enveloped

A NEW AVIAN CESTODE 221

with a layer of fibrous network. Membranous partitions run

inward from its wall branching and ramifying through its cavity

among the developing embryos which now exhibit clearly the

three-shelled condition.

At a later stage the embryos begin to pass out of the uterus.

They leave it in groups carrying with them the intra-uterine

partitions. Passages are kept open for the eggs by the dorso-

ventral bands (Fig. 9, a). The cone-shaped structure contracts

posteriorly so that it becomes cylindrical. Group by group

the eggs are forced into the anterior part of the cone until it

bulges out into an oval capsule (EC). This capsule increases

in size as the eggs enter. During the passage of the egg masses

through the fibrous tissue which fills the cavity of the cone-

shaped structure, they gather heavy coatings of this tissue. It

is this tissue which gives the wall of the capsule its thickness.

The primary wall (Fig. 9, EC) is quite thin.

After the last groups of eggs have passed into it the egg

capsule finally draws together posteriorly and the resulting

spherical capsule is the final stage of development (Fig. 7).

At the tip of the cone-shaped structure or in front of the egg

capsule will be found a triangular-shaped thickening or con-

densation of the parenchyma (Figs. 2, 7, 9 and 10, PC), whose

function I do not know. From the appearance of fibers ex-

tending radially forward in the parenchyma from its tip, it

seems to mark the attachment of supporting or contractile ele-

ments. The strain brought about by the development of the

egg capsule and the migration of the eggs causes a retraction

of the parenchyma from the anterior end of the proglottis

leaving an open space bridged across by a number of taut

straight fibers.

The adult uterine embryo, i. e., the embryo at that stage of

development when it abandons the uterus, is surrounded by

three envelopes, a very thin inner membrane closely envelop-

ing the onchosphere, a thick middle envelope, and a thin outer

shell of more or less irreguiar shape (Fig. 3). Between the

middle and outer shells is a granular substance commonly in

222 B. H. RANSOM

two masses at opposite ends of the egg. The hooks of the

onchosphere are of two kinds, one with a short double ventral

spur, the other without any spur (Fig. 6). The length of the

former is about 20, that of the latter some 4 or 5y greater.

The prong of each kind measured about 84. The dimension

of the embryo (Fig. 3) are as follows: Onchosphere 30p

in diameter, middle shell 35x55, outer shell 50x75y.

SYSTEMATIC POSITION.

In the last sheets of his work on Cestodes Braun (00) has

given a revised system of classification. According to this

classification the tape worm here in question comes under the

order Cyclophyllidea. True, the ovary of our worm is not

bilobed but single and unpaired, while Braun gives among the

characteristics of the order Cyclophyllidea ‘‘ Keimstock mehr

oder weniger zweilappig.’’ That this expression, however, is

meant to be interpreted very freely is shown by the fact that

numerous forms possessing only a single ovary, such as 7aenia

dispar Goeze, Tuenia dujardini Kr., Taenia planissima 8. and

H., Zaenia bifaria v. Sieb., are arrayed by Braun under this

order without any restrictions. And the diagnosis of the

genus Panceria reads plainly ‘‘ Keimstocke nicht zweilappig.’’

Therefore, since the bilobed nature of the ovary cannot be

looked upon as an especially distinctive characteristic of the

order no discrepancy arises in placing this worm in it, and

likewise in the family Taeniidae which has the characteristics

of the order.

Among the subfamilies it is the Dipylidiinae, an extensive

group of elastic capacity, with whose characteristics our worm

corresponds. The genera cited under this subfamily show

numerous rather wide differences in structure. For example

some have doubled reproductive organs; in some the rostellum

is well developed and bears hooks; in others hooks and

rostellum are absent; the number of testes varies from three

to thirty or forty; and the fate of the uterus and the final

position of the eggs in the proglottides are also very varied.

With respect to the last point, viz., the fate of the uterus, the

A NEW AVIAN CESTODE 223

genera in this subfamily can be divided into several groups;

one containing those forms in which the uterus is persistent;

another, those in which the uterus breaks down into egg cap-

sules; and a third those in which the uterus disappears alto-

gether leaving the eggs imbedded singly in the parenchyma.

In the first group would fall the genera ymenolepis, Dilepis,

Choanotaenia, Amoebotaenia; iu the second Dipylidium, Cotug-

nia, Nematotaenia; and in the third Oochoristica, Panceria,

and Monopylidium. A fourth group is represented by a new

genus Anonchotaenia established by Cohn (00) upon the basis

of a new species A. clava described by him. In this species

the uterus unites with the shell gland to form a large cavity

filled with eggs. Yet another condition is met with in our

species. The uterus breaks down into a few large egg sacs or

masses which are carried forward in the proglottis and become

enclosed together in a specially formed capsule.

In certain respects our species resembles Cohn’s new species

but in others it is radically different. Like A. clava the head

is unarmed, and the rostellum absent. The neck, however, is

short or wanting, while in A. clava itis long. The relation in

A. clava between the breadth and width of the proglottis in

different portions of the chain, viz., several times broader than

long anteriorly, and posteriorly nearly twice as long as broad,

is very similar to the conditions obtaining in ours. The irreg-

ularly alternating pores are common to both species; but while

those of Cohn’s species are situated considerably towards the

anterior end of the proglottis those of ours are more posterior.

Both forms agree in possessing a non-lobed ovary. In regard

to the arrangement of the sexual organs there is a wide dis-

agreement. In A. clava beginning in the anterior part of the

proglottis, the organs follow each other thus: Shell gland,

uterus, ovary, and yolk gland. There is no definite ootype,

the shell gland lying against the uterus and opening directly

into it instead. All of these points differ widely from our

species. While the two species resemble each other in possessing

an egg capsule, they are very different, as already noticed, in

regard to the origin of this capsule. The number of testes in

924 B. H. RANSOM

A. clava is rather small; in our species, on the other hand,

considerable.

In Stiles (96) there are some figures (268-270) and a very

incomplete description of a cestode, Zaenia nigropunctata

Crety, from the migratory quail, which indicate some resem-

blances with our form. There is an unarmed scolex without

rostellum and a three-shelled egg as in ours while the structure

outlined in the proglottis, if it were located more posteriorly,

would be strikingly similar to the appearance of certain stages

of the uterus with the developing egg capsule in front, of our

form. Whether there is anything in this resemblance is a

question which of course must remain until more careful inves-

tigation of 7. nigropunctata has been made.

It is quite evident that our species belongs to no genus yet

described. Accordingly it is necessary to establish a new genus

for its reception. The diagnosis will read:

METROLIASTHES. *

Scolex in adult unarmed, without rostellum. Genital pores

irregularly alternating. Uterus breaks up into egg-sacs or

masses, which in turn leave this region, and become enclosed

by a specially formed secondary capsule.

Type species: A/etroliasthes lucida.

Characteristics as given above. From the small intestine of

the domestic turkey collected near Lincoln, Nebraska. Type

specimens in the collection of the Zoological Department, The

University of Nebraska, and in those of B. H. Ransom and

H. B. Ward.

Zoological Laboratory,

The University of Nebraska.

* Referring to the disappearance of the uterus.

+ By virtue of its unusual] transparency.

A NEW AVIAN CESTODE 225

LITERATURE.

Braun, M.

94-00. Wiirmer. In Vol. IV, Bronn’s Klassen und Ordnungen des

Thierreichs. Leipzig.

Coun, L.

00. Zur Kenntnis einiger Vogeltaenien (Vorlaufige Mittheilung).

Zool. Anz., XXIII, p. 91.

STILEs, Cu. W.

96. Tapeworms of Poultry. Bulletin No. 12, Bureau of Animal

Industry, Depart. of Agric., U. S. A.

226 A NEW AVIAN CESTODE

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

ABBREVIATIONS.

C. Cirrus. Ovd.d. Oviduct, descending por-

GP. Cirrus pouch. tion.

CS. Sheath surrounding gen- PC. Terminal cone of con-

ital canals. densed parenchyma.

EC. Wall of egg-capsule. PS. Sheath of cirrus pouch.

FC. Fibrous mass in which is RS. Seminal receptacle.

developed later the sec- SG. Shell gland.

ondary egg-capsule. a. Testis.

N. Longitudinal nerve. U. Uterus.

Ot. Ootype. Vv. Vagina.

Ov. Ovary. VC. Ventral canal.

Ovd. a. Oviduct, ascending por- VD. Vas deferens.

tion. Vit. Vitelline gland.

any Vitelline duct.

PLATE XIll.

Fig. 1. Head and portion of strobila from a toto preparation. X31.

Fig. 2. Proglottis from a region posterior to middle of worm. Toto

preparation. X 29.

Fig. 3. Embryo from adult uterus. X 758.

Fig. 4. Longitudinal section through anterior portion of cirrus sac

and vagina showing cirrus apparently in the act of entering vagina. X 495.

Fig. 5. Young female sexual organs. X 98.

Fig. 6. Embryonic hooks. X 1712.

PLATE XIV.

Fig. 7. A mature proglottis from end of chain. Toto preparation.

X 32.

Fig. 8. Anterior proglottides from toto preparation. X 28.

Fig. 9. Longitudinal section of maturing proglottis older than Fig.

10. a. Dorso-ventral bands of tissue between which the eggs pass. X 48.

Fig. 10. Longitudinal section of maturing proglottis, eggs just begin-

ning to pass out of uterus atc. a. Valve-like structure in canal. X 39.

PLATE XIV

A COMPARATIVE STUDY IN METHODS OF PLANK-

TON MEASUREMENT.

By HENRY B. WARD,

ASSISTED BY H. W. GRAYBILL AND OTHERS.

WITH PLATES XV, XVI AND XVII.

INTRODUCTION.

During the course of a biological investigation on Lake

Michigan in the Traverse Bay region, carried out under the

auspices of the Michigan Fish Commission, a series of about

one hundred plankton hauls was made in Lake Michigan and

in the adjoining Round and Pine Lakes. These were taken

between August 11 and 28, 1894, and are more fully described

and located in a previous paper (Ward, 96b). A few of these

hauls were measured within a short time after being taken, and

some preliminary experiments on the details of the method to

be used were made between November, 1894, and February,

1895. These were not employed in the subsequent discussion

of the results of the work, for frequent interruptions made it

difficult for me to follow a uniform system of measurement and

in February, 1895, I secured the cooperation of one of my

assistants, Miss Anna Fossler, who daily at a given time set

some hauls each in a settling tube, from which the amount was

read off after a lapse of exactly twenty-four hours. All of the

readings in this series were verified by me at the time of re-

cording them and were used in the papers (96-96b) on the

results of the work. Consequently this series is designated as

the original one (0, Pl. XV-XVII).

It was noticed, however, that the amounts obtained did not

agree exactly with those recorded for certain hauls in the pre-

228 HENRY B. WARD

liminary experiments and more than a year and a half later

Miss Fossler at my request repeated the measurements in the

same tubes and as nearly as possible in the same manner as

before. This second set of gravity measurements was made

between December 26, 1896, and January 16, 1897, and is

designated as the first supplementary set (1, Pls. XV-XVII).

During some work on the Great Lakes the following year I

became impressed with the advisability of careful, comparative

measurements on a series of plankton hauls as a means of de-

termining the various errors and variations to which the method

was subject; and at my request Miss Fossler again repeated the

measurements. This, the third set of gravity measurements,

was made between August 19 and September 7, 1898, and is

designated as the second supplementary series (2, Pls. XV-

XVII). It was made thus more than three years after the

original series, and was the last made by this method. It

should further be noted that all three sets of gravity measure-

ments were made not only in the same manner and with the

same apparatus, but also by the same person. Any differences

which may be found will therefore indicate those variations

normal to the method.

It seemed also of importance to have for comparison a series

of measurements of the same plankton hauls by means of the

centrifuge which has been in use in a number of places in such

work.* And in April, 1899, my assistant, Mr. J. A. Britton,

measured the set of plankton hauls in a Bausch & Lomb Urine

Centrifuge. The plankton was settled in the ordinary sedi-

mentation tubes, being kept in revolution one minute, during

which time the crank was given eighty complete revolutions.

This first series of centrifuge measurements is designated as the

third supplementary set (3, Pls. XV-XVII). The fourth sup-

* Juday (97) was apparently the first to publish an account of the use

of the centrifuge for this purpose. Both Dr. Kofoid and I had, however,

experimented independently for more than a year before that and had

written to various investigators regarding the advantages of such an

instrument.

METHODS OF PLANKTON MEASUREMENT 229

plementary set (4, Pls. XV-X VII), which is the second series

of centrifuge measurements, was made in January, 1900, by

Mr. H. W. Graybill, who became much interested in the prob-

lem and performed all the extended and tedious mathematical

operations necessary to reduce the volumes obtained to common

terms with those used in the original paper (Ward, 96b). He

also made the plates accompanying this paper and participated

in the general discussion of its various points towards which he

contributed items of value. While we were discussing the

comparative results of the first and second sets of centrifuge

measurements during the interval of the delayed appearance of

this paper, Mr. Graybill suggested that as three sets had been

made by the gravimetric method, a just comparison could only

be made were there three sets of centrifuge measurements as

well, since the chance of departure from the mean is evidently

less in a double than in a triple set. He made then (April,

1900) a third set of centrifuge measurements which was added

to the charts (5, Pls. XV-X VII) and text. The results of this

set abundantly justified his prediction for after all possible care

to make the measurements uniform throughout, combined with

some skill in the use of the method, it was found that the meas-

urements of the third set made by the centrifuge fell more

frequently outside than within the limits of the first two sets

made by the same instrument, as is distinctly shown on the

plates. In all the centrifuge measurements the same instru-

ment was employed and the same method followed in detail.

Some experiments were tried in varying the conditions, par-

ticularly of time, but extended tests could not be made.

It should be noted further that all records were made and

entered without any knowledge of former results or comparison

with them, and the time interval was sufficient to preclude the

possibility of remembering previous figures so that the estima-

tion of the amount was made in an entirely unprejudiced man-

ner. No haul was omitted because it seemed to ‘spoil the

average’’ and the few gaps in the record are due to the

accidental destruction of a haul, or to its utilization at an earlier

date for other purposes (Ward, 96a).

230 HENRY B. WARD

While the senior author is alone responsible for the text of

the paper, his sincere thanks are due to those who have co-

operated so kindly in the accumulation and elaboration of the

data on which it rests. Mr. Graybill has also participated in

the discussion which has reduced the paper to its final form.

ERRORS IN PLANKTON DETERMINATION.

Quantitative determinations of the amount of floating organ-

isms in fresh water have been made in various parts of the

world and the methods and apparatus employed therein have

been noticeably different. These investigations were summar-

ized in a previous paper (Ward, 99) and need not be consid-

ered further here. Several investigators have called attention

to various points of weakness in the methods and to the difli-

culty or impossibility of comparing results obtained under such

radically different conditions. But so far as I know no one

has yet endeavored to ascertain the limit of accuracy in these

determinations, and the means by which different sets of obser-

vations may be reduced to common terms for comparison. It

is my parpose to offer here some data towards the solution of

this important question.

The accuracy of a plankton determination is of course de-

pendent upon the accuracy of the various stages in the process

so that the latter must necessarily be subject to analysis at first.

One may readily distinguish four chief stages in the method:

a) the process by which a certain quantity of plankton is ob-

tained; b) the treatment involved in the permanent preservation

of the quantity obtained; c) the determination of the volume

obtained; and d) the enumeration or estimation of the individ-

uals in this volume. A number of subordinate steps may be

distinguished under each chief. division of the process noted,

as will appear later.

An extended discussion of the first question: Does the

method employed in obtaining the plankton actually catch all

the planktonts, has been given by Kofoid (97a) who emphasizes

the loss incurred by the use of the vertical net and the advan-

METHODS OF PLANKTON MEASUREMENT 231

tages accruing from the employment of a plankton pump. The

disadvantages of the latter in cost, weight and Jack of wide

applicability have been urged by Reighard (98) and Fuhrmann

(99). The use of the vertical net will evidently be more satis-

factory when its actual efficiency as a catching apparatus has

been determined by precise and full experimentation. Now it

can only be said that the loss is real, considerabie in some

groups, and though perhaps numerically large, yet probably

volumetrically small. Much more important it is to determine

whether this loss is constant or variable, and if the latter under

what conditions or in what way it varies. These questions

have been discussed at length by various authors, but as yet no

data are at hand which can be said to settle the matter defin-

itely. For not only do opinions differ widely as to the possibility

of determining the coefficient in a given net and as to its con-

stancy under various circumstances, but there is also no basis

for comparison between the efficiency of different nets and con-

sequently no idea can be given as to the relative meaning of

results obtained by different observers. They stand absolutely

isolated and unrelated. It is important to establish the actual

variation in a given net, and then to standardize the net by

comparison with some other net having a known catching value

or with some normal unit to be chosen. This is evidently nec-

essary before it will be possible to compare results obtained by

various investigators in different parts of the world.

On the second question as to whether any part of the catch

is lost in subsequent manipulation, no precise calculations have

been published. Careful observations made at Charlevoix by

Dr. Kofoid at my suggestion failed to reveal any measurable

loss of material during preservation of the hauls made there

( Ward, 96) and improvements of the method introduced since

then ( Kofoid, 97 ) by which the plankton is transferred directly

from the bucket of the net to the bottle in which it is preserved,

tend to reduce to the minimum the loss of plankton during the

process of preservation. There is, then, I believe reason for

disregarding this possible error as inconsiderable in amount.

932 HENRY B. WARD

On the question of the determination of the plankton volume

it may be said that the plankton hauls taken in fresh water

have generally been measured volumetrically either by settling

in a graduated tube or by the use of a centrifuge. Although

the probability of variation in the first has been marked by

nearly every author who has employed the method, no one

has yet so far as I know given data to fix the amount of such

variation under different conditions or to render possible a

comparison of amounts obtained by gravitation with others

measured in the centrifuge. The extensive series of measure-

ments referred to in the introduction throws some light on this

question in its various aspects.

First may be discussed the evidence as to variations in the

measurement of plankton by settling, i. e., in the gravitation

method. No hauls were measured absolutely fresh but a set of

seven were permitted to settle in graduated tubes within 46 hours

of the time they were taken. So far as these are concerned

four were larger and three smaller than any subsequent meas-

urements of the same hauls made by the gravitation method.*

In the first measurements of plankton hauls made by the

gravity method during the winter following their being taken

it was noticed that circumstances exercised a considerable in-

fluence on the result. The method followed involved the re-

moval of a tube from the rack where it had stood, the notation

of the volume and the return of the tube with all possible care

to its place in the rack. Ifa reading of the amount was made

after twenty-four hours and the tube returned to the rack where

it had been standing, a second reading taken at a nominal in-

terval thereafter would differ from the first. The difference

* At the time these were first measured I had not noted the effect of

various factors mentioned below, so that there is no evidence that the

measurements were made under identical circumstances. The absence

of noteworthy difference merely favors the presumption that newly killed

plankton does not behave differently from that which has been killed a

much longer time. It should be said that the differences between the

measurements of these hauls are greater in both directions than those

recorded in other cases and greater than those listed for these same hauls

later, due probably to lack of experience in the use of the method.

METHODS OF PLANKTON MEASUREMENT 933

was naturally always a loss from the volume first noted and the

figures given in the table following denote the number of cases

for each error observed.

Loss at second Less thanl 1to5 6to10 11tol15 16to20 Average

reading percent. perct. perct. perct. perct. perct.

After an interval

of 5 minutes... 1 3 5 0 0 aes,

10 A ee 0 0 2 4 0 10.0

15 SSO ee 1 10 8 4 1 7.0

20 a 1 1 1 1 0 5.5

40 “s 0 0 1 2 0 14.0

A third reading still later than the above gave the following

results. The time is recorded from the first reading which was

in all cases twenty-four hours after the plankton tube was set

aside to settle.

Aferanin- 5perct. 6to10 11to15 16to20 21to025 Average loss

terval of orless perct. perct. perct. per ct. per ct.

2 hours.... 0 0 0 0 3 22.0

2 days... 1 2 1 0 0 9.0

= ae 2 2 4 3 of 12.5

BEET Sarat 1 1 2 6 0 15.4

Be ELS yr 0 0 0 1 0 16.0

OS ga ee 0 0 5 5 0 15.0

oo 0 3 1 0 0 9.5

The amount of reduction in any given plankton volume,

measured by the gravity method, depends thus only very gen-

erally on the lapse of time, but is affected much more prom-

inently by the disturbances to which the tube is subjected

during the settling period. This is clearly shown by a series

of measurements on the same plankton haul, left standing for

some time and measured at varying intervals, at each of which

the tube was moved as above.

20min. 4days 5days 6days 6Y days

Loss per cent. in volume..... 9 15 16 18 20

15min. 2ldays 22days 43 days

Loss per cent. in volume... | i : 7

Numerous experiments were made with the plankton hauls

to determine the difference in volume dependent upon length

234 HENRY B. WARD

of time when the settling progressed undisturbed. Thus one

series of tubes was left twenty-four hours and after the volume

was recorded, thoroughly shaken and permitted to stand undis-

turbed either twenty-four or forty-eight hours longer with the

following results based on comparison with original measure-

ments of same.

Loss Less than1 1to5 6to10 11to15 16 to 20 Average

per cent. perct. perct. perct. perct. perct.

Tubes standing 24hrs. 4 6* 0 0 1% +2

= zs a5" 0 8 4 0 0 —5

* One case under each starred column denotes a gain; all others indi-

cate a loss of percentage given as compared with the first determination.

The longer settling period without disturbance results thus

in a slightly diminished volume, but, as comparison with pre-

vious tables shows, the diminution is much less than if the

tubes had been disturbed during the settling.

This was further illustrated by the effect of the location on

volume; such tubes as were left on a table subject to vibration

settled more compactly than the same hauls left an equal time

in a position free from vibration.

The size of the settling tube has also a marked influence

upon the amount obtained. Kofoid (97, p. 19) mentions the

use for small planktons of a tube 6 mm. in inside diameter

whereas those in ordinary use were 10 mm. in inside diameter.

In the first measurements we used tubes of two diameters,

8 mm. and 10 mm., until remeasurements of the planktons

originally tried in the smaller tubes showed a loss of 30 per

cent., whereupon larger tubes, about 15 mm. in diameter, were

also used for comparison. Four planktons were measured in

the ordinary tubes and then in 15 minutes remeasured; the

loss was 3, 4, 2, 3 per cent. respectively. The same planktons

were then poured into a broad tube and after 21 days the

volumes measured differed from these first taken in the ordinary

tubes by -9, 0, —2 and 1 per cent.; in 22 days the figures stood

-14, -4,-11, -14 percent.,and in 55 days-23, -11, -19, -20 per cent.

Of another four two were left in the same tubes and two others

changed tu broad tubes with the following results:

METHODS OF PLANKTON MEASUREMENT 235

Plankton es 2

measured Loss in 15 Rene Loss per cent. after ey

eee minutes -can-thet 21 days 22days 43 days 55 days

3.90 cc. 3 per cent. t Kept in 4 9 11

8.55 cc. 3 percent. § same tube i 6 7 8

9.32 cc. 6 per cent. eqeeaie 1 7 13 19

9.70 ce. 5 per cent. § to large tube } 2 10 20 27

These data show again that the reduction in volume is

consequent upon handling or disturbance rather than upon

time of settling and apparently also that the loss in volume

was somewhat greater in the larger tubes, other conditions

being apparently identical.

Regarding the personal equation in such measurements, the

following data are given: A total of 50 hauls was measured

by Miss Fossler and myself independently and within a short

time of each other. The average variation was 3.6 per cent. ;

a variation of more than 20 per cent. occurred in 2 cases, of

10-20 per cent. in 20 cases, of 5-10 per cent. in 11 cases, of less

than 5 per cent. in 17 cases, in three of which the amounts

obtained were actually identical. These results may now be

compared with those obtained at widely separate time intervals

by the same person. for such comparison in the gravimetric

method three sets of figures, made from the same hauls at

intervals of a year and a half, are:given in the original and

first and second supplementary sets, and their comparison

yields the following table:

Compared with Gain Gain Gain Loss Loss _ Loss Loss

the first . .... 10 to 155 to 101 to 5 Same 1 to 5 5 to 10 10 to 15 15 to 20

The second meas- per ct. per ct. per ct. perct. perct. perct. per ct.

urement shows

the following

GAaSe@Ss5: sco oe 3 4 7 5 21 27 19 9

The third meas-

urement shows 2Q* 9 13 8 27 17 12 6

Total cases...... Sao 13 20 13 48 44 31 15

These figures seem to indicate a slight average reduction in

amount with time and yet the third series was measurably

larger than the second though made a year and a half later.

* One case 60 per cent. gain was evidently due to an error in reading

or recording.

236 HENRY B. WARD

When it is considered that out of 196 cases in all, 81 or

nearly half vary less than 5 per cent. either way in three suc-

cessive measurements and 57 more fall within the 10 per cent.

limit, leaving a total of 58 or between one-third and one-

fourth all of which however come within the 20 per cent. limit,

it may fairly be claimed in view of the actual variations in the

plankton itself that the results obtained in this way by the

gravimetric method are comparatively uniform for the same

haul.

If however different hauls, and especially those containing

different kinds of plankton organisms, be compared, the results

are otherwise. On this point Kofoid says (97, p. 19):

‘¢Planktons do not settle to an equal density. Those com-

posed of Rotifera or small Cladocera (as Chydorus) pack

closely, while others containing filamentous forms, as Oscillaria

or Lragilaria, and those in which the larger Entomostraca are

predominant settle very loosely. Thus the determination of

the volume of the plankton by the settling method does not

give a uniform test of the amount of plankton present. Further-

more the process is a tedious one, especially when large

numbers of catches are to be handled.”’

With the latter statement, every one who has employed the

gravimetric method on a considerable series of hauls will most

heartily agree. The former is true whenever the hauls are

commingled with any of the filamentous algae, but when these

are absent it is only true within limits which are in fact less

than the limits of normal variations in the amount of plankton.

These points are still clearer from an examination of the

plates where the position of the lines indicates the relation of

the various series of measurements. The fact that the three

lines indicating the successive sets of gravimetric measurements

cross and recross diverging and approaching indicates that one

set of measurements does not show a constant loss or gain as

compared with any other, such as might be due to gradual

shrinkage of volume with time, or to any other single factor;

but rather that the measurements vary indefinitely from one

another.

METHODS OF PLANKTON MEASUREMENT 237

Regarding gravimetric measurements in general it may be

stated further that at least two factors, the diameter of the set-

tling tube and the length of time during which the tube is left

standing are entirely arbitrary. The former influences the

volume considerably, the latter somewhat though not so

noticeably as some external factors.

If now the results obtained by the gravity method and by

the use of the centrifuge be compared with each other, as may

be most easily done from the graphic presentation of results

given in the plates, it appears first, as could have been pre-

dicted, that the amounts obtained by the centrifuge are con-

stantly less than those measured in settling tubes. This is not

only true of the amounts obtained by direct measurement (PI.

XV) but also of those representing the stratal volumes which

are obtained indirectly. So generally is this the case that a

few observations, such as XVIII (2, Pl. XVII) where one

gravimetric value departs so widely from others obtained by the

same method as to fall far below those measured in the centri-

fuge, impress one as distinctly erroneous and in all probability

attributable to errors of notation. The amounts obtained by

centrifuge measurement range from 30 to 40 per cent. of those

recorded from the settling tubes for the same haul; the average

being slightly more than one-third; the results differ, however,

according as one series or the other be taken on either side as

the basis of comparison. Juday (97) found that the centrifuge

gave about one-fifth of the volume obtained by settling. His

method varied in detail from that which we used, employing

100 revolutions of the crank in centrifuge measurements; no

details are given regarding the precise method of gravity

measurements.

In the next place it will be noted that the lines indicating

the centrifuge measurements follow regularly those of the

gravity measurements with but a single marked exception, that

already noted as probably an error (Haul XVIII, 2, P]. XVII);

but that in general the variations of the centrifuge line are less

violent. This is beautifully shown ina comparison of the lines

238 HENRY B. WARD

of total volumes (GT and CT, Pl. XV). For the sake of dis-

tinctness the latter were dropped 7 ccm. and were measured

from the double line as a base. They stand thus everywhere

clear of the lines (GT) portraying the results of the gravimetric

method and while following in general the movements of the

latter they do so everywhere with less intensity. The same

appears from a comparison of the lines of average volume

(GA and CA) on the same plate.

When the three sets of centrifuge measurements are com-

pared to one another using the first as a basis, the following

figures are obtained:

Gain of Loss of

PEIN [eee ||h eS | ee | Perea Re o Pia OSI Weel |e} || ase Ps

o >) < (>) o > 5 . oO

Compared to first [ale bela || ole] sa |S ela teens

o o o o o Sd o m o o o o o

ala! al al & 2 B 5 is e abpal al al &

Syl || Say] Ee Ses ePTe elo /S/8/8/8/8

SSPE SS Ses 8 es ele SS eensnies

ey C3 deo Sess i ra P| eee Reet) if ee |p re [|

No. casesin second

measurement...| 4/3] 4] 4/16 /18 |18 |} 2 110;5/9|1/)3]11]0

No. cases in third

measurement...] 2/2 ]9 1 1 {10 j}11 {17 | 2 110 (14 110 | 3/)5)|0) 2

The average advance in the hauls showing a gain is 11.82

and 11.63 per cent., and the average reduction in hauls show-

ing a loss is 10.62 and 11.41 per cent., results which are strik-

ingly uniform.

If these results be compared with those obtained in the three

gravity measurements, the first series by each method being

taken as a basis for the computation of percentages in other

series by that method, the methods show the following differ-

ences in the later series of measurements.

METHODS OF PLANKTON MEASUREMENT 239

Gravity Centrifuge

measurement measurement

Less than 5 per cent. difference, either more

OWMESS:: S seated apts sano Dove oa ates alealore aes 84 cases 59 cases

From 5 to 10 per cent. difference, either more

OIPIOSS S| sycvectaceya erate cote nieioiatel o tej eobre env egcere ait fe AS: <8

More than 10 per cent. difference, either more

OBI ESS ey ae hate tae sae ste eee STOO 2) LS 89 ‘§

Totalgnumbers: seca ticteiser deine 192 cases 196 cases

The decidedly better showing on the part of the older gravity

method is certainly due in part to the smaller quantities ob-

tained by centrifuge measurement and the consequent greater

percentage of the whole which a minute difference constitutes.

In actual amounts the centrifuge measurements were very close

as shown by the following comparison of the second and third

sets with the first.

Second Third

No. cases from 0.00 to 0.05 ccm. less or greater than in first, 27 34

66 “6 oe 0.05 to 0.1 sé “c sé se “ec “ec ce 33 23

oil Deb: $6 FAG foc 2 -S* ay os a SBroe AGRE ga 15 21

Oe G2, torusZ, (* oe es a Ma 9 11

“c“ ‘6 “e 0.3 to 0.4 “<“ “6 66 6é ce 6. ns 3 4

eee O74: to Ob, ) 4° Soa Se “ SS (Fae 7 2

eerie oe rime SA 70g A a es Ba ae he LL 0 0

oe ec “é 0.6 to 0.7 ce ce ce ee “ce iad ce 1 9

Here 67 cases show a greater amount in the second measure-

ment than in the first and only 26 a less; the measurements

were made by different individuals, indicating a distinct though

slight tendency on the part of the second experimenter to in-

crease volumes either in reading amounts in the centrifuge tubes

or in unconsciously modifying the process so as to secure a

larger amount in fact through less condensation.

In the third the number of cases showing a greater amount

than the first was only 54, a notable reduction from the condi-

tion in the second set of measurements, although the second

and third sets were both made by the same individual. There

is thus evident a slight variation in the results obtained by the

same person at different times.

, A general comparison of the value and utility of the two

methods of measurements suggests the following. In settling

240 HENRY B. WARD

tubes a uniform density is certainly not obtained, for as both

Kofoid and I have noted, different plankton hauls settle so un-

evenly as to present to the eye regions of variable density in

the graduated tube while in the centrifuge tubes no difference

is apparent. The centrifuge affords certainly a more speedy

and more easily manipulated method, one that does not depend

at all so far as observed on environment, i. e., external vibration,

handling of tubes, ete., and one which furthermore is not so

liable to accident as in the case of long settling tubes standing

full for twenty-four hours. Owing to the peculiar conical tip

of the centrifuge tube a small quantity may be more precisely

estimated than one which is larger and hence is open to less

percentage of error than if measured in a settling tube of

approximately equal calibre throughout. Finally it is indis-

putable that with the centrifuge conditions may be much more

precisely stated in measurable terms, and consequently repeated

by other observers with a greater chance of obtaining similar

conditions and hence results directly comparable. In fact I

may confess that I entered upon the final comparison with a

distinct prejudice in favor of the centrifuge so strong that it

has not been entirely removed by the apparently negative re-

sults of this series of observations, where, as noted above, the

centrifuge measurements are not so close in percentage of vol-

ume as those made by the gravity method.

One recent writer (Fuhrmann, 99) refers to the centrifuge

method as detrimental to the plankton if desired for future

study. This is certainly not the case with the hauls used in

these experiments; after six years’ time and all the manipulation

noted the various planktonts are apparently as good for micros-

copic study or for numerical estimation as they were at the

start. Dr. Kofoid informs me in correspondence that his ex-

perience with plankton hauls measured in the centrifuge has

been the same as mine.

Some experiments were conducted with the centrifuge to

determine the influence of time of rotation on amount obtained.

One dozen hauls, measured in one-half minute with 40 revolu-

METHODS OF PLANKTON MEASUREMENT 241

tions of the crank, i. e., half the usual time and number of revy-

olutions, yielded results which in 4 cases were less and in 7

cases more than the figures obtained in the regular series. The

kind of plankton made so far as could be seen no difference in

results and the size of tube used in measuring could not be

varied in the experiments so that I am unable to say how, if

at all, it influenced the results.

Finally one may inquire as to the question of paramount

importance, how ali the variations in each method and how the

change of method would affect the general] statements previously

made regarding the distribution and relative mass of plankton

in the various strata in Lake Michigan. In the original paper

(Ward, 96b) it was said:

‘¢1. The total volume increases with the depth but more

rapidly for depths up to about 30 meters than beyond that point.”

This is illustrated in the lines CT and GD, Plate XV.

‘¢2. The volume per cubic meter of water decreases as the

water grows deeper. This decrease is irregular for shallower

stations, but comparatively constant in deeper water.”’ This

is shown by the lines GA and CA, Plate XV.

‘¢Tt is at once apparent that the surface stratum contains a

much greater quantity than any other stratum, on the average

more than twice as much, while the intermediate strata are not

far from equal. * * * The line of volumes in the surface

stratum, 0 to 2 meters (Plate XVI, B), pursues a somewhat

irregular course. The irregularities are independent of the

depth and of the total and relative volumes of plankton. * *

The five to ten meter stratum contains more plankton per cubic

meter of water than the two to five meter stratum.”

The results of the six series of measurements given on the

charts unmistakably show that whichever method or series be

taken all statements made regarding the amount and distribu-

tion of the plankton hold good. All variations and errors are

not enough to obscure or render doubtful the general relations

between the amounts of plankton found in the various strata.

Of errors common to both methods there may be noted two:

that of estimation, and that of notation, as they may be called.

949 HENRY B. WARD

Variations in measurements are thus sometimes brought about

by the liability to personal error to which both methods are open.

The upper surface of the plankton mass is uneven both in the

settling tubes and in the centrifuge, and the estimation of the

actual value involves a chance of error which is proportionately

greater as the amount measured is less. It is often very difii-

cult to estimate the mass, as when the upper surface is hollowed

out. What the limits of this error may be I can not show, but

they are probably narrow.

To this must be added the well known errors due to the use

of figures. These are made in reading the seale and in record-

ing the amounts. That such do occur, all who have tried either

method are convinced and think that in them may be found the

cause of isolated values far removed from those of the same

haul in the other two or more sets of measurements. Such a

case is apparently Haul XVIII (P). XVII) in which two values

obtained by the gravity method are positive and in practical

agreement, the third by the same method is negative and

evidently imaginary.

In the light of the general close correspondence in the vol-

ume of a haul at different measurements by the same method,

a difference of 60, or even of 87 per cent. as noted in two

isolated cases can hardly be other than a mistake in reading or

copying the amount observed. Each assistant has indepen-

dently made mention of the likelihood of a slip of this charac-

ter and of the difficulty of guarding against it entirely.

It should not be forgotten that there may be differences due

to the actual loss of a quantity of material from a haul at one

stage or another during the long drawn out period of manipu-

lation. At the start there was no intention of using these

records for comparative purposes, and losses, if any, occurring

after a measurement was completed, were not recorded as they

did not affect the series just made and other series were not

planned until later. Such a hypothesis will match well one or

two radical differences, shown on the plates, but in the absence

of positive evidence it is enough to have referred to the possi-

bility.

METHODS OF PLANKTON MEASUREMENT 243

The fourth question propounded at the start: What is the

error in the enumeration or estimation of the individuals in the

volume obtained, may be only briefly touched upon as it was

not included in the series of experiments which form the basis

of this paper. Personally I feel that a mere tabulation of the

number of individuals of given species in a given haul is of

little value; it certainly misleads one as the different individuals

are of enormously different quantitative value. Whipple (94b)

has brought forward a method which does away to a large ex-

tent with the misconception aroused in that these values are ex-

pressed in terms of a given unit area. This is undoubtedly

very helpful in many cases in arriviug at a just idea of the rela-

tive importance of different species. On the whole, however,

I am inclined to think that the general productivity of a lake

will be expressed in the form of volumes as is the case with

land surfaces. It would add nothing to our conception of the

fertility of a field to state it in number of kernels rather than

in bushels of corn or wheat; similarly the economic measure

of a water basin will not be modified by the millions of bac-

teria it contains however much it may be dependant upon the

same in ultimate biologic analysis. To this extent, then, I

think the statements of Kofoid are apt to be misleading when

he refers to the enormous number of minute planktonts which

escape the meshes of the net. They are unquestionably im-

portant, their number should be determined and their part in

the economy of the water clearly fixed, but they are still in-

significant from a general standpoint.

The question of the extent to which enumeration should be

carried, and above all that of the actual meaning of the results

obtained needs careful elucidation. On this matter I have no

data to offer here.

Field (98) maintains that volumetric estimation is indis-

pensable and has made use of a large form of the centrifuge in

the precipitation and measurement of living oceanic plankton.

This form, known as the planktonokrit, was originally described

by Dolley (96). While Field holds that the centrifuge is a

rapid and accurate means of determining the plankton volume

244 HENRY B. WARD

he does not refer to the extent or character of the evidence on

which such a view is based, and in a previous paper (Field, 97,

p- 425) states that certain forms are packed more closely than

others by centrifugal force, which would indicate another source

of error in comparative estimations.

CONCLUSIONS.

1. Some part of the plankton is not caught in the vertical

net since a) the latter does not filter the entire water column,

and b) some organisms pass through its meshes. Neither factor

has yet been precisionated. The amount and constancy or

variability of this error should be precisely determined.

2. In manipulations incident to preservation the loss of

plankton is insignificant.

3. In measuring plankton by the gravimetric method, the

age of the preserved material is immaterial; the amount of dis-

turbance to which the plankton tubes are subjected during

settling is much more important in modifying the volume than

the length of time they stand, and the diameter of the settling

tubes influences strongly the results obtained.

4. Under similar conditions the results obtained by the

gravimetric method are comparatively uniform for the same

haul, but vary with the kind of plankton measured.

5. Measurements made with the centrifuge yielded volumes

from one-third to two-fifths as large as those obtained by the

gravimetric method.

6. In the series of measurements made, the centrifuge

method showed greater variation than the gravimetric.

7. Both methods agree as to results in all essential points

and no series of measurements vitiated or modified the state-

ments regarding the general distribution of plankton in Lake

Michigan as originally deduced from the hauls.

8. The centrifuge method appears to have greater general

utility, and uniformity sufficient to call for its preference; with

plankton hauls differing radically in composition it would pro-

bably be more uniform than the gravimetric.

METHODS OF PLANKTON MEASUREMENT 945

9. It does not injure the most delicate material obtained.

10. Errors of estimation, of notation, and those due to actual

loss, are likely to occur in any series of measurements,

11. Evaluation by volume furnishes more usable values than

mere numerical estimation. The latter may be improved by

areal estimation.

Loological Laboratory,

The University of Nebraska.

LITERATURE CITED.

Do.ueEy, C. S.

96. The Planktonokrit, a Centrifugal Apparatus for the Volumetric

Estimation of the Food-Supply of Oysters and other Aquatic

Animals.

Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 96, 276-289, 1 Fig.

FIELD, G. W.

97. On the Plankton of Brackish Water. (Abstract.)

Science, n. s., V, 424-425.

98. Use of the Centrifuge for Collecting Plankton. (Abstract.)

Science, n, s., VII, 201.

FUHRMANN, O.

99. Zur Kritik der Planktontechnik.

Biol. Centralbl., XIX, 584-589.

JUDAY, C.

97. The Plankton of Turkey Lake.

Proc. Indiana Acad. Sci., 96, 287-296, 1 map

Kororp, C. A.

o7. Plankton Studies. I. Methods and Apparatus in Use in Plank-

ton Investigations at the Biological Experiment Station of the

University of Illinois.

Bull. Ill. Lab. Nat. Hist., V, 1-25, 7 Pls.

97a. On Some Important Sources of Error in the Plankton Method.

Science, n. s., VI, 829-832.

REIGHARD, J. E.

98. Methods of Plankton Investigation and their Relation to Prac-

tical Problems.

Bull. U. S. Fish Comm., XVII, 169-175.

WARD, H. B.

96. The Food Supply of the Great Lakes, and Some Experiments

on its Amount and Distribution.

Trans. Amer. Mic. Soc., XVII, 242-254, 2 Pls.

246 HENRY B. WARD

96a. A New Method for the Quantitative Determination of Plankton

Hauls.

Trans. Amer. Mic. Soc., XVII, 255-260.

96b. A Biological Examination of Lake Michigan in the Traverse

Bay Region.

Bull. Mich. Fish Comm., 6, 1-71, 5 Pls.

99. Fresh-Water Investigations During the Last Five Years.

Trans. Amer. Mic. Soc., XX, 261-386.

WHIPPLE, G. C.

94b. A Standard Unit of Size for Micro-Organisms.

Amer. Mo. Mic. Jour., XV, 377-381, 2 Figs., 1 PI.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Vertical lines indicate stations, each of which is designated by a

Roman numeral at the upper end.

Horizontal lines represent volumes or depths, each square indicating

ten meters in depth or one cubic centimeter in volume, the total being

reckoned from the upper margin of the chart, except for CT (q. v.).

D....D indicates depth of the various stations.

GT....GT represents total volume of plankton measured by the

gravimetric method,

CT....CT indicates total volume of plankton measured by the cen-

trifuge. The volume is here reckoned from the double line near the

middle of the chart as a base rather than as al] others from the top line of

the chart.

GA....GA represents estimated volume of plankton per cubic meter

of water measured by gravimetric method.

CA ...CA represents estimated volume of plankton per cubic meter

of water measured by centrifuge.

0. Original set of measurements, made by gravimetric method.

1. First supplementary set by gravimetric method.

2. Second supplementary set by gravimetric method.

3. First set of measurements made by centrifuge.

4. Second set of measurements made by centrifuge.

5. Third set of measurements made by centrifuge.

For further details see text; also Ward, 96, 96b.

METHODS OF PLANKTON MEASUREMENT 247

PLATE XV.

A GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION OF AMOUNTS IN BOTTOM HAULS FROM LAKE

MICHIGAN MADE WITH VERTICAL NET.

PLATE XVI.

A GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION OF STRATAL HAULS.

Stratum 25 meters to 10 meters.

Stratum 2 meters to surface.

PLATE XvVil.

A GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION OF STRATAL HAULS.

Stratum 5 meters to 2 meters.

Stratum 10 meters to 5 meters.

> $b ‘a tw S = ay (o_o a Pe! a ee a aa

Bag) 7 oo ae ty Ot Pisa eae

= 1‘, he .. J

PLATE XVI

PLATE XVII

| | /

Stratum 5-2 melers Y/

| VV

Aa aa

i os ee ace mere

| | Stratus ee

if if ie ee

= Sees Esc ae

| j | q

herbed

NECROLOGY.

JOHN EUGENE DAVIES,

oF Maprson, WISs.

John Eugene Davies was born in Clarkstown, N. Y., on

April the 4th, 1839. When he was two years old his parents

moved to New York City, remaining there till 1855. They

then removed to Wisconsin.

In 1859, young Davies entered Lawrence University at

Appleton, Wisconsin, as a Sophomore, graduating three years

later, with honors in mathematics.

The study of medicine, then begun by him, was interrupted

by Lincoln’s call for ‘*300,000 more.” Enlisting at once he

served through the war without a day’s furlough. Of his war

experiences he rarely if ever talked, seeming to have a horror

of it all. I have heard him speak most strongly of war’s

brutalizing influences.

After the war he resumed the study of medicine, graduating

from the Chicago Medical College in the Spring of 1868. In

the Fall of the same year, he accepted a call to the chair of

Natural History and Chemistry in the University of Wisconsin.

In 1874 he became Professor of Astronomy and Physics; in

1878, Professor of Physics; in 1891, Professor of Electricity

and Magnetism and Mathematical Physics. This chair he held

until his death. During the interim between the resignation

of Prof. Holden and the appointment of Prof. Comstock, Dr.

Davies had charge of the Washburn Observatory.

Many of his summers were spent in the geodetic survey of

Southwestern Wisconsin, he having charge of a party of the

U. S. Coast Survey.

250 ELLERY W. DAVIS

He was a member of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences,

Arts, and Letters and of the American Mathematical Society.

He was married in 1866 to Miss Anna Burt, of Chicago.

Some years after her death he was married to Miss Olive M.

Thayer, of Madison. A child by his first wife died in infancy.

His second wife and her child survive him.

Such is the brief outline of his busy life. In it there is

evidence of versatility. Those, however, who had the good

fortune to be under him and to work with him know how much

more he was than versatile. His breadth of perception and

keenness and justness of vision were alike remarkable. He

was an inspiring teacher, and many, I among them, owe to him

a first start in what was to become a life’s work; more than

that, owe to him, indeed, their ideal of what a teacher should

be. Enthusiastic in his subject, he was yet kind and patient

with the student, always ready to explain difficulties and to

suggest further lines of work.

In a day when the mere specialists are crowding us on every

hand, pleasant is it to bear in mind one who, though a special-

ist, was none the less a many-sided man, with warm sympathy

for all science, for all truth, for all that is highest and noblest

and best in human achievement and ideals.

Exrery W. Davis.

Lincoln, Neb., May 23, 1900.

HENRY H. DOUBLEDAY,

OF WASHINGTON, D. C.

On Sept. 19, 1899, the American Microscopical Society lost

one of its most efficient members. Mr. Doubleday was first

observed to be ill on Sunday evening, Sept. 17, during a meet-

ing of one of the musical organizations with which he was con-

nected, and soon after was removed to Garfield Hospital, where

he died on Tuesday evening.

Mr. Doubleday was born in Binghampton, N. Y., sixty-five

years ago, and came to Washington in 1864, securing employ-

HENRY H. DOUBLEDAY 251

ment first in the navy yard, later in the Post Office Department,

which after about five years of service he relinquished to en-

gage in soliciting patents. In this business he was quite suc-

cessful, and found leisure to identify himself with the life of

the city as scientist, musician and philanthropist. Few men

have such capacity as Mr. Doubleday possessed for interesting

young people in scientific pursuits and the exercise of their in-

tellects on subjects that tend to elevate and dignify character,

and his influence in this way was of great value to the com-

munity. He promoted numerous clubs for mutual improve-

ment, many of whose members received very substantial benefits

from such connections, and his assistance was always gener-

ously given to all who showed themselves in any way worthy

of it. Among these voluntary societies, one for the use of the

microscope as applied to biology was an especial favorite with

him. He accumulated quite a large library of scientific and

especially of musical works, the use of which was always freely

granted to his young friends. Probably most of the members

of the Society who attended the Washington meeting of our

Society will remember the activity and energy he displayed in

furthering the objects of the meeting.

In 1858, Mr. Doubleday married Frances G. Shepard, who

survives him. His death leaves a vacant place in our com-

munity that cannot readily be filled, because his life was an

example of unselfish work for the uplifting of others in all

directions that tended towards their best interests.

Wm. H. Seaman.

ALBERT E. LOVELAND,

OF WAVERLY, MASss.

Albert E. Loveland, M. A., M. D., was born in New Haven

in 1868. He received his education in the public schools,

graduating from Hillhouse High School in ’87. Two years

later he entered Wesleyan University, obtaining the degree of

A. B. in ’93. The summer following his graduation was spent

252 ALBERT E. LOVELAND

partly in study at the Marine Laboratory at Cold Spring Harbor

and in part at the World’s Fair, Chicago, as assistant chemist

to Professor Atwater in food analyses. The following year he

was assistant in biology in the laboratory of Professor Conn at

Wesleyan. He then entered the Medical Department of Yale

University, graduating in *97 cum laude, also receiving the

Keese prize for the best thesis. The following year was spent

as junior assistant at the Worcester Lunatic Asylum and at the

time of his death, April 7, 1899, he was serving in the same

capacity at the McLean Hospital, Waverly, Mass.

Dr. Loveland was held in high esteem by those who knew

him, both as a man and professionally. I quote from the last

report of the Superintendent of McLean Hospital: ‘‘ He gave

unusual promise of success in the work which he had chosen

for his professional career, for which he possessed admirable

qualifications. ”’

In 1897 Wesleyan conferred upon him the degree of M. A.

for work done in comparative anatomy.

His more important papers were ‘‘On the Anatomy of Taenia

crassicollis Rud.’’ and ‘‘ A Study of the Organs of Taste.”

H. B. Ferris.

HERBERT R. SPENCER,

OF BUFFALO, N. Y.

In the death of Herbert R. Spencer, which occurred at Bufialo,

N. Y., February 7th, 1900, American Microscopy has lost the

last of its three famous workers to whose successful efforts in

the development of microscope and telescope objectives the

scientific world has acknowledged its indebtedness. His father,

Charles A. Spencer, working under the greatest disadvantages,

beginning to make lenses when he was a lad of but twelve

years, seeking by laborious and painstaking efforts in the little

country village where he lived, to make his own optical glass

for his experiments, but fired with the spark of genius which

HERBERT R. SPENCER 253

triumphed over every obstacle, succeeded by 1847 in making

microscope objectives which accomplished results in definition

that astonished the world and transcended the efforts of the

most famous European opticians. He boldly grappled with

the assertion of these savants that they had obtained ‘the

largest angular pencil of light that can be passed through a

microscope object glass’? and demonstrated by actual con-

struction that the angle of aperture in these higher power ob-

jectives could be greatly increased and with it their defining

and resolving powers. His was the pioneer work that for the

world developed the possibility of lens-making as applied to

the microscope and led the way in the wonderful progress of

that art which has marked the last half of the nineteenth cen-

tury. His two pupils were Robert B. Tolles and Herbert R.

Spencer, his son. The former died in 1898 and now the latter

has ended his days in the prime of manhood and in the midst

of an active and successful career in the field of labor that he

loved and honored.

Herbert R. Spencer was born at Canastota, N. Y., November

1, 1849, and was one of six children. Two sisters and a brother

survive him and his aged mother still lives. His education

was that of the common schools, but his active mind was not

content with what they had taught him and throughout his life

he was an indefatigable reader and student. In boyhood he

was fond of scientific study and work. He loved too the out-

door life of the woods and fields, and his fondness for hunting

gave him that perceiving eye which sees so much that with less

favored mortals escapes their sight. He was quite young when

he began his pupilage in his father’s shop at Canastota, but

trom the beginning he loved his work and was ambitious to

excel in it. This made him an apt pupil and to a great degree

he inherited his father’s genius. They worked together in con-

stant effort to improve what had already been accomplished and

to develop new work of still greater perfection. After the

partnership between Charles A. Spencer and A. K. Eaton which

had been formed in 1854 was dissolved, Herbert Spencer be-

came his father’s partner in the optical business which was

254 HENRY R. HOWLAND

carried on by them at Canastota until the autumn of 1873,

when their shop was destroyed in a disastrous fire. Their tools

and machinery which they had accumulated by many years of

toil and saving were lost, as was all their finished work and

much that was in process of making with their valuable records

and drawings. It was a crippling blow but father and son

plucked up their courage and taking a little barn for their work-

shop struggled along as best they could until 1875, when they

left Canastota and connected themselves with the Geneva

Optical Works at Geneva, N. Y. In 1877 they formed the

partnership known as Charles A. Spencer & Sons which con-

tinued for three years. In these last three years of his life the

father’s health was failing and with waning vigor his own pro-

ductiveness ceased, while that of his son Herbert increased

with his increasing responsibilities and the new objectives of

those years were the product of his own genius and skill.

Several of these came into the hands of President Barnard of

Columbia College, New York, who was one of the United States

Commissioners to the Paris Exposition of 1878, and they were

exhibited by him there with the happy result that the highest

award of the Exposition—its large gold medal—was awarded

to Charles A. Spencer & Sons for their superior excellence.

Charles A. Spencer died in 1881 and from 1880 until 1889

Herbert R. Spencer carried on the business of making micros-

copes, telescopes and their objectives under his own name at

Geneva, N. Y., removing in the latter year to Cleveland, Ohio,

where he established the H. R. Spencer Optical Company. In

1891 the Spencer & Smith Optical Company of Buffalo, N. Y.,

was incorporated and Buffalo became his home for the remain-

ing years of his life. In 1895 the Spencer Lens Company was

organized and bought out the Spencer & Smith Company.

Herbert R. Spencer became the superintendent of its shops and

found in its systemized business a larger and better field for

his efforts than he had before known. He became warmly in-

terested in developing and perfecting the several types of their

well known Spencer microscopes and in largely increasing the

line of their Spencer objectives and microscope accessories.

HERBERT R. SPENCER 955

He was greatiy interested in the wonderful developments of

later years in optical science; the great variety in optical glass

as produced at Jena gave him a broad field for his selection, of

which he was quick to take advantage. He placed all his

formulas in the hands of the Spencer Lens Company and taught

skillful assistants to do the various processes of construction

and correction which he himself had so laboriously learned, so

that when he felt the approach of sickness in the autumn of

1899 he expressed his keen satisfaction that his work, so well

begun, could be continued without difficulty in his absence.

He had assumed a trust and was faithful to it to the end. He

died at Buffalo, February 7, 1900.

At fifty years of age he was seemingly in the prime of a

useful life too soon ended, and yet in his comparatively short

career he had done much for science. By his genius, his tire-

less efforts and painstaking researches he accomplished results

in applied optics which gave him rank with the foremost of the

world’s workers in that field, with Leuwenhoek, Amici, Hart-

nack, Zeiss and Abbé in Europe, with the elder Spencer and

Tolles in America; accomplishments which have made possible

the modern discoveries in medical science and hygiene with

their beneficent life-saving results. Like his father he was

ambitious in his work and critical of it; there was always in

his own vision a better that mocked his best, and he was never

satisfied until that better was secured and a better still beckoned

him forward. He was most skillfui in his manipulation as in

formulating and the objectives made under his instructions at

each step in his progress kept rank even-paced with the best of

similar grades made elsewhere at the time. He was of a gen-

erous temperament towards others and never spoke unkindly of

their work. To his friends whom he knew well there was a

genial side to his personality which was very attractive.

Towards others he manifested a quiet reserve but in all his re-

lations of life he was modest and unassuming. His early death

is a loss not only to his many friends but to the scientific world.

Henry R. Howranp.

PROCEEDINGS

The American Microscopical Society

MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL MEETING

HELD AT

COLUMBUS, O., AUG. 17, 18 AND 19, 1899.

Tuurspay, August 17.

The Society was called to order at 2:30 P. M. by the Presi-

dent, Dr. W. C. Krauss, in the lectureroom of Biological Hall,

Ohio State University. President Thompson of the Ohio State

University delivered a most cordial address of welcome in be-

half of the city and University, and Dr. Krauss responded as

follows:

RESPONSE TO PRESIDENT THOMPSON.

‘To you, President Thompson, and to the Ohio State Univer-

sity, the American Microscopical Society wishes to return hearty

thanks for your kind words of welcome and for the privilege of

meeting in this beautiful hall dedicated to the Sciences, of which

we ourselves are devoted followers. This Society is not a

stranger to the hospitality of your charming city, for on two

previous occasions, in 1881 and 1888, we met within its borders;

in fact Columbus enjoys the distinction—not of having dis-

covered the Society——but of having been its host more times

than any other city in the Union. The cause of this partiality

I presume is due to the excellent care and kind hospitality af-

forded us during our brief stay among you.

Our meeting today, although looked forward to with much

expectancy and pleasure, is unhappily marred by the remem-

brance that here on this very campus and within these wa!!s

258 PROCEEDINGS OF THE

labored our dearly beloved friend and Ex-President, Professor

D. S. Kellicott, one of the staunch supporters of our Society

and one of its most honored members. His contributions to

our Transactions since the foundation of the Society bear testi-

mony to his scientific skill and acumen. His kindly words of

greeting, his interesting and forcible discussions and his opinions

and suggestions in our councils will be sadly missed. Asa

mark of esteem and of remembrance I will ask the Society to rise.

I also wish at this time to thank the Society heartily for the

honor of having been chosen your presiding officer. Being

compelled on account of severe illness to absent myself from

the Syracuse meeting, I was thoroughly surprised when the

daily papers announced the result of your election. The un-

expected and unlooked for honor and the pleasure derived from

your kindly remembrance acted as a powerful tonic and hurried

convalescence to a fortunate termination.

Repeating the words of President Mercer at the Pittsburg

meeting of ‘‘belonging to a profession that practices rather than

preaches’’—I declare this the twenty-second annual meeting of

the American Microscopical Society open for the transaction of

business.”

The election of new members was followed by a report from

the Executive Committee on the organization and work of the

Society in which the following recommendation was presented:

‘‘As a matter of general policy, whenever a special field of

work within the province of the Society shall call for closer

organization and more extended work, the Executive Commit-

tee favors the appointment of a committee which shall have

charge of such work and shall endeavor to develop it. The

Executive Committee therefore recommends the appointment

of E. A. Birge, C. H. Eigenmann, C. A. Kofoid, H. B. Ward

and G. C. Whipple asa Limnological Commission which shall

strive to unify, extend and stimulate limnological work in this

country, and shall present to this Society at its next annual

meeting plans for the accomplishment of this end.”

On motion the resolution was adopted.

AMERICAN MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY 259

The following papers were then read and discussed:

R. H. Ward, ‘‘An Expedient in Difficult Resolution.” Dis-

cussion by 8. H. Gage.

M. A. Veeder, ‘‘The Effect of Cancer on Defective Develop-

ment.’? Discussion by Mrs. 8. P. Gage, W. C. Krauss and

others.

S. H. Gage, ‘‘Notes on Laboratory Technic.”? Discussion

by Mrs. Gage.

H. B. Ward, ‘‘Comments on a Scientific Bibliography;”

with this was presented a resolution which was by rule referred

to the Executive Committee after discussion by 8. H. Gage.

Vida A. Latham, ‘‘The Reaction of Diabetic Blood to Some

of the Aniline Dyes.’ After being read by the President, in

the absent of the author, it was also discussed by him.

F. W. Kuehne and J. C. Smith were appointed members of

the Auditing Committee, and the Society adjourned.

At. 8 P. M. the Society convened in the same place to hear

the annual address of the President, William C. Krauss, on

‘Some Medico-legal Aspects of Diseased Cerebral Arteries.”

Fripay, August 18.

The Society was called to order in the Biological Hall at 10

A. M. by the President who appointed a Nominating Commit-

tee consisting of 8. H. Gage, F. W. Kuehne, Magnus Pflaum,

J. C. Smith and Mrs. 8. P. Gage.

The following papers were then presented:

J. C. Smith, ‘‘Notices of Some Undescribed Infusoria from

the Infusorial Fauna of Louisiana.”

C. E. Bessey, ‘‘Modern Conception of the Structure and

Classification of Diatoms.’’ Discussed by S. H. Gage, Mag-

nus Pflaum and Mrs. Gage,

W. F. Mercer, ‘‘Comparative Structure of the Soft Palate.”

In the absence of the author it was read by S. H. Gage, and

discussed by W. C. Krauss, A. M. Bleile and H. B. Ward.

A. G. Field, ‘‘A New Microscope Stand.’? Discussion by

S. H. Gage.

The society then adjourned.

260 PROCEEDINGS OF THE

At 2:30 P. M. the meeting was called to order by the Presi-

dent who announced as the subject of the symposium which was

to occupy the afternoon session, ‘‘What can be done by the

high school teacher and by the private worker with the aid of

the microscope in various fields.”? A general introduction was

given by S. H. Gage and the special topics treated as follows:

B. D. Myers, Animal Histology; A. M. Bleile, Bacteriology;

C. E. Bessey, Botany. The discussion was participated in by

S. H. Gage, M. A. Veeder, A. G. Field, Magnus Pflaum,

Mrs. Gage, A. M. Bleile, B. D. Myers, C. E. Bessey and others.

At 4:30 P. M. the Society made a tour of the University

campus and inspected the various buildings, under the leader-

ship of the Local Committee, A. M. Bleileand A. Feiel.

In the evening an informal reception was tendered the mem-

bers of the Society and their ladies by Mr, J. F. Stone at his

residence on East Broad Street. Mr. Stone described his trip

down the Grand Canyon of the Colorado and exhibited a series

of lantern slides made from the magnificent views taken en

voyage. The general and spontaneous expression of pleasure

and of indebtedness to their host showed the high appreciation

in which members of the Society held the courtesies which had

been extended to them on this occasion. The Secretary pre-

sented to Mr. Stone with the compliments of the Society a copy

of the last annual volume of the Transactions as a token of the

thanks of all for his general hospitality.

Saturpay, August 19.

The Society convened at 9:30 A. M. in Biological Hall,

President W. C. Krauss in the chair. The following papers

were presented:

C. H. Eigenmann, ‘‘The Eyes of Typhlomolge from the

Artesian Well at San Marcos, Texas.”

B. D. Myers, ‘‘ Method Employed in a Study of the Chiasma

of Bufo vulgaris.’ This and the preceding paper were dis-

cussed together by 8. H. Gage, W. C. Krauss and others.

R. H. Ward, ‘Indexing, Cataloguing and Arranging Micro-

scopical Literature and Slides.” This paper was very generally

AMERICAN MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY 261

discussed by the members present. Owing to the lateness of

the hour the remaining papers were read by title and the Society

took up business matters. After the election of new members,

the annual report of the Treasurer was read and, being reported

correct by the Auditing Committee, accepted. The Treasurer

then stated that owing to various personal matters he felt com-

pelled to tender his resignation to the Society. After many

expressions of regret, the Society, voted in accepting the resig-

nation, to place on record its appreciation of the long and faith-

ful services which had been rendered for so many years by Mr.

Pflaum, and its deep regret at his retirement from office.

The report of the Secretary was given and the Executive

Committee authorized to make public the following memorial

as an expression of the opinion of the Society:

‘¢Some years ago the American Microscopical Society par-

ticipated in the foundation of an enterprise which it may justly

be said has grown to be of international importance, the Con-

cilium Bibliographicum. Though the aid we could render to

this organization was financially small, we have followed its

development with genuine interest not unaccompanied by true

pride in its successes and sorrow for its shortcomings.

‘¢Tt was hoped that the movement would receive general

approval and support, and that in the event of an extensive

bibliographic undertaking on the part of any national society,

all existing enterprises would be made use of.

Bibliographicum has been well done in the main and are con-

vinced that the experience of its workers is invaluable for

future work in this field since many of the problems which they

have met and solved would recur in any new enterprise. We

deprecate further the waste of energy for the development of

science involved in the total abandonment of work done and of

experience gained in the past and in the adoption of a new

system which is apparently incompatible with that under which

much has been accumulated.

‘¢ Knowing the efforts for the advancement of science in this

particular direction at present, we therefore urge upon the con-

262 PROCEEDINGS OF THE

sideration of all the fundamental advantages in the utilization of

the decimal system and of experience purchased with such

earnest effort and great sacrifice.”’

The Nominating Committee reported the following officers

for the ensuing year:

Presidente) Pe es ee eA hs Ae 0 ee

First Vice-President.....................C. BH. Bigenmane

Second Vice-President. oi... 0000. 0.03 sa

Treasurer (for unexpired term).................3. C. Smith

Custodian? . 6.0 ).)0scaee ceca dese k sek... 2 Nee

W. W. Alleger

Elective Members of Executive Committee. . A. T. Kerr

B. D. Myers

The report was adopted and the Secretary ordered to cast the

ballot of the Society for the officers as named.

The Society passed votes of thanks to the Local Committee,

to Mr. J. F. Stone, to the Ohio State University and Pres-

ident Thompson, to the lozal Press, and to the retiring President

for courtesies extended to members in attendance at the meet-

ing. The President-Elect was then escorted to the chair and

after a few words of thanks to the Society declared the meeting

adjourned.

During the afternoon the members were given a troiley ride

about the city of Columbus by the local committee. After an

enjoyable trip of a couple of hours the party sat down together

to an informal luncheon under the auspices of these same enter-

prising members, to whom at its close all manner of thanks

were extended by those who had enjoyed their hospitality.

Henry B. Warp,

Secretary.

AMERICAN MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY

TREASURER’S REPORT

FOR THE YEAR ENDING AUGUST 17, 1899.

DB.

To Balance on hand at Syracuse Meeting...........

To Membership dues, 1896, 1.............. $ 2.00

To Membership dues, 1897, 1.............. 2.00

To Membership dues, 1898, 14.............. 28.00

To Membership dues, 1899, 188....... . ... 376.00

To Membership dues, 1900, 104............. 21.00

TopAdmission i@e, 189850 Vos cissccscless oi 3.00

TovyAdmission fees, 1899) Wess se ..c- occ 51.00

To Subscribers ($40, yet due $8).....................

To Donation by Dr. C. E. Bessey for plates..........

To Sales of Proceedings ($66, yet due $2)............

To advertising ($96, yet due $12).................02-

To Postage and Expressage collected................

To Postage advanced by Mr. Pflaum, Treasurer.....

263

$ 76.48

429.00

54.00

32.00

22.50

64.00

84.00

8.52

$ 770.76

264 AMERICAN MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY

CR.

By Expense Syracuse Meeting................s.-000 4.05

By Postage, ‘Secretany.o-n sues. see eritaneei $ 14.42

By. Postage, Treasurer: ci.) sics0cecsancaceane 15.95

—_—- 30.37

By Expressage, Secretary..........0.cse.ee- 36.80

By Expressage, Treasurer .............2.02. 2.35

a 39.15

By Stationery and Printing, President...... 6.75

By Stationery and Printing, Secretary...... 27.78

By Stationery and Printing, Treasurer...... 6.60

——. 41.13

By Stationery and Printing, Prof. S. H. Gage for 1898 5.00

By Pundries, Secretary). 2). <\on scene's oejeieis 11.20

By SUUOTICS, (PTCASHROE cas seca oda ee eioae 7.75

—-—- 18.95

By Issuing Vol. XXjpemting ss se e's ee 503.90

By Issuing Vol. XX, plates....... Pet) cen en 80.21

——-__ 584.11

By Spencer-Tolles Fund invested..............+. «+. 48.00

$ 770.76

SPENCER-TOLLES FUND.

Reported at Syracuse Meeting.......... $ 555.46

Jan: 2, 1899; Dividends.) i... case. vse 26.92

July. 1, 1S9S DiIvtGenas ys oo. cj'e as sels oaymin 22.98

Cash from Sale of Proceedings.......... 48 .00

—— $ 653.36

Increase during year. . «2... easoes 97.90

CoLumBus, O., Aug. 18, 1899.

We hereby certify that we have examined the foregoing accounts for

the year 1898 and 1899 and find them correct, with proper vouchers for

expenditures. F. W. KvuEHNE,

J. C. SMITH,

Auditing Committee.

CONSTITUTION.

ARTICLE I.

This Association shall be called the American MrcroscopicaL

Socrery. Its object shall be the encouragement of microscop-

ical research.

ARTICLE [I.

Any person interested in microscopical science may become

a member of the Society upon’ written application and recom-

mendation by two members and election by the Executive

Committee. Honorary members may also be elected by the

Society on nomination by the Executive Committee.

ArticLE III.

The officers of this Society shall consist of a President and

two Vice-Presidents, who shall hold their office for one year,

and shall be ineligible for re-election for two years after the

expiration of their terms of office, together with a Secretary

and Treasurer, who shall be elected for three years and be

eligible for re-election.

ArTICLE LY.

The duties of the officers shall be the same as are usual in

similar organizations; in addition to which it shall be the duty

of the President to deliver an address during the meeting at

which he presides; of the Treasurer to act as custodian of the

property of the Society, and of the Secretary to edit and pub-

lish the Proceedings of the Society.

ARTICLE V.

There shall be an Executive Committee, consisting of the

officers of the Society, three members elected by the Society,

and the past Presidents of the Society and of the American

Society of Microscopists.

266 CONSTITUTION AND BY-LAWS

ArtTicLE VI.

It shall be the duty of the Executive Committee to fix the

time and place of meeting and manage the general affairs of

the Society.

ArticLe VII.

The initiation fee shall be $3.00, and the dues shall be $2.00

annualiy, payable in advance.

ArticLEe VIII.

The election of officers shall be by ballot.

ArticLe IX.

Amendments to the Constitution may be made by a two-

thirds vote of all members present at any annual meeting, after

having been proposed at the preceding annual meeting.

BY-LAWS.

The Executive Committee shall, before the close of the an-

nual meeting for which they are elected, examine the papers

presented and decide upon their publication or otherwise dis-

pose of them. ;

All papers accepted for publication must be completed by the

authors and placed in the hands of the Secretary by October 1st

succeeding the meeting.

ale

The Secretary shall edit and publish the papers accepted with

the necessary illustrations.

Ti.

The number of copies of Proceedings of any meeting shall

be decided at that meeting.

CONSTITUTION AND BY-LAWS 267

LW.

No applicant shall be considered a member until he has paid

his dues. Any member failing to pay his dues for two consec-

utive years, and after two written notifications from the

Treasurer, shall be dropped from the roll, with the privilege of

reinstatement at any time on payment of allarrears. The Pro-

ceedings shall not be sent to any member whose dues are unpaid.

The election of officers shall be held on the morning of the

last day of the annual meeting. Their term of office shall com-

mence at the close of the meeting at which they are elected, and

shall continue until their successors are elected and qualified.

AGE

Candidates for office shall be nominated by a committee of

five members of the Society. This committee shall be elected

by a plurality vote, by ballot, after free nomination, on the

second day of the annual meeting.

AZEL.

All motions or resolutions relating to the business of the

Society shall be referred for consideration to the Executive

Committee before discussion and final action by the Society.

Members of the Society shall have the privilege of enrolling

members of their families (except men over twenty-one years

of age) for any meeting upon payment of one-half the annual

subscription ($1.00).

Approved by the Society, August 11, 1892.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

The figures denote the year of the member’s election. except '78, which marks an

original member. The TRANSACTIONS are not sent to members in arrears, and two

years’ arrearage forfeits membership. (See Article IV of By-Laws.)

Members Elected During the Yezr 1899.

For addresses see regular list.

BERING, J. EDWARD. HOLtis, FREDERICK S., B. S., Ph. D.

Beyer, Prof. Gro. E. JACKSON, DANIEL Dana., B.S.

Bires, Prof. E. A., S. D. Kororp, CHARLES A., Ph. D.

BURCHARD, EK. A., M. D. MERCER, W. F.

Cocks, Prof. REGINALD S. PARKER, Horatio N.

ELRop, Prof. Morton J., M. A., RANsoM, BRAYTON H.

B. A., M. S. RICHARDS, ELIAS.

Eyre, JOHN W. H., M.D. Ph. D. ScHONEY, L., M. D.

FISHER, Rey. STOKLEY S. Tay Lor, GEO. C.

FOSTER, EDWARD. THOMAS, ARTHUR H.

FRAKER, H. C., M. D. WEEKS, JOHN ROCKWELL.

GROSSKOPF, ERNEST C., M. D. WHIPPLE, G. C.

ABFRDEIN, ROBERT, M.D., F. R. M.S., ’82..327 James St., Syracuse, N. Y.

JATINS Te: ORDA ERS UINE ODS eects Ot a teeee red) sie clslatsen patter Rochester, Minn.

ALLEGER, WALTER W., M. D., ’94....949 T St., N. W., Washington, D.C.

ATWOODTE. AS ato! ms asco. 261 West Thirty-fourth St., New York City.

ATWOOD SIE hs aR WMS 5) SS) 5 ste eran veies valores ielletsberne ores Rochester, N. Y.

AyEks, MorGAn W., M. D., ’87........ MAE SER Upper Montclair, N. J.

BARKER, ALBERT S., 97, Twenty-fourth and Locust Sts., Philadelphia, Pa.

BARNSFATHER) JAMES) MED 290s oc se io .0'5 aie oc aie oes om oie eee eee

DEED ee UU SEY Srveat pte HE Cor. Sixth Ave. and Walnut St., Dayton, Ky.

BARTLETT, CHARLES JOSEPH, M.D:, 9622... 60060546. New Haven, Conn.

BAUSCH: “EDWARDS 2082 yee les atertoiaele 179 N. St. Paul St., Rochester, N. Y.

BAUSCH, “HENRY 28625, oe ire aix Suis aie tole seen tole syars eurtere shots Rochester, N. Y.

BAUSCH WILELTAM:E OSS cildcaciote titres a) seis Glaus! etavesto eioinaesatae Rochester, N. Y.

Bran, Prof.) DAMES EVAR TH mye) OO soees cine oes Scio College, Scio, Ohio.

BEARDSURY Pe role Ab OO ecu, a si emiNuetata easier ete le crate cyely aa Greeley, Col.

BELL, (CLARK ISG: 208 caper a tate ious: 39 Broadway, New York City.

BENNETT, HENRY C., ’98........ 256 W. Forty-second St., New York City.

THE AMERICAN MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY 269

SEIEMIN GY (ede EID PAIR DDS) oO Deters sins ce aia Mbais a ce Wass wie aldleleloersia Goel Decatur, Ill.

BrssEy, Prof. CHARLES Epwin, Ph. D., LL. D., ’98....... Lincoln, Neb.

Bayer, Prof. Guo. Ev, 799. . «4.0... Tulane University, New Orleans, La.

Bien. erot 8. AC, S) D}, ?99),. 02 University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.

BIscor. Prof. THOMAS Dy, 790 eels. Lee 404 Front St., Marietta, Ohio.

iBpeciie. AM OMe De sii. ee Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio.

BoOpiInE: Erol. DONAEDSON) 296s<c00 22%-bavce narclelacien Crawfordsville, Ind.

Boortu, Mary A., F. R. M.S., ’82...60 Dartmouth St., Springfield, Mass.

Borer, James C., Esq.; 86.2... 0656. a0 Carnegie Building, Pittsburg, Pa.

awe, SOHN Wi, M.D:, ’96) sci 255 008: 23 Mawhinney SL., Pittsburg, Pa.

IERORYAR Oh See CA SIMI, 2 ODe eos Bir aus rayne 3223 Clifford St., Philadelphia, Pa.

PSMEVIN: GO. 9240790005 mss ho % avers .ete.e = 08 302 Spitzer Building, Toledo, Ohio.

ER OMEBYAS ROBERT UNINTS Mis IDS O35 i beri eed ee ae Sonora, Cal.

Brown, Miss L: S.,.°92......... Be coh erate W. Main St., Angelica, N. Y.

Bown, N. HOW UAND,, 91... 5.0). .a50 60025 33 S. Tenth St., Philadelphia, Pa.

BEOWN, ROBERT, 785.000.650.400. Observatory Place, New Haven, Conn.

BEUNDAGE AccH-. Mi Di 94o2 35.0266 1153 Gates Ave., Brooklyn, N. Y.

BULL, JAMES EDGAR, Esq., ’92............ 141 Broadway, New York City.

BURCHARD, E. A., M. D., ’99...... 6 Elm St., Lodi, San Joaquin Co., Cal.

BURNER, NATHAN L., M. D., ’96......368 Hamilton Ave., Columbus, Ohio.

BURR wero fechas) he: Bon MG Sie iB a usatke eer ne Urbana, I].

Burt, Prof. Epwarp A., ’91........ Middlebury College, Middlebury, Vt.

VeVopss ty) S09 2000 3 0 Diese 4 ey D eee ye ne a 808 Morse Ave., Chicago, Il.

CAMPBELL, D.P., M. D., ’88..Tomichi, White Pine P. O., Gunnison Co , Col.

CARPENTER, HOS: Bi, Me DS ?99. sc. 3 ae 142 N. Pearl St., Buffalo, N. Y.

COUNT On F903 ied Dea go) Genet ie AL RR EE, mcm MM IGG GME Te I a Ae 2

ELEANOR Ea 1 Knox and Coulter Sts., Germantown, Philadelphia, Pa.

CHESTER. ALBERT H., A. M., ’88.. Rutgers College, New Brunswick, N. J.

Cremer a GO mea 8G: sccm + yore eters st svays cehoreitie 116 Water St., Pittsburg, Pa.

GE Amere AN EGR 272, IVD. DE 7 OB laksa a: o's 0. etc aa ehav elena es Oe Syracuse, N.Y.

CLARK, GEORGE Epw., M. D., ’96...... Skaneateles, Onondaga Co., N. Y.

CEAYPOUES (AGNES M..°94.. occa sas cgi iee Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.

CEAYPOVEME DUDE: SANT ent Bae Se. 29a. cen coc ue eretehore lots Ithaca, N. Y.

CEATPOLE EDWARD Weiss SC.) Bid Gei Sign 0s estes crore ater Pasadena, Cal.

CEEMENTS; FREDERICK E:,..A. M:.,. Ph.) Ds; 298.020.0065 one's ore Lincoln, Neb.

Cree rae NE ACOME CO BGs ote cnos an exe os oe 26 N. Pine St., Albany, N. Y.

Cocks, Prof. REGINALD S., ’99..McDonogh High School, New Orleans, La.

Coorg, A. F., M. D., cs id ruk, SravSoswe mpotasiscratods 114 Sycamore St., Oil City, Pa.

CoucH, lacus Gy; Led i ae Far ire, Paap nen otek 3) CY CPS aCe A oR

Kalish ies Twenty: -third St. and Fourth Ave., New rae City.

Cox, Cuas. F., F. R. M.S., ’85....Grand Central Depot, New York City.

CRAIG, THOMAS, Reais theta dovshalal Sabevaravetsts 244 Greenpoint Ave., Brooklyn, N. Y.

CUNNINGHAM, M.'C., °96.......0c000cce ces Board of Health, Pittsburg, Pa.

DV AVISMIO HAG FE POS ee ak as leit deine teed Drawer 1033, Rochester, N. Y.

tO VAS a fey a Brat 7 (Ao 0 Yee? |! aa a ee 209 Locust St., Evansville, Ind.

270 THE AMERICAN MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY

DEAN NBs EMD FOG ners tows tieverciets cronies Young St., Brighton, Ont.

Dipsawas (HENRY Ds Map 08... 2. 424 S. Salina St., Syracuse, N. Y.

Din, sATERE DIC. Mere OG Ny rr ceys exci cn arene 361 Pear] St., Buffalo, N. Y.

Dorr, L. BRADLEY, A. B., M. D., ’96..... 300 Jefferson St., Buffalo, N. Y.

DOERRAS PHOBART PE niGa.n O05. cah acts eee 945 Niagara St., Buffalo, N. Y.

Dorr, Miss BLizaBetu; 796.20. 422 3-6 603 Fillmore Ave., Buffalo, N. Y.

DRE SCE Wie PMO a ticiclocis nitverole raven Saiereicts meters Box 1033, Rochester, N. Y.

Dounwam;. B.K., M. .D:, 782..:.:..< 338 E. Twenty-sixth St., New York City.

EASTMAN, LEwIs M., M. D., F. R. M. S., 782

HIN pile a ee ASD NAG 2) a Lo a 772 W. Lexington St., Baltimore, Md.

EIGENMANN, Prof. C. H., ’95....University of Indiana, Bloomington, Ind.

BEIOrT: Prot ARTHURGH Ole. seccarcieieiee 4 Irving Place, New York City.

RELIOTT. (LUTHER bs. sos remand cceoe co 4 Fulton Ave., Rochester, N. Y.

ELgop, Prof. Mortond., M: A., B. A.; MOS., °98...-2.5 cuca

BONS IA Lam 0 Factor evar PSSST Sys ise, 3.% Sueaeenss = 205 S. Fifth St., Missoula, Mont.

HEESNER \WOHNe Muy pac aisiels cls eters wrave parte P. O. Box 454, Denver, Col.

WEG, AG lc, WSO eaves tes eteicler steieie eee re ere 16 Pearl St., Council Bluffs, Iowa.

EWEtL, Marsares D.; 1. D:, M. D.,.f. R. MCS. °80. 22 Soe

pO eT IRA LSE ORC ee (ba ar een o 618 and 619 Ashland Block, Chicago, Ill.

EYRE) OHN, We bles MED. Ph. Dy, °99)...2:2's.oecisslsreicecieels ee meaeneeene

....Embankment Chambers, Villiers St., London, W. C., England.

BEIEE ADOLPHE VED 2S ain. neces 520 E. Main St., Columbus, Ohio.

RELL, GEO. Be MODs sR. MGIS., 2782.1 72 Niagara St., Buffalo, N. Y.

FELLOWS, (CHAS) So JRO IR. ML. S383 ciceoar aicistciehe clos cists = te een

BERRIS) rol HARRY: (9G.c olen eee 118 York St., New Haven, Conn.

RIED VAG IMR Se Soe ews selene rece Summit Place, Des Moines, Iowa.

BINDER, (WM Or, eM DS LO8es ec ockiee sce es 2 Union Place, Troy, N. Y.

MIsHEen, NEAR MOST Foot ot caer Zeiss Optical Works, Jena, Germany.

PISHER REVS RORTEE Wyss 200 ale cic ciate ticleieiel aleioeere cles Pleasantville, Ohio.

FEINT, JAMES IME, MUD, °O1. os aes ‘‘The Portland,’’ Washington, D. C.

KorpyGE: |CHARrES Bi S:, A. M.; Ph. Di7985....:....0% ce cee eee

ELC CER GE Nebraska Wesleyan University, University Place, Neb.

FostER, EDWARD, ’99..... eR tee ea P. O. Box 405, New Orleans, La.

NOX AOSCAR OO aie eels crates eiaes U.S. Patent Office, Washington, D. C.

PRAKDR VEe COMED SOO eee tircstelor 342 Ohio Ave., Columbus, Ohio.

FULLER, Caas.\G.,'\ M.D: \F. Bi MM. S.,.%81. 2s 0. 50 erties eee

LN: MRRNME LUBE Taare tetelatetais eben iets 39 Central Music Hall, Chicago, Il.

GAGE, Prot SIMONI Bawa) Oeenee ees Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.

GAGE; Mas) (SUSANNA: PHELPS, 787.1. ..0 0.0 ce wie a oe oleic eee Ithaca, N. Y.

Gates, ELMER, 79635 coi esttcuine da s)s extontin see eee eeeee Chevy Chase, Md.

GOODRICH; WHE MoDe 798i .. chek ida tee cise ieee wie eee Augusta, Ga.

GREEN, Miss ISABELLA M., M. S., ’96...St. Mary’s School, Raleigh, N. C.

GROsSKOPF, ERNEST C.;¢MLD:, 799 icceick shoo eee coasts Wauwatosa, Wis.

THE AMERICAN MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY 271

HaaG, D. E., M. D., F. R. M.S., ’86..1121 Washington St., Toledo, Ohio.

EDAREANEAN: (Ooi. J. ROMS 798 58s ises) 6 eke Re Box 527, Troy, N. Y.

HaNKS, HENRY G., °86....5. 502; 718 Montgomery St., San Francisco, Cal.

PIATMIELD, JOHN J..B.; "82.244. 5..2- 333 Arsenal Ave, Indianapolis, Ind.

imap) GhORGE ELENEY Mie" 9GE. cs ccc cmon cee tn oni St. Helena, Cal.

HEINEMAN, H. NewrTon, M. D., ’91, 60 W. Fifty-sixth St., New York City.

ERT ACR TET UE Ae es Dr 2 OOhek 2a 5, wcvete-s-aieseie ls sine ov areline Halstead, Kan.

EU CUNG Wire ME Dire OSE Nome craig tac teetverientod aie oe Courtland, N. Y.

Ela pL RBER TAME. dens). 5 Sas cysts 9 cleeeverotone 24 High St., Buffalo, N. Y.

EormwaAn,. JOS. H.,M. Di; 96.1.2 2... cicic cies 111 Steuben St., Pittsburg, Pa.

HOLBROOK, M. L., M. D., ’82...... 43 E. Twenty-first St., New York City.

HOR EISY HREDERIOK S20 790 s)c.<\a<css croreree alanis Newton Highlands, Mass.

FIGS St oAl MEO MAD SOB leer ee Paes sks Jackson Block, Denver, Col.

IEF OSIGENS eOVVEMiy Crd scalar a hcovckersl ard we-eies Room 55, 81S. Clark St., Chicago, II.

HowARD, Curtis C., M. D:, 783). ..... 97 Jefferson Ave., Columbus, Ohio.

HowLAND, Henry R., A. M., ’98.......... 217 Sumner St., Buffalo, N. Y.

FUME RE Erol Oss bh Dey Oi 8 sais eae oes Jamaica, N. Y.

EAE oD Oss cases ss cedae ee 69 Burling Lane, New Rochelle, N. Y.

JACKSON, DANIEL DANA, B. S., ’99....... 177 Sixth Ave., Brooklyn, N. Y.

ARMS eS USHEROD Wie Wl De DAG oe einen brunt Sictatnnn seen aa era

Mariano ate N. E. cor. Green and Eighteenth Sts., Philadelphia, Pa.

JAMES, IBRANKS Iss nee OMe DS 2825 cle cis ate eee Box 568, St. Louis, Mo.

SENET CEC MUN of SID ie cs either tele Sree oiaha fate alee 108 Lake St., Chicago, Ill.

JOHNSON. PRANK S.,. MDs, ?985.0:s'sc0.sec 6 oo 2521Prairie Ave., Chicago, Il.

LGTINSON IV NOD VR LDS er oe are croecerere ec mercte me ocd lool Bergen, N. Y.

SOHN LON LE VICI SM DEQ G S34 alc \orers, sitio ecient Whittier, Cal.

JONES, Mrs. Mary A. oe }\" fee) D EA jo ie ean An es Men a ERO I 8

OEMs a anchs aia) vejsvee ie Suatatoraeecshe 249 E. Eighty-sixth St., New York City.

KEG OGG wore Mee D7 Si. o. cc a lalente a area lace omaore Battle Creek, Mich.

Kure, ABRAM TUCKER; JR-, °95....... 00060. 1386 Maine St., Buffalo, N. Y.

IMINGSBUEY GENT B.A. be) MidSi. "94s wc sn cone cease seme Ithaca, N. Y.

KG RKPAMETOKS UE Js Qo. ne ccs nerterles Ba He heer a aay net one Sn Springfield, Ohio.

LEG BLO TB tad DEN ea a Nae Nee 335 Superior St., Toledo, Ohio.

KoFroib, poe Ae Eee 299 5 ore MAS laa aoe ya ee eG soe Urbana, Il.

LEO OT VEC esha Ot 1 ER) Oh era eae op ene heed 53 S. Fourth St., Easton, Pa.

Kraan OW en AMn One eee es 411 W. Fifty-ninth St., New York City.

Ken MOSS eve see) MaDe RR MS. OO si 0 Unecsaer cee secs ee

9 AW as a EAN Ree onl oa le 871 Delaware Ave., Buffalo, N. Y.

SUH EVEDNEE ONG WWE ATO) AS sy srcraloer naire shalsicis gale as 19 Court St., Fort Wayne, Ind.

BAMB Jee VING WM. Dis Oles ce ofc. 906 G St., N. W., Washington, D. C.

MANDSBERG A? 793.65 S55. bss ooo 156 Woodward Ave., Detroit, Mich.

arent wVETSS..Vic, MEP DS DDE SiR ME Se 788s seen eee

PM re Meee Boas Latatcticn ile ogee Rivage 808 Morse Ave., Chicago, Ill.

GAWTON EDWARD (Psa 188) 2.45 .idacoestelncteetee 3 Linden Ave., Troy, N. Y.

272 THE AMERICAN MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY

LEYerr, J. HARRY, 96.2 2550 eds bi Second and Franklin Sts., Reading, Pa.

Liwis, Mrs, KAmmARING By,.'89)2 5) <):2\ det os oe Rhee bale ee

Sis es APSHA Oe ate nt “Elmstone,’’ 656 Seventh St., Buffalo, N. Y.

Lewis, brat Wy C60 oo tebe eA Meek ee eee ee Dixon, Ill.

Linz, J. Epwarp, D. D.S., F. R. M. S., ’82, 39 State St., Rochester, N. Y.

Lock JOHN Ds O88.) Sedike ci Leo dee P. O. Box 129, Haverhill, N. Y.

LiOMB; ADOLPHE OO Mic. soiss eet oe 48 Clinton Place, Rochester, N. Y.

Lonney (HON) 784 Oo.) Son oy oon 48 Clinton Place, Rochester, N. Y.

Loomis, CHANDLER H., ’87, Atlantic Dredging Co., 81 Pine St., N. Y. City.

LOVE, Eras. Bry Ge Oboes dae: occ ck 80 E. Fifty-fifth St., New York City.

LYON, HOWARD Ni Dhaest a Pee 103 State St., Chicago, Ill.

Manton, W. P., M. D., F. R. M.S., ’85..82 W. Adams Ave., Detroit, Mich.

MARSHALL, CoLuins, M. D., ’96... .. 2507 Penn. Ave., Washington, D. C.

Nise ATs WWE PERG OP te teens sole o's 2 oss Gaets ee ae Coudersport, Pa.

MASTERMAN, ELMER E. ’97.............0206- WOiiNeaeue New London, Ohio.

McCacms) Apprer Ph? Do -980. on oo veda cide Sd ae ee

eictticiahetd 414 Monadnock, Dearborn and Jackson Sts., Chicago, Il.

RICK AY, 0 OSPH) OE relcea semsulee vale cicdaseerue 259 Eighth St., Troy, N. Y.

McKom Revi HASGHET (Shae 208k... ccs Locust, Monmouth Co., N. J.

MeEaver, LEE Dovuea.ass, M. D., ’96....914 E. McMillen St., Cincinnati, O.

Minton i @HABNE Shien ee oe eae 77 Fifth Ave., Pittsburg, Pa.

MERCER; A. Crrrrorp; M; D., F. R. M.S., 782.0 .icsc de. cee

St cheap ayer Mande eA na bia icvoe alee 324 Montgomery St., Syracuse, N. Y.

MERCER, FREDERICK W., M: D., F.. R. M. Si; "88, . 22. os foe

Biel Wie erat iate afar Way asia. acaie re wiaajere Mleeeiets 2540 Prairie Ave., Chicago, Ill.

IVE ROM Wis phe 299 hers cuesereeilyae Biol. Laby., Ohio Univ., Athens, Ohio.

MILLER, JOHN A., Ph. D., F. R. M. S., ’89..255 Ellicott St., Buffalo, N. Y.

Miarmiaworrsy (Oras. 1G. BG) ke pence ces lene 318 Highland Ave., Pittsburg, Pa.

MOBLEY. SET Wit iceD) ie OG ss Meee se comic ees nea nn eee Milledgeville, Ga.

Moopy, Rospert O., M. D., ’91....... 1204 Chapel St., New Haven, Conn.

MOORE /PEOLIVE PAL MAD Siae ace oee oe Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.

MoRPHY, JEU GHN EVE ay MDE SPOR le el yircecie a de cpt eee Augusta, Ga.

MYERS! BURTON ED One te eck eecasniks 89 N. Tioga St., Ithaca, N. Y.

Nunn, RIcHARD J., M. D., ’83...... oe eects 11916 York St., Savannah, Ga.

One npn, Ty Bo Me De eens. Med. Dept., Univ. of Ga., Augusta, Ga-

ORR, Wis Oe ee toe es Se A aee i ee 18 Locust St., Portland, Me.

OLSEN, ALFRED BERTHIER, M. D., ’96....Sanitarium, Battle Creek, Mich.

PAQUIN} AUT aiuto Oil aia nie petuet idatte weer a te 35386 Olive St., St. Louis, Mo.

PARK, ROSWELL, A. M., M. D., ’84...... 510 Delaware Ave., Buffalo, N. Y.

PARKERS HORATIONN 9982 a6. <4 cok siee 24 Wendell St., Cambridge, Mass.

PATRICK, PRANKS Eh Doi eee rome 601 Kansas Ave., Topeka, Kan.

fa OPO i Ot oof PO ae eae BRAS Me ee eoe) UN Box 210, Altoona, Pa.

PENNOCE (ED 70! Wake ae ae eae 3609W oodland Ave., Philadelphia, Pa.

THE AMERICAN MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY 273

Perry, STUART H.,EsqQ.,’90,Cor.Saginaw and Lawrence Sts., Pontiac, Mich.

PerAum, MAGNUS, BSQ., Oleic. ehoes es 415 Grant St., Pittsburg, Pa.

SRV NRAG TY TSO sO 2). sya cieire bua ene 243 Superior St., Cleveland, Ohio.

RGUND SROSCOE GAG Mie Phe D2 963) sare ae poe anaes Nota Lincoln, Neb.

EVBURN GHORGEs MED) 7865755 ae. sis sete: 1011 H St., Sacramento, Cal.

IRUANSOMPHESTUAYELONT Lene OOM cet Ghee Sum Ar Volaia Ack sroce arate Bancroft, Neb.

PRAGIOD) DEVACVANTONID) Cre) 2 BOs cs. cpelcl ste leveletone oer 108 University Ave., Ithaca, N. Y.

REYRURN, RoBeErRtT, M. D., ’90....... 2129 F St., N. W., Washington, D. C.

REYNOLDS, WILLIAM GEORGE, M. D., ’97..............> Woodbury, Conn.

Rick, Francis Scott, ’96, Cor. Third St. and Eastern Ave., Aspinwall, Pa.

RICHARDS! METAS 99 oes esis ge sc lace 1722 Calhoun St., New Orleans, La.

Rossins, HENEY A., M. D., ’91.....1750 M St., N. W., Washington, D. C.

SUANVESONAPAUCICH NG Veen MEU DD. OO cele vie wrderears cle rcytass medvave bales Pen Yan, N. Y.

SCHMETZ, HENRY, Mi. D.; 96... 6 oes 2 518 W. Chicago Ave., Chicago, II.

Scuoney, L., M. D., ’98...Lexington Ave. and 105th Sts., New York City-

SCHWERDTFEGER, LOUIS CHARLES, EsqQ., ’96...... Lincoln, Logan Co., Il.

SEAMAN, Wm. H., M. D., ’86..1424 Eleventh St., N. W., Washington, D.C.

SHC ORs AUB UNpAt ao OD cra cave naoas aye e abetors nce Slave oho nin lora ala cesreie tere a: Elmira, N. Y.

SHOR WO TO NES Eta eaca ls (MA Dip te a ears RMP aie ie tae amen EO Adie Se AR IEE Pind Chico, Cal.

NUERVAUED ETD eR ES Wy OOH leycivahct oie Mie ei io niersetoveh ate ts 809 Adams, St., Bay City, Mich.

SCHUM TIA ORAS oi nz Oee ats ral ie eisraiete ce teueyatokays oraseietataiebaceneetansee tne Hoboken, N. J.

SIEMONWRUDOLPH: ols. s 22:5 sciecis cine 22 E. Jefferson St., Fort Wayne, Ind.

SLOCUM UGEASt che cis De DME DD cB ev aaursain) « ccorctaiese evasreue Defiance, Ohio.

Smrru, J. C., °96.............-.-».. 131 Carondelet St., New Orleans, La.

SNA DDD Si AO. late cieslcla eee ale aelarererclaces hatches Bryan, Ohio

SDETIMUAIN EOP aed IVE: oy (ON. (lavas soso e snark aate ayeline eevee ee closet Columbia, Mo.

STELESON On Ag vie, MED 805 220. 445 N. Penna St. Indianapolis, Ind.

SLOCKWEEE RODNEY B.,) 96.25/36. Jae ssl Box 509, New Brighton, Pa.

SLONM YAP ROBE R Biclevr el its, 7000 asic cieisreiemisierereioie P. O. Box 363, Pittsburg, Pa.

STOWELL, THomAS B., A.M.,Ph.D.,’82, State Normal School, Potsdam,N.Y.

SUMMERS QO merle Hic OOl sate cleurhls sieprarieeinal Gin cislere cela merece Ames, Iowa

EID AS Yas China Ge BIO O52 9G iki Oe Ee IE Se De Be WS enn ge ancy acetal say aes Poydras, La.

AP HTONUAS) AVRMEDUR), ER: 5 799)... si erste eters ate 622 Locust St., Philadelphia, Pa.

Tuomas, Pror. Mason B., ’90...... Wabash College, Crawfordsvil.e, Ind.

WEENNGENS | GMORG HOB) 6 yeti cis s siowlavclarcie trae cetce ears Beleste's wr Syracuse, N. Y.

TWINING, FREDERICK E., ’96......... ... 1833 Mariposa St., Fresno, Cal.

VANDERPOEL, FRANK, M. E., ’87....... 191 Roseville Ave , Newark, N. J.

ViEDE RA CANDRE Wels) De. 2Bau tcrsascrtnaisecie: ators e oinre Saat ein re

dices Nal rails apeiaiars: $ Horne Office Building, Penn. Ave., Pittsburg, Pa.

AN SOT UDO) £55 MAT LA TNA BRIM D POURS tas east aciny ule Deni ah PAN AN Lock Box 118, Lyons, N. Y.

VREDENBURGH, E. H., ’84.......... .122 S. Fitzhugh St., Rochester, N. Y.

274 THE AMERICAN MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY

WALMSLEY, W. H., E Revise toa cree 4248 Pine St., Philadelphia, Pa.

WARD; Prof: Hnry 1B), AtMa PhD BT cn aoe eta anne eens

ehS eae sate ur otal er cia alaie aiaratet cel stake University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Neb.

WEBER, Prof. Henry A., Ph. D., ’86....1342 Forsyth Ave., Columbus, O.

WEEKS, JOHN ROCKWELL, ’99............... Power Block, Helena, Mont.

WEIGHTMAN, CHAS. H., ’86..... Hepat 5859 Michigan Ave., Chicago, Ill.

WEiGH GEOA ONE SD rote aces cee Box 416, Fergus Falls, Minn.

WELLINGTON, CHARLES, ’99............. 403 Pringle Ave., Jackson, Mich.

WENDE, EBNEST Mu D090. oo decc. ee 471 Delaware Ave., Buffalo, N. Y.

ASTOR Gerd bye) s GRULY AN SR eT es one ae 508 Adams St., Toledo, Ohio.

Vinnie Gmy, EME MENDY Seo G: obey Re Me Ss 59 0s )5 oe ee

RoR AUN 2h Es VRE A aL eRe aUEN Ua ORS PON 2342 Albion Place, St. Louis, Mo.

WHIPPLE, G. Ce OOM ayers tere Mt. Prospect Laboratory, Brooklyn, N. Y.

Wuite, Mosss C., a PLEAS IyRE: SAV ees. he 214 Crown St., New Haven, Conn.

NVM eat ron ee) DUC otety Doe loc) D se Otol ae ata ee UR al) Petersburg, Ill.

WiTAR DS VEARTELN s Sot OG sane eines cieras oe 21 Walnut St., New Britain, Conn.

Wittson, LEONIDAS A., Esq., ’85..... 112 Public Square, Cleveland, Ohio.

WITESON. MRS MAR Ye Mes: VOD. sis ceo amine ee pene Ithaca, N. ¥.

Wo.Lcort, ROBERT Henry, Prof., A. M., M. Di, °98,......-.c.s0-

UE PAE SU TaN eee BOL cia arte University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Neb.

WooDWARD, ANTHONY, ’85............. 206 W. 128th St., New York City.

YOunNG, AuGusTusiA:, MDs: 920i hbo i elo ee

ON Vo es eT ee eae 22 E. Miller St., Newark, Wayne Co., N. Y.

YzNaGAa, JOSE M., Esq., ’90...,...... 612 F St., N. W. Washington, D. C.

ZENT MAYER eR ANTIK olen it) ae acts 209 S. Eleventh St., Philadelphia, Pa.

HONORARY MEMBERS

Cox JACOBS DS LDR RAMS se Voi ae eae eee Oberlin, Ohio.

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DALLINGER, Rav. WH. RS. RAS: Bo RM: Soc seins cece eee

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